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hg 5 OF 4 


AMERICAN 


JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. 


Established by BENJAMIN SILLIMAN in 1818. 


EDITORS 


JAMES D. anp EDWARD 8. DANA. 


ASSOCIATE EDITORS 
Prorsssors JOSIAH P. COOKE, GEORGE L. GOODALE 
anp JOHN TROWBRIDGE, or Campriper. 


Prorussors H. A. NEWTON anv A. E. VERRILL, oF 
New Haven, 


} Prorrssorn GEORGE F. BARKER, or Paimapeeuta. 


= Bg 
od 


by THIRD SERIES. 
VOL. XLII.—[WHOLE NUMBER, CXLIL] 


Nos. 24%7—252. 


Ly TO DECEMBER, \1391. 


WITH XVI PLATES, 


NEW HAVEN, CONN.: J. D. & EB. 8. DANA. 
se ge 


A : A] nai ai 
PRESS OF TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR, NEW HAVEN, CONN. 


CONTENTS OF VOLUME XLII. 


Number 247. 


Art. I.—The Solar Corona, an instance of the Newtonian eo 
Potential Function in the case of Repulsion; by F. H. 
(2 ELT fers eR Ss Sai ihe 7 9 lg ing iene te n= a 1 
II.—Newtonite and Rectorite—two new minerals of the 
Kaolinite Group; by R. N. Brackerrand J. F.Witiiams 11 
IlI.—Intensity of Sound—II. The Energy used by Organ 
Peer ey Cusnries K. Wiran 2.5 ..2.¢5...2-55 -+ PORE 
IV.—New Analyses of Astrophyllite and Tscheffkinite; by 
DRE ete Se reo RN BRIT I BO See 34 
V.—Minerals in hollow Spherulites of Rhyolite from Glade 
Creek, Wyoming; by J. P. Ippines and 8. L. PENFIELD 39 
Vi1.—Bernardinite: Isit a Mineral ora Fungus?; by Joszru 
emma Ey EW Bia) Fe Ey on oe 46 
ViL—Development of Bilobites; by Cuartes E. BEEcHER. 
LE TELE St ingest pc 51 
VIIL--Gmelinite from Nova Scotia; by Lovis V. Prrsson. 57 
1X.—Analyses of Kamacite, Tzenite and Plessite from the 
Welland Meteoric Iron; by Jonn M. Davison --_----- 64 


SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 


Chemistry and Physics—Speed of the Explosive wave in Solid and Liquid Bodies, 


BERTHELOT: Relation between the Electrical Energy and the Chemical Energy | 


in Voltaic cells, LEvAy, 66.—Action of Heat on Carbon Monoxide, BERTHELOT: 
Electro-metallurgy of Aluminum, MINeEt, 67.—Detection of metallic Mercury in 
cases of Poisoning, Lecco: Tetrazotic acid and its Oxy- and Di-oxy derivatives, 
LOssEN, 68.—Polar light and Cosmic dust, Liveiné and DEwaAR: Phosphores- 
cence, WIEDEMANN, 69.—Reflection and Refraction of light by thin surface 
layers, DRUDE, 70. 

Geology and Mineralogy—Annual Report of the State Geologist of New Jersey, 
70.—Two belts of fossiliferous black shale in the Triassic formation of Con- 
necticut, Davis and Loper, 72.— Illustrations of the Fauna of the St. John 
Group, No. V, G. F. Marruew, 73.—Etudes des gites minéraux de la France, 
R. ZEILLER, 75.—Genus Sphenophyllum, J. S. NewBrerry: Annuaire Géologique 
Universel, 76.—Tables for the Determination of Minerals, P. Frazer: Mate- 
rialien zur Mineralogie Russlands, N. von KoKSCHAROW, 77. 

Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—Voleano of Kilauea: American Geological 
Society, 77.—International Congress of Geologists: Physical Observatory at 
the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, 78. 

Obituary—CHARLES ARAD Joy, 78. 


1V CONTENTS. 


Number 248. 
Page 


Art. X.—Some of the features of non-voleanic Igneous Ejec- 
tions, as illustrated in the four “ Rocks” of the New 
Haven Region, West Rock, Pine Rock, Mill Rock and 
East Rock; by James D. Dana. (With Plates II to | 
VIL). so 8. eee ts 22h 2 


XI.—Notes on a Reconnaissance of the Ouachita Mountain 
System in Indian Territory; by Roserr T. Hii. -_--- 111 


XII.—The Continuity of Solid and Liquid; by Cart Barus_ 125 


XIII.—Note on the Asphaltum of Utah and Colorado; by 
Grorcr H. Stonm__ 022) 0 ee 148 


XIV.—Photographic Investigation of Solar Prominences and 
their Spectra; by Grorce E. Hate. (With Plate VIII.) 160 


XV.—A Gold-bearing Hot Spring Deposit; by WatrTer 
Harvey, WEED. 20° oo )0230. 36 2 ee 166 


XVI.— Appenvix—Restoration of Stegosaurus; by O. C. 
Marsa. (With Plate 1X.).04 .5.u U2). ee 


SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 


Chemistry—Chemistry of the Secondary Battery, Cantor, 169.—Dead Space in 
Chemical Reactions, LIEBREICH: A new Reaction of Carbon monoxide, BERTHE- 
LOT, 170. 


Geology—Relations of the Eastern Sandstones of Keweenaw Point to the Lower 
Silurian Limestone, M. EK. Wapswortu, 170.—Expedition to Mt. St. Elias in the 
summer of 1890 by ISRAEL C. RUSSELL, 171.—Glacier scratches south of the 
“terminal Moraine” in Western Pennsylvania, P. M. FosHay and R. R. HIcE: 
Losses of Cape Cod by sea-encroachments, H. L. MARINDIN, 172.—Der Pelo- 
ponnes Versuch einer Landeskunde auf geologischer Grundlage, A. PHILIPP- 
SON, 173. 


Botany—Botanic Gardens in the Equatorial Belt and in the South Seas, 173. 


Miscellaneous Scientific Inielligence—Die Denudation in der Wiuste und ihre geolo- 
gische Bedeutung; Untersuchungen tiber die Bildung der Sedimente in den 
Aegyptischen Wisten, J. WALTHER, 177.—History of Volcanic Action in the 
area of the British Isles, A. GzIkrE: Magnetic Declination in the United States 
for the Epoch of 1890, C. A. Scnorr: Telescopic Work for Starlight Evenings; 
W. F. Dennine: Ostwald’s Klassiker der Exacten Wissenschaften, 178. 


ERRATUM.—Page 108, bottom line, for one and a half, read three. 


— =. 


CONTENTS. ¥ 


Number 249. 
Page 


Art. XVII.—Capture of Comets by Planets, especially their 
Capture by Jupiter; by H. A. Newron.-_-.....--.-. 188 


XVIII.—Pleistocene Fluvial Planes of Western Pennsy]l- 
faut ocby GRAN ny RMP. 222 oe eel 200 


XIX.—A method for the Determination of Antimony and its 
condition of Oxidation; by F. A. Goocu and H. W. 


EEE Tats 2 Ane) Pi sc 2 oo ee aE3 
XX.—A Method for the Estimation of Chlorates; by F. A. 
Pemmeen rare AG GG. AIPM, oe ee ee a 220 


XXI.—Dampening of Electrical Oscillations on Iron Wires; 
MPO LEOWHEIDEH, 2283: 2. ee tes avi be te 223 


XXII.—Genesis of Iron-ores by Isomorphous and Pseudo- 
morphous Replacement of Limestone, etc.; by Jamzs P. 
_. CREME 2 WOE SSSI) he ters he ae eee pe ee 231 


XXIII.— Constitution of certain Micas, Vermiculites and 


Chlorites; by F. W. Crarke and E. A. SCHNEIDER..-- 242 
XXIV.—A Further Note on the Age of the Orange Sands; 
Semis ONE srs) ee mer eee Le ede 252 
XXV.—Note on the Causes of the Variations of the Mag- 
meme Needles by Prank HH. Biemrow ._-- 2. ------ 253 
AppENDIx.—X XVI.—Notice of New Vertebrate Fossils ; 
ewe WE Nera es SS ee ee ed a 265 


SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 


Chemistry—Boron tri-iodide, MoIssaN, 256.—Hydrazine hydrate and the com- 
pounds of Diammonium with the Halogens, Curtius and Scuuuz: Synthesis of 
Indigo-carmine, HEYMANN, 257.—Lecons sur les Métaux, DiTtTs, 258. 


Geology and Natural History—Composition of the Till or Bowlder-Clay, W. G 
Crossy: Geology of the Rocky Mountain Region in Canada, Dr. G. M. Daw- 
SON: Greenstone Schist areas of Michigan, G. H. Winiiams, 259.—Some Bo- 
tanic Gardens in the Equatorial Belt and in the South Seas, 260. 


Issued August 17. 


vl CONTENTS. 


Number 2a: 


Arr. XXVII.—Some of the Possibilities of Economic Bot- 
any; by G. L. Goopama 22.) 22pm eee 271 

XXVIII.—Vitality of some Annual Plants; by T. Horm. 
With Plate X...222..3/50241. ) 2302 304 


XXIX.—Method for the Separation of Antimony from 
Arsenic by the Simultaneous Action of Hydrochloric and 
Hydriodic Acids; by F. A. Goocu and E. W. Danner 308 


XX X.—Notes on Allotropic Silver; by M. C. Lea __.-._-- 312 
XX XI.—Structural Geology of Steep Rock Lake, Ontario; 
by H.-L. Suyrn. With Plate X1 .-... 2) oa 317 


XX XII.—So-called Amber of Cedar Lake, North Saskatch- 
ewan, Canada; by B. J. Harrineron, McGill College, 
Montréal. <2 soles oe ke ee ae 


XX XIII.—Geological Horizons as determined by Vertebrate © 
Fossils; by O. C. Marsu. With Plate XU _-232eae 336 


SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCKH. 


Chemistry and Physics—Absorption Spectrum of Liquid Oxygen, OLSZEWSKI, 338. 
—Production of Ozone in Rapid Combustion, Inosvay, 339.—Sulphuryl Per- 
oxide, TRAUBE, 340.—Dictionary of Applied Chemistry, THoRPE: Measurement 
of time of Rotation, PRytz: Method of determining Specific Heat by means of 
the Electrical Current, PFAUNDLER, 341.—Optical relation of Organic Dyes, 
VoGcEeL: Maxim’s Flying Machine: Small Electrometers, Boys: Influence of 
brightness upon phenomena of interference of light, EBERT, 342.—Thought 
transference, LODGE, 343. 


Geology—Fifth Triennial Meeting of the International Congress of Geologists, 
343.—Geological Society of America: United States Association of Govern- 
ment Geologists, 344.—Fauna of the Lower Cambrian or Olenellus Zone, C. D. 
Watcort, 345.—Relation of secular Rock-disintegration to certain transitional 
crystalline schists, R. PUMPELLY, 346.—Greylock Synclinorium, T. N. DALE: 
Report on the Arkansas Geological Survey for 1888, J. C. BRANNER: Tungsten 
minerals in Canada, W. F. FERRIER, 347. 


Botany—Some Museums and Botanical Gardens in the Equatorial Belt and in the 
South Seas, 347. 


Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—American Association for the Advancement of 
Science, 353.—British Association, 358. 


Obituary—WiILLIAM FERREL, 358. 


Ee — lO 


CONTENTS. Vil 


Marmber 951. 


Arr. XXXIV.—The Solution of Vulcanized India Rubber ; 
Seemerteay Psiouiel es te ye Le bee ie eek 359 

XXXV.—Report of the Examination by means of the 
Microscope of Specimens of Infusorial Earths of the 
Pacific Coast of the United States; by A. M. Epwarps 369 

XXXVI.—The Tonganoxie Meteorite; by E. H. 8. Barney. 


Page 


et ee kd ete | ee ae 2 Set Se 385 
XXXVII.—Proposed Form of Mercurial Barometer; by 

Meri y) Seen. Foe Be Eek ele Oo 387 
XXXVIITI.—Color Photography by Lippmann’s Process; by 

Peres eG eee Fes a Ee BU Chota 388 
XXXIX.—New Analyses of Uraninite; by W. F. Hitie- 

EE AE) 2 SN ae Ee pee nee ne eee ee 390 
XL.—The Tertiary Silicified Woods of Eastern Arkansas; 

Pee riswORtH CARE 24.0402 oe le bt kage 394 


XLI.—Occeurrence of Sulphur, Orpiment and Realgar in the 
Yellowstone National Park; by W. H. Weep and L. 


SE IESE Inala i ie site ies sa Rates do ARON Open ee mee 401 
XLIL.—Mineralogical Notes; by L. V. Pirsson .---  - -- 405 
XLIII.—Peridotite Dikes in the Portage Sandstones near 

peices oh yah NRMP ee 410 


XLIV.—New Locality for Meteoric Iron with a Preliminary 
Notice of the Discovery of Diamonds in the Iron; by 
meen. toon. With Plates XIV, XVe.u2.... -2..... 413 

XLV.—The South Trap Range of the Keweenawan Series; 
Peele, tk Ao WwOIE okt ee oo ALT 

XLVI.—Geological Facts noted on Grand River, Labrador ; 
epee ee aeons BES oh ae oe ees esis 419 


SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 


Chemistry and Physics—-So-called ‘‘ Black Sulphur” of Magnus, Knapp, 422.— 
New form of Silicon, Warren: New Alkaioid from Conium maculatum, 
LADENBURG and ADAM, 423.—Iron-tetracarbonyl and Nickel-tetracarbonyl, 
MOND and QUINCKE, 424.—Sensitive Reaction for Tartaric acid, MOHLER, 425. 
—Photography of the Spectrum in natural color, VoGEL: Discharge of Elec- 
tricity through exhausted tubes without electrodes, THomSsoN, 426.—Ratio of 
Electromagnetic to Electrostatic units, THOMSON and SEARLE: Expansion of 
Water: Experiments in Aerodynamics, LANGLEY, 27.—Chemical Analysis of 
Tron, BLAIR, 428.—Die Fortentwickelung der elektrischen Eisenbahn-Hinrich- 
tungen, KOHLFURST, 429. 

Geology and Mineraiogy—Report of Exploration of the Glacial Lake Agassiz in 
Manitoba, W. UpHam, 429.—Geological Survey of Texas, 2d Annual Report, 
1890, E. T. DumBLe: Preliminary Notice of a New Yttrium-Silicate, W. E. 
HIDDEN, 430.—Anatase from the Arvon Slate Quarries, Va., G. H. WILLIAMS, 
431.—Ilvaite, G. Co. HorrmMann: Synthese du Rubis, E. Fremy, 432.—Brief 
notices of some recently described minerals, 433.—Catalogue of Minerals and 
Synonyms, T. Eeieston, 434. 

Botany—-Some Museums and Botanical Gardens in the Equatorial Belt and the 
South Seas, 434. 

Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—Leidy Memorial Museum: Bibliotheca Zoo- 
logica, O. TASCHENBERG: Catalogue of Minerals, 438. 


vill CONTENTS. 


Number 252. 
Page 


Art, XLVII.—Percival’s map of the Jura-Trias trap-belts 
of Central Connecticut, with observations on the up- 
turning, or mountain-making disturbance, of the Forma- 
tion; by J: D. Dana: “With a map, Plate XVieseems 4390 


XLVIUI.—The Detection and Determination of Potassium 
Spectroscopically; by F. A. Goocn and T. 8. Harr... 448 


XLIX.—The Ultra-Violet Spectrum of the Solar Promi- 
nences; ‘by G.. KE. HAs 2) 2 2 err 


L.—Phonics of Auditoriums; by E. Cutrmr ._-_-------.-- 468 
LI.—The Secular Variation of Latitudes; by G. C. Comstock 470 
LII,—Capture of Comets by Planets, especially their Capture 


by Jupiter; by H. A. Newron (i) 222233223 eee eee 482 
LITI.—Distribution of Titanic Oxide upon the surface of the 

Earth; by KE. P. DUNNINGTION .:-- 22 = 2025 491 
LIV.—Notes on a Missouri Barite; by C. LurpEKine and 

HH, A.’ WHEELER 5/20 ¢205 5... 225252 ee 
LV.—The Contraction of Molten Rock; by C. Barus -_--- 498 
LVI.—Notes on Michigan Minerals; by A. C. Lanz, H. F. 

Kerirr and Ff. FE. Saarpumss 2.2) 02°) 23 499 


SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 


Chemistry and Physics—Two new Modifications of Sulphur, EneGeu: Chemistry 
of the Carbon compounds or Organic Chemistry, VON RICHTER, 509.—System of 
Inorganic Chemistry, Wm. Ramsay: An Introduction to the Mathematical The- 
ory of Electricity and Magnetism, W. T. H. EmraGe, 510.—Chapters on Hlec- 
tricity, S. SHELDON: Apparent change in electrochemical equivalent of copper, 
VANNI: Electrolytic generation of Gas in a closed space, CHABRY: Damping of 
electrical oscillations, BsERKNES: Velocity of Electrical waves in solid insulators, 
AVONS and RUBENS, 511. 


Geology—British Earthquakes of 1889, C. DAvISON, 512.—Formation of Graphite 
in Contact-metamorphism, BEoK and Luzi, 514.—Geological Survey of Alabama, 
EK. A. SmitH: Geological Survey of Missouri, Bulletin No. 5, A. WINSLOW: 
Geological Survey of Georgia, L. W. SPENCER, 515.—Geological facts on Grand 
River, Labrador, A. Cary: Index to the known Fossil Insects of the World, 
S. H. ScuppER: Stones for Building and Decoration, G. P. MERRILL: Manga- 
nese, its uses, ores and deposits, R. A. F. PENROSE, Jr., 516. 


Botany—Botanic Gardens in the Equatorial Belt and in the South Seas, 517. 


Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—Analysis of the water of the Salt Lake, Alia- 
paakai, on Oahu, Hawaiian Islands, Prof. Lyons, 522.—National Academy of 
Sciences: The Metal Worker, A. O. KITTREDGE, 523. 


Obituary—J. FRANCIS WILLIAMS. 


as EDITORS 


a JAMES D. ayo EDWARD 8. DANA. 


“S ASSOCIATE EDITORS ee ap 
| | Prowsssons JOSIAH P. COOKE, GEORGE L. GOODALE 
Anp JOHN- TROWBRIDGE, or CAMBRIDGE. 


& sions H. A. NEWTON ann A. E, VERRILL, oF 
canta New Haven, 


 Prorusson GEORGE F. BARKER, or Purranetputa. 
a: mann 


ae THIRD SERIES. 
/ VOL. XLIL—[WHOLE NUMBER, CXLIL] 
No. 247.JULY, 1891. 


WITH PLATE I. . 


NEW HAVEN, CONN.: J.D. & ES. DANA. os 
1891. ae 
TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR, PRINTERS, 371 STATE STREET. Ff : 2 


F Published monthly. Six dollars per year (postage prepaid). $6.40 to foreign sub- 
Tibers of countries in the Postal Union. Remittances should be made either by 
ney orders, registered letters, or bank checks. 


the lot was unpacked, we still have a grand assortment at 25c. to $7.50. 


-ever-desirable mineral. oe etek 


WONDERFUL ENGLISH | MINE RAL 


iY SOAS POINT Sy we 


THE results of our MR. ATKINSON’ S visits to ithe fede 
mineral localities have far exceeded our most ‘sanguine « 
' tions. veh, 
Egremont Calcite Twins in richest SrGaon, including the fm +e 
group of twins ever found, also the best ‘‘hexagonal right-angled” 
crystal, the best of the superb phantoms (showing an enclosed scaleno- _ 
hedron), a superb series of twins. groups and single crystals, the ship- 
ment as a whole comprising a far finer and larger collection of the Egre- 
mont Calcites than has ever before been brought to this country. — 
Expected in by July 1st. : 
Stank Mine Calcites of endless forms and colors, including two new 
types. Now onsale. The lot is so large and fine that notwithstanding 
we sold to one customer 65 specimens, aggregating $125, the day after 


A New Type of Bigrigg Mine Calcites, long, sharply pointed, eer ie 
liant white crystals, A splendid lot. Expected in by July 1st. ae 4 
Fluorite. Over 1,000 selected specimens, of every imaginable colors My te 
large and small, low-priced and high-priced. The lot is expected in 
during July, and then will be the golden opporarnty to secure this i 


Other English Minerals secured by Mr. Atkinson include Specular — i ; 
Iron and Quartz of a new and beautiful variety; Specular Iron and 
Dolomite, very attractive; Aragonite crystals and groups; Barites in — oS 
great variety : ; Witherites, singly and doubly terminated ; Bromlite,a — ie ae: 
splendid lot; Tetrahedrite, a number beautifully iridescent ; Connetr ite 
ite ; ‘Brandtite ; Henwoodite; Lettsomite; Ludlamite, Tallingite ; Bis- Sor 
muthinite; Langite, etc., etc. at 


WHAT MR. NIVEN HAS SECURED ALREADY. rae 


‘From Missouri: excellent specimens of Ruby Blende; Matra he 
new forms; Yellow Calcite; Galenite, bright crystals, etc. i 
From Colorado: Minium, the finest specimens we have ever had ; 
Cerargyrite, rich masses and good crystals; Cerussite, some choice 
specimens. a. a 
From Arizona: A wonderful strike of magnificent cave ees : 
specimens at Bisbee, consisting of ‘‘ stalactites tinted green; stal- 
actites of distorted, curious forms; Flos-Ferri; acicular crystals of 
Aragonite, similar to the English, only snow-white ; a few remarkable i 
turquois- -color stalactites ; rhombohedral crystals of Calcites on the . 
stalactites.” We secured, the exclusive right to all the specimens in 
this new cave and have laid in nearly a ton of the most exquisite speci- — 
mens imaginable, Mr. Niven having devoted no less than two weeks’ 
time to securing and packing the specimens. The find is worthy of ans 
elaborate description. 
Azurite crystals, some of the very finest we ever had (2-inch crystals), 
very bright and perfect. > 
Velvet Malachite, a fine lot! Cuprite Crystals, very brilliant group. = 


OTHER RECENT ADDITIONS. 


Hiddenite Crystals—the best we have ever had ; Cacoxenite from Pa. ; 
Polycrase from S. C.; Aguilarite, the new sulpho-selenide of silver : Fm 
Auerlite ; Siberian Topaz, extra fine crystals; Durangite crystals; 
Kronnkite ; Phillipite ; Libethenite, a fine lot; Monticellite from Ar- 
kansas ; Pollucite, Beryllonite and Childrenite from Maine ; Roscoelite ; 
Sperrylite, eic., etc. z 


100 page Illustrated Catalogue, 15c. ; cloth bound, 25c. 
GEO. L. ENGLISH & CO., Mineralogists, 
733 & 735 Broadway, New York. 


— ~e ePID! ‘ 
On WALCOTT. 
en a Fo BF thrall LJ a SEG 


THE 


AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE 


[THIRD SERIES.] 


Oe 


ArT. L—TZhe Solar Corona, an instance of the Newtonian 
Potential Function in the case of Repulsion ; by Professor 
FRANK H. BIGELow. 


[Read before the National Academy of Sciences, Washington, April, 1891. Com- 
municated to the Academy by Professor Simon N ewcomb. | 


THE term Newtonian Potential Function, first employed by 
Neumann, is now generally accepted by writers on scientific 
subjects. It expresses the law of the attraction or the repul- 
sion, as the case may be, of the action of all the material sub- 
stance in the universe, the discrete parts acting mutually upon 
oneanother. The approximate value of the attraction between 
any two rigid bodies may be obtained by assuming that every 
particle of the one body attracts every particle of the other 
with a force directly proportional to the product of the masses 
of each pair of particles, and inversely proportional to the 
square of the distance between their centers. The true value 
is the limit approached as the bodies are subdivided indefi- 
nitely. From this case follows the whole subject treated as 
the attraction of gravitation. If we substitute in the defini- 
tion the word repulsion we derive the expression of the second 
case, and many of the formule in the mathematical discussion 
can be interchanged between the two cases by a proper use of 
the plus and minus signs. Electricity and magnetism depend 
upon this function for their analysis. 

The mystery underlying the physical condition of matter is 
as yet insoluble either by metaphysical speculation or by scien- 
tific investigation, but it is significant that this Newtonian 
Potential Function, using both algebraic signs, should reach 
to all the phenomena known to us up to this time. While I 


Am, Jour. Sct.—Turrp Series, VoL. XLII, No. 247.—Juty, 1891. 
] 


2 Ff. H. Bigelow—Solar Corona. 


cannot justify the idea, the suspicion keeps forcing itself upon 
my mind that matter some how, that is to say by change of 
conditions or environment, can be made to pass from the posi- 
tive to the negative form of the function and back again. We 
may yet discover that this is illustrated by the sun, when we 
get to the bottom of its mysterious nature. At present I am 
concerned simply with identifying the Solar Corona with the 
manifestation of the Newtonian Potential Function in the ease 
of repulsion. : 

Whenever the particles of a body, not-undergoing rotation, 
are free to move among themselves, the body assumes a spheri- 
eal figure about a center. This figure is modified by the rota- 
tion of the body. If in connection with such a spherical body 
there be present other material conforming to the case of repul- 
sion, the body is polarized along an axis, and the lines of force 
are parallel to the axis of polarization within the body, become 
discontinuous at the surface, and on leaving the surface form 
curves whose locus can be expressed by the formula 

n—&Z gus 
3 i 
where N is the given line (7. @) the polar codrdinates of points 
measured from the axis of polarization and the center. We 
are not now discussing either the interior or the surface condi- 
tions, and in the case of the potential outside the sun we may 
believe that we have a nearly ideal distribution, on account of 
the prevailing conditions of freedom of motion. 

In the corona streamers, as displayed by the photographs, 
we must remember that the curves arising from the equation 
just given are modified by projection, and that therefore the 
measured curves must all be corrected for their distortion. 
At the outset we could not know the position of the axis of 
polarization or the center of reference, and as a first approxi- 
mation we supposed that this axis passed through the center 
of the sun, and coincided with the plane perpendicular to the 
line of sight from the observer, which also passes through the 
center of the sun. Fortunately in the eclipse photographs of 
July 29, 1878, Jan. 1, 1889, and Dec. 22, 1889, which were 
studied, these conditions were not very erroneous in their 
assumption. These three coronas are so similar in their 
appearance that they are spoken of as the ‘‘ American type,” 
the fact being that at the epoch of the eclipse, the pole of the 
corona in its rotation with the sun happened to be near the 
plane of reference just defined, so that the coronas were 
observed in their most symmetrical position relatively to the 
earth. The amount of this angular divergence between the 
axis of polarization and its trace on the plane of the disk was 


" 


F.. H. Bigelow—Solar Corona. 3 


less than two degrees, and this had but little influence upon the 
traces of the curves themselves. The second point, namely, 
that the center of polarization coincided with the center of the 
sun was more inaccurate, and this was shown by the fact that 
in computing the angle through which the plane containing 
a given ray must be turned about the axis of polarization to 
produce the curve as it appeared on the photograph, it was 
found that this angle progressed in value for points of the 
curve, as we passed from the surface of the sun to its extrein- 
ity. This angle was however checked at the following step in 
the computation, by which each measured point on the ray 
gives the polar distance 0, at which the ray under discussion 
springs from the surface of the sun. We propose to rediscuss 
this question, in a second approximation, at some future time. 
The upshot of the whole matter is that of all the curves that 
theoretically exist in space, as surrounding a polarized sphere, 
only such occur in the corona as spring from a belt lying 
generally between the parallels of coronal polar distance 25° 
to 40° in each hemisphere of the sun. I subjoin a summary 
of my result for the three coronas. Hach value of 6@,, the 
polar distance of the base of the ray on the solar photosphere, 
is the mean of generally three, sometimes four or five points 
measured on the ray. The mutual agreement is substantial 
and convincing. 


ANGULAR DISTANCE FROM THE CORONAL POLE OF THE BASE OF THE RAYS. 


Corona of July 29, 1878. 


Ray. N. E. N. W. a S. E. 
1 29° 427 Bd SS 32° 417 24 Rae + i 
2 2& 32 an. AS 30 30 al 31 
3 30 52 34 40 32 25 33 44 
4 31 45 33 36 30-38 Bat 218 
5 32 50 ao BT a4 21 33 55 
) 33 46 Al 34 36 616 34 «8 
7 Sa 53 Seer 38 58 35-11 
8 4) 41 Ber eA 40 54 oa. 1S 
Mean 
2 eed | 33 39 d4 35 33 «56 33 49 
Corona of Jan. 1, 1889. 
Ray. N. E. NSW: SeW. S. E. 
1 34° 54’ 30° 337 1° 50! de Ba! 
2 28 27 ZO awe 29 49 aie 23 
3 24 39 By ae, ot 3a 30 00 
“: ae ae UES 207 11 a2 Lb 
5 pile 13 aol 2 34. 21 Bo * 21 
6 37 49 32 45 29 20 33 48 
7 42 51 2S fies 36 643 34 26 
8 Liat ee Beis aus, eShathe 36 52 
Mean 


al 8 31 44 31 41 32 30 31 46 


4 I. H. Bigelow—Solar Corona. 


Corona of Dec. 22, 1889. 


Ray. N.E. N.W S. W. S. E. 
1 30n 2a Ss sole SY ety Rae Bile a0 
2 2 as ial Pape 1S) 31. 56 
3 a0 29° 0 28 14 Zllite e bil 
4 heats 26 ] 26 59 Hy eee 
5 30 15 33 56 299 10 32) 
6 SON 34 8 B47 2b 32) 20 
7 Sp lye ale!) ae ee 30) ban Joo ee 
8 2S ts aC Li 36 15 2 AST 
9 3D 5D 39 ay ae ke 1 oe 
10 38 1 hs Ne EOD Sees Ree | Ae 
—— Mean 
30 49 Sy 6 Sil 24 a2 2 31°35 


From this we proceed to the location of the coronal poles, 
or the points on the surface of the sun at which the axis of 
polarization pierces it. | 

The results are independent of each other as regards differ- 
ent coronas, and the two hemispheres are also independent 
for the same corona. 


North Pole. South Pole. 

Long. Lat. Long. Lat. 
ily 29, WBVEh SS? Blea peasy 12h 185°. 4) gaia 
Jan. 1, 1889, 43 <26 84 25 174 - 29) ) Beuige 
Dee. 22, 1889, BO. 1 Bee Oi 1384 52 86 2 
Mean latitude, 85 32 85 24 

Difference in Longitude. 
July 29, 1878, Ou" Ace 
Jan. 1, 1889, 100 53 
Dee. 22, 1889, 98 33 
Mean difference, 100 24 


The axis of polarization is therefore at the surface of the 
sun about 43° degrees from the axis of rotation, and the 
southern end of it precedes by about 100 degrees in longi- 
tude. These codrdinates of latitude and longitude are al- 
ways referred to the plane of the sun’s equator, considered 
as celestial, and from the ascending node of the sun’s equator 
on the ecliptic, that is from the point whose longitude is 74° 
from the vernal equinox on the plane of the ecliptic. These 
coordinates are therefore celestial and, being independent of 
solar conditions, indicate the position of the axis of polarization 
without any complications. A computation of the distance 
apart in a great circle, from the center of the sun, of the north 
and the south coronal poles gives us for our three coronas: 


o>. 


F.. A, Bigelow—Solar Corona. 5 


BF 9! 
56 


Lis: 28 
Mean,.174° 6’. 


This will enable us to compute the position of the center of 
polarization of the sun, which is seen to be considerably eccen- 


tric, and from this our second approximation begins. It should 


be mentioned that although the existing photographs have 


served our purpose, and given results more satisfactory than 


was anticipated, yet no pains should be spared at approaching 


eclipses to produce pictures of much greater power than those 


we now possess. For this subject already opens up a vista of 
great interest in studying the physical nature of the sun.* 
From the results that have been quoted we may draw the 


eonclusion that the axis of polarization seems to be fixed in the 


body of the sun, the difference in longitude and the distance 
measured on a great circle being constant, within the errors 


arising from the measures, for epochs extending over nearly 


eleven years. Since the codrdinates of position of the poles 
are celestial, we have only to compute the periodic time in 
order to know the period of the rotation of the sun at a 
distance of 44 degrees from the axis of figure. It is de- 
sirable that this should be done, because the sun-spots, from 
which such a period is obtained for the equatorial regions, are 
confined to about 35° in latitude, and we shall thus be able to 
pass over the intervening 50° to the neighborhood of the solar 
poles. I have obtained the following results: 


For the period from July 29, 1878 to Jan. 1, 1889, 138 revolu- 
tions +194°°69; the mean daily motion is 13°°1353 in longitude. 
For the period from July 29, 1878 to Dee. 22, 1889, 151 revolu- 
tions +166°°68; the mean daily motion is 13°°1312 in longitude. 
For the pericd from Jan. 1, 1889-to Dec. 22, 1889, 12 revolu- 
tions +331°°99; the mean daily motion is 13°:0876 in longitude. 


AAs my conditions are of equal weight for each eclipse, a least 
‘square solution gives me for mean daily motion in longitude 


13°-138307=788’, at latitude 85°°5. 
This gives for the 


pidenrialyPeriod,. 27041171. = 27975 9h 59™ 595. 
Synodic Period, 29963580, = 299%" 15" 15™ 33°, 


in mean solar time. I propose the following formula for the 


rotation period of the solar surface at different latitudes, as 


* A paper containing the details of the work by which these results were ob- 
‘tained, will be found in the Proceedings of the Astronomical Society of the 
Pacific, No. 17. 


6 LF. H. Bigelow—Solar Corona. 


derived from the mean daily motion in Jongitude given by 
observations of the sun-spots and by computation at the coronal 
pole. 


X = 862'—76' sind, where X is the mean daily motion in 
minutes and / is the solar latitude. 


Other formula have been given : 


Faye, X = 862—186 sin’ J. 
Tisserand, =857'°6—157°3 sin’ J. 


Spoerer, =1011—203 sin (41°+/). 
Siderial Period 
Latitude. Faye. Tisserand. Spoerer. Bigelow. in days. 

0° 863’ R58" 878 862-0 25°0577 
10 857 853 853 848°8 25°4470 
20 841 839 833 836°0 25°8370 
30 816 818 819 824°0 262131 
40 786 793 810 Suess 26°5613 
50 754 765 808 S03°38 26°8729 
60 2S 740 812 796°2 27°1288 
70 699 719 821 790°6 27°3206 
80 688 705 837 1312 27°4386 
90 677 700 858 786°0 27°4806 


If we compute back to the epoch 1878-0 we find the residuals 
in longitude for the three coronas, 


North Pole. South Pole. 
July 29, 1878, —0°°9 +0°°5 
Sane le 1889, +7 °9 +8 ‘4 
Dec. 22, 1889, —7 ‘0 —8 ‘9 


I adopt as the longitude for 1878-0, 


North Pole, 2017-2: 
South Pole, 301°°6. 


days. 


Siderial Period, 27°41171. 


We can now readily locate the position of the coronal poles 
at any epoch, and I have done so for several past eclipses in 
order that comparison may be made between a model and the 
pictures obtained during the totalities of the eclipses. The 
model was constructed in the following manner. The body of 
the sun is represented by a five-inch globe. In the region of 
the coronal zones three parallels of coronal polar distance are 
taken, 29°, 34°, 39°, and on these somewhat at random, are in- 
serted wires having the proper form. Their curvature and 
their inclination to the normals of the sphere were calculated 
from the formule, a graphic representation of the locus of the 
curves made for a pattern, and the wires bent accordingly. 


t. A. Bigelow—Solar Corona. 7 


For giving the proper position to the model for any eclipse 
this simple device is adopted. The circular stand is placed on 
a sheet of card board and two concentric circles are drawn 
upon it surrounding the base of the stand. On the inner one 
the figures represent the direction from the center towards the 
earth, equal to the sun’s longitude of date + 180°. A mark on 
the stand, drawn by regarding the inclination of the axis at 
7° 15’, and representing the position of the node, is placed at 
the reading 74° on the circle just described.. For any eclipse 
turn the card board with the stand upon it about so that the 
reading (© +180°) is between the observer and the center. 
Furthermore adopting the data given above for the epoch 
1878-0 as the elements of predicting the position of the poles 
of the corona, a table has been constructed for a series of cor- 
onas from 1857 to 1893. On the second circle the 0° reading 
begins at 74° of the first circle, and it is necessary to rotate the 
ball so that the North pole of the corona shall point to the 
reading that. was computed. The observer will then see the 
model in the position of the corona of the sun, if the eye is 
placed on the same level plane as that passing through the cen- 
ter of the ball. The following table gives the two readings 
necessary for setting the model. They are computed for the 
Greenwich mean time of conjunction of the Sun and Moon 
for the several eclipses as given by the Nautical Almanac. 
Observations made at any other time can be readily corrected. 


Table of Codrdinates for setting the Model of the Corona. 


Date of Eclipse. | Long. Long. Date of Eclipse. Long. Long. 


Earth. | Corona. Earth. | Corona. 
1857-23254 G. M. fe) age" 294°4° |1876°71441 G. M. T.| 355° ae 
1858°68616 - | 344 67°3 1878 57741 - | - 306 84°4 
186054647 33 295 3511 1880-02999 Fi ip ig | 212°4 
1862-00094 < ae 128°2 1882°37T597 Y 236 305°9 
1864°34503 2 es) 248°6 (1883°34747 SORTA 226 286°1 
1865°31645 . en 192°5 1885°68965 3 346 14 
1867°66140 5 S36 281-0 1886°66132 - 336 342°4 
1868°63032 « | 325 248°8 1887-59106 "3 311 122-47 
1869 60209 3 |} 3165 23074. |1889-00517 3 101 65°T 
1871-94778 os / 80 322-5 1889-97616 = si 43°5 
1874:29174 4. | 206 46°3 1892 32003 7 216 1269 
1875°26358 os 196 30°2 1893-29187 e 207 108 8 


Three cases are presented for comparison. Figures 1, 3, 5, 
show the model placed in three positions, corresponding to the 
eclipses of Jan. 1, 1889, August 29, 1886, and July 29, 1878. 
Figures 2, 4, 6, represent these coronas, as drawn from the 
photographs. 


8 I. H. Bigelow—Solar Corona. 


Soa dy 


Sali ffs 
‘ Feet Uses 


rr AWS CA 
ie STIS 


SSM 


I. H. Bigelow—Solar Corona. 9 


In making the comparison, it is proper to bear in mind a 
few obvious considerations. The wires that make the rays on 
the model properly represent only stream lines, or portions of 
the streamers of the corona. The curve is true for that part of 
the streamer which springs from the sun at the latitude corre- 
sponding to the axis of the wire. Inasmuch as the coronal 
streamer is large at its base the curvature of the ray must agree 
in all its parts with the lines springing from this region. The 
consequence is that each ray spreads out, as it recedes from the 
sun, to fill all the space occupied by the bounding curves, and 
we see as a result the curious forms of the curves of the cor- 
ona, which are definite and conform to this law. I would pro- 
pose this as a sufficient proof of the truth of the theory, even 
taking it by itself. The rays set into the model do not pretend 
to represent the lines measured for any particular eclipse, be- 
cause it is designed to illustrate the subject only in a general 
way. One ought properly to construct a model for each 


eclipse using the computed (a. @), the codrdinates of the base 


of the ray. Then photographing this, a comparison could be 
made between the individual lines. The model does not show 
the nebulous, structureless mass of material, which was proba- 
bly thrown up along these coronal lines, and is going through 
other transformations in its return to the sun. We miss also 
the radiant light which passes through this coronal matter and 
illuminates it, for the most part in radial lines up to the region 
of the streamers, where it is in a sense shut off, thus producing 
the effect of great equatorial extension. Coronal material may 
accumulate along the equatorial regions for immense distances, 
and then the radiant light streaming through it would produce 
the wings of the corona. It is evident that the quadrilateral 
forms are made by the perspective thickening of the coronal 
belt as it passes round the side of the sun. The polar rays are 
the individual streamers seen in projection. 

The reproduction of the eclipse photographs is necessarily 
such as to diminish very much their availability as objects of 
comparison. This should in fact be made with the glass nega- 
tives. Still it is easy to infer that there is an agreement in 
the following respects: (1) as to the general inclination of the 
corona as a whole to the piane of the ecliptic; (2) as to the 
general distribution of the larger and the smaller sides, sup- 
posing that the nebulous matter is supplied to the model by 
the imagination; (8) as to the trend of the stream lines 
wherever they are seen. We do not pretend to show all the 
individual lines, nor all the special solar outbursts in loco, nor 
do we pretend to account for all the imperfections of the pho- 
tographs or drawings. Those which are composite, or which 
are halated, or which are inadequate, must take their chances. 


10 fH. Bigelow—Solar Corona. 


This comparison shows, however, that it is not the equatorial 
extensions which are interesting in this connection, but chiefly 
the individual stream lines which can be subjected to measures. 

Up to this point we have not been dealing in speculations, 
but in legitimate scientific data and their results. There are, 
however, two probable conclusions so apparent that I will not 
abstain from. mentioning them. 

If we regard these coronal streamers as the paths along 
which the sun is throwing off a portion of its energy, and 
consequently along which its material substances are being 
transported, whatever may be their physical conditions, we 
have only to suppose that near the extremity of these extremes 
these conditions change by loss of energy, cooling, condensa- 
tion, and so on, so that the repulsive power is lost and the 
gravitation of the sun sets in to take its place. What becomes 
of this material that has been ejected from high latitudes at 
the surface of the sun into high altitudes above the equatorial 
belts? Obviously it must descend again; the heavier or denser 
vertically, and as the model shows, this will fall directly over 
the sun-spot regions; the lighter or more finely subdivided in 
the ceaseless nebulous equatorial rain, which by its increase of 
angular velocity accelerates the mean daily motion of the sur- 
face of the sun itself, at the time of its impact with it. Itisa 
great solar whipping top. Much more might be said to illus- 
trate these statements, and yet but little can be added to the 
model itself in enforcing this conclusion. There is some evi- 
dence shown in the table of the angle @,, giving the polar dis- 
tances of the base of the streamers for the three eclipses, that 
the coronal belt has a motion in latitude on the surface of the 
sun, those of 1889 being more than a degree nearer the poles 
than that of 1878. This movement in latitude is illustrated by 
the motion of the maximum zones of the terrestrial aurora in 
latitude, and might be expected in view of the periodic nature 
of the activity of the sun, especially in the 11-year period. This 
fact would point to a more considerable motion in latitude of 
the ends of the streamers, by reason of the curvatures, and 
hence of the sun spots themselves, in case they are due to 
material coming from such a source. 

It is not unlikely that we shall sometime be able to pene- 
trate yet deeper into the mysterious nature that is implied in 
this most wonderful mechanism of the sun. We may well 
believe that it expresses the type of the common history 
through which all celestial bodies have to pass, in the process 
of construction and cooling. The aurora is an indication of 
this system on the earth, the residual being the permanent 
terrestrial magnetism. Now that we see more clearly the ele- 
ments of the problem, it will be easy to construct a rigorous 


\ 
: 


Brackett and Williams—Newtoniie and Rectorite. 1i 


solution, including the eccentricity of the center of polarization, 
the inclination of the axis of polarization to the plane of 
reference, besides such corrections as may arise from refraction, 
or diffraction or photography. The importance of the problem 
will certainly justify us in trying to take good photographs of 
the streamers at the future eclipses. 


Art. I].—Newtonite and Rectorite—two new minerals of 
the Kaolinite Group; by R. N. BRAcKETT and J. FRANcIS 
WILLIAMS. 


[Published by permission of the State Geologist of Arkansas. ] 


THE object of the following paper is to briefly describe two 
hydrous silicates of alumina, which we have every reason to 
believe have not before been observed, and to call attention to 
the relation of these new compounds to other members of the 
group. 

As is well known and generally admitted the commonest 
substance of this class, kaolin, or when crystallized called 
kaolinite, approaches the composition represented by the for- 
mula Al,O,.2Si0,.2H,O, and has the percentage composition : 

SiO, 46°50 Al,O, 39°57 H,O 13:93 = 100. 

Considering half of the water basic or as water of constitu- 
tion and dividing the formula by two, the constitution of kao- 
linite may be represented as follows :* 

OH 
Si—OW 
YO—Al+ 4(H,0). 

O- 

As there is reason to think that all the water represented in 
the original formula should be regarded as water of constitu- 
tion, the formula would become: 


EO HO 


si_oH HO—Si, 
See UE Giese 
Np SN ge A hap 


or writing this in the form suggested by F. W. Clarke in his 
paper on the Structure of the Natural Silicates,+ the following 
formula is obtained : 


* Kaolinite is thus regarded as a derivative of normal silicic acid Si(OH),, anal- 
ogous to a similar compound Ai,03. 2Si0. . 3H.O mentioned by Remsen. Inor- 
ganic Chemistry by Ira Remsen. American Science Series—Advanced Course. 
New York: Henry Holt & Company, 1889, p. 576. 

+ Bulletin of the U. S. Geological Survey, No. 60, Washington, 1890, p. 16. 


12 Brackett and Williams—Newtonite and Rectorite. 


_OH 
Ail—SiO,=H, 
“SiO =Al. 


Hither of these formulas suggests the possibility of the exist- 
ence of other hydrous silicates of alumina closely related to 
kaolinite, and indeed differing from it only in the presence of 
a larger or smaller proportion of water, while the relation of 
the silica to the alumina remains constant. 

It is readily seen that three other hydrous silicates of 
alumina may be derived by eliminating one molecule, or intro- 
ducing respectively one and two molecules of water into the 
formula, and that thus the following series would be formed : 


Formulas. Percentage composition. 
8 Al,Os SiOe H,0 
(1) Al,O, : 2810, A H,O 42°52 49°99 7°49 
2) MALO 2810, ‘ 2H,O 39°57 46°50 13°93 
3 LO) : 28510, . 83H,O 36°98 43°47 19°55 
(4) AO: : 2810, : 411.0 34°72 40°82 24°46 


Of this series of four theoretically possible hydrous silicates 
of alumina only one, No. 2 of the series, ordinary kaolin, has 
been described, so far as we have been able to find in the lit- 
erature at our command. From many of the published analyses 
of halloysite, this mineral might be supposed to correspond 
with No. 4 of the series, but, as will be shown below, this cor- 
respondenee is only apparent. 

This series will be designated as the Haolenite Serves,* and 
will include the Aaolinite Group, which was first established 
by J. D. Dana in 1858+ under the name of the Hadlloysite 
Group, but was afterwards called the Kaolinite Group by the 
same author.t The object of forming such a series is to classify 
if possible the already existing members of the kaolinite group, 
most, if not all of which will be found to fall under kaolinite ; 
and at the same time to have a definite place into which to put 
any new minerals of this class which, like rectorite and newton- 
ite, may from time to time be found, and which would at 
present hardly be classed under kaolinite itself if their water 
of constitution was properly determined. It is the hope of the 
authors to be able in a future paper to show the true chemical 
composition and microscopic structure of many minerals now 
existing as members of the kaolinite group ; and toassign them 
to their proper place in the above-mentioned series, by rede- 

* The word series is not used here in the sense in which it is generally applied 
in the natural sciences, but as it is emploved in mathematics to describe a se- 
quence of similar terms which bear some definite relation to each other. 


+ This Journal, I!, vol. xxvi, p. 361, 1858. 
+ System of Mineralogy, J. D. Dana, 5th edition, 1868. 


Brackett and Williams—Newtonite and Rectorite. 13 


termining their water of constitution under the conditions 
mentioned below. 

Since kaolin approaches the composition represented by the 
formula ascribed to it only when it has been dried at about 
110° C., and from the facts mentioned below regarding halloy- 
site, we propose to consider the whole series as based upon 
analyses of material dried at 110° C. or thereabouts. 

Considering the series in this way, at least one and probably 
two hydrous silicates of alumina lately analyzed in the labora- 
tory of the Geological Survey of Arkansas fall into this series. 
One of these corresponds to No. 4 and the other possibly to 
No. 1 of the series. 


Newtonite. 


The first compound which will be described, and that which 
suggested the series given above, is found on Sneed’s Creek in 
the northern part of Newton county (16 N., 23 W., section 1), 
in the State of Arkansas. At this place a mineral claim was 
laid and a shaft opened in 1889 by Mr. W. 8. Allen of Har- 
rison, Ark. The rocks of the region are for the most part 
sandstones and shales of the Barren Coal Measures, while the 
opening itself seems to penetrate some of the limestones of the 
Lower Carboniferous series. At a depth of eight feet this 
form of kaolin was found imbedded in a dark gray clay, 
through which it is scattered in lumps which vary from a few 
ounces to forty pounds in weight. Iron and a little manganese 
are also said to occur in the opening. Samples of the material 
were kindly furnished the Geological Survey of Arkansas by 
Mr. Allen, the proprietor of the claim. f 

On account of its occurrence in Newton county we propose 
the name WVewtonite for this, the fourth member of the 
Kaolinite Series. 

Newtonite is a.pure white, soft, compact, homogeneous sub- 
stance, and both chemical analysis and microscopic examination 
show it to be a remarkably pure substance. It is infusible 
before the blowpipe, and when in the form of a powder it has 
a specific gravity of 2°37. It is only slightly attacked by boil- 
ing concentrated hydrochloric acid, but boiling concentrated 
sulphuric acid decomposes it almost completely, with a separa- 
tion of silica. It is also decomposed by a boiling saturated 
solution of caustic potash with the formation of a compound 
insoluble in water but easily soluble in cold dilute hydrochloric 
acid. (See below.) 

Quantitative chemical analyses of newtonite gave the follow- 
ing results: 


14 Brackett and Williams—Newtonite and Rectorite. 


Je INE. 

SiO, .o soa e a a RCO 40°22 
Adore WS iia cece 35°20 35°27 
Loss on ignition ..-.---- 23°69 22°89 
Be Onirn: iclad hela ee 0°21 0.21 
OF pragerata nn asian mien Ge payere ba 0°3] 0°54 
IVE) RL SE ee nt trace trace 
K.O pau 0:99 
Na,O Be TLE VINEE BIT Pe 0°73 

100°00 100°85 
Waterat 110°-115 9 @..55. 5:53 5:44 


If the impurities be disregarded and the silica, alumina and 
loss on ignition in analysis I ‘be recalculated to 100 per cent, and 
the same be done in analysis II, after first bringing the whole 
to 100 per cent, the following fiowres are obtained : 


Ta. Ila, Theory for Al,03.28102.4H,0. 
SiO (GL) gay 39°76 40:88 40°82 
ANNO Yer ea) PO 36-01 35°85 34°79 
Loss on ignition.. 24°23 2a 7 24°46 
100°00 100°00 100°00 


Although this compound closely resembles ordinary kaolin 
in its chemical properties, it shows thus a marked difference 
in composition, by containing for the same amount of silica 
and alumina double the quantity of water usually found in 
kaolin. 

That an apparent similarity exists between newtonite and 
halloysite when a comparison is instituted between the analysis 
of newtonite calculated on the material dried at 110° and the 
published analyses of halloysite where it is not stated whether 
the calculations are made on the air-dried material or that dried 
at the above-mentioned temperature, is shown in the following 
table : 


Newtonite. Halloysite (Indianaite.) 
Ta. IIa. BBE LNG: 
Op reat hE ae 39°76 40-882 39°35 38°90 
Je et ae aaa 36°01 35°851: 36°35 37°40 
Loss on ignition _ 24°23 23°267 22°90 23°60 
100.00 100.00 98°60 99°90 
"40 CaO 
99°00 


Analysis III is of a soft and IV of a hard, white variety of 
halloysite called indianaite.+ H. Pemberton, Jr., who made 
* Alkalies by difference. 


+ Report of the Geological Survey of Indiana, 8th, ‘9th and 10th Annual Re- 
ports (1876-1878), p. 156. See also Sixth Annual Report (1874), p. 15. 


Brackett and Williams—Newtonite and Rectorite. 15 


these analyses, kindly furnished the information that the c¢al- 
culations are made on the air-dried material, and that in analy- 
sis III, 8°68 per cent of the loss on ignition is given off at about 
110°C. 

If analyses Ia and [la be calculated to the air-dried mate- 
rial the difference between them and the published analyses of 
halloysite is clearly shown, as is evident from a consideration of 
the following tabie : 


Tb. IIb. Halloysite. 
a Ea 36°83 37°96 39°35 
2 eee eee 33°42 33°34 36°35 
Loss on ignition._-.---.-.- 24°22 23°26 14°22 
mewaterat 110°-115° CO. _.. 5°53 5°44 8°68 (at 100° C.) 


10000 =1060°00 98°60 


If it be assumed that the 8°68 per cent of water in halloysite 
is partly hygroscopic .and partly water of crystallization, this 
mineral would have the composition of kaolinite containing 
one molecule of water of crystallization. Judging from the 
newtonite analyses [b and IIb, this substance would, under 
like circumstances, have one molecule of water of crystalliza- 
tion, but would be represented by the formula A]l,O, . 2810, . 
4H,O+aq, while the composition of halloysite would be ex- 
pressed by the formula Al,O, . 2SiO, . 2H,0+aq. 

Ordinary kaolin usually contains less than one per cent of 
loosely combined water. Hydrous silicates of alumina have, 
however, been analyzed in this laboratory, which have given off 
as much as five per cent of water at 110° C., but which differ 
from ordinary kaolin in no other respect, and it is probable 
that differences in origin and occurrence will account for these 
varying amounts of loosely combined water. 

A thin section of newtonite under the microscope when 
viewed only with low powers appears as a perfectly amorphous 
substance but when magnified to four or five hundred diam- 
eters 1t shows that it is entirely made up of minute rhombs or 
squares. The largest of these are not more than 0:005™ (sy45 
of an inch) on an edge, while the smallest appear to be about 
half that size. Sometimes they seem to form pertect squares 
but in the majority of cases the acute angles have values rang- 
ing from 88° to 89°, as nearly as could be measured. There 
appear between these minute figures blank spaces where noth- 
ing can at first be seen, but by sinking the microscope tube 
somewhat, so as to focus a little lower down, an entirely new 
set of rhombs is discovered, while those above go out of focus. 
At first sight all the rhombs appear as squares and show small 
indistinet lines running from their corners toward the center, 
giving the appearance of the hopper-shaped crystals of salt. 


16 Brackett and Williams—Newtonite and Rectorite. 


In addition to this there is a white rim about the edges which 
gives them the appearance of being higher than the rest of the 
surface. The cause of this is, however, not due to any mark- 
ing or relief on the surface but probably to internal reflec- 
tions whose origin it is hard to detect. 

In polarized light the rhombs extinguish sharply parallel to 
their diagonals, thus showing that they are faces of some 
anisotropic material and not, as might be supposed, sections of 
cubes which had been cut more or less obliquely. 

If these rhombs and squares are sections of rhombohedrons 
then one would expect to find also plane triangles correspond- 
ing to sections perpendicular to the principal axis. This, how- 
ever, is not the case and only in a very few instances have any 
triangular forms been found and even then they are very in- 
distinct and appear to be not in the upper surface of the plate 
but somewhat lower down. It is probable that in making sec- 
tions of this material the mdividual crystals are not eut, but 
are either rubbed away entirely, or are left undisturbed, so that 
what are seen under the microscope are not sections but crystal 
faces. By means of a selenite plate the positions of the axes 
of greatest and least elasticity were determined, and were 
found to lie respectively parallel to the shorter and longer 
diagonals of the rhomb. 

By powdering some of the material and allowing it to settle 
out from water, similar rhombohedral crystals were obtained. 


Rectorite. 


The second hydrous silicate of alumina, which is also to be 
regarded as new, is found in the Blue Mountain mining dis- 
trict in Marble Township, Garland county, 2 North, 19 West, 
section 27, about 24 miles nearly north of Hot Springs. It 
occurs in deposits which are very narrow near the surface but 
increase to the thickness of a foot or more in descending nine 
feet.. Several such deposits have been found. The wall rock 
is sandstone probably of Lower Silurian age. Specimens of 
this mineral have been furnished by Messrs. Ware and Arnold 
of Hot Springs, who are interested in developing the deposit. 

We propose the name /vectordte for this, the first member of 
the Kaolinite Series, in honor of Hon. E. W. Rector, of Hot 
Springs, Ark., who originated and has so unceasingly supported 
in the State Legislature the bills providing for the Geological 
Survey of Arkansas. | 

Rectorite, when pure, is a soft, white mineral occurring in 
large leaves or plates and resembling very closely in form that 
variety of asbestos known as “mountain leather,” and at the 
same time having somewhat the soapy appearance of steatite. 
Parts of it are often pure white, while other portions are 


Newtonite and Rectorite. 17 


Brackett and Williams 


stained with hydrous oxide of iron and present a reddish-brown 
appearance. ‘The sheets tear apart easily and are very flexible 
and perfectly non-elastic. Some specimens of this mineral 
have been obtained through the kindness of Mr. Charles F. 
Brown, of Hot Springs, in which fine doubly terminated quartz 
erystals are imbedded. Some of the latter are at least one and 
a half inches in length and when surrounded by the rectorite 
form very beautiful and striking specimens. The hardness of 
rectorite is less than that of tale—say 0°5—although this is 
difficult to estimate exactly. When heated in the flame of a 
Bunsen burner it loses water and becomes brittle. It is infusi- 
ble before the blowpipe. Its behavior when treated with sul- 
phurie acid and caustic potash will be explained below. 

Two quantitative chemical analyses gave the following per- 
centage composition calculated on the material dried at 110° C.: 


iL VI. 

0 Beads ai laa Ea ee 52°72 52°88 
_ SED ee eee 36°60 35°51 
a reer ree ( 0°25 0°25 
BPMMetaie Shiro ns us | - 0-45 0°45 
MgO + oncedetermined  { 0°51 0°51 
Ne Fai 5 oe ten 2 | 0°26 0:26 
he ee | 2°83 2°83 
Season ienition. ..<=.<.--=..-- 7°76 Li2 
2S aes eae eee 101°38 100°41 
ater an it0’ C........-.. , 878 8°33 


If these analyses be brought to 100 per cent, then all save 
silica, alumina, and loss on. ignition be disregarded and the 
analyses again calculated to 100 per cent, the following figures 


result : 
Theoretical for 


Va. Via. Al1.,03 - 2Si0. 2 H.0. 
Si0, Jae DL ae eee 50°01] 49°99 
A ee 37°69 36:96 42°52 
Loss on ignition. ---- 7°99 8°03 7°49 
100°00 100°00 100°00 


If the calculations be made on the air-dried material the 
following figures are obtained : 


Vih. 
peiemrere site fli ai de Deal oe a ee 50*L8 
Pea as eae, Sy Shee hs 33°72 
Loss » PETES eee oe) Se ee eee 7-33 
Water at “= SUSY 9 tab ag eee 8°78 

100-00 


Am. Jour. Sc1.—THIrD SERies, Vou. XLII, No. 247.—Jutty, 1891. 
2 


18 Brackett and Williams—Newtonite and Rectorite. 


If the water given off at 110°-115° C. be regarded mainly 
as water of crystallization it is evident that it corresponds to 
one molecule, and the compound would have the formula, 
Al,O, . 2810, . H,O-Faq-. 

Under the microscope a cleavage plate usually shows a few 
spots where it is evident that only one plate is included in the 
thickness, while the most of the section is made up of two or 
more plates lying one over another. In the single plate there 
is one comparatively distinct system of parallel lines in the 
direction of which a sharp extinction takes place. There is 
usually also a much less distinct system of lines which lie at 
nearly right angles to the first.* In the thicker portions of 
the plate two or more such pairs of line systems are often 
found superimposed one upon the other. In such cases the 
extinction parallel to either system is very indistinet. 

The index of refraction is low—lower than that of Canada 
balsam—and the peculiar structure of the plates gives to the 
thin section, especially when viewed without the microscope, a 
peculiar undulating and glistening appearance. 

In convergent polarized light, the simple plates show a strong 
double refraction, and give very beautiful biaxial interference 
figures. The acute bisectrix appears to stand perpendicular to 
the cleavage plane.t The angle between the hyperbolas varies 
much in size, in some cases being not more than 5°, and 
in others approaching nearer to 15° or 20°. The rings about 
the axes join each other forming ellipses so that the determina- 
tion of the dispersion of the axes and bisectrix is uncertain. 
It appears, however, as if the angle for red were greater than 
that for blue, p>v. Dispersion of the bisectrix appears to be 
wanting. The fact that in many cases two plates lie one over 
the other gives rise to apparent optical anomalies which are, 
however, only caused by this superimposition. Thus in some 
cases beautiful examples of what is known as the “ optical 
spectacles ” (Optische Brillen) may be observed. 

Among the inclusions of foreign material which appear in 
this substance may be mentioned the following: The hydrous — 
oxide of iron, which has already been noted, appears in small 
round masses or globules, which are for the most part deposited 
between the individual plates of which the mass is made up. 
Some member of the pyroxene or amphibole group has also 
been observed lying in the cleavage planes. 

These impurities occur in sufficiently large quantities to 
exert a decided influence over the results of the chemical 


* 86° and 88° have been measured. 

+ A plate cut at right, angles to the cleavage plane seemed to show extinction 
parallel and perpendicular to that plane, but owing to the wavy form of the plate 
it was impossible to determine it accurately. 


Brackett and Wiliams—Newtonite and Rectorite. 19 


analyses so that the discrepancy between them and the cal- 
enlated formula may well be ascribed to this cause. There 
was, however, no mineral detected which would account for 
the relatively large amount of alkali shown by the analysis, 
and it is possible that the soda should be considered as replac- 
ing some of the water and be brought into the formula. Fur- 
ther investigation will probably throw some light on this point. 

In view of the relatively large quantities of quartz of both 
macroscopic and microscopic dimensions, which have been 
observed intermixed with the rectorite, it may be allowable to 
consider the excess of silica found in the analyses as due prin- 
cipally to this cause. By recalculating the analysis after de- 
ducting just enough silica to bring that constituent down to 
the theoretical amount, the following percentages are obtained : 


Theoretical for 


Ve. VIe. Al,G, . 28i0.. H,0. 
<0 2 ee ZOE a Ot a 49°99 
POpee econ 412G ; AOR ge 4969 
eee 8°75 Si: ih yas gees 7:49 
incall ovis 10000 = 100-00 100-00 


In order to determine whether or not the soda found in the 
analyses really belonged to the rectorite, the following experi- 
ment was made. The mineral, in small flakes, was digested 
with concentrated hydrochloric acid for two hours on a sand 
bath. It was then washed and filtered, and the residue was 
boiled with sodic carbonate in order to remove any separated 
silica. The remaining substance was then washed with water, 
hydrochloric acid, and again with water, and was finally 
heated before the blast lamp. A portion of this dried and 
purified material was then analyzed with the following result : 


Var 
SIL 2S RR SRR he ie yee ee ee 57°10 
ics NSSF RNa SO Bele ss HE a ae a a NR 40°53 
ST gaan A ect data ipags a 97°63 
Impurities (undetermined) -..------ .--- 2°37 
Petals ire gs ies 8 S25 LOO"OO 


It appears from this that about half of the alkaline impuri- 
ties were removed, but that the silica and alumina had approx- 
imately the same relative values as before. If the theoretical 
amount of water be introduced into this analysis, and the 
silica be diminished as in the preceding case, the analysis then 
expresses very nearly the theoretical composition. 


20 Brackett and Williams—Newtonite and Rectorite. 


Many points of similarity appear between rectorite and kao- 
linite, but in view of the peculiarity of the form which it 
assumes, and on account of its chemical composition, it is prob- 
able that it should be considered as a separate mineral. 

In confirmation of the above opinion the statements of two 
manufacturers of ceramics to whom specimens of rectorite were 
- sent for firing may be quoted. 

Homer Laughlin, Esq., of East Liverpool, Ohio, writes: 
“The sample of what you call kaolinite, sent me, was duly 
received, and carefully examined and tested under fire. The 
mineral is neither kaolin nor kaolinite, but just what it should 
be called I am unable to say, never in all my experience hav- 
ing seen any mineral of its kind. Unlike kaolin it will not 
dissolve* in water. It burns a white color and becomes very 
vitreous and strong. It cannot be finished with a smooth face 
or skin, but roughs up like a blotting pad. It is certainly a 
very interesting and curious mineral, but I can think of no 
use for it in ceramic manufacture unless it could, after careful 
experiments, be made into novel ornaments.” 

Messrs. Oliphant & Company of the Delaware Pottery, 
Trenton, New Jersey, write: ‘‘ Your sample of kaolinite came 
out of the kiln to-day, and would say that we are unable to 
make any report upon it. We do not know just what it is, 
therefore cannot say anything about its quality or market 
value.” 

It appears therefore from the above that its physical proper- 
ties when subjected to heat do not correspond to those of 
kaolin. 

Experiments were made in the laboratory on the relative 
solubility of newtonite and rectorite, and at the same time 
upon some specimens of true kaolin in the following manner : 

The fine powder of the various substances, was boiled with 
10°¢ of concentrated sulphuric acid for five minutes, after hav- 
ing been digested with it for three hours on a sand bath. It 
was then diluted, decanted, treated with a strong solution of 
potassium carbonate, washed with water and hydrochloric acid, 
filtered and weighed. In all the cases, the results were very 
similar, so much so in fact that no characteristic differences 
could be detected. 

When treated with caustic potash the results were somewhat. 
different in the different cases. Powder from each specimen 
was boiled with 10° of a saturated solution of caustic potash 
for 20 minutes, diluted, filtered, washed and treated with dilute 
hydrochloric acid. The white floeculent residue which re- 
mained after the treatment of the powder with caustic potash 


* Mr. Laughlin does not mean dissolve in the chemical sense of the word, but 
disintegrate into a fine powder which remains partly in suspension. 


C. K. Wead—Intensity of Sound. 21 


dissolved readily in cold dilute hydrochloric acid in all cases 
except that of rectorite. In order to dissolve the residue from 
the latter it was necessary to use much stronger acid and even 
then the solution was not complete. The composition of this 
residue has not yet been determined. 

From the foregoing facts and considerations, it is probable 
that three members out of the possible four, making up the 
above described series, are known, and the present status of 
the Kaolinite Series may therefore be concisely stated as 


follows: 
KAOLINITE SERIES 

Metwcctorite -) =. 2.2L. Al,0,2Si0,H,O +aq. Monoclinic (?). 
2. Kaolinite and members Al,O,2Si0,2H,O Monoclinic or 0. 
of the Kaolinite Group Al,O,2Si0,2H,O +aq. v. 
Mepeeeee Es bss Al,O,2810,38H,0. 
4, Newtonite__-.---__.- Al,O,28i0,4H,O-++-aq. Rhombohedral. 

In the ease of other hydrous silicates of alumina, as well as 
of magnesia and other bases, similar homologous series could 
be formed, which would tend toward a more systematic 


arrangement of the species than now exists. 
Chem. and Petrog. Laboratory of the Geol. Survey of Arkansas, Dec., 1890. 


Arr. UL—On the Intensity of Sound.—Il. The Energy 
used by Organ Pipes ; by CHARLES K. WEAD. | 


[Read in abstract at the Philadelphia meeting of the American Association, 1884. ] 


In a former paper* the case of a vibrating tuning fork has 
been considered as an important example of sounding bodies 
that gradually expend the store of energy originally imparted 
to them. We have now to consider one of the class that can 
store up little or no energy, viz: an organ pipe; and have 
therefore to determine, not the rate of loss as with the fork 
and piano-string, but the rate at which energy is supplied to 
the system from without. The experimental problem is very 
simple, and it seems strange that it has not been completely 
worked out. 

The literature of the subject is very slight. Lord Rayleigh,t 
in an oft-quoted experiment, measured the pressure and volume 
of air supplied to a whistle of 2740 d. v., and so found the 
rate of consumption of energy. Several years earlier Mr. Bo- 
sanquet in a very interesting and valuable papert discussed the 
relative amount of energy supplied to the several pipes of an 


* This Journal, xxvi, 177, Sept., 1883. } Phil. Mag., xliv, 1872. 
+ Proc. Roy. Soc., xxvi, 248. 


22 C. K. Wead—ILntensity of Sound. 


Open Diapason stop im an organ, but gave no absolute amount. 
He assumes as a matter of general knowledge that an organ 
builder furnishes a series of pipes of sensibly. equal loudness 
(and quality) throughout the scale; he quotes what he calls 
Topfer’s law, that the consumption of wind by pipes belong- 
ing to the same stop varies directly as the length of the pipe, 
and confirms it approximately by experiments ; and so he con- 
cludes that the amount of energy per second necessary to pro- 
duce sounds of equal loudness under similar conditions varies 
inversely as the vibration-frequency. On the other hand M. 
Allard* makes the assumption that the energy per second 
needed to maintain a sound just audible at a given distance 
varies directly as the vibration-frequency, and finds a satisfac- 
tory confirmation of his views in the experiments on the range 
of fog-horns made by various lighthouse boards. But the con- 
dition of the observer will be very different m the two cases ; 
so they are scarcely comparable. 

The experiments now to be detailed and discussed are suffi- 
ciently numerous and exact to disprove this alleged law of 
Topfer’s, so far at least as one organ is a fair sample of all. 
They were performed on a Hook and Hastings No. 11 Organ 
in the Congregational Church of Ann Arbor, Mich.; this 
instrument has two manuals of 58 keys each from © to a’, the 
great organ having 9 stops—the seven to be named in table ie 
a 22’ twelfth and a 3 rank mixture. The pressure of wind 
was very exactly 3 inches of water, and the total capacity of 
the bellows about 35 cubic feet; this quantity of wind would 
leak out in about 3 minutes. 

The only method of experiment available, unless one has a 
very large gas-meter at his disposal, is to fill the bellows and 
determine the time needed for the whole or any definite part 
of its contents to leak out; then determine similarly the time 
when one or more pipes are sounding. For example, 12 cu. 
ft. (=A) of air are used; if this leaks out in 60 seconds the 
leakage is A+60=‘20 cu. ft. per sec.; if when a pipe is 
sounding the time is 24 sec., the flow is tie A+24=°50 eu. ft. 
per sec., “and the pipe consumes the differ ence, that is 0°30 eu. 
ft. per second : if this is supplied under a pressure of 3 inches 
of water =15°6 Ibs. per sq. ft., the energy used by the pipe 
='30xX156=47 ft. lbs. per sec. In this way the computa- 
tions have been made for the tables. 

Mr. Bosanquet limited his work to observing the times, and 
finding the difference of their reciprocals, thus getting the 
desired relative values. He used a string pendulum, finding 
the time needed for the bellows to empty itself, the ‘‘ feel” of 
the blowing lever indicating when the bellows is full or empty. 


* Comptes Rendus, xev, 1062. 


C. K. Wead—Intensity of Sound. 23 


But the numbers he gives, especially for leakage, show such 
wide variations as to throw great doubt on the accuracy of the 
method. Therefore two modifications were made: first, a 
stop-watch indicating eighths of a second was used; and 
second, the movement of the wind-indicator above the key- 
board was observed through a space of 5U™™; to be sure only 
about one-third of the wind was used, but it is absolutely 
necessary to allow 10 to 20 seconds to elapse for the subsidence 
of the strong vibrations set up in the top of the bellows by 
the act of pumping. It was sometimes found that though no 
key was pressed the leakage was different according as the stop 
was drawn or closed, especially with one of, the pedal stops. 

One further modification of method was made: since the 
leakage is more than the amount of wind consumed by any 
‘single pipe, except a few of the largest, the influence of errors 
of observation was diminished by combining several pipes so 
that they might all sound at once; two ways of doing this 
were tried : 

1. A single stop was drawn, and several consecutive white 
keys, usually eight, were held down by a loaded block; thus 
we find the relative consumption of wind by different stops, 
or by pipes of the same stop in different parts of the scale. 
See table I. 

2. Several stops were drawn as in ordinary playing, and a 
single key held down by a wedge. Im this case each pipe re- 
ceives less wind than when no unison pipe is near, a fact long 
known and further established by these experiments; but we 
may still find the relative wind-supply in different parts of the 
seales. See table II and part of III. 

Most of the results of the work can be given best in tabular 
form. In the tables the names of the stops need no explana- 
tion; where 9 stops were drawn they comprise all the stops 
drawn by the forte composition pedal, including the 7 named 
separately, a twelfth and a 3-rank mixture. The notation of 
the keys is used consistently always referring to the key, not 
the pitch, c’ corresponding to middle ¢(=268 d. v.) when an 8’ 
stop is drawn; it will therefore be seen that the absolute pitch 
of all the notes in the lower part of table I is the same; while 
in the next table pipes of five different lengths, besides the 
mixtures will respond to a single key. L of course means 
leakage. The time given is the mean of from 8 to 8 observa- 
tions: these agreed so well that the probable error of the 
mean is very rarely 1 per cent: take two examples at random ; 

Table WIC 224, 226, 926 205; mean 22°66 sec. 
Cc 62, 63 68, 62, 62; mean 6°375 sec. _ 
The following columns contain respectively 1--¢, and this 
quantity diminished by the leakage: this remainder represents 


24 


C. K. Wead—ILntensity of Sound. 


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C. K. Wead—Intensity of Sound. 25 


that fraction of the total volume of wind which goes to the 
pipe: the total volume was found by measuring the bellows 
and the distance it fell while the indicator moved 50 mm.; 
this was 11-9 eu. ft.=337000 ce. (say 3-4 10°cc.) with an uncer- 
tainty of 1 or 2 per cent on account of the folds: this uncer- 
tainty, however, does not affect the relative values given in the 
tables, for it is an uncertainty in our knowledge, not in the 
action of the bellows. 


TABLE II.—NINE Stops Drawn; ONE KeEyY DEPRESSED. 


July 21. 
ia. | 3. A. mapas Gna ee es 
Key. t | lst. V. Comp. V. 4-5. 6+5. Energy. 
/ & ¢. | ergs. sec. 
| sec. | 3°4x10°x |3°4x 10° x | 3-4 105x | per cent.| 10°x 
L | 67°37 0148 ieee Eee ee jee cree 
C | 12°35 ; 0810 “0662 *0652 +0010 +1°5 165 
C# | 12°94/)-0773 |. 0625 "0625 0 0 156 
D 13°32 °0751 ‘0603 “0598 + 5 + °8 151 
De 13°03 “0767 0619 “0573 + 46 +80 155 
E | 15°25 0656 “0508 "0549 — 41 —7'6 127 
EF | 14°56  -0687 "0539 "0526 + 13 + 2°5 135 
FF 15°69 ‘0637 “0489 0504 — 15 —30 122 
G , 16°00 0625 , ‘0477 0483 — 6 — hI 119 
G | 16°79 -0596 "0448 "0463 — 15 —3°2 112 
A | 17°08 -0586 | "0438 "0443 ~~ 5 —l1l. 110 
A | 17-21) -0581 0433 0424 : ee ot 108 
B | 18°65 -0536 "0388 0407 — 19 —A47 97 
c | 27°58 }-0569 | -0421 “0390 + 31 +8°0 105 
L | 67:43. Mean Eli oe 
July 28 
mee 2° |. 4, cue Ie Pe Be Wak Oe 
Key. ea ges Mi Energy. Key. @. 14. NE Energy. 
| | c.c. ergs. sec. c.c. ergs. sec. 
! ) as sase. BOP sc) 5 0% 3 A oe ANE 26.1 10S 3 
L 77°37|°0129 see Ei ag g 24°29 :0412 0286 ol 
c 17°87 0560-0431 108 g# 2437-0410 -0285 71 
c# (1869-0535 0407 102 {la 26 04°0384 0259 65 
d (20°54 0487 *0359 90 a 2283-0438 0313 78 
d# (21°21)°0471 “0344 86 b 27°33 0366 0242 60 
é€ (23°25 -0430 0303 76 sy 26°79 0373 "0249 62 
(24-21-0413 "0286 71 L 80°81 -0124 LLG ‘ike 
FF. |24:10|-0415|}  -0289 | 72 


The energy is found by multiplying the volume by the pres- 
sure, which was 15°6 lbs. per sq. ft. or 7°6 gms. per sq. cm. 
.°. Total energy=11°9 x 15°6=186 ft. lbs. =2°5 x 10° ergs. 


By this multiply the fractions in columns headed V, as col. 6 
table I. ‘ 


26 C. K. Wead—ILntensity of Sound. 


The numbers in the column ratio (except in table LV) are 
found by dividing the number against which they are placed 
by the preceding one; if Tépfer’s law were true these ratios 
would be for the octave everywhere ‘500. 


TABLE III.—-MISCELLANEOUS. 


1. 2 | BP vets B. 6 Lae 
Stops drawn. | Key. | ft | 1+. V. Ratio. | Energy. 
| @. iG, _ ergs. sec. 
| see. 3-4 x 110° x “i OP 
16’ ‘Bourdon ) age L | 69°44 | 0144 |e: ee 
G | 2266 | 0441 "0297 che aay 74 
D | 28°59 | 0350 0206 oS 52 
E | 33°22 |.0301 | -0157 2 eee 
F - | 33750: | 0299 °0155 iss 39 
CG (35-59 |-0281 | -0137 .. oan 
A | 38°04 | 0263 sO.119 meee 30 
B_ | 39°58 | 0253 "0109 eee 27 
Cs 1 32234), 0309 "0165 Je 41 
C-c | 6375 1569 1495 mes 356 
8’ Open Diapason, L 69°62 °0144 ese tt ah 
Melodia, Dulciana | © 18°21 |°0549 | -0405 - 22g See 
hte | 26°62 | °0376 | :0232 “512 58 
GN. 3522 ah 0284: | O40 "603. J 35 
e”’ |43-69 |°0229 | -0085 608 21 
SUSLORSi2k aoe eee LL 2h HOs64 Wl Ol42” pees aa eee 1 ee 
O° 1-2237|--0808) 1. 0667 pe. 167 
CW lTs96 4) 0557 1 eac0es "632...1. 5 ae 
oe 26:00 °0385 | -0243 "586 61 
ce” | 34:25 | 0292 | 0150 619 38 
e”” \A4-G2 70224") 0083 | °550 | 21 
ONStOpSS sae. eee eee [I 9 |.80°62 | 0194 | 222 Mossienine ee. 
C 12°42 | -0805 | -0681 | cs 170 
e ()23°2591 704307) 20306 | "449 | 17 
g' | 3746. |-0267 |" -0143 | 9-467 Seeean 
CY” | AT:92 |-0209" |) ~ -0085 | SOPaa 21 


In several cases the results have been discussed mathemat- 
ically and thus a computed value of V’ jis found (T. I, col. 8; 
T. II, col. 5): in these cases an exponential formula was as- 
sumed similar to that for the vibration-frequency of the tones 
in a tempered scale, and the logarithmic formule derived from 
it were combined by the method of least squares; thus 

YT = Va 
logy + nlogr —log V=0 
Whence (n+1) logy + 2(n)logr — 2(log V)=0 
2(n) logy + &(n?) log r — 2(nlog V)= 0 

The values of 7 thus found are collected in table LV. The 
difference between the computed and observed values of V is 
divided by the former and the quotient, as a per cent, is placed 


C. K. Wead—Intensity of Sound. 27 


in a following column. To obtain V” in cols. 10 and 11, table 
I, the ratio was assumed as 4/1, 


Observations of the same quantity on different days agree to 
within a few per cent (e. g. key C with 9 stops, ‘0662, -0667, 
0681) but since they differ more than the probable error of a 
single day’s observations the results in the different tables 
should not be combined if accurate relative values are desired, 
nor should results in the same table be combined unless they 
are based on the same value of L. The data for table I were 
obtained in April and May, 1883, and are not quite as accurate 
as the data obtained in July, 1884, for the later tables. 

Conclusions.—The results of experiments with dzfferent 
stops are shown in table I It is very clear from them that no 
exact or important conclusions can be drawn from the loudness 
of the sound as to the relative quantity of wind required to 
blow pipes of different construction: thus, the soft Dulciana 
takes more than half as much wind as the comparatively loud 
Open Diapason (102+188). -Again, the Trumpet stop in this 
organ is voiced very loud, yet its pipes require absolutely less 
energy than any others that sound the same note: this is a con- 
clusive proof that a reed-pipe has a much higher efficiency as a 
wave-producing mechanism than a flue pipe. 

The results on different pipes of the same stop or of the 
same combination of stops are shown in all the tables ; in table 
I for the eight notes of an octave taken together in various 
parts of the scale, a single stop being drawn ; in table II for 
each of the twenty-five notes in a range of two octaves, nine 
stops being drawn; in table III for various combinations of 
stops. Some of the conclusions from these are very clear, and 
some curious. We must assume with Mr. Bosanquet that a 
set of pipes gives us a series of sounds of the same quality and 
of nearly the same loudness as judged by the ear of an expert, 
and also assume that all pipes of the same stop are equally 
efficient sound-producers. Now if we recall Topfer’s law, that 
the consumption of wind varies inversely as the length of the 
pipe, we should expect to find for the octave approximately 
the ratio *500, or a little less, since the higher pipes are rela- 
tively larger than the lower ones and so must be relatively 
shorter. But not a single ratio can be found in the tables to 
confirm this view; everywhere the ratio is considerably greater 
than ‘5. The tables give the values in a dozen cases (not in- 
cluding the Trumpet stop) and from table II a dozen more 
values can readily be found. 

To some of the observations it seemed worth while to apply 
the method of least squares as already said; the several ratics 
found for the octave are given in table LV. 


28 C. K. Wead—Intensity of Sound. 


If a smooth exponential curve be drawn with these ratios for 
the experiments of table I, where eight keys were depressed 
at once, it will be found to fall below the experimental curve 
in the first and third octaves, and above it in the second and 
fourth octaves in every case examined ; the magnitude of the 
difference is shown in column 9 ; but this alternating deviation 
is not great, and is probably not of importance; it does not 
appear in table III, where several stops are combined. 


TABLE LV. 
Table. Stop drawn. No. keys. ane r aaa Ratio. ANE cee 

I Trumpet. 8 4 Ween eas. + 17 

I Open Diapason. 8 = 4. 620 wow 

I Fifteenth. 8 3 2 "654 | +10 

Te Bourdon. 8 2 be eal ee 
Th Three stops. 1 3 i 595 +1°4 
III | Nine stops. 1 4° See tee) +24 
Ill if 1 A 4 cao Be (/ 

Teh a i 1 13 “5975 +3°4 


The latter half of table 1V shows that when the stops were 
combined as in ordinary playing, but a single key being pressed, 
there is a remarkable constancy in the value of the ratio for 
the octave however it is determined, and its value for the Open 
Diapason differs little from these latter values. This constancy 
demands an explanation. According to Tépfer’s law we should 
have 50 = ¥ 1; we do have very nearly Vi = 5946 = 1 + 
1°682. This I believe to be an excellent illustration of the un- 
conscious recognition by the artist of the physical or mathe- 
matical laws underlying his art. At present we cannot explain 
the law, any more than the laws of the scale could be explained 
before the subject of harmonic overtones was understood ; we 
can only correlate this with the following fact relating to 
organ-pipes—to their diameter, or “scale” as organ-builders 
call it. It is a matter of experience that to produce the proper 
loudness of sound it is necessary to increase the ratio of the 
diameter to the length as the pipe becomes shorter, so when 
the pitch rises an octave and the theoretical length becomes 
one-half that of the fundamental the diameter is greater than 
half that of the fundamental; usually we must go to the seven- 
teenth pipe, as from C to e, to find the one of half the diam- 
eter. This is equivalent to saying that in rising 4 octaves the 
theoretical length becomes (4)*, but the diameter (4)? ; if we 
assume an exponential series all the way up the ratio of diam- 
eters of pipes an octave apart is therefore (4)? or V 4,— the 
ratio already found ; the corresponding ratio for the semitone 


OK. Wead—Intensity of Sound. 29 


is of course (4)** = -9576. This ratio for the diameters is only 
a mathematical expression of a mechanical fact, there is no 
theory about it. Such a “scale” gives convenient rules in 
practice for laying out the pipes, and satisfies the ear, or it 
would not have found such general adoption. In this organ 
Open Diapason ¢’ has an internal diameter of 57 min., the e” of 
294; the Dulciana ¢’ of 31, the é” of 154%. It is not fora 
moment to be assumed that the amount of wind required is 
directly determined by the diameter of the pipe; for the 
organ builder would point out that the shape of the mouth 
is an important factor, and that the voicer or finisher varies 
the amount of wind by plugging the holes through the feet 
of wood pipes, cutting out or closing the feet of metal pipes, 
varying the width of the slit for the wind, etc., till his ear is 
satisfied with the loudness and quality of the sound. But in 
the light of these experiments we must conclude that for 
similar pipes the volume of air used per second, and therefore 
the energy expended per second, varies as the #-power of the 
wave-length of the note, or inversely as the ?-power of the vi- 
bration-ratio; and further conclude that the voicer uncon- 
sciously strives to secure this ratio just as the tuner uncon- 
sciously strives to get the familiar vibration-ratios in the tuning 
of any instrument. It is to be remembered that we cannot 
recognize small differences of intensity with much accuracy. 
Volkman could always detect a difference of 25 per cent; 
Renz & Wolft one of 28 per cent; the latter experimenters 


*Tn Clarke’s little book on ‘The Pipe Organ” a simple construction is given 
for finding the diameters of intermediate’ pipes when the diameters are given for 
two pipes 16, 8, 4, &c. semitones apart. At the ends of any convenient base line 
AB erect perpendiculars AC, BD proportional to the given diameters and join 
the ends C, D: Draw the two diagonals of the trapezoid thus formed and erect 
through their poiut of intersection a perpendicular to the base line. The part of 
this perpendicular between AB and CD is proportional to the diameter of the pipe 
midway between the given extremes. By continuing the construction the diame- 
ters of the other pipes will be obtained. 

A little calculation shows that this gives a harmonic series, and if the first 
diameter be 2, and the seventeenth 1, the series is 32+ 16,17,18 ... 31, 32. 
All of the intermediate quotients are slightly less than the numbers derived from 
the exponential series whose ratio is the 16th root of 4, the value for the 8ve 
being $8 = 571 instead of 5946. The maximum difference is about 5 per cent—a 
quantity entirely negligible to ordinary ears. 

If a series of pipes were made on this harmonic scale and the quantities of 
wind could be accurately adjusted in the ratio of the diameters, an exponential 
curve deduced from experiments on them would show an “alternating deviation ” 
similar to that referred to above. The sign of the deviation in a given 8ve would 
depend on where the starting point of the harmonic scale was taken. 

The sum of 8 terms of the harmonic series corresponding to the key of ©, the 
lowest term being 1, is 5:95: of the same terms of the exponential series 6°19; 
of 13 terms in the exponential series 9°4 Therefore to find the amount of wind 
(or of energy) used by the lowest pipe of any group of eight in the tables divide 
by 6 the amount given for the group. 

+ Pogg. Ann., xevili, 595, 1856. 


30 C. Kk. Wead—Intensity of Sound. 


were correct in their judgments about the loudness of sound of 
a watch when held at different distances in only 55 per cent of 
their trials if the ratio of loudness in the two cases (computed 
from the law of inverse squares) was 100:92. In the light of 
such experiments the numbers headed per cent of difference 
in our tables are strikingly small in nearly every case—partl 
of course because of the method of averages we have followed, 
a number of pipes sounding at once in most cases. 

It is interesting to compare the energy used here with that 
of a tuning fork. From table 1V of my former paper (p. 186) 
it appears that the maximum energy I could give by bowing 
to Konig’s forks of the middle octave mounted on their cases 
was considerably less than 0°5X10° ergs.; and the maximum 
rate at which energy was lost was about 0-1 x 10° ergs. per sec. 
But the Open Diapason pipes of this range (c’—c’’) used each 
from 18 to 30Xi0° ergs. per sec., some 250 times as much as 
the fork giving its maximum sound, or from 1,000 to 6,000 
times as much as the fork when giving an ordinary sound. 
About one-millionth of one horse-power would maintain in 
ordinary vibration one of these forks; and a tenth of this 
amount gave a sound loud enough to be heard 200 feet in the 
open air. 


There remains one question of some interest: Do all parts 
of the scale seem to the ear to be of equal loudness, especially 
the scale of an organ for which we have found the relative 
intensity of vibration. I find few musicians who have any 
definite impression on the subject; the question is certainly 
difficult, and is perhaps indefinite. If, for example, we call 
that sound the louder which can be heard at the greater dis- 
tance and then compute the energy passing throngh the unit 
of surface at the limit of hearing, we make the violent assump- 
tion that the efficiency of the two sound-producers is the same. 
If we-place the two bodies at the same distance Mayer* has 
shown that the sensation of one sound may be obliterated by 
a lower one that could not be heard as far off as the first. And 
there are other physiological difficulties. In fact the problem 
before us is analogous to the long-standing one of the compari- 
son of two lights of different colors. The problem must, 
therefore, be left as insoluble with our present knowledge; but 
two statements of musicians are of interest in this connection. 
One organist points out that if a piece of music is played on a 
two or three manual organ, the left hand on the swell key- 
board, while the melody is played by the right hand on the 
great, and the swell-boards are opened to give a proper balance 


* Phil. Mag., ii, 500. 


C. K. Wead—Intensity of Sound. 31 


of tone, the boards will be found to be too widely opened 
when the left hand plays the melody on the great key-board 
and the right on the swell, the stops remaining unchanged. 
Another points out that if, with a single stop or combination 
of stops, one runs over the key-board ascending the effect is of 
-a crescendo. This would indicate that the organ-builder in- 
tentionally makes the higher pipes louder instead of keeping 
them of equal loudness as assumed previously, and also shows 
that the ear is more sensitive to high notes than to low ones 
under the conditions in which music is heard, whatever the 
case may be with foghorns heard at sea and reported by Allard. 


Some time after the preceding experiments had been dis- 
cussed and reported on Mr. F. H. Hastings kindly furnished 
the writer with a copy of Toépfer’s great work,* and a sum- 
mary of his views may fitly be connected with this paper. 
Through many hundred pages the author discusses the theory 
of organ pipes and gives formule for their dimensions, and for 
the quantity of wind they require. He determined this last 
experimentally by the method already described, using a bel- 
lows of 63 cubic feet capacity; 9 min. 57 sec. were required 
for this volume of air to leak out under a pressure of 3:2 
Weimar inches of water (= 76™™), (II, 95). The experiments 
must have been very tedious with so large a bellows; they are 
open to the criticism that the leakage is greater than the wind- 
consumption of any pipe, except a few of the largest ones; so 
errors of observation make large errors in the final result, as 
previously pointed ont. 

The author’s theory on the subject is curious. He says (II, 
65) pipes of equal length consume volumes of wind propor- 
tioned to the squares of their diameter, and those of the same 
diameter quantities inversely proportional to the square root 
of their length, [or directly proportional to the square root of 
the vibration frequency |. 


Therefore Oi ». 


z vi 

Q,/L = D* = K’ = coefficient which measures “intensity of vibra- 
tion.” 

Q,/L + area of mouth = K” = coefficient which measures ‘ sharp- 
ness of tone.” 

Q is expressed in Weimar cu. in. per sec. 

K’ is found to range from 68 to 110, average 85: 

K” from 394 to 536, average 450. 


* J. G. Tépfer: Lehrbuch der Orgelbaukunst. Weimar, 1855. About 1,800 
pages and 130 plates folio. Mr. Hastings calls it ‘‘by far the most complete 
book on organ building.” 


32 C.K. Wead—Intensity of Sound. 


For all the pipes of any given stop K’ and K”’ should remain 
constant (pp. 99, 112). This assumption underlies his elabo- 
rate table of “normal scales.” But his experiments do not 
seem to establish this constancy. Thus, for the 16 ft. Prin- 
cipal : 


Length. Q. Kee Ks 
e’ 20" 61°5 SF 496 
e° 40)'37 99 T2e5 408 
E° 82°6 i 58 352 
iy 100°4 162 25°6 165 tone dull. 


In other cases the values of K’ and K” vary considerably 
without showing any regular increase. 

The second constant, K’’, appears to be in some sense a 
measure of the quality of the note, the note being duller as K”” 
is smaller. or pipes of the same length obviously K’ is pro- 
portioned to the mass of air used per unit section of the pipe, 
and so to the energy of vibration at any point wzthzn the pipe, 
if we make the violent assumption of equal efficiency for pipes 
of all diameters. In the same way K” is proportioned to the 
energy of vibration at the mouth. But we are not concerned 
with the intensity of vibration 7m the pipe; we want the ex- 
ternal effect due to the total cross-section. 

The introduction of the square root of the length has no 
physical meaning or justification that I can discover; but it is 
needed to make all parts of Topfer’s theory hang together. 
This may be shown as follows: Assuming equal temperament 
and that diameters double at the 17th pipe, and putting @ for 
the diameter of any pipe, the diameter of the nth pipe above 
becomes : 


Dia Gite 

Similarly for length 
L = (3)? 

And for quantities of wind on Tépfer’s assumption 
Q=e()t 


-Q+-D= (4) 22 cia. OLS, 1) =e b2/a? =e 


i 

Evidently it is necessary to introduce L? to obtain a constant 
factor. 

Toépfer then goes on to establish a “scale” or series of diam- 
eters for a set of pipes. He has found in tables published by 
Dom Bedos in 1766, on whose work his own treatise is largely 
based, that the ratio of sections of pipes differing an 8ve in 
pitch ranges between 1:4 and 1:2; experience shows that 
these are extreme; so it is safe to take their mean 1: /8. 


C. K. Wead—Intensity of Sound. 33 


Again, it is found he tells us (p. 153-4) that in practice the 
quantities of wind used are nearly as 1:2 for the 8ve, some- 
times less, and fortifies himself by a quotation from Chladni 
(Akustik, p. 233): that if two tones of different pitch are to 
have equal effect the forces which each vibration exerts must 
be inversely as its vibration-frequency; but this force is pro- 
portional to the mass of air used ; therefore Q varies inversely 
as 7. 
By the proceeding formula 


Q=K'DL-43 g= Kat? 
If the pipes are an 8ve apart L=2/ and Q = 2¢: 


Then oe eee 


ms 3 
-. D? = 24/8 = 2:83d?; D=d V/8=d x 2# 
This proof is clearly very unsatisfactory; but the “scale” 
thus determined, and published by Topfer in 1832, has been 
largely used by organ builders. By it pipes 4 8ves, 48 semi- 
tones apart, have diameters in the ratio of 1:8, or pipes 16 
semitones apart, a major 10th, are in the ratio of 1:2. 
Another scale may be had by letting the 16th pipe (15 semi- 
tones) have the double diameter; the ratio for the &8ve is then 
1:3, or more accurately 1:4/16=1:3:032. But the bass 
pipes have too little wind. 
If, on the other hand, the 18th pipe (17 semitones) have the 


£2 

double (or half) diameter, the ratio is 1:41!7 or 1:2°661; the 
higher pipes are relatively “sharper.” This defect may be 
corrected by cutting their mouths lower, and conversely for 
the low pipes, remembering that for “gleiche Klangstirke” 
the quantity of wind and therefore the area of mouth must be 
in the ratio of 1: 8 for the 8ve (p. 244). If, in the last case, 
the ratio of height of mouth to breadth be for c’ 0-25, it will be 
for c* 0:23, for C* 0°41. 

Another scale might be formed doubling the diameter at the 
19th pipe; the same correction is to be made but its: execution 
is doubtful. A uniform quality is the first condition in a stop 
{p. 295). 

The author then goes on to apply his theories to the laying 
down of several “normal scales ;’ these all have 121 pipes, 60 
each way from No. 61 assumed 27’” (53™™) diameter. In these 
tables we tind, for example, with the ratio of sections: 
1: 4/8 = 1: 2°83, diam. No. 1, 363°2’"; No. 61, 27'"; No. 121, 2” 
1: 8/3 =1:2°67 311'8 27 2°3 
Poe = 1):/2°5 2721 27 | 2°7 
Am. Joug. Sci1.—THIRD SERIES, Vou. XLII, No. 247.—Juny, 1891. 
3 


—— 
Ls Se 


34. Kakins—Analyses of Astrophyllite and Tscheffkinite. 


From these 121 theoretical diameters for each scale a consec- 
utive series to be chosen for each stop. He finds in practice 
that for a large number of stops the first ratio is suitable; for 
an ordinary Principal c’ should have the diameter of No. 62; 
for a Wide Principal, No. 58 is suitable. But for many stops 
this ratio is not satisfactory; the tone must be fuller in the © 
upper parts; for a given list of stops the ratio 1 : 2°67 is better ; 
the diameter of c’ ranges between No. 55 for the Wide Princi- 
pal Bass, and No. 77 for the Viola d’Amour. For the Pedal 
stops and some others he advises the ratio 1:25. 

This is a very brief summary of the portions of Topfer’s 
voluminous work that relate to the physical side of organ 
building. It does not appear that the questions involved have 
been thought out from the standpoint of the physicist, or that 
the author’s views are entirely consistent. Mr. Bosanquet 
credits to Topfer the law that the quantities of wind belong- 
ing to the same stop vary as the lengths of the pipes. I have 
not been able to find any statement to this effect more definite 
than the one already quoted from p. 153-4, that the quantities 
of wind used are nearly as 1:2 for the 8ve, sometimes more, 
sometimes less; but on p. 200 he gives the theoretical quanti- 
ties for the successive C’s through 9 octaves, and the ratio for 
the 8ve I find to be 1:1:99. But on the other hand he states 
positively, as already quoted, that the quantity of wind must 
be as 1: v8 for the 8ve; that is, as the sections of the pipes 
in his first “‘normal seale.” In other words, his most definite 
statement makes the quantities for the 8ve as 1:8; his 
alleged law and Mr. Bosanquet’s experiments give the ratio 
1: 8, and my experiments give the ratio 1: Y8; these 
ratios are as 1: v64, Y16, v8. While it is unsafe to dogma- 
tize on a matter that must vary according to the circumstances 
of the case, the character of the stop, the location of the pipes, 
the size of the hall where they are to sound, the judgment of 
the finisher, etc., etc., | have no hesitation in expressing my 
belief that the last ratio, or one still nearer unity, will usually 
be found nearer the truth than either of the others. 

Feb., 1891. 


Art. IV.—New Analyses of Astrophyllite and Tschef- 
kinite; by L. G. Eakins. 


I. Astrophyllite. 
Ne&AR the noted cryolite locality at St. Peters dome in the 
Pike’s Peak region of Colorado, there was found some years 
ago an unusually fine lot of astrophyllite, and in such a pure 


HKakins—Analyses of Astrophyllite and Tscheffkinite. 35 


condition that it was thought a new analysis would be not 
without interest notwithstanding the fact that material from 
the same region had already been analyzed by Konig.* 

This astrophyllite occurs in large, brittle, micaceous blades, 
golden to brownish yellow in color, and perfectly free from 
admixed minerals, such as zircon; the only foreign matter 
being on the ends or sides of the blades which were in contact 
with the containing rock ; so that pure material for analysis 
was readily obtained. In this analysis the zirconia was sep- 
arated by a modification of the hydrogen peroxide method and 
weighed directly, being subsequently identified qualitatively. 
For comparison with this analysis, those made by Konig and 
by Backstrémt are added in the table below. Konig’s being 
the one previously referred to, of material from the same 
region, and Backstrém’s of the Eikahoimen mineral. 


Kakins. Konig. Backstrom. 

Analysis. pacers he a Analysis. apace Analysis. seer 
Ta,O, 0°34 001 0°80 "002 
SiO, 39°23 Ol 34°68 578 33°92 "000 
TiO: 11°40 "143 13°58 “170 gine tills "139 
ZrO, P21 °010 2°20 ‘018 3.65 "030 
Fe,O, B-7a |) 2024 G36 041 2530" -ONG 
AOS) ér. O70) * 007 0-98 +009 
FeO 29°02 °403 26°10 °362 21°76 °302 
MnO 5°52 078 3°48 "049 11°96 “169 
CaO 0°22 "004 1:26 °023 
MgO 0°13 008 0°30 "008 0°92 "023 
KO 5°42 "058 5°01 "053 5°78 ‘062 
Na,O 3°63 "059 2°54 041 2°77 "045 
H,.O 4°18 "232 3°04 "197 3°47 "1938 


CuO :42 "006 F 0:97 "051 


100°63 99°91 100°18 


From a discussion of these analyses of Bickstrém and 
Konig, Brogger deduces the general formula: R’’,R’,Si(SiO,), 
for astrophyllite. It will be seen that my analysis closely 
confirms this formula, agreeing with it better in fact than 
those from which it was derived. Calculating the small 
amount of ferric oxide present in with the R” group, the 
molecular ratios of my analysis give the following elementary 
proportions : 

Si ,¢,O 9091 1(Zr) 


153 


Y } 
R sack pals 
this reduces to: 


* Proc. Am. Phil. Soc. Philada., xvi, 509, 1877. 
+ Given by Brogger in:—-Groth’s Zeitschrift, vol. xvi. W. C. Brégger, Die 
Mineralien der Syenitpegmatiteange, ete. 


36 ELakins—Analyses of Astrophyllite and Tscheff kinite. 


SyO Ti, | he eee 
4°7 
which is quite close to R’,R’,Ti(SiO,),, the excess of the R’ 
group is presumably due to the percentage of water being 
somewhat too large, this may result from incipient alteration 
of the mineral, which may also be the cause of the variation 
in color. 


Il. Zscheffkinite. 


A fragment of this rare mineral was last year sent to the 
National Museum by Mr. Horace M. Engle, of Roanoke, Va. 
And upon its identification he very kindly presented all at his 
disposal for the purpose of investigation ; in addition to some 
small fragments there was one large mass, which before break- 
ing weighed over three and one-half kilograms, most of it 
now being in the museum collection. It was found in Bedford 
Co., Va., a point considerably farther south than the locality 
of the material analyzed by Price.* ‘The various pieces of this 
tscheffikinite when found were all more or less rounded nodules, 
with a superficial brownish yellow ochreous coating, evidently 
an alteration product, which at some later date may be made 
the subject of investigation to endeavor to determine the 
method of alteration. The beginning of this alteration was 
also seen in the numerous fissure planes developed in breaking 
up these nodules. Examination of a fresh surface showed a 
distinctly banded structure of lustrous black and dull black 
material, the bands varying from mere lines to over five mil- 
limeters in width. As well as could be these two differently 
appearing substances were separated and each analyzed by 
itself, such separation however was only approximate, as under 
a magnifying glass it was seen that each band contained veins 
of the other. Analysis I is that of the lustrous part, and II 
that of the dull. 

Duplicate determinations confirmed these specific gravities, 
the seemingly more altered one being the higher. The ac- 
tion of acids on the powdered materials shows a marked 
difference, the lustrous portion being completely decomposed 
in a few minutes by warm and moderately strong hydrochlorie, 
sulphuric or nitric acids, while an hour or more was necessary 
to decompose the dull portion under similar conditions. A 
fire assay of a fragment of this tscheffkinite was made by Mr. 
E. L. Howard, of the U. 8. Geological Survey and gave 0°74 
oz. of silver per ton. 

These analyses show that the two bands are practically iden- 
tical in composition, the dull being somewhat more hydrated. 
The molecular ratios seem to lead to no definite or satisfactory 


* R. C. Price, Am. Chem. Journal, Jan., 1888. 


Eakins— Analyses of Astrophyllite and Tscheffkinite. 37 


formula, a result quite in accordance with the evidence furn- 
ished by the microscopical examination of sections. For this 
purpose chips were taken showing both bands, but as in the 
ease of the chemical analysis, they were seen to be practically 
the same. 


F. IT. 
Molecular Molecular 

Analysis. ratio. Analysis. ratio. 
Ta,O, 0°08 0-08 
SiO, 20°21 "337 21°49 358 
TO. 18°78 "235 18:99 "237 
ZrO, tr.(?) tr.(?) 
Tho, 0°85 "003 0°75 "0038 
fen) ©. ~ 1s2*. -006 164+ -005 
(La, Di),O, 19°72 059 17°16 052 
Ce,O, 20°05 061 19-08 ‘058 
Al,O, 760 7035 365). 086 
Fe,O, Ves, 012 2°89 018 
FeO 6°91 "096 a°g2 "082 
CaO 4°05 "072 5°24 "094 
MgO 0°55 014 048 012 
Na,O 0:06 ‘001 0:04 ‘001 
H,O 0°94 "052 2°06 "114 

99°50 - 99°47 


Specific gravity, 4°33 at 27°. Specific gravity, 4°38 at 22°-2. 


I am indebted to Mr. Whitman Cross, of the U. 8. Geolog- 
ical Survey, for the following notes on the thin sections: “ The 
sections consist mainly of reddish and yellowish brown trans- 
parent amorphous substance, apparently the original material, 
this is traversed in all directions by cracks from which there 
has proceeded a decomposition producing a reddish brown 
opaque ochreous matter which fills the cracks and replaces the 
original material so that in certain spots there is now merely 
a network of the two substances. In each section there are two 
parallel bands of secondary minerals nothing corresponding to 
which was detected in the chips before the sections were made. 
These bands consist chiefly of two colorless minerals, the more 
abundant occurring in irregular grains closely resembling calcite 
in strength of refraction and double refraction ; the other occurs 
in rounded grains and is probably sphene. In addition to the two 
colorless minerals in these bands, there also appear two brownish 
substances, one of which has distinct prisms without terminal 
planes, shows strong pleochroism and its absorption parallel to 
the vertical axis is so strong as to make it opaque, while at 
right angles to this axis it is yellow-brown. More abundant 
than this prismatic mineral is one occurring in apparent flakes 


* Molecular weight—308. ~ + Molecular weight=312. 


38 Hakins—Analyses of Astrophyllite and Tscheffkinite. 


of reddish-brown color, it is doubly refracting, but not strongly 
pleochroic, and cannot be identified with any of the substances 
already mentioned. Adjacent to these bands, and replacing 
the amorphous material to varying distances is still another 
substance, in general appearance similar to the prismatic min- 
eral, but evidently different as it shows no very marked absorp- 
tion. This mineral is also strongly pleochroic, varying from 
yellow-brown to chestnut-brown. All of it in the sections 
seems to have a uniform crystallographic orientation, the cause 
of this uniformity not being apparent. Its relations to the 
amorphous substance are similar to those which I have observed 
in several instances between crystalline allanite and the amorph- 
ous variety.” 

The microscopical examination having shown this tscheff- 
kinite to be such a mixture, it became desirable to examine 
others in the same way. 

The only one available for this purpose was that analyzed 
by Price, a specimen of which is in the National Museum col- 
lection. This specimen has the same general appearance 
and banded structure as my own. Chips were taken from it 
for sections which Mr. Cross examined and found to be in 
every respect similar to the other, about the only noticeable 
difference being in Price’s material a somewhat greater devel- 
opment of the opaque ochreous decomposition product of the 
_ transparent amorphous substance than in mine, and a lesser 
development of the colorless minerals. 

Taking into consideration the results of this work, and the 
manifest contradictions of most of the earlier analyses, it seems 
reasonable to conclude that, unless one of the earlier analyses 
can be shown to have been made on pure material, the so-called 
tscheffkinite is not a mineral in any strict construction of the 
word, but merely a mixture; the structure of the chemically 
complex body or bodies evidently its basis being a problem to 
be elucidated in the future when purer material may be found. 


Laboratory, U. S. Geological Survey, 
Washington, D. C., March, 1891. 


LIddings and Penfield—Spherulites from Wyoming. 39 


Art. V.—The Minerals in hollow Spherulites of LEhyolite 
from Glade Creek, Wyoming; by J. P. Ippines and 8. L. 
PENFIELD. 


THE occurrence of fayalite with quartz, tridymite and soda- 
orthoclase or sanidine in the lithophyse and hollow spherulites 
ot the obsidian at Obsidian Cliff, Yellowstone National Park,* has 
been described by one of the writers of the present paper, the 
_ mineralogical investigation of the fayalite and sanidine having 
been carried on by the other writer. Recently we have had 
occasion to call attention to the occurrence of fayalite in obsid- 
jan at Lipari and Vulcano in the Mediterranean,t+ and have 
observed that the modes of occurrence are alike in both regions, 
and that the causes leading to the crystallization of fayalite in 
these magmas must have been the same, namely: the action of 
superheated vapors, presumably of water, upon the magmas 
before their final consolidation and cooling. 

In the present paper we wish to contribute further to the 
knowledge of these aqueo-igneous products in siliceous lavas, by 
describing a somewhat different development of hollow spheru- 
lites in rhyolite at the forks of Glade Creek, a tributary of the 
Snake River, just south of the boundary of the Yellowstone 
National Park. This locality was visited by us in the sum- 
mer of 1886. The rhyolite forms a high bluff of massive 
rock, exhibiting great contortion of banding or planes of flow. 
The spur between the two branches of the stream rises some 
1200 feet above the valley, and presents a section of the great 
rhyolite sheet which forms the mass of Pitchstone Plateau, 
lying to the north. 

The rock at the forks of Glade Creek is dark gray, dull, 
lusterless and lithoidal, with a rough hackly fracture. It 
arries many phenocrysts of a white plagioclase, less numer- 
ous glassy sanidines and quartzes, and many rusted crystals, 
which prove to be more or less altered augites. Through this 
mass are scattered cavities with light gray or white walls, 
which are partially filled with crystals. The cavities vary in 
size from that of a walnut to almost nothing. They are irregu- 
lar in shape, but the spherical form of the light colored walls 
suggests at once that they are the cavities of very hollow 
spherulites. They are, in fact, wide-gaping spherulites like 
some of those found at Obsidian Cliff.t Occasionally there are 


* J. P. Iddings, Obsidian Cliff, Yellowstone National Park, Seventh Annual 
Report of the Director of the U. 8. Geological Survey, Washington, 1888. 

+ Iddings and Penfield, Fayalite in the obsidian of Lipari. This Journal, vol. 
xl, July, 1890. . 

ft 1.c. p. 264, and Plate XII, figs. 1 and 5. 


40 Iddings and Penfield—Minerals in hollow Spherulites 


' indications of spherical zones near the outer margin of the 
shell, but no radial fibration can be observed macroscopically. 
There is nothing in the arrangement of the comparatively 
large crystals within the cavity which suggests either a radia- 
tion from the center, or the concentric shelly structure of 
lithophyse. | 

An examination with the microscope proves that there is a 
radial fibration in the outer shell of these spherulites. And since 
certain of the minerals which are characteristic of the central 
portion are found in the shell also, it is evident that the forma- 
tion of the outer and inner parts of these spherulites was con- 
temporaneous. ‘There are also small irregular cavities contain- 
ing the same well-developed crystals, which have no definite 
spherulitic walls, but are surrounded by white crystalline 
margins, which extend irregularly into the surrounding rock. 
The same thing also occurs in small crystalline patches and 
streaks in the ground-mass of the rock, like the more crystalline 
portions of the laminated lithoidite at Obsidian Chfi.* The 
massive rhyolite at Glade Creek also passes to the westward 
into laminated lithoidal rhyolite with open layers filled with 
the same minerals as those in the hollow spherulites. 

The light colored crystalline portions just mentioned, when 
examined with a lens, are found to be dotted with minute round 
pits about as large as the point of a pin. At first sight they 
appear to be small colorless grains of some mineral like 
quartz, but closer investigation shows them to be hollow. Their 
relation to the crystalline material about them is revealed by a 
microscopical study of the rock. 

Thin sections of the rock show it to be a rhyolite similar to 
much of the lithoidal rhyolite of the neighboring region, except 
for a greater amount of angite phenocrysts. The porphy- 
ritical quartz, sanidine and plagioclase need no special mention, 
being like those of most rhyolites. Magnetite forms quite 
large grains, associated with the angite, often having zircon 
crystals attached to them. The augite is light greenish yellow, 
and is somewhat rounded. It is partly altered to brown iron 
oxide, which penetrates cracks in the crystals. In some 
instances it is entirely decomposed, leaving a pseudomorph of 
brown iron oxide. 

The ground-mass of the rock is spherulitic throughout, with 
here and there spaces between groups of spherulites which are 
composed of crystals of feldspar with tridymite or quartz. 
Short opaque trichites and sharply defined crystals of magnetite 
are scattered uniformly through the mass, or are arranged in 
lines which mark the flow structure. The microscopic spheru- 


*L.c., p. 264. 


of Rhyolite from Glade Creek, Wyoming. 41 


lites are distinctly radially fibrous, the rays being relatively 
coarse or prismatic. The outline of the spherules is not evenly 
circular, but irregularly jagged, especially when they adjoin 
areas of tridymite and quartz. Here the rays of the spherules 
develop into definite prismatic crystals, and have the optical 
characters of orthoclase in prisms elongated parallel to the 
inclined axis, @. They havea slight extinction angle, reach- 
ing 10°, and have the axis of greatest elasticity parallel to the 
length of the prism. The spherulites, therefore, behave as 
though made up of optically negative prisms. In one rock 
section they appear to have more of a granophyric structure, 
with a feather-like texture within the feldspar prisms. The 
fine fibers producing this effect do not reach the end of 
the best developed prisms, leaving them terminated by clear 
feldspar substances, as in the case of the granophyric pheno-: 
eryst in the rhyolite of Eureka, Nevada, described in the 
article on Obsidian Cliff already referred to.* In these 
spherulites the presence of quartz within the feldspar is 
indicated by this micro-structure, but in the first mentioned 
spherulites there is nothing to suggest its presence, except 
the highly siliceous nature of the rock. Since it is only 
the marginal terminations of the feldspar prisms which -are 
determinable as such, the central portion of the spherulites 
may be more complex without its being recognized, for a 
small amount of quartz would not materially affect the optical 
character of the feldspar. The light colored, crystalline por- 
tions of the rock with the minute pits are seen under the 
microscope to be more highly crystallized parts of the ground- 
mass. They combine the spherulitic structure with a more or 
less granular one. The little cavities are found to be hollows 
at the centre of small feldspar spherulites, which are made up 
of feldspar prisms whose ends project irregularly inward into 
the cavities and outward into the adjoining minerals. The 
cavities appear to be minute spots once occupied by vapor or 
some liquid, around which feldspar crystallized in prisms radia- 
ting outward. In the crystalline patches the tridymite lies in 
various orientations, and through it in all directions run what 
look like transparent needles, which in some eases also radiate 
out from the coarser micro-spherulites. They are dull between 
crossed nicols, and might easily be mistaken for apatite, but 
their optical characters are also those of sanidine prisms that 
have developed parallel to the axis of greatest elasticity. This 
is shown to be the case in a thin section of another rhyolite in 
which the same structure has been developed on a somewhat 
larger scale. In the rhyolite from Glade Creek, quartz some- 


*L.c., p. 275, Plate XV, fig. 5. 


