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THE
AMERICAN HISTORY
AND
ENCYCLOPEDIA
OF
MUSIC
W. L. HUBBARD
EDITOR IN CHIEF
ARTHUR FOOTE
GEO. W. ANDREWS EDWARD DICKINSON
Associate Editors
Special Contributors
G. W. CHADWICK FREDERICK STARR
FRANK DAMROSCH H. E. KREHBIEL
FREDERICK STOCK EMIL LIEBLING
W. J. HENDERSON
Irving Squire
Toledo
New York Chicago
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OF MUSIC
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THE AMERICAN HISTORY AND ENCYCLOPEDIA
OF MUSIC
OPERAS
WITH
INTRODUCTION
BT
H. E. KREHBIEL
W- L. HUBBARD
EDITOR
VOLUME I
IRVING SQUIRE
Toledo
New York Chicago
Copyright 1908 by
IRVING SQUIRE
Entered Stationers' Hall
LONDON
Music
ML
OPERAS
A
Vol. Page.
Adrienne Lecouvreur II 305
L'Africaine I 299
Aida I 335
L'Amico Fritz II 211
Ariana et Barbe-Bleue II 319
B
Ballo in Maschera, II I 275
Barber of Seville, The I 83
Barbiere di Siviglia, II I 83
Barbier von Bagdad, Der I 267
Barenhauter, Der II 255
Bat, The II 9
Beggar's Opera, The I 41
Beggar Student, The II 137
Belle Helene, La I 295
Bells of Corneville, The II 67
Benvenuto Cellini I 173
Billee Taylor II 105
Black Huzzar, The II 183
Boccaccio II 91
Boheme, La II 239
Bohemian Girl, The I 207
1392167
OPERAS
C Vol. Page.
Carmen II 17
Cavalleria Rusticana . II 203
Clandestine Marriage, The I 71
Contes d' Hoffmann, Les II 121
Crispino I 247
Czar and the Carpenter, The I 179
Czar und Zimmermann I 179
D
Dame Blanche, La I 101
Daughter of the Regiment, The I 183
Demon, The II 13
Demonio, II II 13
Deux Joumees, Les I 75
Don Giovanni I 63
Don Juan I 63
Don Pasquale I 203
E
L'Elisir d' Amour I 137
Erminie II 179
Ernani I 211
Eugen Onegin II 71
Euryanthe I 97
F
Falka .., II 159
Falstaff II 217
Fatinitza II 29
Faust I 279
Favorita, La I 187
Fedora II 247
Feuersnot II 299
Fidelio I 79
Fille de Madame Angot, La I 339
Fledermaus, Die II 9
Fille du Regiment, La ....... I 183
INDEX
Vol. Page.
Fliegende Hollander, Der I 199
Florodora II 261
Flying Dutchman, The I 199
Fra Diavolo I 117
Freischiitz, Der I 87
Friend Fritz II 211
G
Gioconda, La II 33
Girofle-Girofla II 5
Gotterdammerung II 59
Golden Cross, The II 25
Grande Duchesse de Gerolstein, La ... . I 313
Guillaume Tell I 113
H
Hansel und Gretel II 231
Hans Heiling I 141
Helene H 309
Herodiade II 131
Huguenots, The I 165
I
lolanthe II 151
Iphigenie en Aulide I 51
Iphigenie en Tauride I 55
J
Jongleur de Notre Dame, Le II 293
Juive, La I 157
L
Lakme II 155
Lily of Killarney, The ....... I 287
Linda di Chamouni I 191
Lohengrin I 241
Louise II 269
Lucia di Lammermoor I 161
OPERAS
Vol. Page.
Lucrczia Borgia I 149
Lurline I 283
M
Madam Butterfly II 315
Magic Flute, The I 67
Manon II 167
Manon Lescaut #11 223
Manru II 279
Maritana I 225
Marriage of Figaro, The I 59
Marriage of Jeannette, The I 259
Martha I 229
Masaniello I 109
Mascot, The II 109
Masked Ball, The I 275
Matrimonio Segreto, II I 71
Medici, I II 227
Mefistofele . I 321
Meistersinger von Nurnberg, Die .... I 325
Merry War, The II 129
Merry Wives of Windsor, The I 233
Mignon I 309
Mikado, The II 175
N
Nachtlager von Granada, Das I 145
Navarraise, La II 235
Nanon II 75
Nero 11 95
Noces de Jeannette, Les I 259
Norma I 133
Nozze di Figaro, Le I 59
O
Oberon ..... r., I 105
Olivette II 117
INDEX
Vol. Page.
Orphee aux Enfers I 271
Orpheus I 47
Otello II 187
P
PagHacci, I II 213
Parsifal II 141
Patience II 125
Pelleas et Melisande II 283
Pinafore II 87
Pirates of Penzance, The II 101
Postilion of Longjumeau, The I 169
Prophete, Le I 237
Puritani, I I 153
Q
Queen of Sheba, The .II 21
Queen's Lace Handkerchief, The . . . .II 113
R
Reve, Le II 207
Rheingold, Das II 41
Ring des Nibelungen, Der II 37
Rienzi I 195
Rigoletto I 251
Robert le Diable I 129
Robin Hood II 199
Roi d'Ys, Le II 191
Romeo and Juliet I 317
S
Salome II 311
Samson and Delilah II 83
Semiramide I 93
Shamus O'Brien II 243
Siegfried II 53
Sigurd II 163
Sonnambula, La ........ . I 121
OPERAS
Vol. Page.
Sorcerer, The .......... II 79
Stradella I 215
Sultan of Sulu, The II 287
T
Taming of the Shrew, The II 1
Tannhauser I 217
Tosca, La II 265
Traviata, La I 263
Tristan und Isolde I 303
Trovatore, II I 255
Troyens a Carthage, Les I 291
Trumpeter of Sakkingen, The II 171
V
Valkyrie, The II 47
Veronique II 251
W
Walktire, Die . II 47
William Tell I 113
Y
Yeomen of the Guard, The II 195
Z
Zampa I 125
Zauberflote, Die r I 67
Zaza II 275
OPERA, VOL. 1
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
Page.
The Grand Opera House, Paris (frontispiece)
Albert Raymond Alvarez 22 d
Madame Schumann-Heink 240
Enrico Caruso 250
Madame Melba 278
Jean DeReszke '502
Anton Van Rooy 324
OPERA COMPOSERS AND WORKS
Adam, Adolph Charles
The Postilion of Longjumeau . . .
Audran, Edmund
Olivette
Vol.
... I
. . . II
Page.
169
117
The Mascot
. . . II
109
Auber, Daniel F. E. (Jacques)
Fra Diavolo
117
Masaniello
109
Balfe, Michael William
Bohemian Girl
207
Berlioz, Hector
Benvenuto Cellini
173
Les Troyens a Carthage
Beethoven, Ludwig van
Fidelio
291
79
Brull, Ignaz
The Golden Cross
. . . II
25
Bruneau, A.
Le Reve
. . . II
207
Bellini, Vincenzo
Norma .
133
La Sonnambula
121
I Puritani
153
Benedict, Sir Julius
The Lily of Killarney
287
Bizet, Georges
Carmen
... II
17
OPERAS
Boieldieu, Francois Adrien Vol Page.
La Dame Blanche I 101
Boito, Arrigo
Mefistofele I 321
Cherubini, Luigi
Les Deux Joumees I 75
Charpentier, Gustav
Louise n 269
Chassaigne, Francis
Falka H 159
Cilea, Francois
Adrienne Lecouvreur II 30S
Cimarosa, Domenico
II Matrimonio Segreto I 71
Cornelius, Peter
Der Barbier von Bagdad I 267
Debussy, Claude
Pelleas et Melisande II 283
De Koven, Reginald
Robin Hood II 199
Delibes, Leo
Lakme II 155
Donizetti, Gaetano
La Fille du Regiment I 183
La Favorita I 187
Don Pasquale I 203
Lucia di Lammermoor I 161
L'Elisir d'Amour I 137
Lucrezia Borgia I 149
Linda di Chamouni I 191
Dukas, Paul
Ariana et Barbe-Bleue II 319
Flotow, Friedrich von
Martha I 229
Stradella I 215
Genee, Richard
Nanon II 75
Giordano, Umberto
Fedora II 247
INDEX
Gluck, Christoph Willibald Vol. Page.
Orpheus I 47
Iphigenie en Aulide I 51
Iphigenie en Tauride I 55
Goetz, Hermann
The Taming of the Shrew II 1
Groldmark, Karl
The Queen of Sheba II 21
Gounod, Charles Francois
Faust I 279
Romeo and Juliet I 317
Halevy, Jacques
La Juive I 157
Herold, Louis Joseph Ferdinand
Zampa I 125
Humperdinck, Engelbert
Hansel und Gretel II 231
Jakobowski, E.
Erminie II 179
Kreutzer, Konradin
Das Nachtlager von Granada I 145
Lalo, Edouard
Le Roi d'Ys II 191
Lecocq, Alexandre Charles
Girofle-Girofla II 5
La Fille de Madame Angot I 339
Leoncavallo, Ruggiero
Zaza II 275
I PagHacci II 213
I Medici II 227
Lortzing, Gustav Albert
Czar und Zimmermann I 179
Marschner, Heinrich
Hans Heiling I 141
Mascagni, Pietro
Cavalleria Rusticana II 203
L'Amico Fritz II 211
Masse, Victor
Les Noces de Jeannette I 259
OPERAS
Massenet, Jules Vol. Page.
Manon H j^Z
Herodiade II 131
La Navarraise II 235
Le Jongleur de Notre Dame II 293
Messager, Andre
Veronique U 251
Meyerbeer, Giacomo
The Hug^uenots I J55
Robert le Diable I 129
Le Prophete I 237
L'Africaine I 299
Millocker, Carl
The Beggar Student U 137
The Black Huzzar jj jgj
Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus
Die Zauberflote j g7
Don Giovanni j g3
Le Nozze de Figaro I 59
Nessler, Victor E.
The Trumpeter of Sakkingen II 171
Nicolai, Otto
The Merry Wives of Windsor I 233
Offenbach, Jacques
La Grande Duchesse de Gerolstein I 313
Orphee aux Enfers I 271
Les Contes d'Hoffmann II 12I
La Belle Helene I 295
Paderewski, Ignace Jan
Manru H 279
Planquette, Robert
The Bells of Corneville II 57
Pepusch, Johann C.
The Beggar's Opera I 41
Ponchielli, Amilcare
La Gioconda U 53
Puccini, Giacomo
La Boheme U 239
Manon Lescaut H 223
Madam Butterfly H 3J5
La Tosca H 265
INDEX
Reyer, Ernest
Sigurd
Ricci, Luigi and Federico
Crispino
Rossini, Gioachino
II Barbiere di Siviglia .
Semiramide
Guillaume Tell
Rubinstein, Anton
II Demonio
Nero
Saint-Saens, Camilla
Samson and Delilah ....
Helena
Solomon, Edward
Billee Taylor
Strauss, Johann
The Merry War
Die Fledermaus
The Queen's Lace Handkerchief
Strauss, Richard
Salome
Feuersnot
Sullivan, Sir Arthur
Pinafore
The Mikado
Patience
The Pirates of Penzance .
lolanthe
The Sorcerer
Yeomen of the Guard, The .
Suppe, Franz von
Boccaccio
Fatinitza
Stuart, Leslie
Florodora
Stanford, Charles V.
Shamus O'Brien
Thomas, Ambroise
Mignon
Vol.
I]
Page.
163
247
83
93
113
13
95
83
309
105
129
9
113
311
299
87
175
125
101
151
79
195
91
29
261
243
309
OPERAS
Tschaikowski, Peter Hitch Vol. Page.
Eugen Onegin II 71
Verdi, Guiseppe
Ernani I 211
Rigoletto I 251
II Trovatore I 255
La Traviata I 263
II Ballo in Maschera I 275
Aida I 335
Otello n 187
Falstaff 11 217
Wagner, Richard
Rienzi I 195
Der Fliegende Hollander I 199
Tannhauser I 217
Lohengrin I 241
Der Ring des Nibelungen II 37
Das Rheingold 11 41
Die Walkure II 47
Siegfried II 53
Gotterdammerung II 59
Tristan und Isolde I 303
Die Meistersinger von Niirnberg . . . . .1 325
Parsifal II 141
Wagner, Siegfried
Der Barenhauter II 255
Walthall, Alfred G.
The Sultan of Sulu II 287
Wallace, William Vincent
Maritana I 225
Lurline I 283
Weber, Carl Maria von
Der Freischtitz I 87
Oberon I 105
Euryanthe - I 97
OPERA AND LYRIC DRAMA
H. E. Krehbiel.
It is sometimes, indeed, frequently, advisable to study
history backward, permitting the more intimate knowledge
which we have of things in their present and familiar mani-
festations to throw light on the phases which those things
presented long ago. Progress is not in a direct line, but in
a spiral direction. The movement is onward, but ever and
anon a point is reached which seems to make the conclusion
of a cycle, and to be nearer the point of departure than any
other point in the course. The principle is illustrated in the
history of that mixed art form popularly called opera, and
it is from this point that this historical and analytical study
proceeds. Essentially, despite the immeasurably greater
potency of expression which all its component elements have
attained, it approaches the art form with which musical
historians generally begin its story, more closely than it does
the opera of only a century ago; i. e., the phase which the
art form had reached after two centuries of development.
This is true even in the simple matter of terminology. Since
Wagner, composers have been averse to the term which suf-
ficed them for two hundred years and have tried to discover
one which should more specifically describe the mixed art
form of music and drama. The term which Wagner in-
vented, " Musikdrama," is nothing more nor less than a
Z OPERAS
German form of the old Italian " Dramma per la musica,"
while " opera " is but a convenient but vague and ill-con-
structed abbreviation of " opera in musica," a term w^hich
came into use after the lyric drama had become so com-
pletely artificialized that its original aim and its original
methods have been all but forgotten. A return to first prin-
ciples has brought with it a return to designations which
are more lucid and accurate than " opera " could ever be,
except in an arbitrary and conventional sense. Caccini's
" Eurydice," one of two simultaneous settings of the work
which the majority of historians have agreed to call the
first opera and which, with its companion by Peri, was pub-
lished in Florence A. D. 1600, had only this title (in
Italian): "The Eurydice; composed in music in represent-
ative style by Giulio Caccini, called the Roman." " Orfeo,"
by Monteverde, produced in Mantua in 1607 and published
two years later, was called on the title page, "A Fable in
Music" (or tale, or story). Later composers of the Seven-
teenth Century hit upon " Drama in Music," " Tragedy in
Music," " Comedy in Music," and finally " Opera in Music "
(that is, work, or works), of which the term "Opera,"
which served down to our own day, was an abbreviation.
The general term was now qualified by an adjective indic-
ative of the mood and manner of the work, such as " Grand
Opera," or " Comic Opera," and its poetical contents, " His-
torical Opera," " Romantic Opera," and the like, the sig-
nificance of which may be reserved for discussion presently.
Richard Wagner called all his compositions for the stage
operas down to " Tristan and Isolde," which he designated
on the title page as an "Action in Three Acts " (" Handlung
in drei Aufzugen ") ; his tetralogy, " The Ring of Nibelung,"
he called a "Stage Festival Play" (" Buhnenfestspiel"),
and to emphasize its solemn character, " Parsifal " received
the ponderous designation, "A Stage Consecrating Festival
Play" (" Buhnenweihfestspiel "). Of all his later works.
he spoke collectively as "music-dramas," though I have
preferred to translate the term, with defensible (or at least
OPERA AND LYRIC DRAMA 3
pardonable) license, as " Lyric Dramas." Verdi called
"Aida " an "opera in four acts" (" Opera in quattro Atti"),
but his "Otello" he designated a " Lyric Drama" ("Dramma
Lirico"), and " Falstaff " a "Lyric Comedy" (" Commedia
Lirica"). Massenet's " Navarraise " is a "Lyric Episode in
two Acts ;" Puccini's " Madame Butterfly," a "Japanese Trag-
edy;" Cilea's "Adriana Lecouvreur," a "Comedy Drama,"
and so it goes on, the composers finding, when they can,
titles descriptive of the dramatic style of their pieces, but
refusing to give them any designation beyond the titles
indicative of their dramatic contents. Thus, we have a
return to the custom which prevailed while the art form
was in its very beginnings and when its creators were filled
with a solemn notion of its dignity and its beauty.
So much for the revolution in terms. In the more sig-
nificant matter of purpose, the same principle holds good.
The inventors of the Italian opera, for reasons which they
thought valid, sought to bring music into the service of the
drama, and, in pursuit of this plan, they strove hard for the
dramatic expression of which they conceived music capable,
not at all caring to add to the purely artistic beauty of music
as such. In the progress of time, musical beauty became the
dominant idea of the opera — the idea to which the action
(but not its outward dress), was made slavishly subservient.
Then came a revulsion from the conventionalism of this
phase and gradually a return to the original purpose, which
held the play to be " the thing " and music one of the
agencies for its attainment. Meanwhile, of course, the pos-
sibilities of musical expression had been marvelously in-
creased by the influence of romantic feeling, which developed
harmony, and the growth in the instrumental art; and, by
the time that composers were willing to make their music a
helpful agency in the expression of the drama, they had
been equipped with an apparatus a thousandfold more eflSca-
cious than that at the command of their precursors of two
and a half centuries before. To make possible the direct
pursuit of the dramatic ideal, which had originally been the
4 OPERAS
aim of opera writers, they now had to shuffle off some of
the formularies which had grown up in the service of
musical beauty and stood in the way of the truthful dramatic
expression, and thus we reach the age of reform, of which
Gluck and Wagner are the shining lights. These men —
regenerators of the old quite as much as they were reformers
of contemporaneous art — opened the way to the absolute
freedom exercised by the composers of today, and give at
least some measure of justification to the methods of the
latest revolutionary, Richard Strauss, in whose " Salome,"
music surrenders all its functions as an independent art, and
becomes a mere adjunct of the drama; a part of the scene,
an emotional voice in the service of the ugly as well as of
the beautiful, realistic and delineative.
As has been intimated, it is customary for writers to
begin the history of opera with a dramatic and musical work
produced in 1600. The " Eurydice " referred to is a con-
venient mile-post simply because it stands forth brightly
illuminated by the sun of the renaissance of learning. As a
matter of fact, the opera is as old as the drama and, the
world over, its elements are found in harmonious union.
The primitive form of stage play which may be witnessed in
China, Siam, and other countries, or even in the religious
functions of our own American Indians, shows that union of
poetry, music and action whose development into the tragedy
of the ancient Greeks, was the inspiration of the inventors
whose achievements fill the first chapter of specific opera
history. Music was once an integral element of all speech
and remained an integral element of all solemn and beau-
tiful speech when the Athenian tragedians created the art
works which are still the subjects of enthusiastic literary
study. In the classical drama the lines were chanted and the
individual actors had the co-operation of instruments and of
a chorus which sang and danced with solemn and lovely
gravity to heighten the expressiveness of word and dramatic
situation. This fact seemed a matter of large moment in
the minds of a coterie of scholars who, toward the close of
OPERA AND LYRIC DRAMA 5
the Sixteenth Century, were in the habit of meeting for
learned discussion in the house of one Giovanni Bardi, the
Count Vernio, in Florence. These men were, for the greater
part, merely amateurs in music; only two of them were
professional musicians, Jacopo Peri and Giulio Caccini.
Among the others was Vincenzo Galileo, father of the great
astronomer, and Ottavio Rinuccini, a poet. These men had
convinced themselves by study that the classic drama had
been delivered in a kind of exalted declamation, approaching
song. There was nothing like it in the vocal music of their
time; folk-song, it would seem, was condemned by them as
much as it was by the composers of their day, and artistic
music was fettered by the forms which the church musicians
had given it. For a whole century, at least, music had been
used in the drama, but it was all polyphonic; that is, many-
voiced music. No actor sang alone; even if he were deliv-
ering a soliloquy alone upon the stage, he sang only one part
of a many-voiced composition in the style of a madrigal;
the other voices, which supplied the harmony, being sung by
companions who were hidden behind the scenes. A solo
without harmony, or with harmonic support from an instru-
ment or instruments playing in chords, was unknown. Instru-
mental music was in its infancy and its forms were vocal
and polyphonic. Song with instrumental accompaniment
was but an assignment of one part to a singer while the
other parts were played as if each instrument was a member
of a vocal choir. Expressive melody was, therefore, out of
the question, and an expressive melody was the first require-
ment, if the drama was to become musical throughout, as
the classic tragedy was conceived to have been. And so
these Florentines brushed aside the art as it had been devel-
oped by the great musicians (Palestrina and the rest), and
invented a new manner of utterance, which they called (as
we have seen in the title of Caccini's "Eurydice"), the
representative, or, perhaps it were better to say, the expres-
sive style. The actors sang alone and had the help of
instruments which were played behind the scenes, the first
6 OPERAS
operatic orchestra being, like Wagner's at Bayreuth, out of
sight. They did not sing set tunes; that is, formal melo-
dies, divided into periods balancing each other symmet-
rically, but they created a kind of recitative, as it is called
in operatic terminology. They observed carefully the inflec-
tions in ordinary conversation which spring involuntarily
from an emotional stimulus and tried to reproduce them in
the musical setting of the poetry. The music followed the
rhythmical flow of the words with great exactness and
helped to make them impressive. Like the Greeks, they
made use of a chorus, and, believing that the choral por-
tions of the classic drama were more highly and artificially
developed than the dialogue (as indeed they were, and, I
believe, more richly accompanied by instruments), they
wrote their choruses in the style of the artistic music which
they had cast aside in the other portions of the drama; that
is to say, the choral odes became madrigals.
A pastoral called " Dafne," for which Rinuccini wrote
the text and Peri the music, which, it is to be supposed,
embodied the new ideas, was produced privately in the palace
of Jacopo Corsi, one of the eager Florentine coterie, in 1597.
It would, perhaps, be called the first opera, had it had a
public hearing or had it been preserved. Since fate forbade
both of these things, that honor falls to ** Eurydice," which
Peri was commissioned to write three years later, for the
festivities attending the marriage of Henri IV. of France
and Marie di Medici. Caccini, who was a singer, helped
Peri to compose the music and at the performance his setting,
as well as that of Peri, was drawn up. Afterward, both men
printed their scores, if they can be so called, and their music
is available for study and even for reproduction, having been
reprinted, only the reproduction of the instrumental part
would be accomplished with difficulty, for, though the har-
mony is indicated by a figured bass (which was also a new
invention), there is no indication in the music how the
instruments were employed. The noble amateurs and their
friends acted as orchestra and played the harmony — it may
OPERA AND LYRIC DRAMA 7
be assumed in a manner suggested by the composers — on
a harpsichord, chitarrone, lira grande, theorbo or large lute,
and three flutes. Naturally, other cities became emulous of
Florence, and before the end of the Seventeenth CentUry,
Mantua, Rome, Bologna and Venice entered the lists, each
contributing somewhat to the advancement of the new art
form. At first, like most other manifestations of the beau-
tiful in art, it remained in the service of the nobility and
aristocracy; but Rome saw the beginning of its populari-
zation at the carnival of 1606, when, like another Thespis,
a mountebank musician fitted up a little play with music, and
helped by five performers, went through the streets playing
it upon a stage mounted on a cart. Nothing more is heard
of this beginning, however, and a quarter of a century elapsed
before there was an operatic performance in the house of a
Roman nobleman. Venice was the first city to devote a
theater to operatic representations. It was the Teatro di San
Cassiano, which opened its doors to the public in 1637, and
before the century came to an end there were eleven opera
houses in Venice, for which a numerous brood of composers
were kept busy writing. One of these, who has come to be
called Cavalli, produced no less than thirty-four operas for
Venice alone, and his fame went throughout Europe. Of
his immediate successors, Cesti, Pallavicino, Legrenzi, Sar-
torio, Strozzi and a few others were the most popular. But
it would add little to our knowledge of the growth of opera
to discuss the personal history of the men or the character
of the music which they wrote. The progress which the
best of them marked had its starting point in the operas of
Claudio Monteverde (1568-1643), who was Cavalli's teacher,
who, when he produced his " Orfeo " in 1607, had already
created a stir by the innovations which he had introduced
into polyphonic music for the purpose of giving it greater
emotional expressiveness. The score of " Orfeo " has been
preserved and republished in Germany within recent times,
but there is nothing in it comparable with a short mono-
logue, the lament of Ariadne after her desertion by Theseus,
8 OPERAS
which is all that has remained of the later opera, "Arianna "
— a song of the arioso type, which for truthfulness and
poignancy of expression is comparable with anything that
has been composed by the great masters since. Its beginning
is " Lasciatemi movire," and as it is obtainable in the best
music shops, with its harmonies written out from the old
thorough bass, no student of dramatic song should fail to
study it. This lamentation marks the crystallization of the
free and formless monody, as it was called, into the arioso,
and, while in itself an achievement of great significance and
value, it is a mile-post on the road over which Monteverde's
successors traveled with great rapidity for a century and a
half, by which time the old lyric drama had degenerated into
a soulless art form, to the artificialities and sensuous beauties
of which all the high purposes of its inventors had been
sacrificed. When arioso, which had grown out of the repre-
sentative style, had grown into the artificial formula known
as the aria, the tragedy with music became an opera, and
the opera became a mere concert in costume. A brief account
of the opera as it existed at the time of Handel will be given
presently, but first it must be stated that largely under the
influence of Monteverde, the potency of the instrumental
element in it had been developed far beyond the dreams of
Peri and Caccini. In place of their band, which might be
replaced today with a small pianoforte, flutes and a few
guitars, Monteverde used no less than thirty-six instruments,
including violins, trombones, trumpets and three small port-
able organs. For these instruments, moreover, he wrote
independent movements, and he used them in groups for
dramatic effect. To him is attributed the invention of the
pizzicato and tremolo on the violins — two effects that every
composer has employed since.
While Italian opera was still in its infancy, it began the
invasion of the other European countries. Germany, Aus-
tria, France and England at first adopted it bodily and then
gradually modified it to suit the taste of their people, this
being an inevitable result of the democratic tendency which
OPERA AND LYRIC DRAMA 9
prevented it from remaining the plaything of the courts.
Royalty and nobility might tolerate it in its original tongue,
but when it came to be presented to the people and to ask their
patronage, the vernacular asserted its rights in each of the
countries mentioned. In all of them, however, must be pre-
supposed a period like that which prevailed in Italy before
the Florentine coterie made their invention, in which efforts
were made to adapt the artistic forms of music to masques
and pantomimes. In Germany, Heinrich Schiitz wrote
music (which doubtless approached its Italian model), for a
translation of Rinuccini's " Dafne," at the command of the
Saxon Elector, Johann George II., in 1627. Seventeen
years later, Sigismund Gottlieb Staden composed a pastoral
called " Seelewig," which was thoroughly German, though
it leaned heavily on Italian models. The first opera house
in Germany was opened in Hamburg in 1678, forty years
after Italy saw the first institution of the kind. The operas
were heavy-footed German affairs, made clumsily over the
Italian last, and none of the composers made a mark upon
the historic page until the arrival of Reinhard Keiser (1673-
1739), in whose orchestra Handel sat and whose successes
no doubt had much to do with the development of Handel's
genius. Cavalli, who had previously gone to Vienna to pro-
duce some of his operas, went to Paris in 1660. The French
capital had been familiar with Italian works and Italian
singers for fifteen years, but then the national spirit (Chau-
vinism, we call it when in an unamiable mood), had already
asserted itself so vigorously that Cavalli made a failure
with two operas, though he came under the patronage of
Mazarin. In 1671, the Academy of Music, now popularly
spoken of as the Grand Opera, was established under letters
patent obtained from Louis XIV., and in this institution,
which has ever since held the eye of the civilized world, the
real beginnings of French opera were made, though it did
not achieve much until it fell into the hands of Lully (1633-
1687), an Italian who had been taken to Paris to be a
scullion in the kitchen of the Montpensier. He became a
10 OPERAS
power, and a most tyrannical one, indeed, and though he
helped to foster the ballets which won the chief delight of
the grand monarch and his court, he composed twenty
operas, some of the airs of which may still be studied with
profit and heard with pleasure, and fixed the form of the
French grand opera, which recognized then and still recog-
nizes the keen instincts of the French people for the drama.
Italian influences did not lose their hold in Paris, however,
and when Gluck came, in the Eighteenth Century, to write
in the manner that might have been expected to make an
irresistible appeal to the French people, he had to fight
his bitter battle Math Piccini. In England, the principles
represented by the Florentines found expression in a setting
of a masque from Ben Jonson in 1617, by Nicolo Laniere, an
Italian born in London; but the fashion of setting an entire
stage play to music was not established by Laniere's experi-
ment. Even when England's most powerful and original
genius, Henry Purcell (1658-1695) came, the operatic form
still lagged. Purcell was a pupil of Pelham Humphries, a
pupil of Lully; yet Purcell, with unmistakable dramatic
instincts, wrote no complete opera, but only incidental dra-
matic music for masques and plays, though some of these
compositions have the form, dimensions and significance of
operatic scenes. Italian opera of the accepted Italian type
came into dominant vogue with Handel in 1711.
What was opera like at the close of the period which
has now been outlined? I can only give a few significant
hints and leave the filling out to the imagination of the
reader, or the completion of his knowledge by further study.
In Germany and England, we are confronted for a time
with an anomaly of language. The purveyors felt that the
people ought to understand the words of the play, but they
were dependent on foreign singers and foreign composers
to a great extent, and they knew that their own languages
were not as well adapted to Italian music as the Italian. So,
for a space, they made use of two languages, Italian and the
vernacular. Handel's "Almira," written for Hamburg, has
OPERA AND LYRIC DRAMA 11
German recitatives for the dialogue, and Italian arias. For
three years in London, Italian and English were mixed in
the manner amusingly described by Addison:
" The King or hero of the play generally spoke in
Italian, and his slaves answered him in English; the lover
frequently made his court and gained the heart of his princess
in a language which she did not understand. At length the
audience got tired of understanding half the opera and to ease
themselves entirely of the fatigue of thinking, so ordered it
that the whole opera was performed in an unknown tongue."
Addison thought that the grandchildren of his generation
would wonder at the conduct on the part of their forefathers,
in listening to plays which they did not understand; but the
English and American people do the same thing today.
But in Italy itself, where the language was understood,
the opera was less artificial. At the outset the subjects had
been classical; very naturally, indeed, the record starts with
the story of Orpheus and Eurydice. Then they became
antique — historical. But it made no difference whether the
hero was a god, a demi-god, an ancient monarch, or a man
of war. It was his business to run about the stage, generally
in disguise, and sing elaborate tunes in an unsexed voice.
A hard and fast formula governed the construction of
operas down almost to the Mozart period, the period from
which present, popular and practical knowledge may be said
to date. The plot had to be classical; there had to be six
characters and six only (three women and three men) ; occa-
sionally a woman might take a man's part, but many of the
men sang with women's voices; there were three acts and in
each of the three each character sang an air; there were five
varieties of airs, but each kind had the da capo ; that is, after
it had been finished the singer returned to the beginning and
sang the first part over again, this time with such embellish-
ments as he or she could invent. The various kinds of arias
were designed to display the capacity of the singers in the
sustained style, their ability to sustain long notes, to declaim
the words rapidly and expressively, to sing long flourishes
12 OPERAS
(" divisions," they were called in England) brilliantly, and.
in general, to unfold the whole art of beautiful singing as
such.
Naturally, when such notions prevailed, the singer be-
came the dominating figure in the operatic world, and the
dramatist dropped completely out of sight. In a way it may
be said that the reform inaugurated by Gluck, of which the
Wagnerian art work was the final fruition (for there has
been no essential progress since "Parsifal"), was the com-
poser's emancipation of himself from the tyranny of the
singer and an unconscious ebullition of the old spirit which,
in the first instance, had created the lyric drama. In a pre-
face to his "Alceste," Gluck laid down a statement of his
reformatory strivings. He wished to reduce music to its
true function as the helpmeet of poetry, to make the over-
ture a sort of argument of the play and to strive for beautiful
simplicity. The words must sound to all whose historical
knowledge of the opera is bounded by the last century like
an utterance of Wagner's. The principles which actuated
this master musical dramatist have been often set forth, but
they may be again set forth, probably with profit. Wagner,
like Gluck, started with the proposition that in the opera,
music had usurped a place which did not belong to it; it
was designed (he might have quoted the Florentines), to
be a means and it had become an end. In the drama is
found a composite form, embracing poetry, music, panto-
mime and scenery. Each of these factors is contributory to
the whole sum, and they ought, therefore, to co-operate on
a basis of mutual dependence or interdependence, the inspira-
tion and aim of all being dramatic expression. Music,
therefore, must be subordinated to the text which gives
rational expression to the dramatic idea and aim, not to
exalt itself, but to raise the word to a higher power by
giving it greater emotional vitality than it possesses in itself.
So, also, it ought to vivify the pantomime and accompany
the stage pictures. In order to do this, it had to be relieved
of the shackles of form which had been placed on it when
OPERA AND LYRIC DRAMA 13
it was the servant of beauty merely, so that it might move
unimpeded along with the other factors. So the distinction
between recitatives and arias, all set forms, indeed, were
abolished and an endless strain of music flowing along the
lines of the drama took their places. An exalted form of
speech is borne along on a flood or orchestral music, which,
quite as much as song, action and scenery, concerns itself
with the exposition of the drama. And this flood of music,
whether it be vocal or instrumental, has for its themes
melodic phrases which are identified with the material and
spiritual agencies that are employed in the development
of the play.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE OPERA
The title of the oldest opera extant is " Eurydice." its
classic characters little prophetic of the motley crowd which
has followed in its wake. The all-comprising field has been
as wide as the heavens above and the earth beneath and the
waters under the earth, and fancy has been called upon to
supplement with beings indigenous to none of these. For
opera the Bible has opened its pages to give up its most
picturesque figures; hosts of angels have descended from
heaven to foil the wicked and reward the good; the gods
and goddesses have voiced their mighty passions in aria
and recitative; history has furnished manifold actors and
incidents, from a Roman emperor exhibiting in himself a
grotesque combination of self-satisfied pedantry and mon-
strous tyranny, to a benevolent, sham-despising cobbler of
Nuremburg; romance has been lured from its quiet retreat
within the covers of a book, to gay trappings and the glare
of the calcium; almost the entire Shakespearean band have
had their immortal sentiments transferred to a place below
the staff; for opera the walls of fairyland have fallen down
to set free its dainty citizens; the grave has given up its
sheeted dead, who have marched forward with sepulchral
meanings and the rattling of dry bones; gnomes, sprites and
genii have appeared at a wave of the conductor's wand;
numberless witches have broken down for mortals the con-
16 OPERAS
fines of the natural and have dispensed love potions as freely
as wine in Capri; the devil himself has assumed conventional
garments and taken a singing part; the fairy tales of child-
hood have come to life; birds and beasts have been dowered
with the power of speech and prophecy; marble statues have
repeatedly taken life at crucial moments and sauntered from
their pedestals. The enumeration is tempting in itself and
takes one far afield from "Eurydice."
When the dawn of the Seventeenth Century was begin-
ning to streak the clearing sky of the Renaissance, a little
group of friends formed the habit of meeting at the palace
of Giovanni Bardi, Count di Vernio, in Florence. It is safe
to say that the discourse was interesting, for the company
was far from commonplace. Beside the host there was
Vincenzo Galileo, father of the great astronomer (and wit-
ness the debt of science to the " Heavenly Maid " — the tube
of the first telescope constructed by the son was an old organ
pipe cast off by the musical parent) ; Bernardo Strozzi, and
Girolamo Mei, aristocratic dilettanti ; the poet, Ottavio Rinuc-
cini, and the musicians, Giulio Caccini, Jacopo Peri, Giacomo
Corsi and Emilio del Cavaliere — La Camerata, as they called
themselves. Now, a deep regard for anything which had
come down from classic times was one of the phases of the
Renaissance. This attitude is not hard to understand in the
light of the simple grandeur of the sculpture and poetry
which the ages have left as a legacy, but the ancient canons
of the less tangible art of music could only be conjectured
from certain allusions in classical literature. From these,
La Camerata came to the conclusion that it was at least
probable that " the ancient Greeks and Romans sang their
tragedies throughout upon the stage," accompanied by an
orchestra of lyres and flutes. Must Michaelangelo and
Ariosto work alone for the world? Not while La Camerata
existed! And what could be better worth the effort than a
revival of that stately entertainment for which ^schylus and
Sophocles were librettists ? " Dafne," by the way, was writ-
ten and produced in 1597, but its score has been lost. In
DEVELOPMENT OF THE OPERA 17
1600, Rinuccini wrote a poem, with very obvious appropri-
ateness choosing the story of the musician Orpheus, whose
strains, if we may believe all we are told, remain to the
present day unrivaled in potency. Both Peri and Caccini
put it to music, but evidently the setting of Peri accorded
better with the ideals of the coterie, for when festivities
were arranged to celebrate the marriage of Henry IV. of
France to Marie di Medici, it was chosen for presentation.
We know little of the costumes or the stage setting and
effects of the premier performance, but we do know that the
composer sang the hero's role, that back of the scenes
Signor Corsi presided at the harpsichord, and that three of
his friends played upon the chitarroni or guitar, the lira
grande or viol da gamba, and the theorbo or large lute, and
that three flutes were used in the ritornelle, in which the
shepherd is supposed to play upon the triple pipe. We know
that each of the five acts concluded with a chorus, and that
the dialogue was in recitative. We know, too, that no later
offering of pageantry and tunefulness has been accorded
greater acclamation. What an amusing whimsy of fortune
that the origin of opera as it exists today should be due to
an accident! How absurdly unconscious were La Camerata
of the fact that they had failed utterly to revive the ancient
Greek musical declamation, but that they had hit upon some-
thing quite new, a form of which the " Ring of the Nibe-
lung " is a lineal descendant.
In " Eurydice " was contained the great principle of the
modern opera, that the music should be subservient to the
emotional meaning of the text; the recitative was discovered,
a medium between speech and melody which is the basis of
the lyric drama, with all its forms, indeed, foreshadowed.
It was the reversal of the usual order of things; the would-
be imitators were inventors.
Between the age of Pericles and that of the Renaissance,
music and the drama occasionally had been associated,
crudely, it is true. We have record of a certain " Robin
and Marion," which was given at the court of Charles
18 OPERAS
d'Artois in Naples in 1285, which seems to have been
remarkably similar to the ballad opera that has preserved its
popularity after a long career. For this the composer, Adam
de la Halle, took a number of the songs of the day, arranged
them to form a story and connected them by a dialogue of
his own invention. Quite similar are the madrigal plays of
a slightly later period.
In 1581, " Circe," a ballet opera, was performed at the
Louvre to celebrate a royal wedding. The masques, which
were dramatic entertainments based upon mythological or
allegorical subjects, combined with their poetry and dancing
occasional vocal or instrumental music, one written and
arranged by Ben Johnson being quite operatic in conception.
The fact remains, however, that since the opera was not an
evolution, these instances are of little significance in its
history.
Seven years later, at Mantua, the marriage of Marghe-
rita, Infanta of Savoy, to Francesco Gonzaga, was celebrated
by the production of other operas, one of these "Arianna,"
the libretto again by Rinuccini, and the music by Claudio
Monteverde, chapel master of the bridegroom's father, the
Duke of Mantua. It was written in the new " expressivo
style " (recitative), which had been found to invest the
words with a dramatic power which can be obtained in no
other way. The following year, Monteverde produced his
" Orfeo," which was a remaVkable advance over Peri's treat-
ment. The composer was a man of initiative who never had
been convinced that nothing was good unless it had first
been thought of by the Greeks. He had a number of ideas
of his own concerning the orchestra, and in " Orfeo " over
thirty instruments accompanied the lamentations of his hero,
or voiced the shrieks of the demons as he drew " his half-
regain'd Eurydice " along the flaming passages of the nether
world. These, to particularize, were two harpsichords, two
bass viols, several viols "da brazzio," a double harp, two
small French violins, two chitarroni, two organi di legno
(^sets of wooden pipes), three viols da g-amba, four trorn-
DEVELOPMENT OF THE OPERA 19
bones, one regale (folding organ), two cornetti (wooden
horns), one flute, one trumpet, and three sordeni (muted
trumpets). A conception so vast naturally crowned Monte-
verde with glory and dowered him with numerous pupils
and imitators. The expense of such productions being great,
they were designed only for the edification of princes, and
as yet the people had no taste of opera.
Lusty growth became discernible in the infant form.
For instance, two new orchestral effects had been introduced
by Monteverde, the pizzicato of plucked strings, and the
violin tremolo. Alessandro Scarlatti, founder of the great
Neapolitan school, and the most learned musician of the day,
divided dramatic expression into three forms — recitative
secco, or unaccompanied, for the ordinary business of the
stage; recitative stromento, or accompanied, for the expres-
sion of deep emotion; and the aria, for impassioned soliloquy.
In 1647, the opera reached Paris, which was destined to be
the scene of many of its later triumphs and reforms. The
first opera to be performed there was Peri's " Eurydice,"
which remained in favor despite newer developments. The
performance was under the patronage of Cardinal Mazarin,
who was thanked very poorly one hundred and fifty years
later by being made the villain in one of Cherubini's
compositions.
Robert Cambert, against whom the intriguing Jean
Baptiste Lully contrived so effectually, tried his hand at the
new music, his " Pomone " and " The Pains and Pleasures
of Love " being still extant. Lully, taking his predecessor's
operatic form as he found it, wrote twenty operas in less
than that number of years, reflecting the manners and tone
of the French court. In the history of the opera, this
shrewd gentleman is important for having put the French
school on a firm basis, and for the invention of the overture,
then consisting of a prelude, a fugue, and a dance movement.
Why foolishly insist upon the absence of wise deeds in
the career of Charles II., when it was he who sent Pelham
Humphries over to Paris to study the opera from Lully?
20 OPERAS
Inspired by his recitals, Henry Purcell, England's greatest
musical genius, in 1680 wrote the first English opera, " Dido
and yEneas," its libretto being from the pen of Nahum Tate,
the poet laureate of the time. Its merits were first submitted
to a young ladies' boarding school kept by Jonas Priest in
Leicester Fields. Evidently the verdict of the youthful femi-
nine mind was held in high esteem in those days. The
verdict must have been satisfactory, at any rate, for, as
Dryden assures us.
So ceased the rival crew when Purcell came;
They sung no more, or only sung his name.
Operatic growth was somewhat hindered in music-
loving Germany by the exigencies of the Thirty Years War,
and for many years Hamburg was the only German town
where opera found a haven. It was for the free city that
Handel wrote his earliest works. Afterward, when he had
made a conquest of Italy and was acknowledged the fore-
most composer of his age, he went to London, where he
produced his famous " Rinaldo " at the Queen's Theater in
the Haymarket. Here he wrote many of his forty-one
operas and became the favorite of the town, until, in deep
disgust at the bankruptcy brought on by the machinations
of his enemy Buononcini, he discarded the form and took
to writing the oratorios for which his special stamp of genius
had suited him. But the Hamburg Theater is chiefly
indebted to Reinhard Keiser, who composed over one hun-
dred and twenty operas and gave his labors inspiration in
spite of this dangerous fecundity.
And now that opera was getting well past the century
mark, we find that those who presided over its destinies had
lost sight of the important fact that simplicity is beauty.
It had become seriously disfigured by embellishment and
overelaboration. No one was amazed when, in the most
dramatic situations, the action was suspended while the hero
or heroine indulged in displays of vocalism in whose tangles
DEVELOPMENT OF THE OPERA 21
emotion gasped and finally gave up the ghost. It had come
to a pass where composer and librettist might well collab-
orate without any knowledge of each other's ideas, so little
did the first consider the second. It is not strange that one
Signor Marcello, drawing up plans and specifications for
an ideal composer, mentioned with some sarcasm, an entire
ignorance of poetry, and an inability to distinguish the sense
of the discourse. So far had consistency been lost sight of,
that in Hamburg, ^neas, perchance in private life a citizen
of Venice, voiced his sentiments in his own Italian and
received the reproaches of a Teutonic Dido in good gutteral
German, and no one fancied it in the least ludicrous. Then,
too, in the course of events, something like a vocal tyranny
had become evident, and the composer was compelled to
minister to the caprice or limitations of the singer at the
expense of his own convictions. But rebellion was uprearing
its hitherto drowsy head, and while he who was to lead the
fray was pondering upon " the abuses introduced by the
injudicious vanity of singers," the thoroughly vexed Handel
was holding his prima donna, Signora Cuzzoni, out of a
high window in the hope of bringing her to a more proper
mind to appreciate the dictates of art. And while opera was
crying aloud to be digged from the pit into which it had
fallen, one Christoph Willibald Gluck was busily engaged in
writing twenty works, strictly adhering to the accepted style.
At last Gluck looked up from his labors and discerned
the truth. He was then well along in life ; he was over sixty
before he gave to the world the full expression of his theo-
ries. Like the majority of mankind, he learned his most
valuable lessons through bitter experience. He went to Eng-
land in 1746, where he produced " Piramo and Tisbe," a
pasticcio, or hybrid affair made up of selections from earlier
works. Having no unity or intrinsic worth, it was naturally
a wretched failure. It was, nevertheless, similar to the typ-
ical Italian opera, which had been degraded to little more
than a miscellaneous concert with a thread of plot running
through it.
22 OPERAS
Gluck was a great original thinker and innovator; he
recognized the good in everything pertaining to his art; he
knew how to assimilate the best; unlike Mozart, he trusted
to nothing like intuition, but must have the why and where-
fore. He was a passionate lover of nature, which means
that he despised the artificial. In consequence of this rare
combination of traits, he was able to do this for the opera :
He treated it as an integral whole for the first time; he
made it individual, with a character and atmosphere of its
own; he developed the overture, making it a foreshadowing
of the play, a thing designed, to quote his own words, " to
prepare the spectator for the character of the piece." He
gave the chorus its proper place in the drama; he did away
with recitative secco and restored the aria to its pristine
simplicity. To the orchestra, by which he secured hitherto
undreamed of effects, he added clarinets, harps, trombones,
and percussion instruments, and banished the harpsichord
to the garret, where Handel had practiced surreptitiously
upon its cousin, the clavichord.
Gluck began the task of cleaning out the Augean stables
with his opera " Orfeo," which, brought out in 1762, placed
him at the head of all living opera composers. It may have
been to make his exposition the more vivid that he chose
for this, the oldest opera now remaining in repertoire, the
same legendary episode that Peri had treated in the first of
all the operas. Strange to say, he followed with several
works in the old style, which can only be explained as pot-
boilers. But in 1767 appeared "Alceste," in which he com-
pletely embodied his theories. That these reformatory meas-
ures were in no manner without intention is proved in the
dedication of this work, addressed to the Duke of Tuscany
by " Y. R. H.'s most humble, most devoted, most obliged
servant."
" I seek to put music to its true purpose, that is, to
support the poem, and thus to strengthen the expression of
the feeling and the interest of the situation without inter-
rupting the action. I have, therefore, refrained from inter-
DEVELOPMENT OF THE OPERA 23
rupting the actor in the fervor of his dialogue by introducing
the accustomed tedious ritornelle, nor have I broken his
phrase at an opportune vowel that the flexibility of a fine
voice might be exhibited in a lengthy flourish; nor have I
written phrases for the orchestra to afford the singer an
opportunity to take a long breath preparatory to the accepted
flourishes. Nor have I dared to hurry over the second part
of an aria when such contained the passion and most im-
portant matter, to find myself in accord with the conven-
tional repeat of the same phrase four times. As little have
I permitted myself to close an aria where the sense was
incomplete, solely to afford the singer an opportunity of
introducing a cadenza. In short, I have striven to abolish
all those bad habits against which sound reasoning and true
taste have been struggling now for so long in vain."
In 1770, " Paris and Helen " was produced in the new
lines. All this had occurred in Vienna, which remained
quite unmoved and uninterested, and so lost its opportunity
to be the seat of an important revolution.
Gluck went to Paris in 1773, where the battle that was
to fill his declining years with adventure was waged. One
cannot help fancying that it was not altogether distasteful
to this energetic, quick tempered, humorous, witty, politic,
staunch master. A number of his new works were per-
formed, and in 1774, for the first time, " Iphigenia in Aulis."
He became a hero. A night at the opera was so brilliant,
so momentous, that exra police were detailed; Marie An-
toinette gave him her patronage; aristocratic gentlemen were
flattered to help him on with his surtout or hand him his
wig after a performance; he was granted a pension of six
thousand livres, and the critics used no faint praise for his
damnation.
But the way of the reformer is seldom a road in Arcady.
He was not to snap his fingers in the face of long-established
conventions without causing trouble. The old had loyal sup-
porters. Many there were who called his work crude and
untuneful, and said that it was absurd to put to music some
24 OPERAS
of the things he did. They added to his discredit that dead-
liest of sins to a Frenchman, tiresomeness. These doubting
Parisians were as bad as the Viennese who had dubbed his
**Alceste " a " De Profundis."
But the conservatives paid him the compliment to send
to Italy for ammunition. This came back in the person of
Niccola Piccini, the foremost composer of the day. For
dramatic considerations, it is to be regretted that this cham-
pion and exponent of Italian opera was so small, mild man-
nered and unfailingly polite, a creature so sensitive that,
when a child, the mere sight of a clavichord had made him
faint with emotion, for otherwise we could witness with
greater delight the assault of the big, bluff, sarcastic Gluck.
Perhaps it is his compensation that, as a principal in this,
the most picturesque contest in the history of music, his
memory has been kept green, while otherwise it might be
relegated to the oblivion which awaited his operas. To be
fair, credit must be accorded to Piccini for the development
of the operatic finale, in which remarkable effect was secured
by uniting the various voices in rich harmony.
They performed their rival pieces and all Paris took
sides. The war in America was forgotten. The whispered
question was not "Whig or Tory?" It was " Gluckist or
Piccinist?" And beware of the answer. Life long friend-
ships were sacrificed upon the altar of argument; all the
wits and litterateurs were ranged, and bon mots were scat-
tered with prodigality. Dozens of them have come down
for our delectation. There is no record of the actual spilling
of blood, but no weapon can inflict such keen discomfort as
the lash of sarcasm. It was a serious business and one who
took a hand in it merely to be fashionable was likely to be
sorry for it. This was the case with the Chevalier de Cas-
tellux, a gentleman not remarkable for mental equipment,
who, when he attempted to discuss the matter with Gluck's
admirer, the Marquis de Clermont, was discomfited by the
reply, " I will sing you an air, and if you are capable of
beating correct time to it, I will discuss Gluck with you."
DEVELOPMENT OF THE OPERA 25
There are many great names on the roster of this
operatic war. Of the Gluckists, Marie Antoinette, who had
been his pupil in Vienna; the Abbe Arnaud, Voltaire and
Jean Jacques Rousseau; on the other side, Marmontel, La
Harpe, Madame Du Barry, d'Alembert, Framery, Coqueau,
some of whom figured tragically a little later in the greatest
of all revolutions.
Although the Queen was at heart with Gluck, she made
a laudable effort to be impartial. It was agreed that each
should write an opera upon " Iphigenia in Tauris " and fight
it out upon the same ground. Gluck's work was produced
in 1779 and proved his masterpiece and the most satisfac-
tory exposition of his ideas. Piccini's appeared some time
later and suffered sadly in comparison. Gluck, who had with
him the spirit of the age, had won in the battle of the natural
against the artificial.
It took a number of years for the world to learn that
it was not sacrilege to smile within the precincts of the
opera. The thought of mirth was far removed from the
mighty business of the gods, which formed the almost inva-
riable subject of these works. Ordinary human life had
never been reflected in any aspect. But mankind gropes
after laughter as surely as the dawn follows the dark, and
in the Eighteenth Century we find between the acts of serious
operas, musical interludes in lighter vein, to afford the relax-
ation which the audience craved. These were evolved from
the burlesques and puppet shows, which may in turn be
traced to antiquity. It grew to be the custom for the same
characters to figure in these intermezzi, and then it occurred
to some one to unite them into one piece. It was done.
Opera buffa had been originated and had been promoted
to the rank of an independent institution. The people were
more than consoled to have " Orpheus and Eurydice," " The-
seus and Ariadne," " Paris and Helen," replaced by the very
people they might have known, whose emotions they could
understand without any exercise of imagination ; the saucy
serving maid, the crusty old bachelor, the ringletted damsel
26 OPERAS
with whom it would not be too difficult to fancy a flirtation.
That opera buffa achieved a speedy and unqualified popular-
ity it is scarcely necessary to state, for it was the amusement
of the people. Then, too, the monarchial sway of serious
opera had been endangered by the conventional absurdities
which had come to mar it. Providence was working in the
usual mysterious way, and the abuses to which this musical
form had been put led the people to take refuge in the new
form as surely as they caused the reforms of Gluck.
Some musical entertainment of a lighter character had
antedated opera buffa, and, in 1639, a musical comedy by
Mazzocchi and Marazzoli was performed in Florence, the
poet Milton being present to applaud its
Jest and youthful jollity,
Quips and cranks and wanton wiles,
Nods and becks and wreathed smiles.
One of the most famous of these promoted intermezzi
was Pergolesi's " La Serva Padrone," which for a century
was looked upon as its most admirable example. It was
taken to Paris in 1750 and may be said to have founded the
school of French opera comique, essentially a French crea-
tion, and which, in stage terminology, has come to mean
any opera with spoken dialogue, no matter how serious the
subject.
Previous to this, musical pantomime occasionally had
enlivened French fairs and festivals. Its more ambitious
form was received with such acclamation that the advocates
of the serious school remonstrated and a " war of the buf-
fons " was waged. The first true comic opera, " Le Devin
du Village," was produced by the famous Rousseau and
performed at the Academie de Musique. Monsigny placed
opera comique on a firmer basis by fusing the merits of the
French and Italian schools, and Gretry, with his fifty or
more works, carried it to a yet higher plane.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE OPERA 27
In Germany any dramatic entertainment in which music
and dialogue alternated was known as singspiel or song-play,
and, as such, still has a regular place on the German stage.
John Adam Hiller was the first to cultivate the Teutonic
prototype of the comic opera.
The movement became evident in England with the
ballad opera, which today in every quarter of the globe
retains its standing as a popular entertainment. " The Beg-
gar's Opera " was the most famous of the lot, attaining to
a popularity unrivaled before or since, even by its charming
descendants, the Gilbert-Sullivan operettas. It is a keen
satire on the politicians and courtiers of that day, and de-
picts their irregularities in a fashion which must have been
more than disconcerting. The dialogue, written by John
Gay, is interspersed with sixty-nine English and Scotch
ballads arranged and scored by Dr. Pepusch. It was first
produced in London, January 29, 1728.
The conventional Italian opera, which impresario Handel
was producing at the Haymarket to his own financial ruin,
came in with the courtiers for its share of the scoring, which
may have added impetus to the reformatory movement that
crystallized a number of years later in Gluck. Says the
Beggar in the prologue, with his tongue in his cheel^, " I
hope I may be forgiven that I have not made my opera
throughout unnatural, like those in vogue."
The rise of opera buffa at this time was fortunate in
that it provided for the delicate, human genius of Mozart
a more congenial channel than the heavy tragedy which had
for so long been held in esteem. He was neither a reformer
nor an iconoclast; he serenely accepted conditions as he
found them, and his influence is rather in the light of an
inspiration. Gounod has been both preceded and seconded
in the rapturous panegyric in which he exclaims of Mozart's
masterpiece, " Don Juan," " It has influenced my life like a
revelation. It stands in my thoughts like an incarnation of
dramatic and musical impeccability." Goethe swears with
similar enthusiasm, that one had not lived who has not
28 OPERAS
heard " Don Juan." The story of his operatic career is as
quaint and moving as one of his pieces. His first opera,
" La Finta SempHce," was written at the age of twelve,
after a childhood which reads like a fairy tale. It is hard
to imagine how the winsome, affectionate boy could have
had enemies who prevented the production of the piece. It
is not hard to imagine how the quivering lip and tear-welled
eye of the mature composer could touch the Archbishop of
Salsburg to arrange a special performance for his conso-
lation after a year which, as we who have been twelve-year-
olds well know, may be quite as long as a century. In view
of this, we shall have to forgive the Archbishop for his five
pound per annum stipend.
" Idomeno," produced in the composer's early manhood,
was superior in concerted music and instrumentation to any
opera yet written, and practically laid the foundation for
modern orchestration. It was Mozart, too, who developed
the act-finale which Logroscino had invented. By his three
great operas, " Don Juan," " The Marriage of Figaro "
and the " Magic Flute," he fused the best of the different
national schools, lifting the lyric drama to hitherto unreached
heights, and providing a lofty ideal of musical character
drawing. As his admirable biographer. Otto Jahn, affirms,
" He assembled the traditions of a long period of develop-
ment and put the finishing stroke to it." In short, the sub-
sequent history of opera would have lost half its luster had
not this delicate, simple, improvident, irresponsible, wholly
lovable person made the world his habitation for thirty-
five years.
While Beethoven contributed nothing essentially new
to the opera, its chronicle is scarcely complete without ref-
erence to his " Fidelio " (a lonely bachelor's soliloquy on
conjugal love), which was produced in Prague in 1805, for
between Mozart and Wagner its greatness was unrivaled.
Such was the nature of the genius of the " Mighty Ludwig "
that he was hampered by the restrictions of the stage, but he
nevertheless gave unwearying care to the work. Unfor-
DEVELOPMENT OF THE OPERA 29
tunately, his text was not of the caliber of " Don Juan," but
frequently bourgeois and sentimental, but he brought to it
the fulness of his powers, giving to it a deeper and more
dramatic expression than any previous composer, and teach-
ing by it that perfection of musical form is not inconsistent
with the achievement of the strongest dramatic effect. In
spite of its Spanish background, " Fidelio " is thoroughly
German. History repeats itself, and the public received this
coldly, as it has many other great things. Weber, who man-
aged it, cried in disgust, "Bah! what they want is Punch
and Judy!"
Soon after this, romantic opera was crystallized into
form in Weber's "Der Frieschiitz." It was a token of the
same desire to return to nature after the long tyranny of
the so-called classical that became apparent in literature at
this time. In romantic opera, the people came into their
own more thoroughly than ever before. It was founded on
the folk-song which is the untrammelled expression of the
popular heart. And just as heartily was it welcomed by the
composer, for it was less restricted in form than the clas-
sical, which, since the days of Gluck, had held sway. Roman-
tic, as applied to opera, is a trifle elusive of definition. The
works it describes are inspired by the medieval legends and
tales of love and chivalry written in the old Romance dia-
lects and in consequence called romances. It is not neces-
sary that they shall deal with the supernatural, though sprites
and witches, ghosts and mermaids, are as familiar figures
of romance as they are of folk-lore. The text may speak of
dashing knights and haughty ladies or deal with the common
people. It is equally well at home in the depths of the sylvan
vale and at the tournament. Weber, the most national of
the German composers, knew the character of his people and
embodied it in his music, and in " Der Frieschiitz " he
formulated a style which has been a model since his day.
His use of the leitmotif fairly entitles him to the honor of
its invention. Weber believed in the organic union of the
various parts of the opera and excelled all his predecessors
30 OPERAS
in the use of the orchestra as a means of dramatic charac-
terization. Among those who followed bravely in his foot-
steps were Louis Spohr (1784-1859) and Heinrich Marsch-
ner (1796-1861.)
While Mozart, Beethoven and Weber were making his-
tory in Germany, we find no names to match theirs in Italy,
the cradle of opera. In passing, credit must be given to
Cimarosa (the worthiest of the composers between Scar-
latti and Rossini), who was equally at home in opera seria
and opera buffa, his " Matrimonio Segreto " of the latter sort
being a worthy monument to his genius. But the glory of
earlier days had departed, and opera had gone far astray
from the teachings of Gluck.
Another tyranny of the singer was at hand, and the
amazing incongruities to which it gave rise have been the
subject of many humorous descriptions. How it was haz-
ardous to speculate as to the relation of the characters upon
the stage from any evidence furnished by their actions; how
they frequently disregarded each other altogether and
addressed themselves entirely to the audience; how the cho-
ruses were a thing apart and without significance, and the
halls of Caesar or the vales of Greece, whatever the scene
might be, were but an elaborate setting for the skyrockets
of the vocalist. Composition was profuse, it is true, but
upon false artistic principles.
Out of all this chaos there came to pass a genius,
Gioachino Rossini, who as time demonstrated, was without
that indispensable attribute of genius, an infinite capacity for
taking pains. It is difficult to imagine this debonair Ros-
sini in the role of a reformer. He would doubtless have
scouted the idea. He took things very much as he found
them, content to minister to a taste diseased, but with what
stimulation he infused the palsied forms! With what volup-
tuous beauty he hid their defects, with " just naked, ear-
delighting, delicious, meaningless sound," to quote Wagner,
to whom to be meaningless was the worst sin in the
calendar. He continued to overornament them like silly
DEVELOPMENT OF THE OPERA 31
women, who would display all their jewels at once. But
such jewels had never before been imagined. He did insist
upon having his melodies sung as they were written, where-
as the Italian singers had considered it altogether proper to
deck their arias with extemporized filigree work. Another
of his innovations was recitative accompanied by a quartet
of strings in place of 'cello and piano. To Rossini the bass
singer may trace his emancipation, for until " Tancredi " he
had not been granted as much as a place in the background.
The son of the town trumpeter was still young when
he had become the " Swan of Pesaro," with nobles for his
friends, Prince Metternich for an adviser, and all the rest of
Europe at his feet. As a contemporary writes, " he had
intoxicated the public," Beethoven had been forgotten for
him. Schumann has tried to do his share toward making
up to Beethoven for this temporary oblivion, and likens the
two to an eagle and a butterfly. Alas for its permanency,
the Rossinian school was based upon incorrect ideas. How-
ever, the world is still grateful for the masterpiece, " William
Tell," in which are apparent few of Rossini's faults, while
his " Barber of Seville " is an admirable piece of opera buffa,
possibly the greatest ever written.
When the German critics accused him of corrupting
musical art, he made the characteristic reply : " They wish
that I composed like Haydn and Mozart. But if I took all
the pains in the world, I should still be a wretched Haydn
or Mozart. So I prefer to remain a Rossini. Whatever
that may be, it is something, and, at least, I am not a bad
Rossini." Although, for what reason no one has been able
to conjecture, Rossini left the field at thirty-seven, to remain
in obstinate retirement for more than half his life, his influ-
ence has added many pages to the chronicle of opera. His
followers were Donizetti and Bellini, two of the strongest
men of the period, who have had an enormous audience.
They both were dowered with the power to touch the heart,
more indeed than their master. Donizetti was arch and
rather dramatic, and both were sweet, tender and senti-
32 OPERAS
mental. Especially is this true of Bellini. But the public
grew satiated with sweetness, and tenderness, and senti-
mentality and discovered that under it was lacking a very
desirable artistic vitality.
At this juncture, a German Jew named Giacomo Meyer-
beer moved from Italy to Paris in eager quest of ideas and
set himself busily to the work of composition. But just
previous to the appearance of the first of his works, Daniel
Auber, one of the most popular of the comic opera writers,
produced his " Masaniello " in 1830, and paved the way for
the new epoch of grand opera. This work, " white-hot
with the breath of the proletariat," was the first realistic
drama in five acts to possess the attributes of a tragedy,
which was especially disturbing to the Germans, who had
always considered it proper to send people home in a com-
fortable frame of mind. " Masaniello " was in every respect
more than casual and, among other things, inspired the
uprising in Brussels which brought about the kingdom of
Belgium.
Grand opera, however, is associated with the name of
Meyerbeer, in whom a transcendent love of pageantry was
strangely combined with a personal frugality which
amounted almost to niggardliness. Such pomp and fan-
fare and splendid processions, such a wealth of scenic and
orchestral effect had been conceived by no forerunner. The
world had never seen anything as daring as his " Robert the
Devil ;" as spectacular as his " Prophet," as thrilling and
melodramatic as his " Huguenots." France was so dazzled
that she did not realize that the national opera was drifting
far away from the pure, virile style of Gluck. The founda-
tions upon which Meyerbeer raised his tremendous struc-
tures were not as broad and strong as they needed to be.
He was too prone to strive for the purely effective. He was
praised to the skies during his lifetime and has been under-
rated since. It has for years been the fashion to " find him
out;" delight is taken in calling him the charlatan of French
opera; but however full of faults he may have been, he is
DEVELOPMENT OF THE OPERA 33
master of dramatic effect, and he did service by loosening
the rigid bonds of traditional form.
The Nineteenth Century was full of activity. Names
not at all epoch-making were, in France, Ferdinand Boiel-
dieu (1775-1834), whose " La Dame Blanche " was for many
years the ever cited classical example of opera comique;
Adolphe Adam (1803-1856); Victor Masse (1822-1884);
Leo Delibes (1836-1891); E. Lalo (1823-1892); Charles
Gounod (1818-1893), famed for his perennial "Faust:"
Georges Bizet (1838-1875), known best for his inspired
"Carmen," and Ambroise Thomas (1811-1896).
In Germany, in this brief consideration, we must men-
tion Conradin Kreutzer (1780-1849), Otto Nicolai (1810-
1849), Gustav Lortzing (1801-1851) and Frederick Flotow
(1812-1883). In England, the fate of opera lay in the
hands of William Vincent Wallace (1814-1865), Michael
Balfe (1808-1870) —his "Bohemian Girl" being probably
the most popular of modern ballad operas — and Sir Julius
Benedict (1804-1885).
The middle of the Nineteenth Century is remarkable
for the appearance of the most important figure in all the
three hundred years of opera — Richard Wagner — who was
destined to be a reformer like Gluck, whom he resembles in
many respects, chief among them being that he was a good
fighter and terribly in earnest. Also, like Gluck, his youth
was not without its mistakes. Of these, " Rienzi," written in
frank imitation of Meyerbeer (by one who afterward was
shown to be the most original of men), is the only one
worthy of more than a cursory mention. After its produc-
tion, the young German sallied forth to Paris, where Lully,
Gluck, Piccini, Cherubini, Spontini, Rossini, Meyerbeer,
Donizetti and the rest of them had gone before him, with
high hopes of seeing some of his works produced, and with
Meyerbeer's letters of introduction in his pocket. But Paris
was cold. She did not realize that he had come; all of
which was very fortunate for Wagner as well as for the
world, Paris included. Had he received a welcome such
34 OPERAS
as Rossini had enjoyed, it is more than likely that he would
have been content to pursue a lucrative career, composing
upon the approved conventional lines, and adding many
other " Rienzis " to the " whole clinking, twinkling, glitter-
ing, glistening show — Grand Opera," as he was later pleased
to designate the style then in vogue. But his was a soul
which the buffetings of Fortune did not subdue, but instead
engendered therein a wholesome spirit of defiance. To the
same good end worked his exile in Switzerland, which
resulted upon the political troubles of 1848. With the world
lost anyhow, he might well write as he pleased. And so
he grew steadily, each succeeding opera being an advance
upon its predecessors, and a fuller embodiment of the theo-
ries which took practical shape in the great cycle, and reached
their highest expression in " Tristan and Isolde."
He would have none of the feeble librettos which other
composers of the day accepted. He was convinced that
" Orpheus' lute was strung with poet's sinews," and to make
sure of the quality of the poetry he wrote it himself. He
went back, not to Gluck, but as far as 1600, discarding
every dramatic tradition which had accumulated in that
time, but with the immeasurable advantage over Peri of
more than two centuries' development of technique. In
truth, he did away with the opera and created a complete
organic union, the music drama.
Among the most important of his theories is that the
music should be secondary to the drama whose emotional
import it should faithfully reflect and intensify, the relation
of the poetry to the music being as that of a sketch to the
color. He believed it to be essential that the libretto should
be worthy, or, of necessity, the music which was built upon
it could not be. He claimed that a composer should write
his own drama in order that he might be more fully in
sympathy with it. Believing that the music should not
break or interrupt the action, he did away with all arias,
duets, concerted finales and ensembles (with a very few
exceptions, notable among which is the opening of Act III
DEVELOPMENT OF THE OPERA 35
in "The Valkyrie"), deeming these unnatural and inartistic.
He made use of a melos, or, as it has been variously defined,
an endless recitative, a musical declamation, a speech-song,
which could be made either melodic or harmonic. He made
use of the leading motive, which is a characteristic melody
or musical phase, associated with a particular personage and
accompanying him throughout the score. He treated the
leading motive more consistently and with far greater effect
than had any of his occasional predecessors. In his later
works, the score is a veritable web, woven out of these vari-
ous motives. He made a symphonic use of the orchestra,
his employment of the leading motive enabling him to give
a running commentary on the action, like the chorus in the
ancient Greek tragedy, which could refer to past circum-
stances in the life of the character or even paint his inmost
thoughts. In short, he made of the music drama, a form
as truly artistic as the symphony or sonata and worthy to
take its place beside these unimpeachable forms of abstract
music.
Not content with being a composer and a poet, he
wrote two volumes, " The Art Work of the Future " (1849)
and " Opera and Drama " (1851), in which he explained the
theories which he even then fancied pretty fully conceived.
In 1857 he solemnly announced that he was done with theo-
rizing, and that his plans were absolutely completed. But
each time he was mistaken. Their unconscious, inevitable
Evolution was not to be fully accomplished for many years.
It is not necessary to state that one who sinned so
deeply against preconceived notions, should be vigorously
hooted and decried. Censure greeted " The Flying Dutch-
man," in which he began to find himself; the public called
" Tannhauser " ugly and blatant and even stopped its ears to
the " Song of the Evening Star;" in "Lohengrin " (a transi-
tional work), the admiration of a prince who went to such
lengths as the construction of a swan barque for his personal
navigation failed to bring conviction; the production of the
" Ring " caused storms of bitter discussion ; when in " Tris-
36 OPERAS
tan and Isolde " he at last spoke freely, a tempest of abuse
broke upon his head. Now this and his incomparable and
only comic opera, " The Mastersingers " (pleasantly greeted
by the critics as a "monstrous caterwauling") are reckoned
as his masterpieces, alongside of which nothing else is
worthy to stand.
The world was hard to reach but its enthusiasm was
unbounded when it at last looked over its " Chinese wall of
prejudice." So entirely has it accepted the teachings of the
" Musician of the Future " that it amounts to a regeneration
of the lyric drama. The present day opera public would
not tolerate a composer who did not make an honest effort
to let his music embody the poet's thought. There is no
more singing of such belligerent admonitions as " Go ! or
thy blood shall quickly flow " in mellifluous harmony which
might well be painting the dreamy loveliness of a summer
night. Scarcely a work that has been written since his
day does not bear traces of his theories, even the greatest
profiting by his example. They have inspired countless vol-
umes of conjecture, discussion, and laudation. The world
is willing to say now that the art for which the Nineteenth
Century will doubtless be remembered is the musical and dra-
matic art of Richard Wagner. Truly, " He doth bestride
the narrow world like a Colossus."
However, some there are who have been Wagnerians
who have apostatized, and some who look askance at his
"muddled metaphysics," and suspect that his orchestration
is overpersistent. Whether he is, like Shakespeare, a crea-
ture great enough to be " not for an age, but for all time,"
or instead the precursor of some greater one, is for time to
tell
One of the most virile composers of the Nineteenth
Century was Giuseppe Verdi, a man of long life and activity
and of growth as continual as Wagner's. His progress was
marked by four periods of which " I Lombardi " and
" Emani " are of the first ; " II Trovatore " and " RIgoletto "
of the second ; " Aida " of the third and " Otello " and " Fal-
DEVELOPMENT OF THE OPERA 37
staff" of the fourth. This last, his masterpiece, was writ-
ten at eighty years of age. In technique, Verdi may show
evidence of a heritage of faults received from his immediate
predecessors, but he brought to ItaHan opera a new life and
vigor. He is truly national, his operas frequently reflecting
political conditions and invariably being unmistakably Ital-
ian. He was one of the greatest of dramatic composers,
dealing with the most violent human passions and ever with
sincerity. The people have claimed him as their own, which
is in itself a sound basis for distinction, and some of the
elect declare that his last two works are the best existing
models of the lyric drama, not excepting those of Wagner.
The Golden Age of grand opera was followed less than
a generation after by the Golden Age of operetta. The
chronicle of opera buffa in France and Austria was adorned
at that time with such names as Jacques Offenbach (1819-
1880), Alexander Lecocq (1832-), Johann Strauss, the
waltz king (1804-1849), Robert Planquette (1848-1903),
Edmond Audran (1842-1901), and Franz von Suppe (1820-
1895), while in England Gilbert and Sullivan were writ-
ing their delightful series of operettas. The dashing Offen-
bach brought to the burlesque unusual dignity by bestowing
upon it the methods of the serious opera. Rossini called
him the Mozart of the Champs Elysees. His immensely
popular works are not always models of propriety, but the
Second Empire must help to share the blame; just as Rossini
was a reflection of the trivial time in which he wrote.
There is no such criticism possible for the Gilbert-
Sullivan creations, those most satisfactory fusions of libret-
tist and composer. They have lost nothing in humorous-
ness by their never-failing refinement and good taste.
Messrs. Sullivan and Gilbert have laughed at many solemn
institutions, at the House of Lords, the navy, the army,
and the police, but their satire never has wounded. The
world owes them a great debt for the laughter which their
dainty mock heroics have inspired.
38 OPERAS
A contemplation ot the operatic situation today is not
altogether a tragical proceeding, and there is no immediate
necessity for hanging the harp upon the willow or giving
one's self up to jeremiads whose purport is that " Fair
Daphne's dead and music is no more." The modern school
is indeed sturdy enough to have several characteristics of its
own. It has, in the first place, declared against excessive
length in operas. It also has taken a decided trend toward
realism. It has discarded utterly gods and mermaids, ghosts
and dryads as sadly out of date. It is fond of painting the
homely scenes of everyday life, and finds sufficient material
in the variegated character of the actual world. If it grows
tired of squalor or seeks the glamour of another age, it is
still realistic, pinning all the sounds of nature to its score
with fairly startling effect.
The life which Verdi brought to Italian opera was not
extinguished at his death, and the new Italian school is
interesting and picturesque. Probably the strongest of its
exponents is Giacomo Puccini, a man with true dramatic
instinct who already has several excellent works to his credit
and others under way, if report be true.
In this respect he is unlike Pietro Mascagni, whose
fortunes were made in a day and whose fame still rests
almost entirely upon his fiery " Cavalleria Rusticana." Rug-
giero Leoncavallo, of " I Pagliacci " fame, is the third upon
whom Italy chiefly bases her operatic pride. Richard
Strauss of Germany disputes with Puccini the distinction of
being the most gifted and scholarly of living composers.
More, however, than his contemporary across the Alps does
he exhibit in himself the modern condition of the youngest
of the arts. He disdains all the canons of the past and has
well earned his title of musical anarchist. His daring,
accompanied as it is by remarkable genius, has made him
the most talked of composer of the day. Of the new army
of tone-painters he is the most imaginative and vivid. The
noise made by his admirers and detractors is weirdly similar
to the battle cries which once echoed about Richard Wag-
DEVELOPMENT OF THE OPERA 39
ner. Another striking German figure is Engelbert Humper-
dinck, whose " Hansel and Gretel," an operatic rendition of
a nursery tale, not only has attested his originality but has
won for him a warm affection in the public heart. Siegfried
Wagner, composer of several operas, is not an exception to
the rule that famous men seldom have sons who in any way
rival them.
The glory of France is upheld by several gifted men.
There is Jules Massenet, whose subtle orchestration and
sensuous melody disclose the hand of a master; Saint Saens,
whose scholarly activities have extended over a period of
nearly fifty years; Claude Debussy and Alfred Bruneau, both
names of importance, while Gustav Charpentier, whose real-
istic " Louise " recently set the world to talking, is perhaps
the most promising and original of them all.
Michael Glinka (1804-1857), first and greatest, Anton
Rubinstein (1830-1894) and Peter Hitch Tschaikowsky
(1840-1893) are the most important names to be considered
in connection with Russian work in this line, while Ignace
Paderewski represents Polish endeavor. The Russians build
upon the Weberian foundation, the folksong, and Russian
operas are in consequence distinctly national.
Music in America has been almost as laggard as if it
had never lost the depression incurred under the frowns of
the Puritans, and while, at last, America is advancing in
other musical paths, the page upon which her operatic his-
tory is to be written, is as yet almost blank. Since Manuel
Garcia and his musical family gave to New York its first
season of grand opera in 1825, the country has enjoyed
many notable performances, and has given many distin-
guished singers to the operatic stage. But her composers
are conspicuous by reason of their paucity, America has
yet to give a thoroughly adequate grand opera to the world.
Nevertheless, it is not too optimistic to believe that her
many gifted song writers are harbingers of those who will
arise to put into music the noble sweep of American plains,
the rugged glory of her mountains and cafions and the
40 OPERAS
unostentatious patriotism of her citizens, while her whole-
some delight in laughing at herself, her willingness to point
out her own weakness, will surely give rise to notable comic
opera.
America already has achieved greater success in light
opera than in its more serious form. There is cleverness in
the music of Reginald de Koven, of Victor Herbert, of
Sousa, of Julius Eichberg of " Doctor of Alcantara " fame,
and of a score of others. The land has been swept for a
number of years by a perfect simoom of so-called musical
comedy which fortunately is beginning to show some faint
sign of abatement. These ephemeral concoctions require
music, but the quality is of little consequence. Any sort of
a jolly din will do to balance the boisterous jokes, and
accompany the pirouettes of the chorus. One who can
devise anything as fantastic as the coming to life and tune-
fulness of the most amazing scarecrow which ever distressed
a cornfield is greater than he who can write a melody which
will live for a generation. We have a Mr. George Ade
who pokes fun at national institutions and typifies a pecul-
iarly national humor quite as effectually as Mr. Gilbert, but
Mr. Ade is unfortunately as yet a Gilbert without a Sulli-
van. That a reaction in the musical taste of the public is
sure to come is a safe prediction, and it is only a question
of time until something better will be demanded for divert-
isement. Light music has as great a mission in the world
as serious, and mere frivolity is the better for a little
cleverness.
THE BEGGAR'S OPERA
The opening page of a copy of the book of this work
at the Lenox Library in New York is inscribed as follows:
" The Beggar's Opera as it is acted at the Theatre Royal
in Lincoln's Inn Fields written by Mr, John Gay, * Nos
haes novissimus esse nihil. ' Marr. With the overture in
score. The songs and the basses, (the overture and basses
compos'd by Dr. Pepusch) curiously engraved on copper
plates. London. Printed for John Watts at the printing
office in Wild Court near Lincoln's Inn Fields.
M D C C X X I X." It has three acts and was first presented
at the Theatre Royal in London in 1728.
THE CAST.
MEN:— WOMEN:—
Peachum Mrs. Peachum
Lockit Polly Peachum
Macheath Lucy Lockit
Filch Diana Trapes
Jemmy Twitcher Mrs. Coaxer
Crook-fingered Jack Dolly Trull
Wat Dreary Mrs. Vixen
Robin of Bagshot Betty Doxy
Nimming Ned Jenny Diver
Harry Paddington Mrs. Slammekin
Mat of the Mint Sukey Tawdry
Ben Budge Molly Brazen
Beggar
Player
Constable, drawer, turnkey.
42 OPERAS
The curtain rises upon a scene in Peachum's house,
where that gentleman is seen sitting at a table with a large
book of accounts before him. The business of Peachum, we
learn, is a somewhat questionable one as he traffics in the
stolen goods which he receives from Macheath's gang. A
favorite agent, Filch, who has " as fine a hand at picking a
pocket as a woman, and is as nimble fingered as a juggler "
enters with many messages from Newgate Prison, where
the less clever who have been caught are in durance vile.
Mrs. Peachum soon comes in to voice her suspicion that
their daughter Polly is in love with Captain Macheath, the
leader of the highwaymen. Both fond parents are averse
to Polly's marrying, for they shrewdly think to keep her as
" a key to the whole gang." There follows an affectionate
scene between Mrs. Peachum and Filch, who comes in with
his loot gathered at the opera where he had been posted on
the previous night. It consists of seven handkerchiefs and
a snuff-box set in gold. He tells sadly of a fine gold watch
he might also have secured had it not been for a ridiculously
deep fob which resisted his tugging so effectually that he
had to make his escape under a coach. By means of some
wheedling and a glass of cordial, Mrs. Peachum draws from
the boy the information that Polly is already married, and
when that young lady arrives her mother's rage is at once
visited upon her head.
" Why, thou foolish jade," she shrieks, " thou wilt be
as ill-used and as much neglected as if thou hadst married
a Lord!"
" I didn't marry him (as 'tis the fashion) coolly and
deliberately for honor or money," protests Polly. " But I
love him." "Love him! worse and worse! I thought the
girl had been better bred ! Oh, husband, husband ! her folly
makes me mad ! " and the overwrought parent faints and
can be restored only with liberal draughts of cordial
Peachum, having relieved his anger with many eloquent
expressions, now begins to take the matter more philosoph-
ically. "A rich rogue nowadays is fit company for any
THE BEGGAR'S OPERA 43
gentleman," he says sagely. Later a brilliant idea strikes
him and he imparts it to Polly. They will have Macheath
peached at the next sessions, and the girl, after the hanging,
will be a rich widow. This magnificent prospect is not
alluring to the young wife and she hastens to warn her
husband. After a pretty love-scene they part, but not before
Macheath has vowed : " Is there any power, any force that
can tear me from thee? You might sooner tear a pension
out of the hands of a courtier, a fee from a lawyer, a pretty
woman from a looking-glass, or any woman from quadrille,
but to tear me from thee is impossible."
The second act begins in a tavern near Newgate, where
the members of the gang are making merry with wine,
brandy and tobacco. As they depart for their various
stations for the day, Macheath arrives to tell Mat of his
peril. He soon sends a drawer after a bevy of his fair
friends and forgets his trouble while dallying with them.
Jenny Diver, the most demure and dangerous of the lot,
declares that she must and will have a kiss to give her wine
zest, and they all take him about the neck, signaling for
Peachum and the Constable who rush in upon him. Mac-
heath is captured and is ignominiously escorted to Newgate
in deep chagrin at having been decoyed by women.
Macheath is visited in prison by Lucy Lockit, whose
father is in collusion with Peachum in preying upon him.
Lucy is deeply reproachful for his failure to marry her
according to promise. His efforts to appease her are ren-
dered more difficult by the coming of the sorrowful Polly.
The two women then express their jealousy and distrust of
each other in no measured terms, while Macheath voices
the famous sentiment :
How happy could I be with either.
Were t'other dear charmer away.
Polly is finally dragged away by her father and Macheath
assures Lucy that no one else has any claim upon him.
She consequently resolves to save him and steals the prison
44 OPERAS
keys from her tipsy father, Macheath promising to send for
her as soon as he has made his escape.
The third act is also played at Newgate. Lockit over-
whelms his daughter with reproaches for allowing the
prisoner to escape and she steadfastly denies having done
so. Peachum and Lockit, though occasionally relapsing into
deep suspicion of each other, plot to regain their hoped-for
source of revenue and, with the aid of Mrs. Diana Trapes,
trace him to Mrs. Coaxer's establishment. Again Macheath
is immured and again Polly seeks him. Lucy plots to do
away with her more successful rival and offers her ppison in
a glass of strong waters. Polly is sufficiently clever to
realize that this sweetness means mischief and persistently
refuses the proffered hospitality. The unhappy Macheath,
who finds that the gang have betrayed him and that he must
now believe the " world all alike," is sentenced to immediate
execution for having broken prison and Lucy and Polly bid
him an emotional farewell, which is interrupted by the
arrival of four other " wives " and the curtain goes down
with apparent finality.
The Beggar and the Player come out for a little con-
ference and decide that while the poetic justice is perfect, the
catastrophe is manifestly wrong, as an opera must end
happily. So the Beggar bids the rabble cry a reprieve and
the curtain ascends. When everybody has danced around
Macheath and that worthy has chosen Polly for his partner
in life the curtain goes down again on a gay chorus to the
tune of "Lumps of Pudding."
The Beggar's Opera enjoyed one of the most stupendous
successes known in the history of music. Not only did it
take the town at its first performance, but it held the stage
with little interruption for over a century in spite of moralists
and critics. It was the beginning of the ballad operas which
have since been extensively cultivated and of which the
Gilbert-Sullivan works are shining examples.
The songs (at least, most of them), written, like the
dialogue, by John Gay, were set by Pepusch to the old Scotch
THE BEGGAR'S OPERA 45
and English melodies and to some of the popular music of
the day. There were in all sixty-nine ballads, set to such
tunes as " Britons Strike Home ; " " Bonny Dundee ; " The
March in "Rinaldo;" "All on a Misty Morning;" "When
First I Laid Siege to Chloris ; " and "A Lovely Lass to a
Friar Came,"
The opera is said to have been suggested by a remark
of Dean Swift's that "a Newgate pastoral might be made a
pretty thing." The dialogue, unfortunately, is not " funny
without being vulgar." But it is undeniably witty, and is
a sharp satire directed at the corrupt practices of courtiers.
Sings Lockit, no doubt glancing slyly at the boxes,
When you censure the age
Be cautious and sage
Lest the courtiers offended should be.
If you mention vice or bribe
'Tis so fit to all the tribe,
Each cries, " That was leveled at me."
There are also several sly thrusts at Italian opera, whose
success at the Haymarket under Handel's management was
imperiled by this formidable rival.
The part of the heroine, Polly Peachum, made famous
Lavina Fenton, who became in the role the toast of London.
She afterward became the Duchess of Bolton.
ORPHEUS
" Orpheus," an opera in three acts, the libretto by the
Italian poet, Raniero di Calzabigi, and the music by Chris-
toph Willibald Gluck, was first produced in Vienna, Oct. 5,
1762.
CHARACTERS.
Orpheus.
Eurydice.
Love.
Chorus.
Shepherds and Shepherdesses.
Furies and Demons.
Heroes and Heroines in Hades.
The plot follows closely the classical legend. Eurydice,
the beloved one of Orpheus, at the sound of whose lyre
rocks and beasts are moved, has died and her spirit has gone
to the Elysian fields. The opening scene shows her tomb in
a valley, where Orpheus has come to perform the funeral
rites. Shepherds and shepherdesses are gathered to adorn
the tomb with flowers and are moved to sympathetic tears
by the spectacle of the husband's unquenchable grief. He
cries,
My Eurydice! My Eurydice!
Lost forever! Hear my woe!
while Echo grieving with him answers in tones reflecting
his anguish.
48 OPERAS
Even the gods are touched by the misery of the bereaved
poet, and Jove sends Love to befriend a true lover. The
messenger brings the joyful promise that Orpheus may bring
Eurydice back from the nether world, if while on his progress
with her he refrains from looking upon her face. Unless,
however, he resists this temptation successfully, she will be
lost to him forever. Love warns him of many trials which
will beset his path, but the end being such as it is, Orpheus
recognizes no difficulty.
He descends to Hades along a path lined with furies and
demons, who raise their frightful voices calling upon Cerberus
to wake and kill his new prey. But Orpheus plays upon
his lyre with so divine a touch that these creatures are
charmed, so that they not only allow him to seek the veiled
Eurydice among the shades, but even place her hand in his.
Eurydice is enraptured at seeing her husband again, but
she has been happy in Elysium and is at first reluctant to go.
He draws her on, however, through the flaming passages
which lead to his own world, assuring her passionately of his
love and his loneliness without her. Waked so suddenly
from death, she is " worn by the fever of terror all untold "
and longs for one reassuring glance. She cannot under-
stand how one who loves can keep his face averted so coldly,
and she tells him that she surely will die if he does not look
at her. In a fatal moment, he gives way to her prayers and
reproaches, turns to take the forbidden glance, and is horri-
fied to see her sink back lifeless. He is about to destroy
himself when Love again takes pity upon him and transports
him to the Temple of Love, where Eurydice, restored to life,
is awaiting him. Thus the opera, thanks to the theatrical
demands of the period, has a happier ending than the legend.
The fact that nearly one hundred and fifty years has
passed since Gluck wrote Orpheus and that the work is
universally conceded a masterpiece, is proof of its enduring
beauty. In its direct, unaflfected loveliness as compared with
the intricacies of modern opera, it has been likened to the
Parthenon beside the bewildering detail of a Gothic cathedral.
ORPHEUS 49
It is the oldest opera holding a place in present-day reper-
toire and from it dates the beginning of operatic reform.
Unusually beautiful passages are the chorus at Euryd-
ice's tomb, "Ah! in our still and mournful meadow;" and
Orpheus' plaint, " Dearest, untimely gone." In the second
act, the dramatic effect of which is remarkable, occurs the
chorus of furies, through whose strains continually sounds
the barking of Cerberus ; Eurydice's song, " In this tranquil
and lovely abode of the blest," is noteworthy; also the
impassioned duet of the two lovers as they make their
perilous way through Hades, and the world-famous lamen-
tation of Orpheus at his second loss of his beloved one,
"I have lost my Eurydice" ("Che faro senza Euridici").
IPHIGENIE EN AULIDE
" Iphigenie en Aulide " or " Iphigenia in Aulus," a
grand opera in three acts with music by Christoph WilHbald
Gluck and text by Bailli du Rollet, based upon the tragedy
of Racine, which, in turn, was founded on the play of
Euripides, was produced in Paris in 1774.
CHARACTERS.
Iphigenia, daughter of Agamemnon.
Clytemnestra, queen of Agamemnon.
First Greek Woman.
Second Greek Woman.
Third Greek Woman.
A woman in the crowd.
Achilles, the Grecian Hero.
A Greek.
Agamemnon, king of Mycenae.
Calchas, a soothsayer.
Patroclus, friend of Achilles.
Areas, servant to Agamemnon.
Chorus of Greeks, women, and Thessalians.
Because Agamemnon has killed a stag in her sacred
grove, the haughty Diana sends a calm which detains the
Greeks at Aulis, on their way to Troy. They go to Calchas,
a soothsayer, and demand a way to propitiate the goddess.
He tells them that a costly sacrifice will be required and
privately tells Agamemnon that Iphigenia, his daughter, will
be the victim, entreating him at the same time to submit to
the will of the gods.
52 OPERAS
When the opera opens, the beautiful Iphigenia, whom
the Greeks praise as fairer than the three goddesses Paris
saw on Mount Ida, is on her way from Mycenae to AuHs
to be married to Achilles. She is accompanied by her
mother, Clytemnestra. In desperation, her father sends his
servant to meet them and to tell them that Achilles is faith-
less and is about to take another bride, hoping thus to keep
them from Aulis, By some mischance, they fail to receive
the message. They arrive and are received with joy by the
Greeks. Iphigenia now hears for the first time that Achilles
is untrue. She is overcome with sorrow and urges her
mother at once to leave Aulis and return home. Achilles,
who, in reality, adores her, comes to meet her and receives
a cold and disdainful reception. He asks and learns the
cause. Although his high honor keenly resents the sus-
picion, he denies the charge of faithlessness with much
vehemence. Iphigenia is persuaded of the truth and is happy
for a while in her regained confidence in him.
Agamemnon orders a feast to be prepared presumably
for the solemnization of the nuptials. Iphigenia's mother
comes to her on her wedding morning, voicing her delight
that one born of a goddess shall call her mother through his
troth to Iphigenia, and the people are loud in their praise
and congratulation. Achilles brings his beloved friend
Patroclus, " the rival of his fame and the sharer of his
glory," to be presented to his bride.
Areas, who well knows that the altar has been erected
with a design far different than the plighting of two loving
hearts, can no longer keep silence and reveals everything.
Iphigenia retains her noble bearing even at this crisis, for she
believes that her father loves her but that he is in the
irresistible clutch of fate. The mother, however, throws
herself at Achilles' feet and implores him to protect the
victim and to be not alone spouse to her but father as well,
since she has none worthy the name.
Achilles assures her that he will defeat the purpose of
a most unnatural parent, and in no measured terms upbraids
IPHIGENIE EN AULIDE 53
Agamemnon, who resents his interference and proceeds with
the arrangements for the sacrifice. At the last moment, his
paternal tenderness conquers and prevails over his fear of
heaven. He will keep the life the gods have required even
though the interests of Greece be abandoned. Accordingly,
he sends Areas to take Iphigenia and Clytemnestra away
from Aulis, secretly determining to die in his daughter's
place. When the Greeks learn of this they cry indignantly
that the goddess must be obeyed if her wrath is to be
appeased. Iphigenia is willing to be offered and begs
Achilles to take no steps for her deliverance, but to let her
die for her people. The mighty Achilles, however, arises
against the mob and just as they are about to fall upon him
in turn, the voice of Calchas the soothsayer is heard. The
gods are appeased by the virtues of the daughter, the tears of
the mother and the valor and might of Achilles. The mar-
riage of Achilles and Iphigenia is no longer delayed, and in
their union the Greeks see an omen of their future victory
and renown.
" Iphigenia in Aulis " is an advance over the epoch-
making " Orpheo," the hearing of which Rousseau declared
reconciled him to existence. The material contains greater
possibilities, for there are more characters and more states
of mind to be portrayed, while the supernatural element is
almost entirely absent.
Gluck's genius is notably apparent in the overture,
which comes to no complete stop in the stage representa-
tion, but for which, in order to make it available for concert
purposes, endings have been contrived by Mozart, Wagner
and others. Passages of notable beauty in the opera itself
are: Clytemnestra's urging of Iphigenia to cast Achilles
from her heart, " Let a Noble Courage Incite Thee ; "
Agamemnon's aria after his scene with Achilles when he is
torn between love for his daughter and fear of the gods,
" O Thou, the Best of All. and Dearest ;" Iphigenia's " Fare-
well ; " Achilles' " The priest shall first be stricken down,"
54 OPERAS.
upon hearing which " soldiers frequently rose from their
seats, scarcely able to refrain from rushing on the stage;"
the chorus of the Greeks, "Almighty gods, give ear ! " and
the final ballet
IPHIGENIE EN TAURIDE
" Iphigenie en Tauride " or " Iphigenia in Tauris," a
grand opera in four acts, with score by Christoph Willibald
Gluck and text by Guillard, was produced in Paris in 1779.
CHARACTERS.
Iphigenia, daughter of Agamemnon.
Diana, a goddess.
First Priestess of Diana's temple.
Second Priestess of Diana's temple.
A Greek woman.
Pylades, friend of Orestes.
Orestes, brother of Iphigenia.
An attendant of Diana's temple.
Thoas, King of Taurica.
A Scythian.
Choruses of furies, priestesses, Greeks, Scythians and
guards.
" Iphigenia in Tauris " is a continuation of the pre-
ceding opera. King Agamemnon's daughter has been saved
by Diana from death at the altar of Aulis, where her father
had been directed to slay her. The relenting goddess has
had a goat substituted as the sacrifice and Iphigenia has
afterward been carried on a cloud to Tauris, where she has
been made high priestess to the Scythians. It is an uncon-
genial lot for the loving Grecian woman, for human sacrifices
are required at her hands. The only circumstance which
has sweetened her life in the fifteen years of her residence
56 OPERAS
on Tauris has been her abihty occasionally to rescue some
stranger from death upon the sacrificial pile. To make her
misery more intense, Iphigenia is visited by a hideous dream,
m which she sees the palace, in which she has spent her
childhood, overthrown by a tempest; her father, wounded
unto death, fleeing from a murderous fury who proves to be
her mother, and she herself about to stab her brother Orestes
through the heart. In her unhappiness she cries aloud to
Diana,
O thou that once my life didst save.
Take back thy gift, yea, quickly take it.
But Diana, instead, sends her another task which rends her
heart. Thoas, king of the Scythians, orders her to sacrifice
two strangers who have been thrown upon his shores, the
gods having warned him in a vision that his life would be
in danger should either of them escape. Orestes and
Pylades, who have come to Tauris for the purpose of carrying
off the statue of Diana, are brought in, loaded with chains.
Learning that they are her countrymen, Iphigenia
determines to save one of them in order to send him with
messages to her sister Electra. She is strangely drawn to
save Orestes for this errand. Little does she fancy that he
is her brother who, having slain their mother Clytemnestra,
has fled, pursued by her shade and its attendant furies.
Orestes tells her of the disaster which has overtaken her
family and she learns with horror of the murder of her
father and mother. When Iphigenia tells the two friends
that she cannot rescue both, each pleads piteously that the
other may be saved. Orestes argues that life is only a
burden to him and that death would come as a glorious gift.
Reluctantly, she complies with his desires and sends Pylades
on with the messages to her sister. Orestes is led to the
altar. Iphigenia can be brought to lift the sacrificial knife
only after a sharp struggle with herself. As the blood-
thirsty mob urge her to strike, Orestes murmurs in her ear,
"Thus once didst thou perish in Aulis." She then knows
that it is her brother she is about to put to death and refuses
IPHIGENIE EN TAURIDE ' 57
to be guilty of his blood. Thoas, who recently has learned
that the priestess has allowed Pylades to escape, enters in
fury and declares that Iphigenia and Orestes shall perish
together on the altar. But the doughty Pylades, who has
returned with an army, stabs him and disperses the Scythians.
Diana now appears and in her words may be learned the
happy denouement: —
Be still, and receive my eternal decree.
Scythians, ye shall restore to the Greeks this my statue.
All too long have ye, in this your savage country,
Grossly defiled my altar with your bloody rites.
Thou shalt henceforth enjoy my favour, Orestes.
Thy repentance has for guilt atoned.
Mycenae longs for thee, take thou her throne in peace
And take Iphigenia. To her country restore her!
This is the last and the finest of the grand operas of Gluck.
" Here," to quote from one of his critics, " he fuses the
two elements forever at war in his earlier operas — musical
beauty and dramatic truth."
Among the strongest passages are the overture depicting
the tempest; Iphigenia's recitative, relating her dream; her
plea to Diana to slay her, " O thou that once my life didst
save ; " the sombre chorus of priestesses, " When shall our
tears ? " Thoas' expression of his superstitious fears ; and
the aria of Orestes abandoning himself to grief, " Ye who
my steps pursue." The song of Pylades, " Thy Faithful
Friend," is one of the finest passages from Gluck's pen.
Also noteworthy are the aria following, " There reignest
calm within my breast ; " the chorus of furies, " Chastise the
wicked doer ; " and Iphigenia's expression of grief at Orestes'
recountal, " O unhappy Iphigenia ! " In Act III the finest
number is Pylades' noble expression of his love for his
friend, " Thou purest, highest joy ; " while the strongest
passage in Act IV is Iphigenia's aria calling on Diana to
nerve her hand, " I with trembling invoke thee."
LE NOZZE DI FIGARO
" Le Nozze di Figaro " or " The Marriage of Figaro,"
subtitled "A Day of Folly," an opera bouffe in four acts,
with music by Mozart and text by Lorenza da Ponte, was
first presented at the National Theatre, Vienna, May 1,
1786. It is founded on a comedy by Beaumarchais of the
same name.
CHARACTERS.
Figaro (the Barber of Seville), valet to the Count.
Count Almaviva, a Spanish Noble.
Countess Almaviva, his wife.
Susanna, maid of the Countess, betrothed to Figara
Cherubino, page to the Countess.
Marcellina, servant to Bartolo.
Bartolo, a rejected lover of Susanna.
Basilio, a busybody.
Don Curzio.
Antonio, gardener to the Court.
Servants, country people, guards.
This opera, though written previously, is in a sense a
continuation of Rossini's " Barber of Seville," the principal
characters being again introduced. The gallant Almaviva,
with the assistance of Figaro, has married his adored Rosina,
but, as with many truly loving husbands, marriage has not
rendered him blind to other tender eyes and he indulges in
an occasional flirtation. Just now, the particular object of
his fancy is Susanna, the coquettish maid of his wife, the
60 OPERAS
opera opening on the day arranged for her marriage to
Figaro. The Countess has a page, Cherubino, a dainty
youth of whom she is fond but whom she regards as a child.
Cherubino, however, adores his mistress, and proves a facile
instrument of punishment for the Count. Figaro, of course,
assists quite willingly in the plot. To get rid of the boy,
the Count orders him to enter the army, but the women save
him by taking him to the Countess and dressing him at the
critical moment as a girl. The Count's suspicions have been
aroused by a letter from Basilio and, when he demands
admittance to his wife's room, he finds the door locked in
his face. When at last it is opened, he perceives that the
Countess is much confused and insists upon searching the
cabinet, which also is locked. While he is looking about
for some means by which to break open the door, Cherubino
escapes through the window and Susanna, taking his place,
gravely confronts the angry husband when the lock yields.
In a few moments, Antonio, the gardener, comes to complain
of the ravages done to his flower beds by some one who
jumped out of the window. Figaro, who has arrived, at
once declares that he is the guilty one; that he had been
having an interview with Susanna and feared the Count's
displeasure. When the gardener produces further evidence
in the shape of a document which proves to be the page's
commission, Figaro glibly explains that he lost it from his
own pocket, the page having entrusted it to him for legal
reasons.
Bartolo and Marcellina, who have been previously intro-
duced to sigh for unrequited love, the former for Susanna
and the latter for Figaro, now reappear. Marcellina brings
with her a marriage contract, which she says Figaro signed
with her. She produces Bartolo as a witness. The Count,
glad thus to dispose of Figaro, his rival, and to leave Susanna
unmarried, decrees that the barber must fulfil the contract
but the clever Figaro escapes through being able to prove, by
marks on his arm, that he is the son of Marcellina and
LE NOZZE DI FIGARO 61
Rartolo. While he is embracing his new-found mother,
Susanna appears and her jealousy is aroused.
The ladies do not consider that the Count's punishment
is yet complete and so arrange a nocturnal meeting in the
garden. Susanna summons the Count by letter, while the
Countess sends for Figaro. They disguise themselves by
exchanging apparel and each meets her proper lover. The
amorous Cherubino also appears on the scene but is put to
flight by the Count. Meantime, the Count makes ardent love
'to the supposed Susanna. Figaro sees into the trick, but he
pretends that he believes his vis-a-vis to be the Countess and
so declares his adoration, thereby arousing the maid's jealousy
to such a pitch that she is restored to equanimity only by
her lover's confession that he knew her from the first.
These two then proceed to some genuine love-making,
which is observed by the Count, who, in a rage, accosts the
lady as " traitress." He orders her to unveil, and when a
light flashes upon the scene and he sees that he has been
making love to his own wife, he is much abashed. Forgive-
ness is asked and granted on all sides, even Cherubino com-
ing in for his share. The marriage of Figaro and Susanna
is brought about and the capricious Count vows eternal
fidelity to his wife.
In this charming work Mozart has combined the highest
characteristics of the French and German schools. The music
is a model of grace, lightness and beauty and its effervescent
fun is always thoroughly refined. Cheerfulness is the key-
note of the composition, for in " The Marriage of Figaro '*
Mozart's laughter-loving soul seems to have had unbridled
expression. Although more than a century has passed since
its composition, it still holds its place as one of the most
admirable of operatic works. Time seeming to smile in
sympathy and to withhold his ravages. It was written in
less than a month and met with instant success, although a
short time later it was discarded in Vienna, owing to the
machinations of Mozart's Italian rivals. Next to " Don
Giovanni " it was the favorite of its composer.
62 OPERAS
" The Marriage of Figaro " contains such an embarrass-
ment of riches that it is difficult to particularize. Among its
delights are the strikingly descriptive overture; Figaro's
opening duet with Susanna, as he measures off the floor and
she tries on her mistress' hat before the mirror; Figaro's
threat, " Se vuol ballare" ("If you're for dancing"), sung
to a guitar-like accompaniment ; Cherubino's aria, " Non so
pidcosa son" ("Ah! what feelings now possess me");
Figaro's celebrated number, " Non piu andrai " (" Play no
more"); the Countess' song, " Porgi amor" ("Love, thou
holy impulse ") ; Cherubino's romance " Voi che sapete "
(" What is this feeling ") ; the splendid finale to the second
act; the regret of the Countess, " Dove sono! " (" Where are
they"); the "Letter Duet" of Susanna and the Countess
and Susanna's " Deh vieni " ("Ah! why so long delay?")
DON GIOVANNI
" Don Giovanni," or " The Libertine Punished," an
opera buffa in two acts, with music by Wolfgang Amadeus
Mozart, and words by Da Ponte, was first presented in
Prague, Oct. 29, 1787.
CHARACTERS.
Don Giovanni, a young nobleman of dissolute habits.
Don Octavio, the betrothed of Donna Anna.
Don Pedro, commander of the Knights of the Order of
Malta, and the father of Donna Anna.
Masetto, lover of Zerlina.
Leporello, servant of Don Giovanni.
Donna Anna, betrothed to Don Octavio.
Donna Elvira, a lady deserted by Don Giovanni.
Zerlina, a country girl.
Male and female peasants, musicians, guests and servants.
Don Giovanni is a licentious nobleman who attempts to
seduce and carry off Donna Anna, the daughter of Don
Pedro, the governor, a man held in great honor and respect.
The father forces Don Giovanni to a duel and, in the
encounter, meets his death. Don Giovanni and his servant,
Leporello, who shares gleefully in his master's escapades,
make their escape. Donna Elvira, one of the dissolute Don's
many victims, comes to reprove him, but he gaily leaves her
to Leporello, who entertains her with a list of his master's
successes with th^ fair sex,
64 OPERAS
Don Giovanni now amuses himself with Zerlina, a hand-
some peasant girl about to be married to Masetto. He tells
her that she is too pretty to be wasted on a country bump-
kin. She is induced to enter the palace with the libertine,
while Masetto, filled with jealousy, is left in the tender
charge of Leporello, who has orders to fill the wine-cup
nimbly for the purpose of intoxicating the distracted fellow.
Fortunately, the injured Elvira interrupts Don Giovanni in
the exercise of his boasted arts and, revealing his perfidy,
succeeds in saving the innocent girl.
Donna Anna and her adoring lover, who has sworn
assistance in the work of avenging the dead commandant,
arrive at the palace of Don Giovanni, where an entertain-
ment is in progress. They have no idea that he is the mur-
derer and ask his aid, which he, with the greatest effrontery,
assures them. Again he is thwarted by Elvira, who tells
them all the truth. The festival continues and Donna Anna,
Donna Elvira and Don Octavio return masked and are wel-
comed by the host. When the opportunity arrives, Don
Giovanni again approaches Zerlina but she is rescued from
his embraces by the newcomers, who are summoned by her
cries.
Don Giovanni, still intent upon securing Zerlina, seeks
Donna Elvira's house, where the young girl has been con-
cealed by her rescuers. Leporello imitates his master's voice
and by singing a serenade entices Donna Elvira to come
forth. The coast being clear, Don Giovanni now boldly
enters to take possession of Zerlina. He is surprised, how-
ever, by Masetto and his friends and, thwarted in his design,
he escapes and meets Leporello near the equestrian statue of
the murdered governor, newly erected in the cemetery. To
his consternation and that of his horrified serving-man, the
statue speaks, warning him that, before the morrow is over,
he shall die. Don Giovanni mockingly proffers an invitation
to supper and the statue solemnly nods its head in acceptance.
The next night. Donna Elvira, in whose heart love and ven-
geance have been fighting a continual duel, seeks and
DON GIOVANNI 65
implores the Don to repent of his follies but he only laughs
and she leaves him despairingly.
While the guests are assembling for supper, the statue
arrives. The lights flicker and grow pale, the music becomes
nebulous and strange. Don Giovanni recovers his equanimity
with an effort and orders a place to be laid for the super-
natural visitor, who holds out his hand to him. Three times
Don Giovanni grasps the cold fingers and three times the
statue warns him to repent. Each time he refuses with
bursts of drunken laughter. At the third refusal the statue
disappears, the earth opens and the demons of hell appear
to carry the dissolute nobleman to his final abode.