42 Iddings and Penfield—Minerals in hollow Spherulites 


times occupies the place of tridymite between the feldspar 
erystals. | 

The mineral which is most abundant in the hollow spheru- 
lites is quartz, occurring in stout crystals, seldom over 2™™ in 
diameter (in one instance 5™"), very transparent and with a 
pale smoky color; also in slender white prisms, 10™™ long. 
The latter are sometimes clear and transparent in part, but 
are mostly full of cracks, and many of'them are covered with 
a crust of hyalite. The hyalite is isotropic, and has minute 
microlites of feldspar scattered through it. Both the stout, 
clear quartz crystals, and the slender white prisms occur to- 
gether in the same spherulite, and in a number of instances 
it was observed that the clear crystals are deposited on a 
nearly flat side of the cavity, while the white prisms, inter- 
-secting in all directions, make up a sort of net work which 
rises above it in a dome-shaped mass. ‘The first impression 
is that the transparent quartz crystallized in a shallow basin 
in a lquid while the upper portion crystallized in a vapor. 
This hypothesis is, however, untenable, since in some eases, 
the transparent crystals in the hollows of one rock specimen, 


coat walls which are not symmetrically disposed to one 
another and hence could not represent the same water level. 
Transparent, stout, quartz crystals are attached to the walls 
of the cavity so that only one termination or one side of 
the prism is free; in the net work of slender white prisms, 
however, doubly terminated crystals occur. These quartz 
erystals proved on examination to be very interesting. They 
are not highly modified, but possess some faces with very 
simple indices which are exceedingly rare, even on highly 
modified quartz crystals, giving therefore a type of crystalliz- 
ation which, to our knowledge, is altogether new for this 
common mineral. They all show, in addition to the common 
quartz forms (prism m, 1010, I, always horizontally striated, 
and the rhombohedrons 7, 1011, 1 and z, 0111, --1) steep 


of Rhyolite from Glade Creek, Wyoming. 43 


rhombohedrons 7, 3032, 2 and o, 0332, —2 and narrow tra- 
pezohedral faces N and L + 8-3, which lie in the zone 
between y and o and also in the zone 2, r and m. The 
rhombohedrons 7 and o are not mentioned by G. Rose* in his 
classical paper on quartz. Des Cloizeaux,f in his very exten- 
sive monograph on the crystallization of quartz was the first 
to observe these forms. During his investigation he added 
twenty-one new positive rhombohedrons to the seven which 
were already known. Of the + 2 rhombohedron 7 he says: 
“this has been found on two erystals from Traversella, on a 
large crystal from Brazil, and upon a little crystal from Ala. 
Its measurement is a little uncertain as it always presents 
rounded faces. Among the considerations which favor the 
acceptance of this rhombohedron is the occurrence of the 
negative 2 form.” He also added twenty-five new negative 
rhombohedrons to the five which were already known. Of 
the —2 rhombohedron a he says: “this rhombohedron has been 
observed upon twenty-three crystals from Traversella, and upon 
many crystals from Valais. The mean of fifty-four measure- 
ments, in spite of a slight rounding of the faces, leaves no doubt 
of its symbol.” On the crystals from Glade Creek both 7 
and o are perfect as regards luster and freedom from stria- 
tions. ‘They may be detected on nearly all crystals and some- 
times they are largely developed. Figures 1 and 2 represent 
the relative size and development of these faces on two of the 
transparent stout crystals which were detached for measurement, 
and figure 3, the greater development of them at one end of a 
slender white prism. In the majority of cases, the edges 
between 7 and oa are replaced by trapezohedral faces having the 
simple parameter relation 2-2; moreover all of the four pos- 
sible trapezohedral forms with the above parameter relation 
were observed. On the right-handed crystal represented in 
fig. 1, N, 21382,+7 3-3, and N’, 3212, -r 2-3 occur, while 
on the left-handed crystals represented in figs. 2 and 3, L, 
3122, +/ 3-2 and L’, 1232, -¢ 3-2 occur. DesCloizeaux 
also observed these forms and says of N + 2-2 “this very 
rare form has been observed only upon the very remarkable 
erystal from Brazil. As it is very narrow and a little rounded 
its measurement could not be made very exactly ; however its 
angle upon 7, calculated for the symbol here adopted, differs 
very little from the mean of the observation and its very simple 
symbol, being the inverse of the probable face L, —3—3, point 
to its existence.” Of L, —2-3, indicated by DesCloizeaux 
with (?) as a probable but not certain form, he says: ‘this very 
simple symbol can be applied to a face observed upon many 


* Abh. Akad. Berlin, 1844, p. 217. + Ann. Ch. Phys., 1855, p. 129. 


i) | 
itil t 


44 Lddings and Penfield—Minerals in hollow Spherulites 


erystals from Traversella. This face is always brilliant but so 
much rounded that upon measuring upon z one can indiffer- 
ently arrive at a number of approximations according as one 
stops at the upper, central or lower part of the broad reflection 
which it furnishes.” On the crystals from Glade Creek, N 
and N’ and L and L’ are faultless as regards luster and 
absence of striations and rounding. An idea of the promi- 
nence of these faces may be obtained from figs. 1, 2 and 3 
where their relative size and development on three of the 
measured crystals has been prese1ved as far as possible... They 
undoubtedly occur both as positive 7 and negative 7, and as 
positive / and negative 7; their persistency in replacing all of 
the edges between 7 and o would indicate this as well as the 
results of an experiment in etching one of the crystals with 
hydrofluoric acid. The crystal represented in fig. 1, was thus: 
proved to be a right-handed twin. The greater part of 7 and 
7 in front, and all of N were positive, as was also the greater 
portion of the faces lettered z and a, the twinning boundaries 
running very unequally over these faces; while the face lettered 
N’ was both positive and negative, the positive part being deeply 
etched while the acid had almost no action on the negative 
portion. Left-handed crystals were not etched, but it is safe to 
infer from the development of L and L’, that they are both 
positive and negative. Right and left forms were not observed 
in the same crystal. On the goniometer the reflections from 
all of the faces except m were very perfect, and the following 
measurements were made. 


Calculated. ‘ Measured. 
DM AG 715) 52" iGo, 
7” w (N ork) 1 22) 43" Se .- 
] 52° 33' 20" 52°32" 59° 33). 52) 32 aa 


AN BO) . 
x Nor Ia) 165 6) 167 553’ TG 57 (Vesa 
fA jOZAO {10-317 10233 Oe 


We have also examined the quartz crystals in the lith- 
ophysee of Obsidian Cliff, Yellowstone National Park, and find 


that they too have the habit which we have just described. 


They are always very small, seldom over $™™ in diameter, but 
some were found which were so perfect that they gave excel- 
lent reflections and could be accurately measured on the goni- 
ometer. They generally have the habit represented in figs. 1 
and 2, although sometimes 7 and o were as fully developed as 
in fig. 8. The N and L faces seldom failed. The crystals 
were so small that the positive and negative character of the 
rhombohedrons could not well be distinguished. In most 
cases however a 2 rhombohedron was observed between the 
unit rhombohedron and prism. Measurements were mostly 


of Rhyolite from Glade Creek, Wyoming. 45 


made in the vertical zone m, 7, 7, over the apex of the crystal 
on 2, a, m. The prism faces were always so much striated that 
no satisfactory measurements could be made from them. The 
measurements are as follows: 


Calculated, Measured. 
r az over base, 103° 34’ 103° 354 103° 33’ 103° 34” 108° 35 103° 35” 
Taj OY ZA 0, 10 31 10 42 LO 4 10) 35 10. 29; 10-45. 10° 35% 10° 197 
razadjoining, 46 16 46 17 
raN, iiss ee, VO 


On several crystals a second rhombohedron having the 
symbol 4,0, (10-0. 10-7) was observed, occurring either alone 
with 7, z and m, or between 7 and 7 andaand z. It hada 
relatively large size and gave distinct reflections; its measure- 
ment on to 7 and 2g, is as follows: 


Calculated. Measured. 
9° 91’ 9° 45’, 9° Bar. 9g” 38" +9" ao" an 


The occurrence in the hollow spherulites of this very unusual 
development of quartz, as well as its association with the rare 
mineral fayalite, may be taken to indicate that the crystals were 
formed under conditions which do not usually prevail. On 
the highly modified quartz erystals from Alexander Co., N. C., 
j7,¢ and L were frequently observed by vom Rath,* but the 
crystals from Glade Creek, and Obsidian Cliff, are very different 
in showing these rare forms well-developed on otherwise very 
simple crystals. 


Tridymite is present in some of the cavities in characteristic 
crossed twins, and is abundant in thin sections of the rock. 

The most noticeable mineral next to quartz is fayalite. It 
forms stout crystals about 1™™ long with very much the same 
habit as those represented by fig. 2, in our paper “ On the occur- 
rence of Fayalite in the lithophysz of obsidian and rhyolite in 
the Yellowstone National Park,’+ or by fig. 54 in the paper 
on Obsidian Cliff already cited.{ They have undergone more 
or less alteration to iron oxide and are now opaque and black. 
Some are still transparent at the centre. When tested chemi- 
cally they give decided reactions for both iron and magnesium. 
This may indicate that the unaltered fayalite is rich in mag- 
nesilum. There is not sufficient unaltered material at hand to 
undertake a complete chemical analysis. The occurrence of 
the fayalite at Glade Creek is quite the same as that in other 
hollow spherulites in the rhyolites at various localities in the 
Yellowstone National Park. 


* Zeitschr. Kryst., x, p. 156. ib.) peat 
+ This Journal, vol. xxx, July, 1885, p. 59. 


46 J. Stanley-Brown—Bernardinite : Is tt a 


In some of the more irregular cavities of the rock, at Glade 
Creek, there are accumulations of sanidine crystals of very 
small size. Occasionally they exhibit a blue iridescence, and 
when magnified are seen to have the same crystal habit as 
those in the lithoidite of Obsidian Cliff,* that is, they are thin 
tablets parallel to the basal plane, with the clinopinacoid, prism 
and two orthodomes less highly developed. The chemical 
analysis of these uncommon sanidines from Obsidian Cliff 
showed the presence of one molecule of soda to one of potash. 
In some of the hollow spherulites there are very small crystals 
of hornblende about $"" long. They form stout prisms with 
brilliant faces, and appear to be terminated by the basal plane 
and unit pyramid. In thin section they are brown. They are 
not found in most of the cavities. Biotite is also observed, in 
a few cases, In very small particles built up of thin hexagonal 
crystals with parallel orientation. They yield an almost uni- 
axial negative interference figure between crossed nicols. 
Both the hornblende and biotite occur sparingly in small 
crystals within the groundmass of the rock. These minerals 
are not found in the same cavities with fayalite. 

In conclusion, we find that in the rhyolite of Glade Creek, 
as in the obsidian of Obsidian Cliff, fayalite occurs in associ- 
ation with abundant quartz, as the result of the mineralizing 
action of vapors in the cooling acid lava. The quartz in 
both localities has a peculiar development, remarkable alike 
for its simplicity, rarity and perfection. These minerals are 
accompanied by an uncommon form of sanidine, and by tridy- 
mite. Moreover in certain hollow spherulites the fayalite is 
wanting, and in its place are hornblende and biotite. 


— 


Art. VI.—Bernardinite: Is it a Mineral or a Fungus ?+ 
by JosePH STANLEY-Browny. 


TWELVE years ago Prof. J. M. Stillman announced through 
this Journalt his discovery of “a new mineral resin from San 
Bernardino Co., Cal.,” and proposed for it the name “ Bernard- 
inite.” The specimens were sent to him by farmers who, find- 
ing them among rocks, supposed them to be derived from veins. 

While engaged in geological work in northeastern Oalifornia 
during the summer and fall of 1890, Mr. A. B. Frost, of Susan- 
ville, called my attention to the occurrence of bernardinite near 
Eagle Lake. Search for the mineral was unrewarded for the 


* L. c. p. 267, figs. 51 and 52. 

+ Abstract of a paper read before the Washington Phil. Soc., Mar. 14, 1890, 
and now printed by permission of the Director of the U. S. Geol. Survey. 

+ This Jour., vol. xviii, page 57. 


Mineral or a Fungus ? 47 


reason that it is more likely to be found on tree trunks than in 
veins. During the winter the excellent specimen used in the 
preparation of the accompanying illustration was forwarded by 
Mr. Frost, who stated that it was cut from a live pine tree near 
Eagle Lake. Bits of adhering bark can be seen in figure 1, 
which is a little less than half size. Professor Stillman gener- 
ously placed at my disposal a piece of the original material and 
their comparison and study were taken up. 

As the description of the “mineral resin” answers equally 
well for the recently obtained specimen it is quoted here. “It 
presents a nearly white mass, friable, light and porous, con- 
taining much enclosed air so that it floats on water like cork. 
On fracture it presents a slightly fibrous structure. Under the 
microscope it exhibits a two-fold structure—a quantity of very 
fine irregular fibers permeating a mass of a brittle, amorphous, 
structureless substance.” Nothing more need be added, save 
to call attention to the concentric form of growth and to the 
remnants of tubes. 

Macroscopically and chemically the two specimens appear to 
be identical. No improvement of Professor Stillman’s careful 
analysis was attempted, and its duplication was only carried to 
the point of identification. Both substances agree in melting 
imperfectly at 140° and in softening at temperatures below 
100; they are insoluble in water; 86 to 90 per cent dissolves in 
aleohol—the solutions being of a slightly yellow color, marked 
bitter taste and acid reaction; residues from solution are white 
and amorphous; the alcoholic extracts burn with smoky flame 
leaving a trace of ash; they are much less soluble in ether than 
in alcohol. Professor Stillman found further that his material 
was soluble in caustic potash, and from such solutions a puri- 
fied tasteless mass could be precipitated by hydrochloric acid, 
also that the filtrate evaporated to dryness yielded a ‘‘ waxy 
substance” of intensely bitter taste. Taking into account 
hygroscopic moisture and ash, his analysis gave: 


Carbon: 2. 2 eee ee 64°46 

Hydrogen (not in water) ------ 8°75 

Oxygen Maer ae 22°80 

BOR Ss De Sis ear OE | 3°87 

Nahin 2 Se 2 peer ee ae 0°12 
100°00 | 


Dr. H. N. Stokes, of the Chemical Division of the Geological 
Survey, gave it such consideration as pressure of work would 
permit, and says in regard to it: “In continuous extrac- 
tion with alcohol the ‘bernardinite’ left a residue of 7°56 per 
cent, and your specimen a residue of 6°08 per cent. The 
appearance of the residue under the microscope is the same in 


NN 
Mi) 


i 
wt 
il} 


J. 8. Brown—Bernardinite: a Mineral or a Fungus ? 49 


each case, consisting of fine fibers, mixed with some granules. 
I have not had time-to prove that the substance [fiber] is cel- 
lulose, but it appears to be, being insoluble in all neutral 
solvents and unacted upon by bromine water. The alcoholic 
solutions being evaporated to dryness, left a crystalline residue. 
The mass of the residne is crystalline—the crystals being im- 
bedded in some amorphous substance. The crystalline substance 
is a mixture of crystalline acids, which form soluble crystalline 
salts. The appearance in each case is the same, and I therefore 
do not hesitate to pronounce the two specimens identical.” 

My petrographic microscope showed clearly the structural 
similarity of the substances and suggested a fungous origin, and 
a botanical authority was sought in Mr. F. H. Knowlton whose 
examination of a fragment of each piece, with a biological mi- 
croscope, not only confirmed previous testimony as to identity, 
but indicated their fungous character with certainty. 

Assuming that the sameness of the specimens has been 


established, a brief reference to the nature, origin and struc- 


ture of the substance may be given. 

Professor Stillman expressed the belief* that it was a res- 
inous secretion which, having fallen from some species of con- 
ifer, was covered with debris, lost all traces of volatile and 
soluble matter, became permeated and splintered by a fung- 
ous growth and being mixed with surface soil, would easily 
be mistaken by untrained observers for material im situ. 
Considering the fact that Professor Stillman did not see the 
bernardinite (?) in place and that the specimens available for 
his guidance were fragmental, stained and weathered, it is 
remarkable he should have been able to give so plain a 
hint as to its character and source. But the truth of the mat- 
ter probably is, that the fungous growth is responsible for the 
presence of the resin and not the resin for the fungus growth. 
Through the kindness of Professor Gallaway of the Agricul- 
tural Department, the large specimen was referred to Mr. J. B. 
Ellis, of Plainfield, N. J., an authority on fungi, and it was by 
him recognized as the fungus “ Polyporous officinalis Fries.”’ 
As already noted its home is on the pine tree and it probably 
occurs over a wide area, for it is found on Pinus strobus of 
Michigan, and a specimen has just been sent to the National 
Museum from Wyoming. A glance at figure 2, which is about 
half the natural size, shows clearly the ring-like growth and the 
remains of tubes. Figure 3 is from a photograph of a small 
piece of Professor Stillman’s original material and is full size. 

A microscopical examination of a thin section shows the 
features represented in figure 4. A somewhat regular arrange- 
ment of granules is seen (indicated by the lighter color), which 


* This Jour., vol. xx, page 93. 
Am. Jour. Scr.—THirD Series, Vout. XLII, No. 247.—Juty, 1891. 
4. 


Hii} 
yah | 
| Hy} i 
Hit 
mu 

ia Pat 
mats | 
if 


i Hail | s 
will || 
; (i 


——s 


——————————— 


—S 


50 J. 8S. Brown—Bernardinite: a Mineral or a Fungus ?- 
are apparently enclosed in a network of fibers. The granules 
are about a millimeter in width and vary from two to three 
milimeters in length, and when carefully removed and frac- 
tured they break up into transparent irregular particles. If 
the granules are dissolved in alcohol there remains a mass of 
microscopic mycelial threads indicated by the hair lines in 
figure 4,and more clearly shown in figure 5. Miss Southworth,* 
of the Agricultural Department, after studying both specimens, 
declared them to be identical, and found that these microscopic 
fibers are arranged in a more or less parallel manner, and some- 
times great numbers are closely bound together or wound 
around each other, forming a distinct branching cord up to 
half a millimeter in diameter. The fibers are also branching, 
wavy in outline, with thick colorless wall, narrow thread-like 
lumen, and occasional swellings. They are often terminated by 
forms such as are seen in figure 6, and there are other features 
which must, however, be left to the mycologist to investigate. 

Just what function this resinous material plays in the life of 
the plant is not now known. Its presence can hardly be acciden- 
tal, for its association withthe fungus is persistent over a wide 
area. It is difficult to conceive of a fungus penetrating a mass of 
resin with such regularity. It would seem more probable that 
the irritation of its presence caused an exudation from the tree 
which was appropriated by the fungus either for its nourishment 
or its preservation from destruction. 

A final word concerning the supposed medicinal and histor- 
ical character of the fungus may be interesting. 

Mr. W. W. Calkins of Chicago, who has described a speci- 
men obtained from Michigan, asserts that this substance is 
employed by lumbermen, and was used by soldiers during the 
war, as a substitute for quinine, and that its tonie effect is 
undoubted. Attention was called by Mr. Ellis to the state- 
ment by Fries that the old Greek botanist Dioscorides was 
acquainted with this fungus and its medicinal qualities and 
that it is mentioned in his ‘‘ Materia Medica,” published dur- 
ing the reign of Nero. Those engaged in therapeutic research 
may find the study of the intensely bitter “waxy substance ” 
obtained by Professor Stillman interesting. 

If there has been an accurate determination and presenta- 
tion of the facts involved, there only remains the question: 
Can the substance confined within the meshes of this fungus 
be properly considered a new or even a true mineral resin ? 
Should not bernardinite disappear from mineralogic literature 
and be found only in the future in that referring to the vener- 
able Polyporous officinalis ? 

Washington, D. C., March, 1891. 


* Miss Southworth made drawings 5 and 6. 


Cee. Beecher 


Development of Bilobites. 51 


Art. VII. — Development of Builobites; by Cuartes E. 
BrEEcHER, PH.D: (With Plate L) 


THE Linnean species so well known under the name of 
Orthis biloba, and so widely distributed in the Silurian rocks 
of the world, represents one of the very distinct members into 
which the Orthis group is now divided. It is much removed 
from ordinary Orthis in general external features, and only by 
means of developmental characters is it possible to arrive at 
any idea of its genetic history. 

After having been referred to various genera, including 
Anomia, Terebratula, Delthyris, and Spirifer, by different 
authors prior to 1848, Davidson* first showed conclusively, 
from a study of the internal characters, that the true relations 
were with the genus Orthis. Its position has since remained 
unchallenged, and subsequent investigation has not brought 
forth any new characters, nor invalidated the results obtained 
by Davidson. The additional observations here made concern- 
ing the development of tbe shell, while adding to our knowl- 
edge of the species, merely serve to bind more closely this form 
to the group having the broad designation of Orthis. Prof. 
King in 1850+ proposed the genus Yzcelosia for this species, 
on account of its characteristic form, and authors disposed to 
divide Orthis have recognized this name. Since then, it has 
been shown that Linné gave the generic term Bdlobites to the 
type species of King’s genus, and this name is now generally 
adopted with the rank of a subgenus. The validity of the 
specific names applied to variations from the typical form is 
not of much moment in this place, although the geologic his- 
tory and interpretation of these differences are of considerable 
interest. Two well-defined varieties or species are recognized 
in Sweden, and are represented in outline by figures 2 and 28, 
Plate I. The prevailing form in the Wenlock shales at 
Dudley, England, agrees with figure 28, and also represents the 
ordinary form from the Niagara Group of Indiana and New 
York. Each locality, however, presents minor differences, 
mainly of local interest, and seldom of varietal importance. 
In Western New York, besides the ordinary form with both 
valves convex there is found an arcuate, deeply bilobed variety, 
agreeing with the extreme of the Swedish B&B. bilobus, var. 

erneuilianus Lm., represented in figure 2. The lobes of 
the New York variety are commonly more divergent, as shown 


* Bull. Soc. Géol. France, 2d ser., vol. v, p. 321, t. 3, fig. 18, 1848. 
+ Monograph Permian fossils, page 106, 1850. 


ti | 
LM i 
H} 


52 C. EL. Beecher—Development of Bilobites. 


in the outline, figure 1. This form was recently described by 
Ringueberg, as Orthis acutiloba.* 

The Lower Helderberg species known as B. varicus Conrad, 
sp., presents an amount of departure from typical B. dzlobus, 
as would be anticipated from the change in the chronological 
and physical conditions of the species, combined with its ex- 
tremely prolific development at this time. The abundance 
and comparatively large size of individuals clearly indicate 
most favorable conditions for their existence and multiplica- 
tion, and, also, for the assumption and transmission of any 
varietal forms in harmony with the environment. 

Mature individuals from Dudley, England, and Gotland, 
Sweden, represented by figure 28, correspond in all characters 
with specimens of 6. varicus which are about half or two- 
thirds grown. After reaching the adult dzlobus stage, B. 
varicus continues its growth, but this subsequent increment is 
geratologic in its nature, although such senile features are here 
the conditions of simple maturity or the completed ephebolic 
stage. Evidences of this are seen in the gradual obsolescence 
of the pronounced lobation of the shell and the cessation of 
areal growth in the nealogic period. The form known as B. 
bilobus, var. Verneuilianus, Lrm., from Gotland, shows a tend- 
eney to develop in the opposite direction, as the lobation be- 
comes more and more pronounced with growth, and the shell 
exceeds in size the normal species. The decrease in the loba- 
tion of 5. varicus is a degeneration towards an embryonic 
character, while the arrested areal development produces a 
condition of partial isomorphism resembling one of the higher 
groups of Orthis, such as Rhipidomella (/?. Michelini Lév). 

From what has been stated, it seems evident, that the form 
typified by B. belobus from the Niagara was, at that time, not 
a very plastic type, and capable of only slight degrees of varia- 
tion or departure from the normal form. Naturally, all the 
modifications which occur containing a differentiation of the 
essential idea of the genus appear in the early history of the 
group, and are found previous to the Lower Helderberg form. 
The latter species while losing, in a manner, its bz/obus expres- 
sion at maturity, degenerates into forms resembling ancestral 
and other groups. 


The material for the basis of this paper was collected by 
the writer from the lower members of the Shaly Limestone of 
the Lower Helderberg group, along the top of the main 
escarpment of the Helderberg Mountains, between Clarksville 
and the Indian Ladder, Albany County, New York.  Half- 


* Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, p. 134, 1888. 


* 


C. F. Beecher—Development of Bitobites. 53 


grown and fully developed specimens of elobites varicus, 
Conrad, sp., can still be picked up in considerable numbers in 
thé soil formed of the decomposed limestones. The species, 
however, is not so abundant as formerly. Professor James 
Hall is authority for the statement (Pal. N. Y., vol. iti, p. 493), 
that forty thousand individuals were collected between 1843 
and 1858, and about four thousand in the four following years. 
The young specimens have been obtained only by carefully 
examining the decomposed surfaces of the limestones, and by 
treating with hydrochloric acid slabs of rock in which the 
fossils are replaced by silica. After considerable labor and 
search, about a thousand individuals have been obtained. 
From this number, it has been, possible to select a series of 
over forty specimens, showing stages of growth ranging from 
shells a little less than one-half a millimeter in length toa 
length of nine millimeters; thus representing the development 
between these limits by almost insensible gradations. 


Developmental Changes in Bilobites varicus. 


In the youngest specimens yet detected, measuring -49™™ in 
length, and semi-elliptical in outline, the dorsal valve is longer 
than the ventral; the hinge is equal to the greatest width of 
the shell; both areas are high, subequal, and perforate by a 
triangular fissure in each valve. In rare instances, the pedicle 
covering, or pseudo-deltidium, is retained in young shells. 
Figure 1 of the ventral area, shows the fissure and pedicle 
covering, with the foramen at the 
apex of the beak. The covering is 
soon absorbed or abraded during sub- 
sequent growth, and the pedicle then 
emerged through the fissure below. 
None of these characters obtain in 
B. varicus, ventral area. x25. the nealogic or ephebolic stages, 
which are represented by a cordate, bilobed shell; dorsal valve 
shorter than the ventral; hinge line much shorter than the 
ae of the shell, and an inconspicuous dorsal area without a 

ssure. 

The series of outlines, figures 11 to 26, drawn to the same 
scale, illustrate both the important changes which take place in 
the general form, and the corresponding increase in size from 
stage to stage. The rounded frontal margin of figures 11 and 12, 
becomes straight in figure 13, and in figure 14 a gentle sinus is 
apparent, which is pronounced in figure 15, and thereafter is 
the conspicuous character of the entire shell up to the ephe- 
bolic stage represented by figure 23. Figures 24 and 25 show 


te 


54 C. HE. Beecher—Development of Bilobites. 


that upon reaching maturity a geratologic tendency to oblite- 
rate the marginal sinus is initiated ; thus degenerating to an 
embryonal condition of lobation similar to figure 14. 

The length of the hinge line from an initial dimension equal 
to the greatest width of the shell becomes equal to but one- 
half the width of the shell in a specimen 3:5" wide; and in 
a full grown individual, as represented by figure 25, the hinge 
is not more than one-quarter the width of the shell. From 
having subequal areas, the change is rapid, so that in a very 
early stage, but two or three removes from the initial one of 
the series, the ventral area is the larger and the fissure higher. 
This ratio progressively increases, and after the shell reaches a 
length of 1:5™", the dorsal area ceases to be a conspicuous 
feature. All areal growth and hinge extension end in the 
middle nealogic period, and to this cause is due the great dis- 
parity between the length of the hinge and the width of the 
shell in ephebolie individuals. The nepionic shells show some 
extension of the cardinal angles, but the auriculation does not 
become apparent until the lobation of the valves is initiated. — 

On account of the greater length of the incipient dorsal 
valve and consequent obliquity of the area, the fissure and area 
of that valve may be seen when the shell is viewed from the 
ventral side, as in figure 10, and, consequently, the ventral area 
is concealed from the dorsal aspect, as shown in figures 3-9, 
and 11-15. ‘This is a remarkable reversion of characters, and 
one which appears to be of considerable significance from a 
phylogenetic standpoint. 

The radiating strize first appear on the lower half of the 
initial shell of the series, indicating that in an earlier condition, 
the shell was smooth. The striz appear in pairs. The first 
two strie extend to the antero-lateral borders. An additional 
intercalated pair is next introduced, together with a single 
one on each side between the primary radii and the cardinal 
border. The number after this stage is more rapidly increased 
by increment in the cardinal lateral areas than in the median 
region. 


Observations.—As shown in the ontogeny of B. varicus, the 
generic stock was derived from a radicle having, in many re- 
spects, the characters of the group represented by Platy- 
strophia biforata. The general proportions of the nepionic 
shell in B. varicus resemble it very closely. The length of 
the hinge at this period, the high hinge areas in both valves, 
with subequal triangular fissures, and the extent of the dorsal 
and ventral beaks, are characters very much the same as in 
Platystrophia bifor ata. 


C. E. Beecher—Development of Bilobites. 55 


These features are maintained until the nealogic stage repre- 
sented by figure 15, after which arrested hinge extension and 
increasing areal orowth in the ventral valve rapidly obliterate 
the early characters, and in addition, the growing lobation of 
the valves emphasizes the expression ‘of Bilobites. 


Paracme. 
ipacme 
Acme. 


i 


il WS 


VA NS Ax 


<2) J Ordowicim.—- = x = 2. see Nisan x. lower-Helderbers.. == > 
<2. Neplomic.4-... x 5 Nealogic2=- 9 2-_= x Mplievolics-—— x Geratolocic? 


Figure 2.—Geuesis of Bilobites. 


a, nepionic stage (x4). Ordovician type like Platystrophia biforata. 
b, nealogic period ( x 4) at which divergence begins. 

c, Bilobites bilobus ( x 2). Epaemic form, Niagara horizon. 

d, Bilobites Vearneuilianus (x 2). Acmic form, Niagara horizon. 

e, Bulobites varicus (x2). Paraemic form, Lower Helderberg horizon. 


The genesis of the species is represented in the accompany- 
ing illustrations, in which it is shown, that all these species are 
alike in their development up to an early nealogic period, 


56 C. Et. Beecher—Development of Bilobites. 


figure 6. B. Vernewilianus, figure d, diverges at this point, 
progressively increasing its variation from the normal direct 
growth, as exemplified in B. bilobus, figure c. B. varicus, 
figure ¢, passes through all the bilobus stages, and culminates 
in larger individuals, with less pronounced lobation of the shell. 

The direct line of development, or the epacme, is repre- 
sented by &. bdlobus, and it is significant that this form also 
has the greatest geological and geographical distribution. 
Next, the divergent and indirect line, or acmic group, typified 
by BL. Vernewlianus and B. acutilobus, is also widely dis- 
tributed, but less so than the first. Finally, the paraemie, or 
geratologous form, £. varicus, culminated and disappeared 
within very narrow time and regional limits. 

Yale Museum, New Haven, Conn. 


EXPLANATION OF PLATE I. 


Bilobites acutilobus, Ringueberg. 
FIGURE 1.—Outline of specimen from Niagara Group, Lockport, N. Y. x4. 


A ° o7- ° \ 
Bilobites Verneuilianus, Lindstrom. 


FIGURE 2.-—Common elongate form from Upper Silurian, Gotland, Sweden. x 4. 


Bilobites varicus, Conrad. 


FIGURE 3.--Dorsal view of youngest individual observed; showing inception of 
radiating strize and concealment of hinge areas. x18. 

FIGURE 4.—Profile of same; showing depth and extent of both valves. x18. 

FIGURE 5.—Hinge view of preceding. x 18. 

FIGURE 6.—Dorsal side of specimen; showing beginning of anterior marginal 
sinus. x 18. 

FIGURE 7.—Profile of same. x18. 

FIGURE 8.— Posterior view of same. x18. 

FIGURE 9.—Dorsal view of specimen, figure 15, showing concealment of ventral 
Blingtels <3) 

FiGURE 10.—Ventral view of same; showing dorsal area x 9. Compare this with 
dorsal view of larger specimen, figure 21, in series. 

FIGURES 11-26.—Series of specimens; seen from dorsal side; exhibiting ob- 
served stages of growth, variation and development of hinge, 
hinge area, and marginal sinus. x4. 

Figure 27.—Interior of ventral valve; showing teeth, muscular impressions, 
minute concave plate in apex of: fissure, and arrangement of 
puncte between nodes and ribs. x6. Lower Helderberg group. 
Albany County, N. Y. 


Bilobites bilobus, Linné. 


FIGURE 28.—Outline ; showing characteristic form of this species as occurring in © 
Upper Silurian of Gotland, Sweden. 


L. V. Pirsson—Gmelinite from Nova Scotia. 57 


Art. VIIl.—Gmelinite from Nova Scotia; by Louis V. 
PIRSSON. 


THE zeolites of Nova Scotia have long been noted for the 
size and perfection of their crystals, and among them gmelinite 
has held a prominent place. Originally described by Jackson* 
under the name of ledererite, it was first proved to be identical 
with the gmelinite of European localities by Des Cloizeaux,t 
from crystallographic measurements. This was subsequently 
confirmed by analyses published by Marsh.{ Analyses have 
also been published by A. B. Howe, referred to later. Beyond 
these observations there seems to have been no investigation of 
the crystal form and physical properties of the mineral from 
American localities. This has been undertaken chiefly upon 
material collected during the past summer at Pinnacle Island, 
ene of the “ Five Islands” in the Basin of Minas, Nova Scotia. 
An analysis, which was made to control the results of the inves- 
tigation, having brought out some interesting facts, a discus- 
sion of the chemical composition has also been added. And 
since gmelinite has been referred by some authors, especially 
Tamnau§ and Streng,|| to chabazite, all points bearing on this 
question have been kept in mind and are here presented. 

The gmelinite from Five Islands occurs in seams implanted 
in a greatly decomposed trap. The crystals, often of large size, 
vary in color from a very pale flesh-red to a strong reddish- 
brown. Im thin section they are seen to be composed of a 
colorless outer shell or zone, inclosing a colored inner nucleus. 
In grinding the sections it was noticed that the outer shell was 
hard and tough, preserving the crystal boundaries, while the 
inner portion was spongy, cellular, somewhat friable and 
readily crumbled away. In large crystals the separation into 
parts of the colorless outer shell and the colored nucleus can 
be readily seen with the eye at a trihedral angle. There were 
no inclusions seen in thin section, only a slight discoloration 
along the cleavage cracks and occasionally ‘elsewhere. The 
erystals from Two Islands, Nova Scotia, and Bergen Hill, N. J., 
studied in connection with these are white, often with a pink 
tinge, translucent and apparently entirely homogeneous. Some 
in Professor Brush’s collection labeled Parsborough, Nova 
Scotia, are similar to those from Five Islands and may indeed 
have come from that locality. 


-* This Jour., xxv, pp. 78, 1834. + Man. de Min., pp. 398, 1862. 

¢ This Jour., xliv, pp. 362, 1867. § Jahrb. f. Min., pp. 633, 1836 

| Ber. d. Oberhess. Ges. f. Natur u. Heilkunde, xvi, pp. 74, 1877; also full 
abstract in Zeitschr. f. Kryst., pp. 519, vol. i, 1877. 


58 L. V. Pirsson—Gmelinite from Nova Scotia. 


The following table shows the forms which have been 
observed on these crystals, several of which are new. In the 
first column the symbols are those of gmelinite as a distinet 
species, in the second the same are referred to the axes of 
chabazite. : 


AS gmelinite. As chabazite. As gmelinite. As chabazite. 
6,0," 10001 O, 0001 1 Be OT 2 2023 

m, I, 1010 By NOLO o, = OT -2, 0223 

a, 4-2, 1120 i-2, 1120 q, ay 3032 RB, . Mbpiale 

l, i-2, 5270 i-L, 5270 6, 7 4 w4ane v7, 861421 


Of these forms c, a, / and g are rare, the others occur on all 
crystals, almost without exception, from American localities. 
The basal plane ¢ occurs only on a few crystals from Two 
Islands and on a number of those from Bergen Hill. As 
noted by others, the face @ is generally characterized by the 
vicinal development of a pair of low scalenohedrons. The 
prism m is not generally striated in a horizontal direction, as 
observed on European forms. ‘The scalenohedron ¢ is invariat 
bly striated, oscillating with both the plus and minus rhombo- 
hedrons and in some cases, possibly, with a pyramid of the 
second order and a minus form of the same scalenohedron. 
Many crystals show on the goniometer, by revolving in the 
zone 7-9, a continuous band of light with the signals of these 
faces standing ont. The scalenohedron mentioned is, however, 
most prominent. The presence of this striated scalenohedron 
g is the most characteristic feature of the American forms, it is 
almost never lacking on any of the large number of specimens 
examined, A common appearance of one corner of the Pin- 
nacle Island crystals, where it oscillates with the rhombohedrons, 
is shown in fig. 3. 

While in general the crystal planes gave poor reflections of 
the signal, a number from Pinnacle Island were well suited, by 
the brilliancy and luster of the unit rhombohedron, for measur- 
ing the polar angle r~vr. This was done on a series of ten 
carefully selected crystals and the results are given in the fol- 
lowing table. Each measurement is the mean of five deter- 
minations and the greatest variation between the mean and any 
one determination is given in the second column. 


685,107 .420 On nO Gras. 6Bo ose). 0° 07 ale 
68 10 24 0 0 36 67 56 54 0 0 54 
68! 16" 12 0 0° 18 68 TT 24 0-07-36 
6B)) 3) 40 0 0 40 68 10 ks 0. Ay yika 
68 4 18 07.0. as 68. 0.45 0 0 55 


Average 68 3 Ol 


The table shows the degree of accuracy with which the 
angle could be measured. Of the above, that which gave 
68° 08’ was selected as a fundamental. The reflections of the 


L. V. Pirsson—Gmelinite from Nova Scotia. 59 


signal were extremely good and it is not far from the average 
of them all. From this we derive the axial ratio: 


a@:e:: 1: 0°734486 


If we refer gmelinite to the axial ratio of chabazite, commonly 
accepted where 7A 7=85° 14’ and 
eae ss 4 =} -8G0 


the prominent rhombohedron of gmelinite becomes 3, 2023, 
and this requires a length on the vertical axis of chabazite of 
‘7240 and a polar angle of 67° 28’. These Pinnacle Island 
erystals would not permit of so great an error in the determi- 
nation, if they were referable to the axis of chabazite. The 
discussion of this point will be referred to later. The follow- 
ing table gives the calculated and measured angles which show 
the identification of the forms. The first column of figures 
gives the theoretical angles calculated for this species, the 
second gives the theoretical ones calculated by DesCloizeaux, 
and the third those calculated from the axes of chabazite : 
Forms. Cale. Dx. Chab. Meas. 

rar 1011, 1101 *68°08’ 67°34’ 67°28’ See above. 

r xm 10111010 49 42 *50 03 50 06% 49°407-50°02’ av. of 8=49°46’ 

rap 1011A0111 37 44} 37 27. 37 244 37 30-347 51 av. of T=37 39 


Pee010 ~ S082 38.10. _2.. 938 34$. 38°48 
@ ax 4377. 7347 29 214 _--. 29 04% 29 33 29 58 
pepe Ott .4377 .16 044 ___. 15 56} 16 14 16 00 
maa@ 101041120 30 Ee ape re at BOBS AG 
mae POLO S270- 16 06> 22. sl «16 30 


For reasons stated before, none of these angles could be meas- 


ured with great accuracy, yet the averages agree better with 
the theory presented for these crystals than that given by Des 
Cloizeaux. The angles of the scalenohedron, as given above, 
was measured on a crystal from Two Islands where it was 
present almost without striations. This erystal is shown in 
fio. 1. In all of the figures the crystals are shown revolved 
60° into the position of a minus rhombohedron, it having been 
found that this gave a better view of them. With the excep- 
tion noted, all the measurements given in the foregoing are 
upon crystals from Five Islands. 
Twinning.—The twinning of gmelinite has never to our 
knowledge been observed, beyond a brief note as to its possi- 
bility in an article by Howe, mentioned later. In examining 
a series of specimens I have discovered, however, numerous 
instances of a twinning on the basal plane. All that have 
been observed were penetration twins. They are often shown 
by the growth of the scalenohedron g and small g face, as pre- 
sented in fig. 3, directly out from the plane of the positive 
rhombohedron. This method of twinning is shown in fig. 2, an 


60 L. V. Pirsson—Gmelinite from Nova Scotia. 


example which did not have the centers of the two individuals 
coincident. Further, the figure shows a common habit in the 
development of the forms. The second method of twinning is 
that in which the 3 rhombohedron becomes the twinning plane. 


This was first seen on a specimen from Parsborough, which 
presented a number of examples; it was afterwards observed 
on a number of other specimens. In all of these the twins 
were large sized crystals. An example of this method of twin- 
ning is shown in fig. 4, as well as another modification of the 
habit. The angle 7~7 was measured over the twinning plane 
in eight cases with the following results : 


26° 04’, 26° 05’, 25° 58’, 25° 597, 25° 48", 25° 42" 25 Aan eee 


the average of ee) ale give an angle of 7 on the twinning 
plane of 77° 0’, and this shows the latter to be the 3 rhombo- 
hedron. If we use the elements already given (and "the angle 
rar was measured on one of the best of these crystals as 
68° 09’ agreeing closely with that given as theoretical) the 
angles given above would be in theory 25° 04’. If, however, 
we use the elements of chabazite and geneMies the prominent 
rhombohedron on the gmelinite as %, our twinning plane 
becomes the unit rhombohedron of chabazite and the theoreti- 
cal re-entrant angle between the % rhombohedrons twinning on 
this plane would be 26° 182’. The last three measured angles, 
which were the best, are then about half-way between these 
two calculated angles. In hke manner pap was measured 


L. V. Pirsson—Gmelinite from Nova Scotua. 61 


over the twinning plane in two cases and found to be 2° 21’ 
and 2° 55’, while theory would demand from our gmelinite 
ratios 4° 16’ and for the chabazite 2° 89’. It should be stated, 
however, that the two po faces on each pair.of the measured 
twins showed the low vicinal scalenohedron, characteristic of 
this face, and this of course tended to diminish the measured 
angles. 

Indices of refraction.—Three prisms were cut from differ- 
ent crystals, by using the plane m for one face of the prism and 
grinding another in the prismatic zone. In the first one only 
was any well defined double refraction detected by the eye; in 
the other two the image of the slit was measured by holding 
the analyzer in front with the shorter diagonal vertical and 
horizontal. The three gave: 


wNa 1°4760 1°4646 1°4770 
éNa- 1°4674 1°4637 1°4765 


There is therefore a very weak negative double refraction 


which. varies in different crystals, the averge was wNa—¢Na | 


for the above =-0033, while Negri* found wNa—eNa =:0018 
in crystals from Montecchio Maggiore. 

Optical churacters.—In a section cut normal to the vertical 
axis it is seen under the microscope, between crossed nicols, 
that the section is not uniformly dark, but that slight optical 
anomalies present themselves, somewhat as in leucite. There 
does not seem to be any definite separation into parts, which 
would show the crystal composed of several individuals. In 
strongly convergent light the uniaxial interference figure is 
seen, and at some places, in revolving, this generally opens a 
trifle, with the arms of the cross assuming the position of 
hyperbolas. This is most marked in the hard outer shell, men- 
tioned before, where a small but distinct separation can be 
seen. These characters explain very clearly the variation in 
the indices of refraction in different crystals noted above. 

Cleavage.—The prismatic cleavage, first noted by Rose, is 
easily produced but is never very perfect. In a basal section, 
under the microscope, it is seen as a series of cracks parallel to 
the prism edges. An endeavor to determine whether a rhom- 
bohedral cleavage existed, or not, met with only partial success. 
A series of fragments, with the faces of the prism and unit 
rhombohedron upon them for orientation, were placed on the 
goniometer. Upon revolving, the prismatic cleavage always 
gave a reflection and in a number of cases there were reflected 
faint but distinct signals in the zone, from small faces, which 
gave measurements from the prismatic cleavage, as follows: 


Ae 4oesG Oe). 407 43’. 49° 55’ 50° 06’, 49° 027 
* Zeitschr. f. Kryst., xiv, p. 584, 1888. 


62 L. V. Pirsson—Gmelinite from Nova Scotia. 


Our theory demands for mar, 10101011, of gmelinite 
49° 42’, In two cases the above were measured both as posi- 
tive and negative rhombohedron on the same fragment.’ This 
latter and the fact that the crystals are more or less cellular 
internally, renders it probable that these reflections came from 
minute interior faces. ) 

Chemical composition.—In order to obtain a control over 
the crystallographic work on the Five Islands gmelinite, two 
analyses A and B have been made. In A, the outer shell men- 
tioned before, was analyzed, and in B the inner nucleus. The 
material was easily obtained by taking fine crystals and split- 
ting off the shell by pressure. The fragments thus obtained 
were perfectly colorless, the inner portion had the usual flesh 
color. Both ground to a pure white powder. The analyses on 
the air-dried material were as follows : 


A B 

Sil ge te we Soh een Bete oe elles 50°35 50°67 
ABE Ogee voles her coeds mys iy eee 18°33 18°50 
BegOge he ee aes, SU, he 0°26 Onis 
CaO Aaene hee ins 101 1°05 
K.,O SS a re Sten yey Pe 0°15 0:16 
BS ek eS as pe RE S56 9°88 
OO) Ba aN SAAS AE ke eo Ek 20°23 20°15 

100°09 100°56 


It will be observed that the analyses show no difference be- 
tween the two portions. Also the specific gravity carefully 
taken with the heavy solution was found to be 2:037, the same 
for both. The most marked result of the analyses is the very 
small amount of lime and large amount of soda indicated. 

Analyses of American gmelinite, on material from Two 
Islands, Five Islands and Bergen Hill have been made by A. 
b. Howe.* It will be observed that the one on Five Islands’ 
material is almost exactly like those just given. 


Two Bergen Five 
Islands 2. Theory. Hills}. Theory. Islands3. Theory. 

Ops seer 51°36 51:18 4867 48°79 50°45 49°74 
WAU Ose, RPM aOn eA Sse 18°84 18°27 18°12 
HesOa meee iat Bie a 0°10 races O17 a nian 
CAO es 22k 5°68 6°04 2°60 2°40 1:12 Tey, 
Oo etary 0:23 Brae trace pee 0:20 coe 
Nap One 2 3°92 3°89 9:14 8°69 9°79 9°75 
el Gece ou 20°96 DAT 21°35 PAN OPAS' 20°71 PAPA 

100°11 100:00 100°58 100:00 100°71 100°00 


In the article previously quoted Streng has shown that chaba- 
zite may be considered a mixture of two isomorphous hydrated 
molecules, similar to the feldspars. If we consider gmelinite 
as a soda chabazite, we then have for these molecules: 


e=NaAlsi,O,.4H,0 y=Na,Al,Si,O, .4H,0 
* This Jour., vol. xii, pp. 270, 1876. 


L. V. Pirsson—Gmelinite from Nova Scotia. 63 


the first a hydrated albite molecule, the second a hydrated soda 
anorthite. If, according to this, we deduce the composition 
indicated by the analyses of the three gmelinites, replacing 
soda by lime to the extent observed, we have 


Two Islands =62+y in which Na: Ca::2 :3 
Bergen Hill =3x+y = Mars Casares | 
Five Islands =4%+y i Nas CaS) 7:71 


The theoretical composition for these formulas is given, for 
convenience, in the table after each analysis. The very close 
agreement of the theory, calculated for these simple relations, 
with the analyses themselves is very striking and a-strong 
proof of the correctness of Streng’s theory. In chemical com- 
position we may consider typical gmelinite as a soda chaba- 
zite, whose relation to the normal lime chabazite is the same as 
that for instance of lithiophilite to triphylite. 

Conclusion.—In considering the bearing of the foregoing 
facts upon the identity of this mineral with chabazite there is 
an apparent discordance. The result of the crystallographic 
work, points to a distinct difference in axial ratios and there is 
also a different habit and cleavage. On the other hand the 
twinning and the chemical constitution, both following that of 
chabazite present the strongest possible arguments for the 
identity of the species. To explain these apparent discrepan- 
eies the following hypothesis is offered. The analyses of 
chabazite and gmelinite, made by various chemists, show that 
soda and lime may replace each other to any extent, but that 
in gmelinite the soda is in excess, while in chabazite the reverse 
is true. If we consider then that the effect of the soda is to 
lengthen somewhat the vertical axis, the difference in angles 
and ratios would be accounted for and we might expect it to 
change also the habit and cleavage. While this cannot be 
considered otherwise than a hypothesis, the fact that in 
the Five Island material under examination these differences 
are greater than noted by any former observer, while at the 
same time the percentage of soda is also greater, points dis- 
tinctly towards it. According to this view gmelinite would 
bear much the same relation to chabazite that enstatite does to 
hypersthene, whether it should be considered a distinct species 
would be largely a matter of choice or convenience. ) 

In closing the author desires to express his thanks for the 
liberal use of valuable material to Professor G. J. Brush and 
to Professor S. L. Penfield, to the latter also for valuable 
advice during the progress of this examination. 


Mineralogical Laboratory, Sheffield Scientific School, 
New Haven, Feb., 1891. 


Am. Jour. Sci.—THixD SerRizs, Vou. XLII, No. 247.—Juny, 1891. 
5) 


64. J. M. Davison—Analyses of Kamacite, Tenite and 


Art. [X.—Analyses of Kamacite, Twnite and Plessite from 
the Welland Meteoric Iron ;* by Joun M. Davison. 


THE siderolite, which forms the subject of this paper, is 
described by Edwin E. Howell on pages 86-87 of the Pro- 
ceedings of the Rochester Academy of Science for 1890. Its 
analysis gave Fe 91°17 and Ni8-54. It is singularly free from 
troilite and schreibersite and thus offered an unusually good 
opportunity for the analysis of its separated nickel-iron alloys. 
On sawing the meteorite, the outside was found much decom- 
posed ; but between this and the compact center was a zone in 
which the oxidation was superficial and confined for the most part 
to planes of contact of the different nickel-iron alloys that form 
the Widmanstatten figures. It thus became possible to separate 
the kamacite and the teenite in quantities sufficient for analysis. 
The quantity of kamacite used for analysis was gm. 0-934, of 
tenite om. 04522. 

The physical characters of these alloys differ widely. The 
kamacite is brittle, breaking with a subconchoidal fracture, and 
is of the color of cast iron. It was coated with a thin film of 
black oxide which had often a resinous luster as if covered with 
lacquer, particularly where the teenite had been freshly stripped 
off. This oxide is attracted by the magnet, and is probably 
the magnetic oxide Fe,O,. Some pieces of kamacite of a 
millimeter or two in thickness were entirely altered to this 
oxide.. The kamacite shows, in places, a corrugated surface, in 
some specimens resembling bundles of rods, ike the columnar 
structure of hematite. Figures 1 and 2 show this columnar 
structure. In the latter the teenite which closely followed the 
form of the kamacite is laid back, but not detached. 

The teenite has a silvery luster with, when slightly oxidized, 
a tinge of bronze. It is flexible and elastic and fuses on the 

edges in the oxidizing flame of the blowpipe, turning dark. Its 
fusibility seems to be about 5. It resists oxidation better than 
the kamacite; the contrast between its comparatively fresh 
appearance and the dark film covering the other was marked, 
and facilitated their separation. 

Both kamacite and tenite were magnetic and exhibited a 
weak polarity which was more marked in the latter. Pieces of 
teenite floated directly on water, and of kamacite buoyed on a 
cork, arranged themselves in the magnetic meridian; the taenite 
promptly, the kamacite after being left for some time protected 
from air currents under a bell glass. The meteorite as a mass 
also showed polarity. The teenite is found separating the plates 


* Read before the Rochester Academy of Sciences and published in the Pro- 
ceedings for 1891, where it is accompanied by a plate, not reproduced here. 


we 


Plessite from the Welland Meteoric Iron. 65 


of kamacite and enveloping the crystals of plessite. Figures 3 
and 4 show plates of kamacite which were in close contact, and 
when separated were found to have been joined by a little 
triangular prism of the same substance. 

It was, at first, intended to analyze the plessite as a whole; 
but on examination its fine layers were so suggestive of kama- 
cite and tenite that the attempt was made to separate them, 
and to analyze each separately. It was found that one was 
brittle, the other flexible and elastic; one dark with superficial 
oxidation, the other showing the tzenite luster. Physically 
their correspondence, the one with kamacite, the other with 
teenite was exact, and in the kamacite-like part the columnar 
structure was ee Z on a diminutive scale, the diameter of the 
rods being from 4—$ mm. 

Their separation ‘then became simply a matter of patience, 
and with the aid of a watchmaker’s glass, and a magnetized 
needle to pick up the grains and flakes, most of which were too 
small for even delicate forceps to handle, there was obtained 
for analysis, of the part resembling kamacite gm. 0°5261, of 
that resembling tenite gm. 0°1314. The thickness ae phe 
kamacite was from 1-2 mm., that of the tenite from 4-34 
mm. In the plessite the kamacite-like bands were from 1i-3, 
mm. thick ; ae Pele bands, as nearly as could be meas- 
ured, from. sho-sy7 MM. 

The method of analysis was the same in each case. The 
material was gone over repeatedly, piece by piece, with a 
watchmaker’s glass and very carefully assorted and cleansed, 
the pieces of kamacite being scraped bright. It was not possi- 
ble to do this to any extent ‘with the kamacite-like part of ples- 
site. It was dissolved in dilute hydrochloric acid by the aid of 
a weak galvanic current, at the positive pole of the battery. 
The carbon thus separated was collected on a Gooch filter and 
burned. The nickel and cobalt were separated from the iron 
by digestion in ammonium hydrate, the process being repeated 
four times. The iron was weighed, and the nickel and cobalt 


first determined together by electrolysis, then separated by 


potassium nitrite and each determined separately in the same 
manner. lor comparison, the analyses of kamacite and teenite 
are given each next to its corresponding part of the plessite. 

‘ 


Kamacite. Plessite. Teenite. 
al a eS ee ee SSS 
Kamacite-like part. Teenite-like part. 
Fe 93:09 92°81 72°98 74°78 
Ni 6°69 6°97 29781 24°32 
Co "25 "19 °83 33 
C "02 19 OL "50 


— —____ —S 


100°05 100°16 100°59 99°93 


66 Scientific Intelligence. 


These physical and chemical correspondences justify, I think, 
the conclusion that in the Welland siderolite there are but two 
distinct nickel-iron alloys, viz: kamacite and tenite; and that 
the so-called plessite is mer oe) thin alternating lamelle of 
kamacite and teenite. 

It is unsafe to generalize on a single analysis, but an exami- 
nation of the markings of other meteoric irons suggests the 
thought that in them also there may be but two distinet alloys. 
Such are the Descubridora, the Glorietta Mt. and notably the 
Kiowa Co. and the Augusta Co., Va. meteorites. In sections. 
of the last two irons in Ward & Howell’s collection every piece 
of the so-called plessite in the Augusta Co. iron shows its thin 
lamellee, and in the Kiowa Co. pallasite the gradations of the 
markings are such, that in parts of the iron it would be difficult 
to say which should be called kamacite and which plessite. 

In etching meteoric iron, the kamacite is attacked by acid 
more readily than the teenite richer in nickel. The teenite and 
plessite stand in relief. Where lamelle do not show in plessite 


- may not closely crowded teenite bands have protected neighbor- 


ing kamacite layers from acid action, and might not more care- 
ful or prolonged etching develop lines in plessite that now 
appear homogeneous ? 


Reynolds Laboratory, 
University of Rochester, April, 1891. 


SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 


J. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS. 


1. On the Speed of the Explosive wave in Solid and Liquid 
Bodies.—BERTHELOT has studied the phenomena attending the 
production and transmission of the explosive wave in solid and 
liquid substances and finds that these phenomena do not have 
the regularity of progression observed in gases. In liquids the 
speed appears to be dependent upon the rigidity of the enclosing 
tubes, this speed being the greater the greater the resistance of 
the tubes to rupture. It is probably not possible, however, to 
prepare tubes which can bear without fracture the force of the 
explosion, since the volume of the bigh explosives is smaller as a 
rule than the volume of their decomposition products, even when 
these are compressed into the liquid condition. In methyl nitrate, 
the author finds that the explosion travels, when the liquid is 
contained in tubes of steel, with a speed of about 2100 meters per 
second.— C. &., cxii, 16; Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., xxiv, (Ref.) 253, 
April, 1891. G. F. B. 

2. On the Relation between the Electrical Energy and the 
Chemical Energy in Voltaic cells.—A series of experiments by 
Livay has been made to ascertain the amount of heat gener- 


aS ees 


Chemistry and Physics. | 67 


ated by the current of certain voltaic cells, as compared with 
the amount generated by the chemical action going on in the 
cells; in order to determine the exact relation of these two 
quantities. The heat developed by the current was ascertained 
by means of a silver voltameter placed together with the cell, ina 
calorimeter. The heat evolved by the chemical action was deter- 
mined by direct calorimetric means. The cells examined were of | 
the Daniell and the De la Rue forms, three experiments being 
made with each. Asa result the author finds that with the Dan- 
iell cell, the heat equivalent of the current is greater than that 
generated chemically ; so that in the working of this cell, heat is 
absorbed. On the other hand the De la Rue cell shows a reverse 
effect, not all the heat proper to the chemical action going on 
appearing in the circuit. But in this case the author observed 
that the relative amount of electrical energy increases with the 
concentration of the solution in the cell. These results confirm 
substantially those of Jahn.—Ann. Phys. Chem., Ul, xlvii, 103; 
J. Chem. Soc., 1x, 513, May, 1891. G. F. B. 

3. On the Action of Heat on Carbon Monoxide.—BERTHELOT 
has observed that when carbon monoxide is heated ina glass tube 
to 500° or 550°, a minute quantity—three or four thousandths 
—of carbon dioxide is produced ; and this without any simul- 
taneous separation of carbon. If, however, the carbon monoxide 
be passed through a porcelain tube, and the temperature of this 
be raised to a dull or even a bright red heat, while approximately 
the same quantity of carbon dioxide is observed to be produced 
as before, there is at the same time a distinct separation of carbon. 
Hence the author concludes that in this experiment carbon mon- 
oxide is not simply dissociated, but is at the same polymerized ; 
and that the product of this polymerization decomposes into 
earbon dioxide and carbon sub-oxide according to the equation 
C,0,=C,_,0, .+CO,; which sub-oxide at a higher temperature 
yields carbon monoxide and free carbon.—C. f#., exii, 594 Ber. 
Berl. Chem. Gies., xxiv, (Ref.) 348, May, 1891. Guan 

4. On the Electro-metallurgy of Aluminum.—MInET has con- 
tributed further details concerning the reduction of aluminum by 
electrolytic methods. The steel crucible is now made smaller 
and is provided with an internal lining of carbon which serves as 
the negative electrode. The difference of potential between the 
two electrodes is 4°55 volts and the yield is 31°9 grams of alu- 
minum per horse power per hour, or 31°3 horse powers per hour 
for one kilogram of aluminum. ‘The author believes that it will 
be possible to reduce the difference of potential to 4-volts and 
under these conditions there will be no electrolysis of the sodium 
chloride and the yield will reach 70 per cent of the theoretical 
quantity. The loss of 30 per cent is due to the action of the fused 
fluorides on the aluminum and does not occur when aluminum 
alloys are made, since in this case the electrolytic cell is composed 
of the other metal and the liberated aluminum at once combines 
with it.—C. &., exii, 231; J. Chem. Soc., \x, 525, May, 1891. 

G. F. B. 


iil | 
AW! 


yk t 
mit et | 


i 
/ f 
git | 


Tea 


68 Screntific Intelligence. 


5. On the Detection of metallic Mercury in cases of Poisoning. 
—It is generally assumed that metallic mercury when treated 
with hydrochloric acid and potassium chlorate goes readily into 
solution. But Lecco has observed that in destroying the organic 
matter in toxicological cases with these reagents, metallic mercury 
if present is only very slowly attacked. A human stomach in 
which minute globules of mercury could be distinctly seen was 
treated in this way until the organic matter was destroyed and 
then examined as usual, Scarcely a trace of. mercury could be 
detected in the solution, while in the residue minute globules of 
the metal were visible. Direct experiment showed that eI ey, 
itself is soluble with extreme difficulty under these conditions 
and hence the author believes that in examination for poisons this 
fact should be borne in mind. He recommends that the process 
of treating with hydrochloric acid and potassiam chlorate should 
be continued for some time after the organic matter disappears.— 
Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., xxiv, 928, April, 1891. Gs ae 

6. On Tetrazotic acid and its Oxy- and Di-oxy derivatives.— 
In consequence of the observation that by the action of acids up- 
on benzenyl-amidine nitrite, an acid is produced having the for- 
mula C,H,N,O, and therefore of the composition of a di-nitroso- 
benzenyl-amidine, W. Lossen undertook further researches in 
this direction and has obtained some noteworthy results. He 


finds (1) that similar compound acids are yielded by other ami- 
dines provided that in them the hydrogen in the group C7 ONAL, 

is not replaced by alkyl radicals; (2) that the acids thus obtained 
X . CN,O,H, called dioxy-tetrazotic acids and of which the above 
benzenyl-dioxytetrazotic acid- C,H, . CN,O,H is an example, are 
reduced by sodium amalgam to oxy-tetrazotic acids, X . CN,OH, 

such as benzenyl-oxytetrazotic acid C,H, . CN,OH, ‘and to tetra- 
zotic acids X . CN,H, as for example C, ie ON, H benzenyl- tetra- 
zotic acid ; (3) the ‘dioxytetrazotic acids decompose spontaneously 
when set free from their salts, and their metallic salts when dry are 
extraordinarily explosive; (4) the oxytetrazotic acids, in regard to 
their permanence are intermediate between the unstable dioxyte- 
trazotic acids and the quiet permanent tetrazotic acids, although 
the latter and also its salts are explosive; (5) by Raoult’s method 
the molecular formulas of benzenyl-tetrazotic and  benzenyl- 
oxytetrazotic acids were found to be C,H,N, and ©,H,N,O respect- 
ively ; (6) with reference to the constitution of these acids, the 


author states (a) that the hypothetical free benzenyl- -dioxytetra- 
2N.NO 


zotic acid bas apparently the formula O,H,. Crt oN | NOW since it 
gives Liebermann’s nitroso-reaction and decomposes into benzoni- 
trile, nitrogen and nitrogen dioxide; (b) that benzenyl-tetrazotic 
acid, by the action of conecentrated hydrochloric acid, decomposes 
according to the equation 


C.H.N,+(H,0),=C,H, .NH,+CO,+N,+NH, 


Chemistry and Physics. 69 


though “aa an intermediate stage occurs as follows: 


a ZANOH .- 

©E.O- AN H+ (H,0),=C,0,CC¢ oy +N,4+NH, 

the benzhydroxamic acid splitting into aniline and carbon dioxide ; 
benzenyl-tetrazotic acid may be considered cither as a phenyl- 


yg 


tetrazo : , analogous to tne isomeric compoun 
1 C,H, Ex l I | d 
NH— 
rar | 
discovered by Bladin CHK || ,oras an imido compound 
N(C,H,).N ey 
corresponding to the benzoyl-azoimide of CurtiusC,H,. CO. NG Hee 
mis a NN 
in the latter case having the formula C,H,C(NH). Ne Il; (¢) since 
N 


benzenyl-oxytetrazotic acid does not give Liebermann’s reaction, 
it is not a nitro-compound. According to C. Lossen, benzenyl- 
oxytetrazotic acid crystallizes from: boiling water in rhombic 
needles which fuse with decomposition at 175°. With one mole- 
cule of crystal water the acid is permanent, but when deprived 
of this water at 105°, it readily decomposes evolving nitrous 
vapors. Its salts with potassium, barium and silver are described. 
Benzenyl-tetrazotic acid crystallizes from hot water, better from 
alcohol in rhombic hemimorphie colorless needles, fusing ait 2 120 

to 213° with decomposition. By slowly heating it, a beautiful 
red mass is obtained; while on rapid heating a violent decomposi- 
tion results, often with ignition, a dark green tenacious residue 
being left in the test-tube, whose vapor is red or violet. The dioxy- 
tetrazotic acid affords a meta-nitro-derivative m-nitrobenzeny]l- 
dioxytetrazotic acid.—Liebig’s Annalen, celxili, 73; Ber. Berl. 
Chem. Ges., xxiv, 332, May, 1891. G. F. B, 

7. Polar light and Cosmic dust.—Livrine and Dewar ob- 
tained metallic dust by means of electrical discharges between 
terminals of different metals inserted in a glass receptacle— 
from this the dust was conveyed by means of a stream of hydro- 
gen into an end-on-tube, through which electrical discharges 
were passed. The spectrum of these discharges showed no trace 
of the lines of the finely divided metals although the finely 
divided dust was present in great abundance. They therefore 
conclude that if the northern lights are due to great electric dis- 
charges through rarified air filled with cosmic dust, conditions 
must exist which are different from those in the experiment 
devised by them.—- Proc. Roy. Soc., xlviii, p. 487-440, 1891. 

nena 

8. Phosphorescence.—K. WiEDERMANN has investigated the 
character of the light given out by Balmain’s paint under different 
conditions of exposure. He expresses his belief that a source of 
light which sends forth proportionally more light waves than 
heat waves, as Langley maintains is the case with the fire fly, is not 


= es = a a ee oes 
== SS == ————— = eS = 


" il Rey 
ntl 
Phat 


70 Scientific Intelligence. 


necessarily the cheapest source of light. In order to estimate the 


‘cheapness of a light account must be taken of the entire trans- 


formation of the energy of the light in the process of vision.”— 
Beiblatier zu den Annalen der Physik, No. 4, 1891, p. 281. 3.7. 

9. Reflection and Refraction of light by thin surface layers.— 
P. Drupr examines mathematically the conditions which must 
hold for the reflection and refraction of light by thin layers of 
metals such as Professor Kundt has experimented with in obtain- 
ing indices of refraction of metals. The paper is long and ex- 
haustive; but is not supported by experimental results. The 
author hopes to obtain suitable surfaces to verify his theoretical 
conclusions. ‘These are as follows: 

(1.) In the expression for the absolute amplitude, ratios and dif- 
ference of phase of the reflected and the transmitted light—three 
constants depending upon the nature of the layer enter. In 
Cauchy’s formula but one constant depending upon the boundary 
enters. 

(2.) For refraction and ordinary reflection the formulas are 


identical with those of Cauchy. 


(3.) A lower limit for the thickness of the layer transmitting 
light is given by elliptical polarization. 

(4.) No ellipticity is shown if the layer is contained between 
the media ot the same index of refraction. If the plate is wedge- 
shaped of snrall angle; in reflected light the bright bands have 
the normal polarization angle. The dark bands deviate from 
this, and a conclusion can thus be drawn in regard to the index 
of refraction of the layer in case the layer is homogeneous. 

(5.) In the dark band the reflected light is linear polarized— 
the transmitted light elliptically polarized. In the bright bands 
the reflected as well as the transmitted light is elliptically polar- 
ized. 

(6.) From observation upon the light transmitted by thin 
metallic layers and on light reflected the true optical constants of 
the metals can be computed.—Ann. der Physik und Chemie, No. 
5, 1891, pp. 126-157. 3, 


Il. Gronocy AND MINERALOGY. 


l. Annual Report of the State Geologist of New Jersey for 
the year 1890. 305 pp. 8vo. 1891.—Since the death of Prof. 
Cook, Prof. G. C. Smock has been appointed the State Geologist 
of New Jersey with F. L. Nason and C.’W. Coman as assistant 
geologists. ‘This report contains an article on the age of the 
Sussex Co. crystalline limestones by Mr. Nason; an account of 
geological work in the southern part of the State by C. W. 
Coman, treating especially of the strata overlying the upper marl 
bed, and a report on the water-power and water-supply of the 
State by C. C. Vermeule. 

Mr. Nason’s paper contains the important announcement that 
the bluish, semi-crystalline limestone of Sussex Co. and the asso- 


Geology and Mineralogy. 71 


ciated sandstone, have afforded Dr. C. E. Beecher Lower Cam- 
brian fossils ; and that in one case the sandstone contained, near 
by, the mineral graphite. The main purpose of the article is to 
give the evidence obtained by the’author in favor of the conclu- 
sion that the white crystalline limestone of the county, containing 
chondrodite and other minerals, which has been supposed to be 
Archean, is really of the age of the blue limestone. The evidence 
given is, briefly, the occurrence of graphite in both the white and 
blue limestones; the passage of one into the other at some 
localities ; and the inference that the white limestone owes its 
crystallization to contact with eruptive rocks, (granite, etc.), and 
exhibits various contact phenomena. ‘The Franklinite iron ore- 
bed of the county is associated with the white limestone, and is 
made therefore of the same age. The conclusion is a wide- 
reaching one, and the facts should have full investigaticn before 
it is adopted. ‘The evidence drawn from the graphite is of un- 
certain value as the mineral occurs in rocks of much later time. 
Prof. Cook regarded the iron ore beds and the limestones as part 
of the gneissic formation of the region, the gneiss being not in 
his view foliated granite ; and the writer’s examinations of the 
rocks associated with these ores have led him to the same con- 
clusion. Moreover, it is an impossibility that the crystallization 
of the white limestone formation should have been produced by 
contact with the dikes of igneous rocks, or even with protruded 
granite ; for the rock of a dike cools outside too rapidly for such 
a result. The trap dikes of New Jersey illustrate this point 
abundantly. Melted granite injected through a cold rock would 
not be true crystalline granite against the walls or make the 
limestone adjoining coarsely crystalline, like the white limestone, 
even for a hundred feet. Again dikes of a hornblendic scapolite 
rock are described. But it is impossible that melted scapolite 
injected into cold rocks in fissures four to six feet wide or wider 
than this, should become on cooling crystallized scapolite, even 
of a granular form, alike from wall to wall, with “ perfect folia- 
tion” parallel to the walls, so that it has been mistaken for 
gneiss. For such crystallization the enclosing limestone should 
be hot enough for its own crystallization—the condition attend- 
ing metamorphism. 

The actual passage of the blue limestone into the white has 
weight, if the observation is beyond question. The writer 
doubts the conclusion as to actual passage because he has ob- 
served in Hast Lee, Massachusetts, an apparent passage of the 
kind between the Stockbridge limestone and another which is 
chondroditic, and saved himself from inferring their identity by 
finding the latter associated in a part of the area with a very 
different class of crystalline schists. In other cases over eastern 
Berkshire chondroditic limestone was met with; and in each it 
was associated with rocks that were in part so unlike the schists 
of the Stockbridge limestone or Taconic belt, viewing them 
through its whole course, from Vermont, Massachusetts, and 


_ Sara ae Se eee 
=e eS eee 


—— 
aa 


= 


oS 


Sew 


aren 


ait 


ih 


Wall) 


jai | 


ii! 
inal i 


berrey ty 


Ih 


ii | 


nt | | 


Cn 


jenveni ' 


72 Scientific Intelligence. 


Connecticut to New York island, that it was accepted as evi- 
dence of Archean age. Superposition of the later limestone on 
the earlier and subsequent changes may account for the cases of 
apparent passage. Limestone belts have determined the positions 
of the chief valleys of Berkshire ; and in some cases Archean 
limestone was first in the work. 

One of the most comprehensive facts in the geology of Eastern 
America is the general identity of strike and dip, in associated 
metamorphic or crystalline rocks of Archean and later time. In 
eastern Berkshire the writer failed to detect the limit between 
the Taconic schists and the Archean, after several trials ; and the 
same was true for the ridge southwest of Cornwall, Conn., where 
chondroditic limestone occurs; and also in Putnam County, 
N. Y., where there are Archean iron ores. In each case the 
quartzyte of the Taconic series was followed by gneiss of like 
dip and this by other gneisses, and the Archzean limit was not dis- 


‘covered. The question was left for a later and more thorough 


investigation, which has not been made. It is now in other 
hands, with a promise of success. Taking the evidence which 
strike and dip afford as of itself conclusive, it is probable that 
nearly all the so-called Archean rocks of the Appalachian Pro- 
taxis could be proved to be Paleozoic. The problem which Mr. 
Nason has investigated in Northern New Jersey is one of great 
importance and difficulty. It is a part of a wider problem—that 
embracing all the Archzean schists and ore-beds of New Jersey. 
Jo DAR 

2. Two belts of fossiliferous black shale in the Triassic forma- 
tion of Connecticut, by W. M. Davis and 8. Warp Loper. 
16 pp. 8vo. (Bull. Geol. Soc. America, vol. 1, April, 1891.)— 
Professor Davis commences his paper with a summary of his 
conclusions respecting the Triassic formation in the vicinity of 
Meriden, Conn., and its associated trap. His list of papers 
mentions five subsequent to the one published in this Journal in 
1886, with the title “Triassic formation of the Connecticut 
Valley.” Under the same title, he published a fuller paper in 
the Report of the U. S. Geological Survey for 1888. Since then 
the following have appeared: ‘“ The ash-bed at Meriden and its 
structural relations,” in the Proceedings of the Meriden Scientific 
Association for 1889; “On the Topographic development of the 
Triassic formation of the Connecticut Valley,” in vol. xxxvii of 
this Journal, 1889; “On the faults near Meriden, and on the 
intrusive and extrusive trap sheets of the Connecticut Valley,” in 
the Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology for 1889. 
In the present paper the following general conclusions are stated. 

Three overflow trap-sheets in the vicinity of Meriden are now 
well made out; the first, thin and amygdaloidal, the second, 
thick and massive and sometimes a double flow, the third, thin 
like the first. Beside these overflows one great intrusive sheet, 
exists, and apparently several smaller ones. The great sheet, as 
implied in a note, is that of West Rock, of the New Haven re- 


Geology and Mineralogy. — 73 


gion. The east-and-west ridge called Mt. Carmel, situated about 

half way between New Haven and the Meriden trap ridges is a 
‘“‘oreat mass of dikes,” which ‘“‘may be regarded as the locus of 
the volcanic pipes up through which rose the lavas now seen in 
the extrusive and intrusive sheets.” The existence of these vol- 
- canoes is spoken of as without direct evidence, but probable. In 
the two figures of the paper these volcanoes are represented as 
buried in the sandstone formation and are entitled “the Group 
of buried volcanoes,” “The lost volcanoes.” The tilting of the 
sandstone with the intercalated sheet of trap, giving the forma- 
tion its eastward dip throughout the region, probably followed 
the time of deposition and eruption. Even the intrusive dike, 
West Rock, is probably ‘‘of earlier date than the tilting and 
faulting of the formation, and hence of roughly synchronous date 
with the overflows.” The faulting of the sandstone accompany- 
ing the uplifts was probably guided in direction by the planes of 
foliation in the underlying schists. 

The two belts of black shale contain fossil fishes and plants. 
One of them is that of the well-known Durham locality and others 
of the same belt. The second occurs in a small brook north of the 
village of Westfield, Conn., and has been opened also at four 
other places along a line of about fifty miles. The latter, Mr. 
Loper states, has afforded one species of fish, Jschypterus gigas, 
not found in the Durham Jine, and two species of plants also 
absent from it, Lgwisetum Rogersi Sch., and Ctenophyllum 
Braunianum Sch. 

3. Lllustrations of the Fauna of the St. John Group, No. V.; 
by G. F. Matrrnew.—Mr. G. F. Matthew’s paper under the 
above title, though read before the Royal Society of Canada in 
May, 1890, has only recently been distributed. The author has 
made a study of the fauna of the lower rocks of New Brunswick, 
especially near the city of St. John, and has given the results of 
his labors in numerous papers of interest. In the present one after 
discussing the structure of the St. John Basin, and various sec- 
tions of the strata, he describes several new species of fossils and 
presents remarks upon some old ones, especially upon trilobites. 
This section is followed by a third treating mainly of tracks and 
markings, and upon this we offer some remarks and criticisms. 

He gives, in the first place, a short sketch of Nathorst’s obser- 
vations upon Meduse, quoting the descriptions of Medusites 
princeps Torell (sp.) (= MW. jfavosa of Nathorst), MW. radiata 
Linrs., (sp.) and J. ee Torell (sp.) (=. Lindstromi of 
Nathorst). All these forms were described from beds of Cam- 
_ brian age in Sweden, and Mr. Matthew says that in the St. John 
group indications are found of some of these ‘“ medusa-like forms 
as Nathorst considers them.” He then proceeds to describe a 
new genus Medusichnites, founded for the reception of certain 
trails or tracks “which appear to have been produced by such 
creatures.” Not that there is any indication they were positively 
made by JMedusce, ‘but rather that they are probably due to 


1 i i | 74 Scientific Intellagence. 


those Radiate animals which Nathorst has referred to Wedusites.” 
The name Zaonichnites had been previously suggested by him 
for some similar form, but he now advocates discarding the old 
name and substituting a new one. Why the new forms should 
not have been included with the old one we are unable to under- 
stand. Fortunately no specific names are given to the series of 
markings referred to this genus. The author prefers, instead, to 
i designate them as “forms,” and of these he describes and illus- 
a iit i | trates five. 

In these descriptions we no longer find any doubt expressed as 
to the manner in which the tracks were made or the kind of 
animals which made them. One is “the imprint of tentacles 
resting on the bottom.” Another, from the Animikie group of 
the Lake Superior region, and the original of Taonichnites, he 
says “‘is a good illustration of certain impressions which have 
been mistaken for rill. markings, but which are really of organic 
origin. It has been made by a Medusite swept along by a cur- 
rent above the surface of a bed of very fine sandy mud.” It is 
interesting to know that the same genus ranged from the Animi- 
kie into the Middle Cambrian. 

Another new genus proposed is Hoichnites, the name being a 
substitute for Hophyton. Mr. Matthew gives an account of 

_ Kophyton and of its supposed nature by the original discoverer, 

Torell, and figures what he calls Hoichnites Linneeanus Torell 

(sp.), from the St. John group. These figures, while they bear 
little resemblance to the typical Hophyton Linneanum, are very 
much like some of the figures of Medusichnites, and should be 
| placed there if that genus be a good one. 

Ce A third new genus established is Ctenichnites, adopted for 
: i! | markings which Mr. Matthew says Torell and Linnarsson con- 
ne | founded with Hophyton.: We are told the markings resemble 

Loichnites so far “that they might easily be supposed to have 
been produced by larger individuals of the kind which made the 
Hoichnites.” This genus has one species, C. zngens, and it is 
described with considerable detail. A table is given of the chief 
at | varieties. Then the sort of animal supposed to have made them 
ite is discussed, the exposures yielding the following inferences to 
the author: 

“1. That the animal lived in schools. 2. That it had a rapid, 
on a direct, darting motion. 3. That it had three or four flexible, 
A | fleshy arms. 4. That these arms were furnished with sharp 

nl | (horny?) spines. 5. That it had an easy motion through the 
|| water so that sometimes the arms of one side touched the bot- 

tom, sometimes the other.’ ) 
| Then having found. reason to believe Ctenichnites to be of 
| animal origin,” Mr. Matthews concludes that it might have been a 
| 
| 


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naked cephalopod. Then the habits of squids, and the nature of 
coprolites, and the armature of trilobites are examined in turn, 
and the final conclusion is that all the facts point to squids of 
some sort being the probable source of the Ctentchnites markings. 


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Geology and Mineralogy. 75 


A comparison of the figures of Ctenichnites ingens with those 
of Hoichnites and some forms of Medusichnites induces the 
Opinion that they are not to be separated even specifically. Some 
of the first have the lines wider apart than those of the second, 
and are less curved than the third, but the variability in all is so 
great that to draw a line anywhere between them is a task that 
few would dare undertake. 

Under Psammichnites he refers to certain specimens found in 
St. John which seem to him probably ‘‘ may have been made by 
by a Psammichnites.’ From this it would appear that Mr. 
Matthew considers Psammichnites to be an animal form of some 
sort. The general opinion is (Hancock, Haughton, Torell and 
Nathorst) that. the forms described under that name are only 
tracks. 

Under Frena a new species, / ramosa, is described, and under 
Arenicolites also, a new form, A. brevis, is given. Still a fourth 
genus, Goniadnichnites, with one species, G. trichiformis, is 
created, and on very slender grounds. Small, slender and thread- 
like, the name is given because of their resemblance to tracks 
made by recent Goniada. The figure bears some resemblance to 
certain branching forms of graptolites like Dendrograptus tenui- 
ramosus, from the Utiva Slate of New York. 

Last of all the new species is an addition to Torrell’s Monocra- 
terton, under the name of M+ magnificum. From the plate it is 
well named, for from a central cavity two inches in its longer 
diameter, and one and a quarter inches in its shorter, spread out 
filaments, called “tentacles,” three inches in length: and this 
figure is reduced one-third. If this burrow were made by a 
worm, it must have been a gigantic creature. 

In studying this paper of Mr. Matthew’s we cannot but regret 
that he has made his many new genera and species upon such 
scanty material. As objects illustrating some phase of sedimen- 
tation, or the possibility of some sort of life having existed, these 
markings are of interest. But it is a useless burden upon science 
to give to them generic and specific names. 

JosEPH F. James, 

Washington, D. C., June 13, 1891. 


4. Etudes des gites minéraux de la France. Bassin Houiller 
et Permien d’ Autun et d’ Epinac. Fasc. II, Flore fossile, Pre- 
miere partie, par R. Zei~ruER. Pp..1-304. Atlas, xxvii plates, 
4°.—This fascicle begins the third of a series of valuable recent 
works on the flora of the Carboniferous epoch in France. Of 
these three, the first, on the flora of the Valenciennes basin, by 
M. R. Zeiller, dated 1888, is the most important work in French 
on the Paleozoic flora since the “ Histoire” of Brongniart, with 
which it will take a place as a classic in paleobotanical literature. 
The first part of the second work, on the Commentry flora, in 
which the ferns are monographed by Zeiller, bears the same date; 
but the second part, under the joint authorship of MM. B. | 
Renault and Zeiller was not finished until 1890. The present 


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work includes the flora of the Epinac and Molloy stages of the 
Upper Carboniferous and the [gornay-Lally, Cornaille-Chambois, 
and Millery stages of the Lower Permian. The Millery horizon, 
in the Autun basin, is celebrated as the source of the wonderfully 
preserved silicified plants that formed the basis of the many 
important works on the organization and fructification of the 
plants of the Paleozoic by Brongniart, Grand ’Eury, Renault, 
Bertrand, and Zeiller. In this fascicle Zeiller treats the ferns, 
prefacing their description with an illustrated résumé of the 
classification of the types represented in this flora according to 
their discovered fruiting forms. Considerable new and interest- 
ing material is here brought to hight. About forty species, many 
of them new, are described from foliar and fruiting characters. 
The last 120 pages contain descriptions and illustrations of the 
trunks and petioles of the ferns, belonging to Ptychopteris, in- 
cluding Caulopteris gigantea, F. & W., to Psaronius, represent- 
ing trunks of Pecopteris and Scolecopteris, and comprising an 
extinct tribe of the Warattiacew, and to Myeloxylon, including 
Medullosa (pars), Myelopteris and Stenzelia, which he regards 
as petioles and rachises of Alethopteris. Odontopteris and Neur- 
opteris, representing a group, with pithed petioles and a cen- 
trifugally developed:secondary woody zone, perhaps intermediate 
between the Ophioglossacew and the Marattiacew. The flora is 
interesting as showing many transition forms between the Upper 
Carboniferous and the Permian types. ‘The second part of the 
work, dealing with the remaining groups, is in preparation by 
M. B. Renault. D. W. 

5. The Genus Sphenophyllum, by J. S. NEwserry. Journ. 
Cincinnati Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. xiii, 1891, pp. 212-217, pl. xix. 
—In this short paper Dr. Newberry reiterates the view pro- 
posed first by himself in 1853, and afterwards independently 
by Coemans and Kickx, that in certain species of Sphenophyllum 
in which the leaves are normally wedge-shaped and dentate or 
serrate, the deeply dissected, fimbriate, or capillary forms, simu- 
lating ‘Asterophylllites, belonging to the same species, represent 
only ‘portions of the same plant that were submerged. Several 
figures illustrate different parts of S. erosum, including the forms 
known as S. saxifragefolium. The author also gives a few of 
the characters of six species of this genus with which he is 
familiar in this country. Dr. Newberry regards Sphenophyllum, 
whose affinities have for over fifty years been the subject of 
controversial discussions, as representing a peculiar and extinct 
family whose nearest living relative is Aguisetum. D. W. 

6. Annuaire Géologique Universel, Année 1889, Tome VI. 
Paris 1890.—This geological Annual, founded by Dr. Dagincourt, 
is now under the direction of Dr. L. Carez for Geology, and M. H. 
Douvillé for Paleontology; and besides, it has many able co-work- 
ers from among the geologists of France and other countries. 
The Annual for 1889 is a closely printed large-octavo volume of 
1200 pages. The first 120 pages are occupied with lists of the 


Miscellaneous Intelligence. a 


geological and paleontological papers, memoirs, maps, etc., of the 
year, arranged according to subjects and countries : and after a 
catalogue of the authors in the lists, the following 1000 pages of 
the volume contain quite full abstracts of very many of these 
publications. Not only the names of new species are given in the 
Paleontological part, but, to a large extent, descriptions of genera, 
and among the Vertebrata of many of the species, besides a 
review of new deductions and opinions. The Annual is ee 
to the geologist who would know about the yearly progress of 
the science over the world, and keep himself informed of dis- 
coveries bearing on his own ‘work. 

7. Tables for the Determination of Minerals by physical 
properties ascertainable with the aid of a few field instruments, 
based on the system of Professor Dr. Albin Weisbach by 
Persiror Frazer. Third edition, entirely re-written, 113 pp. 
Philadelphia, 1891 (J. B. Lippincott Company).—Professor 
Frazer’s tables have already been found of much practical value 
by many workers, and in their present revised and improved form, 
their sphere of usefulness should be widely extended. 

8. Materialien zur Mineralogie Russlands, von N. vy. Koxs- 
cHarow. Vol. x, pp. 225-351. St. Petersburg, 1891.—The part 
now issued forms the conclusion of volume x. It includes 
descriptions of jeremejewite, eichwaldite, columbite, also sup- 
plementary notes on euclase, zircon, topaz and other species. 


Ill. MiIscELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 


1. Volcano of Kilauea.—In a letter of May 9th, Rev. E. P. 
Baker reports that after the eruption of March 6 the lava first 
appeared in the bottom of the empty basin of Halemaumau on the 
10th of April. He visited the crater on the 29th of April and 
found the lake of liquid lava within it 100 or 200 feet across, and 
a blowing cone by the side of it which was throwing up globules 
of lava. The lake had a thin scum-like crust over it. While look- 
ing at the lake from the edge of the basin, 300 feet perhaps above 
the lake, the lava began to run off through an orifice beside the 
cone until the basin was nearly empty. The next day the lava 
had wholly disappeared. Again on the 6th of May Mr. Baker was 
down in the crater and found no liquid lava in the basin; but 
from the cooled lava on its sides it appeared that the lava had in 
the interval risen to a higher level than on April 30th. It thus 
seemed that the lake was rising and falling—rising through the 
accession of new lavas from below, and falling through discharges. 
The cone continued to throw up occasionally ¢ globules of lava. 

2. American Geological Society.—The summer meeting of the 
society is to be held Monday and Tuesday, August 24 and 25, in 
the Columbian University, Washington, D. C., and will doubtless 
be one of unusual interest. The meeting will be preceded August 
19-22, by the meeting of the American Association for the Ad- 
vancement of Science, and will be followed by the International 


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78 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


Geological C Jongress, which meets August 26, and remains in 
session one week. The three societies will meet in the same 
building. The foreign members of the International Geological 
Congress are to be invited to read papers before the Geological 
Society, and their papers will be given precedence on the pro- 
gram. A number of excursions will probably be arranged. The 
local arrangements are in the hands of a committee, Mr. G. K. 
Gilbert, chairman. 

3. International Congress of Geologists—5th Session, Wash- 
ington, 1891.-—Circular of information, No. 11, has been recently 
issued by the Secretaries, H. S. Williams and S§. F. Emmons, 
giving full information in regard to time and place of meet- 
ing (see above), program, transportation, excursions and hotel 
accommodations. Correspondence should be addressed to 8. F. 
Emmons, 1330 F street, Washington. 

4, Physical Observatory y at the Smithsonian Institution, 
Washington.-—-Prof. 8. P. Langley announces (in a letter to the 
Editors, dated June 1, 1891) that there has been established at 
Washington, as a department of the Smithsonian Institution, a 
Physical Observatory, which has been furnished. with specially 
designed apparatus for the prosecution of investigations in 
radiant energy and other departments of telluric and astro- 
physics. The communication of new memoirs bearing in any 
way on such researches is requested, and for them it is hoped 
that proper return can be made in due time. 

Prof. Langley also states that he has resigned the titular 
directorship of Allegheny Observatory. 


OBITUARY. 


JHARLES ARAD Joy, for many years Professor of Chemistry 

Columbia College, died May 29 at Stockbridge, Mass. He 
was born in Ludlowville, Tompkins County, N. Y., Oct. 8, 1823. 
He was graduated from Union College in 1844 and from the Har- 
vard Law School in 1847. The same year he was appointed on the 
Geological Survey of the Lake Superior region under Josiah D. 
Whituey and Charles T. Jackson. Subsequently he went abroad 
and studied chemistry in Berlin, at Gottingen, and at the Sor- 
bonne in Paris. On his return he was called’ to the Chair of 
Chemistry at Union College. He held this position until 1857, 
when he was made Professor of Chemistry at Columbia College, 
which position he beld until 1877. 

Professor Joy’s labors were devoted to chemistry and allied 
branches, and he was the author of many papers especially of a 
popular character upon scientific subjects. When a student in 
Gottingen he carried on a series of researches on the combination 
of alcohol radicals with selenium and later he investigated 
the compounds of glucinum, the results of which were published 
in this Journal (1863). He also made contributions to the sub- 
ject of mineral chemistry. Professor Joy was one of the jurors 
at the International World’s Fairs of London, Paris, Vienna, and 
Philadelphia, and was a member of many scientific societies. 


ah 


ae 


No. 6 Miia Street, New York, 


revs s of Balances and Weights of Picsision for Ghent 
stayers, Jewelers, Druggists, and in general for every use 
z: ‘accuracy j 1s Ra 


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d to Chemisty, jrhaes sass cups Geography, eee 


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Ass ci ite ‘Bilitors Ji P2 COOKE, JR, GEORGE L. GOODALE, and JoHN TROoWw- 
G of Cambridge, H. A. Newron and A. E. VERRILL, of Yale, and G. F. 
, of the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. 
umes of 480 pages each, published annually in MONTHLY NUMBERS, — 
ournal per its jirst series of 50 SE asa pi ae he in 1845, and its 
The monthly seric« eom- 


ey ‘Twenty copies of each original communication are, if a iemer in advance 


eee author without charge ; and more at the aaa s expense, prov 


should be sent in two months before the time of issuing the number ap 
‘tae aie are intended. Notice is : always Ae be given when communications 


ul peeacts price $6; 50 cents a number. A few sets on sale of the first 
nd second series. © aS : 


Ten: volume index paesiahen on Phand for the second and third series. The index 


g volume XXxXI to XL (3d series) was issued in January, 1891; ; price 75 cents. 


| Address the PROPRIETORS, 


a D. and E. S8. DANA, New Haven Conn. 


<r 


2 STs SA te 


a Se 


| IIL. —Intensity of Sound—II. The Energy | used. by Organ - 
| IV.—New Analyses of Astrophyllite and Tachefficanites 


| V.—Minerals in hollow Spherulites of Rhyolite. from 


VIL --Gmelinite from Nova Scotia; by Louis V. Poe 
~IX.—Analyses of Kamacite, Maia and Plessite from the 


pettescs * 


“Hy 


Potential Fumnalioe in the case of Regehaish he i 7 


Bicmewy <2. 15 47! ca NS eT Oi. to ane Se + 


Il. = Newtonite and Rectorite—two new minerals of ti 
Kaolinite Group; by R. N. Bracxerr and J. F.Wiia 


Pipes; by Caartes K.. Wan ._: 2232228 oe wate eee eee 


te Gliese et CO ee ae 


Creek, Wyoming; by J. P. Ippines and 8. L. Penr 
Va. Page nandthtie: ik it a Mineral or a Fungus?; by Jos 
DTANUEY: ApOW A. jul eer ds ee ee yee 
VII.—Development of Bilobites; by CHaRrLes E. BEECHER. 
ie st Wath-Plate Eee so ooo SL gl 


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Welland Meteoric Iron; by Jonn M. Da : ee a 


SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 


Chemistry and Physics—Speed of the Explosive wave in Solid and Liquid Bodies, 
BERTHELOT: Relation between the Electrical Energy and the Chemical B eye 
in Voltaic cells, Livay, 66.—Action of Heat on Carbon Monoxide, BERTE . 
Hlectro- metallurgy of Aluminum, MriveEt, 67.—Detection of metallic Mercury in 
eases of Poisoning, Lecco: Tetrazotic acid and its Oxy- and Di-oxy derivati 32 ye 4 
Lossen, 68.—Polar light and Cosmic dust, Livermné and DEWAR: eee 
cence, WIEDEMANY, 69.—Reflection and Refraction as light ty thin ne, 


Jayers, Drupsz, 70. . Pac free . 
Geology and Mineralogy—Annual Report of the State Conia of New Sosty, 
70.—Twwo belts of fossiliferous black shale in the Triassic formation of Con- i 
necticut, Davis and LoperR, 72.—Illustrations of the Fauna of the St. John a 
Group, No. Vv, G. FB. MATINEW, 73.—Btudes des gites minéraux de la France, 
R. ZEILLER, 15.—Genus Sphenophyllum, J.S. NEWBERRY: Annuaire Géologique — 


Universel, 76.—Tables for the Determination of Minerals, P. FRAZER: Mate- 
rialien zur Mineralogie Russlands, N. von KOKSCHAROW, 77. Paha! 6 
Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence-—Volcano of Kilauea: A nonin Geological — 3 3 
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Society, 77.—International Congress of Geologists: Physical Observatory | pe: 
the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, 78. sane re 


Obituary—CHARLES ARAD Joy, 78. 


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EDITORS 
JAMES D. ann EDWARD 8. DANA. 5 
ASSOCIATE EDITORS a 
oressors JOSIAH P. COOKE, GEORGE L. GOODALE : 
anp JOHN TROWBRIDGE, or Camsripce. “1 
Be. | Provessons H. A. NEWTON anp A. E. VERRILL, oF 2, 
. New Haven, 
Prorrssor GEORGE F. BARKER, or PxHiILavELpPHia ; 
& 
THIRD SERIES. a 
VOL. XLIL—[WHOLE NUMBER, CXLIL] - | ee 
No. 248.—AUGUST, 1891. l 
WITH PLATES II-IX. | “ 
| | 
NEW HAVEN; CONN.: J. D. & HE. §. DANA. | eae * 
1891. | . 
‘TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR, ee 371 STATE STREET. | 
il lished monthly. Six dollars per year (postage prepaid). $6.40 to foreign ae ; 
of countries in the Postal Union. Remittances should be made either by 
orders, registered letters, or bank checks. 
Tei ges 


NOTABLE ARRIVALS OF MINERALS. 


is not surprising, therefore, that we can announce this month as haying 


witnessed the receipt not only of the largest accessions ever mae to 


our stock, but probably the finest also. 
Collected by our Mr. Atkinson. — 


ENGLISH MINERALS.—Hgremont Calcites, twins, groups, single crys-— 


tals, phantoms—the finest lot ever sent over. Bigrigg Calcites of anew 
form, extra choice and very cheap. Stank Calcites, good. Fluorites, 
over “ag 000, personally selected, every color and size—all cheaper than 
ever. ‘Specular Iron and Quartz, the best we have had. Dolomite, iri- 


descent; Aragonite groups; Barites, a great variety at rock-bottom — 
prices ; Witherites, singly and doubly terminated ; Bromlite, a splendid — 


lot; Tetrahedrite, iridescent ; Connellite, Henwoodite, Lettsomite, Tal- 
lingite, Bismuthinite, Ludlamite, etc. 


CONTINENTAL MINERALS.—Proustite, choice little specimens, also fine — 


little specimens of Pyrargyrite, Stephanite, Polybusite, Argentite and 


Acanthite, all well crystallized; Dioptase, magnificent specimens; — 
Topaz from Siberia, extra fine ‘erystals ; Aquamarine, some doubly 


terminated and highly modified ; Epidote from Tyrol, the finest brought 
to this country for many years: ; Aainite, fine lot; Sylvanite, xld.; 


Native Lead; Lehrbuchite ; Aikintte ; Byelkite : Zinkenite « Amalgam - 


Orangite ; Scheelite; Polianite; Herrengrundite; Szaibelyite ; Roselite ; 
Phosgenite ; Hvansite ; Leucochalcite;: Babingtonite: Pseudomalachite ; 
Pyrosmalite ; Polyarsenite; Pleonectite ; Cataplevite; Friedelite; Sar- 
kinite; Bismutosphaerite; Alexandrite; Retzbanyite; Messelite ; Calo- 


mel; Dewalquite ; Sarcolite ; Pucherite ; Phillipsite ; ‘Argyrodite ; Lieb-— 


igite ; Leuchtenbergite ; Pseudobrookite ; Sternbergite ; Strengite; Ines- 
ite; Allaktite; Hessite; Herschelite ; and hundreds of other varieties. 
ELBA MINERALS.—Rubellites, choice large lot ; Hematites, fine. 


Collected by our Mr. Niven. 

Minium, splendid specimens from Colorado. 

Azurite, a number of extraordinary crystals and groups. 

Velvet and Tufted Malachite, choice. tare 

Cuprite, some of the best we have had. 

Stalactites, incomparably beautiful, some stained green with Mala- 
chite, others of the exquisite Flos Ferri type, others covered with dis- 
tinct "crystals of Aragonite—an endless variety. 

Aguilarite, a few more small but choice specimens have been secured. 
This is the new sulpho-selenide of silver recently described. 

Pyrargyrite, Argentite, Embolite, Chaleanthite, Aurichalctte, &c., &c. 


Bastndsite and Tysonite are now en route from our Colorado collec- — 


tor, and other good Colorado minerals are expected. 
Yellow Sphenes from Tilly Foster Mine. 


One of the most interesting finds ever made in this country has 
recently come into our possession. The crystals (nearly all twins) rival 
the best European specimens both in quality and size. They are 
worthy of elaborate description and are meeting with a warm recep- 
tion from our best customers. 


The foregoing includes but a fraction of the important additions to 
our stock during the month. 


Blowpipe Minerals are being strongly added for the fall trade. 
100 page Illustrated Catalogue, 15c. ; cloth bound, 25c. 
GEO. L. ENGLISH & CO., Mineralogists, 
733 & 735 Broadway, New York. 


. ; = oe r “~~ 


Three Experienced Collectors have devoted their time during July to. 

securing new supplies of minerals for us.—Mr. Atkinson of our firm 
has been in Europe, Mr. Niven of our firm in Mexico, and our regular 
collector has been at work in the most promising Colorado localities. It 


\ jade 


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THE 


AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE \ 


[THIRD SERIES] 

} 

Oe i} 
Art. X.— Some of the | Jeatures of non-volcanic Igneous H 
Lyections, as ulustrated im the four “ Rocks” of the New Ny 
Haven Region, West Rock, Pine Rock, Mill Rock and 1 
East Rock; by James D. Dana. With Plates [I to VIL. | iI 
THE observations on the igneous ejections of the New Haven | 
region here recorded and discussed were mostly completed il 
during the years 1879 and 1880, shortly after the publication i 
(in 1877) of a detailed topographical map of the region by the i 
U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, made under the special i 
direction of R. M. Bache. As this map is on the large scale a || 


of zo¢y7> OF about 64 inches to the mile, and has 20-foot 
contour lines, it afforded a very convenient basis for the record 
of geological facts. i 

A reduction of a portion of this map to a scale of two miles Hi 
to the inch, is presented on Plate II.* Excepting the hills in | 
the southwestern corner of the map, its whole area, even that Al 
of the New Haven plain, is underlaid by the Jura-Trias Red- i 
sandstone formation. (The excepted hills are part of the bor- | 
der of metamorphic schists that bounds the Jura-Trias region i} 


* This map is a portion of Plate II in the writer’s paper on the ‘‘ Phenomena }) 
of the Glacial and Champlain Periods about the mouth of the Connecticut Valley, i 
or the New Haven Region” (This Journal, xxvii, 113, Feb. 1884). The limit of i 
the New Haven plain is marked by a dotted line at the base of the hills, and the | 
contour-lines over it are omitted, the heights instead being given after a special i 
survey. The small nearly circular depressions marked on the map represent 
Kettle-holes.” The New Haven plain was of river-flood origin and it is pre- 
sented on the map with the outlines and height unaltered by the gradings for 
road-making, and by the making of mill-dams; and hence the map is a map of { 
the region of New Haven before 1640, as stated in its title. i 

{| 


Am. Jour. Sci.—THIRD Series, VoL. XLII, No. 248.—Aveust, 1891. 
6 


80 J.D. Dana—Features of non-volcanic Igneous Ejections. 


on the west.) The map shows the positions of the four trap 
ridges—more strictly trap-and-sandstone ridges—West Rock, 
Pine Rock, Mill Rock and East Rock, and gives their heights 
above mean tide. . These rampart-like elevations are now two 
to three miles from New Haven Bay; but they bear evidence 
of having been for a time the headlands of a much larger bay. 

The ridges are part of the Jura-Trias Mountain-range of the 
Connecticut Valley. (1) East Rock and West Rock are like 
the other north-and-south ridges of the range in their form, 
structure and direction, and. West Rock ridge after a course of 
seventeen miles, dies out just where the higher trap ridges of 
the Mt. Tom line commence, showing an interlocking with the 
rest of the system. (2) They consist of Jura-Trias sandstone 
with an intercalated sheet of trap (as the igneous rock is pop- 
ularly called). (8) The sheet of trap in the ridges has a rising 
inclination westward, or a dip eastward, like the associated 
beds of sandstone, the liquid rock having been extruded from 
a fissure or fissures situated somewhere to the eastward. (4) 
Asa consequence of these common features, denudation by 
water and ice has given to the New Haven ridges the features 
typical of the range,* namely, a steep western front, consisting 
of sandstone below and the harder trap above, a top of bare 
trap, and eastern slopes of sandstone, that is of the overlying 
sandstone. . 

From such common features the inference as to a common 
method of origin is natural. Still, as Professor Davis claims, 
it needs also other support for acceptance. 

We note also (4) that these Rocks are situated at the south- 
ern extremity of the Jura-Trias Mountain-range ; for the Con- 
necticut Valley and its Jura-Trias beds do not extend over 
Long Island. Instead of this, Long Island pertains to an east- 
and-west system of mountain-structure. Whether nearness in 
position to this east-and-west range has occasioned any of the 
features of the Rocks is an interesting question for con- 
sideration. 


1. SUMMARY OF THE PRINCIPAL FACTS AND CONCLUSIONS. 


The facts.—The facts relate to the sandstone of the New 
Haven region as well as the trap; for the sandstone was broken 
through to give exit to the liquid trap, and it broke as such a 
sandstone would break. 

(1) The sandstone, as the rock is comprehensively called, 
varies from fine-grained to coarse, and beyond this, to a fine 


*In the writer’s paper on the Geology of the New Haven region of 1869, 
(Trans. Conn. Acad. Sci., ii, 4. 1870), he observes that “the sandstone mass with 
its intersecting dikes of trap constituted the block out of which the future New 
Haven region was to be carved by various denuding agencies.” 


J. D. Dana—Features of non-voleanice Igneous Ejections. 81 


and coarse conglomerate, even cobble-stone-gravel conglomer- 
ate. When fine-grained and shaly it is not a firm laminated 
rock, but divides or crumbles readily to thin chips. The more 
massive kinds are usually traversed with fractures; and none 
has much firmness except where consolidated by heat from the 
trap-ejections, or the hot vapors produced thereby. Conse- 
quently, fissures made though the formation should have great 
irregularities, from irregular fracturing and the tumbling into 
them of masses of sandstone and large sections of their walls. 
_ (2) The thickness of the sandstone intersected by the fissures 
over the center of the New Haven region was at least 3000 
feet, as proved by borings at a point half way between the bay 
and the west end of Mill Rock. Along the West Rock line 
the depth was probably less, as this ridge is within a mile 
and a half of the western metamorphic limit of the Connecti- 
eut Valley of Triassic time. Beneath the sandstone the fissures 
came up through underlying crystalline rocks, in which they 
would probably have great regularity in course, width and con- 
tinuity. 

(3) When the heat from the trap, or the hot vapors gener- 
ated by it, consolidated the sandstone, it generally made hard, 
durable rock of the coarser kind, but left the finer beds, 
alternating with the coarse, fragile and chip-making ; and this 
Was so, apparently, because hot vapor penetrates most easily 
the coarser beds for the cementing work. The heat, through 
the penetrating vapors, generally discharged more or less com- 
pletely the color of the beds it consolidated, producing an ash- 

‘ray and brownish shade ; made in them steam tubes with 
blanched walls; produced blotches of impure chlorite, or 
epidote, and erystallizations of hematite and epidote, and less 
commonly garnet. But the finer beds that alternate with the 
coarse commonly retain, except perhaps for a few inches, their 
red color, and even have it deepened to a dark purplish red— 
as if by the reduction of some of the red coloring matter 
(oxide of iron) to magnetite. Moreover, the sandstone often 
loses all the old bedding. These varying effects from the heat 
have added much to the original irregularities of the beds. 


(1) Of the four Rocks, East and West belong to the prevail- 
ing north-and-south system, as already stated; the other two, 
Pine Rock and Mill Rock, to a transverse system. 

(2) In East Rock and West Rock the sheet of trap made 
by outflow from the opened fissure or fissures has a length 
westward of 100 to 500 yards. 

(3) The supply fissure, or its filling, the dike, descends be- 
neath the eastern slope with a large eastward pitch: the angle 
of pitch in the case of East Rock being about 50°. 


82. J.D. Dana—Ffeuatures of non-volcanie Igneous Ejections. 


(4) In Pine Rock and Mill Rock, the trap is in dikes, there 
being no evidence of any outflow. Yet these dikes have in 
some of the outlets the great breadth of 150 to 300 or more 
feet. | 

(5) The pitch of these dikes is to the northward ; and its 
angle 18° to 40°—both characters of unusual interest. 

(6) Although neither East Rock, Mill Rock nor Pine Rock 
has a length exceeding a mile and a half, each has three or four 
distinct outlets of trap, separated by intervening sandstone ; 
moreover, there is wide diversity between the Rocks in the 
form and arrangement of these areas of extruded trap, as the 
map illustrates. 

(7) The trap of the several ridges, according to examinations 
by E. 8. Dana, is true doleryte, free, or nearly so, from chlorite 
and other evidences of interior alteration, and not at all 
vesicular. 

(8). Columnar fractures give the rock a rudely columnar 
structure, in which the halt-defined columns are four to eight feet 
in diameter. In the west fronts of the north and south ridges 
the rude columns have usually an inclination nearly at right 
angles to the mean dip of the associated sandstone—accord- 
ing thus with the usual rule: perpendicular to the cooling sur- 
faces. But among the columnar fractures, whatever the incli- 
nation of the columns, that plane of fracture or joint which is 
transverse to the sides of the dike or trap-mass and nearly ver- 
tical is the most strongly developed, and consequently the 
trap often cleaves into nearly vertical plates or laminz of 
great extent, much like a laminated rock. There usually is 
also a second easy cleavage-direction, nearly at right angles to 
the former so that rectangular columns sometimes come out 
with great prominence. 

(9). The outflows of trap have a floor either of an inclined 
layer of the sandstone or of edges of the upturned layers. 


The principal conclusions.—(1). The igneous eruptions of 
the New Haven region took place after the sandstone had been 
upturned ; that is, after the evolution of the Connecticut-valley 
mountain-range in this part of the valley had made great 
progress. 

(2). None of them were volcanic eruptions, for there was no 
center of action, no pericentric discharge of volcanic materials. 

(8). In the outflows from the fissures (those of East and 
West Rock) the liquid trap did not escape into the open air 
and spread over the surface, but entered between layers of the 
sandstone. 

(4). Moreover the flow was not by gravity into spaces that 
had been previously made, but a forced flow that opened 


J. D. Dana—Features of non-volcanic Igneous Ejections. 83 


spaces or chambers for its occupation, the liquid rock thus 
lifting the overlying sandstone as long as the discharge was 
continued. By such means the sheets of liquid trap attained, 
in some cases, a thickness of 300 or more feet. This forcible 
opening and filling of a chamber in the sandstone by the up- 
thrust lavas, is a laccolithie process, it according with that of the 
typical laccoliths ably studied out and described by Gilbert.* 

(5). The intrusion of the flowing rock between the sandstone 
layers took place at comparatively shallow depths, where the 
pressure of the rock was not too great to prevent it. 

(6). It was favored, in each case, by the fact that the 
oblique fissure supplying the lava was inclined in the same 
direction with the layers of the uplifted sandstone—both in- 
clining westward, the dip being eastward. 

(7). The termination of a fissure in several outlets, exempli- 
fied in three of the Rocks, was largely due to the great ineli- 
nation and depth of the fissures opened through the weak 
upturned and faulted sandstone, and thence to great downfalls 
of the hanging wall. The same cause led to irregularities in 
the width and forms of dikes, and influenced the outlines and 
surface-features of outflows. 

(8). The course and dip of supply-fissures was not deter- 
mined by the foliation or bedding of the schists underneath 
the sandstone. 


2. SPECIAL FACTS FROM THE SEVERAL ROCKS ILLUSTRATING THE 
ABOVE CONCLUSIONS. 


The ridges, Pine Rock and Mill Rock, containing simple 
dikes are first considered, and then East Rock and West Rock, 
which include dikes and outilows from them.t 


1. PINE ROCK. 


The general form of Pine Rock is shown on Plate II, and 
still better on the following larger map.{ It is only three- 
fourths of a mile long and trends N. 67° E., or east-northeast. 
This small ridge has three, perhaps four, independent outlets 
of trap, A, BB’, CC’ and D. The first, at the west end, is a 
small dike 15 to 20 feet wide, trending north 20° west, and 
traceable for 220 feet. It dips eastward 25°, and thus proves 


* Geology of the Henry Mountains by G. K. Gilbert, 4to, 1877. 

+ In justice to Percival, the author of the Report on the Geology of Connecti- 
cut of 1842, it should be here stated that there is scarcely an outlet or area of 
trap mentioned beyond which is not recorded on his map or described in his 
Report. 

¢ The contour lines on this map, and also those on that of Mill Rock on page 
87, are copied from the Bache Coast Survey map. 


84. J.D. Dana—Features of non-volcanic Igneous Hjections. 


that it is not an outlier of West Rock, but part of the Pine 
Rock group. The other three are, more evidently, outlets from 
one great fissure. The width of the larger mass, CO’, is about 
300 feet; and it is therefore one of the widest of dikes. The 
dip of the dike is 50° to 55° northwestward. This inclined 


i. 


500 1600 ft. 
t 


Map of Pine Rock. Heights reckoned from high-tide level. Areas of trap 
with dotted outline. 


position (85° to 40° from a vertical) is given the dike in fig. 2, in 
which D I K E represents a section of it between its sandstone 
walls before denudation, and d7 K E, the same through the 


De 3. 


sore 


highest point of the Rock as it now is—or was before recent 
quarrying. The cross-lining gives the direction of the columnar 
fractures. The other figure, fig. 3, is a section through » on 
the map, where the removal of the sandstone of the southern 
wall (v, in the section) has left a depression ealled the Cave. 
(The sandstone of these sections is now concealed by the debris, 
and outside of this by the Terrace formation.) 


J. D. Dana—Features of non-volcanic Igneous Hjections. 85 


The southern wall of the dike is the roof of the cave; the 
rock has the fine texture and fissured surface usual where it 
cooled in contact with the sandstone. Just above the cave, 


Inclined columus of Pine Rock, above the ‘ Cave.” 


where the exterior is removed, the surface is made up of the 
ends of rude columns. A _ profile view of these inclined 
columns from a point just south is shown in fig. 4.* 

At w, (see the preceding map) the north wall of the inclined 
dike is uncovered for a height of 50 feet, the sandstone having 
been carried off by the glacier. 

-At the eastern extremity of Pine Pock (near ©’), the trap 
of the north wall may be seen in contact with hard-baked’ 
sandstone. In the large quarry just south, the rock exhibits 
finely the transverse Jamination crossing the dike—referred to 
on page 82. The lamine incline 10° to 15° to the eastward, 
the dip being 80 to 85° to the westward. The surfaces of the 
plates are usually yellowish-brown with limonite for scores of 
feet from the summit, owing to the waters that penetrate from 
the surface downward and oxydize the iron of the rock ; but 
in the transverse joints or cracks, which are less accessible to 
the waters, there is usually a coating of stilbite and sometimes 


* From a photograph by G. N. Lawson, of the class at Yale of 1890; taken in 
December, 1890. 

+ The shaping of the northern slopes of the Pine Rock ridge is a part of the 
same work of the ice; and the trend of the mass, like that of Sachem’s Ridge, 
(Plate II), indicates the direction of movement of the glacier. The same is true 
for the northern slopes of Whitney Peak and Indian Head. 


86 J.D. Dana—Ffeatures of non-volcanic Igneous Hjections. 


of other zeolites, as chabazite, analcite, heulandite.* The 
dike has a few transverse courses of fracture containing prehnite 
and occasionally apophyllite, but no longitudinal have been 
observed. 

A sandstone ridge connects A and BB’, in which the rock is 
hard, and has the strike N. 40°-45° E., and the dip 45°S., 
becoming N. 30° E. and 30° to 35° in dip more to the west. 
It is mostly a coarse sandstone; but some layers contain stones 
4 to 5 inches in diameter. 


Origin of the Features of the Rock. 


The existence of so many outlets of trap in the small space, 
and the irregular forms of the areas are unusual facts. BB’ is 
short, broad and blunt, shield-shaped; and CO’, is duck-like in 
shape, the irregular bosses at the northwest end (EE’) making 
the neck and head. These bosses are not in the line of the 
dike, and must be due to a local catastrophe. In view of the 
great inclination of the fissure, and its depth of 2000 to 3000 
feet in the weak sandstone, a caving in of some part of its 
northern or hanging wall would be of extreme probability. 
Such a catastrophe would account for the stoppage of the out- © 
flow and the separation thus of BB’ and CO’; and such a 
stoppage of the up-thrust lavas would explain their escape by 
one or more extemporized outlets, and for the actual position 
of the apertures on the north side of the fissure ; and thereby 
for the making of the bosses. The obstructed lavas of the 
fissure may also have found exit in the western dike, A. 

The trap-mass D is possibly a resnlt of a second smaller 
catastrophe of like character; but its separation from CQ’, may 
be a result of erosion. | 

Another consequence of the great inclination of the fissure is 
the exposure of the dike of heavy trap to degradation through 
the removal of the supporting sandstone on the south side. 
Such undermining has produced the steepness of the southern 
front. And sea-shore waves or breakers were probably the 
chief agent—the shores being those of the broad center, or a 
central arm, of the New Haven Bay. 


2. MILL ROCK AND THE WHITNEY RIDGE. 


Mill Rock is one mile distant from the east end of Pine 
Rock. Its length to Whitneyville or Mill River, is four-fifths 
of a mile. This small area, as is seen on Plate II, and better in 
the following larger map, has four independent outlets of trap— 

* The surface of the crust of zeolites is frequently tinged with the red iron 


oxide—which is a probable indication of heat as high at least as 200° F. dur- 
ing the formation of the minerals. 


J. D. Dana—Features of non-voleanie Igneous Hjections. 87 


the western, AA’, the eastern, Bb’; north of the gap between 
these, a short narrow dike C, and farther north, the isolated 
area, D. The width of the first, AA’, (as measured at its west 
end) is 200 feet; of the second, 140 or 150 feet; of the third, 
1 to 10 feet; of the fourth, 50 feet, the length being 150. 
The mass BB’ continues to Mill River where the surface of the 
country declines to tide level. But the trap does not stop 
here ; it crosses the river and extends on eastward, with an in- 
creased width, 180 feet, to the summit of Whitney Peak. 
The Whitney Peak dike belongs therefore to the Mill Rock 
region, although topographically part of the East Rock area. 
The trend of the Whitney Peak portion is 8. 68° E.; of AA’, 
S. 78° E. The mean course for the whole series to the summit 
of Whitney Peak is about S. 72° E. 


Map of Mill Rock, excepting its eastern extremity. Trap areas with dotted 
outlines. 


The dip or pitch of the main dike is about 72° to the north- 
ward, or 18° from the vertical. This inclination and the course 
of the ‘columnar fractures are 
well exhibited at the west end 
of the dike, A, and are repre- 
sented in figure 0. 

Besides the columnar frac- — 
tures at right angles to the 
walls, there are also longitudi- 
nal fractures in interrupted lines, parallel to the walls. Two 
are seen at the west end of the Rock and are indicated in the 
above figure. They are now mineral veins. The more south- 


Section of Mill Rock, west end. 


88 J.D. Dana—Ffeatures of non-volcanic Igneous Ejections. 


ern one, a, contains chiefly prehnite, with traces of copper ore, 
and the trap along its course is solid or little altered. The 
other is situated about half way between the sides. It con- 
tains abundantiy the very hydrous mineral laumontite and the 
trap along it is decomposed; it contains also impure chlorite, 
and is fragile for a breadth of six to ten inches. A ean 
lanmontite vein, but nearer the north wall of the dike, is seen 
at Whitneyville, and also in the trap of Whitney Peak. 

The junction of the Whitney Peak part of the dike with 
BB’ takes place in the bed of the stream at Whitneyville, and 
is not now exposed to view owing to the dam and the build- 
ings below it.* 

The level of the trap beneath the dam is but a few feet 
above and below tide level. The height of the Whitney 
Peak dike increases eastward; first by a sudden rise of 100 
feet, and then more oradually in the last 500 yards to 280 
feet. Whitney Peak has a bold front to the eastward with 
sandstone at its base showing a sudden stoppage of the fissure 
in that direction; and at the same place it widens southward— 
not by overflow, as the precipitous eastward front and the 
depth of the trap shows, but through the opening of a trans- 
verse fissure. The Rock has a steep wall 70 to 80 feet high, on 
the north side of the summit for nearly 100 yards; but this 
is due to the removal of the sandstone by glacier action, expos- 
ing the north wall of the trap dike. 

The narrow dike C is about 110 feet long. It is situated in 
the face of a bluff of sandstone; and from the evidences of 
heat in the hardness of the rock, its mottled and light gray 
color in places, its steam tubes, and epidote, it is plain that the 
ejection determined the resisting power of. the sandstone 
against denuding agencies. The following figures represent 


two cross sections from the western half, and a map of the last 
40 feet of the eastern half. At 65 feet the outflow is divided, 


* To the fact of this continuation I have recent testimony from Mr. Eli Whit- 
ney, who has superintended the constructions made there during the past forty 
years. Besides mentioning that the dam was built along the junction of the trap 
and sandstone, he says that below the dam for some distance, there is trap rock 
only, no sandstone outcropping there to his knowledge. 

The gun factory at Whitneyville was established there by his father, the in- 
ventor of the cotton-gin, in 1798, for the manufacture of muskets for the United 
States Army. 


J. D. Dana—Features of non-volcanie Igneous Hjections. 89 


a narrow stream of trap (fig. 9), coming out above a layer of 
the sandstone 5 to 6 feet thick, the main part of the dike appear- 
ing below. This envelope of sandstone by trap continues for 30 
feet, when the two parts come together again. The depth 
_at which the side stream goes off from the main dike is not 
known. ‘The inclination of the dike is mostly 25° to 28° (fig. 7) 
from a vertical, but at 45 feet from the west end it becomes 40° 
(fi. 8), and 10 feet beyond this, 30°. 

The sandstone of the Mill Rock region is of all degrees of 
coarseness up to cobble-stone conglomerate ; and no distinction 
is observable between that of the west and east ends. 


Origin of the Mill Rock features. 


The subdivision of the trap into its four masses may be ex- 
plained in the same way as that in the Pine Rock area. A 
downfall of the northern sandstone wall of the fissure, the 
hanging wall, would account for the separation of AA’ and 
BB’. Further, the obstruction thus occasioned to the great as- 
cending stream—its width 150 to 200 feet—would have forced 
upen passages to the surface for the discharge of the liquid 
trap, and thus may have been produced the small dike OC, 
situated near the fissure wall, and the remoter mass D. The 
irregularities of the little dike C, and the situation of both C 
and D to the north of the line of the dike, accord with this 
idea of a downfall of a part of the northern wall. The 
liability te such a catastrophe in a wall made of the rude sand- 
stone 3000 feet or more high, and having a large inclination, 
was augmented in both Pine Rock and Mill Rock by the tilted 
position and faulted state of the sandstone. The beds had 
already received their eastward dip of 15° to 25°, and 
breaks and faults innumerable that had been made in the 
adjustment to the new tilted position; it was therefore a 
tottlish structure overhanging a profound abyss. The fact 
here introduced that the eastward pitch of the sandstone was 
given it before the ejection of the trap is sustained by facts 
reported beyond. But an argument for it is afforded here: 
for if this eastward pitch were of subsequent origin, then the 
Whitney Peak end of the system should be the lowest. In- 
ae of this it is greatly the highest; the ridge slopes west- 
ward. 

It is possible that the fissures of AA’ and BB’ were, from 
the first, independent fissures to a considerable depth; for they 
are not in precisely the same line. If this were so, the above 
explanation, while in the chief points right, would require 
some modification. 

As in Pine Rock, so with Mill Rock but to a less degree, 
the northward pitch of the dike made it easy of degradation 


90 SF. D. Dana— Features of non-volcanic Igneous Ejections. 


by sea-shore action. Through such means, beyond doubt, the 
part of it extending from Mill River westward for 300 yards, 
was reduced to a width above ground of 40 to 50 feet. This 
narrowing commences just west of the Pumping House of the 
City Water Works (p, fig. 5), and continues without inter- 
ruption to the river. It is part of the evidence of a greater 
New Haven Bay at some former time. 

Why the range falls gradually to so low a level at Whitney- 
ville, appears to be explained only on the view that less trap 
here came to the surface. I have elsewhere shown that it 
cannot be due to glacial removal. Neither is it probable that 
fluvial or marine waters have produced it. We have to attri- 
bute it to some condition existing or produced in the supply- 
fissures of eastern Mill Rock and Whitney Peak, at the time 
they were opened. 


Besides the dikes of Pine Rock and Mill Rock, there is another 
transverse dike of special interest which intersects the West Rock 
ridge just below the margin of Wintergreen Lake, or about one 
and a quarter miles north of the southern termination of the ridge 
and four miles from New Haven Bay. It descends the eastern 
slope of West Rock in an interrupted ridge, forms part of the 
southern bank of Wintergreen Lake, sinks to the level of the 
West Rock surlace at the summit, but stands out lke a buttress 
along the steep west front of the Rock. From the last feature 
I have called it for the past twenty years, the “ Buttress dike.” 
It extends south-westward through the metamorphic region 
of the towns of Woodbridge and Orange to the mouth of the 
Housatonic—as long since mapped and described by Percival. 
This dike has a pitch northward, amounting to 25° from a vertical 
in the part of it intersecting West Rock, but in that through 
the metamorphic rocks it is nearly vertical.* The strike of 
the inclined columns in the buttress portion is S. 30-32° KE. It 
is an example of a dike made subsequently to the cooling of 
another dike, that of West Rock. It has great importance in 
this connection, since it brings into the Jura-Trias system of 
mountain-movements a dike intersecting the metamorphic rocks 
outside of the Connecticut Valley, and one that branches off from 
the southern or New Haven part of the system. 


3. THE EAST ROCK SERIES. 


The form of the East Rock area and its position between 
Mill River and the Quinnipiac, are shown on Plate II. Through 


* The rock of the dike is sparsely porphyritic; and the feldspar distributed 
through it in crystals a fourth to a third of an inch Jong is anorthite, as shown 
by G. W. Hawes (this Journal, IIJ, ix, 188, 1875). This character makes it easy 
to identify the several parts of the dike; it is the only case in which this mineral 
has thus far been found in the Connecticut Valley trap. 

Percival’s account of the Buttress dike and its extension southwestward is on 
page 399 of his Report. 


J. D. Dana—Features of non-volcanic Igneous Ejections. 91 


denudation by the sea, rivers and ice, it has lost all of the 
sandstone formation that may have covered the summit, and 
for the most part that over its slopes above the 200-foot con- 
tour-line. The form of its upper portion is therefore largely 
that of the trap in its constitution—the hard rock that was 
most successful in resisting wear. This fact gives special 
interest to the larger and more detailed topographical map 
making Plate III, as will appear beyond.* 

To the north is Whitney Peak, which has already been 
described as the eastern extremity of the Mill Rock series. 
South of this and of a large area of sandstone, are East Rock 
and Indian Head, one in trap surface, but in fact the result of 
two independent outflows. To the south of Indian Head is 
Snake Rock, which also has its large trap mass, but is peculiar 
in having ridges of hard-baked sandstone that are higher than 
those of trap. The East Rock areas of trap here referred to 
are lettered on the map BB’, CC’C”, DD’. Besides these 
there is a more northern one, lettered AA’, which lies near the 
eastern foot of Whitney Peak. 

The trap-mass A A’—This northernmost mass, is about one 
hundred yards long. At its northern end it is only forty feet 
distant from the trap of Whitney Peak, and it is a question, 
therefore, whether it is not a part of the latter dike. But it 
is separated from it by outcropping sandstone, except where 
the interval is narrowest, and at this point there was until 
recently drained, a standing pool of water, a pretty good indi- 
cation that sandstone exists beneath, since trap is commonly 
too much fissured to hold water or afford springs. Moreover, 
the mass AA’ has the trend of the East Rock series; and, 


* The map of East Rock Park which is the basis of Plate III, was obtained 
from the Engineer department in New Haven, through the City Engineer, Mr. 
A. B. Hill. The roads of the Park from the termination of Orange St., around by 
the north to the summit of East Rock are lettered F, and the others E. These 
letters refer to two citizens of New Haven, Henry Farnam and James E. English, 
who liberally bore the expense of their construction. The topography is in part 
from the Bache Coast Survey map: but the accuracy of its contour lines was not 
sufficient for their transfer to the Park map. The heights are reckoned from 
high tide. The map is indebted to Prof. S. E. Barney. for the determination by 
leveling of the height of the highest point of East Rock, just south of the monu- 
ment (3584 feet) and also of other points on its south and east sides, and for that 
of the junction of the trap and sandstone on the west front near Orange St. bridge 
(155 feet). The height of the bolt at the Coast Survey Station he found to be 
343 feet, and the height of the top of the first step leading to the terrace about 
the monument, 355 feet. (Prof. Barney’s figures are underscored on the map). 
The circuit road about the summit has a height of 320 to 350 feet; and the nearly 
parallel road on the east rises from about 216 feet near the quarries south of the sum- 
mit, to 270 near the junction of the ‘‘ Farnam drive” and “‘ English drive,” and thence 
declines northward to about 250 where it bends westward. The lettersS on the 
map indicate an outcrop of sandstone in the vicinity of junctions with the trap. 

In giving the topography of the Rock, the quarry excavations on the south 
side above a level of 216 feet are not introduced, it seeming best to represent the 
Rock in its original form. They are separately mapped on the plate. 


92 J.D. Dana—Features of non-volcanie Igneous Ejections. 


besides, ledges of trap along the east side appear to indicate 
that the supply of liquid rock was from the eastward, like that 
of East Rock: On this view it is the northern mass of the 
East Rock series. 


Hast Rock proper.—The trap mass BB’, or East Rock, 
curves around from N. 25° E., on the north to N. 75° W. at 
the southwest extremity. Adding to it the Indian Head mass, 
it ends in an east-and-west dike, and is a complete crescent in 
outline. It has a bold columnar front, in which the columns 
incline about 22° from a vertical—the position, being, as-is 
usual, at right angles to the mean dip of the tilted sandstone. 
A view of the southwest front of the Rock is presented on 
Plate IV. Plate V_ illustrates the character and inclined 
position of the columns, and shows the contrast in the latter 
respect with Pine Rock. 

The upper 200 feet are of trap. The junction of the col- 
umnar trap with the sandstone is exposed to view at several 
points along the front. One such exposure may be seen when 
crossing the Orange Street bridge. The view in Plate LV, in 
which the bridge appears in the foreground, has the exposure 
half way up the front to the right. The height of the junction 
plane above mean tide at this place is 155 feet. Another is 
faintly indicated on the same plate directly below the Refresh- 
ment House; the height of the junction is there 150 feet. In 
other exposures of the junction-plane to the north, the height 
is less and becomes only 85 feet near the Rock Lane bridge ; 
and it is also less to the south being but 1324 feet at B', the 
southwest angle of the trap mass. Since the strike of the 
sandstone of the region is about N. 30° W., the sandstone (or 
the junction plane) has its greatest height, 155 feet, where the 
front has this direction; and the bedding of the sandstone in 
the section for this reason appears to be horizontal. The 
diminished height to the northward is owing mainly to the 
exposures. being at a lower level on the junction-plane because 
of the changed direction of the front, it becoming N. 10° E. 
near Rock Lane bridge. Through this interval the trap retains 
its thickness of about 200 feet. North of Rock Lane bridge 
the underlying sandstone is wholly covered by debris, so that 
the position of the junction-plane is doubtful. 

The supply of the trap forming East Rock came up, as the 
slope of its surface shows, from the eastward ; and it continues 
rising westward to the western and southwestern margin of 
the summit. The slope from the summit eastward and north- 
ward is gradual for about 300 yards, and then it pitches off at 
an angle of 45° to 50’ along the course of one of its dikes. 

The position of the dike, and thereby of the supply-fissure, 
is well exhibited at dc. A bare wall of trap, 50 to 55 feet in 


J. D. Dana—Features of non-volcanic Igneous Hjections. 93 


height, descends at the angle mentioned. Since the surface 
there exposed became solidified against the northern sandstone 
_ wall of the fissure, the rock is of fine-grained texture and has 
an irregularly rifted aspect. The foot of the wall is about 200 
feet above high tide. and from it the land, underlaid by 
sandstone, slopes off gently to the eastward. Since the direc- 
tion of this wall of trap is 8. 15° W., or that of the movement 
of the ice over this region in the Glacial era, the wall escaped 
the tearing action of the glacier, and so retains its original 
surface. 

Farther south, along a line from d to e, there is a similarly 
steep slope, but it is made of displaced blocks of trap. At its 
base there is a flat, terrace-like surface, which is near 200 feet 
above tide level. This steep slope appears hence to have been 
the course of the wall of another part of the supply-fissure. 
The flat terrace, although nearly 100 feet wide, is without 
stones over its surface of either trap or sandstone except in its 
southern portion, and there occur sandstone in fragments along 
with trap, and an outcrop of sandstone over trap at S. This 
fact and the occurrence of a perennial spring in this southern 
part (at the point toward which the two paths on the map, 
Plate III, descend) make it probable that the terrace rests on 
sandstone, and that this sandstone was that bounding on the 
east, the supply-fissure above referred to. 

But there is trap again to the east of this terrace, showing 
that the lower eastern slopes were supplied from a more 
eastern fissure. Along from c¢ to d, the trap of the outer 
fissure appears to have flowed over and coalesced with that ot 
the inner. Again south of e, the distinction of the two fissures 
cannot be made out. But the fact that the supply-fissures, 
one or both had a large inclination—not far from 45°—is 
evident from the very steep slope of the surface. 

Sections of the dikes of trap are nowhere exposed, and hence 
we are ignorant of the width of the supply-fissures. Judging 
from those of Mill Rock and Pine Rock, it may have been 
150, 200 or 300 feet ; but it was possibly much less. 

The Outflows.—In East Rock, the trap which overlies the 
sandstone along the front, was that of outflows from the 
fissures westward between layers of the tilted sandstone. The 
fact that the columns of trap have a position at right angles 
nearly to the inclined layers of sandstone is believed to be 
good evidence of this intrusion of the melted trap. 

Fig. 10 represents the view that has ordinarily been held 
with regard to the relative positions of the trap and sandstone. 
According to it the trap left the dike to flow westward 
between sandstone layers having a dip of 20° to 25°. . A space 
was opened between the layers of sandstone which the liquid 


t 


94 JS. D. Dana—Features of non-volcanic Igneous Ejections. 


trap filled. It is plain that this chamber could not have been 
so opened in advance of the inflow; for the hanging wall of 
the weak sandstone inclined 65° would have had no support. 
It is hence evident that the ascending stream of trap, forced 


Ideal Section of Kast Rock before the removal of the sandstone from the summit. 


along its course, opened a way between the layers; that a 
tongue of trap first entered, which would have been partly 
cooled against the cold rock; but the flow was kept up below 
this first intruding portion until the trap had all entered, the 
lifting of the overlying sandstone going on as it needed more 
space. This lifting would have brought a strain on the sand- 
stone that would have broken the connection between the 
lifted portion and that either side, to the northward, westward 
and southwestward. To the question, therefore, how far did 
the trap flow westward, the conditions reply: to the wall of 
such a fracture; and it may not have extended many rods 
beyond the present limit. The sandstone of the western wall 
has disappeared in the general denudation over the New 
Haven region, excepting a small part at the southwest angle, 
where a zigzag path (Z, Plate III) ascends to its top; the 
height of this sandstone is 185 feet, which is twenty-five feet 
above the base of the trap where highest to the northward, 
and fifty feet above that just south at A’. The locality of 
this sandstone and the zigzag path is seen on the right margin 
of Plate IV. The sandstone of the northern wall remains 
to a height of 196 feet at m-: the sandstone between Whitney 
Peak and East Rock is what is left of it. The dip of this 
sandstone at m, near the junction, is 30°, in the direction N. 
73° E.; and the inclination of the columns of the trap just 
above is also 30°. 

The theoretical section of East Rock in fig. 10 represents 
correctly the fact of the intrusion of the melted trap between 
sandstone layers. But since the bottom over which the flow 
took place is concealed from view, it is not quite certain that 
the sandstone layer on which the flow began continued to 
he the floor to its western limit. Moreover, there is a large 
discrepancy between the pitch of the trap over the summit 
and that in the section. An actual section of the rock from 


J. D. Dana—Features of non-voleanic Igneous Hjections. 95 


east to west (or more exactly E.S.E. to W.S.W. since this is 
approximately the direction of a transverse diameter) drawn to 
a scale, fig. 11, throws some light on these points. 


Section of East Rock, showing the correct profile. 


This section is essentially right in its profile, but more or 
less doubtful in its interior lines. The height of the upper 
surface of the outflow where it left the dike at d’ is 265 to 270 
feet. It was not less than this; for we have this height for 
the top of the bare, unabraded wall of trap (adding the part of 
it under the Summer House west of the road). The length of 
the overflow to the present western front, is, as already stated, 
about 800 yards. The height of the western brow of trap in 
the section is 355 feet ;* and that of the bottom of the trap in 
the western front, 155 feet. These are facts; and the diver- 
gence here from figure 10 is very great. » Further, the mean 
angle of the trap surface over the summit is 10° instead of 22°, 
the mean dip of the sandstone. The latter dip is shown in 
the lines dv ; and if the floor had originally this pitch through- 
out, the thickness of the trap would have been about 450 feet, 
this being the distance on the scale of thé section between dn 
and d’n', while actually it is only 200 to 210 feet. 

The question arises: How was the lower:slope of 10° at- 
tained, and how the lessened thickness. Are they a result of 
wear by glacial or other methods; or was the present slope 
approximately the original slope of the outflow? A large 
amount of observation over trap ridges leads me to believe 
that the loss over East and West Rocks by abrasion has been 
small, probably not over 50 feet. The glacier, as it was shoved 
along, might easily have torn off columns from the front, but 
it would have made little impression on the exposed surfaces. 
Moreover glacial abrasion would hardly have left the highest 
points of the summit so near the western edge. 

If the outline of the summit approaches that of the original 
outHow, then—d being the lower limit of the trap on the front 
—a line drawn from d nearly parallel to the summit plane, 


* This is the height 80 feet north of the Summit Refreshment House, just west 
of the road, this being the highest point over this northern half of the summit 
area. 


AM. JouR. Sci.—THIrD SERIES, Vou. XLII, No. 248.—Aveust, 1891. 
q 


96 J. D. Dana—Features of non-volcanic Igneous Ejections. - 


would probably represent the position of the bottom of the 
outflow. The line dl” l’/ has been drawn on this view. It 
supposes that the trap, on leaving the dike, passed between two 
layers of sandstone from / to /’ and that afterward it broke 
away the layer beneath it and flowed on, either over the edges 
or surfaces of layers as the conditions favored. 

The only spot where a section of the floor or plane of junc- 
tion of trap and sandstone, is seen, is at A’, the south-south- 
west corner of the trap-mass, by the road-side. There, for afew 
yards, the trap rests on upturned ledges of sandstone, and not 
on one continuous layer. The section is too short for any reli- 
able conclusion were it not sustained by facts from West Rock. 

The section, fig. 11, also represents the wnner and outer 
dikes described above, with the intervening (?) sandstone. The 
doubts with regard to the widths of these dikes and the area 
of sandstone have already been the subject of remark. 


Columns stand out boldly on the steep western front of East 
Rock. But they have none of the normal forms, for the angle 
between the most prominent faces frequently approaches a 
right angle, resulting from a combination of the plane of frac- 
ture at right angles to the trap-mass and another transverse. 
The direction of these planes varies along the course of the 
Rock on account of the curve in its outlines. At the quarry, 
on the south side of the summit, at the termination of the 
zigzag path Z, there is a fine display of broad surfaces in the 
two directions meeting nearly at a right angle. The courses 
here are about N. 35° E. and N. 55° W. The surface of one 
of them for many square yards is covered with rosettes of 
garnets and scattered minute crystals of magnetite, their faces 
brilliant in the sunshine. Along the whole western front 
of the Rock there is a remarkable predominance of planes 
conforming to its plane through all its changes of direction. 
This is apparent on Plate IV. and some of the right angles 
are seen on Plate V. 

The upper half of the columnar front (see Plate IV), down 
to a level of about 220 feet above tide-level, has columns 
four to eight feet in diameter ; below this the size is in general 
half less; and for the lower twenty feet above the sandstone, 
they are quite small. 


Indian FHead.—Indian Head is much lke a small edition 
of East Rock. The length of the outflow is 100 yards; the 
height 310 feet (813 above mean tide). A section made on 
the same principle with fig. 11 of East Rock is given in fig, 12. 

Indian Head stands quite apart from East Rock. The 
gap now separating them, where highest, is about 200 feet 
above high tide, and therefore nearly 160 feet below the top 


——- 


J. D. Dana—Features of non-voleanie Igneous Ejections. 97 


of East Rock and 110 below that of Indian Head, and proba- 
bly sandstone intervened for the greater part of this depth ; 
for the two Rocks face one another with steep slopes, as well 
brought out on the map, Plate III. These continue to be 


12, 


Section of Indian Head. 


steep to the very foot of each, where they approach one an- 
other down the eastern slopes. Their bases are here in inde- 
pendent valleys, designated on the map by the letters E and I, 
separated by a low trap ridge, R, so that East Rock and 
Indian Head, although the trap extends over the surface of the 
gap from one to the other, are nowhere united at base. The 
eastward sloping valley, I, lying at the northeast foot, of Indian 
Head is continued in a westward sloping valley I’, at its north- 
western foot, and the two together define its outline. The low 
trap ridge R, between E and I, although consisting at surface 
mostly of blocks of trap, has a solid ledge in its lower part. 
It probably crosses the gap westward ; and the Summer House, 
near 201 on Plate III, may be on its western part. The valley 
E, at the southeast foot of East Rock, is perhaps, a result of 
glacial action; but why there should be two valleys side-by-side 
if erosion made either, is not explained. 

The trap of Indian Head rises from the bottom of the small 
valley just mentioned apparentiy in two half-separated streams 
instead of one even stream; but this feature may be a result 
of erosion. The eastern outline of the trap (see Plate ITI) is in 
a line with the eastern of the East Rock trap, indicating that 
the supply-fissure corresponded in direction with the outer and 
not the inner of the East Rock courses of fissures. The two 
Rocks, although alike in features, are to a large degree inde- 
pendent. Abrasion helped to deepen the gap between them, 
but more by the removal of sandstone than of trap. 

Indian Head is peculiar in having a long eastward projection 
from the southern end. It is described on a following page. 


The mode of origin ot the trap-masses of East Rock and 
Indian Head—by a forced flow of lava, opening through its 
uplifting action, a chamber in the sandstone for its accommo- 
dation—entitles the two to be called daccoliths. Through 
degradation, stripping them of the covering of sandstone, they 
stand side-by-side—a pair of laccoliths. ; 


98 J. D. Dana—Features of non-volcanic Igneous Ejections. 


Snake Rock.—In Snake Rock, a broad mass of trap measur- 
ing about 900 by 450 feet in its two diameters lies encased in 
sandstone. The greatest height of the trap is but 160 feet, 
and that of the sandstone west of it over 200 feet. The trap 
covers the eastern slope of the Rock nearly to its foot, thus 
showing that the supply-fissure was on that side, as in other 
parts of the East Rock series, and also indicating by its steep- 
ness that the fissure was much inclined. At the south end of 
the Rock, in the yard behind the north corner of the Basser- 
mann house, at a junction of the trap and sandstone, the dip 
is about 45°; and this is direct evidence as to the inclination. 

The area of trap of Snake Rock has on the north the width 
of that of Indian Head; and the mass may hence owe its in- 
creased width northward to an outflow. If so, Snake Rock 
contains a half-emerged laccolith, its summit exposed, but the 
western wall of sandstone still standing and overtopping the 
trap. The sandstone shows everywhere the effects of hot 
vapors in all their varied forms, and before encroachments 
were made by a brewery there was a fine display of columnar 
sandstone in the southwestern bluff. 


Origin of the breaks in the Hast Rock series. 


The prominent breaks in the East Rock series are that be- 
tween Indian Head and Snake Rock, and that separating the 
small northern area, AA’, from the main East Rock mass, BB’. 

The Indian Head and Snake Rock masses, CC’ and DD’, 
approach one another bluntly within a hundred yards, and the 
area of sandstone between has parallel sides, as the map, 
Plate III, shows. In view of the steep pitch of the supply- 
fissure, a catastrophe to the western or overhanging wall is a 
most probable explanation of the break between them. The 
checking of so great a stream for a length of 100 yards 
might be expected to open escape-ways in some direction. 
The long eastern tail-like projection from Indian Head, C’O”, 
is the result of outflow along an east-and-west fissure. The 
pitch of the fissure, as the position of the trap shows, was 
about 25° to the northward. Its southern front is steep and 
rocky, the northern, gentle and grass-covered. It may be that 
this supply fissure was the escape-way then made, and the trap 
the part of the stream that would have occupied the interval 
had no such catastrophe occurred. 

The relations of the northern trap-mass of the series, AA’, 
to BB’ are doubtful. Yet it is probable that the trap of AA’ 
was ejected from the north end of one of the two East Rock 
fissures, or lines of fissures. The ledge of very hard sandstone 
which extends southward from near the south end of AA’, passes 
by the east side of the dike-wall dc; and it probably derived 
its position and its excessive consolidation and lost bedding to 


J. D. Dana—Features of non-voleanie Igneous Ejections. 99 


a catastrophe that closed the fissure for the interval between 
them, which is only 200 feet wide, yet left it giving out heat, 
and generating volumes of hot vapors for the consolidating work. 

The East Rock masses of trap may therefore be traced to 
two ranges of fissures. The western was the probable source 
of the most northern area, AA, and of the summit portion of 
that of BB’ on East Rock. The eastern, contributed to the 
lower slopes of East Rock; and also through its continuation 
southward gave origin to the trap of Indian Head and Snake 
Rock. But for the accident to the hanging wall of the great 
fissure, the trap of Indian Head and Snake Rock would 
have made one continuous mass, and the columnar front of the 
former might have been continued over part of the present 
Snake Rock area. The areas of trap in the East Rock series 
narrow both to the south and the north. 


4, WEST ROCK. 


The facts and conclusions relating to the West Rock region 
derive prominent interest from their pertaining to one of the 
long trap-ranges of the Connecticut Valley region. The area 
is represented on the accompanying map, Plate VI, from a 
survey made by the author with chain and hand-level in 1879 
and 1880. The 20-foot contour-lines of the steep western and. 
southern fronts of the Rock and the geographical positions 
are from Bache’s Coast Survey map; but the other contour- 
lines exhibiting the surface features, which required for map- 
ping detailed measurements, are those of the author.* 


Featwres.—(1.) While the general course of the West Rock 
Range is north-and-south, the western foot of the blunt south- 
ern extremity bends round to an eastward course, and ends 
with north 30° east. The summit of the ridge also curves, in 
its last 500 yards, around to 8. 70° E. or nearly to east-by-west. 
Its height in this part is 899 to 405 feet above high tide, the 
geodetic station at the extremity being 399 feet. The eastern 
foot of the ridge has no corresponding bend. 

(2.) The trap of the Rock is a continued mass instead of 
being divided into several masses through a multiplication of 
outlets. But it has a large bay of sandstone, of triangular out- 
line, in its southeastern portion, which from its form is called 
the Triangle. (3.) South of the Triangle there is a prolonged 
hook-like point making the southeast termination of the trap. 

(4.) North of the Triangle commences the tiap of the west 
slope of the mountain. For a distance of 500 feet near the 
foot, increasing to 800 feet above, the surface of the trap is 
here elevated sixty to eighty feet or more above the level 


* The dotted line on Plate II is the north limit of the map, Plate VI. Heights 
C to Oa are plane-table results of Prof. H. A. Newton, from Bache’s 399 as base. 


100 J. D. Dana—Features of non-voleanic Igneous Ejections. 


farther north. Moreover it is raised into rounded ridges, and 
some of these ridges have a high inclined wall on the south 
side. ‘The first of these walls adjoins the Triangle and has a 
height of seventy-five feet, a slope of about 45° and an even 
flat surface free from marks of abrasion. Another similar wall 
farther north is thirty feet high. The smaller troughs are 
mostly one to three yards deep. The angle of slope in the 
embossed surface between the 300-foot and 100-foot contour- 
lines is less than 17°; and in the surface north of it less than 
14°. (5.) The long, hook-like point, above referred to, is not a 
simple ridge of trap, like that from an ordinary fissure, but 
consists, as seen along its northern side (Plate V1), of a series 
of rounded ridges which increase in height to the westward, 
like those of the elevated surface of trap on the other side of 
the Triangle. Moreover, all these wrinkle-like ridges, concave 
troughs and oblique walls, have a general parallelism. (6.) 
The embossed surface north of the Triangle has lost, through 
glacial abrasion, as a consequence of its elevation above the 
general level, all of the sandstone once covering it, even to the 
foot of the mountain, excepting small portions in two of the 
troughs. Farther north the sandstone remains in some places 
nearly to the 800-foot contour-line. (7.) The trap of the 
embossed area that was thus uncovered suffered little from the 
abrasion ; for the rock of the surface has the fineness of grain 
and other characteristics of the contact rock. This is true also 
of the trap of the southeast point. Moreover, in many places 
on this point below 300 feet, the trap contains imbedded fr ag- 
ments of the sandstone which fell into it while it was still 
liquid. The trap of other parts of West Rock ridge rarely 
shows evidence of abrasion below a level of 300 feet. On the 
contrary, above this level it has lost by abrasion the fine-grained, 
brittle crust-portion, and presents at surface the coarseness of 
crystalline texture that belongs to the interior of the mass. 

(8.) Another very important feature of West Rock is its 
affording a long east-and-west section through the breadth of 
a great trap range, exhibiting the contact-plane for several 
hundred feet of the outflowing trap and the underlying sand- 
stone, as described and figured beyond. 

The map, Plate VI, has the walls, troughs, and ridges of 
the surface shaded, to bring out better these features of the 
original surface of the trap. The southern front of the Rock 
has been made by degradation and hence has no shading. The 
southeastern point owes its straight outline on the south side 
to the quarrymen and the joints in the trap. The map shows 
what remained of the point in 1880. There is much less now. 


The Supply-fissure.—The inclination and width of the fis- 
sures supplying the liquid trap for the West Rock range are 


J. D. Dana—Features of non-volcanic Igneous Ejections. 101 


undetermined. Exposures that will afford the facts are most 
likely to be found along the eastern base of the ridge. At one 
place where the surface of trap had been uncovered but not 
abraded, which was seemingly favorable for a safe conclusion, 
the slope was 25° to 30°, and suggested the angle of 30° for 
the inclination. But the trap at the place may have been part 
of the outflow, and not that of a dike. Observations along the 
eastern slope of the range farther north may obtain decisive facts. 

The Outflow.—The slopes of the higher parts of the West 
Rock ridge, the pitch of the columns of the western front, and 
the resemblance in features of West Rock to East Rock, lead 
to a like conclusion for the two, that the outflow was lacco- 
lithic; in other words, that the liquid rock forced its way 
between layers of sandstone, and made the chamber it occu- 
pied. The present thickness of the mass is nearly 250 feet. 
The overlying sandstone is to a large extent the weak, chip- 
making rock of dark red and purplish color already described. 
It is remarkable that a rock of so feeble coherence could have 
been lifted in the way mentioned. 

The questions suggested by East Rock here come up again: 
Whether the feeble slope of the surface from the west edge of 
the summit eastward to the 300-foot contour-line, and the 
small thickness of the trap, are due to abrasion, or whether the 
present conditions are nearly those of the original outflow. As 
the length of the outflow is nearly 500 yards, the mass, if 
forced up between layers dipping. 25° eastward, would have 
had a much larger amount to lose by abrasion than in the case 
of East Rock.* Speculation is here set aside by the actual 
east-and-west section of the Rock which is presented along 
its southern front, and is shown in part on Plate VII, from a 
photograph.t It exhibits the trap resting, to the eastward, on 

* The thickness does not admit of calculation, because the only datum besides 
the dip of the sandstone, is the height of the bottom of the trap over the sand- 
stone on the west front (about 200 feet); the height of the outflow where it left 
the fissure is not ascertainable. 

+ The fine photograph was taken by M. W. Filley, of the firm of Bundy & Filley, 
of New Haven. The sandstone has here been exposed to view by the removal 
of the debris for macadamizing. The irregular line in the plate a third of an 
inch above the sandstone was the limit of the talus or debris slope; and the 
line below the sandstone is the profile of the quarry wagon road. Along the 
part of the section represented, the height of this road is ninety to one hundred 
feet. If the debris were wholly removed to the bottom of the slope, the height 
of the sandstone exposed to view would be, where greatest, over 150 feet. 

The photograph does great injustice to the view in the diminution of the 
vertical as compared with the horizontal scale, and also in flattening the angle of 
dip in the sandstone. 200 feet measured on the quarry road reaches from the 
eastern point of the sandstone section westward to within twenty-five feet of the 
line of the deep notch in the columnar front of the Rock (the place where the 
first section of sandstone ends); but this length applied vertically to the front 
above the road would make it only 180 feet in height, when in fact this 
height where greatest is over 300 feet. This error arises partly from the fact 


that the view was taken from the terrace opposite, which is only sixty feet high, 
but more from the error in an ordinary lens. 


102 J. D. Dana—Features of non-voleanic Igneous Ejections. 


a tilted layer of the sandstone, the dip of which eastward is 
25°. We are left to conjecture as regards the eastward and 
downward continuation of this layer to the supply-fissure 
(which the further removal of debris might perhaps uncover). 
But we know that the trap continues up this sloping layer for 
seventy-five yards from the commencement of the outerop. 
It conforms to the theoretical view of an outflow as presented 
in fig. 10, on page 94. 

But on reaching the end of the seventy-five yards, there is a 
change. The trap beyond rests on the edges of the layers in a. 
series of ledges of the sandstone. Moreover there is but little 
rise westward along the floor; for a line drawn along the top 
of the ledges would be almost horizontal, and have therefore 
near parallelism to the surface of the trap at the summit west 
of the geodetic station. 

The following figure represents the eastern extremity of the 
sandstone for a height of fourteen feet, together with the 


13. 


base of the overlying trap. The rock is partly a hard-baked 
granitic sandstone, and partly the feeble shaly chip-making 
purplish-red sand-rock. The trap columns above the sandstone 
have in the lower part an inclination of 20°, approaching thus 
verticality to the surface of the sandstone; but, higher up 
the bluff front, there is a gradual change to 5°, which is the 
prevailing inclination.* The upper layer of the sandstone where 
uncovered shows a surface without breaks or much unevenness. 

A section of the sandstone, with the trap above, for the 
next seventy-five yards is represented in the following figure. 
The fact that the trap when melted flowed over the upturned 
edges is manifest. The chip-making rock constitutes much of 
the mass, and at its contact with the trap it is searcely changed in 
color or texture. The trap is far more finely columnar than 
that to the east over the single sandstone layer, and probably 
because moisture reached the trap freely from between the 
upturned layers. Other sections farther west are of similar 


* The angles of inclination here recorded are those presented to an observer 
in the front view of the rock here described. 


J. D. Dana—Features of non-volcanie Igneous Ejections. 103 


character, excepting that the apparent dip is less) They may 
be followed westward along the quarryman’s road for 400 
yards, when they begin to pass into the normal sections of the 
western front, that is, sections in which the lines of bedding 
are horizontal because they are in the line of strike of the 
sandstone. 


= ; fi thy, a reg a TT 
A ee ae 


| tN Me 


‘4 


1 £ mers / iy df 
y) 4 f: /, y ty! Yj f : 
Ue 4 / hil @ // 


| Jaa gh },/ 19 NG as 
pfig , yy (nt J ‘Wt er 
ALENT cial 


The question here arises: Did the flowing trap, owing to its 
movement and weight, wear off the layers of sandstone and so 
make the succession of ledges on which it rests; or did it 
escape from its confining cover of sandstone into the open air 
and cover in its flow the exposed ledges of the region. The 
former is probably the correct view. Had the flow become 
subaerial there would have been at once a decline westward in 
the level of its upper surface; for the level would have fallen 
as soon as the resistance from confinement ceased. There is 
no evidence of such a decline. From points on the summit 
close to the western precipice the surface for the first 300 yards 

has generally a slope eastward of 1 to 4, or 1 to 5, correspond- 

ing toapitch of 14° to 11°. The decline is eastward; not 
westward. Such a rise westward, even if only 5°, would be an 
impossibility except in a covered passage-way, that is, in the 
present case, one having a cover of the sandstone. Other 
evidence bearing in the same direction is afforded by the 
position of the columns along the western front, which pitch 
westward 15° to 20°. 

The summit slope eastward ot 14° to 11° is less than the 
dip of the sandstone, and favors the conclusion that the 
underlying sandstone was in many places torn up by th: 
heavily moving liquid trap, while left in place elsewhere. 
The floor so made consisted of alternations of wide strips that 
had the regular dip of the sandstone, with others abraded down 
to nearly flat and ledgy surfaces; and the former prevailed 
sufficiently to determine the direction of the contractional 


104 J. D. Dana—Ffeatures of non-voleanie Igneous Lyections. 


fracture-planes or the columnar structure. A reduction so 
nearly to horizontality as that shown in the south front of 
West Rock along with parallelism in the profile of the sum- 
mit may not be common. 

West Rock teaches that the section of East Rock in fig. 11, 
p- 95, may be no exaggeration. Yet it is more probable that the 
original condition was intermediate between this position and 
that indicated in this diagram. 

Sections similar to that in the south face of West Rock may 
be looked for, with some probability of success, among many 
of the trap-ranges of the Connecticut Valley wherever they 
terminate in transverse sections. All that is necessary to 
ascertain the truth is to remove the talus of trap debris. 

Three miles east of New Haven (in East Haven) a section 
was opened in cutting for a carriage-road through the second 
trap ridge west of Saltonstall Lake; it is but a few rods west of 
the railroad station. The facts are in all respects similar to 
those of West Rock, as shown in the annexed figure. The 


trap covers a series of ledges of upturned sandstone, and 
shows no traces of displacement subsequent to its cooling. 
The sandstone is intersected by extensive nearly vertical frac- 
tures, whose surfaces, owing to friction, are scratched and 
polished; and the larger planes extend up through the sand- 
stone without any appearance of corresponding displacement 
in the trap. Moreover these polished slickensided surfaces 
have the white porcellanous coating common in the region; 
probably made by the grinding of the feldspar of the sandstone 
in the mutual friction of the walls.* 


* Atall the East Haven quarries, and in the ledges elsewhere exposed to view, 
these evidences of displacement and of much friction attending it abound. Frag- 
ments as large as the hand, slickensided on both surfaces and over planes of 
cross-fracture, are common; and so are walls of various inclinations hundreds of 
square yards in area. The sloping upper surfaces of the sandstone layers laid 
bare in the quarrying are sometimes polished and scratched in the direction of 
the dip for many square rods. There is abundant evidence of a vast amount of 
movement, though movement in a small way, during the progress of the upturn- 
ing in which the sandstone received its universal eastward dip. 

The section represented in fig. 15 has lost much of its original distinctness by 
the sliding down of debris from above. 


~ 


J.D. Dana—Features of non-voleanie Igneous Ejections. 105 


The trap of this ridge, at a higher level above the sandstone, 
is more or less chloritic and in many places amygdaloidal. 
Part of the amygdules are slender cylinders, two to three 
inches long and like pipe-stems in size, occurring often in 
groups—the result probably of the sudden vaporization of 
particles of liquid carbonic acid. 

In the railroad gap through the Saltonstall Ridge, the first 
west of Saltonstall Lake (‘*Pond Ridge” of Percival), the 
sandstone appears to lie in a similar manner unconformably 
beneath the western extension of the trap. but the section is 
now too much covered by debris for a satisfactory observation. 
Two miles east of the Saltonstall ridge in Branford, as de- 
scribed by Mr. E. O. Hovey,* the trap of a short range, the 
easternmost in this part of the sandstone region and near the 
gneiss boundary, overlies the upturned edges of the sandstone, 
and there is between the two rocks a layer of sandstone con- 
glomerate containing nodules of trap, which he attributed to 
the rubbing action of the flowing trap on the sandstone. 

These facts, ranging in this part of the Connecticut Valley 
over the whole breadth of the Jura-Trias formation, from the 
west side of the New Haven region where the trap is of the 
compact non-vesicular kind to the dikes of vesicular trap 
toward and near the eastern gneissic border, have great impor- 
tance in their bearing on the subject of the other Jura-Trias 
ridges. The more eastern are placed by Professor Davis 
among the ridges made of horizontal subaerial flows, ejected 
before the upturning of the sandstone; and the more western 
he has regarded as horizontally ejected and subsequently up- 
turned, although admitted to be interstitial intrusions. Neither 
of these conclusions are sustained by the facts which have been 


presented. 


The facts prove further that the era of disturbance or of the 
upturning of the sandstone was not due in any way to the 
ejection or heat of the igneous rock. The latter event, 
although so extensive, was simply incident to the disturb- 
ance; the upturning preceded the eruptions. 

Liffects of Obstructions to the outflow.—Although the trap 
of West Rock—that is of the southern part of the West Rock 
ridge—is not divided into several areas, other effects of obstruc- 
tions may be looked for, since the hanging wall of a large inclined 
fissure is sure to have its downfalls. The gaps or notches in 
the ridge indicate incipient division, and may be among the 
effects from such a canse. They may have been produced also 


by local narrowings of the fissure through horizontal or oblique 


movement of its walls, or in other ways; and it is a question 
whether the results of these two modes of origin can be dis- 


* This Journal, vol. xxxviii, p. 361, 1889. 


106 J. D. Dana— Features of non-volcanie Igneous Ejections. 


tinguished. The deeper and more abrupt notches we should 
be disposed to refer to the former cause. 

As the Bache map of West Rock ridge indicates by its con- 
tour lines, within a mile and a quarter of the south end of West 
Rock, there are three gaps. Two are included on Plate II. 
At the first, the height of the ridge falls off sixty feet 
in the course of 500 yards. The second, situated 300 yards 
farther north, and called the ‘“ Judges’ Notch” because near 
the “Judges’ Cave,” is similar to the first in depth, but 
narrows more.down the western front. Half a mile farther 
north is the third, called the 
“ Wintergreen Notch.” It 
is one of the larger gaps in 
the ridge. Along the sum- 
mit, both from the north 
and the south, there is a 
descent of 100 feet, from a 
height of 440 feet to 340. 
Figure 16, from the Bache 
map, exhibits the facts.* 
The decline is gradual on 
the south side, but very 
rapid northward; in the 
latter direction the level of 
460 feet is reached at the 
same distance from the cen- 
ter of the gap as 440 on the 
south. This third gap is 
probably one of those caused by obstructions to the outflow, 
whatever the fact with the others. The stream, in con- 
sequence of the obstruction, reached a height at the gap 
of but 3840 feet; but just beyond, the lavas that had 
been held back, made the abrupt rise in the ridge to 440 
and 460 feet. The correctness of this explanation appears 
to be sustained also by the abruptness of the rise in the 
slopes east of the gap, as the contour lines in the figure 
show, and the great breadth of the nearly horizontal area 
farther east. It will be observed also that the summit 
of the ridge north of the gap is farther to the west than 
that on the south. (Arrows are inserted to make this dis- 
tinct.) It is so because any given amount of trap depends for 
its height on the distance it flowed westward up the inclined 
sandstone layers. It may be observed that not only the height, 


Wintergreen Notch. 


* The west side of the ridge in this part, as elsewhere, is the precipitous side, 
bold columnar above. Its upper 200 to 225 feet usually consist of trap, and the 
part below of sandstone; but the junction-plane at the Notch is concealed by 
trap debris, so that its actual height is not determinable. 


J. D. Dana—Features of non-volcanic Igneous Ejections. 107 


460, but also 440 on the north side is to the west of 440 of the 
south side ; but the height of 440 to the north is probably pro- 
duced with a less thickness of trap. This notch is 300 yards 
south of the Buttress dike described on a former page; the 
position of this dike is shown on the above figure at 0. 

This example will suffice for illustration. Other gaps in the 
ridge occur farther north, but they are outside of the region 
here under consideration. 

Obstructions to the outflow of lava while it was making its 
way between the layers of sandstone are also possible through 
any cause that would prevent the lifting of any portion of the 
overlying rock. The area of the Triangle has been described 
as an area of sandstone within the proper limits of the trap 
range. ‘This sandstone was not lifted like the rest of the over- 
lying stratum. Instead of this, it remained in place for the 
most part, and hence, forced the liquid rock to pass to one side 
of it. The lava, mainly took the north side; and so the trap 
of that side had its surface raised in level above the rock 
north and became the elevated embossed area already described. 
The great sloping trap wall making the north side of the 
Triangle is the wall of an oblique fissure in the sandstone for- 
mation. Along this fissure—45° in inclination,—the sandstone 
of the south side, or that of the Triangle, lay unmoved or 
nearly so, while that of the north side was shoved up as the 
lavas came in below. Other walls, and the small ridges both 
north and south of the Triangle, are evidences of similar frac- 
tures, in parallel directions, with analogous results. The 
unlifted sandstone was in some way put under a strain that 
produced the parallel fracturing and movements. 

The origin of the southern or western walls of West Rock 
is sufficiently explained in the remarks on this asa respect- 
ing East Rock (page 94). 

The southern front of West Rock has a paieaieisess aspect. 
But in reality no columns stand out with the boldness they 
have in East Rock. The surface is mostly made up of the 
cleavage surface or joints that are in its plane; and where 
there has been quarrying, these joints have great width as 
well as height. 


3. RELATION OF THE EAST-AND-WEST AND NORTH-AND-SOUTH 
FISSURES, AND THE ORIGIN OF THESE COURSES. 


_ These two courses of fissures are so locked together in the 
New Haven region that they evidently are results of one sys- 
tem of movements. They occur together in Pine Rock; and 
West Rock has the general trend of the Pine Rock ridge 
represented in the embossed area and the southeast point. 


108 J. D. Dana— Features of non-volcanie Igneous Ejections. 


Mill Rock ends to the eastward in a south-southwest fissure, 
transverse to its main course which is apparently parallel to 
the adjoining part of the East Rock trap. East Rock com- 
mences with a nearly north-and-south course, but bends around 
to east-southeast. Mill Rock and Pine Rock are not neces- 
sarily synchronous in eruption with East Rock or West Rock, 
but they belong to one epoch of disturbance. 

The origin of these courses is not fully ascertained. I have 
long explained the north-by-east trend of West Rock, and of 
the other ridges of like direction to the north, on the general 
principle that the mountain-making forces of Eastern America 
operated over any part of the area, as a general thing in the 
same direction from Archean time onward, examples occurring 
in the Taconic and Jura-Trias elevations of the western half of 
New England. In accordance with this view the strike of the 
Jura-Trias should be that of the underlying erystalline rocks. 
It does not follow that a like dip prevails in the schists be- 
neath. It is true however that the predominant dip in them, 
and in the Jura-Trias fissures and bedding, is eastward. This 
last fact seems to favor the suggestion of Professor Davis 
that the foliation of the underlying schists has determined 
the courses of fissures in the Jura-Trias area. This sug- 
gestion would have support in the fact, were it not that in 
New Jersey, where the same is true as to the dip of the 
underlying schists, the Jura-Trias fissures and bedding dip 
westward. 

In the New Haven region, the idea of an accordance between 
direction of foliation in the schists and of fissures in the Jura- 
Trias finds no support. The West Rock ridge crosses the line 
of strike of the metamorphic schists two miles west of it at an 
angle of 20°. East Rock has an east-of-north course only in 
its northern extremity, and curves around through nearly half a 
circle. Pine Rock and Mill Rock cut across any probable 
course of foliation in underlying schists and do it on lines that 
differ 50° in trend. 

The origin of the east-and-west courses, which commence in 
the extremity of West Rock and continue to Whitney Peak, 
four miles, may have its explanation suggested by the remark 
on page 80. Or, it may be a consequence of the movement 
attending the production of the north-and-south fissures, and 
local to the New Haven region. The subject at present is 
one of conjectures. 

On account of the interest of the dynamical question here 
brought into view, I introduce another illustration of the facts 
from a transverse ridge only six miles north of Whitney Peak 
and Mill Rock. It is called Mt. Carmel. The ridge is only 
one and a half miles long. It is higher than those already 


J. D. Dana—Features of non-volcanie [gneous Kjections. 109 


considered, the most elevated point being 736 feet above high 
tide.* But height means here, not larger accumulation of 
igneous rock or trap, but, simply, greater emergence above the 
sea-level; for this increase northward of height runs parallel 
with a like increase in the height of the metamorphic ridges 
just west; and it is continued, at a diminished rate, into 
Massachusetts. 

Mt. Carmel has resemblances to Pine Rock. Its mean 
course is E. N. E.; and a north-and-south trend exists in its 
western part. but the north-and-south portion in Mt. Carmel 
is a large feature in the ridge and has direct continuity with 
the east-northeast portion. 

The ridge is divided by a very deep and open gorge, into an 
eastern and a western section. The gorge is often called the 
“Neck,” and the high summit adjoining it on the west, the 
“Head” of the “Sleeping Giant ”—a name suggested by the 
form of the ridge as it appears lying on the northern horizon. 
Both have northern and southern slopes of sandstone, the 
southern going about half way to the top above its base, and 
the northern reaching a greater height. 

The western section, while high and massive at its eastern 
extremity, falls off rapidly to the westward, and in half a mile 
is reduced to a narrow trap ridge not exceeding 100 feet in 
height above the adjoining country. Through this part within 
300 yards, pass Mill River, a north-and-south carriage road 
(N. 20° W.) without change of grade, and, a few rods farther 
west a railroad. Along the railroad, and between the carriage 
road and the river, the course of the trap changes from about 
north-and-south to N. 10° E.; and as it crosses the river to 
N. 20° E. Thence it continues on to the summit, widening 
and increasing rapidly in height and curving still farther 
eastward. 

At the section in the railroad cut, the trap is seen resting on 
its south wall of sandstone, the wall dipping about 45°—appar- 
ently indicating that the dike has this pitch. Between the 
carriage-road and Mill River, the north side of the trap has in 
many places a westward dip of the same angle, confirming the 
conclusion from the railroad section as to the large dip of the 
fissure. It is thus proved that the western section is a con- 
tinuous mass of trap of gradually changing course and mag- 
nitude ; and that it is strictly “transverse” in direction only 
along itseastern end. It isa dike to the westward and probably 
so throughout. 

The eastern section is made one continuous mass of trap by 
Percival, and one also with the western portion. It is divided 


* According to the leveling of two parties under Mr. Bache. 


110 J.D. Dana—Features of non-voleanie Igneous Hjections. 


from east to west, as he states, by a valley, and in the valley 
there is a spring giving out a streamlet which flows northward. 
There are gaps in both the southern and northern sides, divid- 
ing them into a series of elevations. These elevations are 
indicated on Percival’s map, so as to look as if he regarded 
them as separate dikes; but this is contrary to the description 
in his Report. I have looked for sandstoné in two of the gaps 
of the south side, east of the “neck,” and have found evidence 
in each that the trap is continuous, and descends in these gaps 
nearly half way to the base of the mountain. In the east-and- 
west valley the spring and streamlet are probable evidence 
that there is sandstone beneath; and on this ground, it may 
be that there are, in this eastern part of Mt. Carmel, two 
parallel east-and- west dikes, 

Mt. Carmel appears to be a combination of dikes, without 
the “buried voleanoes” supposed to exist there by Professor 
Davis. In the view from the west side of Mill River there 
are in sight nearly 600 feet in height of massive trap, having no 
subdivision into sheets or layers, and nothing to suggest the 
idea of lava-streams in the depths below. 

The union in this small ridge of approximately north-and- 
south and east-and-west courses is further proof of their 
mutual dependence in the system of movements attending the 
Jura-Trias mountain-making of the Connecticut Valley. But 
its origin remains unexplained. 


Concluding Remarks.—A review of the principal conclu- 
sions in this paper is given in its introductory remarks (page 
82), and a recapitulation here is therefore unnecessary. 


The reader may have been led to the idea that the author 
would make the West Rock Ridge typical for other ridges of 
like features in the Connecticut Valley region, in disagreement 
with the conclusion of Professor Davis who holds that in the 
case of most of these ridges, if not of all, the trap was poured 
out in one, two or more horizontal sheets, separated, and over- 
laid horizontally, by beds of sandstone, and that the whole was 
afterward faulted and tilted so as to make the ridges. The 
author acknowledges that he is inclined to make the conclusions 
he has reached general. He, however, admits that he has 
not made the structure of the other ridges of the valley a 
special study. He believes his observations sufficient, however, 
to authorize the statement that a more intimate knowledge of 
the facts is required before any adverse views can be regarded 
as established. 


LR. T. Aili—Ouachita Mountain System, ete. PEt 


Art. XI.—Wotes on a Reconnarssance of the Ouachita Moun- 
tain System in Indian Territory ; by Rop’r T. Hruu.* 


Synopsis.—General topographic features of Indian Territory including Oklahoma. 
The northern, middle and southern belts. The middle or mountainous belt. 
1. The Eastern or Arkansas-Choctaw Division. 2. The Central or Chickasaw 
Division. 2a. The Wapenucka Sub-division. 2b. The Tishomingo Granite. 
2c. The Arbuckle Mountains and Washita Water Gap. 3. The Wichita Divis- 
ion. Partial record of history recorded in the Ouachita System. 


LITTLE has been written concerning the geography and geol- 
ogy of Indian Territory, and the writer presents this prelim- 
inary paper in hope that it will direct to that interesting 
region more careful and detailed study. 

Topographically Indian Territory, especially its southern 
half, presents a great diversity of mountain, plain, forest and 
stream. Within this area is found the extension of nearly 
every topographic unit from the Missouri-Kansas region on 
the north to the Texas on the south, from the Great Plains of 
the west to the forests of Arkansas on the east; there are also 
many unique characteristic features of the region itself. 

The territory may be provisionally divided into three par- 
allel east and west belts, each containing a marked diversity 
of geologic structure and corresponding topographic expression. 

The northern or Cherokee-Oklahoma belt includes the coun- 
try north of the Canadian; the greater part is prairie with 
spots of timber decreasing in density toward the west. This 
belt may be sub-divided into three districts; the eastern or 
Cherokee, the middle or Oklahoma, the western or Arrapahoe. 
The Cherokee division, with the exception of a small area of 
Ozark hills in the northeast corner, is mostly composed of Car- 
boniferous rocks with an undulating topography similar to 
that of southeast Kansas. The Oklahoma section is a typical 
red bed region in its western half, with undulating prairies 
and soft disintegrating structure. The Arrapahoe division is 
the ragged eastern border of the great plains country, with its 
characteristic fresh water deposits of sands and grits occupying 
the flat divides, as originally described in the adjacent west 
Kansas region by Dr. J. 8. Newberry and more recently by Pro- 
fessor Robt. Hay.t These plains are the newest or culminating 
formation in western Texas, Kansas and Indian Territory ; 
they are now slowly receding westward because of the head 
water erosion of the streams that indent this eastern border, 


* To Mr. James S. Stone, of Newton, Massachusetts, the writer is greatly in- 
debted for his faithful assistance in conducting this investigation. Also to Mr. 
W.L. Davidson, a student of the University of Texas. 

+ See Bulletin 57, U. 8. Geological Survey. 


Am. Jour. Sci.—THIRD SERIES, Von. XLII, No. 248.—Aveust, 1891. 
8 


LR. T. Hill—Reconnaissance of the 


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Ouachita Mountain System in Indian Territory. 118 


and in this manner the underlying structure and topography 
are revealed. The northern belt of Indian Territory distinctly 
belongs to the Kansas division of the United States and 
the writer leaves its further description to St. John, Cragin, 
Hay and Jenney, investigators who possess more facts con- 
cerning its geology. 

“The middle or mountainous belt lies south of the Canadian- 
Arkansas River. A mountain system traverses it from east 
to west and marks the great barrier between the upper Missis- 
sippi Valley and the Texas-Arkansas regions of the United 
States.* Toa description of these mountains this paper is 
mostly devoted. 

The third and southern belt, the description of which must 
be left to a future paper, includes the region between the 
mountainous belt and Red River. It is the northern termina- 
tion of the Texas region of the United States. It includes 
many topographic and geologic features which are the result 
of neozoic sedimentation against the southern border of the 
mountains. 

The Mountain Region of Central Indian Territory.—With 
the exception of the Ozark hills in the extreme northeastern 
corner, the mountains of Indian Territory are the direct west- 
ward continuation of the Ouachita system of mountains which 
has been described+ as the mountainous area between Hot 
Springs Arkansas and the Staked Plains of Texas, including 
the various points known as the Poteau, Seven Devils, San 
Bois, Shawnees, Jack’s Fork, Black Fork, Winding Stair, 
Sugar Loaf,{ Cavenal, Stringtown Hills, Limestone Ridge, 
Potato Hills, Arbuckles, Wichitas, Navajoes and other moun- 
tains. These mountains are south of the Arkansas-Canadian 
drainage and must not be confused with the Ozarks of south- 
western Missouri. Dr. J. C. Branner’s coming reports will 
doubtless give us needed light on this relation. 

The mountain belt has three distinct sub-divisions: (1) an 
eastern or Arkansas, (2) a central or Chickasaw, (8a) western 
or Wichita. Its areal extent may be compared to an arch 
whose apex is southward, as marked by the course of the 
Canadian, Arkansas and Red River drainage ; its eastern mem- 
ber in Arkansas and the Choctaw nation is a forest area of 
vertically folded Carboniferous shales and sandstones resem- 
bling the Appalachian country ; the western member in the 
Chickasaw and Comanche nations, is a mostly treeless region 
and consists of low folds of hard white and blue Silurian lime- 


* See this Journal, April, 1889. 

+ Arkansas Geological Survey, 1888, vol. ii. The geology of Southwestern 
Arkansas, by Robt. T. Hill. 

¢ Near Fort Smith, not the Cretaceous butte of the same name east of Caddo. 


114 ft. T. Hill— Reconnaissance of the 


stones. and eruptives; the keystone or central Chickasaw 
region, consists of an area of granite and Silurian limestones. 

1. The Lastern or Arkansas-Choctaw Division.—The north- 
ern two-thirds of the Choctaw nation and the northeastern 
Chickasaw country are a direct continuation of the mountains 
and geologic features of west-central Arkansas. This region 
consists of numerous timber-covered ridges varying in altitude 
from 2700 feet along the Arkansas line to 1200 along the 
Missouri, Kansas and Texas railroad. The ridges are usually 
elongated, timbered, devoid of sharp peaks and owe their pres- 
ent form to the unequal erosion of the exaggerated structural 
folds. The general trend of these mountains, corresponding 
with the strike of the folds, is south of westward, but often, as 
seen near Stringtown and along the Kiamitia River, it is 
nearer north and south. The ridges consist of sandstones, 
clays and shales apparently of the Carboniferous period, but 
further investigation may reveal older rocks. The rocks occur 
in numerous parallel, overlapping folds, which are nearly 
vertical in the southern and central portion of their extent, 
but become horizontal along their northern outline. 


a Scale of rrtles 2 


Section north and south across Red Bird Mts.. showing relation of Mountain folds to 


Cretaceous Prairies. 


The Saint Louis and San Francisco railroad, from Fort 
Smith, Arkansas, to Paris, Texas, passes through the heart of 
the region, and the type structure, as seen along this route, 
consists of vertical eastward folds dislocated by another and 
later movement, as seen south of Tushka Homa, the Choctaw 
capital. This road follows for miles the water gap of the 
Kiamitia River, which apparently flows in an anticlinal valley: 
A hundred miles west of this railway, the Missouri, Kansas 
and ‘l'exas road affords another parallel north and south section 
of the mountain system, but owing to the gradual cessation of 
timber and decreasing altitude entirely different scenic effects 
are revealed. The latter road follows the valley prairies 
between the mountain ridges, which here have the contour and 
altitude which, in Kentucky, would be ealled knobs. The 
railroad follows the strike of the structure from Atoka to 
Limestone Gap. The differences in elevation are the result of 
unequal weathering of the crumbling shales and the more 
resisting sandstones and limestones, the former being treeless 
valleys while the latter persist as mountainous ridges. (Fig. 
3.) Timber grows upon the sandstone outcrops while the 


Ouachita Mountain System in Indian Territory. 115 


' prairies occupy the more compact clays of the valley. Even 
where the vertical outcrops have been eroded to a level plain, 
the alternations of sandstones and clays can often be traced for 
miles by the timber which follows the sandstone outcrops in 
narrow ribbon-like parallel belts. (See fig. 2.) 

The northern half of this area contains coal strata whose 
extent and known occurrence are indicated on the map. An 
admirable paper upon the structure of these coal beds has been 
published by Mr. H. M. Chance.* Mr. Arthur Winslowf has 
equally well defined them in Arkansas. Mr. J. T. Munson 
of Denison, Texas, has much unpublished information con- 
cerning the formation of this region, and to him the writer is 
indebted for his invaluable assistance and data. 

The coal fields, for which the name Fort Smith-McAllister 
area 1s most appropriate, are of great commercial importance, 
for they are the chief source of fuel supply for the Arkansas- 
Texas region. These extend along the northern border of the 
mountains and are terminated on the southwest by the Silurian 
and granite field of the Tishomingo district which are an 
apparent barrier between this and the Texas-Ardmore coal 


2. 
S 
3 n 7 PIII GF, 
‘rr 
Carborulerous ee) Se? L Fielderberg.? ? ? 


Seale of miles F 


Section north and south through Woodford, showing structure of Prairie and 
Mountaio. Continuation of fig. 1. 


field, the fuel of which is of an entirely different character and 
should not be confused with itt geographically, structurally, 
or economically. 

Mr. Chance has published a section of the rocks of the 
eastern division. He estimates at least 8500 feet of coal- 
bearing strata, but the total thickness of the Carboniferous and 
Permo-Carboniferous, as seen in the folds near Ardmore, is 
greater by the addition of the uppermost or Permo-Carbonif- 
erous which here has a thickness of several thousand feet. 

The most marked feature of these mountains is the ex- 
cessive, compressed and vertical folding which the whole 
region has undergone, and the displacement of these folds by 
a lateral dislocation which has squeezed them into S-shaped 
flexures. So excessive is this folding that every stratum in 


* Geology of the Choctaw Coal Fields by H. M. Chance. Transactions Ameri- 
can Institute of Mining Engineers, Feb., 1890. 

+ Arkansas Geological Survey, Report for 1888, vol. iii. 

{ The writer is inclined to believe that the greater excess of ash in the coals of 
the More horizontal Texas region is due to the calcium carbonate and other im- 
purities deposited in the joints during their long submergence beneath the Creta- 
ceous seas, while the McAllister coals have remained above water. 


116 Rk. T. Hill— Reconnaissance of the 


the mountain region south of the coal fields can be, said liter- + 
ally to be standing vertically as shown in the figures. 
This system of folding is complicated and the writer has not 
had time for the minute study necessary to interpret it. In gen- 
eral, two great trends or strikes are conspicuous, the first and 
oldest is about 25° south of west; this is frequently dislocated 
by an apparently later movement resulting in northeast and 
southwest trends, all of which are 
accompanied by overlapping and 
lack of continuity.* The direction 
of the folds has a marked effect on 
the political features of the region, 
all lines of transportation and public 
highways practically following the 
valleys of erosion in the trend of 
the folds. 

The proof of two great disloca- 
tions of the Carboniferous strata is 
found in the mountains north of 
Atoka and in Limestone ridge 
where the vertical folds of the first 
epoch are defiected by S-shaped 
dislocations into the southeast 
course. 

Of the many illustrations of this 
folding one of the finest is found in 
the peculiar limestone ridge which 
extends from near Lehigh to Lime- 
stone Gap and eastward. This is 
the principal limestone stratum of 
the Carboniferous system ; it occurs 
at the base of Mr. Chance’s section. 

: It consists of about 200 feet of 
{mam gine, © assive blue limestone and dolomite 
Limestone Ridge, showing deflected Somuang pee fe 

eth tote ealdes Wapenucka via. Lehigh to Lime- 

stone Gap, thence eastward to the 

St. Louis and San Francisco railroad, it forms a sharp ridge 

rising 100 feet above the adjacent valleys, a plan and cross 
section of which are given in the accompanying figure (8). 

The Missouri, Kansas and Texas railroad, between String- 
town and Limestone Gap, follows the valley east of this ridge ; 
at the latter place a tributary of the Red river has cut through 
the ridge which, from this point, trends eastward as shown in 


SSS 


LS 


* Dr. John C. Branner, on page 30, vol. i, of his report, has previously expressed 
an opinion that in Arkansas these folds are of overlapping rather than of con- 
tinuous strike, as stated by Comstock in the same volume. 


Ouachita Mountain System in Indian Territory. 117 


Mr. Chance’s map. Several sigmoid or S-shaped flexures occur 
along this section, and, also, in the sandstones of the Coal 
Measures of eastern Indian Territory and across the Territory 
to the Arkansas line. 

The southern border of this old system has been degraded* 
by the shore lines of the ancient Cretaceous and Tertiary seas 
which overlapped it and planed it northward for many miles. 
The vertical edges of the planed off strata are buried beneath 
the Cretaceous sediments as shown in my former section along 
the Arkansas-Texas line, resulting in the complete interment 
of the Carboniferous system southward, throughout the great 
central denuded region of Texas where the only exposures of 
Carboniferous rocks are through erosion of the overlying Cre- 
taceous layers. The structure of these mountains is of the 
Appalachian type, and Mr. Chance says that ‘“ topographically 
and structurally the Choctaw coal fields represent in miniature 
the features of the anthracite regions of Pennsylvania.” 

2. The Central or Chickasaw Division.—In the northeastern 
part of the Chickasaw nation the continuity of the Carbonif- 
erous rocks is terminated by an extensive area of Silurian lime- 
stones, which, in turn, are succeeded southward by underlying 
granites whose exact relation to the complicated Coal Measures 
is not determined, but which are exposed by the erosion of the 
latter and are.unconformable beneath them. 

2a. The Kastern or Wapenucka portion of this area is inter- 
esting, but little explored. It lies west of Boggy station along 
Delaware Creek at Bill Jackson’s ranch, and near the quaint 
old Chickasaw academy of Wapenucka. There is a series of 
low limestone hills—apparently remnants of anticlinal folds— 
along whose strike flows the Delaware creek. In places these 
limestones resemble the blue Silurian limestone to be described 
in our discussion of the Arbuckle Mountains, but they are 
more horizontal in outerop. In the collection of Mr. J. T. 
Munson, of Denison, who first called my attention to this in- 
teresting region, are fossils apparently Silurian in age Ortho- 
ceras as Brachiopoda, from Bill Jackson’s ranch on the Dela- 
ware. 

Crinoidal limestones of Carboniferous age are the prevalent 
rocks and were collected near the academy at the southern 
border of the district, and the sandstones of apparent Carbon- 
iferous age and shales of that age begin there again. A single 
specimen of Favosites, of Silurian age, was collected from one 


* Principal Events in North American Cretaceous History as revealed in the 
Arkansas-Texas Region, by Robt. T. Hill. This Journal, April, 1889. 

+ Professor Alpheus Hyatt, to whom I sent this specimen, says that he thinks 
there is little doubt that it is a fragment from the Hudson River group. The Or- 
thoceras being closely related to one found at Cincinnati, and the brachiopod 
being probably Orthis testudinaria. 


143 3a LR. T. Hill—Reconnaissance of the 


of the Delaware Mountains near the Hudson River limestone. 
The Delaware Mountains proper are a few long limestone 
ridges and detached buttes in the beautiful valley of Delaware 
Creek. Seven miles west of the academy, near Bill Jackson’s, 
they are composed of limestone underlaid by the above men- 
tioned Favosites sandstone—a porous gray quartzite with an 
occasional patch of limestone. The buttes are peculiarly dis- 
torted, their strata being disturbed at a very slight angle in 
many directions, which may be compared to the uneven curva- 
ture of a saddle. 

The Delaware mountains were mentioned by Mr. Jules 
Marcou, who followed the old Fort Smith and Fort Washita 
trail which passed by them. He referred them to the Sub- 
Carboniferous or Mountain Limestone.* The scenery in the 
Valley of the Delaware is exquisite, the contrast between the - 
low rounded hills and the extensive valleys with their peculiar 
buttes present a restful and varied landscape. The region 
promises rich scientific treasures to some future student who 
has time and facilities to work out its structure and history. 
It was impossible to trace the relation of the Wapenucka dis- 
trict to the Arbuckle Mountains to the westward, owing to 
dangers of exploration in a country where geologists are not 
welcome, but there is evidently a close connection if not con- 
tinuity between them. , 

2b. The Tishomingo Granite.—In the heart of the Chick- 
asaw nation south of and underlying the Wapenucka limestone 
district is an extensive granite area. This is the central divis- 
ion of our mountain region. It isa triangular area of sandy 
prairie land with low rounded granite hills and undulations, 
lying between the Santa Fe and M. K. and T. railroad and 
running east and west from Boggy depot to six miles west of 
Tishomingo, and northeast to Mill Creek and beyond. 

The granite is well displayed two miles southwest of Boggy 
station; in Pennington Creek; at Tishomingo and other places. 
At its eastern outcrop it is composed of red feldspar, white and 
black mica, quartz and hornblende with numerous pegmatitic 
veins. Its composition and occurrence is nearly identical with 
the Burnet Texas granite, and it is unlike the igneous rocks of 
the Wichitas to be described later. In the western part of this 
area the feldspar is albite. There are numerous dikes of 
black rock intersecting this granite specimens of which from 
Pennington Creek have been sent to Professor J. F. Kemp for 
study. Concerning these he says: ‘‘They are a typical dia- 
base. They are mostly idiomorphic plagioclase crystals, doubt- 
less labradorite from the extinction angles, irregular greenish 
augite and a little magnetite. They show the so-called ophitic 


* Geology of North America. 


Ouachita Mountain System in Indian Territory. 119 


structure of diabase in a very marked degree.” The dikes 
run west 20° S. and are seen at the crossing of Mill Creek 
road and Pennington: Creek. 

The northern margin of the granite area is overlaid by hard 
metamorphosed, sub-horizontal Silurian limestone of the same 
cherty and flaggy lithologic aspect as the Upper Potsdam 
rocks of Burnet County, Texas, but I could find no fossils. 
Carboniferous rocks cover its eastern point at Boggy station. 
Its southern border was the sea-shore of the ancient Trinity 
and other Mesozoic and Cenozoic seas and is buried beneath 
the Trinity sands. The western border is covered by Silurian 
and Carboniferous rocks.* I saw no evidence that this granite 
was of later age than the oldest of the Paleozoic rocks which 
rest upon it. 

2c. The Arbuckle Folds —West of the Washita River the 
mountains again present a new and entirely different aspect. 
An elongated mass of low rounded barren limestone folds 
stands about 500 feet above the plain and extends east and 
west, between Wild Horse Creek and the Washita River for 
about forty miles, forming an almost impassable barrier for 
wagon travel. They are composed of folds of hard Silurian 
limestones. The trend of the mountains—north of west— 
corresponds with strike of the folds, but is opposite in direc- 
tion to the prevalent trend of the Choctaw-Arkansas division. 
These folds are the’hard persistent core of the structure, the 
softer and exterior Carboniferous layers having been eroded to 
the level of the Ardmore prairies. (See figures.) 

West of Duncan the limestone hills are buried beneath the 
red beds for twenty miles, but again appear in the neighbor- 
hood of Fort Sill forming a low ridge north of ‘and parallel to 
the Wichita Mountains, as is explained later. 

The Arbuckle Mountains constitute a great and wonderful 
development of the Silurian system, although this has not been 
hitherto appreciated, and afford a superb example of folded 
structure. ‘This folding is beautifully shown in the valley of 
the Washita which has cut a deep and tortuous water gap 
through these mountains where, unobscured by forest growth, 
fold after fold of the stratified limestones and shales appear 
in startling boldness. Several journeys through this gap only 
increased the appreciation of the greatness of the task of 
thoroughly delineating the section, the complexity of which 
may be inferred from the accompanying figures. 

Twenty miles south of the Arbuckle ridges proper, and 
separated from it by a valley based upon Carboniferous shales 
and sands, near the crossing of Hickory Creek and the Santa 

* The only previous mention of this important granite area of which I am 


aware was made by Dr. R. H. Loughridge in the 10th Census Report on Cotton 
Production. ; 


H 
ii 


120 hk. T. Hill—Reconnarssance of the 


Fe road is a smaller but similar and parallel ridge of folded 
Silurian rocks extending westward to Healdton (see map). 
For these mountains there is no local name, and I have ealled 
them Red Bird from an adjacent post-office. They serve to 
prove the great width of the folded belt. 


Us o 
ZAM) 
luau 


Section across Indian Territory from south to north along Atchison, Topeka 
and Santa Fe Railway. 


The accompanying north and south section and profile from 
Gainsville, Texas, to Guthrie, Oklahoma, gives at least an idea 
of the sequence and foldings of the Arbuckle region. Pro- 
ceeding southward along the line of the Atchison, Topeka and 
Santa Fe, the typical gypsiferous red beds of Texas, Kansas, 
Indian Territory and New Mexico—the alleged Triassic* —are 
seen from Guthrie to Oklahoma City, lying in a disturbed, but 
comparatively sub-horizontal position, showing greater dips 
than the Cretaceous, but none of the complicated folding of 
the Paleozoic strata. South of the Canadian, the Carboniferous 
clays and sandstones appear with the excessive dips of the 
Ouachita folds. At Buckhorn Creek, east of Dougherty, the 
coal-bearing beds of the Carboniferous are seen dipping north 
at an angle of 65°, and involved in the folds of the adjacent 
limestone hills. In this vicinity there are terranes at the base 
of the Carboniferous, the age of which I could not determine, 
especially a great thickness of soft sandstone, but the succeed- 
ing limestones are undoubtedly a part of the Silurian system 
as determined for me from fossils by Professor Henry 8. 
Williams. 

Proceeding southward from Dougherty to Berwin the lime- 
stones, shales and sandstones of the pre-Carboniferous succeed 
each other, but so complicated is the vertical folding, that the 
writer must confess his utter inability to determine their pro- 
per succession, even after considerable study. These rocks 
occupy in cross-section, almost invariably a sub-perpendicular 

* The basal portion of these Red Beds is of Permian age as shown in their 


Texas continuation by Boll, Cope and White. See American Naturalist, June 
1879, September 1880. 


Ouachita Mountain System in Indian Territory. 121 


position for a distance of twelve miles. From north to south, 
however, the following distinct sub-divisions are apparent. 

Their relation however is indefinite, owing to folds and 
faults: 


1. Massive, hard blue limestones. Strata of 20 feet in thick- 
ness alternating with thin flaggy layers. Thickness feet. 


manertupted by a great-fault)__22....1_2+-2-.-22-- +280 
2. Massive limestones, but in thinner and more flaggy 
PemerGene te Netty. 2 cjs nos ig. doled aig Sule 2 se +100 


3. Thin shaly argillaceous beds, fossiliferous, excessively 
folded and crumpled. Aggregate thickness includ- 
Sn POUT TA RS Se aye genes ets Pea ee nA Ton eae +360 
4, A massive bed of pure white loosely cemented sand- 
stone, similar to that seen above the Lower Helder- 
Perea VV OOCIOEC 2 oro ee eee aie 95 
5. Thin flags and shales, mostly concealed but seen in con- | 
mcomch Gat south side of fiver ~....2--.....--.-- ? 
6. A massive, yellow-blue limestone; finer grained than 
No. 1; rich in fossils (Trilobites, ete.) South bank 
of Washita at railroad bridge (Trenton) --_- .-.----- +140 
. Concealed interval. 
. Dark blue shales of great, but undetermined thickness. 
. Carboniferous shales and sandstone, Berwin to Overbrook. 


Cc CO -T 


Concerning the age of the pre-Carboniferous rocks only a 
little can be said, but sufficient to confirm the impression that 
they include Trenton (No. 6), Niagara? (No 1), Lower Helder- 
berg, (No. 2). Could accurate collections be made, many 
other terranes would no doubt be shown to exist. The basis 
for these determinations are as follows. Near Woodford post 
office, ten miles west of the railroad, I collected from strata 
which are continuous with and apparently the same as No. 2, 
the following fossils, kindly determined by Professor H. S. 
Williams: Spirifera lamellosa, Strophomena rugosa (=rhom- 
boidalis), Rhynchonella nucleolata, Lingula ? rectilatra. Con- 
cerning these he says: “It is safe to say the horizon is Upper 
Silurian and probably equivalent to the Lower Helderberg of 
New York. It is above the Niagara, and this is an interesting 
feature.” Concerning the fossils from No. 6, he says: ‘ They 
are not very satisfactory but a Zrinucleus concentricus shows 
No. 1092a to be of Lower Silurian, probably Trenton age.” 
A fine specimen of Lituites beckmani Whittield, in my pos- 
session, I have cause to believe came from this same locality, 
although I had previously been greatly deceived by its collec. 
tor as to its locality and horizon. 

It is not my desire to attempt any classification of these pre- 
Carboniferous rocks, but I believe from stratigraphic evidence 
that the shales at the south end of the gap may prove Devo- 
nian. Beneath the Trenton rocks there are exposed still older 


eer oN R. T. Hill—Reconnaissance of the 


terranes, especially in the Red Bird Mountains, which may be 
Cambrian. 

Continuing southward along our section the mountains cease 
coincident with the limestones, and after a mile of black shales 
(No. 7) the well-defined Carboniferous sands and shales begin 
near Berwyn and continue for twenty-nine miles along the 
railroad to the vicinity of Overbrook. These all occur in 
vertical folds, apparently coincident with or at least a part of 
the same system to which the Silurian limestones belong, but 
which, owing to their disintegrating character, have been 
leveled down to a low undulating plain. Ten miles south of 
Ardmore, the Trinity sands, the base of the Comanche series, 
rest unconformably against the Carboniferous (the Red beds 
being absent), and upon these in turn to the southward the 
sub-horizontal beds of the Lower Cretaceous, which I shall 
make the subject of another paper.* 

A parallel north and south section twenty miles west of 
the Santa Fe road shows the presence of the Red beds and the 
absence of the Cretaceous, the lattér having deflected south- 
ward through Texas. 

It is not alone in the mountains of the Paleozoic areas, how- 
ever, that this remarkable vertical structure is seen, but much 
of the Carboniferous prairie regions east of the Red beds are 
based upon it. For twenty miles north from the Red Bird 
to the Arbuckle Mountains the undulating prairies, void of 
any high relief whatever, except slight rises where the sand- 
stones prevail, are based upon the almost vertical Carboniferous 
shales and sands, as shown in our diagrams. The wonderful 
degradation these folds must have undergone exceeds all possi- 
bility of description. Yet, as] have shown in my Arkansas re- 
port, there are many miles of planed-off folds buried beneath the 
Cretaceous sediments. This is the only instance in the southwest 
of a level upland plain underlaid by vertical structure. The 
great unconformity of sedimentation between the Silurian rocks 
and the supposed base of the Carboniferous is seen both at Buck- 
horn on the northern margin of the Silurian and at Hickory 
Creek near Red Bird on the southern side, as shown by differ- 
ence of dip, and the presence of conglomerates in contact with 
the Silurian rocks, especially at the last-named place. | 

3. The Wichita Division—The Arbuckle folds west of 
Dunean are buried beneath the Red beds for some thirty miles, 
but outcrop again some eight miles north of Fort Sill, marking 
the northern margin of the Wichita Mountains, forming a low 
foothill which is comparatively inconspicuous, owing to the 
overshadowing height and sharpness of the adjacent eruptives 
of the Wichita Mountains proper. 


* See vol. ii, pp. 503-528, Bulletin Geological Society of North America. 


Ouachita Mountain System in Indian Territory. 128 


These mountains rise abruptly above the level of the Red 
bed prairies, which surround them on every side, and their 
sharp jagged outlines present striking and exquisite scenery. 
The ragged peaks of igneous rock present a strong contrast to 
the stratified ridges of the eastern and central divisions of the 
system. Although in Arkansas the latter have a similar eleva- 
tion above the surrounding plain, they have not the rugged 
peaks and points of the Wichitas, and are covered by forests. 
Their aspect is Appalachian—the arid Wichitas remind us of 
the Rockies. The eastern Ouachitas are the eroded remnants 
of stratified rocks with their characteristic topography, the 
Wichitas consist of igneous rocks—hard, firm, ragged and 
barren. 

These mountains extend westward from Fort Sill 120 miles 
to the 100th meridian and were partially mapped out by Marcy 
and McCleland years ago,* and T’. B. Comstock has recently 
made an interesting reconnoisance of them.t The most 
prominent of the many peaks are Mt. Scott and Mt. Sheridan ; 
the former is 2400 feet above sea level, 1200 feet above Fort 
Sill on the plain below, and 1700 feet above Red River 
fifty miles distant. Though neither high nor extensive, the 
Wichitas are models of topography and mountain structure. 
Mt. Scott is a solid mass of red feldspathic granite with little 
quartz, while neighboring mountains are composed of green- 
stones, basalts, etc., indicating two widely different types of 
igneous rocks. 

The westward continuation of these mountains is buried 
beneath the Tertiary sediments of the Staked Plains and with 
it the history of the relation of the Ouachita system to the 
Rocky Mountains. At one or two places in No Man’s Land 
and north of Clarendon, Texas, I am told that erosion has cut 
down to the rocks of this mountain system but I have not been 
able to find the localities, 

The composition of the Wichitas is unlike that of any 
mountain area of the southwest, and, so far as I could see, 
presents no structural resemblance either to the basin-sur- 
rounded mountains of the Trans-Pecos, or the early Paleozoic 
buttes and denuded folds of the central Texas region. Their 
age is not determined. They are certainly Post- ‘Silurian and 
the Red beds have in part participated in the movements but 
the eruptives may be Post-Cretaceous or even later. The 
apparent absence of the Lower and Upper Cretaceous in the 
composition of the Wichitas is especially noticeable. Their 
trend and composition plainly places them in the Ouachita 
system. 


* See Exploration of Red River of Louisiana, Marcy. 
+ See First (Second) Annual Report of the Texas State Geological Survey. 
Austin, 1889. 


124 R. T. Hill— Ouachita Mountain System, ete. 


Résumé of History recorded in the Ouachita System. 


1. There are evidences of a Post-Silurian movement in the 
Buckhorn and Red Bird unconformities. 

2. The great folding and elevation of the system were after 
the close of the Carboniferous period, probably during the Per- 
mian, as shown by the participation of the rocks of the former 
period in the movement, and Pre-Triassic, if the upper Red Beds 
are of that age. 

3. A second or lateral movement must have taken place after 


* this folding by which the folds were bent into S-shaped flexures. 


This movement preceded the Red Bed epoch. 

4. The marked but not excessive disturbance of the Red Beds 
indicates movement and displacement after their deposition and 
previous to the Trinity epoch. 

5. The Lower Cretaceous Comanche series—which may be 
partly Jurassic—was deposited against and not over these moun- 
tains, and show in themselves no folding or other disturbance 
except such faulting as may be attributed to the Post Upper 
Cretaceous continental movement. 

6. The Upper Cretaceous, the Marine Eocene and the Quater- 
nary along the southeastern and eastern border of the system in 
Arkansas were also deposited against and not entirely over the 
system, and, like the Comanche series, reveal no participation in 
adjacent mountain folding, but merely alternations of subsidence 
and elevation. | 

7. This system has undergone extensive erosions throughout 
Post-Carboniferous time, and its sediments have contributed to 
all later deposits. 

8. The western portion of the mountain system was in parts 
submerged during the Red Bed epoch [Triassic ?] and completely 
degraded or buried beneath the sediments of the great Tertiary 
lake which constitutes the formation of the Llano Estacado. 

9. The relation of this system to the Rocky Mountain move- 
ment is to be determined. 


The mountains of the Ouachita system, including the eastern 
or Arkansas-Choctaw division, the central or Wapenucka Lime- 
stone district, the Arbuckle division and the Wichitas, should 
no longer be omitted from our maps, for together they consti- 
tute the foundation of all later geologic structure in the Texas 
region, differentiating it from the Kansas-Missouri region in 
both present and past geologic times back to the earlier Meso- 
zoic epochs, and influencing all the main river courses of Indian 
Territory whose great southward bends are an adaptation to 
the strike of this mountain system, the Washita alone having 
cut through it. : 

The mountains are also interesting from their exceedingly 
diverse structure and composition, and from the fact that, with 
the exception of the Uintas, they are the only east and west 
system on our continent. 


. 


a 


C. Barus— Continuity of Solid and Liquid. 125 


Art. XII.—The Continuity of Solid and Liquid ;* by 
; CARL BaARUS. 


Introductory. 


1. My earlier paperst entered somewhat minutely into the 
volume thermodynamics of fluid matter. The behavior of 
matter passing from liquid to solid and back again was only 
incidentallyt considered. This feature, however, is the very 
one which gives character, or at least a more easily interpret- 
able character, to the whole of the volume phenomena of the 
substance; and it was therefore reserved for special research. 

The problem may be looked at from another point of view: 
Let it be required to find the relation of melting point to pres- 
sure. My results have long since shown§ that in a compre- 
hensive study of this question the crude optical and other 
methods hitherto used as criteria of fusion (criteria which have 
no inherent relation to the phenomenon to be observed) must 
be discarded. In their stead the striking volume changes 
which nearly always accompany change of physical state, in a 
definitely constituted simple substance, are to be employed. 

The literature of the subject I will omit here, since the 
_ more important work has entered the text-books and since I 
shall probably have occasion to refer to it elsewhere. 

The present experiments were made with naphthalene only. 
They are no means even near the degree of precision of which 
the applied plan of research admits. Thus far my chief object 
has been to carry the method quite through to an issue, pre- 
liminarily, and to test it at every point. The data are suffi- 
cient, however, to show that the procedure adopted, though I 
approached it with diffidence, can be brought under control 
throughout; and that the attainable accuracy need only be 
limited by the patience, skill and discernment of the observer. 
_I was in some degree surprised, therefore, to find that my 
method led to new results at the outset. 

2. Harlier allied experwments.—In applying the principle of 
$1, I first made direct volume measurements with substances 
enclosed in capillary tubes of glass. In the case of naphtha- 


* Geological interpretations are in the hands of Mr. Clarence King, by whom 
the work, as a whole, was suggested. 

+ This Journal, III, xxxvili, p. 407, 1889; xxxix, p. 478, 1890; xl, p. 219, 
1890; xli, p. 110, 1891. Phil. Mag., V, xxx, p. 338, 1890. 

¢ This Journal. xxxviii, p. 408, 1889; xxxix, pp. 490, 491, 494, 1890. 

§ This Journal, l.c. More pointedly with an indication of methods in Phil. 
Mag., V, xxxi, p. 14, 1891. 

|| 1 will merely mention Sir William Thomson (1850), Bunsen (1850), Hopkins 
(1854), Mousson (1858), Poynting (1881), Peddie (1884), Amagat (1887), Battelli 
(1887) and some others. Cf. §§ 29, 30. 


126 C. Barus— Continuity of Solid and Liquid. 


lene and some others, I thus obtained satisfactory results.* 
Such work is, however, limited to relatively low pressures (600 
to 800 atm.); it does not adm of sufficient correction for the 
volume changes of the glass, and from the small quantity of 
substance examined, and the relatively frequent occurrence of 
nuclear condensation, volume lags are often obscured. Hence 
the definition which I was inclined to adopt after making 
these experiments, viz: that a pressure which when acting 
isothermally for an infinite time will just solidify the liquid 
and will just liquify the solid, stands to the given temperature 
in the relation of melting point and pressure, is not in accord- 
ance with facts.t 

In a second methodt I endeavored to ascertain the positions 
of the characteristic specific volumes by passing current out of 
the mercury index through the hot walls of the thin glass tube 
which contained contiguous columns of both the substance and 
the mercury. Supposing the tube surrounded by a liquid 
conductor transmitting pressure, the changes of resistance of 
the arrangement indicate the motion of the index and hence 
the degree of compression produced. Here, however, a new 
and unexpected annoyance was encountered, inasmuch as both 
the medium of oil contained in the piezometer and the glass 
possess seriously large pressure coefficients.§ Moreover it is 
only with great difficulty that the perfect insulation of an 
apparatus, in which water jackets form an essential part, can 
be maintained. I therefore abandoned the work. 

In a third method similar to the preceding, I expressed the 
motion of the mercury thread or index in terms of the resist- 
ance of a very fine platinum wire, passing through the axis of 
the tube. Successive intercepts thus indicated the changes of 
volume to be observed. This method gave good indications of 
the pressure position of the melting points of the sample. It 
failed, however, to give serviceable values for the fiuid volume 
changes. I found on trial that the contacts in such a case are 
essentially loose, and that thermocurrents can only with diffi- 
culty be eliminated or allowed for, seeing that the successive 
isothermal temperatures are to be considerably above the at- 
mospheric temperature. | 

Finally all the methods here described must necessarily fail 
after the substance has been solidified; for in this case the 
thread or index is split up and forced into the interstices of the 
solid material. Thus it is manifestly impossible. to retain the 


* Cf, this Journal, xxxviii, p. 408, 1889. 

+ A considerable number of experiments made with naphthalene in this way 
showed the melting points 83°4°, 92°3°, 100°, to correspond to the pressures 
100 atm. 350 atm., 565 atm. respectively. Thus the factor is +°036° C./ atm. § 27 

Phil. Mag., xxxi, p. 14, 1891. 

é Ibid, pp. 18 to 24, et. seq. 


CO. Barus—Continuity of Solid and Liquid. 127 


original meniscus, and therefore impracticable both to arrive 
at the volume behavior of the solid and to rigorously codrdinate 
successive series of experiments. 

3. Advantages of the method of this paper.—Hence I en- 
deavored to modify Kopp’s* specific volume flask, in a way 
to make it available under any temperature or pressure. Here 
the readings are independent of the unbroken character of the 
meniscus immediately in contact with the solidifying substance, 
whereas on the other hand (as I shall presently show), the 
volume measurements can be made electrically, with almost 
every desirable degree of accuracy. Furthermore by charging 
the flask with suitably apportioned quantities of substance and 
of mercury, the error due to the compressibility of the glass 
may be eliminated in any degree whatever, and an apparatus be 
obtained which is practically rigid in relation to pressure. The 
data show that from each single series of experiments I thus 
obtain the isothermals and isopiestics and therefore also the 
isometrics, both for the liquid and for the solid state, admitting 
the latter to be less accurate; further, the relation of solidifica- 
tion and.of fusion to pressure, and finally, the pressure changes 


_of the isothermal specific volumes of solid and liquid, at solidi- 


fying and melting points. From such results the character of 
fusion, and the probable positions of critical, $26, and of tran- 
sitional points, §28, can already be pretty well predicted. It 
is then only necessary to examine a number of substances, 
normally existing under widely different conditions of thermal 
state,t in order to broaden the evidence and possibly to reach 
results of a uniform -bearing on matter in general. Thus I 
endeavor to avail myself of the enormous internal pressure 
through incremental pressures applied externally. 


Apparatus. 


4. Temperature.—Inasmuch as pressure varies at a mean 
rate of over 30 atm. per degree of melting point, so that tem- 
perature is as it were the coarse adjustment and pressure, the 
fine adjustment for the conditions of fusion, the method of 
experiment should be such that temperature may be kept rig- 
orously constant while pressure is varied at pleasure. To 
obtain constant temperature, I constructed a series of brazed 


* Kopp: Ann. Chem. u. Pharm., xciii, p. 129, 1855. The results of this fine 
memoir are too rarely quoted. 

+ The absolute expansion and compressibility of mercury being now known. 
Si. . 
t ‘‘Instead of tracing the isothermals of a single substance throughout enormous 
ranges of pressure, similarly comparable results may possibly be obtained by ex- . 
amining different substances conceived to exist in widely different thermal states.” 
This Journal, 1. c., xxxix, p. 510. 

Am. Jour. Sc1.—THiRD Seriss, Vou. XLII, No. 248.—Auvueust. 1891. 

9 


128 C. Barus—Continuity of Solid and Liquid. 


vapor baths of thin sheet iron, thickly jacketed with asbestus. 
They were cylindrical in form, 20™ high and 10™ in diameter. 
Axial tubulures, the upper of which projected outward, the 
lower both inward and outward, allowed the vertical tubular 
piezometer to pass axially through the vapor baths, and suita- 
ble stuffing boxes obviated leakage. Again the upward pro- 
jection of the lower tubulure (both of which fit the piezometer 
snugly), formed an annular trough with the walls of the vapor 
bath, in which a sufficient quantity of the ebullition liquid 
could be placed, and boiled, by aid of the flat spiral burner 
below. The top of the vapor bath was provided with two 
other (lateral) tubulures, one of which served for the perma- 
nent attachment of a vertical condenser, and the other for the 
introduction of a suitable thermometer or thermocouple. 
Here also the quantity of ebullition liquid present, could at 
any time be tested, its amount increased or diminished, and its 
quality directly purified by fractional distillation or otherwise 
(an operation necessary, for instance, when amyl alcohol is 
used). §20. With a good condenser, the boiling may be 
kept up indefinitely, for the condensed vapor falls back into 
the trough below. At temperatures below 100°, it is expedi- 
ent to avail oneself of the high latent heat of water* and to 
boil this liquid under diminished pressure. Temporarily attach- 
ing Professor R. H. Richards’ jet pump to the end of the con- 
denser, pressure may be reduced at pleasure, and any boiling 
point between 50° and 100° reached and maintained indefi- 
nitely. For higher temperatures toluol, amyl alcohol, turpen- 
tine, naphthalene, benzoic acid, diphenylamine, phenanthren, 
‘sulphur, etc., subserve similar purposes more or less thoroughly. 

Temperature was measured by a Baudin thermometer of 
known errors, and also computed from the vapor tension of 
steam under known conditions. 

5. Pressure.—To obtain pressures as high as 2000 atm., I 
employed the screw compressor described elsewhere.t I made 
use, however, of a vertical piezometer, identical with the hori- 
zontal form described, except in so far as it could be removed 
from the barrel as a whole. As before, the piezometer is-insu- 
lated from the barrel. When in adjustment the former was 
surrounded by the following parts, enumerated from below: 
an insulated guard preventing spilled water, ete., to reach the 
insulation; the lower cold water jacket, the flat burner, the 
vapor bath, and finally (wherever necessary) an upper cold 
water jacket. Internally the piezometer was filled with thick 
mineral oil.t 

* T shall in future experiments also boil water under pressure. 


+ Proceed. Am, Acad., xxv, p. 93, 1890. 
+ Phil. Mag., (V), xxxi, p. 10, 1891. 


OC. Barus—Continuity of Solid and Liquid. 129 


For pressure measurement 1 am now able to avail myself of 
superb Amagat ‘‘manométre a pistons libres,” which can be 
attached to my compressor without further mechanism and 
with advantage.* The instrument is adapted to measure 
3000 atm. 

6. The volume tube.—This is shown in the annexed figure 
(diagram). It consists of an external cylindrical & 
envelope AB of glass, closed below, open above, 
about 26™ long and -4™ or ‘5° in diameter. 
Throughout the greater part of its length, the 
tube is divided into two coaxial cylindric compart- 
ments, by a central glass partition tube CkC, 
open at both ends, and fused te the tube AB 
along the ring CC, about 7™ from the top. CkC Ck 
is about 17™ long and ‘13° in internal diameter, 
drawn as thin-walled and even in calibre as possi- 
ble, so that the greater part of its lower length 
may be available for measurement. 

The substance to be examined is introduced into 
the annular space “4, care being taken that when 
fused under the highest temperature and lowest 
pressure to be applied, its lower boundary may be 
4 or more above the end &. Immediately in 
contact with H# and extending upward into the 
central tube is a plug of mercury /’/, with its 


\\E 


WSS 


RSS 


S 


NS 


WG, 


Yj 
Z 
% 
\F 
©) 


Zia 
SN ‘ 
Yj 


VL 


13 


Milde. 


14 
ZIONS SS SSS SSSSSSSS SSS 


WSU Mpc 


: : NAN 
free meniscus at g. When ZZ is solid, g must be , KNNN 
(say) 2 above the end #4, and when EE is liquid B \.\ b 


g must even in the extreme case be at about an 
equal distance below the end CC of the tube CkC. The 
remainder of this tube, above g, is quite filled with a con- 
centrated solution of zine sulphates G/g, into which an amal- 
gamated zinc terminal 1, has been submerged and fixed in 
position by the platinum wire a, fused to the sides of the tube 
AB as shown. The other terminal ) passing through the 
sealed bottom of A.B, is in metallic connection with the mer- 
eury /’F therein contained. 

The tube thus adjusted is completely submerged in the oil 
within the insulated tubular piezometer, with which the termi- 
nal a connects. The terminal 6 completely insulated from the 
piezometer by a coating of glass tube, is in metallic connection 
with the barrel. Thus the tube AB is held in position by 
tensely stretching the fixed wires a and 4, and so adjusting 
their lengths that the parts #2 and hg with reference to which 
the measurements are made, may lie wholly within the vapor 

* Results thus obtained in comparing various high pressure gauges and methods 


of manipulation will be given in a current number of the Phil. Mag., xxxi, p. 400, 
1891. 


130 C. Barus— Continuity of Solid and Liquid. 


reservoir of the cylindrical vapor bath surrounding the piezom- 
eter. Many of these operations are delicate, but descriptions 
must be omitted. 

An inspection of the figure shows at once that if a current 
enter the outside of the barrel, it will pass through 0, k, h, D 
and a, into the outside of the piezometer, and thence back to 
the battery. The only relatively significant resistance en-- 
countered in such a course, can be confined to the path between 
g and A, through the thread of the zine sulphate solution ; but 
this resistance, cat. par., varies directly with the length of gh 
and therefore proportionally to the volume contraction of the 
substance HH! If Kohlrausch’s method* of intermittent cur- 
rents, bridge and telephone be used for the resistance measure- 
ment of the electrolyte, solidification or fusion of “’# breaks 
upon the ear with a loud roar, whereas the ordinary volume. 
changes {solid or liquid) are indicated by intensifications of the 
sound in the telephone, sufficiently pronounced however to 
subserve the purposes of measurement. | 

It is seen that any breakage of the surface of separation . 
between H#’ and /’/’ is entirely without influence on these 2 
results, and that even in case of solidification of #4, when the 
mercury is forced into the interstices left after contraction, the 
compressibility of ’#’ will still be measurable. | 

The charging of the tube free from air, is an operation : 
which I have not yet accomplished satisfactorily. If a volatile : 

| 
| 


substance like naphthalene be filled into H# and fused in 
vacuo, vapors objectionably condense in the tube Ak. If HE 
be not fused, I doubt whether the air can be eliminated in 
vacuo. Hence in the present work, the substance was not air- - 
free, a condition to which I gave less attention because I do 
not believe the melting points are appreciably influenced by 
dissolved air, nor that the other measurements made are seri- 
ously distorted by this error. In further measurements, how- 
ever, I will endeavor to meet the difficulty by fusing the end 
A of the inverted tube AB, to the top of a barometer tube, 
provided with a lateral tubulure leading to a Sprengel pump. 
If then, after exhaustion the lower meniscus is adjustible, so 
that the whole barometric column can be raiséd quite into the 
tube AZ or withdrawn from it at pleasure, a thorough vacuum 
filling may be effected. Rubber connections must be serupu- 
lously avoided. 


Method of Measurement. 


7. Constants of the tube.—In order that the present meas- 
urements may be carried out absolutely, it is necessary to 


* Kohlrausch: Verh. med. phys. Ges. Wurzburg, xv, p. 1, 1880; Wied. Ann., 
xi, p. 653, 1880. Long: Wied. Ann., xi, p. 37, 1880. . 


C. Barus—Continuity of Solid and Liquid. — 1381 


know: (1) The volume of the charge at a fiducial temperature 
and pressure ; (2) The volume of the plug of mercury under 
the same conditions; (3) The volume of the central tube kA 
(figure 1) per centimeter of length; (4) The resistance of the 
thread of zine sulphate solution, per centimeter of length, 
under all the stated conditions of temperature and pressure. 
From (3) and (4) there follows at once (5) the resistance of the 
thread of zinc sulphate per unit of volume, under any stated 
conditions of temperature and pressure. Thus it is necessary 
to investigate preliminarily (6) the isopiestic relation of resist- 
ance and temperature of the given concentrated solution of 
zine sulphate, and (7) the isothermal relation of resistance and 
pressure of the same solution. In other words one must know 
what may be called the isoelectrics of the measuring electrolyte. 
Furthermore it is necessary to find (8) the compressibility of 
the glass in its relation to pressure and temperature and (9) 
the compressibility of mercury under the same conditions ; 
finally (10) the thermal expansion of the glass and (11) the 
thermal expansion of mercury under given conditions of 
pressure. 

The measurements (8) to (11) I have not thus far made 
directly. They are here of small importance, seeing that the 
substances on which I operate are all characterized by rela- 
tively large volume changes. Such measurements, however, are 
easily feasible, since both the expansion constants and the 
compression constants of pure mercury (thanks to the recent 
labors of Tait, Amagat* and Guillaume) are now thoroughly 
known, and it is also known that the thermal changes of the 
elastics of glass are of no relative consequence,t even as far as 
200°. If therefore the tube AB, figure 1, be filled with mer- 
cury, replacing the substance 4, the expansion and com- 
pression constants may be found by the method above stated, 
$3, once for all. In the present paper I assumed the compres- 
sibility of my glasst to be -0000022, that of mercury,$ being 
0000039 ; moreover the coefficient of thermal expansion of the 
glass| to be .000025, that of mercury4| between 60° and 130° 
being 000182. 

8. Volume of the charge.—Clearly the fiducial conditions to 
which the volumes are to be referred, are given by the (normal) 
melting point, under atmospheric pressure. By weighing the 
tube before and after charging, I found for the mass of naph- 
thalene enclosed, ‘763g. In a special and duplicate set of 
pycnometer measurements, I furthermore found for the density 
of fused naphthalene at 82°, ‘724. Hence the volume of the 

* Cf. E. H. Amagat: Ann. ch. et phys, VI, xxii, p. 95, 1891. 


+ Ibid., p. 136. f Ubid.j ip: 125: § Ibid., p. 137. 
|| Landolt u. Boernstein’s tables, 1883, p. 69. Sielbitd: p..3't. 


ll 


132. Barus—Continuity of Solid and Liquid. 


charge at 82° is 552 em’, which I took for the volume at the 
normal melting point (80°). 

9. Hxpansion and compressibility of envelopes.—The plug 
of mercury weighed 774g. Its volume was therefore 571 cm’, 
at 20°, and its mean volume between 60° and 130° (being be- 
tween °575 and °582) sufficiently near ‘58 cm*. 

Thus the volume of the glass tube containing both the 
charge of naphthalene and of mercury, was 113 cm’. Its 
expansion per degree centigrade -000028 cm*, while the ex- 
pansion of the mercury in place was ‘000105 cm‘, per de- 
gree, whence the apparent expansion ‘00007 cm®* per degree. 
Therefore if in place of the fiducial volume 532 cm®* (§ 8), 
the following volumes be substituted, viz: 


60° *5565 cm.? 100° 5535 em.? 
80° °5550 120° 0519 
SO D542 130° “5311 


the tube may be treated as free from thermal expansion. Here 
at 80°, °555 appears instead of °552, to allow for the fiducial 
volume of the stem A (fig. 1), as will be shown in § 17. 

Again the compression of the 1:13 em.* of glass, and the 
*58 cm.*, of mercury will be: 


100 atm.; glass, 00025 em.*; mercury, 00023 cm.?; difference, :00002 cm.* 
? 1 


500 124 113 
1000 249 226 23 
1500 373 339 34 
2000 A497 452 45 


Thus the corrections which would individually be appreci- 
able (affecting the increments say 3 per cent) are differentially 
negligible (.8 per cent) where they fall below the electrical 
pressure coefficient of the zine sulphate solution. §14, ef. §3. 

10. Lesestance measurement.—Using the interrupter and 
telephone ($6), I facilitated audition by connecting the dia- 
phragm cup with a graphophone tube, and listening with both 
ears. ‘The resistances, however, were rather higher than con- 
templated in Kohlrausch’s method, when an ordinary Bell 
telephone is used. Hence the measurements particularly near 
and in the solid state are far below the limit of attainable 
accuracy. I shall in future measurements wind a telephone 
specially adapted for my purposes, and endeavor to use both 
ends of the magnet to actuate diaphragms. When zine sul- 
phate is enclosed between terminals of zinc, continuous cur- 
rents and the galvanometer are available. In this way, I 
made most of the calibration measurements. Supposing the 
mercury index to be slightly deadened in its electronegative 
qualities by zinc, it may also be used in ease of the tube. 

Should the measuring thread of mercury gh, figure 1, break 
into parts alternating with threads of zine sulphate (a possi- 


C. Barus—Continuity of Solid and Liquid. 133 


bility when the thread is worked up and down many hundred 
times, particularly in view of the suddenness of solidification), 
the constants of reduction are not thereby necessarily vitiated, 
always supposing the number of such breaks to be small. The 
shifting of codrdinates thus produced can be corrected by 
check-work at a given temperature.* Long continued passage 
of intermittent currents, charges the mereury with zine, but 
solution of mercury can not become serious, since the column 
is being continually washed by the terminal JY. Some advan- 
tage would be gained by using zine sulphate in the strength 
(1:286, Kohlrausch) which corresponds to maximum conduct- 
ivity. 

11. Calibration.—The tube hk, figure 1, being of insuffi- 
ciently uniform caliber, volume must be expressed as a func- 
tion of length. This I did by weighing threads of mercury, 
whose length had been measnred in successive parts of the 
tube, obtaining the results of the first two columns of table 1. 
The fiducial zero is here arbitraily placed 2°" below the ring 
CC. 

Similarly the resistance of the filament of zinc sulphate hg 
must be expressed as a function of length, referred to the 
same fiducial zero, at some convenient atmospheric temperature. 
To do this, I drew a zine wire down to a diameter slightly 
below the caliber of the tube. Opening the bottom of AB, 
and closing the top so as to hold the terminal D firmly in posi- 
tion, | inverted the tube and quite filled it with the solution. 
AB was then placed in a cold water bath, with the terminal a 
insulated, and the terminal 6 replaced by the zine wire referred 


TABLE 1.— Volumes per unit of length. Llectrical resistance per unit of length 
6=17°8°. Volume per unit of resistance 92=17:8°. 


Length. Volume. Length. Resistance. || Resistance. | Volume. 
cm. cm.3 cm. ohms. ohms. cm.? 
3°00 0491 —'06 2720 2800 "0000 
11°15 "1609 2°13 5780 5530 °0350 
Sr a ee 4°15 10190 8850 ‘0640 
9-79 1430 7:96 16200 12530 0920 
15-49 2145 12-06 24340 16270 "1190 
i 3-30 0538 1:38 4630 20250 *1450 
7-20 1076 3°43 7920 24250 "1705 
15°60 ‘2152 9°00 18220 | 
215 0470 11°49 23140 
6:10 "0940 | 
9°65 ‘1410 
13°40 *1880 


* This I should have done after obtaining Table 9, $21; but the full details of 
manipulation could not all be foreseen at the outset. 


134 C. Barus—Continuity of Solid and Liquad. 


to, and so adjusted that I could slide it up or down and fix it 
in any position at pleasure. Measuring the distance between 
the ring CC and the free end of the wire, with Grunow’s 
cathetometer, and measuring at the same time the resistance 
corresponding to this length, I obtained the data necessary for 
constructing resistance as a function of length, for the tempera- 
ture of the bath. In this way the second and third columns 
of table 1 were found. 

Combining the results of these four columns by graphic 
interpolation, I obtained the fifth and sixth columns in which 
volume is expressed in terms of resistance, at the temperature 
§—17°8° with regard to the fiducial mark in. question. 

12. Electrolytic resistance and temperature.—The investiga- 
tion of this relation is a general problem, quite apart from the 


TABLE 2.—The relation of electrical resistance to temperature and pressure, in case of 
a concentrated solution of zinc sulphate. 


|| eat 
eeu eng Pressure. Resistance. _|| L°™PETA- pressure,| Resistance, 
ture. | | ture. 
ws aim: | ohms.) \ “i / Finn || 2“ C. atm. ohms. | R/Ryioo 
*6°3 100 | 26960 6°060 99°6 191 1237 "990 
6°5 100 | 26960 6-060 | SES 186 1242 "994 
66°8 140 | 6178 1°388 99°6 | 471 1222 ‘978 
67°3 140 6120 1:376 | 99°6 448 1210 ‘968 
68:0 140 6050 1360 | 09°62") ) LOrd 1198 "958 
678 140 6060 1362s) 99°6 4 981 1203 "962 
67'8 140 6075 1°365 996 503 1232 "986 
67°7 140 6075 1°365 99°6 507 1232 ‘986 
100°0 137 4550 10235 7 99°6 126 1262 1°010 
100°0 137 4540 1:020 126°0 157 1062 "850 
100°0 479 4470 1°005 126°0 Ly 1062 "850 
100°0 469 4480 1°007 127°8 14S 1058 "846 
LO0s0™ |) TOTS 4370 "982 12 ine 149 1058 *846 
100°0 | 996 4380 «985 160°5 154 980 “784 
100°0 | 150% 4310 ‘969 160°5 154 984 "787 
100°0 1443 4320 00 160°5 154 984 “T8T 
100°0 129 4360 "980 $64 138 7440 5°952 
100°0 139 4360 ‘980 6:4 138 7500 6°000 
127°6 158 3740 "840 6°4 138 7500 6-000 
127°8 158 3730 °838 16°4 147 4980 3°984 
127°8 158 3730 838 16°4 147 5000 4-000 
6°5 116 27140 6°100 16°4 147 5020 4°016 
6°3 116 27000 6°067 61:3 170 1900 1°520 
+6°7 72 7280 5°824 61:3 170 1900 1°520 
6:7 465 7090 5 672 61°3 170 1913 1°530 
6°7 458 7120 5700 85°8 180 1359 1:088 
67 906 7020 5°616 85°8 180 1359 1:088 
6°7 830 7020 5°616 85°8 180 1364 1/091 
67 498 7130 5704 99°6 189 1247 1:000 
6°7 | 492 7050 5°640 99°6 189 1253 1°002 
6°7 139 7190 5°752 99°6 189 1253 1:002 
Gt ulay 7160 5728 


+ Second Series. 
+ Third Series. 


Diameter of tube, ‘30°™. 
Diameter of tube, ‘30°. 


C. Barus—Continuity of Solid and Liquid. 135 


special apparatus used. Nevertheless I made two sets of 
measurements, in the first of which I determined the resistance 
of the thread Ak, fig. 1, between fixed terminals of zinc, when 
the whole apparatus was kept at successive constant tempera- 
ture, and under pressures sufficient to insure the condensation 
of all polarization gases and the presence of a continuous 
liquid thread of zine sulphate solution. The four columned 
table 2 contains these results, where A/Z,,, is the relative 
resistance at any stated temperature in terms of the corre- 
sponding datum for 100° C. At 100° moreover pressures are 
varied for the measurement of the pressure coefficients dis- 
cussed in the next paragraph. 

In the second and third parts of the table, the above tube 
AB was replaced by a plain straight tube. Resistances are 
much smaller here, but the column //£#,,, makes all the 
data comparable. 

If the values 2/f,,, be compared graphically, as a function 
of temperature for nearly the same pressures, the results of 
all the series in table 2 are in good accord. Moreover the 
results for the large interval 6° to 160°, lie on a curve whose 
form closely resembles an hyperbola. From this point of view 
_ the data are remarkably interesting: for if it be true, then a 
suitable inversion of the locus indicates that the electric con- 
ductivity of the electrolyte varies linearly with temperature. 
Such a result would not only possess theoretic interest, but 
would make measurements of the kind necessary in the present 
paper feasible with a high degree of certainty. The interpola- 
tions of this paper were made empirically however, and I must 
withhold further opinion until I can trace the locus as far as 
300°. I may add that inasmuch as a solution of maximum 
conductivity is accompanied by a smaller temperature coefii- 
cient, advantages of such a solution are suggested, $10. 

13. Volume in terms of resistance.—With the data of §$11 
and 12 in hand, it is now possible to express the volume of 
the capillary tube Ax, figure 1,in terms of the resistance of 
the thread of electrolyte, observed at any temperature. With 
this object in view, I computed tables for each of the tempera- 
tures of the isothermals below, §$15 to 21, facilitating the 
further reduction by graphic methods. Being merely of pass- 
Ing interest the tables are omitted here. 

14. Pressure coefficient of the electrolyte.—The results in 
table 2 for variable pressure and constant temperature are 
summarized in the small table 4, below. Here @ denotes the 
temperature, 7 the resistance of the thread, and k=d R/£, dp 
where p symbolizes pressure, the pressure coefficient sought 


Ff, holds at 0°C. 


100 


136 C. Barus—Continuity of Solid and Liquid. 


TABLE 4.—Pressure coefficients of concentrated zinc sulphate solution. 


@ Pressure. kx 108 6 (Pressure.! kx 106 | 6 (|Pressure.! kx 106 
T° 119) I 200° | 15% |} 100° | | 134 
ARON ole Gir al 482 tel 1007 kc 
119 eho | 474 
ae L135 slag: | —35 


| | 996 § | 1475 


The mean value is k= —45/10°, being negative, inasmuch as 
the resistance is here decreased by pressure. The pressure 
coefficient is nearly independent of temperature, and decreases 
somewhat with pressure. The results, however, are not quite 
consistent, and a detailed construction of the data in table 2 
shows a difference of march in the pressure on and the pres- 
sure off movements. I have yet to learn whether this be due 
to insufficiently fixed terminals, or to. polarization, as well as 
to find the conditions (change of concentration or of the solu- 
tion) under which the pressure coefficient may be a minimum. 
As the results stand the mean value is probably within 20 per 
cent of the truth, and hence in the extreme case of 2000 atm., 
the uncertainty of the pressure coefficient will not affect the 
volume increments more than 2 per cent. 