" Don Giovanni " is conceded to be the masterpiece of
Mozart. Many of his admirers go still further and call it
the greatest opera in all repertoire. Undeniably, it remains
the greatest work of its kind written by a German musician,
and certain it is that with " Don Giovanni, " " The Mar-
riage of Figaro " and " The Magic Flute, " the opera of the
Eighteenth Century attained its climax. Fortunately, the
text, although unpleasant in subject matter, is worthy of
association with such inspired music.
The work is fairly teeming with famous numbers, most
of them admirably suited for use on the concert stage.
Notable in the score are Elvira's plaintive song, " Ah ! chi
mi dice mai " ("Ah! how shall I discover"); Leporello's
famous " Catalogue Aria," containing a resume of his
master's amours ; the duet of Don Giovanni and Zerlina, " La
ci darem la mano " (" When with thy hand in mine, dear ") ;
Elvira's great aria, " Mi tradi " (" Though by him I've been
neglected"); Donna Anna's equally notable scena, "Or sai,
chi I'onore " (" Thou knowest who it was ") ; Don Giovanni's
dashing drinking song, "Fin ch'han dal vino" ("Now that
they're merry"); Zerlina's charmingly coquettish song
" Batti, batti " (" Chide me, chide me, dear Masetto ") ; the
" mask " trio for Donna Elvira, Donna Anna and Don
Octavio; Don Giovanni's serenade, " Deh vieni " ("Come
smiling forth"); Zerlina's beautiful Vedrai, carino " ("List
66 OPERAS
and I'll find love ") ; the great tenor song, " II mio tesore "
(" Go then my love entreating ") ; and Donna Anna's " Non
mi dir" ("Say not then").
DIE ZAUBERFLOTE
" Die Zauberflote " or " The Magic Flute," an opera in
three acts, with music by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, and
libretto by Emanuel Schickaneder, was first produced in
Vienna, Sept, 30, 1791, Mozart directing. The text, adapted
from a tale by Wieland, " Lulu or the Magic Flute," is in
meaning so baffling that, like Poe's " Raven," it has received
a thousand interpretations. It has in it considerable matter
which can be taken as having Masonic significance, while
other portions are merely the fantastic factors of a fairy
opera. The book was arranged by Schickaneder, a dissi-
pated theatrical manager, who wished a work in which
there was a role for him that would permit him to wear a
suit of feathers. He conceived the character of Papageno
and succeeded in inducing Mozart, who was a fellow Mason,
to compose the music. It was Mozart's last operatic work
and was written a few months before his death.
CHARACTERS.
Sarastro, High Priest
The Queen of Night.
Pamina, her daughter.
Tamino, an Oriental Prince.
Papageno.
Papagena.
Three Ladies of the Queen.
The Speaker. Two Priests. Two armed men. Three Genii.
68 OPERAS
Monostatos, chief of the slaves.
Chorus, priests, genii, armed men and slaves.
The scene of this queer and disjointed tale, with its
puzzhng allegory and its absurd characters, is laid in Egypt.
The Queen of the Night, whose attributes are not altogether
worthy, has a fair and virtuous daughter, Pamina, who has
been enticed away by Sarastro, a priest of Isis, who wishes
to educate her in the ways of wisdom and understanding,
while removed from the evil influence of her mother. The
Queen, in distress, calls upon the brave prince, Tamino, who
has been saved by her attendants from a serpent, to recover
her daughter as the price of his rescue. As he is about to
start forth gladly upon his mission, he is given as a com-
panion by the Queen's attendants, the bird-catcher, merry
Papageno. Papageno, with his jolly tricks and his witty
tongue, furnishes the humorous element in the opera. The
two knights receive presents from the Queen. The prince is
given a magic flute, which will give him favor and power,
while the buflFoon receives a magical instrument constructed
from little silver bells, the sound of which can turn wrath
into merriment.
Meantime, the education of Pamina is not proving an
unadulterated joy to that young lady, for she is pursued with
declarations of love by the negro servant, Monostatos. Papa-
geno has the happiness to deliver her from these frightful
attentions, the victory being easy, for the negro flees, thinking
from Papageno's feathery dress that the bird-catcher is the
devil himself. Tamino goes at once to demand an audience
with the high priest but is refused admittance, though assured
that the princess is safe and that Sarastro has only her
benefit in mind. With lighter heart the youth begins to play
on his magic flute and Papageno's bells answer in the dis-
tance. Sarastro now appears and it soon develops that he is
planning for Tamino's reformation also. The youth is forced
to serve a term as novitiate, and at last is worthy to be initi-
ated into the mysteries of Isis but not before both he and the
now reconciled Pamina pass through the various stages of
DIE ZAUBERFLOTE 69
purification. The last ordeal consists in walking through the
burning lake to the very altar itself, their progress always
encouraged by the music of the magic flute.
The Queen of the Night, wroth at the turn affairs
have taken, plots revenge against Sarastro. She visits her
daughter in a dream and gives her a dagger, which she
urges her to use to slay the priest. Failing in this plan, for
Pamina now is thoroughly convinced of his nobility, the
Queen prevails upon the negro to attempt to kill him but
these wicked efforts come to naught. Finally, when Tamino
and Pamina have proved themselves worthy, they are united
and even Papageno is made happy. He had been on the
verge of hanging himself for loneliness at the loss of his
companion but when reminded of his bells, he shakes them
and Papagena appears, a feathery bride, the counterpart of
himself. The gloomy influence of the evil night is dissipated
and sunshine and happiness reward fidelity.
"A plot so hopeless that, after the first few scenes, we
give it up in despair; an atmosphere of magic which is
merely an excuse for absurdities; a set of characters who
are as ineffectual in action as they are unaccountable in
motive; a bird-catcher dressed in feathers with a padlock on
his lips; a goddess from the machine who cuts every knot
which stupidity could tie: such was the harlequinade which
Schickaneder handed over and which Mozart has turned into
a living, breathing masterpiece. As we listen to the music,
the doggerel verses cease to annoy us, and, most wonderful
of all, the characters grow into distinct being and personality.
The magic of Tamino's flute has passed into the hands of the
composer himself and before it all, criticism lies powerless
and spellbound. Indeed, if we want a ready measure of
Mozart's genius, we have but to read this libretto and remem-
ber that, after witnessing a performance of the opera, Goethe
seriously proposed to supplement it with a second part."
This is the verdict of Hadow on " The Magic Flute," a ver-
dict which the rest of the world has come to endorse.
70 OPERAS
The overture to this opera is one of Mozart's finest
instrumental compositions. Other greatly admired numbers
are Papageno's song introducing himself, " Der Vogelfanger
bin ich ja " (" The catcher of birds am I ") ; Tamino's song,
" Dies Bildness ist bezaubernd schon " (" This likeness is
most wondrous fair ") ; the first aria of the Queen of
Night, " O zittre nicht, mein lieber Sohn " (" O falter not,
my dearest son ") ; the padlock quintet, in which Papageno,
who has been punished for fibbing and prating, hums the
melody with a padlock on his lips; the duet of Pamina and
Papageno, " Bei Manner welche Hebe fuhlen " (" By all who
know the joys of love "), which appears in the hymnal to the
words, "Serene I laid me down." In the second act Saras-
tro's stately invocation in the temple, ** O Isis und Osiris "
("O Isis and Osiris"); the great aria of the Queen of
Night, "Der Holle Rache kocht " (" 'Tis Vengeance I now
seek "), a florid passage of intense difficulty; Sarastro's song,
" In diesen heil'gen Hallen " (" Within these sacred
temples ") ; Papageno's song, in which he accompanies him-
self with his chime of bells, " Ein Madchen oder Weibchen "
("A Maiden or a Wife ") ; and the nonsense duet of Papa-
geno and his new partner, " Papapapageno," are the most
striking numbers.
IL MATRIMONIO SEGRETO
" II Matrimonio Segreto," or " The Clandestine Mar-
riage," a comic opera in two acts, with music by Domenico
Cimarosa and words by Bertati, was produced in Florence in
1792.
CHARACTERS.
Carolina, younger daughter of Geronimo.
Fidalmo, sister of Geronimo.
Elisetta, elder daughter of Geronimo.
Paolino, clerk to Geronimo.
Count Robinson.
Geronimo, a rich merchant.
The scene is laid near London in the house of Geronimo.
Carolina, the fair and amiable young daughter of Grero-
nimo, has for the past two months been secretly married to
his clerk, Paolino, a worthy youth. Knowing the merchant's
ambition to ally himself with the nobility, they are fearful
of disclosing their secret, although it weighs heavily upon
both of them. Paolino's friend, Count Robinson, expresses
his willingness to wed any well-portioned maiden, if she
can match his rank with a dowry of one hundred thousand
crowns and Paolino hopes that by arranging the match with
Carolina's elder sister, Elisetta, he will gain such favor for
himself that forgiveness will be easily obtained from the
father.
72 OPERAS
The marriage is duly agreed upon, much to the frankly
expressed joy of Geronimo. The bride-to-be, whose disposi-
tion is far from amiable, immediately takes on great afrs and
taunts her younger sister with being envious. Embarrass-
ments arise when Count Robinson comes to claim his fiancee
and declares that his heart will inform him which is she.
He promptly places himself beside the lovely Carolina. When
told of his mistake he next chooses her aunt Fidalmo, a
widow, who at a previous moment in the opera has coyly
spoken of her willingness to make a second matrimonial
venture.
Great is his disappointment when he is forced to the
realization that his fiancee must be Elisetta. In fact, he will
have nothing to do with her. Soon a way out of the matter
occurs to him and he suggests it to Paolino. It is that the
younger sister shall be substituted and the dowry cut in
half. Of course, Paolino is aghast at this, although he natu-
rally finds it easy to understand the Count's preference. In
the meantime, Count Robinson's conduct towards Elisetta
is discussed and it is agreed that " even to a wife " he could
not have behaved worse. Elisetta discovers him trying to
make love to Carolina and her jealousy leads her to a really
disgraceful scene, the noise of which summons the appre-
hensive father. He professes great indignation at the treat-
ment his daughter has received but is appeased when he
hears the proposal about cutting the dowry in half. He says
that the exchange may be made on condition that the fair
Elisetta agrees to it. Whereupon the Count sets out with
the avowed intention of making her hate him.
Paolino in desperation seeks the advice of Fidalmo but
this lady misunderstands him and, thinking that he is making
a proposal of marriage to her, she accepts him at once.
Paolino and Carolina plan to fly by night, some instant course
being necessary, especially as Fidalmo and Elisetta have
decided that the offending sister must be banished to a con-
vent for alienating the affections of the Count. Before this
escape can be accomplished, however, Elisetta, mad with
IL MATRIMONIO SEGRETO 73
jealousy, spies upon her sister and, hearing a noise in her
apartment, makes a great outcry, calHng out that the count
is discovered. That gentleman comes to his own door, very
sleepy and very angry, and demands an apology. Meantime,
Paolino and Carolina appear and make their long delayed
confession. Geronimo gives way to fury but Count Robinson
comes to the aid of the young couple and offers to marry
Elisetta if it will do anything toward restoring peace. The
father is happy again and the curtain goes down as he gives
orders for a wedding as showy as possible.
This work is a masterpiece of its kind (the buffo), and
retained its popularity for many years. It was received with
great enthusiasm. It is recorded that at the end of the
first performance the emperor had supper served to the
company and then demanded the immediate repetition of the
work.
LES DEUX JOURNEES
" Les Deux Journees," or " The Two Days," known in
Germany as " The Water Carrier," an opera in three acts,
with music by Luigi Cherubini, and text by Bouilly, was pro-
duced in Paris, Jan. 16, 1800.
CHARACTERS.
Armand, President of the Parliament of Paris.
Michael, a water carrier.
Daniel, father of Michael.
Anthony, son of Michael.
First Officer.
Second Officer.
First Soldier.
Second Soldier.
Constance, wife of Armand.
Marcelline, daughter of Michael.
Angeline, daughter of Samos.
Officers, soldiers, peasants, village girls.
The first two acts take place in Paris, the third in a
village called Gonsse. The time is 1647.
Anthony, the son of a Parisian water carrier, is to be
married on the coming day to Angeline, the daughter of
Samos, a wealthy farmer. He is receiving the congratula-
tions of his friends upon the approaching event, his aged
grandfather, Daniel, adding his voice to the felicitations.
Marcelline is despondent about marrying as advantageously as
76 OPERAS
her brother but he reminds her that he was as poor as she
and tells her how he came to win Angeline, concluding
ingenuously.
A kindly deed, an honest deed,
Will always bring its recompense.
Upon Michael's entrance, we learn something of political
matters. Count Armand, president of the council and a
man of much nobility of character, is being persecuted by
Cardinal Mazarin. A price is set upon his head and the
city gates are watched so carefully that no one can leave
without a passport. Armand and his wife Constance seek
refuge at the water carrier's humble home and, when officers
come to search the house in the temporary absence of his
family, Michael passes off his distinguished visitors as his
daughter and father and devises a plan whereby Constance
can escape the next day beyond the city limits with Anthony
when he goes to wed Angeline in her village home. The
president's escape will be accomplished in some other fashion.
Marcelline, who finds that she will be deprived of attending
her brother's wedding, is grievously disappointed but exhibits
a spirit of unselfishness.
It is the second of the two days in question when the
next act begins. Constance and Anthony experience some
difficulty in passing the strictly guarded gates, for the de-
scription of Constance in the passport is not particularly
apropos. They finally appeal to one of the officers who on
the night before searched the house, and he is forced to
admit that it is the same pretty girl he saw at Michael's. They
are followed by Michael wheeling his cart, upon which is a
barrel decked with flowers, for it is the festival of the water
carriers. The soldiers remind him of the thousand ducats
oflFered in reward for Armand and he listens with apparent
avidity, recounting to them how, at break of day, a man
accosted him and offered much gold in exchange for his
barrel and clothes. The description of the man agrees with
that of Armand in every particular and having aroused great
excitement, Michael goes through the gates, virtuously wheel-
LES DEUX JOURNfiES 17
ing his barrel in which the President of the Parliament of
Paris is taking an uncomfortable ride.
In the third act, the bride and her friends are anxiously
waiting the arrival of the delayed bridegroom. At last
Anthony arrives and introduces Constance as his sister
whom, fortunately, they have not seen. Michael follows
with his barrel and Armand is hastily concealed in a hollow
tree. Two soldiers are billeted upon the house and are
greatly taken with the pretty sister of Anthony.
When the feasting is over, the soldiers, who have
imbibed too freely, come out to sit by the hollow tree where
they talk over the charms of Constance. When she appears
with food and drink for her husband, she is seized by the
ruffians. Armand jumps out of the tree to defend her. The
soldiers study his appearance with suspicion, which is con-
firmed when Constance, restored from her swoon, breathes his
name. He is about to surrender himself when Michael and
Marcelline arrive. The former announces that Armand has
been restored to power and favor. The nobleman eloquently
expresses his gratitude and all ends happily.
" The Water Carrier " has had its share of recognition
from the great. It is said that Beethoven kept it always upon
his desk; that Mendelssohn declared it gave him more
pleasure than any other opera and that Spohr, upon hearing
it for the first time, sat up the rest of the night to study its
score. Prominent numbers are Michael's song, " Deh so
m'ascolti " ("I know to listen ") ; the trio of Armand, Con-
stance and Michael, " O mio Liberator " (" True Friend and
Liberator ") ; the duet of Armand and Constance, in which
they vow to share each other's fate; the ensemble of the
soldiers with Anthony and Constance, and the wedding
chorus, "La Pastorella " ("The Shepherdess").
FIDELIO
" Fidelio," or " Conjugal Love," a grand opera in two
acts, with music by Ludwig van Beethoven and a libretto
freely adapted by Sonnleithner from the French of Bouilly,
was first given to the public in Vienna in 1805. It appeared
at an unfavorable time, for the French had just entered the
city, while Napoleon was at Schonbrunn and more serious
problems than that of being amused were occupying the
people. In addition, it received a most inadequate interpreta-
tion and, after three nights, was withdrawn as a failure. It
was revived, however, several years later and the decision
was reversed. The opera was originally in three acts but
proved overlong and several numbers were dropped.
CHARACTERS.
Don Fernando de Zelva, state Minister,
Don Pizzaro, Governor of the State Prison.
Florestan, an imprisoned Spanish Nobleman.
Leonore (Fidelio), his wife.
Rocco, a jailor.
Marcelline, his daughter.
Jacquino, turnkey, lover of Marcelline.
Captain and Lieutenant of the Guard, prisoners and peasants.
The action of " Fidelio " is placed in Spain, near Seville,
and has throughout the somber setting of a prison. Flor-
estan had been reckless enough to censure Don Pizzaro for
some cruel deed and, cast forthwith by the tyrant into a
80 OPERAS
dungeon to starve, is already reported dead. His wife
Leonore, who is brave and faithful, believes that he is still
living and contrives a plan to save him. In man's attire and
calling herself Fidelio, she gains an entrance to the fortress
where she believes Florestan to be imprisoned and wins
the good-will of Rocco, the jailor. She is even more suc-
cessful with his daughter Marcelline, who falls in love with
the dainty youth to the neglect of her own lover, Jacquino.
At last, in her capacity as assistant to Rocco, she manages
to see the prisoners when they take the air in the court and,
greatly to her dismay, she finds that Florestan is not among
them.
Meanwhile, the wicked Pizzaro gets a letter which
apprises him that Fernando, the minister of Seville, will
come on the morrow to inspect the prison. In consternation
at the thought of his possible discovery of the starving Flor-
estan, he decides that he really must be done away with.
Rocco is obdurate in his refusal to kill Florestan but reluc-
tantly consents to dig the grave in which all traces of the
crime are to be hidden. Rocco confides his dread secret to
Fidelio and accepts her offer to help him dig the grave.
Pizzaro, glad to have the work hastened, consents.
In the second act, Rocco and Fidelio find Florestan
chained to a pillar, wasted to a shadow and fast losing his
reason; the name of his wife constantly recurring in his
delirium. Fidelio gives him a crust of bread and the wine
in Rocco's flask. When the digging of the grave is done,
Rocco sends word to Pizzaro and bids Fidelio depart but she
hides behind a pillar, resolved at the worst to die with her
husband. Pizzaro enters. Intending to do away with the
witnesses of his deed. He first advances to stab Florestan
but Fidelio springs forward, runs between them and aims a
pistol at Pizzaro. At this instant, a trumpet announces the
arrival of Don Fernando and Don Pizzaro is forced to retreat
bafi^ed.
In the last scene, Don Fernando puts a number of
prisoners at liberty, among them being Florestan. Pizzaro,
FIDELIO 81
disclosed in his odiousness, is himself imprisoned; Florestan
and Fidelio are reunited; Marcelline recovers from her
chagrin and, finding she still loves Jacquino, consents to
marry him. So all ends happily.
" Fidelio " is Beethoven's only opera and, as is befitting
the work of the greatest of composers, is imbued with high
nobility of sentiment and melody. It is equally strong both
as drama and as opera, and although the words of the text
are oftentimes bourgeois, Beethoven treats them with the
same dignity he would have bestowed upon Homeric or
Shakespearian lines. He was greatly desirous that " Fidelio "
should be a fine work and probably no opera ever had more
painstaking treatment in its creation. It is intensely melo-
dramatic at times and the incident in the prison after the
trumpet-call is said to be " probably the most overwhelming
moment of sheer unbridled fury in all opera."
Confusion through the opus-numbers borne has arisen
over the four overtures which Beethoven wrote for " Fidelio."
That known as number two was played at the first three
performances in Vienna, November 20, 21 and 22. Number
three was played at Vienna, March 29 and April 10, 1806.
This is most generally admired. Number one was written
for a proposed production at Prague in 1807, which did
not take place. Number four was played at Vienna, May
26, 1814. Among the famous numbers are the duet of
Rocco and Marcelline, who is ironing in the prison court-
yard ; Marcelline's " Hope " aria ; the " Canon " quartet of
Marcelline, Leonore, Rocco and Jacquino ; the " Gold " song,
sung by Rocco ; Don Pizzaro's aria, " Ha ! Welch ein Augen-
blick " ("Ha! what a moment;") Fidelio's impassioned
recitative and aria " Abscheulicher ! " ("Vile monster,
thou"); Florestan's song in prison, "In des Lebens.Friih-
lingstagen " ("Life was still so fresh and joyful "), and the
rapturous duet of Florestan and Leonore, " O namenlose
Freude " ("Oh! joyful day ").
IL BARBIERE DI SIVIGLIA
" II Barbiere di Siviglia," or " The Barber of Seville,"
an opera buffa in two acts, with text by Sterbini, a Roman
poet, founded on the celebrated trilogy of Beaumarchais,
with music by Gioachino Antonio Rossini, was first pre-
sented at the Argentina Theatre in Rome, Feb. 5, 1816.
It was at first called " Almaviva, or the Useless Precau-
tion " to distinguish it from Paisiello's " Barber of Seville."
CHARACTERS.
Rosina.
Doctor Bartolo, Rosina's guardian.
Basilio, a music master.
Bertha, Rosina's governess.
Count Almaviva.
Figaro, the barber.
Fiorello, a servant.
A Notary, chorus of musicians, chorus of soldiers.
The scene is laid in Seville. Count Almaviva, posing as
one Lindoro, is seriously in love with Rosina. As frequently
occurs in operas, however, her guardian wishes to marry her
himself. She is watched so jealously by Bartolo and his
friend, Don Basilio, her music master, that for some time
she cannot find opportunity to bestow as much as a smile
upon the Count in reward for his persistent serenading.
Finally, she manages to send him a letter confessing that
she returns his love and, tired of being watched and scolded,
84 OPERAS
she is entirely disposed to break her chains. Through the
good offices of the gay and clever barber, Figaro, the lover
finally secures entrance to the house of the adored one in the
disguise of a drunken soldier with a billet of quartering.
His elaborate scheme comes to naught, however, for he is
arrested by the guard. A second time he gains admittance
as a music teacher who has come to take the place of the
fever-stricken Don Basilio. He lights upon a plan whereby
he fancies he may gain Bartolo's confidence. He shows him
Rosina's letter with the suggestion that she be told that it
was secured from a mistress of the Count and that her
cavalier must be making light of her, if he is passing her
letters about in such fashion. He himself offers to carry
out this suggestion but Don Basilio suddenly appears upon
the scene, to the tremendous confusion of the plotting lover.
A purse of gold persuades him that he is really ill and he
goes home. The Count follows his example as soon as he
has managed to plan an elopement with Rosina.
The letter the Count was to have shown Rosina has
remained in Bartolo's possession and he seizes the first
opportunity to show it to her and, as he hoped, it rouses her
jealousy. In her anger and disappointment, she discloses
everything and promises to marry Bartolo instead of Lindoro.
When the time set for the elopement arrives, the bridegroom
and Figaro appear and their explanations, chief among which
is the fact that Count Almaviva and Lindoro are one and
the same, are so satisfactory that a reconciliation is easily
effected and the happy lovers are united by a notary, just as
Bartolo and his officers come to arrest the Count. Even the
fussy old doctor concludes to make the best of things and
gives them his blessing, which makes it possible for the
curtain to descend joyously.
This is the best of Rossini's operas in lighter vein and
it has become an established favorite with all nations. In
it is displayed the composer's wonderful melodic genius. Both
words and music are so admirably paired that the descrip-
tion of " operatic champagne " which has been applied to
IL BARBIERE DI SIVIGLIA 85
" The Barber " is undeniably apt. The great work was
written in a fortnight but is, notwithstanding, elegant and
finished. Its first performance was disconcerting to the com-
poser for, nof to mention a ludicrous chapter of mishaps,
the house was filled with Paisiello's supporters, who gave
vent to expressions of great disfavor. But a different recep-
tion was forthcoming upon the following night and the
world still does homage to this masterpiece of Rossini's.
The Count's serenade, sung under Rosina's window,
was written by Rossini between the first and second perform-
ance, Garcia having used on the opening night a Spanish
air of his own. It failed, however, and the charming song
"Ecco ridente il cielo " ("Smiling the heavens"), probably
the most beautiful song in the opera, was then composed.
Other notable numbers are: Figaro's celebrated description
of his duties, the Buffo aria, "Largo al factotum" ("I'm
the Factotum ") ; Rosina's cavatina, " Una voce poco fa "
(" 'Twas a voice that called to me"); and Basilio's great
bass solo, the " Calumny " aria. In the merry music-lesson
scene, the song to be practised by Rosina has been lost and
it is the custom of every prima donna to interpolate her own
particular show piece. The aria " Sempre gridi " (" Ever
smiling"), sung by the duenna Bertha, is termed the "aria
di Sorbetto " because of the Italian custom of eating ices
during its singing. The famous trio, " Zitti, zitti," is one of
the elegant ensembles of the master work and is followed
by the bright finale with which the sparkling opera is brought
to its close.
DER FREISCHUTZ
"Der Freischiitz," or "The Freeshooter," a romantic
opera in two acts, with words by Friedrich Kind and music
by Carl Maria von Weber, was first produced in Berlin,
June 18, 1821.
CHARACTERS.
Prince Ottokar.
Cuno, the head ranger.
C \ ( ^'^^ young foresters serving under him.
Kill an, a rich peasant.
A Hermit.
Zamiel, the fiend huntsman.
Agnes, Cuno's daughter.
Anna, her cousin.
Chorus of Hunters, peasants, bridesmaids and invisible
spirits.
The scene is laid in Bohemia, shortly after the Seven
Years' War. The story of the opera is founded on a tradi-
tion among the German followers of Nimrod, that whoever
chooses to seek the aid of Zamiel, the demon huntsman,
might by selling his soul to him, receive seven magic bullets
which would hit the desired mark with unerring accuracy.
If he succeeded in gaining another victim for Zamiel, his
own time of life would- be extended but if he failed in this,
his life was forfeited.
88 OPERAS
When the story opens, Cuno, the head ranger to Otto-
kar, a Bohemian Prince, has promised his daughter Agnes
to Max, one of his subordinates, on condition that he win
in an approaching contest of marksmanship. Caspar, a
second forester who has made the fatal bargain with the
fiend, causes Max, who always has been a skilled marksman,
to shoot poorly at a preliminary trial. Jeered at by his com-
panions and hopeless of winning his adored Agnes, the lover
is in despair and believes himself deserted by heaven. Caspar
has a double motive in wishing Max's downfall. He must
bring a new victim to the fiend and, furthermore, he is in
love with Agnes, whom he hopes to win. To tempt his
rival, he gives him his rifle and bids him fire at an eagle
soaring so far above them that it is but a speck in the sky.
To the youth's astonishment, the huge bird falls dead at his
feet, while demon laughter echoes about him. Casper plucks
a feather and puts it in Max's cap, telling him to think of
Agnes' delight in his prowess. Max, however, recoils when
he learns the nature of the bullet, but Caspar pictures to him
the sorrow of the maiden if he (Max) fails to win her and,
with consummate hypocrisy, tries to convince him that it is
his duty to take advantage of every means within his power.
Finally, Max promises to meet Caspar in the Wolf's Glen at
midnight to secure a new supply of bullets. The exultant
Caspar believes that he has not only accomplished the down-
fall of Max but has gained for himself respite from the fiend.
The second act opens in Cuno's house, where Agnes and
Anna, her lively cousin, are found, the former lamenting the
fall of an ancestral portrait from the wall, which she fears
to be an evil omen. Only a few hours previously, she has
met a peasant in the wood who has warned her of some
danger and has given her a magic rose-wreath with which
to ward it oflF. Max comes but he, too, is filled with fore-
bodings and his heart almost stops beating when he learns
that the portrait fell just at seven o'clock, the time he shot
the eagle. At a late hour, Max goes to keep his tryst in the
Wolf's Glen, though implored by the maidens to remain with
DER FREISCHUTZ 89
them. Before his arrival, Caspar has bargained with the
Demon and has bought the young hunter's destruction, in
return for which he, himself, may have three years more of
life. Six of the bullets shall do Max's bidding but the
seventh shall kill his bride. When Max approaches, the
chorus of invisible spirits is heard no more. Zamiel vanishes
to the sound of low thunder and, as Caspar blows the fire
which rises out of the ground, the birds of night flutter
weirdly about his head.
Suddenly, Max discerns on an opposite rock his
mother's wraith, raising a ghostly hand in warning. Fearing
that he may yet lose his victim, Caspar calls on Zamiel for
help and, in place of his mother's form is seen that of
Agnes, who appears distracted and is about to throw herself
down the cascade. This silent argument settles the matter
with Max and he hastens to assist Caspar in melting over the
fire in a crucible a weird decoction out of which the bullets
are to be formed. At the casting of the seventh, a frightful
storm throws Max to the ground and Zamiel seizes his hand.
The last act opens like its predecessors in Cuno's house,
where Agnes is dressing for her wedding. She still is dis-
traught and tells Anna of a dream in which she fancied
herself a white dove and was fired at by her lover. As the
dove fell she was herself again and a great bird of prey
lay dying at her feet. Her cousin attempts to divert her
thoughts and is assisted in this by the arrival of the brides-
maids. But all is undone when the newcomers open the
box which is to contain the bride's garland, and find that by
mistake a funeral wreath has been sent. Sadly Agnes
bethinks her of the peasant's consecrated roses and, wearing
them, she goes away with her attendants to the Prince's
camp, where the shooting contest is to be held and where
Max is to win her. Only the seventh bullet remains to Max, for
three of them Caspar has beguiled from him and three others
he has used in the morning. The Prince, who has witnessed
his three marvelous feats of marksmanship, bids him to be
of good cheer and confidence and, pointing out a white dove.
90 OPERAS
gives him the signal to fire. The shot goes wild and Caspar
and Agnes both sink to the ground. The girl, however, is
unhurt. The holy roses have saved her but the bullet flying
past her has buried itself in Caspar's heart instead.
When they have borne the body away, Max confesses
that his three shots of the morning were of malign origin.
The indignant sovereign pronounces upon him sentence of
banishment but moved by the pleas of Agnes and Cuno, he
leaves the matter to the decision of a hermit, who justly
proposes that in view of his past uprightness he be granted
a year of trial and, if he passes it successfully, that Agnes
then shall become his bride.
" Der Freischiitz " is epoch-making in that it was the
opera which completed the establishing of the romantic
school, and which gave Germany a distinctively national
opera. All Germany rose to acclaim the merit and charm
of the work, delighted with its freshness and with the note
of romance and mystery which echoed through its music.
There is displayed in it that fine imaginative power which
Weber possessed in high degree. The great scenes are
treated with a dramatic understanding and sympathy not
before equaled. The music of the Incantation scene is of
a weirdness and daring musical power until then unknown
and throughout the score may be noticed unmistakable
evidence of the leit-motif used later with notable effect
by Weber's great successor, admirer and, in a certain measure^
disciple, Wagner.
Remarkable passages in its score are the overture, which
is one of the masterpieces of its kind and is known and
admired the world over ; the stirring hunting choruses ; Max's
lovely solos, in the first act, " Durch die Walder, durch die
Auen" ("Thro' the forests, thro' the meadows"); " Jetzt
ist wohl ihr Fenster offen " ("Now. methinks, beside her
lattice"); Caspar's demoniac aria, "Triumph! die Rache
gehngt" ("Revenge! my triumph is nigh"); Agatha's
merry " Kommt ein schlanker Bursch " ("Let a gallant
youth"); Agatha's beautiful recitative and aria, " Leise,
DER FREISCHt)TZ 91
leise, frome Weise " ("Softly sighing"); the Incantation
scene; the Bridesmaids' chorus; the Hunter's chorus and
the finale.
SEMIRAMIDE
" Semiramide " is a tragic opera in two acts, the text
by Rossi, and the music by Gioachino Antonio Rossini. It
IS founded on Voltaire's tragedy " Semiramis." It was first
presented at the Fenice Theatre, Venice, Feb. 3, 1823.
CHARACTERS.
Semiramis, Queen of Babylon.
Arsaces, commander in the Assyrian army, afterward
Ninius and heir to the throne.
The Ghost of Ninus.
Oroe, chief of the Magi.
Assur, a Prince of the Blood Royal.
Azema, Princess of the Blood Royal.
Idrenus, Mitranes, and others of the royal household.
Magi, guards, satraps, slaves.
The scene of the story is laid in Babylon. Ninus, the
king, has been murdered by his wife, Semiramis, aided by
Assur, who is inspired by an ambition for the throne. The
opera opens in the temple of Belus during a solemn festival,
which is of unusual significance from the fact that Semiramis
has announced her intention to nominate a successor to the
throne. Arsaces, a young Sythian (as it is supposed), has
just come back from war crowned with victory and the
Queen becomes secretly infatuated with him. It is on this
youth that she has resolved to confer the great gift within
her power, although Assur confidently expects that he him-
94 OPERAS
self will be chosen. While the ceremonies are in progress,
a violent storm arises, the temple is shaken to its base and the
sacred fire extinguished upon the altars, the people looking
upon this as an evil omen.
Arsaces, who has been despatched to bring an answer
from the Oracle, arrives. He bears a casket containing a
scroll which points to the fact that the late king was mur-
dered. The Queen, when the agitation arising from this has
subsided, announces that he who is chosen king shall also
be her husband and thereupon names Arsaces. This news is
received with horror by at least four persons. One of these
is the young man upon whom the choice falls, for he loves
and is beloved by Azema, a royal princess; another is the
Princess herself, who sees the Queen's decree ruin her hope
of happiness; another is Assur, who also has aspired to
Azema's hand and thought to gain her by his new power
and, lastly, the priest Oroe, who has knowledge of a fact
which would make such a union frightful.
Arsaces pleads that another be chosen since " the throne
is not the glittering prize " he asks ; Assur in a passion of
rage makes many dark allusions but the Queen would sweep
all obstacles aside and orders that the marriage at once take
place. A hollow sound is heard from the tomb of Ninus and
the shade of the murdered king comes forth to say,
Arsaces, thou shalt reign;
But crimes there are must first avenged be.
With courage into my tomb descend.
There to my ashes a victim thou shalt offer.
There is general consternation and the Queen flings herself
into the arms of Azema.
Arsaces follows the ghost of Ninus into his gloomy
abode and learns that Ninius, his son, long since reported
dead, is in reality alive. In consequence, Arsaces remon-
strates with the priests who are to invest him with the
insignia of royal office but his arguments are silenced by
Oroe, who informs him that he is the lost Ninius and thus
the rightful heir to the throne. He also tells him of the
SEMIRAMIDE 95
crime of Semiramis and Assur and, handing him his father's
sword, bids him avenge his wrongs.
This he is wilHng to do in the case of Assur but his
heart recoils from punishing his mother, who, still ignorant
of their relations, continues to shower her now disgusting
attentions upon him. Her punishment begins when Arsaces
draws from his robes and places in her hands a document
written by the dying king, in which he discloses the crime
of Semiramis and her accomplice. This, coming with the
knowledge that Arsaces is her own son, fills her with horror
and remorse. The young man assures her of his forgive-
ness and goes forth with his father's sword to avenge him,
pursuing Assur into the recesses of the tomb itself. The
Queen follows unobserved and, when he is about to stab
Assur in the darkness, she passes between them and receives
the weapon in her heart. Her son is on the point of stab-
bing himself when he is prevented by Oroe and Assur is
seized by the guards and dragged away to death.
" Semiramide " was written by Rossini in less than three
weeks. When it was first presented the public found it
" German " in manner and its composer was severely cen-
sured. Today, it seems the acme of Italianism in style, and
it may well stand as the climax of the florid school of operatic
vocalization which flourished in the day of Rossini and his
contemporaries. The music for all the leading characters —
bass and tenor, as well as contralto and soprano — fairly
teems with ornaments, roulades, cadenzas and brilliant pas-
sage work. There is probably no other Italian opera score
so crowded with vocal fireworks.
The opera now has disappeared almost totally from the
operatic repertory but among numbers which were greatly
admired are the overture and the Queen's aria " Bel Raggio "
(" Sweet Ray that fills my soul "), both of which have occa-
sional performance still in public. Arsaces' cavatina, " Ah !
come da quel di " ("Ah! from that happy day"), his aria
96 OPERAS
"Ah! tu gelar mi fai " ("Ah! my soul thou freezest");
the duets for Arsaces and Assur and two for Semiramide
and Arsaces are admirable of their kind.
EURYANTHE
" Euryanthe," a romantic opera in four acts with music
by Carl Maria von Weber and book by Mme. Helmine von
Chezy, based upon an old French story, was produced at
the Karnthnerthor Theatre, Vienna, Oct. 25, 1823.
CHARACTERS.
King Louis.
Adolar, Count of Nevers.
Lysiart, Count of Forest.
Rudolph, a Knight.
Euryanthe of Savoy.
Eglantine of Puiset.
Bertha,
Ladies, nobles, knights, hunters and peasants.
Euryanthe is a beautiful maiden who is betrothed to
Adolar, Count of Nevers, but is also loved by another young
nobleman, Lysiart, Count of Forest. At a royal festival
arranged to welcome the knight from the battle-field, Adolar
celebrates her beauty, purity and faithfulness in rapturous
song. Lysiart mocks his panegyrics, declaring that " faith
can ne'er in woman's heart abide " and wagers all " the
fairest of his father's land in France " that he can win
Euryanthe's love. Adolar gladly accepts the challenge,
risking all his wealth upon the maiden's fidelity. Lysiart
departs, boasting that he will return with a love-token.
98 OPERAS
In the second scene, Eglantine, a befriended outcast,
coaxes a secret from Euryanthe, promising with extravagant
expression of affection never to reveal it. It is that she
communes with the spirit of Emma, Adolar's sister, who
when her lover Udo fell in strife, pressed a poisoned ring
to her lips. She has told how the gates of heaven are closed
against her for this deed and how they never will be opened
until the ring from which she tasted death is bathed in tears
of injured innocence. Eglantine, who is in love with Adolar,
plans to use Euryanthe's secret for her own evil purposes.
Meantime Lysiart comes with many fair words to invite
Euryanthe to grace the festival of King Louis.
In Act II, we find Lysiart bewailing the fact that he
has had no success in winning the favor of Euryanthe. He
is inspired with fresh hope by the appearance of Eglantine,
who has visited the tomb to steal the ring from the dead
hand of Emma and proposes that it shall be used as a proof,
not only of Euryanthe's unfaithfulness in love but also of that
of which she is really guilty — the revelation of the secret
known only to her and Adolar. For thus assisting him in his
designs, Lysiart promises to marry Eglantine.
Euryanthe arrives at the feast and is warmly greeted
by King Louis and his knights, who have small doubt of her
trustworthiness. Great is the consternation when Lysiart
announces that he has his proof and produces the ring.
Adolar can see in it only an evidence of her utter perfidy
and, relinquishing all his possessions, declares his intention
of being henceforth a wanderer.
In the next act, Adolar leads Euryanthe into the forest
to slay her. A huge serpent confronts them and Euryanthe
tries to save her lover by throwing herself in front of it.
He destroys the frightful creature and, remembering that
Euryanthe would have died for him, refuses now to kill
her but leaves her alone in its depths. Here the huge slain
serpent and the distracted maiden are discoverd by the king
and his hunters. In answer to the king's questioning, she
relates the story of Eglantine's perfidy. He is convinced of
t:.
EURYANTHE 99
her innocence and promises that she shall yet be united to
Adolar.
Adolar returns to Nevers, where he meets the bridal
procession of Lysiart and Eglantine and sees the ghost of
Emma trying to indicate to him his mistake. Here also
comes the king to inform them that Euryanthe has perished
of a broken heart. In a transport of triumph, Eglantine
confesses the incident of the ring as well as her love for
Adolar, whereupon Lysiart stabs her. The hunters bring in
Euryanthe restored to consciousness and the lovers are united,
while justice is secured by the consignment of Lysiart to the
hangman.
The music score of Euryanthe contains some of the
most beautiful products of Weber's genius but the improb-
able and badly-constructed libretto prevented the opera from
finding favor when it was first presented and has resulted in
its complete disappearance from the operatic repertory. In
the concert-room there is heard ■ still frequently, however,
the ever-charming overture and, occasionally, Adolar's
romanza, " Unter bliihenden Mandelbaiimen " (" 'Neath
the boughs of flow'ring Almond ") and Lysiart's recitative
and aria, "Wo berg ich mich " ("Where can I hide").
LA DAME BLANCHE
"La Dame Blanche" or "The White Lady," a comic
opera in three acts, was first presented at the Opera Comique,
Paris, Dec. 10, 1825. Its composer is Francois Adrien
Boieldieu, and the book by Scribe is founded upon Sir
Walter Scott's novels, The Monastery and Guy Mannering.
CHARACTERS.
Anna, ward of the exiled Laird.
Gaveston, dishonest steward of the castle.
Macirton, an auctioneer, the creature of Gaveston.
George Brown, lieutenant in the English army, or
Julius of Avenel.
Dickson, a farmer, friend of Anna.
Jenny, his wife.
Margaret, the old nurse of Anna.
Mountaineers, peasants, women.
George Brown, a young English officer on furlough,
comes to Scotland where he is hospitably received by Dick-
son and his wife, tenants of the Laird of Avenel, who has
been exiled for his loyalty to the Stuarts. Lieutenant Brown
wins his way into the good graces of his host and hostess
by offering to act as godfather at the christening of their
youngest child. He inquires about the castle and finds the
Avenel history interesting. Among its claims to considera*
tion is the possession of a ghost, " The White Lady." This
spectral dame is of such benevolent nature that she is fairly
102 OPERAS
held in affection by the villagers, many of whom claim
actually to have seen her. In the castle there is also a
statue called after her and it is in this statue that the Laird
concealed his treasure when he went away. The care of the
castle in the days of his proscription he has unwisely entrusted
to his steward, Gaveston, who has proved most unworthy.
Gaveston has caused the Avenel heir to vanish mysteri-
ously when a child and is now planning to bring the estate
to public sale, knowing that he can obtain it for himself
at a low figure on account of its ghostly accessory. Lord
Avenel's ward, Anna, an attractive girl, has been assigned
to Gaveston in the general trust and, though she has been
required by him occasionally to play the ghost, she is not in
sympathy with him in his schemes. She decided to frustrate
the plan of the sale and sends a message to the honest Dick-
son asking him to come to the castle at midnight. His
superstition is too acute to allow him to risk such an inter-
view but Lieutenant Brown, who is ever ready for an adven-
ture, offers to go in his stead.
Brown meets " The White Lady " and, in the course
of the interview, she discloses to him Gaveston's plans and
how they may be brought to naught. She soon perceives
that her guest is not Dickson but a young officer whom,
when wounded, she once nursed back to health during a
sojourn in Germany. Hinting that her supernatural powers
make it possible for her to know all things, she refers to the
incident and Brown acknowledges that he long has loved his
unknown benefactress. He promises to make the Avenel
cause his own and, in reward, receives a warm hand clasp
from his ghostly interlocutor.
The day of the auction comes. The penniless Brown,
who has had instructions from the White Lady to outbid
Gaveston, keeps the figure mounting. Gaveston, deeply
chagrined, gives up the fight, and then the White Lady
conveniently appears and pays over for the Lieutenant the
treasure which has been concealed in the statue. She also
furnishes him with the momentous information that he is
LA DAME BLANCHE 103
really the son of the Laird and the Countess. Gaveston
approaches and, in a rage, tears off the spectre's veil, revealing
the face of Anna. The Lieutenant sees in her the playmate
of his youth and the charming nurse he has loved so long.
Naturally, the opera ends with a wedding in immediate,
prospect,
" The White Lady " is considered its composer's master-
piece, and is today firmly placed in the repertories of the
French, as well as of certain of the German opera houses.
Its music is essentially melodious and a Scotch flavor lends
charm to a number of the songs. Prominent in the score
are Brown's solo with chorus, "Ah, what pleasure a soldier
to be ;" Jenny's ballad of the White Lady, " Where yon trees
your eyes discover; " the trio for Brown, Dickson and Jenny
in the finale, " Heavens ! What do I hear ? " in the second
act, the song of the old nurse at the spinning-wheel, " Poor
Margaret, spin away;" Brown's cavatina in the castle while
waiting for the spectre, " Come, oh gentle lady ; " Brown
and Anna's duet, " From these halls ; " the skilfully con-
structed ensemble for the peasants and tenants at the auction,
"All our fields and our toils neglected ; " in the third act,
Anna's aria, " With what delight I behold the scenes of my
childhood," and the stirring chorus, " 'Tis the lay ever sung
by the clan of Avenel," a slightly Gallicized version of
" Robin Adair."
OBERON
" Oberon," or " The Elf-King's Oath," a romantic opera
in four acts, with music by Carl Maria von Weber and
words by J. R. Planche was first produced at Covent Garden,
London, April 12, 1826.
CHARACTERS.
Sir Huon.
Oberon, king of the fairies.
Scherasmin, Sir Huon's squire.
Puck, Oberon's agent.
The Caliph of Bagdad.
Prince Babekan.
A Mermaid.
Reiza, the Caliph's daughter.
Fatima, her companion.
The opera opens in Oberon's bower in Fairyland, where
a chorus of genii and fairies dance about his sleeping form.
From Puck's conversation, we learn that Oberon and his
wife Titania have quarreled over the relative constancy of
man and woman, and have vowed never to have anything to
do with each other until some couple is found who will
remain true to each other through all temptation. The
waking Oberon demands of Puck where he has been since
cock-crow and he replies that he has been around the world
in search of something to console his master for his domestic
infelicity. At Charlemagne's court, he has learned that the
106 OPERAS
sovereign's son has viciously attacked Sir Huon of Bor-
deaux, by whom he has been slain in single-handed combat.
All France considers Sir Huon justified but Charlemagne,
allowing the feelings of a father to outweigh justice, will
grant him his life only on condition that he go to the court
of the Caliph of Bagdad, slay him who sits upon his right
hand and claim the Caliph's daughter as his bride. Sir Huon,
accompanied by his squire Scherasmin, has already started
upon his perilous errand.
Oberon orders his faithful Puck to find the two and
bring them at once to his presence. Soon a flowery bank
arises and on it are seen the sleeping forms of Sir Huon
and his squire. The ielf-king shows them a vision of Reiza,
the Caliph's lovely daughter, promises his aid in the coming
trial and bestows upon the young man a magic horn, whose
call shall summon him whenever the need arises. Then
Oberon waves his hand and they are transported to Bagdad,
where they gaze upon the foaming river and the glittering
minarets and fear to breathe lest these vanish from sis^ht.
Before the act closes, we are granted a glimpse of Reiza and
her companion Fatima and learn that the wedding of the
princess to Prince Babekan is set for the morrow. We also
learn that she loathes him and the strength of the distaste is
illustrated when she half draws a dagger from her bosom
whispering, " Love or death shall free me." She also in a
vision has seen Huon and swears to wed him or no one.
In the second act, we are taken to a magnificent salon in
the Caliph's palace where Prince Babekan is seated at the
Caliph's right hand. The Caliph announces that the hour
marked by the astrologers for the marriage has arrived and
the bridegroom expresses his impatience for the ceremony.
At her father's command, the unhappy Reiza and her maidens
enter. A clashing of steel is heard and Sir Huon and Scher-
asmin rush in with drawn swords. Sir Huon challenges the
boastful Babekan and in the fight the prince is slain. At this
crisis, Sir Huon winds his horn, the elf-king appears and
the hero and Reiza are transported to the seashore where
OBERON 107
they sail for Greece, accompanied by Scherasmin and Fatima,
whom the squire has prevailed upon to accompany him.
In the third act, the test of love begins. Puck conjures
up a storm to wreck the vessel and the travelers are thrown
upon the shore. Huon denounces Oberon and upbraids him-
self as the cause of Reiza's sufferings. The maiden is carried
off by Abdallah and his pirates and Sir Huon is left sense-
less upon the ground. Oberon appears, deploring the cruel
fate which compels him to make his instrument suffer so
much. He entrances him and leaves Puck to guard him and
bring him at the seventh day before the house of old Ibrahim
in Tunis.
The fourth act commences in the garden of Ibrahim,
to whom Scherasmin and Fatima have been sold as slaves.
Puck comes with Huon, who wakes and is told by Fatima
that only that morning Reiza has been presented to the
Emir by the pirate captain. There is the traditional dis-
pleasure in the harem over the instating of a new favorite,
and Roshanna, who formerly held that position, thirsts for
revenge. She has marked Huon's dejected mien and fancies
he may consent to be an accomplice, so she summons him
before her, declares her love and proposes that he slay the
Emir and share the throne with her. Huon, however,
refuses indignantly and declares that he loves another.
Roshanna then sends for the singing and dancing girls to
fascinate him but to no avail.
He is endeavoring to force his way out, when the angry
Emir discovers him and orders him to be burned alive within
two hours. Reiza flies to claim the victim as her husband
but the Emir refuses pardon unless she will smile on him
instead. She refuses and her execution is ordered also.
The two victims are already bound to the stake when Puck
appears and winds the magic horn. At its tones, the Emir
becomes powerless and Sir Huon and Reiza are set free.
Puck blows a louder blast which summons Oberon and
Titania, their reconciliation having been made possible by
the faithfulness of the lovers. Oberon changes the scene to
108 OPERAS
Charlemagne's court, where Sir Huon explains that his oath
is fulfilled. He is then forgiven by the Emperor,
The overture is a musical reflection of the story and is
among the most popular and best known of Weber's compo-
sitions. Prominent among the vocal numbers in the first
act are the fairy chorus, " Light as fairy feet can fall ;"
Reiza's air, " Oh, why art thou sleeping, Sir Huon the
brave;" Huon's songs, "Deign, fair spirit," and "Oh!
'Tis a glorious sight ;" Reiza's air, " Yes, my lord, my joy ;"
the duet of Reiza and Fatima, " Oh, Happy Maid " and
Reiza's song, " Oh, my wild exulting soul."
In the second act, the duet of Reiza and Sir Huon,
taken from Euryanthe, "Mine, forever mine;" Fatima's air,
"A Lonely Arab Maid ;" the popular quartet, " Over the
Dark Blue Waters;" Reiza's splendid apostrophe to the sea,
" Ocean, thou mighty monster that liest curled, like a green
serpent round about the world " are most worthy of mention.
In the third and fourth acts occur Oberon's song, " From
Boyhood Trained in Battlefield;" the Mermaid's song,
Fatima's lovely air, " Oh, Araby, Dear Araby " and Reiza's
song, " Triumph enchanting."
MASANIELLO
"Masaniello, or La Muette de Portici " ("The Dumb
Girl of Portici "), a grand opera in five acts, the music by
Daniel Auber and text by Scribe and Delavigne, was first
presented in Paris, Feb. 29, 1828.
CHARACTERS.
Alfonso D'Arcos, son of the Viceroy of Naples.
Lorenzo, his confidant.
Selva, an officer of the Viceroy's guard.
Masaniello, a fisherman of Naples.
Pietro, his friend.
Borella, ") _ .
,, y fishermen.
Moreno, j
Elvira, a Spanish Princess betrothed to Alfonso.
A maid of honor of the Princess.
Fenella, a dumb girl, Masaniello's sister.
Chorus of nobles, ladies, soldiers, fishermen and peasants.
This Opera, which takes its tone from the Neapolitan
revolution of 1647, opens with one of the charming lighter
scenes which form a happy contrast to its cumulating tragedy.
It is the marriage morn of Alfonso and Elvira and attendant
festivities are in progress. They are interrupted by the
entrance of the dumb girl, Fenella, who runs to Elvira,
imploring her protection from Selva, who has kept her as
the viceroy's prisoner for a month. She has escaped and
110 OPERAS
she tells the story of her seduction in gestures, showing the
scarf which her unknown betrayer has given her. All of
her role is, of course, done in pantomime. The happy Elvira
promises the dumb girl her protection and she and Alfonso
enter the chapel to exchange their wedding vows. During
the ceremony, Fenella recognizes the bridegroom as her
betrayer and attempts to warn Elvira but is prevented by the
soldiers. As they leave the chapel, Fenella denounces
Alfonso to his bride and then flees, the act closing in the
midst of great excitement and dismay.
It is at the beginning of the second act that Masaniello
makes his appearance. This scene is laid upon the seashort,
where the fisher-folk are busily engaged with nets and boats.
Masaniello enters moodily, sorrowing over the oppression of
the people. They, seeing their hero, ask him for a song to
lighten their labor. As he is singing, Pietro enters, telling
of a fruitless search for Fenella, about whom many fears are
entertained. At this instant Masaniello beholds his unfor-
tunate sister about to cast herself into the sea. He restrains
her and in his arms she tells the story of her wrongs, con-
cealing, however, the name of Alfonso, whom she loves.
Masaniello, enraged, swears vengeance and calls the fishermen
to arms against the despotic sway which has made the crime
against his sister possible.
The third act shifts to the Neapolitan market-place,
where the fishermen and market-girls are disposing of their
fish and fruit. They go about their task with apparent
gaiety under which is concealed the rising fire of revolt.
There is a lively chorus and a picturesque Neapolitan taren-
tella is danced but as quickly as a cloud goes over the sun,
the spirit changes to one of foreboding. Selva, the viceroy's
officer, discovers Fenella again and attempts to arrest her.
This is a sign for a general uprising and, in the struggle, the
people are victorious.
The fourth act opens in Masaniello's dwelling. Fenella
comes from the town and describes the tumult there. Her
recital of these horrors fills Masaniello's noble and gentle
MASANIELLO 111
soul with anguish. Fatigued, she falls asleep. Pietro comes
to tell Masaniello that Alfonso has escaped. He attempts
to incite his smoldering passions. They go away together
but scarcely have they gone when Alfonso and Elvira beg
at the door to be granted a hiding within. Fenella admits
them and Masaniello, returning, is prevailed upon to promise
his protection. At this apparent sign of weakness Pietro
and his fellow conspirators leave him in disgust. Mean-
while, however, the magistrate and citizens enter and present
Masaniello with the crown and he is proclaimed King of
Naples.
The last act is intense in its tragedy and powerful in its
musical effect. It opens with Pietro and his fellow con-
spirators stationed before the viceroy's palace, with the
smoke of Vesuvius rising in the blue distance. Pietro con-
fides to one of his companions that he has administered
poison to Masaniello to punish him for his treason and that
he will be king for only a day. At this point a messenger
brings the news that soldiers are marching against the people
and, to add to the terror, they cry out that Vesuvius is about
to burst into flames. Added to this, they learn that Masa-
niello to whom the people had looked to save them, is ill unto
death and half bereft of reason. He comes, however, at
their request but in disordered dress, reeling and delirious.
Fenella tries to quiet him but he turns and plunges into the
conflict. He is at last killed by his own comrades while in
the act of saving Elvira's life. Fenella places Elvira's hand
in Alfonso's, rushes to the terrace, and throws herself into
the molten river flowing from the volcano.
In " Masaniello," which is founded in part on actual
incidents, Auber gains a height which he never reached
before or after. It is essentially revolutionary in spirit and
has at all times taken a hold upon the popular imagination.
The riots in Brussels directed against the Dutch as well as
several similar uprisings were incited by it. There is small
wonder, for in it the wildest passion of popular fury has
.sway. " Masaniello " made a sensation at its appearance
112 OPERAS
from the fact that it was the first realistic drama in five
acts which possessed the attributes of a tragedy. The Ger-
mans, in particular, had always considered it proper to send
people home in a comfortable frame of mind.
The prominent number in Act I is Elvira's song
expressive of her happiness, ** O bel Momento " (" O moment
fair"). In Act II, the barcarole, " Piu bello sorse il
giorno " (" More fair now wakes the day ") is best known.
In Act III, the prayer of the fishermen before the combat,
" Nume del Ciel " (" Spirits of Heav'n ") is taken from one
of Auber's early masses. In Act IV, Masaniello's exquisite
song of Sleep. " Scendi, o sonno dal ciel " (" Softly
descending, sweet slumber"), and in Act V, Pietro's song to
guitar accompaniment, " Ve' come il vento irato " (" 'Tis
like the rushing wind ") and the song of Masaniello's
delirium, in which the half remembered notes of fishermen's
songs are heard are worthy of mention.
GUILLAUME TELL
" Guillaume Tell " or " William Tell " is a grand opera
in three acts, with words by Etienne Jouy, Hippolyte Bis and
Armand Marast and music by Gioachino Rossini. It is
taken from Schiller's drama of the same name and was first
presented at the Academic in Paris, Aug. 3, 1829. Of the
fifty or more operas written by the composer, " William
Tell " was the last. It has been much changed and abbrevi-
ated since its original presentation, which required six hours.
CHARACTERS.
William Tell, "j
Arnold, v Swiss Patriots.
Walter Fiirst, )
Melcthal, Arnold's father.
Gessler, Governor of Schwitz and Uri.
Rudolph, Captain of Gessler's bodyguard.
Ruodi, a fisherman.
Leuthold, a shepherd.
Matilda, a Princess of the House of Hapsburg.
Hedwiga, Tell's wife.
Jemmy, Tail's son.
Chorus of peasants of the three cantons, pages and
ladies of the train of Matilda, hunters, soldiers and
guards of Gessler, three brides and their bridegrooms.
The scene is laid in Switzerland in the Thirteenth Cen-
tury. The opera opens with a chorus of peasants who are
114 OPERAS
celebrating a wedding. Tell tries to join in the gaiety but his
heart is heavy at the thought of the Austrian tyranny which,
in the hands of Gessler, is oppressing the land. Arnold von
Melcthal, son of an old Swiss patriot, is in love with Matilda,
Princess of Hapsburg and daughter of Gessler. He has saved
her life and stands in much favor with the lady. Arnold
resolves, after a struggle, to be true to his country and
promises Tell to help him in the campaign of liberation.
The news that one of the followers of Gessler has attempted
to abduct the daughter of a Swiss herdsman, Leuthold, acts
like a match to gunpowder and the spirit of rebellion is no
longer slumbering. The herdsman who has killed the ruffian
flies to Tell for protection and the fact that Tell has harbored
him arouses the anger of Gessler.
A great conspiracy takes place in the mountains, the
cantons banding together under Tell, who vows to lead them
either to victory or to death. Arnold no longer falters be-
tween love and duty, for his aged father has been put to death
by the tyrant on the charge of having incited the people to
insurrection. Gessler, who fears the conspiracy, plans a test
by which he may discover the loyal as distinguished from
the malcontents. He puts his hat on a pole in a public square
at Altdorf and corr^mands everybody to do homage to it.
Naturally, the valiant Tell refuses and Gessler devises a
most ingenious penalty. He orders Tell to shoot an apple
from his son's head. The patriot is a clever archer and
successfully accomplishes this without injury to the boy.
As he is about to depart, Gessler spies another arrow con-
cealed beneath his cloak and asks its object. Tell boldly
answers that it was intended for Gessler in case he had slain
his son. For this frankness he is thrown into prison.
Matilda, thoroughly disgusted with her father's wanton
cruelty, abandons him and swears to aid in the rescue of Tell
and his son. Arnold raises a band of followers and succeeds
in slaying the tyrant and freedom is gained for the country.
Tell is restored to his family, and Arnold and Matilda are
GUILLAUME TELL 115
happily united, while the prayers of the devout and thankful
Swiss ascend to heaven.
" William Tell " is unquestionably Rossini's masterpiece.
It has high dramatic power and marked beauty of melody,
and is written in broad and serious vein. Its orchestration,
viewed in the light of the day in which it was penned, is
admirable. The overture is one of the best of its kind and
ranks easily among the most widely popular of any in the
entire range of orchestral literature. The libretto is weak,
however, the story not being well developed and the interest
waning after the second act.
The opera is replete with numbers which may be desig-
nated as remarkable. Among them are the quartet between
Tell, Hedwiga, Jemmy and a fisherman; the dainty ballet
tunes accompanying the appearance of the bridal couple; in
the second act, the duet between Arnold and Matilda;
Matilda's romanza, " Selva opaco " ("Shadowy Wood-
lands"); the taking of the oath at Rutli, "La glorie
inflammi " (" May glory our hearts ") ; the chorus at the
gatherings of the cantons; the famous scene of the shooting
of the apple, " Sois immobile " (" Stand motionless ") ;
Arnold's aria, "O muto asil" ("Oh! bless'd abode") and
the final " Hymn of Freedom."
FRA DIAVOLO
" Fra Diavolo " is a comic opera in three acts, the words
by Scribe and the music by Daniel Francois Auber. Its
production was at the Opera Comique, Paris, Jan. 28, 1830.
CHARACTERS.
Fra Diavolo, under the name of the Marquis of San
Marco.
Lord Rocburg (Lord Allcash), an English traveler.
Lady Pamela (Lady Allcash), his wife.
Lorenzo, chief of the carbineers.
Matteo, the innkeeper.
Zerlina, his daughter.
Giacomo, ) . r t? t-»- i
T, [■ companions of Fra Diavolo.
Peasants, robbers, carbineers.
The scene of the first act is laid at the hostelry of
Matteo at Terracina in Italy, the English tourists making a
flurried entrance, for the reason that they have narrowly
escaped capture and robbery at the hands of Fra Diavolo's
band. Fra Diavolo is the celebrated captain of a band of
brigands and a price of ten thousand piastres is upon his head.
It is the ambition of Lorenzo, the captain of the carbineers,
to win the money. His greatest incentive lies in the fact
that the reward would enable him to marry Zerlina, with
whom he is in love. Fra Diavolo who, in the guise of the
Marquis of San Marco, has attached himself to the English
118 OPERAS
party in order personally to inspect their progress, now
appears upon the scene. He has made himself particularly
charming to Lady Allcash on the journey, which is her honey-
moon, and has been so successful in fact that the jealousy of
Lord Allcash has been aroused. Naturally, that gentleman
is not delighted with his reappearance. As he fears, a
desperate flirtation between the dashing marquis and his bride
ensues. As the marquis sings a tender barcarole to the lady,
he makes an inventory of her jewels and is grieved to dis-
cover that his band has not been successful in eflfecting a
wholesale capture of the Allcash valuables. But Fra Diavolo
is a gentleman of resources and he plans to remedy this
oversight on his own account. The first act ends with his
escape from the inn, just as the carbineers under Lorenzo
enter in search of him.
The second act is set in the sleeping apartment of Zer-
lina. The fair daughter of the innkeeper first lights the
English guests to their rooms. During her absence, Fra
Diavolo, who already is concealed behind the curtains, admits
his comrades, Beppo and Giacomo. They shut themselves
m the closet. Zerlina re-enters, prays to the Holy Virgin
for protection and goes to rest. The robbers, thinking her
asleep, begin operations and partially rouse her. It has been
a detail of the plot to stab Zerlina but her prayers and her
helplessness touch their hearts; their arms fall harmless as
they gaze upon her innocent face and they decide to delay
the deed. The return of Lorenzo and his men again arrests
their work and rouses the house. Lord and Lady Allcash
rush in to discover the cause of the uproar, followed by
Lorenzo to reassure Zerlina. Fra Diavolo, realizing that his
discovery is imminent, hits upon the despicable plan of
coming boldly forth and declaring that he was there for a
rendezvous with Zerlina. At the same time, he whispers to
the Englishman that he has come by appointment with Lady
Pamela and to clinch the evidence shows him her portrait
which he has appropriated the day before. Lorenzo chal-
lenges him and Fra Diavolo, promising to meet him in the
FRA DIAVOLO 119
morning, coolly makes his escape. One of his companion
banditti is not so lucky and is captured. To gain his own
liberty, he agrees to betray the leader.
In the third act, we find Fra Diavolo exulting in the
freedom of his native mountains and looking forward with
gusto to the completion of his confiscation of the Allcash
property. He appears no longer in the staid attire of a
marquis but as captain of banditti, with a red feather waving
from his bonnet. A band of villagers in holiday attire
enters, singing a chorus in celebration of the approaching
marriage of Zerlina. Lorenzo, who has had it proved to his
satisfaction that Zerlina is mnocent of Fra Diavolo's imputa-
tions, uses as snares, Beppo and Giacomo, who are in his
power. The chief of the bandits is captured and led away
to punishment by the carbineers. Zerlina is restored to her
true lover and the opera is brought to a strong dramatic
close.
The work has many excellencies, among them simplicity
of treatment, gay and sparkling music, and a humor per-
fectly genuine, although occasionally bordering on horse-
play.
Of numbers deservedly popular are the piquantly
humorous duet of Lord and Lady Allcash, " I don't object; "
the quintet, sung upon the entrance of Fra Diavolo, " Oh !
rapture unbounded ; " Zerlina's romanza, sung to the dis-
guised bandit and really descriptive of him, " On yonder
rock reclining;" Fra Diavolo's barcarole to mandolin accom-
paniment, " The gondolier, fond passion's slave ; " the effect-
ive trio for Zerlina and Lord and Lady Allcash, " Let us, I
pray, good wife, to rest;" the serenade of Fra Diavolo,
" Young Agnes ; " Zerlina's aria, " 'Tis tomorrow " and
her prayer, " Oh, Holy Virgin ; " in the third act, the
bandit's song, " Proudly and wide my standard flies ; " the
chorus of peasants, " Oh Holy Virgin ! bright and fair ; " and
Lorenzo's song, " I'm thine."
LA SONNAMBULA
" La Sonnambula " or " The Sleep- Walker," composed
by Bellini, is a light opera in three acts, produced in Milan,
March 6, 1831. The libretto by Romani is founded on a
vaudeville-ballet by Scribe.
CHARACTERS.
Amina, a sleep-walker, bride of Elvino. i
Elvino, a rich young farmer.
Rodolfo, lord of the Castle, traveling incognito.
Lisa, mistress of the Inn.
Alessio, a young peasant, suitor of Lisa.
Teresa, the miller's wife, foster-mother of Amina.
Notary, postilion, peasants.
" La Sonnambula " is a simple Swiss village story, its
hero being the prosperous young Elvino and its heroine
Amina, an orphan girl dowered with nothing but her personal
attractions, whom Elvino is about to wed. Lisa is infatuated
with Elvino, and, in consequence, she scorns her lover,
Alessio, and is willing to make use of any circumstance
which may prevent the approaching union between Elvino
and Amina. Alessio incurs further disfavor by organizing
the demonstrations in honor of the approaching wedding.
On the day before the ceremony. Count Rodolfo, incognito,
comes back after many years to look after his estates and
Ftops at the inn. Here he finds the pretty bride-elect and
showers her with attentions, thereby disturbing Elvino and
his peace of mind.
122 OPERAS
It happens that the fact that Amina is a sleep-walker is
not generally known and her nocturnal appearances have
given rise to a report that the village is haunted. Rodolfo,
who ridicules the idea, seeks his apartment, whither he is
lighted by Lisa, who stops for a bit of flirtation. Suddenly
Amina enters walking in her sleep. The count gallantly
quits his room, leaving her in possession, and she, still
dreaming, lies down upon his couch. The malicious Lisa
hastens to inform Elvino of the compromising situation in
which he may find his bride. He rushes in, finds the charge
confirmed and in high disdain demands his ring. Since he
is deaf to the protestations of the now awakened Amina, the
count tries to convince him of his injustice but in vain. In a
pique, Elvino promises Lisa that he will marry her.
It is Amina's foster-mother who finds Lisa's handker-
chief in Rodolfo's room and accuses her in turn. She shows
confusion and Elvino begins to doubt her also. As Elvino,
somewhat dejectedly, is repairing to the church with his new
bride, Amina, again in a somnolent condition, is seen making
perilous progress across a frail bridge over the mill-wheel.
Her lover is now thoroughly persuaded of her innocence.
He receives her in his arms, places his ring again upon her
finger and, amid the rejoicing of her village friends, she
awakens to happiness.
In this " song-play " as it may be called, Bellini's lyrical
genius is delightfully disclosed. The work is pleasing,
simple and natural, not only in melody but equally so in text,
for in this, as in " Norma," the composer was fortunate in
having the librettist best suited to his style, viz., Felice
Romani. " La Sonnambula " has ever been coveted as a
role by budding prima donnas, both Patti and Albani making
their first bow to London as the sleep-walker.
The score abounds in charming numbers, among them
being Amina's aria, " Come per me sereno " (" Oh love, for
me thy power ") ; Rudolph's song, " Vi Ravviso " ("As I
view ") ; the chorus of villagers as they tiptoe to Rudolph's
apartment ; the duet of Amina and Elvino, " O mio dolor "
LA SONNAMBULA 123
("O my poor heart"); Elvino's aria, "Ah perche non
posso" ("Still so gently") and Amina's brilliant aria, with
which the opera ends, "Ah! non giunge " ("Do not
mingle ").
ZAMPA
" Zampa, or The Marble Bride," an opera in three acts,
with music by Louis Joseph Ferdinand Herold and words
by Mellesville, was produced in Paris, May 3, 1831.
CHARACTERS.
Zampa, a corsair.
Alphonso, a Sicilian officer.
Daniel, Zampa's mate.
Dandalo, a Sicilian peasant.
Camilla, Lugano's daughter.
Rita, her maid.
Corsairs, peasants and soldiers.
The scene is laid in Sicily, in 1630.
The opera opens on the wedding-day of Camilla,
daughter of the wealthy merchant, Signor Lugano, and the
young lieutenant Alphonso, who some time before has saved
his bride's father from the brigands of Val Demonio.
There is in Lugano's house a marble statue, the figure of
Albina Manfredi, a beautiful young girl, who a number of
years before had been betrayed by the Count di Monza. At
the merchant's home she found a haven and afterwards died
there, having impressed all those with whom she came in
contact with the nobility of her character. She has, indeed,
come to be regarded in the light of a patron saint to all
maidens suffering at the hands of dishonorable men and her
statue is looked upon with something akin to awe. Alphonso,
126 OPERAS
who is of a different stamp entirely from the Count of
unpleasant memory, confesses with emotion that this same
nobleman was his brother and that his own (Alphonso's) life
had been burdened by the other's misdeeds. He being much
younger, however, can no longer recall his brother's features
and he believes him to have died in the prison of the Inqui-
sition.
The bridegroom is called away by a fictitious message
and Dandalo, a not too courageous servitor who has been
sent after the priest, returns in great perturbation, telling a
tale of being waylaid by a terror-inspiring person in a red
mantle and a slouching hat with black plume, who forbade
his visit to the priest and declared that the marriage was not
to be. Scarcely has he finished his recountal, when the man
of the spectacular mantle and feather appears from behind
the statue and, with his eyes fixed upon Camilla, gives her a
letter from her father. Signor Lugano, it may be explained,
had gone that morning to Cyprus to receive one of his mer-
chantmen coming from Smyrna and he had not taken the
usual precautions in the way of bodyguard, having learned
that the notorious corsair Zampa, who had devastated the
country, had been captured. The letter bears the news that
Camilla's father is in the hands of brigands and that Camilla
is to pay the bearer, as ransom, anything he may ask.
The intruder announces that he is Zampa himself; that it is
Camilla he wants and that only her hand can save her
father's life. Just as the corsair's mate, Daniel, comes to
tell him that Alphonso is in chains in the citron grove,
Camilla escapes in terror. The mate's eyes light upon the
statue and he starts back aghast, for he recognizes the
features of one of the many victims of his chief. Zampa
mockingly offers now to fulfil his one-time promise of mar-
riage and puts the ring upon the statue's hand, which, to
the general horror, closes upon it.
Zampa prepares in glee for his bridal. He assumes
the splendid raiment of his last marriage and decks his
crew in the garments of a Portuguese admiral who had
ZAMPA 127
been unhappy enough to meet him. The villagers assemble
and Camilla is brought forth in her bridal gown, pale and
trembling. Zampa is really in love this time but he fails
sadly to inspire a similar passion in Camilla. Even his
monumental composure is shaken, however, when in the
church is seen the spirit of Albina lurking in the shadows
and pointing to the ring upon her finger. The ceremony
proceeds, however, in spite of attempts to prevent it made
by Alphonso, who has broken his bonds, the bridegroom
supporting the waning courage of his bride by continual
reminders that if she fails her father will die.
In the third act, Camilla is found deep in the realization
of the fact that she is the wife of a man whose very looks
fill her with horror. Alphonso, seeking her in disguise to
promise her rescue, is told by her that she has exacted from
her husband a promise to grant her first demand. Zampa
appears congratulating himself on his new role of husband
and property owner. To complete his happiness, he thinks
himself free from further annoyance from the marble bride,
for that morning his men have broken her to pieces and
thrown her into the sea. Camilla now makes her request,
asking to be allowed to hide herself in a convent. Her
prayer is refused, her husband telling her that she may be
proud of her new title of Countess di Monza. She faints
at the sound of the name and, at this juncture, the door is
burst open by Lugano, Alphonso and the peasants, who rush
in with drawn swords. Alphonso is about to slay Zampa
when Camilla warns him not to shed a brother's blood.
The corsair shouts defiance, however, and says that he claims
as his bride the one whose hand bears his ring. At this, the
statue of Albina appears and seizes him by the arm. As he
falls dying at her feet, they disappear together in a lightning
flash.
The music which clothes this romantic tale is picturesque
and effective. " Zampa " for many years enjoyed wide-
spread popularity and still retains its place in the opera
houses of France and has occasional presentations in Ger-
128 OPERAS
many. It is interesting not alone for the many melodious
solos and effectively written concerted numbers it contains
but also as the chief work of a composer, who at the time of
his early death, gave promise of becoming one of the ablest
writers of opera France had produced.
The overture to " Zampa " has kept its hold on the
public's liking and still is performed by bands and orchestras
in all parts of the world. Of the vocal score, especially
admirable numbers are the bright opening chorus, Camilla's
"A ce bonheur " ("This joy of mine"); the quartet sung
after the appearance of Zampa " Le voila " (" There he is ") ;
the finale of the first act ; the chorus within the chapel in Act
II, "Aux pieds de la Madone " ("At the foot of the sacred
shrine ") ; Zampa's barcarole " Oil vas-tu, pauvre gondo-
lier?" ("Ah, whither, lonely gondolier?") and his cavatina
"Pourquoi trembler?" ("Why shouldst thou fear?") which
is one of the gems of the entire score.
ROBERT LE DIABLE
" Robert le Diable " or " Robert the Devil," a grand
opera in five acts (in the Enghsh acting edition, three), with
music by Giacomo Meyerbeer and words by Scribe and
Delavigne, was first presented at the Academic, Paris, Nov.
21, 1831.
CHARACTERS.
Robert, Duke of Normandy.
Bertram, his friend.
Raimbault, a peasant
Alberti.
First Knight.
Second Knight.
Pierre, squire to Robert.
Herald-at-arms.
Isabella, Princess of Sicily.
Alice, Robert's foster-sister.
Mute parts. King of Sicily, Prince of Grenada,
Robert's chaplain, Helena, an abbess.
Knights, nobles, soldiers, heralds, monks, nuns and
peasants.
The story is founded on the well-known legendary tale
of Robert the Devil, Duke of Normandy, who is banished
from his dukedom for his evil deeds. He goes to Sicily,
where he falls in love with Isabella, daughter of the Duke of
Messina, and finds his love returned by the maiden. Robert
frequently has as companion one Bertram, of sinister aspect,
who in reality is his fiend-father and to whose influence he
130 OPERAS
owes his depravity. He is, however, quite unaware that
this Bertram is an inhabitant of hell who deceived his
mother. At one time, while Robert is reveling with his
knights, the minstrel Raimbault, who does not know him,
sings the song of Robert the Devil and his fiend-father and
warns the hearers against the man whose face is like his
mother's but whose heart reflects his paternity. Robert is
about to revenge himself upon the minstrel but the youth is
saved by Robert's foster-sister, Alice, who proves to be
Raimbault's bride and who implores Robert to forsake his
evil ways. Bertram arrives in time to dissipate the influence
of her words and tempts his victim to the gaming-table,
from which he arises stripped of all his possessions.
A challenge comes from the Prince of Grenada, rival
for Isabella's hand, to meet him in mortal combat. Robert
hopes, by vanquishing his opponent in this tournament, to
win the hand of the princess but while he is pursuing a
spectre combatant conjured by Bertram's arts, the real tourney
takes place with Robert absent. Bertram hopes that in this
hour of bitter disappointment and dishonor he can bring
Robert entirely within his power. He lures him to a ruined
cloister and, as brother fiends have suggested in a previous
orgy, tells him that bride and wealth will be his if he will
remove from the abbey a certain cypress branch endowed
with supernatural powers. Bertram thereupon pronounces
an incantation which calls up from their graves the guilty
nuns buried below. They try in various fashions to captivate
Robert. Helena, the most beautiful of them, finally suc-
ceeds in making him remove the branch. As the nuns sink
down by their tombs out of which demons start to secure
them, a chorus of fiends in the cloisters chant their joy over
the enslaving of this newest victim. Robert flies and with
the cypress branch enters unseen the apartments of Isabella,
who falls into enchanted sleep like the rest of her court and
is at Robert's mercy. When she awakes, powerless to move,
he declares he intends to carry her away but she appeals to
his honor and he breaks the branch, the spell being broken
ROBERT LE DIABLE 131
with it. Bertram is not yet willing to give him up, however,
having for him a species of affection and a desire that they
be one in motive. Accordingly, he urges him to sign a
contract which will get him his desires but which will give
his soul to hell. As they stand side by side in the cathedral,
Robert hears the chorus of monks singing their sacred music.
This combined with the thought of his mother makes him
hesitate. As a last resort, Bertram informs him that he is
his fiend-father and in view of this the youth is about to
yield, when Alice appears with the news that Isabella's hand
is free. Knowing Robert's extremity, Alice produces his
mother's will, which warns him against Bertram's tempta-
tions and entreats him to save his soul. As he still wavers,
trying to escape the power of Bertram's will, the clock strikes
the hour of midnight; the spell is over, and Bertram dis-
appears swallowed up by flames, while Isabella in her mar-
riage robes comes to meet her lover, who now is freed forever
from evil.
" Robert the Devil " has value in the history of opera,
even though the work rarely has presentation nowadays. In
it Meyerbeer freed himself from the purely formal in operatic
construction and gave to the stage for the first time a work
in which the most elaborate stage spectacle, vividly dramatic
music, impassioned melodies and romance run riot were
combined. Much of the text impressed even in the period
of the opera's first popularity as absurd and the music to
present-day ears does not ring sincere. But it was a distinct
step forward in operatic progress at the time it was com-
posed and is, therefore, of true significance. Numbers which
at one time were regarded as masterly and which represent
the best that is in the score are a ballade for Raimbault,
** Jadis regnait en Normandie " (" Some time ago in Nor-
mandy"); the romance for Alice, " Va, dit-elle " ("Go,
said she"), in which she tells Robert of his mother's love
for him, the cavatina for Isabella " En vain j'espere " (" In
vain I hope ") ; the duet for Isabella and Robert "Avec bonte
voyez ma peine " (" Oh kindly regard my griefs ") ; the
132 OPERAS
famous scene of "The Temptation," in which Meyerbeer
employs all his powers in the composing of seductive and
diabolical music; Isabella's cavatina, "Robert toi que
j'aime" ("Robert whom I love so dearly") and the great
trio in the closing act.
NORMA
** Norma," a tragic opera in two acts, the score by
Vincenzo Bellini and the book by Felice Romani, was
originally presented Dec. 26, 1831, at Milan. It is founded
on an old French story.
CHARACTERS.
Norma, High Priestess of the Temple of Esus.
Adalgisa, a virgin of the temple.
Clotilde, attendant on Norma.
Pollione, a Roman proconsul, commanding the legions
of Gaul.
Flavius, his lieutenant.
Oroveso, the Arch-Druid, father of Norma.
Ministering and attendant priests and officers of the
temple, Gallic warriors, priestesses and virgins of the
temple, two children of Norma and Pollione.
This opera, which is Bellini's most dramatic work, is
set in Druidic Gaul, about 50 B. C, or after its occupation
by the Romans, who have subjugated the people and made
Pollione governor. Norma, daughter of Oroveso, the Arch-
Druid, has broken her vows as high priestess and is secretly
married to Pollione, by whom she has two children. The
proconsul quickly transfers his affections to Adalgisa, a
temple virgin, and entreats her to fly with him. Norma is
adored by the Gauls for her interpretation of the oracles and
for her prophecy that Rome, the enemy of the country
134 OPERAS
eventually will fall. Adalgisa shares in this reverence and
is lead by conscience to confess to Norma her sinful love.
The High Priestess is lenient, remembering her own similar
defection and grants her absolution from her vows. But
when she inquires the name of Adalgisa's lover, its revela-
tion forces her to confess that Pollione is her own faithless
husband.
He appears and she reviles him. He then renews his
entreaties to Adalgisa to follow him but is repulsed. Norma
resolves, meanwhile, upon revenge and sees it in the murder
of her children. But as she leans over their sleeping forms,
the maternal passion asserts itself and she decides rather to
put them in Adalgisa's hands and send her with them to
Pollione. She confides this plan to her rival and each
woman in this calmer moment is willing to sacrifice herself
for the other. Pollione, in attempting to tear Adalgisa from
the altar, is himself captured by the Druids whom Norma
has summoned by striking the sacred shield. Norma offers
to grant safety to Pollione if he will give up Adalgisa but
he refuses, preferring death. The exasperated High Priestess
summons back the assembly, which she previously has dis-
missed, and for one vengeful moment threatens to denounce
with him the innocent virgin he so madly loves. But her
better nature once more gains the upper hand. Norma then
takes the sacred wreath from her brow and impeaches herself
by confessing her marriage. She is tried and is sentenced
to be burned. Pollione recognizes the greatness of her
character and too late his love for her returns. He takes
his place beside her on the funeral-pyre and their sins are
expiated in its flames.
Personally, Bellini considered this work his master-
piece, although his admirers usually award the palm to " La
Sonnambula." The work possesses remarkable melodic
charm and because of the emotional possibilities of its lead-
ing role was long loved by great prima donnas. Hervey
says, " Bellini, the melodist par excellence, wrote from the
heart. La Sonnambula and Norma may be old-fashioned
NORMA 135
and their construction may be of the simplest but they con-
tain really beautiful melodies, they appeal to the emotions
and one feels that they were written not solely for effect but
to express the composer's innermost thoughts."
Justly the most famous of the numbers is Norma's
beautiful prayer, "Costa Diva" ("Goddess chaste"), sung
after cutting 'the sacred mistletoe. Also notable are Pol-
lione's confession of his guilty love, " Meco all' alter de
Venere " (" With me at Venus' altar ") ; his passionate plea
to Adalgisa, " Va, crudele " (" Go, cruel one ") ; the terzetto
in which he is denounced, sung by Pollione, Norma and
Adalgisa, "O! di qual sei tu " ("O! how his art"); Nor-
ma's song consigning her children to Adalgisa, " Deh ! con
te li prendi " ("Deign in infancy to tend them") and the
virgin's response, " Mira, O Norma" ("Dearest Norma")
— ■ a number which is known the world over ; Norma's call
to arms and the chorus, " Guerra, guerra " and her final
duet with Pollione before mounting the sacrificial pile.
L'ELISIR D'AMORE
"L'Elisir d'Amore " or "The Elixir of Love," an
opera buffa in two acts with text by Romani and music by
Gaetano Donizetti, was first produced in Milan in 1832.
CHARACTERS.
Adina, a wealthy and independent young woman.
Nemorino, a young peasant in love with Adina.
Belcore, sergeant of the village garrison.
Doctor Dulcamara, a perambulating physician.
Gianetta, a peasant girl.
A landlord, a notary, peasants, soldiers, villagers.
The scene of the opera is laid in a little Italian village
of the last century. Adina is a young woman prominent
in the community for her graces and gaiety and for the fact
that she is possessor of estates of value. She is adored by
Nemorino, a handsome young peasant, who is deeply grieved
over the gulf which separates them in the matter of wealth
and education. The lady is indeed very cool in her reception
of his protestations of regard, and fancies that she is quite
indifferent to him. Nemorino's despair becomes measureless
when Sergeant Belcore, a dashing person, believed by himself,
at least, to be a great lady-killer, arrives and is received by
Adina with marked favor. Soon after she has assured "her
sighing swain with finality that it is useless for him to hope,
there comes to the village one Doctor Dulcamara, who pro-
claims in the most extravagant terms the manifold merits of
138 OPERAS
his Magic Pain Extractor. Nemorino, catching at a straw,
makes haste to inquire if the learned one knows aught of the
magic draught of Queen Isotta, which is capable of enabling
the one who drinks it to command the love of anyone he may-
choose. The resourceful Dulcamara assures him that he is
the very one who compounds it and immediately sells him a
bottle of Bordeaux wine in return for his last eagle. The
desired-for effect is not to be observable until the morrow,
possibly not until after the doctor's departure.
Nemorino drinks the potion with all his faith and fancies
he feels in himself an immediate effect. In this he is right,
for he is intoxicated. Confident that Adina will be his on
the morrow and being well able to afford a little previous
indifference, he treats her with tipsy nonchalance, whereat
the lady is much piqued, so much so, in fact, that she at once
accepts her sergeant's proposal of marriage as a little revenge.
As that gentleman has received orders to march on the
morrow, he urges that the wedding occur immediately. The
notary is summoned, and a ball is arranged to which every-
body is invited, even the famous doctor. That worthy is
sought at the scene of the festivity by Nemorino, who hopes
that a second bottle may accelerate the effect so that he may
be loved before the wedding takes place. The doctor has
more of the specific, but Nemorino has no money. Belcore,
seeing his despair and learning that it arises from financial
trouble, offers to furnish him with twenty crowns if he will
enlist in his corps. To this Nemorino agrees and signs the
papers. Meantime, word has been received in the village
that Nemorino's uncle has died, making him the richest man
in the village. The news, however, has not reached the ears
of the one most concerned, and he ascribes his sudden access
of popularity to the elixir. Seeing him surrounded by six-
teen women, the doctor cannot refrain from boasting to
Adina that it is his great draught that brought it all about.
Adina, touched at last by this final proof of devotion, of
which she has just learned, not only pays the money which
frees him from the obligation to the sergeant, but goes to
L'ELISIR D'AMORE 139
Nemorino and confesses that she really cares for him.
Having brought such a happy match about, the doctor is in
high repute with everyone except the dashing sergeant, who,
after all, finds his bachelor days are not at an end and the
villagers loudly join in the cry
Viva the great Dulcamara,
The very phcenix of all doctors.
Tuneful numbers in this graceful work are Dulcamara's
buffo song, descriptive of his medicine, " Give ear now, ye
rustic ones ; " the final chorus in the first act, " The wine-cup,
full teeming ; " the duet of Adina and Doctor Dulcamara,
" I have riches, thou hast beauty " and Nemorino's famous
tenor romanza, " The furtive tear,"
HANS HEILING
" Hans Heiling " is a romantic opera in three acts and
a prologue, with the score by Heinrich Marschner and text
by Edouard Devrient. It was first produced in Berlin in
1833.
CHARACTERS.
The Queen of Elfland.
Hans Heiling, her son.
Anna, his betrothed.
Gertrude, her mother.
Conrad.
Stephan.
Hans Heiling is king of the gnomes, but he has strayed
from his native sphere and fallen in love with Anna, a child
of the earth. In the prologue, he announces to his elfin
subjects that he proposes to leave them to join the maiden
and persists in following this course, despite the protests of
his wiser mother. Seeing him immovable, she gives him
wondrous jewels and a magic book which shall prevent his
losing his power over the gnomes. Thus equipped, he sets
forth for the upper world. Arrived there, he seeks Anna
whose mother induces her to accept the advances of the rich
stranger. He presents her with a handsome chain, and Anna,
with the true characteristics of the eternal feminine, feels at
once desirous of displaying her ornament and begs him to
accompany her to the fair. But the serious Hans, who has
142 OPERAS
no liking for such things, refuses much to his betrothed's
annoyance. She is distracted from her disappointment by
the discovery of an amazing book in her lover's room. Led
by curiosity she opens it, at which the leaves begin to turn
quite by themselves and the weird signs upon them seem to
menace her. In terror she cries out and Hans sees too late
what she has been doing. Suspecting that it is a magic
book, Anna implores him to destroy it. He finally consents
and throws it into the fire, thus severing all connection with
his people. As the flames enwrap it, a sudden thunder-clap
is heard. Anna still longs for the fair and now Hans offers
to go on condition that she will not dance. She promises,
but upon arriving at the festival, she at once is surrounded
by the village lads, who do not look with favor upon the
stranger who has stolen the fairest of the girls. Conrad
the hunter, who loves her, induces her to violate her promise.
The angry Hans throws out a word of prohibition but
Anna, loftily reminding him that they are not yet married,
runs laughingly away on Conrad's arm.
In the second act, we find Anna musing in the forest.
She has discovered that she has a heart and that it belongs
to Conrad and not to her rich fiance. Her revery is sud-
denly disturbed by the discovery that she is surrounded by a
troop of gnomes. The Queen who heads them reveals to her
the real identity of Hans and implores her to give him back
to them. When they have gone, Conrad appears and Anna
makes him happy by acknowledging her love and enlisting
his services in the task of curing Hans of his infatuation.
She scarcely has reached her mother's cottage when Hans
comes to present his bridal gift. She shrinks from him,
telling him that she knows his origin. Enraged he hurls his
dagger at his successful rival and hurries out.
In the third act, the disconsolate Hans is seen roaming
in the mountains. Sick of his experience on earth, he decides
to go back to his home. He summons his former companions
and subjects, but they remind him that with the destruction
of the magic book he lost his power over them. To add to
HANS HEILING 143
his misery, he learns that Conrad is about to marry Anna,
the dagger having swerved from its course. In despair at
having lost not only earth but Elfinland as well, he casts
himself upon the ground and the gnomes, recognizing that
his earthly hope is at an end, renew their fealty to him and
allow him to return with them to the Queen.
The act closes with the wedding. When Anna, sur-
rounded by her merry companions, turns to look into the
eyes of her bridegroom, she finds Hans at her side. Conrad
starts to attack him but the other's magic causes his sword to
break in the air. Hans calls upon the gnomes to aid him in
his vengeance but the Queen appears and exhorts him to
forgiveness. He is swayed by her and follows her to reign
forever in his rightful kingdom.
The opera, which, nowadays, is sung but rarely outside
of Germany, contains music of a finely lyric and oftentimes
strongly dramatic character. Heiling's aria from the first
act, "An jenem Tag" ("On that fair day"), still has not
infrequent performances in concert both here and abroad and
is generally regarded as the gem of the score. Of worth are
also the Queen's aria, "O bleib bei mir " ("O stay with
me"); the first act finale ; Anna's scena and aria, " Einst war
so tiefer Freude " ("Once was such deep contentment");
Conrad and Anna's duet, " Ha! dieses Wort " ("Ha! such a
word"^ and Heiling's conjuration, " Herauf " ("Appear").
DAS NAGHTLAGER VON GRANADA
" Das Nachtlager von Granada " or "A Night's
Lodging in Granada," a romantic opera in two acts with
music by Konradin Kreutzer and Hnes by Karl Johann Braun,
after Frederick Kind's play of the same name, was produced
at Vienna, at the Imperial Private Theatre in the Josephstadt,
Jan. 13, 1834.
CHARACTERS.
A Huntsman.
Ambrosio, an old shepherd.
Gabrielle, his niece.
Vasco, a shepherd.
Pedro, a shepherd.
Gomez, a young shepherd.
Count Otto, a German nobleman.
An Alcade.
Hunters, servants, shepherds and shepherdesses, magis-
trates.
The hero of the opera is Maxmilian, Archduke of
Austria. The place is Spain and the time 1550.
When the curtain rises there is discovered in the fore-
ground a ruined castle of Moorish times, with columns sunk
in the earth and grass-grown heaps of fragments. Within
the ruins is a cottage and in front of it a stone bench, upon
which sits the dejected Gabrielle deploring her misfortune
and lamenting that she has lost her pet dove, the gift of her
lover Gomez. Gomez, overhearing her, tries to comfort her
146 OPERAS
and tells her of his resolution to go to the Prince Regent to
obtain his help in overcoming the opposition to their union
put forth by her relative, Ambrosio. Even now the sound
of the royal hunt is heard in the mountains and he starts
away. At this the Huntsman comes down the mountain
path, his golden hunting horn over his shoulder, and in his
hand Gabrielle's white dove, which he has rescued from an
eagle's nest. He has been lost and he is happy to see signs
of habitation again. At the sight of Gabrielle he exclaims,
"I have found the fairest fawn of all the forest." The girl
joyously takes the dove from the gallant stranger and, hav-
ing kissed it, lets it go free.
The Huntsman, illy hiding his admiration, questions the
girl about herself; and, when she shyly asks his identity, he
says that he is a musketeer in the pay of the regent. He asks
for food and Gabrielle brings him bread and fruit. While
she waits upon him the Huntsman gazes at her as if under
a spell and finally declares his love. Eluding his embraces,
she tells him that she has two suitors and that the one she
loves has gone to seek the Prince Regent, hoping to gain his
sanction to their union.
The Huntsman says that it is already granted, since he,
himself, is in high favor with the Prince, but he sighs bit-
terly because " the rose blooms not for him."
As he implants a kiss upon her forehead, her uncle and
the shepherds, Pedro and Vasco, surprise them. Vasco is
the other suitor favored by Gabrielle's uncle and is not in
highest repute in the neighborhod. He falls upon the Hunts-
man and the two engage in a quarrel. The Huntsman, angry
at Vasco's insolence, defies the shepherds and Ambrosio
warns him that he has but to pipe to his men and a dozen
will spring from the forest. Gabrielle attempts to act as
peacemaker and the Huntsman, appeased by her gentleness,
admits that he has been hasty and asks shelter for the night.
The shepherds are far from gracious but the Huntsman
throws a full purse among them, declaring that he will pay
for his pallet of straw with gold. The apartment is ordered
DAS NACHTLAGER VON GRANADA 147
prepared for him, Vasco muttering under his breath that the
guest will not depart in the morning.
Gabrielle fills a cup for the Huntsman which he asks
her to taste, Vasco being still further incensed by this
familiarity. He vows that the Huntsman shall pay for his
kiss with his life, though Ambrosio, shrinking from murder,
weakly demurs.
As evening falls the shepherds and shepherdesses flock
upon the scene and Gabrielle sings a song to the Huntsman
to the music of the lute. Meanwhile, Vasco removes the
flint from the lock of the Huntsman's gun and resumes his
seat unobserved. When the song is ended the Huntsman
takes his rifle and enters the ruin conducted by Gabrielle.
At the beginning of the second act, a wild forest and
mountain scene is disclosed in dim moonlight. Gomez stands
in deep dejection, his horse tied to a tree. He has been
searching in vain for the hunting party of the Prince. Even
now the sound of a horn is heard and Count Otto and his
men come riding with torches through the dark vale in
search of a lost member of their party. Gomez directs them
to the ruined castle and they go on.
The scene changes to the interior of the old Moorish
castle with its fire-blackened arches and columns. The
mountain cliffs and the moon are seen through latticed doors
and windows. Vasco, muttering that the stranger shall die,
IS closely followed by Gabrielle, who pleads for the safety of
the Huntsman. Vasco offers to save him if Gabrielle will
marry him (Vasco), to which she rejoins that she then must
leave the stranger to God's protection. The dissembling
Vasco lights the Huntsman to his bed, bids him good rest
and departs.
A little later Gabrielle, calling softly through the lattice,
wakes the sleeping Huntsman and tells him of the plans of
the murderers. He finds his gun useless and so girds on his
sword. Soon the door is chopped down and the murderers
rush in. The Huntsman declares himself the Prince Regent
and offers them pardon if they kneel to him. Only Vasco
148 OPERAS
refuses and bids the others resume the attack. In the fray
Ambrosio is wounded and runs away. Vasco and the
Huntsman engage in a life and death struggle and the Hunts-
man finally wrests the dagger from Vasco and runs him
through.
The horns of the hunting party sound without and the
Huntsman answers the signal. Gabrielle and Gomez rush in
and the Huntsman begs to know how he may reward the
maiden whose timely warning has saved his life. Gabrielle
reminds him of her desire for the intercession of the Prince
Regent, whereupon the Huntsman discovers himself as that
person and, giving them his blessing, joins their hands.
LUCREZIA BORGIA
" Lucrezia Borgia," a tragic opera in three acts with
text by FeHce Romani and music by Gaetano Donizetti, was
first presented to the public in 1834, at La Scala, Milan. It
is taken from a work of the same name by Victor Hugo,
who sued the author for damages under the copyright law.
The opera was thereupon greatly changed and mutilated,
but later on, indemnity having been paid, it was restored
to its original form.
CHARACTERS.
Don Alfonso, Duke of Ferrara.
Lucrezia Borgia, Duchess of Ferrara.
Gennaro, son of the Duchess.
Maffio Orsini, a friend to Gennaro.
Astolfo, an agent of the Duchess.
Ascanio Petrucci.
Don Apostolo Gazella.
Rustighello, an agent of the Duke.
Jeppo Liverotto.
Oloferno Vitellozzo.
Gubetta, a Spaniard, an agent of the Duchess.
The Princess Negroni.
Knights, squires, ladies, pages, masks, soldiers, sheriffs,
cup-bearers, gondoliers.
The story of the opera revolves about the person of
Lucrezia Borgia of unpleasant fame, the natural daughter
of Cardinal Borgia, afterwards Pope Alexander VI. Its
150 OPERAS
hero, her illegitimate son Gennaro, brought up by a fisher-
man as his own child, rises in young manhood to high rank
in the Venetian army. At a festival at Barberigo Palace,
which is attended by Gennaro and his friends, the youth
falls asleep and is discovered by his mother. Lucrezia has
come to the festival on a secret mission and masked, for
she is hated by most of the guests, both for her own
wicked deeds and for those of her family. Gennaro's
beauty and the honor to which he has arrived touch her.
She is, indeed, overwhelmed with motherly pride. When
he awakes he finds himself strangely drawn toward the
beautiful woman, but his friends warn him that she is the
hated Borgia and the attraction vanishes. The youths re-
mind her of their murdered relatives whose blood is on
her hands, and hurl at her such envenomed accusations that
she falls senseless.
Lucrezia's husband, Don Alfonso, who is ignorant of
the existence of such a son, notices her interest in Gennaro
and becomes jealous of him. When the young man muti-
lates the Borgia escutcheon on the gates to show his loath-
ing for the family, the Don brings about his imprisonment.
Lucrezia orders the offender's death, but when he is brought
before her, to her horror, she recognizes her own son. The
Duke believes the youth to be her paramour and commands
her to give him with her own hand a draught of poisoned
wine in a golden chalice. She does so, but a few minutes
later finds an opportunity to give him an antidote and his
death is averted.
Lucrezia advises him to fly from Ferrara, and hopes
that he has well made his escape, but unfortunately he joins
his comrades at a carousal at the Castle of the Princess
Negroni. The comrades have been brought together by the
machination of Lucrezia who, consistent with her charac-
ter, designs revenge for their insult to her in the presence
of her son. They have drunk the poisoned wine and she
has come personally to gloat over their end. " Yes, I am
the Borgia ! " she laughs as they start in consternation when
LUCREZIA BORGIA 151
she appears. "A fete, a sorry fete you gave me in Venice.
I return you a supper in Ferrara."
But now to her horror she sees her own son in the
company and finds that he too has partaken of the poison
and must die. Again she thrusts the antidote upon him.
As there is not enough for his friends, he refuses and
threatens to kill her. It is then that she tells him the
secret of his birth, but this makes him the more unhappy
and again he puts aside the antidote and dies in agony.
At this moment the Duke arrives to find his wife slain by
her own conscience and lying among the victims of her
cruelty.
Among the best numbers are Lucrezia's arias sung over
the form of the sleeping Gennaro, " Com'e bello quale in-
canto " ("Ah, how fair is he ") ; the duet of Gennaro and
Lucrezia, " De pescatore ignobile " ("With fisher folk of
lowly birth"); the trio of Lucrezia, Alfonso and Gennaro
beginning " Se ti tradisce " (" If he betray thee ") ; and Or-
sini's drinking song, the famous " Brindisi," " II segreto per
esser felice " ("Ah! 'tis better to laugh than be sighing").
I PURITANI
" I Puritani " or " The Puritans " is an historical opera
in three acts composed by Vincenzo Bellini and first pre-
sented at the Theatre Italien, Paris, Jan. 25, 1835, in the
last year of its gifted composer's life. The librettist was
Count Pepoli.
CHARACTERS.
Lord Walter Walton, a Puritan.
Sir George, his brother.
Lord Arthur Talbot, a cavalier.
Sir Richard Forth, a Puritan colonel.
Sir Bruno Robertson, a Puritan.
Henrietta, widow of Charles I.
Elvira, daughter of Lord Walton.
Chorus of Puritans, soldiers of Cromwell, heralds and
men-at-arms of Lord Arthur, countrymen and women,
damsels, pages and servants.
The scene is laid in England in the neighborhood of
Pl)TTiouth in the period preceding the impeachment and
execution of Charles II. by Parliament. Lord Walton is
keeper of the fortress held by the parliamentary forces. His
daughter Elvira, whose hand has been promised to Sir
Richard Forth, loves instead the young Royalist, Lord
Arthur Talbot. Much to her happiness, her uncle. Sir
George Walton, brings the information that her father has
consented to her marriage with Arthur and that the latter
154 OPERAS
is to be admitted to the fortress for the performance of the
ceremony.
Henrietta, widow of Charles I., is a prisoner in the
Plymouth Castle under sentence of death, and Talbot makes
use of his presence in the enemy's camp to pass her out to
freedom, disguising her in the wedding veil of his bride.
Part of the incident comes to Elvira's knowledge, and she,
thinking that her lover has eloped with another woman,
loses her reason. On his return, Arthur explains the mat-
ter to the satisfaction of his lady-love, but not to that of
the Parliamentarians, who have him sentenced to death for
treason. Happily, at this crisis word is brought of the
defeat of the Stuarts and Cromwell magnanimously par-
dons the political offenders, Arthur not being excepted.
Elvira is restored to sanity by this good fortune and she
and her Royalist lover are united.
While Bellini was unfortunate in no longer having
Romani for his librettist, the music of " I Puritani " is
among the richest and most expressive of any he ever
wrote. It is a peculiarity of the opera that the chief part,
musically speaking, belongs to the tenor but being written
for Rubini, whose upper tones were phenomenal, few tenors
have voices sufficiently high to attempt it. The work was
given in London in 1835 for Mme. Grisi's benefit and this
" Puritani " season was remembered years afterward as the
most brilliant ever knowii. " I Puritani " was Bellini's last
work and when, shortly after his death, the Theatre Italien
in Paris reopened with it, the singers repeated to some of
its melodies, the words of the Catholic service for the dead.
The score is replete with engaging melodies, among
them the tenor song, "A te o cara " (" To thee, be-
loved"); the polonaise sung by Elvira, "Son vergin
vezzosa " ("A virgin veiled"); the stirring chorus of
Puritans which concludes the first act; Elvira's mad song
" Qui la voce " (" This the voice ") ; the sonorous and
stirring " Liberty Duet " between Richard and George ;
I PURITANI 155
the duet of Arthur and Elvira, " Star teco ognor " (" Yes
with thee forever ") and Arthur's adagio, " Ella e tre-
mante " (" She now trembling ").
LA JUIVE
" La Juive " or " The Jewess," a grand opera in five
acts, with words by Scribe and music by Jacques Halevy,
was first produced at the Academie in Paris, Feb. 23, 1835.
CHARACTERS.
Rachel, the Jewess.
Eudossia, niece of the Emperor.
Leopold, prince of the Empire.
Cardinal De Brogni, priest of the Council of Constance.
Ruggiero, first magistrate of the city of Constance.
Alberto, officer of the Imperial Guard.
Lazarus, a Goldsmith.
Executioner.
Citizens.
The action takes place in the year 1414, in the city of
Constance, at a time when bigotry and fanaticism are at
their height, the Hussites and the Jews in particular bear-
ing the brunt of popular disfavor. Of the latter division of
the persecuted are Lazarus, a wealthy goldsmith, and his
daughter Rachel. Leopold, a young prince who has
returned from the wars and is in quest of further adventure,
assumes the guise of an Israelite and as an obscure painter
wins the heart of Rachel. He is, in reality, the husband of
Eudossia, niece of the Emperor. The lady, to celebrate
his safe return from the battlefield, procures from Lazarus
as a surprise for him a magnificent chain of jewels set in
158 OPERAS
gold and, in the presence of the Emperor and the Court,
places it on Leopold's neck. This incident is viewed by the
horror-stricken Rachel, who makes public denunciation of
the man in whom she has utterly put her trust. The Car-
dinal excommunicates Leopold for the double fault of neg-
lecting his wife and loving a Je>jress, the latter a sin so
horrible that only a sentence of death is considered sufficient
in punishment and on some flimsy pretext Lazarus and his
daughter are sent to share his doom.
Lazarus, who has suffered much persecution in his day,
bears a bitter hatred toward all Christians and especially
toward the Cardinal, who urges him to embrace the faith
and escape death, but the goldsmith persistently turns deaf
ears to such arguments.
While the three are waiting their doom, Rachel is
visited in prison by Eudossia, who pleads with her to save
Leopold from death by a recantation of her story. This
she unselfishly consents to do and Leopold goes free. But
as the crime of conspiracy is now added to the misdeeds of
the Jews, a more horrible death is devised for them, viz.,
immersion in a cauldron of boiling oil. The Cardinal is
distressed at the failure of the heretics to seize the one
possibility of escape from their destruction, for he is
strangely drawn toward the beautiful girl. Many years
before the Cardinal's palace in Rome had been destroyed
by fire and he has believed that his wife and daughter per-
ished in its flames. The Jew tells him that this is not true;
that she is alive and that he knows her whereabouts. All
efforts to draw further information from him are unavail-
ing and the baffled Cardinal orders the prisoners sent to
their death without delay. At the last moment Lazarus
asks Rachel whether she is willing to save her life by adopt-
ing Christianity and she refuses indignantly.
Rachel goes first to her fate and as she is thrust into
the flames, the Cardinal accosts Lazarus for the last time,
"My daughter," he implores, "does she live? Ah! speak
LA JUIVE 159
for pity's sake ! " Then Lazarus points to the falling fonri
of Rachel, " Behold," he says, quietly, " she is there."
The plot of the Jewess may be unnecessarily horrible,
but Halevy has bestowed upon it such warmth of feeling-
and such dignity of treatment that it long held a prominent
place in the repertory of the leading opera houses of the
world and is still frequently performed. The composer
treated the subject with unusual sympathy, as he himself
was a Jew. The ope^a made a great sensation for it had
been preceded by nothing which presented so great an
opportunity for pageantry.
Among the powerful numbers in the first act are the
Cardinal's reply to Lazarus' denunciation of the Chris-
tians ; Leopold's romanza, sung to Rachel ; the choral drink-
ing song at the fountain which is flowing wine, and the
music hailing the Emperor's arrival. In the second act,
the prayer at the celebration of the Passover at Lazarus'
house; the duet of Leopold and Rachel; Rachel's lovely aria,
"Ah Padre! Oh Ciel! Fermate!" ("O Father! O
Heaven!") and the anathema of Lazarus are particularly
impressive. In the third act, the Cardinal's malediction,
and in the fourth act, the duet of Lazarus and the Car-
dinal and Lazarus' welcome of death are also worthy of
mention.
LUCIA DI LAMMERMOOR
" Lucia di Lammermoor " or " Lucy of Lammermoor "
is a tragic opera in three acts, the music by Gaetano Donizetti
and the text by Salvator Cammerano, derived from Scott's
novel, " The Bride of Lammermoor," It was first produced
in Naples in 1835. It is generally acceded that it holds
first place among the composer's sixty-six operas.