In an earlier paper,* I found k=—50/10° between ( and 
150 atm., agreeing substantially with table 4. I then called 
attention to the strikingly close proximity of this datum to the 
corresponding coefficient for mercury k= —30/10°. The pres- 
sure coeflicient is of considerable interest, inasmuch as it indi- 
cates a certain relation between elasticity and the chemical 
equilibrium of the solid or liquid operated ont specially for 
zine sulphate, it may be noted that whereas the conductivity 
of a nearly concentrated solution (density > 1°29) decreases on 
further concentration, compression (which might be regarded 
as having a concentrative effect on the solution between the 
terminals) increases the conductivity. 


Results of the measurements. 


15. Arrangement of the tables.—The following tables 5 to 
10, in which the isothermals of naphthalene are fully given, 


are constructed as follows: The first column contains the time. 


in minutes at which the observation was made, the initial date 
being arbitrary. The (uncorrected) resistance as actually found 
at the pressure given, is shown under in ohms. To this the 
correction for pressure coefficient, Ap per unit of &, is to be 

* This Journal, xl, p. 219, 1890. The work of this paper was done some two 


years prior to the publication. 
+ Phil. Mag., V, xxxi, p. 24 et seq., 1891. 


OC. Barus—Continuity of Solid and Liquid. 137 


added, after which 7 can be expressed as a volume increment, 
referred as yet to an arbitrary fiducial zero, $$ 13, 14. The 
corresponding volume (last column of the tables) is deduced 
from this by inserting the initial volume values of §9. Cf. $17. 

Two data are usually given for each step of pressure, the 
second of which, obtained after long waiting (5™ or more) is 
more nearly isothermal than the first. In most cases, a small 
additional volume decrement takes place after solidification, 
either viscously or as the results of gradual decrease of tem- 
perature. 

Parentheses occur to show that for the data enclosed the 
measurement was made along an (upper) part of the tube Ad, 
figure 1, whose calibre was not sufficiently uniform. Without 
knowing the full expansions at the higher temperatures and 
lower pressures, it is a priori impossible so to fill the tube that 
all measurements fall within calibrated parts, and all other 
calibration conditions are complied with, §9. These approxima- 
tions however refer to the liquid state, and are thus of less 
consequence in this paper, $1. If the isothermals of the liquid 
only were sought, it would be advisable to make the tube hk 
very much more nearly capillary from the outset. 

The experiments were made on different days, and together 
extended over more than a week. This is too long a time to 
employ the tube without special readjustment, and some shift- 
ing of codrdinates may therefore have occurred. §$10, 25, 26. 

I may add finally that the melting point of naphthalene in 
air is about 80°, its solidification point below this, under proper 
conditions. The density of the solid is 1:14, and that of the 
liquid at 82°, is 724, §8. Hence naphthalene melted in water 
sinks or swims, according as its temperature is sufficiently 
below or above 80°. 

16. Solid wsothermal, 63°.—Clearly the data obtained in 
operating on the solid will be less accurate than the liquid 


TABLE 5.—Jsothermals of (solid) naphthalene, at 63°5°, referred to 55 cm.?, at the 
normal melting potnt. 


Time. Pressure. PR. | kag Volume. Time. Pressure. R. _“? , Volume. 
| | | x 10 x 10 
| | | | | | 
m. | atm. |ohms.| ome. |) Mm). atm... ohms. em. 
16 1 petGO0) 3 ALD \)° 38 859 8240 39 3965 
oye) GS 7430; 3 | 4156 || 40 850 =| 8120 38 *3988 
20 289 1760) 13. | 4085 || 42 | 972 | 8310) 44 *3945 
Ao, 28h 2) (630) 13. |. 4109) |) 44 966 | 8310 44 *3945 
25 | 491 8160 22 ‘4003 | 46 565 | T600 25 “£097 
29. | 481 8010 22 4027 | 49 565. © |. 1605) 25 "4097 
34 | 675 | 8050) 30 | -4010 || 51 100 7270, 4 "4183 
37 | 662 | 1880) 30 | 4039 || 67 65 7340 3 ‘4173 


138 C. Barus— Continuity of Solid and Liquid. 


data, §6. For in addition to relatively greater importance of 
the corrections for the compressibility of the envelopes, the 
fissured or honeycombed structure and the high resistances, 
§10, interfere with sharp measurement. Nevertheless by com- 
paring the data with similar solid isothermals obtained at much 
higher temperatures, their validity may be inferred. 

With reference to the series it is interesting to note that re- 
coil of volume (pressure decreasing) is more rapid than compres- 
sion. ‘The reverse of this would have been anticipated, sup- 
posing that mercury lodged in the interstices. The liquid in 
the above case was allowed to solidify under pressure. | 


TABLE 6.—Isothermals of naphthalene, at 83°, referred to ‘55 cm.* at the normal 
melting potnt. 


Time. Pressure. R. | _*P 3| Volume. || Time. |Pressure.| A. | ‘p 3 Volume. 
/ x 10 | x 10 
m. atm. ohms. | cm.2 | mm. | atm. ohms. | eom.3 
36 39... 6923), 2-1 5498-5 1) F984 129 |. aaa “4241 
3900) 206 Vo PSs) Oe 5S Uk Se We gg ANAT) 4. 4358 
44 221 P1581 TOe PMGasS2. hi 8d 93 4348 4 4453 
46 250 W231 V1 ‘35D |) 6 94 93 4348 4 4453 
51 244 1198) 11 ‘5365 || 96 70 3651) 3 4630 
FD, vole s0b 1232). 12 5348 of 70 3256] 3 ‘4732 
59 | 265 P22e V2 *‘DSO1 fr TOA, area 2031) 3 5062 
60 | 303 1288 13 "SO22re | MLE al POG: 1695} 3 5172 
63 | 322 1326, 14 "5306 POO VERS ale 1480, 3 5250 
GEST uo Wk 5667 14 4138 122 .| 49 920), 2 | 5508 
(Sacer BU rs. a alas 127 52 905; 2° | ° *Bb08 


75 127 | 5250! 6 “4241 


TABLE 7.—Jsothermals of naphthalene, at 90°, referred to 55 cm.® at the normal 
melting point. 


Time. |Pressure.| 2. _/P, Volume. Time. |Pressure.| &. es Volume. 
m. atm. ohms. | om? mM. atm. ohms. | ems 
16 517 Tilia.) pA 60 316 4618 14 4311 
18 231 972/ 10 | 5432 65 322 4555 14 4326 
24 222 95/71) 210) SP 5439 67 280 3855| 13 | “4504 
26 422 | DES! We | 65329 he 283 2333) 13 | °4929 
aL 406 t 1Tob) 18> in *ba3sé | %6 283 1985| 13. | 5028 
33 490 |. 1247| 22 ‘D208 81 278 1618) 18° >) *biea 
AQ.) (AT4. 1 ABBR DIE. |. ses02 83 175 897, 8 |. “B42 
40)... DOT 1258| 23 | °5292 89 179 902) 8 | 5468 
44 | 532 1288) 24 | ‘5276 91 81 193) = 5530 
46 | 555 5250| 25 "4147 95 83 802 4 6524 
57 | 544 5290, 24 “4139 


17. Liquid-solid isothermal, S3°.—Three independent. series 
are in hand. The example given in table 6, is the second in 
number. It is from these isothermals that I obtained the 


C. Barus—Oontinuity of Solid and Liquid. 139 


fiducial zero of the stem AX, figure 1. For at pressure zero 
the increment is ‘0024 em.*. Hence the value -5524 of §8, 
increased by ‘0024 is the fiducial volume (°555 cm.* nearly) 
here to be used, and from this the others are derived. § 9. 

18. Liquid-solid rsothermals at 90°—Two independent 
series of results are in hand. The example given in table 7 
is the second in number. 

19. Liguid-solid isothermals at 100°.—Four independent 
series are in hand. The example given in table 8 is the second 
in number. 


TABLE 8.—Jsothermals of naphthalene, at 100°, referred to °55 cm.? at the normal 
melting point. 


| | | | 
Time! Pressure. FR. | P| Volume. Time. Pressure. R. kp Volume. 
| |x 10 | x 10 
| aaa | 
m. aim. | ohms. OnE A" tet! atm Womans. | ems 
20 ie ube GO). Ao |.Cb5itS) 148 | 906 4882 41 | ‘4124 
ay) 116 | 667| 5 | (5575) || 150 | 769 | ayia) 35 | -4175 
29 Peeeh esha 1S). )> 4500 1) ee Ue AT14) 35 | -4175 
36 B74 | +835) 12 | "6464 |) 159: | 644 4556, 29 | *4224 
45 460 . | 1020| 21-| -5360 165 652 4556 29 | °4224 
47 Bude) ba23)° 30" |) 52557 || 167 |" 560 3808) 25 | °4425 
Ba) '653 | 1198) 29 | 5266 || 168 | 560 | 3202) 25 | +4599 
56 WO), 4) VS3t), 35.) |,-°5204,,.)), 169 562. | 2846) 25 | -4707 
63 766 TanO 34 <oAIS | EZ) | SHS | 2259) 25 | AST 
d4 Rigs | lisas|.86 | “b196 — 1) ).173 | 558 | 1889) 25 {| :5000 
69 797 Prs53i 386° | “bL95" |.) 176 1)" 558) "| 1600) 25 | +5102 
75 780 ISSOMSH ee cH202 Vt WIS) 558 1416 25 | °5175 
76 818 13107 3% SSO ap Lora: oo | 1300 25 5224 
85 813 1370) 36. | “b18i °(/), Psa Hoo |} V4) 95” | 5280 
91 785 Is sGM soe S202 4 Ike 553 | ELGO) 2 oR 1 Pe5 28% 
93 856 1415| 39 | -5167 || 208 HOS MLNSS 125 14° 288 
102 850 L410) S85 op 251 69.4.))) 213 546 1160) 25° | °5287 
107 820 1VST0}-37-) 5185. | | 216 |, 429 988) 19 5375 
108 908 1439} 41 | *5155 || 225 PAS Or MGs 9991+ 19 edo Ue 
116 888 | 1439) 40 | °5155 | 227 287 | 845) 13 | 5459 
12] 890 | 1439) 40 | 5155 || 235 292 | 852| 13 | -5454 
122 | 921 | 4814| 41 | -4141 || 237 81 | 645] 4 | (5585) 
133 | 914 | 4882 41 | “4125 | 244 86 | 650| 4 | (-5583) 


20. Liguid-solid isothermals at 117°.—The vapor bath in 
this case was filled with. amyl alcohol from which the water 
had not been extracted. $4. The results for solidification 
obtained are worthless, except in so far as they contain specific 
evidence of certain peculiarities of behavior of an unevenly 
temperatured tube, referred to below. §$25, 27. The data 
for fusion are in part available. I omit the table. 

21. Liquid-solid rsothermals at 130°.—Four independent 
series of results are in hand. The example given in table 9 is 
the second in number. 


140 CU. Barus—Continuity of Solid and Liquid. 


TABLE 9. 


melting point. 


Time. |Pressure.| &. Bu Volume. | | Time. Ereseure, R. von Volume. 
m. | atm. | ohms. | em || m.- | atm. |ohms. cm. 
5 151 276), Toe | (GOSLD) | a eaty Maan 3926) 85 ‘4099 
T 464 495} 21 | (5586) || 84 | 1880 | 3950} 85 4091 

11 451 484; 20 | (5601) |; 86 | 1574 — 8695) 72 “4190 

14 921 $08) 41 | 5351 || 96 | 1575 | 3695) 72°) 4190 

18 881 770, 40 SiSe ws 1463 2876| 65 "4480 

3! 1338 1057, 58 5200 || 106 1463 1690) 65 4914 

37 1336 1057| 59 2000) 113. i448 1481, 65 5000 

57 1464 1032) Gogh thos: ols 1456 1490; 65 “4996 

59 1459 1132) 65 | °5158 125 1245 1021]; 56 | +5220 

61 1581 P2958). 94.109 Ses le, aa 1021; 56 | °5221 

63 1656 1278| 74 | 5083. || 185 | 990 | (S45) sae men 

64 | 1651 1262) 74 | 5091 || 139 | 994 | 850) 44 |” =53a5 

65 L737 1329) 78 | *5057 || 141 |. 565 | “BGR e2a yaar 
68) 23 1320/ 78 | 5061 || 145 | 580 | 5470} 26 | (bal) 
71 1794 3878) 81 4 1H9) |3) ae) eS 275| 7 | (5811) 
76 VT 3926] 79 "4106 Lose’ |). 2 Nes 289) Fangs) 


Deductions. 


22. Graphic construction.—To obtain a survey over this 
series of individual data, it will be necessary to resort to the 
pictorial method, and to represent volume as a function of 
pressure, under the successive conditions of constant tempera- 
ture. This has been done in the following chart. The ordi- 
nates are volumes (fiducial volume being °5524 em.* at 80° 
nearly, and arbitrarily chosen), the abscissas are pressures. 
The temperatures of the isothermals are given at the begin- 
ning and the end of each curve; and the dates or times in 
minutes at which the individual observations were made, are 
shown by small numerals attached to the points. Thus it is 
easily seen whether an observation was taken during the on 
march or the of march of pressure; but to further facilitate 
‘inspection arrows are subjoined to the curves, showing their 
drift. 

It is seen from these figures, that the solid is comparable in 
compressibility with the liquid. On this point, however, I 
shall now place no stress, for reasons repeatedly stated in the 
above paragraphs. §§ 4, 16. 

23. Hysteresis.—The inherent character of all these curves 
is phenomenally cyclic, the isothermal pressure necessary to 
solidify naphthalene being at all temperatures decidedly in ex- 
cess of the pressure at-which it again liquifies. Thus the 
results which I obtained in other experiments and with other 
substances, some time ago,* are emphatically corroborated. 


* This Journal, xxxviii, p. 408, 1890. The full paper and deductions made 
therein are as yet unpublished. 


Isothermals of naphthalene, at 130°, referred to 55 cm.® at the normal 


: 


os 


C. Barus— Continuity of Solid and Liquid. 141 


Evidences of the thoroughly static character of these phenom- 
ena are abundant, I mention: solid isothermal i00°, first 
series (not given above), where I waited from 50™ to 100™ at a 
pressure below the solidifying point of the liquid, without ob- 
taining fusion, whereas, after this fusion is completed between 


ee | atm atm at t 
35 5100 1000" loa” soloctt™ 


101™ and 112™ with only slightly further reduction of pressure ; 
liquid isothermal 100°, second series (given above § 19, and 


chart § 22), where I waited from 47™ to 121™ at a pressure 


greater than that at which the solid fuses, without obtaining 
solidification, whereas this sets in at once between 121™ and 
122™, when the pressure interval is only slightly increased ; 
solid isothermal 130°, second series, where I wait from 86™ to 
96™ at a pressure below the solidifying point without change 
of volume or fusion whatever, etc. If high temperature con- 
ditions are unfavorable to volume lag, this evidence and much 
else which I might add, is accentuated. 

I have already pointed out* that it is a phenomenon inher- 
ent in the passage from one molecular condition to another, 


* This Journal, |. c., Phil. Mag. (V), xxxi, p. 27, 1891. 


142 C. Barus—Oontinuity of Solid and Liquid. 


which lies at the root of all manifestations of hysteresis, 
whether observed electrically (Cohn, Ewing, Schumann), or 
magnetically (Warburg, Ewing), or as a purely mechanical 
result in my work,* during fusion, as above, during solution, 

29, ete. 

: 24. Jumes Thomson's double inflections.—Solidification al- 
most always sets in at once. One would expect this: for if 
there be condensation or crystallization at any one point, it will 
form the nucleus from which the whole column will be solidi- 
fied, so far as it lies in the field of volume lag. Only in one 
case (liquid isothermal 83° 60™ to 63™) did I obtain evidence of 
curvature. Usually even at low temperatures the path is pre- 
cipitous, because pressure cannot be lowered rapidly enough. 

The reverse of this holds in case of fusion. Here the 
initial or stable contours of James Thomson’s circumflexures 
are well marked. It is true that fusion cannot take place in- 
stantaneously, because heat cannot be supplied fast enough. 
It is also true that if temperature be not quite identical 
throughout the length of column, fusion will first take place at 
the hotter planes below, and proceed thence to the top.t In the 
present experiments, however, the phenomenon occurs with 
the same uniformity at all temperatures, and is quite pro- 
nounced in the steam bath. $4. Hence, taking into additional 
consideration the evidence of § 22, I conclude that the initial 
contours are static and regard them as partially evidencing 
James Thomson’st{ well known inference relative to the doubly 
inflected contours of the isothermal paths accompanying 
change of physical state. When fusion actually sets in, the 
phenomenon is no longer observable ; for the physical parts of 
the substance now exist in widely different thermal states. In 
figure 2 the full contours are indicated by dotted lines. 

25. Lhe characteristic specific volumes.—Mere inspection of 
the chart, figure 2, shows that the volume at which solidifiva- 
tion takes place, decreases as temperature increases, while the 
volume into which the substance solidifies either increases or 


remains stationary in value. In table 10, I have inscribed the © 


corresponding values of pressure and of volume, observed at 
the solidification points, in each of my four sets of results.$ 
The data are plotted in figure 3, the volumes being abscissas, 
the pressures ordinates. To distinguish the points of this 
diagram, they are surrounded by little circles, to which the 
number of the series is attached. 

A similar and equally expressive table may be deduced by 
finding the characteristic volumes at the successive melting 


* Cf. my results on the Bourdon gauge in a current number of the Phil. Mag. 

+ I have actually observed this in glass capillary tubes, when the vapor baths 
were imperfect. t+ James Thomson: Phil. Mag. (IV), xlii, p, 227, 1872. 

§ The above tables and figure 2 exhibiting but one of these sets. 


C. Barus—Continuity of Solid and Liquid. 143 
points; but as these data are identical in purport with those 
of table 10, and since the melting volume is necessarily less 
easy of definition, § 23, I will omit them here. 


TABLE 10.— Volumes solid and liquid at the solidifying joints, varying with 


pressure. 
Temperature 83°. Temperature 90°. | Temperature 100°. || Temperature 130°. 
ue Pressure. Pressure.||Pressure.| Pressure, | |Pressure.| Pressure.||Pressure.| Pressure, 
Solid Liquid Solid Liquid || Solid Liquid Solid Liquid 
volume. | volume. |; volume. | volume. || volume. / volume. || volume. | volume. 
1S 260 260 550 550 875 875 1720 1720 
i "415 "534 "413 523 “416 510 ‘415 ‘505 
wae 320 320 5590 555 920 920 1790 1790 
"415 530 "A15 GOT "413 759 Us) "412 "505 
Ill 345 345 550 550 870 870 1665 1665 
peso tlh oe 418 en 413 ‘510 “ALT 507 
( ee pe coe Wie sas 900 900 1720 1720 
he) ge eee So abs ce 5 "412 ge eee 505 


A noticeable feature of the diagram is the closer accordance 
of the three groups of points between 0 and 1000 atm., during 
which measurements steam was used as the medium of constant 
temperature, as compared with the single group of points be- 
tween 1000 atm. and 2000 atm., when vapor of amyl alcohol 
was used. I account for this by supposing solidification in the 
last case to have been premature, and associate the result with 
insufficient constancy of the vapor bath. §§ 4, 20, 23. Hence, 
the liquid volumes found are too large. There may also have 
been some gradual change of the constants of the volume tube, 
which in the lapse of time became appreciable. §§ 15, 10. 
Further experiments must decide this point. Regarding solid 
volumes it is clear that no device can define them as closely as 
the liquid volumes; indeed the degree of definition attained 
is one of the virtues of the method. §16. 

In figure 3 I have therefore placed chief reliance on the 
water points (0 to 1000 atm.) and drawn the locus accordingly. 

26. Critical poont.—The area enclosed by the lines ac.. ., 
and bd ..., supposing } and ¢ eventually to coalesce, has the 
same signification as Andrews’s area of vapor tensions. This 
would also be true of the similar figure for the characteristic 
volumes at the melting points, and more pointedly of the 
figure in which solidification volumes are taken at the solidi- 
fying points and fusion volumes at the melting points. § 25. 
All of these diagrams point out the probable occurrence of a 
critical point in the region of positive pressure, reached in the 
direction of increasing temperature, at which point solid would 
change to liquid and liquid to solid, without paroxysmal change 


* See remarks on table 11, § 27. 
Am. Jour. Sci.—TuirD SERIES, Vou. XLII, No. 248:—Aveust, 1891. 
10 4 


144 C. Barus—COontinuity of Solid and Liquid. 


of volume, and consequently without volume lag. In case of 
naphthalene the position of this point may be conjectured at 
several hundred degrees centigrade and several thousand (5000 
to 10,000) atmospheres. 


ee 


ssure in 


Pre 


“Temperature. 
Volume | ee So 3 
—60- 4 100-20: $140 —180-— 180 — 200° —220- p40 
ee 80° 


27. Solidifying points and melting points—The cycles 
depicted in figure 2 have two prominent characteristics: They 
gradually decrease in vertical extent from left to right and they 
gradually decrease in lateral extent from a central area toward 
both sides of the chart. The former quality has already been 
interpreted. $25, 26. The latter is now to be considered. 


TABLE 11.—Showing the relation of solidifying point and of melting point to pres- 
sure, at different temperatures. Naphthalene, melting at 80°. 


Temperature 83°. ||Temperature 90°.||Temperat’re 100°. Temp.117°. || Temperat’re 180°. 

Series. | | l | | 
Solid at Pans pola Meng Solid eet | (Melting at Sold beg 
atm. | atm. atm. | atm. || atm. | atm. || atm. | atm. | atm. 
f | *q260 80 a550 275 | a8i5 | 560 | ere | al720 1430 
1m *5320 80 || 0555 280 | 06920 560 | sees | 61790, 1465 
iGOE QaAd | Mise 1 ant yA hehe chi MG) 580 vb ae +1665 1410 
1V Eee mais spelt Se Page eS e900 570 || 1050 al TAG wat 


ss A 80° to 100°, 36:0 atm./°C., or 0278 °C./atm. 
ie oo, Me 100° to 130°, 29:5 atm./°C., or 0339 °C./atm. 
a, Not crept upon. 0, crept upon. c, Factors taken chiefly with reference to 
series Il. 


* First result at <(83°, second and third at >83°. Solidification gradual, the 
other solidifications take place at once. 
+ Temperature 129°6°. 


sie M. P. and pressure, 80° to 130°, 28°5 atm./°C., or 0351 °C./atm. 
c Hi SE aa bah 


C. Barus—Continuity of Solid and Liquid. 145 


Table 11 gives the values of the pressures corresponding to 
solidification and to fusion at the different temperatures, 
together with other relevant information, as sharply as these 
statements can be made. M. P. denotes melting point, S. P., 
solidifying point. | 

Let the solidifying points and melting points be constructed 
as functions of pressure. Figure 4 shows the points to le on 
a spindle-shaped figure, running diagonally across the chart. 
They are again taken out of all the four sets of results and 
numbered accordingly. §25. The parts of the curves actu- 
ally observed are given in full lines, the inferential prolonga- 
tions in dotted lines. 

From the nature of the case the solidification points are not 
sharply determinable. $23. Even leaving the nuclear solidifi- 
cation induced by inconstancy in the linear distribution of 
temperature out of sight (a marked example of which occurs 
in the series for 117°, §20, where solidification and fusion are 
practically coincideat), all percussion and jarring, too rapid 
increase of pressure, a vibratile wire running through the 
column as in some of my earlier experiments, will cause the 
whole labile structure to topple into solidification. Hence the 
solidifying points must be fairly crept upon and surprised, and 
hence my present results in which these precautious were 
taken show high solidifying points as compared with my other 
work. §2, note. 

These conditions do not hold with like importance in case of 
fusion; for the melting points as a rule show much greater 
coincidence. 

In figure 4 I have therefore placed chief reliance on the 
data of series II obtained as they were with the experience of 
series I to guide me. 

28. Transitional point.—lf the two curves be prolonged in 
the direction of zncreasing temperature, their eventual coales- 
cence is presumptive by §$ 25, 26. Clearly the occurrence of 
volume lag must cease when the paroxysmal volume changes 
vanish. 

If the two curves be prolonged in the direction of decreasing 
temperature, then the data themselves indicate the probability 
of an intersection in the region of negative pressure. Beyond 
this, therefore, there would be an inversion of the conditions of 
fusion: in other words, the substance would solidify at a lower 
pressure than that at which it fuses, and fuse at a higher pres- 
sure than corresponds to solidification. I believe this remark- 
able suggestion to be interpretable as follows: The normal 
type of fusion changes continuously into the ice type of fusion, 
through a transitional type, characterized by the zero of volume 
lag. The position of the latter for naphthalene, so far as can 


146 C. Barus—Continuity of Solid and Lnquid. 


now be discerned, may be placed at (say) 50° and (say)—1000 
atm. It is noteworthy, that with the understanding here laid 
down, the normal type of fusion is reached from the ice type, 
in the direction of increasing temperature.* 

29. Solubility and pressure.—In view of the detailed analogy 
which holds between many characters of fusion, and of solu- 
tion, much that can be investigated for the simpler of these 
phenomena (fusion apparently) will be applicable to the other. 
A substance may be transferred from the solid into the liquid 
state either (1) by heating it, or (2) by dissolving it. In gen- 
eral, excess of temperature, or of solvent favor the diminution 
of viscosity here in question. A liquid on the verge of solidi- 
fication or a concentrated solution is solidified or deposits 
solid on cooling; and in both cases the nice adjustment of 
labile molecular equilibrium is accompanied by volume hyster- 
esis,—under-cooling, etc., in the one case, supersaturation, etc., 
in the other. Hence I conclude that if under proper thermal 
conditions pressure alone can solidify a liquid, it can also under 
proper solutional conditions induce crystallization or the deposit 
of solid from solution—thereby trenching upon, or (from a new 
point of departure) approaching the modern chemical doctrines 
which originated, I believe, with van’t Hoff. 

I am the more justified in drawing these inferences as in my 
last articlet on the solvent action of hot water on glass, I have 
already adduced the necessary evidence. Since from one point 
of view, the isothermal compressibility of silicated water is 
increased proportionally to the time during which the solvent 
action has been going on; and from another, with the amount 
of basic silicate dissolved,—the deduction is closely at hand, 
that what pressure actually did in this instance, was a mere 
precipitation of a proportionate amount of the dissolved sili- 
cate. The volume changes thence resulting were blindly put 
into computation as increments of compressibility, because the 
precipitated silicate is again dissolved when pressure is with- 
drawn. t 

* [Added to proof—Throughout the present paper, I have avoided the discus- 
sion of the isopiestics, since I shall consider them in detail in connection with 
special experiments. It is well to state, however, that the transitional temperature 
is related to the prospective intersection of the prolonged liquid and solid isopies- 
tics, of a given substance, at the same pressure in both cases. Thus a reason 
why hysteresis may vanish is again suggested. A given substance on one side of 
the transitional temperature would differ molecularly from the same substance on 
the other side. ] 

+ This Journal, xli, p. 110, 1891. 

t [Added to proof—tIn justice to myself let me say that the manuscript left my 
hands on Feb. 23d, some five months ago, and before the kindred deductions of 
Grme Masson (Nat. xliii, p. 345, 1891), or of Ramsay (Nat. xliii, p. 589, 1891) had 
reached me. I have not in any way altered § 29. In fact, what these gentlemen 


have deduced from the solution behavior liquid-liquid, I had legitimately derived 
from the solution behavior solid-liquid, as set forth in my own work. My preced- 


C. Barus—Continuity of Solid and Liquid. 147 


Thus the work has a bearing on the nature of solution; for 
to my thinking, what I have ventured to call cohesive affinities* 
cannot differ except in degree from the affinities determining 
valency. At least proceeding on this assumption, I am led 
naturally to a theory regarding changes of the physical state of 
ageregation in general, which I will indicate elsewhere. 

30. Conclusion.—In the above pages I have merely sought 
to describe the results directly given by experiment in so far 
as I understand them, and to draw conclusions which in the 
light of known facts seemed to be admissible or even obvious. 
In how far these conclusions are to stand or fall, will depend 
on similar investigations, to be made with a variety of other 
substances specially selected with reference to their position in 
a scale of thermal state. $38. How such selection is to be 
made, I am now unable to intimate. Substances for instance 
which fuse continually, like glass or sealing wax, might at first 
sight be referred to positions near their critical temperatures : 
but I believe these cases are mere solution phenomena of rela- 
tively small interest. At all events at the outset, the experi- 
ments must deal with bodies of definite, simple and preferably 
erystalline character, to the exclusion of mixtures. I feel con- 
fident that in an examination of many types, some will be 
found lying relatively nearer the critical poimt, while others lie 
nearer or even beyond the-transitional point; and that if the 
above method be applied with greater rigor than was done in 
the present paper, light will be thrown on the long neglected 
department of fusion and solution thermodynamics as related 
to pressure. T'rom this stage of progress it will then be possi- 
ble to approach nearer the next of the kindred phenomena, 
which I conceive to be nothing less than the kind of hysteresis 
or higher order of volume lag known as chemical affinity. 


[Added to proof.—To obviate the occurrence of a bald statement like the last, I 
will indicate my views on the distribution, or successive orders of volume lags. 
These are to be sought—I, during the passage of a given atom into the next con- 
secutive in a scale of decreasing atomic weights; IJ, during the occurrence of 
dissociation of the molecule, including solutions gas-fluid. They are demonstrable, 
III, in the region of Andrews’s vapor tensions, including the Alexéef-Masson 
solutions liquid-liquid; IV, in the region of the solid-liquid phenomena of the 
present paper, including solutions solid-liquid; V, in the region of solid-solid 
phenomena categorically distinguishable as “permanent set” (Osmond, Carus- 
Wilson, Barus). They are to be sought for finaliy, VI, during the passage of a 
given atom into the next consecutive in a scale of increasing atomic weights. 

The enumeration is systematic, and inasmuch as VI is virtually identical with 
I, the inherent nature of these changes is periodic. Hence under suitable ther- 
mal conditions, and continually increasing pressure, the evolution of atoms, of 
molecules, of changes of physical state, are successive stages of periodically recur- 
ring hysteresis. ] 


ing paper is at fault only in postulating an unnecessary change of hydration of the 
silicated water (l. c., p. 116). i 

It is gratifying to note that evidence of the similar solution behavior solid-solid 
is forthcoming, and to be found in the work of Osmond, of C. A. Carus-Wilson 
(Phil. Mag., xxix, p. 200), and of myself, as I have already pointed out (Phil. 
Mag., xxxi, pp. 26-28).] Pid: ps 115. 


148 G. H. Stone—Asphaltum of Utah and Colorado. 


Art. XIIL.—Wote on the Asphaltum of Utah and Colorado ; 
by GrorGE H. STONE. 


_Durine the past year the writer has visited all the known 
asphalt fields of western Colorado and northeastern Utah, save 
those situated within the reservations of the Ute Indians, and 
two other exceptions: noted below. It is intended at some 
future time to complete a map of the asphalt exposures and to 
publish a more detailed account of them than is possible in this 
preliminary paper. 

Petrography of the Deposits.—The following named classes 
of deposit are represented : 

1. Asphaltic sand-rock, known also as sand-asphalt and bitu- 
minous rock. This is the most abundant of all the asphaltic 

deposits. It consists of a sandstone the grains of which are in 
contact with each other and the spaces between the grains are 
wholly or partly filled with asphaltum. The proportion of as- 
es varies up to about 15 per cent by weight and 27 per cent 

y volume Of course sandstones will contain different pro-- 
portions of asphalt in their inter-granular spaces since those 
spaces depend on the sizes and shapes of the constituent 
grains and often on the presence of other cementing sub- 
stances. When a bituminous sandstone contains more than 
about 15 per cent of asphalt, it may be assumed that it has not 
been under pressure of superincumbent rock suflicient to cause 
the grains to come in contact with each other.* 

The thickest stratum of fully charged rock that I have seen 
was near 40 feet in thickness. Usually the strata of high grade 
rock are not more than 4 to 10 feet thick and they alternate 
with lower grade or barren strata of sand-rock, and sometimes 
with marls, shales or limestones. Hence the amount of rich 
rock,—‘‘ pay rock ’’—has often been enormously over-estimated, 
no account having been made of the poor strata. This is par- 
ticularly the case with some of the published accounts of the 
asphalt beds of the valley of Ashley Creek, Utah. 

2. Bituminous Shales or Marls.—Black or blackish marls 
or shales cover large areas both in Colorado and Utah. The 
richer layers have the smell of asphalt, though like Wurtzilite, 
they are difficultly soluble. The specimens examined by me 


* The analyses of the California bituminous rock given in Seventh Annual 
Report, Wm. Irelan, Jr., State Mineralogist, Cal., 1887, pp. 51-53, show from 
1:10 to 8 per cent of fixed carbon, and of volatile carbonaceous matter from 9°40 
to 46°20 per cent, with small proportions of lime, ete. An asphaltic sand con- 
taining so large a percentage of asphalt as afforded by some of these analyses 
would probably have been produced by a relatively small quantity of sand being 
washed or drifted on to an outflow of soft asphalt. 


G. H. Stone—Asphaltum of Utah and Colorado. 149 


yield no paraffin, or at most a mere trace to solvents and boil- 
ing water, and a considerably larger proportion after destruc- 
tive distillation. They approach cannel coal in composition, 
but contain a very large proportion of ash, so that none of 
them contain more than 10, or perhaps 20 per cent of carbon- 
aceous matter. The richer layers are commonly known in 
western Colorado as “ oil rock,” and burn readily with a bright, 
furious flame, leaving pieces of shale having the same size and 
shape as they had before being burned. These facts indicate 
that in their natural state these bituminous shales (they all 
contain so much lime as to be more nearly marls than shales) 
are asphaltic rather than paraffinic rocks. The richer layers 
are seldom more than 4 feet thick and are found in the midst 
of low grade rocks (shales, marls, and limestones). At one 
place I noted ten of the rich layers each two to four feet 
thick, distributed at intervals through about 400 feet of rock. 

8. Bituminous Limestones.—Limestones and marls consti- 
tute a large part of the Tertiary rocks of the region under- 
discussion, i. e. of the asphalt-bearing formations. Almost all 
the limestones are somewhat bituminous, and some strata will 
burn like the shales.. They are colored from gray to yellowish- 
brown, light color, rather than blackish like the bituminous 
shales. Usually they do not contain distinct fossils, but are 
often oolitic, pisolitic or -coarser coneretionary, i. e. they are 
semi-crystalline. Fetid layers are not rare, and some of them 
are particularly offensive. Cavities in the bituminous lime- 
stones are often filled with hard asphalt, in some places taking 
the form of Wurtzilite, in other places Uintaite. The color of 
the Uintaite varies from the deepest black to brown and even 
gray-brown. The lighter colors are found in the centers of | 
the lumps or in the cavities less open to the air. I have found 
asphalt in five classes of cavities in these limestones. 

1. In small irregular or somewhat amygdaloidal cavities in 
fine granular limestone and having no visible outlets. 

2. In fractures that cross the strata for only a short distance 
(gash veins of the miners). 

3. In deep fissures (true fissure veins). 

4. In eaves or channels of subterranean streams, in which 
the asphalt was brought in after the stalagmitic growths were 
_ completed or nearly so. 

5. In the interior of shells, or in the cavities found in the 
centers of concretions and nodules contained in the limestone. 

The limestone yields on destructive distillation several per cent 
of volatile and combustible carbonaceous matter. In all cases un- 
less in the fissure veins and stream caves it is evident that the as- 
phalt must have been derived from the country rock, 1. e. a bitu- 
minous liquid oozed out of the limestone into the cavities. Since 


150 G. H. Stone—Asphaltum of Utah and Colorado. 


the limestone is of a light color, this liquid must have acquired 
its dark color during the process of being changed into hard 
asphalt. This conclusion is confirmed by the lighter color of 
the least exposed asphalt. Evidently the bituminous matter 
that is now in the rock is not in the condition of ordinary 
black asphalt, but the liquid which oozed out of the rock was 
capable of being changed into such asphalt, hence the bitumin- 
ous limestones may well be classed with the asphalt-producing 
rocks. 

The rather light color of some of these masses of hard 

asphalt, which have all the properties of Uintaite except the 
deep black color, suggests the question whether the color of 
asphalt be not due to disseminated fixed carbon, in a state ap- 
proaching charcoal, the product of partial oxidation, more 
than to the natural color of the hydro-carbons proper. I began 
some experiments and analyses to determine this point, but the 
work is incomplete.* 
- 4. Outflow or Overflow Asphalt.—Under this class are here 
included all forms of asphalt that have oozed out of the rock 
that originally contained them. Some of these had the black 
color before, others have acquired it since the outflow. I 
leave it as an open question whether these oils were true 
asphalts before acquiring the black color.t+ 

Mineralogically the outflow asphalts present the same difli- 
culties of classification as do the petroleums. There are per- 
haps a dozen different grades in Utah and Oolorado that might 
be described as distinct minerals by those on the alert for new 
species. The more important generic terms (they are all 
generic rather than specific) are the followmg: 1. Maltha, 
asphaltic tar, brea, mineral tar or pittasphalt. Here are in- 
cluded the viscous liquids. In Utah they all have an aromatic 
odor and black color. By degrees they harden to a solid, 
sometimes tough, waxy or horny, sometimes brittle. The 


* Mr. 8. H. Gilson, of Salt Lake, informs me that he has obtained by distilla- 
tion of the limestone out of which a mass of Wurtzilite had oozed, a dark yellow- 
ish tarry material that closely resembles and appears to be identical with the 
distillate from the Wurtzilite. 

+ That the lighter constituents of petroleum can be changed to more viscous 
oils by protracted exposure to oxygen, appears to have been proved by experi- 
ments made some years ago by W. P. Jenney. The same conclusion is enforced 
by the hardening of the brea of California, also by the finding of asphalt in eavi- 
ties in the Devonian and Silurian petroliferous rocks (see Report of Professor 
Edward Orton on the Trenton Limestone as a source of Natural Gas and Petro- 
leum in Ohio and Indiana. Eighth Ann. Report Director U. 8. G. S., 86-87). 
Such asphalt cavities have been observed by Shaler, Newberry, Linney, Orton 
and others. In the present state of the argument it is permissible to assume as a 
working hypothesis that the harder asphalts were derived from the softer or 
pittasphalts, and they in turn from more liquid bitumens. under exposure to the 
air or perhaps to aerated waters. How much this is quantitatively due to oxygen 
or other chemical agencies, and how much to evaporation of the lighter com- 
pounds, remains to be determined 


G. H. Stone—Asphaltum of Utah and Colorado. 151 


hardened outflow is known as outflow or overflow asphalt. 
The maltha is found in small pools, or spread over the ground 
and often penetrates the spaces between the broken rock of the 
talus or sub-soil in a complex network of stringers, small veins 
and sheets. 2. Uintaite or Gilsonite. <A brittle, easily soluble 
and fusible mineral. 3. Wurtzilite, a shining, tough mineral, . 
fusible and soluble with great difficulty.* 

Geological Age of the Deposits.—A fissure vein of wurtzi- 
lite is reported to be found in a region where none of the 
U.S. geological maps show rocks later than the Jurassic or 
early Cretaceous, and the same is true of one area of asphaltic 
sandrock. I have not examined these deposits and leave their 
age an open question. All the fields of sand asphalt that I 
have visited are plainly of Tertiary age. Most of them are in 
the Green River beds, some may be in the upper part of the 
Wasatch, and the thick beds found in the Ashley valley appear 
to be near the base of the very late Tertiary formation marked 
on Hayden’s maps as Uinta and on that of Dr. C. A. White, 
(Ninth Ann. Report Director U. 8. G. 8., 87-88) named 
Brown’s Park. The black asphaltic or bituminous shales (marls) 
are of Green River age. The bituminous limestones, so far 
as I have observed them, are of Green River and some per- 
haps are of Upper Wasatch age. The outcrop of the fissure 
veins of uintaite and some-of the wurtzilite are in the Brown’s 
Park rocks and therefore these veins were opened and filled 
after the Brown’s Park epoch—obviously in case of outflow 
asphalt we have to determine not only the date of origin of the 
tarry bitumen but also the date of outflow. These fissure 
veins will be referred to again. 

The Bituminous Rocks and Coal Beds.—In one place in 
the Ashley valley a coal bed about two feet thick has an under- 
clay a few inches thick, and that rests directly on the asphaltic 
sand rock. The coal is a fair specimen of the Tertiary coals 
of the region. It is free burning, not caking, and no bitumen 


* For a full description of Uintaite and Wurtzilite and their relations to alber- 
tite, grahamite and elaterite, see article by Professor W. P. Blake, Proceedings of 
American Institute of Mining Engineers, Feb. 1890. I have recently learned of 
a locality where the wurtzilite is said to soften under heat so as to be drawn out 
into strings that tend to shorten. This grade is very near elaterite in behavior 
and perhaps is identical with it. The Ute Indians have camped on almost all the 
uintaite and wurtzilite in this country. The valley of the DuChesne River, also 
those of the Lower White and adjacent parts of the Green River, are crossed by 
. numerous fissure veins of these minerals, though wurtzilite 1s more often found 
as an out-flow product in the talus and scattered drift than in fissures. Both 
wurtzilite and uintaite are found in a great variety of situations. It is uncertain 
whether the hardening of the outflow into one or the other of these minerals is 
due more to original differences in the chemical composition of the outflows or 
to the physieal conditions under which they hardened after the outflow. I have 
not heard of both minerals being derived from the same outflow. So far as at 
present known the facts seem to indicate that they are derived from malthas of 
different chemical composition. 


152. G. HL. Stone—Asphaltum of Utah and Colorado. 


has invaded it or its under-clay from the asphalt layer. The 
coal abounds in lumps of yellow, partially mineralized rosin, 
just like most of the softer coals of the mountain region. 

In the Wasatch and Roan Mountains I have in several places 
found coal seams up to eighteen inches in thickness with the 
bituminous Green River shales and limestones both above and 
below them. Here the conditions for the formation of coal 
and asphalt rocks alternated. ) 

Both the bituminous rocks and the coal beds are substantially 
conformable to the bedding, and both are somewhat lenticular. 

A few years ago, Mr. C. A. Ashburner proposed as a basis 
of classification of coals the ratio of fixed carbon to volatile 
carbonaceous matter. As I understand it the term “fixed 
_ earbon” does not assume that all the carbon thus designated 
exists in the coal as carbon uncombined with hydrogen, ete., 
but refers to the residue after destructive distillation. It 
remains to be determined how far this test will apply to the 
asphalt. In western Colorado and Utah we find in the ear- 
bonaceous minerals all proportions of tixed carbon from one or 
two per cent in the maltha up to eighty-seven or more in the 
anthracite. The soft asphalts grade by insensible degrees into 
the hard asphalts (at least in their physical characteristics) and 
these in turn into jet, the cannel coals and bituminous shales, 
and these again into the caking coals, ete. Dana’s Text-book of 
Mineralogy approves the theory that coals are chiefly composed 
of oxygenated hydro-carbons. In the Rocky Mountain region 
not only must a scientific classification of the coals take account 
of the oxygen contained in the different coals, but the indus- 
trial classification must do the same also. Many coals of this 
region when once inflamed will continue to burn for a long 
time even when protected from the air. This accounts for the 
long distances the lignites often burn under ground. On East 
Salt Creek, Col., the burning coal produced a layer of slag of 
unequal thickness up to twelve feet and the country shows the 
action of hot waters much like a volcanic region. Several 
places are known where the coal adjacent to the once burning 
coal has-been changed to a natural coke, and as we go back- 
ward from the former fire the coke passes by degrees into the 
unaltered caking coal. 

Origin of the Asphalt.—When the facts as to the Utah and 
Colorado bitumens are thoroughly collated and discussed, they 
will throw considerable light on the mooted questions as to the 
origin of petroleum, asphalt, gas, and other subterranean hydro- 
carbons. Most other areas were marine, while these deposits 
were made in the sediments of the extensive lakes which in 
Tertiary times extended from the Rocky Mountains several 
hundred miles westward. These rocks will therefore present 
conditions somewhat different from those of marine beds. 


G. H. Stone—Asphaltum of Utah and Colorado. 158 


My partial exploration does not yet warrant discussion of all 
the questions at issue but certain points may here be mentioned. 

From Professor Orton’s report above cited I extract a few 
statements of theories. 

Dr. T. Sterry Hunt counts limestones the principal source 
of petroleum and denies that it has been produced by distilla- 
tion from bituminous shales, while Dr. J. S. Newberry finds 
in the shales the main source of oil and gas, and vigorously 
opposes the view that limestones are ever an important source 
of either. Professors J. P. Lesley, I. C. White and J. D. 
Whitney favor the theory of the origin of petroleum by the 
primary decomposition of organic matter, while Dr. Newberry 
and Professor S. F. Peckham favor theories of secondary distil- 
Jation. Hunt regards petroleum as indigenous when in lime- 
stones, and adventitious in the other rocks, as sandstones and 
conglomerates. . 

Since petroleum and asphaltum appear to have so nearly the 
same origin, it is permissible to discuss them in the same con- 
nection, especially as Dr. Newberry has referred the origin of 
the Utah asphalt to the marine Cretaceous black shales (Fox 
Hills and Colorado groups).* 

Regarding the above stated theories we remark : 

1. Certain Tertiary limestones of Colorado and Utah now 
contain considerable solid bituminous matter and once con- 
tained a liquid substance which has oozed out of the rock into 
cavities where it became changed to hard asphalt. The asphalt 
occurs as a great number of rather small masses and its aggre- 
gate quantity is great. This sort of rock is well exposed in the 
remarkable cafions of Parachute Creek, Col. 

2. Professor Whitney refers the Tertiary bituminous minerals 
of California to organic matter derived from marine infusorians 
(quoted from Orton). In the Tertiary lakes of the region under 
description we might expect there would be drift-wood, many 
diatoms and fresh-water alge and possibly infusorians enough 
to contribute considerable organic matter to the limestones. 
Irrespective of this source of organie matter, there are 
oe numbers of fossil molluscan shells in the limestones. 

ence although the lime rocks are in part non-fossiliferous 
and in part may be composed of lime precipitated from solu- 
tion, yet we seem here to find evidence of the presence of 
organic matter within them sufficient to account for the in- 
digenous origin of petroloidal bitumens according to Hunt’s 
theory.t 7 

3. The black bituminous shales are also to be considered in 
this connection. Certain layers are quite rich in bitumens. 

* Dr. Newberry as quoted by Salt Lake Journal of Commerce. 


+ This hypothesis is strengthened by the highly probable indigenous origin of 
the petroleum of the Trenton limestone in Ohio and Indiana, Orton, op. cit. 


154. G. HL. Stone—Asphaltum of Utah and Colorado. 


They are distributed through several hundred feet of shales 
(or marls) and occasional limestones. ach stratum bears its 
own proportion of bitumen over large areas. The richer strata 
are not those nearest the limestones and they alternate with 
low grade strata. There are no veins or highly bituminized 
tracts leading from the limestones out into the shales, nor any 


other field evidence that after deposition the shales were 


bituminized from the limestones. Indeed these black shales 
are a very impenetrable rock. When veins of asphalt cross 
both limestones and shales the asphalt has in no place that I 
have discovered passed out into the shales and super-charged 
them. 

Certain of the shale strata contain great numbers of imprints 
of deciduous leaves, water plants and insects, larvee, ete. The 
carbonaceous matter of the leaves is not in the form of asphalt, 
but of charcoal or free-burning coal and contains quite a large 
proportion of fixed carbon. It is thus proved that certain 
strata contained a large amount of organic matter. As above 
noted there are occasional thin coal beds in the midst of the 
bituminous shales, but they do not contain more than the 
average quantity of bitumen found in the coals of the period. 
Evidently the conditions for the production of coal are very 
different from those that produce oil and asphalt, but the sur- 
prising thing is that we do not find the two conditions passing 
into one another by transitionary steps. 

Thus there is no proof that the shales were bituminized from 
the limestones and the coals have only their indigenous bitumen 
and volatile carbonaceous matter. So far as I have observed, 
the richer bituminous shales and asphaltic sand rocks are mostly 
non-fossiliferous and there is no direct evidence of the former 
presence within them of undecomposed organic matter, except 
a few shells in the sandstones, and some silicified and ferrugi- 
nized wood. 

4, If, according to the views of Dr. Newberry, the asphalt 
of the Utah Tertiary beds was derived from the Cretaceous 
black shales, then it must have passed upward either as a liquid 
or as a gas. 

1. Did the asphalt originate in a liquid that passed from the 
black shales upward? It is admitted that the black shales con- 
tain more or less petroleum, though in general these shales 
afford only thin films of oil. This may, however, be due to 
the petroleum having drained off to lower levels during the 
upheavals incident to the elevation of the mountains. From 
the top of the Fox Hills rocks to the lowest of the Tertiary 
asphalt beds there intervene 3000 feet or more of Laramie and 
Wasatch rocks, mostly sandstone, with thick strata of shales, 
marls and limestones, also several coal beds, and a very impene- 
trable iron-cemented sandrock. If a liquid passed up through 


{ 
: 
’ 
7 
1 
‘ 
, 


G. H. Stone—Asphaltum of Utah and Colorado. 155 


these rocks it may have been either by a general diffusion 
through the inter-granular spaces, or it may have been along 
fractures or fissures. 

Now the coal of this region is no more bituminous than the 
Laramie and Tertiary coals of other coal fields outside of the 
asphalt area. The Laramie sandstones of the asphalt area are 
just like those found outside that area. Nobody has yet re- 
ported even one deposit of bituminous rock of Laramie age. 
lt is ineredible there should have been any general diffusion of 
liquid bitumens through so great a thickness of various kinds 
of rocks, without some of the bituminous matter remaining in 
those rocks, even after they have drained for ages. Moreover, 
I do not see why such a supposed ascension of petroleoids 
should be confined to the area of the Tertiary lakes instead of 
being spread over all the extensive area covered by the black 
shales. At Florence, Colo., most of the oil is said to be con- 
tained in a stratum of sandstone situated in the midst of the 
black shales, and if the overylying shale and the Laramie rocks 
have been sufficient to keep down the oil without a general dif- 
fusion into the Laramie sandstones, how could happen such an 
enormous upward diffusion in the region of the Tertiary lakes ? 

On the other hand, it may be urged that the oils of the 
marine black shales passed up along great fissures. The Ter- 
tiary lakes in question lay along the southern base of the Uinta 
Mountains and eastern base of the Wasatch. It is the conclu- 
sion of Powell, King and others that the Uinta uplift began 
at the close of the Laramie period and continued through 
Tertiary time. Great fissure veins of Uintaite now cross the 
region south of the Uinta Mountains and the Yampa plateau. 
The fissures cut down through the Brown’s Park, Bridger and 
Green River beds, and nobody knows how much deeper. The 
fact that they are situated within 30 miles of where a great 
mountain range was pushed up to say nothing of the Wasatch 
uplift to the west, makes it highly probable they go down 
to profound depths and intersect the marine Cretaceous 
shales. Did the asphalt or any portion of it come up through 
these fissures? The details of an hypothesis to this effect 
would be about as follows: The petroleum of the black shales 
passed up through the fissures and floated on the surface of the 
water of the lake. Here it gradually oxidized or at least thick- 
ened, acquired a black color and became tarry asphalt. The wind 
blew it upon the sandy shores where it penetrated the sand. 
Off shore the mud contained in the water became entangled 
in the asphalt and sunk, carrying its sticky burden with it.* 
And even if we assume the indigenous origin of the bitumens 


* See description by Dr. Joseph Leidy of the action of the mud of the Schuyl- 
kill River, on gas tar. Orton, op. cit. 


156 G. H. Stone—Asphaltum of Utah and Colorado. 


of the limestones or certain layers of the shales, we may also 
assume that a part of the bitumens originated as above de- 
scribed, or in some other way from the upward passage of oils 
through the fissures. 

Such an hypothesis certainly accords with some of the facts. 
The rocks now dip from the Roan Cliffs northward to the 
DuChesne and White Rivers. The marginal portions of the 
rocks that were laid down in the Tertiary lake of this region 
have been removed by erosion. This is the region where a 
non-conformity would be exposed.* While, then, we do not 
know with certainty that the rocks at the southern margin of 
the Tertiary lake near the present course of the Green river 
dipped northward at the time this lake began to exist, yet 
it is a very natural supposition that they did so, and that 
it was owing to an uplift toward the south that the lake 
was formed. If reservoirs of oil existed in the black 
shales, a northward dip would tend to prevent their escape 
southward. And since the supposed fissures would let in the 
water from the lake as well as let out the oil, it is easy to ac- 
count for the oil rising to the surface of the lake. The inter- 
mittent depositing of the asphalt could then be accounted as 
due to alternate opening and closing of the’ fissures, such as 
would be possible during the great Uinta uplift, or to other 
accidents of sedimentation. 

Now the fissures that are at present exposed are of very late 
age, being made after the latest rocks were formed in this. 
basin, and after the lake was drained by the Green River, and 
when the Uinta and Wasatch uplifts were far advanced. It is 
possible that they are the continuations upward of fissures 
made in earlier Tertiary time, or we may suppose there were 
earlier fissures that were at the last covered by the Brown’s 
' Park rocks. The present fissures are filled with hard asphalt 
that once was evidently liquid, and indeed the asphalt grows 
softer as we go down in the veins and in places is somewhat 
viscous, even quite near the surface. Where I have examined 
these veins there is no sign that this liquid has passed out into 
the wall rock and charged it. The only asphaltic rock exposed 
in the country bordering the fissures is of very low grade, and 
there is a very large amount of this impoverished rock in that 
region. There are no known fissure veins in the country 
where the asphaltic sand rock is rich. Thus there is no field 
evidence of the passage of asphalt outward from the fissures, 
but strong indications that the sand rocks were drained of their 
maltha to fill the fissures. + 


* Such a non-conformity exists at the Grand Mesa east of Grand Junction, 
Colo., where the Tertiary beds overlie the Laramie. 

+ At two places in the Ashley valley there are very rich areas of sand asphalt 
at the foot of slopes of natural dip, as if the maltha had flowed down the slopes 


G. H. Stone—Asphaltum of Utah and Colorado. 157 


If asphaltic tar as such rose in fissures and sub-aerially 
poured out over the ground or penetrated the pores of the ad- 
joining sediments, we ought to find the richest areas: nearest 
the fissures. Butif oil or asphalt rose to the surface of the 
lake and then was driven far and wide by the winds and waves, 
the larger masses of asphalt might be far away from the 
fissures. The bedding and other structural phenomena would 
be the same whether this rose from the marine shales through 
fissures, or was derived from the primary decomposition of the 
organic matter buried in the sediments of the lake. 

The fact that the asphalt was not formed till a considerable 
depth of Tertiary rocks was laid down, favors the hypothesis 
that it was derived from organic matter contained in the Ter- 
tiary beds. However I leave the matter open; though it must 
be admitted that thus far I have discovered no field evidence 
of the passage of oils or bitumens upward from the Cretaceous 
marine shales to form the asphalts of Tertiary time. 

2 Was the asphalt derived from gas brought up to the sur- 
face? Professor Orton in the work cited well states the 
chemical objections to the theory of synthesis of more complex 
compounds from gas. However it is not my purpose to enter 
into a general argument, only to note the bearing of the facts 
discovered in Colorado. There are gas springs on the lower 
White River. Insome places the gas is said to be accompanied 
by a trace of petroleum, but there is no proof that the one is 
derived from the other, and there is no deposit of asphaltum 
forming around the place. I find no field evidence that the 
asphalt under description originated in gas coming to the sur- 
face from below. The surface rocks at these gas springs are 
the very lowest of the Green River and uppermost of the 
Wasatch.* 

5. Near the Utah line, on the head-waters of West Salt 
Creek, Col., is a field of sand asphalt which contains concre- 
tionary masses of the sand rock cemented with lime and iron, 
from the size of cherries up to four feet in diameter. The 
concretions are very compact and impenetrable and are free 
from asphalt, while the surrounding rock is thoroughly charged 


(through the pores of the sand) before it became so hard as at present. In one 
place a large field of the asphaltic sand rock has been laid bare by erosion. The 
bed dips about 15°, and under the heat and force of gravity has flowed bodily 
like a glacier, so as to dip down the sides of ravines of erosion a short distance. 
Some have described this as over-flow asphalt The flow is not equal throughout 
the mass, but is more active along certain lines of fracture, so that the upper 
surface looks like an exposure of basaltic columns, while the prisms are marked 
one from the other by depressions one to four inches deep that are in some cases 
partly filled by true out-flow asphalt that has oozed out of the sand. As a body 
this is a mass of sand cemented by viscous asphalt and having a sort of plastic 
flow, the units of motion being the prisms except at the prismatic lines where the 
~ units are the sand grains. 

* Prof. A. Lakes of Golden, Colo., like myself, found no oil at these gas springs. 


158 G. H. Stone—Asphaltum of Utah and Colorado. 


with it. The concretions must have had their intergranular 
spaces filled with cement before the asphalt penetrated the 
pores of the sand around them. 

A few miles farther west I found an asphaltic sand .rock 
much cross-bedded. Alternate layers about half an inch thick 
contained more and less asphalt so that the rock was crossed 
by darker and lighter bands. The size of the grains of sand 
was so nearly uniform in the different layers that it did not 
seem probable some of the layers were originally more porous 
than others. A better interpretation is that the layers were 
charged from the surface during deposition of the rock, and 
the same causes that produced the intermittent deposition 
charged the layers unequally. 

While here asphaltization was probably cotemporaneous 
with deposition, in the case of the concretionary rock above- 
mentioned, asphaltization did not take place till after the 
cementing of the concretions. Geologically this may not have 
been long. At Thistle, Utah, a sand rock containing molluscan 
shells is charged with asphalt which has also filled the interiors 
of the shells. Here the time of asphaltizing is not certain. 

In general the small amount of fine sediment and calcareous, 
ferruginous or siliceous cements occurring with the asphalt in 
the pores of the sand rock, favors the hypothesis that the rock 
was charged with asphalt contemporaneously with or soon after 
deposition, and before it had time to become cemented into a 
compact, solid rock. All the richer sand asphalt readily softens 
under heat, proving it has practically no cement but asphalt. 
Apparently it is the presence of the asphalt that has kept the 
other cements out. Moreover I do not see how asphaltization 
of sediments can in general be so nearly parallel with stratifi- 
cation unless the strata were asphaltized successively before 
new strata were overlaid. 

6. Professor Peckham, as quoted by Orton, says: “It seems 
to me that the different varieties of petroleum are the products 
of fractional distillation, and one of the strongest proofs of this 
is found in the large content of parafiine in the Bradford oil 
under the enormous pressure to which it has been subjected.” 

Near the same horizon as the most of the sand asphalt are 
found some thin seams of paraffine, near the top of the 
Wasatch Mountains. This ozocerite or mineral wax is extract- 
able with solvents and hot water, and therein is quite different 
from the parattine that results from the destructive distillation 
of the bituminous shales of this region. For the fractional 
distillation necessary to leave the paraftines as residuum, Pro- 
fessor Peckham postulates considerable heat. In the Wasateh 
area I have failed to find evidence of local metamorphism or 
unusual heat. The ozocerite beds were deposited after the 
upheaval of the Rocky Mountains, and before the rising of the 


G. H. Stone—Asphaltum of Utah and Colorado. 159 


Wasatch. The heat of these revolutions came respectively too 
early and too late, and I failed to find voleanoes very near. 
The fact that hard paraffines result from the fractional distilla- 
tion of petroleum and from the destructive distillation of coals 
and asphalts would seem to make it probable the Wasatch 
paraffines resulted from such distillations. The absence of any 
other evidence of heat from the locality makes the presence 
of the paraffines more noticeable. The question arises, why 
should here be found the waxy parafiines, while all around so 
great quantities of asphalt were produced in rocks of nearly if 
not the same age? Evidently a great amount of work remains 
to be done before we can scientifically distinguish between the 
processes which severally resulted in the formation of coal, the 
oily and buttery paraffines, and the asphalts. While studying 
the subject a theory of a somewhat speculative nature has 
occurred to me. Paraffines have been found in the turpentine 
of pines.* Paraffines are among the most stable of the organic 
compounds. The hypothesis is suggested whether this waxy 
parafiine of the Wasatch region may not be due to that con- 
tained in the turpentine of conifers, and that this is a residuum 
of primary decomposition, all that remains of the original tur- 
pentine, the more unstable substances having disappeared. It 
is a fact that in the Rocky Mountain region the coal contains 
a large quantity of partially mineralized resin.t 

Now if resin (dried and oxidized turpentine) has so long 
resisted decomposition and mineralization, it becomes by no 
means improbable that if a turpentine contained parafiine, that 
very refractory substance might remain after all the other 
ingredients had become decomposed and changed either to coal 
or to petroleoids, or indeed oxidized to carbonic acid. This 
question is evidently part of a larger question: how far were 
the hydro-carbons of the carbonaceous minerals formed within 
the living organisms from which these minerals were derived ?+ 

* Watt’s Dictionary of Chemistry, IJ] Supplement, art. paraffine. Also Roscoe 
and Schorlemmer, Chem., vol. iii, pt. 1, p. 140. 

+ According to Messrs. Remington and Giison of Salt Lake City there is in 
Utah a bed of fossil resin severai feet in thickness. It is still soluble in most 
solvents of resin, but will no longer unite with linseed oil to form a tough varnish. 
I have seen specimens of the mineral but have not made a field examination of 
the deposit and do not know its geological age. 

¢ Mr. G. P. Wall, quoted by Orton, p. 500, gives a graphic picture of vegetable 
matter partially changed to asphalt. The description appears to refer to cellulose 
and woody fiber. What would become of the more soluble products of the plant, 
such as the oils, resins, paraffines and other non-oxygenated hydro-carbons? 
They appear to be able to withstand decomposition longer than the cellular tissues, 
and would certainly be dissolved in any petroleoid produced from those tissues. 
Would they simply enter into solution or into a chemical synthesis? These and 


other similar questions need to be solved before we can trace the relationships of . 
the coals, petroleums, asphalts, fossil resins and acids, hard paraffines, ete. 


Colorado Springs, March 3, 1891. 


Am. Jour. Sc1.—THIRD SERIES, Von. XLII, No. 248.—Avetst, 1891. 
1l 


160 G. E. Hale—Photographie Investigation of 


Art. XIV.—Photographic Investigation of Solar Promi- 
nences and their Spectra; by GEORGE E. HALE. With 
Plate VIII. 


IT is now many years since any important advance has been 
made in our knowledge of the solar prominences. With the 
exception of spectrum photographs made at the Siam and 
Egyptian eclipses, and the momentary glimpses of mysterious 
“white prominences” during totality, almost nothing has been 
added to the collection of facts gathered nearly twenty years 
ago. After Professor Young’s vigorous attack upon the chro- 
mosphere and prominence lines at Mount Sherman and else- 
where, other investigators seem to have been impressed with 
the belief that no further additions could be made to the long 
catalogue of lines drawn up by our most skillful solar observer, 
and the spectroscopic side of the matter was allowed to rest, 
though a continuous record has been kept of the forms of 
chromosphere and prominences. While it is probably true 
that the most persistent watching would be required to in- 
crease the number of known lines in the visual spectrum, it is 
rather singular that the importance of photography in a study 
of the ultra-violet has been entirely overlooked. While the 
positions of spots on the sun’s disc are daily recorded by pho- 
tography, the same cannot be said of the chromosphere and 

rominences, and even in investigations of the extremely com- 
plicated spot spectra, photography has been but little employed, 
experiments with it not having proved very successful. 

It is unnecessary here to urge the importance of using pho- 
tographic processes to assist the eye in nearly all classes of 
solar investigation. What has been said for photography in 
other fields of astronomical or physical research will apply 
with equal force in the present instance, and the results of 
many years speak forcibly for themselves. It is of course very 
desirable that the ultra-violet should be studied, and for this 
purpose visual observations are of no service. Again, promi- 
nence forms as photographed through different lines should be 
compared, and the sequel will show that photography affords 
the only means of investigating the white prominences.* 

The history of attempts at solar prominence photography 
extends over twenty years, and it is remarkable that the earliest 
experiments were the only ones which gave any indications of 
possible success. In 1870 Professor C. A. Young made the 
first prominence photographs taken without an eclipse. Using 
‘the hydrogen y line (G’), and a wide tangential slit, a magni- 
fied image of the prominence was formed upon an ordinary 


* See also Technology Quarterly, vol. iii, No. 4. 


Solar Prominences and their Spectra. 161 


collodion plate, and given an exposure of nearly four minutes.* 
Professor Young has very kindly shown me silver prints from 
the best original negatives; in these only the general outline of 
the prominence can be faintly seen. This is due partly toa 
small displacement of the image during the exposure, as the 
polar axis of the telescope was slightly out of adjustment. 
The nebulous character of G’ makes its use objectionable, but 
the serious difficulty with this line lies in the employment of a 
wide slit. The brilliancy of the background of atmospheric 
spectrum increases very rapidly when the slit is opened, while 
the prominence itself grows no brighter. Thus the contrast in 
a photograph is greatly decreased, and the general illumination 
of the field, due to diffused light from the grating, or fluores- 
cence of the prisms or object glasses, conspires to hide all 
details of structure. For these reasous the method has never 
been employed in practice. 

It is beyond the scope of the present paper to describe the 
various methods of prominence photography proposed by 
Braun in 1872, Lockyer and Seabroke in the same year, Lohse 
in 1874 and 1880, Zenger in 1879, and Janssen in 1881. Suf- 
fice it to say, that in no instance was any success attained 
sufficient to bring the method into practical use, and in 1889 it 
was impossible to see where any advance whatever had been 
made beyond the-brief experiments of Professor Young with 
a simple open slit. 

In undertaking an investigation of the subject inthe sum- 
mer of the year last named, the writer devised two methods of 
accomplishing the desired result with a narrow slit, for it was 
evident that with any line in the prominence spectrum as then 
known, the use of a wide slit could not have more than an 
extremely limited application. In the first method the rate of 
the driving clock of the equatorial is so changed that the sun’s 
image drifts at right angles across the slit of a spectroscope of 
high dispersion. At the focus of the observing telescope (of 
equal focal length with the collimator) a photographic plate 
moves at the same speed, at right angles to the axis of the tele- 
scope, and in the direction of dispersion. A narrow slit just 
in front of the plate allows only the line in use to fall upon it, 
and thus prevents fogging. It will be easily seen that fresh 
portions of the plate will be uncovered as the prominence 
drifts across the slit, and the result will be a latent image upon 
the photographic plate. 

The second method exactly reverses the operations of the 
first. The sun’s image is held in a fixed position by the driv- 
ing clock of the equatorial, while the plate at the focus of the 
observing telescope is also stationary. The slit of the spectro- 
scope is caused to move steadily across the end of the collima- 


* Journal Franklin Institute, Oct. 3, 1870. 


162 G. E. Hale—Photographic Investigation of 


tor, while a corresponding slit before the plate moves at such 
a rate that the line im use passes constantly through it. 

Both of these methods, together with the experiments car- 
ried on with the first. at the Harvard Observatory and more 
recently at the Kenwood Physical Observatory, have been 
already described,* and in the present paper I wish to consider 
especially the results obtained in Chicago within the last few 
weeks. 

In my earliest attempts at photographing the prominence 
spectrum I was much surprised to find narrow, sharp, bright 
lines running up through the center of the dark shades of 
both H and K, apparently to the very top of every prominence. 
At Mount Sherman in 1872 Professor Young, whose eyes are 
exceptionally sensitive to the shorter wave-lengths, had been 
able to see similar reversals of H and K, but the difficulties of 
observation were so great that he considered it probable that 
the whole width of each dark shade at H and K was reversed, 
the eye being able to perceive only the maximum of intensity 
at the center. Once or twice he noticed a bright line esti- 
mated to be about one division of Angstrém’s scale below the 
central reversal of H, but with the utmost precautions the eye 
was incapable of any accurate determinations of position or 
appearance in this part of the spectrum. But with high dis- 
persion and care in manipulation the photographic plate meets 
with no difficulties, and the lines are obtained with ease. Fig. 
1 of Plate VIII shows the reversals photographed with a radial 
slit, while for the negative used in making fig. 2 the slit was 
parallel to a tangent at the limb, and about 30” from it. All 
of the figures were made directly from the original negatives 
by a photographic process, and, with the exception of fig. 3, 
the scale is the same as that at the focus of the spectroscope, 
the fourth order spectrum of a 14,438 Rowland grating hav- 
ing been employed. Though an excellent one in every other 
respect the grating gives two orders of ghosts, and the line 
just below H seems to coincide with one of these; but careful 
measures of its positions, combined with its appearance as com- 
pared with the corresponding first order ghost of K, makes it 
more than likely that it is an independent line. A set of pre- 
liminary measures from two negatives renders it extremely 
probable that this line is due to hydrogen, as the wave-length 
agrees remarkably with that obtained by Ames for a hydrogen 
line at this point (A3970°25)+ but more measures from a num- 
ber of negatives already in my possession will be needed to 
settle the question. There seems to be no corresponding line 
in the solar spectrum, but both the H and K reversals appear 

* Technology Quarterly, vol. iii, No. 4, 1890. Astronomische Nachrichten, Nos. 


3006 and 3037. Sidereal Messenger, June, 1891. Monthly Notices of the R. A.S., 
July, 1891. + Phil. Mag., July, 1890. 


Solar Prominences and their Spectra. 163 


to agree in position with narrow dark lines at the center of the 
dark shades. Above in the ultra-violet the photographs bring 
out three new lines, which there are good reasons to regard as 
the first three lmes of the hydrogen stellar series, though their 
wave-lengths have not been determined as yet. The lowest of 
the three, which probably corresponds with the line called 
hydrogen a in Dr. Huggins’s map, has occasionally been 
glimpsed in the prominence spectrum by Professor Young, 
and its identity can now be certainly determined for the first 
time.* But the photographs have also revealed a new and 
interesting fact. On all the plates made with the focus of the 
observing telescope accurately adjusted for this region, the 
first line above K is shown to be a fine, sharp double, the sepa- 
ration of the components amounting to a few tenths of a tenth- 
metre. A special study of this double will be made when a 
new photographic object-glass of six feet focus has been com- 
pleted for the spectroscope. The fourth order spectrum of 
our concave grating of ten feet radius will also probably be 
brought into service for work on the solar spectrum in this 
region. 

As already suggested, the two upper prominence lines are 
probably coincident with two lines in the hydrogen series. 
Only one of these appears in fig. 2, where it is very faint. 
A photographic search for the remaining lines of the series is 
now in progress at the Kenwood Physical Observatory. 

The important variations in the relative intensities of promi- 
nence lines revealed in eclipse photographs have been partially 
confirmed by my photographs. So far only one prominence 
has appeared in which the ultra-violet hydrogen lines could be 
photographed, and this showed a corresponding increase of 
brilliancy in the visual spectrum. But the H and K reversals 
are invariably strong, and easily photographed. Preliminary 
measures show that both lines probably belong to calcium, but 
this is yet to be definitely determined, and the origin of the 
broad dark shades in the solar spectrum is decidedly uncertain. 
In spite of the constant presence of the H and K bright lines 
in prominences, it can hardly be supposed that the substance 
producing them can be ordinary hydrogen, for several reasons. 
In the first place there is no provision for K in Balmer’s series, 
and H certainly does not fall in the position of the hydrogen 
line, as it is about 1°5 tenth-metre more refrangible. Again, 
Hand K do not follow the hydrogen lines in their intensity 

* Great confusion is likely to result from the indiscriminate use of the letter H 
for ‘‘ hydrogen” o- for Fraunhofer’s H line, and also in applying the Greek letters 
to the hydrogen lines, for some call the c line a, and others apply the same letter 
to the first hydrogen lime in the ultra-violet. It is desirable to adopt some com- 


mon nomenclature, and probably the most natural is to begin with c¢, and call this 
line ‘‘ hydrogen a,” or else refer to each line by its wave-length. 


164 G. FE. Hale—Photographic Investigation of 


variations, and in several cases I have photographed both H 
and K expanded and reversed over spots in which the C and F 
lines showed no signs of reversal. Some very recent photo- 
graphs suggest the possibility that the substance producing the 
H and K bright lines occasionally ascends in prominences to a 
higher level than that reached by hydrogen itself (observed 
through C) in the same prominences, and the “ white prom- 
inences ” observed and photographed at several eclipses offer a 
most interesting case in point. At the Grenada eclipse of 
August 29, 1886, Prof. W. H. Pickering found in his photo- 
graphs made during totality a spiral prominence 150,000 miles 
high, which had for the only lines in its spectrum H, K, and a 
faint trace of an ultra-violet line about half-way between K 
and L. There was also a brilliant continuous spectrum in the 
visible region, but as the usual hydrogen lines were absent, 
Prof. Tacchini was unable to see the prominence by the usual 
spectroscopic method, either before or after totality. In his 
report Prof. Pickering adds: ‘It is highly probable that a 
great number of prominences pass by entirely unnoticed, be- 
cause we rely solely upon visual instead of photographie 
methods of observation.”* At the present moment I have not 
the remaining literature of this subject within reach, and must 
trust to memory for a few more references to simular phe- 
nomena. In the report of the eclipse of Jan. 1, 1889, published 
by the Lick Observatory, Dr. Swift alludes to the peculiar 
white appearance of some of the prominences, and in com- 
paring the prominences photographed at the same eclipse with 
those observed on the same day at Palermo, P. Tacchini notes 
the presence in the photographs of two prominences seen 
neither at Palermo or Rome, and concludes that they are 
white prominences, similar to the great white prominence 
shown in the Grenada photographs.+ Capt. Abney’s photo- 
graphs of the prominence spectrum at the Egyptian eclipse. 
and a suspicion of Trouvelot’s (given in the Comptes Rendus) 
that a certain floating prominence must have some invisible 
connection with the chromosphere, make evident the extreme 
desirability of some means of photographing both visible and 
invisible prominences in full sunshine. The various theories 
connecting sun-spots and prominences are based upon observa- 
tions in the visual region, and the invisible prominences, 
which are shown by the Grenada photographs, to reach at 
times to great elevations, have been left entirely out of account. 
It will be seen shortly that this need no longer be the case, and 
we may hope soon to have a daily record of ‘all classes of prom- 
inences, both visible and invisible. 


* Annals of Harvard College Observatory, vol. xviii, No. V, p. 99. 
+ Atti della R. Accad., dei Lincei, 1889. 


Solar Prominences and their Spectra. 165 


When the sharp and brilliant reversals of H and K were 
discovered at the beginning of my investigations in prominence 
photography at the Kenwood Physical Observatory, it at once 
beeame evident that a considerable advance had been made, 
for the substitution of either of these lines for the less re- 
frangible hydrogen lines removed the serious difficulty of 
photographing the longer waves of the C region with short 
exposure. But apart from their position in the spectrum, the 
distinctive peculiarity of H and K specially fits them for 
prominence photography. The narrow bright lines, instead of 
being superposed on a brilliant continuous spectrum, as is the 
ease with all of the other prominence lines, lie in the center of 
broad, dark bands, where the troublesome light of the atmo- 
sphere is missing. Thus both slits used in my apparatus for 
photographing the prominences could be much more widely 
opened, without the difficulty of fogging and loss of contrast 
experienced with the other lines. The result was that the 
first photograph made in this way proved a success. The 
prominence drifted slowly across a narrow tangential slit, and 
behind the second slit, at the focus of the observing telescope, 
a small cylinder with its axis parallel to the slit, carried a strip 
of sensitive film at a speed equal to that of the moving solar 
image. A smooth and uniform motion of the cylinder was 
produced by asmall clepsydra. The photograph showed the. 
form of the prominence very well, and with considerable con- 
trast. It was then concluded, on account of the great width of 
the dark shades at H and K, that for prominences of not too 
great size (the image of the sun on the slit plate is two inches 
in diameter) it would only be necessary to use a wide slit, and 
give a short exposure. Fig. 3 shows the result of such an ex- 
periment. The wide slit was nearly tangent to the sun’s limb, 
but did not quite touch it, in order to exclude the direct light. 
The exposure was about 2 seconds, and the dispersion that of 
the fourth order of a 14,438 grating. As an object-glass (34 
inches aperture and 423 inches focus) corrected for the visual 
region was used in the observing telescope of the spectroscope, 
the foci for H and K are slightly different. The photograph 
is about twice the size of the original, and was enlarged di- 
rectly from it in the camera. : 

Although this method will serve to photograph the invisible 
prominences it is evident that there are two objections to it. 
In the first place it would be very troublesome to find invisible 
prominences, and to do so it would be necessary to take a large 
number of photographs with the slit tangent at various points 
on the limb. This could be remedied by using a curved or 
ring slit. Again, prominences surpassing a certain size could 
not be photographed, though for single narrow prominences 


166 W. H. Weed— Gold-bearing Hot Spring Deposit. 


reaching to a considerable elevation it would be desirable to 
make the direction of the slit coincide with the direction of 
the longest axis of the prominence, the direct light from the 
limb being excluded by a small strip of metal, sliding under 
the slit. To overcome all of these difticulties I have devised a 
new form of apparatus, which will much excel the rotating 
cylinder in ease of adjustment, and allow the use of ordinary 
glass plates, instead of the celluloid film, which decomposes if 
kept for any length of time. A new form of clepsydra, of 
much larger size and with an improved valve, will replace the 
smaller one before used. The equatorial is also to be supplied 
with a 12 inch photographic object glass, and a new tube 
parallel to the old one, so that by a suitable form of cell, 
either object glass may readily be used on either tube, as the 
spectroscope is too large and heavy to be easily moved. The 
instrument will also allow eye observations through the C line 
to be made at the same instant that a photograph is exposed 
through H and K, and this will be important in comparisons 
of the form and extent of prominences as observed through 
different lines. | 

Since the above article was put in type, it has been decided to add another 
illustration (figure 4), which shows a much larger prominence, and of such 
peculiar shade as to be particularly interesting. The following is the record 
made on the observatory journal: ‘Chicago, July 8, 1891, 23 hours 45 minutes, 
prominence through H and K. As at first seen prominence was low, changed 
rapidly. A great flame shot out of the center about 80,000 miles high and lasted 
about fifteen minutes when it resumed its first shape.” As shown in the figure, 
a low portion of the prominence is seen near the limb of the sun. ‘This was 
what was first observed. The high portion lasted only about fifteen minutes and 


then the prominence returned to its original form as shown on the low portion of 
the negative. 


- Brooklyn, July 6, 1891. 


Art. XV.—A_ (Gold-bearing Hot Spring Deposit; by 
WALTER HAkVEY WEED. 


A FEW months ago, a suite of specimens from the Mount 
Morgan gold mine, of Queensland, Australia, was received by 
the writer from Dr. R. L. Jack, the government geologist of 
Queensland, accompanied by the request that they might be 
examined and compared with the siliceous sinters from the hot 
spring region of the Yellowstone Park. These specimens 
possess unusual interest, since Dr. Jack’s observations show 
that this remarkable mine, which paid a dividend of £1,200,000 
sterling, in 1889, is the deposit of a hot spring, the ore being 
a siliceous sinter impregnated with auriferous hematite. The 
structure of this ore-body, as developed by the working of the 


W. H. Weed—Gold-bearing Hot Spring Deposit. 167 


mine, and a microscopical and chemical examination of the 
sinter, both confirm this hypothesis. It is therefore necessary 
to add this form of deposit to those already recognized in the 
classification of ore bodies. 

As but little is generally known of the Mount Morgan mine 
a few notes condensed from Dr. Jack’s report* are inserted : 

This remarkable ore deposit forms the upper portion of the 
hill known as Mount Morgan, whose summit is about 500 feet 
above the surrounding lowland, and is some 1200 feet above sea 
level. The rocks in the immediate vicinity of the mine are 
bluish-gray quartzites forming part of a much disturbed series 
of beds of Carbonifero-Permian age. These beds are inter- 
sected by numerous dikes of igneous rocks, mainly rhyolite, 
and intrusive bodies of diorite and other eruptives. Reefs of 
gold-bearing quartz are common in this area of metamorphic 
rocks. 

The workings of the mine show that the siliceous sinter 
forms a surface covering upon the slopes of the “mount.” In 
such situations it has been found to be usually without gold, 
but the cup-shaped mass of sinter forming the central core and 
summit of the hill is impregnated with brown ironstone carry- 
ing as high as 169°86 oz. of gold to the ton. 


The tunnels driven through the ore body at various levels 

show that the sinter though generally an unbroken mass is 
sometimes formed of large angular blocks, as if the deposit 
had been shattered. A dike of igneous rock now thoroughly 
decomposed and kaolinized, cuts the quartzites and extends 
upward through the sinter. There is no hydrothermal activity 
whatever, in the vicinity of the mine, at the present day, 
though hot springs occur in other parts of Queensland. 
_ The sinter which Dr. Jack has sent as representative of that 
forming the main body of the ore deposit he describes as “a 
very light, frothy, spongy or cellular rock, so light from the 
entanglement of air in its pores as to float in water like 
pumice.” In thin section this material is dark between crossed 
nicol prisms ; its structure and general appearance is that of 
a hot spring deposit, though no sinters quite,like it have as yet 
been found by the writer. It can be positively stated that this 
material is not a pumice, but is a hot spring deposit. The anal- 
ysis No. 1 of the following table was made in the Laboratory 
of the U. 8. Geological Survey by Mr. E. A. Schneider, shows 
this sinter to be a remarkably pure form of opal. 

Analysis No. II, of a sinter from the Yellowstone Park, was 
made by J. E. Whitfield in the laboratory of the U. 8. Geological 


* Mount Morgan Gold Deposits. Second Report by Robert L. Jack, Govern- 
ment Geologist, Queensland, Australia, 1889. 


168 W. H. Weed—Gold-bearing Hot Spring Deposit. 


Survey, and No. IIL. from Steamboat Springs, Nevada (Wood- 
ward).* 

A specimen of the auriferous hematite from this mine possesses 
a stalactitic structure, and must have formed in a cavernous 
space in the sinter. Similar siliceous ironstones are formed 
about the hot springs of the Yellowstone, by the oxidation of 
the cooled overflow waters of the springs as they drip into 
cavities and holes in the sinter deposits. 


Analysis of Siliceous Sinter. 


I. LT. eet 

SiG alae ese aes a vee ee 94°02. 93°88 92°67 
Alumina eo 2. 2 ae leg : 
Ferrous oxide-__ 2°29 0°14 = 
mies: See eae 0°07 0°25 0°14 
Magnesia_.-._... trace 0°07 0°05 
Sogiate: sec nun eneyen) eer 0°28 0°18 
Potashseo ae ee als 0°23 0°75 
Sullph, ‘acid taco. Ene 0:20 ae 
Chicrine 2s ae" 4 cs 8 eds (SI Wiss 
Sodic chloride ___ i's ee 0°18 see 
Water (1053) ial og : 
Lonition Vaan aie ap oa29 ee ong 

Rotel pee ene 99°79 100°33 100°04 


Two peculiar specimens of the earthy portions of the ore- 
mass are thus described by Dr. Jack in a letter to the writer. 
“It occurs surrounded by siliceous sinter on the southern slope 
of the mountain 35 feet perpendicularly beneath the surface, 
and 39 feet from the mouth of the tunnel on No. 8 bench. 
The rock is full of tortuous anastomosing glazed pipes resem- 
bling worm borings,” and has throughout a sort of volitie strue- 
ture. In thin section the rock is seen to be composed largely of 
feldspathic material and opaline silica, showing occasional erys- 
tal grains. In the hand-specimen the rock appears to be formed 
of an aggregation of pellets averaging a millimeter in diameter. 
These pellets possess a compact outer envelope, about a more 
open cavernous center, and are formed entirely of white opaline 
silica. Grains of white decomposed rock, a leached eruptive, 
with occasional grains of quartz are also common. The net- 
work of channels, and concretionary pellets, which char- 
acterize this rock, is a not uncommon structure of the 
calcareous deposits of the Yellowstone Park, and is due to the 
ascent of gas bubbles, through the soft mass. Siliceous sinters 
have also been found, possessing a honeycombed structure of 


* Reports of 40th Par. Survey, vol. ii, p. 826. 


‘ 


Chemistry and Physics. 169 


- this nature, about the springs on the northern shores of the 
Yellowstone Lake. 

It has long been known, that the Steamboat Springs of 
Nevada, are surrounded by deposits of sinter in the fissures of 
which ore deposition is now taking place, a small amount of 
gold being found in these contemporaneous mineral veins.* 
The Mount Morgan mine is, however, the only hot spring 
deposit known, that has been found to contain gold in com- 
mercially valuable quantities. 

The most remarkable hot spring district of the world is 
undoubtedly that of the Yellowstone Park. The variety of 
these springs, and the extensive deposits which they have 
formed, naturally suggests the possible existence of metal- 
liferous deposits. Yet a careful search for such deposits has 
been made for the past eight years, by the members of the 
geological survey party, under Mr. Arnold Hague, without 
bringing to light a single case of this sort. Extensive col- 
lections of the hot spring waters and of the hot spring deposits 
have been subjected to most careful analytical examinations in 
the laboratory of the Survey, without finding even a trace of 
the precious metals. 


SPCLENTIFIC, INTELLIGENCE. 


I. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS. 


1. On the Chemistry of the Secondary Battery.—The phe- 
nomena of charging and discharging a secondary cell are accom- 
panied by chemical changes in the electrodes and in the electro- 
lyte, attended with an evolution of gas. These phenomena have 
been investigated by Cantor for the purpose of ascertaining 
what these chemical changes are; the electrodes and the electrolyte 
both being analyzed before and after charging and the oxygen 
and hydrogen given off during the process measured. Some 
dificulty was found in ascertaining directly the changes in the 
electrodes ; so that they were indirectly determined by charging 
each plate of the cell separately, using as a second electrode, a 
plate whose chemical constitution remains unaffected. Under 
these conditions any change which takes place in the electrolyte 
must be due solely to the reaction taking place between it and 
the electrode, including the gas evolved. Since this gas can be 
determined and also the change which has taken place in the 
composition of the electrolyte, it is evident that from these data 
the change taking place in the electrode itself can be ascertained. 
The author’s studies thus far have been confined to the negative 
plate, this plate consisting of a sheet of lead coated with a mixture 


* Becker, Geology of the Quicksilver deposits, page 343. 


170 Scientific Intelligence. 


of lead oxide and lead sulphate. This plate is made to form the 
cathode and a plate of platinum the anode in a solution of sulphuric 
acid. The following are the results obtained: The first action on 
the plates is. to convert the lead oxide into sulphate. Then the 
hydrogen evolved in the electrolysis reduces this lead sulphate 
forming metallic lead and sulphuric acid. The metallic lead thus 
freshly reduced attacks the sulphuric acid, evolving hydrogen 
and forming lead sulphate again; these reciprocal processes 
continuing until a condition of equilibrium is reached and the 
cell is charged. ‘This local action it is which has led Streintz and 
others erroneously to conclude that hydrogen is occluded in the 
lead plate.—Monatsb. ix, 433; J. Chem. Soc., 1x, 514, May, 
1891. G. F. B. 

2. On the Dead Space in Chemical Reactions.—A third paper 
has been published by LizBrEicu on the dead space in chemical 
reactions. The appearance of this dead space depends in the 
view of the author upon the less mobility of the molecules at the 
surfaces of liquids; a fact which he seems to have proved by a 
series of interesting experiments. From this it follows that the 
surfaces of liquids oppose resistance to the motion of solid bodies 
against them, when driven by a slight force, in the same way as 
a solid wall would do. Such phenomena may be produced when 
one liquid is allowed to rise through another of less density, in 
case the friction-coeflicient of the liquids is sufficiently large. . 
The author abundantly shows how by the application of different 
meniscus-shaped forms, the shape of the entering liquid currents 
suffers changes; while in a certain sense it adapts itself to them. 
In this way phenomena can be obtained quite analogous to those 
which are observed in the dead space in chemical reactions.— 
Ber. Ak. Berl., 1890, 1239; Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., xxiv, (Ref.) 
301, April, 1891. G. F. B. 

3. A new Reaction of Carbon monoxide.—BERTHELOT has 
observed that a solution of silver nitrate, to which has been 
added just enough ammonia to redissolve the precipitate at first 
formed, becomes colored brown when a current of carbon mon- 
oxide is passed through it or when an aqueous solution of the gas 
is added to it, even in the cold. On heating it becomes darker 
and a precipitate is thrown down.—C. &., cxii, 597; Ber. Berl. 
Chem. Ges., xxiv, (Ref.) 348, May, 1891. G. F. B: 


Il. Grouoey. 


1. On the Relations of the Eastern Sandstone of Keweenaw 
Point to the Lower Silurian Limestone; by M. E. Wapsworrs. 
(Communicated).—One of the assistants (Mr. W. L. Honnold) of 
the Michigan Geological Survey, has been engaged in the study 
of the relations of the limestone west of L’anse to the Eastern or 
supposed Potsdam Sandstone of the Copper-bearing range. This 
locality is described in Jackson’s Report, 1849, pp. 399-452, 
Foster and Whitney’s Report Part I, 1850, pp. 117-119, and in 


Geology. 171 


Rominger’s Report, 1873, I, part III, pp. 69-71; and the lime- 
stone considered from its fossils to be Trenton or some adjacent 
Lower Silurian strata. It was inferred by Jackson that the 
limestone underlies the sandstone but by the other observers that 
it overlies it although no direct contact was seen. 

Excavations made by Mr. Honnold’s party, and reported by 
him, have developed the contact of the two formations, and show 
that the two form a synclinal or oblong basin-shaped fold, with 
the limestone overlying, and in direct contact with the sandstone. 
The existence of this fold in the sandstone as well as in the lime- 
stone removes the difficulty previous observers have had in 
reconciling the obviously tilted limestone with the supposed 
horizontal sandstone, and proves that the Eastern sandstone 
exposed here is of Lower Silurian age and older than this lime- 
stone. 

At the point of contact of the two formations, exposed by 
excavation, the sandstone and limestone appear to be comform- 
able, and they are seen to constantly agree in dip and strike. 
The contact between the two formations is abrupt, without any 
beds of passage, although the upper layers of the sandstone 
contain considerable carbonate of lime and magnesia, and the 
lower layers of the limestone much silica. 

These observations are considered to be confirmatory of the 
commonly received view of the Potsdam age of the Eastern 
Sandstone; while the contorted state of the sandstone, extending 
at least one and one-half miles west from the limestone locality, 
may have weight in deciding the relative age of the Eastern 
sandstone and the Copper- -beari ing rocks. 

A careful study of the fossils will be made and additional field 
work done, when the results will be published in detail. 

Michigan Mining School, 
Houghton, Michigan, July 3d, 1891. 

2. Expedition to Mt. St. Elias in the summer of 1890 by 
Israel C. Russell. 200 pp. 8vo, with 20 plates and several figures. 
—The third volume of the National Geographic Magazine con- 
tains an account of this expedition to Mt. St. Elias by Mr. Rus- 
sell. It went out under the auspices of the National Geographic 
Society and the United States Geological Survey. Mr. Mark B. 
Kerr was the topographical assistant in the survey, and Mr. E. 8. 
Hosmer of Washington, a volunteer general assistant. Although 
the summit of Mt. St. Elias was not reached, important additions 
were made by it to the knowledge of the glaciers of the region 
and highly interesting discoveries regarding its geology. The 
formations recognized are (1) sandstones and shales about 
Yakutat Bay, and westward to Icy Bay, which Mr. Russell names 
the Yakutat system ; (2) shales, conglomerates, limestones, sand- 
stones, etc., named the Pinnacle system, occurring in the cliffs of 
Pinnacle Pass, 5000 feet above the sea-level, and along the north- 
ern and western borders of the Samovar Hills on the borders of 
the Seward glacier; and (3) the metamorphic schists of the main 


172 Scientific Intelligence. 


St. Elias range. The limestone of the second of these formations 
was found to be fossiliferous, and to afford a Pecten, Mya aren- 
aria, Mytilus edulis, Leda fossa, Macoma inconspicua, Cardium 
Islandicum, Litorina Atkana—species that are now living, accord- 
ing to Dall, in the cold waters of the region. The age of the 
beds, is therefore, as stated, “ Pliocene or early Pleistocene.” The 
Yakutat beds are regarded as probably younger than those of 
the Pinnacle system. 

The uplifts of the region producing the mountains, including 
St. Elias, are consequently referred to an epoch since “the close 
of the Tertiary.” In the view of Mr. Russell “the southern face 
of Mt. St. Elias is a fault-scarp. The mountain itself is formed 
by the upturned edge of a faulted block in which the stratification 
is inclined northeastward. ‘The mountain stands at the intersection 
of two lines of displacement, one trending in a northeasterly and 
the other in a northwesterly direction. The one trending north- 
westward extends beyond the junction with the northeasterly fault. 
The point of union is at the pass between Mt. St. Elias and Mt. 
Newton. The upturned block, bounded on the southwest by a 
great fault, projects beyond the northeasterly fault. It is this 
projecting end of a roof-like block that forms Mt. St. Elias.” 

This view of the mountain is before the future investigator. 
Another view, for like study, is the possibility that St. Elias 
existed in essentially its present form before the Quaternary, and 
had (along with the country about it) 5000 or more feet added to 
its elevation above the water-level at the time of the uplift of the 
Quaternary beds. 

3. Glacier scratches south of the ‘terminal Moraine” in 
Western Pennsyluania.—Messrs. P. M. Fosuay and R. R. Hics, 
in a paper in the 2d volume of the Bulletin of the Geological 
Society of America (p. 467), describe and figure glacial scratches 
observed by them on the western bluff of the rock gorge of 
the Beaver, near the mouth of the Connoquenessig, “ two miles 
or more south” of the “terminal moraine” as located by Lewis 
and Wright. ‘Some of the grooves are 5 feet wide and 18 inches 
deep. The authors remark that the grooves may be within “the 
fringe” of scattered erratics south of the line of the moraine, de- 
scribed by Lewis, but observe that they are as much glacier- 
made as those of Kelly Island in Lake Erie. For an article by 
Mr. Foshay on the pot-holes and pre-Glacial drainage of the same 
region, with a map, see vol. xl of this Journal, p. 397, 1890. 

4. Losses of Cape Cod by sea-encroachment.—In the U. 8. 
Coast and Geodetic Report for 1889, H. L. Marinpin, Assistant, 
gives details with regard to the losses of Cape Cod. In the 
southern section, 6 miles long, the crest-line of the beach has 
receded in 19 years at the rate of 8 feet a year, In a middle 
section of 4 miles, the shore-line has receded 8 feet in 31 years. 
In the northern section of 14 miles (from the Nausett Three 
Lights to the Highland Light in Truro) the mean recession is 3°2 
feet per year; and it indicates a removal in 40 years of 30,231,- 


Botany. 173 


038 cubic yards, or 755,756 cubic yards per year, or 53,784 cubic 
yards per linear mile. "The total loss from the three sections is 
stated at 32,233,030 cubic yards. 

a Der Peloponnes Versuch einer Landeskunde auf geologischer 
Grundlage, nach Ergebwissen eigener Reisen von Dr. ALFRED 
Puriprson. 8vo. Berlin, 1891. (R. Friedlander and Son.) Part 
I of this work on the Geology of the Peloponnesus, extending to 
272 pages, is accompanied by a large, colored geological map and 
many profile sections. 


Ill. Botany. 


1. Botanic Gardens in the Equatorial Belt and in the South 
Seas [First Paper.]|—It it my purpose to give, in the following 
notes, some account of the more important Botanic Gardens 
visited by me during a recent journey. The tour carried me 
from Genoa, through the canal at Suez, to Ceylon, in which 
country Péradeniya and Hakgala were examined; thence to 
Adelaide in South Australia; Melbourne and Geelong in Victoria; 
Hobart in Tasmania; Dunedin, Christchurch, and Wellington, in 
New Zealand ; Sydney in New South Wales; Brisbane in Queens- 
land ; Buitenzorg in Java; Singapore in the Straits Settlement ; 
Saigon, Hong Kong, and Shanghai, in China; and Tokio in Japan. 
With the exception of Shanghai and Tokio the visits were made 
at favorable seasons: in northern China and in Japan the spring 
was not far advanced, but the early flowers were in perfection. 

The journey was undertaken with a view of securing from the 
establishments in question for the University Museum at Cam- 
bridge, specimens illustrative of the useful products of the 
vegetable kingdom. In every instance, the writer met witha 
cordial reception and received innumerable courtesies, for which 
he desires to thank again the Directors, Curators, and Superin- 
tendents of the various botanical establishments. Every facility 
was afforded for careful inspection of the workings of the 
Gardens and Museums, and it should be added, of the educational 
institutions with which some of them were connected. 

A satisfactory photographic outfit rendered it possible to sup- 
plement the collections of photographic views which were pur- 
chasable at most points; so that the series, now stored in the 
Museum at Cambridge, may be regarded as one of the largest yet 
brought together. It comprises views not only of groups of 
plants both in gardens and in their wild state, but of individual 
plants as well. Early next year these illustrations will be acces- 
sible to visiting naturalists. 

The present sketch will follow essentially the route outlined in 
a preceding paragraph, beginning with the gardens in Ceylon. 

Peradeniya and Hakgala. (Ceylon).—After the deserts of 
Egypt and Arabia, and of treeless Aden have been passed, the 
traveller comes by an abrupt transition upon tropical luxuriance 
of vegetation. There is to be sure, a distant glimpse of Socotra, 


174 — Screntific Intelligence. 


but its shores are too far away to yield anything plainly discerni- 
ble, and even Minicoy, an island lying between the Maldives and 
Laccadives, gives only a faint suggestion of plant life. Its low- 
lying land is fringed with scattered coconut palms, of which 
later one sees so many. Before reaching Ceylon the ship passes 
within sight of the southern point of India, but not near enough 
to show what its plants are like. In fact, therefore, the arrival 
in the harbor of Colombo brings a surprise. Coming down to 
the shore, and extending as far as the eye can reach on either 
side, are crooked coconut palms, here and there intermingled with 
trees having foliage of the deepest green. A botanist is struck 
at once by the superb capabilities of such a country for a tropical 
garden. These capabilities were not overlooked by the Dutch, 
who succeeded the Portuguese in possession. A Botanic Garden 
was founded by them at Slave Island in Colombo, but when the 
Dutch were driven out by the British it fell into neglect. There 
was, however, at this period, an excellent garden connected with 
the country place of the first English Governor, near Colombo, 
which at the begining of this century was under the charge ot 
a naturalist, who gave it somewhat the character of a botanical 
garden. 

In 1810, Sir Joseph Banks sketched the plan for a Botanical 
Garden in Slave Island, Colombo, and succeeded in transferring 
thither from Canton, Mr. Kerr, who became its chief. According 
to the work from which I have derived these facts, the Slave 
Island garden was found subject to floods, and consequently the 
establishment was moved to Kalutara. One finds here and there 
in Colombo traces of the old occupancy remaining in the names 
of some of the streets, “‘ Kew” for instance. From Kalutara the 
garden was transferred in 1821 to its present site. Since that 
time the large garden has established four branches, in order to 
secure all the advantages which can come from having land at 
different altitudes and with different exposures. 

The branch gardens are (1) Badulla, founded in 1886, in the 
eastern part of the island, with an elevation somewhat over 2,000 
feet. “The climate here is somewhat drier than on the western 
side of the hill region, receiving but little rain with the south- 
west monsoon.” (2) Anurddhapura, dating from 1883, about a 
hundred miles north of the large garden, at the ancient capital of 
the island. Besides the interesting ruins at this point which are 
well worth seeing, there exists the oldest historical tree in the 
world, Ficus religiosa, (the sacred Bo), assigned to 288 B. C. 
This garden has a short rainy season, and a hot dry climate. (3) 
Heneratgoda, 33 feet above the sea, and thoroughly tropical, is 
on the railroad running from Colombo to Kandy. It was founded 
in 1876. Here certain plants which cannot be grown at Pérade- 
niya are very successfully cultivated. (4) Hakgaia, established 
in 1860, as a nursery for Cinchona cultivation, is near Nuwara- 
Eliya, (commonly pronounced “ Newralia”) the famous sanita- 
rium. It is almost 6,000 feet above sea-level, in a place of sur- 


Botany. 175 


passing beauty. Above the garden is a frowning double cliff 
1,500 ft. high, and all around, the views are most attractive. 
The Gate affords one of the best of these. The landscape reaches 
over the Uva district towards the Haputale gap and the Madul- 
sima hills. On entering the garden the bewilderment begins. 
On every hand one sees species in the most grotesque juxtaposi- 
tion. Plants from Australia such as Casuarinas and Acacias are 
perfectly at home with East and West Indian, Japanese, and 
English plants. Of the latter there are many which seemed 
thrifty and well established. 

Although the garden is used primarily for experimental pur- 
poses it has been laid out with regard to effectiveness of grouping 
and with remarkable success. A botanical visitor is, however, 
constantly trying to separate in his mind the different plants from 
the curious collocations which everywhere abound and demonstrate 
better than in any other place I have ever seen, the wide range 
of tolerance of climate. The superintendent, Mr. W. Nock, who 
has had large experience in the West Indies, has carried on some 
interesting experiments in acclimatizing plants from the western 
hemisphere, such as “cherimoyer” and the like. There are few 
plants in the garden more attractive from an economic point of 
view than the vegetables of doubtful promise, such as Arracacha, 
and those of assured culinary position ‘“‘Choco” or ‘*Chocho” 
(Sechium edule) for example. Some of the medicinal plants in 
hand were doing well in eyery way, while others have proved 
somewhat disappointing, for instance, jalap and ipecacuanha. 

The ferns, especially the tree ferns, and the species of Eucalyp- 
tus form one of the marked successes at this garden. Mr. Nock 
stated that the most troublesome weed in the garden is a species, 
(perhaps more than a single species) of Oxalis: it is simply 
impossible to eradicate it. 

(5) Peradeniya.—The gardens are four miles from Kandy, and 
about eighty from Colombo. ‘The railroad passes through low- 
lands and rice-fields, past native villages surrounded by plantains 
and coconuts, and through occasional jungles, until it reaches 
higher ground. The scenery changes rapidly, forests now and 
then appearing in the foreground, with occasional views of dis- 
tant castellated mountains. As the mountains rise out of the 
terraced rice-fields and from the shrubs of the jungles, the eye 
catches on every hand glimpses of groups of bent coconut palms 
and straight arecas. It is difficult to realize that these palms 
mean, perhaps without exception, human habitations at their feet. 
Through these scenes of enchanting beauty, the railroad has 
made its way, demanding here and there very skillful engineering. 
The track is lined with Lantana which is slowly giving way 
before the encroachments of a still stronger invader, a Compo- 
site from Mexico. Mimosa pudica is also widely spread as a 
strong weed. 

The drive from Kandy to the great garden is through a well 
shaded street lined with native houses. These are gathered at 
short intervals into villages. 


Am. Jour. Sci.—THIRD SERIES, Vou. XLII, No. 248.—Aveust, 1891. 
12 


176 Scientific Intelligence. 


My first visits to this garden were made, as were those in every 
other instance save one on the whole tour, without reporting to 
the Director. In this way a student can take things very leis- 
urely, and look up matters of detail which it is not right or 
courteous to trouble the chiefs with : later, all special points of 
interest which have escaped notice are likely to be brought out 
by a walk with the Director. The establishment at Péradeniya 
consists (1) of 150 acres of garden proper and of arboretum, (2) 
of a museum and herbarium with library attached. The Direc- 
tor, Dr. Henry Trimen, widely known as an author and editor, 
controls not only these, but the branch gardens as well, making 
his headquarters at Péradeniya. 

Once for all it may be said that botanists are made welcome in 
every way, finding every facility for carrying on systematic work. 
The climate is healthful, provided one takes ordinary and reason- 
able precautions against exposure to the direct rays of the sun in 
the hottest part of the day. If Il remember rightly, the Director. 
even in his long walks through the garden and in his excursions 
seldom wears the conventional pith-helmet. American students 
need not fear that they will suffer greater discomfort from the 
hot weather at Kandy and Péradeniya than in summer in the 
United States and Canada. Access to Ceylon (and for that 
matter, Java) has now been made so easy by the newer swift 
steamers, that it seems advisable to mention these facts about the 
climate. 

It is impossible to describe the wealth of material placed at the 
service of every visitor to the two great gardens of the equato- 
rial belt, that under present review and the one at Buitenzorg, to 
be considered in a subsequent note. It is equally impossible to 
institute a comparison between the two. 

In both of these vast establishments the student finds magnifi- 
cent specimens of all or very nearly all the useful plants belonging 
to hot moist climates. Many years ago the writer had the privi- 
lege of seeing tropical plants at the Isthmus of Panama, but even 
the delightful impressions received on that occasion, which had 
perhaps become deepened with the lapse of time, were forgotten 
in the presence of the abounding luxuriance of these palms, bam- 
boos, glossy-leaved evergreens, and tangled climbers. 

At Péradeniya the most characteristic plants are so placed as 
to be seen to good advantage. This was frequently observed 
when in search of points of view for photographing individual 
specimens. Moreover, the system of labelling is about perfect. 
Dr. Trimen makes use of a large staff formed out of baked clay, 
shaped so as to give an inclined surface on which the name is 
plainly painted. These brick-red labels with their painted disk 
are not unattractive; at any rate, they do not detract from the 
general effect of the broad lawns bordered by gigantic trees. 

The most remarkable single tree in the garden is the Seychelle 
Palm or double coconut, now almost fifty years old. The giant 
and other bamboos, the grove of India-rubber trees near the 


ee ee See 


——_, 


Miscellaneous Intelligence. 177 


main entrance, and the avenue of Oreodoxa, are only a few 
examples of the finer groups of single species. The most impos- 
ing group of different species is that of the palms not far from 
the gate. The classified arboretum is rich in fine specimens, the 
principal orders being represented on a generous scale. 

The nurseries, kitchen-garden, rockery for succulents, ferneries, 
and clusters of economic plants are on a scale commensurate with 
the arboretum. As might be expected, the orchids are by no 
means so fine as the collections one sees in large private estab- 
lishments in England and on the continent: it is not possible to 
command the conditions of growth for all the finer species with 
the same degree of certainty as in colder regions where a stove 
means something. - 

At the time of my visit, Amherstia nobilis and the great 
crape myrtle were in full flower, and a large Talipot palm in 
bloom was one of the most conspicuous objects. I was a little 
too early in Ceylon for some of the tropical fruits, and too late 
for a few others, but fortunately was able to remedy this lack 
farther on in Queensland and Java. 

Among the finest of the photographic views of the gardens in 
Péradeniya are the following: (1) the main entrance, with the 
long lines of Assam rubber trees, and the cluster of different 
palms, (2) the avenue of royal palms, (3) the different bamboos at 
the ponds, (4) the distant view of the satin-wood bridge. The 
view from the Herbarium is also one of great beauty. 

Visitors to the gardens are greatly assisted by the intelligent 
native servants detailed to act as guides. They have a fair 
knowledge of the whereabouts of almost all the important plants 
and seldom go wrong with regard to names. It should be stated 
also that the natives employed in widely different stations in the 
establishment prove, according to the Director and the Superin- 
tendent, generally efficient. 

The Herbarium is rich in certain directions and can be con- 
sulted by students under proper restrictions. The Museum is as 
yet small. . 

It remains to be said that plants and seeds are for sale at the 
garden, at moderate prices. A Wardian case packed with forty 
assorted plants is shipped for 40 rupees, say about 16 to 20 dollars. 

The influence for good which has been excrted in Ceylon by 
the garden and its branches is incalculable. The establishment 
has proved a center of scientific activity and of high economic 
value. G. L. G. 


TV. MiIscELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 


1. Die Denudation in der Wiiste und ihre geologische Bedeu- 
tung. Untersuchungen tiber die Bildung der Sedimente in den 
Agyptischen Wisten ; Jouannes WattueEr, A. O. Prof. Univ. 
Jena. pp. 224, large 8vo, with 8 plates and 99 cuts. Leipzig, 
1891. (S. Hirzel.)—This memoir makes part of vol. xvi of the 


ql ' 


inp lt 


178 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


Transactions of the Mathematico-Physical Section of the “ Kénigl. 
Sichsischen Gessellschaft der Wissenschaften.” It is a work of 
ereat interest, treating of the causes producing denudation in the 
Egyptian desert and its results, and is illustrated by many excel- 
lent and instructive figures. The chief causes of denudation 
mentioned are deflation, or the work of the winds directly in 
denudation by removing whatever is sufficiently loose or has been 
loosened by decomposition or otherwise, and the work in abrasion 
by transported sands; 2d, Insolation, or the effects of the sun or 
heat over the surface of rocks by changes of temperature and 
especially those of day and night; (3) Decomposition or altera- 
tion through any means; (4) The eroding and transporting action 
of waters, rains being not wholly absent. (5) Vegetation, as a 
means of modifying results. The results in the formation of 
deposits are also described. The work is of special value to 
American geologists. 

2. History of Volcanic Action in the area of the British Isles, 
by A. Grikig. Anniversary Address before the Geological So- 
ciety of London, Feb., 1891. Quart. J. G. Soc. xlvii—More has 
thus been learned about volcanic action in Paleozoic time from 
the British Isles than from all the rest of the world. Dr. Geikie, 
in his Anniversary Address, commences a full review of the in- 
teresting subject. Although extending to one hundred pages, 
the review covers only the earlier part of the history, to the close 
of the Upper Silurian. | 

3. Magnetic Declination in the United States for the Epoch 
of 1890.—Mr. Cuarues A. ScHorr has a paper of seventy-five 
pages on this subject, in the Report of the Superintendent of the 
Coast Survey, Prof.,T. C. Mendenhall, for 1889, consisting chiefly 
of tables giving the results of observations reduced to the year 
1890. 

4. Telescopic Work for Starlight Evenings, by Wit1tam F. 
Dennine, F.R.A.S. 361 pp. 8vo. London, 1891 (Taylor & 
Francis).—There is a peculiar interest and fascination connected 
with the subject of Astronomy, which even the comparatively 
uneducated reader cannot but feel, and hence there exists here a 
field for popular presentation which is hardly equalled in any 
other branch of science. The present work is one of this class 
and is fresh in matter, attractive and popular in style and with 
its numerous illustrations cannot fail to bring pleasure and in- | 
struction to all who use it. 

5. Ostwald’s Klassiker der EHaxacten Wissenschaften. (Wm. 
Engelmann, Leipzig). Recent issues of this valuable series in- 
clude : 

No. 21, 23. Ueber die Wanderung der Ionen wahrend der Electrolyse. Ab- 
handlungen von W. Hittorf (1853-1859). 

No. 22. Untersuchungen tiber das Radikal der Benzoeséiure von Woehler und 
Liebig (1832). 

No. 24. Unterredungen and Mathematische Demonstrationen tiber zwei neue 


Wissenszweige, die Mechanik und die Fallgesetze betreffend, von Galileo Galilei. 
Dritter und vierter Tag (1638). 


Sele Sad aa Da, i I gta 


Arr. X VI.— Restoration of Stegosaurus ; by O. C. Marsu. 
(With Plate IX.) 


In this Journal, in 1877, the writer described a remarkable 
extinct reptile from Colorado, under the name Steyosaurus 
armatus,* and later a much more perfect specimen of another 
species, Stegosaurus ungulatus, from essentially the same hori- 
zon, in the Jurassic of Wyoming.t+ The latter specimen was 
in fine preservation, and the more important parts of the skull 
and skeleton, and especially of the remarkable dermal armor, 
were secured. Subsequently, more than twenty other speci- 
mens of these and other species were obtained, so that nearly 
every part of the osseous structure thus became known, and 
only portions of the dermal armor were in doubt. A fortunate 
discovery cleared away most of the doubt in regard to one 
species, Stegosaurus stenops, as the type specimen had the skull, 
skeleton, and dermal armor together when entombed, and 
almost in the position they were when the animal died. 

With this rich material at hand, an attempt has been made 
to give a restoration of one of the group, and the type specimen 
of Stegosaurus ungulatus has been selected as the basis. This 
has been supplemented by a few portions of the skeleton of 
Stegosaurus duplex, apparently a closely allied species from 
nearly the same locality, while some other parts, especially of 
the dermal armor, have been placed in accordance with their 
known position in Stegosaurus stenops. 

The result is given in Plate IX, which is believed to repre- 
sent faithfully the main features of this remarkable reptile, as 
far as the skeleton and principal parts of the dermal armor are 
concerned. This figure, one-thirtieth natural size, is reduced 
from a larger restoration, one-tenth natural size, made for 


* This Journal, III, vol. xiv, p. 513, December, 1877. 
+ Ibid., vol. xviii, p. 504, December, 1879. See also, vol. xix, p. 253, March, 
1880; vol. xxi, p. 167, February, 1881; and vol. xxxiv, p. 413, November, 1887. 


180 O. C. Marsh—Restoration of Stegosaurus. 


a lithographic plate to accompany the monograph of the 
Stegosauria, prepared by the writer for the U. 8. Geological 
Survey. | 

In this restoration, the animal is represented as walking, and 
the position is adapted to that motion. The head and neck, 
the massive fore limbs, and, in fact, the whole skeleton, indi- 
cate slow locomotion on all four feet. The longer hind limbs 
and the powerful tail show, however, that the animal could 
thus support itself, as on a tripod, and this position must 
have been easily assumed in consequence of the massive hind 
quarters. : 

In the restoration as here presented, the dermal armor is the 
most striking feature, but the skeleton is almost as remarkable, 
and its high specialization was evidently acquired gradually as 
the armor itself was developed. Without the latter, many 
points in the skeleton would be inexplicable, and there are still 
a number that need explanation. 

The small, elongated head was covered in front by a horny 
beak. The teeth are confined to the maxillary and dentary 
bones, and are not visible in the figure here given. They are 
quite small, with compressed, fluted crowns, and indicate that 
the food of this animal was soft, succulent vegetation. The 
vertebree are solid, and the articular faces of the centra are 
bi-coneave or nearly flat. The ribs of the trunk are massive, 
and placed high above the centra, the tubercle alone being 
supported on the elevated diapophysis. The neural spines, 
especially those of the sacrum and anterior caudals, have their 
summits expanded to aid in supporting the massive dermal 
armor above them. The limb bones are solid, and this is true 
of every other part of the skeleton. The feet were short and 
massive, and the terminal phalanges of the functional toes were 
covered by strong hoofs. There were five well-developed digits 
in the fore foot, and only three in the hind foot, the first toe 
being rudimentary, and the fifth entirely wanting. 

In life, the animal was protected by a powerful dermal 
armor, which served both for defense and offense. The throat 
was covered by a thick skin in which were imbedded a large 
number of rounded ossicles, as shown in the figure. The 
gular portion represented was found beneath the skull, so that 
its position in life may be regarded as definitely settled. The 
series of vertical plates which extended above the neck, along 
the back, and over two-thirds of the tail, is a most remarkable 
feature, which could not have been anticipated, and would 
hardly have been credited had not the plates themselves been 
found in position. The four pairs of massive spines charac- 
teristic of the present species, which were situated above the 
lower third of the tail, are apparently the only part of this 


O. C. Marsh—fRestorution of Stegosaurus. 181 


peculiar armor used for offense. In addition to the portions of 
armor above mentioned, there was a pair of small plates just 
behind the skull, which served to protect this part of the neck. 
There were also, in the present species, four flat spines, which 
were probably in place below the tail, but as their position is 
somewhat in doubt, they are not represented in the present 
restoration. 

All these plates and spines, massive and powerful as they 
now are, were in life protected by a thick, horny covering, 
which must have greatly increased their size and weight. This 
covering is clearly indicated by the vascular grooves and im- 
pressions which mark the surface of both plates and spines, 
except their bases, which were evidently implanted in the 
thick skin. 