CHARACTERS.
Edgar of Ravenswood.
Henry Ashton, Lord of Lammermoor, brother of Lucy.
Norman, his chief retainer.
Raymond, tutor to Lucy.
Lord Arthur Bucklaw, betrothed to Lucy.
Lucy of Lammermoor.
Alice, her attendant.
Friends, relatives and retainers of Henry Ashton.
The scene, as in Scott's novel, is laid in Scotland in the
latter part of the Seventeenth Century. Sir Henry Ashton
of Lammermoor has arranged to marry his sister Lucy to
Lord Arthur Bucklaw for the two-fold purpose of mending
the family fortunes and getting exemption for certain
political indiscretions. To his horror, he discovers that
Lucy has already engaged her affections to his hereditary
enemy. Sir Edgar Ravenswood, who has saved her from
the attack of an enraged bull. The lovers have met many
times secretly and have come to an understanding on the
162 OPERAS
eve of Edgar's departure for France on an embassy. Edgar
generously has sworn to Lucy to forego his oath of
vengeance upon her brother for his evil deeds against him
and they are pledged to each other.
Henry resorts to desperate methods to gain his end.
He intercepts Edgar's letters and, finally, when Lucy's mind
is fit to harbor suspicions, he shows her a forged letter to
prove her lover's infidelity. With this, his plea that only
her marriage with Bucklaw can save him from the execu-
tioner, falls with greater force and she consents to offer
herself as a sacrifice. The marriage papers are scarcely
signed, however, when Edgar suddenly appears to claim his
bride and Lucy confesses what she has done. In a fury of
grief and anger, he tears his ring from her finger, tramples
the marriage contract under foot and having challenged her
brother, leaves with many imprecations upon the traitorous
house of Lammermoor.
At night an ominous sound is heard in the apartment
of Lucy and her husband and the attendants rushing in,
find the bride, still in her wedding robes, with a dripping
dagger in her hands. She has gone mad and has stabbed
Lord Arthur, who is dying. After a little while the reali-
zation of her dreadful deed comes to her and the weight of
her remorse kills her. Edgar, waiting among the tombs
of his ancestors for the time of his duel with Henry to
arrive, hears the tolling bells from the castle and learns of
the tragedy from a mournful company of departing wed-
ding guests. Disconsolate through the death of Lucy, he
commits suicide.
" Lucia di Lammermoor " is the only one of Donizetti's
operas that can be said to retain permanent place today in
the operatic repertory of countries outside of Italy. It is
the beloved of colorature sopranos, the role of Lucy afford-
ing unequaled opportunities for the display of vocal agility
and tonal beauty. The first aria " Regnava nol silenzio "
(" Silence lay sleeping ") sustained and serene in charac-
ter, followed by the " Quando rapita in estasi " (" When
LUCIA DI LAMMERMOOR 163
all my heart in ecstasy"), which is florid and showy, the
duet with Henry in the second act and the great " Mad
Scene " which makes the highest possible demands upon a
singer's technical abilities and permits the most unbounded
display of voice and facility, these are numbers which put
to the test the powers of the soprano singing the role of
Lucy and which alone suffice to keep the opera perma-
nently in the repertory. The final scene for Edgar sup-
plies a similarly grateful chance for the tenor, while arias
in the first and second acts give the baritone who sings
Henry an opportunity to prove his worth. The sextet
which follows the reappearance of Edgar after the marriage
contract has been signed is acknowledged to be the master-
piece of the entire work. It is of unfailing beauty through-
out and is of real dramatic intensity. It rings true and
has few equals in the range of opera, whether the opera be
Italian, German or French. Donizetti's music has been
liberally criticized because it frequently is light and cheery
when the text to which it is set is strikingly somber and
lugubrious. The wealth of melody in the score and the
freshness and beauty of that melody have kept the opera
ever acceptable to the public, however, and its retention in
the standard repertory seems assured for a long time to
come.
LES HUGUENOTS
" Les Huguenots " or " The Huguenots," a grand opera
in four acts, the score by Giacomo Meyerbeer and the
Hbretto by Scribe and fimile Deschamps, was first presented
at Academie in Paris, Feb. 29, 1836. It has since,
owing to its great popularity, had numberless performances
but occasionally has been prohibited on account of its plot,
the Bourbons being among those who object to it.
CHARACTERS.
Count de St. Bris, a Catholic nobleman.
Valentina, his daughter.
Marguerite de Valois, betrothed to Henry of Navarre.
Urban, Marguerite's page.
Count de Nevers, a Catholic, betrothed to Valentina.
Raoul de Nanges, a Huguenot captain.
Marcel, Raoul's Huguenot servant
De Cosse.
De Bretz.
Meru.
Tavannes.
Maurevert.
Chorus of Catholic and Huguenot soldiers and women,
maids of honor, nobles and gentlemen, students,
night-watch, populace and monks.
The action takes place in Paris and Touraine in 1572,
just previous to and during the massacre of St. Bartholo-
166 OPERAS
mew. The drama is concerned with the personal motives
and passions which led directly to that most horrible affair
of all history. The De Medicis and the Huguenot
leader, Admiral Coligny, apparently have made peace and,
in a moment of calm preceding the storm, we first meet
the hero, Raoul de Nanges, and his faithful Marcel in the
Catholic stronghold, the castle of the Count de Nevers.
There is a banquet in progress and the talk turns to senti-
mental themes, each guest being required to give the name
of his lady-love. This Raoul cannot do for the simple
reason that he is ignorant of the identity of the woman
who has engaged his affections. In a lull in the revelry he
tells of a fair girl he once rescued from the rude attentions
of a carousing band of students, of her gratitude and of her
beauty and graciousness, which he cannot forget. Marcel
is not pleased to find his master so content in Catholic com-
pany and, half in warning, he sings for the revelers a fanati-
cal Huguenot ballad. At this juncture, a lady comes to
interview De Nevers and the breathless Raoul recognizes
the unknown object of his love. He is grievously disap-
pointed, as he can look upon her coming in this fashion only
as an indication that she is not worthy of his respect. The
truth of the matter is that she is Valentina, daughter of
the Catholic Count de St. Bris, the promised bride of De
Nevers, whom she does not love and whom she has come to
implore to set her free. Meantime, Catherine de Medici's
daughter, Marguerite of Valois, believes that she has discov-
ered a plan which may tend to ease the ominously strained
relations existing between Catholics and Protestants. She
will effect a union between the popular Huguenot Raoul
and Valentina, daughter of a representative Catholic family.
Since the lady wishes to be free from her former engage-
ment, the matter presents less of difficulty. The Queen
sends her page to summon Raoul to her presence. He
listens to her project and consents to be party to it but
when he discovers Valentina to be the lady he just has seen
at De Nevers' house, he refuses to enter into an engage-
LES HUGUENOTS 167
merit, which before the arousing of his suspicions, would
have made him supremely happy. The proud Count de St.
Bris, deeply indignant at the insult, challenges him but
Queen Marguerite prevents the duel.
The marriage of Valentina and De Nevers is urged
with renewed vigor and the girl goes to pass the day in
supplication at the chapel. Raoul has challenged St. Bris
and the latter plans to fight him with poisoned weapons and
thus to assassinate him. Valentina overhears the plotting
and manages to warn Marcel of the danger. He, with a
party of Huguenots, lies in wait, to aid Raoul when the
conflict begins. The contestants meet and a general fight
is about to take place when Queen Marguerite appears and
again prevents it. Raoul then learns the truth concerning
Valentina's love for him and the reason for her visit to De
Nevers. But the knowledge comes too late, for the wedding
festivities are begun, the bridegroom and his friends having
already arrived, and Valentina and De Nevers depart for
the marriage ceremony. Raoul visits Valentina for a last
farewell. They are surprised by the entrance of St. Bris,
De Nevers, the priests and the Catholic conspirators. Raoul,
hidden by Valentina, overhears the plans for the St. Bar-
tholomew massacre and, unmindful of her entreaties, rushes
out to warn his friends and fellow Huguenots. He first
seeks Marguerite and the King to implore their aid but the
massacre is already under way, Admiral Coligny has been
shot from a window of the palace and the Huguenot dead
are lying in the streets. Raoul at last finds himself at the
door of a church to which many of his brethren have fled.
Here he meets the wounded Marcel and learns of the death
of De Nevers. Here, too, comes Valentina seeking him and
willing to accept his fate. Marcel blesses and unites the
lovers, and chanting together the Lutheran hymn, " Ein*
teste Burg," they go forth to perish in the massacre.
" The Huguenots " which, in the United States and
England, is usually given in curtailed form, the performance
ending with the duet for Raoul and Valentina in the fourth
168 OPERAS
act, is generally acknowledged Meyerbeer's masterpiece. It
contains many pages which are of true dramatic power and
undeniable operatic effectiveness but also many which are
trivial, bombastic and banal. It permits of indulgence in
virtually unlimited stage spectacle and display and the
employment of a showy cast of principals, hence its popular-
ity in this country and England.
The music is much of it pompous and insincere, but
popularly admired in the score are Raoul's romanza " Piu
bianca del velo " ("Fairer than the fairest lily"), sung in
the opening act to the obbligato of a viola d'amore; Marcel's
" Piff, Paff," in which he describes battles he has seen ; the
familiar "Page's Song," " Nobil donna" ("Noble is the
lady fair"), sung by the Queen's page Urban; Margue-
rite's florid "Aquesta voce sola " (" For at that word of
Power"); the duet for Marguerite and Raoul; the "Rata-
plan " and "Ave Maria " choruses in the third act (bril-
liant examples of Meyerbeer's love for show and contrasts) ;
the duet for Valentina and Marcel; the ballet and wedding
music with which the third act closes ; the sonorous " Bless-
ing of the Swords " in the scene of conspiracy, and the
great duet for Valentina and Raoul, the finest number in
the entire score and one which shows Meyerbeer's powers
at his best.
THE POSTILION OF LONGJUMEAU
" The Postilion of Longjumeau," a comic opera in
three acts, music by Adolphe Charles Adam and text by
De Leuven and Brunswick, was presented at the Opera
Comique, Paris, Oct. 13, 1836.
CHARACTERS.
In the First Act.
Chapelou, the postilion.
Bijou, a wheelwright.
Marquis de Courcy, Chamberlain to Louis XV.
Madelaine, mistress of the village inn.
Peasants, male and female.
In the Second and Third Acts.
Chapelou, under the name of St. Phar, principal tenor
at the grand opera.
Bijou, under the name of Alcindor, the primo basso.
Marquis de Courcy.
Madelaine, as Madame de la Tour.
Rose, Madam's maid.
Singers and coryphees at the opera, neighbors and
friends of Madame de la Tour, soldiers, domestics.
Time, 1776 and 1786. Place, the village of Longjumeau
and Paris.
The quaint little story of this opera is as follows:
Chapelou has just married a young- peasant girl, Madelaine,
who lives in the post-house at Longjumeau. According to
a provincial custom, the bride and groom are separated., the
170 OPERAS
former seized by her friends and taken away and the latter
commanded to entertain his comrades with a song. This
he is well fitted to do, for he has a splendid voice. There
is in the hostelry at the moment the Intendant-General of
Louis XV., who is in quest of a tenor for the opera at
Paris and he decides to gain the bridegroom for his own.
Chapelou is so dazzled by his picture of the wealth and
glory awaiting him, that he consents to abandon his bride
and to go and claim them. He entrusts the task of telling
Madelaine of his departure to Bijou, who is jealous of him
for winning her. He then drives away.
The lady, however, is but little consoled by his
promise to return. She quits Longjumeau and goes to live
with an old aunt, who dies and leaves her a fortune. She
educates herself and ten years later, with many added
charms, a high position and the name of Mme, Latour, goes
to Paris to punish her husband, whom she cannot forget.
Madelaine recognizes St. Phar, the lion of the Grand
Opera, as the one-time postilion of Longjumeau. She is
presented to him and receives his entire approval. He
wishes to marry her but hesitates at bigamy and finally
hits upon the scheme of having Bourbon, a chorus singer
at the opera, assume the garb of a priest and perform the
ceremony. This is brought to naught by the bride, who
locks Bourbon up and secures the services of a genuine
ecclesiastic. The Marquis de Courcy, who has designs on
the hand of Mme. Latour, soon discovers that St. Phar is
a bigamist and has been arrested. But Madelaine saves
the day by coming forward in her peasant dress and the
sorry hero finds that he has only remarried his own wife,
who forgives him for his perfidy and all ends well.
The opera is tuneful, witty and graceful, the story
affording a happy vehicle for Adam's rollicking fun. He
produced over fifty operatic works but this is the best of
them.
The favorite numbers are, in the first act, Madelaine's
song, " Husband ever dear ; " the famous postilion song, sung
THE POSTILION OF LONGJUMEAU 171
by Chapelou with whip snapping accompaniment; Made-
laine's air from the balcony, " Come, come, my love to me ; "
in the second act, the humorous rehearsal scene, which
includes Chapelou's " Beneath a spreading tree " and Akin-
dor's (Bijou) "The Primo Basso, yes, am I." In the
third act, the most interesting passage is the trio, or rather
duo, sung by St. Phar and Madelaine, the latter imperson-
ating in the dark both the peasant maid and the great lady,
much to the bewilderment of her husband.
BENVENUTO CELLINI
" Benvenuto Cellini," an opera in two acts, with music
by Hector Berlioz and text by Wailly and Barbier, was
first produced in Paris in 1838.
CHARACTERS.
Benvenuto Cellini, a Florentine goldsmith.
Giacomo Balducci, the Papal treasurer.
Fieramosca, the Papal sculptor.
Cardinal Salviati, an officer of the Court of Rome.
Francisco, ) /-, ,• .
Bernardino i ^^^ workmen of the studio of Cellmi.
Pompeo, a bravo, the friend of Fieramosca.
An Innkeeper.
Teresa, daughter of Balducci.
Ascanio, the pupil of Cellini.
Pantomime personages.
The counterfeit treasurer.
Harlequin.
Punchinello.
Columbine.
Two fighters.
Servants and neighbors of Balducci, metai workers,
founders, maskers, Roman archers, monks, members
of the Cardinal's suite, people.
The scene is laid in Rome of the Sixteenth Century on
Monday, Shrove Tuesday and Ash Wednesday. Benvenuto
174 OPERAS
Cellini, the celebrated Florentine sculptor, has been sum-
moned to Rome on professional business. He is in love
with Teresa, the daughter of old Balducci, the Papal treas-
urer, but the girl's hand is sought by Fieramosca, the Papal
sculptor. The father favors the latter, declaring that he
would a thousand times rather hang than have Cellini for
a son-in-law, but, as sometimes happens, the daughter does
not reflect the paternal inclinations. On the day upon which
the story opens, the father and daughter have been discuss-
ing the two suitors and Balducci departs to calm his
ruffled feelings in the open air. Cellini calls and is
delighted to find Teresa alone. She tells him of her father's
predilection for his rival and Cellini proposes an elopement.
They plan to put this idea into execution on Mardi Gras
evening at the Piazza di Colonna, where Teresa shall be
met by a monk in a white cowl (Cellini), accompanied by
a brown Capuchin friar (his pupil Ascanio). They will
then fly to Florence and will there be happy evermore.
They say good-by, with many vows not to fail each
other on the morrow, little suspecting that Fieramosca,
hidden near, has overheard everything. Balducci returns
and Cellini manages to depart and yet avoid the paternal
eye. But Fieramosca is not so fortunate and he finds his
presence in the house at this late hour remarkably difficult
of explanation. Balducci opens the window and calls for
help to punish the libertine and a swarm of servants and
neighbor women coming in, armed with lanterns and
brooms, make life miserable for the sculptor until he man-
ages to escape down an unguarded passageway.
The next scene shows Cellini, with his pupils and com-
panions, making merry at the tavern. They overlook the
fact that they have no money to pay for the wine but the
innkeeper brings this condition forcibly to their minds.
Cellini is trying to find a way out of the embarrassment
v^hen Ascanio appears and is called upon for assistance.
He agrees to deliver the gold sent by the Pope to recom-
pense Cellini for the statue of Perseus, upon which he is
BENVENUTO CELLINI 175
engaged, if the promise be given that the work shall be
completed by the morrow. This promise Cellini gives but
when Ascanio hands over the money, the sum is so paltry
that there is general indignation. They easily trace this
niggardliness in payment to the influence of the parsimoni-
ous Balducci and decide to caricature him at the pantomime
that evening. Meantime, Fieramosca and his friend Pom-
peo, the bravo, have planned to assume the disguise of
Cellini and Ascanio and to carry off Teresa.
The play at Cassandro's Theatre proves a great suc-
cess. Balducci and Teresa are present and the former is by
no means flattered to find himself the hero of a piece called
" King Midas, or the Ass's Ears." He watches the play
with rising anger until, at some especially choice compli-
ment, he loses command of himself and rushes upon the
stage, brandishing his cane. Cellini takes advantage of the
fracas to approach Teresa but Fieramosca chooses the same
moment and a fight ensues, in which Pompeo is stabbed by
Cellini in self-defense. Cellini is arrested but cannon-shots
are fired to announce Ash Wednesday, the carnival lights
are extinguished and in the sudden darkness he manages
to escape. Balducci seeing a white-garbed monk and think-
ing him the culprit, hands him over to the police. It
happens to be the luckless Fieramosca. Meantime, Teresa
is conducted by Ascanio to Cellini's workshop.
Here the second act, which takes place on Ash Wednes-
day, is played. A plaster cast of Cellini's Perseus is seen
and the molders are busily at work. But the master is
absent and Teresa is in an agony of apprehension.
Cellini arrives, his white garb spattered with blood, and
tells of his hairbreadth escapes. He declares it to be an
immediate necessity for him to leave the city but Ascanio
in consternation reminds him of his promise to have the
statue finished the next day. Cellini jauntily consigns the
statue, together with the Pope and the law, to the devil.
Balducci and Fieramosca arrive inopportunely and the
father calls upon his prospective son-in-law to destroy the
176 OPERAS
wretch, but upon Cellini's promise to " help him into Hades "
if he tries, Fieramosca shows the white feather.
The Cardinal enters to see how the statue is progress-
ing. Seeing that Cellini has been dilatory, he declares that
another shall finish it, and Cellini replies that rather than
give it into another's hands he will shatter it into bits. He
is raising his hammer to make good his word when the
frightened Cardinal promises him whatever he wishes if he
will desist. He promptly asks for absolution, for Teresa
and for an opportunity to finish the statue. The Cardinal
grants him until evening to finish the work, with hanging
as an alternative. It is already late and everybody, Cellini
included, regards his fate as sealed.
They set to work, however, but the men work only
half-heartedly and Cellini tries vainly to start a gay tune
for inspiration. No great additional encouragement is
afforded by the arrival of Fieramosca, and two officers with
huge rapiers, who watch proceedings and repeat Cellini's
words, " I come to help you into hell." The work goes on
madly. The shop is a scene of breathless hurry. The gold
is melting in the furnace and the workmen come to demand
more metal. Cellini's heart sinks and Teresa is in terror but
Cellini saves the day by sacrificing his other masterpieces
which are consigned to the furnace. Perseus is achieved
and Cellini wins. The Cardinal grants him pardon, and
his one-time enemies, Balducci and Fieramosca, add their
voices to the general rejoicing.
" Benvenuto Cellini," Berlioz' first opera, was with-
drawn after three representations but in recent years has
had a number of successful revivals.
Notable numbers in the score are the overture, which
was written later and which, under the title of " La Carnival
Romain," has frequent performance in the concert-room;
the terzetto of the first act ; Teresa's aria, " Entre I'amour
et le devoir " (" Between my love and my duty ") ; the gold-
smith's chorus sung in the Place Colonne, " La terre aux
beaux jours "("The earth on days so fair ");" Cettesomme
BENVENUTO CELLINI 177
t'est due" ("This the sum that's due you"), sung by
Ascanio; Fieramosca's number, "Vive I'escrime!" ("Hail
to the Sword") ; the love duet of Cellini and Teresa, "Ah!
le ciel, cher epoux " ("Ah! 'tis heaven, dear love") and the
music of the Carnival scene.
CZAR UND ZIMMERMANN
" Czar und Zimmermann " (" Czar and Carpenter "),
or " Peter the Great in Saardam," a comic opera in three
acts with text and music by Gustav Albert Lortzing, was
first presented in Berlin in 1839.
CHARACTERS.
Peter the Great, Emperor of Russia, masquerading
under the assumed name of Peter Michaelow, a car-
penter.
Peter Ivanhoflf, a Russian carpenter.
Van Bett, Burgomaster of Saardam.
Maria, his niece.
Mrs. Brown.
Admiral Lefort, Russian ambassador.
Lord Syndham, English ambassador.
Marquis de Chateauneuf, French ambassador.
Chorus of carpenters and inhabitants of Saardam.
Peter the Great of Russia, weary of pomp and circum-
stance, has disguised himself as a carpenter, has assumed the
name of Peter Michaelow and has come to Saardam in
Holland, where he is employed as a ship-builder. By his
side labors Peter Ivanhoff, a deserter from the Russian
army. The opening scene shows the carpenters at work
and singing of their contentment. Ivanhoff would share
in the general peace of mind except that the wiles of Maria,
who has stolen his heart, prove sadly disturbing at times.
180 OPERAS
Her uncle, Van Bett, the burgomaster, makes his
appearance and in an aria, unblushingly confides his merits
to the world. His importance in municipal matters weighs
upon him heavily and his appreciation of his own subtlety
and powers of stratagem is complete. In such veiled
allusions as " I and the law are known to be the same," and
" Indeed, my wit is never failing," his modesty reveals itself.
It develops that the English ambassador. Lord Synd-
ham, has entrusted him with the task of searching out a
Russian carpenter named Peter. Syndham, by the way, has
been sent by his government to find the Czar and to press
him to agree to certain important matters. In case the
agreement is not forthcoming, Peter is to be seized and
imprisoned. The French ambassador, the Marquis de
Chateauneuf, has come on a similar mission to Saardam,
the report that the Czar is there in disguise having been
widely circulated. Van Bett is aghast to find two Russian
Peters but with characteristic infallibility, he discerns a way
out of the dilemma, choosing Ivanhoff because of his more
villainous countenance and introducing him to Syndham.
The Marquis is more successful, for he surprises the Czar
into a betrayal of his identity by announcing serious Russian
reverses. The Marquis, by the way, has also fallen victim
to Maria's charms and makes ardent love to her.
A threatened rebellion at home making the Czar's
immediate return advisable, Lefort, his ambassador, comes
to fetch him. The interest develops around two conferences
at a public house. At one table are seated the Czar, Lefort,
and the French ambassador, at another Ivanhoff, Syndham
and Van Bett, the curiosity of the last being keenly roused by
such expressions from the lips of the Englishman as " sire,"
and "majesty." The real Czar has acceded to the requests
of the French ambassador, the only problem remaining
unsolved being how to take a safe departure without the
knowledge of the English. Syndham, earnestly conferring
with the mock Czar, fancies that he had scored a diplomatic
CZAR UND ZIMMERMANN 181
victory, for Ivanhoff, to save himself, agrees to everything
and is rewarded with a passport.
Van Bett is upset by the presence in town of three such
active strangers as the ambassadors and his sensibihties are
hurt by the fact that Syndham has forgotten to pay him for
his invaluable services in finding the Czar. His unrest
evolves into an attempt to make an arrest. Overwhelmed
to learn that his three principal suspects, the ambassadors,
are men of rank and importance, he turns upon the Czar
and Ivanhoff and the act ends in great excitement, the true
Czar pushing Van Bett over the table.
Act III finds Van Bett in the midst of preparations
for a reception in honor of Ivanhoff, whom he now thinks
to be the Czar. Ivanhoff and Maria plan a surreptitious
departure and the former, tired of glory and finding it
possible to circumvent Van Bett, determines to make use of
his passport. The real Czar, having discovered the existence
of this valuable document, gets it by strategy, giving Ivan-
hoff another paper with orders not to open it until an hour
has elapsed.
At the reception, while Van Bett is directing the
performance of an original musical composition with great
self-satisfaction, the reports of cannon are heard and in the
distance is seen a ship, upon which may be discerned the
forms of the Czar, Lefort and the French ambassador,
taking an unannounced departure on Ivanhoff's passport.
That worthy hastily opens his supposed passport to find
instead his appointment to an important position near the
Czar and the royal consent to his marriage with Maria.
" Czar und Zimmermann " is a stock piece in every
German theatre. The principal numbers in the first act are:
The Carpenter's song, " Grip your axe ; " Maria's song, "Ah !
jealousy is a bad companion ; " Van Bett's aria, "Ah ! Sancta
Justitia, I shall go raving ; " and the duet of Van Bett and
Ivanhoff, "Shall I make a full confession?" In the second
act occur the chorus, " Long live joy and pleasure ; " the
tenor romanza, "Fare thee well;" the sextet, "The work
182 OPERAS
that we're beginning " and Maria's bridal song, " Charming
maiden, why do blushes." In the last act are the aria and
chorus, " To greet our hero with a stately reception ; " and
the Czar's song " In childhood, with crown and with scepter
I played."
LA FILLE DU REGIMENT
"La Fille du Regiment" or "The Daughter of the
Regiment " is a light opera in two acts, with music by
Gaetano Donizetti and text by Bayard and St. Georges. It
was produced at the Opera Comique, Paris, Feb. 11, 1840.
CHARACTERS.
Marie, vivandiere of the Twenty- First, " Daughter of
the Regiment."
Marchioness de Berkenfield, mother of Marie.
Tony, an old sergeant of the Twenty-First.
Duchess of Crackenthorp.
Corporal Cartouche.
Hortensius.
Pontoon.
Gillian, a peasant.
Soldiers, peasants, a notary.
The scene of this merry opera is laid in the Tyrol
during its occupation by the French in 1815. Marie, when
a baby, was picked up by Sergeant Sulpice on the battle-field
after an encounter and has been faithfully cared for by the
soldiers, though rocked in a cap of steel in lieu of a cradle
and lulled to sleep by rolling drums. She has now grown
to womanhood and assumed the dignity of vivandiere being
claimed as the " adopted daughter " of the gallant Twenty-
First Regiment. Tony, a Swiss peasant, who has saved Marie
from a fall over a precipice, is in love with her and tries to
184 OPERAS
join the regiment to be near her. He is arrested as a spy
and sentenced to be hanged but is speedily turned into a
hero by the girl's story of her rescue. A member of the
regiment, he makes an opportunity to woo its daughter,
and finds his reception hearty. The soldiers grow as fond
of him as they are of the mischievous, spirited Marie and
resolve to assist him in his suit. But just as everything
seems most auspicious, the Marchioness of Berkenfield
appears inopportunely and claims that she is Marie's aunt,
giving as proof a letter taken from the foundling which
Sergeant Sulpice has carefully preserved. The Marchioness
announces her intention of taking the girl home with her
and flouts the idea of Tony as a nephew-in-law. Marie is
in despair at the thought of being torn from her dear
regiment and her dearer sweetheart and submits to her
aunt's arrangements with very bad grace. The regiment
is just as reluctant to lose its pretty vivandiere. This time
alas, Tony cannot follow her without being a deserter.
The scene shifts to the chateau of the Marchioness
where, surrounded by tutors of every description, poor
Marie is seen undergoing the process of education.
Between dancing-masters and music-masters, the girl, once
untrammeled by conventions, is well-nigh distracted. On
one occasion her aunt bids her sing an elegant romanza,
which she begins in exaggerated style but before she is half
through, to the great disgust of her relative, she forgets
herself and swings into the spirited rataplan. Her aunt
has suceeded in betrothing her to a nobleman but it is only
Tony who occupies her thoughts. When most deeply
wrapped in despair, she hears the familiar sound of martial
music and finds that the beloved Twenty-First Regiment
has arrived, with Tony riding at its head as colonel. He
again presses his suit but finds the cruel Marchioness proof,
even against epaulettes. An elopement is agreed upon but
is detected by the Marchioness, who to gain her point
reveals the fact that she is Marie's mother and not her aunt
and the girl hesitates to disobey the maternal will.
LA FILLE DU REGIMENT. 185
Finally, when Marie, broken in spirit, is about to
consent to sign the marriage contract with the son of a
neighboring duchess, her mother is so touched by old
military associations and her daughter's grief, that she
makes a sacrifice of her own pride and ambition and gives
her daughter's hand to the faithful Tony.
The part of Marie was the delight of Sontag, Lind,
Albani and Patti and has been a favorite with later cele-
brated singers. "The Daughter of the Regiment" is one
of the most frequently revived of Donizetti's many operas.
Its Italian melody and French spirit make an irresistible
combination and its military setting further adds to its
charms.
Among its stirring and piquant numbers are the over-
ture ; the tyrolienne, " Suppliant to your knees ; " the duet
between Marie and Sulpice, " The Rataplan ; " the solo,
" Salut a la France ; " Marie's song of the Regiment, "All
men confess it ; " chorus of soldiers, " We have come our
child to free " and Marie's duet with Tony, " No longer can
I doubt it."
LA FAVORITA
" La Favorita " is a grand opera in four acts. Its
music is by Gaetano Donizetti and its text by Alphonse
Royer and Gustave Waez. In its present form it was first
produced at the Academie, Paris, Dec. 2, 1840. It is
adapted from a drama of Baculard-Darnaud, " Le Comte de
Comminges."
CHARACTERS.
Alphonso, King of Castile.
Fernando, a young novice of the Convent of St. James.
Don Caspar, the King's Minister.
Balthazar, Superior of the Convent of St. James.
Leonora, the King's favorite.
Inez, her confidante.
Courtiers, guards, monks, pilgrims, attendants, ladies of
the court, Spanish maidens.
The scene is laid in Spain, and the opera opens as
Fernando, a novice, is about to take monastic vows. His
prospective renunciation of the world is suddenly made
distasteful to him by the sight of a beautiful woman at her
devotions. He falls so desperately in love that he confesses
his plight to Balthazar and, renouncing his vows, goes out
into the world. Balthazar warns him that he will regret
his act and that he will return to the cloister to hide his
shame and sorrow.
188 OPERAS
The woman who thus has wrought havoc in his life
is Leonora de Gusman, the favorite of Alphonso XL, who
frequently visits her in her retreat on the island of St. Leon,
and who desires to cast aside his own queen to marry her.
Of all this Fernando is, of course, wholly ignorant. He
discovers her asylum and there makes haste to declare his
passion which, he finds, is returned. She refuses to go with
him at once but asks him first to win military honor for
her sake. With the commission which she has secured for
him from the King, he goes forth to fight against the Moors.
From the pomp and circumstances by which she is sur-
rounded, he is led to fear that Leonora is of royal blood
and far above his aspirations.
He is successful in winning the glory Leonora has
desired and comes back from the wars to claim her hand.
Alphonso, over whose head has been placed the threat of
the Papal anathema unless he give up Leonora forever and
renounce his plan of divorcing his queen, is ready to give
Leonora to Fernando. She, feeling that her former rela-
tions with the king make her unworthy to wed the man she
loves, sends a letter confessing everything, and begging
forgiveness. Alphonso intercepts this letter to Fernando
and the marriage takes place.
Fernando discovers the disgrace which has overtaken
him only when the courtiers shun and scorn him after the
wedding. In despair and consternation he renounces all his
honors, breaks his sword and returns to the cloister.
Thither Leonora follows him and dies at his feet. As Bal-
thazar bids the priests pray for the dead woman, Fernando
murmurs,
O Heaven! tomorrow those same prayers will be spoken for me.
*' La Favorita," although rarely sung nowadays out-
side of Italy and France, contains a wealth of melody which
entitles it to a place among the most notable of the Donizetti
scores. Fernando's aria, " Una Vergine " ("A Vision ") in
the first act, wherein he describes Leonora's beauty, is of
LA FAVORITA 189
rare lyric loveliness, while his " Sperto gentil " (" Spirit of
Light") in the fourth act is one of the most exquisite
romanzas for tenors ever written. Leonora's " O mio
Fernando " in Act III has been heard the world over from
contraltos, both noted and otherwise, and is still admired.
The music of the threat of the Papal anathema, sung by-
Balthazar in the second act, and of the great finale which
follows it are among the most truly dramatic pages
Donizetti has left us.
LINDA DI GHAMOUNI
"Linda di Chamouni," a grand opera in three acts
with text by Rossi and music by Gaetano Donizetti, was
first produced at the Karnthnerthor Theatre, Vienna, May
19, 1842.
CHARACTERS.
The Marquis de Boisfleury.
Charles, Viscount de Sirval.
The Prefect.
Antonio Loustot, a farmer, father of Linda.
Pierotto, a Savoyard.
Steward of the estate.
Linda.
Maddalena, Linda's mother.
Male and female Savoyards and children.
Scene, Chamouni and Paris, about 1760.
Antonio Loustot and his wife, Maddalena, are poor but
honest farmer-folk who reside in the valley of Chamouni.
They possess an only daughter Linda who is remarkably
beautiful. A young painter named Charles, of whom they
know very little, has wooed her successfully. At the open-
ing of the opera, we learn that the family, on account of
decaying fortunes, will find it necessary to surrender the
farm which they have occupied for many years under the
ownership of the Marchioness de Sirval,
192 OPERAS
Their fears are quieted by the Marquis of Boisfleury,
the brother of the Marchioness, who makes lavish proffers
of friendship and promises to intercede with his sister, their
landlady. Boisfleury, however, is an old rogue and has an
ulterior motive, viz., to gain dishonorably the handsome
daughter Linda. The prefect of the village sees into his
designs and to remove the girl from the danger which
threatens her, he advises her parents to allow her to accom-
pany a party of peasants who are going to Paris for the
winter season, in accordance with their yearly custom. The
prefect promises that she shall lodge at the house of his
brother. Her parents consent and Linda sets out under
the protection of Pierotto, a worthy villager.
On the way, by some mischance, Linda is separated
from her protector and to her dismay, she learns, when she
finally arrives in Paris that the prefect's brother is deceased.
Her lover Charles has followed her. He now discloses the
fact that he is the Viscount Sirval, son of the Marchioness,
and nephew of the Marquis de Boisfleury.
He renews his promises of marriage and Linda, who
is quite helpless, allows him to establish her in handsome
apartments. While in this questionable situation, the
Marquis spies her out and renews his insults but is effectu-
ally repulsed. Pierotto also finds her and, at last, her
father. Despite the promises of the Marquis, he has been
forced to abandon his farm and, wandering to Paris, he
comes to ask her bounty. When he finds that it is his
daughter who is living in such state, he doubts her purity
and leaves her with malediction. The Marchioness, mean-
time, has discovered her son's infatuation, and in her anger
vows to visit her displeasure severely upon the girl, unless
her son marries the eligible person she has selected. Charles
feigns consent to this in order to save Linda who believes
herself deserted and goes mad. In this sad condition, she
is taken back to her native valley, where it transpires that
the Marchioness has relented, and has consented to the
union of her son and the lovely peasant girl. At the sound
LINDA DI CHAMOUNI 193
of the voice of her lover, Linda's reason returns and the
opera ends joyously.
Among the numbers of this once popular work are
Antonio's song, "Here in our own native valley;" " Light
of my Soul, I turn to thee," sung by Linda; Pierotto's
ballad, " For her mother, a daughter wandered ; " the duet
of Linda and Charles, " Haste to console me, happy day ; "
solo of the Marquis, " It were unpleasant ; " Charles' song,
" If thus the world ; " the Marquis' song, " She's as pure as
a lily ; " Charles' appeal, which dissipates Linda's madness,
" 'Tis the voice which first sweetly " and the final duet of
Linda and Charles, "Ah now the painful dream hath ended."
RIENZI
" Rienzi, The Last of the Tribunes " is a tragic opera
in five acts, with score and libretto by Richard Wagner.
The story is based upon Bulwer's novel " The Last of the
Tribunes." It is the first of the Wagnerian operas to be
included permanently in repertory and was produced at the
Royal Opera House, Dresden, Oct. 20, 1842.
CHARACTERS.
Cola Rienzi, the last of the Roman Tribunes.
Irene, his sister.
Steffano Colonna, head of the House of Colonna.
Adriano, his son.
Paolo Orsini, head of the House of Orsini.
Raimondo, Papal Legate.
Baroncelli, f _.
r' A y \T u- \ Roman citizens.
Cecco del Vecchio, ^
A Messenger of Peace.
Foreign ambassadors, Roman nobles, citizens, mes-
sengers, priests and monks of various orders,
Roman trabants.
The action takes place in Rome of the Fourteenth
Century, at a time when the peace of the city is disturbed
by the dissension existing among many of its prominent
families. The houses of Colonna and Orsini are actively
engaged in this civil warfare. The opera opens at night in
a street near the church of St. John Lateran. Orsini, a
196 OPERAS
patrician, accompanied by his friends, is discovered attempt-
ing to abduct Irene, the sister of Rienzi, who is the Papal
Notary, a dreamer and a patriot. As the aristocratic ruffians
are about to rush away with their beautiful prey, Adrian©
of the rival house of Colonna comes upon the scene with
his associates and, observing the disturbance, joyfully seizes
the opportunity to join in the fight. His desire for the
combat is intensified when he discovers the identity of Irene,
with whom he is in love. He succeeds in tearing her from
the Orsinis.
The noise of the conflict brings many to the street and
among these is Rienzi, who, when he learns of the insult
to his sister, chides the combatants indignantly for the
degradation to which they have brought the noble old city
and vows vengeance. Adriano, though patrician, is influ-
enced by his love for Irene and resolves to throw his for-
tunes with her brother. The nobles wishing to settle the
question of supremacy once and for all, arrange for a
general encounter on the morrow, to take place just outside
the city, but Rienzi overhears their plans and has the gates
closed upon them, allowing none to re-enter until they have
taken an oath to keep the peace. He is hailed by the people
as Liberator and Tribune.
In the second act, Rienzi's plans having succeeded, the
patricians appear at the capitol and sue for pardon from
the new Tribune. Adriano knowing that their humility is
a ruse, and that a conspiracy to kill Rienzi is on foot, tries
to warn him. Festivities are arranged to celebrate the
reconciliation and during their progress young Orsini rushes
upon Rienzi with his sword but the Tribune is saved by a
steel breastplate which he wears beneath his toga. The
ofifending nobles are sentenced to death, the people clamor-
ing loudly for their execution, a verbose blacksmith, Cecco.
being the chief spokesman. Adriano, whose father is
among the condemned, sues for clemency and Irene adds
her pleas to his. Moved by them, Rienzi, who resents the
personal attack less than the blow aimed at Roman liber-
RIENZI 197
ties again offers pardon in exchange for submission.
Again they take the oaths but with no thought of keeping
them.
In the third act, the patricians have thrown off all
pretense and are drawn up in battle array before the gates
of Rome, which they are preparing to enter with fire and
sword. The people call upon Rienzi to save them and he,
marshaling his forces, rides to the gates, escorted by the
Roman troops. Adriano of the divided heart throws him-
self in front of the Tribune's horse and pleads for mercy,
this time to no avail. In the battle, the tide of fortune goes
with the plebeians and among the slain is Adriano's father,
over whose body the young man vows vengeance.
In the fourth act, which again is laid in front of the
Lateran Church, the tide of public favor is found sud-
denly to have ebbed away from Rienzi. The nobles have
won to their side the Pope and the Emperor and with
both church and state hostile, the fickle Roman public
becomes dissatisfied with its leader. Cecco and his kindred
spirit, Baroncelli, raise the cry that Rienzi has been treach-
erous. The people accept his view, especially when they
learn of Adriano's apostasy. The cry now is " Down with
Rienzi." He addresses them in words of such high nobility
that he almost has won them back when the church doors
open and the Papal Legate appears to read the bill excom-
municating him. The people are horror-stricken and flee.
Only Irene clings to Rienzi in his humiliation, resisting
Adriano's entreaties to come with him.
In the last act, Irene, in search of her brother, finds
him in the capitol at prayer. He tells her that their cause
is lost and bids her seek Adriano for protection. But even
with hope dead, he still speaks in terms of golden eloquence
of his love for Rome. Irene refuses to go and declares that
she will die with him. She succeeds in lending him fresh
courage and he goes forth once more to try to win the ear
of the people. But the mob even now has surrounded the
capitol with firebrands. Never faltering, he seeks a balcony
198 OPERAS
to speak a last word of patriotic admonition, but his voice
is drowned in the din. Adriano sees Irene in the glare and
comes to perish with them and the capitol falls in ruins
over the last of the Tribunes and his friends.
In " Rienzi," Richard Wagner, reformer though he was
destined to be, did not succeed in getting in anywise far
away from the conventions of Italian opera as they existed
at the time the work was created. He wrote with more
brilliancy and showiness than even Meyerbeer had succeeded
in achieving, but he used the same forms, viz., the aria,
the concerted numbers, the elaborate finales and the set
recitative, while the orchestra furnished accompaniment
rather than serving as tonal illustrator of the action on the
stage. The work found favor, however, and won for its
composer the position of orchestral director at the Royal
Opera in Dresden. Later on, Wagner himself regarded
" Rienzi " with little liking and the opera now has interest
chiefly as marking the starting point of its author's reform-
atory progress into the field of lyric drama.
Among the striking passages are the aria of the hero,
"Wohlan, so mag es sein " ("*Tis well, so may it be");
the terzet for Rienzi, Irene and Adriano, " O Schwester,
sprich" (" O sister, speak ") ; the passionate duet of Adriano
and Irene, " Er geht un lasst dich meinen Schutz " ("He
goes and leaves thee in my care ") ; the spirited chorus of
people in the finale of the first act; the song of the mes-
senger of peace; the elaborate ballet music; the battle hymn,
"Auf, Romer, auf, fur Heerd und fur Altare " ("Up
Romans, strike for hearth and for your homes ") ; Adriano's
great scena, " Gerechter Gott " ("Thou God of right") a
number which still has frequent performance in the concert-
room; Rienzi's prayer in the capitol, "Allmacht ger Vater,
blick herab " and the duet of Adriano and Irene, " Lebroohl,
Irene " (" Farewell, Irene ").
DER FLIEGENDE HOLLANDER
" Der Fliegende Hollander " or " The Flying Dutch-
man," a romantic opera in three acts with words and score by
Richard Wagner, was first produced at the Royal Opera
in Dresden, Jan. 2, 1843, with a Paris production the
following year under the title of " The Phantom Ship."
Had a hurricane not overtaken the vessel upon which
Wagner made the voyage from Riga to Paris by way of
London, " The Flying Dutchman " would probably never
have been written. The fury of the storm suggested to the
composer Heinrich Heine's poetical version of the legend,
which he, with the consent of the Hebrew poet, afterward
used.
CHARACTERS.
Daland, a Norwegian captain.
Senta, his daughter.
Erick, a hunter.
Mary, Senta's nurse.
Daland's steersman.
The Dutchman.
Crew of the Norwegian vessel, crew of the flying
Dutchman's vessel, chorus of Norwegian maidens.
The hero of the opera is the Dutch captain, the
Wandering Jew of the ocean, who, dowered with the spirit
of persistence, swore when trying to double the Cape of
Good Hope in a gale that he would accomplish his purpose
200 OPERAS
even though he might have to plow the seas forever. His
rash words were overheard by Satan, who condemned him
to sail until Judgment Day unless he could escape the
decree by finding a woman who would love him faithfully
until death. Once in every seven years he might go on
shore to seek the woman of his salvation.
As the opera opens, the Dutchman's ship is seen with
black masts and blood-red sails set, making its way into a
Norwegian bay, for it is the expiration of a seven years'
term. Daland, whose home is near, has preceded him.
The two captains are favorably impressed with each other
and the Dutchman makes bold to ask to be allowed to linger
a few moments by the fireside of a home, promising wonder-
ful gifts in return for this privilege. When he hears of
the existence of the daughter Senta, he, hoping against
hope that she may prove to be the faithful one, begs per-
mission to woo her and Daland freely grants it.
The scene is changed to Daland's home, where the
room is filled with the whirr of spinning-wheels. A number
of neighborhood girls are at work at the direction of Mary,
Senta's old nurse. Only Senta is idle and sits with her
hands in her lap, dreamily gazing at the portrait of the
Flying Dutchman which hangs upon the wall and whose
sad story she has heard. The girls twit her on having
fallen in love with a picture when a flesh and blood lover
like Erick is at hand. She admits that she would be glad
to give her love to save the man whose mournful fate has
touched her heart and prays that he may appear to put her
words to the test. Erick comes to tell her that her father
has landed and is on his way home and lingers to relate a
disagreeable dream he has had in which she has fallen in
love with the original of the picture on the wall and, follow-
ing him to sea, has been lost. Senta confesses to her jeal-
ous lover that she believes the dream to be a warning of
her fate.
The door opens and Daland and his guest enter and
Senta is transfixed to see the man of the portrait standing
DER FLIEGENDE HOLLANDER 201
before her in life. She can find no words of greeting, and
her father bids her show a warmer hospitahty. He speaks
of the wealth of the guest and asks her to listen to his
wooing. It is not the thought of the treasure which draws
the heart of the gentle Senta to the handsome stranger but
the thought of the benefit she may bring to him. He, in
turn, speedily comes to feel for the unselfish girl so genuine
a love that, remembering that if she fail in her faithfulness
she must be accursed with him, he now is led to dissuade
her from attempting to save him. But Senta remains firm
in her purpose though he paints her life with him in gloomy
colors. Since she falters not, the happy wanderer exclaims,
in an ecstasy of joy,
She gives her hand. I conquer you,
Dread powers of Hell, while she is truel
and the scene ends with the plighting of their troth.
The last act is on the seashore where the ships of
Daland and the Flying Dutchman ride at anchor. On
Daland's gaily lighted craft all is life and animation, but
from the sombre ship of the wanderer no sound issues.
Unawed by the deathlike silence, a party of maidens, who
have come to bid farewell to Daland's departing crew, chal-
lenge the unseen sailors on the other ship to dance with
them upon the strand, but to no avail.
At last the rising storm begins to whistle through the
rigging. Blue lights hover about the masts of the Dutch-
man's ship and the sailors come on board to prepare for the
departure, singing drearily of the captain and the maiden
he must find. The activity is but momentary, however, and
as the gloom resettles upon it, Senta comes, intent on fol-
lowing the Dutchman. She is followed by Erick, who
implores her to listen to him, and to forget the stranger in
favor of whom her father has unduly influenced her. As
she listens, sorry lor Erick but not shaken in her resolve,
the Dutchman beholds them and misinterprets the girl's
dejection into regret of her promise to him. Mad with
grief and disappointment, he bids her farewell and hastens
202 OPERAS
to his ship. Senta pursues him, protesting her faithfulness.
At first, he refuses to Hsten, but at last turns and announces
himself as the accursed Flying Dutchman and warns her
that she will do well to renounce him. Escaping from her
clinging arms, he goes on board. Senta runs to a cliff and
cries to him through the wind and waves that, though it be
her last breath, she swears with it her unwavering faithful-
ness. But her voice is drowned in the tumult of the
tempest, and as the ship fades from view she casts herself
into the sea. At once the distant spectral vessel sinks, the
storm ceases, and in the rosy glow of the setting sun are
seen the transfigured forms of Senta and the Flying
Dutchman floating toward heaven in each other's arms.
The overture, supplied by Wagner many years later
with a more brilliant ending and somewhat richer scoring
than it originally possessed, is an established favorite in the
concert-room and is one of the finest portions of the opera.
The stormy introductory music is followed by a bright
chorus for the sailors and the tenor solo " Mit Gewitter und
Sturm" ("'Mid the Tempest and Storm"). The Dutch-
man's entrance number, " Die Frist ist um " (" The Term is
Past ") leads to a duet for the Dutchman and Daland.
The second act opens with the familiar " Spinning
Chorus " for the women and is followed by Senta's ballad
telling of the Dutchman and his fate. The orchestral music
accompanying the meeting of the Dutchman and Senta and
descriptive of their emotions, is the first example we have
of Wagner's use of those instrumental means of dramatic
and emotional expression, which, in his subsequent work,
he employed so constantly and developed so elaborately.
The duet for the Dutchman and Senta forms one of the
most beautiful portions of the entire opera, and in the
closing act the chorus for the sailors and the women and
the duet between Erick and Senta are worthy of note.
DON PASQUALE
" Don Pasquale " is an opera buffa in three acts with
text and music by Gaetano Donizetti. It was first pre-
sented at the Theatre des Italiens, Paris, on Jan. 4, 1843.
CHARACTERS.
Don Pasquale, an antiquated bachelor.
Doctor Malatesta, the physician and friend of Don
Pasquale.
Ernesto, nephew of Don Pasquale.
Norina, beloved by Ernesto.
A Notary.
Chorus of valets and chambermaids, majordomo, dress-
maker and hair-dresser.
The scene of this gay and witty work is laid in Rome
at the beginning of the Nineteenth Century, and enjoys the
distinction of being of the best of Donizetti's hghter operas.
The cast is small and the work too brief to require an
entire evening for its performance, thus making necessary
the employment of a ballet or of another short opera.
Don Pasquale is a rich old bachelor with a nephew
Ernesto, who wishes to marry but does not fancy the
desirable party picked out for him. Ernesto has fallen in
love with the charming Norina and has no thoughts for
other women. The uncle resolves upon a most piquant
punishment. He will marry himself and disinherit the
204 OPERAS
recalcitrant young man. He confides the idea to Dr. Mala-
testa, who is also Ernesto's friend and the physician
suggests a lady whom he represents as being his sister
Sophronia, fresh from the convent and utterly ignorant
of the " pomps and vanity of this wicked world." In
reality, he has in mind Norina and a sham marriage
contract. The lady consents to the plot and has much
sport in rehearsing before the Doctor the bashful demeanor
he has recommended. She has rather ingenuously admitted
that she is mistress of all the arts of coquetry and when
she is presented, her beauty and timid modesty easily win
the old man's affections. The marriage contract is speedily
signed and Don Pasquale is so pleased that he puts most
of his fortune in the name of his bride. With this consum-
mation, an amazing change comes over Norina. Her
modesty is changed to worldliness; she makes magnificent
arrangements for a new wardrobe, instructions are given to
the servants for housekeeping on an extravagant scale and,
with a grand air, she gives orders for a splendid dinner for
at least fifty guests. The bridegroom is horrified to find
half a year's income gone merely for hats and ribbons, and
added to the lady's prodigality are all the attributes of a
termagant.
On the very eve of the wedding, she insists on
attending the theatre and she boxes her fiance's ears when
he ventures to disapprove. To make matters thoroughly
unpleasant for the unhappy Don Pasquale, Norina drops
a love-letter conveniently near for detection. From its
contents, he concludes that she is unfaithful into the
bargain and so orders her out of his sight.
Malatesta relents on viewing his abject distress. He
reveals the true situation and advises Don Pasquale to let
Norina go as he is not really married to her. Don
Pasquale's delight at his escape is so great that he finds it
easy to forgive Malatesta for his deception and his consent
to the union of Norina and Ernesto is crowned with his
blessing.
DON PASQUALE 205
The opera abounds with melodious numbers but the
world-wide favorite is the serenade. " Com' e' gentil," sung
in the last act by Ernesto.
THE BOHEMIAN GIRL
" The Bohemian Girl," an opera in three acts, is the
composition of Michael William Balfe, with words by
Bunn founded on the ballet " The Gypsy." It was pro-
duced at Drury Lane, London, Nov. 27, 1843.
CHARACTERS.
Count Arnheim, Governor of Presburg.
Thaddeus, a proscribed Pole.
Florestein, nephew of the Count.
Devilshoof, Chief of the Gypsy tribe.
Arline, the Count's daughter.
Buda, her attendant.
Queen of the Gypsies.
Nobles, soldiers, gypsies, retainers, peasants.
The setting of the opera is Austrian. The first act
opens upon the homestead of the Count Arnheim. The
chase is about to begin and the Count, with his small
daughter Arline and nephew Florestein, joins his retainers
before the chateau. As they depart for the sport, Thaddeus
rushes in, closely pursued by the Austrian soldiery. Devils-
hoof and his gypsy band, arriving at this instant, overhear
his expression of grief over exile and prevail upon him to
join their nomadic band. He straightway brings favor
upon himself and his new friends by rescuing Arline from
a stag. The Count makes him an honored g^est at the
208 OPERAS
feast but at his refusal to drink the health of the Emperor,
the soldiers fall upon him. Devilshoof interferes and is
imprisoned in the castle, as a consequence. Thaddeus,
finding his welcome vanished, departs, but the unlucky
banquet is again interrupted by the discovery that the gypsy
has escaped and for revenge has taken with him the
daughter of the host.
An interval of twelve years elapses between the first
and second acts. Count Arnheim never has found a trace
of Arline and mourns her as dead. The action opens in
the gypsy camp which has been pitched near Presburg. It
is evening and Arline, asleep in the tent of the gypsy
Queen, is watched over by Thaddeus. The gypsies are
bent upon their usual nocturnal raid. Florestein, who is
returning intoxicated from a revel, proves the victim and is
relieved of his valuables, among them a diamond-set
medallion which Devilshoof carries off. The Queen of the
gypsies appears and demands the restitution of everything
but the medallion is for the time being beyond recovery.
Meanwhile, in the tent, Arline has awakened and Thaddeus
declares his love for her and finds it is returned. He
points to the scar upon her arm and tells her the story of
her rescue from the stag but does not disclose the secret
of her birth. The Queen, who is in love with Thaddeus, at
first displays her jealousy but afterwards concludes to
appear to favor the affair, in order to secure her vengeance.