The peculiar group of extinct reptiles named by the writer 
the Stegosauria, of which a typical example is represented in 
the present restoration, are now so well known, that a more 
accurate estimate of their relations to other Dinosaurs can 
be formed than has hitherto been possible. They are evidently 
a highly specialized sub-order of the great group which has 
the typical Ornithopoda as its most characteristic members, 
and all doubtless had a common ancestry. Another highly 
specialized branch of the same great order is seen in the 
gigantic Ceratopsia, of the Cretaceous, which the writer has 
recently investigated and made known. The skeleton of the 
latter group presents many interesting points of resemblance 
to that of the Stegosawria, which can hardly be the result 
of adaptation alone, but the wide difference in the skull and 
in some other parts indicates that their affinities are remote. 
A comparison of the present restoration with that of 7riceratops, 
recently published by the writer,” will make the contrast between 
the two forms clearly evident. 


All the typical members of the Stegosauria are from the 
Jurassic formation, and the type specimen used in the present 
restoration was found in Wyoming, in the Atlantosaurus beds 
of the upper Jurassic. Diracodon, a genus nearly allied to 
Stegosaurus, occurs in the same horizon. Omosawrus of Owen, 
from the Jurassic of England, is the nearest European ally now 
known, but whether it possessed a crest of dermal plates like 
that of Stegosaurus is doubtful, although caudal spines were 
evidently present. 


New Haven, Conn., July 15th, 1891. 
* This Journal, vol. xli, p. 339, April, 1891. 


ae Pid aki Aus ine Bea Ont 
Ae oe iy qe hae: in > hee 
Fe 3 Bini. atl ie? we oo 


* 


A he Pe: a re ie Lee thaatel a 
oat vs Rarern yee: a 
eens et tien 


re er pan fs vil Fa aie 


te st 


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ART. x. —Some of the features of non-voleanic Igneous. Eje 
tions, as illustrated in the four “Rocks” of the ‘New ens: 
Haven Region, West Rock, Pine Rock, Mill Rock a a’ 

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Chemical Reactions, LIEBREICH: A new Reaction of Carbon monoxide, Burrus 

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Geology—Relations of the Eastern Sandstones of esr denee Point to the Lowe 
Silurian Limestone, M. E. Wapsworts, 170.—Expedition to Mt. St, Elias in» 
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Pyramids. be tks 
From Arizona.—The new species described by Professor Koenig, Pipe’ aoe 
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Art. XVII.—On the Capture of Comets by Planets, especially 
their Capture by Jupiter; by H. A. NewrTon. 


1. Some years ago I obtained and published* a formula ex- 
pressing in simple terms the total result of the action of a 
planet in increasing or diminishing the velocity of a comet 
or small body that passes near the planet. This formula is 
practically a modification of the integral of energy, the smaller 
terms in the perturbing function being omitted. A very brief 
and partial treatment of it was presented to the British Asso- 
ciation for the Advancement of Science in 1879 at its Sheffield 
meeting.t Within the last two or three years several astrono- 
mers have made special study of the manner of Jupiter’s action 
in changing the orbits of comets that pass very near him. M. 
Tisserand has given us an expression connecting the major axis, 
inclination and parameter of the orbit described before coming 
near to Jupiter with the corresponding elements of the orbit 
after leaving the neighborhood of the planet.{ M. Schulhof 
has applied the formula of M. Tisserand as a criterion for de- 
termining the possible identity of various comets whose orbits 
pass near to Jupiter’s orbit.§ Messrs. Seeliger, Callandreau 
and others have continued these investigations. The interest 
thus shown in the problem has led me to resume the study of 
the subject, and to work out the results of the formula obtained 
by me in 1878 more fully than they have been hitherto devel- 
oped. 

* This Journal, III, vol. xvi, p. 175, 1878. 

+ Report, 1879, p. 274. 

+ Sur la théorie de la capture des cométes périodiques, Bull. Astron., Tome vi, 


juin and juillet, 1889. 
§ Notes sur quelques Cométes a courte période, Astron. Nachrichten, No. 2964, 


Am. Jour. Sci.—THIRD Series, Vou. XLII, No. 249.—SEpreMBER, 1891. 


So ee 
4 Oe nig 
3 / Ueki 


184 ZH. A. Newton—Capture of Comets by Planets. 


2. One of the remarkable distinctions between the comets 
of long (or infinite) periods, and those of short periods, is that 
the orbits of the latter have almost without exception direct 
motions and small inclinations to the plane of the ecliptic, 
while the orbits of the former have all possible inclinations 
between 0° and 180°. At first sight this seems to imply that 
the two groups of comets are radically distinct in origin or 
nature one from the other. The most natural line of investi- 
gation therefore is the effect of perturbations in bringing or 
not bringing the comets to move with the planet after the 
perturbation. 

3. The algebraic processes by which was obtained the form- 
ula for the change of energy which a small body experiences 
from passing near a planet were given in the article cited, and 
they need not be here reproduced. The following was the 
resulting equation, viz: 

4mfu'v, COS @ sin a i 

Pr, si 
and it was obtained from the general differential equations of 
motion by making assumptions not greatly differing from those 
used in obtaining Laplace’s well known theorem, that a sphere 
of suitable magnitude may be described about the planet as a 
center and that for a tolerable first approximation the comet 
may be regarded as moving when without this sphere in a 
conic section of which the sun is the focus, and as moving 
when within the sphere in a conic section (an hyperbola) of 
which the planet is the focus. In other words, only perturba- 
tions of the first order of magnitude are taken account of. A 
comet is treated throughout this paper as a small indivisible 
body whose mass may be neglected. 

4, Notation. The symbols used in (1) and also other sym- 
bols which I shall have occasion to use may be thus defined. 


i 


Let €, be the orbit of the comet about the sun before the comet 
comes under the appreciable action of the planet ; 
€ the orbit of the’comet about the sun after perturbation 

by the planet ; 

the hyperbolic orbit of the comet relative to Jupiter when 
near the planet ; 

the elliptic orbit of Jupiter about the sun ; 

the point on @, which is nearest to J; 

the point on J which is nearest to € ; 

the length of the straight line EA being the perpendicu- 
lar distance between the orbits at their nearest ap- 
proach ; 

the angle between the tangent of €, at A and the tangent 
to J atE; 


Qmprw © 


8 


H. A. Newton—Capture of Comets by Planets. 185 


Let ibe the distance which the planet has yet to pass over to 
reach E when the comet is at A (A may be negative) ; 
m the mass of the planet, sun’s mass=unity ; 
a the unit of distance, in general the mean distance of the 
earth from the sun; 
the sun’s attractive force at the unit of distance ; 
the planet’s velocity in its orbit at E; ) 
the comet’s velocity in its orbit C when the comet en- 
ters the sphere of Jupiter’s perceptible influence ; 


ees 


fe) ~ 


v the comet’s velocity at A relative to the sun ; 

0) 8: 

@, the semi-axis major of (7, (negativeif (is an pay 
@ the semi-axis major of € (negative if €@ is an hyperbola) ; 
p the perpendicular from the planet upon asymptote to C; 
a the acute angle between the transverse axis of C and 

the asymptote to C. 
p the angle between the tangent to J at O (drawn in the 


direction of the planet’s motion) and the line from the 
planet to the vertices and center of C; 

A the semi-transverse axis of C; 

B_ the semi-conjugate axis of C (hence equal to p) ; 

the distance of the planet from the sun; 

_ the distance of the comet from the sun; 

r, the distance of the comet from the planet ; 

p,and p distances of the comet from the sun at selected epochs 

before and after perturbation ; 
u,and u the velocities of the comet at the selected epochs ; 


2a, Lingfar 
r 


SIS 


A the increase to which v*—~ receives by - the 


° / ie} ° e e 
planet’s action during the whole period in which the 
comet is passing near to Jupiter. 


5. If we assume two epochs, one before and one after the 
perturbation, at which the comet is equally distant from the 
planet, the term 2mfa’/r, is the same at both instants, and it 
disappears from the value of A. Therefore 

25, 2fa* 


ae ee 


But by the well-known formulas from the law of gravitation, 


1 I 
Utes fa = Sy 
; fe (| = 


va 1 
and =) TO (= _ ca} 
1 1 
hence A = fae al 3) 
1 1 4m cos p sin a 


that is, from (1) Grr ar: i 


186 H. A, Newton—Capture of Comets by Planets. | 


This equation is valid whatever be @, the major axis of the 

orbit €,, and may be used to determine the major axis of 

either orbit from the elements of the other. My present pur- 

pose is, however, to study the action of Jupiter in changing 

orbits that are originally parabolas, and hence in general @, 
will be taken infinite. In that case 
abs we 

Se 4m cos @ sin a (2) 

It will be found that the second number of ( (2) depends on 
wo, d and A, and these are known quantities when the elements 
of @, and "3 are given. The use of the equation is moreover 
oreatly simplified and enhanced by the fact that the plane of 
the planet’s orbit is involved only in so far as that it must 
contain the tangent to J at E. 

6. In the second member of (2) all the factors are positive 
except cos g, hence, if ¢<$7, @ is positive and the orbit & is 
an ellipse; but, if gy >$7, @ is negative and € is an hyperbola. 
This result may be thus expressed; 2f the comet passes in 
Front of Jupiter the kinetic energy of the comet is diminished, 
of it passes behind the planet the kinetic energy of the comet is 
encreased. 'The reason for this may also be given in general 
language. If the comet passes in front of the planet the 
comet’s attraction increases the velocity, and hence increases 
the kinetic energy of the planet and vice versa. But the total 
energy of the two bodies is constant ; so that when that of the 
planet is increased, that of the comet is diminished and vice 
versa. 

7. It is desirable now to transform the value of @ given in 
equation (2) so as to be able to determine the major axis of the 
new orbit of the comet directly from the circumstances of its 
initial approach to the planet before perturbation; in other 
words, to find @ in terms of , d and A. For this we must 
find in terms of w, d and A, values for s ,p, a and 

So find s.—In fig. 1 let A and E repre- 
sent the two points A and E as defined above 
(Art. 4), and the line AE represent d. Let 
AY be the tangent to @, at A, and HO the 
tangent to J at E. It is an admissible sup- 
position that the planet is describing the 
straight line OK, and that the comet in its 
unperturbed orbit is describing the stracght 
line YA. At some certain moment the line 
joining the planet and the unperturbed comet 
must evidently be perpendicular toOE. Let 
OY be the line joining the bodies at that 
moment, so that the planet is at O when the comet is at Y, 
and EOY is a right angle. Instead, however, of supposing the 


i. 


HH. A. Newton— Capture of Comets by Planets. 187 


planet to move from O towards E we may apply an equal, 
opposite motion to the comet, and consider the planet to 
remain at rest at O. Draw AC parallel to EO and make AB 
equal to the distance described by the planet during the time 
that the comet is moving from Y to A. Join YB. Then 
since YA and BA represent in direction and magnitude the 
motions of the two bodies in a given interval, the third side 
YB of the triangle represents in magnitude and direction the 
motion of the comet relative to the planet. The angle YAB 
is the angle », and the three sides of the triangle YA, YB and 
BA are proportional to v, v, andv, Let the angle YBCO be 
@; then from the triangle Y AB we have 


VU, =U, —2¥,v cos W+’, 
and , U:V0,1¥,::8in 9: sin (@Q—o@): sin @w. (3) 
Since v and v, can be computed from the given elements of 
the orbits of the planet and comet, we may readily compute 
from @ the value of s, orv,/v, But if the planet is at its mean 
distance from the sun, and the comet’s orbit is parabolic, 
vy = 2v’, and we have 
s* = 3 — 2,/2 cos ow. (4) 
Also from the triangle 
2u, =v," + 2v,v,cos 0+ ,’, 
or 2s cos 9@=1—s", (5) 


9. To find p.—The planet being regarded at rest at O and 
the relative unperturbed motion of the comet being along YB, 
this line may within admissible limits of error be treated as 
one asymptote of the relative orbit C. The perpendicular 
from O upon YB will then be by definition (Art. 4) the line 
p. Draw OX from O perpendicular to OY and OK, and let 
these three lines be codrdinate axes. Let the line AB meet 
the plane XOY in C. Join OC, let fall OD perpendicular to 
YB, and join CD. Since EA is perpendicular to AY and also 
to EO, and so to its parallel line AC, therefore it is perpen- 
dicular to the plane YAO. Hence OC, parallel to EA is per- 
pendicular to the plane, and so perpendicular to CD. Again 
CDY is a right angle; for OD’+DY’=OY’=O00°+CY’, and 
~OD'=0C*+DC*. Hence DC’?+DY’=CY’, and consequently 
CDY isa right angle. 

The quantity A is the line BO; for hf is the distance which 
the planet, when the comet is at A, has yet to pass over before 
reaching K. But the comet was at Y when the planet was at 
O, and the planet describes BA, while the comet describes YA, 
leaving BC as the distance yet to be described or 4. But the 
angle CBD is @, so that we have 


p =O = OC" = CD? =a" +h? sin’ 6. (6) 


188 H. A. Newton—Capture of Comets by Planets. 


10. Zo jind a—The angle a is the acute angle between the 
asymptote and the transverse axis of the hyperbola, and hence 
from the nature of the hyperbola tan a=B/A. By known 
formulas we have, if the ska is at its mean distance 


vou 3) 


1 1 
Dee = ae + oa) 


Therefore 6. = eee or A= ess ] 
Os A Ss (7) 
Bp s(@4hisin’®) ( 


Hence from (6) tana= oe aoe ae sol 

11. Zo find yo.—The orbit of the comet relative to Jupiter 
lies in the plane YOB. Let 2 be the inclination of the plane 
YOB to YOX, measured positive from x positive to 2 positive ; 
let 2 be the longitude of the direction YC, measured in the 
plane YOX from OY, that is, the angle made by YC with OY 
produced; let % be the longitude of the direction YB mea- 
sured in the plane YOB from OY, that is, the angle made by 
YB with OY produced. Imagine now a sphere deseribed 
about Y as a center that shall cut the three planes XOY, BOY 
and BCY in three sides of a right angled spherical triangle. 
The hypotentise of this triangle is A, the base /, the perpen- 
dicular 47—0, and the angle opposite to the perpendicular is 
23 hence we have 


cos A = cos / sin 8, (8) 
cos 6= sin z sin A, (9) 
cot 7 = sin é tan @. (10) 
Also from the triangles OCY and BCY | 
OC d 
tan /= tan OYO = — Vie Ree (11) 


The angle g is by definition the angle between the direction 
OE, and a line in the plane YOB that makes with YB an 
angle a. Hence we have readily 


cos p= sinz sin (A+ a). (12) 


These equations enable us to compute ¢ in terms of d, A and 
@; for in succession @ may be computed by (3), l by (11\, rX by 
(8), az by (10), and @ by (12). 

12. These values of s, p, a and @ give by equation (2) the 
value of @. The suppositions that the planet is at its mean 
distance, and that €, is a parabola, are involved in that equa- 
tion, but they are not necessary to the determination of @ 
when no such hypotheses are made, and changes in the equation 


H. A. Newton— Capture of Comets by Planets. 189 


that are not serious would make it applicable without these 
limitations. The quantities in the several equations may be 
regarded as having values :— 

d positive, 

h positive or negative, 

@ positive and less than $7, 

a, 9, p and @ positive and less than z, 
Zand A positive and less than 27. 


13. We may, however, also find directly the value of @ in 
terms of d, h, and the known functions of o. 
From (12) 
cos Psin a=sin?2 sinA cosasina+sinZ cosA sin’ a. 


From (7) 


cos asina= - and sin* a = a 
a a= 73, By ek Fe Fr 
From (10) and (8) 
: in 6 in 6 
ee cos / sin ( a Ravi _coté sin 6 z 
(1+sin*/ tan’ 6)? (sec’ 6+ cot? l)? 
hence from (6) and (11) 
an h sin® 6 h sin’ 6 
SIG? LOS An ==)4- = p= +e 


(d° +h’ sin’ 6)? 

From these and (9) 
cos @ sin a (A* + B*) = AB cos6+ AB sin’ 8, 
and hence from (2) 
ae ea _ 8 Att¢d*thisin'd |, 

en “A cosO+hsin®? 6 4m °> AcosOtAsin’ (13) 
Since m is the known mass of the planet, and @, s and A are 
known functions of », equation (13) gives directly the value of 
@, the semi-axis major of the new orbit € in terms of d, A 
and o. 

14. For a particular case of approach, equation (13) is con- 
venient for computation. We may, however, now treat d, A and 
@ as independent variables whose varying values may express 
all the different possible cases of approach of the comet to the 
planet so far as change of periodic time of the comet is con- 
cerned. The dependence of @ upon the three variables cannot 
be very easily represented graphically in a single plane dia- 
gram. But by giving to successive values in multiples of 
MO viz: o— MW) 20" 302) ete, to 170°, 1 have prepared a 
series of diagrams to exhibit in each case in succession the 
relation of @ to the other two variables. The values of 0, s 
and A for the several values of were needed in making the 
diagrams and they are given in Table J. Equations (4), (5) 


190 HA. A. Newton—Capture of Comets by Planets. 


and (7) are used in making the table. The disturbing planet 
is assumed to be Jupiter, so that m was taken equal to 1/1050 
and 7=5'2. 


TABLE I. 

@ 6p Le Vig are Vie igs 6°. 41 A 

| te be Kae at 
0° O° 307) Oral 02886 || 100° | 231° 487) i868 "00142 
LOS: 32 1 0°463 "02309 | 110) 4 ASS. 1:992 “00125 
20 55 «4 0°585 "01448 || IDO. | Ae | D1 27101 00112 
30 ey) 0°742 -00900 | 130°>7\— 250 267)" Bales ‘00103 
40 84 46 0913 00594 | 140 +} 156-26 | 2°23 00096 
50 | 94 47 1:087 "00419 | 150 9} 162,, 22°) Bee "00091 
60 LOS 220 1°259 "00312 || 160 168 16 2-379 | -00088 
70 Se 1°426 00244 LUO en es See: 8 2°405 "00086 
80 lash Ar 1°584 00197 || 180. | 180. 0.) 3220 “00085 
90 125 > 6 wee ‘00165 | Fe 


15. Using these values of 6, s and A we may now represent 
graphically the dependence of @ upon the other two variables 
d and / for each specified value of w.. Let d and A be Carte- 
sian coordinates, then for each point of the codrdinate plane 
there is a value of @. The ambiguous sign will be fully satis- 
fied by giving positive and negative values to A. For an 
assumed value of @ we shall have a curve whose equation is 
(13), and each point of this curve represents values of d and A 
for which the total action of the planet upon the comet will 
be to reduce the energy of the comet a constant amount. This 
locus will be called an zsergonal curve. 

16. Laisceau of isergonal ellipses.—The equation (13) of the 
isergonal curve may be written 


4m@ (A cos 6+/ sin’ 6) = s(A’*+d*+h’ sin’ 6), 


and this is the equation of an ellipse. As @ changes its value 
we may treat it as a parameter and we have a faisceau of simi- 
lar isergonal ellipses, each ellipse symmetrical with the axis 
of h. The radical axis of the faisceau A cos 0+A/ sin* 0=0, 
and the imaginary ellipse A°+d@°+/’ sin* @=0, are theoretically 
two members of the faisceau. For points on the radical axis 
@= « and therefore for this locus there is no change in the 
energy of the comet. 

17. Center and area of the isergonal ellipse.—The center of 
the isergonal ellipse is upon the axis of 4; making d=0, and 
solving for 4 we have 


1 
2n@ 2m@ As Of 
—— K — — ~- 14 
0 Ss de $ sit AC (cos oe ; ( ) 


The first term of the second member of (14) is the ordinate of 
the center, and the second term is the semi-axis major of the 


H. A. Newton—Oapture of Comets by Planets. 191 


ellipse. The ratio of the axes being 1:sin 0, and As’ being 
=mr, the area of the ellipse will be equal to 


eee (: — (cos a) ) 
s* sin 0 2as 
18. Maximum action of the planet.—For two particular 
values of @ the isergonal ellipses become points. These values 
of @ result if the maximum effect of the planet in increasing 


and in decreasing the energy of the comet takes place, and 
they are obtained by making the two values of / equal to each 


As : 
na +1. Since at 


other in (14), that is, by making cos 6— 
the same time h=2m@/s, we obtain 
A As 
= cos 6-+- 1’ eo 2m(cos 6+ 1) ae) 
Let fh’ and 4”, and @’ and @” be the positive and negative 
values of 4 and @ in (15) and we may construct the following 


table of their values. As in Table I Jupiter is assumed to be 
the perturbing planet. 


TABLE IT. 
i | | | | 
oO / h’ h”’ @’ ‘ @” / a h’ | h”’ @’ @” 
| | | | 
0°; -01443 a SoA 0 oC | 100° :00426 —-:00085 4:17 —0°83 
10 "01250 |— 15174 3°04 —36°90 | 110 | 00489 —-00072 5°12) —0°75 
20 | -00927/—-03307 2°85 —10°15 120 -00598 —-00062 660 —0-68 
30 00690 |—-01290 2°69 | — 5-03 || 130 | -00789| —-00055) 9-09 —0°63 
4Q | °00544|!—-00654; 2-6] — 3°13 || 140: | -01149; —-00050| 13°71) —0-60 
50 00457 |—-00387 261 — 2°21), 150 -01934 —:00047 23°70 —0°57 
60. 00407 |—°00253 | 2°69 | — 1°68]; 160 | -04192 —00044 52°36 —0°55 
70 | -00382 |—"00179,, 2°86 | — 1:34) 170 | °16336 —-00043) 206-30) —0°54 
S05) 00377 | — "00134 | 3°14 | — I-11 || 180 aK — 00043, a — 0°54 
90 | 00390 |—:‘00105 3°55 — 0°95 | 


19. Explanation of Table 1[.—The meaning of the numbers 
in this table may be explained by an example. If a comet 
moving in a parabola passes near to Jupiter, and the directions 
of the two original motions at nearest points of the orbits make 
an angle of 10°, then the greatest action of Jupiter (during the 
whole period of transit) in diminishing the velocity of the 
comet in its orbit about the sun will take place if the two 
orbits actually intersect (d=0), and if the comet in its unper- 
turbed orbit arrives first at the point of intersection at the 
instant when Jupiter is distant therefrom :01250 (the earth’s 
mean distance from the sun being unity). The resulting semi- 
axis major of the comet’s orbit about the sun will be 3:04. 

On the other hand, the greatest effect in increasing the 
velocity of the comet will take place when the two orbits 


192 H. A. Newton—Capture of Comets by Planets. 


actually intersect, and the comet in its unperturbed orbit 
reaches the point of intersection later than the planet and 
when the planet is distant therefrom 0:15174. The semi-trans- 
verse axis of the resulting hyperbolic orbit about the sun will 
be 36:90. 

20. Lesulting orbits of maximum perturbation.—The posi- 
tion of the relative orbit about Jupiter in these cases of maxi- 
mum perturbation for given values of @ is easily determined. 
From: the equations (7), (6) and (15) 

tan a=B/A=/A sin@/A=sin @/(cos 0-1). 

The positive sign gives 2a=0, and the negative sign gives 
2a=7+0. But the angle 2a in the first case is the angle of 
the asymptotes enclosing the branch of the hyperbola described 
about Jupiter by the comet. Since the two original orbits 
intersect, the plane of the relative orbit contains the planet’s 
path, so that the comet passes directly in front of the planet 
and being turned backward leaves Jupiter exactly in the direc- 
tion of Jupiter’s quit.* The place of encounter with Jupiter 
will be near an apse of the comet’s resulting orbit about the 
sun. The comet leaves the planet with the relative velocity 
v,, 80 that if s<1 the motion about the sun in the new orbit 
will be direct; if s>>1 the motion in the new orbit will be 
retrograde. That is, by (4) when  < 47 the resulting motion 
is direct; when > {7 the resulting motion is retrograde. 

In the second case the angle 2a, being greater than 180°, 
stands for the angle between the asymptotes exterior to the 
orbit. Hence the comet passing behind the planet will be 
turned forward and will leave the planet in the direction of 
Jupiter’s goal, and have a velocity that will send it perma- 
nently out of the solar system. 

21. The results of Art. 20 assume that » is given. To 
find for what value of the period of the resulting orbit is 
the shortest possible we may put As’=mr and 1—s’=2s cos 0 
in (15) so that 

r 


Gy eal ie 


Se U 
To find the minimum for @ place — =0 in this equation. 


This gives s=+1, in which result since s is inherently positive 
only the positive sign is used. But when s=1, @=37, h=mr 
and w=4a. Hence the greatest effect of perturbation of a 
planet moving in a circular orbit in shortening the periodic 
tume of a comet originally moving in a parabola is obtained 
of the comets original orbit actually intersects the planet's 
orbit at an angle of 45°, and if the comet is due first at the 


* The goal and the quit of a moving body are those two points on the celestial 
sphere towards which and from which the body is moving. 


H. A. Newton—Capture of Comets by Planets. 1938 


point of intersection at the stant when the planet’s distance 
therefrom ws equal to the planet's distance from the sun mult- 
plied by the ratio of the mass of the planet to the mass of the 
SUN. 

The relative velocity of the comet on leaving the planet’s 
sphere of action would be equal to and directly opposite to the 
planet’s velocity (s=1), and the comet would be left entirely 
at rest to fall to the sun. This case could not happen for 
planets like the earth where mr is less than the semi-diameter 
of the planet. In the case of the earth mr is less than 3800 
miles, and actual collision would result. But for Jupiter mr 
is greater than the distance of the second satellite from the 
planet. The nearest approach of the comet to the planet 
would be mr (/2—1) which is more than four times the radius 
of Jupiter. Hence this case of maximum diminution of major 
axis could occur near Jupiter. | 


Bie! 2 == 10°: Big) 3+ o= 170". 


99. Isergonal ellipse for o=10°.—lf we make #—10° the 
vanishing points of the isergonal ellipses will be (Table IJ) at 
d=0, h=-01250, and d=0, h=— "15174. In fig. 2 let OE and 
OH be the axes of d and f/ respectively. The vanishing points 
will be on the axis OH at distances /’ and 4” above and below 
O. Upon this diagram are shown the halves of four isergonal 
ellipses. The scales used for d and h are not equal to each 
other, since the use of the same scale for both codrdinates 
would make the figures of inconvenient shape. In this, and 
in all the figures 2-18, the unit in d is to the unit in A, as 1 
to sin. But to indicate more clearly this scale, and at the 
same time to give a kind of shading to a part of the area, there 
are drawn above the radical axis ae lines parallel to OE, and 
parallel to OH, at intervals of -01; that is, the sides of each of 
the small rectangles in the quadrant HOE are ‘01, or about 


| 
| 
| 


194 H. A. Newton—Capture of Comets by Planets. 


925,000 miles. Only the positive values of d are represented 
in the figures. The positive vanishing point being 1:250 of 
these divisions above O, and the negative vanishing point 
15,174 below O, we lay off Oa=4(/’ + h’’)=—6-962 divisions, 
and draw ae for the radical axis. The smallest positive value 
of @ is (Table II) 3:04. As @ increases from 3:04 the ellipse 
increases in size, and the innermost curve represents what it 
becomes when @=5. The second curve (separating the blank 
and shaded areas) corresponds to @=20. Any parabolic comet 
passing Jupiter with an original angle of o=10°, and having 
d and / such as to be represented by a point within the blank 
area of fig. 2 will leave the vicinity of the planet in an elliptic 
orbit whose semi-axis major is less than 20, and whose period 
therefore is less than 90 years. 


Fig. 4; o=20°. Pio. 5; = Tops 

0 SS ee ee 
ee ee 
Fe ope me cae ey es ed ars eg ee 
| Gere Ee Ge ear ee es Ee ee RS ee eee 
= 
1 | —} | — 

ee SR RET SS SES ee oe SN 
See ee Se eo 
oe ae ae te ea eee 
peor ope ee i eed SS 
f SS a ee eed 
ae ee ee ae oes ee 
a GS] (9 (EN () Pe ed EE ee 

ES RE RT se 


}| 


ak 


\ 


NON 


\ « 
NX 
\ 

. SOQ 


The larger curve that lies above ae in the shaded area is the 
isergonal ellipse for @=50. As @ increases the lower part of 
the curve tends to approach the radical axis ae, with which it 
coincides when @=a. For points in the area below ae (dis- 
tinguished by the oblique-line shading), the planet increases the 
velocity of the comets, and the comet would be thrown per- 
manently out of the solar system. The smallest semi-trans- 
verse axis, the one corresponding to the vanishing ellipse is 
(Table II) 36°90, and the isergonal curve for @=—50 is drawn 
in the figure. 


H, A. Newton— Capture of Comets by Planets, 195 


23. Isergonal ellipses for #=170°.—In figure 3 are drawn 
the three ellipses corresponding to the values of @, —5, —20, 
and —50. The ellipses above ae do not appear, inasmuch as 
the smallest possible elliptic orbit has a semi-axis major of 
206°3 (Table II), and a period of about 3000 years. The radi- 
eal axis ae is ‘08146 (or over 8 divisions) above OE. 

24, Figures 4 and 5 are like diagrams for o=20° and o=160°. 
With altered numbers the explanations of arts. 22 and 23 apply 
with slight change to these figures. The line ae’ in figs. 4 and 
5 is nearer to OK than is the same line in figs. 2 and 3. In 


Hig. 6 +030". Fig. 7; o=150. 
H 


fig. 4 the line for @= —20 appears below ae, while above ae 
are the three curves for +5, +20, and +50, respectively. In 
fig. 5 the ellipse for @=50 is wanting since the minimum 
ellipse has a semi-axis major 52°36 (Table IL), while below ae 
the three curves are present. 

In figures 6 and 7 are contrasted in like manner the isergonal 
curves for the angles o=30, and w=the supplement of 30°. 
In fig. 6 the curve @=—5 is wanting, and in fig. 7 the two 
curves @=5, and @=20 are both wanting. 

In like manner are to be explained the figs. 8-18. The 
numbers needed for drawing the figures are furnished by equa- 


196 H. A. Newton—Capture of Comets by Planets. 


tion (18). The curves that in each figure separate the shaded 
area from the non-shaded area are the ellipses for @=20, and 
@=-—20 The shading is introduced in order to compare more 
readily the corresponding curves in the figures. 

25. The dotted curve in the several figures represents those 
values of d and / for which the total change of direction in 
the relative orbit is 10°; that is, a=85°. It is that curve 
whose equation is A tan 85°=B, or d’-+ A’ sin® 0=A’* tan’ 85°. 
It is therefore an ellipse whose center is the origin of codrdi- 
nates, and it is similar in each figure to the isergonal ellipses. 


Fig. 8; o=40°. Hie, 9s o=140} 


H ttt 
CO ee Ss ee (a 


26. Hypotheses about the parabolic cometary orbits.—It will 
be convenient to make two assumptions about the distribution 
of the parabolic comets, and the distribution of the goals of 
their motions. There seems to be no very well marked rela- 
tion between the ecliptic, or to speak more strictly the invari- 
able plane of the solar system, and the known parabolie comet- 
ary orbits. The following two assumptions do not seem likely 
therefore to introduce any very serious error into our reason- 
ings. 


HT A. Newton— Capture of Comets by Planets. 197 


If about the sun as a center a sphere % be described with 
an arbitrary radius 7, it will be asswmed that near the surface 
of &, space is filled equably with comets. We may express 
this by supposing that in each cubic unit of space near 9, 
there are at each and every instant n comets. As the orbits 
are all assumed to be parabolic, the n comets have a common 
velocity v. 

Fig. 12; o=120°, 
Fig. 10; o=50°. Fig. 12; wo=60. Wigs 1h o=130. 


fee) Cee 
J Se Ee ode as 
Be Ca oS 

a 8 ea 


i 


It will be furthermore assumed that the directions of the 
comets in each cubic unit of space near % are at random, that 
is, that the quits and goals of the comet’s motions relative to 
the sun are distributed equably over the surface of the celes- 
tial sphere. 

27. Number of comets entering G.—If about a normal to & 
as an axis there be described two cones cutting the celestial 
sphere in two small circles distant from the point where the 
normal meets the celestial sphere ~ and w+dvw, then of the n 
comets there will be $n sin Wd comets whose quits are 
between the two circles. Each of these comets will move per- 
pendicularly to the spherical surface § with the velocity 


198 HH. A. Newton—Capture of Comets by Planets. 


v cos w. Hence in a unit of times $nv cos W sin dw comets 
will cross a unit of the surface G going towards the sun. 
The total entering the sphere in the unit of time will be this 
number multiplied by the number of units in the surface of 


G, or 
T 


2 
ae nv cos wp sin ~ dip = mnvr"’. 
0 : 


= 0) Vie. 15: o=H10- 


28. Distribution of parabolic comets as to perihelion dis- 
tance.—This supposition of equable distribution of the goals 
of comets as they cross the spherical surface § involves also a 
law of distribution of comets as to perihelion distanee. The 
number of comets that enter the sphere in a given time whose 
motions make with the normal angles between y and w+ dw 
is proportional to sin cos dy. If N be the number of 
comets that enter § in a given period of time with an angle with 
the normal less than w, we may write dN=£ sin > cos way, 
where & is some constant. But if g is the perihelion distance 
of a comet which at the distance 7 from the sun moves at an 
angle with the radius equal to y, then g=7 sin* w, and dg=2r 
sin ~ cos Wdy. But comets that enter § with angles to the 


H. A. Newton—Capture of Comets by Planets. 199 


normal between Ww and wW+dW, have perihelion distances 
between g and g+dqg. Hence N may also represent the num- 
ber of comets that in the given period of time pass their perihe- 
lia, and whose perihelion distances are less than g. Therefore 


NV 
— is a constant, and we conclude that if comets be grouped 
f 
according to their perihelion distances the number of comets 
whose perihelion distances are less than g is proportional to q. 


Fig. 16; w=80°. Fig. 17; w=90°. Fig. 18; w=100. 


29. It follows as a corollary to art. 28 that if the two 
assumptions of art. 26 be made for. the spherical surface 
G, the like distributions are true for every smaller concentric 
spherical surface. It would be but a reasonable extension of 
the assumptions to make them apply to larger spheres, if finite. 


[To be continued. ] 


AM. Jour. ScI.—THIRD SERIES, Vou. XLII, No. 249.—SzepPremBer, 1891. 
14 


200 FE. Levereti— Pleistocene Fluvial Planes of 


Art. X VIII.— Pleistocene Fluvial Planes of Western Penn- 
sylvania ; by FRANK LEVERETT. 


In the November number of this Journal there appeared a 
paper by Mr. P. Max Foshay, entitled “ Preglacial Drainage 
and Recent Geological History of Western Pennsylvania,” in 
which certain views are expressed which do not seem consistent 
with facts Im my possession; and in which, although valuable 
suggestions are made regar ding the possibilities of changes in 
drainage which the region may have undergone since the be- 
ginning of the glacial period, adequate data are not presented 
to sustain the broad and positive conclusions drawn. It there- 
fore seems important that the subject be further considered 
and that attention be called to facts which render the problem 
more complex and its solution less certain than the paper 
leaves the readers to suppose. 

A few general statements respecting the fasted planes of the 
region (following essentially President Chamberlin*) will aid 
in showing the bearing of the facts I wish to present. In the 
district immediately southeast of the drift-covered portion of 
western Pennsylvania there are three well-developed fluvial 
planes distinct from the present flood-planes of the streams, 
representing as many distinct episodes in recent geological 
history. The lowest fluvial plane is the rock floor of the val- 
leys, which in much of the region is at a lower level than the 
beds of the present streams. The middle fluvial plane is rep- 
resented by the moraine-headed terraces which take their rise 
in the bulky outer moraine of the “Grand River lobe.” These 
are at a somewhat higher level than the present flood-planes, 
for the altitude of the region now is such that the streams are 
deepening their channels. The highest fluvial plane is repre- 
sented by elevated terraces 250 feet above the present streams. 
This is much broader than the middle and lowest planes. Its 
remnant is a rocky shelf capped with distinetly fluvial material 
varying in depth up to 40 feet or more. Abandoned loops or 
“oxbows” occasionally occur, giving a complete cross-profile. 

The time sequence of these planes is as follows: the high 
terraces are the oldest, the moraine-headed terraces are the 
youngest, while the rock floors of the buried channels are of 
intermediate age, for they represent the limit of an erosion 
and deepening that took place after the high terraces were 
formed and before the moraine-headed . terraces were built up. 

High-level terraces.—President Chamberlin has set forth in 
the bulletin referred to the fact that the high terraces were 


* Bulletin No. 58, U. S. Geological Survey, pp. 24-37. 


Western Pennsylvania. 201 


fluvial planes as late as the early glacial period. His observa- . 


tions together with the earlier ones of Dr. H. M. Chance of 
the Pennsylvania Geological Survey, are to the effect that 


Explanation of Map.—The shaded portions represent moraines. Their map- 
ping is complete only between the Cuyahoga river and Lake Chautauqua. Striae 
are represented by arrows and indicate the general divergeuce from the axes of 
the lobes. The numbers indicate villages and cities as follows: (1) Lottsville, 
Penn.; (2) Titusville, Penn.: (3) Meadville, Penn.; (4) Erie, Penn.; (5) Ashta- 
bula, O.; (6) Painesville, O.; (7) Akron, O ; (8) Canton. O.; (9) Braceville, O.; 
(10) Leavittsburg. O.; (11) Niles, O.; (12) Youngstown, O.; (13) Lowellville, O. ; 
(14) Edenburg, Penn.; (15) Newcastle, Pa.; (16) Greenville, Pa., (17) Raymilton, 
Penn.; (18) Oil City, Penn.; (19) Beaver, Penn. 


fluvial material containing crystalline erratics of Canadian 
derivation occurs along the Allegheny river on this terrace. 
This determination is of great importance since it brings all 


202 Lf Leverett— Pleistocene Fluvial Planes of 


. the erosion of the lower 300 feet of the Allegheny valley 
within the earlier glacial and the interglacial epoch, and 
throws doubt upon the preglacial age of the buried channels, 
although they are plainly older than the moraine-headed ter- 
races of this region. 

The fact that the Allegheny and Monongahela river-beds 
had become coated to considerable depth with fluvial débris 
(40 ft.) by the close of the earlier glacial period is evidence 
that the streams had reached a base level at a still earlier date, 
and makes it probable, though not demonstrative, that the ex- 
cavation to the level of the upper rock plane of the several 
lines of drainage which subsequently united to form the 
Allegheny was preglacial. If not preglacial, it must have 
been accomplished during the earlier part of the first glacial 
epoch. 3 

Me Mr. Foshay’s paper the high level terrace’ along the Bea- 
ver river is discussed as “‘an old base-level plane,” and Pro- 
fessor I. C. White, in his report on Beaver County, Pennsy]- 
vania, calls it the ‘fourth terrace.”* 

It has been identified by these writers as far north as the 
mouth of the Connoquenessing where the terminal moraine of 
the later drift hes upon it. Mr. Foshay ealls attention to the 
important fact that this terrace has a northward descent from 
the mouth of Beaver river to the terminal moraine, and 
President Chamberlin has shown that the high terrace of the 
lower Allegheny and the Monongahela descends with the 
present streams to their junction not far above the mouth of 
the Beaver river; all of which evidence favors the hypothesis 
that the lower factors of the Allegheny river and the Monon- 
gahela discharged toward the Lake Erie basin along the course 
of the Beaver river before the first glacial epoch. This de- 
cline of the high level terrace from the mouth of the Beaver 
north to the point where it is lost under the moraine seems in 
itself to be good evidence that the old river took this north- 
ward course instead of that now followed by the Ohio, and this 
determination by Mr. Foshay is a valuable addition to our 
knowledge. It is somewhat short of a conclusive demonstra- 
tion of the northward course of the stream in the fact that the 
decline is only 25 feet, that the distance is only ten miles, that 
the observations are few, (apparently only two), that the two 
remnants may not belong to strictly identical planes, that the 
decline is not greater than the possible differential northward 
depression of the region, and that the non-continuance of the 
high-level plane down the present course of the Ohio has not 
been demonstrated. If it shall be shown that no such high ter- 
races follow down the Ohio, the presumption in favor of the 


* 2nd Geol. Survey of Penn. Q, pp. 11, 12. 


Western Pennsylvania, 2038 


Beaver river route will be strong. If high-level terraces occur, 
as they doubtless do, on the Ohio between the mouth of the 
Beaver and Wellsburg, West Virginia, the supposed old divide, 
and these terraces decline toward the mouth of the Beaver, i. e. 
contrary to the present stream, then the demonstration that the 
old course was to the north through the Beaver valley will be 
essentially complete. | 

It is to be hoped that Mr. Foshay, who is practically on the 
ground, will pursue to a demonstration the hypothesis he has 
already rendered so highly probable. 

As to the course which this old river pursued north of the 
moraine on the Beaver (assuming that it took this course)— 
whether along the present route of the Mahoning or that of 
the Shenango—there seems to be no demonstrative evidence. 
None of Mr. Foshay’s data bear definitely on this point. The 
Shenango valley all the way from its mouth, 7-8 miles north 
of where the high-terrace is lost under the moraine, to the 
Pymatuning swamp on the Erie divide where it connects with 
the valley of Ashtabula creek flowing into Lake Erie, is 
broader than that of the Mahoning from its mouth to the Erie 
divide near Warren, Ohio; its bluffs are less abrupt and its 
general aspect that of a valley older as well as larger than that 
of the Mahoning. Moreover the lower Mahoning valley be- 
comes very narrow in the‘vicinity of Lowellville, Ohio, having 
abrupt bluffs with a breadth at base of but about one-fourth 
mile, which is too narrow to make it probable that it is a con- 
tinuation of the old river under consideration, whose breadth 
above is much greater and whose slopes are more worn and 
receding. The narrowing at this point fits well the hypothesis 
that here was the preglacial divide between a stream running 
_ northwest into the Grand river basin and one running south- 
east to join the old river under discussion at the present mouth 
of the Mahoning. Furthermore, the main preglacial valley of 
the Grand river basin seems to have entered, not from the 
southeast along the lower Mahoning but from the south along 
the upper Mahoning from the direction of Alliance, Ohio, 
there being a comparatively low belt several miles wide along 
the upper (north flowing) part of the Mahoning, with low 
bluffs and a gradual rise both to the east and the west of the 
river. The relative elevations of the present divides on the 
Mahoning and Shenango routes respectively, do not help us 
much in this question, since, in the first place, we cannot trace, 
or at least have not traced, the terraces which mark the old 
river bed,—the present surface divide and the present rock 
divide being matters of more recent formation—and, in the 
second place, an eastward differential uplift is known to have 
taken place. The uplift referred to is well shown by the 


204 Lf, Leverett—Pleistocene Fluvial Planes of 


highest of the beaches in the eastern part of the expanded 
Lake Erie. This beach is fully 80 feet higher immediately 
north of Chautauqua lake than it is at the Grand river basin. 
Since this amount of differential uplift has occurred during 
the short time since the lake occupied this beach, it becomes 
necessary to allow for even greater changes either of depres- 
sion or of uplift in the much longer period that has elapsed 
since the high-level terraces along the streams of western 
Pennsylvania were formed. 

On the whole, therefore, the balance of evidence favors the 
Shenango as against the Mahoning route, but the question is 
still an open one. The definite conclusions of Mr. Foshay 
supported by map and proposed name do not seem to be war- 
ranted by the present state of evidence, or even to represent 
the probabilities of the case. 

Interglacial valleys (Buried channels).—As the high-level 
base-plane has been demonstrably connected with the earlier 
glacial epoch by Dr. Chance and President Chamberlin, the 
channels cut in it are obviously of later age; and it is impor- 
tant that the existing broad distinction between the interglacial 
and preglacial channels of this region be kept in mind; the 
preglacial channels have, so far as yet identified, a fluvial plane 
far above that of the present streams, while the interglacial 
channels have a rock floor in large part below the present 
streams. 

The study of the profiles of the valley floors within this 
drift-covered region, when combined with an attempt to 
restore former systems of drainage, is calculated to impress 
one with the fragmentary nature of available evidence. It is 
true that portions of Big Sandy, Oil and French creeks and of 
the Allegheny and Conewango rivers are sutticiently well 
explored by the numerous oil-well borings to givea satisfactory 
knowledge of the slope of the valley floors, but outside of the 
oil district the valleys have been explored only so far as is 
necessary to obtain water or to prove that oil and gas are not 
to be found. Throughout much of northwestern Pennsy]l- 
vania and northeastern Ohio the depth of drift in valleys 
is known only at intervals of several miles, and very seldom 
has a series of borings been made that test the entire breadth 
of a valley. | 

Mr. Foshay calls attention to the very low altitude of the 
rock floor near the junction of the Mahoning and Shenango 
rivers, where it is said to be 50-75 feet below the level of the 
floor of the Ohio near Pittsburg, and perhaps lower than at 
the mouth of the Beaver, and bases his ‘“ Spencer River” 
channel largely upon this deep portion of the valley, no bor- 
ings having yet been made farther up-stream along either the 


Western Pennsylvania. 205 


Mahoning or the Shenango that reveal a rock surface so low as 
that near the junction of these streams, as may be seen from 
the following table which represents the deepest borings of 
which I have knowledge. 


Table showing principal borings along the Mahoning-Grand 
River route. : 


| | + | | 
Location. he ee. | Altitude. Drift. |Rock floor. Authority. 
| | = 
Lawrence Junct., Pa. ._----- 0 miles. 760 feet. 150 feet. 610 feet. White. 
Hdeneure Pa. _.__..---..--- eG ESOe SP UAGO 2 8 THB Og ee 
Stare Line, O. and Pa, ------ rts) ISRO ts 180 Se O30.) Newberry: 
Mawellyalie sO...» -- NOs ee OAOe Piet ay am ere. 
Haselton, near Youngstown__15°6 “ (831 “ 90 ‘ (741 ‘ |Foshay * 
ies, 0. Jie 26 «(1854 1900 gy4 Ee 
Near Southington, O. _____-- 40 “ (870 “ 222+ 648—“ Leverett. 
Mesopotamia, 0. .._---.--- ais ee ee SOO mt TI 2OS Mee | GAD Her |e: at! 
Ger iC ne ice IS 20h Fo Oa Gb0— | OS 


* Given in letter to the writer. 


The thickness of drift at Edenburg is a disputed question, 
some citizens maintaining that the greatest amount penetrated 
was 140 feet where the level of the well-mouth was 12-20 feet 
above the river, while others hold the opinion that the drift 
extends about 200 feet below the river. The borings were 
made nearly thirty years ago, and no records are known to have 
been preserved, consequently much allowance should be made 
for inaccuracies. It may be necessary to add 75 feet to denote 
the true altitude of the rock floor at this point. However, as 
there is a possibility that the rock floor is as low as indicated I 
leave it as given by Prof. White and Mr. Foshay. 

The borings at Niles, Ohio (No. 11, on map), are cited by 
Mr. Foshay as fixing the position of the old channel at that 
point, if northward differential uplift be taken into account. 
The amount of differential uplift required if the rock floor is 
but 580 feet A. T. at Edenburg, is 72 feet per mile, allowing 
the stream no fall between Edenburg (No. 14), and Niles; 
and 93 feet allowing the stream a fall of one foot per mile, 
Niles being 12 miles farther north than Edenburg and about 
22 miles distant by the stream, while the valley floor there is 
94 feet higher than at Edenburg. If we are allowed to assume 
an uplift of 93 feet per mile, or’even of 74 feet, nearly every 
large stream tributary to the Ohio from the State of Ohio, as 
well as the lower Allegheny and the Monongahela, could be 
carried into the Lake Erie basin, and we could if we saw fit 
attach to the Lake Erie basin all the southern tributaries of 
the Ohio from West Virginia and eastern Kentucky. 


206 Lf, Leverett— Pleistocene Fluvial Planes of 


In the above calculation a continuous deep channel from 
Edenburg to Niles is assumed but there is evidence against the 
validity of this assumption. At Lowellville, Ohio (No. 13), the 
Mahoning, as has been noted by Dr. Newberry,* has a rocky 
_ bed, an examination of the valley at this village for the pur- 
pose of finding, if possible, evidence of a deep channel leading 
through it convinced me that not only is there no evidence of 
its existence but on the contrary the rock is exposed at fre- 
quent intervals throughout the whole width of the valley, the 
village as well as the river bed being upon rock. The out- 
crops are so frequent that there appears to be no room for a 
gorge so much as 100 yards in width, much less for one suffi- 
cient to be the outlet of such a stream as must have been dis- 
charged by the Monongahela and lower Allegheny rivers. It 
therefore appears that the hypothesis of a discharge northward 
along the Mahoning route involves a hypothetical uplift of an 
improbable amount, wholly unsustained by evidence, and 
further, that the constriction of the valley at Lowellville makes 
the route an inherently improbable one. 

I have also examined the Shenango valley for the purpose 
of discovering a northward outlet for the deep channel at 
Edenburg. The rock floor of this valley is struck at several 
points about 125 feet below the present stream and seems to 
slope with the present stream, southward, instead of toward 
the Erie basin. At Greenville several borings have been made 
which test quite well the valley throughout its entire width, 
and no channel of greater depth exists unless it be a narrow 
gorge inadequate for the passage of a large stream. The level 
of the lowest part of the valley floor through much of the busi- 
ness portion of the city is about 815 feet A. T. This is 155 
feet above the valley floor at Newcastle and at least 160 feet 
and possibly 235 feet above the rock floor at Edenburg. A 
calculation of the amount of northward differential uplift that 
must be assumed and subtracted from the altitude of the valley 
floor at Greenville to bring it to the lower of the levels at 
Edenburg gives 844 feet per mile, and if enough uplift be 
assumed to give the ancient stream a northward descent of one 
foot per mile this amount will be increased to about 10 feet 
per mile,—a greater uplift than it is legitimate to assume. 

Additional evidence against the northward discharge of the 
waters from the great drainage basin of the Monongahela and 
lower Allegheny some 13,000 square miles in area, may be 
found in the narrow gorge of the Beaver above Beaver Falls; 
but the character of the evidence from the Ohio valley itself 
appears to render unnecessary further consideration of the 
probabilities of northward drainage. This valley receives 


* Geology of Ohio, vol. iii, p. 804. 


Western Pennsylwania. 207 


glacial terraces from its northern tributaries above Wellsburg, 
West Virginia, and all these terraces continue down the Ohio 
and have a fall as great as the present stream, showing that an 
open valley existed previous to the later glacial period and 
that its stream has since this glacial period been reéxcavating 
a channel partialiy filled by glacial gravels. Furthermore, gas 
well borings at Wellsburg, West Virginia, where Mr. Foshay 
has placed the old watershed, show the rock floor there to be 
but 590 feet A. T. or 10 feet lower than it is known to be at 
any point along the Ohio in Pennsylvania. A carefully pre- 
pared report of a well has been sent me by Millard E. Boyd, 
Esq., city engineer of Wellsburg, in which the character and 
thickness of drift are given and the altitude of the rock floor 
is referred to low water in the Ohio, from which it appears 
that the drift below the level of low water mark is gravel, 
showing vigorous drainage, and the rock floor is 40°58 feet 
below low water. Mr. Boyd states that within a radius of two 
miles about thirty wells have been made and that those on the 
same bottom with the one reported all show the rock floor to 
have about the same altitude (590 feet A. T.) 

This evidence from the Ohio valley seems conclusive that 
the Monongahela and Allegheny rivers had their present course 
down the Ohio in the interglacial period and have held it con- 
tinuously from that time to the present. 

In view of the results arrived at by the study of this portion 
of the Upper Ohio district, we are naturally led to examine 
the nature of the evidence put forth by Mr. J. F. Carll some 
years ago,* as a demonstration that the buried channels of the 
upper Allegheny, Conewango, Oil, and French creeks have 
an outlet into the Lake Erie basin. In discussing this evidence 
the buried channels (interglacial fluvial planes) only are con- 
sidered and no account is taken of the high terraces (pregla- 
cial fluvial planes) since these high planes have not been 
sufficiently investigated north of the glacial boundary to enable 
one to form an opinion concerning them. 

The numerous oil well borings show that the valley floors of 
several northern tributaries of the Allegheny have higher 
altitudes near the mouths of these tributaries than they have a 
few miles upstream. For example, in the Conewango valley 
the rock floor is 129 feet lower at Fentonville, near the State 
line of New York and Pennsylvania, than it is at the mouth of 
the stream, 13 miles south, and the rock floor of Little Broken- 
straw valley is 148 feet lower at Lottsville, Penn. (No. 1), 
than where its waters join the Allegheny 15 miles below. In 
other tributaries of the Allegheny the descent of the rock floor 
begins a few miles above the mouth; thus in Oil creek the 


* Penn. 2d Geol. Survey III, 1880, pp. 330-366. 


208 F. Leverett—Pleistocene Fluvial Planes of 


valley floor has its highest point near Titusville, Penn. (No. 2), 
and there is a descent of 66 feet in eight miles upstream. The 
valley floor of French creek rises for five or six miles upstream, 
but near Meadville (No. 8), 25 miles above its mouth, the 
rock floor is about 150 feet lower than at the mouth of the © 
creek. The floor of Big Sandy creek rises from its mouth to. 
the vicinity of Raymilton (No. 17), but descends above that 
village, beg fully 40 feet lower at Sandy Lake than at Ray- 
milton. Borings are sufficiently numerous to show a strong 
probability that these valley floors have no channels deep 
enough to drain them southward, but unfortunately they are 
not sufficient to demonstrate whether or not there is a continu- 
ous descent to the Lake Erie basin from any of the points 
noted. Mr. Carll has shown that there appears to be no 
obstacle to the northward continuation of the Conewango val- 
ley past Cassadaga lake into Lake Erie, though it is necessary 
to assume about 500 feet of drift filing at the watershed. 
Similarly, to give French creek a northern outlet by way of 
Conneaut lake and Conneaut creek a drift fillmg of over 300 
feet at the watershed north of Conneaut lake must be assumed. 

Inasmuch as the northward drainage of these buried chan- 
nels remains an open question, a brief consideration of other 
hypotheses to account for the phenomena seems called for. A 
certain amount of northward descent may prove to be due 
to erust-deformation. The beaches about Lakes Erie and 
Ontario, and those of the Glacial Lake Agassiz, as is well 
known, indicate clearly a northward differential uplift aceom- 
panying the retreat of the ice, bunt they indicate nothing as to 
the depression that preceded this uplift. In the opinion of 
those who have given most attention to these beaches, the 
uplift was due mainly to the withdrawal of the load of ice. 
This hypothesis involves a previous depression occasioned by 
its accumulation and an imperfect restoration, owing to the 
removal of material from portions of the glaciated district and 
the presence of a load of drift and large bodies of water after the 
ice withdrew in parts of the glaciated district not thus encum- 
bered in preglacial times. So far as we may reason from theo- 
retical grounds, there should be expected a residuum of north- 
ward depression in the region under discussion, since a large 
amount of drift was deposited here. And this may prove to 
have been an important factor in giving these valley floors a 
northward slope, though it is hardly probable that it was the 
chief one. 

A more important factor in the production of the peculiar 
valley phenomena of this region may prove to have been 
erosion effected beneath the ice either by the ice itself or by 
subglacial waters. Whether the ice greatly deepened valleys 


Western Pennsylvania. 209 


through which it flowed is an open question, but that sub- 
glacial waters exerted a peculiar eroding power in certain places 
near the ice margin is conclusively shown in various parts of 
the glaciated district by the presence of large channels made 
by them. Some of these are remote from present streams and 
have been little affected by post-glacial erosion. Their trend 
is in line with the striation and approximately at right angles 
with the moraine. They are often occupied by osars and 
hence are called “osar troughs.” These troughs or channels 
sometimes rise toward the moraine at the rate of several feet 
per mile, and yet the material in the osars lying in them shows 
conclusively that the flow was in that direction. The, water 
seems to have been forced upward toward the ice margin by 
the weight of the ice sheet and by hydrostatic pressure. These 
osar troughs were formed just before the ice made its final 
retreat, but the eroding power, of which they are the product, 
was probably in operation in earlier stages of the ice invasion. 
The outer moraine in the district under discussion is a complex 
one, the equivalent of several moraines farther west that indi- 
cate a succession of advances and retreats of the ice front. In 
the early stages the rock floors of these valleys may have been 
deepened in places by the subglacial streams in the same man- 
ner as the osar troughs were produced. By reference to the 
accompanying map it will be seen that every valley in which 
avery low rock floor has been reported has a trend approxi- 
mately at right angles with the moraine and in line with the 
ice movement; that is, such a trend as to invite the flow of 
ice and of subglacial waters. Furthermore it appears that in 
every case the lowest known point of the rock channel in these 
several valleys is near. the inner border of the moraine. In 
case it is found that no northward outlets exist the most plausi- 
ble explanation for the low altitude at these points would seem 
to be a deepening of the channels here below their main out- 
lets by subglacial waters assisted, perhaps, by the ice itself. 
Summing up all the available evidence, it appears that no 


northward outlets have been found for the low channels just. 


within the moraine on these several streams which are not 
embarrassed, either by a rise in the rock floor or an extraordi- 
nary amount of drift. In the streams under special considera- 
tion, the Shenango, Mahoning and Beaver, it appears that the 
rock floor rises in all directions from Edenburg, unless there 
be a descent down the Beaver. The obstacles to a northward 
discharge of these streams seem, on the whole, greater than 
those in the way of a southward discharge. In the Mononga- 
hela, lower Allegheny and the Ohio valleys, the available 
evidence all indicates southward discharge along the present 
course of the Ohio from the interglacial period to the present 
time. 


210 FI’, Leverett— Plestocene Fluvial Planes of 


Taking into consideration all the known facts, it certainly 
seems premature to urge, without distinct qualification, the 
acceptance of a hypothesis of northward drainage for any of 
these streams during the interglacial epoch, and much more so 
to impose a name for the unproven river. 

Moraine-headed terraces.—President Chamberlin’s descrip- 
tion of the moraine-headed terraces and general remarks upon 
the history of the several fluvial planes embody so well the 
essential facts that further remarks are unnecessary. From 
his paper the following extracts are taken verbatim.* 

“The third group of terraces are sharply distinguishable 
from those which have just been considered; first, in the fact 
that, instead of being rock platforms covered by fluvial mate- 
rial, they are made up bodily of coarse alluvium, mainly gravel. 
They have their chief development in the rivers entering the 
Ohio from the north, and when traced up they are found to 
head on one of the moraines of the later glacial epoch, or at 
least of a later glacial epoch following at a considerable inter- 
val an earlier one. The uppermost of these terraces has for its 
surface plane the ancient flood deposits of the glacier-fed streams. 
The lower terraces have been cut out of it by subsequent 
erosion. Near the moraine this upper glacial flood surface. 
may be traced continuously, rising somewhat rapidly as the 
moraine is approached, and passing gradually into a series of 
undulations which merge into the gravelly knobs and _ basins, 
and thence into the unassorted hills of the moraine. This 
relationship was satisfactorily observed by Mr. Gilbert and 
myself, separately or jointly, on Conewango creek, near Rus- 
sellburg; on the Little Brokenstraw, near Freehold; on the 
Big Brokenstraw, near Horn’s Siding; and on Oil creek near 
Hydetown. On Sugar creek, French creek, and Sandy creek 
phenomena of similar significance appear, but they are less 
clear in their import. On Beaver river and Little Beaver 
creek analogous features are more satisfactorily displayed. 

The streams of gravel starting in these morainic heads run 
down through the rock channels cut below the old river bottom 
as above described. The surfaces of these later glacial gravel 
streams are generally much below that of the earlier terrace 
deposits, but as they slope more rapidly there is no constant 
difference. An interval of from 100 to 200 feet may be taken 
as representative. The bottom of these later glacial gravels 
extends below the present river-beds, reaching depths varying 
from 40 feet to 250 feet or more, showing a considerable depth 
of channel before this late filling. These terraces reach their 
greatest height above the present stream, so far as observed, at 
the junction of the Beaver river with the Ohio. There the 


* Bulletin No. 58, U. S. Geol. Sur., 1890, pp. 32-36. 


Western Pennsylvania. : 211 


terrace rises 127 feet above the Ohio, according to a lock-level 
measurement by Mr. Gilbert. 

Similar moraine-headed terraces occur in Ohio on the Mus- 
kingum, Scioto, and Mad rivers and their tributaries, and 
seem to have their equivalent in terraces on the lower stretches 
of these rivers and on the Ohio. In other words, there is a 
general system of deep valley gravels, starting from the mo- 
raines indicated and sweeping down the valleys, growing pro- 
gressively finer in material. Out of these glacial flood deposits 
a system of terraces has been cut by subsequent erosion. The 
still later glacial episodes seem to have introduced modifying 
elements, but these are unimportant in this connection. 

The time and manner of origin of the moraine-headed terrace 
planes are placed beyond question by their morainic connec- 
tions. They are clearly the products of the streams that 
issued from the glacier during the moraine-forming epoch. 
The carving of the terraces out of these planes was chiefly a 
subsequent work, of relatively minor importance in the present 
discussion. The coarseness of the gravels of this series indi- 
cates vigorous drainage, which in turn implies an open valley 
and at least a fair gradient below. It is equally evident that 
terraces of a much higher level and different gradient could 
not have been formed at the same time. Minor side-valley 
terraces night have been formed at flood stages, but only to 
the height of the maximum floods, and these must have had 
the same slope as the broad flood planes. 

It is clear that the upper gravel-bearing terraces were not 
formed at the same stage as these moraine-appended ones, for 
they are not only of a different type, being alluvinm-covered 
rock platforms, but they stand high above most of the morainic 
heads of the later deposits and show much greater antiquity in 
the erosion of their surfaces. For example, at Warren the old 
gravels have an altitude of 1415 feet above sea-level, with a 
terrace at 1395 feet, while the moraine-headed flood deposits 
of the later epoch at Russellburg, eight miles upstream, occur 
at about 1275 feet. On the Beaver river the moraine-headed 
gravel stream has an elevation.of about 830 feet, while along 
the valley below pebbles referred to the earlier epoch range 
from 900 to 950 feet, and ten miles below there is a wide rock- 
based terrace at about 885 feet. But these higher gravels con- 
tain pebbles of granite and other crystalline rock, whose pres- 
ence is only to be accounted for through glacial agencies, and 
the explanation of their origin must embrace that element.” 

“The higher glacial gravels antedated those of the moraine- 
forming epoch by the measure of the erosion of the channel 
through the old drift and the rock, whose mean depth here is 
about 300 feet, of which, perhaps, 250 may be said to be rock. 


= 


— ee ee 


212 FE. Leverett— Pleistocene Fluvial Planes, ete. 


The excavation that intervened between the two epochs in 
other portions of the Allegheny, Monongahela, and Upper 
Ohio valleys is closely comparable with this. 

In view of these facts it seems scarcely less than proven that 
it was the earlier invasion of ice that reversed the drainage 
and partially filled the valleys with debris, forming the capping 
of glacial gravel that rests upon the upper terrace.” 
~ “From the fact that the fluvial material in these abandoned 
channels and on the corresponding terraces in the Monongahela 
valley is wholly local, or southern, while among the analogous 
material of the Allegheny there mingle crystalline erratics of 
Canadian derivation, and from the evidence given above, we 
draw the inference that the partial filling was coincident with 
some stage of the earlier glaciation, presumably a late stage. 
This view gathers some support from the now well sustained 
belief that a general depression and slackening of drainage 
accompanied the earlier glaciation. 

Following this episode of valley-filling and earlier glacia- 
tion there was a prolonged epoch ot rapid erosion of the valley 
bottom, which was apparently coincident with an interglacial 
epoch, and was, perhaps the result of the resilience of the 
land after the glacial depression. During this epoch the rock 
gorges were cut down to the rock bottoms that now lie forty 
feet or more below the present river bottoms. Then came the 
later invasion that halted at the outer terminal moraine, whose 
overloaded floods, like those of the preceding glacial incursion, 
filled the valley bottoms with glacial alluvium ; only, in this 
instance, in harmony with the more vigorous character of the 
later glaciation, the filling reached, at some points, 300 feet. 
Since that time there has been another stage of reéxcavation, 
giving origin to the lower gravel terraces. 

This is doubtless far from being the whole history of events, 
and may be divergent from the truth in minor phases, but I 
believe with some confidence that it represents the general 
truth respecting the history of the abandoned channels and 
chief terrace deposits of the system of benches under consid- 
eration.” 


Madison, Wis., March 14, 1891. 


Gooch and Gruener— Determination of Antimony, etc. 213 


Art. XIX.—A method for the Determination of Antimony 
and its condition of Oxidation; by F. A. GoocH and 
H. W. GRUENER. 


[Contributions from the Kent Chemical Laboratory of Yale College.—VIII.] 


BUNSEN’S method of determining qualitatively the condi- 
tion of oxidation of salts of antimony, by boiling these sub- 
stances in solution with potassium iodide and hydrochloric 
acid and noting whether the liquid takes the color of free 
iodine, has been applied successfully to the quantitative deter- 
mination of antimony in its highest condition of oxidation by 
Weller,* who distils the iodine from the solution, collects it in 
the distillate and, determining it volumetrically, calculates from 
the amount of it found the antimonic salt which sets it free 
according to the equation 


SbCl, + 2H-I=SbCl’ + 2HC1I+L-L 


The advantage of treating the residue, rather than the distil- 
late, in analytical processes in general which involve distillation 
is so obvious as to constrain us to seek conditions under which 
Bunsen’s reaction may be applied in such manner that the 
antimony shall be held and estimated directly in the residue. 
The general plan of work was laid down in a similar process 
elaborated in this laboratory for the reduction of arsenic acid.t+ 
According to this process the arsenic to be reduced is taken in 
a solution of appropriate dilution, and treated with sulphuric 
acid in adjusted amount and an excess of potassium iodide. 
The liquid thus prepared is boiled to a definite degree of con- 
centration, the iodine then remaining unexpelled, if any, is 
bleached by the very careful addition of dilute (centinormal) 
sulphurous acid, and the liquid is immediately diluted and 
neutralized. After cooling, the reduced arsenic is titrated by 
standard iodine in presence of starch. 

We found in preliminary experimentation that the same 
general plan of treatment is available in the handling of anti- 
monic compounds, but it is necessary to take precautions to 
prevent the deposition of the antimony from solution upon the 
addition of the sulphuric acid. Tartaric acid accomplishes this 
effect satisfactorily and does not, as the result proved, intro- 
duce undesirable complications. It transpired also that the 
dilution of the solution at which the crystalline iodide or oxy- 
iodide separates out during the boiling is greater than is the 
case when similar amounts of arsenic are dealt with. It 
appeared, for example, that concentration to 45cm.° was sufh- 
cient to cause crystallization and slight sublimation when the 


* Ann. d. Chem. u. Pharm., cexiii, 246. 
+Gooch and Browning, this Journal, xl, p. 66. 


214. Gooch and Gruener—WMethod for the Determination 


amount of antimonious oxide present (with excess of potas- 
sium iodide and 10cm.* of sulphuric acid, 1:1) was approxi- 
mately 0°2 grm. Otherwise the process as employed in the 
reduction of arsenic appeared to be applicable to the similar 
treatment of antimony. 

The following quantitative experiments were undertaken to 
discover the condition of concentration best suited to the 
reduction of antimonic salts under circumstances otherwise 
like those adapted to the reduction of arsenic, and to test the 
perfection of the process. Definite amounts of tartar emetic, 
purified by recrystallization, were used to make the antimonic 
salt to be afterward reduced, the antimony being raised to the 
highest degree of oxidation by titration with standard iodine 
after the addition of sodium tartrate (to prevent the precipita- 
tion of the antimony during the process of oxidation) and 
hydrogen sodium carbonate in the usual excess, In this 
process starch was sometimes employed to give the end reac- 
tion, and sometimes reliance was placed upon the appearance 
of the color of free iodine, experience having indicated that 
the use of the starch is not essential when the solutions are 
sufficiently small in volume, though as a matter of course, the 
correction demanded for the excess of iodine necessary to give 
color to the body of liquid is greater when starch is not used. 

This treatment of the tartar emetic served the double pur- 
pose of providing a perfectly definite antimonic salt and re- 
standardizing the solution of standard iodine, which was to be 
used subsequently in reoxidizing the antimony after its reduc- 
tion, against the tartar emetic; and thus the imperfection of 
the process, whatever it may be, whether in the reduction or 
elsewhere, becomes apparent and is measured immediately by 
the difference between the amounts of iodine employed in the 
two oxidations. This mode of standardizing the iodine appears 
to be peculiarly advantageous in view of Fresenius’s demonstra- 
tion* that the iodometric estimation of antimony yields too 
high results, at least in the case of tartar emetic, when the 
standard iodine is standardized in the usual manner and, as is 
undoubtedly best, the characteristic starch-blue is taken for 
the end reaction rather than the premonitory and somewhat 
indefinite reddish tint. 

The larger amounts of tartar emetic were weighed out dry ; 
the smaller quantities were secured by measuring out definite 
portions of a solution of fixed strength. To every portion was 
added, in an Erlenmeyer beaker of 300 em.* capacity, one 
gram of tartaric acid previously treated with an excess of 
hydrogen sodium carbonate, and the oxidation was effected, as 
described, by iodine dissolved in potassium iodide to a solution 


* Quant. Anal. 6% Aufl., 817. 


of Antimony and its condition of Oxidation. 215 


approximately decinormal. Four grams of tartaric acid 
were added, and dilute sulphuric acid, if the solution still 
remained alkaline, to faint acidity. Im addition 10 em.’ of a 
mixture of sulphuric acid and water in equal parts were intro- 
duced, and the liquid was boilied after introducing a platinum 
spiral to prevent bumping, and a trap made of a two-bulb dry- 
ing tube cut short and hung, large end downward, in the 
mouth of the flask, to prevent mechanical loss. At the chosen 
degree of concentration, determined by marks upon the flask, 
the boiling was stopped, the color bleached by the cautious 
addition of sulphurous acid (approximately centinormal), and 
the solution, nearly neutralized with sodium hydrate, made 
alkaline by hydrogen sodium carbonate added in an excess 
amounting to about 20 cm.* of the saturated solution, was 
titrated with the standard (decinormal) iodine after the addi- 
tion of a fresh portion of starch. 

Table I, contains the account of experiments in which the 
larger amounts of antimony were employed. 


TABLE J. 
Tartar Iodine used 
Final emetic S$b,.03 in final ‘Sk.03 Error. 
yolume. taken. ~ taken. oxidation. found. 
em.? grm. erm. orm. erm. grm. 
100 075021 0:2178 023522) "| 0°2004 0:0174— 
80 | 0°5030 02181 | 0°3784 | 02153 | 0:0028— 
60 0°5008 | O22 0°3768 | 02144 | 0:0028— 
60 0°5010 Ont. | 03780 | O;2151 0:0022 — 
60 | 075010 0°2173 0°3809 0°2168 0:0005— 
(55 075023 0:2178 | 03827 | 0°2178 | 0:0000 
| 55 05015 0°2175 | 0°3806 | 0°2166 | 0:-0009— 
4 50 05007 | 0°2172 | 0O-3814 | O-2171 | e-0001— 
| 50 0°5039 | 072185 | 0°3839 | 0°2185 | 0:0000 
| 45 0-5001 | 0°2169 | 0°3818 0°2173 | 0°0004 + 
| 45 | 05004 | O-2 ETO," | 0:3825 | O-2176 | 0:0006+ 


The results of these experiments indicate unmistakably that 
complete reduction may be brought about under the conditions, 
but that concentration to a volume of from 45 em.’ to 55 em.’ 
during the boiling is not only advantageous but necessary. 
The mean error of the determination in which the final volume 
fell within these limits was zero between limits of -0:0009 grm. 
— or 0°0006 grm.+. In both determinations in which a final 
volume of 45 cm.* was reached, and in one of the experiments 
in which the final volume was 50 em.’, the formation of the 
crystalline antimonious iodide or oxyiodide in the liquid was 
noted, and the deposition of a very slight sublimate of the 
same salt in the trap. It is evident, therefore, that it would 
be hazardous to attempt to push the concentration further. 


Am. JouR. So1.—THIRD SERIES, VoL. XLII, No. 249.—SEPTEMBER, 1891, 
15 


216 Gooch and Gruener—Method for the Determination 


In all these experiments hydriodic acid was present in amount 
equivalent to 1:1 grm. of potassium iodide—0°5 grm. intro- 
duced as iodine and 0°6 grm. introduced as such in the stan- 
dard iodine where it plays the part of solvent. 

In the experiments recorded in Table II, smaller amounts of 
antimony and correspondingly smaller quantities of the oxidiz- 
ing solution were employed ; otherwise, the same general mode 
of proceeding was fellowed. The limits of concentration fixed 
upon were, however, varied somewhat. The previous experi- 
ments showed plainly that anything like a complete reduction 
of the antimony could not be anticipated when the final 
volume was greater than 60 cm.*, and the experience with the 
smaller amounts of antimony treated in the second series 
pointed to the fact, as the work progressed, that for them the 
erystallization and sublimation did not occur until the concen- 
tration had brought about a decrease in volume to 35 cm’. 
The limits of final volume were placed therefore, for these 
experiments, at 60 cm.* and 35 cm*. Centinormal iodine was 
used for the oxidations and bleaching with sulphurous acid 
was found to be unnecessary, the amount of icdine liberated in 
these experiments being so small as to vanish in the concentra- 
tion so completely that no color was visible (nor was it brought 
out by starch) after washing down the trap and cooling. There 
did remain a trace of color before the addition of the water 
but this seemed to us to be due in all probability to the incip- 
ient formation of the antimonious iodide or oxyiodide which 
is decomposed by the action of more water. At all events it 
disappeared on the addition of water and no reoxidation of the 
antimony was found subsequently. 


TABLE II. 
Tartar | Sb203 | pees used Sb,03 
Final Emetic | in final Error. 
Volume. taken. | taken. | oxidation. | found. 
4 ee - pees 
emt) orm. | erm. | orm. erm. orm. 
60 0: 0500 | 0:°0217 0:0239 00136 | 00081— 
60 0°0500 | 00217 | 0°0258 00147 | 0-0070— 
60 0:0500 | O02) | 0:0261 | 00148 | 0:0069— 
50 | 0:0500 | 00217 | 0:0316 070180 | 0-0037— 
( 40 | 0:0500 | 00217 | 0°0385 070219 | 0:0002+4 
35 |" *0-0500 00217 |  0°0380 | 00216 | 0:0001— 
4 35 0°0500 O'O21T a 0:0381 00217 | 0°0000 
| 35 | 0:0500 | 0°0217 | 0:0382 | 0°0218 0:0001 + 
| 35 | 0:0500 | 00217 | 0:0382 070218 | 0°0001+ 


These results show that for the smaller amounts of antimony 
the reduction was completed only by pushing the degree of 
concentration somewhat lower than was found to be necessary 


of Antimony and its condition of Oxidation. 217 


in treating the larger amounts. The only point in which 
these experiments differ essentially from those of the previous 
series is in the quantity of the iodine solution employed to 
effect this oxidation. So far as concerns the free iodine itself 
the conditions are similar in both series; for the iodine is con- 
verted in both cases to hydriodic acid exactly equivalent in 
amount to the antimony acted upon. The potassium iodide 
which is added in the iodine solution produces by action upon 
the sulphuric acid present an excess of hydriodic acid, which 
is, of course, dependent upon the absolute amount of the 
iodine solution employed. The hydriodic acid is the active 
agent in the reduction of the antimony, and to the greater 
mass-action in the former series of experiments might be 
attributed the more complete reduction for equal degrees of 
concentration. Accordingly the determinations of Table II 
were made to put this point to the test. In these experiments 
the conditions were identical with those of the determinations 
of Table I, excepting that in every case 1 grm. of potassium 
iodide was added to the liquid before boiling, thus bringing 
the total amount of hydriodic acid present to an equality with 
that present in the experiments of Table I, in which the larger 
amounts of antimony were treated. The results of these 
experiments bear out completely the hypothesis concerning 
the mass-action of the hydriodic acid—the smaller amounts of 
antimony being completely reduced in the presence of the 
large excess of hydriodic acid even at a final volume of 60 cm.* 
with a maximum error of 0:0002 grm.— 


TABLE III, 
Tartar Sb203 Todine used Sb203 
Final Emetic in fina Error. 
Volume. taken. taken. - Oxidation. found. 
em.? grm. erm. grm. - grm. grm. 
60 0°0500 0°0217 0°0378 0°0215 0°0002— 
60 0°0500 0°0217 0°0379 0°0216 0:0001— 
60 0°0500 | 0°0217 0°0379 0°0216 0-0001— 


It is plain therefore that we have in the phenomena de- 
scribed the basis of a good method for the iodometric deter- 
mination of the condition of oxidation of antimony; for, the 
amount of antimonious salt present In a mixture of antimoni- 
ous and antimonic salts may be determined by direct titration 
in alkaline solution, and the total amount of antimony present 
is given similarly after the treatment by boiling, as described, 
with potassium iodide and sulphuric acid, the amount of 
antimonic salt being immediately calculable from the difference 
between the quantities of the standard iodine used as the 


‘ 
if 
7 


—E 


218 Gooch and Gruener—WMethod for the Determination 


oxidizer before and after reduction. The best method of 
proceeding appears to be that in which the concentration was 
restricted so that the point of sublimation and crystallization 
was not reached and in which the presence of an excess of 
potassium iodide was assured. 

It seemed desirable, in this connection, to test the applica- 
bility of the method, as outlined, to the reduction and estima- 
tion of antimony and arsenic associated together, as so often 
happens in practice. The preceding experiments establish the 
fact that it is undesirable to attempt, in treating antimony, to 
force the concentration of the solution below 50 em.*, under 
the conditions laid down and when the amount of antimony 
present is equivalent to the maximum with which we have 
experimented, avout 0°2 grm. of antimonious oxide. In the 
parallel process for the determination of arsenic concentration 
to 40 em* was recommended in all cases (the maximum amount 
treated being equivalent to about 0°33 erm. of arsenious 
oxide), but it was not shown in the elaboration of that process 
that reduction would not take place at a concentration not 
quite so extreme. In the results recorded in Table V, which 
relate to experiments which duplicate the conditions found 
most favorable to the reduction of varying amounts of anti- 
mony,—the presence of the equivalent of 1-1 grm. of potassium 
iodide, and concentration to 50 em*——and differ from these only 
in the fact that arsenic was associated with antimony in every 
case, it appears that the reduction of arsenic may be effected 
simultaneously with that of the antimony. 


TABLE IV. 
i | | | | Difference | Hirsor inte 
5 | | 2 | - a Ss of 
aq 'Tartar | Sb,03 | As.O, Iodine used Iodine ngeq| Pehween one 
Ss 5 |Emetic in first | infinal | iodine = oa / 
ES | taken. taken. | taken. oxidation. oxidation. | j, He ba Sb.03 | AseOz 
> | | | oxidations. 
cm.3) erm. | grm. |. grm. emis) | en | em.*  grm. | grm. 
50! 071530 0:0870) 0:0500 19°37 19°43 006+ | 0°0004+ 0°0003— 
50 | 0°1503 0°0855) 0°0495 19°05 19°02 | 0°63— 0:0002— 0:0001— 
50 0°1503 0°0855 0°0544 20°05 199754) 0-08 — 0:0006— 0°0004— 
50' 071503 0°0855' 0°0495 19°05 19°007 4 0°05— | 0:0004—' 0:0003 + 


It is plain that the error in these results, whether reckoned 
as falling upon the antimonious oxide or upon the arsenious 
oxide, is quite within the limits allowable in volumetric deter- 
minations by means of decinormal solutions. One point, 
however, in the determination of the combined amounts of 
antimony and arsenic by the method here proposed deserves 
special consideration. It has been shown in the work to which 
reference has been made that arsenic is reducible by the pro- 


of Antimony and its condition of Oxidation. 219 


cess outlined and determinable with accuracy by titration with 
iodine standardized against arsenious oxide. In this later 
work we show that antimony may be reduced similarly and 
-estimated satisfactorily by titration against iodine standardized 
against tartar emetic. These two methods of standardizing do 
not yield identical results, and so we are confronted with an 
inherent error in the process for estimating antimony and- 
arsenic at once, which cannot be overcome unless the individ- 
ual amount of one or other constituent may be otherwise 
determined. If the determination of either the arsenic or 
antimony is possible it is, of course, easy to calculate with the 
use of the appropriate standard the amount of the solution of 
iodine which is really engaged in the oxidation of this particu- 
lar constituent, and the remainder of the iodine actually em- 
ployed, gauged by the second standard, will give the corrected 
amount of the second constituent. 

In ease no such correction is feasible it becomes a matter of 
interest to note the magnitude of possible error. Our experi- 
ence, based upon many determinations throughout the course 
of the work detailed above, pointed to a difference in the 
value of the two standards amounting to about one-half of one 
per cent. If, therefore, the weight of reduced oxide amounts 
to the maximum which we have experimented with—about 
0-2 grm.—the greatest possible error will be 0-0010 grm.+ or 
0-0010 grm. —, according as the entire 0-2 grm. is antimonious 
oxide estimated by the arsenic standard, or arsenious oxide 
estimated by the tartar emetic standard. The essential features 
of the process which we propose for the reduction of antimony 
and the determination of its degree of oxidation are recapitu- 
lated briefly in the following statement. 

The salt of antimony, not exceeding the equivalent of about 
0-2 grm. of antimonious oxide, is titrated, in presence of 1 grm. 
of sodium tartrate and the usual excess of sodium hydrogen 
carbonate, by means of iodine standardized against tartar 
emetic. The result of this titration gives the amount of 
antimonious salt present. To the solution are then added 
4 grms. of tartaric, dilute sulphuric acid, if necessary, to 
neutralization, an excess of 10 em.° of half and half sulphuric 
acid, and enough potassium iodide so that there shall be 
present of hydriodic acid the equivalent of a little more than 
1 grm. of the iodide. The liquid is diluted to 100 em.¥*, boiled 
in an Erlenmeyer beaker until the volume is decreased to 
50 em.*, the precaution being taken to introduce a platinum 
spiral to prevent bumping and a trap, as described, to obviate 
mechanical loss. The color remaining after concentration, if 
there be any, is bleached by dilute sulphurous acid (approxi- 
mately centinormal). The solution is nearly neutralized with 


220 Gooch and Smith—Method for the 


sodium hydrate, treated with an excess of sodium hydrogen 
carbonate amounting to 20 cm.’ of the saturated solution, 
cooled, and titrated in presence of starch by the standard 
iodine. This final titration gives, of course, the entire amount 
of antimony present. The difference between the indications 
of the two titrations is the measure of the antimony in the 
higher condition of oxidation. The method as outlined is 
accurate and rapid, and so simple as regards manipulation that 
a number of determinations can be carried through simultane- 
ously with the use of ordinary apparatus. 


Art. XX.—A Method for the Hstimation of Chlorates ; 
by F. A. Goocu and C. G. SMITH. 


[Contributions from the Kent Chemical Laboratory of Yale College.—VII.] 


It has been shown in recent work in this laboratory* that 
under conditions properly controlled, arsenic acid in excess is 
capable of expelling the iodine from hydriodic acid at the boil- 
ing temperature of the solution, being itself reduced corres- 
pondingly according to the equation 


H,AsO,+2H-I = H,AsO,+H,O+TL-1. 


On cooling the liquid remaining after such treatment, and 
neutralizing, the arsenious oxide produced in the reaction may 
be reoxidized iodometrically in the usual manner, the iodine 
added to accomplish this purpose being the exact measure of 
the iodine originally present as hydriodic acid and expelled 
from the acid solution during the process of boiling. 

If other sufficiently energetic and easily decomposable ox- 
idizing agents are present at the same time with the arsenic 
acid, it would be natural to suppose that these substances will 
act similarly upon the hydriodic acid, and, furthermore, that 
the oxidizing power of the arsenic acid will not be called into 
play until that of the more unstable oxidizers has been ex- 
hausted. Chloric acid, for example, acts with great ease upon 
hydriodie acid, and it would be natural to suppose that in a 
mixture of chloric, hydriodic and arsenie acids the mutual 
action of the chloric and hydriodie acids will be manifest first 
and will go on steadily to completion, and that when this effect 
is accomplished, and then only, the action of the arsenic acid 
in liberating iodine from the residual hydriodic acid and in 
registering by its own reduction the amount of iodine thus set 
free will appear. It should be possible, therefore, if this: 
theory of the reaction between these substances is correct, to 
found upon the method referred to for the estimation of iodine 


* Gooch and Browning; this Journal, xxxix, p. 188. 


Estimation of Chlorates. 221 


a method for the estimation of chlorates—this to consist In 
heating the chlorate, in acid solution and under conditions 
otherwise appropriate, with a known amount of potassium 
iodide, somewhat in excess of that theoretically equivalent to 
the chlorate, and in presence of an excess of arsenic acid, the 
arsenious oxide produced in the process being determined 
lodometrically and serving to measure the amount of iodide 
left undecomposed by the chlorate. Of course, the difference 
between the amount of iodide left undecomposed and _ that 
originally introduced should be the measure of the chlorate 
entering into the reaction. That a better form of iodometric 
method than those we have had heretofore for the estimation 
of chlorates is desirable is obvious when it is recognized that 
Bunsen’s original process—consisting in heating the chlorate 
_ with hydrochloric acid and potassium iodide, distilling and 
estimating the iodine collected in the distillate—tfails (owing to 
the formation of the comparatively non-volatile iodine chloride 
in the simultaneous action of the oxidizer upon hydrochloric 
and hydriodic acids) to show the entire amount of iodine cor- 
responding to the chlorate; and that Finkener’s substitute for 
this process—which prescribes the heating of the chlorate, 
under pressure in a closed bottle and in an atmosphere of car- 
bon dioxide, with a mixture of hydrochloric acid and potas- 
sium iodide previously prepared by treatment with sulphurous 
acid, boiling and subsequent cooling in an atmosphere of car- 
bon dioxide—though excellent when properly carried out, 
demands careful preparation of materials and skillful handling 
in the execution. 

We have studied the applicability of the process outlined 
above and record our experience in the following account. 

A solution of potassium iodide, approximately decinormal, 
was standardized according to the method to which reference 
has been made and which may be summarized in brief, as fol- 
lows: Portions of this solution were measured from a burette 
into Erlenmeyer beakers capable of holding 300 cm.’*, 2 grins., 
approximately, of pure dihydrogen potassium arseniate were 
added in solution, 20em.* of a mixture of sulphuric acid and 
water in equal volumes were introduced with enough water 
beside to increase the entire volume to a little more than 100 
em’. <A platinum spiral was introduced to secure quiet boil- 
ing, a trap made of a straight two-bulbed drying tube cut short 
was hung with the larger end in the neck of the flask, and the 
liquid was boiled until the level had reached a mark upon the 
flask indicating a volume of 35 em.*, experience having shown 
that this degree of concentration is sufficient and that it is 
best not to exceed it. The liquid remaining was cooled and 
nearly neutralized by sodium hydrate, acid potassium carbonate 


222 Gooch and Smith— Estimation of Chlorates. 


was added to alkalinity, 20 cm.* of a-saturated solution of this 
salt were added in excess, and the arsenious oxide in solution 
was titrated by standardized decinormal iodine in presence of 
starch. The iodine added in the reoxidation of the arsenious 
oxide was taken as the exact equivalent of the iodine expelled 
in boiling. Several closely agreeing determinations made in 
this manner served to fix the standard of the solution. 

The action of chloric acid under similar conditions was 
tested by following out exactly the process employed in stan- 
dardizing the iodide, with the exception that weighed amounts 
of potassium chlorate, purified by recrystallization, were also - 
introduced and that the precaution was taken to have the 
potassium iodide present in every case to an amount at least 
eight and a half times as great as that of the potassium chlorate 
—-this amount being a little more than the equivalent weight of 
the iodide referred to the chlorate. The experiments involved 
amounts of the chlorate ranging from 0°2 grms. to 0-01 grm., 
and quantities of the iodide varying from eight and a half to 
fifty times those of the chlorate. The results with all essential 
details are contained in the following table : 


ie TT. | ATL oy Pe phe oe) Vike 1h 
aa | | 
HaK = | ‘ KC1lO;, KCl 
Ce eine oon eae 
| Ze cysts that is,  frror. 
| responding dine taken equiva- 
_ to As,O; and Iodine ‘lent to I 
| _ reduced. added to ox- | in col- | 
taken. taken. taken. taken idize As,Os. taken. umn VI. 
em,” | yee, erm. rm. erm. erm. ‘grm. | en) eee 
20 2 1270092 1°5356) 0°2962 | 1°2394 | 0°2000) 0°2000 | 0-0000 
20 2 270092 1°5356) 02973 | 1.2383 0:2000 0:1999 | 0:0001— 
20 2. |1:0380 0°7934! 0°0570 0°7364 = 0°1185) O-1188 | 0-:0003+ 
20 2 08706 9°6654 0°0435 076219 =©0°1000) 0°1004 0:0004+ 
20 2 (9°8706 06654 070429 06225 0:1000 0:1005 | 0:0005+ 
20 2 O'8706 0°6654 0°0435 06219 01000) 01004 | 0:0004+ 
20 2 0°8706 0°6654 0°0435 06219 071000 0:1004 | 0:0004+ 
20 2 05023 03839) 03208 | 0-0631 0-0100 0°0102 | 0°0002+ 
20 2 105023 0°3839) 0°3201 | 0°0638 | 0-0100| 0-0103 | 0:0003+ 
20 2 0°2009 0:1536, 0°0889 0:0647 0°0100 0°0105 | 00005 + 
20 2 0°2009 01536) 0°0903 0:0633 0°0100; 0:0102 | 0:0002+ 
20 2 0°2009 01536, 0°0903 00633 0°0100) 0°6102 | 0°0002+ 
20 2 071339 0°1024 0:0405 0°0619 00100) 0°0100  0:0000 
20 2 0:1004 0°0768, 0°0157 | 00611  0:0100) 0:0099 | 0:0001— 
20 2 0°1004 0:°0768, 0°0182 0°0586  0°0100, 0°0095 | 0:0005— 


The mean error of these determinations is a little less than 


0:0002 grm +, between extremes of 0:0005 grm. + or 0.0005 
erm. —, and the results are evidently excellent for an iodo- 
metric process in which titration is effected by decinormal 
solutions. An excess of iodide over an amount a little in ex- 
cess of the equivalent proportion is without effect. The pro- 
cess is rapid and easy. : 


J. Trowbridge— Electrical Oscillations on Iron Wires. 223 


The paper upon the determination of iodine, to which 
reference has been made and upon which this process is based, 
prescribes corrections for the volatility of arsenious chloride and 
the slight deoxidation of arsenic acid when chlorides and 
bromides are also present in considerable amount. In this pro- 
cess, however, the amount of hydrochloric acid evolved from 
the maximum weight of chlorate treated —0°2 grm. of the 
potassium salt—calls for a correction so small as to be insig- 
nificant. 


/ 


ART. XXI.—Dampening of Llectrical Oscillations on Lron 
Wires ; by JoHN TROWBRIDGE. 


[Presented to the American Academy of Sciences, May 27, 1891.] 


It has generally been assumed by those who have studied 
the subject of very rapid oscillations of electricity, such as 
occur in Leyden jar discharges, that the magnetic character of 
the conductor has very little influence upon the character of 
the discharge. Thus, in a note to an article on electrical waves, 
W. Feddersen states that electrical oscillations may suffer a 
slight weakening on iron.; but this diminution is very slight :— 

“Beim Eisen koénnte in Folge der Magnetisirungen eine 
Abweichung hervortreten; in dess zeigt der Versuch, dass 
dieselbe keinenfalls bedeutend ist, titbrigens in dem Sinne erfol- 
gen miisste, als wenn die Elektricitét beim Eisen ein gréssere 
Hinderniss fande, wie bei den iibrigen Metallen.”* 

In Dr. Lodge’s treatise on Modern Views of Electricity (ed. 
1889), we find the following :— 

“ But in the case of the discharge of a Leyden jar iron is of 
no advantage. The current oscillates so quickly that any iron 
introduced into its cireuit, however subdivided into thin wires 
it may be, is protected from magnetism by inverse currents 
induced in its outer skin, and accordingly does not get mag- 
netized ; and so far from increasing the inductance of the dis- 
charge circuit, it positively diminishes it by the reaction effect 
of these induced currents; it acts, in fact, much as a mass of 
copper might be expected to do.” (p. 365.) 

Fleming writes as follows: 

“With respect to the apparent superiority of iron it would 
naturally be supposed that, since the magnetic permeability of 
iron bestows upon it greater inductance, it would form a less 
suitable conductor for discharging with great suddenness of 
electric energy. Owing to the fact that the current only pene- 
trates just into the skin of the conductor, there is but little of 


* Annalen der Physik und Chemie, No. 108, 1859, p. 499. 


224 JS. Trowbridge—Electrical Oscillations on Iron Wires. — 


the mass of the iron magnetized. Evenif these instantaneous 
discharges are capable of magnetizing iron, .. . . the electro- 
motive impulses or sudden rushes of electricity do not mag- 
netize the iron, and hence do not find in it any greater self- 
inductive opposition than they would find in a non-magnetic 
but otherwise similar conductor. Dr. Lodge’s further researches 
seem to show that there is a real advantage in using iron for 
lightning conductors over copper, and that its greater specific 
resistance and higher fusing point enables an iron rod or tape 
to get rid safely of an amount of electric energy stored up in 
the dielective which would not be the case if it were copper.’’* 

Fleming describes in full Dr. Lodge’s experiments to prove 
the non-magnetizability of iron by sudden discharges :— 

“In the experiments on alternative path, as described by Dr. 
Lodge, the main result is very briefly summed up by saying 
that, when a sudden discharge had to pass through a conductor, 
it was found that iron and copper acted about equally well, 
and indeed iron sometimes exhibited a little superiority, and 
that the thickness of the conductor and its ordinary conduc- 
tivity mattered very little indeed. . . . In the case of enorm- 
ously rapid oscillations the value of the impulsive impedance 
varies in simple proportion to the frequency of the oscillations, 
and depends on the form and size of the circuit, but not at all 
on its specific resistance, magnetic permeability, or diameter. . 
.... For discharges of a million per second and upwards, 
such as occur in jar discharges and perhaps in lightning, the 
impedance of all reasonably conducting circuits is the same, 
and independent of conductivity and permeability, and hardly 
affected by enormous changes in diameter.” fT 

Turning now to the observations of Hertz, we find it stated 
that the material, the resistance, and the diameter of the wire 
of the micrometer circuit employed by him, have very little 
influence on the result. The rate of propagation of an electri- 
cal disturbance along a conductor depends mainly on _ its 
capacity and coefficient of self-induction, and only to a small 
extent on its resistance. Hertz concludes that, owing to the 
great rapidity of the alternations, the magnetism of the iron is 
unable to follow them, and therefore has no effect on the self- 
induction. When a portion of the micrometer cireuit em- 
ployed by Hertz was surrounded by an iron tube, or replaced 
by an iron wire, no perceptible effect was obtained, and thus 
the result was apparently confirmed that the magnetism of the 
iron is unable to follow such rapid oscillations, and therefore 
exerts no appreciable effect. The velocity of propagation ina 
wire has a definite value independent of its dimensions and 
material. Even iron wires offer no exception to this, showing 


* Fleming, Induction of Electric Currents, p. 398. + Ibid, p. 411. 


—T 


J. Trowbridge—E lectrical Oscillations on Iron Wires. 225 


that the magnetic susceptibility of iron does not play any part 
in the case of such rapid motions.* 

Although the impulsive impedance is apparently not affected 
by the magnetic character of the wire, experiments lead me to 
believe that discharges of the quick period of a Leyden jar are 
affected very appreciably by the magnetic nature otf iron, steel, 
and nickel conductors. This effect is so great that it dampens 
the electrical oscillations, and makes it difficult to determine. 
whether the time of oscillation is also affected by the permea- 
bility of the conductor. 

The apparatus employed was similar to that described in the 
investigation of electrical oscillations with an air condenser.t 
Certain important modifications, however, were made. The 
plane mirror which was used in the former research was re- 
placed by a concave mirror of ten feet focus and three and a 
half inches in radius. This mirror was mounted upon the end 
of the armature shaft of a one-half horse power electric motor. 

The discharging apparatus consisted of a sharp cutting tool, 
insulated, and mounted on the edge of the rotating disk bear- 
ing the mirror. It was metallically connected with a grooved 
ring of brass mounted upon the shaft and insulated from it by 
hard rubber. Around this was wound a copper wire, one end 
of which was connected with the discharging wire, and the 
other drawn taut by arubber band. The electrical discharge 
was thrown on to the circuit by thrusting forward a lever 
which brought a solid hinged frame containing a strip of soft 
type-metal into contact with the rapidly revolving steel-cutting 
tool. An electrical contact was thus insured by the tool cut- 
ting a groove in the strip of type-metal. In order to avoid a 
spark at the contact, the type-metal was thickly covered with a 
wax of peculiar composition. The only spark that occurred, 
therefore, was the one the oscillations of which I desired to 
study. At each trial the type-metal was moved so as to expose 
a new cutting surface. The type-metal was insulated from the 
rest of the apparatus, but connected with the outer eoating of 
the Leyden jar; first both terminals of the Holtz machine were 
thrown off, and immediately after the cutting tool, ploughing 
its way through the type-metal, placed the outer coating of the 
Leyden jar in circuit with one of the two parallel wires lead- 
ing to the terminals of the spark. The other wire was per- 
manently in connection with the inner coating of the jar. 

*‘ Ersetzen wir den bisherigen Kupferdraht durch einen dickeren oder diin- 
neren Kupferdraht oder durch einen Draht aus anderem Metall, so behalten die 
Knotenpunkte ihre Lager bei. Die Fortplanzungsgeschwindigkeit in allen sclchen 
Drahten ist daher gleich, und wir sind berechtigt, von derselben als einer bestimm- 
ten Geschwindigkeit zu reden. Auch Kisendrahte machen keine Ausuahme von 
der allgemeinen Regel. die Magnetisirbarkeit des Eisens kommt also bei so 
schmalen Bewegungen nicht in Betracht.”—Ann. der Physik und Chemie, No. 34, 


1888, p. 558. 
+ Proceedings of Am. Acad. of Arts and Sci., vol. xxv, p. 109. 


226 J. Trowbridge—Electrical Oscillations on Iron Wires. 


Beside the short lead wires above described, the discharging 
circuit consisted of the two parallel wires 30 em. apart and 510 
em. long. These were the only portions of the apparatus 
changed during the experiment, and they were replaced by 
wires of different material and of different size. The other 
conditions—length of spark, lead wires, and the copper cross 
wire connecting the outer end of the long parallel wires— 
remained undisturbed throughout the experiment. 

The Leyden jar was charged each time as nearly as possible 
to the same potential, judging by the number of turns given 
the Holtz machine. It is unfortunate that no more accurate 
means of measuring it were at hand, although the different 
negatives showed but slight variation. The capacity of the 
jar to alternations of this period was 5060 electrostatic units. 

I describe the discharging portion of the apparatus minutely, 
for the success of an investigation of this nature depends upon 
the suppression of all sparks save that which one wishes to 
observe; and the method surely and completely accomplished 
this. The photograph of the spark could thus be made to fall 
very accurately on the sensitive plate. When one considers 
that the image of the spark was flying through the air on a 
circle of a radius of ten feet with a velocity of a mile a second, 
it will be seen that an extremely small deviation in the point 
of contact between the cutting tool and the type-metal would 
have thrown the image entirely off the sensitive plate. A 
singular phenomenon was noticed in this connection. When 
a comparatively low potential was used, such as that afforded by 
the air condenser used in our previous investigation, the cut- 
ting tool ploughed two or three millimeters along the surface 
of the type-metal before a spark passed at the point in the 
circuit where it was desired. With higher potentials this 
phenomenon was also observed, but the extent of cutting was 
diminished. 

It is possible that the insulating wax may have melted 
under the sudden blow of the cutting tool, and, flowing around 
it, prevented instant contact. This seems to us improbable, 
for a deep and clear-cut groove was made in the soft type- 
metal. Great attention was paid to the solid structure of this 
contact apparatus. It was entirely separate from the support 
of the revolving parts, and was perfectly steady. 

The other end of the armature shaft was lengthened into a 
cylindrical chronograph, similar to that described in the article 
already cited, and its performance left nothing to be desired. 
A small Ruhmkorf coil, excited by two storage cells, and inter- 
rupted by a seconds pendulum, gave a record of the speed of 
the mirror. The stylus which drew the spiral turns on the 
barrel of the chronograph was drawn along the barrel by 


J. Trowbridge—Flectrical Oscillations on Iron Wires. 227 


means of a small heavily loaded carriage, which, on being 
released at the moment the lever arm threw the type-metal in 
contact with the cutting tool, descended an inclined plane of 
adjustable height. 

A small Tépler-Holtz machine charged a large Leyden jar, 
and it was found to work admirably in all states of the weather. 
The apparatus which I have thus described was the result of 
the experience of the previous year, and worked for months 
without failure; and the taking of photographs of the oscilla- 
tory discharge by it became a mere matter of routine. 

The following cases were tried : 

(1.) When the long parallel wires were of copper (diameter 
-087 cm.), the number of double oscillations visible on the 
negatives averaged quite uniformly 9 or 9°5. 

(2.) When the wires were of German silver (diameter 
‘061 em.), three oscillations were visible. 

(3.) But when an annealed iron wire (diameter ‘087 cm.) was 
substituted, only the first return oscillation was distinctly visi- 
ble, with occasionally a trace of the first duplicate discharge. 

(4.) On substituting fine copper wire (diameter ‘027 cm.), 
five complete oscillations were quite uniformly visible. 

(5.) Fine German silver wire (‘029 cm.), nickel wire 
(019 em.),* soft iron (‘027 cm.), and piano steel wire (‘027 cm.), 
gave but faintly the first return discharge after the pilot spark. 

The pilot sparks were in all cases strong. 

The single return discharge through the iron wire did not 
admit of measurement sufficiently accurate to furnish any basis 
for calculation of its self-induction. The time did not appar- 
ently differ, if at all, by more than fourteen or fifteen per cent. 
Some general reasoning based upon the number of oscillations 
may be of interest. It must be acknowledged, however, that 
this reasoning is open to criticism, although it affords the most 
plausible explanation. The phenomenon itself is not a doubt- 
ful one. 

The time of a double oscillation for the large-sized copper 
wire was 0000020 sec. ; for the small copper wire, :0000021 
sec. The others as far as could be determined did not differ 
much from these values, and for this purpose either is suffi- 
ciently accurate. Denote by R’ the ohmic resistance of the 
parallel wires to alternating currents of this periodicity ; by R, 
the resistance to steady currents. 


2 
p= = 3,000,000 (pratically). 
Taking the cases up in order : 


* Obtained by the kindness of Joseph Wharton, Esq., of Philadelphia. 


228 J. Trowbridge—Llectrical Oscillations on Iron Wires. 


_ (1.) Large copper wire, 
R=0-285 x 10° 
and substituting in Lord Rayleigh’s formula, R’= y$pleR, 
he =066'< 10". 
(2.) Large German silver wire, 
R=92x 10", 
and substituting in the series 


] 272 ,,2 ih 4 
R/=R | Lee s =e ., 


i,2=9"2 TOE 


(3.) Large iron wire, 
i= 2"o x 1Oe 
and if there is a true time lag, as often stated, such as to pre- 


vent action of the magnetic property of the iron, and if on this 
assumption we make z=1, | 


R/=2°78 x 10° 
(4.) Fine copper, 
Fi=3 353 5G 1.05 
JE Sao Ose 


(5.) Again, as before, call ~=1 in iron, nickel, and steel. 
The length of these circuits was 7:41 meters, the remainder of 
the 10°20 meters — 2°79 meters—being of copper wire of 
R’=0°94. 

The value of R’ in the separate cases, including in each the 
resistance 0°94 of the copper portion, was as follows: 


Soft irom eek! soar see 15:0 10° 
Piano steel: % 2c. 2 so ee ee eee 
Nickele po 282 otk ie Se aa pa eae 30°6 x 10° 
German silver. 22.020 +20. 4 See ee 


The ratio of the strengths of successive discharges during 
rT : 


the oscillation is given by the function «4, where 7 is the ohmic 
resistance, T the time of a double oscillation, and L the self- 
induction. The ratio of one discharge to the mth one after it 
nt 
is e%, If we assume—and it is a large assumption, but one 
which perhaps the result will in some measure justify—that 
the ratio of the strength of the first to the strength of the last 
visible discharge is more or less a constant, we may make use 


ry 


of the above data. Denote i by A, and call the unknown 


J. Trowbridge—Electrical Oscillations on Iron Wires. 229 


resistance of the short connecting lead wires and of the spark 
x Then will r= R’+4a, and n will be the number of com- 
plete oscillations visible. 
Take cases (1) and (2), large copper and large German silver 
wires :— 
em (Ri +a)A _ ota(R’2+a)A. 
n, (BR +2) = n, (R',+2); 
9°5 (0°66+2) = 3 (9242); 
x = 3°4 ohms. 
Taking cases (1) and (4) similarly, 
) n, (R' + 2) = 2, (R',+2); 
95 (0°66+2) = 5 (35 +a); 
2 ==) 2°6 Ohms: 


Experiments with other copper wires having R’ equal to 
34 and 1:27 give 5 and 8 for the values of » respectively, or 


a = 2°4 ohms. 


The resistance (R’) of the lead wires forming part of « was 
08 ohm, leaving as a possible value for the resistance of the 
spark about 2 ohms. 

If, taking this value of «, we calculate the value of R’ neces- 
sary to damp out the oscillation in one complete double dis- 
charge in the case of the large iron wire, we shall have 


9°5 (0°66 3) = 1 (R'+3); 
R’ = 380 ohms. 


But neglecting the magnetic property of the iron, its caleu- 
lated resistance to alternating currents of this periodicity was 
R’/= 2°78 ohms. This is obviously inadequate, and would 
point to the conclusion that the oscillation is not, as sometimes | 
stated, too rapid to admit of the magnetic action of the iron. 

If we substitute this value R’= 30 in the equation 

R= VF pl pR, 
we have for the resulting value of the magnetic permeability 
p=230. This les between the limits w=103 and w=1110, 
found by taking the number of oscillations one and a half and 
one-half respectively for the case of the iron wire. 

It should be noticed that this estimate of » necessitates 
assuming that T and L remain the same within broad limits. 
Measurements of the single oscillation on the negatives show 
that this is near enough the case. Part of the more rapid 
decay of the oscillation in the iron may be well ascribed to the 
dissipation of energy by hysteresis. While we cannot place 
much reliance upon an estimate of its value in such a case,— 
its percentage effect probably increasing rapidly with the decay 


230 J. Trowbridge—FL lectrical Oscillations on Iron Wires. 


of the spark,—it is not difficult to show that its influence may 
be very great. 

There still remains the fact, not generally recognized, that, 
in Leyden jar discharges through iron wires, the magnetic 
property of the iron has time very materially to modify the 
character of the spark. 

We give an example of the measurement of the half-oscilla- 
tion which was the only one visible on the photograph of the 
discharge over iron wires, all the others having been dampened 
or extinguished by the iron, in comparison with the measure- 
ment of the similar half-oscillation on copper wires of the same 
diameter .as the iron wires. The number of oscillations on the 
copper wires was eight. | | 

The total duration of the discharge on iron wires was only 
three millionths of a second, while that on similar copper wire 
was three lhundred-thousandths of a second. A steel wire 
gave the same results as the annealed iron wires. 


Comparative lengths of first half-oscillation in millimeters. 


Fine iron wire. Fine copper wire. 
23 “19 
21k °20 
ate) ‘20 
"21 gles: 
Large iron wire. Large copper wire. 
"20 ilk 
20 "18 
“19 "20 
BS) "18 


I wish to express my deep obligations to my assistant, Mr. 
W. C. Sabine, for his valuable suggestions and for his skill in 
the mechanical details of this investigation. 


CONCLUSIONS. 


1. The magnetic permeability of iron wires exercises an im- 
portant influence upon the decay of electrical oscillations of 
high frequency. This influence is so great that the oscillations 
may be reduced to a half-oscillation on a cireuit of suitable 
self-induction and capacity for producing them. 

2. It is probable that the time of oscillation on iron wires 
may be changed. Since we have been able to obtain only a 
half-oscillation on iron wires, we have not been able to state 
this law definitely. 

8. Currents of high frequency, such as are produced in 
Leyden jar discharges, therefore magnetize the iron. 

Jefferson Physical Laboratory, Cambridge, 


J. P. Kimball— Genesis of [ron-ores, ete. 231 


Art. XXII.— Genesis of Iron-ores by Lsomorphous and Pseu- 
domorphous Replacement of Limestone, etc.; by JAMES P. 
KIMBALL. 


Ir is the object of the present memoir briefly to develop the 
following proposition, namely, that well recognized products 
of epigenesis, like siderite and ferro-calcite, in their several 
forms and wide distribution especially on a petrographic scale, 
are as a rule also products of direct pseudomorphous replace- 
ment of isomorphous calcic carbonate, like limestone, calcite, 
cale-sinter, calcareous sediments, cale-schutt, ete. This prop- 
osition is not new. But some of the conditions remain un- 
settled. So also sone of the deductions which have been 
thought, or may seem, to follow. These it is my purpose 
briefly to discuss. | 

Contingent to this proposition, it follows that secondary or 
indirect replacement of calcic carbonate by ferric hydrate is 
wrought through alteration of pseudomorphous siderite or ferro- 
calcite, and also, through progressive alteration, by ferric oxide 
and even. magnetic oxide. Hence proximate derivation from 
siderite of many occurrences of iron-ores which nevertheless 
are ultimate products of indirect or progressive pseudomor- 
phism of calcic carbonate—itself often a product of epigenesis 
from basic silicates. Such occurrences may therefore be re- 
garded as instances of double pseudomorphism, sometimes on 
a petrographic scale; that is, pseudomorphism in the first in- 
stance by substitution or replacement; in the second instance 
by alteration. | , 

Again, ferric hydrate apparently directly pseudomorphous 
after limestone is produced by immediate, perhaps spontaneous, 
oxidation of ferrous carbonate, resulting from interchange or 
double decomposition between solutions of this salt or ferrous 
sulphate and calcic carbonate in place. All these permutations 
proceed from the same reactions, but differ in results according 
to atmospheric environment—whether oxidizing or not. The 
iastable salt as first separated, it is scarcely necessary to add, 
is thrown down from solutions either of ferrous carbonate or 
ferrous sulphate indifferently, in reaction with dissolved calcic 
carbonate or other alkaline mono-carbonates. This salt how- 
ever, it is important early to remark, is the hydrous salt, from 
which geologists, it seems, are not accustomed to distinguish 
the anhydrous carbonate which is almost, if not aitogether, ex- 
clusively its natural form. 

Other adventitious occurrences of brown and red ferric 
oxide well recognized as exotic, that is, neither in original 


Am. Jour. Sc1.—THIRD Series, Vout, XLII, No. 249.—SEPTEMBER, 1891. 


232 J. P. Kimbali— Genesis of Lron-ores by Isomorphous 


place, nor vicariously developed, form as such a separate class. 
These, however, as commonly understood, are products of like 
reactions between solutions of the same salts in circulating 
acidulous waters. These products, though sometimes accumu- 
lated under favorable conditions of environment and topog- 
raphy, are more commonly dissipated. 

But for the instability of hydrous ferrous carbonate, it might 
be assumed to be transiently produced through reactions of 
ferrous salts and alkaline mono-carbonates in solution, not far 
from loci of replacement of calcic carbonate by siderite, as the 
result of transmission of solutions beyond range of reducing or 
preserving gases. Visible results of precipitation and sponta- 
neous oxidation of this salt into ferric hydrate in these circum- 
stances on the one hand, and direct precipitation of ferric 
hydrate through oxidation on the other hand, are identical. 
Hence the two processes in nature can seldom be distinguished. 

The general proposition may now be advanced—that de- 
posits of concentrated iron-ores occur far more extensively as 
pseudomorphous replacements than has hitherto been made to 
appear; and far more extensively than by original sedimenta- 
tion of ferric hydrate in hydrographic basins (if indeed impor- 
tant deposits have ever been formed in this way), followed by 
chemical transmutations so far as essential to their plausible 
explanation upon theories of such a common genesis. In the 
present place, suffice it to indicate the impracticability of con- 
ceiving of sedimentation of ferriferous material without. sili- 
ceous alternations; or of great accumulations of non-ferrugin- 
ous, non-siliceous sediments at all, except in the case of marine 
limestones. These are preéminently the Aabztat or reposi- 
tories of massive and stratiform iron-ores of all descriptions. 
Occurrences of iron-ores in this relation are often, and indeed 
generally, without transitions. On the other hand, it is easy 
to conceive, and in numerous instances to prove, effective 
replacement of Jimestones of all geologic periods. Among the 
grcat number of important stratiform occurrences of iron-ores 
—that stratified ores exist, there seems to me much reason to 
doubt—that is, homogeneous, non-laminated ores, formed in 
the natural order of succession of strata between which they 
are enclosed, and along with which they are commonly as- 
sumed, prima facie, to be imbedded. 

(1.) As deep-sea chemical precipitation of ferric hydrate is out 
of the question, the circumstance of the presence in limestone 
of important lenticular deposits of this material or its deriva- 
tives, including siderite upon one theory of its genesis, would 
suttice to prove the invasion of mid-sea or calcareous sediments 
by at least suspended material froin sub-zerial rock-decay. 
This condition is obviously incompatible with the more impor- 
tant developments of Paleozoic iron-ores, whose relations in 


and Pseudomorphous Leplacement of Limestone, etc. 233 


the greater number of instances are with remarkably pure and 
persistent limestones, comparatively free from intercalations of 
argillaceous matter, also a residual product of rock-decay, and 
invariably accompanying ochreous matter in suspension. Again, 
replacement of limestone naturally progresses from exterior 
and divisional surfaces. This, as commonly observed, wherever 
incomplete, has invariably affected superficial or upper parts 
of formations under gentle dips, and seldom nether parts ex- 
cept under steep dips. Lenticular bodies of iron ores, not 
purely concretionary, are very rarely if ever found completely 
enclosed in pure limestone—that is, in any form corresponding 
to the filling of a hydrographic basin of marine limestone. 

Conditions above briefly noticed are well illustrated, as I 
shall endeavor to. show, by the more important developments 
of iron ores upon horizons of limestones and adjacent transi- 

tion strata of all geologic periods. 

'  (2.) The geologic importance of the phenomena of displace- 
ment of calcium-carbonate by ferrous carbonate was long since 
indicated by Bischof, mainly, as it appears, on mineralogic or 
a priort grounds.* Pseudomorphous siderite after calcite, 
occurring in drusy cavities in anamesite, as described by Blum 
and Sandberger, was attributed to removal of calcium ear- 
bonate by carbonated solutions of ferrous carbonate and depo- 
sition of this salt in its place. The same result, as well-known, 
is produced by reaction of solutions of ferrous sulphate, calcium 
sulphate being removed. 

(3.) Pseudomorphic replacement of calcite by ochreous ferric 
oxyd was observed by Blum to have taken place indirectly, 
namely, first by substitution of ferrous carbonate followed by 
alteration of this comparatively unstable compound. As pointed 
out by Bischof, it seems probable indeed that pseudomorphs of 
this type are necessarily indirect—never direct.f 

(4) Aside from pseudomorphs by incrustation, psendomor- 
phous siderite commonly occurs by substitution of anhydrous 
isomorphous minerals. Pseudomorphism by alteration often 
succeeds pseudomorphism by substitution. Both processes, as 
inferred from relative densities, are attended with contraction. 
In the conversion of siderite into limonite, this, according to 
Hunt, amounts to nearly twenty per cent.t Hence the exhibi- 
tion of eavities, anfractuosities and dislocations in products of 
either transformation, as witnessed both on a mineralogic and 
petrographic scale. 