The scene shifts to the city streets, where a fair is in
progress. The gypsies are flocking thither. Florestein,
attracted by Arline's beauty, insults her and is rebuked in
no uncertain fashion. The Queen, as if in approval, hangs
the medallion about the girl's neck and the angry Flo-
restein, seeing it there a moment later, has her arrested for
theft. The final scene of the act is devoted to the trial of
Arline, which Count Arnheim conducts. In its progress,
he notices the scar upon the girl's arm. He asks its cause
and she recounts the story which Thaddeus has told her,
thus establishing her identity.
THE BOHEMIAN GIRL 209
The last act played in the salon of Count Arnheim
finds Arline in her old position as daughter of the house
and pursued by the dissolute Florestein, whose unwelcome
attentions only endear to her the memory of Thaddeus.
Through the offices of the ever-faithful Devilshoof, the
lovers meet and renew their vows. Thaddeus conceals
himself as visitors enter to be presented to the reinstated
young Countess but the gypsy Queen has followed him to
the castle and discovers him to the assemblage. He is
ordered to leave but Arline announces her resolve to go
with him. Her father relents on learning of the young
Pole's distinguished birth and consents to their union.
The Queen of the gypsies resolves upon a desperate move
and orders one of her people to shoot Thaddeus, but
Devilshoof, by a swift movement, changes the course of
the bullet to her own heart.
This famous ballad opera, which scored an instant
success, has a permanent hold on public affection, for its
story is prettily romantic and is attractively told, while its
music is so tuneful that it has endeared itself to melody
lovers the world over. It is by far the best known of
Balfe's works.
Among the songs which countless thousands still delight
in hearing and singing are Count Arnheim's solo, "A
Soldier's Life ; " " 'Tis sad to leave your fatherland," a
pathetic number sung by Thaddeus; the recurring gypsy
chorus, " In the gypsy's life you read ; " the fervent prayer,
" Thou who in might supreme ; " Arline's song, " I dreamed
that I dwelt in marble halls ; " the duet for Thaddeus and
Arline, " The secret of her birth ; " Arline's song at the
fair to the accompaniment of castanets, " Come with the
gypsy bride ; " " From the valleys and hills, " sung by
Arline, the Queen, Thaddeus and Devilshoof; the Count's
song, " The Heart bowed down ; " the ensemble, " Praised
be the will of heaven ; " Thaddeus' song, " Then You'll
remember Me " and, in the finale, his number, " When
the fair land of Poland."
ERNANI
'* Ernani," a grand opera in four acts with music by
Giuseppe Verdi and words by Piave, taken from Victor
Hugo's " Hernani," was first produced at the Teatro
Fenice, Venice, March 9, 1844. " Ernani " encountered
various difficulties. The police interfered before the first
performance, absolutely prohibiting a conspiracy on the
stage; the feelings of one Count Mocenigo, an influential
person, were wrought upon by the " disgraceful " blowing
of the horn in the last act; and Hugo objected to the use
of his drama. Everyone eventually was mollified, however,
and " Ernani's " success was so pronounced that it was
produced on fifteen different stages in nine months.
CHARACTERS.
Don Carlos, King of Spain.
Don Ruy Gomez de Silva, a grandee of Spain.
Ernani, a bandit chief.
Don Ricardo, an esquire of the King.
Jago, an esquire of Don Silva.
Elvira, betrothed to Don Silva.
Giovanna, in attendance upon her.
Chorus of mountaineers and bandits, followers of Don
Silva, ladies of Elvira, followers of the King, Spanish
and German nobles and ladies, electors and pages.
The scene is laid in Aragon and the time of the
story is 1519. Elvira is a Spanish lady of rank, with
212 OPERAS
whom three men of importance are in love. One of these
is her fiance, the aged grandee, Don Gomez de Silva; the
second is none other than the King of Spain; while the
third, whose love she returns, is Ernani the bandit, in reality
the scion of a noble house. As her wedding approaches,
Ernani plans to carry her off. Don Carlos also forces his
way into her apartment and, having told her of his passion,
tries to abduct her. Her cries summon Ernani who rescues
her and defies the King. Silva also vows to avenge the
insult but when he learns that his enemy is the King, he
meekly sues for pardon. The wedding-day of Elvira and
Silva arrives and Ernani entering, disguised as a pilgrim,
believes that the lady has been false to him. He throws off
his mask and demands that he be given up to the King but
Silva refuses to betray a guest. However, when Silva
discovers that his bride is attached to Ernani, he vows
vengeance upon him. In the meantime, Don Carlos takes
Elvira away as hostage and Silva challenges the bandit to
a duel. The latter refuses to fight with him but discloses
the King's perfidy and offers to aid him in the pursuit of
vengeance. He goes so far as to pledge his life to Silva,
promising to give it up whenever Silva shall blow the signal
upon his horn.
The two join with other nobles in a conspiracy against
the King, the meeting being held in the catacombs in
Aquisgrana. The King is present, though concealed, and
overhears the arrangements for his death. Suddenly he
appears among them and orders them to the block. Ernani,
as a duke, even though proscribed, demands the right to die
with the other nobles but the King ultimately pardons them
all and consents to the union of Ernani and Elvira. The
lovers are not destined for happiness, however, for on their
wedding-eve, Silva blows the fatal signal and, true to his
promise, the bridegroom kills himself.
" Ernani " is vigorous, dramatic and full of color.
Its concerted numbers are especially admirable and the
opera, although one of Verdi's earliest creations, discloses
ERNANI 213
unmistakably his musical individuality. It was one of the
works which served firmly to establish his position as one
of the world's master composers of opera.
Especially admirable in the score are the chorus of
banditti and mountaineers, which opens the opera, " Allegri,
beviami " ("Merrily, Let's be drinking"); Ernani's aria,
" Come rugiada al cespite " (" Just as the dew to parched
earth"); Elvira's aria, " Ernani, involami " (" Ernani, ah
come to me "), one of Verdi's most beautiful efforts; Silva's
bass solo, "Infelice! e tuo credevi " ("Unhappy one! thou
didst believe") ; the conspiracy chorus; the great septet and
chorus, " O Sommo Carlo," most familiar under the title
" Crowned with the tempest ; " and the duet of Ernani and
Elvira in the last act, " Cessaro i Suoni " (" Now cease the
sounds ").
STRADELLA
" Stradella," a romantic opera in three acts, with music
by Friedrich von Flotow and words after the French by W.
Friedrich, is founded on the story of a semi-historical char-
acter, Alessandro Stradella, the singer. It was first pro-
duced as a lyric drama at the Palais Royal Theatre, Paris,
in 1837, but was rewritten and presented in Hamburg, Dec.
30, 1844, in its present form and under the title " Alessandro
Stradella."
CHARACTERS.
Stradella, a celebrated Venetian singer.
Leonora, ward of Bassi.
Signer Bassi, a wealthy citizen.
,, , ,. ' y assassins hired by Bassi.
Malvolio, j
Pupils, maskers and peasants.
The time of the opera is 1658, A. D.
Stradella, the singer, falls in love with Leonora, the
ward of Bassi, who himself has planned to espouse her.
During the Venetian carnival, Stradella and Leonora evade
her guardian and fly to Rome to be married. Bassi, whose
methods are to the point, hires Malvolio and Barbarino to
trace them to their retreat, where Stradella is to be mur-
dered, and his bride brought back to Venice. The assassins
disguise themselves as pilgrims bent on business of the soul
and easily gain a refuge in Stradella's house, even finding a
216 OPERAS
place at the wedding-feast. They are so touched, however,
by their host's marvelous singing, that their errand grows
distasteful and they hesitate in their purpose.
Bassi comes in person to see that his work is well done.
He upbraids his hirelings for their weakness and, by many
times increasing the reward, exacts another promise from
them to dispose of his enemy. Bassi and his men conceal
themselves, ready to rush out upon their victim, but again
Stradella's lovely voice thwarts their purpose. They hear
him rehearse a hymn to the Virgin, which he is to sing in
public on the morrow, a performance so exquisite and
moving that they throw away their daggers and, falling at
his feet, confess all and beg henceforth to be called his
friends. Even Bassi is repentant and craves forgiveness,
which Stradella freely gives to them all.
It has frequently been said in criticism that Flotow
wrote too palpably for effect but it cannot be denied by his
detractors that many of the melodies of " Stradella " have
more real sentiment than is usual with contemporaneous
compositions.
Among admired selections from the first act of the
opera are Stradella's serenade, " List, lady. List ! while true
love singeth " and the animated carnival chorus. In Act
II occur Leonora's bridal song " Be witness to my young
heart's dreaming ; " the drinking duet of the bravos ; the
terzetto, sung by the hesitating assassins, " Tell me now,
friend Barbarino." and Stradella's lovely hymn to the
Virgin, " Virgin Mary ; ever divinely," which now is sung
to the words, " Pity, O Savior."
TANNHAUSER
" Tannhauser," or " The Singer's Contest at the Wart-
burg," a grand romantic opera in three acts with text and
music by Richard Wagner, was first presented at the Royal
Opera, Dresden, Oct. 20, 1845.
CHARACTERS.
Hermann, Landgrave of Thuringia.
Tannhauser.
Wolfram von Eschenbach.
Walter von der Vogelweide. 1 minstrels.
Biterolf.
Heinrich der Schreiber.
Reimar von Zweter.
Elisabeth, niece of the Landgrave.
Venus.
A young herdsman.
The Thuringian nobility.
Ladies, pages, old and young pilgrims, sirens, naiads,
nymphs and bacchantes.
Holda, the Teutonic Venus, makes her abode in a
cavern in the mountain Horselberg or Venusberg, where,
surrounded by her train, the goddess holds her voluptuous
court. She dwells thus near the haunts of men to be better
able to lure them into slavery. Among her victims is
Tannhauser, one of the most famous of the Thuringian
218 OPERAS
minstrels, who has left the world above to bask in the fatal
beauty of the goddess and to enjoy the lustful pleasures of
her kingdom. We are afforded in the opera a glimpse of
the outer fairness of this sensual monarchy. We see the
grotto extending to interminable distances and bathed in
rosy light. We behold the form of Venus stretched upon
a couch, while Tannhauser reclines beside her, his head
reposing in her lap. Lovers idle languidly, half tired of
caresses; nymphs sway to voluptuous music; a procession of
bacchantes reels through a drunken dance; by the lake are
seen the gleaming figures of bathing naiads and from its
distant surface floats the invitation of the sirens.
Amid such seductive scenes has the straying minstrel
dwelt for many months. But the soul-destroying pleasures
afforded by the high priestess of love have not yet brought
forgetfulness and Tannhauser now remembers the life in
the outer world with its simple but wholesome duties and
pleasures. Especially does he recall the fairest and gentlest
of maidens, who once thrilled to his songs in the musical
tournament, — the Princess Elisabeth, niece of the Land-
grave.
At the beginning of the action, a longing to return to
his own world has awakened in the breast of Tannhauser.
Venus, vexed and disappointed to find her influence waning,
breaks into impassioned arguments to prove his folly. But
the man's human heart speaks conclusively:
Alas, 'tis but the gods supernal
Find joy and bliss in love eternal;
My heart longs not alone for pleasure,
Of grief, too, it must have its measure.
At last Venus overwhelms her dissatisfied guest with male-
dictions and hints that he already has remained too long
with her to hope for salvation.
" I shall be saved by the Virgin's grace," he exclaims
and at the sound of the holy name which has not crossed
his lips for a year, Venus and her kingdom disappear.
TANNHAUSER 219
Tannhauser finds himself in a quiet green valley near
the Castle of the Wartburg, with the blue sky of heaven
above him. There is a wayside shrine near by and, in place
of bacchanal revels, there comes to his ears the tinkle of the
bells of cows and the voice of a herdsman singing on a knoll.
He hears in the distance the notes of a hymn issuing from
the lips of a party of pilgrims as they move along the
mountain path on their way to Rome. The vocal expression
of their simple faith awakens in Tannhauser a sincere
desire for repentance and forgiveness.
He sinks to his knees before the shrine and is dis-
covered there by a hunting party, which includes the Land-
grave and the minstrels. Wolfram von Eschenbach being
among the latter. They urge their old comrade to return
to the Wartburg. Feeling himself now alien and oppressed
by a sense of remorse, he refuses, until the noble Wolfram,
who himself loves Elisabeth, speaks her name and tells him
that since his disappearance she has grown wan and has
sought only seclusion, Tannhauser, deeply moved, embraces
his whilom associates and moves on with them to the Wart-
burg, led by the thought of again seeing Elisabeth.
The second act takes place in the hall of the minstrels
in the Wartburg, whose threshold Elisabeth, who has learned
of Tannhauser's return, crosses now for the first time in
many months. Wolfram and Tannhauser enter and Tann-
hauser falls at the feet of the agitated princess, who tells
him that he should not kneel in a hall which as a singer is
his kingdom by right. So pure is her mind and spirit that
the possibility that he can be touched with dishonor does
not occur to her and she gladly exchanges with him a
confession of love, while Wolfram in the background
watches what can but mean the death of his own hopes.
The knights and ladies assemble and the Landgrave
announces as the theme of the song contest, " The nature
and power of Love," He hints that the hand of the
Princess Elisabeth shall be the prize, for he has fathomed
220 OPERAS
her heart and remembers Tannhauser's former supremacy
as a singer.
Wolfram's name is drawn first and he sings of a chaste
ideal as pure as crystalline waters, an ideal which he is con-
tent to worship from afar, lifting his eyes to it as to a star.
Walter von der Vogelweide voices his poetical conviction
that the crystal fountain's sacred treasure is spiritual bliss
rather than lawless pleasure. But Tannhauser, as if again
under the spell of Venus and mindful only of the voluptuous
joys of unholy love, scoffs at their pale ideals in impassioned
terms and even boldly recommends the delights of Venus*
abode. Expressions of horror are heard on every hand and
women hastily rush from the hall. As the knights press
upon Tannhauser with drawn swords, Elisabeth, who has
remained behind, springs forward and begs that he be not
forever doomed to hell but that he be allowed time to live
and repent. Touched by her pleading, his accusers draw
back. The sensual madness of Tannhauser slips from him
like a besmirched garment and he falls prostrate. The
Landgrave advises him to seek grace in the Eternal City
and, as the song of a party of young pilgrims floats up from
the valley, the disgraced and repentant singer hastens to
join them.
A weary stretch of time has elapsed before the third and
last act, the scene of which is again the peaceful valley
overlooked by the stately towers of the Wartburg. Count-
less hours have been spent by the saintly Elisabeth praying
before the wayside shrine for Tannhauser's salvation and
safe return, the devoted Wolfram watching over her from
a distance. They are discovered there when the curtain
rises. There steals upon their ears the chant of returning
pilgrims rejoicing in , their home-coming. Elisabeth, in an
agony of suspense, scans the procession of devotees for a
glimpse of Tannhauser. He is not among those who have
come back from Rome!
As the song dies away and the sun goes down, she
turns again to the shrine. With all desire for earth ban-
TANNHAUSER 221
ished by Tannhauser's failure to return, she prays to the
Virgin for death and, feeling that its wing already has
brushed her cheek, she sadly declines the proffered escort
of Wolfram, bids him farewell in pathetic silence and walks
slowly homeward. Wolfram, having watched until she has
disappeared, seats himself at the foot of the hill and, taking
his harp, sings of his love to the evening star. The shades
of night settle deeper and deeper and Tannhauser, clad in
tattered pilgrim's garments and leaning dejectedly upon his
staff, makes a weary progress up the mountain path.
Wolfram recognizes him with difficulty but, when ques-
tioned, Tannhauser tells of a fruitless pilgrimage to Rome.
Upheld by the thought of Elisabeth and her faith, he volun-
tarily bore the severest penance; walked on thorns and
stones with bleeding feet; refused to quench his thirst in
days of raging heat and stretched his weary limbs in snow
and ice; leaving all comforts for those who were less sin-
burdened. But when, the journey accomplished, he im-
plored pardon of God's Viceroy, he was told that there was
no more hope of redemption for him than there was that
the staff in the Pope's hand would ever again grow fresh
and green. Since earth and heaven hold no promise for
him, he thinks of Venus' parting invitation to return, and
resolves to accept it. As he makes this declaration, a rosy
mist appears, through which gleam the forms of dancing
nymphs and, as they float aside, Venus is disclosed, lying
upon her couch. Tannhauser is about to yield to her allure-
ment when the faithful Wolfram again utters the name of
Elisabeth and Venus and her attendants vanish, baffled.
The sound of a funeral bell is heard from the Wart-
burg and, as the morning breaks, the bier upon which lies
the body of Elisabeth is borne slowly down the hill. Call-
ing upon her soul to plead for him to heaven, Tannhauser
sinks lifeless to the ground. As the rising sun bathes the
valley in light, a party of young pilgrims appear bearing the
Pope's staff, budded and leaved in green, a symbol of Tann-
hauser's redemption.
222 OPERAS
Although " Tannhauser " was not written until many
years later, its seed was sown in the mind of Wagner when
he was but a lad. At that sentimental period when ambi-
tions and ideals were beginning to take form in his great
mind; when the figure of Weber, passing the house, was
watched by the boy with " something akin to religious awe ; "
when his musical instruction at the hands of Gottlieb
Muller had come to grief and he had begun to doubt his
own musical aptitude — then it was that he took refuge in
libraries and, browsing therein, met many of the stories and
legends which he developed in his maturity. He found in
the novels of Hoffmann the story of the Mastersingers of
Nuremberg and in the verses of Ludwig Tieck, the legend
of Tannhauser. Of this legend, which is well suited to
dramatic purposes, Wagner made a successful moderniza-
tion. The sketch was drawn up by him in 1842, during a
stay in the Bohemian mountains and was completed three
years later.
In this work, Wagner evinces his tendency to shake
off Italian conventionality. Among its distinguishing
features is the association of a certain instrument or class
of instruments with one of the characters, as the wood
winds with Elisabeth, a method employed before by Gluck
and others. While the music is less strongly individualized
than is that of his later works, it is, nevertheless, unmis-
takably " Wagnerian."
The later employment of representative themes (leit-
motifs) is indicated and the remarkable ability to char-
acterize clearly in music the different personages in the
drama is already finely in evidence. The story is one
which can never grow old for it has a deep human interest
and in it as ever, Wagner's active and massive intellect
makes it apparently impossible for him to conceive of a
story without some underlying significance. Venus is not
merely a beautiful woman but represents a power antago-
nistic to Christianity, while the ethical idea which imbues
TANNHAUSER 223
" Tannhauser," as it does those other dramas of Wagner's
which are based on mythical tales, is that salvation comes
to humanity through the love of woman and through her
glory in self-sacrifice.
The reception of " Tannhauser " was, in the main,
unenthusiastic. While an occasional hearer found in it
something more than promise, the majority called its music
ugly and critical shoulders were shrugged even over the song
of the " Evening Star," which nowadays is regarded as
essentially Italian and distinctly " un Wagnerian " in its
outspoken melodiousness. The overture to " Tannhauser "
is now one of the most generally known and widely admired
numbers in the entire orchestral repertory and is regarded by
layman and musician alike as one of Wagner's master
achievements. The so-called " Parisian Bacchanale," which
was composed for the presentation of the opera in Paris,
an event which resulted in a disgraceful exhibition of ill
will by certain influential parties in Paris, is an elaboration
of the music of the Venusberg scene. It is followed by an
impassioned duet for Tannhauser and Venus. There comes
the change to the valley of the Wartburg and the shepherd
is heard singing his roundelay to Spring; the pilgrim's
chorus is chanted and there is an elaborate ensemble for
men's voices when the Landgrave and the singers persuade
Tannhauser to rejoin them. Elisabeth's greeting to the hall
of song begins the second act. It is one of the selections
beloved by concert sopranos. The duet for Tannhauser and
Elisabeth which follows is of exceptional beauty and the
song of Wolfram at the commencement of the tournament,
as well as the great finale of the act are among the finest
pages in the score. The " Prayer " of Elisabeth, the
" Evening Star " romanza for Wolfram and the long and
dramatic " Recital " for Tannhauser form the chief musical
incidents of the third act, which is preceded by an orchestral
introduction descriptive of the pilgrimage and condemnation
of Tannhauser.
ALBERT RAYMOND ALVAREZ,
" Maritar ^^ Title Role of Le Prophete.
Fitzb?-Frerich operatic tenor. A man of splendid physique sic
Ba and a very fine actor. Born at Bordeaux in 1860. ">' ^3
pi Began his musical studies when very young-. At the
age of eighteen entered the army as musical con-
ductor, , After five years he gave up his military
career and went to Paris to study music. Made great
progress at the Conservatory, shortly making his de-
but at the Royal Opera in Ghent and his first appear-
ance in Paris in 1892, at the Grand Opera, as Faust.
He made successful tours in Spain, Russia and Eng-
landi and in 1898-1899 visited the United States. His
repertoire includes forty-five operas, in eleven of
which he created the principal parts. He has, per-
haps, been most successful in Romeo and Juliet, Aida,
and Le Prophete.
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MARITANA
"Maritana," an opera in three acts, with text by
Fitzball, founded upon the romance of " Don Caesar de
Bazan " and with music by William Vincent Wallace, was
produced at Drury Lane, London, Nov. 15, 1845.
CHARACTERS.
Charles II., King of Spain.
Don Jose de Santarem, his minister.
Don Caesar de Bazan.
Marquis de Montefiori.
Lazarillo.
Alcalde.
Captain of Guards.
Maritana, a Gypsy.
Marchioness de Montefiori.
Nobles, alguazils, soldiers, men-at-arms, populace,
gypsies.
The scene is laid in Madrid.
Maritana is a beautiful Gypsy girl with a charming
voice who, when singing in the public square in Madrid,
succeeds in captivating the gay King Charles, who is in the
crowd in disguise. He gives the maid a piece of gold of
much value and hastens away but not before the keen eyes
of his minister, Don Jose, have discovered his identity. To
further certain designs of his own in respect to the neglected
Queen, Don Jose resolves to assist the King in this evidently
226 OPERAS
desired amour. When Maritana offers to read the minister's
palm, he says he will tell her fortune instead and paints for
her a career in which such splendors as a palace and a prince
for a husband are included. As Maritana is ambitious, she
is delighted beyond measure.
In the meantime, Don Caesar de Bazan comes striding
out of a humble tavern, a bit uncertainly it is true, for he
is not averse to wine as well as the other loves of a good
fellow. In spite of the shabbiness of his attire, his bearing
is that of a gentleman. Don Jose, who is an old acquaint-
ance, is surprised to see him so down at the heel. When
the minister speaks of the absence of his one-time numerous
followers, Bazan returns that he has them yet but that they
are all creditors. His misfortunes have not embittered him,
however, and his first impulse is, as ever, toward generosity.
So when the poor youth Lazarillo, who has been trying to
make away with himself, appears, he defends him against
his oppressors in spite of the fact that he knows dueling in
Holy Week is punishable by hanging. For this, he is
arrested and cast into prison.
In the second act, we find Don Caesar in prison with
the faithful Lazarillo watching over him. He wakes to find
that only two hours of life remain but not even this can dim
his gaiety and courage. He playfully asks the boy how he
would spend them had he but two hours to live and, when
Lazarillo timidly suggests sending for a priest and con-
fessing his sins, Don Caesar laughs and says it could never
be done in two hours. Don Jose comes with proffers of
friendship and proposes to give him his one wish, a sol-
dier's death, if he will consent to be married. Don Caesar
quite willing, assumes the bridal apparel provided and is soon
the husband of a heavily veiled lady. Previous to this,
however, Lazarillo has brought in a paper which Don Jose,
discovering it to be the king's pardon, intercepts. After
the bride has gone and while Don Caesar is feasting with
his executioners, Lazarillo extracts the bullets from the
MARITANA 227
arquebuses. When they are discharged, Don Caesar feigns
death and later on walks away unhurt.
The scene changes to the salon in the palace of the
Marquis and Marchioness of Montefiori, where Don Jose
brings Maritana, who fancies she has been married to the
King. He reminds them of past obligations, requests them
to recognize in her a long-lost niece and to introduce her as
such. Maritana is presented to the King, who is very
attentive, for Don Jose has promised to insure their meet-
ing at an appointed hour. Maritana is deeply dejected not
to find in him the dashing Don Caesar, Soon, however,
this latter gentleman arrives safe and sound, much to the
amazement of Don Jose, . and demands his wife. The
intriguer brings forth the old Marchioness and Don Caesar
is so disappointed that he agrees with alacrity to sign a
paper relinquishing her and has the pen in his hand when
he hears Maritana's voice and declares that it was with her
that he knelt at the altar. The act ends with his arrest.
In the third act, Maritana is discovered a prisoner in a
magnificent villa of the King, She realizes that she is the
victim of a plot and in her purity persistently repulses all
the royal advances, although Don Jose still hopes to see his
heinous plans succeed. Here Don Caesar, seeking his bride,
comes only to find the king there before him. The inter-
view is most amusing, for in his confusion, Charles declares
that he is Don Caesar de Bazan and his vis-a-vis returns
that he himself is then the king of Spain. For the first
time Don Caesar learns that he has been pardoned and,
while the king is absent for a few moments, he and Mari-
tana find that their love is mutual, Don Jose's treachery
and his intended insult to the Queen are discovered by Don
Caesar, beneath whose sword he falls. In gratitude, the
King makes him governor of Valencia, a locality especially
desirable because it is distant enough to be beyond the easy
access of creditors.
This delightfully humorous and melodious opera con-
tains many popular ballads, among them being, in the first
228 OPERAS
act, Maritana's song, " It was a Knight " and her lovely
romanza, " 'Tis the harp in the air ; " the duet of Maritana
and Don Jose "Of fairy wand had I the power;" Don
Caesar's merry drinking song, "All the world over ; " the
chorus, " Pretty Gitana, tell us what the fates decree " and
spirited finale ensemble.
In the second act are Lazarillo's song over Don Caesar
sleeping, "Alas, those chimes so sweetly stealing ; " Don
Caesar's stirring song, " Yes, let me like a soldier fall ; " the
King's aria, " The Mariner in his barque " and the finale,
" What Mystery." In the third act occurs that much-loved
song by Maritana, " Scenes that are the brightest ; " the
duet of Don Caesar and the King, when they meet each
under the other's name ; " Holy Mother, guide his foot-
steps " sung by Maritana and Don Caesar's tender song,
" There is a flower."
MARTHA
"Martha," or "The Market at Richmond," a comic
opera in four acts with music by Friedrich von Flotow and
libretto by St. George and Friedrich, was first presented at
Vienna, Nov. 25, 1847. It is an elaboration of " Lady
Henrietta, or the Servant of Greenwich ; " a ballet-panto-
mime, with text by St. George and music by Flotow, Burg-
muller and Deldevez, which was suggested by an actual
incident and was presented in Paris in 1844.
CHARACTERS.
Lady Henrietta Durham, disguised as Martha, a peasant
maid.
Nancy, her attendant, disguised as Julia.
Lionel, ) ,
Plunkett, I t^^ y°""^ ^^'■"^^"-
Lord Tristan, an elderly cousin of Lady Henrietta.
Courtiers, pages, hunters, farmers, servants.
The scene of the opera is laid in England and the time
is set variously, in the German, French and Italian versions,
although usually the period is that of Queen Anne. The
story concerns the lark of a young woman who, like many
before and since her time, has for the moment grown tired
of being a great lady. The lark, it may be added, has
momentous consequences. The heroine is Lady Henrietta,
who with her companion Nancy, disguise themselves as
230 OPERAS
servant-maids and, calling themselves Martha and Julia, go
to the fair at Richmond, accompanied by Henrietta's cousin
and admirer, Sir Tristan, who it is scarcely necessary to
state does not lend his approval to the escapade. To the
fair come also Plunkett, a squire, and Lionel, his foster-
brother, whose appearance and bearing for one of his
station are unaccountably distinguished. The fair combines
the features of an employment agency with its other attrac-
tions and " Martha " and " Julia " join the peasants who
are there to secure positions. On account of their beauty,
they experience little difficulty in being hired and before
they realize it the sheriff has bound them to Plunkett and
Lionel for a year's service, the contract being clinched with
the payment of earnest-money by the men.
The adventure is becoming rather serious to the girls,
who are carried off by their new masters under the very
nose and against the protestations of the horrified " John,"
as Sir Tristan has called himself. They find themselves at
the farmhouse and the thrifty Plunkett sets them at once
to work. But they do not even know how to spin. Their
employers display patience really wonderful under the cir-
cumstances and set to work to show them. Plunkett seems
to enjoy the office of instructor to the pretty Julia and,
when she throws over her wheel and runs away in a pet, he
follows her. This leaves Martha alone with Lionel, who is
already head over ears in love with her, and is quite ready
to confess it. She finds him much to her liking in every
way except station. However, she will only laugh, while
he is in deep despair. Finally, the maids are directed to
their sleeping apartment from which, aided by Sir Tristan,
who has followed them, they escape and are carried away
in his coach.
The third act takes place at a court hunt and Lionel
and Plunkett recognize their runaway servants among the
ladies. Plunkett tries to seize Nancy but is prevented.
Lionel snatches an interview with Lady Henrietta, whose
image he has not been able to erase from his heart. While
MARTHA 231
miserable at the apparent hopelessness of his suit, he finally
thinks of a ring in his possession, which he has been told
to present to the queen if ever in trouble, and which he
hopes may prove a clue to his parentage, of which, by the
way, he is ignorant. It is conveyed to the queen for him
and the jewel proves indisputably that he is the heir to the
late Earl of Derby who has left a rich estate.
The last act is devoted to the settlement of matters to
everybody's satisfaction. Lady Henrietta, who has long
been in love with Lionel, tries to make amends for past
coyness, while Plunkett triumphantly carries off Nancy.
" Martha " is one of the most popular of all light
operas and its manifold presentations have but increased the
favor it always has enjoyed. Nearly all the numbers in
" Martha " have for years been household favorites and
to name them would be to list nearly every solo and ensemble
in the score. High in especial favor, however, stand the
familiar ballad, " 'Tis the last rose of Summer," which
Flotow interpolated in the scene preceding Lionel's love-
avowal to Martha ; the captivating " Spinning Wheel
Quartet," a number which for merriment and taking
melodiousness has few equals ; the beautiful " Good-Night "
quartet; Plunkett's drinking song in praise of porter;
Lionel's universally known romanza, " Like a Dream
Bright and Fair " (" M' appari ") ; the soprano solo, " Here,
at least, in tranquil silence " and the concerted finale of the
second act
THE MERRY WIVES OF WINDSOR
" The Merry Wives of Windsor " is a comic opera in
three acts, its score by Otto Nicolai and its text by H. S.
Mosenthal. It was first presented in Berlin, March 9, 1849.
CHARACTERS.
Mrs. Ford
Mrs. Page
Anne Page
Fenton
Mr. Ford
Mr. Page
Slender
Dr. Caius
A servant
Sir John FalstaflF.
Citizens of Windsor, mythological maskers, servants.
The story is too similar to that of Verdi's opera, " Fal-
staff," to need long description. Mrs. Ford and Mrs. Page,
two ladies of Windsor, simultaneously receive love-letters
from Sir John FalstaflF, a gentleman of remarkable girth.
They plot together to play a practical joke on him, which
shall make him regret his folly. Mrs. Ford summons Fal-
staflF to her house and Mrs. Page writes her husband an
anonymous letter warning him of what is going on in his
absence. In consequence. Ford comes suddenly upon the
scene and knocks at the door. The two women, apparently
234 OPERAS
in great terror, tumble the huge fellow into a basket designed
to hold the family washing and bury him under soiled cloth-
ing from which, with comical effect, he occasionally emerges
for some amorous expression. The servants are summoned
to carry out the basket and throw it in the water. Ford,
finding the house empty, is ashamed of his suspicions and
his wife is so hurt by his injustice that she faints with
great effect. In an earlier scene in the act, Page is
besieged by three suitors for the hand of his daughter
Anne. They are the rich but stupid Slender whom Page
favors; Dr. Caius, the celebrated French physician, his
wife's choice; the penniless Fenton, whom the maiden her-
self desires.
Act II passes at the Garter Inn at Windsor. Falstaflf
enters in great excitement, disheveled and covered with
mud and possessed of a mighty thirst for wine. He fancies
the sad affair the result of an accident and, when a note
comes from Mrs. Ford, telling him when her husband will
be away with a hunting party, he readily accepts the bait
and reveals everything to Ford, who comes disguised as
Brook to the Inn. In consequence, that injured gentleman
again arrives inopportunely and the buck-basket is again
suggested by the ladies, but the Fat Knight demurs and
this time is hastily dressed in feminine attire. Ford takes
him for an old mischief-making fortune-teller and gives him
a sound beating.
Several scenes are devoted to Anne's lovers, who hide
in bushes around the house and vow to slay each other.
Fenton alone has an interview and is happy.
Act III takes place in Ford's house. The matter has
been explained satisfactorily to its master, and the "merry
husbands " now take a hand in a plot to further punish
Falstaff. Accordingly, Mrs. Ford arranges a midnight
meeting with him at Heme's Oak in Windsor Park, where
he is to come as Heme the Hunter. Both Mrs. Ford and
Mrs. Page are at the rendezvous and he gallantly makes
love to both at the same time. Ford, disguised as the real
THE MERRY WIVES OF WINDSOR 235
Heme, falls upon him for imitating him and calls upon all
the assembled wasps and hornets to sting him to repentance.
The terrified Falstaff confesses all and begs for pardon.
When the throng unmask, he recognizes the Ford and Page
families and all their neighbors.
Earlier in the day, Mrs. Page has whispered instruc-
tions to her daughter to be dressed as a pink fairy in which
guise Dr. Caius will take her to the forest chapel to be
married. Her father has drawn her aside, and told her to
dress as a green fairy and Slender will go through the same
proceeding. The sly Anne sends a pink dress to Caius, and
a green one to Slender, and the two find to their horror
that they have married each other. In the meantime, Anne
as a white fairy and Fenton as Oberon have had performed
the ceremony so long desired by them.
Nicolai's work is a capital adaptation of Shakespeare's
mirth-provoking play. It is full of spontaneous good
humor and captivating melody. Its orchestration is admir-
able. It has long been one of the most popular of comic
operas but its composer was not to know of the success
destined for it, as he died of apoplexy a short time after
the score was finished.
Among the portions of the work that deservedly have
found admiration are the delightful overture, which is a
universal favorite; the comparing of the love-letters by
Mesdames Ford and Page ; Mrs. Ford's soliloquy, " Come
now and aid me, thou woman's treach'ry," ending with the
aria, " What would be life then ? " the drinking song of
Falstaff and his followers at the Tavern; Fenton's serenade,
" Sweetly sings the nightingale ; " the trio of Falstaff and
the Merry Wives, "The Bell has pealed the Midnight
chime " and the duet of Anne and Fenton, " Now tranquil
nature lies in deep repose."
LE PROPHETE
"Le Prophete," or "The Prophet," is a grand opera
in five acts, the music by Giacomo Meyerbeer and the text
by Scribe. It was first presented in Paris, April 16, 1849.
Meyerbeer bestowed the greatest care upon its creation,
working upon it intermittently for thirteen years.
CHARACTERS.
John of Leyden, the Prophet, chosen leader of the
Anabaptists.
Bertha, his sweetheart.
Fides, mother of John of Leyden.
Count Oberthal, ruler of the domain about Dordrecht.
Zacarie, "V
Gione, V three Anabaptist preachers.
Mathisen, )
Nobles, citizens, peasants, soldiers, prisoners.
The scene of the opera is laid in Holland and Ger-
many in 1543, at the time of the Anabaptist uprising and
has for its hero the historical character, John of I^eyden.
The first act opens in Dordrecht, where Fides, mother of
John of Leyden, keeps an inn and where is located the
castle of the Count of Oberthal. Bertha, a beautiful peasant
girl, has just been betrothed to John of Leyden but it is
necessary to gain the permission of the Count before the
union may be consummated. Fides and the lovers seek the
nobleman's presence but he is so charmed with the girl's
238 OPERAS
loveliness that he refuses his sanction and claims her for
himself, taking her and Fides prisoner.
Meantime, the Anabaptists from Westphalia arrive for
the purpose of stirring the people to an insurrection against
their rulers. Having spread abroad their false promises,
they repair to the hostelry of John of Leyden. They per-
ceive in him a wonderful resemblance to the portrait of
David which hangs in the cathedral. John speaks in words
of prophecy and his deeply religious bearing convinces them
that he will suit their needs as a nominal head. They offer
to make him ruler but this affects him little and he assures
his tempters that the heart of Bertha is the only kingdom
he craves. As they depart, the girl, who has escaped the
Count's vigilance, rushes in to ask protection of her lover.
He helps her to conceal herself but the Count follows with
Fides and threatens to kill the mother unless the sweetheart
is delivered to him. To save his mother, John complies.
The Anabaptists coming again to renew their entreaties, he
this time submits, hoping that his new power will enable him
to crush Oberthal and, without his mother's knowledge, he
is carried forth as their Prophet-King.
The scene now shifts to the Anabaptist camp over-
looking Miinster, which is in a state of siege. Count
Oberthal is brought in a captive and when one of the Ana-
baptists recognizes him and is about to kill him, John of
Leyden interferes. Finding that Bertha has escaped and is
now in Munster, John plans to take the city and he and the
Anabaptists march upon it, his conscience troubling him,
however, at the thirst for blood displayed by his followers.
The next act takes place in the city after its capture.
Fides and Bertha, from the blood-stained clothes left to
deceive them, believe that John is dead, and that this new,
great Prophet whom they never have seen has been the
cause of his death. In the cathedral where the Prophet is
to be crowned with great ceremony. Fides recognizes this
mighty one as her son and cries aloud, but John disavows
her and tells the fanatics to slay him if she does not confirm
LE PROPHfiTE 239
his denial. In her love for him she declares that she has
been mistaken. The Anabaptists fall upon her and take
her prisoner. Soon the news comes that the emperor is
near the gates and, to save themselves, Zacarie, Gione and
Mathisen plot to deliver the Prophet into his hands. John,
meanwhile, visits his mother in prison and, convinced by
her that he is in error, promises to leave the party.
To the dungeon of the castle comes Bertha who knows
that the Prophet is within. She has sworn to kill him and
is about to set fire to the gunpowder hidden below them.
When she sees the Prophet and realizes that he and John
of Leyden are the same, she stabs herself and dies cursing
him for his perfidy. John resolves to follow her example.
He goes to the banqueting-hall of the castle and joins the
revelers. The three betraying Anabaptists enter to give
him up. Sending his mother away, he fires the gunpowder
he has placed beneath the castle and all perish together in
the flames, Fides coming back to share their death.
For magnificent pageantry " The Prophet " has few
equals. Musically, the work is hardly the equal of its
composer's masterpiece " The Huguenots," but so far as
opportunities for the display of stage splendor is concerned
it is unsurpassed. The Coronation scene gives opportunity
for unlimited pomp and show and the final destruction of
the castle permits the theatre mechanician to employ his
utmost skill and exhaust all his resources for producing
startling effects. The music is dramatic and declamatory
rather than pronouncedly lyric.
Among the best of the numbers are Bertha's brilliant
cavatina, "II cor nel sen" ("My heart beats joyous");
the trio of Anabaptists, " O, libertade " (" O liberty");
John's solo, " Un impero piii soave " ("Oh, there's an
empire sweeter ") ; Fides' famous aria, " O figlio mio "
("Ah, my son"), the gem of the entire opera; the ballet
music of the skaters; Fides' song when she is reduced to
beggary, " Pieta, pieta" ("O Give, O Give"); the pom-
240 OPERAS
pous coronation music; the duet for John and Fides and
John's drinking song, " Beviam e intorno " (" Let us drink,
and pass the cup ").
or
LOHENGKIN
« jMADAME ERNESTINE SOHUMANN-HEINK,
and musiv As Ortrud in Wagner's Lohengrin.
W Famous German vocalist, who attained her present
Wv notable position on the operatic stage through con-
j,j stant struggle.n exile, that he or
sooi; ; S^^ ^^^ bom in 1861 at Lieben, near Prague, and
yvas very poor in her youth. She has been most suc-
cessful in grand opera, making her greatest triumphs
in the roles of Brangaene in Tristan and Isolde, Erda
and Waltraute and the female roles in Wagner's Ring
dramas. ' n
She is the motW^m eight children and has been
married three times. Her last marriage occurred in
1904 when she became the wife of Wm. Rapp, Jr., of
Chicago, many years her junior.
The scene 'Jt ihe opera is laid w th
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LOHENGRIN
" Lohengrin," a grand opera in three acts, with words
and music by Richard Wagner, was first presented in
Weimar, Aug. 28, 1850, under the direction of Liszt. It
was produced so frequently during the next decade, a period
spent by Wagner in exile, that he once remarked, " I shall
soon be the only German who has not heard Lohengrin."
Its story is the blending of three legends, but the basic
one is that of King Arthur and the Holy Grail.
CHARACTERS.
Lohengrin.
Frederick of Telramund.
King Henry.
Elsa of Brabant.
Ortrud.
Saxons and Thuringian nobles, retainers, trumpeters,
maidens.
The scene of the opera is laid in Antwerp in the Tenth
Century. Henry I. of Germany, surnamed the Fowler, has
come thither to raise an army to send against the Huns,
who are on the eve of an invasion. He finds Brabant
stirred to its depths by the dreadful news that Elsa,
daughter of the late Duke, while strolling in the wood with
her younger brother, Godfrey, has murdered him to gain
the sovereignty for herself. Telramund, guardian of Elsa
242 OPERAS
and Godfrey, has previously been rejected by the maiden
and is now the husband of Ortrud, daughter of the Prince
of Friesland. Upon this marriage, Telramund bases his
claim to the dukedom.
The curtain rises upon a meadow scene upon the banks
of the River Scheldt, where King Henry is seated under the
Oak of Justice, surrounded by his army and his nobles.
Telramund retells the story to the king and voices his belief
that Elsa has committed the unnatural deed to bestow the
dukedom upon an unworthy lover. Thereupon, the king
orders that she shall be brought before him at once, to con-
firm by trial her guilt or innocence.
When she comes, the sweetness and guilessness of her
aspect win her instant favor, yet when the king questions
her she can only exclaim, "My poor brother!" Finally
breaking her silence as if bidden by some unseen power, she
sings in terms of wondrous beauty of a splendid knight who
will be sent from heaven to be her champion. The people
are so impressed by her words and demeanor that they
refuse to believe her guilty and the chagrined Telramund
declares it is his right to settle the matter by personal
encounter if any champion will appear for Elsa. Accord-
ingly, the trumpets are blown and the herald cries, " Who
will do battle here on life or death for Elsa of Brabant
let him appear ! "
Twice does the herald make the cry and there is no
response. In her suspense, Elsa drops to her knees in
prayer but as the trumpets sound for a third time, the
people see approaching a gleaming boat drawn by a white
swan and in it standing a beautiful knight, clad in silver
armor. As the stranger bids his swan farewell, Elsa
recognizes in him, Lohengrin, the knight of her dreams.
He offers to appear for her on condition that, if he is suc-
cessful, she will grant him her hand but that she never will
question him as to his name or origin nor seek in any way
to discover them. To both of these conditions she gladly
agrees.
LOHENGRIN 243
The struggle is of short duration, for the strength
and dexterity of Lohengrin seem more than natural and
Telramund is felled at one blow, amid the rejoicing of the
people whose hearts are not with him. The Swan Knight
spares his life, however, and the Saxon youths lift Elsa
and her victor on their shields.
Night has fallen when the curtain rises again. We
see Telramund and Ortrud, shorn of their honors, sitting
upon the Minster steps and plotting revenge. Telramund
is inclined to give up, but Ortrud, like another Lady Mac-
beth, declares herself unconquered. She tells him that the
contest was won with magic arts and that if Elsa may be
induced to disobey Lohengrin's injunctions concerning the
questioning as to his name and origin, both the strange
Knight and Elsa will be at their mercy. While they engage
in this discussion, Elsa appears on her balcony, transfigured
with happiness, and sings of her love to the evening
breezes. Ortrud accosts her with pretended humility and
the gentle Elsa, too willing to forgive, hastens down and
promises to intercede with the King in her behalf. The
real object of the interview has been accomplished, for
Ortrud casually but dextrously has succeeded in planting in
the girl's mind the seeds of doubt in regard to her bride-
groom.
When the day dawns, the heralds announce the mar-
riage of Elsa and the Swan Knight. The nobility
assembles at the Minster Gate and the bridal procession
begins to issue from the castle. At the church door
Ortrud, richly attired and no longer wrapped in humility,
pushes aside the bride, claiming precedence over one who
does not know even the name and rank of her bridegroom.
The King and his attendants and the Swan Knight approach
from the palace but scarcely has Lohengrin soothed the
agitation of his bride, when Telramund appears upon the
steps and openly accuses him of sorcery. All refuse
credence to the charge, however, and the procession passes
into the church.
244 OPERAS
The third act takes place on the evening of the same
day. Lohengrin and his bride, accompanied by her ladies,
are conducted to the bridal chamber to the strains of the
Bridal Chorus, The attendants depart and Elsa and
Lohengrin are for the first time by themselves. But the
doubts sown by the wicked Ortrud have been growing and
at last overcome the present joy. No longer able to resist,
Elsa gently chides her lord for failing in confidence in her
and enforces with caresses her pleas for knowledge of him.
He tries to lead her thoughts to other things but her
foolish heart is full of the fear that the swan boat will
come and bear him away as suddenly as it brought him to
her. Finally she fancies she hears it coming, and, as her
apprehension grows to frenzy, she puts the fatal question,
"Who art thou?"
Before the sorrowing Lohengrin can frame an answer,
Telramund and his assassins force their way into the room
to take his life but the Swan Knight seizes his sword and
kills Telramund with a single thrust.
The last scene takes place on the banks of the Scheldt,
where the King and his men are again assembled and where
the corpse of Telramund is brought. Hither comes Lohen-
grin with the pale and drooping Elsa and before the
assembly he answers the forbidden question. He has no
need to blush for his lineage, for he is no other than the
son of Parsifal, the keeper of the Holy Grail, sent from
Montsalvat to defend the oppressed. It has been sacredly
decreed that he may remain on earth only on condition that
his identity be kept unknown.
As he is speaking, the swan bark appears and, bidding
a last farewell to the sorrowing Elsa, Lohengrin turns to the
river amid the lamentations of the people. Only Ortrud
enjoys the moment. Now she taunts Elsa with her lack of
faith and confesses that the swan is Godfrey enchanted by
her magic arts. As he hears this, Lohengrin kneels in
prayer upon the river's bank and the white doves of the
Grail are seen hovering over his head. He perceives them
LOHENGRIN 245
and, rising to his feet, loosens the golden chain which binds
the swan to the skiff. The bird dives into the water and
in its place rises a young knight clad in silver armor. It is
Godfrey, and Elsa is soon clasped in the embrace of her
brother. Loheigrin is borne swiftly away in his boat
drawn now by the doves, and as he vanishes over the waters
of the Scheldt, Elsa sinks lifeless to the ground.
" Lohengrin," with " Tannhauser," enjoys the greatest
popular favor of all the Wagner operas. It was received
with public approval even when first presented and proved
a potent factor in ultimately bringing success to the Wagner
movement in Germany. It was " Lohengrin " which first
interested and so wonderfully impressed Ludwig of Bavaria,
that there was aroused in him the admiration which led to
his proffer to the composer of a haven at his court.
" Lohengrin " is difficult to surpass in romantic and poetic
beauty and, while dealing with the mythical, is much easier
of comprehension than either " The Ring of the Nibelungs "
or " Parsifal," owing largely to the philosophical element
being absent.
Among admired portions of the score are the won-
drously beautiful prelude, which pictures in tones the
appearance of the Holy Grail in a sky of unclouded blue, its
descent to earth, and its return to its heavenly resting place;
Elsa's description of her vision of Lohengrin, " Einsam in
triiben Tagen " ("Lonely in days of sadness"); Lohen-
grin's farewell to the swan, " Nun sei gedankt, mein lieber
Schwan " ("Now fare thee well, beloved swan"); Elsa's
song from the balcony, " Euch Liiften, die mein Klagen "
(" Ye breezes, which so often ") ; the bridal chorus of Elsa's
maidens, used as a processional at numberless weddings,
"Treulich gefiihret ziehet dahin " ("Faithful and true");
the love duet following and Lohengrin's farewell on the
banks of the Scheldt.
CRISPING
"Crispino e la Comare " or "The Cobbler and the
Fairy," a comic opera in three acts with music composed
by the brothers Luigi and Federico Ricci and text by
Francesco Maria Piave was produced in Venice in 1850.
CHARACTERS.
Crispino Tachetto, a cobbler.
Fabrizio, a doctor.
Mirabolino, a doctor and apothecary.
Contino del Fioro, a Tuscan nobleman.
Don Astrubale di Caparotta, a Sicilian miser.
Bortilo, a mason.
Anneta, Crispino's wife.
La Comare, a fairy.
Chorus of doctors of medicine, apothecaries, assistants
and other shopmen, street criers and news venders,
relatives and friends of Crispino.
The scene of the story is Venice of the Seventeenth
Century. Crispino is a penniless cobbler and Anneta, his
wife, tries to add to the support of the numerous family by
singing ballads in the street. But nobody wants any cob-
bling done and songs are a drug on the market. The sit-
uation is truly desperate when old Don Astrubale becomes
importunate about the rent and suggests to the horrified
Crispino that the favors of the pretty wife might be an
alternative. The unhappy fellow is about to end his troubles
248 OPERAS
by drowning himself in a well, when out of its depths
appears a fairy, who bids him do nothing rash. When she
has heard his dreary recountal of adversities she gives him
a bag of gold and tells him that she can bring his troubles
to a termination by making him a renowned doctor. The
fairy has evidently a sense of humor of her own, for when
Crispino, who cannot even read, demurs, exclaiming, " I'm
a perfect idiot," she returns, " Thoud'st only resemble a
hundred others in the same predicament." She instructs
him that when he has a patient he must be careful to look
around to see that she is not present, invisible to all save
him, for the patient will not recover unless she is absent.
To conclude the first act, Crispino runs home to tell his
wife, who can scarcely believe her ears. They find further
that the thoughtful fairy has already provided a large
placard and a complete professional wardrobe.
Before the second act is finished Crispino is launched
successfully upon his career. The people scoff when they
see his newly erected sign and the members of the medical
fraternity laugh at his bad Latin, but when Bortilo, a
mason, is brought in apparently dying from a fall, Crispino
looks about him hastily and, not discovering the fairy,
prescribes for the injured man so effectually that he recovers
at once and Crispino's fortunes are made. The people place
him upon his cobbler's bench and carry him aloft in
triumph, while the medical fraternity are very evidently
disgruntled.
Crispino is not, alas, one of the few who can bear
prosperity gracefully. He builds a beautiful palace on the
site of his old stall and here his wife dwells but not at all
happily, for he is niggardly and ill-treats her. He is dis-
solute in life, haughty and supercilious to everybody and
insolent even to his good fairy. Naturally, La Comare
decides to punish him and, in the midst of an interview,
she suddenly sinks with him through the earth to her sub-
terranean abode where Truth and Judgment, two cold and
uncomfortable creatures, dwell. The fairy shows him
j>
CRISPING 249
numerous flames burning in crystal vases which are the
registers of life. Crispin© is alarmed to find that, while
his wife's burns high, his is nearly extinguished. La
Comare tells him his time is nigh and, having assumed the
grinning mask of death, has him make his will under her
supervision. When he begs abjectly for one last hour with
his wife and children, she shows him in a magic mirror a
vision of them praying for his safety. Then the mirror
grows dim and Crispino, who thinks he is dying, falls
senseless. He wakes to find himself in his own armchair
in the midst of family and friends, who assure him that he
has been the victim of a bad dream. The dream, however,
has had a beneficial effect and the curtain descends on Cris-
pino protesting his reformation. The sub-plot, which
concerns itself with the love affair of Contino del Fioro
and the ward of Don Astrubale, the miser who wants to
marry her in order to keep her bank account, is frequently
omitted. It may be added that the opportune taking-off of
this unpleasant person removes all obstacles to the lovers'
happiness.
Crispino has withstood the test of time better than any
other of the many operas composed singly or in collabora-
tion by the brothers Luigi and Federico Ricci.
The music is gay and sparkling and includes the
following numbers : Contino's romanza, " Beautiful e'en
as an angel fair ; " Crispino's melody, " Once a cobbler poor
and lonely ; " Anneta's song, " My pretty tales, my charms
and songs, oh who will come and buy ? " the buffa aria of
Dr. Fabrizio, "I'm a bit of a philosopher;" the duet of
Crispino and Anneta, " 'Tis well ! I now can understand ; "
Anneta's song, ** I no longer am Anneta ; " her cake
(Fretola) song, " Pietro, darling, this cake so tempting;"
and her waltz song in the finale, "There's no joy that e'er
hath equaled.'*
RK
"Rigoletto," an opci wvV \.\
Giuseppe Verdi and te>
Hugo's <V ENRICO CARUSO,
* As the Duke in Rigoletto.
The greatest of living tenors, was born in Naples,
of a peasant family, in 1874. He is one of a family
of twenty-four children and as a child sang on the
streets of his native town. Has received very little
instruction. America first heard Caruso in 1904, when
his singing created a furore. Since then he has
appeared here every year. His greatest roles are the
Duke in Rigoletto, Rudolph in La Boheme, Edgar in
Lu'gikrdi Lammermoor and Faust. The Duke t« a youth
whose del knows no
maid or . safe from
gain in d sness from
He is valtia^iy aided an'
by RigoletL- the court
the beginnirtg of the o;
successes th" seduction o
the daughter of Count ^
swear vengeance. Count hi
into tlie presence of the ! ;< -'"■
HEoq B to
jiiomiBai
RIGOLETTO
"Rigoletto," an opera in three acts with music by
Giuseppe Verdi and text by Piave, adapted from Victor
Hugo's drama " Le Roi s' Amuse," was first produced in
Venice, March 11, 1851.
CHARACTERS.
Rigoletto, a hunchback, jester to the Duke.