(5.) Whatever be the mode of accumulation of ferrous car- 
bonate in various deposits, it can scarcely fail to be recognized 
as invariably a secondary product universally resulting from 
the decomposition of diffused proto-silicates of iron by means 


* Bd. Il, 1864, p. 154. + Chem. Geol., Bd. III, 1866, 871, 
t This Journal, xxvi, 1883, 202. 


234 J. P. Kimball— Genesis of Lron-ores by Lsomorphous 


of carbonated waters; next in frequency, from solutions of 
ferrous sulphate in reaction with calcic carbonate; and, lastly. 
from like reactions with ferrous salts from reduction of ferric 
silicates. 

(6.) The stability of this more or less alterable secondary 
product in fissures and deep-seated strata in an atmosphere of 
carbonic anhydride or reducing gases, was also long since 
pointed out by Bischof and W. B. Rogers, as well as its trans- 
formation into ferric hydrate through displacement of such 
gases by atmospheric air. 

(7.) The frequent occurrence of limonite and hematite in 
limestone and their graduation into beds of this sedimentary 
material, as well as the presence of similar fossils in both, are 
facts adduced by Bischof to justify the conclusion that iron-ore 
deposits of this description have had their origin in replace- 
ment of limestone beds.* Yet, as by him remarked, replace- 
ment of amorphous limestone by ferric oxide obviously cannot 
be proved mineralogically as in the case of rare occurrences of 
incomplete pseudomorphs after calc-spar, like the specimen 
originally described by Blum. But every geologist has never- 
theless observed ultimate replacement of limestone by brown 
aud red ferric oxides, whether direct or indirect, among the 
more common phenomena of weathering. When as sometimes 
happens this is all but complete, and the original form of the 
limestone mass is preserved im szdu, the replacement is likewise 
seen to be pseudomorphic—at least in a petrographic sense. 
Dana has given a good pictorial illustration of this kind in 
describing an occurrence in the Cone ore-pit at West Stock- 
bridge.t The cutis here reproduced. Replacements of shells 
and parts of crinoids, still more common, are likewise pseudo- 
morphic in the same limited sense. ) 

The above proposition affords grounds 
for a ready and complete explanation of 
\ the common association of iron ores with 

limestone as far from accidental. ‘This 
association would obviously be still more 
common had all replacements of thin 
limestone beds been only partially ef- 
fected, as in replacements of thick limestone, which are 
necessarily incomplete or relatively superficial. Occurrences 
of the latter kind justify the conclusion that thin beds of 
limestone have in fact in numerous instances been wholly 
or pseudomorphously replaced. Hence frequent occurrences 
of lenticular beds of siderite and of its derivatives in place 
of thin limestones, of which no trace may remain except 

* Bd. III, 1866, 873. 

+ This Journal, xiv, 1877, p. 136. See, also, Rep. Tenth Census, xv, 292, 296, 
297, 299, 396. 


—— 
v7 « 


and Pseudomorphous Replacement of Limestone, etc. 263 


form, and perhaps character of insoluble contents, on the 
one hand; and local developments of iron-ores, void of any- 
thing like regular’ form, within the compass of a thick lime- 
stone formation, and graduating into that material, on the 
other hand. The latter modes of occurrence (and by infer- 
ence the former also) are particularly well illustrated by 
numerous stratiform iron-ore developments in strata of the 
Carboniferous period. These strata are understood by all to 
have accumulated under specially favorable conditions of envi- 
ronment for the production of the materials of iron-ores 
through internal chemical transmutations; and to have since 
subsisted under equally favorable atmospheric conditions for 
the preservation of alterable kinds of material produced, like 
siderite and spheerosiderite. 

(8.) The possession of many physiographic characters by 
stratiform iron-ores in common with deposits in satu, formed 
in the natural order of strata between which they are imbed- 
ded, or rather enclosed, has naturally led geologists to seek an 
explanation of at least Carboniferous iron-ores of this descrip- 
tion on theories of direct deposition either chemical or me- 
chanical: that is, according to one theory, in original form of 
ferrous carbonate; or, according to another theory, as the 
product of transmutation of ferric hydrate in place into the 
same compound, through successive deoxidation and carbonat- 
ing agencies, the potential influence of which in the develop- 

ment of this particular series of strata it may not seem difficult 
to imagine on grounds of either theory. As to further altera- 
tion from weathering action, regulated by circumstances of 
topography and environment, ‘all are agreed. 

The same agencies however may well be believed to have 
been equally potential in clearly recognized processes resulting 
in pseudomorphous replacement of limestone by ferrous car- 
bonate, especially in the preliminary work of decomposing 
diffused clastic ferrous and ferric silicates, dissolving their 
soluble products, and in the generation and preservation unal- 
tered of anhydrous ferrous carbonate in concrete form however 

roduced. 

(9.) While dissolved alkaline mono-carbonates, as well known, 
readily precipitate instable hydrated ferrous carbonate from 
solutions of ferrous salts, no artificial method appears to have 
been proposed for the production at ordinary temperatures of 
anhydrous ferrous carbonate. 

(10.) The generation of this natural compound in the form 
of siderite and spherosiderite is sometimes attributed to direct 
precipitation and concentration of hydrous ferrous carbonate 
in the presence of reducing gases, or of an atmosphere of ear- 
bonic anhydride. This presupposes dehydration at ordinary 
temperatures by some natural process as yet unexplained. 


——_ 


236 J. P. Kimball— Genesis of Iron-ores by Isomorphous 


Upon another theory, commonly entertained as a collateral 
theory by the same geologists who employ the one just stated, 
its derivation is also attributed to direct deposition through 
volatilization of free carbonic acid from aqueous carbonated 
solution—likewise in atmospheres of hydro-carbon gases and 
carbonic anhydride. 

(11.) No natural occurrence and therefore no mineral species 
of hydrous ferrous carbonate seems to have been recognized 
by mineralogists. A moderately instable white, earthy amor- 
phous hydrate said by Massieu to have occurred in the mineral 
lode of Pontpéon, France,* seems to have possessed the same 
characteristics as an occurrence beneath an ochreous deposit of 
a carbonated spring near Laacher-See in the Hifel, but de- 
scribed by Bischof as siderite or the anhydrous salt.t| The 
same locality is famous for exhalations of carbonic acid. 
Preservation of the artiticial product appears to be impracti- 
cable except in an atmosphere displaced by carbonic anhy- 
dride, or, as easily supposable, by reducing gases. 

(12.) Siderite psendomorphous after erystalline anhydrous 
ealecic carbonate not uncommonly occurs both in hexagonal and 
trimetric forms, though isomorphous only in the former ease. 
This fact goes far to show that the phenomena of replacement 
of calcic carbonate by anhydrous ferrous carbonate are not 
simply those of isomorphism. Yet it is true that in erystal- 
line as well as in amorphous siderite ferrous carbonate is 
extremely apt to be partially replaced with isomorphous car- 
bonates of lime, magnesia, manganese and zine. The first 
three, and sometimes all four, of these carbonates are freely 
developed even where sparry siderite distinctly occurs as a 
product of epigenesis, particularly in drusy cavities and fissures 
in basic rocks inaccessible to atmospheric air. 

(13.) The much greater tendency to precipitation of ferric 
hydrate from aqueous solutions of ferrous carbonate than of 
the salt itself by dissipation, as assumed, of carbonic acid, is 
well exhibited by Roth in the case of numerous mineral waters 
and deposits of mineral springs, as well as the relative and pro- 
portional precipitation of alkaline and manganous carbonates. 

The existence of stable siderite in calcareous sinter points to 
replacement of calcic carbonate previously deposited. Away 
from oxidizing atmospheres, anhydrous ferrous carbonate, if 
ever directly deposited, which there seems much reason to 
doubt, is probably by reaction of solutions of ferrous salts 
with these anhydrous carbonates, and at ordinary temperatures 
in no other way. But as all known reactions of this kind 
result in hydrous ferrous carbonate from which passage into 
the anhydrous carbonate at ordinary temperatures is difficult to 


* Compt. Rend., lix, 238. + Chem. Geol., Bd. I, 1863, 550. 
t+ Chem. Geol., Bd. I, 565, 577. 


and Pseudomorphous Replacement of Limestone, etc. 237 


imagine, the problem still remains.— Whence the production. 
of the anhydrous carbonate? 

(14.) In this question one is confronted by the remarkable 
fact that writers within the field of chemical geology habitually 
fail to discriminate between the two carbonates either in not- 
ing rare occurrences of hydrous carbonate, if such they really 
be, developed in reactions commonly yielding this extremely 
alterable or evanescent form; or in tracing epigenesis of com- 
paratively stable anhydrous carbonate, either crystalline or 
amorphous, from like reactions. On the contrary, it seems to 
have been assumed that chemical reactions, geologically con- 
sidered, producing hydrous carbonate, might equally serve, at 
least eventually, to produce anhydrous carbonate. As in many 
other unexplained instances of dehydration, conceivable only at 
ordinary temperatures, this phenomenon has probably been 
supposed to be an effect of inscrutable operations of time 
Bischof, for instance, to whom we owe what still stands as the 
fullest conspectus of this subject, fails to distinguish as such 
the hydrous carbonate, which as yet appears to be exclusively | 
the product of well understood reactions. 

(15.) Now there seems inuch reason to doubt that anhydrous 
ferrous carbonate is ever directly deposited from acid solutions 
of ferrous salts except in circumstances of contact with isolated 
or solid anhydrous alkaline mono-carbonates, probably at the 
point of double decomposition, or in the nascent state of the 
ferrous salt. Such a mode of development, if assumed, must 
be considered due to the well known isomorphous relations of 
anhydrous ferrous carbonate and its pseudomorphic tendencies. 
This explanation appears at least consistent with the phenomena 
of replacement, both isomorphous and pseudomorphous, of 
amorphous calcic carbonate; and may perhaps be found ade- 
quate to explain most occurrences of crystalline siderite on the 
theory of its epigenic origin in all cases. Some of these points 
will now be further considered. 

(16.) It is remarkable that although in the earlier volumes 
of his great work, Bischof was the first, I believe, to point out 
the importance of replacement of limestone as one mode of 
genesis of siderite, he assumes in his supplementary volume 
stratiform developments of this epigenic compound, particularly 
in Carboniferous series of strata, to have been directly deposited 
from its carbonated water solution as an effect of volatilization 
of carbonic acid, and to have been preserved from oxidation by 
hydro-carbon gases. Yet the constant association in these 
strata of carbonic acid along with those gases is remarked by 
Bischof in the same place.* Even by loss of half combined 
carbonic acid, however difficult to imagine as taking place in an 
atmosphere impregnated with the same gas, it is extremely 


* Chem. und Phys., Geol. Suppl., Band 187), p. 64. 


238 J. P. Kiumball—Genesis of L[ron-ores by Isomorphous 


doubtful whether the anhydrous salt would be deposited. A 
no less important difficulty arises as to the Zocws of deposition... 
If this take place at the surface, the presence of these gases 
can scarcely be imagined; and if below—conditions are pre- 
cluded for lenticular accumulations. Beneath the surface con- 
ditions exist for deposition by segregation or replacement only. 

(17.) In any theory of the genesis of siderite, it becomes 
necessary first of all to explain occurrences of siderite in len- 
ticular form, as widely distributed: that is, as a product of 
direct superficial deposition in hydrographic basins; or else of 
. chemical replacement of lenticular beds originally deposited in 
that manner. Between these alternatives the former seems to 
me to be quite impracticable. 

Lenticular deposits from either chemical or mechanical pre- 
cipitation are formed exclusively at the surface, that is, in 
hydrographical basins or bottoms where conditions essential to 
stability of hydrous ferrous carbonate can not ordinarily be set 
up, or at least long maintained. JBesides, wherever this salt is 
separated from standing water it must be assumed to pass 
spontaneously into a higher state of oxidation. Not only does 
it appear, then, that lenticular developments of ferrous car- 
bonate can not have been superficially deposited, but that this 
compound can not have been derived from direct precipita- 
tion. 

(18.) Senft’s theory of the genesis of siderite and spheero- 
siderite seems to have been founded on special occurrences of 
stratiform and nodular clay-ironstone enclosed in clays and 
shales. These are explained as epigenic products resulting 
from saturation of buried argillaceous sediments with acid 
solutions of ferrous carbonate, supposed to yield the neutral salt 
upon evaporation; or again by interchange with stronger bases 
like lime. Spathic carbonates are likewise supposed by Senft 
_ to proceed from absorbents like calcareous material, clay or 
marl.* However applicable may seem parts of this theory to 
concretionary lenses and nodules of clay-ironstone contained in 
beds of residual clay and shales, it must be seen to be incompati- 
ble with the composition of spathie siderite of considerable 
purity, that is, when comparatively free from earthy admix- 
tures, as well as with conditions of deposition in the form of 
lenticular beds. Like other explanations, it rests on the 
assumption that anhydrous ferrous carbonate may be separated 
by evaporation as well as by precipitation from acid solutions 
of ferrous carbonate, a reaction probably true only in a limited 
sense as above pointed out. 

The reaction however incidentally mentioned by Senft, 
namely, the isolation of ferrous carbonate by interchange of 
solutions of ferrous salts with stronger bases like lime, is 


* Gesteins und Bodenkunde, 1877, 28. 


and Pseudomorphous Replacement of Limestone, etc. 289 


probably the prevailing one in the circumstances cited. For 
alkaline mono-carbonates, likewise resulting from decomposition 
of silicates, may safely be assumed to be present partly in undis- 
solved or diffused form wherever ferrous oxide is available, or 
wherever ferrous salts are displaced from solution. 

(19.) While such reactions may be readily believed to take 
place in fissures, particularly in contact with segregations of 
cealcic carbonate, they can hardly be assumed with Senft also to 
extensively obtain in clay bottoms of standing water, or beneath 
peat-bogs and marshes, still less in a manner to result in direct 
deposition in bedded form from water. In such circumstances . 
not the anhydrous salt but the hydrated ferrous carbonate, if 
either, would be deposited ; this however quickly passing into 
ferric hydrate. Still more likely, ferric hydrate would be 
directly deposited from solution through dissipation of free ° 
carbonic acid. Yet I am not prepared to deny that from the 
eondition of ferric hydrate however accumulated anhydrous 
ferrous carbonate may eventually be formed by de-oxidation 
and by carbonating processes. If so, this could be only after 
the original deposits are buried deep below superficial sedi- 
ments and so excluded from atmospheric oxidation. . 

(20.) Hence, perhaps, the more commonly received meta- 
morphic theory of the genesis of stratiform siderite, generally 
assumed to be stratified. ‘This theory, based on the assumption 
of relative origin corresponding to the natural order of enclos- 
ing strata, involves, in short, alteration im se¢w of ferric hydrate 
commingled with vegetable matter originally accumulated in 
hydrographic basins. This process is also supposed to be 
excluded from atmospheric air under cover of successive 
sediments. 

(21.) Some of the objections to this theory as a general expla- 
nation of the genesis of siderite will appear farther on. Espe- 
cially will it, as I think, be found to fail to explain the prevail- 
‘ing occurrence of siderite and ferro-calcite in association with 
limestone, or on horizons of limestone, or in lenticular form 
otherwise than concretionary. 

(22.) On the other hand, a theory of its derivation in such 
circumstances at least, by isomorphous and pseudomorphous re- . 
placement of calcareous material im situ, not only seems to fit 
the greater number of familiar occurrences of siderite, and thus 
to explain the almost universal association of this secondary 
product with limestone, and the graduation into each other of 
these two materials of widely opposite derivation; but to be 
alone adequate to explain the epigenesis and indeed existence 
of the anhydrous salt. Where of course limestone has been 
completely transformed into siderite, and all immediate evi- 
dences of their relation have disappeared, it may sometimes be 
found practicable to identify lenticular developments of siderite 


240 J. P. Kimball—Genesis of Iron-ores by Isomorphous 


with horizons of limestone by stratigraphic relations. Imprac- 
ticable though this may be in certain cases, it should not fail 
to be considered that as the thinner and less persistent lime- 
stones are the only ones liable to complete replacement, actual 
stratigraphic or even inferential identification is not in all cases 
to be expected. 

(23.) Calling attention to the possible application of the 
theory of the formation of ore-deposits by replacement or 
substitution, Emmons expresses the possibility that “in the 
older and more crystalline rocks, where the calcareous beds are 
of limited extent, metallic deposits in large masses like those 
of iron, may have so completely replaced the calcareous mate- 
rial that little or no trace of it remains.”* Complete ultimate 
replacement of isolated masses of emerged coral-reef by ferric 
- oxide on the island of Cuba was described by me in 1884. To 
this example I shall again take occasion to refer. 


‘‘The limits of the actually demonstrated application of the 
theory of the formation of ore deposits,” as remarked by Em- 
mons in the paper just quoted, “are being every day extended, 
not only by studies of new districts, but by more careful and 
unbiased studies of old districts in which a different method of 
formation had previously been determined upon.” 


(24.) Argillaceous shales and other miscellaneous ferriferous 
sediments commingled with carbonate of lime, originally accu- 
mulated, or resulting from decomposition of component basic 
silicates or left behind from evaporation of circulating waters, 
may in whole or in part be transformed into clay iron-stone or 
siderite, containing insoluble residues of the original beds. 
This process is again one of replacement. Divisional parts or 
prisms of such beds separated by planes of cleavage and 
stratification, and by anfractuosities from shrinkage, pass by 
progressive superficial oxidation into coneretionary or nodular 
limonite. This process has often been described.t 

(25.) Diffused ferrous carbonate resulting from replacement 
of calcic carbonate, also diffused and more or less commingled 
with clay containing other insoluble residues of sub-aerial 
decay of basic rocks, may, especially in sediments as yet unin- 
durated, be involved in what may be termed the extra-molecu- 
lar tendency of fine clays to form concretionary aggregations. 
Thus it appears that impure ferrous carbonate in nodular form, 
so frequently imbedded in clays, shales and grits, is probably a 
product of secular metasomatic interchange and substitution 
under genetic conditions varying only slightly with cireum- 
stances of environment from conditions governing replacement 
of limestone beds by siderite. 


* Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Eng. 1886. Extract p. 7. 
+ See Hunt, this Jour., xxvi, 1883, pp. 202, 206. 


and Pseudomorphous Replacement of Limestone, ete. 241 


(26.) In the foregoing remarks no discrimination between 
limestone and dolomite has seemed necessary, nor specific refer- 
ence to analogous compounds of magnesium in isomorphous 
relations to those of calcium. Nor, on the other hand, has it 
seemed important to refer to relations of the same kind subsist- 
ing between corresponding compounds of manganese and iron. 
For the sake of brevity, the same course will generally be 
followed throughout the present memoir. Yet it will not fail 
to be considered that epigenesis of compounds of manganese 
is practically in common with those of iron, and that in fact 
epigenesis of a given compound of one metal often involves 
that of a corresponding compound of the other. Quantita- 
tively considered, this according to M. Dieulafait* appears in 
relative degree to depend less on the distribution of the two 
metals in the composition of silicates from which epigenesis 
proceeds, than might be supposed. 

(27.) This chemist observed that the heat of combination 
developed in the production of (hydrous) ferric oxide and 
(hydrous) ferrous carbonate from ferrous oxide to be respec- 
tively 26°6 and 10:0 calories (Fr). In corresponding reactions 
resulting in the production of manganic oxide (hydrate) and 
(hydrous) manganous carbonate 21-4 and 13°6 calories were 
developed.t 

When oxygen and carbonic anhydride both in excess come 
in contact with minerals containing ferrous and manganous 
oxides, the latter, as may therefore be inferred, will be con- 
verted into ferric oxide (hydrate) and manganous oxide 
(hydrate) and no carbonate will be formed. It is also inferred 
by Dieulafait that if these gases come in contact with the 
producing minerals slowly and in quantity insufficient to trans- 
form both oxides, the products will be insoluble ferric oxide 
(hydrate) and soluble (hydrous) manganous carbonate. This 
serves to explain at least the formation of ferric hydrate 
comparatively free from manganic hydrate, as well as the 
separate generation of manganic hydrate comparatively free 
from ferric hydrate—perhaps in another locus of deposition 
after further transmission of solutions. 

Again it is inferred, that as much more heat is developed 
when ferrous oxide is converted into ferric oxide (hydrate) 
than when converted into (hydrous) ferrous carbonate, the 
latter can be formed only in circumstances where atmospheric 
air is displaced by reducing gases or carbonic anhydride, to the 
exclusion of oxygen. 


* Comptes Rendus, ci, 609, 644. 
+ The parentheses are mine, the observer ignoring the distinction between 
hydrous and anhydrous compounds. 


242, #. W. Clarke and E. A. Schneider—Constitution of 


Art. XXIIIL—On the Constitution of certain Micas, Ver- 
miculites and Chlorites; by F. W. CuarKE and E. A. 
SCHNEIDER. 


IN a previous paper upon the constitution of the silicates,* 
we sought to establish some new lines of attack upon the 
problem, especially with reference to the mica and chlorite 
groups. The present communication is to be regarded as a 
continuation of the same research, and by essentially the same 
methods; although in some instances the experiments have 
been less elaborate, when elaborateness seemed to be unneces- 
sary. Throughout the investigation the fundamental hypoth- 
esis that the minerals studied are substitution derivatives of 
normal salts has been kept steadily in view; and, as we believe, 
it has been amply justified. 

Of the so-called vermiculites, two only, jefferisite and kerrite, 
were considered in our former paper; and these were shown 
to be trihydrated micas, in which the original alkalies had 
been replaced by hydrogen. To these examples we now add 
several others; of which two varieties afford excellent checks 
upon the earlier work. The two minerals in question are an 
altered biotite from the zircon mine in Henderson County, 
N. C., and the protovermiculite from Magnet Cove, Arkansas, 
described some years ago by Keenig. The analyses, with 
itemized water determinations, are as follows: 


Henderson Co. Protovermiculite. 
Analysis. Mol. ratio. Analysis. Mol. ratio. 
Si0, Bo, che ie ea gale 38°18 "636 34°03 5°67 
fh @ Rr ee awe ee 1°68 ‘021 undet aA. 
DTD ose ot eae eo NTE ee ee. ee 
Alo. aA Ie Aa ah OE "138 14°49 142 
He ie a8 eee ee 13°02 081 CTL 048 
| Ayre © joie hho as lee 290 031 0°14 0G2 
MnQy ree se es 0°38 "005 0°09 001 
MeO eee eee ae PP tAG? *385 20°89 522 
(DEY, 6) lage rgd aye be 0°17 "003 1°88 034 
Ba Ot Sus Eee 0°06 aye. tts LEAS se 
K,O Lethe Lge Ma eee 5°40 057 Faas aang 
NaNO ite ae ae 0°48 008 i gee 
HO, LOS oie See 3°20 i78 Lis2s 624 
- 950°-8008b Leis Oreo "140 4°55 253 
<< above! 300 22414280 267 5°41 301 
100°7 100°42 
H,O. over: H,S0 5.8720 11°34 


* This Journal, Oct., Nov. and Dec., 1890. 


certain Micas, Vermiculites and Chlorites. 243 


The analysis of protovermiculite agrees with that of Konig 
as well as could be expected, but is carried out somewhat more 
in detail. In its appearance the mineral was dark brown, broadly 
foliated, much decomposed, and very brittle. Before the blow- 
pipe it exfoliates and fuses easily. The Henderson County 
mica was also brown, brittle and decomposed, exfoliating when 
heated and fusing at the edges. Both minerals were examined 
optically by Mr. Waldemar Lindgren. The protovermiculite 
he describes as ‘yellowish, containing in arborescent forms 
between the plates a great deal of a deep yellow or reddish 
substance, probably hydroxide of iron. Angle of optical 
axes larger than usual. Slight pleochroism; thicker plates 
remain light between crossed nicols.” Of the Henderson 
County mica he says—“ contains no titanium mineral. Con- 
tains a few grains of a colorless, strongly double-refracting 
mineral of uncertain nature, possibly zircon. Plates nearly 
dark between crossed nicols. Angle of optical axes small, but 
distinctly observed.” In the material selected for analysis the 
impurities noted by Lindgren were so far as possible removed. 

The composition of each mineral reduces quite easily, in 
accordance with the methods followed in our former work, to 
a mixture of simple isomorphous types. The only uncertain- 
ties appear to be in connection with the loosely combined 
water, which is driven off below 300°. In the Henderson 
County mica we have the molecules 


/Si0=MgK —-/Si0=H, _ /SiO=MgH 404 
Al-Si0=McH Al—SiO =H, Fe—Si0=MgH Fe—O7 
\Si0 =Al oO =H SiO =Fe \ SiO =H, 


in the ratio 8:1:384:3. The loosely combined water is in the 
proper amount to monohydrate the four molecules; but its 
actual distribution is uncertain. In the subjoined table mono- 
hydration is provisionally assumed. In the protovermiculite 
we have the three molecules 


YSO=T. 70 40 
Al—Si0‘=H. Al—o> Mg Fe_o> Mg 
\ Si0-=H. \ SiO =H, \Si0 =Al 


each plus three molecules of water, in the ratio 14:6:9. As 
in the case of jefferisite and kerrite, the three molecules of 
loosely combined water are unlike; two being given off over 
sulphuric acid, and the third retained rather more tenaciously. 

Reducing the original analyses to 100 per cent, uniting all 
similar oxides to similar type, reckoning FeO as MgO, Na,O 
as K,O, TiO, as SiO,, etc., we get the following comparison 
between observation and theory: 


244 FP. W. Clarke and E. A. Schneider— Constitution of 


Henderson Co. Protovermiculite. 

Found. . Cale. Found. Cale. 
SiO, 39°70 39°90 34°10 34°18 
ALG. TA sag, 14°25 14°52 14°78 
Fe,O, Load 1 Sa BS) VIZ 120 
MgO 16°32 17°08 22°41 22° 
K,O br iy 6°17 US ps 
H,O, essential 4°83 4°87 5°43 5°40 
hydration 5°75 4°58 15°82 15°65 
100°00 100°00 100°00 100°00 


These results, taken in connection with our work on jefferi- 
site and kerrite, and with the mica theory upon which all our 
formule are based, are exceedingly suggestive. Kerrite is 
essentially a trihydrated hydro-phlogopite. Protovermiculite 
is the same substance, commingled with a tri-hydrated hydro- 
clintonite, in the ratio 1:1 very nearly. Jefferisite is a similar 
mixture of hydro-biotite and hydro clintonite, also trihydrated, 
and in the ratio 1:1. The Henderson County mica is essen- 
tially a biotite, about half way transformed into a vermiculite, 
and is interesting as a transition product. The hydration of 
its several admixed molecules is naturally uncertain. At an 
early date we hope to imitate experimentally the process by 
which a mica becomes transformed into its corresponding 
vermiculite. 

But although the above-named minerals appear to be very 
simple in their structure and relationships, a like simplicity 
does not characterize all of the vermiculites. In some mem- 
bers of the group there seem to be a small admixture of chlo- 
ritic molecules, and it is even probable that many intermediate 
stages between mica and chlorite may exist. As bearing upon 
this question we have a series of vermiculitic minerals from 
Chester and Delaware Counties, Pennsylvania, some of which 
have already been studied by Cooke, Gooch, Leeds and others, 
while some have escaped examination hitherto. To begin 
with we may consider the hallite, from Nottingham, Chester 
County, and the vermiculites from Lenni, (not Lerni), Delaware 
County. The hallite, received through the kindness of Mr. 
W. W. Jefferis, was dark bluish green, and agreed perfectly 
with the published descriptions. The Lenni mineral, partly 
from the collection of the late Isaac Lea, and partly gathered 
in the field by one of us, is represented by several varieties, 
which in a large series of specimens, are seen to shade into 
each other. Three varieties were examined: one, silver white, 
resembling outwardly an ordinary mica; a second, bronzy 
brown, like jefferisite; and the third, dark green, similar to 
clinochlore. All four substances were examined microscopi- 


certain Micas, Vermiculites and Chlorites. 245 


cally by Mr. Lindgren, who found in the hallite some spear- 
shaped, rhombic, or more rarely hexagonal inclusions of a dark 
brown mineral, not further identified. His optical notes will 
be published in an official bulletin, later. Analyses as fol- 
lows, with itemized water ere naions é 


A. B. €. D. 

Hallite. Lenni l. Lenni 2. Lenni 3. 

J. 2 aa 35°54 36°72 35°09 34°90 
i... ae undet. 0°18 0°58 0°10 
Al,O, .. 2 9°74 10°06 L205 10°60 
Fe,O, __ ee 9°07 Sot 6°67 8°57 
Cr,O, ... 2 eee BM ei 0°26 0°46 0°23 
3. 2 0°28 0°12 0-11 Or22 
Ll. |e 0°25 0°31 0-27 O-17 
=e 0°16 0-20 0°20 0°19° 
MgO. Meroe | 2 OOD 29°40 27°62 28-21 
So. . Se siaie sft trace rae ie 
EO; _ S\ e 2°64 6°40 5°70 4°99 
ns) 300°... 2 126 2°68 1°98 1°60 
Poered neat __._._ 10°91 8°69 9°22 9°88 
99°87 100°39 99°95 99°66 

Loss over H,SO, .--.-undet. 6°92 5°84 5-21 


In these analyses we at once see that the combined water is 
mostly in excess of the crystalline water, and that the formule 
deduced must be correspondingly modified. The molecular 
ratios are as follows: 


pe B. C. D. 
oo. 2 ae "592 614 ‘591 583 
0 "152 "134 163 159 
Ree 2k 760 “744 698 “712 
cll Si? ——e 606 483 512 "549 
[. 71 as rr "215 504 ‘427 "366 


In order to learn something as to the distribution of the 
hydroxy] indicated by these ratios, resort was had to the process 
of heating in dry, gaseous, hydrochloric acid, as described in 
our former paper. From this test, however, the brown Lenni 
vermiculite was omitted, as being intermediate in its character 
between the white and the green. Each experiment was made 
at the temperature 383°- 419°, 


A. B. D. 
figure mentedy 2 SSL 164 16 17 
iO) removed... 24. 3°42 1:08 1°56 
MeO « Ene pane te-09 6°30 6°57 
Molec. ratio MgOH eyo aes Oe "202 158 164 


Here it is assumed, on the grounds of our former work, that 
the magnesia rendered soluble by gaseous HC] is present as 


246 F. W. Clarke and E. A. Schneider—Constitution of 


MgOH. Representing this by the symbol R’, the three ver- 
miculites give the following anh, formule: 


Hallite( 44245 4-46 soe RR ahh cca l® obo Linia(1O,) sO) are 
White Lenni ... 2.22. Re me he oH (SiO) aac 304 aa: 
¢ Greeny iR yh cat sae es as iM H,,, (S10,,) 2, Oscss 0 Oe 


These reduce at once, subject to small uncertainties as to 
hygroscopic water, to mixtures of molecules of the hydro- 
elintonite and hydro- phlogopite types, with small amounts of 
chloritic compounds Meg(SiO,),(MgOH), and Mg,(SiO,),H,. 
Upon this basis the three minerals become : 


VAMGe x28 oe ee Al(Si0,) ,Mg.H, 3 aq. 7 molecules. 
Al1O MESO, H, 18 re 


Mg(Si0,), (MgOH), 
White Lenni __---- AIOM OH 3 aq. 


Green Lenni 22._-- ARSIO, ) 

Mg(SiO.). Niet, 

The actual ratios observed were slightly more complex, but 

the foregoing expressions accord well with the analyses. Here, 

as previously, we may reduce the analyses to typical form and 

100 per cent, reckoning Fe,O, as Al,O,, ete. The comparison 
is as follows: 


mm CO eS OI SO dw WH 
cS 


Analyses reduced. 


A (Hallite). B (White). D (Green.) 
SiO: oshiE nichn alg Oe Mea 36°93 37°56 36°33 
ATMO Stale as, beaten cine 16°13 14:92 16°83 
IMO JE. sat Negi ee 31°58 30°41 29°44 
PL Ope yee cee NE res! 11:34 8°86 10°26 
Ag, tee HORNS hy BN Eee 4°02 9°25 6°84 
100°00 100°00. 100:00 
MoO tin MeO 22. 2u5as6- 8:09 6°30 6°57 
Calculated 
aN B. D. 
SiO ce 102) as apenas BOAT 38°11 36°61 
ANODE.) Meee eee 15°82 14°25 16°97 
MoQ: see vane Sa 31°75 30°49 29°95 
HOURS os ean eere 11:27 8°92 10°47 
Aq 5 te eet en ea ee 4°69 8°23 6°00 
100°00 100°00 100°00 


MeO.in Mo Qiiierre. {aie 8°93 6°10 6°66 


certain Micas, Vermiculites and Chlorites. 247 


When we consider the nature of the vermiculites, as products 
of alteration, the agreement here shown is fully as close as 
could be expected. Many well crystallized minerals, fresh 
and unaltered, are less simply interpreted. 

On the 19th of February, 1891, Professor Tschermak read 
_ before the Vienna Academy a paper on the chlorite group, in 
which he referred certain vermiculites to that class of minerals. 
He also put forth some views concerning the constitution of 
the chlorites, which, however, we cannot discuss until they 
have been published in full.* One fundamental molecule, 
regarded by T'schermak as a constituent of most chlorites, we 
may adopt for present purposes, under slightly different struc- 
tural form from his. This is the “amesite substance, SiA], 
Mg.,H,0,, written by Tschermak SiA!,H,O,MgOH),. In de- 
fault of experimental evidence this may be transformed into 
OMg,Si,(Al1H,O,),, when it becomes part of a natural chloritic 
series parallel with the micas—thus : 


Normal orthosilicate --- -- ELifsiO )., Mg,(SiO,), 
Whence we derive, Micas. Chlorites. 
Al,(Si0,),R’, Mg,(Si0,),R’, 
Al,(Si0,) i, Mg,(Si0,),R’, 
Al (Si0,),R’, Mg (Si0,),R’, 
LON pn Meg : 
CN ee OC Mae sO = B’. 
\Si0=R’, “Me 


In other words, the “amesite substance” in our chlorite series 
is the basic equivalent of the clintonite molecule among the 
micas, and is applicable to the solution of certain obscure 
problems. Some of the vermiculites, as Tschermak suggests, 
are probably chlorites, and two examples have come under our 
notice in which this view is partly sustained. Both were 
originally received from Mr. Jefferis; one from the corundum 
mine at Newlin, Chester County, Pa., and the other from 
Middletown, Delaware County, in the same State. The New- 
lin mineral was dull green, and much resembled culsageeite 
both outwardly and optically. The Middletown vermiculite 
was bright golden yellow; strongly exfoliating before the 
blowpipe and fusible on the edges. It was found upon the 
farm of Mr. James Painter, whence Mr. Jefferis named it 
provisionally “ Painterite,’ a name which seems also to have 
been applied to a peculiar brownish, waxy, feldspathic matrix 
in which the broad golden laminz were imbedded. A second 
sample of it was later collected by one of us. According to 


* This paper has appeared in extenso since this was written. We cannot, how- 
ever, discuss it thoroughly at present. 


Am. Jour. Sci.—THIkD SERIES, VoL. XLII, No. 249.—SeEPTEMBER, 1891. 


248 FL. W. Clarke and E. A. Schnecder—Constitution of 


an optical examination by Mr. Lindgren the matrix of the 
‘‘painterite” is a mixture of plagioclase, probably labradorite, 
with serpentine. The “painterite” itself shows hexagonal 
markings on the surface, and contains, Mr. Lindgren says, in- 
clusions of ferric oxide. Optically he found it to show slight 
double refraction between crossed nicols, the angle of the 
optical axes being small but distinct. In ‘the Newlin mineral 
the axial angle was usually large, being at least 25°. Analysis 
as follows: A, Newlin. B, Painterite from Jefferis. C, Pain- 
terite collected by Schneider. D, matrix of painterite. 


A. B. E. D. 
SiO, 31°28 34°86 33°95 52°47 
TiO, gc ye trace trace ‘none 
Al,O, 17°52 11°64 12°52 21°72 
Cr On" 0-14 i ae oo 
Fe,0, 4°70 3°78 4°40 1:23 
FeO 1°20 0°20 0°20 OF 
MnO 0°20 ree _ ee Babs - 
NiO 0°33 0°14 “os ia eee oa oe 
MgO 31°36 31°32 30°56 9°26 
CaO oes 0:07 none 3°25 
K,O Bee Se a ae 0°63 
Na,O re mgr aoe 5:09 
EHO, 105" 1°08 1°64 1°56 1°14 
«¢  250°-300° 0°40 1°03 0°59 cee 
«< ignition 12-15 Leo, 16°46 4°74 
100°31 100°43 100°47 99°70 


Upon treating the three vermiculites with gaseous hydro- 
chloric acid at 383°-412°, the following results were obtained : 


A. e C. 
Hours heated 8 124 19 
R,O, removed 1°09 “80 ‘78 
MgO ss 5°86 8°26 9°56 
Molec. ratio MeOH "146 207 239 
The molecular ratios are: 
rey B. C. 
SiO, 520 ‘581 566 
R,O, 202 _ 188 150 
RO ‘808 ‘789 ‘770 
H,O ‘675 ‘875 ‘914 
Aq ‘080 "148 119 


In these examples the water (Aq) expelled below 300° is so 
small in amount that it may be left out of consideration. Part 
of it undoubtedly represents hydrated molecules, which, how- 
ever, are relatively so few in number that they may be for 
present purposes disregarded, 


certain Micas, Vermiculites and Chlorites. QA9 


From the remaining ratios, writing MgOH as R’, the sub- 
joined empirical formule are directly derived : 


Newlin Bee ats nee R's 1am (Si0,).,., O 
2g Painterite “¢ 1e Fuh. RY oe0 Roo: 13 a (ered lee O 
” C. ob det) jaa H (810,) 
Reduced to structural form these give less satisfactory 
results than the previously considered vermiculites. The 
Newlin mineral may be regarded as nearly a hydroclintonite, 
AlO,MgSiO,H, with an admixture of an amesite-like com- 
pound .Mg,OSi0O,(MgOH), in the ratio 4:1. In reality the 
mixture is more complicated, and must contain other mole- 
cules. The ‘ painterite”’ C, is wholly chloritic, containing the 
amesite molecule Mg,OSi0,(AlH,O,),, with the molecules 
Mg(SiO,),(MgOH), and Mg(SiO,),H,, in the ratio 16:4:18. 
These compare with the actual analyses, reduced to typical 
form and 100 per cent, thus: 


908° 
709° 


1589 566 763° 


Newlin. ‘‘Painterite.”’ 
— ee a “~~ OF 
Found. Cale. Found. Calc. 
Si0, 32°42 alah 35°03 oo og 
Al,O, 21°39 D1AT 16°22 16°13 
MgO eT 33°69 3177.2 \I80"84 
H,O 12-62 j1S-27 16°98 17°44 


100°00 100°00 100°00 100°00 

MgO in MgOH .. 6:09 8°42 8°56 9°49 

The ‘“ Painterite” B reduces less easily, but satisfies all the 
required conditions. It is like C, but contains other chloritic 
molecules in somewhat complex ratios. It must be remembered 
that all these minerals are mzxtwres, and the fact that they are 
reducible at all to simple expressions is a strong point in favor 
of the theory adopted for the chlorites and micas in general. 

A very interesting example of the way in which the chloritic 
vermiculites approach the serpentines in composition and char- 
acter has been furnished us by Mr. G. P. Merrill of the U.S. 
National Museum. It was found by him at Old Wolf Quarry, 
Chestnut Hill, Easton, Pa., and is described by him as follows: 

“Tt occurs in the form of bright yellowish green inelastic 
scales of all sizes up to an inch in diameter, associated with a 
compact tremolite rock which is here quarried and pulverized 
for use as a filler in paper manufacture. The character of the 
rock is greatly varied, but at the quarry opening the prevailing 
material is tremolite more or less altered into serpentine, the 
vermiculite, and other secondary products, including calcite in 
both fibrous and granular forms. 

The vermiculite, although occurring in plates of considerable 
thickness readily separable into thin folie, never, so far as 
observed, shows good crystal outlines. Optically it is biaxial 


250 F. W. Clarke and E. A. Schneider—Constitution of 


and negative, though the axial angle is small, basal plates in 
the thin section showing a black cross which searcely opens at 
all during the revolution of the stage. Cleavage plates a milli- 
meter or more in thickness show plainly the biaxial character, 
though the figure is somewhat distorted. Dispersion p < ». 
The surface of the plates is at times plainly marked by sharp 
lines crossing at angles of 60° and 120° and along which the 
mineral frequently separates readily. Before the blowpipe the 
mineral exfoliates and fuses readily on the edges to a thin 
lass.” / 
‘ According to Mr. Merrill this mineral is sometimes seen in 
cabinets labelled ‘‘ tale ;’ and indeed in its appearance it resem- 
bles both tale and serpentine. Upon analysis the following 
results were obtained, the percentage of K,O representing two 
identical determinations. 


Analysis. Molec. ratios. 
SIU 2 a. Caper ol 8 ee aed 728 
Peles iat Moret S09 es 3°59 "035 
Be, O.. saeetes 23. ee a090 006 
MeO 2 ange te 38°58 ‘964 
iO abi ee Gos) 023 
Na OW tere. lem 0°13 002 
BO; 10sp gue 38 0:46 mea! 
CE D5 Or SOO), Denies 0°09 errs 
‘Sp dommpiony See 10°70 "594 
100°38 


Treated with dry, gaseous HCl at 383°—412° for 164 hours, 
4°36 per cent of magnesia became soluble, corresponding in 
molecular ratio to 109 mol. MgOH. Hence the mineral, 
although resembling serpentine in general composition, differs 
from the latter in its proportion of this molecular group. 

Upon treatment with aqueous HCl of sp. gr. 1°12, a small 
portion remained undecomposed. Ten grams of the mineral 
were therefore digested with the acid for three days on the 
water-bath, and the residue was afterwards boiled out with a 
solution of sodium carbonate to remove liberated silica. The 
remaining residue, amounting to 3°10 per cent of the original 
material, was then analyzed separately, and found to contain : 


SLO ae ee ek es 64°53 
ALCL HG: on tees aed 2°03 
Mion. es eee rae 33°04 

99°60 


All the potash went into solution; whence it seems probable 
that no muscovite was present. The ratios of the insoluble 
residue agree very closely with those of tale, and we may there- 


certain Micas, Vermiculites and Chlorites. 251 


fore assume that mineral to be present as an impurity. Deduct- 
ing from the molecular ratios given above the quantity of tale 
indicated by experiment we get for the empirical formula of 
the mineral the expression | 


male We Met Si0,) ae eas 


which becomes, if the excess of oxygen is regarded as hydroxyl, 
with (MgOH),,, as observed, 


Mg,..K,,H (MgOH) (AlH,0,),.(OH),. 
The small excess of hydroxy] is probably due to undistributed 
errors of analysis, and may be added to the MgOH, bringing 
the latter to 118, and reducing the Mg to 820. Then, general- 


izing, by uniting all the univalent groups and atoms we get as 
an ultimate formula 


1170 


889 109 


Mgo.(S10,) -a5F” 
_ which equals, almost exactly, 
125 Mg,(SiO,),R’, +223 Mg,(SiO,),R’,, 


a result in accordance with our serpentine-chlorite theory. 
The distribution of the several components of R’ is, however, 
not clear, and remains to be ascertained. No other discussion 
of the analysis appears to give as satisfactory results as this, 
and we have tried several methods of reduction, representing 
various hypotheses. : 

One other mineral examined during this investigation remains 
to be noticed ; a pale yellowish-green mica collected by Mr. G. 
P. Merrill at a granite quarry in Auburn, Me., near where the 
Maine Central railroad crosses the Androscoggin river. It 
occurs in direct contact with ordinary, broadly foliated mus- 
covite, sometimes forming marginal growths about the plates 
of the latter mineral, like lepidolite. Analysis gave: 


11399 


Oe a ea CRU CIN: th 46°54 
Pe iA! ee asa” MY Bagg 
aay epmmenny | BST. EME eA "32 
HOA Erte ue Hi BE NS HE AMOSS 
EN AR Oe 030 0 RU eed. a ae 0°41 
Bese wl Tee Boe aes: (none 
H,O, 105° WSIS CPC iE al 
Seay IS BIOMj nls? See Wet) 4°72 
99°63 


This is the composition of muscovite, which the mica undoubt- 
edly is. The case is interesting, however, as showing a 
secondary growth of muscovite on muscovite, with a marked 
difference in outward appearance between the two formations. 
Laboratory U.S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C., April 27, 1891. 


952 R. D. Salishury—Age of the Orange Sands. 


ArT. XXIV.—A Further Note on the Age of the Orange 
Sands ; by R. D. SALISBURY. 


In arecent number of this Journal, President Chamberlin 
and the writer set forth what seemed to us sufficient reasons 
for believing the whole of the Orange Sand series of sands 
and gravels to be of Pre-pleistocene age. The arguments 
there adduced we still believe to be sufficient to warrant the 
conclusions drawn from them. 

Since that article appeared, some new facts have come to 
our knowledge which afford new and more direct proof of the 
correctness of the position then taken. Until this season’s 
work in the field began, it was not known to us that the 
Orange Sand gravels reached so far north as the southern bor- 
der of the glacial drift. They had been searched for along the 
southern border of the drift north of the area where they are 
best known, in the hope that they might be found beneath the 
glacial deposits, but this search had been fruitless, so far as the 
particular question at issue is concerned. 

During the early part of this season’s field-work, the writer 
spent some time in the region between the Mississippi and 
Illinois rivers above the point of their junction. In this 
region, in the counties of Calhoun, Pike, Adams and Hancock, 
the Orange Sand gravels were found to obtain a considerable 
development. These counties are well north of the southern 
limit of the glacial drift, and the gravel is uniformly found to 
occupy a position beneath it. Among other places, this rela- 
tionship is well shown near Bloomfield, Adams county, where 
till may be seen resting directly on the brown flint gravels. 
Here, as at several other localities, the gravel is cemented by 
iron oxide into a firm conglomerate, though at other points but 
a few rods away, the gravel is but partially or not at all 
cemented. It will be remembered that this habit of being 
firmly cemented at one point, and nearly or altogether free 
from cement at another, is one of the prominent characteristics 
of the gravel farther south. 

But the Pre-pleistocene (presumably Tertiary) series of the 
counties named is not limited to the brown flint or “ Orange” 
gravels. Accompanying these, there are very considerable 
beds of sand, essentially like those accompanying the corre- 
sponding gravels to the south. These are best exposed, so far 
as the writer’s knowledge goes, a short distance south of Lib- 
erty, Adams county, but they have a considerable development 
in various parts of this county. At the above locality, till may 
be seen resting on the sand. 


F. H. Bigelow— Variations of the Magnetic Needle. 2538 


Apart from the obvious proof of the preglacial age of these 
gravels and sands afforded by the superposition of the drift 
upon them, the character of the till affords a further proof of 
the same thing. If the sands and gravels occupied the region 
before the ice invasion, they should have made their contribu- 
tion to the drift. This they have done, and so generously that 
at many points and over considerable areas the character of the 
drift has been in very large measure determined by this contri- 
bution. 

To the arguments adduced in the article referred to above 
for the Pre-pleistocene reference of the Orange Sand gravels 
and sands, must now be added the further arguments of (1) 
superposition of the earlier glacial drift upon them, and (2) 
the contribution of these sands and gravels to this drift. 

Subsequent to the writer’s determination of the existence of 
Pre-pleistocene material in the region indicated, reference to 
the reports of the Illinois Geological Survey revealed the fact 
that in the reports on Pike and Hancock counties, the Illinois 
geologists had made note of the fact that ferruginous flint 
gravels occur beneath the drift in these counties, and that 
they had further correlated them with the gravels in the south- 
ern part of the state. To them, therefore, belongs the credit 
of the first recognition of these gravels, as wholly distinct from 
the drift.* 


ArT. XX V.—Wote on the Causes of the Variations of the 
Magnetic Needle; by Professor FRANK H. BIGELOW. 


In May, 1890, I published in Bulletin No. 18 of the U.S. 
Scientific Expedition to West Africa, a preliminary statement 
of a new theory of terrestrial magnetism which had been con- 
ceived in order to account for the observed variations of the 
free magnetic needle. Since that time my efforts have been 
directed towards obtaining a clear conception of the mode of 
action of the forces whose relations were indicated in the 
Bulletin, and [am now prepared to add a note asa further 
preliminary statement of the progress made in this study. 

On re-examination of the mode of analysis already published, 
I find that the main conception is not to be modified and that 
the successive steps are correct. When making an attempt to 
reduce the observations by means of this treatment, namely, 
the combination of current functions by the use of harmonics, 
it was evident that a very complex system of computation 


*T am unable at this writing to refer to the Illinois reports, and therefore can- 
not cite the exact references to the statements therein made. R. D. 8. 


254 F H. Bigelow— Variations of the Magnetic Needle. 


would be required. My endeavor was, therefore, to simplify 
the fundamental treatment so as to secure not only a sound 
theory, but also a working process for handling the observations. 
To do this two distinct sets of trial computations were made, 
first by the theory of moments about the rectangular axes. 
whose origin was in the spherical surface passing through the 
north end of the needle, concentric with the surface of the 
earth, and forming equations whose solution would give the 
required constants of the phenomenon. This also failed to be 
sufficiently simple and direct to show the action in its general 
relations. The second attempt was an empirical one, for the 
time abandoning theory, and building up from the simultane- 
ous observations in various parts of the earth such an exhibi- 
tion of facts as would display the real nature of the laws 
behind them. This trial has been successful far beyond antici- 
pation, and that too in a simple and practical form. The 
theory is at best complicated, as it depends upon the laws of 
magnetic induction in their most complex conditions, but it 
unifies and classifies harmoniously all the visible motions of 
the needle. 

My method and result are, briefly, as follows: The month 
of June, 1883, was selected because of the material collected. 
in the publications of the International Polar Commission 
applicable simultaneously over a large area of the earth, also 
because the north polar stations were at that time exposed to 
sunlight throughout the twenty-four hours. The stations. 
used were: Point Barrow, Fort Rae, Kiugua Fjord, Jan 
Mayen, Bossekop, Sodankyli, Pawlowsk, Wilhelmshaven, 
Vienna, Tiflis, Za-Ki-Wei, Cape Horn, South Georgien. The 
monthly means for each hour local time of the horizontal and 
vertical forces and the declination were reduced to the coérdi-. 
nates, x positive to the north in the mean magnetic meridian 
of the month, y positive to the west, 2 positive inwards along 
the normal, the plane zy being the horizon at the surface of 
the earth or through the north end of the needle. The differ- 
ences between the mean and the hourly values, namely JH, 
AD, 4Z, were plotted on paper, smoothed out, the resulting 
values dx, dy, dz, combined to show the total deflecting force 
at the station with its magnetic azimuth and altitude, this. 
form of azimuth being finally transformed into north geo- 
graphical azimuth. My idea was that the needle floating 
freely in a magnetic line indicated simply its direction, and 
that the deflections were produced by a component coming to 
it from space, the motive being to discover the condition of 
such components over the earth at the same time. Next, a 
large model was constructed on which these component forces 
were represented in direction and magnitude. By assigning 


F.. H. Bigelow— Variations of the Magnetic Needle. 255 


certain meridians for the hours, and supposing the permanent 
pole to take up its position from one meridian to another, there 
was finally collected upon these meridians representing a series. 
of local hour angles, now referred to the sun as if the earth 
had ceased to rotate on its axis, an exhibition of what exists. 
over the globe at the same instant of time. 

The result is most interesting and gratifying, but I can only 
indicate now what could be elaborated by a mass of computa- 
tions. It is difficult to convey any view of the complicated 
system of lines of force produced by inserting a magnetized or 
polarized sphere in a field of force, supposing the sphere at 
rest; if it rotates it is much more troublesome. These refer- 
ences, however, may be cited: Sir W. Thomson in § xxxii, p. 
486, Papers on Electrostatics and Magnetism, illustrates some 
of the forms produced in the case of symmetry, that is, the 
axis of polarization being parallel to the field; in article 434, 
Vol. Il, Maxwell’s Electricity and Magnetism a similar illus- 
tration is found; in article 436 of the same is given an ex- 
ample of the sphere being placed at an angle to the field. 
The mathematical treatment of these cases, when once the 
constants involved are known, leads to certain typical lines of 
force entering the sphere at definite angles corresponding to 
the latitude of the point.. Furthermore when the sphere is 
rotated the whole system recedes through an angle depending 
on the constants, as indicated in the Bulletin. My model gives 
the angles and directions corresponding to such a system, if we 
take the radiant sunlight as the uniform field of force, direc- 
ted positive towards the sun. The entering and emerging 
forces are on the respective sides of the earth, and the whole 
system is receding by about twenty-three degrees. The peculiar 
form of the polar station lines and the inclination of their 
planes of action to the meridians is well displayed. The sta- 
tions all over the world bear the same testimony. The action 
of the coronal field is entirely similar but not strong enough 
to appear on the model. The separation of the two fields is 
merely a question of close computation, 

There remains one more important point. The positive 
direction of the earth’s permanent magnetism is from the 
north towards the south side of the ecliptic y, the uniform 
field is positive towards the sun 2, the motion of the earth in 
its orbit a, is perpendicular to the field. If these are taken as 
the usual rectangular x, y, 2, they form a consistent positive or 
right-handed cyclic system. In a word, the permanent mag- 
netic condition of the earth may be principally due to the 
orbital motion of the earth through the radiant field of sun- 
light. The rotation of the earth on its axis causes a modifica- 
tion of the direction of the axis of polarization, by diminishing 


256 Scientific Intelligence. 


the angle between the two axes, and as the result of the annual 
motion may cause it to rotate in a secular period about the axis 
of figure, or if the magnetization has already become set in the 
body of the earth, may cause a succession of secular waves to 
sweep over it from east to west, as is shown to be the case in 
the history of the agonic lines and the long period deflections 
of the needle. 

This surprising identification of magnetic and light action of 
the radiations of the sun in direction will be recognized as 
harmonizing with the conclusions arrived at by Maxwell and 
Hertz in their investigations. If light is to be studied as a 
magnetic phenomenon it adds a large field to the work allotted 
to meteorology. Furthermore, several important physical con- 
stants relating to the cosmical action of the sun and the earth, 
and also the implied nature of the sun and the earth as physical 
bodies are becoming accessible. Attention is directed to the 
| fact that such a force acting towards the center of the sun, 
being cosmical or universal, is of the kind required to account for 
the outstanding motion in the perihelion of Mercury, not 
included in the development or the law of gravitation or its 
positive side. My next step is to form the necessary equations 
of condition and solve them for the constants involved in the 
magnetic observations. 

Washington, D. C., July 31, 1891. 


SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE 
I. CHEMISTRY. 


1. On Boron tri-iodide.—According to Moissan, boron tri- 
iodide can be obtained in three ways : either (1) by passing boron 
chloride and hydrogen iodide through a red hot porcelain tube, 
(2) by acting with iodine upon boron directly at 700°—800°, or 
(3) and most conveniently by acting upon amorphous boron, pre- 
viously dried in a current of hydrogen at 200°, with dry hydrogen 
iodide gas, the boron being heated in a combustion tube to a 
temperature near that of the softening of the glass. In this way 
purple colored scales are obtained containing some free iodine ; 
from which they may be freed by solution in carbon disulphide 
agitation with mercury, and evaporation of the solvent. The 
boron tri-iodide thus obtained is colorless but becomes colored on 
exposure to light. It is very hygroscopic, fuses at 43°, boils at 
210°, burns in the air at a red heat, has at 50° the approximate 
density of 3°3 and is easily soluble in carbon disulphide, carbon 
tetrachloride and benzene. By water it is decomposed into boric 
and hydriodie acids, and it reacts with phosphorus, silver fluoride 
and magnesium (at 500°) with combustion; though not with 


Chemistry. 257 


aluminum, sodium or silver. With alcohol and ether it reacts, 
yielding ethyl iodide and ortho-boric acid in the former case and 
ethyl iodide and ethyl ortho-borate in the latter.—C. &., exil, 
717; Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., xxiv, (Ref.) 387, May, 1891. 

G. F. B. 

2. On Hydrazine hydrate and the compounds of Diammonium 
with the Halogens. —The researches of Curtius and Scuunz have 
shown that hydrazine hydrate N,H,.H,O, prepared by distilling 
the sulphate with potassium hydrate, is a liquid boiling at 118°5° 
under 739°5 mm. pressure and having at 21° the specific gravity 
10305. Its molecular mass at 100° in vacuo is 50, corresponding 
to the formula N,H,.H,O. At 170° under the ordinary pres- 
sure, the hydrate is completely dissociated into diamide and 
water. At higher temperatures the molecular mass diminishes 
markedly not reaching 50 again at ordinary pressures even at 
300° to 400°. Ina lead bath, however, numbers approaching 100 
were obtained. Hydrazine hydrate in aqueous solution gave ap- 
proximately the molecular mass 68, corresponding to the composi- 
tion N,H,. (H,O),. Comparing this hydrate with ammonia, as to 
its action on indicators, this action was shown to be as sharp in all 
cases except that of phenol-phthalein. When aqueous solutions of 
hydrazine are neutralized with a haloid acid, and evaporated first 
on the water-bath, then over potassium hydrate, halogen-diam- 
monium salts are formed, by preference with two equivalents of 
acid. The bromide and iodide with one equivalent of acid are 
formed when the free halogen is made to act on an alcoholic solu- 
tion of hydrazine, a portion of the hydrazine being decomposed. 
The bi-acid salts crystallize in the regular system, are soluble in 
water, almost insoluble in alcohol. The mon-acid salts are easily 
soluble in water and warm alcohol. Tri-hydrazine di-iodhydrate 
NH, . (HI), is formed when iodine is added to an alcoholic solu- 
tion of hydrazine so long as crystals appear. As to the molecu- 
lar mass of the halogen diammonium compounds in aqueous 
solution, it is found to be with the mono-halogenides, the 
difluoride and the sulphate equal to one-half, with the di-halogen- 
ides generally equal to one-fourth and with the tri-hydrazine 
di-iodhydrate equal to one-fifth the simplest formula.—J. pr. Ch., 
xlu, 521; Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., xxiv, (Ref.) 256, Apr. 1891. 

G. F. B. 

3. On the Synthesis of Indigo-carmine.-—HEYMANN has suc- 
ceeded in effecting the synthesis of indigo-carmine, the disulpho- 
acid of indigo, by acting upon phenyl-glycocoll with fuming 
sulphuric acid. If, for example, phenyl-glycocoll be mixed in a 
test tube with ten to twenty times its mass of fuming sulphuric 
acid containing 20 to 25 per cent of sulphuric oxide, and gently 
warmed, it dissolves with a yellow color, evolving sulphurous 
oxide gas. On pouring the solution upon ice, it rapidly assumes 
the greenish blue color of indigo-carmine. For its production, 
the following method gives the best results : One part of phenyl- 
glycocoll is mixed with 10 to 20 parts of sand and then intro- 


250 Scientific Intelligence. 


duced into 20 times its mass of fuming sulphuric acid, warmed 
to 20° or 25°, containing 80 per cent sulphuric oxide; the 
temperature not being allowed to rise above 30°. The glycocoll 
goes easily into solution with a yellow color which at once with 
evolution of sulphurous oxide passes into the deep blue color of 
the indigo-solution. To remove the concentrated acid, the mass 
is diluted with sulpburic acid of 66° B. The coloring matter is 
isolated by farther dilution with ice and the addition of salt. 
As so prepared the product is completely pure indigo-carmine. 
The colors obtained in dyeing with it far exceed in brillianecy 
those obtained from the best varieties of commercial indigo. Its 
identity with the natural product was established by means of its 
chemical reactions, by dyeing tests and by spectroscopic exami- 
nation. The yield is about 60 per cent of the glycocoll taken.— 
Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., xxiv, 1476, May, 1891. G. F. B. 

4. Lecons sur les Métaux, professées 4 la Faculté des Sciences 
de Paris. Par AtFrrep Dirt, Professeur de Chimie 4 la Faculté. 
Premier Fascicule. 4to, pp. 44, lvili, 621. Paris, 1891. (Vve 
Ch. Dunod.)—To judge from the part of Professor Ditte’s book 
now before us, the complete work will be a valuable addition to 
chemical literature. It is written largely from the standpoint of 
energy. In his preface the author says: ‘“ The principles of 
Thermo-chemistry and the consequences which flow from them, 
teach us not only to explain reactions, but also frequently to fore- 
see them and to discover in advance what phenomena will be 
produced when two or more substances are put together under 
determined conditions. . On the other hand when two reactions 
are simultaneously possible the laws of dissociation enable us to 
define rigorously the conditions of eqilibrium which must be 
established between them. In general a rational application of 
these principles and these laws enables us to say, often even 
before making the experiment, why one given reaction is certain 
to result, while another reaction is impossible; why an action 
which begins without difficulty, ceases after a time; and finally 
why a particular phenomenon occurring under certain circum- 
stances, does not take place under other circumstances entirely 
similar apparently in appearance.” The introductory portions of 
the baok are therefore devoted to calorimetry and the general 
principles of Thermo-chemistry as laid down by Berthelot. In 
the First part, a general study of the metals is given, covering 
about four hundred pages. It includes the principles of metal- 


lurgy, the physical properties of the metals and their alloys, their 


compounds with the non-metals, the action of water, acids, etc., 
on the metals, and lastly metallic salts. The Second part is. 
devoted to the study of the metals specially. Throughout the 
book all the reactions are given as energy-reactions, and repre- 
sent the heat-changes concerned, thus : 


SnCl, + 2HO =SnO, + 2HO},,.. + [67°9 + 2.39°3 — 64°6 — 2,.34°5] 
[+ 12:9]. 


Geology and Natural History. 259 


‘The notation used in the book is the old equivalent notation ; which 
seems unfortunate since it is not in accord with that based on the 
atomic theory now generally employed. The great advantage of 
considering the heat-changes in all reactions, and the evident care 
with which the descriptive part has been written, will make Pro- 
fessor Ditte’s book acceptable to the chemist. We shall look 
with interest for the remaining parts. Goji Be 


Il. GEoLocy AND NatTuRAL HiIstTory. 


1. Composition of the Till or Bovwlder-Clay; by W. G. 
Crossy (Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., xxv, 1890).—In this paper 
Professor Crosby gives the results of an investigation of the 
glacial deposits in the vicinity of Boston. His analyses show 
that the proportion of true clay in the till is small and that of 
rock-flour, or very finely pulverized rock, is large. He concludes 
that the proportion of stones over two inches in diameter is not 
over 5 to 10 per cent. His results give for the gravel, 24:90 per 
cent ; the sand, 19°51; the rock-tlour, 43°86 ; the clay, 11°67 = 
99°94. In his table, each of these divisions of the material, is 
farther subdivided into coarse, medium and fine. Moreover, he 
gives his results for each of the different localities studied. In 
the redistribution of the material by the glacial flood, the rock- 
flour goes with the clay, adding to its volume, so that the clay- 
beds embrace fully half of .the original material of the till, The 
rock-flour was found to be essentially quartz-flour—this being the 
final result of disintegration and the consequent decomposition— 
according with Daubrée’s observation that the milky turbidity 
of the Rhine, even for hundreds of miles from the Alpine 
glaciers, is due chiefly to impalpable quartz. It is further con- 
cluded that of the material of the till, one-third is probably of 
preglacial erosion, and two-thirds of glacial erosion. The amount 
of rock-flour is evidence in favor of this. But the fact does not, 
Professor Crosby observes, lend support to the view that the 
_ glacier “profoundly modified the topography of the glaciated 
area.”’ ‘These are a few of the important facts and conclusions 
in Professor Crosby’s excellent paper. 

2. Geology of the Rocky Mountain Region in Canada with 
special reference to changes in Elevation and to the History of 
the Glacial Period; by Dr. G. M. Dawson.—The eighth vol- 
ume of the Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada, con- 
tains, among its papers, the very valuable Presidential Address 
of Dr. G. M. Dawson on the above subject. The Mesozoic and 
Tertiary history occupies 22 pages, and the Glacial history the 
following 50 pages. 

3. The Greenstone Schist areas of the Menominee and Mar- 
quette regions of Michigan ; by Professor G. H. Witiiams. 218 
pp- 8vo, with plates and cuts. Bulletin U.S. Geol. Survey, No. 
62.—The important subject here discussed ably and with great 
fulness, by the author is—the Methods in which a massive crys- 


260 Scientific Intelligence. 


talline rock may be modified by the action of orographic forces. 
The three methods mentioned—the Macro-structural, Micro- 
structural and Mineralogical, are severally considered, and the 
results under each, as recognized by the author, are described 
in detail, and illustrated by his microscopic study of the Green- 
stone schist and the associated rocks. 

4, Some Botanic Gardens in the Equatorial Belt and in 
the South Seas. (Second paper.)—The voyage from Colombo, 
Ceylon, to Adelaide, South Australia, is not far from 4,400 miles, 
After leaving the harbor, land covered with tropical vegetation 
and shores fringed with mangrove are kept in sight, until the 
once prominent port at Point de Galle sinks from view, and then 
a fairly straight run is made for Cape Leeuwin. Rounding this, 
the distant shores of West Australia are skirted as far as the 
Head near King George’s Sound, at Albany, after which no land 
is seen until Kangaroo Island is reached about the fourteenth day 
out. The landing is made in a steam launch which runs in all 
weathers, sometimes in pretty rough water, through an open 
roadstead, up to a jetty at the Semaphore, the terminus of a 
suburban railway leading to the City of Adelaide. Passengers 
by the Peninsular and Oriental line land at Glenelg, a little 
farther south. 

The clouds of grasshoppers which met us at the landing did 
not presage a very happy condition of things in the fields and 
gardens. But the mischief thus far wrought by them had been 
local and hardly so severe as had been dreaded. It was now the 
middle of December (the southern summer) and the ground 
seemed dry, but the crops around the city were in good color and 
strong. 

OES comparatively new city, Adelaide is fairly well shaded 
with trees. ‘The suburbs are attractive. Northeast of the city 
proper, and within a few minutes walk from the principal streets, 
the University and the Botanic Garden are found near together. 

Adelaide.—The Botanic Garden occupies an area of about 
forty acres, and adjoins parklands which are used as an arboretum. 
From his entrance at the main gate, throughout his whole tour of 
the garden, the visitor is struck by the more or less successful 
attempts at decorative management of shrubbery and marble 
statuary, indicating that there has been a desire to make a place 
which is easily accessible very attractive to the public. The 
result is generally pleasing; in fact, it is all good, except in the 
case of the water, which leaves much to be desired. 

Australian plants are represented by pretty good specimens, 
but the conditions for culture are not favorable. The soil ap- 
peared thirsty and for the most part light; hence the fair success 
attained shows excellent judgment in cultivating. As will be 
seen by the photographs at Cambridge, the large specimen trees 
would be a credit to any garden, and the groups of European 
florist-plants are about as good as one could expect to see any- 
where. It was said to me that these European groups are among 


Geology and Natural History. 261 


the main attractions of the garden to the citizens. The citizens 
with whom I conversed were justly proud of the establishment. 
The Victoria regia house is one of the principal features of the 
garden, but the condition of the plants at the time of my visit 
was a disappointment. It seemed as if the method of heating by 
water from an open boiler might be at fault. It was not easy to 
see how the water could contain as much air as in the ordinary 
method of heating by pipes through the tank, and it appeared as 


- if this was at the bottom of the mischief. 


The other houses looked well for the season. The selections in 
them appeared judicious and many individual plants were of 
exceptionally good growth. Considerable prominence was given 
to horticultural, and, one may say, utilitarian aspects of vegeta- 
tion. This doubtless serves to augment the interest felt by the 
general public, from whom directly or indirectly all the funds 
come. 

A Museum for economic botany, well-arranged, and full of 
good illustrations of the subject, occupies a conspicuous place in 
the grounds. Its most attractive department is a collection of 
the leguminous plants which have proved pernicious to stock. 
The carpological series is good, and the products of the useful 
plants are well displayed. In a separate apartment was seen the 
herbarium of the director, Dr. R. Schomburgh, who was even 
then prostrated by illness which has since terminated fatally. 

Although confined to his room and a great sufferer, the ven- 
erable Director received me on two occasions and conversed 
freely about his plans, all of which looked in the direction of 
increasing the local interest in Botany and Horticulture. 

Very profitable botanical excursions can be made from Ade- 
laide. ‘The hand-book for the neighborhood is a recent Flora by 
Professor Tate of the University. It is handy and accurate. 
Visitors who may have time for botanical studies in any of the 
Australasian colonies should be reminded that in almost every 
large city there can be found a botanist or two well acquainted 
with the most desirable localities for herborizing. Judging from 
my Own experience in obtaining their advice, these local botanists 
are not easily wearied in well-doing. Some of the local collec- 
tions are enriched by notes taken on the spot, and possess great 
interest. 

Melbourne.—It was my good fortune to make the journey 
from Adelaide through Ballaarat to Melbourne in company with 
Mr. Samuel Dixon, of South Australia, who has acquired an ex- 
cellent knowledge of the flora, and has occupied himself with 
some of the more interesting industrial questions connected with 
the forage plants of the Colonies. The first and last part of this 
railway journey of about 500 miles was made in the afternoon 
and early morning, and gave a glimpse of high lands and of the 
dreary desert scrub, with here and there a view of good soil and 
rich growth, 


262 Scientifie Intelligence. 


In passing, it may be noted that the railway journey northeast 
from Adelaide to the famous silver mines at Broken Hill in New 
South Wales brings before the tourist capital illustrations of true 
Australian deserts. In fact, the town of Broken Hill lies within 
sight of one of the spots where the great explorer Sturt was 
imprisoned by the lack of water. The scanty vegetation fur- 
nishes, aS so many Australian plants elsewhere do, striking 
instances of adaptation to a dry climate; the locality is so 
readily accessible that it should not be left unvisited. Mr. 
Dixon gave many facts relative to the utilization of deserts and 
of desert plants in that region, which he has incorporated in an 
instructive article published in the Proceedings of the Royal 
Society of South Australia (vol. viii). 

I had also the benefit of Mr. Dixon’s guidance, the following 
day, in my first informal visit to the Botanic Garden of Melbourne. 

The garden is about a mile south of the city itself, and lies on 
the narrow river, the Yarra, which flows through Melbourne. 
The situation is good, but the soil in some parts is far from the 
best. The Australian flora is represented by fine old specimens, 
if one can call anything old in such a new country, and by young 
plants which have been added in recent years. | 

The garden abounds in effective views which are much appre- 
ciated by the citizens. As in all new countries, for instance, our 
own, there is a good deal of pleasant rivalry between the larger 
places; in the botanical gardens of Australia there is found a 
convenient object for comparison. ‘The judicious visitor cannot 
go far wrong in his answers to anxious inquiries as to respective 
excellences of the gardens, where there is so much to please and 
so little that calls for unfavorable criticism. 

In the Melbourne Garden the most attractive groups of plants 
are (1) the Proteaceous, composing a striking mass of shrubs and 
small trees many of which happened to be in flower: (2) the 
Eucalypts, by no means all of them equally good as representa- 
tives, but most of them having distinctive characters recogniza- 
ble as a whole; (8) the Myrtacez, and the Acacias. 

The best photographs of the Melbourne garden are those which 
show the groups in question, and two in which the Governor’s 
residence is seen in the distance. The Director is much embar- 
rassed by the peculiar condition of the labor question in Australia. 
Somewhat similar difficulties arise wherever the one in charge 
cannot employ or dismiss the workmen for whose good work he 
is held responsible. 

Mr. W. R. Guilfoyle, the Director, with his capable assistants, 
is organizing a Museum of Economic Botany, and bringing 
together other appliances for the illustration of botany. 

Not very far from the Garden lives Baron. Ferdinand von 
Mueller, Government Botanist. He is surrounded by his Herba- 
rium and Library to which he has devoted his life and fortune. 
The correspondence which he carries on is incredibly voluminous, 
and it is understood to be conducted wholly with his own hand. 


Geology and Natural History. 263 


His Handbook of Victorian Plants is easy to use after one be- 
comes accustomed to the dichotomous arrangement, and it is very 
helpful in the minuteness of its descriptions. The Baron has 
done hard work in economic botany as applied to Australia and 
in the endeavor to make the useful plants of the colonies better 
known in the Old World and in America. As everybody knows, 
such work is always a thankless and ungracious task, for the 
mistakes and failures in the introductions are likely to outnumber 
the successes. In everything concerning the advancement of the 
colonies, Baron Mueller has taken a hearty interest and is in 
every way identified with his adopted home. 

Besides the incipient economic Museum at the Botanic Garden 
and the large collections under the charge of Baron Mueller 
there is an interesting botanical department connected with the 
Melbourne Museum. This is under the direction of Mr. J. 
Cosmo Newbery, and is now being re-arranged previous to its 
final disposition in the new Museum building. The specimens 
which illustrate the cereals and their products were nearly ar- 
ranged at the time of my visit and indicated that the new system 
would be successful from an educational point of view. 

The environs of Melbourne include many municipalities which 
are commonly counted in with Melbourne proper, when the city 
is compared with its sister cities. Passing outside the circle of 


associated communities, the botanist comes upon very instructive © 


botanical ground. One does not have far to go by rail to stand 
before the giant specimens of Eucalyptus, and by boat to be in 
the presence of queer Australian plants, like Epacris and so on, 
growing wild. 

Sydney.—The third great Australian Garden is in New South 
Wales, about six hundred miles from Melbourne, Victoria. For 
beauty of situation it stands without a rival. It has a com- 
manding position on the shore of the harbor, and _ possesses 
remarkable elements for landscape treatment. 

The harbor of Sydney (Port Jackson) is one of the most cele- 
brated in the world, usually being associated with that of Rio de 
Janeiro, as the finest in existence. Like outstretched divergent 
fingers, promontories extend into this charming sheet of water. On 
parts of the slopes of two of these the Botanic Gardens, covering 
about forty acres, have been established. As was to be ‘expected, 
the representation of native plants is somewhat different from 
that in the other gardens, owing to difference in the climate. In 
certain directions, for instance, palms from the smaller islands of 
the Polynesian archipelago, the garden is exceptionally rich. 
The specimens are numerous and well grown. A good deal of 
attention has been paid also to economic plants. The most inter- 
esting photographs which I could secure were (1) Individual 
plants; (2) the Palms of Lord Howe’s Island, ete.; (3) the 
ceneral view from the brow of the hill. To Mr. Charles Moore, 
the director, I am indebted for many views of the garden, taken 
some time since. The collection of all these now at Cambridge 

Am. JouR. ScI.—THIRD SERIES, Vou. XLII, No. 249.—SxEpt., 1891. 


bila ct: 


= ————— 


Sete ee 


264 Scientific Intelligence. 


illustrates fairly well the wide range of cultivation possible in 
this favored climate. 

Botany Bay of the early navigators lies within easy excursion 
distance of the city of Sydney. There and in the contiguous 
peninsulas, one can see growing wild the native plants which 
gave the place its appropriate name. 

In point of fact, the garden at Sydney was visited considerably 
later by me than those at Adelaide and Melbourne, a journey 
through Tasmania and New Zealand intervening. But it has 
seemed best to bring the three larger gardens together in a single 
sketch, reserving the visit to the economic museum in Sydney 
for a third communication. 

Before leaving the subject of these three gardens, it may not 
be out of place to call attention again to the deep interest and 
local pride felt by the people of the respective cities in these 
establishments. Every intelligent person with whom I conversed 
upon the subject appreciated the importance of such institutions 
in a country with undeveloped resources. It was also felt that, 
since these gardens, and the smaller ones, for that matter, keep in 
touch with Kew, the botanical interests of the colonies, particu- 
larly in their economic aspects, were receiving due attention. 

The Botanic gardens of the south do not appear to sustain any 
close connection with the Universities. They are, of course, 
available for purposes of investigation, but they are governmental 
and not academic instititions. 

It is frequently said that in the southern hemisphere everything 
is reversed from what is found in the northern. This is certainly 
not true of the budgets for botanical gardens. These institu- 
tions are everywhere very popular, but I did not find in any case 
that too much money was provided for the running expenses. 
In fact, I observed no instance where a somewhat lar ger income 
would not have improved the condition of affairs. But the 
directors and superintendents of the larger gardens, and the 
curators of the smaller ones made the best use of the rather 
scanty funds placed at their disposal. . 

The position of government botanist (in Victoria), filled by the 
distinguished von “Mueller, seems at first anomalous. But when 
it appears that, as matter of fact, this position has left its in- 
cumbent far more free to elucidate botanical questions affecting 
all the colonies, than if he were burdened with administrative 
duties connected with the botanical garden in one colony, the 
establishing of the office has had happy results. It may not be 
out of place to say that on every hand in the colonies Baron 
von Mueller’s preéminence receives hearty recognition, even in 
quarters where the relations might naturally have been some- 
what strained. The willingness with which the government 
botanist comes to the assistance of young botanists and amateur 
collectors in the colonies may have had much to do with the 
general interest in botanical matters exhibited in the three most 
populous colonies. G. L. G 


gE ND L:X.. 


Art. XX VI.—WNotice of New Vertebrate Fossils; by 
O. C. Marsa. 


REcENT researches on a number of extinct animals have 
made it evident that several of them are new to science, and 
that others possess some characters of interest which have not 
hitherto been observed. In the present paper, some of the 
results of this investigation are placed on record, and others 
will be given in a later communication. 


CERATOPSIDA, 
Triceratops elatus, sp. nov. 


One of the largest members of the Ceratopside, representing 
a distinct species, is at present known from the skull only, 
which was secured during the past year. Although this skull 
is about six feet and a half in length, it belonged to an animal 
scarcely adult, as indicated by some of the cranial sutures. 
The rostral bone is not codssitied with the premaxillaries as 
in old animals, and the superior branch of the former bone 
has its extremity free. The nasal horn-core, however, is 
firmly codssified with the nasals. It is of moderate size, with 
an obtuse summit directed upwards. ‘The main horn-cores were 
quite long, with their extremities pointed and directed well 
forward. These horn-cores are compressed transversely, the 
section being oval in outline. 

One of the most striking features of the skull is the 
parietal crest, which was quite elongate, and much elevated, 
more so than in any of the species hitherto discovered, and this 
has suggested the specific name. 

The length of this skull from the front of the rostral bone 
to the back of the parietal crest was about seventy-eight inches, 
and the greatest transverse expanse of the posterior crest was 
about forty inches. The summit of one of the frontal horn- 
cores was about twenty-eight inches above the orbit, and 
fifty-three inches from the base of the quadrate. 

This interesting specimen was found in the Ceratops beds of 
the Laramie, in Wyoming, by Mr. J. B. Hatcher of the U.S. 
Geological Survey, whose previous discoveries are well-known. 


266 O. C. Marsh—WNotice of New Vertebrate Fossils. 


Torosaurus latus, gen. et sp. nov. 


Another well-marked species of this group, which may be 
referred to a new genus, is represented by one skull, and parts 
of the skeleton, from nearly the same horizon as the specimen 
above described. One of the most striking features of the 
present species is seen in the posterior crest, which, instead 
of being complete as in the skulls hitherto found, is perforated 
by a pair of large openings. These are in the parietals, but they 
have the inner margin of each squamosal for their outer border. 
They are well behind the supra-temporal fossee, but doubtless 
were originally connected with them. They may be called the 
supra-temporal fontanelles. ‘The squamosal bones, moreover, 
are very long and slender, and distally only show near the ends 
sutures for union with the parietals. Another distinctive 
character is seen in the main horn-cores, which are placed well 
back of the orbit. The nasal horn-core is short, with the apex 
compressed, and directed forward. : 

This genus is of much interest, as it represents an earlier and 
less specialized form than either Ceratops or Triceratops, both 
of which have the posterior crest complete. The existing 
Chameleons show the other extreme, where the outline only of 
the parietal crest has been attained. 

Some of the principal dimensions of this skull are as follows: 


Length from apex of nasal horn-core to extremity of 


squamosal ic SoS ee 3. Be sen ee 80 inches. 
Distance from same apex to front of orbit.---.----- 7 
Distance from same to front of parietal opening --.. 54 “ 


Width between posterior extremities of squamosals.-. 56 “ 


This important specimen was discovered by Mr. J. B. 
Hatcher, in the Laramie of Wyoming. 


Torosaurus gladius, sp. nov. 


A second species of apparently the same genus is represented 
by various portions of a skull in good preservation. In this 
specimen, the nasal horn-core is short and obtuse, and nearly 
upright. The main horn-cores are elongate, oval in outline, 
and in position resemble those of the skull above described. 
The most remarkable features in the present specimen are the 
squamosal bones, which are greatly elongated, and so attenuated 
as to have the general shape of the blade of a sword, thus 
suggesting the specific name. These bones, moreover, show 
but slight evidence at their distal extremity of union with the 
parietals, as the inner margin is rounded for nearly half the 
length. This feature will distinguish the present species from 
all others hitherto described. 


O. O. Marsh—Notice of New Vertebrate Fossils. 267 


The following are some dimensions of portions of this 
specimen : : 


Length of horn-core from top of orbit to summit._-. 27 inches. 
Antero-posterior diameter of same horn-core at base. 8 “ 
iimmaverse diameter of same ..2.-..2..--1--/.----- eines 
Length of squamosal behind exoccipital groove ----- So eer 
© es SiSt PIUC UBIO IIe Re ae el eo tl, "na ee sae en 
Myadth atmiddle__- 2... -- sii i, [ict aad ae el aR a OP hise 


These interesting specimens were also found in the Laramie 
of Wyoming by Mr. J. B. Hatcher. 


ANCHISAURID A. 
Ammosaurus, gen. Nov. 


The Yale Museum has recently secured two interesting 
specimens of Dinosaurs from the Triassic sandstone of the 
Connecticut valley. In comparing these with the known 
species of Anchisawrus from this formation, the fact became 
evident that among them are two well-marked genera. One 
of the specimens, which is described below, cannot now 
be distinguished generically from the type of Anchisaurus, 
while the one described by the writer as Anchisaurus major 
is quite distinct, and hence a new genus is here established for 
its reception. ‘The distinctive characters are well marked in 
the pelvic arch. 

There are three vertebree in the sacrum, but they are not 
eoossified with each other, being free, as in the Crocodélia. 
The ilium is comparatively small, and has a slender pre-acetab- 
ular process. ‘The pubes are broad, elongate plates, perforate 
above, and not codssified with each other. In form, they 
resemble the corresponding bones in Zanclodon, where, how- 
ever, the two are coossified, and imperforate. The ischia meet 
the pubes by an extensive union. ‘Their distal ends are 
slender, directed backward, and closely adapted to each other. 
This species may now be known as Ammosaurus major. 


Anchisaurus colurus, sp. nov. 


The new species is represented by perhaps the most perfect 
Triassic Dinosaur yet discovered, as the skull and greater 
portion of the skeleton were found in place, and in fine 
preservation. It is smaller than the specimen above described, 
but similar in its general proportions, yet the two may be 
readily distinguished by the pelvic arch and posterior limbs. 
The pubes are distinct from each other, imperforate above, 
and the distal portions are only moderately expanded. The 


process that projects backward to meet the ischium is slender, © 


and the face for union with that bone is quite small. The sacrum 
and ischia resemble those of Ammosaurus above described. 


268 =O. C. Marsh— Notice of New Vertebrate Fossils. 


The skull is of moderate size, and of delicate structure. In 
its general shape, it somewhat resembles the skull of Hatteria. 
The supra-temporal fosse are very large, and the orbits 
especially so. The quadrate is inclined forward, and the 
upper and lower temporal arches are slender. Compressed, 
cutting teeth are present both in the premaxillary and max- 
illary bones. The lower jaws have similar teeth, and the rami 
are not united to each other at the symphysis in front. 

The vertebree and limb bones are hollow, and the whole 
skeleton is lightly built. The neck is long, and the tail of 
moderate length. The scapula is elongate, and the coracoid 
very small and imperforate. The humerus has a strong radial 
crest, and the radius and ulna are nearly equal in size. There 
were five digits in the manus, the first, second, and third being 
armed with strong claws. 

The temur is longer than the tibia, and has a flattened head, 
somewhat like that of a crocodile. The tibia is short and 
stout, and the fibula well developed. The astragalus is not 
coossified with the tibia, and the caleaneum is distinct. There 
were five digits in the pes, but only four functional, the fifth 
being represented by the metatarsal alone. 

The skull of this reptile is about five and one-half inches 
long, and the lower jaw four and one-half inches. The scapula 
and humerus are of equal length, each about six inches long. 
The femur is about eight inches in length, and the tibia about 
six. The animal when alive was about five and one-half feet 
long. The present remains were found near Manchester, Conn. 

A more complete description of this interesting reptile, with 
illustrations, will soon be published. 


BRONTOTHERID &. 


Allops crassicornis, sp. nov. 


The present species is represented by the nearly perfect skull 
of an adult, but not old animal. The skull is of medium 
size, with the zygomatic arches moderately expanded. The 
nasal bones do not project beyond the premaxillaries. The 
horn-cores are very short and massive, with rounded summits, 
and thus form one of the striking features of the skull. The 
dentition is complete, and in fine preservation. The single 
incisor is quite small, and situated close to the canine. The 
latter is of moderate size, and projects but little above the rest 
of the dental series. There is no diastema between the canine 
and the first premolar, which is small, and has its inner face on 
a line between the canine and the second prémolar. The second, 
third, and fourth premolars are large, and have a strong inner 
basal ridge. The last molar has its anterior margin somewhat 
in advanee of the front border of the posterior nares. 


O. C. Marsh—Notice of New Vertebrate Hossils. 269 


The length of this skull on the median line is about thirty 
inches, and the width across the zygomatic arches twenty-three 
inches. The width across the horn-cores is fourteen inches. 
The*extent of the superior dental series is sixteen inches. 

The type of this species was found in the Brontotherium 


_beds of South Dakota, by Mr. J. B. Hatcher. 


Brontops walidus, sp. nov. 


This: well-marked species is based upon a skull in fine 
preservation, which agrees in its main characters with the 
other species of this genus, but is particularly short and 
robust. The zygomatic arches are widely expanded, almost 
as much as in any skull of this group. The nasal bones have 
only a moderate extension in front, and do not reach the end 


_ of the premaxillaries. The free portion is broad and massive. 


The horn-cores are of moderate size, nearly round in section, 
and have their obtuse summits directed somewhat backward. 
The occipital crest slopes forward, and is expanded transversely. 
The length of this skull on the median line is about twenty-six 
inches. The greatest transverse diameter across the zygomatic 
arches is twenty-two inches, and across the summits of the 
horn-cores, fourteen inches. 

The type specimen of the present species is from the 
Brontotherium beds of South Dakota, where it was secured 
by Mr. J. B. Hatcher. 


Titanops medius, sp. nov. 


The present species is from nearly the same horizon as the 
type of the genus, but is of smaller size. It is represented by 
one skull in fair preservation, with the horn-cores and dentition 
complete. The free portion of the nasals is very small, and 
projects but slightly beyond the anterior line of the horn-cores. 
The latter are compressed antero-posteriorly, and project 
laterally nearly at right angles to the median line of the skull. 
The two incisors on each side are quite small, and separated 
from each other and from the canine. There isa slight diastema 
behind the canine. The first premolar is small, and triangular 
in outline. ‘The second premolar is of moderate size, and the 
third and fourth premolars have only an incomplete inner 
basal ridge. 

The width of this skull across the horn-cores is twenty-three 
inches, and the distance from the end of the nasals to the 
front of the posterior nares is sixteen inches. The extent of 
the upper dental series is seventeen inches. This specimen is 
from near the top of the Brontotherium beds of South Dakota, 
where it was discovered by Mr. J. B. Hatcher. 


New Haven, Conn., August 10th, 1891, 


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MINERALS 


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mee’ 


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CONTENTS. 


a | CES 

Arr. XVII.—Capture of Comets by Planets, especially their i i 
Capture by Jupiter; by H. A. Newron_---_.-...----. 7 
XVIII.—Pleistocene Fluvial Planes of Western Pennsyl-— 

vania; by Prank LevERert.-1 2 °0.___._ -2 eee 200° 
XIX.—A Method for the Determination of Antimony and its — 

condition of Oxidation; by F. A. Goocu and H. W. 

GRUBNER . 2.02): 50002000. 7 ee ee et 


XX.—A Method for the Estimation of Chlorates ; by F. A. fall 


Goocs and C. G. Smira_. - 2.2 3 = sr 
XXI.—Dampening of Electrical Oscillations on Iron Wires ; 


by Joun ‘[ROWBRIDGR,.. 2) U2 = 22. eo eee 223 | 


XXII.—Genesis of Iron-ores by Isomorphous and Pseudo- 
morphous Replacement of Limestone, ete.; by JamEs P, 


KIMBALL... J. ecole 2 eee ee 23) | 


XXIIL—Constitution of certain Micas, Vermiculiae and 


Chlorites; by F. W. CrarkeE and E. A. SCHNEIDER __-- 242 3 


XXTV.—A Further Note on the Age of the Orange Sands; 
by R.D. Saltaspury: 2 2c S e222 a 252 
XXV.—Note on the Causes of the Variations of the Mag- 


netic Needle; by Frank H. BigreLow -__.--2L 2.922 e2oeee 


APPENDIX. _XXVI. —Notice of New Vertebrate Fossils ; 
by O, ©. Magen oo osreb es ea 265 


SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE, 


Chemistry—Boron tri-iodide, Moissan, 256.—Hydrazine hydrate and the com- 
pounds of Diammonium with the Halogens. Curtirs and Scuvuz: Synthesis of 
Indigo-carmine, HEYMANN, 257.—-Lecons sur les Métaux, Dirre, 258. 

Geology and Natural History—Composition of the Till or Bowlder-Clay, W. G. 
CrosBy: Gevlogy of the Rocky Mountain Region in Canada, Dr. G. M. DAw- 
son: Greenstone Schist areas of Michigan, G. H. W1tL1ams, 259.—Some Bo- 
tanic Gardens in the Equatorial Belt and in the South Seas, 260. 


~ 


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_- Dr. H. C. Hovey in an Article in the Scientific American of Aug. D 
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About 200 pounds of angular oxidized fragments also of meteoric origin wert 
found near the base of the crater, a few of which showed a greenish stain from . 
oxidized nickel. * * * Soir tarts 
A fragment of a mass weighing 40 pounds was examined by Prof. Ge A ee eae 
who found it to be extremely hard, a day and a half being taken in making a sec-. 
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minerals from various parts of the world since our August advertisement i in this a 


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Petrified Wood.—We spent several days with three wagons, six men, and beelnes od 
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Art. XX VII. Agr, of the Possibilities of Hconomec Botany; 
by GEoRGE LINCOLN GOODALE. 


[Presidential address delivered before the American Association for the Advance- 
ment of Science, at Washington, August, 1891.] 


Our Association seaman of its president, on his retirement 
from office, some account of matters connected with the 
department of science in which he is engaged. 

But you will naturally expect that, before I enter upon the 
discharge of this duty, I should present a report respecting 
the mission with which you entrusted me last year. You 
desired me to attend the annual meeting of the Australasian 
Association for the Advancement of Science, and express your 
good wishes for its success. Compliance with your request 
did not necessitate any material change in plans formed long 
ago to visit the South Seas; some of the dates and the 
sequence of places had to be modified; otherwise the early 
plans were fully carried out. 

I can assure you that it seemed very strange to reverse the 
seasons, and find mid-summer in January. But in the meeting 
with our brethren of the southern hemisphere, nothing else was 


_reversed. The official welcome to your representative was as 


cordial, and the response by the members was as kindly as that 
which the people in the northern hemisphere would give to 
any fellow-worker coming from beyond the sea. 

The meeting to which I was commissioned was held in 
January last in the Cathedral city of Christchurch, New Lea- 
land, the seat of Canterbury College. 


Am. JouR. Scl.—THIkD SERIES, Vou. XLII, No. 250.—Octossr, 1891. 


272 G. L. Goodale—Possibilities of Economic Botany. 


Considering the distance between the other colonies and 
New Zealand, the meeting was well attended. From Hobart, 
Tasmania, to the southern harbor, known as the Bluff, in New 
Zealand, the sea voyage is only a little short of one thousand 
miles of rough water. From Sydney in New South Wales to 
Auckland, New Zealand, it is over twelve hundred miles. If, 
therefore, one journeys from Adelaide in South Australia, to 
Christchurch, New Zealand, where the meeting was held he 
travels by land and by sea over two thousand miles. From 
Brisbane in Queensland, it is somewhat farther. Although 
certain concessions are made to the members of the Associa- 
tion, the fares by rail and by steamship are high, so that 
a journey from any one of the seats of learning in Australia 
proper to New Zealand is formidable on account of its cost. 
It is remarkable that so large a number of members should 
have met together under such circumstances, and it speaks well 
for the great strength and vigor of the Association. 

The Australasian Association is modelled rather more closely 
after the British Association than is our own. ‘The president 
delivers his address upon his inauguration. There are no gen- 
eral business meetings, but all the details are attended to by 
an executive committee answering to our council; none except 
the members and associates are invited to attend even the 
sectional meetings and there are some other differences be- 
tween the three associations. The secretaries stated to me 
their conviction that their organization and methods are better 
adapted to their surroundings than ours would be, and all of 
their arguments seemed cogent. Although the Association has 
been in existence but three years, it has accomplished great 
good. It has brought together workers in different fields for 
conference and mutual benefit; it has diminished misunder- 
standings, and has strengthened friendships. In short it is 
doing the same kind of good work that we believe ours is now 
doing, and in much the same way. 

Your message was delivered at the general evening session 
immediately before the induction of the new officers. The retir- 
ing president, Baron von Mueller, and the incoming president 
Sir James Hector, in welcoming your representative, expressed 
their pleasure that you should have seen fit to send personal 
ereetings. 

In replying to their welcome, I endeavored to convey your 
felicitations upon the pronounced success of the Association, 
and your best wishes for a prosperous future. In your name, 
I extended a cordial invitation to the members to gratify us 
by their presence at some of our annual meetings, and I have 
good reason to believe that this invitation will be accepted. I 
know it will be most thoroughly and hospitably honored by us. 


G. L. Goodale—Possibilities of Economic Botany. 273 


On the morning of the session to which I refer, we received 
in the daily papers, a cable telegram relative to the Bering Sea 
difficulties (which were then in an acute stage). In your stead, 
I ventured to say, ‘In these days of disquieting dispatches, 
when there are rumors of trouble between Great Britain and 
the United States, it is pleasant to think that ‘ blood is thicker 
than water.’” This utterance was taken to mean that we are 
all English-speaking kinsmen, and even before I had finished, 
the old proverb was received with prolonged applause. 

The next meeting of the Australasian Association is to be 
held in Hobart, the capital of Tasmania, under the presidency 
of the governor, Sir Robert Hamilton. The energetic secre- 
taries Professor Liversidge, Professor Hutton and Mr. Morton, 
promise a cordial welcome to any of our members visiting the 
Association. Should you accept the invitation, you will enjoy 
every feature of the remarkable island, Tasmania, where the 
meeting is to be held. You will be delighted by Tasmanian 
scenery, vegetation and climate, but that which will give you 
the greatest enjoyment in this as in other English South Sea 
colonies, is the fact that you are among English-speaking 
friends half way around the world. You will find that their 
efficient Association is devoted to the advancement of science 
and the promotion of sound learning. In short you will be 
made to feel at home. 


The subject which I have selected for the valedictory 
address deals with certain industrial, commercial and economic 
questions: nevertheless it lies wholly within the domain of 
botany. I invite you to examine with me some of the possi- 
bilities of economic botany. 

Of course, when treating a topic which is so largely specu- 
lative as this, it is difficult and unwise to draw a hard and fast 
line between possibilities and probabilities. Nowadays, possi- 
bilities are so often realized rapidly that they become accom- 
plished facts before we are aware. 

In asking what are the possibilities that other plants than 
those we now use may be utilized we enter upon a many-sided 
inquiry."* Speculation is rife as to the coming man. May we 
not ask what plants the coming man will use ? 


There is an enormous disproportion between the total num- 
ber of species of plants known to botanical science and the 
number of those which are employed by man. 

The species of flowering plants already described and named 
are about one hundred and seven thousand. Acquisitions from 
unexplored or imperfectly explored regions may increase the 


* For references, notes, etc., see p. 300. 


274 G. L. Goodale—Possibilities of Economic Botany. 


ageregate perhaps one-tenth, so that we are within very safe 
limits in taking the number of existing species to be somewhat 
above one hundred and ten thousand.’ 

Now if we should make a comprehensive list of all the 
flowering plants which are cultivated on what we may calla — 
fairly large scale at the present day, placing therein all food’ 
and forage plants, all those which are grown for timber and 
cabinet woods, for fibres and cordage, for tanning materials, 
dyes, resins, rubber, gums, oils, perfumes and medicines, we 
could bring together barely three hundred species. If we 
should add to this short catalogue all the species, which with- 
out cultivation, can be used by man, we should find it consid- 
erably lengthened. A great many products of the classes just 
referred to are derived in commerce from wild plants, but 
exactly how much their addition would extend the list, it is 
impossible in the present state of knowledge to determine. 
Every enumeration of this character is likely to contain errors 
from two sources: first, it would be sure to contain some 
species which have outlived their real usefulness, and, secondly, 
owing to the chaotic condition of the literature of the subject, 
omissions would occur. 

But after all proper exclusions and additions have been 
made, the total number of species of flowering plants utilized 
to any considerable extent by man in his civilized state does 
not exceed, in fact it does not quite reach, one per cent. 

The disproportion between the plants which are known and 
those which are used becomes much greater when we take 
into account the species of flowerless plants also. Of the five 
hundred ferns and their allies we employ for other than 
decorative purposes only five; the mosses and liverworts, 
roughly estimated at five hundred species, have only four 
which are directly used by man. There are comparatively few 
Algae, Fungi, or Lichens which have extended use. 

Therefore, when we take the flowering and flowerless to- 
gether, the percentage of utilized plants falls far below the 
estimate made for the flowering alone. 

Such a ratio between the number of species known and the 
number used justifies the inquiry which I have proposed for 
discussion at this time—namely, can the short list of useful 
plants be increased to advantage? If so, how % 

This is a practical question ; it is likewise a very old one. 
In one form or another, by one people or another, it has been 
asked from early times. In the dawn of civilization, mankind 
inherited from savage ancestors certain plants, which had been 
found amenable to simple cultivation, and the products of 
these plants supplemented the spoils of the chase and of the 
sea. The question which we ask now was asked then. Wild 


—_ 


el i ae Ee 


G. L. Goodale— Possibilities of Economic Botany. 275 


plants were examined for new uses; primitive agriculture and 
horticulture extended their bounds in answer to this inquiry. 
Age after age has added slowly and ‘cautiously to the list of 
cultivable and utilizable plants, but the aggregate additions 
have been as we have seen, comparatively slight. 

The question has thus no charm of novelty, but it is as prac- 
tical to-day as in early ages In fact, at the present time, in 
view of all the appliances at the command of modern science 
and under the strong light cast by recent biological and tech- 
nological research, the inquiry which we propose assumes great 
importance. One phase of it is being attentively and syste- 
matically regarded in the great Experiment Stations, another 
phase is being studied in the laboratories of Chemistry and 
Pharmacy, while still another presents itself in the museums 
of Economie Botany. 

Our question may be put in other words, which are even 
more practical What present likelihood is there that our 
tables may, one of these days, have other vegetables, fruits and 
cereals, than those which we use now? What chance is there 
that new fibers may supplement or even replace those which 
we spin and weave, that woven fabrics may take on new veg- 
etable colors, that flowers and leaves may yield new perfumes 
and flavors? What probability is there that new remedial 
agents may be found among plants neglected or now wholly 
unknown? The answer which I shall attempt is not in the 
nature of a prophecy; it can claim no rank higher than that 
of a reasonable conjecture. 

At the outset it must be said that synthetic chemistry has 
made and is making some exceedingly short cuts across this 
field of research, giving us artificial dyes, odors, flavors, and 
medicinal substances. of such excellence that it sometimes 
seems as if before long the old-fashioned chemical processes in 
the plant itself would play only asubordinate part. But although 
there is no telling where the triumphs of chemical synthesis will 
end, it.is not probable that it will ever interfere essentially 
with certain classes of economic plants. It is impossible to 
conceive of a synthetic fiber or a synthetic fruit. Chemistry 
gives us fruit-ethers and fruit-acids, and after a while may pro- 
vide us with a true artificial sugar and amorphous starch ; but 
artificial fruits worth the eating or artificial fibers worth the 
spinning are not coming in our day. 

Despite the extraordinary achievements of synthetic chemis- 
try, the world must be content to accept for a long time to 
come, the results of the intelligent labor of the cultivator of 
the soil and the explorer of the forest. Improvement of the 
good plants we now utilize, and the discovery of new ones 
must remain the care of large numbers of diligent students 


276 G. L. Goodale— Possibilities of Economic Botany. 


and assiduous workmen. So that, in fact, our question resolves 
itself into this: can these practical investigators hope to make 
any substantial advance ? 

It will be well to glance first at the manner in which our ~ 
wild and cultivated plants have been singled out for use. We 
shall, in the case of each class, allude to the methods by which 
the selected plants have been improved, or their products 
fully utilized. Thus looking the ground over, although not 
minutely, we can see what new plants are likely to be added 
to our list. Our illustrations can, at the best, be only fragmen- 
tary. 

We shall not have time to treat the different divisions of 
the subject in precisely the proportions: which would be de- 
manded by an exhaustive essay ; an address on an occasion like 
this must pass lightly over some matters which other oppor- 
tunities for discussion could properly examine with great ful- 
ness. Unfortunately, some of the minor topics which must be 
thus passed by, possess considerable popular interest; one of 
these is the first subordinate question introductory to our task, 
namely, how were our useful cultivated and wild plants se- 
lected for use ? 

A study of the early history of plants employed for cere- 
monial purposes, in religious solemnities, in incantations, and 
for medicinal uses, shows how slender has sometimes been the 
claim of certain plants to the possession of any real utility. 
But some of the plants which have been brought to notice in 
these ways have afterwards been found to be utilizable in some 
_ fashion or other. This is often seen in the cases of the plants 
which have been suggested for medicinal use through the absurd 
doctrine of signatures.° 

It seems clear that, except in modern times, useful plants 
have been selected almost wholly by chance, and it may well 
be said that a selection by accident is no selection at all. Now- 
adays, the new selections are based on analogy. One of the 
most striking illustrations of the modern method is afforded 
by the utilization of bamboo fiber for electric lamps. 

Some of the classes of useful plants must be passed by with- 
out present discussion; others alluded to slightly, while still 
other groups fairly representative of selection and improve- 
ment will be more fully described. In this latter class would 
naturally come, of course, the food-plants known as 


I. Tur CEREALS. 


Let us look first at these. 

The species of grasses which yield these seed-like fruits, or 
as we might call them for our purpose seeds, are numerous ;° 
twenty of them are cultivated largely in the Old World, but 


a ea ae ee 


G. L. Goodale— Possibilities of Economic Botany. 277 


only six of them are likely to be very familiar to you, namely, 
wheat, rice, barley, oats, rye and maize. The last of these is of 
American origin, despite doubts which have been cast upon it. 
Tt was not known in the Old World until after the discovery 
of the New. It has probably been very long in cultivation. 
The others all belong to the Old World. Wheat and barley 
have been cultivated from the earliest times; according to 
De Candolle, the chief authority in these matters, about four 
thousand years. Later came rye and oats, both of which have 
been known in cultivation for at least two thousand years. 
Even the shorter of these periods gives time enough for wide 
variation, and as is to be expected there are numerous varieties 


- of themall. For instance, Vilmorin, in 1880, figured sixty-six 


varieties of wheat with plainly distinguishable characters.” 

If the Chinese records are to be trusted, rice has been culti- 
vated for a period much longer than that assigned by our 
history and traditions to the other cereals, and the varieties are 
correspondingly numerous. It is said that in Japan above 
three hundred varieties are grown on irrigated lands, and more 
than one hundred on uplands.* 

With the possible exception of rice, not one of the species 
of cereals is certainly known in the wild state.* Now and then 
specimens have been gathered in the East which can be re- 
ferred to the probable types from which our varieties have 
sprung, but doubt has been thrown upon everyone of these 
eases. It has been shown conclusively that it is easy fora 
plant to escape from cultivation and persist in its new home 
even for a long time in a near approximation to cultivated 
form. Hence, we are forced to receive all statements regarding 
the wild forms with caution. But it may be safely said that if 
all the varieties of cereals which we now cultivate were to be 
swept out of existence, we could hardly know where to turn 
for wild species with which to begin again. We could not 
know with certainty. 

To bring this fact a little more vividly to our minds, let us 
suppose a case. Let us imagine that a blight without parallel 
has brought to extinction all the forms of wheat, rice, rye, 
oats, barley and maize, now in cultivation, but without affect- 
ing the other grasses or any other form of vegetable food. 
Mankind would be obliged to subsist upon the other kindly 
fruits of the earth; upon root-crops, tubers, leguminous seeds, 
and soon. Some of the substitutions might be amusing in any 
other time than that of a threatened famine. Others would be 
far from appetizing under any condition, and only a few would 
be wholly satisfying even to the most pronounced vegetarian. 
In short, it would seem, from the first, that the cereals fill a place 
occupied by no other plants. The composition of the grains 


278 G. L. Goodale—- Possibilities of Economie Botany. 


is theoretically and practically almost perfect as regards food 
ratio between the nitrogenous matters and the starch group ; 
and the food value, as it is termed, is high. But aside from 
these considerations, it would be seen that for safety of preser- 
vation through considerable periods, and for convenience of 
transportation, the cereals take highest rank. Pressure would 
come from every side to compel us to find equivalents for the 
lost grains. From this predicament I believe that the well- 
equipped Experiment Stations and the Agricultural Depart- 
ments in Europe and America would by and by extricate us. 
Continuing this hypothetical case, let us next inquire how the 
Stations would probably go to work in the up-hill task of 
making partially good a well-nigh irreparable loss. 

The whole group of relatives of the lost cereals would be 
passed in strict review. Size of grain, strength and vigor and 
plasticity of stock, adaptability to different surroundings, and 
flexibility in variation would be examined with scrupulous care. 

But the range of experiment would, under the circum- 
stances, extend far beyond the relatives of our present cereals. 
It would embrace an examination of the other grasses which 
are even now cultivated for their grains, but which are so little 
known outside of their own limit, that it is a surprise to hear 
about them. For example, the Millets, great and small; would 
be investigated. ‘These grains, so little known here, form an 
important crop in certain parts of the east. One of the leading 
authorities on the subject* states that the Millets constitute ‘a 
more important crop” in India “than either Rice or Wheat, and 
are grown more extensively, being raised from Madras in the 
south to Rajputana in the north. They occupy about eighty- 
three per cent of the food-grain area in Bombay and Sinde, 
forty-one per cent in the Punjab, thirty-nine per cent in the 
Central Provinces,” ‘in all about thirty million acres.” 

Having chosen proper subjects for experimenting, the culti- _ 
vators would make use of certain well-known principles. By 
simple selection of the more desirable seeds, strains would be 
secured to suit definite wants, and these strains would be kept 
as races, or attempts would be made to intensify wished-for 
characters. By skillful hybridizing of the first, second and 
higher orders, tendencies to wider variation would be obtained 
and the process of selection considerably expedited.’ 

It is out of our power to predict how much time would 
elapse before satisfactory substitutes for our cereals could be 
found. In the improvement of the grains of grasses other 
than those which have been very long under cultivation, experi- 
ments have been few, scattered and indecisive. Therefore we 
are as badly off for time-ratios as are the geologists and 
archeologists, in their statements of elapsed periods. It is 


G. L. Goodale— Possibilities of Economic Botany. 279 


impossible for us to ignore the fact that there appear to be 
’ occasions in the life of a species when it seems to be peculiarly 
susceptible to the influences of its surroundings.’* A species, 
like a carefully laden ship, represents a balancing of forces 
within and without. Disturbance may come through variation 
from within, as from a shifting of the cargo, or, in some cases 
from without. We may suppose both forces to be active in 
producing variation, a change in the internal condition render- 
ing the plant more susceptible to any change in its surround- 
ings. Under the influence of any marked disturbance, a state 
of unstable equilibrium may be brought about, at which times 
the species as such is easily acted upon by very slight agencies. 

One of the most marked of these derangements is a conse- 
quent of cross-breeding within the extreme limits of varieties. 
The resultant forms in such cases can persist only by close 
breeding or by propagation from buds or the equivalents of 
buds. Disturbances like these arise unexpectedly in the ordi- 
nary course of nature, giving us sports of various kinds. 
These critical periods however, are not unwelcome, since skill- 
ful cultivators can take advantage of them. In this very field 
much has been accomplished. An attentive study of the 
sagacious work done by Thomas Andrew Knight shows to 
what extent this can be done.” But we must confess that it 
would be absolutely impossible to predict with certainty how 
long or how short would be the time before new cereals or 
acceptable equivalents for them would be provided. Upheld 
by the confidence which I have in the intelligence, ingenuity, 
and energy of our Experiment Stations, I may say that the 
time would not probably exceed that of two generations of our 
race, or half a century. 

In now laying aside our hypothetical illustration, I venture 
to ask why it is that our Experiment Stations and other insti- 
tutions dealing with plants and their improvement, do not 
undertake -investigations like those which I have sketched ? 
Why are not some of the grasses other than our present 
cereals studied with reference to their adoption as food grains ? 
One of these species will naturally suggest itself to you all, 
namely, the Wild Rice of the Lakes.” Observations have 
shown that, were it not for the difficulty of harvesting these 
grains which fall too easily when they are ripe, they might be 
utilized. But attentive search might find or educe some 
variety of Zezania, with a more persistent grain and a better 
yield. There are two of our sea-shore grasses which have 
excellent grains, but are of small yield. Why are not these, 
or better ones which might be suggested by observation, taken 
in hand ? 


280 G. L. Goodale—Possibilities of Economic Botany. 


The reason is plain. We are all content to move along in 
lines of least resistance, and are disinclined to make a fresh 
start. It is merely leaving well enough alone, and so far as 
the cereals are concerned it is indeed well enough. The 
generous grains of modern varieties of wheat and barley com- 
pared with the well-preserved charred vestiges found in Greece 
by Schliemann,” and in the lake-dwellings,” are satisfactory in 
every respect. Improvements, however, are making in many 
directions; and in the cereals we now have, we possess far 
better and more satisfactory material for further improvement 
both in quality and as regards range of distribution than we 
could reasonably hope to have from other grasses. 

From the cereals we may turn to the interesting groups of 
plants comprised under the general term 


II. VEGETABLES. 


Under this term it will be convenient for us to include all 
plants which are employed for culinary purposes, or for table 
use such as salads and relishes. : 

The potato and sweet potato, the pumpkin and squash, the 
red or capsicum peppers, and the tomato, are of American 
origin. 

All the others are, most probably, natives of the Old World. 
Only one plant coming in this class has been derived from 
Southern Australasia, namely, New Zealand Spinach, (Zetra- 

ond. 
: Among the vegetables and salad-plants longest in cultivation 
we may enumerate the following—turnip, onion, cabbage, 
purslane, the large bean (Taba), chick-pea, lentil and one species 
of pea, garden pea. To these an antiquity of at least four 
thousand years is ascribed. 

Next to these, in point of age, come the radish, carrot, beet, 
garlic, garden-cress, and celery, lettuce, asparagus and the leek. 
Three or four leguminous seeds are to be placed in the same 
category, as are also the black peppers. 

Of more recent introduction the most prominent are, the 
parsnip, oyster plant, parsley, artichoke, endive and spinach. 

From these lists I have purposely omitted a few which 
belong exclusively to the tropics, such as certain yams. 

The number of varieties of these vegetables is astounding. 
It is, of course, impossible to discriminate between closely 
allied varieties which have been introduced by gardeners and 
seedsmen under different names, but which are essentially 
identical, and we must therefore have recourse to a conserva- 
tive authority, Vilmorin,’* from whose work a few examples 
have been selected. The varieties which he accepts are sut- 


G. L. Goodale—Possibilities of Economic Botany. 281 


ficiently well distinguished to admit of description and in most 
instances of delineation, without any danger of confusion. 
The potato has, he says, innumerable varieties, of which he 
accepts forty as easily distinguishable and worthy of a place in 
a general list, but he adds also a list, comprising, of course, 
synonyms, of thirty-two French, twenty-six English, nineteen 
American and eighteen German varieties. The following 
numbers speak for themselves, all being selected in the same 
careful manner as those of the potato: celery more than 
twenty; carrot more than thirty; beet, radish and potato more 
than forty; lettuce and onion more than fifty; turnip more 
than seventy ; cabbage, kidney bean and garden pea more than 
one hundred. 

The amount of horticultural work which these numbers 
represent is enormous. Each variety established as a race 
(that is a variety which comes true to seed) has been evolved 
by the same sort of patient care and waiting which we have 
seen is necessary in the case of cereals. but the time of wait- 
ing has not been as a general thing so long. 

You will permit me to quote from Vilmorin” also an account 
of a common plant, which will show how wide is the range of 
variation and how obscure are the indications in the wild plant 
of its available possibilities. The example shows how com- 
pletely hidden are the potential variations useful to mankind. 


“ Cabbage, a plant which is indigenous in Europe and Western 
Asia, is one of the vegetables which has been cultivated from the 
earliest time. The ancients were well acquainted with it, and 
certainly possessed several varieties of the head-forming kinds. 
_ The great antiquity of its culture may be inferred from the im- 
mense number of varieties which are now in existence, and from 
the very important modifications which have been produced in 
the characteristics in the original or parent plant. 

The wild Cabbage, such as it now exists on the coasts of 
England and France, is a perennial plant with broad-lobed, undu- 
lated, thick, smooth leaves, covered with a glaucous bloom. The 
stem attains a height of from nearly two and a half to over three 
feet, and bears at the top a spike of yellow or sometimes white 
flowers. All the cultivated varieties present the same peculiarities 
in their inflorescence, but up to the time of flowering they exhibit 
most marked differences from each other and from the original 
wild plant. In most of the Cabbages, it is chiefly the leaves that 
are developed by cultivation; these for the most part become 
imbricated or overlap one another closely, so as to form a more 
or less compact head, the heart or interior of which is composed 
of the central undeveloped shoot and the younger leaves next it. 
The shape of the head is spherical, sometimes flattened, sometimes 
conical, All the varieties which form heads in this way are 
known by the general name of Cabbages, while other kinds with 


282 G. L. Goodale—Possibilities of Esonomio Botany. 


large branching leaves which never form heads are distinguished 
by the name of Borecole or Kale. 

In some kinds, the flower-stems have been so moditied by cul- 
ture as to become transformed into a thick, fleshy tender mass, 
the growth and enlargement of which are produced at the expense 
of the flowers which are absorbed and rendered abortive. Such 
are the Broccolis and Cauliflowers.” 


But this plant has other transformations. 


“Tn other kinds, the leaves retain their ordinary dimensions, 
while the stem or principal root has been brought by cultivation 
to assume the shape of a large ball or turnip, as in the case of the 
plants known as Kohl-Rabi and Turnip-rooted Cabbage or Swedish 
Turnip. And lastly, there are varieties in which cultivation and 
selection have produced modifications in the ribs of the leaves, as 
in the Couve Tronchuda, or in the axillary shoots (as in Brussels 
sprouts), or in several organs together, as in the Marrow Kales, 
and the Neapolitan Curled Kale.” 


Here are important morphological changes like those to 
which Professor Bailey has called attention in the case of the 
tomato. 