The Duke of Mantua, a roue.
Gilda, daughter of Rigoletto.
Sparafucile, a hired assassin.
Maddalena, his sister.
Count Monterone.
Count Ceprano.
Courtiers, pages, servants.
The scene is laid in Mantua. The Duke is a youth
whose debauchery knows no bounds and no woman, be she
maid or wife, is safe from his wicked machinations, which
gain in dangerousness from his personal beauty and bravery.
He is valuably aided and abetted in his campaign of vice
by Rigoletto, the court buffoon. These wretches are, at
the beginning of the opera, counting among their latest
successes the seduction of the wife of Count Ceprano and
the daughter of Count Monterone. Both injured men
swear vengeance, Count Monterone forcing an entrance
into the presence of the Duke and demanding reparation
252 OPERAS
for the dishonor brought upon his house. The heartless
jester mimics the voice of his master and scorns and insults
the old noble, who, for his expressions of indignation, is
seized and conveyed to prison. He goes but not before
he has hurled at the hunchback a dread imprecation. The
incident of the curse greatly disturbs the calm of the jester
but does not deter him in his villainies.
The courtiers, disgusted with Rigoletto's conduct,
devise a clever punishment. They resolve to secure for the
Duke, Gilda, whom they suppose to be Rigoletto's mistress
but who is, in reality, his daughter and the apple of his eye.
He shields her so carefully from the world that her exist-
ence is barely known. However, the Duke, keen to discover
a new beauty, has found her out and gained her love,
pretending to be a poor student named Gualtier Malde. The
Duke and his supporters make believe that they are planning
to abduct Ceprano's wife and the unsuspecting Rigoletto
assists in the plot to convey Gilda to the Duke's apartment.
When Rigoletto discovers that he has been duped, he is so
enraged that he secures the services of Sparafucile, a hired
assassin, and plans to have the Duke killed. The Duke is
lured to the assassin's house by the beauty of Maddalena.
who like all women is charmed with the handsome noble,
and pleads with her brother to spare his life. At first
Sparafucile refuses but finally compromises by agreeing to
kill in his place the first person who comes to the house.
Gilda, disguised by her father in masculine attire to aid in
her escape to Verona, is first brought to the house to spy
upon her lover's unfaithfulness and be cured of her infatu-
ation. Overhearing the conversation in Sparafucile's house
and learning of the plot to kill the Duke, who is sleeping
there, she rushes in to warn him but as she opens the door
she receives the assassin's dagger. Rigoletto following has
given to him by Sparafucile a body in a sack. He is about
to cast it into the river, when he hears the Duke pass by
with a song on his lips. Hastily opening the sack, he is
crazed to discover the body of his own daughter. She
RIGOLETTO 253
dies in his arms and her father sinks to the ground over-
come by horror. Monterone's curse has been accompHshed.
" Rigoletto " is esteemed to be one of the finest of the
Verdi operas and this despite its horrible and improbable
plot and its array of despicable characters.
Among the important numbers in the brilliantly melo-
dious score are, in Act I, the Duke's aria, boasting of his
inconstancy, " Questa o quella " (" This one or that one ") ;
Rigoletto's soliloquy, after his interview with the assassin,
" Pari siamo " (" Similar are we ") ; and in Act II, the duet
for Gilda and the Duke, "Addio " ("Farewell") and
Gilda's florid love song, " Caro nome " ("Dearest name"),
and in Act III occur the Duke's graceful aria, " La donna e
mobile" ("To change is a woman's way") and that mas-
terpiece of the opera as well as one of the most perfect
ensembles to be found in the entire range of opera, the
quartet for Rigoletto, Gilda, the Duke and Maddalena,
" Lovely Maiden, to thy charms."
IL TROVATORE
" II Trovatore " or " The Troubadour," a grand opera
in four acts, with words by Salvatore Cammanaro and
music by Giuseppe Verdi, was first produced in Rome, Jan.
19, 1853. It had a later English production under the title
"The Gypsy's Vengeance." The storjr was suggested by a
Spanish drama of the same name.
CHARACTERS.
The Count di Luna.
Ferrando, in his service.
The Duchess Leonora.
Inez, in her service.
Azucena, a grypsy-
Manrico, the Troubadour, her reputed son.
Muiz, in his service.
Followers of the count, guards, nuns, gypsies.
The scene is laid in Italy. The action begins in the
palace of La AHaferia and the necessary explanation is
furnished by the old servitor, Ferrando, who is regaling
the servants with midnight tales. He tells the story of the
Count di Luna's brother, Garzia, who, when in his cradle,
was bewitched by an old gypsy and pined away almost to
death. The father of Luna and Garzia punished the male-
factor for her sorcery by burning her at the stake and in
revenge her daughter Azucena stole the child and * doomed
him to a fate which had never been discovered.
256 OPERAS
When Ferrando's unpleasant tale is finished, the scene
changes to Leonora's garden and the Count appears and
sings beneath the windows of her whom he loves. The girl
runs into the garden to welcome the singer, thinking that it
is Manrico, the troubadour and supposed son of Azucena,
whose enchanting voice and valiant bearing in the tourna-
ment have completely won her heart. In the darkness, she
gives the Count the warm greeting which is intended for
Manrico, who arrives just in time to witness the scene and
who in grief and anger, charges Leonora with infidelity.
She sees her mistake and rushes impulsively to the trouba-
dour, who is challenged by the other. An encounter follows
and Manrico, when it is in his power to kill his enemy,
hesitates and is himself dangerously wounded. Leonora,
grief-stricken, is spared the sight, for she falls in a swoon,
and is borne insensible from the garden. Afterward, the
despairing countess hears that Manrico has been killed, and
arranges to enter a convent.
Meantime the wounded troubadour is faithfully nursed
to health in the gypsy camp by Azucena. In a moment of
remorse and tenderness, the woman confesses to him that
he is not her son and that when her mother was burned,
she stole the Count's child with the intention of sacrificing
it in the flames of the pyre but that in her frenzy she threw
her own child to death instead. Manrico's emotion at these
words is so great that in terror she retracts them. A
messenger comes to summon Manrico back to military duty
and from him the lover learns that Leonora will take the
veil that very evening. He rescues her, however, just
before she has taken the vows. Count Luna, arriving at
the same time and for the same purpose, is further enraged
by his rival's success.
Azucena is arrested as a sorceress and a spy in the
camp of the Count. She calls upon Manrico for help but
the sound of the hated name only intensifies the anger of
Luna against her and he sentences her to the awful fate of
her mother. Manrico, for his attempted assistance, is
IL TROVATORE 257
seized and thrown into prison to die by the axe. Leonora
offers her hand to the Count if he will release the prisoners
and her terms are accepted. She flies to the dungeon to
announce his deliverance to Manrico but first takes poison
to escape her part of the compact. Manrico refuses to be
freed on such terms and, after a pathetic love scene, she
falls dead at her lover's feet. The thwarted Count orders
Manrico away to immediate execution and drags Azucena
to the window to look upon her son's slaughter. Then the
gypsy reveals her secret and the Count learns that his
murdered rival is his own brother. >
"11 Trovatore" gained immediate success and has
retained it undimmed for over fifty years. It may be men-
tioned without hesitation in the list of a dozen operas which
hold the boards securely. It is of all Verdi's work most
firmly enshrined in the public heart.
The most popular number of the opera is the
"Miserere," "Ah che la Morte," ("Ah! how release of
death"), sung by Manrico. Other notable passages are
Leonora's song to the night, "Tacea la notte placida"
("The night so calmly dreaming") ; the trio for Leonora.
Manrico and Luna, with which the first act closes; the anvil
chorus, in the camp of the gypsies; Azucena's impassioned
solo descriptive of her mother's awful fate, "Stride la
vampa" ("Hissing the flames"); the Count's aria, "II
balen;" Manrico's "high C" outburst, "Di quella pira"
("From flaming death-pyre") and the duet for Manrico and
Azucena, "Ai nostri Monti" ("Back to our mountains").
LES NOGES DE JEANNETTE
"Les Noces de Jeannette " or "The Marriage of
Jeannette," a comic opera in one act with music by Victor
Masse and text by Barbier and Carre, was first presented
in Paris in 1853.
CHARACTERS.
Jean.
Jeannette.
Thomas.
Petit Pierre. ,
It is said of a woman that " if she won't she won't, so
there's an end on't." But this is a case in which a man
who wouldn't was persuaded to change his mind. " The
Marriage of Jeannette " is a simple, refreshing story of
French peasant life. When we are introduced to Jean, in
his own little cottage, he is shuddering and exclaiming,
"Another word and I should have been a married man ! "
From the soliloquy of this rough and good-natured young
rustic, we gather that he had fallen in love with Jeannette
and had proposed marriage to her. But when he had
assumed his bridegroom clothes and the pretty bride in her
white gown was clinging to his arm m the mayor's office
and the friends of both of them were standing by laughing
and chaffing them and a lawyer of " sacrificial aspect " had
handed him the marriage contract to sign, he had been
suddenly seized with terror and apprehension and had taken
260 OPERAS '
to his heels, leaving the bride discomfited. As he is exult-
ing over his continued bachelorhood, he hears a knock at
the door and opens it to admit Jeannette, still in her bridal
attire. Instead of falling upon him to scratch his eyes out,
as he half expects her to do, she calmly questions him as to
his motives for his conduct of the morning. Poor Jean
makes a bad fist of it in his explanations, admitting that he
loves her and always did love her but that marriage at close
range scares him. He sighs and says " What's done can't be
undone," and Jeannette promptly matches his proverb with
"All's well that ends well " and " There are as good fish in
the sea ..." which latter proverb she has quoted to
her father, who, in spite of his gout, has insisted upon com-
ing to kill Jean for failing to keep his promise.
Jeannette is apparently so indifferent about the whole
matter that Jean decides that she does not care at all and
so goes away to join his cronies at the inn. It is about
time, for Jeannette's fortitude is fast giving out and scarcely
has he disappeared than she bursts into tears.
Jeannette hears Jean singing and laughing with his
friends and fancies that they are jeering at her in her
humiliation. When he comes back to get the bouquet in
his coat to give to Rosa, she loses her temper for the first
time and announces that some reparation is due to her for
the degradation of being deserted by her bridegroom. She
presents the contract and insists upon his signing it in
order that the world may think that he has changed his
mind and that this time she has rejected him, merely a sop
thrown to pride. But when she has secured the coveted
signature, she decides that she would rather have nice, good-
looking Jean for a husband than the sweetness of going
about with the proof that she refused to marry him. So she
puts down her name also and makes it a contract. When
Jean learns of the trick, he is in a terrible rage and warns
her that he will be such an ogre of a husband that she will
regret it, and mentions among her future delights, working
in the fields and eating in the stable.
LES NOCES DE JEANNETTE 261
He begins at once by tearing down the curtains and
breaking the dishes and furniture and goes up to the attic
to sleep off an intoxication acquired during his recent visit
to the inn. While he is sleeping, Jeannette has her own
new furniture brought and arranges the house attractively.
She then mends his torn wedding-coat for him and prepares
a savory meal. After a long time, Jean creeps down stairs,
much improved in temper and hears Jeannette singing
tunefully in the flower garden. When she enters with the
salad, looking very winsome in her pretty gown, Jean tries
hard to be gruff but fails lamentably. When he inquires
why there is only one place laid, she replies that she has
eaten in the stable according to his instructions. He makes
her sit down on the pretense that she can better wait upon
him in that fashion and, before he realizes it, he has his
arms around her and is neglecting his favorite omelet with
lard for the joy of kissing her.
Friend Thomas comes to remind them that they are
not yet married, as the contract still lacks the mayor's sig-
nature. Jeannette is nearly overcome by this dire intelli-
gence but Jean assures her that there is no danger of his
changing his mind this time. He then calls in all of the
neighbors to introduce them to his wife.
The music of this piece, which is one of the best speci-
mens of French opera comique, is full of spirit and melody
and the ingenuous little story is thoroughly entertaining.
Prominent numbers are Jean's song, congratulating
himself on his escape, "Others may hastily marry;" "From
out a throng of lovers," sung by Jeannette; Jean's song, "O
lass so fair," and his sarcastic, "Ah, little do you fancy,
precious;" Jeannette's numbers, "Fly now, my needle glanc-
ing brightly," and "Voice that's sweetest" and the chorus
in the finale, "Ring out village bells, we're loving."
LA TRAVI ATA
"La Traviata" or "The Misguided One," a grand
opera in three acts with score by Giuseppe Verdi and text by
Piave, was first presented in Venice March 6, 1853. It is
founded on Dumas' " Lady of the Camelias " but the period
is changed to the time of Louis XIV.
CHARACTERS.
Violetta Valery, the lost one.
Flora Bervoix, a friend of Violetta.
Annina, the confidante of Violetta.
Alfred Germont, the lover of Violetta.
Georgio Germont, his father.
Gastone, Visconte de Letorieres.
Baron Douphol, a rival of Alfred.
Marquis D'Obigny.
Doctor Grenvil, a physician.
Joseph, the servant of Violetta.
Guests, friends, gypsies, matadores, servants.
The scene is laid in and near Paris, the story following
closely that of Dumas' play. The action begins at the house
of Violetta, where a gay entertainment is in progress. In
the crowd is a youth, Alfred Germont, who meets the beau-
tiful hostess for the first time and becomes deeply
enamored. He is of excellent family but he does not hesi-
tate to offer her love of a character she has never known
in her unfortunate and erring life. Though she merely
2§4 OPERAS
laughs at his protests at first, she gradually is moved by his
sincerity and returns his love in kind. She confesses her
past to him in all its ignominy and warns him away but he
declares his willingness to accept her as she is. She for-
sakes her voluptuous life and goes with him to live quietly
in the country, near Paris, and here for several months they
enjoy a life of idyllic happiness.
The second act affords a glimpse of their almost
pastoral seclusion. However, the more practical side of life
forces itself upon Violetta when she realizes that their
funds are growing low. She sends secretly to Paris to sell
some of her possessions in order to be able to meet her
debts and to continue the maintenance of their establish-
ment. Alfred learns of this from Annina and, revolting at
the idea of dependence upon Violetta's bounty, hastens to
the city to recover her property. During his absence,
Alfred's father comes and pleads with Violetta, for the sake
of the dishonored family, to release his son from the bond-
age he seems to love so well. To make his arguments
irresistible, he tells her that Alfred's sister will be renounced
by the wealthy noble to whom she is betrothed unless the
connection in question is severed. Violetta's life with Alfred
has grown to mean redemption to her but she determines
upon the supreme sacrifice and, while he is gone she steals
away broken-hearted to take up her old life. The angry
and grief-stricken Alfred gives her course its worst interpre-
tation and when in the third act he meets Violetta at a ball
given by her friend Flora Bervoix, he insults her publicly
and flings at her feet the money he just has won at the
gaming-table. He is challenged by Baron Douphol, with
whom she is living, and a duel is fought. Violetta, who is
stricken with consumption, receives her death-blow with
Alfred's insult and declines rapidly. The father, touched
by her suffering, reveals the story of his interview with her
and the nobility of her conduct and Alfred hastens to her
bedside to receive her dying word of forgiveness.
LA TRAVIATA 265
" La Traviata," which is now regarded one of the
masterpieces upon which Verdi rests his remarkable fame,
was at first coldly received. The adverse circumstances
under which it was produced had much to do with this
verdict, for the tenor had a cold, the barytone, piqued
because he had a subordinate part, walked languidly through
it and the soprano was far too much inclined to embonpoint
to be convincing in the role of a lady dying with pulmonary
trouble. But the passage of time brought sweet revenge
and " La Traviata " has been instrumental in making its com-
poser a favorite of all opera-goers. It fairly overflows with
exquisite melody and is of marked elegance and refinement.
Admired in the attractive score are the drinking song
at the supper sung by Alfred and Violetta, " Libiamo.
libiamo" ("Let's drink to the beauty"); Violetta's "Ah
fors' e lui " ("Perchance 'tis he"), a number of rare
beauty and fine contrast, greatly beloved by concert as well
as operatic sopranos ; Germont's song to his son, " Di Prov-
enza il mar" ("From Provence"); Violetta's aria, "Addio!
del Passato " ("Adieu then, thou art fled") and her duet
with Alfred, " Parigi, o cara " (" O Paris, beloved").
DER BARBIER VON BAGDAD
" Der Barbier von Bagdad " or " The Barber of Bag-
dad " is a comic opera in two acts with music and text by
Peter Cornelius. It was first presented at the Court The-
atre, Weimar, in 1858.
CHARACTERS.
The Caliph.
Baba Mustapha, a Cadi.
Margiana, his daughter.
Bostana, a kinswoman of the Cadi.
Nureddin.
Abul Hassan Ali Ebe Bekar, a barber.
Attendants of Nureddin, friends of the Cadi, people of
Bagdad, female mourners, suite of the Caliph.
The plot of "The Barber of Bagdad" is light to the
point of the trivial but so masterly is the musical setting, so
rich in inspiration and fantasy and so abounding in that
rarest of qualities, true musical humor, that the opera is
classed among the masterpieces. This is true, despite the
fact that it is but rarely performed either in the United
States or Europe.
When we are introduced to our hero Nureddin, he is
in a distressful plight, lying, apparently about to breathe
his last upon a couch near to many medicine bottles
and surrounded by downcast attendants. In his delirium
Nureddin murmurs the name " Margiana " and it looks as
268 OPERAS
if a man were at last going to give the poet the lie by dying
for love.
When the servants tiptoe away, Nureddin is visited by
Bostana, a friendly handmaid, who comes to suggest that
when Margiana's father, the Cadi, has strolled piously
mosqueward at noon, the lover may find it an opportune
time to call at his sweetheart's residence.
At this Nureddin's condition improves to an amazing
degree. He arises from his couch and feels some concern
over his appearance. Bostana recommends the services of
her friend Abul Hassan, " a very virtuoso among barbers."
When Abul arrives, he proves to be the most garrulous
old body imaginable and interrupts the shaving to recite his
manifold accomplishments. But Nureddin is in no mood
to appreciate his versatility and, at last becoming quite
desperate, he calls upon the servants to interfere. But Abul
Hassan is a barber indeed, and their combined efforts fail
to stop the flow of his eloquence.
At last the shaving is resumed and Nureddin is so
badly in love that he cannot refrain from talking, even to
the barber, of the subject uppermost in his mind. Abul
Hassan is all sympathy and relates how his six brothers died
for love and how he, at ninety years of age, is likely to meet
the same fate. Being so well fitted by nature to appreciate
the situation, he insists upon accompanying Nureddin on
his call, much to the young man's disgust. So summoning
his attendants again, he informs them that the barber is ill,
and has him put to bed, willy-nilly.
The scene of the second act is laid in the Cadi's dwell-
ing, where Margiana is awaiting the noon hour in a fine
state of excitement. Just before he goes to his devotions,
her father brings in a huge chest full of gifts from an
ancient friend in Damascus, whom he has decided to make
his son-in-law. When after the departure of the unsympa-
thetic parent, Nureddin at last finds himself in his sweet-
heart's presence, he discovers that the persistent Abul
Hassan has escaped and followed him, and is making a
DER BARBIER VON BAGDAD 269
great noise with his rapturous serenade beneath the window.
But nothing can seriously disturb the happiness of the long-
separated lovers.
The Cadi returns rather earlier than usual and proceeds
to bastinado a slave for breaking a vase. Abul Hassan,
hearing the cries, fancies that the irate father is murdering
his new friend and raises a great outcry which brings a
crowd upon the scene. Bostana and Margiana hastily
conceal Nureddin in the chest of the Damascan suitor and
Abul is summoned to carry it forth. He has the misfortune
to meet the Cadi on the way out and is accused by him of
being a thief. The Caliph, who is passing by just then
with his suite, stops to learn the cause of the disturbance
and orders the chest opened. Within lies Nureddin
motionless and horror is general but, at the magic sound of
Margiana's name breathed in his ear by Abul Hassan, the
young lover rouses and thus relieves the Cadi of the suspi-
cion of murder. The Caliph crowns the love affair with his
majestic approval, and so it comes to pass that the too
interested barber has been, after all, a benefactor.
The composer, called by his associates the " German
Cherubini," was a disciple of Liszt, who greatly admired
him and the frigid reception accorded to " The Barber " was
the reason for Liszt's severing his relations with the Weimar
opera house. The opera has since been revived at Munich
in 1885 and in other German cities and was in the repertory
of the Metropolitan Opera House Company in New York
during the seasons of 1889-1890 and 1890-1891.
The Muezzin's call, the scene of the bastinadoing of
the slave and AbuFs famous bass solo, with the chorus
" Salaam ! Aleikoum ! " are especially fine passages.
ORPHEE AUX ENFERS
" Orphee aux Enfers" or " Orpheus in Hades," an opera
bouffe in three acts with text by Cremieux and music by
Jacques Offenbach, was first produced at the Bouffes Paris-
iens, Paris, Oct. 21, 1858.
CHARACTERS.
Aristeus.
Eurydice.
Pluto.
Diana.
Jupiter.
Public Opinion.
Orpheus.
Juno.
John Styx (Cerberus).
Venus.
Mercury.
Cupid.
Morpheus.
Minerva.
Bacchus.
Gods and goddesses.
Mars.
The opera is a clever burlesque on mythology, accom-
plished in four tableaux. When the curtain rises, we find
Eurydice busily engaged in decorating a cottage, situated
in the suburbs of Thebes but it is not, as one might have
every reason to expect, the habitation of Orpheus. It is
that of her lover, Aristeus, who turns out to be Pluto in
disguise. Orpheus appears serenading the nymph Maquilla
whom he adores. Thus the mythological lovers catch each
other red-handed in their flirtations and proceed to have a
serious quarrel. Eurydice admits that she detests her
spouse and that she is thoroughly bored with his music
272 OPERAS
and his verses, while Orpheus punishes her for her insolence
by playing for her his last concerto. She meets the shepherd
Aristeus in a cornfield and while wandering with him
catches her foot in a snare, her companion thereupon disclos-
ing his real identity. They leave a note for Orpheus, telling
him of the fate which has overtaken Eurydice, day is
turned into night and they disappear into Hades through a
trap-door.
In the next scene, Orpheus is visited by Public Opinion,
armed with torch and whip and, much to the musician's
disgust, is informed that he must follow the visitor to
Olympus, there to claim his adored wife in order to give to
posterity the example of at least one husband who really
cared about his partner. Threatened with the loss of his
music class, Orpheus consents to the distasteful business.
In the second tableau, the gods and goddesses on
Olympus are seeking temporary relief from their boredom
in a nap. They are roused by the sound of a hunting-horn
which announces the arrival of Diana. It develops that the
affair of that young lady with Acteon has not been as much
of a credit to her as mythology would lead us to believe.
A great deal of gossip is circulated, Eurydice's abduc-
tion by Pluto being the latest scandalous theme. It becomes
evident that Jupiter, who has a wholesome fear of Public
Opinion, is kept busy smoothing over things so that poster-
ity will have a better impression of his uncircumspect
family. One incident is a revolt of the gods led by Cupid,
all protesting that they are sick of nectar and ambrosia and
want different fare. When Jupiter tries to quiet the dis-
turbance, they mock his virtuous air, warning him that they
know a lot of things about him, and proposing to recite the
list. He pleads a business engagement but is detained
perforce, and has several escapades recalled unpleasantly to
mind. An interruption is afforded by Mercury's announce-
ment of the approach of Orpheus and Public Opinion and
the deities are ordered to behave and to arrange themselves
for the reception of company. The two visitors enter and
ORPHfiE AUX ENFERS 273
Public Opinion reminds Orpheus that it is time to begin his
impassioned plea. This he manages so effectively that
Jupiter declares he will assist in the restoration and all the
company ask to go along for diversion.
In Tableau III, Eurydice is seen languishing in Pluto's
drawing-room in Hades closely guarded by John Styx. As
Pluto has been rather neglectful, Eurydice greets Jupiter's
arrival with pleasure. He is disguised as a large fly and
after affecting coyness, he allows Eurydice to catch him.
They at once become deeply in love with each other.
In the last tableau, Eurydice is found changed by
Jupiter into a Bacchante and Pluto shows some evidence of
being glad to resign her to her husband. Jupiter, faithful
to his promise, declares that Orpheus shall take Eurydice
but only on condition that he shall not look at her until
they have crossed the Styx, for he reckons on Orpheus'
curiosity and hopes thus to keep her for himself. They
have almost reached the galley and Orpheus, still fearful
of Public Opinion, has not looked around, when the anxious
Jupiter takes matters into his own hands and gives him an
electric kick which causes him to start and turn. Orpheus,
able now to excuse himself to Public Opinion, can scarcely
conceal his joy and the whole breaks up with a minuet in
which Jupiter leads off with Eurydice.
The opera enjoys the distinction of being one of the
most popular of all the works of the bouffe class. It
parodies the tales of the Olympian gods as " La Belle
Helene " does those of the Homeric Heroes and although it
was intended primarily to appeal merely to the amusement-
seeking class, the wealth of melody in its musical score and
the capital humor in its libretto have given it widespread
and enduring vogue.
Charming numbers in this admirable burlesque opera
are Eurydice's song, " La femme dont la coeur reve " (" The
maiden who with dreaming heart") ; Aristeus' pastoral song,
"Voir, voltiger sous les treilles " ("See fluttering 'neath the
branches"); Diana's song, " Quand Diana descend dans la
274 OPERAS
plaine" ("When Diana to the plain descends"), with its
quaint refrain; Minerva's song relating the amours of
Jupiter; John Styx' ballad, "Quand j'etais roi de Boetie"
("When I was King") ; Eurydice's fly song, "Bel insecte
a I'aile doree" ("Fair insect, with wing of gold") and her
hymn to Bacchus.
IL BALLO IN MASGHERA
"II Ballo in Maschera" or "The Masked Ball," an
opera in three acts with music by Verdi and text by M.
Somma, was first produced in Rome at the Teatro Apollo,
Feb. 17, 1859.
CHARACTERS.
Richard, Count of Warwick and Governor of Boston.
Reinhart, secretary to the governor.
Amelia, wife of Reinhart.
Ulrica, a negress astrologer.
Oscar, a page.
Sylvan, a sailor.
q, ' I enemies of the Count.
A judge.
A servant.
Richard, Governor of Boston, is in love with Amelia,
wife of his friend and secretary, Reinhart. As he broods
over this unhappy state of affairs he is approached by the
loyal Reinhart who warns him that his life is threatened
by conspirators, but he dismisses the matter with character-
istic lightness. A petition is brought to him for the banish-
ment of Ulrica, a negress who practices sorcery and, in
order to give personal investigation to the case, he disguises
himself and visits the squalid cabin where a witch's caldron
276 OPERAS
steams over a tripod. He overhears Amelia begging the
witch to give her some potion capable of dispelling the
unlawful love which fills her heart and realizes with mixed
emotions that the love is for him. Ulrica recommends an
herb which grows in the .gallows-field where criminals are
executed and informs her that it will be potent only if she
gathers it alone and at night. Richard remains after
Amelia has crept shudderingly away and gives Ulrica his
own palm for the revelation of its secrets. She tells him
that death is in store for him and that his assassination is
to be by the sword of him who next touches his hand in
apparent friendship. In contempt of the oracle, he ofifers
his hand to each of his courtiers but all shrink from it. At
this moment Reinhart enters and the Governor grasps his
hand, while all breathe a sigh of relief, for they are sure
no harm can ever come to him from a friend as tried and
true as his secretary.
The second act is played in the ghastly field where
Amelia goes to dig the herb which shall cure her of her
love. Once she sees a figure appear in the uncertain light
of the moon and in terror fancies a ghost is rising before
her. She may well tremble, for it is Richard who has
followed her from the town. Earnestly she beseeches him
to leave but he forgets that he has come to protect her and
entreats her to acknowledge her love for him which she
weakly does. They are suddenly confronted by Reinhart,
who having discovered that the conspirators are on the
Governor's track, has come to warn him. He beseeches
him to fly but Richard refuses to go unless Reinhart will
pledge himself to conduct his deeply veiled companion to the
gates without attempting to discover her identity. He
promises but is overtaken by the conspirators, who think
Reinhart is the Governor. Showing them their mistake,
he chides them for their perfidy and they insist upon snatch-
ing the veil from his companion's face. As he is about to
defend her with his sword she reveals herself and his love
for the Governor dies a sudden death.
IL BALLO IN MASCHERA 277
On the next day, Reinhart goes over heart and soul to
the conspirators, overcoming their doubts of his sincerity
by offering his httle son as hostage. All wish to strike the
coveted blow and it is finally decided to leave it to chance.
Amelia is made the instrument. She is asked to draw a
name from a vase and has the misfortune to draw her
husband's. It is planned to kill the Governor at the masked
ball which he gives that evening at his mansion. Amelia,
learning of this, manages to have a warning conveyed to
him. With his usual reckless courage, however, he appears,
hoping to obtain a last glimpse of her. He has resolved to
send her back to England with her husband, whom he has
arranged to commission handsomely. As he steals a word
under cover of their disguises, the jealous husband rushes
between them and stabs him. With his dying breath, the
Governor attests the wife's innocence and bids farewell to
his beloved country.
The subject of the opera is the same as that of Auber's
"Gustavus III.," which represents the assassination of the
King of Sweden at a masked ball. When Verdi began to
prepare for its production in Naples, the police interfered
upon the ground that it would be injudicious, owing to the
recent attack of Orsini upon Napoleon III. Verdi hotly
refused to adapt his music to other words, but later the
impresario of the Teatro Apollo in Rome suggested changes
in the libretto which made possible the production of the
opera. The scene was transferred to Boston, Mass., the
Swedish King was transformed into a British governor and
the conspirators into Royalists and Puritans.
The score, while not the greatest of Verdi's achieve-
ments, contains several numbers of distinct beauty. Among
them kre Richard's song, " La rivedra nell' estasi " ("I shall
behold her") ; Reinhart's aria, " Di speranze e glorie piena
("For thy life"): the song of Oscar the page, " Volta la
terrea" ("Fain would I plead"); the witch's music and
Richard's barcarole, " Di' tu se fedele " ("Oh tell me").
278 OPERAS
In Act II occur Amelia's dramatic aria, sung on the
murderer's field, " Ma dall arido " (" This is the dreaded
place ") ; the love duet following upon the arrival of Rich-
ard, " M'ami, m'ami " ("Love me! Love me!"). In Act
III are Amelia's song, " Morro, ma prima in grazia "
("Only one word more to thee") and Reinhart's song, "O
dolcezzo perdute" (" O ye hours").
FAUST
MADAME MELBA,
"Faust," a^fffand ooera . in^ve acts^with words by
Barbier ^nd Carn; afrer C.-jk- tne s- poem ana music by
Charles Ci^nE v%ffelt J^r^f .^?«attJ>e^aR^'L^e,
. ^™e. Sie adopted^ the name "Melba'^ in remem-
^tsnck or fhe Australian city. She sang at concert
in Melbonrne whfiPM^^JF^ars old. Against the
wfsfi' oTlie^r father, decided to adopt music as a pro-
fession. After her marriage in 1882, to Captain Arm-
strong, her determination to follow a musical career
strengthened. Studied under Madame Marchesi in
Paris, made her debut at Brussels in the role of Gilda
in Rigoletto, with g-reatest success. Renowned in
many lands, she has made riumerbus appearances in
'the United' States. Her favorHt rdle« ' afe^LMi^y-
the iOphelie, Juliet and Marguerite?.' 'C Goethe drama. Dr.
Faust, the d ca ^i i . who has lived many
years in the i of kno\ is introduced to us as
baffled in his metaphysical im'C^tigation, weary of life,
and longing to be released from it. He cries
N*uf?ht do I see! Naught .^n T know?
N'augrht! Naught!
He mixes a -'luight of poison and is about to raise it
to his lips. A'h-r\ he hears a company of laborers singing
as they go to xut Md$
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FAUST
"Faust," a grand opera in five acts, with words by
Barbier and Carre after Goethe's poem and music by
Charles Gounod, was first produced at the Theatre Lyrique,
Paris, March 19, 1859.
CHARACTERS.
Marguerite
Siebel
Dr. Faust
Valentine
Mephistopheles
Martha
Wagner
Students, soldiers, villagers, sorcerers.
This opera of Gounod follows, with reasonable fidelity,
the Faust-Marguerite episode in the Goethe drama. Dr.
Faust, the disillusioned old student, who has lived many
years in the pursuit of knowledge, is introduced to us as
baflfled in his metaphysical investigation, weary of life,
and longing to be released from it. He cries
Naught do I see! Naught do I know!
Naught! Naught!
He mixes a draught of poison and is about to raise it
to his lips, when he hears a company of laborers singing
as they go to the fields
280 OPERAS
Praise ye the Lord!
Bless ye our God!
The world is beautiful.
"But this God, what can he do for me?" shrieks the
unhappy Faust and he falls back into his chair cursing
wildly. With this invitation, Mephistopheles, the fiend,
makes a spectacular appearance, clothed as a gay cavalier
with a plume in his hat and a bright cloak over his
shoulder. He offers to give Faust youth in exchange for
his soul. The student has known life only in theory and
the appeal is too strong to be overcome, while a vision of
Marguerite at her spinning-wheel nerves his hesitating
hand to sign the contract.
He sees the world in its new guise at Easter-tide and
at the kermess or village fair he meets Marguerite for the
first time, as she is returning from church. She is a pure
and innocent girl, whose brother, Valentine, a soldier, has
departed for the wars, leaving her in the care of the youth
Siebel and of old dame Martha. Mephistopheles encoun-
ters Valentine and Siebel at the fair and, confessing that
he is a sorcerer, reads their hands. To Siebel he says,
"Whatever flowers you would gather shall wither in your
grasp. No more bouquets for Marguerite." To Valentine
he says, "Take care, my brave fellow; some one I know
is destined to kill you."
Into Marguerite's garden, Siebel comes and leaves a
nosegay at her window but Mephistopheles soon appears and
places there a casket of jewels to outshine it. The girl
returns from church and sings at her spinning-wheel
the quaint old folk-song "There was a king in Thule,"
while, in reality, she is dreaming of the handsome Faust,
whose advances she rebuffed in the market-place. Suddenly
she sees the jewels, and is delighted with them. Faust appears
and the girl confides to him her loneliness, he assuring
her eloquently of his love and devotion. A strange
doubt fills her soul, however, but Faust dispels it with his
endearments. To prove his love, she consults a daisy.
FAUST 281
saying as she pulls out the petals one by one, "He loves
me; he loves me not." The flower says "yes" and Faust
adds his rapturous avowal to its answer.
She falls a victim to Faust and, deserted, she cringes
under the scorn of the world. When Valentine returns,
he challenges his sister's betrayer and is slain, Mephistoph-
eles guiding the sword in Faust's unwilling hand. The
girl finds herself alone and forsaken, her former associates
taunting her and even the church failing to console her,
for Mephistopheles follows to mock her even at the altar.
Finally, her grief drives her mad and she kills her child.
The prison doors close on her and she waits for the execu-
tioner's axe.
Faust, viewing with Mephistopheles the glory of earth
and heaven, is drawn from a visiqn of Helen's triumphant
beauty to contemplate the anguished features of Marguerite
in the dress of the condemned. Aided by Mephistopheles,
he seeks her in prison and urges her to fly with him, but
her chastened soul relies now upon heaven alone and she
refuses to submit to the entreaties of the bitterly contrite
Faust. At dawn, as the bells toll for her execution, she
dies and her soul is carried to heaven by angels, before
whose holiness Mephistopheles is powerless. Faust follows
her apotheosis with his eyes and sinks to his knees in prayer.
Gounod's "Faust" has had an universal success. It
and his "Romeo and Juliet" are counted his masterpieces.
The former has been performed more than a thousand times
in Paris alone.
Among the numbers are the drinking song of Mephis-
topheles, "Veau d'or" ("Calf of Gold"); the entire
garden scene, which includes Siebel's "Flower Song,"
Faust's greeting of Marguerite's dwelling, "Salut! demeure
chaste et pure" ("Hail, thou dwelling pure and holy") ; the
"King of Thule" ballad and the "Jewel Song" sung by
Marguerite and the duets of Faust and Marguerite. "Laisse-
moi, laisse-moi contempler ton visage" ("Let me gaze")
and "O nuit d'amour" ("O Night of Love"). Prominent
282 OPERAS
in the later acts are the " Soldiers' Chorus," the ballet
music and the trio for Marguerite, Faust and Mephistoph-
eles with which the opera closes.
LURLINE
" Lurline," a romantic opera in three acts with music
by William Vincent Wallace and words by Edward Fitz-
ball, was first produced at Covent Garden Theatre, London,
Feb. 23, 1860. Its story is very similar to the famous
legend of the Lorelei.
CHARACTERS.
Count Rudolph, a young nobleman.
The Baron Truenfels.
Conrad.
Zelieck, a gnome.
Ghiva, the Baron's daughter.
Liba, the spirit of the Rhine.
Lurline, nymph of the Lurlei-Berg.
Vassals of Rudolph, attendants of the Baron, conspir-
ators, pages, water-spirits, naiads, nymphs.
The action of this opera takes place in the waters
and on the banks of the Rhine. Count Rudolph is an
extravagant young fellow residing in an ancestral castle.
He is generous as well as extravagant and his patrimony
has been dissipated, largely by the graceless followers by
whom he is surrounded. Like some other young spend-
thrifts, he hopes to mend his fortunes by marriage. His
284 OPERAS
fiancee, Ghiva, is the pretty, but vain and mercenary daughter
of a neighboring baron. The Baron and Rudolph both dis-
cover, however, that they are ahke in need of replenishing
each his income. The marriage treaty is summarily dis-
solved, the once cordial Baron fairly showing the young
Count the door.
Meantime, Lurline, the nymph of the Rhine, has seen
Count Rudolph in his boat and has fallen in love with him.
At a revel held by him and his companions at the castle,
Lurline attends and, surrounding the host with spells, places
her magic ring upon his finger. Upon recovering his
reason he finds that he is in love with the bautiful water-
queen. Her enchanted voice and harp lure him to the
river in which he is engulfed and in which he is supposed to
perish.
The second act shows the coral cavern of the Rhine,
where Lurline makes her dwelling. The form of Rudolph
is seen wrapt in sleep which the father of Lurline means to
be eternal. But while he is temporarily absent, Rudolph is
resuscitated. To his ears comes the sound of the voices
of his companions singing a requiem for the loss of their
chief. This moves him so deeply that he desires to return
to them for a short time. Lurline consents to his absence
for three days and agrees to await his return on the summit
of the Lurlie-Berg at the rising of the moon on the third
evening. To augment his happiness, she prevails on her
father, the Rhine-King, who has become reconciled to an
earthly son-in-law, to give him a cargo of wealth for the
fairy boat on which he embarks. Lurline with strange dread
watches him depart. She fears the nonfulfilment of his
promise to return.
Rudolph at home again Is greeted with joy. He dis-
closes to the Baron and his daughter the secret of his
enormous wealth, the news producing a remarkable change
in their manner toward him. The Baron again courts an
alliance with him, and Ghiva, displeased to find that his
heart is engaged to Lurline, hopes to break her influence
LURLINE 285
by stealing the enchanted ring from his finger and casting
it into the Rhine. All this time poor Lurline sits discon-
solate upon the Lurlei-Berg lamenting to the mournful
tones of her harp. A gnome in the service of the Rhine-
King confirms her belief that she is deserted by bringing to
her the ring. Like any earthly woman, the evidently
scorned nymph finds her fury aroused and resolves to visit
her unfaithful lover to upbraid him.
The castle on the Rhine is now the scene of great
festivity and among the revelers the Count alone is sad,
for his heart is away on the Lurlei-Berg with Lurline.
But he dares not present himself to her without the ring.
When he is alone for a moment, Lurline appears to him
and demands the troth-token. An interview takes place,
which ends in Lurline's denouncing the treachery of the
companions in whom he most confides. They are envious
of his wealth and have plotted to destroy him and plunder
the castle. Their plan has been overheard by Ghiva and
her father, who urge him to instant flight. Even now the
assassins rush upon Rudolph but he prefers death at the
feet of Lurline to safety without her. Lurline's affection
returns and, seizing her harp, by the spell of music she
causes the destruction of the assassins. The Rhine-King
again appears, to give Rudolph's hand to his daughter.
The principal numbers in this rarely given opera are
Lurline's songs to the accompaniment of her harp, " Flow
on, flow on, O silver Rhine " and " When the night winds
sweep the wave ; " the chorus, " Sail on, sail on, the mid-
night gale ; " Rudolph's romanza, " Our barque, in moon-
light beaming ; " the chorus of gnomes and spirits, " Ven-
geance, Vengeance ; " the " Behold ! Behold ! wedges of
gold," sung by the gnome at the commencement of the
second act ; Lurline's song with Liba and the chorus, " Take
this cup of sparkling wine;" "Troubadour enchanting,"
for the contralto; Rudolph's ballad, beginning the third
act, " My home ! My heart's first home ; " Lurline's " Great
Spirit! hear my prayer," the one number of the opera which
286 OPERAS
found universal popularity and which is still sung occasion-
ally ; the incantation, " Wild waters, from your fountains
rise " and the final chorus, " Flow on, thou lovely Rhine."
THE LILY OF KILLARNEY
" The Lily of Killarney," presented on the continent
as " The Rose of Erin," is a light opera in three acts, the
musical setting, by Sir Julius Benedict. The story is taken
by Oxenford from Dion Boucicault's Irish drama, " Colleen
Bawn." The work was produced at Covent Garden
Theatre, London, Feb. 8, 1862. The characters are of the
Eighteenth Century and the scene is laid in Killarney,
Ireland.
CHARACTERS.
Eily O'Connor, the Lily of Killarney.
Mrs. Cregan, mistress of the hall at Tore Cregan.
Hardress Cregan, her son.
Anna Chute, an heiress.
Father Tom, a priest.
Danny Mann, Hardress' boatman.
Myles na Coppaleen, a lover of Eily.
Corrigan, an Irish middleman.
O'Moore.
Sheelah.
Dennis.
Hardress Cregan, son of Mrs. Cregan of the Hall, is
the not wholly blameless hero of " The Lily of Killarney."
The Cregan estate is heavily mortgaged and foreclosure is
threatening, when Corrigan, the middleman, calls on Mrs.
Cregan and suggests the marriage of her son with the rich
288 OPERAS
Anna Chute as a solution of their difficulties. In the event
of failing in this, Corrigan suggests, as an alternative, Mrs.
Cregan's marriage with himself. The idea is disdained
and Corrigan, in retaliation, proves to Mrs. Cregan that
Hardress is being taken by his henchman, Danny Mann, to
see Eily, the Colleen Bawn or Lily of Killarney, a peasant
girl for whom he is known to have inclinations. Eily has
another lover, Myles na Coppaleen. Corrigan informs him
that the Lily and Hardress have been clandestinely married.
Father Tom tries to bring about a public announcement of
the marriage and Hardress labors just as strenuously for
the Lily's surrender of the " marriage lines " or certificate
but this the priest and her former lover prevent. Corrigan
continues to bring pressure to bear in the mortgage matter
and Hardress reluctantly pays his suit to Anna, meantime
suffering genuine remorse over his treatment of Colleen
Bawn, The daredevil Danny Mann volunteers to get the
girl out of the way; Hardress falters at an evil deed but is
desperate, and finally agrees that if he shall send his glove
to Danny it is to be a signal for her disappearance. Danny
at once tells Mrs. Cregan that if she can induce her son to
send him his glove, it in some way will mend the fortunes
of the unhappy family. Ready to catch at a straw and
ignorant of its import, Mrs. Cregan sends the desired
article on her own account. Danny takes it to Colleen
Bawn, tells her that her husband has sent for her and that
she is to come in his boat. He rows her to a cave, demands
the marriage certificate again and, when she refuses, pushes
her into the water. Myles, who happens to be near, shoots
Danny and saves the girl. Eventually, Hardress is arrested
for murder but is cleared by Danny's deathbed confession.
Hardress' marriage with Anna Chute is prevented and he
recognizes the Lily of Killarney as his lawful wife.
Benedict's " Brides of Venice " and " The Gypsy's
Warning " have been forgotten but " The Lily of Killarney "
still has occasional performance. The score is elaborate
for light opera but is interspersed with Irish melodies which
THE LILY OF KILLARNEY 289
lend it distinctive character and, at the same time, the
charm of naturalness and simpHcity. Among the numbers
are Hardress' song "A Bachelor's Life ; " the serenade " The
Moon has raised her lamp above ; " the old Irish melody,
" The Cruisheen Lawn " (" Little Jug ") ; the duet of Anna
Chute and Hardress, " The eye of love is keen ; " Danny
Mann's song, " Colleen Bawn ; " Myles' lullaby, " Your
slumbers, och soft as your glance may be ; " the trio of Eily,
Myles and Father Tom, " Blessing on that Rev'rend Head "
and Hardress' ballad " Eily Mavourneen, I see thee before
me."
LES TROYENS A CARTHAGE
"Les Troyens a Carthage" or "The Trojans at
Carthage," an opera in five acts and a prologue with words
and music by Hector Berlioz was produced in Paris, Nov.
4, 1863. It forms the second part of the lyric poem ** Les
Troyens" ("The Trojans").
CHARACTERS.
y^neas, a Trojan hero, son of Venus and Anchises.
Narbal, minister to Dido.
Pantheas, Trojan priest, friend of .S^neas.
lopas, Tyrian poet at the court of Dido.
Hylas, a young Phrygian sailor.
Two Trojan soldiers.
Dido, Queen of Carthage, widow of Sicheus, formerly
prince of Tyre.
Anna, sister of Dido.
Ascagnus ,young son of .lEneas.
A rhapsodist.
Mercury.
Spectres of Priam, of Chorebus, of Cassandra, of
Hector.
Chorus of Tyrians, Trojans, Carthaginians, nymphs,
satyrs, fauns and sylvans.
Upon the rising of the curtain on the prologue, Troy
is seen in flames and a rhapsodist appears to recite his story
to an orchestral lament. He tells how after ten years' futile
292 OPERAS
siege of Troy, the Greeks by trickery entered the city in the
Wooden Horse, which they pretended was an offering for
the appeasing of the offended Pallas Athene. He adds that
this was done in spite of the warnings of Cassandra, who
ultimately found all her forebodings correct and who, with
the other Trojan women, killed herself.
The first act is played in a vast hall in the palace of
Dido at Carthage. A fete is being celebrated. The fair
Queen thanks the people for establishing a prosperous and
substantial young empire in the seven years since they fled
with her from Tyre from the tyrant Pygmalion, her hus-
band's murderer. Great in peace, she asks them to show
themselves a race of heroes in war and to defend her from
an odious marriage with Hiarbas, the Numidian. The
adoring people gladly promise their protection.
The next scene reveals the Queen's apartment. Here
her sister Anna, observing the Dido's depression, counsels
her to remarry instead of living so constantly with the
memory of her dead spouse. As they talk, lopas comes to
announce the arrival of deputies from a strange fleet in
quest of an asylum.
Dido, taught compassion by her own past, willingly
grants them an audience. Among the strangers is ^neas,
the Trojan, who is destined to be the founder of the Roman
empire. He is in the guise of a sailor and is accompanied
by his young son. During the presentation of gifts to the
Queen, news is brought that the insulted Hiarbas has arrived
with a great army and, when the Carthaginians express
their fear that they will fall in the unequal contest, ^neas
throws off his disguise and offers to supplement their army
with his forces. Leaving his son in Dido's care, he goes
to marshal his hosts.
Between the first and second acts, the spectacle of a
royal chase is depicted. The hunters appear and, as the
trumpets sound a fanfare, glimpses are caught of frightened
naiads hiding in the reeds. The sky is obscured and the
rain falls with rapidly increasing force. In the lightning
LES TROYENS A CARTHAGE 293
flashes are discerned ^neas and Dido garbed as Diana,
the huntress. They seek shelter in a grotto. Wood-nymphs
gHde from the pinnacles of high rocks and satyrs, sylvans
and fauns perform a grotesque dance. Occasionally, in
the midst of the clamor of the tempest is heard the word
" Italy." Finally, all disappear into the depths of the
forest and the tempest dies away.
The second act is played at sunset in the garden of
Dido at the edge of the sea. The Queen and her court,
together with ^neas and the boy Ascagnus, watch the
splendid dance performed by Numidian slaves, the Queen
indifferently, it is true. A growing love is undermining
her faithfulness to her dead husband. At last she waves
away even her favorite, the poet lopas, who at her bidding
has sung to her. Then she asks ^neas, who reposes at
her side, to tell her of the fate of the lovely Andromache,
widow of Hector, ^neas relates that, reduced to slavery
by Pyrrhus, she implored death but finally was induced by
the obstinate love of the prince to espouse him instead.
Dido, fearing herself, shrinks from the knowledge of this
precedent, lest she may be weak enough to do likewise.
She is unconscious that as they converse, the boy Ascagnus
toying with her fingers draws off her wedding-ring. The
Trojan hero and the enamored Queen stroll into the gardens
where in the light of the moon they acknowledge their
love. Mercury, appearing suddenly in the moonlight, strikes
with his wand Eneas' shield which hangs upon a column
and solemnly repeats the word. " Italy, Italy, Italy."
In the third act, is seen the shore of the sea, covered
with Trojan tents and, afar off, Trojan ships lying at
anchor. The young sailor Hylas ponders upon the uncer-
tainty of a soldier's fate; the priests take counsel among
themselves and voices of invisible spirits are heard uttering
cries of " Italy." ^neas, perturbed, arrives in camp,
fresh from a heartrending interview with Dido in which
he has told her that it is necessary for him to leave Carthage.
He describes vividly her anguish and irreconciliation. To
294 OPERAS
banish the memory of the fixed eyes and deathHke pallor
of the Queen, the spirits of the dead heroes come to remind
him of his duty, which is to conquer and found a natioa
They warn him against delay.
In the fourth act, Dido's sorrow and love prove
stronger than the desire for revenge for her betrayed faith.
To those who surround her intimately, she confides that she
means to put an end to her unbearable existence.
In the fifth act, the curtain rises to disclose a funeral-
pyre raised in the gardens of Dido. Accompanied by the
songs of the priests and the lamentations of the people,
the Queen mounts the steps and casts upon the pyre the
toga of ^neas. Dowered with the prophetic gift of those
about to die, she foretells that her memory will go down the
ages, that her people will accomplish their heroic designs
and that from her ashes will spring a splendid avenger.
Then falling upon the sword of ^neas and with the word
" Rome " upon her lips, the Queen of Carthage dies. A
vision of Rome is seen in the sky, with legions surrounding
the capitol and poets and artists at the feet of an emperor.
At this, the people of Carthage utter the heralding cry of
the Punic wars which shall be waged between the Romans
and the Carthaginians.
This is the second and more familiar part of Berlioz's
double opera " Les Troyens," which follows the plot of
Virgil's ^neid. Associated with this romantic story is
some of the finest music written by Berlioz. Remarkable
are the songs of Dido in the first act and the orchestral
scene of the royal hunt and the storm; in the second act,
the ballet music ; the quintet " Tout n'est que paix et
charme " ("All is but peace"); the love duet of Dido and
.^neas, " O nuit d'ivresse et d'extase infinie " (" O night
of ecstacy"); in the third act, the revery of the young
sailor Hylas; Eneas' lament "Ah! quand viendra I'instant
des supremes adieux " ("Ah! when shall come the moment
of farewell"), and the scene of the death of Dido in the
fourth act."
LA BELLE HELENE
"La Belle Helene " or "The Fair Helen" is an
opera bouffe in three acts, the music by Jacques Offenbach
and the words by Henry de Meilhac and Ludovic Halevy.
It was first presented at the Theatre des Varietes, Paris,
Dec. 17, 1864.
CHARACTERS.
Paris, son of King Priam.
Menelaus, King of Sparta.
Agamemnon, King of Greece.
Calchas, Grand Augur of Jupiter.
Achilles, King of Phiotis.
Ajax the First, King of Salamine.
Ajax the Second, King of Locria.
Orestes, son of Agamemnon.
Helen, Queen of Sparta.
Bacchis, an attendant of Helen.
Parthenis, ) * ^ • ^i.
T > women of Conntn.
Leoena, j
Philocomes, a servant of Calchas.
Euthecles, a blacksmith.
Guards, slaves, the populace.
The affair is based upon the Homeric legend of Helen
of Troy and refers to the decision of Paris and to other
classical incidents, the scene being laid in Sparta and on
296 OPERAS
the seashore. The curtain rises on the public square, back
of the Temple of Jupiter, to which deity the people are
paying homage. Stray references to cheese, butchers' bills
and the Cytheran Tribune may be heard. Just as Philoc-
omes arrives with the thunder, which, at Calchas' bidding,
he hangs upon a nail, Helen appears with a chorus and she
and Calchas try to devise a way of escaping the decree of
the oracle, which has it that she must leave her husband
Menelaus and fly to Troy with Paris " a nice young man,"
whom Venus declares to have wonderful taste and to
whom she has promised the fairest woman under the
heavens. Paris arrives, disguised as a shepherd, and Helen
is at once struck with his beauty, while he is equally pleased
with the lady Venus has provided for him. He says: "A
charming face! Let us see the profile. Splendid, too!
The three-quarters now turn. How naif! She has every
quality. Now turn three-quarters this side. Raise your
head a little, don't open your mouth. Splendid ! " They
are devoted lovers in no time.
There follows a grand tournament to which everyone
comes. All the dignitaries, the A j axes, Achilles, Menelaus
and all the kings guess at charades. Paris wins the first
prize. This draws attention to him and in his pride he
declares his identity. " Heavens," cries Helen, in agitation,
" the apple man ! " The accommodating oracle puts in an
order for Menelaus to sail without delay for Crete and Paris
is left in possession of the field. He secures an interview
with Helen and tries to induce her to accompany him. He
even craftily suggests some doubt that she is the most
beautiful woman in the world.
"And who else could it be ? " inquires the indignant
Helen, " Not Parthenia who paints, nor stiff Penelope, nor
my sister Clytemnestra with her nose ! "
Paris departs unsuccessful. The kings engage in a
gambling match and later, the Queen retires to dream of
Paris, who, meanwhile, enters her apartment as a slave.
Their interview is interrupted by the return of Menelaus
LA BELLE HfiLfiNE 297
with his. valise and umbrella. Helen scolds him for not
announcing his coming. Later, the couple have a quarrel
about the incident and the King calls Helen false, demand-
ing that the grand augur of Venus be sent to him. Calchas
informs him that a new augur has been appointed and is on
his way. This, as usual, turns out to be Paris in disguise.
He demands that Helen come with him and sacrifice one
hundred white heifers to Venus, who is vexed about many
things. Reluctantly, she obeys the voice of destiny and gets
on board the galley, leaving her spouse in rage.
" La Belle Helene " is an excellent example of its
class, the opera bouffe. It is purposely and ridiculously
inconsistent; its anachronisms are appalling; the gods and
heroes of mythical Greece and the Age of Fable wear
modern clothes and give expression to modern sentiments.
It shows a peculiar sense of humor and is an admirable
piece of buffoonery, if one can blink at the fact that the
dialogue occasionally borders on the vulgar.
Among the tuneful numbers, and they are truly tuneful,
are Helen's song, "Amours Divins " ("The loves divine;")
the judgment of Paris, "Au Mont Ida " (" On Mount
Ida;") Helen's " Le roi plaintif " ("The plaintiff king")
and " On me nomme Helene la blonde " ("I am called
Helen the fair;") the March of the Goose; the duet
between Helen and Paris, "Oui! C'est un reve " ("Yes, 'tis
a dream;") Helen's couplets, " Un Mar Sage" ("A hus-
band wise"); Orestes' "Venus au Fond!" Paris' song,
" Sachez le bien " (" Know but the good ") and the patri-
otic trio in the last act, " Lorsque la Grece est un camp de
carnage" ("When all of Greece is a field of carnage")
sung by Agamemmon, Calchas and Menelaus, which is a
parody of the famous trio in " William Tell."
L'AFRICAINE
" L'Africaine " or " The African," a grand opera in
five acts, the last of Giacomo Meyerbeer's works, was first
produced at the Academic, Paris, April 28, 1865. Scribe
had written the text in 1840, at the same time as that of
" The Phophet," but so many changes were demanded by the
composer, that, at one time, he withdrew his work alto-
gether. Meyerbeer was still correcting and improving " The
African" at the time of his death.
CHARACTERS.
Inez, daughter of Don Diego.
Anna, her attendant.
Vasco di Gama, an explorer, lover of Inez.
Selika, an African queen, captured by Vasco.
Nelusko, her fellow captive.
Don Pedro, President of the Council.
Don Diego, a Portuguese admiral, member of the
Council.
Don Alvar, a member of the Council.
Grand Priest of Brahma.
Members of the Inquisition, sailors, Indians, attendant
ladies.
The scene of the opera is laid in Portugal and in
Africa. As was frequently the case with Meyerbeer, he
takes for his operatic hero an actual historical figure. On
this occasion, it is Vasco di Gama, the Portuguese navigator,
300 OPERAS
who has been sent with Dias to double the cape and repeat
the glory of Columbus, The story opens in Lisbon. Donna
Inez is sighing for Vasco, her lover, whose long absence
has given rise, in court, to the fear that he has suffered
death by shipwreck. Meantime, her father is bringing
pressure to bear on her to gain her acceptance of the hand
of Don Pedro.
The report of the shipwreck is confirmed and Inez is
giving way to her grief when Vasco, the only survivor of
the ill-fated fleet, appears to dissipate the rumor. He
has picked up on his voyage a man and a woman, inhab-
itants of one of the strange lands where he has touched.
They refuse to aid in his campaign of discovery, however,
jealously guarding even the name of their island. The
councillors exhibit grave doubts as to the truth of Vasco's
claims of discovery and also are suspicious of him, as one
who would urge the existence of lands not mentioned in the
Bible. Vasco, who does not help his cause by the violent
rage into which he flies, is thrust into the prison of the
Inquisition as a heretic and Selika and Neluska, the cap-
tives, are obliged to share his fate. They are incarcerated
for a month and in that time Selika loses her heart to Vasco.
Nelusko is jealous and looks for an opportunity to stab his
supplanter in the dusky beauty's affections. She faithfully
guards Vasco and finally points out to him on his map the
course he should have taken for his desired discovery. To
add to his happiness, Inez secures his deliverance from
imprisonment. But his joy is not without alloy for he finds
that to gain this she has been forced to give her hand to
Don Pedro, who has confiscated Vasco's maps and sailing
funds and is about to snatch the laurels of discovery from him.
Vasco presents the captives to Inez as a token of his
unhappy love and Don Pedro resolves to make use of them
on his voyage. Nelusko, with hatred in his heart, sees
his opportunity and plans to wreck the ship on a reef.
Vasco, following in a smaller vessel, sees the danger and
for the sake of Inez tries to warn his rival but when he
V AFRICAINE 301
boards Don Pedro's ship, the latter distrusts him, and,
having him seized, orders him shot. Before his sentence
is carried out, however, a typhoon arises and the vessel is
driven on a rock and boarded by savages. It is Selika's
own island of Madagascar and she, its Queen, is rescued by
her people. Don Pedro and most of the crew are killed
but Inez escapes immediate death, while Selika, to save
Vasco, declares herself his spouse. The barbaric nuptial
rites are about to unite them, when Vasco hears the voice
of Inez in the distance, bewailing her fate as she and her
attendants are led to the sacrifice. Forgetting everything
else, he flies to her. Selika realizes then that she never can
gain Vasco's love and nobly aids them to return to their
own country. As they sail away in the distance, she lies
down under the manchineel tree and kills herself by inhaling
the perfume of its deadly blossoms, Nelusko taking her in
his arms and sharing her fate.
" The African " reveals all of Meyerbeer's musical
virtues and shortcomings. It is filled with theatrically
effective situations, many of its melodies being of distinct
beauty and at times of true nobility. The brchestration is
often attractive, but there is absent, in both text and setting,
any deep, genuine feeling. There are also many absurdities
and discrepancies in both plot and characters.
Among the best numbers in the score are the romanza
of Inez, "Adieu, mon doux rivage " ("Farewell, ye shores
of Tagus fair ") ; the strongly dramatic ensemble with
which the first act closes; the slumber-song of Selika, sung
over Vasco in prison, " Sur mes genoux, fils du soleil "
("Lulled in my arms"); the invocation of Nelusko in the
third or Ship act, "Adamastor, roi des vagues profondes "
("Adamastor, monarch of the pathless deep"); the Indian
march in the fourth act; Vasco's finest aria, the celebrated
" O Paradiso " (" O Paradise ") and the symphonic prelude
to the last or " Manchineel " act, which, portentous as it is
of coming tragedy, has the attributes of a funeral march
and is the best of all of Meyerbeer's orchestral creations.
TRIF
JEAN DE RESZKE,
As Tristan in Tristan and Isolde.
opera ^he elder of the two De Reszke brothers, famous
^ Polish singers. Until the advent of Caruso, Jean de
^l Reszke was said to have the most phenomenal tenor
voice of any living singer. His career has been long
and successful although his voice failed him once. He
w
, was born in 1852 at Varsovie, Poland, and sang many
, baritone roles before his voice was found to be a
j^ tenor.
,• His greatest successes have been made in Othello,
the Duke in Rigoletto and Tristan. He is now the
,^^ director of singing at the Paris Opera and has a
i^h ',jSchool in Paris where he trains promising singers.
pull!. He has amassed a fortune, through his voice.
T;
and hr
If
Sfl
11 9cl (yi I :■:■■■" - , --■;- ' V
TRISTAN UND ISOLDE
" Tristan und Isolde " or " Tristan and Isolde," " an
opera in three acts" with words and music by Richard
Wagner, was first presented in Munich, June 10, 1865. In
1857, Wagner interrupted his work on the " Ring of the
Nibelungs " to write " Tristan und Isolde " which was
designed to renew his association with the stage. Influence
was brought to bear in his behalf but failed to secure for
him permission to return to (jermany to supervise the per-
formance of the new work. It was not until six years
later that it was given a satisfactory production, under the
direction of Hans von Bulow.
The plot is derived from an old Celtic poem of the
same name, written by Gottfried of Strasburg, who flour-
ished in the Thirteenth Century, though Wagner has
changed the narrative sufficiently to make it his own.
Tristan is one of the most popular of the legendary heroes
and has been treated of by numerous writers, among them
Tennyson, Matthew Arnold and Swinburne.
CHARACTERS.
Tristan, a Cornish Knight.
Marke, King of Cornwall.
Isolde, an Irish Princess.
Kurvenal, Tristan's servant.
Melot, a jealous friend of Tristan.
304 OPERAS
Brangaene, attendant of Isolde.
A shepherd, steersman, sailors, knights and esquires.
Isolde is the beautiful daughter of the King of Ireland.
Her hand is sought in marriage by Marke, King of Corn-
wall. Unfortunately, as it proves, the royal bridegroom
sends his favorite nephew, Tristan, to bring the Princess to
England. Previous to the opening of the drama, Morold,
a kinsman of Isolde, has been sent to Cornwall to collect
tribute money and for certain acts of insolence has been
slain by Tristan. With somewhat ghastly irony, the
Cornish knight sends the head instead of the tribute to
Ireland and this memento is piously preserved by Isolde,
who promises to avenge the murder. The conqueror, how-
ever, has not escaped unscathed. He is badly wounded and,
knowing Isolde's skill as a healer, he lands upon the shore
of Ireland and she nurses him back to health and
strength. Recognizing the necessity of keeping his identity
a secret, he presents himself as Tantris, a minstrel, and all
goes well until Isolde discovers that a splinter of steel
found in the head of Morold, fits a large nick in her
patient's sword. Her first impulse is to take her revenge
but she finds that the sword she would lift against Tristan
is swayed by love. She allows him to depart without
injury. King Marke, aged and without an heir, is urged
to take a wife and, finally consenting, he sues for Isolde's
hand and sends his nephew to conduct her to England.
The drama opens on the deck of the vessel which has
on board the unwilling bride and her unhappy guide, for
though he has not confessed it, Tristan has given his heart
to his whilom nurse and she is deeply incensed that he
should countenance her marriage to another. Meanwhile,
Tristan stands apart with averted face and even at Isolde's
demand for an interview, courteously refuses to speak with
her. The Princess broods over her griefs and the result
of her gloomy meditations is a decision to take her own life.
Accordingly, she bids her attendant Brangaene prepare a
deadly draught and calls Tristan to share it with her. This
TRISTAN AND ISOLDE 305
he gladly consents to do, though suspecting its nature, for
he prefers death to life without her. Brangaene, however,
has substituted a love-potion and, as the two gaze into each
other's eyes waiting to see the glaze of death appear, they
see instead the glow of love which grows into a boundless
passion. As the shouts of the sailors announce the landing,
they throw themselves into each other's arms.
The second act finds Isolde in Cornwall, wedded to
her aged lord but engrossed in thoughts of Tristan. The
King and his attendants have gone to the hunt, leaving the
women behind. Night has fallen and a torch flares at the
palace door a signal for the watching lover. Brangaene
stands on the steps, a reluctant sentinel and a conscience-
smitten one, for she begins to fear the consequences of the
potion administered by her hands. Even more does she
fear the treachery of Melot, professedly Tristan's friend. In
spite of Brangaene's warning, Isolde impulsively extin-
guishes the torch and runs forward into the garden to meet
the waiting Tristan. They engage in the most rapturous
of love duets and rejoice that, instead of dying, they have
lived for such inexpressible joy. No heed whatever do they
pay to Brangaene's cry from the battlements that a foe is
near but continue to sing their measureless love in an
abandonment of ecstasy.
Finally, upon their unwilling ears is borne the piercing
cry of Brangaene, as King Marke, Melot and the courtiers
in hunting dress enter' swiftly and surprise the lovers in
their embraces. More in sorrow and shame than in anger
does the king reproach his nephew for his perfidy, while
the guilty Isolde sits motionless. Tristan offers no explana-
tion but calls upon Isolde to follow him to death. She
makes unfaltering agreement, which is sealed with a kiss.
At this Melot rushes upon Tristan with drawn sword and
stabs him.
In the third act, Tristan is found at his castle in
Brittany, hovering near death and nursed by his devoted
squire, Kurvenal. His couch is placed in the garden which
306 OPERAS
commands a view of the sea. From beyond the wall is
heard a shepherd's pipe playing a mournful tune which is
to change to a sprightly melody if a sail becomes visible,
for Kurvenal hopes for the coming of Isolde. Sometimes
the wounded man rouses to make faint inquiry and some-
times he sinks into a stupor so deep that the faithful hench-
man has to listen for the heart-beat to be sure that his
master still lives.
At last the shepherd's notes change to gladness and
Isolde rushes in. Tristan staggers toward her uttering her
name in delirious joy, only to fall dying into her arms. She
does not realize that he is dead and tries to woo him to
sensibility but, when the truth comes to her, she reproaches
him gently for leaving her alone and falls unconscious beside
him. Now the shepherd announces that a second ship is
coming. It bears King Marke and Melot. Kurvenal,
thinking the approach means enmity towards his master,
attacks them and falls mortally wounded. But it is only
to forgive that the King has come, for Brangaene has told
him the story of the love-potion. Isolde is restored to
consciousness, but scarcely listens to his words of pardon
and chants her own death-song over the body of her fallen
hero.
" Tristan and Isolde " marks the final and complete
breaking away of Wagner from all conventions. It is the
first opera given to the world which fully represents his
theories that the music, verse and action should be homo-
geneous; that the orchestra should be the tonal illustrator
of the drama and the commenter on the emotions and situ-
ations it contained; that the drama should be esteemed as
of paramount importance and that ensembles should be
abolished as unnatural. As this was the first opera of the
new order to see the light of day, the wildest of controver-
sies was waged about it. Battles royal were fought but
today " Tristan and Isolde " is generally esteemed one of the
masterpieces of the musical world and is regarded by many
TRISTAN AND ISOLDE 307
enlightened critics as holding the first place among
Wagner's works.
The Wagnerian plan of " endless melody" in the
orchestral score practically precludes having any clearly and
definitely defined numbers in the work. The prelude to
" Tristan and Isolde " is, however, a selection familiar to all
patrons of orchestral concerts and is rightly admired by
everyone who is in the least in sympathy with modern
music. The great love duet in the second act, the wonder-
fully beautiful " Night music " which precedes it, the long
and intensely difficult scene for Tristan when he lies suffer-
ing and partially delirious during the greater portion of the
third act and the magnificent " Love Death " — Isolde's fare-
well and greeting to her dead lover — with which the noble
work ends, are supreme moments in this " most passionate
of love operas."
MIGNON
" Mignon " is a light opera in three acts with text by
Barbier and Carre, based upon Goethe's " Wilhelm Meister,"
and with music by Ambroise Thomas. It was first pre-
sented in Paris at the Opera Comique in 1866.
CHARACTERS.
Mignon, daugher of Lothario, stolen by gypsies.
Wilhelm Meister, a student.
Lothario, a half demented old man, wandering as a
minstrel.
Filina, a young actress.
Laertes, an actor.
Giarno, chief of the gypsies.
Frederico, lover of Filina.
The first two acts of Mignon take place in Germany,
the last act in Italy. The story opens in the yard of an
inn, where soon all the leading characters assemble. Here
is Lothario, half crazed and in the guise of a minstrel, but
in reality in search of his daughter, who was stolen from
him when a little girl. Here, too, comes Whilhem Meister,
a wandering student, also a troupe of actors, among whom
is the wilful beauty Filina, and a band of gypsies, of whose
number is Mignon. The little waif. In their travels from
town to town, is made to dance in the streets to the delight
of the crowd. She is sleeping at the back of an old cart
310 OPERAS
on a sheaf of straw but is soon awakened and ordered to
dance by Giarno, the leader of the band. The crowd laughs
to see the sleepy, slender creature in her rude attire but
suddenly she shows unwonted spirit and refuses to do
Giarno's bidding. He is about to lay hands upon her when
Lothario rushes to her defense and would be worsted but
that Wilhelm rescues both him and the girl, ultimately
purchasing the latter from her cruel master. Mignon's
gratitude amounts to love and she begs to be allowed to
serve Wilhelm. Ignorant of the passion he has inspired,
he consents to her acting as his page so that thus she may
be safe to satisfy her expressed wish to be near him. He,
however, has become infatuated with the gay Filina and
follows in the wake of her troupe. His admiration flatters
the actress and she practises all her arts upon him. At
last, Mignon's jealousy makes her so miserable that she is
about to end her sorrow in the lake when she hears the
music of Lothario's harp and rushes to him. In her anger
she expresses a wish that the castle of Rosenberg, in which
Filina is playing in the " Midsummer Night's Dream,"
might be struck by lightning. The demented Lothario,
thinking to grant this wish of hers, sets fire to the house.
Unknown to him, Mignon is in the building, having been
ordered by Filina to fetch some flowers that had been
forgotten. She is narrowly saved from death by Wilhelm
who, at the risk of his own life, carries her out injured and
unconscious.
The last act is placed in Italy. Thither the ill Mignon
has been brought, followed by Wilhelm. Her delirium has
revealed to him the love she feels for him and he has broken
away from Filina. Lothario, now no longer in the humble
attire of a minstrel, receives them in his palace which he
had abandoned after the loss of his daughter. He shows
Mignon many of his possessions and she recognizes certain
jewels that she had worn in childhood. Above all, she
knows the portrait of her mother and repeats a prayer
taught to her in babyhood. By these proofs, Lothario
MIGNON 311
knows her to be his daughter. Filina has followed them
to Italy and Mignon's jealousy momentarily flares up again
but Wilhelm proves that he loves her alone and they are
united, with Lothario's blessing.
Thomas' treatment of Mignon is ever sensitive and
refined and, while not strikingly original, results in a wealth
of graceful, gentle melody. It is skilfully framed as regards
obtaining the best stage effects and the composer has shown
skill and facility in handling the orchestra. The opera is
one of the most popular in the repertory of the French
operatic stage and on it rests Thomas' claim to world-wide
recognition as a composer.
Among the notable numbers are Mignon's famous song,
" Non conosci il bel suol " (" Knowest thou that fair
land? ") and the " Swallow " duet of Mignon and Lothario.
In the second act occur the duet of Filina and Wilhelm,
" Gai complimenti ; " Mignon's song at the mirror, " Conosco
un Zingarello;" Wilhelm's aria, " Addio, Mignon! fa core!"
possessing wonderful beauty and pathos; the duet of
Mignon and Lothario, " Sofferto hai tu " and Filina's dash-
ing polacca, " lo son Titania." In the third act occur "Ah!
non credea," sung by Wilhelm, and the love duet, " Ah ! son
felice, son rapita."
LA GRANDE DUGHESSE DE GEROLSTEIN
" La Grande Duchesse de Gerolstein " or " The Grand
Duchess of Gerolstein," is an opera bouffe in three acts, the
music by Jacques Offenbach and the words by Halevy and
Meilhac. It was first produced at the Varietes, Paris,
April 12, 1867.
CHARACTERS.
The Grand Duchess.
Fritz, a recruit.
Prince Paul, a discarded suitor of the Duchess.
Baron Puck.
General Boum, in command of the army.
Baron Grog.
Nepomuc, an aide-de-camp.
Wanda, a country girl.
Iza, 1
Olga ' I "^^*^^ ^^ honor to the Grand Duchess.
Charlotte, J .
Lords and ladies of the court, pages, ushers, soldiers,
vivandieres and country girls.
The story is laid in the imaginary duchy of Gerolstein,
in 1720 The Grand Duchess, who has been brought up by
her tutor and prime minister, Baron Puck, to have her own
way, is a charming though veritable tyrant. She has been
betrothed to Prince Paul but does not find him to her likmg
and, owing to her being in an unhappy state of mmd over
314 OPERAS
the affair, the Baron gets up a war to amuse her. She
decides to review her troops. There is a roll of drums and
the cry is started that the enemy is advancing but it turns
out to be her Highness.
This visit proves fatal, for she falls desperately in love
with the handsome soldier Fritz, whose main passions in
life are his love for the pretty Wanda and his hatred of
General Boum, The Duchess immediately makes Fritz a
corporal and as she grows more and more delighted with
him, he is promoted rapidly to sergeant, lieutenant and cap-
tain. Finally, thoroughly to spite the General, she makes
him commander-in-chief and sends him to conquer the
enemy. This he easily accomplishes by the original device
of making the whole opposing army drunk, his artillery
consisting of 300,000 well-filled bottles.
When he returns, crowned with victory, the delighted
Duchess finds herself more than ever enamored and hints
at the possibility of his receiving other honors. But she
finds him a great blockhead in the matter, for he shows
that he prefers his Wanda to such distinctions and incurs
great displeasure by asking permission to marry her at once.
This proves the death-blow to the Duchess' devotion
and she gets up a conspiracy to assassinate the victorious
officer on his return from the wedding ceremony. When
everything is ready for the bloody deed, the Duchess
changes her mind, which is now busied with a new affair
with the Baron Grog. Her heart-history bids fair ever to
be ill-starred, however, for this latest romance is blighted
by the news that her beloved has a wife and four children.
She becomes philosophic and decides to marry Prince Paul
after all. To quote her own words, " What can one do ? If
you can't have those you could love, you must try to love
those you can have."
In place of assassinating Fritz, she devises the lesser
punishment of noisy serenades and hurries him off on a
false alarm to fight the enemy. The enemy proves to be a
jealous husband who mistakes him for another man and
LA GRANDE DUCHESSE DE GEROLSTEIN 315
gives him a caning. Bourn is made happy by the restora-
tion of his plume, his emblem of military distinction, Puck
is reinstated in the favor from which he had fallen. Grog
is sent home safe to his family and Prince Paul is received
again as a prospective bridegroom.
" The Grand Duchess " is a notably excellent type of
the opera bouffe. Among the numbers worthy of mention
are General Boum's "Pif! Paf! Pouf!" song; the Duchess'
"Ah! que j'aime les militaires " ( "Ah how I love the mili-
tary"); the duet for Fritz and the Grand Duchess, "Ah,
c'est un fameux regiment" ("Ah this a famous
regiment ") ; Prince Paul's reading from the Dutch Gazette,
"Pour epouser une princesse " ("To take as bride a prin-
cess"); the sabre song of the Grand Duchess; the rondo
of Fritz, describing his exploits; the declaration of the
Duchess, "Dites Lui " ("Say to him"); Boum's ballad,
"Max etait soldat de Fortune" ("Max was a soldier of
fortune"); the wedding chorus; the song of the Duchess.
"Legende du verre " ("Legend of the glass") and Fritz's
complaint, "Eh bein, Altesse, me voila " ("Ah well, your
grace, I'm here ").
ROMEO AND JULIET
" Romeo and Juliet," an opera in five acts with words
by Barbier and Carre after Shakespeare's drama and music
by Charles Gounod, had its first presentation at the Theatre
Lyrique, Paris, April 27, 1867.
CHARACTERS.
The Duke of Verona.
Capulet.
Tybalt, nephew to Capulet
Gregory.
Paris.
Romeo.
Mercutio, ) , . , , „
Benvolio, | friends of Romeo.
Stephano, page to Romeo.
Friar Lawrence.
Gertrude, the nurse.
Juliet, daughter of Capulet.
Ladies and nobles of Verona, citizens, soldiers, monks,
pages, and retainers of both houses.
The opera opens in the palace of the Capulets, where a
masked ball is in progress. Romeo, of the rival house of
Montague, comes disguised as a pilgrim and he and Juliet
at once fall in love. There are two unfortunate circum-
stances to be considered in connection with this occurrence,
318 OPERAS
for they are scions of houses between which a deadly enmity
exists and Juliet is already betrothed to Paris. Juliet's
kinsman, Tybalt, recognizes Romeo and reveals his identity,
vowing vengeance on the youth for his intrusion but
Capulet himself, in the true spirit of hospitality lets the
incident pass and the act ends, as it began, with dance and
song.
The famous balcony scene which follows, is taken
almost intact from Shakespeare and forms the second act.
In the third act, the clandestine marriage of Romeo and
Juliet is consummated in the Friar's cell, the holy man
hoping that by the union the feud may be terminated.
Romeo's page, Stephano, who does not figure in the Shake-
sperian text, is discovered searching for his missing master
near Capulet's door in Verona. A boyish bit of arrogance
on his part provokes the servants of the house to draw upon
him and shortly thereafter Romeo and his friend Mercutio
meet Tybalt and the Capulets in the street and the quarrel
becomes general. The outcome is that Mercutio is slain and
Romeo avenges him by killing Tybalt.
In the fourth act, Romeo visits Juliet in her chamber
and departs just as her father comes in to remind her of
her approaching marriage to Paris. While the guests
assemble for the nuptials, Juliet seeks the Friar again for
advice. He gives her a sleeping-potion which will render
her unconscious and will lead her friends to think she is
dead. She is to be carried in this condition to the tomb
of the Capulets and is to be waked when Romeo comes to
take her away. Thence in the fifth act comes Romeo, think-
ing his sweetheart dead. He has taken poison in his grief
and Juliet is revived only to find him beyond mortal aid.
She stabs herself and dies in his arms.
" Romeo and Juliet " is regarded as inferior in musical
interest and merit to " Faust " but none the less contains
several numbers of undeniable beauty. Acknowledged to be
of worth are Mercutio's " Queen Mab " aria ; Juliet's waltz
song at the ball ; the duet of Romeo and Juliet, " I pray
ROMEO AND JULIET 319
thee go not yet ; " the amorous music of the balcony scene,
(reminiscent of the garden scene in Faust), a notable pas-
sage being Juliet's song beginning " Thou knowest the
mask of night is on my face; " the solo of Friar Lawrence,
" Oh ! Smile, fair heaven, upon this marriage ; " the page's
song in the third act; the duet of parting in the fourth act,
"No, love, it is not day;" the Friar's solo as he gives the
potion to Juliet and the orchestral prelude to the tomb scene.
MEFISTOFELE
" Mefistofele " or " Mephistopheles," a grand opera in
four acts with prologue and epilogue, both text and music
by Arrigo Boito, was first presented at La Scala, Milan, in
1868. It is a paraphrase of both parts of Goethe's Faust,
with additional episodes taken from the treatment of the
legend by other authorities.
CHARACTERS.
Part I.
Mephistopheles.
Faust.
Margaret.
Martha.
Wagner.
Part II.
Helen.
Faust.
Mephistopheles.
Pantalis.
Nereus.
The prologue takes place in heaven where the mystic
choir is heard and Mephistopheles appears and promises to
conquer the soul of Faust. There is a chorus of cherubim
and final psalmody of the penitents on earth.
The first act opens in the public square at Frankfort,
where the students and peasants are celebrating Easter.
322 OPERAS
Here Faust and Wagner meet Mephistopheles in the gfuise
of a friar. The gray-clad figure follows Faust as he strolls
home at the close of the day and tracks him to his labora-
tory, where it conceals itself. Faust begins to read in his
Bible and this brings the fiend forth in horror. He has
suddenly assumed the garb of a knight with a black cloak
on his arm. He discloses his nature and the object of his
visit and the interview is concluded with the signing of the
Devil's contract by Faust. The fiend previously has made
plain all the conditions. He will be Faust's slave on earth
but in the hereafter, their parts shall be changed. Says the
unhappy man, " The other life never troubles my thought.
If you can grant me but a brief blessed hour wherein to
calm all yearning, if you can reveal to me my own heart
and the world's, if I can say once, once to the flying
moment ; * stay, stay for thou are lovely,' then let me perish
and the pit may engulf me."
They are borne away on Mephistopheles' magic cloak
to Margaret's garden, where Faust makes love to the
maiden, Mephistopheles pretending to be infatuated with
her mother, Martha. The second scene of the act represents
the Witches' Sabbath on the Brocken, where the evil spirits
are making merry. Here Mephistopheles, their king, comes
with Faust to receive their homage. Faust is granted a
vision of Margaret, haggard and fettered, and resolves to
go to her succor.
The third act is laid in the prison, in which Margaret
is incarcerated for murdering her new-born child and for
giving to her mother, all unwittingly, a sleeping-potion
which proved to be a deadly draught. She sits on a heap
of straw, singing wildly, her reason half gone. Faust
appears and begs her to fly with him. She raves in her
madness, asking him why his lips are so cold and telling
him the order of the graves he must dig on the morrow,
the third to be for herself. But Mephistopheles urges him
away just as the dawn appears. As it paints the sky, the
soul of Margaret is released and receives salvation.
MEFISTOFELE 323
In the fourth act, the scene changes to classical Greece
where Mephistopheles, true to his promise of giving him
earthly pleasure in return for his services in hell, allows
Faust to make love to Helen of Troy, who conducts him
to her bower. In the epilogue, the grandeur of this scene
is exchanged for the familiar laboratory of Faust where he
reflects on the hollowness of life and finds solace in the
thought of heaven, Mephistopheles is again at his side,
urging him to go forth in the world with him. Heavenly
music comes to his ears and gives him strength to resist.
He seizes the Bible and prays for help from above. His
prayers are heard and, as he dies, a shower of celestial
blossoms falls upon him in benediction.
Boito had worked for a number of years on this opera
with the intention of calling it "Faust," but the appearance
in Milan of Gounod's " Faust " just before it was finished
forced the disappointed composer to change the name to
" Mephistopheles," Later judgment terms it the most
original, noble and stately of all the operas founded on
Goethe's poem but its first presentation was a complete
failure. The critics at once applied to the composer the
most stinging appellation they could devise, " The Italian
Wagner." Later performances proved more successful and
the opera now holds a fairly conspicuous place in the reper-
tory of the opera houses of Italy and France. It has also
been given in Germany, England and the United States.
The music of the prologue is considered one of the
finest portions of the score, its finale being especially
impressive. Faust's aria, " Dai campi, dai prati " (" From
the fields, from meadows") is one of the lyric moments
in the first act and leads to a sonorous proclamation by
Mephistopheles, "Son lo spirito " ("I'm the spirit"). In
the " garden " act, the quartet of Faust, Margaret, Mephis-
topheles and Martha beginning, "Addio, f uggo " ("Fare-
well, Away") and Mephistopheles' song over the globe of
glass, "Ecco il mondo" ("Here's the world") form the
more noticeable numbers. The duet of Faust and Margaret
324 OPERAS
in prison, " Lontano, lontano " (" Far distant, Far distant ")
is of exceptional beauty and is surpassed only in worth and
the qualities that make for popularity by the duet of Helen
and Pantalis on the night of the classical Sabbath, " La luna
immobile" ("The changeless queen of night").
[TONVANROOY.
ANTON VA
r
i
As Hans Sachs in The Meistersinger.
A native of Rotterdam, this distinguished basso
was engaged in business until his twenty-sixth year.
He received most of his musical instruction from
Stockhausen, at Frankfort. His first public appear-
ances were in concert and he gained a fine reputation
as a singer of lieder and oratorio. In 1897, he
atttracted the attention of Frau Wagner, who called
him to Bayreuth. There his great parts were Amfor-
tas and Wotan, particularly the latter, in which he
greatly distinguished himself.
The next year he sang successfully in German
opera in London and the following year, 1899, in
America. In New York he was a member of Grau's
opera company and was very well received. He has
since become a great favorite and his future promises
to be brilliant. ^ o.^Kti
a pewtcrer.
vugni^tns MoscT, a t'jlor.
>{erman Orte!. a soap-boiler.
iians Schwartz, a stocking-vfv-
Hans Foltz, a coppersmith.
Sir Walter Von Stoking, a y<
David, apprentice to Hans S»c:
Eva, Pogmer's daughter.
Magdalena, Eva's nurse.
oztt&d badziu-gnhfiib eidi ,fn£fn3jio5I io aviiEn
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DIE MEISTERSINGER VON NURNBERG
" Die Meistersinger von Niirnberg " or " The Master-
singers of Nuremberg," Richard Wagner's only comic
opera, was presented in Munich, Jui^e 21, 1868, under the
direction of Hans von Biilow. The idea of the opera was
suggested to the composer in boyhood, as was " Tann-
hauser," by the reading of one of Hoffmann's novels and
was planned as a kind of " Mastersinger " companion-piece to
the ** Minnesinger " contest in " Tannhauser." The sketch
was drawn up in 1845, during a summer holiday but soon
was set aside for other composition.
CHARACTERS.
Master Singers:
Hans Sachs, a cobbler.
Veit Pogner, a goldsmith.
Kunz Vogelgesang, a furrier.
Konrad Nachtigal, a buckle-maker.
Sixtus Beckmesser, a town clerk.
Fritz Kothner, a baker.
Balthazar Zorn, a pewterer.
Ulrich Eisslinger, a grocer.
Augustus Moser, a tailor.
Herman Ortel, a soap-boiler.
Hans Schwartz, a stocking-weaver.
Hans Foltz, a coppersmith.
Sir Walter Von Stolzing, a young French knight.
David, apprentice to Hans Sachs.
Eva, Pogner's daughter.
Magdalena, Eva's nurse.
326 OPERAS
A night-watchman.
Burghers of all guilds, journeymen, apprentices, girls
and people.
To appreciate this opera and the clever satire conveyed
in it, one must have some knowledge of the Mastersingers
and the rules that hedged them about. The members of
the guild, who were burghers instead of knights like the
Minnesingers, held different rank according to their pro-
ficiency. When a certain number of tunes had been
mastered, the member was a singer; when he could write
verses to a given air, he had developed into a poet; when
he could set his poetry to music of his own invention, he
was worthy to be called a mastersinger. There were no
less than one hundred rules which composed the Tabular.
Of these, thirty-three were concerning errors to be guarded
against. One aspiring to membership must pass an exam-
ination and, if the chief examiner or marker chalked up
seven mistakes, the candidate failed of admission. Frequent
competitive tests with prizes were held.
The scene of " The Mastersingers " is laid in Nurem-
berg in the Sixteenth Century. On a Sunday afternoon (St.
John's Day) service is just being completed in St. Cather-
ine's church. An oblique section of the church is shown,
the last pews in the nave being visible. The good townfolk
are there, among them Eva, the fair daughter of the gold-
smith and mastersinger Pogner, accompanied by her nurse
and companion, Magdalena. Standing near a pillar at some
distance from the worshipers is Walter von Stolzing, a
young Franconian knight, who is intently watching the
charming girl as she takes part in the hymn which is being
sung. Eva is not unconscious of his gaze, for she turns
repeatedly to give him a glance of encouragement. The
hymn is ended and the people rise from their seats and start
homeward. As Eva and Magdalena pass Walter, he
addresses the young girl and she, eager to give him an
opportunity to speak, makes the excuse of having left her
kerchief and her pin in the pew. Magdalena thus is com-
DIE MEISTERSINGER VON NtJRNBERG 327
pelled to absent herself for a moment and Walter seizes the
chance to question Eva as to whether she is betrothed or
free. Magdalena, seeing the drift of affairs, ends by
answering his question. Eva is pledged to wed but she
knows not to whom. The morrow shall decide that, for on
that day the mastersingers are to hold a contest and to the
victor, if he be unmarried and Eva be not opposed to
him, her hand is to be given. Such is her father's wish and
promise. Walter knows nothing of what being a master-
singer means, but Eva's assurance that she will choose him
" or else no one," fires him with the determination to become
a member of the singers' guild and thus to win the hand of
the maiden whom, although he has known her but a day,
he has grown to love passionately.
Magdalena's admirer and favored suitor is David, a
young apprentice to Hans Sachs, the cobbler of the town
and most gifted poet among the mastersingers. David and
his fellow apprentices begin preparing the church for hold-
ing the mastersingers' meetings. Magdalena and Eva now
entrust Walter to David for instruction and directions as
to what he must sing and how he must sing it. As soon as
the maiden and her nurse have gone, David attempts to
keep his promise and to give Walter some idea of the
requirements for entering the guild. But he finds the young
knight wholly ignorant on every point concerning the
matter and, after rattling off a long list of titles of the
diflferent kinds of songs and citing some of the rules govern-
ing their use, he gives up in despair and, with his fellows
awaits the sport that he knows will come from the appear-
ing as a contestant before the masters of such an unin-
formed singer as Walter. Pogner, Eva's father, enters
accompanied by Beckmesser, the town clerk, a well informed,
somewhat pompous and thoroughly self-satisfied old bach-
elor, who long has been a suitor for Eva's hand and who is
confident that tomorrow will see him the victor. He is
eager that a word in his favor be spoken to the girl and this
the goldsmith promises to do. Walter comes forward and
328 OPERAS
is given hearty welcome by Pogner at whose house he had
been a guest the day before. One by one the master-
singers arrive and when all are assembled and the roll has
been called, Pogner makes an address, in which he formally
announces his decision to give his daughter's hand and
dowry to the man who wins at the contest on the morrow.
The question is raised whether it is right thus to dispose
of a young girl's heart, and Pogner states that Eva will not
be asked to wed the winner unless she loves him. Beck-
messer voices a fling at Hans Sachs that perhaps the cobbler
would like to win the girl but Sachs declares that they both
are too old for so young and fair a maid as Eva. This
incenses the town clerk but he bides his time to get even.
Pogner announces Walter's desire to sing before the
mastersingers and, when the young applicant is asked where
he had been taught to sing, he declares that from an old
book which his sire gave him, he at wintertide beside the
hearth read of spring and of returning summer and thus
from this book of Walter von der Vogelweide he has learned
his singing. The masters are dubious, all save Hans Sachs,
who feels that possibly the young fellow may possess powers
which are of worth. The trial song is at hand and Beck-
messer is appointed " marker." He enters the little cur-
tained enclosure and when all is ready he gives the signal
for Walter to commence. Walter sings but it is a rhapsody
of love and passion for the maiden he loves and hopes to
win — a song far removed from the formal, rule-bound thing
to which the masters are accustomed. Beckmesser's mark-
ing-board soon is covered over with the record of mistakes
made and he is not slow to show his dislike of the singer
whom he fears is favored by Eva. Sachs takes exception
to Beckmesser's attitude and thus further inflames the town
clerk, who now turns and twits Sachs with neglecting his
cobbling in order to be a poet, citing, as an instance, that he
has, himself, waited for days for a pair of shoes which
Sachs had promised to finish but had not completed. Sachs
laughingly assures him the shoes shall be ready that evening
DIE MEISTERSINGER VON NORNBERG 329
and the mastersingers break up their meeting in something
closely resembling a row, all of them being incensed at
Walter's boldness in attempting to sing before them. Only-
Sachs keeps apart from the general indignation. As Walter
rushes away and as the mastersingers and apprentices leave
the church, Sachs stands looking at the chair the young
singer had occupied. The song, although new and appar-
ently formless, had conveyed to him something of strength
and worth. He walks out thoughtfully as the curtain falls.
On the evening of the same day, David is putting up
the shutters for the night on Hans Sachs' shop, which
stands just across the street from Pogner's house. Other
apprentices are similarly employed near by and are singing
happily, when Magdalena appears and questions David as
to the outcome of the trial. He informs her that the young
knight was " outsung and outdone " and she, angered at the
information, refuses to give him the goodies she had
brought him in her basket and hurries back into the house.
The apprentices, who have watched this meeting, make fun
of David and a quarrel is imminent, when Sachs appears
and orders the boy into the shop and to bed. Sachs himself
enters and prepares for work. Pogner and Eva come slowly
up the street, both rather thoughtful, for the father begins
to doubt the advisability of the course he has taken in prom-
ising his daughter's hand, while the girl is eager to know
the results of the singing-test. They sit down for a few
moments in an arbor beneath a lime-tree in front of the
door but Magdalena soon appears and the two women
speedily manage to get the father into the house. Then
the nurse tells Eva what David has had to report concern-
ing Walter's failure.
Sachs appears at the door of his shop as the women go
into their house. He wishes to work but the memory of the
song Walter sung still lingers in his mind and spirit. He
feels its power yet he cannot classify or analyze it. He
knows that it is good but cannot tell why. The poet in him
responds to the utterance of genius, strange though that
330 OPERAS
utterance may be. Eva comes and tries by skilful question-
ing to learn the details of the afternoon. Sachs quickly sees
the trend of her inquiries and teases her and amuses himself
by disparaging Walter's work and worth. She leaves in
anger, going to Magdalena, who informs her that Beck-
messer is coming that evening to sing as a serenade before
her (Eva's) window the song he is to use in the contest
tomorrow. Eva says that Magdalena shall sit by the win-
dow and receive the serenader when he arrives. Just then
Walter comes down the street and Eva runs to him with
frank confession of her love for him. They plan to elope
but the night-watchman passes just as they start and Sachs,
who from the partly closed window of his shop has been
noting what has been passing, throws wide the shutters and
floods the street with light so that they cannot pass without
being seen. They are about to make a dash for it, when
Beckmesser appears and begins tuning his lute prepara-
tory for his serenade. Sachs commences a lusty song and
a vigorous pounding on his last as the singing starts and,
when Beckmesser pleads with him to be silent, he replies
that as the honorable town clerk complained of the delay in
receiving his shoes the cobbler must of necessity work at
night and get them finished for the morrow. Beckmesser
finally agrees to Sachs' proposal that while the serenade is
being sung he shall act as " marker " and by driving a peg
into the shoe every time a mistake is made in the song, they
both will be able to accomplish what they wish to do.
Beckmesser begins and Sachs indulges in such frequent
marking of errors that he has his shoes completed before
the serenade is ended. The noise rouses the neighbors and,
David looking out of his lattice window, sees Magdalena
at her window, receiving Beckmesser's serenade. He
quickly descends to the street and begins to belabor the
honorable town clerk. Others join in and a veritable melee
ensues. Eva and Walter, hidden in the arbor, attempt to
make their escape in the confusion but Sachs rushes forward
and, pushing the half fainting girl into the arms of Magda-
DIE MEISTERSINGER VON NORNBERG 331
lena, who just then appears at the door, seizes Walter by
the arm and drags him into the shop. The night-watch-
man's horn is heard and the people scurry into their houses,
leaving the sleepy and not over-courageous guardian of the
night to announce that it is eleven o'clock and that all is
well.
The next morning, Sachs sits in the sunshine in his
living-room, reading in an old folio. David comes and
finds him so engrossed that he notices nothing. Finally,
when aroused, the master has his 'prentice sing the song
that has been learned for the day and then bids him go
prepare for the festival. Sachs falls to meditating on the
possible reasons and causes for the disturbance of the night
before, but can reach no conclusion. Suddenly, Walter
appears at the door of the room wherein he has slept since
midnight. He greets Sachs heartily and tells him that he
has had a wonderful dream. He is asked to relate it and,
as he does so, Sachs writes it down, skilfully guiding the
recital so that the song, as far as it goes, is formally satis-
factory. It is not completed, however, for Walter's inspira-
tion seems to lag and both he and Sachs leave to dress foi
the festival.
Beckmesser peeps in at the window, then slowly enters
and peering about finally discovers on the table the manu-
script of the poem Sachs just has noted down. He con-
cludes at once that it is designed for the contest and that
the cobbler-poet will use it. Sachs surprises him as he is
examining it and, when Beckmesser suggests that it is to be
sung at the contest, Sachs laughingly presents the manu-
script to him with full permission to use it as he may see
fit. Beckmesser is delighted and now is sure of winning
Eva's hand. He has scarcely gone when Eva comes, ready
for the festivities. She offers as an excuse that one of her
new shoes pinches her but Sachs quickly sees that to learn
the whereabouts of Walter is the true object of her visit.
Walter appears and the cobbler suggests that a little music
would lighten the labor of correcting the shortcoming m
332 OPERAS
Eva's shoe. The enamored young knight sings to his love
and thus adds the needed third part to the dream-song.
When both singing and shoe are simultaneously finished,
Sachs hails the melody and poem as a master-song and
declares that it must be christened. David is called in and
Magdalena arriving at the same time, the five sing about
the song and what it shall accomplish at the contest.
The scene changes and on the banks of the River
Pegnitz, outside the gates of Nuremberg, the folk assemble
for the festival. The various guilds arrive, there is dancing
and jollification. At last the mastersingers approach with
all due pomp and ceremony. Hans Sachs is hailed by the
populace and, when all have taken their places, he calls
attention to the prize that is offered. At last Beckmesser
advances to sing for the prize. He attempts the poem that
Sachs gave him but so mixes and mangles it that his
hearers soon are in shouts of laughter and he is forced to
desist. He then accuses Sachs of having written it and
Sachs, in defense, declares that the poem is not of his own
fashioning, that the song is beautiful and that it needs but
to be properly given in order to prove its author a master-
singer. He calls for some one to sing it and Walter
advances. The melody and words are so beautiful that
both common folk and masters are charmed and when it is
ended Eva crowns the singer with laurel. Pogner will place
the silver chain of the mastersinger order about his neck
but Walter motions him away. He will have " none of the
masters." Sachs, however, with dignity and eloquence
points out to him the beauty and value of the art that has
given such a prize and, as Walter accepts the chain, Eva
removes the laurel wreath from her lover's head and with
it crowns Sachs himself, the people acclaiming him as
" Nuremberg's darling Sachs."
Musically " The Mastersingers " is conceded the most
beautiful and the most inspired of all the Wagner operas.
Its prelude is a master work, whether viewed in the light of
melodic and harmonic beauty or as a wonder in contra-
DIE MEISTERSINGER VON NURNBERG 333
puntal writing. The three great songs for Walter, "Am
stillen Heerd" ("By quiet Hearth"), in which he tells of
his having first learned to sing; " Fanget an" ("Now
begin"), with which he tries for the mastership, and the
immortal " Prize Song," which he composes in Sachs' room
and which he sings with such happy results at the contest,
are brilliant refutations of the charge that Wagner could not
write fluent, beautiful melody. The quintet, sung in the
last act at the " christening " of the " Prize song," remains
unsurpassed by anything that Wagner or any of his prede-
cessors have achieved along the line of effective ensemble
writing. The musing of Sachs before his shop and his
monologue when alone in his room are of supreme interest
and loveliness. The address of Pogner before the master-
singers is of the finest quality and the entire scene of the
serenade of Beckmesser shows Wagner's great genius as
musician, humorist and poet in the most brilliant light.
AIDA
"Aida," a romantic grand opera in four acts, with
music by Giuseppe Verdi, and with text translated from the
French of Locle by Antonio Ghislanzoni, received its pre-
mier performance in Cairo, Dec. 24, 1871. The opera was
written by the order of the Khedive of Egypt.
CHARACTERS.
Aida, a Captive.
Amneris, daughter of Pharaoh, King of Egypt
Rhadames, an Egyptian general.
Amonasro, King of Ethiopia.
Ramphis, High Priest of Egypt.
A Messenger.
Priests, priestesses, ministers, captains, soldiers, func-
tionaries, slaves and Ethiopian prisoners.
The scene of the opera is laid in Memphis and Thebes,
In the time of the Pharaohs. Aida is the daughter of
Amonasro of Ethiopia, who has risen unsuccessfully against
Pharaoh. The girl, sharing in the fortunes of war, is taken
captive by the Egyptians and is given as a slave to Pha-
raoh's daughter, Amneris. Rhadames, a young general, is
loved by both Amneris and her slave and the latter is
secretly loved by him.
The High Priest, Ramphis, announces the approach of
the Ethiopians against Thebes and Rhadames is chosen to
336 OPERAS
march against them. He returns in triumph with their
King, Amonasro, disguised as an officer, chained to his
chariot-wheels. It may be added that he is ignorant of the
fact that Aida is the daughter of Amonasro. The suspi-
cions of Amneris that there is an attachment between the
general and her slave have been growing and during his
absence she has devised a pretty test. She announces in
the presence of Aida that Rhadames has fallen in battle and
the girl's misery is sufficiently evident to set her doubts at
rest.
Pharaoh is so pleased with the military prowess of
Rhadames that he concludes to recompense him with the
hand of his royal daughter. Naturally, the joy of Rhada-
mes is not overgreat. Meantime, Aida fearing for the fate
of her father, whose identity is not known at the Egyptian
court, pleads that the captives may be released. Rhadames
adds his prayers to hers. Pharaoh pardons all save
Amonasro, whom he retains at the palace and thus the
father and daughter are brought into communication. At
Amonasro's suggestion, Aida begs from her lover the mili-
tary plans which shall lead to the recovery of the Ethiopian
kingdom and the liberty of its ruler. The lovers have a
secret meeting near the temple of Isis and Rhadames, influ-
enced by Aida, yields the plans and consents to fly from
Egypt with the captive King and his daughter. The inter-
view is overheard, however, by Amneris and the High
Priest and Rhadames is denounced as a traitor. Aida and
her father escape but Rhadames is tried and sentenced to be
buried alive beneath the floor of the temple of Phtah. He
is oflfered the hand of Amneris as an alternative but refuses
to accept it. When he descends into the vault, he finds
Aida waiting to share his death. The priests seal their
tomb with a rock, while Amneris kneels in prayer above
their living sepulchre, her jealousy proving stronger than
her anguish even at the last.
The music of "Aida " possesses marked dramatic power
and native oriental coloring is woven into its texture, the
V
AIDA 337
effect in the sacred chants and dances being achieved largely
with harp and flutes. The opera, in its entirety, is stately
and majestic in conception, brilliant and melodious in music
and serves as a vehicle for unbounded stage display.
Among the principal numbers are the overture;
Rhadames' song, "Celeste Aida " (" Heav'nly Aida");
Aida's lament, " Ritoma vincitor" ("May laurels crown
thy brow") ; the hymn of the high priestesses to Phtah; the
quintet, "Gloria all' Egitto " ("Glory to Isis"); Aida's
song, "O! cieli azzurri " ("O! skies of blue") and, in the
third act, two great duets between Amonasro and Aida and
Rhadames and Aida.
LA FILLE DE MADAME ANGOT
" La Fille de Madame Angot " or " Madame Angot's
Daughter," an opera bouffe in three acts, the words by
Clairville, Siraudin and Koning and the music by Charles
Lecocq, was first presented at the Fantaisies Parisiennes,
Brussels, in November, 1872.
CHARACTERS.
Mademoiselle Lange, an actress, favorite of Barras.
Clairette Angot, betrothed to Pomponnet.
Larivaudiere, friend of Barras and conspiring against
the Republic.
Pomponnet, barber of the market and hair-dresser of
Mile. Lange.
Ange Pitou, a Poet in love with Clairette.
Louchard, police officer at the orders of Larivaudiere
Amarante, ) , ^
T ^^ J- market-women.
Javotte, j
Hersillie, a servant of Mile. Lange.
Trenitz, a dandy of the period, officer of the Hussars.
Babet, Clairette's servant.
Cadet, -\
Guillaume, C market-men.
Buteaux, J
The scene of the opera is laid in France just after the
revolution of 1793. The directorate has been established
340 OPERAS
and Barras is at its head. The characters are semi-histori-
cal. The heroine is a charming flower-girl called Clairette,
daughter of the famous Madame Angot, who has been
educated better than most of her associates and has been
adopted as " Child of the Market." A marriage with Pom-
ponnet, a hair-dresser, has been arranged for her against
her will, for she is in love with Ange Pitou, a satirist and
writer of political songs, who is continually getting into
trouble on account of his revolutionary effusions. His latest
composition has been in disclosure of the relations between
Mile. Lange, the actress and the favorite of Barras, and one
Larivaudiere. The latter has bought him off. Clairette gets
possession of the song and, to avoid her marriage with Pom-
ponnet, sings it publicly and is, as she expects, arrested and
her wedding unavoidably postponed. Mile. Lange summons
the girl to her to learn the reason of her attack and is
surprised to recognize in her an old schoolmate. Pomponnet
loudly protests her innocence and says that Ange Pitou is
the author of the verses. Mile. Lange already knows of
this Ange Pitou and is not unmindful of his charms. He
has been invited to her presence and comes while Clairette
is present and the interview is marked with more than
cordiality. The jealous Larivaudiere appears meantime and,
to clear herself. Mile. Lange declares that Ange Pitou and
Clairette are lovers and have come to the house to join in a
meeting of conspirators to be held at midnight. The con-
spirators arrive in due time, but in the midst of proceedings,
the house is surrounded by Hussars; the crafty Lange hides
the badges of the conspirators, " collars black and tawny
wigs," and the affair takes on the appearance of nothing
more dangerous than a ball. The Hussars join gaily in the
dance but before the impromptu function is ended, Clairette
and Mile. Lange make the discovery that they both are
fond of the poet. Clairette schemes to ascertain whether
the other is playing her false and succeeds also in proving
to herself that Ange Pitou is untrue. The actress and the
LA FILLE DE MADAME ANGOT 341
poet receive public disapproval and Clairette consents to
marry the faithful Pomponnet.
The music is of so graceful and melodious character
as to make " La Fille de Mme. Angot " one of the most
beloved light operas France has ever known. It also won
great popularity throughout Europe and the United States.
Among the prominent numbers are Clairette's romance, "Je
vous dois tout " ("I owe you all ") ; Amaranthe's song,
" Marchande de Maree " ("A beautiful fisherwoman " ) ;
Ange Pitou's plaint, " Certainement j'aime" (" 'Tis true I
love ") ; the political " chanson " which causes the arrest of
Clairette, "Jadis, les rois, race proscrite " ("Once kings, a
race proscribed ") ; Pomponnet's " Elle est tellement inno-
cente" ("She is so innocent"); the duet of Clairette and
Mademoiselle Lange, "Jours fortunes" ("Happy Days");
the conspirators' chorus, " Quand on conspire " (" When
one conspires ") ; Clairette's songs, " Vous aviez fait de la
depense" ("You put yourselves to great expense") and
"Ah! c'est vous, Madame Barras " ("Ah! 'tis you then,
Madame Barras").
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