Suppose we are strolling along the beach at some of the sea- 
side resorts of France, and should fall im with this coarse eru- 
ciferous plant, with its sprawling leaves and strong odor. 
Would there be anything in its appearance to lead us to search 
for its hidden merit as a food plant? What could we see in it 
which would give it a preference over a score of other plants 
at our feet? Again, suppose we are journeying in the high 
lands of Peru, and should meet with a strong-smelling plant of 
the Night-shade family, bearing a small irregular fruit, of sub- 
acid taste and of peculiar flavor. We will further imagine 
that the peculiar taste strikes our fancy, and we conceive that 
the plant has possibilities as a source of food. We should be 
led by our knowledge of the potato, probably a native of the 
same region, to think that this allied plant might be safely 
transferred to a northern climate, but would there be promise 
of enough future usefulness in such a case as this, to warrant 
our carrying the plant North as an article of food? Suppose, 
further, we should ascertain that the fruit in question was 
relished not only by the natives of its home, but that it had 
found favor among the tribes of South Mexico and Central 
America, and had been cultivated by them until it had attained 
a large size; should we be strengthened in our venture? Let 
us go one step further still. Suppose that having decided upon 
the introduction of the plant, and having urged everybody to 
try it, we should find it discarded as a fruit, but taking a place 
in gardens as a curiosity under an absurd name, or as a basis 


G. L. Goodale—Possibilities of Economie Botany. 283 


for preserves and pickles; should we not look upon our experi- 
ment in the introduction of this new plant as a failure? This 
is not a hypothetical case. 

The Tomato,” the plant in question, was cultivated in Europe 
as long ago as 1554;”° it was known in Virginia in 1781 and in 
the Northern States in 1785; but it found its way into favor 
slowly, even in this land of its origin. A credible witness 
states that in Salem it was almost impossible to induce people 
to eat or even taste of the fruit. And yet, as you are well aware, 
its present cultivation on an enormous scale in Europe and this 
country is scarcely sufficient to meet the increasing demand. 

A plant which belongs to the family of the tomato has been 
known to the public under the name of the strawberry tomato. 
The juicy yellow or orange-colored fruit is enclosed in a papery 
calyx of large size. The descriptions which were published 
when the plant was placed on the market were attractive, and 
were not exaggerated to a misleading extent. But, as you all 
know, the plant never gained any popularity. If we. look at 
these two cases carefully we shall see that what appears to be 
caprice on the part of the public is at bottom common sense. 
The cases illustrate as well as any which are at command, the 
diticulties which surround the whole subject of the introduc- 
tion of new foods. 

Before asking specifically in what direction we shall look for 
new vegetables I must be pardoned for calling attention, in 
passing, to a very few of the many which are already in limited 
use in Kurope and this country, but which merit a wider em- 
ployment. Cardon, or Cardoon; Celeriac, or turnip-rooted 
celery; Fetticus, or corn-salad; Martynia; Salsify; Sea-kale ; 
and numerous small salads, are examples of neglected treasures 
of the vegetable garden. 

The following which are even less known may be mentioned 
as fairly promising.” 

(1) Arracacia esculenta, called Arracacha, belonging to the 
Parsley family. It is extensively cultivated in some of the 
northern States of South America. The stems are swollen 
near the base, and produce tuberous enlargements filled with 
an excellent starch. Although the plant is of comparatively 
easy cultivation, efforts to introduce it into Europe have not 
been successful, but it is said to have found favor in both the 
Indies, and may prove useful in our Southern States. 

(2) Ollucus or Ollucus, another tuberous-rooted plant from 
nearly the same region, but belonging to the Beet or Spinach | 
family. It has produced tubers of good size in England, but 
they are too waxy in consistence to dispute the place of the 
better tubers of the potato. The plant is worth investigating 
for our hot dry lands. 


! 


284 G. L. Goodale—Possibilities of Heonomic Botany. 


(83) A tuber-bearing relative of our common Hedge-nettle, 
or Stachys, is now cultivated on'a large scale at Crosnes in 
France, for the Paris market. Its name in Paris is taken from 
the locality where it is now grown for use. Although its 
native country is Japan, it is called by some seedsmen Chinese 
Artichoke. At the present stage of cultivation, the tubers are 
small and are rather hard to keep, but it is thought “that both 
of these defects can be overcome or evaded.” Experiments 
indicate that we have in this species a valuable addition to our 
vegetables. We must next look at certain other neglected 
possibilities. 

Dr. Edward Palmer,” whose energy as a collector and acute- 
ness as an observer are known to you all, has brought together 
very interesting facts relative to the food-plants of our North 
American aborigines. Among the plants described by him 
there are a few which merit careful investigation. Against all 
of them, however, there lie the objections mentioned before, 
namely : 

(1) The long time required for their improvement, and 

(2) The difficulty of making them acceptable to the commu- 
nity, involving 

(3) The risk of total and mortifying failure. 

In the notes to this address the more prominent of these 
are enumerated. 

In 1854 the late Professor Gray called attention to the re- 
markable relations which exist between the plants of Japan and 
those of our Eastern coast. You will remember that he not 
only proved that the plants of the two regions had a common 
origin, but also emphasized the fact that many species of the 
two countries are almost identical. It is to that country which 
has yielded us so many useful and beautiful plants that we turn 
for new vegetables to supplement our present food-resources. 
One of these plants, namely, Stachys, has already been men- 
tioned as rather promising. There are others which are worth 
examination and perhaps acquisition. 

One of the most convenient places for a preliminary exami- 
nation of the vegetables of Japan is at the railroad stations on 
the longer lines, for instance, that running from Tokio to Kobe. 
For native consumption there are prepared luncheon boxes of 
two or three stories, provided with the simple and yet embar- 
rassing chop-sticks. It is worth the shock it causes one’s nerves 
to invest in these boxes and try the vegetable contents. The 
bits of fish, flesh and fowl which one finds therein can be easily 
separated and discarded, upon which there will remain a few 
delicacies. The pervading odor of the box is that of aromatic 
vinegar. The generous portion of boiled rice is of excellent 
quality with every grain weil softened and distinct, and this 


G. L. Goodale— Possibilities of Economie Botany. 285 


without anything else would suffice for a tolerable meal. In 
the boxes which have fallen under my observation there were 
sundry boiled roots, shoots and seeds which were not recog- 
nizable by me in their cooked form. Professor Georgeson,” 
formerly of Japan, has kindly identified some of these for me, 
but he says ‘“ there are doubtless many others used occasionally.” 

One may find sliced Lotus roots, roots of large Burdock, 
Lily bulbs, shoots of Ginger, pickled green Plums, beans of 
many sorts, boiled Chestnuts, nuts of the Gingko tree, pickled 
greens of various kinds, dried cucumbers, and several kinds of 
seaweeds. Some of the leaves and roots are cooked in much 
the same manner as beet-roots and beet-leaves are by us, and 
the general effect is not unappetizing. The boiled shoots are 
suggestive of only the tougher ends of asparagus. On the 
whole, I do not look back on Japanese railway luncheons with 
any longing which would compel me to advocate the indis- 
criminate introduction of the constituent vegetables here. 

But when the same vegetables are served in native inns, 
under more favorable culinary conditions, without the flavor 
of vinegar and of the pine wood of the luncheon boxes, they 
appear to be worthy of a trial in our horticulture, and I there- 
fore deal with one or two in greater detail. 

Professor Georgeson, whose advantages for acquiring a 
knowledge of the useful plants of Japan have been unusually 
good, has placed me under great obligations by communicating 
certain facts regarding some of the more promising plants of 
Japan which are not now used here. It should be said that 
several of these plants have already attracted the notice of the 
Agricultural Department in this country. 

’ The Soy Bean (Glycine hispida). This species is known 

here to some extent, but we do not have the early and best 

varieties. ‘These beans replace meat in the diet of the common 
eople. 

: Mucuna (Mucuna capitata) and Dolichos (Dolichos cultra- 

tus) are pole beans possessing merit. 

Dioscoreu ; there are several varieties with palatable roots. 
Years ago one of these was spoken of by the late Dr. Gray, as 
possessing “‘excellent roots, if one could only dig them.” 

Colocasia antiquorum has tuberous roots, which are nutri- 
tious. 

Conophallus Konjak has a large bulbous root, which is 
sliced, dried and beaten to a powder. It is an ingredient in 
cakes. 

Aralia cordata is cultivated for the shoots, and used as we 
use Asparagus. 

@nanthe stolonifera and Cryptotenia Canadensis are pala- 
table salad plants, the former being used also as greens. 


286 G. L. Goodale—Possibilities of Heonomic Botany. 


There is little hope, if any, that we shall obtain from the 
hotter climates for our southern territory new species, of merit. 
The native markets in the tropical cities, like Colombo, Batavia, 
Singapore and Saigon, are rich in fruits, but outside of the native 
plants bearing these, nearly all the plants appear to be wholly 
in established lines of cultivation, such, for instance, as members 
of the Gourd and Night-shade families. | 

Before we leave the subject of our coming vegetables, it will 
be well to note a naive-caution enjoined by Vilmorin in his 
work, Les Plantes Potageres.™ 

“Finally,” he says, “we conclude the article devoted to each 
plant with a few remarks on the uses to which it may be ap- 
plied and on the parts of the plants which are to be so used. 
In many cases such remarks may be looked upon as idle words, 
and yet it would sometimes have been useful to have them 
when new plants were cultivated by us for the first time. For 
instance, the giant edible Burdock of Japan (Zappa edulis) 
was for a long time served up on our tables only as a wretchedly 
poor Spinach, because people would cook the leaves, whereas, 
in its native country, it is only cultivated for its tender fleshy 
roots.” 

I trust you are not discouraged at this outlook for our coming 
vegetables. 

Two groups of improvable food-plants may be referred to 
before we pass to the next class, namely, edible fungi and the 
beverage plants. All botanists who have given attention to the 
matter agree with the late Dr. Curtis of North Carolina that 
we have in the unutilized mushrooms an immense amount of 
available nutriment of a delicious quality. It is not improbable 
that other fungi than our common “edible mushroom” will by 
and by be subjected to careful selection. 

The principal beverage-plants, Tea, Coffee and Chocolate, 
are all attracting the assiduous attention of cultivators. The 
first of these plants is extending its range at.a marvellous rate 
of rapidity through India and Ceylon; the second is threatened 
by the pests which have almost exterminated it in Ceylon, but 
anew species, with crosses therefrom, is promising to resist 
them successfully ; the third, Chocolate, is every year passing 
into lands farther from its original home. To these have been 
added the Kola, of a value as yet not wholly determined, and 
others are to augment the short list. 


Ill. Frorirs. 


Botanically speaking, the cereal grains of which we have 
spoken, are true fruits, that is to say, are ripened ovaries, but 
for all practical purposes they may be regarded as seeds. The 


G. L. Goodale— Possibitities of Economic Botany. 287 


fruits, of which mention is now to be made, are those com- 
monly spoken of in our markets, as fruits. 

First of all, attention must be called to the extraordinary 
changes in the commercial relations of fruits by two direct 
causes, 

(1) The canning industry, and 

(2) Swift transportatiou by steamers and railroads. 

The effects of these two agencies are too well known to 
require more than this passing mention. By them the fruits 
of the best fruit-growing countries are carried to distant lands 
in quantities which surprise all who see the statistics for the 
first time. The ratio of increase is very startling. Take for 
instance, the figures given by Mr. Morris at the time of the 
great Colonial and Indian Exhibition, in London. Compare 
double decades of years. | 


1845, £886,888. 
1865, £3,185,984. 
- 1885, £7,587,523. 


In the Colonial Exhibition at London, in 1886, fruits from 
the remote colonies were exhibited under conditions which 
proved that, before long, it may be possible to place such 
delicacies as the Cherimoyer, the Sweet-cup, Sweet-sop, Ram- 
butan, Mango and Mangosteen, at even our most northern sea- 
ports. Furthermore, it seems to me likely that with an in- 
crease in our knowledge with regard to the microbes which 
produce decay, we may be able to protect the delicate fruits 
from injury for any reasonable period. Methods which will 
supplement refrigeration are sure to come in the very near 
future, so that even in a country so vast as our own, the most 
perishable fruits will be transported through its length and 
breadth without harm. 

The canning industry and swift transportation are likely to 
diminish zeal in searching for new fruits, since, as we have 
seen in the case of the cereals, we are prone to move in lines 
of least resistance and leave well enough alone. 

To what extent are our present fruits likely to be improved ? 
Even those who have watched the improvement in the quality" 
of some of our fruits, like oranges, can hardly realize how 
great has been the improvement within historic times in the 
character of certain pears, apples, and so on. 

The term historic is used advisedly, for there are pre-historic 
fruits which might serve as a point of departure in the consid- 
eration of the question. In the ruins of the lake-dwellings 
in Switzerland,” charred apples have been found, which are 


Am. Jour. Sci.—THIRD SERIES, Vou. XLIJ, No. 250.—Ocroper, 1891. 
20 


288 G. L. Goodale—Possibilities of Heonomic Botany. 


in some cases, plainly of small size, hardly equalling ordinary 
crab apples. But, as Dr. Sturtevant has shown, in certain 
directions, there has been no marked change of type, the 
change is in quality. 

In comparing the earlier descriptions of fruits with modern 
accounts it is well to remember that the high standards by 
which fruits are now judged are of recent establishment. 
Fruits which would once have been esteemed excellent, would 
to-day be passed by as unworthy of regard 

It seems probable that the list of seedless fruits will be 
materially lengthened, provided our experimental horticultur- 
ists make use of the material at their command. The com- 
mon fruits which have very few or no seeds are the banana, 
pineapple and certain oranges. Others mentioned by Mr. 
Darwin as well knuwn are the bread-fruit, pomegranate, 
azarole or Neapolitan medlar, and date palms. In commenting 
upon these fruits, Mr. Darwin” says that most horticulturists 
“look at the great size and anomalous development of the 
fruit as the cause and sterility as the result,’ but he holds the 
opposite view as more probable, that is, that the sterility, com- 
ing about gradually, leaves free for other growth the abundant 
supply of building material which the forming seed would 
otherwise have. He admits, however, that “there is an antag- 
onism between the two forms of reproduction, by seeds and 
by buds when either is carried to an extreme degree which is 
independent of any incipient sterility.” 

Most plant-hybrids are relatively infertile, but by no means 
wholly sterile. With this sterility there is generally aug- 
mented vegetative vigor, as shown by Nageli. Partial or com- 
plete sterility and corresponding luxuriance of root, stem, 
leaves and flower, may come about in other obscure ways, and 
such cases are familiar to botanists." Now it seems highly 
probable that either by hybridizing directed to this special 
end, or by careful selection of forms indicating this tendency 
to the correlated changes, we may succeed in obtaining impor- 
tant additions to our seedless or nearly seedless plants. 
Whether the ultimate profit would be large enough to pay for 
the time and labor involved is a question which we need not 
enter into; there appears to me no reasonable doubt that such 
efforts would be successful. There is no reason in the nature 
of things why we should not have strawberries without the 
so-called seeds; blackberries and raspberries, with only deli- 
cious pulp; and large grapes as free from seeds as the small 
ones which we call “currants”? but which are really grapes 
from Corinth. 

These and the coreless apples and pears of the future, the 
stoneless cherries and plums, like the common fruits before 


G. L. Goodale—Possibilities of Economic Botany. 289 


mentioned must be propagated by bud division, and be open 
to the tendency to diminished strength said to be the conse- 
quence of continued bud-propagation. But this bridge need 
not be crossed until we come to it. Bananas have been per- 
petuated in this way for many centuries, and pineapples since 
the discovery of America, so that the borrowed trouble alluded 
to is not threatening. First we must catch our seedless fruits. 

Which of our wild fruits are promising subjects for selec- 
tion and cultivation ? 

_ Mr. Crozier of Michigan has pointed out* the direction in 
which this research may prove most profitable. He enumer- 
ates many of our small fruits and nuts which can be improved. 

Another of our most careful and successful horticulturists 
believes that the common blueberry and its allies are very 
suitable for this purpose and offer good material for experi- 
menting. The sugar-plum, or so-called shadbush, has been im- 
proved in many particulars, and others can be added to this 
list. 

But again we turn very naturally to Japan, the country from 
which our gardens have received many treasures. Referring 
once more to Professor Georgeson’s studies,” we must mention 
the varieties of Japanese apples, pears, peaches, plums, cherries 
and persimmons. ‘The persimmons are already well-known in 
some parts of our country, under the name “kaki” and they 
will doubtless make rapid progress in popular favor. 

The following are less familiar: <Actenidia arguta and 
volubilis, with delicious berries ; 

Stauntonia, an evergreeen vine yielding a palatable fruit ; 

Myrica rubra, a small tree with an acidulous juicy fruit ; 

Hleagnus umbellata, with berries for preserves. 

The active and discriminating horticultural journals in 
America and Europe are alive to the possibilities of new Jap- 
anese fruits, and it cannot be very long before our list is con- 
siderably increased. 

It is absolutely necessary to recollect that in most eases 
variations are slight. Dr. Masters and Mr. Darwin have called 
attention to this and have adduced many illustrations, all of 
which show the necessity of extreme patience and caution. 
The general student curious in such matters can have hardly 
any task more instructive than the detection of the variations 
in such common plants as the blueberry, the wild cherry, or 
the like. It is an excellent preparation for a practical study 
of the variations in our wild fruits suitable for selection. 

It was held by the late Dr. Gray that the variations in nature 
by which species have been evolved were led along useful 
lines, a view which Mr. Darwin regretted he could not enter- 
tain. However this may be, all acknowledge that by the hand 


290 G. L. Goodale—Possibilities of Economic Botany. 


of the cultivator variations can be led along useful lines; and 
furthermore the hand which selects must uphold them in their 
unequal strife. In other words it is one thing to select a variety 
and another to assist it in maintaiming its hold upon existence. 
Without the constant help of the cultivator who selects the 
useful variety, there comes a reversion to the ordinary specific 
type which is fitted to cope with its surroundings. 

I think you can agree with me that the prospect for new 
fruits and for improvements in our established favorites is 


fairly good. 
IV. TimsBers anD CABINET Woops. 


Can we look for new timbers and cabinet woods? Compar- 
atively few of those in common use are of recent introduction. 
Attempts have been made to bring into great prominence some 
of the excellent trees of India and Australia which furnish wood 
of much beauty and timber of the best quality. A large pro- 
portion of all the timbers of the South Seas are characterized 
by remarkable firmness of texture and high specifie gravity.” 
The same is noticed in many of the woods of the Indies. 
A few of the heavier and denser sorts, like Jarrah, of West 
Australia, and Sabicu of the Caribbean Islands, have met with 
deserved favor in England, but the cost of transportation mili- 
tates against them. It is a fair question whether, in certain 
parts of our country, these trees and others which ean be util- 
ized for veneers, may not be cultivated to advantage. Atten- 
tion should be again called to the fact that many plants suc- 
ceed far better in localities which are remote from their origin 
but where they find conditions substantially like those which 
they have left. This fact, to which we must again refer in 
detail with regard to certain other classes of plants, may have 
some bearing upon the introduction of new timber trees. 
Certain drawbacks exist with regard to the timber of some of 
the more rapidly growing hard-wood trees which have pre- 
vented their taking a high place in the seale of values in 
mechanical engineering. 

One of the most useful soft-wooded trees in the world is 
the Kauri. It is restricted in its range to a comparatively 
small area in the North Island of New Zealand. It is now 
being cut down with a recklessness which is as prodigal and 
shameful as that which has marked our own treatment of 
forests here. It should be said, however, that this destruction 
is under protest, in spite of which it would seem to be a ques- 
tion of only a few years when the great Kauri groves of New 
Zealand will be a thing of the past. Our energetic Forest 
Department has on its hands problems just like this which 
perplexes one of the new lands of the South. The task in 


G. L. Goodale— Possibilities of Economic Botany. 291 


both cases is double: to preserve the old treasures and to bring 
in new. 

The energy shown by Baron von Mueller, the renowned 
Government Botanist of Victoria and by various Forest de- 
partments in encouraging the cultivation of timber trees will 
assuredly meet with success; one can hardly hope that this 
success will appear fully demonstrated in the lifetime of those 
now living, but I cannot think that many years will pass before 
the promoters of such enterprises may take fresh courage. 

Jn a modest structure in the City of Sydney, New South 
Wales, Mr. Maiden” has brought together, under great diffi- 
culties, a large collection of the useful products of the vegeta- 
ble kingdom as represented in Australia. It is impossible to 
look at the collection of woods in that Museum or at the similar 
and more showy one in Kew, without believing that the field 
of forest culture must receive rich material from the Southern 
hemisphere. ) 

Before leaving this part of our subject, it may be well to 
take some illustrations in passing, to show how important is 
the influence exerted upon the utilization of vegetable products 
by causes which may, at first, strike one as being rather remote. 

(1) Photography makes use of the effect of light on chroma- 
tized gelatin to produce under a negative the basis of relief 
plates for engraving. The degree of excellence reached in 
modifications of this simple device has distinctly threatened 
the very existence of wood engraving, and hence follows a 
diminished degree of interest in box-wood and its substitutes. 

(2) Iron, and in its turn steel, is used in ship-building and 
this renders of greatly diminished interest all questions which 
concern the choice of the different oaks, and similar woods: 

(3) But on the other hand there is increased activity in 
certain directions, best illustrated by the extraordinary devel- 
ment of the chemical methods for manufacturing wood pulp. 
By the improved processes, strong fibers suitable for fine felt- 
ing on the screen and fit for the best grades of certain lines of 
paper are given to us from rather inferior sorts of wood. He 
would be arash prophet who should venture to predict what 
will be the future of this wonderful industry, but it is plain 
that the time is not far distant when acres now worthless may 
be ig as by trees under cultivation growing for the pulp- 
maker. 

There is no department of Economic Botany more promis- 
ing in immediate results than that of Arboriculture. 


V. VEGETABLE FIBERS. 


The vegetable fibers known to commerce are either plant 
hairs, of which we take cotton as the type, or filaments of 


292 G. L. Goodale— Possibilities of Economic Botany. 


bast-tissue, represented by flax. No new plant hairs have 
been suggested which can compete in any way for spinning 
with those yielded by the species of Gossypium, or cotton, but 
experiments more or less systematic and thorough are being 
carried on with regard to the improvement of the varieties of 
the species. Plant hairs for the stuffing of cushions and pil- 
lows need not be referred to in connection with this subject. 

Countless sorts of plants have been suggested as sources of 
good bast-fibers for spinning and for cordage, and many of 
these make capital substitutes for those already in the factories. 
But the questions of cheapness of production, and of subse- 
quent preparation for use, have thus far militated against suc- 
. cess. There may be much difference between the profits 
promised by a laboratory experiment and those resulting from 
the same process conducted on a commercial scale. The exist- 
ence of such differences has been the rock on which many 
enterprises seeking to introduce new fibers have been wrecked. 

In dismissing this portion of our subject it may be said that 
a process for separating fine fibers from undesirable structural 
elements and from’ resin like substances which accompany 
them, is a great desideratum, If this were supplied, many 
new species would assume great prominence at once. 


VI. Tannine MaTERIALs. 


What new tanning materials can be confidently sought for? 
In his “ Useful Native Plants of Australia,’ Mr. Maiden* 
describes over thirty species of “ Wattles” or Acacias, and 
about half as many Eucalypts, which have been examined for 
the amount of tanning material contained in the bark. In all, 
87 Australian species have been under examination. Besides 
this, much has been done looking in the same direction at the 
suggestion and under the direction of Baron von Mueller, of 
Victoria. This serves to indicate how great is the interest in 
this subject, and how wide is the field in our own country for 
the introduction of new tanning plants. 

It seems highly probable, however, that artificial tanning 
substances will at no distant day replace the crude matters now 
employed. 


VII. Resins, Erc. 


Resins, oils, gums and medicines from the vegetable king- 
dom would next engage our attention if they did not seem 
rather too technical for this occasion, and to possess an interest 
on the whole somewhat too limited. But an allied substance 
may serve to represent this class of products and indicate the 
drift of present research. 


‘ 
i a - 


G. L. Goodale— Possibilities of Economic Botany. 293 


India Rubber.“—Under this term are included numerous 
substances which possess a physical and chemical resemblance 
to each other. An Indian Ficus, the early source of supply, 
soon became inadequate to furnish the quantity used in the 
arts even when the manipulation of rubber was almost unknown. 
Later, supplies came from Hevea of Brazil, generally known 
as Para rubber, and from Castilloa, sometimes called Central 
American Rubber, and from Manihot Glaziovii Ceara rubber. 
Not only are these plants now successfully cultivated in experi- 
mental gardens in the Tropics, but many other rubber-yielding 
species have been added to the list. The Landolphias are 
among the most promising of the whole: these are the A fri- 
can rubbers.’ Now in addition to these which are the chief 
source of supply, we have Wdallughbeva, from the Malayan 
Peninsula, Leuconotis, Chilocarpus, Alstonia, Forsteronia, 
and a species of a genus formerly known as U7vostigma, but 
now united with /icus. These names, which have little sig- 
nificance as they are here pronounced in passing, are given now 
merely to impress upon our minds the fact that the sources of 
a single commercial article may be exceedingly diverse. Under 
these circumstances search is being made not only for the best 
varieties of these species but for new species as well. 

There are few excursions in the ‘l'ropics which possess 
greater interest to a botanist who cares for the industrial 
aspects of plants than the walks through the Gardens at Buiten- 
zorg in Java and at Singapore. At both these stations the 
experimental Gardens lie at some distance from the great 
gardens which the tourist is expected to visit, but the exertion 
well repays him for all discomfort. Under the almost vertical 
rays of the sun, are here gathered the rubber-yielding plants 
from different countries, all growing under conditions favora- 
ble for decisions as to their relative value. At Buitenzorg a 
well-equipped laboratory stands ready to answer practical ques- 
tions as to quality and composition of their products, and year 
by year the search extends. 

I mention this not as an isolated example of what is being 
accomplished in Commercial Botany, but as a fair illustration 
of the thoroughness with which the problems are being at- 
tacked. It should be further stated that at the Garden in 
question assiduous students of the subject are eagerly wel- 
comed and are provided with all needed appliances for carry- 
ing on technical, chemical and pharmaceutical investigations. 
Therefore I am "justified in saying that there is every reason 
for believing that in the very near future new sources of our 
most important products will be opened up, and new areas 
placed under successful cultivation. 

At this point, attention must be called to a very modest and 
convenient handbook on the Commercial Botany of the Nine- 


294 G. L. Goodale—Possibilities of Economic Botany. 


teenth Century by Mr. Jackson of the Botanical Museum 
attached to the Royal Gardens, Kew, which not only embodies 
a great amount of well-arranged information relative to the 
new useful plants, but is, at the same time, a record of the 
existing state of things in all these departments of activity. 


VIII. Fracrant Puanrs. 


Another illustration of our subject might be drawn from a 
class of plants which repays close study from a_ biological 
point of view, namely, those which yield perfumes. 

In speaking of the future of our fragrant plants we must 
distinguish between those of commercial value and those of 
purely horticultural interest. The former will be less and less 
cultivated in proportion as synthetic chemistry by its manu- 
facture of perfumes replaces the natural by the artificial pro- 
ducts, for example, Coumarin, Vanillin, Nerolin, Heliotropin, 
and even Oil of Wintergreen. 

But do not understand me as intimating that Chemistry 
can ever furnish substitutes for living fragrant plants. Our 
gardens will always be sweetened by them, and the possibilities 
in this direction will continue to extend both by contributions 
from abroad and by improvement in our present cultivated 
varieties. Among the foreign acquisitions are the fragrant 
species of Andropogon. Who would suspect that the tropical 
relatives of our saud-loving grasses are of high commercial 
value as sources of perfumery oils? | 

The utility to the plant of fragrance in the flower and the 
relation of this to cross-fertilization, are apparent to even a 
casual observer. But the fragrance of an aromatic leaf does 
not always give us the reason for its being. 

It has been suggested for certain cases that the volatile oils 
escaping from the plants in question may, by absorption, exert 
a direct influence in mitigating the fierceness of action of the 
sun’s rays. Other explanations have also been made, some of 
which are even more fanciful than the last. 

When, however, one has seen that the aromatic plants of 
Australia are almost free from attacks of insects and fungi, 
and has learned to look on the impregnating substances in 
some cases as protective against predatory insects and small 
foes of all kinds, and in others as fungicidal, he is tempted to 
ask whether all the substances of marked odor which we find 
in certain groups of plants may not play a similar role. 

It is a fact of great interest to the surgeon that in many 
plants there is associated with the fragrant principle a marked 
antiseptic or fungicidal quality ; conspicuous examples of this 
are afforded by species of Hucalyptus, yielding Euealyptol, 
Styrax, yielding Styrone, Thymus yielding Thymol. It is inter- 


G. L. Goodale— Possibilities of Economic Botany. 295 


esting to note, too, that some of these most modern antisep- 
tics were important constituents in the balsamic vulneraries of 
the earliest surgery. 


TX. Ftorists’ Puants. 


Florists’ plants and the floral fashions of the future consti- 
tute an engaging subject which we can touch only lightly. It 
is reasonably clear that while the old favorite species will hold 
their ground in the guise of improved varieties, the new 
introductions will come in the shape of plants with flowering 
branches which retain their blossoms for a somewhat long 
period, and especially those in which the flowers precede the 
leaves. In short the next real fashion in our gardens is proba- 
bly to be the flowering shrub aud flowering tree, like those 
which are such favorites in the country from which the West- 
ern world has gladly taken the gift of the Chrysanthemum.” 

Twice each year of late, a reception has been held by the 
Emperor and Empress of Japan. The receptions are in 
autumn and in the spring. That in the autumn, popularly 
known as the Emperor’s reception, has for its floral decorations 
the myriad forms of the national flower, the chrysanthemum ; 
that which is given in spring, the Empress’ reception, comes 
when the cherry blossoms are at their best. One has little 
idea of the wealth of beauty in masses of flowering shrubs 
and trees, until he has seen the floral displays in the Imperial 
Gardens and the Temple grounds in Tokio. 

To Japan” and China also, we are indebted for many of the 
choicest plants of our gardens, but the supply of species is by 
no means exhausted. [By far the larger number of the desira- 
ble plants have already found their way into the hands of culti- 
vators, but often under conditions which have restricted their 
dissemination through the flower-loving community. There 
are many which ought to be widely known, especially the 
fascinating dwarf shrubs and dwarf trees of the far East, 
which are sure to find sooner or later a warm welcome among 
us. 

X. ForacE Puants. 


Next to the food plants for man, there is no single class of 
commercial plants of greater interest than the food-plants for 
flocks and herds. Forage plants, wild and cultivated, are 
among the most important and highly valued resources of vast 
areas. No single question is of more vital consequence to our 
farthest west and southwest. 

It so happens that the plants on which the pastoralist relies 
grow or are grown on soil of inferior value to the agriculturist. 
Even soil which is almost sterile may possess vegetation on 
which flocks and herds may graze, and, further, these animals 
may thrive in districts where the vegetation appears at first 


296 G. L. Goodale— Possibilities of Economic Botany. 


sight too scanty or too forbidding, even to support life. 
There are immense districts in parts of the Australian conti- 
nent where flocks are kept on plants so dry and desert-like that 
an inexperienced person would pass them by as not fit for 
his sheep, and yet, as Mr. Samuel Dixon” has well shown, these 
plants are of high nutritive value and are attractive to flocks. 

Relegating to the notes to be published with this address 
brief descriptions of a few of the fodder plants suggested for 
use in dry districts, I shall now mention the salt-bushes of 
various sorts, and the allied desert plants of Australia as worth 
a careful trial on some of our very dry regions in the farthest 
west. There are numerous other excellent fodder plants 
adapted to dry but not parched areas which can be brought in 
from the corresponding districts of the southern hemisphere 
and from the East. | 

At an earlier stage of this address, | have had occasion to 
refer to Baron von Mueller, whose efforts looking towards the 
introduction of useful plants into Australasia have been aided 
largely by his convenient treatise on economic plants.° It ma 
be said in connection with the fodder plants, especially, that 
much which the Baron has written can be applied mutatis 
mutandis to parts of our own country. 

The important subject of introducing fodder plants has been 
purposely reserved to the last because it permits us to examine 
a practical point of great interest. This is the caution which 
it is thought necessary to exercise when a species is transferred 
by our own choice from one country to another. I say, by 
our choice, for whether we wish it or not certain plants will 
introduce themselves. In these days of frequent and intimate 
intercommunication between different countries, the exclusion 
of foreign plants is simply impossible. Our common weeds 
are striking illustrations of the readiness with which plants of 
one country make for themseives a home in another.” All but 
two of the prominent weeds of the eastern States are foreign 
intruders. 

There are all grades of persistence in these immigrants. 
Near the ballast grounds of every harbor, or the fields close by 
woolen and paper mills where foreign stock is used, you will 
observe many foreign plants which have been introduced by 
seed. For many of these you will search in vain a second 
year. A few others persist for a year or two longer, but with 
uncertain tenure of the land which they have invaded: others — 
still have come to stay. But happily some of the intruders 
which seem at first to gain a firm foot-hold, lose their ground 
after a while. We have a conspicuous example of this in a 
hawkweed, which was very threatening in New England two 
years ago, but is now relaxing its hold. 


G. L. Goodale— Possibilities of Economic Botany. 297 


Another illustration is afforded by a water-plant which we 
have given to the old world. This plant, called in our bot- 
anies Anacharis, or Hlodea, isso far as | am aware, not trouble- 
some in our ponds and water-ways, but when it was carried to 
England, perhaps as a plant for the aquarium, it was thrown 
into streams and rivers with afree hand. It spread with re- 
markable rapidity and became such an unmitigated nuisance 
that it was called a curse. Efforts to extirpate it merely 
increased its rate of growth. Its days of mischief are how- 
ever nearly over, or seem to be drawing to a close, at least so 
Mr. Lynch of the Botanic Garden in Cambridge, England, 
and others of my informants think. The history of the plant 
shows that even under conditions which so far as we can see, 
are identical with those under which the plant grew in its 
home, it may fora time take a fresh lease of life and thrive 
with an undreamed-of energy. 

What did Anacharis find in the waters of England and the 
continent that it did not have at home, and why should its 
energy begin to wane now / 

In Australasia one of the most striking of these intruders 
is Sweet-briar. Introduced as a hedge plant it has run over 
certain lands like a weed, and disputes every acre of some 
arable plats. From the facility with which it is propagated, it 
is almost ineradicable. There is something astounding in the 
manner in which it gains and holds its ground. Gorse and 
brambles and thistles are troublesome in some localities, and 
they prove much less easy to control than in Europe. The 
effect produced on the mind of the colonist by these intruding 
pests, is everywhere the same. Whenever in an examination 
of the plants likely to be worthy of trial in our American dry 
lands, the subject was mentioned by me to Australians, I was 
always enjoined to be cautious as to what plants I might sug- 
gest for introduction from their country into our own. My 
good friends insisted that it was bad enough to have as pests 
the plants which come in without our planning or choice, and 
this caution seems to me one which should not be forgotten. 

It would take us too far from our path to inquire what can 
be the possible reasons for such increase of vigor and fertility 
in plants which are transferred toa new home. We should 
have to examine all the suggestions which have been made, 
such as fresh soil, new skies, more efticient animal friends, or 
less destructive enemies. We should be obliged also to see 
whether the possible wearing out of the energy of some of 
these plants after a time, might not be attributable to the 
decadence of vigor through uninterrupted bud-propagation, 
and we should have to allude to many other questions allied to 
these. But for this time fails. 


298 G. L. Goodale—Possibilities of Economic Botany.. 


Lack of time also renders it impossible to deal with the 
questions which attach themselves to our main question, espe- 
cially as to the limits of effect which cultivation may produce. 
We cannot touch the problem of inheritance of acquired 
peculiarities, or the manner in which cultivation predisposes 
the plant to innumerable modifications. Two of these modifi- 
cations may be mentioned in passing, because they serve to 
exemplify the practical character of our subject. 

Cultivation brings about in plants very curious morphologi- 
cal changes. [or example, in the case of a well known vege- 
table the number of metamorphosed type-leaves forming the 
' ovary is two, and yet under cultivation, the number increases 
irregularly until the full number of units in the type of the 
flower is reached. Professor Bailey of Cornell has called 
attention to some further interesting changes in the tomato, 
but the one mentioned suffices to illustrate the direction of 
variation which plants under cultivation are apt to take. 
Monstrosities are very apt to occur in cultivated plants, and 
under certain conditions may be perpetuated in succeeding 
generations, thus widening the field from which utilizable 
plants may be taken. 

Another case of change produced by cultivation is likewise 
as yet wholly unexplained, although much studied, namely the 
mutual interaction of scion and stock in grafting, budding, and 
the like It is probable that a further investigation of this 
subject may yet throw light on new possibilities in plants. 

We have now arrived at the most practical question of all, 
namel y— 

In what way can the range of commercial botany be ex- 
tended? In what manner or by what means can the introduc- 
tion of new species be hastened @ 

It is possible that some of you are aware of the great 
amount of uncodrdinated work which has been done and is 
now in hand in the direction of bringing in new plants. 

The competition between the importers of new plants is so 
great both in the Old World and the New that a very large pro- 
portion of the species which would naturally commend them- 
selves for the use of florists, for the. adornment of green- 
houses, or for commercial ends, have been at one time or 
another brought before the public or are being accumulated in 
stock. The same is true although to a less extent with regard 
to useful vegetables and fruit. Hardly one of those which 
we can suggest as desirable for trial, has not already been 
investigated in Europe or this country, and reported on. The 
pages of our chemical, pharmaceutical, medical, horticultural, 
agricultural and trade journals, especially those of high grade, 
contain a wealth of material of this character. 


ww 


G. L. Goodale— Possibilities of Economic Botany. 299 


But. what is needed is this, that the promising plants should 
be systematically investigated under exhaustive conditions. 
It is not enough that an enthusiast here, or an amateur there 
should give a plant a trial under imperfectly understood con- 
ditions, and then report success or failure. The work should 
be thorough and: every question answered categorically, so that 
we might be placed in possession of all the facts relative to the 
object experimented upon. But such an undertaking requires 
the codperation of many different agencies. I shall venture 
to mention some of these. 

In the first place.—Botanic Gardens amply endowed for 
research. The Arnold Arboretum, the Shaw Garden, and the 
Washington Experimental Garden, are American illustrations 
of what is needed for this purpose. University gardens have 
their place in instruction, but cannot wisely undertake this 
kind of work. , 

In the second place,—Museums and Laboratories of Eco- 
nomic Botany. Much good work in this direction has been 
done in this country by the National Museum and by the 
department in charge” of the investigation of new plants. 
We need institutions like those at Kew in England, and at 
Buitenzorg in Java, which keep in close touch with all the 
world. The founding of an establishment on a scale of mag- 
nitude commensurate with the greatness and needs of our 
country is an undertaking which waits for some one of our 
wealthy men. 

In the third place,—Experiment Stations. These may, 
within the proper limits of their sphere of action, extend the 
study of plants beyond the established varieties to the species, 
and beyond the species to equivalent species in other genera. 
It is a matter of regret that so much of the energy displayed 
in these stations in this country, and we may say abroad, has 
not been more economically directed. 

Great economy of energy must result from the recent 
change by which coodrdination of action is assured. The 
influence which the stations must exert on the welfare of our 
country, and the development of its resources is incalculable. 

In the last place, but by no means least, the codperation of 
all who are interested in scientific matters, through their obser- 
vation of isolated and associated phenomena connected with 
plants of supposed utility, and by the cultivation of such 
plants by private individuals, unconnected with any State, 
governmental, or academic institutions. 

By these agencies, wisely directed and energetically em- 
ployed, the domains of commercial and industrial botany, will 
be enlarged. To-.some of the possible results in these domains, 
I have endeavored to call your attention. 


300 G. L. Goodale— Possibilities of Economie Botany. 


Norges. 


° The following are among the more useful works of a general character, deal- 
ing with the subject. Others are referred to either in the text or notes. The 
reader may consult also the list of works on Economic Botany in the catalogue 
published by the Linnean Society. 

Select Extra-tropical Plants, readily eligible for industrial culture or naturaliza- 
tion, with indications of their native countries and some of their uses. By Baron 
FERD. VON MUELLER, K.0.M.G., F.R.S., ete, Government Botanist for Victoria. 
(Melbourne), 1888. Seventh edition, revised and enlarged. 

At the close of his treatise on industrial plants, Baron von Mueller has grouped 
the genera indicating the different classes of useful products in such a manner 
that we can ascertain the respective numbers belonging to the genera. Of course 
many of these genera figure 1n more than one category. 

He has also arranged the plants according to the countries naturally producing 
them. 

Tseful Native Plants of Australia, (including Tasmania). By J. H. Marpey, 
F.L.S., Curator of the Technological Museum of New South Wales, Sydney. 
(Sydney), 1889. 

See also note 19. 

Handbook of Commercial Geography. By Gro. G. CuisHouM, M.A., B.Sc. 
London, 13889. 

New Commercial Plants with directions how to grow them to the best advan- 
tage. By Tuomas Curisty (London), Christy and Co. 

Lictionary of popular names of the plants which furnish the natural and 
acquired wants of man. By JOHN SmirH, A.L.S. (London), 1882. 

Cultivated Plants. Their propagation and improvement. By F. W. BURBAGE. 
(London), 1877. 

The Wanderings of Plants and animals from their first home. By VicToR- 
HEBN, edited by James Steven Stallybrass, (London) 1885. 

Researches into the Early History of Mankind, and the Development of Civiliza- 
tion. By Epwarp B. Tytor, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., 1878. 

1The number of species of Phznogamia has been given by many writers as 
not far from 150,000. But the total number of species recognized by Bentham 
and Hooker in the Genera Plantarum (Durand’s Index) is 100,220, in 210 Natural 
Orders and 8,417 genera. 

2 Dr. E. Lewis Sturtevant, to whose kindness I am indebted for great assist- 
ance in the matter of references has placed at my disposal many of his notes on 
edible plants, ete. From his enumeration it appears that if we count all the 
plants which have been cultivated for food at one time or another, the list con- 
tains 1,192 species, but if we count all the plants which “either habitually or 
during famine periods are recorded to have been eaten,” we obtain a list of no 
less than 4,690 species, or about three and one-half per cent of all known species 
of plants. But, as Sir Joseph Hooker has said, the products of many plants 
though eatable, are not fit to eat. 

3 The Folk-Lore of Plants. By T. F. Thiselton Dyer, 1889. 

4 In Dr. Sturtevant’s list. 88 species of Gramineze are counted as food-plants 
under cultivation, while the number of species in this order which can be or 
have been utilized as food amounts to 146. Our smaller number 20 comprises 
only those which have been grown on a large scale anywhere. 

5 «Tn Agricultural Museum at Poppelsdorf, 600 varieties are exhibited.” 

6. L. 8. in Jetter. Quoted from Seedsman’s catalogue. 

7 The best account of the early history of these and other cultivated plants can 
be found in the classical work of De Candolle ‘‘ Origine des Plantes Cultivées (Paris) 
translated in the International series, History of Cultivated Plants, (N. Y.) The 
reader should consult also DARWIN’S Animals and Plants under Domestication. 

8 Food-grains of India, A. H. CHurcH, London, 1886, p. 34. In this instructive 
work the reader will find much information regarding the less common articles of 
food Of Panicum frumentaceum Professor Georgeson states in a letter that it 
is grown in Japan for its grain which is used for food, but here would take rank 
as a fodder plant. 


= 


G. L. Goodale— Possibilities of Kconomie Botany. 801 


° Tn order to avoid possible misapprehension, it should be stated that there are 
a few persons who hold that at least some of our cereals, and other cultivated 
plants. for that matter, have not undergone material improvement but are essen- 
tially unmodified progeny. Under this view, if we could look back into the 
farthest past, we should see our cereals growing wild and in such admirable con- 
dition that we should unhesitatingly select them for immediate use. This extreme 
position is untenable. 

Again, there are a few extremists who hold that some plants under cultivation 
have reached their culminating point, and must now remain stationary or begin 
to retrograde. 

10 Gray’s Botanical Text Book. Vols. i and ii. 

11 4 Selection from the Physiological and Horticultural Papers, published in the 
Transactions of the Royal and Horticultural Societies, by the late THomas 
ANDREW KyiGHT, Hsq., President of the Hort. Soc. London, (London) 1841. 

12 Illustrations of the Manners and Customs and Condition of the North American 
Indians. By GEORGE CATLIN, London, 1876. A reprint of the account published 
in 1841 of travels in 1832-40. 

‘‘Plate 278 is a party of Sioux, in bark canoes (purchased of the Chippewas), 
gathering the wild rice, which grows in immense fields around the shores of the 
rivers and lakes of these northern regions, and used by the Indians as an article 
of food. The mode of gathering it is curious and, as seen’in the drawing, one 
woman paddles the canoe, whilst another with a stick in each hand, bends the 
rice over the canoe with one, and strikes it with the other, which shakes it into 
the canoe, which is constantly moving along until it is filled.” Vol. ii, p. 208. 

13 Schliemann’s carbonized specimens exhumed in Greece are said to be “ very 
hard, fine-grained, sharp, very flat-on grooved side, different from any wheats now 
known.” Am. Antiq., 1880, 66. 

The carbonized grains in the Peabody Museum at Cambridge, Mass., are small. 

14 Prehistoric Times as illustrated by Ancient Remains and the manners and 
customs of modern savages. By JOHN LuBBoCK, Bart., (New York), 4th edn., 
1886. 

“Three varieties of wheat were cultivated by the Lake Dwellers, who also 
possessed two kinds of barley and two of millet. Of these the most ancient and 
most important were the six-rowed barley and small ‘‘Lake Dwellers’” wheat. 
The discovery of Egyptian wheat (Triticum turgidum), at Wangen and Roben- 
hausen, is particularly interesting. Oats were cultivated during the bronze age, 
but are absent from all the stone age villages Rye was also unknown,” p. 216. 

‘Wheat is most common. having been discovered at Merlen. Moosseedorf and 
Wangen. At the latter place, indeed. many bushels of it were found, the grains 
being in large thick lumps. Im other cases, the grains are free, and without 
chaff. resembling our present wheat in size and form, while more rarely they are 
still in the ear.” 115 species of plants have been identified. Heer, Keller. 

15 Tes Plantes Potagéres, VILMORIN, Faris. Translated into English under the 
direction of W. Robinson, Editor of the (London) “ Garden,” 1885, and entitled 
The Vegetable Garden. 

16]. ¢., English Edn., p 104. 

aU According to notes made by Mr. Manning, Sec. Massachusetts Horticultural 
Society, (Hist. Mass. Hort. Society) the tomato was introduced into Salem, Mass,, 
about 1802 by Michele Felice Corné, an Italian painter, but he found it difficult to 
persuade people even to taste the fruit (Felt’s Annals of Salem, vol. ii, 631). It 
was said to have been introduced into Philadelphia by a French refugee from 
San Domingo in 1798. It was used as an article of food in New Orleans in 1812 
but was not sold in the markets of Philadelphia until 1829. It did not come 
into general use in the north until some years after the last named date. 

18 ‘In Spain and those hot regions, they use to eat the (Love) apples prepared 
and boiled with pepper, salt, and olives; but they yield very Jittle nourishment 
to the bodies, and the same nought and corrupt. Likewise they doe eat the 
apples with oile, vinegar, and pepper mixed together for sauce to their meat even 
as we in these Cold Countries do Mustard.” GeERARD’s Herbal, 346. 

‘19 Commercial Botany of the Nineteenth Century. By JoHn R. Jackson, A.L.S. 
Cassell and Company, London, 1890. 


302 G. L. Goodale— Possibilities of Economic Botany. 


Mr. Jackson, who is the Curator of the Museums, Royal Gardens, Kew, has 
embodied in this treatise a great amount of valuable information, well arranged 
for ready reference. 

20 Department of Agriculture Report for 1870, p. 404-428. Only those are here 
copied from Dr. Palmer’s list which he expressly states are extensively used. 

Ground-nut (Apios tuberosa); Aesculus Californica; Agave Americana; Nuphar 
advena; Prairie-potato, (Psoralea esculenta) ; Scirpus lacustris; Sagittaria varia- 
bits ; Kamass-root (Camassia esculenta) ; Solanum Fendleri (supposed by him to 
be the original of the cultivated potato); Acorns of various sort; Mesquite, 
(Algarobia glandulosa); Juniperus occidentalis; Nuts of Carya, Juglans, etc.; 
Secrew-bean (Strombocarpus pubescens); various Cactacez; Yucca; Cherries and 
many wild berries; Chenopodium album, etc. 

Psoralea esculenta = prairie potato, or Bread-root. Palmer in Agl. Report, 
1870, p. 402. 

The following from CATLIN, 1. c., i, p. 122: 

‘“Corn and dried meat are generally laid in the fall, in sufficient quantities to 
support them through the winter. These are the principal articles of food during 
that long and inclement season; and in addition to them, they oftentimes have 
in store great quantities of dried squashes, and dried ‘pommes blanches,’ a 
kind of turnip which grows in great abundance in those regions...... These 
are dried in great quantities and pounded into a sort of meal and cooked with 
dried meat and corn. Great quantities also are dried and Jaid away in store for 
the winter season, such as buffalo berries, service berries, strawberries, and wild 
plums.” 

‘‘In addition to this we had the luxury of service berries without stint; and 
the buffalo bushes, which are peculiar to these northern regions, lined the banks of 
the river and the defiles in the bluffs, sometimes for miles together, forming almost 
impassible hedges, so loaded with the weight of their fruit that their boughs every- 
where gracefully bending down or resting on the ground. This last shrub (Shep- 
herdia), which may be said to be the most beautiful ornament that decks out the wild 
prairies, forms a striking contrast to the rest of the foliage, from the blue appear- 
ance of its leaves by which it can be distinguished for miles mm distance. The 
fruit which it produces in such incredible profusion, hanging in clusters to every 
limb and to every twig, is about the size of ordinary currants and not unlike 
them in color and even in flavor; bemg exceeding acid, almost unpalatable until 
they are bitten by frost of autumn. when they are sweetened and their flavor 
delicious, having to the taste much the character of grapes, and I am almost to 
think would produce excellent wine.” GEORGE CaTLin’s Jilustrations and man- 
ners, customs, and condition of the North American Indians, p. 72, vol. i. 

For much relative to the food of our aborigines, especially of the western 
coast, consult The Native Races of the Pacific States of North America. By 
H. H. Bancroft, (New York), 1875. The following from vol. i, p. 538, indicates 
that inaccuracies have crept into the work: ‘‘From the earliest information we 
have of these nations” (the author is speaking of the New Mexicans), * they are 
known to have been tillers of the soil; and though the implements used and their 
methods of cultivation were both simple and primitive, cotton, corn, wheat, beans, 
and many varieties of fruits which constituted their principal food were raised in 
abundance,” 

Wheat was not grown on the American continent until after the landing of the 
first explorers. 

*1 Gard. Chron., 1888. 

» Pickled Daikon, the large radish, often grated. ‘ 

Ginger-roots—Shoga. 

Beans (Glycine hispida), many kinds, and prepared in many ways. 

Beans (Dolichos cultratus), cooked in rice and mixed with it. 

Sliged Hasu, Lotos roots. 

Lily bulbs, boiled whole and the scales torn off as they are eaten. 

Pickled green plums, (Ume-boshi) colored red in the pickle, by the leaves of 
Perilla arguta (Shiso). 

Sliced and dried cucumbers, Kiuri. 

Pieces of Gobo,—Roots of Lappa major. 


ah 


G. L. Goodale—Possibilities of Economic Botany. 303 


Rakkio,—Bulbs of Allium Bakeri, boiled in Shogu. 

Grated Wasabi,—Stem of Hutrema Wasabi. 

Water-cress,— Midzu-tagarashi (not often). 

Also sometimes pickled greens of various kinds, and occasionally chestnut- 
kernels boiled and mixed with a kind of sweet sauce. 

Nut of the Ginkgo tree. 

Several kinds of seaweeds are also very commonly served with the rice. Pro- 
fessor C. C. Georgeson in letter. 

23] ¢. Preface in English Edition. 

24 ““Carbonized apples have been found at Wangen, sometimes whole, some- 
times cut in two, or, more. rarely, into four pieces and evidently dried and put 
aside for winter use....... They are small and generally resemble those 
which still grow wild in the Swiss forests; at Robenhausen, however, specimens 
have occurred which are of larger size, and probably cultivated. No trace of the 
vine, the walnut, the cherry. or the damson has yet been met with, but stones of 
the wild plum and the Prunus padus have been found.” LusBBOCK, /. c., p. 217. 

*> Animals and Plants under Domestication (Am. Edn.), vol. ii, p. 205-209. 

26 American Garden, N. Y. 1890-91. 

27 American Garden, N. Y. 1891. 

28 Useful Native Plants of Australia, by J. H. MAIDEN, Sydney. 

*9 The Flowers of Japan and the Art of Floral Arrangement. By JosiaAH Con- 
DER, F.R.I.B.A., Architect to the Imperial Japanese Government. Yokohama, 
1891. See also two other works by the same author: Theory of Japanese Flower- 
arrangements, and Art of Landscape-gardening in Japan. (1886.) 

30 Mr. SAMUEL DIxoN’s list is in vol. viii (for 1884-85) of the Transactions and 
Proceedings and Report of the Royal Society of South Australia. Adelaide, G. Rob- 
ertson, 1886. 

Bursaria spinosa, ‘a good stand-by,” after the grasses dry up. 

Pomaderris racemosa, ‘‘ stands stocking well.” 

Pittosporum phyllaeroides, *‘ sheep exceedingly partial to its foliage.”’ 

Casuarina quadrivalvis, ‘‘tenderness of fiber, wool would be represented by it 
in our finer wool districts.” 

Acacias, The Wattles. ‘ Value as an astringent, very great,” being curative of 
a malady often caused by eating frozen grass. 

Acacia aneura (mulga). ‘‘Must be very nutritious to all animals eating it.” 
This is the plant which is such a terror to the stockmen who have to ride through 
the ‘‘ scrub.” 

Cassia, some of the species with good pods and leaves for sheep. 

The foregoing are found in districts which are not wholly arid. 

The following are, more properly, ‘‘ dry” plants. 

Sida petrophila, ‘‘as much liked by sheep as by marsupials.” 

Dodonaea viscosa, Native Hop-bush. ‘“ Likes warm, red, sandy ground,” 

Lycium australe, ‘‘ Drought never seems to affect it.” 

Kochia aphylla: ‘‘ All kinds of stock are often largely dependent on it during 
protracted droughts.” 

Rhagodia parabolica: ‘‘ Produces a good deal of foliage.” 

Atriplex vesicaria: ‘‘Can be readily grown wherever the climate is not too 
wet,” 

I have transferred only those which Mr. Dixon thinks most worthy of trial. 
Compare also Dr. VAsey’s valuable studies of the plants of our dry lands, espec- 
ially Grasses and Forage plants (1878), Grasses of the arid districts of Kansas, 
Nebraska, and Colorado (1886), Grasses of the South (1887. 

31 The weeds of German gardens and agricultural lands are mostly from Medi- 
terranean regions, but the invasions in the uncultivated districts are chiefly from 


- America, (such as Oenothera, Mimulus, Rudbeckia). Handbuch der Pflanzengeo- 


graphie, von Dr. OSCAR DRUDE, (Stuttgart), 1890, p. 97. 
33 The list of economic plants published by the Department in Washington is 
remarkably full, and is in every way creditable to those in charge. 


Am. Jour. Sor1.—THIkD SERIES, Vou. XLII, No. 250-—OctTossrr, 1891. 
21 


304 T. Holm— Vitality of some Annual Plants. 


Art. XX VIII.—On the Vitality of some Annual Plants ; by 
TuHEo. Hotm. (With Plate X.) 


THE curious fact, that there may be individuals of annual 
species of which the life-time is not limited merely to one 
year, has been noticed by several botanists. Exceptions of that 
kind often seem to be nearly accidental, but in most cases they 
are, however, to be considered as due to certain external fac- 
tors, as for instance climate and soil or cultivation. Indeed, 
the number is not very small of the species in which a fluctua- 
tion has been observed from being annual to perennial or at 
least biennial in a modified sense, as well as of those for which 
similar intergradation-forms have been recorded between the 
biennial on the one side and the annual and perennial ones 
on the other. . 

Irmisch** mentions for instance, that Echinospermum Lap- 
pula, which is usually biennial may occur as annual, having al- 
ready developed the flowers in the first year; he observed that 
the same is true in the case of Hyoscyamus niger, of which 
even the annual form has been described as a proper species 
(H. agrestis) since it is very different in habit from the 
biennial type. The same author has also observed, that 
Hypericum humifusum and MMalva neglecta may occur as 
both annual and perennial.’ Sedum annwum, which has been 
described as annual by Hartman, Areschoug and Blytt, was 
observed by Warmingt to be biennial, and even that this 
seemed to be the normal for this plant. 

Hildebrandt enumerates several species, which, although they 
occur under widely different conditions in both hemispheres, 
nevertheless seem to be constant as to their life-duration and 
habit; such species for example are the annual Polygonum 
aviculare, Erigeron Canadensis, Papaver Rheas, ete., while 
of perennials Zhymus serpyllum, Verbena officinalis, Urtica 
dioica, ete. He enumerates on the other hand several other 
species, which show a tendency to vary from annual to bien- 
nial, among which are many Crucifere; Composite and culti- 
vated Graminec, besides some usually biennial species, which 
may occur as perennials, as for instance some Crucifere, Um- 
bellifere, Papilionacec, etc. Similar aberrant forms’ are eyi- 
dently far from rare in this country, though the author has not 


* Thilo Irmisch: Zur Morphologie der monocot. Knollen und Zwiebelge- 
wachse, 1850, p. 211. 

| Eug. Warming: Om Skudbygning, Overvintring og Foryngelse. (Naturhist. 
Forenings Festskrift, 1884, p. 16.) 

+ Fr. Hildebrand: Die Lebensdauer und Vegetationsweise der Pflanzen, ihre 
Ursachen und ihre Entwickelung. (Engler’s Botanische Jahrbicher, vol. ii, 1881, 


p. 51.) 


a eee eee 


TF. Holm— Vitality of some Annual Plants. 305 


succeeded in finding any special observations in the literature, 
and as he has had the opportunity of observing a few cases of 
that kind, they seem to likely to be of some interest, at least 
locally. 

eee nudicaule Walt. (1. Sarothra Michx.) is un- 
doubtedly typically annual, but a few individuals were, how- 
ever, collected late in the fall, which seemed to prove an 
exception. The base of one of these specimens is figured on 
plate X, fig. 1, and we see here two densely leaved branches 
proceeding from the lower part of the stem, and probably 
developed in the axils of the cotyledons. These shoots with 
numerous imbricate leaves might be supposed to be able to 
winter over and in the following year to give rise to flowers; 
the root-system in these individuals was unusually strong, show- 
ing not only a primary root, but also a few, and rather strong, 
lateral ones. a 

Another example is Delphinium consolida L., which as far 
as known to the author has not been recorded as otherwise than 
annual in Europe and here. The plant is rather rare in the 
vicinity of Washington, but occurs as escaped from cultivation 
on the banks of the Potomac. It was observed here to vary 
from annual to perennial, although both forms were growing 
together, and the perennial form showed a strong, persistent 
primary root and several flowering stems, besides a cluster of 
buds for the following year. 

This kind of variation was also observed in Cyperus jfiaves- 
cens L., a plant, which is rather common in wet places around 
Washington, and I have sometimes met with individuals, 
which certainly seemed to be perennial. One of these is fig- 
-ured on plate X, fig. 6, and shows in contrast to the annual 
type a distinct rhizome with creeping stolons, from the nodes 
of which several strong roots proceed. It must be admitted 
that this specimen shows the general aspect of a perennial, 
stoloniferous Cyperus, able to give rise to new individuals by 
a vegetative propagation. Whether this species has been 
recorded as perennial also in other countries, I do not know, 
but Lange* mentions, however, the fact that he has collected 
the plant in France, where some specimens showed “tuberous 
stolons,’ and therefore questions its character as annual. 
Grenier and Godront have, nevertheless, described the plant 
as merely annual. It might be mentioned here, that a similar 
variation also exists in Carex cyperoides L., which under normal 
conditions is truly annual; Lange states (1. ¢. p. 118) that the 
periodical disappearance of this plant in several parts of 
Europe has been explained by the fact, that it is able to veg- 


* Joh. Lange: Haandbog i den danske Flora, 1886-88, p. 116. 
+ Grenier et Godron: Flore de France, vol. iii, 1855. 


306 T. Holm— Vitality of some Annual Plants. 


etate for several years without flowering, if the locality 
becomes inundated.* 

It seems then, that this ability to vary among Cyperacee is 
easy to explain, although it may not be a necessary consequence 
in all cases; our specimens of Cyperus were observed as occur- 
ring together with numerous annual individuals and under the 
_ very same conditions. 

The Graminee may undoubtedly include several other 
species, besides the cultivated ones, mentioned by Hildebrand 
(I. ec.) in which this same variation may take place. Zragus race- 
mosus Hall, represents at least the same case as that of Cyperus. 
It has always been considered as annual, lately by Dr. Vasey,t 
although some specimens in U. 8. National herbarium prove, 
that it can also occur as perennial. These specimens have 
long stolons above-ground with abundant formation of leafy 
shoots at each node, from where long roots are also developed. 
A part of a stolon has been illustrated in plate X, fig. 2, 
where we see not only the crowded shoots, but also a secon- 
dary formation stolons (S). All these shoots were developed 
in the axils of leaves, belonging to the stolons, and they 
showed besides the proper leaves also the characteristic pro- 
phyllum (fig. 3). This small leaf had a rather unusual shape 
than otherwise observed ; it was not only distinctly bicarinate, 
but showed at its apex two long teeth, corresponding to those 
of an ordinary palet (fig. 4). A transverse section (fig. 5) of 
the prophyllum shows the prominent keels and the very thin 
margins, besides the presence of not only two, but even six 
nerves, those of the keels being the strongest. 

This manner of growth seems to be rather common in 


North American Gramine, especially those, which ramity, « 


and there is no doubt that under favorable conditions they 
might change their habit from annual to perennial or at least 
biennial. ) 7 

The Crucifere, which include representatives of all the three 
types of growth, are, as mentioned above, quite apt to vary in 
a similar manner. The genus Avadis is very instructive in 
this regard, as for instance A. dentata Torr. et Gr., of which 
the lower part of a perennial specimen has been figured on 
Plate X, fig. 7, which shows the character of a biennial in a 
perennial form. We see here a leafy shoot terminating the 
main axis, from the leaves of which flowering stems will be 
developed next year. We see further, that the base of this 
shoot is surrounded by now faded leaves, merely indicated by 
the petioles, and from the axils of which proceed the ascend- 
ing flowering stems of the year. 

* Compare: Bull. de la Société botan. de France, 1860, p, 186. 


+ Geo. Vasey: Grasses of the Southwest, Part I, 1890. (Bull. of U.S, Dept. 
of Agriculture). 


a 


T. Holm— Vitality of some Annual Plants. 307 


The plant illustrates then at once the two stages of a bien- 
nial growth: the leafy roset, which will winter over, and the 
flowering stems from a similar roset of the preceding year. 
The age of this specimen is at least three years, for there is a 
distinct stem-part (S’) to be seen between the primary root and 
the now faded roset of leaves. This part of the stem is in 
contrast to the upper part which is horizontal and fixed to the 
ground by strong roots in addition to the persistent primary 
one. The plant has undoubtedly merely developed a leafy 
roset in its first year, when the seed germinated, probably 
flowered the second year and produced the stem-part S’, flow- 
ered again in the third year, producing contemporarily a shoot 
that will flower next year, until finally an inflorescence will 
terminate the main axis and the entire individual die away 
after the ripening of the fruits. 

The closely allied A. lyrata L. has been mentioned by Hil- 
debrand (1. c.) as being annual or biennial. It occurs, however, 
also as perennial, and most commonly so in the Southern United 
States. JI have collected several specimens in the vicinity of 
Washington, which were all decidedly perennial, and most of 
the individuals in the National Herbarium from other parts of 
North America showed the same fact. Some specimens from 
Japan were, however, annual, with flowers and leaves devel- 
oped in the first year and at the same time. The perennial 
form shows nearly the same habit as above described for 
A. dentata, but commonly with a profuse development of 
lateral leafy shoots together with the inflorescences, so that the 


life is secured for a considerably longer time than in the pre-, 


ceding species. 
That also Arabis lewigata Poir. may occur as perennial has 


“been recorded by Hildebrand (1. c.), but without data; Gray 


has considered this species as truly biennial, in which form it 
occurs exclusively around Washington, where it is very abun- 
dant. 

Washington, D. C., July 22d, 1891. 


EXPLANATION OF PLATE X. 


Fig. 1.—AHypericum nudicaule. The base of the stem, showing two densely 
leaved shoots. Natural size. 

Fig. 2.—Tragus racemosus. Part of a stolon A—A, with secondary branches S 
and several crowded shoots. Natural size. 

Fig. 3.—Same. Part of a stolon, showing two leafy shoots in the axils of two 
leaves, belonging to the stolon. P, the prophyllum. Slightly enlarged. 

Fie. 4.—Same. The prophyllum; a, side, and b, back view. 

Fig. 5.--Same. Transverse section of the prophyllum. 

Fig. 6.—Cyperus flavescens. The base of a perennial specimen, showing the 
stolons. F, the base of the flowering stem. Natural size. 

Fig. 7.—Arabis dentata. The base of the plant, showing the primary root (R) 
and some secondary ones (r). L, L' and L? indicate the leafy rosets 
of Ist, 2d and 3d year. F, the lower part of flowering stems. 
Natural size. 


* 


308 Gooch and Danner— Method for the 


Art. XXIX.—A Method for the Separation of Antimony 
From Arsenic by the Simultaneous Action of Hydrochloric 
and Hydriodie Acids; by F. A. Goocu and EH. W. 
DANNER. | 


[Contributions from the Kent Chemical Laboratory of Yale College—-IX.] 


A METHOD for the separation of arsenic from antimony _ 
based upon the difference in volatility of the lower chlorides 
was introduced originally by Fischer.* This method of treat- 
ment consisted in the reduction of the chlorides by means of 
ferrous chloride and the volatilization of the arsenic by 
repeated distillations of the mixture with hydrochloric acid of 
twenty per cent strength added in successive portions. The 
process has been subsequently modified by Hufschmidt+ by 
the substitution of gaseous hydrochloric acid, introduced in 
continuous current into the distilling mixture, for the aqueous 
acid, and later changed further and improved by Classen and 
Ludwig,t who employ ferrous sulphate, or ammonio-ferrous 
sulphate, in place of the less easily prepared ferrous chloride. 
In its latest form the method is exceedingly exact, but the con- 
ditions are such that the antimony in the residue must be 
determined gravimetrically. It has been our endeavor to so 
arrange the process that the determination of the antimony 
may be made by a rapid volumetric method, and this we have 
attempted to accomplish by substituting for the iron salt, 
which utterly precludes the direct volumetric estimation of the 
antimony, another reducer—hydriodic acid—which can inter- 
fere in no way with the subsequent determination of the 
antimony by the well known iodometric method. 

It has been shown in previous work in this laboratory that 
arsenic§ and antimony| may both be reduced by the action of 
hydriodic acid applied under appropriate conditions. In those 
processes, however, it was essential that the arsenic should not 
volatilize, and the conditions were adjusted accordingly. In 
the present case we have to test the reducing action of hydrio- 
dic acid in the presence of strong hydrochloric acid and at the 
boiling temperature of the solution—conditions arranged to 
bring about the volatilization of the arsenic as rapidly as pos- 
sible. Certain preliminary experiments gave indication that a 
half gram of arsenic oxide could be completely volatilized 
by the action of potassium iodide in excess in the manner 
described, and that an equivalent weight of antimonious oxide 


* Ann. Chem. u. Pharm. 208, 182. + Ber. d. deutsch. chem. Ges., xvii, 2245. 
¢ Ber. d. deutsch. chem. Ges, xviii, 1110. 

§ Gooch and Browning, this Journal, vol. xl, p. 66. 

|| Gooch and Gruener, this Journal, vol. xlii, p. 213. 


| 
t 


Separation of Antimony from Arsenic. 309 


(added in the form of tartar emetic) was retained entirely in 
the residue under similar conditions of treatment. Moreover, 
it appeared that this action could be brought about in solutions 
measuring no more than 100 cm.°* at the beginning and no less 
than 50 em.* at the end of the distillation, so that a very 
considerable saving of time over that demanded by the process 
of distillation as left by Classen and Ludwig could be effected. 
Accordingly we proceeded to test the action of the hydriodic 
acid quantitatively, following the same general lines. The 
distillation-apparatus consisted of a flask of 250 cm.* capacity, 
provided with a hollow glass stopper tightly fitted in a ground 
joint, the stopper itself being sealed upon a large glass tube 
bent suitably to connect the interior of the flask with an 
upright condenser, while through the hollow stopper, and 
sealed into it, passed a smaller glass tube reaching nearly to 
the bottom of the flask. The arrangement was such that a 
current of gas entering the smaller tube would pass nearly to 
the bottom of the flask and then out through the hollow stop- 
per into the condenser without meeting joints of rubber or 
cork. Into this flask was weighed, for the experiments of 
Table I, about a half gram of carefully recrystallized tartar 
emetic, and a half gram of pure di-hydrogen potassium 
arseniate and a gram of potassium iodide were added in 
concentrated solution, the volume of liquid being made up to 
100 em.* by the addition of strong hydrochloric acid. A brisk 
current of hydrochloric acid gas was passed into the solution 
through the tube sealed into the glass stopper of the flask 
until complete saturation was effected, and then the liquid was 
heated and distilled in the continuous current of hydrochloric 
acid gas until the volume of 30 cm.* was reached. Iodine was 
evolved as soon as the liquid became warm and the greater 
part of it passed into the distillate with the first 10 em.’ 
When the final concentration was reached the solution was in 
each case colorless, but on cooling there appeared in one of 
the two experiments of this set a pale yellow tint which van- 
ished with the dilution involved in the transfer and washing 
from the flask previous to titration. The addition of starch to 
the cooled and diluted liquid developed no color. To the 
liquid were added 1 grm. of tartaric acid, to keep the antimony 
in solution during subsequent treatment, sodium hydrate 
nearly to neutrality, and hydrogen sodium carbonate in excess 
amounting to about 20 em.* of the saturated solution; and the 
antimonious oxide in solution was titrated by decinormal iodine 
standardized against tartar emetic. The details of these exper- 
iments are given in Table I. 

In Table II are comprised the accounts of experiments 
similar in general to those of Table I, excepting that the final 


i 


310 Gooch and Danner—Method for the 


volume after concentration was a little more, and the antimony 
was in every case oxidized in alkaline solution by standard 
iodine previous to the introduction of hydrochloric acid and 
distillation. 

Table III includes the records of experiments similar in 
every respect to those of Table Il excepting that as starch 
showed a slight color in the cooled liquid after distillation, the 
solution was treated with an excess of sulphurous acid which 
was subsequently oxidized exactly by standard iodine previous 
to neutralization and the final titration. 


ii 
H.KAsO, TRL Volume Color Sb203 . Sb203 Error 
taken. | taken.! initial.| final. on cooling.|with starch.) taken. | found. : 
Sri... | Sma Aewa.e a| enn erm. grm.  grm. 
0°5 TSO 108 30 pale yellow none 0:2282| 0°2271| 0:0011— 
0°5 1:0 100 30 none none 02283) 0°2266| 0:0017— 
| ie 
0°5 U5 120 50 none none 0°2258) 0°2235 0-:0023— 
0°5 0°5 100 | 50: |pale yellow; none 02952 0°2235) 00017 — 
0°5 0°5 100 50 pale yellow; none | 0°2178, 0:2163) 0°0015— 
0°5 0°5 100 50 trace none 02231) 0°2231) 0:0000 
0°5 0°5 100 40 trace none | 0°2261! 0°2235) 0°0026— 
HOt: 
0°5 0°5 100 50 |pale eT faint | 0°2268) 0 2265) 0:0003— 
0°5 0°5 100 50 pale yellow taint | 0°2306) 0:2300, 0:0006— 
0°5 0°5 100 50 Gale ole faint | 0°2272 02264 | 0:0008— 


The same general phenomena were observed in all these 
experiments, and deficiencies in the amounts of antimony 
indicated, whether the element was present in the lower or 
higher degree of oxidation before distillation, appear in all, 
but most notably in the results of Tables land Il. These 
losses cannot be attributed, entirely at least, to mechanical 
transfer in the process, inasmuch as the greater losses are not 
associated with the greater concentrations; and, furthermore, 
according to our qualitative experiments made under the con- 
ditions of these determinations, no antimony, so far as we 
could observe, passes into the distillate. If the coloration of 
the liquid on cooling were due to the liberation of iodine by 
the action of air upon the hydriodic acid the iodine thus set 
free might be counted upon to oxidize a corresponding portion 
of the antimony in the neutralization, and so to occasion a 
deficiency in the indications of titration. Against this sup- 
position, however, we have the evidence of experiment that 
the greatest losses are not found in those cases in which color 
was developed in the cooling liquid. Moreover, in all cases, 


Separation of Antimony from Arsenic. 811 


excepting those of Table III, starch gave no test for free 
iodine in the diluted liquid, though it must not be overlooked 
that the presence of a considerable amount of hydrochloric 


acid tends to impair the delicacy of the test. If, on the other 


hand, the color is not due altogether to free iodine it is difficult 
to account for its development unless it is caused by the for- 
mation of antimonious iodide as the solution of strong hydro- 
chloric containing also hydriodic acid cools. On the whole, 
we are inclined to attribute at least a part of the apparent 
deficiency to the presence, at the time of neutralization, of a 
small amount of iodine chloride, which, in accordance with 
what is known of its modes of formation, might be formed by 
the oxidizing effect of the antimonic and arsenic oxides upon . 
the mixed acids. At all events, it is evident that if iodine 
chloride were present we should expect to note the phenomena 
which we do see; it would give, in small quantity, little or no 
color to the liquid, would not show the starch reaction for free 
iodine in the acid solution, and would be destroyed with the 
formation hydrochloric and hydriodic acids by the addition of 
sulphurous acid to the still acid liquid, leaving the antimony 
unchanged and determinable iodometrically in alkaline solution 
after the exact oxidation of the excess of sulphurous acid by 
iodine in acid solution; on the other hand, it would act in alka- 
line solution like the free halogens and tend to diminish the 
antimony indicated by titration. Whatever the real cause or 
causes of the deficiency may be, it appears in the results of 
Table III that the treatment with sulphurous acid affects the 


indications favorably. The mean error of three closely agree- 


ing determinations is 0°0006 grm.—and this is plainly within 
the limits of allowable variation in iodometric work with 
decinormal solutions. 

It appears, therefore, that hydriodic acid may be made to 


serve satisfactorily as a substitute for the ferrous chloride of 


Fischer’s original method, or for the ferrous sulphate of the 
modification of Classen and Ludwig, the determination of the 
residual antimony being perfectly practicable. The method of 
proceeding which we advocate is briefly summarized in the 
following statement: To the solution of the oxides of arsenic 
and antimony, taken in amounts not exceeding 0°5 grm. of 
each, potassium iodide is to be added in a little more than the 
equivalent quantity, and enough strong hydrochloric acid to 
raise the entire volume of the solution to 100 cm.’ Hydro- 
chloric acid gas is passed into the liquid to saturation as well as 
during the distillation to follow, and the distillation is carried 
on until the volume of the liquid decreases to 50 cm.* or a 
little less. The liquid is cooled rapidly, treated first with an 
excess of sulphurous acid and then with iodine to the exact 


312 M. C. Lea—Allotropic Silver. 


oxidation of the former reagent; and, after the addition of 
1 grm. of tartaric acid to every 0°2 grm. of antimonious oxide, 
the acid present is nearly neutralized with sodium hydrate, the 
neutralization being completed by hydrogen sodium carbonate 
_ added in excess to an amount corresponding to 10 em.* of the 
saturated solution for every 0'1 grm. of antimonious oxide 
present. ‘Titration with decinormal iodine standardized against 
tartar emetic gives the antimony quickly and with a fair degree 
of accuracy. The whole process requires about an hour and a 
half for completion. 


Art. XXX.—Wotes on Allotropic Silver ; by M. Carry LEA. 


Lelations of the Yellow to the Blue Forms.—The gold-and 
copper-colored forms on the one hand, and the blue, bluish- 
green and steel-gray on the other hand stand in close relations 
to each other. In previous papers there has been described a 
erystalline state intermediate between these active forms and 
ordinary silver, which intermediate condition, while retaining 
the bright yellow color of the active form is nearly as indif- 
ferent to reagents as ordinary silver. Into this intermediate 
state both the yellow and blue forms are capable of passing, 
and apparently the intermediate states of both kinds of allo- 
tropic silver are identical: the intermediate form of blue silver 
as yellow. Thus when lumps of blue silver are heated in a 
test tube to about 180° C. they assume a gold color and luster. 
The same change takes place at the same temperature when 
films of blue silver are placed in a hot air bath. 

But relations much closer than these exist. Blue silver can 
be converted into yellow at ordinary temperatures and conse- 
quently with retention of its active properties. This is accom- 
plished through the agency of sulphuric acid. When a 
solution of silver is obtained by the action of sodium hy- 
droxide and dextrine on silver nitrate* it appears to contain 
the blue variety, for if allowed to precipitate spontaneously by 
long standing, or if precipitated by acetic acid, dilute nitric 
acid, or by many neutral substances, it gives a form of silver 
which is dark red while moist and dries with a blue surface 


* Forty grams each of sodium hydroxide and of yellow or brown dextrine (not 
white) are dissolved in two litres of water and 28 grams of silver nitrate in solu- 
tion are added in small quantities at a time, with frequent stirring, so that several 
hours shall elapse before the last portion is added. The solution is always 
slightly turbid when viewed by reflected light, by which it shows a beautiful 
deep green color. By transmitted light it is deep red, and when diluted, abso- 
lutely transparent. By diminishing the proportion of silver nitrate to one-half, a 
solution nearly er quite clear by reflected as well as by transmitted light is ob- 
tained, 


M. C. Lea—Allotropic Silver. 313 


color. (It is always a little difficult to characterize these sub- 
stances by their colors since the surface color which they show 
when dry—either in mass or in films—is mostly complement- 
ary to their color when wet. As the surface color is much the 
more characteristic, I have adopted the course of naming them 
by that.) 

The behavior of the red solution obtained by soda and 
dextrine with dilute sulphuric is very interesting and instruc- 
tive. When 100 c.c. of solution are poured into 100 cc. of 
water to which 3 ce. of sulphuric acid have been previously 
added, a dark red precipitate falls, which, when dry, especially 
in films, is blue. The mixed liquid from which the precipi- 
tate is formed is acid. Increasing the proportion of acid to 4, 
5 and 6c. successively, the substance obtained has a green 
surface color becoming more yellowish green in proportion as . 
the acid is increased in quantity. With 7$c¢.c. the substance 
no longer dries green but yellow. Increased proportions of 
acid produce substances drying with a coppery shade. 

It will be seen that from a single solution, and using one 
substance only as a precipitant, we can obtain the whole range 
of different forms of. allotropic silver, by simply varying the 
proportions of the precipitant. 

That these forms of silver should subsist in the presence of 
sulphuric acid in excess is remarkable. For the most part the 
presence of this acid tends to quickly convert allotropic to 
ordinary silver. For example, bright yellow allotropic silver 
obtained with ferrous tartrate was washed on a filter with’ 
water containing 1/500 its volume of sulphuric acid: in two 
or three-hours the entire mass was converted into gray ordinary 
silver. 

It is observable that the substances precipitated with the 
least acid, have a very splendid luster, and that this luster 
diminishes steadily as the proportion of acid is increased. Up 
to 6 e.c. to 100 the effect is hardly noticeable, after that it be- 
comes more marked. 

But we can also obtain the converse of this reaction. Just 
as the solution which naturally would yield the blue product, 
can be made to yield the yellow by the presence of excess of 
strong acid, so the solution which normally yields the yellow 
substance, may be made to produce blue (or rather green) 
silver by adding alkali. Thus a mixture of dilute solutions of 
ferrous sulphate and of Rochelle salt added to mixed solutions 
of silver nitrate and of Rochelle salt, results in the formation 
of gold-colored silver. But if we add a little sodium hydrox- 
ide, either to the iron solution or the silver mixture, we shall 
get a bluish green product, whose properties show that it 
belongs to the blue class and not to the yellow. Evenif a 


314 M. C. Lea—Allotropic Silver. 


solution of the hydroxide is added immediately after the iron 
solution has been poured into the silver, the result is the same. 
_ There is therefore a well marked tendency of acids to give 

rise to the formation of the yellow product and of alkalies to 
the blue. But this is a tendency only. Both substances can ~ 
be produced from neutral solutions, and slight changes are 
_ sufficient to alter the product formed. Thus, ferrous tartrate, 
in dilute solution acting on silver tartrate gives rise to the for- 
mation of the gold-colored substance, but when citrates are 
substituted, the blue substance is obtained. 

Production of Allotropic Silver by Inorganic Substances.— 
For reasons which will be mentioned presently, the reduction 
of silver must take place gradually to produce the allotropic 
form, and for a time it seemed an invariable condition that an 
_ organic substance of some sort should be present. This, how- 
ever, proves not to be essential. In a paper presented to the 
American Academy and kindly read for me by Professor 
Remsen at the meeting in April last, I alluded briefly to having 
found a reaction depending upon inorganic agents only. It is 
as follows: Sodium hypophosphite added to silver nitrate does 
not effect reduction, but when hypophosphorous acid is set 
free by the addition of phosphoric acid, a red coloration 
appears, indicating the presence of allotropic silver. The 
coloration is transitory, no doubt because of the strong ten- 
dency of free mineral acids to convert allotropic to normal 
silver, but red and blue stains form on the sides of the vessel. 

Phosphorous acid gives similar results, though perhaps less 
well marked. 

Action of Light on Blue Silver.—This action differs with 
different varieties: it was more especially examined with the 
form that is obtained from the soda dextrine silver solution 
already described by pouring the solution into an equal bulk of 
water to which sulphuric acid had been added in the propor- 
tion of 4 ¢.c. to each 100 ¢.c. of water. This form was selected 
because it is easy to obtain with great constancy of result, and 
because it is one of the forms of blue silver most sensitive to 
light. 

ee to light, this substance first becomes more distinctly 
blue, losing a slight greenish shade. With continued exposure 
it passes to a yellow-brown shade, and finally to a perfectly 
pure golden-yellow of great brilliancy and luster. The last is 
the intermediate or crystalline form. 

The action of light on this form of silver is remarkable in 
this respect, that its first effect is to ¢ncrease the sensitiveness 
to reagents. 

This result was so unexpected and a priord so improbable, 
that it was subjected to the most careful verification before 


M. C. Lea—Allotropic Silver. 315 


being accepted. The action is very easily shown by exposing 
a film of the substance to light, covering part of the surface 
with an opaque screen. After twenty or thirty minutes of 
exposure to strong summer sunshine, the film may be plunged 
into a one per cent solution of potassium ferridcyanide, when 
the part exposed colors much sooner and more strongly than 
that which was covered. The effect is shown still better by 
placing the film in a frame, covering part with paper rendered 
absolutely opaque by coating it with thick tin foil, part with 
translucent paper (thick white writing paper or very thin 
brown paper) and leaving part wholly exposed. After four or 
five hours action of strong summer sunshine, the film is to be 
treated with, weak ferridcyanide. The part wholly exposed 
having passed into the gold-colored crystalline condition (if 
the exposure has been sufficient) is wholly unacted upon, the 
part covered by the translucent paper is rapidly attacked, that 
wholly protected is attacked slowly. So that the portion 
moderately acted on by light has very markedly increased in 
sensitiveness thereby. 

It follows that upon this form of silver light has a reversing 
action, first exalting its sensitiveness, then completely destroy- 
ing it. : 

It is impossible to overlook the analogy which exists between 
this action of light, and that which light exerts on silver 
bromide. 

The latter substance though incomparably more sensitive to 
light, is subject to the same reversing action, first gaining in 
sensitiveness to reducing agents and then, by continued expos- 
ure, becoming less sensitive than originally, a change com- 
monly known as solarization. 

Causes determining whether in the reduction of Silver, 
the Allotropic or the Normal form shall be produced.—i have 
examined the phenomena connected with the reduction of 
silver under a great variety of conditions. These for the most 
part do not deserve particular mention but seem to lead up to 
this generalization: that the reduction of silver may be direct 
or indirect, direct when it passes from the condition of the 
normal salt or oxide to that of the metal, indirect when the 
change is first to sub-oxide or to a corresponding sub-salt. So 
far as my observation has gone when the reduction is direct 
the reduced silver always appears in its ordinary form. But 
when the reduction is ¢ndirect the silver presents itself in one 
of its allotropic states. 

The following reactions support this view. 

Three of the principal modes of formation of allotropic 
silver are: (1) reduction of silver citrate or tartrate by ferrous 
citrate or tartrate; (2) acting on silver nitrate or oxide hy 


316 M. C. Lea—Allotropie Silver. 


dextrine and fixed alkaline hydroxide; (8) acting on silver 
nitrate or carbonate by tannin and fixed alkaline carbonate. 
Now, if in either of these three cases we interrupt the action 
before it is complete by adding an excess of dilute hydro- 
chloric acid we shall obtain a dark chestnut-brown or some- 
times purple-brown substance which on examination proves to 
be a mixture of silver subchloride and photochloride. When, 
after complete removal of the excess of hydrochloric acid by 
thorough washing or better by boiling with distilled water, the 
substance is treated with cold dilute nitric acid that portion of 
the sub-chloride which is not combined with the normal 
chloride is broken up and there remains photochloride of a 
very rich and intense rose-color.* 

The production of silver sub-chloride in all these cases 
would seem to indicate that the reduction when the acid was 
added was incomplete, and that in case (1) a sub-salt, and in 
cases (2) and (3) a sub-oxide was first formed as an intermediate 
step before complete reduction. Hither of these substances 
would of course give rise to the formation of subchloride 
when treated with hydrochloric acid. It is important to ob- 
serve that this result is to be obtained only by interrupting the 
reaction before it is complete. When, for example, allotropic 
silver in solution is produced by the action of sodic hydroxide 
and dextrine and after complete reduction, hydrochloric acid is 
added, the liquid becomes filled with gray normal silver, which 
presently collects to a cake. When this cake is well washed 
and boiled with water, and then treated with dilute nitric acid, 
solution takes place: a trace of photochloride is left behind. 
It has been mentioned elsewhere that hydrochloric acid, 
though without action on ordinary silver, is capable of form- 
ing a variable quantity of protochloride when placed in contact 
with allotropie silver. 

I have not met with any exception to this general principle 
that when a reaction leading to the formation of allotropic 
silver is interrupted by the addition of hydrochloric acid, 
subchloride is abundantly formed as one of the products. 

In all such cases the reduction is evidently indirect. The 
silver does not lose at once the whole of its oxygen, but 
apparently passes through an intermediate form, probably 
Ag,O, the reduction of which tends to the formation of allo- 
tropic silver. 

These facts lead directly up to the question: does silver 
exist in its subsalts in the allotropic form? There are some 


* This is a very beautiful reaction and degerves more particular mention than 
can be given here. It is perhaps the best means for obtaining silver photochlo- 
ride, for which purpose I have often employed it, both on account of its facility 
and certainty, and the very beautiful color of the product. 


’ a V -@ | the ~ 
Fo tt em, 


HI. L. Smyth— Geology of Steep Rock Lake, Ont. 317 


facts that would support this view, especially the very rich and 
varied coloration of the subsalts corresponding to the almost 
infinite variety of color of allotropic silver, while normal salts 
of silver when formed with colorless acids are mostly colorless. 
On the other hand, the greater activity of allotropic silver and 
its less specific gravity would seem to indicate a simpler 
molecular constitution than that of normal silver. 


Art. XXXI.—Structural Geology of Steep Rock Lake, On- 
tario; by HENRY Luoyp SmytH. With Plate XI. 


GEOGRAPHY. 


StEEP Rock LAKE is situated in the Province of Ontario, 
Canada, northwest of Lake Superior and south of the Can- 
adian Pacific Railway. It lies about twenty-five miles east of 
the center of the rough quadrilateral formed by the Canadian 
Pacific Railway on the northeast, the Lake of the Woods on 
the northwest, the United States boundary on the southwest, 
and the shore of Lake Superior from Pigeon River to Port 
Arthur, on the southeast. As given on the map of the Prov- 
ince, scale 1 inch = 30 miles, published by the Crown Lands 
Department, Toronto, 1884, the geographical position of the 
extreme southern point of the lake, where it receives the 
waters of the Aticokan River from the east, is about lat. 48° 
52’ N. and long. 91° 80’ W. from Greenwich; or, it is about 
halfway upon the map between Lac des Milles Lacs and Rainy 
Lake. 


TOPOGRAPHY. 


Steep Rock Lake is one of the many that, collectively, con- 
nected by longer or shorter links of river make up the River 
Seine from Island Falls as far as, and doubtless below, the 
Aticokan River. In shape the lake resembles, as shown on 
the map, an irregular and slightly distorted letter M, of which 
the western or left arm, (looking north), runs north and south, 
and the eastern or right arm northwest and southeast. This 
peculiar form is closely related to the character and to the 
structure of the rocks in which the lake lies as will be seen in 
what follows. The Seine River, after a beautiful fall, two 
hundred feet across, and forty to fifty feet high, over granite, 
some three hundred yards northeast of the lake, flows into it 
at a point about a mile southeast of the northw est extremity of 
the eastern arm. It leaves the lake at the extreme southern 
end of the western arm. Between the points of entrance and 

Am. Jour. Sci1.—Tuirp Serizes, Vou. XLII, No. 250.—Octoser, 1891. 


318 FI. L. Smyth—Geology of Steep Rock Lake, Ont. 


exit there is no current observable by the eye and the differ- 
ence in level must be exceedingly small. 

As regards dimensions:—from the southern extremity of 
the eastern arm to the mouth of the river near the Falls is 
about 84 miles; from the Falls to the Elbow, 3 miles; from 
the Elbow to the Upper Narrows, 14 miles; and from the 
Upper Narrows south to the Aticokan River 34 miles. The 
entire lake including the portion of Lake Margaret shown on 


the map could be inscribed within a rectangle 6 miles from | 


east to west, and 54 miles from north to south, or within an 
area of 383 square miles. As the name implies the lake has 
bold rocky shores, which, in places rise 150 feet from the 
water in nearly perpendicular cliffs. The total length of shore 
line is approximately 28 miles not counting the smaller bays 
and indentations. Not less than # of this length shows rock 
in place either at the water’s edge or within a few hundred 
feet of it, and of this perhaps 4 may be studied without leay- 
ing the boat. 

The contour of the water line shows a very beautiful depen- 
dence upon structural conditions. The eastern arm follows 
the general strike of the rocks from the bay north of Lake 
Margaret portage northwest to Falls Bay. On the northeast- 
ern shore of this arm the lower limestone makes several bold 
headlands that rise abruptly from 60 to 100 feet above the 
water. In the bays between these headlands the basement 
granites intersected by a large number of greenstone dikes 
form the shore, and rise more gently into the broken hum- 
mocky hills that generally characterize the granitic areas of the 
region. A few hundred feet back from the southwestern 
shore the great trap intrusions or flows of Horizon IV make 
a continuous ridge, which is estimated to reach a height of 250 
feet above the water. This ridge runs, without interruption, 
the top showing only a few minor sags, from the shore west of 
the portage into Lake Margaret, for 8 miles along the strike in 
a northwest direction as far as the wide expansion of Falls 
Bay. 

The eneissic phases of the granites, and associated irruptives 
compose the west shore of Falls Bay, from the great limestone 
exposure at the head, sonth to the Elbow. As far south as 
Wiegand’s Point, the granite cliffs are high and very steep and 
are broken across only in two or three places. On the south 
shore of Falls Bay from Trap Point to Jack Pine Pt. the shore 
line cuts the strike of the rocks nearly at right angles, and 
from Jack Pine Pt. south to Pine Beach obliquely at a less 
angle. The ridges descend rather gradually to the lake along 
this shore, the harder rocks making little headlands separated 
by sand and shingle beaches. 


ae ee = 


H. L. Smyth—Geowogy of Steep Rock Lake, Ont. 319 


From the southern point of Pine Beach the shore again 
follows the strike of the rocks, as it sweeps round the south 
pitching axis of the middle anticlinal ; and in the stretch from 
Bowlder Point to the Upper Narrows, in which the strike 
locally varies between N. 2° W. and N. 18° E. the water line 
minutely corresponds to the minor deflections. This shore 
_ shows continuous rock exposure, and the cliffs reach a height 
in places of 40 or 50 feet above the water, having perpendicu- 
lar faces along cleavage surfaces. 

The highest land about the lake is north and west of Con- 
glomerate Bay, and in the peninsula between it and Northwest 
Bay. Except for a fringe of the Conglomerate and lower 
limestone (Formations I and II) along Northwest Bay, and of 
the upper horizons of the series east of the fault line that 
crosses the southeast extremity, the peninsula is composed 
entirely of the basement gneisses and granites, which rise from 
the water west of Conglomerate Bay in a steep cliff (along a 
surface of faulting) 100 feet or mere high. The hills in the 
northern part of the peninsula may reach a height of over 300 
feet, but this as well as other figures concerning elevations is 
an eye-estimate only, and not a measurement. 


GEOLOGY. 


The rocks exposed around the shores of Steep Rock Lake and 
of Lake Margaret, are divisible into three principal groups. 
The lower division consists of granites and gneisses, which 
typically are medium grained, hornblendic, and granitoid, with 
faint foliation. Locally they present considerable variations in 
composition and very great variations in structure. 

Resting upon these basement rocks is a series of rocks show- 
ing a thickness of about 5000 feet in exposure along the 
shores of the lake. Upper members that are not seen upon 
the lake probably exist in the trough of the eastern synclinal, 
southeast of Jack Pine Pt. The series is divisable into nine 
formation which as far as known are perfectly persistent along 
the strike throughout the area studied. It offers many impor- 
tant points of difference, lithologically, in structure, and in its 
relations to the underlying granites, from any series of rocks 
previously described in western Ontario. Leaving the ques- 
tion of correlation to be discussed after the series has been 
deseribed it will be called for purposes of description in this 
paper, the Steep Rock Series. 

At the southeastern extremity of the eastern arm, at the 
north end of the portage into Lake Margaret, lying across the 
edges of the Steep Rock Series, begins a succession of later 
granite porphyries, and massive hornblende rocks, striking 


320 H. L. Smyth—Geology of Steep Rock Lake, Ont. 


N. 55 to 65 E., which pass upward, in going south across the 
strike, into the schists of the Aticokan River. These will be 
termed the Aticokan Series. 

Basement Complex.-—The granites were very hastily exam- 
ined in the narrow fringe in which they are exposed along 
certain shores of the lake. They were studied mainly with 
reference to their distribution and structural relations to the — 
overlying Steep Rock series; no attempt can now be made to 
separate geographically the various kinds of rocks which are 
included in the basement series, or to indicate their relations 
to one another. 

The predominant rock in the basement series is a hornblende 
muscovite granite of medium grain, composed of clear to 
bluish quartz, feldspar, a green hornblendic mineral, and 
muscovite. The color on the weathered surface is white, 
slightly tinged with green, and on the fresh fracture a darker 
well marked green. This is the usual type. Occasionally a 
red granite carrying biotite 1s seen, which owes its color to 
flesh-colored feldspar. True gneisses are rare, but they are 
occasionally found as at locality 50 on the ridge north 
of the mouth of the creek emptying into the bay north 
of Lake Margaret portage, and in the peninsula east of North- 
west Bay, at locality 125. At both localities the rock is a 
coarse hornblende gneiss, exhibiting a parallel arrangement of 
the constitutent minerals, and pegmatization. At locality 
125 the coarse gneiss carries angular inclusions, which are finer 
grained and darker than the mass of the rock, but similar in 
composition. 

Distinguishable from these gneisses in which the origin of 
the gneissic foliation is unknown is a great body of chloritie 
gneisses which have unquestionably been derived from the 
hornblende granite by crushing. These are found at and 
near the turn of folds; for example, at the head of Falls Bay, 
north of the Elbow, and along the north and west shores of 
Northwest.Bay. Good examples are seen on the west shore 
from the head of Falls Bay to the Elbow where the whole 
series has been forced round through an angle of more than 
120°. All stages in the process are seen. At one end of the 
series is found the typical hornblende granite, traversed by 
little wavy fissures, generally parallel to the regional direction 
of cleavage, N. 43° E., along which part of the hornblende is 
represented by thin leaves of fresh chlorite. At the other end 
of the series the quartz and feldspar are greatly granulated, 
and the hornblende has entirely disappeared; the chlorite is 
arranged in parallel bands, and the rock has developed in it a 
highly perfect schistose structure. 


: 


H. L. Smyth—Geolegy of Steep Rock Lake, Ont. 321 


All these granitic rocks are traversed by an immense number 
of dikes of greenstone, and more rarely of quartz porphyry, 
all of which for structural reasons are conveniently considered 
with the basement complex. 

These belong to three eras of irruption. (1) Those which 
supplied pebbles to the conglomerate at the base of the Steep 
Rock series. (2) Those which are seen to traverse both the 
granitic and Steep Rock series, and to have participated in the 
folding. (3) A single massive dike of porphyrite (?), which 
cuts through the most schistose phase of the granite at the 
turn of the sharp fold at the head of N.W. Bay, and is clearly 
subsequent to the latest period of folding of the region. The 
dikes of class 2 are best seen along the N.E. shore of East 
Bay. They are rudely parallel, the walls are straight and 
nearly vertical, trending from N. 45° to N. 65° E., and in a 
general way cutting the granites and the lower horizons of the 
S. R. series in a direction normal to the contact and strike. 
They vary in width from one to two feet up to 70 feet, and 
clearly were the chimneys through which passed up the mate- 
rial for the great mass of interbedded traps on the south side 
of the same arm. 

The contact phenomena with the country rock are uniformly 
as follows: When the dike is less than 6 or 8 feet in width it 
is fine grained, without crystalline structure, and throughout 


is highly schistose in the general regional direction. The 


wider dikes have massive and crystalline interiors, but are fine 
grained and schistose in a direction parallel to the induced 
regional cleavage, for a distance of 24 or 3 feet from the wall. 
The country rock also is schistose next to the wall of the dike, 
the belt affected being narrower where the adjacent rock is 
granite than where it is limestone. | 

With regard to distribution, it may be said in a general way 
that all shore lines north of the water, from Lake Margaret to 
Northwest Bay, are, with few exceptions, made up of the 
rocks of the basement complex. The exceptions are the head- 
lands in East Bay and at the Elbow which are of limestone, 
the great mass of limestone at the head of Falls Bay, and the 
limestone between Camp Bay and Conglomerate Bay, and the 
Conglomerate along the latter. 

Steep Lock Series.— The Steep Rock series consist of 9 
well marked and persistent horizons exposed about the lake. 
It is very probable that other higher members exist in the land 
area southeast of the shore from Jack Pine Pt. to Pine Beach. 
The 9 formations are given in the table below which reads 
upward in ascending order: 


322 H. L. Smyth—Geology of Steep Rock Lake, Ont. 


IX. Dark Gray clay slate. 
VIII. Agglomerate. 
VII. Greenstones and greenstone schists. 
VI. Upper conglomerate. 
V. Upper calcareous green schist. 
IV. Interbedded crystalline traps. 
Ill. Ferruginous formation. 
IT. Lower limestone. 
I. Conglomerate. 


In the foregoing description of the basement complex the 
northern limit of the Steep Rock series has roughly been indi- 
cated. Formations I and II occur in isolated patches north of 
the water on shores that are otherwise occupied only by the 
granites. Along the whole course of the lake they dip, at 
very steep angles, ranging from 60° to 80° away from the 
basement rocks, upon which they hang as a time-worn fringe, 
having no extension inland. The shore line lies sometimes in 
the granites and sometimes in the Steep Rock series, but in a 
general way follows closely in direction the boundary between 
them. It is only along these northern shores that formations 
I and II are seen at all, and as they are usually found together, 
separated from the higher members by intervening water, it 
will be convenient to keep them apart from the rest for pur- 
poses of description. The basal member of the Steep Rock 
series, which is generally found between the granites and the 
lower limestone, is a bed having a maximum thickness of 
nearly 100 feet, presenting the various phases of a conglomer- 
ate, coarse and fine, a quartzite and a quartz schist with feldspar. 
The formation occurs as a coarse conglomerate at the eastern 
end of Conglomerate Bay. The lowest member exposed at the 
water consists of rounded and water-worn pebbles of quartz 
and greenstone, of considerable size, the largest seen being a 
foot in diameter, imbedded in a green schistose matrix. The 
strike of the rock is about N. and S., as indicated both by the 
alignment of the pebbles, and the lines of junction of layers 
carrying no pebbles. No granitic pebbles were found at this 
locality. In the higher portion of the bed pebbles become 
smaller and relatively fewer, and the rock passes into a green 
schist, with small clastic grains of quartz. 

On the northern end of the island in Northwest Bay forma- 
tion (I) is represented by a fine conglomerate consisting of 
closely-packed small quartz grains (128) with little cementing 
material, holding occasional pebbles up to 3 or 4 inches in 
diameter, of rounded and water-worn quartz, bluish, milky- 
white and dark. A layer of limestone of uncertain thickness 
is also interbedded. The lowest formation does not usually 
occur as a coarse conglomerate in East Bay. It there consists, 


~~ 


H. L. Smyth— Geology of Steep Rock Lake, Ont. 3238 


as a rule, of beds of quartz pebbles, none larger than buckshot, 
with little cement, alternating with layers of massive quartzite. 

In crossing from the base of the limestone to the granite it 
becomes at first slightly and then more and more feldspathic 
as the latter is approached. Near the junction both rocks are 
very similar in composition, so that it is quite impossible to 
draw the line between them from considerations of composition. 
There is an apparent transition from one rock into the other. 
This transition zone, which is from 20 to 30 feet in width, is 
uniformly highly schistose, in the regional direction N. 43° E., 
which, in the eastern arm, where the strikes are from N. 50° to 
60° W., crosses the courses of the contact and the bedding 
nearly at right angles. The schistose structure is traceable 
through the transition zone into the undoubted granite in 
which it dies out gradually, being represented a few feet away 
by little discontinuous wavy cracks, along which chlorite is 
usually developed, and by a faint foliation. 

From these facts it appears certain that the granitic com- 
plex supplied by erosion the materials for Formation I, and 
that the contact is therefore one of unconformability. There 
is no unconformability of structure; for the only normal struc- 
ture possessed by the basement rocks, that of schistosity, was 
demonstrably imposed upon them at a time long subsequent to 
the accumulation of the various materials which now compose 
the Steep Rock series. The absence of a sharp line of de- 
markation between the complex and Formation I, which may 
seem to be a difficulty in the way of accepting the existence of 
an unconformability, is believed to be capable of a satisfactory 
explanation. In considering the orotechnic history of the 
region the transition zone will be shown to represent, not a 
transition in time, but a mechanical transition in composition, 
dating from a time subsequent to the accumulation of the 
rocks of the Steep Rock series. 

Formation II, the lower limestone, lies above Formation I, 
with which it is seen in direct contact at a number of localities. 
The rock is very uniform in character wherever exposed. It 
is a dark to light bluish gray limestone, not at all highly erys- 
talline, often banded with layers of lighter color, along planes 
of original bedding. The light bands vary in width from a 
fine line up to 6 or 8 inches. Bedding planes are also often 
marked by thin cherty seams. Basal portions are frequently 
massive and siliceous, and in some localities are highly charged 
with pyrites the decomposition of which causes the rock to 
weather brown. The upper part of the formation is a breccia, 
composed of fragments of limestone, showing original struc- 
ture, and of trap, imbedded in a matrix that seems to be 
mostly made up of a consolidated calcareous flour. It is widely 


324 HI. L. Smyth—Geology of Steep Rock Lake, Ont. 


distributed, and is nearly if not quite coextensive with the 
limestone. The total thickness of the lower limestone cannot 
be determined precisely, as it is nowhere seen in contact with 
the overlying Formation III, but quite surely is not less than 
500 nor more than 700 feet. A much greater thickness is ex- 
posed in the north side of Conglomerate Bay, in part resulting 
from duplication by faulting. On the eastern arm, where the 
rocks are comparatively undisturbed the limits indicated are 
those given above. 

Formation III is found only on the south shore of the 
eastern arm which it fringes from the Point N.W. of Lake 
Margaret Portage to Falls Bay, in much the same way that 
the limestone fringes the north shore. As a whole the forma- 
tion consists of an extremely soft, fissile dull green, very pyrit- 
iferous rock, which carries in some localities many pebbles 
of limestone and a few of trap. In the lower parts of the 
formation the limestone fragments, which are identical with 
the rovk of Formation II, are rather numerous, and some are 
large, one, angular in shape, being over two feet in diameter. 
Others are apparently rounded and waterworn. In other 
localities pebbles are not fonnd at all. For the most part the 
only structure observable is the regional cleavage which is 
very perfectly developed. At two localities a fine banding | 
parallel to the strike of the rock was observed. At loe. 27, 
south of trap bluff this banding is very prettily shown. The 
rock carries a few rounded pebbles of limestone. The banded 
structure is thrown into little compressed 8.W. pitching folds 
the tangent plane to which is parallel to the plane of the dip 
in the limestone across the bay. Apart from the limestone 
inclusions and this banding the rock shows no trace of sedi- 
mentary origin. Under the microscope it is seen to contain no 
clastic material and all the evidence, which is not however 
conclusive, seems to point to its having been originally a vol- 
canic ash. At two localities a bed of banded jasper and iron 
ore, generally magnetite, is found, which belongs near the base 
of the horizon. A high bluff of trap in East Bay, probably a 
lenticular intrusion, must also be included in it. Except on 
this south shore of the eastern arm Formation III is everywhere 
covered by the waters of the lake, within the area studied. 
Sufficient evidence of its continuity is afforded however by 
the presence of bowlders from the characteristic iron ore hori- 
zon at several widely distant points. The thickness varies 
considerably but may be taken at a maximum of 600 feet. 

Formation IV consists of interbedded eruptives, which may 
reach a maximum thickness of 1000 feet. The rock is very 
uniform in character, the variations occurring being mainly in 
texture. It is normally a massive, rather coarsely crystalline 


A. L. Smyth— Geology of Steep Rock Lake, Ont. 325 


greenish-gray rock, made up of plagioclase and hornblende, 
and is probably a diorite. Locally it includes layers of green 
schist which are to be regarded as mechanical derivatives, 
analogous to the chloritic gneissic phases of the basement 
granite. The formation is best seen south of the eastern arm, 
where it forms a long ridge running from Lake Margaret por- 
tage N.W. to Falls Bay, and in the two natural sections made 
by the shore line at both the northern and southern ends. 
Small patches are exposed at a number of localities about the 
lake. It is uncertain whether this is an intrusive sheet or a 
flow. 

Formation V is a very calcareous green schist containing 
thin seams of limestone. The included layers are quite pure 


finely crystalline limestone. Thin sections of the less cal- 


careous portion show that the rock consists of 50 to 60 per 
eent of calcite, and for the rest, of argillaceous material and 
secondary quartz. Originally it was probably in the main a 
very calcareous shale, with thin beds of limestone. The thick- 
ness is about 600 feet. 

Immediately above the limestone comes Formation VI, a 
conglomerate, having a maximum thickness of about 100 feet. 
It varies in habit, from a hydromica schist, carrying many 
grains of quartz, the clastic character of which is evident in 
thin section, to a rather coarse conglomerate, the pebbles in 
which seem to be entirely of quartz and granite. The locality 
in which it may be best seen is on Falls Bay, on the shore east 
of Jack Pine Point. 

Formation VII. The type rock of this horizon is a light 
greenish gray, massive, close textured rock, which weathers a 
light brown. In thin section it appears to be of eruptive 
origin, but owing to the complete alteration of the bisilicate it 
is uncertain whether it was originally a diabase or a diorite. 
Departing from this as a type, on the one hand are found 
members which show crystalline structure macroscopically, 
and on the other banded green schists which to the eye have 
every appearance of being altered sediments. Under the 
microscope however they show no trace of sedimentary origin. 
This banding is of two kinds. (1), a fine banding due to an 
alternation of thin seams differing slightly from one another 
in color and in texture. (2), a coarser, due to the interbedding 
of layers of the massive varieties with the schistose. These 
layers are of all thicknesses, from a few inches up to several 
feet. The structure, of both varieties, appears to be antece- 
dent to the last folding of the series, since it is often greatly 
contorted, and frequently intersected by the regional cleavage, 
and in general is parallel to the true strike. A graphitic schist, 
twenty feet or more in thickness, is also included. There is an 


326 «Hf. L. Smyth—Geology of Steep Rock Lake, Ont. 


evident stratigraphical succession in the various members, the 
banded schists predominating towards the top. The peculiar 
gray green color and close texture are characteristic of the 
rocks of this horizon. The thickness is about 1400 feet. 
Formation VIII. The agglomerate is best seen at Jack 
Pine Point and at locality 79 to the south of it. At locality 
79, it consists of pebble-like inclusions, greatly resembling the 
type rock of Formation VI, imbedded in a light gray-green fissile 
: matrix which is bright on the 


SSD wp cleavage surfaces. The inelu- 
REA emp — sions vary in size from a frac- 
a GF tion of an inch up to 5 or 6 
<a iy in. long diameter. They are 
ori) elongated, and have rounded 
outlines, though tapering to 


rather sharp points. They — 
A. ——<# Me are all of the same material, 
> Vio which is the same as the mat- 


oe rix apparently, differing from 
SS 


I 
Ne Y it only in lacking the schistose 
NO UD og WL, structure. They are hardly 
| distinguishable from the mat- 
Ch ee of inches ‘Xx in color, on the fresh frae- 
tuie, but on the weathered 
¢ z 4? surface the inclusions stand 

Fig. 1.—Agelomerate, Loc. Theshaded out, and weather a lighter 
inclusions in nature are lighter in color hyown. Under the micro- 
than the enclosing reenachiet, The VA"- scone the inclusions are seen 

to consist of an eruptive rock 
entirely similar to the massive form of VII. On Jack Pine 
Point the agglomerate is beautifully plicated and the inelu- 
sions follow the little folds. (Fig. 1.) 

Formation IX. Above the agglomerate, at locality 81 a 
fine grained clay slate is found, which besides a perfect slaty 
cleavage in the regional direction, shows alternating light and 
dark bands, which probably represent planes of deposition. 

Structure.—The Steep Rock Series is folded into an eastern 
synclinal, a middle anticlinal and a western synelinal, which is 
faulted across the axis near the sharp turn. 

A line drawn from the limestone exposure at the head of 
Falls Bay to Jack Pine Point indicates approximately the 
position of the axial plane of the eastern synclinal. ast of 
this line the various members uniformly strike to the west of 
north. The dips are high to the S.W. ranging from vertical to - 
60, and on the average may be taken at 70. From the 
agglomerate at Jack Pine Point southward to the point north 
of Pine Beach, where the upper part of Formation IV is ex- 


Oo 3 


is 


ey 


H. L. Smyth— Geology of Steep Rock Lake, Ont. 327 


posed, the shore line again crosses the intermediate formations 
in descending order, the strikes bending round gradually to N. 
20° E. A line drawn a little west of south through the eastern 
point of the limestone of the Elbow marks the intersection of 
the axial plane of the middle anticlinal with a horizontal plane. 
West of this line the limestone of the Elbow, Formation VI, 
and the various members of Formation VII, which alone are 
exposed on the southern and western shore, strike again to the 
northwest, gradually bending round along the latter to the 
east of north. The limestone at Conglomerate Bay abuts 


against a cliff of the basement granite, the line of separation 


marking the position of a fault. About 6000 feet S.W. along 


the line of this fault, which is well marked by a breccia in the 


peninsula N.W. of the upper narrows, Formations [ and II are 
found again on the opposite side, striking N.W., and farther 
north on the large island in N.W. Bay, bending round again 
to the southwest. On the west shore of the lake west of N.W. 
Bay green slates, probably belonging to Formation VII, are 
found west of Formation II, and again on Birch Point indicat- 
ing another fault which trends to the west of north. These 
two faults so complicate the structure of the western part of 
the lake, that the relations of the rocks, which are all recog- 
nizable as belonging to one or another of the LX formations 
of the series, could not be worked out in the time available. 

There are two points in the general structure of the rocks 
of the lake which are especially noteworthy and significant. 
They are: 

1st. The high pitch of the axes of the great folds. At the 
turn of the middle antieclinal at the Elbow, dips, which are 
well marked in the limestone, range from Vertical to 75° to 
the south, (Section II.) “At the turn of the western synclinal 
in Northwest Bay the dip is about 60° in the same direction. 
We have here, then, folds with very high south-pitching axes, 
the pitch in the case of the anticlinal being nearly 9U° and in 
the case of the synclinal at a lower angle. In the case of the 
eastern synclinal the pitch is also high, though apparently 
considerably less than 90°, as indicated by the greater thick- 


. hess of the series measured along the axis than across it. The 


Steep Rock series therefore dips away from the granites, at 
the turns of folds, at angles which do not differ materially 
from those observed in the long straight stretches; as, for 
example, that in Hast Bay. 

2nd. ‘The regional cleavage. Throughout the whole area 
is observed a regional cleavage, which has a tolerably uniform 
direction between the limits N. 38° and N. 48° E., and trav- 
erses all the rocks of the region, both the eruptive and sedi- 
mentary members of the Steep Rock Series, and the rocks of 
basement complex. It has largely obliterated the original 


328 «=. L. Smyth—Geology of Steep Rock Lake, Ont. 


lamination of the sediments and banded schists of the Steep 
Rock Series, and is now the dominant structure. 

In inferring the orotechnic history of the region the origin 
of the N.E. cleavage must be ascribed to a force acting per- 
pendicular to it, or ina N.W. and 8.E. direction; and since 
this cleavage runs through, and in many cases masks all pre- 
vious structure, the force which produced it must have been 
the last force which has left its marks upon the rocks of the 
lake. To this force also must be ascribed the action which 
left the Steep Rock series in its present folded attitude. 

What was the position of the rocks just before this cleavage- 
producing force acted upon them? It could not have been | 
horizontal, for in the long stretch in East Bay, where the 
strike runs nearly straight for four miles, and in the limestone 
exposures N.W. of the Elbow, the plane of the dip nearly 
coincides with the direction of this force, and the cleavage 
planes intersect it nearly at right angles.’ A N.W. and S.E. 
force acting parallel to the present strike in the plane of the 
dip, could not have tilted these portions of the Steep Rock 
Series into their present nearly vertical position. It seems 
necessary to suppose, therefore, that before the cleavage-pro- 
ducing force acted, that part of the Steep Rock Series that we 
know, existed asa N.W. and 8.E. striking monocline, having 
a high dip to the S.W. as the result of previous folding by a 
N.E. and 8.W. force. 


ee 


y} 


Fig. 2.-—Diagram showing the attitude Fig. 3.—Diagram showing atti- 
of the Steep Rock Series just previous to tude of Steep Rock Series after 
the second folding. second folding. 


The folding of the Steep Rock Series indicates therefore 
two periods of orotechnic action. In the first period, the force 
acted ina N.E.-S.W. direction, and folded the series about 
horizontal axes, having a N.W.-S.E. direction. That part of 
the series now exposed about the lake was left as a N.W— 
striking monocline, with a high dip towards the S.W. In the 
second period, the cleavage-producing force acted in a N.W.— 
S.E. direction upon this monocline and produced upon it two 
effects. 1st, it caused it to yield as a whole, not by vertical 
arching over horizontal axes, to which the nearly vertically 


H. L. Smyth—G@eology of Steep Rock Lake, Ont. 329 


standing leaves of the series would oppose their maximum 
rigidity, but by horizontal buckling about nearly vertical axes, 
to which the opposed rigidity would be a minimum. Figures 
2 and 3 illustrate this point. 2nd, consequent upon the 
regional movements attending the folding were produced mi- 
nute fissures, and a rearrangement of particles along planes 
perpendicular to its direction ; or, in other words, the regional 
cleavage. : 

These two periods of orotechnic action explain also the 
schistose dikes and the transition zones between Formation I, 
and the granitic complex. The dike at locality 41 will serve 
as an example of the class. It is from 60 to 70 feet in width 
and cuts the granitic complex, the southeast wall running N. 
48° KE. For a distance of three feet from the wall the dike is 
very schistose and fine grained. ‘The interior is massive and 
erystalline. Under the microscope the interior is seen to be a 
quartz diorite, consisting of quartz, plagioclose, hornblende,— 
in places altered to chlorite and epidote, magnetite and apatite. 
The feldspars are nearly all saussurized. A slide from the 
schistose portion shows it to be a hydromica schist, with a 
great deal of normal chlorite. The quartzes are strained and 
broken, and the magnetite is granulated and drawn out into 
fissured “augen.” Some epidote is arranged along planes of 
foliation. The rock shows shearing and crushing in an eminent 
degree. 

Previous to the first orotechnic period we may suppose that 
the Steep Rock series lay in a horizontal position upon the 
basement complex. The parallel dikes, of which 41 is an 
example, which supplied the materials for the interbedded 
eruptives of the series, constituted a system of thin vertical 
beds running through and binding together the grantitic com- 
plex, and the sediments and interbedded eruptives of the 
upper series. The effect of the first force was to arch the 
series about horizontal axes parallel to the present strikes in 
East Bay, and perpendicular to the course of the chimney 
series of dikes. It acted parallel to the direction of these dikes 
and therefore opposed to their greatest rigidity. As the upper 
series bent under the action of the force, there must have been 
a difference in the rate of yielding of the bedded sediments 
and thin horizontal eruptives, on the one hand, and the verti- 
cal dikes and massive granitic complex on the other. This 
difference in rate of yielding must have produced grinding: 
Ist, of the basal sediments on the granitic complex; 2nd, 
between the vertical dikes and the rocks through which they 
passed, whether sediments, interleaved eruptives, or of the 
complex. 

The grinding would result in shearing and comminution of 
both rocks in zones adjacent and parallel to the contacts. The 


3380 FZ. L. Smyth— Geology of Steep Lock Lake, Ont. 


transition zone at the junction of the basement complex and 
Formation I, represents the depth to which the granites, 
previously weakened by disintegration, were affected by the 
grinding. In this zone there was also doubtless a certain 
intermingling of particles produced by the action of gravity. 

The later orotechnic force has imposed schistose structure 
in these zones of comminution just as in the sedimentary 
members of the upper series. 

Behavior of the complec.—How have the crystalline rocks 
of the basement complex yielded to the tremendous stresses 
which produced the buckled folds in the upper series? This 
most interesting question must be left incompletely answered. 
A few points, however, are clear. Great relief was afforded 
by the fault across the northern end of the lake. The dip of 
the fault plane, unfortunately, was not observed, but it is con- 
ceived that the movement was essentially horizontal, and that 
the 6000 feet of observed throw is nearly the full measure 
of its amount. In the zone adjacent to the Steep Rock Series, 
in which alone the granites were studied, the presence of 
numerous folded dikes, in the localities in which the whole 
series has been specially folded, seems to show that the granites 

yielded by bend- 
ing and not by 
faulting. One of 
these is shown in 
figure: “ieee 
one of many seen 
in the stretch of 
shore north of Wie- 
gand’s Point. This 
bending in the 
granites implies, 
,, - Of course, accord- 
77 ing to Heim’s law, 
a tremendous load 
upon them. 

Thickness.—The 
thickness of the 

Fig. 4.—Plan of folded Dike. a=Greenstone members of the 
Dike. 6=Chloritic gneiss, autoclastic from Steep Rock series 


granite. The surface dips gently to the North, civen in the de- 
15". = 


North 


ig 
Scale of Feel“ 


5 10 »o 


° 


scription of the 
separate formations, is that measured in the section across East 
Bay, and is undoubtedly too great. This part of the series 
underwent tremendous longitudinal compression by the cleay- 
age-producing force; the thinly bedded members have been 
thrown into little compressed folds, and the more massive 
members have been contorted on a larger seale. In both ways 


Cy 
Sey” 


H. L. Smyth— Geology of Steep Rock Lake, Ont. 381 


the thickness of the series measured in section has been largely 
but indeterminately increased. In the stretch from the Elbow 
north to the head of Falls Bay, west of the axial plane, the 
series is much thinner, probably as the result of three causes: 
(1) A general stretching in this direction. (2) A possible 
faulting along the axis. This has not been observed, however. 
(3) A probable thinning out of the trap horizon in going west. 

For these reasons a measurement across the series there 
would probably be at least as much less than the true thick- 
ness as the East Bay section is greater. A mean between them, 
or 4500 feet, may be taken as an approximation to the true 
thickness. 

General Considerations.—The study of the Steep Rock 
series shows some results both positive and negative which 
have a general interest in connection with the geology of the 
region N.W. of Lake Superior. 

1st. The contact of Formation I with the basement complex is 
one of erosion. 

Zd. The complex at the time of the deposition of the Steep 
Rock series was made up of consolidated crystalline rocks, and 
there is no evidence whatever that it has since undergone 
fusion, or recurred to the condition of a magma. 

3d. The rocks of the Steep Rock series have been subjected 
at two periods, more or less distant, from one another, to the 
action of great orotechnic forces, which acted—the first in a 
N.E. and 8.W. direction, and the second in a N.W. and 8.E. 

4th. The latter force has imposed upon all the rocks of the 
region a N.E. structure, which has largely, but not entirely, 
obliterated preéxisting lamination in the sediments and schists 
of the Steep Rock series. 

5th. The two orotechnic actions have produced great devel- 
opments of autoclastic* schists, both in the granites and in the 
rocks of the Steep Rock series; the present structure in which 
was induced and determined in direction by the last force. 

The consideration of the Aticokan series, with a more 
general discussion of the mutual relations of the three series of 
rocks, and an attempt at correlation, must be deferred to 
another paper. | 

The author wishes to express his great obligations to Prof. 
Raphael Pumpelly for many valuable suggestions. Mr. C. 
Livy Whittle, of Cambridge, Mass., has kindly examined a 
number of thin sections from the Steep Rock series, and the 
results of his study are incorporated in the above description 
of formations. 

Port Arthur, Ontario, June, 1891. 

* That is, schists formed in place from massive rocks by crushing and squeez- 


ing, without intervening processes of disintegration or erosion, removal and depo- 
sition. 


= 


332 B. J. Harrington—So-called Amber of 


CW, | Tf. 
Art. XX XII.—On the so-called Amber of Cedar Lake, North 


Saskatchewan, Canada; by B. J. Harrineron, McGill 
College, Montreal. , 


THE occurrence of mineral resins in some of the coals and 
lignites of the Northwest and British Columbia has been 
known for many years, and the results of a partial examina- 
tion of specimens from three localities were published by the 
writer in the report of the Geological Survey for 1876-77, p. 
471. The conclusion then arrived at was that none of the 
specimens could be referred to amber or succinite, though in 
some respects closely resembling that substance. Attention 
was also called to the statement of Goeppert that he knew of 
no instance of true amber being found in the brown coals of 
northern Germany, the substance occurring in those beds 
being “retinite.” 

During the summer of 1890, Mr. J. B. Tyrrell, M.A., of the 
Geological Survey of Canada, visited a locality on the west 
shore of Cedar Lake, near the mouth of the North Saskatch- 
ewan, where a mineral resin resembling amber in appear- 
ance has been found in large quantity. With regard to it Mr. 
Tyrrell says: “It occurs mixed with sand and many fragments 
of partly decayed wood, on a low beach behind a gradually 
shelving shore and along the face of a deep, wet, spruce 
swamp. The pieces were, for the most part, smaller than a 
pea, but could be readily seen glittering among the sand and 
vegetable debris. Some pieces were found as large as a robin’s 
ego, and Mr. King [of the Hudson’s Bay Company] informed 
me that he had collected pieces very much larger. It has evi- 
dently been washed up on the shore by the waves, but its 
exact age has not been positively determined. 

“The first place at which it was seen was in a small bay 
behind a limestone point projecting towards the north, but the 
most extensive deposit is more than a mile south of this point, 
where a rounded beach stretches across the margin of a low 
swamp. This beach is about a mile in length and from eighty 
to one hundred and twenty feet in breadth. The amber is 
found most plentifully along its ridge, where it constitutes 
between five and ten per cent by volume of the sand and vege- 
table debris, and holes dug to a depth of two feet show no 
diminution in its quantity. Towards the edge of the lake, 
however, the sand is freer, both from fragments of wood and 
amber. It is difficult to make an accurate estimate of the 
quantity of amber on this mile of beach, but it may confidently 
be said to be found throughout the distance in a band thirty 
feet wide, with a minimum depth of two feet.”* 


* Summary report of the Geological Survey Department for 1890, p. 22 


Cedar Lake, North Saskatchewan, Canada. 333 


The writer is indebted to Mr. Tyrrell for specimens of this 
so-called amber from Cedar Lake, and the results of their 
examination, as far as completed, will now be given. The 


substance was in pieces, for the most part very irregular in 


shape, some being more or less angular, others approximately 
spherical, and others flattened, discoid or lenticular. Some of 
the pieces were smaller than a pea, but they ranged from this 
up to the size of an ordinary bean (about 2 centimeters long). 
In color they varied from pale yellow to dark brown, and 
many, when examined by transmitted light, appeared clouded 
or banded from the presence of black carbonaceous matter. 
Superficially they were generally dull, owing, perhaps, to 
chemical change, but on fresh surfaces the luster was resinous. 
The fracture was conchoidal. Though electric on friction, 
they appeared to be less strongly so than ordinary amber. 

Light-colored fragments, free from black carbonaceous mat- 
ter, were selected for examination, and any superficial crust 
carefully removed by scraping. The hardness of these selected 
pieces was fully 24. The specific gravity, as obtained with a 
quantity of material in the specific gravity bottle, was 1-055 
(at 20° C.), and a single fragment gave by suspension with a hair 
1:0548 (20° C). The material for analysis was finely powdered 
and dried over sulphuric acid 7 vacuo. The combustions 
were made with lead chromate in the usual way, and the ash 
determined with a separate portion in a platinum crucible. 
The following are the results obtained : 


rr EF Mean. 

Gurpon SLO Yi lata! BS S| 79°96 
iyropen |. 10°37 10°55 10°46 
Oregon 2 9°53 9°45 9°49 
Pash bel. O00 0°09 0°09 
100°00 100°00 100°00 

Excluding the ash the results become: 

pi Il. Mean. 

Marvontiiits 222: 80°08 79°98 80°03 
Hydrogen 724...) 1038 10°56 10°47 
Dyson: sen... 9°54 9°46 9°50 
100°00 100°00 100°00 


The ash was brick-red in color and found to contain silica, 
alumina, iron, lime, and magnesia. 

The only solvents whose action upon the resin has been tried 
as yet are absolute alcohol and absolute ether, and the effect of 
these was ascertained as follows: One gram of the finely pow- 


Am. Jour. Sci1.—THIRD SERIES, Vou. XLII, No. 250.—OctTosrr, 1891. 


334 B. J. Harrington—So-called Amber of 


dered resin was mixed with ten grams of pure quartz sand in a 
cylinder of filter paper and extracted in Soxhlet’s apparatus, 
in the case of the alcohol for three and a half hours (24 siphon- 
ings) and in the case of the ether for two hours (24 siphonings). | 
In each case the sand and filter paper were previously ex- 
tracted by the special solvent for several hours. The extract 
from the resin was evaporated in a weighed platinum dish and 
the residue dried at 100° C. The results obtained were as 
follows : 


Dissolved by absolute alcohol -- ---- 21-01 per cent. 
66 66 66 ether ahs Peed 94°84 ce 


The effect of more prolonged action of. the solvents has not 
as yet been ascertained. .The alcoholic extract after drying 
was brownish in color, while that obtained with ether was only 
faintly yellow. 

When small fragments of the resin were heated in closed 
tubes it was found that they began to soften at about 150° C., 
the point of softening being roughly ascertained by pressure 
with a platinum rod. At 180-190° C. the fragments were 
sufficiently yielding to be pressed into one mass by the plati- 
num rod. Heated up to 300° OC. the resin did not melt into 
a flowing liquid, put became soft and elastic, and had darkened 
a good deal from partial decomposition. 

Fragments of genuine amber behaved in a similar manner, 
but began to soften at about 140° C. At 180° they could be 
readily pressed into one mass, and in the one experiment tried 
they seemed to darken more readily than the Cedar Lake resin 
when heated up to 280°-300° C. The ordinary statement that 
amber fuses at 287° C. is certainly misleading, the fact being 
that it begins to soften at a very much lower temperature, 
gradually getting softer and softer as the temperature rises, 
but not becoming a flowing liquid until decomposition takes 
place. : 

: On heating the Cedar Lake resin in a test tube or retort no” 
erystals of succinic acid were obtained, although they were 
readily obtained from true amber by similar treatment. 

It is customary to assign to amber the formula O,,H,,O,, 
which gives: carbon 78°94, hydrogen 10°53, oxygen 10°53; but 
this is apparently based upon very insufficient data—so far as 
the writer is aware, upon the single analysis of Schrotter 
(carbon 78°82, hydrogen 10:23, oxygen 10°95), which really 
corresponds much more closely to C,,H,,O,. Such a substance 
as amber, too, coming from a variety of localities and originally 
derived from very different plants can scarcely be expected 
to agree closely in composition with one definite formula. 


fies ee § 


4 


Cedar Lake, North Saskatchewan, Canada. 335 


The Cedar Lake resin contains more carbon than the amber 
analyzed by Schrotter and less oxygen, and in this respect 
comes nearer to Walchowite and to some of the recent copals 
from India. The relations of some of these bodies will be 
made plain by the following tables: 

Ratio of C, H, 


Ratio of C, H, and O atoms, 
Carbon. Hydrogen, Oxygen. and O atoms. taking C =40. 


Le. Sit LT: ei A 4e-82 = 10-23. 10°95 9°60:14°95:1 40:62°29:4:16 
1YS Weanivine S22 2 = = - foes Oa) Wiss 2251S list 4056305 :-3°91 
III. Cedar Lake Resin 80°03 10°47 9°50 11°23:17-63:1 40: 62-79: 3°56 
IV. Copal (Bombay)-- 79°70 10°40 97905; 10715: 1683.21 »40:62°62: 3°72 
VY. Copal (Caleutta)__ 80°34 10°32 9:34? 11°46:17°67:1 40:61°67: 3.49 


I, Phillips’ Mineralogy (1852), p. 630. Anal. by Schrotter. 
Il. Dana’s Mineralogy (1869), p. 741. Anal. by Landolt. IV. 
Watts’s Dictionary of Chemistry (ed. 1.), vol. ii, p. 19. Anal. 
by Filhol. V. Watts’s Dictionary of Chemistry (ed. i), vol. 1, 
pea9: Anal. by Filhol.* 

Though resembling amber in some of its characters, the 
Cedar Lake resin may here be classed provisionally as “ re- 
tinite,” on account of its differmg from amber in its deport- 
ment with solvents,t in not yielding crystals of succinic acid 
on distillation, and in. having a somewhat different ultimate 
composition. The name retinite as used by some mineralogists 
is a convenient general term to include such substances as 
Walchowite, Krantzite, Jaulingite, Rosthornite and the Cedar 
Lake resin, which last, by way of distinguishing it from other 
retinites, may be called Chemawinite (from Chemahawin or 
Chemayin, the Indian name of a Hudson Bay post, not far 
from where the resin occurs). 

Though the origin of this substance is not certainly known, 
there can be little doubt that it has been derived from one of 
the Tertiary or Cretaceous lignites occurring on the Saskatche- 
wan. Some of these are known to contain resins, one of which, 
examined by the writer, was not essentially very different from 
the Cedar Lake material. It behaved similarly on heating, 
had a hardness of over 2, a specific gravity of 1:066, and dis- 
solved in absolute alcohol to the extent of 29-30 per cent. 

Some of the larger pieces of the Cedar Lake resin might, 
perhaps, be employed for ornamental purposes (beads, etc.), 
and possibly the material might be utilized by the varnish- 
maker. ‘This question will be discussed when the examination 
of the resin is completed. 


* In the last analysis, as given by Watts, there is an error. The total is given 
as 100, whereas it is really only 99°80. It is here assumed that the error is on 
the oxygen—the constituent determined by difference: A similar error occurs in 
Schrotter’s analysis of amber, as given by Dana. 

+ The statements in works on mineralogy with regard to fossil resins are often 
vague and sometimes conflicting. Thus, in speaking of the action of such solvents 
as alcohol or ether, we are told nothing as to the strength of the solvent, the dura- 
tion of its action, etc., and the results given are, therefore, often of little value. 


336 O. C. Marsh— Geological Horizons as 
ry 1 Vi « 
Art. XXXIIT. — Geological Horizons as determined by 
Vertebrate Fossils ;* by O. C. Marsa. With Plate XII. — 


In 1877, the author endeavored to bring together some 
results of his researches in the Rocky mountain region and 
in other parts of the country, relating to the succession of 
vertebrate life.+t This led to a comparison of the relative value 
of the three different groups of fossils; plants, invertebrates, 
and vertebrates, in marking geological time. In examining 
the subject with some care, the author found that, for this 
purpose, plants are not satisfactory witnesses ; that invertebrate 
animals are much better; but that vertebrates afford the most 
reliable evidence of climatic and other geological changes. 
The subdivisions of the latter group, and, in fact, all forms of 
animal life, are of value in this respect, mainly according to 
the perfection of their organization, or zodlogical rank. Fishes, 
for example, are but slightly affected by changes that would 
destroy Reptiles or Birds, and the higher Mammais succumb 
under influences that the lower forms pass through im safety. 
The special applications of this general law, and its value in 
geology, readily suggest themselves. 

In accordance with this principle, the author next attempted 
to define the principal geological horizons in the West which 
he had personally investigated, and then taking in each the 
largest and most dominant vertebrate form which characterized 
it, used the name for the horizon. In the same way, some of 
the principal horizons of the East were named, and the whole 
brought together in a section to illustrate vertebrate life in 
America.t 

The names thus given to various horizons were not intended 
to replace those already applied, but merely to supplement 
them, and by new evidence, to clear up those in doubt. The 
same principle had long before been found to work admirably 
in Europe, where certain characteristic invertebrate fossils, 
especially Ammonites, had served to mark definitely various 
subdivisions of a single formation. The wider application of 
the principle to vertebrate fossils, from their earliest known 
appearance to the present time, has already helped to complete 
the record of vertebrate life in America, and rendered an 
equal service to systematic geology. 

Since this method of defining geological horizons by vertebrate 
fossils was first used by the author in 1877, many important 

* Abstract of Communication made to the International Geological Congress 
Washington, D. C., August 28th, 1891. 

+ Introduction and Succession of Vertebrate Life in America. Address before 
the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Nashville, Tenn., 


August 30, 1877. 
{ The same address, Frontispiece. 


determined by Vertebrate Fossils. 337 


discoveries have been made, especially in the West, and much 
information bearing on the subject has been obtained from 
various quarters. In 1884, the author revised and extended 
the first section for his monograph on the Dinoverata, and it 
seems fitting on the present occasion to bring together once 
more some of the later evidence, and place on record the more 
-important horizons now known to the author by personal 
exploration, or by other investigations which he has verified. 

The accompanying section, Plate XII, is designed to represent 
in outline, in their geological order, the successive horizons at 
present known with certainty from characteristic vertebrate 
fossils. The correlation of these horizons with those deter- 
mined on other evidence is important, and considerable progress 
in this direction has already been made, but the results cannot 
be presented here. 

In-comparing the present section with the one first published 
by the author, it will be noticed that no vertebrates are yet 
known in the Archean or Cambrian, but a single fortunate 
discovery in Colorado has recently carried back the first known 
appearance of Fishes, from the lower Devonian to the lower 
Silurian, or more specifically, from the Schoharie Grit to the 
- Trenton. 

The next point of importance is in the Triassic, in the horizon 
of the Connecticut river sandstone where so many foot-prints 
have been found, and attributed to Birds. Recent discoveries 
in these beds have shown that at least three distinct forms of 
carnivorous Dinosaurian reptiles, all of moderate size, lived at 
that period, and doubtless did their share in leaving foot-prints 
behind them. In two of the skeletons secured, the bones of 
the hind feet are still in position, and in life could have made 
some of the foot-prints previously discovered. 

Near the base of the Jurassic, a new horizon may now be 
defined as the Hallopus beds, as here alone remains of the 
remarkable reptile named by the author //allopus victor have 
been found. Another diminutive Dinosaur, anosaurus, 
occurs in the same strata. This horizon is believed to be 
lower than the Baptanodon beds, although the two have not 
been found together. The Hallopus beds now known are in 
Colorado, below the Atlantosaurus beds, but quite distinct 
from them. 

The Baptanodon beds have been found at many localities, 
in Dakota, Wyoming, and northern Utah, everywhere beneath 
the Atlantosaurus beds, and having below them, at various 
localities, a series of red beds, which may, perhaps, contain the 
Hallopus horizon, but are generally regarded as Triassic. 

Beside the two species of Baptanodon described by the 
author, the next vertebrate in importance, in the same horizon, 


338 Scientific Intelligence. 


is a small Plesiosaur, which may be called Parasaurus striatus. 
One specimen only has been found in northern Wyoming. 

The Atlantosaurus beds of the upper Jurassic are now 
known to be one of the best marked horizons yet discovered. 
They have been traced for more than four hundred miles 
along the eastern flank of the Rocky mountains, and nearly 
everywhere contain great numbers of fossil vertebrates, espe- 
cially gigantic Dinosaurs and other reptiles, as well as many 
diminutive mammals of primitive types. The same deposits 
have been found on the western slope, with the Baptanodon 
beds beneath them. — 

The most remarkable of the new horizons recently deter- 
mined are the Ceratops beds in the Laramie series, at the top 
of the Cretaceous. This horizon is as strongly marked as that 
of the Atlantosaurus beds, and has now been traced for nearly 
eight hundred miles along the eastern base of the Rocky 
mountains. Toward the north, it is underlaid by marine 
Cretaceous strata containing Fox Hill fossils, but further 
south, various older formations are found immediately beneath 
it. The overlying strata, when present, are usually of Tertiary 
age. The Fort Union Eocene beds on the upper Missouri, the 
Brontotherium beds of the Miocene in Wyoming, and further 
south in Colorado the Phohippus beds of the Pliocene, may 
be seen immediately above. The vertebrate fauna of the 
Ceratops beds is remarkably rich and varied. The gigantic 
horned Dinosaurs named by the author the Ceratopside espe- 
cially abound, and determine the horizon with accuracy. Other 
Dinosaurs are numerous; and a few Birds, and various Mammals 
of Mesozoic types have also been secured. 

In the various horizons of the Tertiary, as repeated in the 
present section, no changes of importance have been required, 
as more recent discoveries fully confirm their value and accurate 
determination. 


SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE 
I. CHEMISTRY AND PHysIcs. 


1. On the Absorption Spectrum of Liquid Oxygen.—In a pre- 
liminary examination of the absorption spectrum of liquified 
oxygen, Orszewsk1 observed four bands corresponding to the 
wave lengths 628, 577, 535 and 480, these bands being the same 
as those noted by Liveing and Dewar in the spectrum of gaseous 
oxygen at high pressures, in addition to two bands in the ultra 
red agreeing with the Fraunhofer lines A and B. More recently 
Olszewski has prepared liquid oxygen in larger quantity and has 
examined its absorption spectrum more critically. Using a layer 


Chemistry and Physics. 339 


30 mm. thick and 50 mm. high, contained in a thin glass vessel 
surrounded by three glass beakers to protect it from outside heat, 
it was found possible to maintain it at atmospheric pressure at its 
boiling point —181°4° for half an hour or more; and thus to 
submit it to observation for that time. The four absorption 
bands above mentioned were observed, and in addition a fifth 
band corresponding to the Fraunhofer line A, more intense than 
the band of wave length 535 but less so than the others. No ab- 
sorption band corresponding to the line B was seen. In 1883 
liquid oxygen was described as colorless ; but with larger quan- 
tities, the author has noticed that in a layer of greater thickness 
than 15 mm., it has a distinct blue color by transmitted light. 
Since special care was taken in the purification of the gas, and 
since ozone was proved to be absent, the author believes this color 
to be characteristic of liquid oxygen. Moreover, he suggests 
that the blue color of the sky may be due to the oxygen in the 
atmosphere.—Ann. Phys. Chem., Il, xlii, 663; J. Chem. Soc., lx, 
773, July, 1891.. } GiB: 

2. On the Production of Ozone in Rapid Combustion.—The 
statement of Inosvay that ozone is not produced in rapid com- 
bustion having been questioned, he has reéxamined the matter 
and concludes that the tests by which the presence of the ozone 
was established by Loew and Cundall were not satisfactory. He 
finds that neither in the products of combustion nor in the air 
taken from around a flame is any substance present which (1) 
gives the odor of ozone, (2) renders thallous oxide paper brown, 
or (3) permanently decolorizes a solution of sulphophenyl-azo-a- 
naphthylamine so that naphthylamine no longer restores the 
color. By carefully depriving the gas used of sulphur compounds, 
he obtained in only a single experiment a reaction with thallous 
oxide paper ; and this after about seven hours. Taking special 
precautions to keep the temperature of the flame low, how eve 
and employing a special collecting apparatus, he obtained the 
thallous oxide reaction in about 4 to 5 minutes and the other re- 
action in 10 to 15 minutes. Examined in this way the author 
finds the flame of methane to give less, the flames of hydrogen 
and carbon monoxide more ozone than that of illuminating gas. 
Moreover it appears that the relative amounts of nitrous acid and 
ozone formed by a flame depend upon its temperature and upon 
its surface ; the ozone formation being favored by a low temper- 
ature. Oxyg en did not give as good results as air. Even if the 
oxygen is partially converted into ozone by blowing a current of 
this gas or of air on a flame, this fact the author thinks does not 
contradict his statement that ozone is not formed during rapid 
combustion. These results agree with those of Dewar and those 
of Elster and Geitel. The former chemist ozonized oxygen by 
passing it over white hot platinum. Since therefore the condi- 
tions essential to the production of ozone are not present in ordi- 
nary combination, this cannot be the source of the ozone of the 
atmosphere.— Bull. Soc. Chim., Ill, iv, 707; 4. Chem. Soc., |x, 
798, July, 1891. G. F. B. 


340 Scientific Intelligence. 


3. On Sulphuryl Peroxide.—By the action of the silent electric 
discharge upon a mixture of either sulphuric oxide or sulphurous 
oxide and oxygen, Berthelot obtained several years ago a erystal- 
lized compound tc which he gave the name persulphuric acid and 
the formula $,0,. The same substance was also obtained by 
Berthelot by the electrolysis of a 40 per cent sulphuric acid. 
Shortly afterward Trause made a preliminary examination of 
this compound and concluded that its formula was SO, and not 
S,0,; and further that it was not an acid oxide as Berthelot sup- 
posed, but a neutral substance, sulphuryl peroxide. The present 
paper deals with the analytical results of his investigation. Al- 
though he has not succeeded in isolating the peroxide, he has 
obtained it free from the 40 per cent sulphuric acid in which it 
was dissolved. ‘This was done by diluting the solution with 2 to 
4 times its volume of water and adding to it freshly prepared 
barium phosphate. The sulphuric acid is thrown down as barium 
sulphate and the filtrate contains the peroxide dissolved in phos- 
phoric acid with some barium phosphate. It does not seem capa- 
ble of existing in solution in pure water. As the peroxide easily 
evolves oxygen and is reduced to sulphuric oxide, the composition 
of the dissolved compound was ascertained by taking a known vol- 
ume of the solution, determining first the active oxygen therein by 
a known solution of ferrous sulphate, titermg back with perman- 
ganate, and then the sulphuric acid as barium sulphate. In two 
experiments, the active oxygen was found to be 9°62 and 35°96 
milligrams, the SO, present being 49°5 and 178'5 ; giving the ratio 
1:5°1 and 1:5 in the two cases. Hence 16 parts active oxygen 
are combined with 80 parts of SO,; i. e., SO,+O = SO, ; or per- 
haps (SO,) +O, = 8,O,. In order to determine its neutral char- 
acter, the electrolyzed sulphuric acid after dilution with one to 
two parts of water and cooling to —10°, was saturated with dilute 
alkali ; a process which did not ‘affect the SO,. On boiling the 
neutral solution thus obtained for a half hour, until a drop gave 
no blue coloration with zinc-iodide-starch solution, the active 
oxygen was expelled and the solution became intensely acid. 
Evidently if the peroxide had been an acid oxide and had formed 
an acid with the water present, a salt K,SO, would have resulted 
from the saturation of this acid by potassium hydroxide. And 
this on giving up oxygen would have produced K,SO, still neu- 
tral. This evidence of neutrality on the part of the peroxide was 
confirmed by quantitative data. The ratio of the active oxygen 
in the solution before boiling to the sulphuric acid produced by 
the boiling was determined ; the acid by titration with sodium or 
potassium hydroxide, using rosolic. acid as an indicator ; and the 
active oxygen either by ferrous solution and permanganate or by 
potassium iodide and sodium thiosulphate. The ratio varied from 
1:4°56 to 1:5°10; giving 1: 4°85 asamean. The active oxygen 
as determined by the iron method was somewhat higher than that 
given by the iodine method, owing to the presence of acid car- 
bonate of the alkali in the solution, which decreased the free acid 


Chemistry and Physics. 341 


in this solution and also decreased the quantity of the active 
oxygen as determined by the iodine method. The author regards 
this compound either as sulphuric oxide in which a single atom 
of oxygen is replaced by a double one, SO,(O,) or as hydrogen 
peroxide in which the hydrogen is replaced by SO,, corresponding _ 
to Brodie’s class of neutral peroxides. Berthelot’s 8,0, he regards 
as SO,+S0O,. Since in not too dilute sulphuric acid, it dissolves 
without evolution of oxygen, the equation $,O,+ H,O = H,SO,+ 


‘SO, shows the identity of the product thus obtained with that 


produced by electrolysis.—Ler. Berl. Chem. Ges., xxiv, 1764, 
June, 1891. G. F. B. 

4, A Dictionary of Applied Chemistry ; by T. E. Tuorpx 
assisted by eminent contributors. Vol. I, 714 pp., 8vo. Lon- 
don, 1891, (Longmans, Green & Co.)—The first volume of the. 
Dictionary of Applied Chemistry—the successor, on the techni- 
cal side, to Watts’s Dictionary of Chemistry—was noticed in 
volume xxxix of this Journal, (p. 519). The second volume has 
now appeared and carries the work on from Eau to Nux, and 
hence the completion of the whole may be looked for at an early 
date. Some of the more important subjects discussed at length, 
and in many cases with liberal illustrations, are the following : 
Explosives, by W. H. Deering ; fermentation, by P. F. Frank- 
land; fuel, by B. H. Brough; coal gas, by Lewis Wright ; gold, 
by E. J. Ball; india rubber, by C. A. Burghardt ; iron by Thomas 
Turner ; lead nye Bik? Bedson ; matches, by E. G. Clayton ; 
napthalene, by W. P. Wynne. The same thorough but concise 
treatment before noted characterizes this volume and makes the 


_ work as a whole indispensable to all interested in any of the 


many departments of technical chemistry. 

5. Meusurement of time of Rotation.—The ordinary methods 
of determining the time of very rapid rotation depend in general 
upon the contact of a stylus on the prong of a tuning fork with 
a rotating wheel or cylinder, or on the use of the electric spark 
with a pendulum to indicate the time of rotation. K. Pryrz 
departs from both of these methods and employs a falling body 
upon or against which the rapidly rotating body spirts a fine jet 
of coloring matter. In this way retardation of contacts is pre- 
vented, and the time is referred directly to the time of a falling 
body. The author gives in detail the method of holding the 
small glass tube containing the coloring matter, and the method 
of obtaining the records. Examples of determination of time 
by this method are given and the author claims that the time of 
a complete revolution of his apparatus could be determined to 
0°00002 of a second.—Ann. der Physik und Chemie, No. vii, 1891, 
pp. 638-651. Bre 

6. Method of determining Specific Heat by means of the 
Electrical Current.—Yhe method of determining specific heats 
by the use of Joule’s law has not proved useful, except in non- 
conducting liquids. Professor PraunpLEeR has obviated the 
difficulty of conduction through the liquid by employing glass 


342 Scientific Intelligence. 


spirals filled with mercury. These spirals were placed in a 
Wheatstone’s bridge in order to control the ratio of the resist- 
ance during the flowing of the current and to keep it constant.— 
Wiener Berichte, April 9, 1891. Js) th. 

7. Optical relation of Organic Dyes.—K. VocEt discusses 
the sensitizing power of the various compounds of eosine and 
gives charts of the sensitizing power. He recommends for ortho- 
chromatic photography that ordinary dry plates containing a 
weak amount of iodide of silver should be bathed in the follow- 
ing: 25°™ solution of the coloring matter, erythrosine, in water, 
(1:1000); 0°5°™ solution nitrate of silver (1:20 water); 2°™ 
ammonia, spec. grav. 0°94; 75°™ distilled water. The author 
finds that the eosine dyes which are the most strongly fluorescent 
are the poorest sensitizers. Among the other conclusions of the 
writer we find the following: The sensitizing power of the eosine 
dyes depends: 1. On the sensitiveness to light of the dye. 2. On 
the proportion of light rays that is absorbed in other than chem- 
ical work. The more energy of the latter that is consumed in 
other than chemical work the smaller the chemical action.— Ann. 
der Physik und Chemie, No. vii, 1891, pp. 449-472. J. de 

8. Maxim’s Flying Machine.—It is stated that Mr. Maxim is 
now constructing a flying machine at Crayford, which is nearly 
ready for launching. “It will be propelled by a light screw 
making 2500 revolutions per minute. The motive power is said 
to be a petroleum condensing engine weighing eighteen hundred 
pounds, and capable of raising a forty thousand pound load. 
The real suspending power will lie in an enormous kite measuring 
110 feet long and 40 feet wide.”— Nature, July 30, 1891. 4. 7. 

9. Small Hlectrometers.—At a meeting of the Physical Society 
held in London, June 26, Protessor Boys described small portable 
electrometers of his design. In one of these the needle was 
cross-shaped and made of zine and platinum, and reliance was 
placed upon contact electricity to keep the needle at different 
potentials. Tbe instrument was very sensitive-—Vuture, July 
16, Leon: suit 

10. Influence of brightness upon phenomenu of interference of 
light.— According to Michelson and Morley the red hydrogen line 
is a Close double. They found that if the hght of this line was 
employed to obtain interference bands, that these bands disap- 
peared with a difference of path of 15,000 wave-lengths, and also 
with a difference of path of 45,000 wave-lengths, and from a 
similar phenomena produced by the double sodium line it was 
concluded that the hydrogen line H, consisted of two compo- 
nents at a distance apart of 4, of that of the sodium lines. 
Exertr concludes from his investigation of this subject that this 
difference in the position of minima is not connected with du- 
plicity of the line but depends upon particular conditions of the 
source of light ; and believes that peculiarities in the appearances 
of the hydrogen line in stars of certain types depends also upon 
character of emission of the light. The method of high interfer- 


an 


Geology. 343 


ences promises to give an insight into the relation between the 
character of the light and the distribution of light in its spectral 
lines.—Ann. der Physik und Chemie, Ne 790-807, no. 8, 1891. 
oui 
11. Thought transfer ence.—Professor Basen. President of the 
section of Mathematics and Physics at the late meeting of the 
British Association, used the following language: ‘‘ May there 
not also be an immaterial (perhaps an etherial) medium of com- 
munication? Is it possible that an idea can be transferred from 
one person to another by a process such as we have not yet grown 
accustomed to, and know practically nothing about? In this 
case I have evidence. I assert that I have seen it done and am 
perfectly convinced of the fact.”—Wature, Aug. 20, 1891, p. 386. 
Pe 2. E. 


Il. Gro.uoey. 


1. Lifth Triennial Meeting of the International Congress of 
Geologists.—The International Congress commenced its sessions 
at Washington, on Wednesday, the 26th of August. The meet- 
ing was called to order by Prof. T. McKenney Hughes, of Cam- 
bridge, England. After the election of officers, in which Dr. J. 
S. Newberry was chosen President, the chair, in the absence of 
Dr. Newberry, was taken by Prof. Joseph LeConte, one of the 
Vice-Presidents. The principal subjects discussed during the 
sessions are the following: The Ice-period in America and north- 
ern Europe and the classification of pleistocene formations, which 
was opened by President T. C. Chamberlin and occupied Thurs- 
day ; the Correlation of European and American geological for- 
mations, opened by Prof. G. K. Gilbert, occupying Friday ; the 
Graphic system used in geological work, opened by Major Powell, 
on the forenoon of Monday. The afternoon of that day was 
given up to discussions relating to the geology of the regions to 
be visited by the Western excursion. 

On the subject of Correlation, the value of the effects of physi- 
cal events or conditions and of relations in flora, in fauna, in In- 
vertebrate species and Vertebrate species was variously discussed. 
The weight of opinion appeared to favor the view that Verte- 
brate .species, when present, afforded the best evidence as to 
chronological relations. Prof. Zittel gave the highest place to 
Vertebrates. An abstract of Prof. Marsh’s remarks is contained 
in the paper on page 336. 

The next meeting of the Congress, or that of 1894, will be held 
in Switzerland, probably at Berne; and, on special invitation re- 
ceived from the Geological Survey of Russia, the following, in 
1897, will probably be held in St. Petersburg. 

The party for the excursion to the Yellowstone Park, Colorado, 
etc., included about eighty members of the Congress, of which 
more than half were those from abroad. The following ladies 
were of the number: Miss Mary Forster of London, Mrs. Mary 


344 Scientific Intelligence. 


Caroline Hughes of Cambridge, England, Madame Marie Pavlow 
of Moscow, Madame Henriette Sihleano of Bucharest, Roumania, 
Madame Maria G. Stefanescu of Bucharest, Mrs. 8S. F. Emmons, 
Miss Mary G. Markoe and Miss C. A. Smith, of Washington, and 
Mrs. H. 8. Williams of Ithaca. Through the Park the party has 
the special guidance of Messrs. Hague and Iddings. The excur- 
sion will occupy 25 days ; or for those who go also to the Colorado 
Cafion, an additional ten days. The latter trip is under the di- 
rection of Major Powell. <A geological guide-book of 150 pages, 
prepared by Mr. 8. F. Emmons, was distributed to members of the 
party. The party left Washington on the second of September. 

2. The Geological Society of America.—The Geological So- 
ciety held its Summer meeting in Washington on the 24th and 
25th of August. The President of the Society, Prof. Alexander 
Winchell, having died since the preceding meeting, the chair was 
taken by Prof. G. K. Gilbert, Vice-President. Resolutions in 
honor of the late President prepared by a committee were offered 
by the chairman, Prof. Orton. An excellent memorial of Dr. 
Winchell was read by his brother Prof. N. H. Winchell. 

Many foreign geologists were present at the meeting of the 
society and several presented papers having an American impor- 
tance; among these were Prof. Alexis Pavlow, of the Uni- 
versity of Moscow, on the marine beds terminating the Jurassic 
and Cretaceous and on the history of their fauna; Dr. Gus- 
tav Steinmann on a geological map of South America; Dr. 
Friedrich Schmidt, on the Eurypterus beds of Oesel as compared 
with those of the Waterlime of North America; Baron Gerald 
de Geer, of Stockholm, on the Quaternary changes of level in 
Scandinavia; Prof. A. N. Krassnof, of Russia, on the black 
earth of the steppes of southern Russia and its relations to the 
soil of the American prairies. Of the other valuable papers, that 
of C. D. Walcott, on the Lower Silurian ichthyic fauna presented 
in full the evidence he had obtained in favor of his announced 
discovery, carrying down the first fossil fishes from the middle 
Upper Silurian to the Trenton Period in the Lower Silurian. The 
associated fossils were examined by Prof. Hall and pronounced 
by him, as decided by Mr. Walcott, unquestionably Trenton. 

3. A United States Association of Government Geologists.— 
A meeting was held at the Columbian University August 28, 
having for its object an official organization of the directors of the 
state and national geological surveys. There were present Maj. 
J. W. Powell, director of the United States Geological Survey, 
and the state geologists: Prof. James Hall, of New York ; Prof. 
J. M. Safford, of Tennessee; Prof. J. W. Spencer, of Georgia ; 
Prof. E. A. Smith, of Alabama; Prof. J. A. Holmes, of North 
Carolina; Mr. Arthur Winslow, of Missouri; Mr. E. T. Dumble, 
of Texas; Prof. J. Lindahl, of Illinois. Maj. Powell was elected 
chairman of the meeting, and Mr. Winslow secretary. After a 
few preliminary remarks in explanation of the reasons for eall- 
ing the meeting, Mr. Winslow read a paper suggesting a plan of 


Geology. 045 


organization and explaining the objects of, and the results to be 
derived from, such an official organization. The following are 
among the important objects in view : 

The determination of the proper objects of public geological 
work ; the improvement of methods ; the unification of methods ; 
the establishment of the proper relative spheres and functions of 
national and state surveys ; codperation in works of common in- 
terest and the prevention of duplication of work ; the inaugura- 
tion of surveys by states not having such at present to Suave bis 
with the other state surveys and with the national survey. 

A committee of six was elected to consider the matter of 
organization, with the power to frame a constitution and by-laws, 
to be reported to the association at a time and place to be selected 
by the committee. This committee consists of Maj. J. W. Powell, 
chairman, and Prof. EK. A. Smith, Prof. J. A. Holmes, Dr. J. C. 
Branner, Mr. Arthur Winslow, and Prof. N. H. Winchell. At the 
meeting of the Committee, Saturday evening, Aug. 29, the secre- 
tary, Mr. Arthur Winslow, was instructed to draft a constitution 
and by-laws to be submitted to the committee at a meeting to be 
called in connection with the annual meeting of the Geological 
Society in December next. The object of the association is an 
important one and much good should come from it. 

4, The Fuuna of the Lower Cambrian or Olenellus Zone; by 
C. D. Watcorr. pp. 511 to 774, with plates xliv to xeviil of the 
Tenth Annual Report of the Director of the U. 8. Geol. Survey. 
—Mr. Walcott, who has added greatly by his labors to the 
knowledge of Cambrian life and geography, gives a review in 
this memoir of his former work on the fauna of the Lower 
Cambrian, with additions from his more recent results. After a 
chapter on the history of Cambrian discovery, the stratigraphy 
of the Cambrian is reviewed and its distribution over the Ameri- 
can continent and elsewhere, as at present known, is described. 
The latter subject is illustrated as regards America by a map on 
which sections are drawn for each locality having their relative 
heights ; and the former by various actual sections, some of 
which show contacts with older rocks. Mr. Walcott observes 
that the fauna lived, not on the outer coasts of America but in 
interior straits or channels between emerged ranges of older 
rocks ; that it occupied the eastern and western portions of the 
continent, but that “as far as known, the Lower Cambrian is 
absent from the interior of the continent,” indicating thereby, 
he says, very uniform condition over the central portions. He 
remarks that the Upper Cambrian sea is shown to have been 
transcontinental by the presence of identical species of fossils in 
Northern New York, Lake Champlain valley, St. Lawrence 
valley, Tennessee, Alabama, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Texas, the 
Black Hills of Dakota, Nevada and Montana. In the Olenellus 
period, also, there was a similar assemblage of forms on the 
opposite sides of the Continent. 

The chapter on the Geographical distribution goes into details 
as to the rocks and species of each locality over the Continent, 


346 Scientific Intelligence. 


with comparisons of the special fauna. It is followed by another 
on the relations of the Lower Cambrian fauna to those of the 
overlying Cambrian. 

This latest review of the species makes the tribes represented 
in the American Lower Cambrian include: Sponges of four 
genera; Hydrozoa of the group of Graptolites, and perhaps 
Meduse ; Actinozoa or true Coral polyps; Echinoderms, of the 
group of Cystids; Annelids; Brachiopods of 10 genera and 29 
species ; Lamellibranchs, probably of two species ; Gasteropods, 
of the genera Stenotheca, Platyceras and Pleurotomaria ; Ptero- 
pods, of 4 genera and 15 species ; Crustaceans of Ostracoid type, 
of the genera Leperditia, Aristozoe and Isoxys; and of the 
Phyllopod type, in his Protocaris; and Trilobites of 16 genera 
and 53 species. 

Notes of new facts and views relating to the genera and 
species follow, his former papers being referred to for full 
descriptions. Fifty plates of figures of the various species close 
the memoir. Mr. Walcott observes that nothing is learned from 
the rocks with regard to the genesis of these Lower Cambrian 
types. 

. Relation of secular Rock-disintegration to certain transi- 
tional crystalline schists; by R. Pumper tty (Bull. Geol. Soe. 
Amer., ii, 209).—This paper is a very valuable contribution to 
geological science. Some of its facts and conclusions are here 
cited. A dike of basic rocks intersecting the pre-Cambrian 
Clarksburg mountain gneiss, near Williamstown, Mass., does not 
pass up into the overlying Cambrian quartzyte. The dike 
bears evidence of having been decayed before covered by the 
quartzyte ; and thus leads to the conclusion that the region was 
dry land before the deposition of the Cambrian. Jn Hoosie 
Mountain, which has a core of pre-Cambrian granitoid gneiss, 
this gneiss has over it a formation, in an anticlinal, consisting of 
well defined conglomerate at the north end, a gneiss with parallel 
foliation on the east, a fine-grained, white gneiss, with little mica 
and rather obscure foliation on the west. ‘The lateral transition 
of the Lower Cambrian quartzyte of the valley was traced into 
these white gneisses, “definitely settling the Cambrian age of 
this conglomerate-gneiss formation.” At many points there is 
complete structural conformity between the pre-Cambrian and 
the overlying Cambrian gneiss. But on the Clarksburg mountain, 
where similar facts occur, the quartzyte mantling the granitoid 
gneiss is crinkled into minute fan-like plications, and the gran- 
itoid gneiss has similar plications in perfect parallelism. This 
fine lamination disappears a short distance from the line of con- 
tact. It is evident, says Mr. Pumpelly, that this structure in 
the older rock was formed at the same time and by the same 
pressure as that in the younger. The hypothesis of a pre- 
Cambrian decay of the granitoid gneiss affords a key to the 
problem in the Green mountains here exemplified. The trans- 
itional beds between the two rocks are made of the results of 


Geology. 847 


this decay. The apparent conformity in foliation is due to the 
shearing action consequent on the slipping movement. 

About Iron Mountain, Missouri, Mr. Pumpelly observed, in 
1873, evidence of ancient disintegration, and pointed out a con- 
elomer ate at the base of the mountain as of Silurian age, and a 
result of pre-Silurian disintegration. Borings recently made by 
Prot. W. B. Potter have resulted in the discovery of extensive 
areas of residuary ore-fragments lying on the pre-Silurian sur- 
face. 

Mr. Pumpelly has under investigation the Archean rocks of 
New England and their relations to the associated rocks, and his 
paper shows that he has already reached results of great import- 
ance. 

6. The Greylock Synclinorium,; 'T. Netson Date (American 
Geologist, July, 1891).—This paper is an abstract of a Report to 
R. Pumpelly, U. 8S. Geological Survey. The chief conclusion 
confirms the view of Emmons and later observers that the Grey- 
lock mountain mass is synclinal in general structure. The 
author makes it a combination of synclinals and anticlinals, but 
chiefly of two large synclinals. His paper is illustrated by one 
of the several sections which will appear in the full report. 

7. Report on the Arkansas Geological Survey for 1888, Vol. 
IV. Joun C. Branner, State Geologist. 262 pp. 8vo, with 
many plates. Little Rock, Ark., 1891.—This concluding volume 
of the Report for 1888, is occupied with an account of the 
geology of Washington Co., by F. W. Simonds, Assistant Geolo- 
gist, and a list of the plants of Arkansas by J. C. Branner and 
F. P. Coville. The rocks include four strata of lmestone alter- 
nating with sandstones and shales of the Lower Carboniferous 
(Subcarboniferous), with a thin stratum of shale at the base, 
probably Devonian, and the Millstone Grit, of the ‘ Barren Coal 
Measures,” at the top. The lowest limestone abounds in chert. 
The greatest thickness given for the Millstone grit is 500 feet, 
and for the formations below less than 300 feet. 

8. ZLungsten minerals in Canada; by W. F. Frrrier, Geol. 
Survey of Canada. Communicated by permission of the Director, 
ALFRED R. C. Sextwyn.—I have lately made an interesting dis- 
covery of tungsten minerals at a Canadian locality, some of them 
occurring in “remarkably fine crystais. This is the first time 
that this metal has been noted in Canada. A detailed descrip- 
tion is in preparation and will shortly appear. 

Geological Survey of Canada, Ottawa. 


III. Botany. 


1. Some Museums and Botanical Gardens in the Equatorial 
Belt and in the South Seas (Third Paper).—Before describing 
the remaining gardens in Australasia, it will be well to make 
mention of the Zechnological Museum at Si ydney, which contains 
illustrations of the valuable treatise on the useful plants of Aus- 


348 Scientific Intelligence. 


tralia, by Mr. J. H. Maiden. After the fire which destroyed the 
Sydney Exhibition building, in September, 1882, Mr. Maiden 
began the discouraging task of forming a new collection ef tech- 
nological products. The building which was placed at his dis- 
posal was formerly the Agricultural Hall of the Exhibition, and 
is only poorly adapted to the purpose of displaying specimens. 
In the part of this simple structure which is in his charge, he has 
brought together an exceedingly large and valuable Museum, 
which possesses so many features of practical interest for a new 
country, that no apology will be needed for giving it here what 
may seem at first to be a disproportionate amount of space. The 
classification includes (1) Animal products, exclusive of foods. 
(1a) Economic entomology. (2) Vegetable products, from the 
raw material through the various stages of manufacture to the 
finished fabric or ‘other article. This section includes gums, 
resins, oils, woods, fibers, tans, dyes, drugs, perfumes, Forestr 

and forest products. (3) Waste products. (4) Foods. (5) Eco- 
nomic Geology. (5a) Ceramics. (5b) Glass. (6) Original speci- 
mens of artistic workmanship, coins and medals. (7) Photographs, 
electrotypes, plaster and other reproductions of examples of art 
workmanship, where originals are not to be obtained. (8) Ethno- 
logicak specimens. (9) Metallurgy. (10) Mine-engineering. (11) 
Strength of materials, etc. (12) Military and Naval. Fire-arms 
for hunting. Traps,ete. (13) Transportation. (14) Agriculture. 
(15) Instruments of precision. Apparatus for diagnosis, “ete. (16) 
Sanitary appliances. (17) Educational arrangements. (18) Chem- 
ical and pharmaceutical products. (19) Models of patents. (20) 
Trade Journals. This outline of a classification which is substan- 
tially the same as that used at South Kensington, has been found 
well adapted to the wants of the young Colonial community, and 
might be found very useful in our smaller Technological Muse- 
ums in this country. 

It is, however, of the collection of products of plants brought 
under the heads, 2, 3, 4 and 11, that special mention should be 
made now. These are described in a work of about 700 pages by 
Mr. Maiden, Useful Native Plants of Australia. First come the 
human foods and food adjuncts. Then follow the forage plants 
and the plants which are noxious to stock. Other classes are: 
drugs, gums, resins, kinos, oils, perfumes, dyes, tans, timbers, 
fibers, and lastly a few miscellaneous products. The volume 
is, in fact, a capital catalogue:of the specimens exhibited in 
the Museum, giving needed information regarding uses and 
sources. The indexes are copious and exact, with sufficient cross 
references. 

The system of registering all accessions is nearly the same as 
that used in our National Museum at Washington, permitting the 
curator and his assistants to keep track of everything coming in 
and going out. The labels are full and instructive. 

It was a pleasure to see the well-filled room on public days, re- 
minding one of the divisions at South Kensington which are 


Botany. 349 


profitably used by British workmen. Here, in a far distant 
colony, educational appliances of the same kind, specially adapted 
to the modified surroundings, are thoroughly appreciated by the 
public. ‘The success has been so great that branch museums have 
been established in other parts of New South Wales, all under 
the care of the curator of the head office at Sydney. 

As noted in a former paper, there are other technological mu- 
seums in Australasia, somewhat on the plan of that at Sydney, 
and all of them are accomplishing much in the development of 
the colonies. It is pleasing to note, further, that these, together 
with the natural history and the art museums, are well supported, 
being everywhere in these colonies recognized as important fac- 
tors in education. Some of these museums have been already 
referred to: in this communication reference must be made to 
still others. The Sydney Museum, under the curatorship of Dr. 
H. P. Ramsay is very rich in some of the departments, notably 
that of ornithology. At the time of my visit, in February, a 
large portion of the building was undergoing repairs and addi- 
tions were being made. In Sydney, as in other centers of learn- 
ing in the colonies, there are strong local societies for the encour- 
agement of science, but until the formation of the Australasian 
Association for the Advancement of Science, there was no gen- 
eral organization. Professor Liversidge of Sydney, who was the 
prime mover in the establishment of the Association, must view 
with great satisfaction the happy results which have followed his 
successful work. 

Brisbane, the capital of Queensland, is in latitude 27° 28'S. 
and about five hundred miles north of Sydney (over 700 by rail). 
The climate is very much like that of northern Florida and per- 
mits a wide range of plants to be cultivated in the Botanical 
Gardens. There are two Botanic Gardens in this city, neither of 
them very large but both kept in good condition and of much use 
to the colony. The one which is properly a governmental estab- 
lishment occupies a portion of one of the peninsulas, formed by 
the curves of the Brisbane river, and, owing to its lying so low, is 
sometimes partly inundated by freshets. At the time of my visit, 
the traces of damage from one of these floods had not been wholly 
obliterated. The grounds contain many interesting sub-tropical 
plants with not a few which are truly tropical. Changes which 
have been inaugurated by the new curator, Mr. Philin MacMahon, 
promise to be substantial improvements both in selection and 
arrangement. 

The other garden is close by the two parks, Bowen and Vic- 
toria, and attracts a large number of visitors on pleasant days. 
It is under the management of the Society of Acclimatization, 
and has for its curator Mr. Souter. The classes of plants are 
much like those in the government garden, but a good proportion 
of the specimens are older or at least larger. The propagating 
department was very interesting. A catalogue of the plants of 

Am. Jour. Sci.—Tuirp Series, Vou. XLII, No. 250.—Octoper, 1891. 

24. 


800 ) Scientific Intelligence. 


the gardens has been prepared by the active colonial botanist of 
Queensland, Mr. F. M. Bailey. The manual of the Queensland 
Flora by Mr. Bailey is full and convenient. 

Mr. Bailey was formerly a resident of South Australia and pos- 
sesses a large acquaintance with Australian plants. He places 
his knowledge most freely at the service of those who, like myself, 
have during a hurried journey, only a limited time in which to 
examine localities of special interest. 

Attention should be called in passing to the fact that two 
Americans now fill positions of responsibility in the colonial de- 
partments of agriculture. These are Dr. N. A. Cobb, of Sydney, 
and Professor E. N. Shelton, of Brisbane. Dr. Cobb, formerly ot 
Worcester, Mass., studied at Jena. He is now conducting inves- 
tigations in animal and vegetable pathology in New South Wales. 
Professor Shelton is instructor in agriculture in Queensland. The 
writer is indebted to them and their associates for innumerable 
courtesies. 

Of the remaining gardens in Australia proper, I had opportunity 
to examine with care only one, namely, that at Geelong. This is 
in the colony of Victoria, about fifty miles from Melbourne. It 
is situated delightfully on the shores of Coris Bay, and like many 
others of its class, is practically a city park. Such pleasure 
grounds differ from those in our own country chiefly in the prom- 
inence which is given to interesting species of plants. Not only 
are foreign plants used freely for decorative purposes, but they 
are chosen apparently with a view to impart to the park distine- 
tive features as a botanic garden. Nearly all of the gardens, 
large and small, make great use of what are called bush-houses. 
These are simple frame structures roofed with slats having gaps 
between, admitting plenty of air, but affording shelter and shade. 
. They are particularly adapted to Ferns and Aroids, and lend 
themselves readily to artistic treatment of foliage. 

Tasmania.—In this colony I had the pleasure of visiting the 
garden at Hobart. In this a good deal of attention has been 
given to trees, especially Conifers, and the results are satisfac- 
tory. The garden is picturesque and interesting. Mr. Francis 
Abbott, the superintendent, finds himself considerably hampered 
by the scarcity of available labor, but he makes the most of the 
scanty means at command. ‘The island itself is a botanical gar- 
den on a vast scale. Within a few miles of Hobart, one enters 
the thickets on the slopes of Mt. Wellington, surrounded by 
Kucalypts and tree ferns, and by flowers of extraordinary beauty. 
Even here one has at command a handbook of the local flora, 
namely, a work by Rev. Mr. Spicer. It is designed for schools, 
but it answers a good purpose for tourists in giving descriptions of 
the commoner plants of the island. The charming walk over the 
famous Huon road and up Mt. Wellington must not be omitted 
by any visitor who would see Tasmania vegetation at its best. 

The New Zealand Gardens.—The southernmost one visited 
was at Dunedin, in Otago. It is a modest city pleasure ground, 


Botany. 351 


supported on the most meagre allowance, but presenting some in- 
teresting features. ‘The collection of rare New Zealand plants, 
made by Mr. John McBean, is worthy of attentive study. At 
Christchurch, in Canterbury, the garden is much more extensive. 
Its curator, Mr. Taylor, had but very lately taken charge, but he 
indicated certain improvements in prospect. The native plants 
are well shown by good specimens, a good deal of care having 
been taken to secure types and varietal forms. It was my good 
fortune to be conducted through this garden in one of my visits, 
by Professor Kirk, whose labors in connection with the New 
Zealand Flora are everywhere known. He is now engaged in 
editing a new edition of Sir Joseph Hooker’s Handbook of the 
Flora of New Zealand, a work now out of print. Professor 
Kirk’s Forest Flora of New Zealand is a magnificent volume 
carefully illustrated. The fidelity of the drawings is remarkable. 

The last of the gardens in New Zealand visited by me was that 
at Wellington. It is situated on the hill back of the city, and 
possesses chiefly the characteristics of a park. 

Dunedin, Christchurch, and Wellington, to which we may add 
also Auckland, have excellent local museums. The one at Dune- 
din is growing rapidly in the direction of zoology. This is under 
the charge of Professor T. Jefferey Parker. Christchurch mu- 
seum is widely known from the collections of- bones of extinct 
birds which were brought together by the late Dr. Julius von 
Haast. The museum is extensive in many departments, particu- 
larly ethnology, but it needs re-arrangement. This it will doubt- 
less receive soon from its new curator, Dr. H. O. Forbes, the 
naturalist whose studies in the Eastern Archipelago are familiar 
to all our readers. The cathedral city of Christchurch is the 
home of Professor Hutton of Canterbury college. Wellington is 
the capital of New Zealand. Its museum is extensive, but inade- 
quately provided with proper exhibition rooms. The display of 
ethnological specimens is exceedingly good, being arranged in the 
most effective manner, The Auckland museum is also rich in 
ethnological specimens. 

I have purposely deferred to the last, a brief description of the 
local museum at Hobart, Tasmania. Mr. Alexander Morton, the 
curator, has carried out to the furthest extent his plan of estab- 
lishing a Tasmanian exhibition. In the first place, it is compre- 
hensive, taking in all departments of natural history, as well as 
geology, archeology and ethnology, in other words, natural his- 
tory in the widest sense. As a rule, specimens from other places 
are used wholly:for comparison. The arrangement in each de- 
partment is simple and perfectly intelligible to the person of 
average intelligence, and each specimen is very fully described on 
its label. Almost every museum in all Australasia seeks rightly to 
make the exhibits attractive and instructive, especially in the line 
of local matters. The collections at Hobart are therefore only a 
conspicuous example of what can be done on a small seale and 
with very limited means. 


352 Scientific Intelligence. 


Another characteristic of all the Australasian museums is . 
highly commendable, namely the tenacity with which they all 
cling to rare specimens of archzeological and ethnographical in- 
terest, instead of utilizing them for exchange. Those of us who 
deplore the disintegration of collections will sympathize heartily 
with the policy adopted in the South. 

By and by, the time will aloubtless come when, under some 
system of federation, a capital city for all the colonies will be 
selected, in which a central museum may gather for comparison 
all the rarer of these now scattered treasures, but it is to be hoped 
that none of these which are unreplaceable will be suffered to 
leave the country, at least until the fragmentary history of the fast 
vanishing races is secured. ‘This was impressed upon the writer 
on his visit to one of the museums before alluded to, in which 
there was a fairly large collection of ceremonial knives and 
weapons. The curator ‘pointed out the slight differences existing 
between the allied groups and stated that some of the types of 
manufacture are no longer to be met with, ina genuine form. It 
is worthy of note that excellent imitations of some of the rarer 
types are to be obtained of dealers, but it is seldom that genuine- 
ness is claimed even for the cleverest of the copies. 

Frequent reference has been made in these papers to the very 
general interest felt by the Australasian public in matters pertain- 
ing to applied science. It is because of this widespread interest 
that the botanic gardens and museums are so well sustained. 
Further, it is on this account that the various institutions which 
deal with technology, as in Adelaide, Melbourne, and Sydney, are 
generously supported. There are certain social and economic 
factors which render it less easy than might be supposed, to give 
to these and kindred institutions all the aid they need ; taking 
these factors into consideration, it must be confessed that practi- 
cal scientific education receives in the southern hemisphere a 
greater degree of attention than it does in the northern: far 
oreater when we take into account the comparatively small pop- 
ulation of Australasia. 

Before leaving the subject of the gardens of the South, it will 
not be deemed out of place to refer to the excellent private gar- 
dens found in all the larger towns. The writer enjoyed the privi- 
lege of visiting some of the finer of these collections , a few of 
which contained specimens which would be considered real acqui- 
sitions by any amateur horticulturist in the world. 

A sketch of the Queensland Coast will come most conveniently 
in the fourth paper of this series. G. L. G. 


LV. MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 


1. American Association for the Advancement of Science. 
Fortieth Mecting, at Washington.—The meeting was opened on 
the 19th of August; under the Presidency of Prof. Albert B. 
Prescott, of Ann Arbor, Michigan. The valuable address of the 


ita 


Miscellaneous Intelligence. 353 


retiring President, Prof. Goodale, on some of the Possibilities 
of Economic Geology makes the opening article of this number. 

The Vice-Presidents of the sections appointed are the fol- 
lowing. A, Mathematics and Astronomy, Prof. J. R. Kastman, 
of the Naval Observatory, Washington; B, Physics, Prof. B. 
F. Thomas, State University, Columbus, Ohio ; C, Chemistry, 
Dr. Alfred Springer, Cincinnati; D, Mechanical Science and 
Engineering, Prof. J. B. Johnson, Washington University, St. 
Louis ; E, Geology and Geography, Prof. H. 8, Williams, Cornell 
University ; F, Biology, Prof. 8. H. Gage, Cornell University ; 
Ele Anthropology, W. H. Holmes, Ethnologieal Bureau, and I, 
Economical Science and Statistics, Prof. 8. Dana Horton, Pomeroy, 
Ohio. 

Prof. Putnam is continued as Permanent Secretary. Rochester, 
New York, was selected as the next place of meeting. 


List of papers accepted for reading. 


Section A. Mathematics and Astronomy. 


A. S. Cristie: A digest of the literature of the mathematical sciences. 

C. L. DoonittLte: Latitude of the Sayre Observatory. 

G. C. Comstock: The secular variation of terrestrial latitudes. 

G. W. Houtry: Groups of stars, binary and multiple. _ 

J. A. BRASHEAR: Description of the great spectroscope and spectrograph, 
constructed for the Halstead Observatory, Princeton, N. J. Note on some recent 
photographs of the reversal of the hydrogen lines of solar prominences. 

FRANK H. BiGELow: Standardizing photographie film without the use of a 
standard light. Exhibition and description of a new scientific instrument, the 
aurora- -inclinometer. 

- David P. Topp: On a modified form of zenith telescope for determining 
standard declinations. On the application of the ‘‘photochronograph” to the 
automatic recerd of stellar occultations, particularly dark-limb emersions. 

O. T. SHERMAN: The zodiacal light as related to terrestrial temperature varia- 
tion. 

ORMOND STONE: On the long-period terms in the motion of Hyperian. 

A. MACFARLANE: Principles of the algebra of physics. 

Henry M. Parkuurst: The tabulation of light-curves; description, explana- 
tion, and illustration of a new method. Stellar fluctuations; distinguished from 
variable stars ; investigation of frequency. 

THOMAS S. Fiske: On certain space and surface integrals. 

J. Loupon: The fundamental law of electromagnetism. 

if’. P. LEAVENWorRTH: Method of controlling a driving clock. 

Wm. K. Heat: On the bitangential of the quintic. 

J. EK. KERSHNER: Parallax of @ Leonis. 


Section B. Physics. 


WitttAM Hoover: On the logarithmic mean distance between pairs of points 
in any two lines. 

KH. W. Morey: A new method for measuring the expansion of solids. 

K. W. Mortry and W. A. Rogers: Measurement of the expansion of Jes- 
sop’s steel by a new method. 

Gustavus Hinricns: Statement of the general law determining the fusing 
and boiling point of any compound under any pressure as simple function of the 
chemical constitution of the same. The calculation of the boiling point of a 
liquid under any pressure. Determination of the discontinuity of the fusing 


points of paraffins by means of analytical mechanics. 


WitLtAM Orr: A scheme for a seience of color. 


354. Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


B. F. Tuomas: Note on magnetic measurements at Ohio State University. 
Notes on rotating contact methods of measurement of variable electric mag- 
nitudes. 

M. A. VeepeEr: The periodicity of the Aurora. 

C. B. THwine: Color photography by Lippmann’s process. Behavior of 
silver emulsions under long exposure to light. 

A. MACFARLANE: On the nomenclature for physical units. 

A. McApi£: Some experiments in atmospheric electricity. 

M. STINE: Some forms of carbon and alkaline storage batteries. The 
tangent galvanometer as a voltmeter. 

H. A. HAzen: Do tornadoes whirl? Artificial rain. 

N. H. Genune and F. J. Rocers: Observations with a new photometer. 

F. J. RoGers: Magnesium as a source of light. 

Brown Ayres: Note on the measurement of resistances by alternating cur- 
rents. The nature of ‘‘counter-electromotive force.’ What should be our funda- 
mental units ? 


Section C. Chemistry. 


Cuas. L. REESE: Preliminary notes on the influence of swamp waters on the 
formation of the phosphate nodules of South Carolina. 

K. T. Cox: Land and river phosphate pebbles or nodules of HS. 

ALFRED SPRINGER: A latent characteristic of aluminum. 

Pau C. Freer: The influence of negative atoms and groups ne atoms on 
organic compounds. 

KH. GOLDSMITH : Gabbro phonolyte. 

H. A. WerBER: Raphides the cause of the acridity of certain plants. 

Gustavus Hinricus: The calculation of the boiling point of a paraffin under 
any pressure. The calculation of the boiling points of isomerics from their mo- 
ment of inertia. Determination of the true position of the carbon atoms in 
organic compounds by means of analytical mechanics, 

KF. P. DuNNINGTON: Distribution of titanic oxide on the earth’s ane 

THOMAS TAYLOR: The precipitation of fish oil in linseed oil, when used as an 
adulterant, by silver nitrate solution. The separation and precipitation of oleic 
acid from linseed oul by silver nitrate. 

WALTER MAXWELL: Biological functions of the lecithins. 

Epwarp W. Morury: Synthesis of weighed yuantities of water from weighed 
quantities of oxygen and hydrogen. 

Mpwarp Hart: Dinitro-sulfo-phenol. 

W. M. Stine: Continuous-feed apparatus for distilling water. 

C. L. Spryers: The atomic theory. 

P. L. SPENCER and HK. KE. Kwetu: Imitation coffees. 

H. We ee and W. H. Kina: The composition of floridite. 

Wo. SEAMAN: Tri-nitro toluene, a substitute for musk. 

Leas Sh deen: Purification of Worcester sewage by chemical precipitation. 
Vire clay from Mount Savage. 

W. A. CHAPMAN: An inquiry relative to the causes leading to the formation 
of ore deposits. 

J. G. SPENZER: Delicacy of the tests for phenol. 

J. U. Ner: An aceto-acetic ether. 

W.S. YEATES: On plattnerite from Idaho. 

Kk. A. v. Scuwernitz: 'The chemistry of some disease germs. . A convenient 
arrangement for a Pasteur filter, where air pressure is available. 

H. W. Witry: Notes on pinite. Notes on the chemical composition of muck 
soil from Florida. Composition of crystalline artificial calcium phosphate. 

J. Tomas Davis: Meat preservatives. 

W. H. Kina: Determination of phosphorie acid in presence of iron and 
alumina. 


Section D. Mechanical Science and Engineering. 


James K. Denton: Heonomy produced by the use of water injected as a fine 
spray into air compressors. Note on the efliciency of the serew propeller. On 
a method of holding samples of wood and brick for determination of tensile 
streneth. Relative economy of compound and triple expansion engines. 


= 


Miscellaneous Intelligence. 355 


Davip P. Topp: On experimental] results obtained with a new form of direct- 
action propeller. 

B. E. FerNow: The Government timber tests. 

JOHN B. Jounson: The United States tests of American woods, made at the 
Washington University Testing Laboratory. 

Cuas. L. Bouton: On the crushing of short prisms of homogeneous material. 

THOMAS GRAY: On expansion steam calorimeters. Tests of electric railway 
plant On the power absorbed in the cutting of metals. 

D. S. JAcoBus: Maximum error due to neglecting the radiation-correction of a 
Barrus universa] calorimeter. Relative economy of carbonic acid as the working 
fluid of refrigerating machines. 

WILLIAM KENT: On the efficiency of the steam jackets of the Pawtucket 
pumping engine. On the opportunity for mechanical research at the World’s 
Fair. 


Section EH. Geology and Geography. 


JOHN T. CAMPBELL: Source of supply to lateral and medial moraines. 

A. EK. Foote: New meteoric iron from Arizona containing diamonds. 

G K. GiLBerr: Post-glacial anticlinal ridges near Riply and Caledonia, New 
York. 

WARREN UPHAM: Processes of mountain building and their relationship to the 
earth's contraction. 

HeNRY LAMPARD: Notes on an extinct voleano at Montreal, Canada. 

EK. D. Cope: (A) On a new horizon of fossil fishes. (B) On the cranial charac- 
ters of Equus excelsus Leidy. 

JOSEPH F. JAMES: On problematic organisms and the preservation of Algw as 
fossils. On the age of the Mount Pleasant, Ohio, beds. 

WituiamM Hantock: Preliminary report of observations at the deep well near 
Wheeling, W. Va. 

T. C. Hopkins: The Eureka shale of northern Arkansas. 

T. C. CHAMBERLIN: The altitude of the eastern and centrai portions of the 
United States during the Glacial period. 

W. J. McGee: Neocene and Pleistocene continental movements. 

A. WANNER: Fossil tracks in the Triassic of York county, Pa. 

M. N. Mittevier: New footprints of the Connecticut Valley. 

Lester F. Warp: The plant-bearing deposits of the American Trias.  Princi- 
ples and methods of geologic correlation by means of fossil plants. : 

Henry F. Osporn: A reply to Professor Marsh’s note on Mesozoic Mammalia. 

James M. SarrorpD: Exhibition of certain bones of Megaionyx not before 
known. . 

R. D. SaLissury: On the probable existence of a second driftless area in the 
Mississippi basin. 

FRANK LEVERETY: The Cincinnati ice-dam. 

Leon S. GriswoLp: The structure of the Ouachita uplift of Arkansas. 

C. R. Van Hise: The relations of the Archean and the Algonkian in the 
north west. 

HerRMAN L Fatrcuinp: Results of a well-boring at Rochester, N. Y. 

K W. CLAYPOLE: On a deep bore near Akron, Ohio. 

R. W. Sauretpt: A study of the fossil Avifauna of the Silver Lake region, 
Oregon. 

J. CRAWFORD: The peninsula and volcano Cosignina. ‘The geological survey 
of Nicaragua. 

F. Bb. Taytor: The highest old shore line on Mackinac Island. 

J. E. Topp: Striz and slickensides at Alton, Illinois. 


Section F. Biology. 
Stmon H. GAGE: Notes on the physiological and structural changes in Cayuga 


Lake lampreys. The transformation of the vermilion spotted newt. 
Ipa H. HYDE: Notes on the heart of certain mammals. 


356 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


JoHn A. RypER: On the kinds of motion of the ultimate units of contractile 
living matter, 

kK. D. Cope: On the insertion of the scapular and pelvic arches and limbs of 
Lacertilia. On coloration in certain Reptilia. 

Gro. F. ATKINSON: On the structure and dimorphism of Hypocrea tuberiformis. 

J. M. MACFARLANE: Another chapter in the history of the Venus fly trap. 

D. H. CAMPBELL: On the prothallium and embryo of Osmunda Claytoniana and 
O. cinnamomea. On the phylogeny of the Archegoniata. 

Byron D. Hausteap: A new Nectria. Notes upon bacteria of cucurbits. 
Notes on an Anthracnose. 

JOSEPH N. Rose: The Compositee collected by Dr. Edward Palmer in Colima. 
The flora of Carmen Island. 

THEOBALD SmirH: Uses of the fermentation tube in bacteriology with demon- 
strations. 

JAMES M. Furnt: The foraminifera with a new device for the exhibition of 
specimens. 

K. M. Hasprouck: A monograph of tbe Carolina paroquet. 

C. V. Ritey: Parasitism in Coleoptera, in Diptera, in Braconidee, and Ichneu- 
monidee. Muicro-organisms as insecticides. ; 

A. J. Cook: Enemies of the honey-bee. Abnormal bees. 

Joun B. Smita: Notes on the homology of the hemipterous moth. Epipha- 
rynx and hypopharynx of Odonata. The mouth of Copris Carolina, and notes 
on the homology of the mandible. 

O. P. Hay: On the turtles of the genus Malaclemys. On the ejection of blood 
from the eyes of horned toads. 

G. Brown Goope: The present condition of the study of the deep-sea fishes 

Cuas. W. StiuEs: On the importance of a table at the Naples station. 

B. 'l. GALLOwAY: Further observations on a bacterial disease of oats. 

GeO. VASEY: Botanical field-work of the Botanical Division. 

M. B. Waite: Results from recent investigations of pear blight. 

I. A. BRasHEAR: The spectroscope in botanical studies. 

THEODORE GILL: The persistence and relation of faunal realms. The New 
Zealand fish fauna. 

JOSEPH JASTROW : A case of the loss of sense of smell. <A novel color illusion, 
and a new method of color mixture. 

Mary EH, Muriretpr: Modification of habit im paper-making wasps. 

Wm. PaumMer: The fate of the fur seal in American waters. 

©. KH. Bessey and A. F. Woops: Transpiration or the loss of water im plants. 

Wa. J. BEAL: Movement of fluid in plants. 

L. H. PAMMEL: Absorption of fluids by plants. 

J.C. ArtuuR: Gases in plants. 

HERBERT OsBoRN: Origin and development of parasitic habit in Mallophaga 
and Pediculidee. 

H. Garman: The origin and development of parasitism among the Sarcoptidee. 

Wm. H. ASHMEAD: On the habits of the Proctotrypide. 

L. O. Howarb: The biology of the Chalcididee. 


Section H, Anthropology. 


Wm. U. Shaman: The essentials of a good education, with a new classification 
of knowledge. 

WaurerR Houcu: The custom of kava drinking as practiced by the Papuans 
and Polynesians. 

J. W. POWELL: A linguistic map of North America. 

Tuomas Witson: Jade implements from Mexico and Central America. Gold 
ornaments in the United State National Museum from the United States of 
Colombia. Evidences of the high antiquity of man in America. Geographical 
arrangement of prehistoric objects in the U. 8. National Museum, Curious forms 
of chipped stone implements found in Italy, Honduras, and the United States. 
Inventions of antiquity, 


~~. re ee 


pe PS 


Miscellaneous Intelligence. 357 


J. OwrEN Dorsey: Siouan onomatopes interjections, and phonetic types. 
Games of Teton, Dakota, children. 

G. H. PERKINS: On a collection of stone pipes from Vermont. On bone, cop- 
per and slate implements found in Vermont. : 

MERWIN MARIE SNELL: The importance and methods of the science of com- 
parative religion. ; 

Anita Newcoms McGee: An experiment in human stirpiculture. 

ZELIA NUTTALL: Relics of ancient Mexican civilization. 

EpwArp 8. Morse: Bow-stretchers. Prehistoric bows. 

ALIcE C. FLETCHER: The Nez Percé country. 

FRANK LEVERETT: Relation of a Loveland, Ohio, implement-bearing terrace 
to the moraines of the ice-sheet. . 

LAuRA OSBORNE TALBOTT: Utility of psychical study of child life. 

ALBERT GATSCHET: Origin of the name Chautauqua. 

FRANK HAMILTON CUSHING: Outlines of Zufii creation and migration myths 
considered in their relation to the Ka-ka and other dramas or so-called dances. 

F. W. Putnam: An ancient human cranium from Southern Mexico. 

C. M. WoopwarpD: The length of a generation. 

Cuas. A. H1RSCHFELDER: Burial customs of the Hurons. 

JAMES Mooney: The Messiah religion and the ghost dance. 

FRANK Baker: Study of a dwarf. 

ATREUS WANNER: Stone drills and perforations in stone, from the Susque- 
hanna River. 

GERARD FowKE: Some Archeological contraventions. 

W. H. Hotmes: On the distribution of some implements in the tide-water 
province. Aboriginal novaculite quarries in Arkansas. 

JOSEPH JASTROW: Study of automatic motion. 

W. H. Bascock: Race survivals and race mixture in Great Britain. 


Section I. Economic Science and Statistics. 


J. 8. Brutines: The census counting machine (with exhibition of the machine 
at work). 

ALEX. 8. CHRISTIE: On a measure of the reliability of census enumeration. 

Lester F. Warp: A national university; its character and purposes. The 
science and art of government. : 

W.J. McGseE: The southern oil fields. 

J. R. Hinton: Agriculture by irrigation; some social economic possibilities. 

B. #. FeErNow: Water management the problem of the future. 

C. R. Dopce: The needs of the American flax fibre industry. 

B. W. Snow: The necessity for State supervision of railway extension. 

LAauRA OSBORNE TALBOT: The economic value of cooking schools in the Dis- 
trict of Columbia. 

Ricuarp T. CotBuRN: The code of inheritance. 

Henry FARQUHAR: Numerical relations between amount and value of United 
States potato crop and amount of importations. United States mercantile marine 
and duty rates. 

H. W. Witty: The muck soils of the Florida Peninsula. 

Rovert T. Hi~u: The artesian wells and underground waters of central Texas. 

MAN LEY Mites: Energy as a factor in rural economy. 

ALEX. D. ALEXANDER: World’s Columbian Exposition. 

EDWARD ATKINSON: Free coinage; Why not? 

KpwaArkb T. Peters: The coinage ratio in our silver policy. 

Gro. A, Priest: The Eleventh Census and statistics of manufacture. A per- 
manent Census Bureau. 

Mrs. M. C. BAKER: Tabulation errors of census. 

C. V. Ritey: The locust or grasshopper outlook. 

Cuas. 8. HILL: Immigration as an economic sociologic problem. The economy 
and thrift of machinery. 


Am. Jour. Scl.—TuHIrD SERIES, VoL. XLII, No. 250.—Ocroper, 1891. 
240 


358 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


Entomological Club. 


L. O. Howarp: The Encyrtinz with branched antenne. 

- H. G. HuBBarpD: Insect life in the hot springs of Yellowstone National Park. 

h. A. SCHWARZ: Preliminary notes on the insect fauna of the Great Salt Lake, 
Utah. 

J. A. LINTNER: On the occurrence of the Pear midge, Diploris pyrivora. 
Notes on the Pear tree Psylla, Psylla pyricola, in the Hudson River Valley. On 
the eye-spotted bud moth, Tinetocera ocellana, in Western New York. On some 
of our Orgyias. Exhibition of the luminous females of Phengodes, species. 

J. B. Smita: Note on the habits of Xyleborus dispar. Habits of Volucella 
fasciata. Notes on the classification of the Lepidoptera. A revision of the 
genus Cucullia. Staining insect stritctures. 

EK. W. CuAYPOLE: Means of preserving larvee for class use. A substitute for 
cork. 

H. KE. Weep: Screw worm feeding on vegetable matter. 

D. S. Kexiicotr: Notes on two borers destructive of mountain ash. 

B. P. Mann: The bibliography on Entomology. 

C. V. RiteEY: Notes on Sphecius speciosus. Some interesting Phylloxerz. 
Notes on the larval habits of Megaphycis. 

'  M. E. Murtretpt: Longevity and vitality of Ixodes and Trombidium. Mod- 
ification of habit in paper wasps. 


2. The British Association.—The meeting of the British 
Association was opened at’ Cardiff, Wales, on Wednesday, the 
19th of August. The able address of the President, Professor 
- William Huggins, treating of the progress of Astronomy through 
spectroscopic observations, is published in full in Nature of 
August 20th. The reader is referred to this and the following 
numbers of Nature for the addresses, also of the Presidents of 
Sections, and for abstracts of the more important papers pre- 
sented. The next meeting will be held at Edinburgh, under the 
Presidency of Sir Archibald Geikie, commencing on the 3d of 
August, 1892. 


OBITUARY. 


Wirtiam FERRELL, the eminent meteorologist, died at his home 
in Kansas City, Missouri, on the 18th of September, at the age 
of seventy-four. He commenced his active scientific career in 
1857, when he was made assistant in the office of the Ameri- 
can Kphemeris and Nautical Almanac. This position he held 
for ten years, when he was appointed to the staff of the U. S. 
Coast Survey. In 1882 he was made assistant, with the rank 
of professor, in the Signal Service Bureau, where he remained 
until October, 1886. Some of his most important work was 
was done in connection with the Coast Survey; he invented the 
maxima and minima tide-tide predicting machine, which is now 
used in predicting the tides. His list of published works include 
a number of volumes devoted to researches on the tides, meteoro- 
logical problems, etc.; of these, a volume on Recent Advances 
‘in Meterology was published in 1883, and a Popular Treatise on 
the Winds—a work of marked value—in 1889. The recent 
volumes of this Journal contain a number of important memoirs 
by Mr. Ferrel upon thermal radiation, cyclones, tornadoes and 
related subjects, chiefly in terrestrial physics. 


«4 SUPPLEMENT 


TO OUR 


s CATALOGUE OF MINERALS, 


On Sept. 15th we issued a 20-page Illustrated Supplement to our Cata- 

f logue, containing a summary of additions to our stock within the last 
s few months, descriptions ofsome of the minerals received, and a list of 
“new species described since June, 1890. It is valuable as a reference "itae 
_ book to all students of Mineralogy. Sent to any address on receipt of eo 
x. 2c. stamp. | ae 
2. Phenacite from Mt. Ankero. 
Rha. Our Colorado collector has just returned from this locality after hav- 
ing been there for over a month. The result is a lot of choice speci- 
mens of Phenacite, Bertrandite and Aquamarine, and the thoroughness 
_ with which he worked the locality proves that it is now nearly, if not 
quite, exhausted. The lot includes some very excellent examples of 
_ these minerals and any collector wishing a good specimen should apply 
promptly. Phenacite, 75c. to $10.00; Bertrandite, 75c. to $2.50; Aqua- 
~ marine, 50c. to $2. 00. 


Yellow Sphenes from Tilly Foster Mine. 


‘This interesting find (announced in our advertisement in this Journal 
a in August) is rendered more interesting owing to the fact that very 
: good gems have been cut from some of the clearer crystals, and they 
compare very favorably with those from European localities. The 
_ largest clear stone weighed 53/ carats. We now have in stock a good 
selection, stones weighing from 3 to 3 carats; prices, $2, $5 and $10 
per carat. We also have some good crystals at Tic. to $2.50 


Other Recent Additions. 


Pink Grossularite, Mexico. We have word from Mr. Niven from the 
locality that he has just shipped us a large fine lot of these Garnets. 
He secured some of extra fine color. 

Bromyrite, New South Wales, and 

Platinerite, Idaho. We have a limited number of specimens of these 
excessively rare minerals at $1.00 to $10.00. 


Minerals for Blowpipe Analysis. 


ee Our stock in this line is now very complete and we can fill satisfac- 
_ ___ torily all orders entrusted to us. 


100 page Illustrated Catalogue, with Supplement, 15c.; cloth bound, g 
Joga Supplement, 2c. Sa 


GEO. L. ENGLISH & CO. , Mineralogists, 
733 and 735 Broadway, New York. 


Arr. XXVII.—Some of the Poskibi ines of ona 
any; by G. L. Goopaz #8 


XXVIII.—Vitality of some Annual aS 
With Plate X-. 


XXIX.—Method for the Separation of Aquat a m 
_ Arsenic by the Simultaneous Action of Hydrochloric and F 


Hydriodic Acids; by F. A. Goocu and E. W. Dann 
XXX.—Notes on Allotropic Silver; by M. C. Tacs - 


--s = 
+ 


13 H. L. Suyiu. 


XXXII.—So-called Amber of Cedar Lake, Neve Saskacen 1 


ewan, Canada; by B. J. it unnanons a are 
‘Montreal 


eae ; by O. C. Marsu. With Plate XI. 277 ae oo = 


SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGEN CK. 


ast Maxim’s Flyiieg Machine: Small Electrometers, Bowe 
brightness upon phenomena of interference" of light, EBERT, 34 = 
transference, LODGE, 343. 74. 


3, || 


ann 


Geology—Fifth Triennial Meeting of the Inter national Cone 2 Geol 


. 343. —Geological Society of America: United States Association | of Govern- — | 
ment pir oe 344. me of the Lower Cees or Olenellus Za 6. <2 | 


Report on the a icadal Basing ici Snbvat for 1888, i C. BAA NNER Ton 
minerals in Canada, W. F. FERRIER, 347, 


Reibaes 353. _Britieh Association, 358. 


Obituary—WILLIAM FERREL, 358. 


has. D. Walcott, 


. am 
ee 

eo. 
© 


gi 


, ois fi m3. + eure ps 
«oS. Geological Survey. Lh Vert ‘ aU, ef) REE 
MBI R, a 91. os 


| Estab shed by BENJAMIN SILLIMAN in 1818, 


‘AMERICAN 


hy “al - 
ay * - ‘ 


ea EDITORS 
Bes JAMES D. anp sete iam S. DANA. 


ASSOCIATE EDITORS 


ited 


#. 


anp JOHN. ‘TROWBRIDGE, OF IS 


in, E J 
Be git ia 


" Prorzssors H. A. NEWTON anv A. E. VERRILL, oF 
ae New Haven, 


ee Te 
Ma a ee, ES 


at ere 
: rw BS 
—s * 


rina 


THIRD SERIES. 


‘= ~ VOL. XLIL—{[WHOLE NUMBER, CXLII.] 


WITH PLATES XIII-XxvV. 


No. 251.—NOVEMBER, 1891. 


NEW HAVEN, CONN: J. D. & E. 8. DANA. 
1891. 


TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR, PRINTERS, 371 STATE STREET. 


- Published monthly. Six dollars per year (postage prepaid). $6.40 to foreign sub- 
ay Bi cccihore of countries in the Postal Union. Remittances should be made either by 
m oney orders, Se nie letters, or bank checks. 


Medical books in the World. Send for catalogues specifying in what k 
are interested. 
Says. Entomology, edited by LeConte, 2 vols. 64 plates plain, $5.00, co olo 
edition, $8 50. te a 
“Agassiz. Echinodermes, 2 vols. 63 plates, 4to. and folio. eee 0 0. 
Bureau of Ethnology, 6 vols. Colored plates, 4to. 1879 to 1885. gia. 50. ee 
Cuvier. Animal Kingdom, edited by Griffith, Pidgeon, et al., 16 vols, “499 . Be | 


i ae 
- 


ANS eae 
BI ret 


plates. ie ~ > $20.00. - + a 
Pacific R. R. Survey, 13 vols. $12.50. * fe 
American Journal of Science and Arts, 138 vols. > $975 00.) ae 
Hayden, U.S. Geological Survey. Monographs, 12 vols., 4to. _ ahs eae Bas ea 
Wheeler’s U.S. Geological Survey, 8 vols., 4to. $20.00. 

U. S. Geological Surveys. Annual Reports, 10 vols.,; 410; Sg $12.50. cik 

Baird, Cassin & Laurence. Birds of North America, 2 vols.  ~ $5.00. ie 
Holbrook, North American Herpetology, 4 vols. Pes ye | cae 
Agassiz. Contributions to Natural History of U.S., 4 vols., 4to. $25.00. es 
Popular Science Monthly. Complete set to 1890. ae $35.00. — 


Humphreys & Abbot. Physics and Hydraulics of the Mississippi, 20 plates, % i Se 
4to. “$3.50, 0 | 


American Naturalist. Complete set to July, 1891. $60.00. 
Elliott, Botany of South Carolina and Georgia, 2 vols., 1824. $7.50. 
Nature. Complete set to 1890. . $50200." =) a 
Pennsylvania Geological Survey, 100 vols. | $35.00. 
Baird, Brewer & Ridgway. North American Birds, 3 vols., 64 plates, 593:\1 BS 
illustrations, Ato, 1874. $20.00. >. 7 
Bischoff, Chemical and Physical Geology, 3 vols. 1854-1859. $10.00.) am 
Lowe and Howard. Beautiful Leaved Plants. 60 colored plates, 1872, S580. 
Sowerby, Recent and Fossil Shells. 264 plates, 1825. $15.00. 
Torrey, Botany of New York. 161 plates, 4to. $7.50. : 
Shaw & Stephens. Zoology, 28 vols. 1200 plates, fine eit $20.00. 
Hayden, Geological Atlas of Colorado. Folio, 1878. $3.50. 
King, Exploration of 40th Parallel, 9 vols., Ato, and folio complete. $40.00. — 
_Pursh, Plants of North America. 24 colored plates. $10.00. 
Coffin, Winds of the Globe, 4to. $5.00. 


Lowe, British and Exotic Ferns, 8 vols., 479 colored plates, 1880, $20.00. 


CHRISTMAS PRESENTS. 
The systematic collections that we put up are very attractive as well as instruc- + 


tive. The hard wood boxes add much to the desirability of the collections for - es 
presents to young people. Many a child might have its tastes turned to natural — Riepal 
history by even the 50c. collection which is very pretty. coe 
oe i 
NUMBER OF SPECIMENS. | in cae fa ey free 100 | 200 300 te ey 
~ he saat oe : > a of & % 
Crystals and fragments, 34in.......... $ 50 | $1 00 $2 00 $1 00 | $2 00 $4 00 mat. 
Student’s size, larger, ve x gin ele | 1 50 3 00 6 00 | 5 00 10 00 20.00," 7 
AMATCUE SiSiZOr AveRe eA 8.5.46, Scaide bone niare tale aoe chai cee eerie 10 00 20 00 45 00 ae 
High School, or Academy size, 24% x 376 | diss Shelf Specimens........ VAs 25,00" 50 00 125 00 ae 
College size, 34% x 6in., Shelf Specimens Selah seualelleveiate beta tetat Oita Mbaee Cie roe | 50 00 100 00 250 00 we, 
tie 
Petrified wood (described last month), garnets from Alaska, Salida and many ——t™s 


other localities, opals from Mexico and elsewhere and many beautiful Species for: 
presents for collectors can be supplied. 
Meteoric Iron from Cafon Diablo in complete pieces from 25c. upward. This 
is the cheapest and most interesting meteoric iron ever sold. oa . 
Matlockites, Phosgenites from England. We have received from the cblen: Ais 
tion of a gentleman recently deceased ‘at. the locality the finest specimens ever 
offered for sale in this country. They are priced lower than the price paid the 


men at the locality. Amnglesites from the same locality and sme Te es: = 


Fresno, Utah, just determined. : ? 


A; EY FOODE, 
4116 Elm avenue, Philadelphia, Pa., v. s. A 


! 


Mhib-wed, UalesYy, 


THE 


“AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE 


[THIRD SERIES] 


Oe 


Art. XX XIV.—The Solution of Vulcanized India Rubber ; 
by Cart Barus. 


1. InrRopuctrory.—In my work* on the solubility of glass 
in water, I showed that in proportion as the state of dissocia- 
tion or the molecular instability of glass is increased with rise 
of temperature, the solvent action of water increases at an 
enormously rapid rate; that inasmuch as the solution takes 
place between a solid and a liquid, sufficient pressure must be 


~ applied to keep the fluid in the liquid state, whenever the 


vapor tension at the temperature in question exceeds the 
atmospheric pressure. Thus, at 100°, the action of liquid water 
on glass is nearly negligible; but even at 185° solution occurs 
at so rapid a rate that capillary tubes may become filled with 
solid hydrated silicate, in place of water, in an hour. Here, 
however, about 10 atm. must be applied to keep the solvent in 
the liquid state essential to speedy reaction. 

2. The present application.—Uaving attempted to apply the 
same principle to the actual solution of vulcanized India rub- 
ber, I obtained confirmatory results at once. To my knowl- 
edge this material has not heretofore been advantageously dis- 
solved in a volatile reagent, or in any reagent by which it is 
speedily and copiously taken into solution, and from which it 
may be conveniently obtained. Of. $4, note. 

It follows by analogy from § 1, that the rubber must be hot 
enough to be in a state of dissociation, i. e., that the coherence 
of the rubber-sulphur molecules must show an instability in 
regard to whatever solvent may be used. It follows, more- 


* This Jour., xxxviii, p. 408, 1889. Ibid, xli, p. 110, 1891. 


Am. JoUR. Sci.—THirRD Series, VoL. XLII, No. 251.—NOVEMBER, 1891. 
25 


ae sas 
a ae 


+. 


360 C. Barus—Solution uf Vulcanized India Rubber. 


over, that the system of rubber and solvent is to be kept under 
pressure suflicient to insure the liquid state of the solvent. It 
follows obviously that this temperature must only be so high, 
ceet. par., as to change in the least degree possible, the useful 
character of the rubber eventually to be deposited from solu- 
tion. Hence, I act on vulcanized India rubber at the lowest 
convenient temperature facilitating the solvent action, and at a 
pressure preferably exceeding the vapor tension of the solvent 
at the given temperature. Whatever other favorable action pres- 
sure may exert (such, for instance, of forcing the fluid into the 
physical pores of the semi-solid by a principle akin to Henry’s 
law) is clear gain. In my machine* it is rather more conven- 
ient to act under 100 atm., or more, than at lower pressures. 
Hence I did not scruple to use pressures as large as, or above, 
this, testing the adequacy of low pressures, however, by special 
experiment. §§ 18, 20. 

The samples of vulcanized rubber acted on were five in 
number, and their character may be detailed as follows: 


a. Very elastict sheet rubber, usually not pigmented, trans- 
lucent in thin films, brownish in color, used for rubber bands and 
sheeting, chemical rubber tubing, etc. 

b. Less elastic and harder rubber, pigmented gray, opaque, 
largely used for rubber tubing, etc. 

c. Non-elastic, pigmented rubber, flexible, opaque gray, used 
for low class rubber tubing and low class merchandise in general. 

d. Ebonite. 

e. Same as a, rotted by age and exposure. 


3. Solution in carbon disulphide.—F rom experiments made 
at 100° and 160°, it appears that elastic sheet rubber (q@), is not 
fully soluble in OS, in a reasonable time, if at all. It is quite 
soluble at 185°, and soluble to a remarkable degree and at a 
remarkably rapid rate at 210°. Hence the pressure under 
which solution is to take place, should here be greater than 


* See Proc. Am. Acad., xxv, p. 93, 1890, or Phil. Mag, October, 1890, p. 338. 
The present method of work is simple: Glass tubes 10°™ to 15°™ long, and -3°™ 
or ‘4°™ in diameter, closed at one end, and drawn out to a capillary canal with 
three enlargements at the other, were filled with a charge of vulcanized rubber 
and solvent, and then introduced into the steel piezometer tube. JI made use of 
the temperatures of boiling turpentine (i60°), aniline (185°), naphthalene (210°), 
and diphenylamine (310°). To separate the charge from the oil of the piezometer 
which transmits pressure, I first employed a thread of mercury inserted into the 
capillary canal. Finding, however, § 17, that this metal acted on the charge, I 
replaced it by a thread of water, or contiguous threads of gasolene and water, 
Charges were usuzlly introduced in the ratio of one part by volume of rubber to 
three or more of solvent, § 18. About 1°¢ to 2°¢ of solution were obtained per 
heating. I made considerably over 150 experiments, most of them at 210° and 
100 or 200 atm. Experiments on a larger scale were also made in great number, 
chiefly with the object of studying the product deposited from solution, § 20. 

+ By elastic I mean extensible with resumption of the original shape when the 
pull ceases. 


C. Barus—Solution of Vulcanized India Rubber. 361 


15 atm., but need not exceed 30 or 40 atm. Inasmuch as CS, 
thus unites with rnbber in any proportions, clear brown solu- 
tions of any viscosity may be obtained. Diluting such (thick) 
solutions with cold CS,, the solvent is first greedily absorbed ; 
but the final complete solution of the unagitated syrupy rubber 
takes places very slowly. Finally, by exposing any of the 
solutions to air, the OS, evaporates, and the dissolved vulcan- 
ized rubber is regained without sacrifice of its original non- 
viscid quality. Similarly fissured brittle sheet rubber or tub- 
ing (e), which has become useless for practical purposes by age, 
is quite soluble in OS, at 200°, so far at least as its undecom- 
posed portion is concerned. Elastic gray rubber (6), dissolves 
completely to a gray liquid, in which the pigment is suspended. 
$16. The concentrated solution hardens at once on exposure 
to air, reproducing a rubber of nearly the qualities (6). The 
same is true of the non-elastic sample (c). Treatment at 310° 
resulted in a decomposition of the rubber. 

Commercial ebonite (@) is first partially devuleanized at 200°, 
(excess of rubber) and eventually dissolves in excess of solvent. 
The partially devulcanized product is elastic on drying, but 
finally hardens to a tough solid having a leathery quality. 
The solution leaves a black stain, with free sulphur apparent 
after evaporation. § 15. Gases are frequently evolved during 
solution of highly vulcanized rubber in OS,. §$17 and 19. 

As a whole my experiments show that excess of sulphur is 
first removed by the solvent, after which the vulcanized rub- 
ber itself passes into solution. § 15. 

4. Solution in liquids of the paraffine series.—The elastic 
rubbers (a and ¢) dissolve easily in liquid mineral oils, at 200°. 
The pressure necessary will, of course, vary with the boiling 
point of the oil used, and may be as high as 50 atm. in the 
very volatile gasolenes. Commercial gasolene, though a good 
solvent of the rubbers « and ¢, is less powerful in ease of } and 
c, unless excess of solvent be used. On exposure to air, the 
gasolene evaporates, leaving a residue which soon hardens. 
Mineral oils of a higher carbon order than gasolene, petroleum,* 
for instance, dissolves the rubbers @ and ¢ even more easily. 
The solution, however, dries only after much time and proba- 
bly only in thin films. Solubility seems to increase as the oil 
lies higher in the carbon series. §§ 12, 18. 


* Looking up the literature of the subject, I found that John J. Montgomery 
(Cf. Letters Patent No. 308,189, November, 1884, U.S. Patent Office), describes 
a process for the solution of vulcanized rubber. His statement of the tempera- 
ture and pressure necessary are substantially correct, although he confines his 
experiments to a petroleum oil boiling at 200° or higher. The oil is subsequently 
driven off by injections of steam. This is the nearest approach to an available 
and true solution (a solution which does not remain permanently sticky like the 
turpentine and other solutions) which I have found. The essential peculiarity of 
the methods in the above text is solution in volatile solvents. 


362. =O. Barus—Solution of Vulcanized India Rubber. 


5. Solution in turpentine.—In case of the elastic rubber (a), 
complete solution is at once effected at 200°, whereas at ordi- 
nary temperatures the time necessary is enormous, if indeed 
the solutions in the two cases be the same. The syrupy liquid 
obtained at 200° seems to dry in very thin films. Special 
experiments made at 160° showed that no reasonably speedy 
solution takes place even in liquid turpentine at this tempera- 
ture, thus corroborating the inferences of §§ 1, 2, 38. Gray 
rubber (0) is acted on with greater difficulty at 210°. The 
solution leaves a white glossy stain which hardens. Pressure 
need not exceed 5 atm. 

6. Solution in chloroform and carbon tetrachloride.—Elastie 
sheet rubber (a) dissolves at once in liquid CHCl, at 210°. 
Pressure should exceed 15 atm. and need not be larger than 
25 or 30 atm. Solutions of any degree of viscosity seem to be 
obtainable. They dry at once on exposure to air, leaving a 
hard residue relatively dark in color. Possibly this was due to 
the presence of sulphur in the chloroform. §15. Gray rub- 
ber (0) is attacked with decomposition of the solvent and evo- 
lution of gas. 

7. Solution in aniline.—Solution in the liquid at 200° takes 
place at once, in case of elastic rubbers (a). Pressure need not 
exceed a few atmospheres. ‘Thin films apparently dry on long 
exposure. 

8. Solution in animal oils.—Neither in the case of sperm 
oil, nor of lard oil was the elastic rubber (qa) dissolved on 
removing from the piezometer. Both distintegrated on stand- 
ing, to a solution, often with slow evolution of gas. 

9. Treatment with glycerin.—At 200° no solution occurs. 
Glycolic alcohols were not examined. Cf. § 12. 

10. Solution in benzol and higher aromatic hydrocarbons. 
—The elastic sheet rubber (a) dissolves at once in liquid C,H, 
at 200°. Pressure should exceed 7 atmospheres, but need never 
be higher than 30 atm. The solution exposed to air hardens 
rapidly. Solution of gray rubber (6) is less easy. 

Solution of elastic rubber (@) in liquid toluol at 200° also 
takes place with great ease. The liquid dries slowly. Pres- 
sures of less than 10 atm. suffice. 

11. Solution in ethylic and higher ethers.—Elastie sheet 
rubber (a) dissolves at once in liquid ethylic ether at 200°. 
Pressure should exceed 25 atm., but need not be greater than 
40 or 50 atm. The solution hardens immediately on exposure 
to air. Gray rubber (4) is attacked with difficulty. 

12. Treatment with alcohols—At 200° india rubber (@) is 
not dissolved in liquid methyl or in liquid ethyl alcohol, and 
only slightly so in liquid amyl alcohol. Thus, again the solu- 
bility seems to increase with the molecular weight of the sol- 


vent. § 18. 


_C. Barus—Solution of Vulcanized India Rubber. 363 


13. Treatment with ketones.—India rubber (a) treated with 
liquid acetone at 200°, is converted into a sticky paste from 
which it hardens at once on exposure to air. Pressure should 
exceed 15 atm., but need not be greater than 30 or 40 atm. 

14. Treatment with water and mineral acids.—In no ease 
was there a trace of true solution at 210°. Water probably 
enters the physical pores of the elastic rubber (qa), as this sub- 
stance becomes superficially rough and warty on drying in 
steam at 200°, after being treated with liquid water at the 
same temperature. It does not melt. $18. Strong hydro- 
chloric acid (1:2) has no obvious effect, while strong sulphuric 
acid (1:3) seems only to char the rubber. Treating gray rub- 
ber (6), with HCl, I found its solubility in OS,, C,H, and gas- 
olene to have decreased. 

15. Treatment for vulcanization. Liquid ebonite.—Liquid 
ammonic polysulphide at 185° or 200° does not change the 
appearance of gray rubber (6) markedly; but the sample loses 
its elasticity and shows a semi-plastic consistency. This I be- 
heve to be due to additional vulcanization induced by the poly- 
sulphide. If now the sample be treated with liquid CS, at 
200°, the solvent is decomposed with the evolution of much 
gas, and the rubber restored to its original elastic quality. The 
gas is liberated throughout the mass of the rubber, and the 
sample, when taken out of the tube, has the form of an enor- 
mously inflated cellular sack, which issues from the glass tube 
explosively, but soon collapses on exposure to air. As a whole 
these results agree with the behavior found for ebonite in § 3. 
In both cases it is possible to pass from a more vulcanized to a 
less vulcanized solvent by treating an excess of rubber. It 
will be shown below, § 19, that the gas evolved is probably due 
to the double decomposition of water and CS, 

More interesting is the direct vulcanization of a rubber solu- 
tion, to liquid ebonite, by aid of a solution of sulphur. In case 
of elastic sheet rubber (a), this even begins at 160°; but it is 
more complete at 185° and 210°. In ease of pure (non-vulean-' 
ized) rubber dissolved in CS, with excess of sulphur, scarcely 
any change of the flesh color is observed at 160°, and the sul- 
phur crystallizes out of the solvent in aeedles, on exposure. 
At 185° and 210°, however, the charge turns black, showing 
complete vulcanization. If equal masses of vulcanized rubber 
(a) and sulphur be treated, the product, after heating to 210°, 
is not dissolved nor soluble, until the excess of sulphur is re- 
moved. §§ 3,15. Gasis often evolved. §§ 17,19. In pro- 
portion as less sulphur is used relatively to the rubber, the 
product becomes more immediately soluble and less gas is 
evolved. Adding about 20 per cent of dissolved sulphur to 
the elastic rubber (a), I obtained serviceable solutions of ebo- 


364. CC, Barus—Solution of Vulcanized India Rubber. , 


nite, on treating at 200° either in CS, alone, or in mixtures, 
§ 16, of this liquid with gasolene, benzol, ete. In most cases 
these harden very quickly to a jet-black enamel. With less 
sulphur the color is brown in thin films. 

16. Solution in mixtures of solvents, and solution of mixed 
gums.—By acting on vuleanized rubbers with mixed solvents 
of the above kind, I obtained very satisfactory results. All] 
the rubbers mentioned (@ to e), ebonite excepted, pass easily 
into true solution by such treatment. Thus the gray elastic 
rubber (6) dissolves at once in a mixture of OS, with gasolene, 
or benzol, or ether, etc.; or of benzol and toluol; or less 
_ easily in mixtures of benzol and gasolene; etc. Ebonite is 
partially devuleanized, and would probably be dissolved in 
_large excess of solvent. § 38. No gas was evolved in any 
ease, $19, which is an advantage of this method. Im all 
cases the solutions hardened rapidly on exposure to air, yield- 
ing the pigmented rubber if the solution be shaken, or a 
purer rubber, if the sediment be removed by subsidence and 
decantation. | 

Equally feasible is the solution of mixed gums in a suitable 
solvent at 200°. Thus I made solutions of mixed vulcanized 
rubber and gutta percha in CS,, which dried at once on ex- 
posure to air; mixtures of rubber and shellac dissolved in CS,, 
drying more slowly; mixtures of vulcanized rubber and rosin 
dissolved in CS, and in gasolene, which dried in thin films only 
after long exposure; ete. 

17. Direct devulcanization.—When, by any of the above 
methods a solution of vulcanized rubber is obtainable, direct 
devulcanization may be attempted by mixing the charge with 
some sulphur absorbent. Such material must be chosen which 
at 200° acts neither on the rubber nor the solvent. Metallic 
filings do not appear to be available. Treating ebonite with 
CS,, C,H,, or gasolene, to which copper filings had been added, 
I found the charge, after exposing to 200°, to be disintegrated, 
while an enormous amount of gas was evolved. Scarcely 
any of the solvent was left in the tube. The direct action of 
copper or of sulphur, on OS,, ete., at 200° is insufficient to 
account for this reaction. $19. The gas must, therefore, be 
produced at the expense of the ebonite, or of the reagent in 
presence of ebonite; and since all the solvents used behave 
alike, at the expense of the ebonite. This may furnish some 
clue as to the chemical character of the rubber as related to the 
gases evolved. Gaseous decomposition frequently sets in on 
exposure of highly vulcanized rubber solutions even to ordinary 
room temperatures, whereas at 0° and under slight pressure (1 
or 2 atm.) the gas remains in combination. Bright steel is 


 —— 


0. Barus—Solution of Vulcanized India Rubber. 365 


searcely attacked.* In fusing impregnated india rubber, § 18 
I frequently noticed that the colder ends of the mass were 
opaquely discolored. Possibly, therefore, the sulphur at 200° 
may be gradually segregated by diffusion or evaporation. My 
experiments on this subject failed. 

18. Fusion of impregnated rubber.—If vulcanized india 
rubber be impregnated or saturated by digesting it with the 
cold reagent (any solvent of pure rubber), for a suitable time 
(a few minutes to many hours), the swelled mass not only 
shows a relatively low melting point, but it remains liquid 
after cooling, provided the solvent is not allowed to escape. 
This is an observation of practical importance, since the re- 
tortst can thus be charged with solid or dry rubber, a minimum 
of solvent be used in treating or lost by evaporation, and con- 
centrated solutions be obtained often fit to be used at once. 
The rubber so melted hardens on exposure. Finally the pres- 
sure necessary in this case is the smallest possible, and may be 
below the data given for the divers solvents above. 

The quantity of solvent retained by solid rubber is very 
large: Thus elastic sheet rubber will hold 7 or 8 times its 
weight of CS,, or 1 to 2 times its weight of naphtha. Gray 
rubber (elastic) absorbs more than its weight of naphtha; ete. 

Experiments may be cited as follows: Non-impregnated 
vulcanized rubbers (@ to e) do not melt if exposed in a closed 
tube at 210°. Only in the case of very slightly vulcanized 
pure rubber gum is there a trace of fusion perceptible at the 
edges, and here it may even be due to a stain of dirt (oil) acci- 
dentally left there. Gray rubbers (6, ¢) with a superficial coat- 
ing of exuded suJphur, turn black from the formation of a film 
of ebonite. 

All the india rubbers (@ to e) fuse at 210°, when previously 
saturated, or nearly so, with cold carbon disulphide, and exposed 
in a close-fitting glass tube. Jf the pressure be reduced by a 
capillary aperture at one end of the otherwise closed glass tube, 
or if the tube be only partially filled and the empty end kept 
cool, the impregnating solvent is merely distilled off, and no 
fusion takes place. Whereas at 160° fusion scarcely occurs, 
melting seems to be complete in the well impregnated elastic 
rubber (a) at 175°. There is therefore an approximate coinci- 
dence of the thermal data in the present and in the above 
paragraphs. 

* Fortunately, therefore, steel apparatus is available on a large scale. An 
interesting question occurs as to what becomes of the carbon, in the case where 
sodium, mercury. copper, etc., are attacked by hot liquid CS. and not by cold C&p. 

+ The present experiments were made in closed glass tubes. nearly filled with 


the impregnated rubber. After fusion the mass frequently appeared to have 
shrunk. Cf. § 2. 


366 OC. Barus—Solution of Vulcanized India Rubber. 


Similar results were obtained with benzol, with gasolene and 
higher petroleum oils, etc. Fusion is absent or only incipient 
at_ 160°, and more than complete at 210°, provided the gasolene 
be not too volatile. §§4,12. In general the gray rubbers 
(6, c) fuse to a more viscous mass than the gum rubbers (q@), the 
consistency of cold solutions in the latter case about that of 
treacle. 

The occurrences of this paragraph therefore would resemble 
the fusion of a salt in its water of crystallization, but for the 
exceptional behavior that impregnated vulcanized rubber after 
fusion retains a consistency which is liquid relatively to the 
original non-impregnated charge. The analogy with the solu- 
tion of starch, or of gluten, is thus more close and immediate. 
In all these cases the solid swells up when impregnated with 
the solvent, and fuses to a relatively less viscous consistency, 
or to a thin solution, when a certain temperature (below 
100° in ease of starch and gluten and above 160° in case of 
vuleanized india rubber) has been reached. Hence it is not 
unreasonable to suspect that even ordinary dry wood, or woody 
tissue, which swells to a marked degree when impregnated 
with water, may pass into actual solution if the temperature at 
which the water acts is sufficiently high, and the pressure 
above the vapor tension of water at that temperature.* 

I mention finally that the reduction of melting point pro- 
duced in vulcanized india rubber by the impregnating reagents 
may perhaps advantageously be discussed in accordance with 
Raoult’s law; but owing to the difficulty of defining the melt- 
ing point of the unimpregnated rubber, and the close prox- 
imity of the melting points after impregnation with different 
reagents (CS,, C,H,, gasolene) my views on this subject have 
not taken shape. It is known that in general that the melting 
point produced by a dissolved colloid is relatively very small, 
from which an exceedingly large molecular weight of the colloid 
has been inferred. The above results show that in the converse 
experiment, where the melting point of the colloid is lowered 
by a solvent, the effects will probably be normal and pronounced. 

Nevertheless [ doubt whether the thin rubber fluids obtained 
are true solutions, i.e. represent a case in which the division 
of the solid has actually reached a definite molecule; for on 


* T have since tested this surmise at some length, but found in every case that 
cellulose is decomposed before solution in water takes place. In spite of the 
presence of water under pressure, the phenomenon seems to be a dry distillation. 
[ may here refer to the remarkably close analogies in the thermal behavior of 
rubber and gelatine which have recently been discovered by Bjerken (Wied. Ann., 
xii, p. 817, 1891). The author has reason to believe that moist gelatines are 
heterogeneous mixtures of solid and liquid. The behavior of rubber, as discussed 
above, is characterized at low temperatures by a fixed maximum of absorbed sol- 
vent. The term mixture is scarcely applicable at once. 


OC. Barus—Solution of Vulcanized India Rubber. 367 


long standing in sealed vessels a gradual thickening of the 
liquid with final coagulation seems to be the invariable result. 
Thus there must be a gradual growing together of the indi- 
vidual particles, until tinally the whole solution forms one co- 
herent gelatinous mass. 

To summarize: Suppose the coherence of rubber to be due 
to (cohesive) affinities, capable of being saturated like ordinary 
affinities. Then in case of impregnation with a solvent, a part 
of these combine with the similar affinities of the solvent. 
The result is the decided decrease of tenacity (observed). To 
liquefy the impregnated sample, the residual cohesive forces of 
the rubber must be withdrawn, and this can be done by heat. 
The liquid so obtained, I do not conceive to be a true solution, 
but rather a suspension of particles, the exceeding fineness of 
which is determined by conditions discussed elsewhere.* Dit- 
fusion is thus an excessively slow process, and hence the liquid 
on cooling need not become solid again. In proportion as 
the individual particles unite however, coagulation gradually 
sets in, and its structure is probably that of a fine sponge hold- 
ing solvent in its interstices. If the coagulated solution be 
reheated (under pressure), a thin viscid solution is again ob- 
tained, which in its turn coagulates. 

19. Behavior of reagents.—The frequent occurrence of 
gaseous products in the above experiments made special ex- 
periments on the decomposition of reagents necessary. Beuzol 
and gasolene were found stable at 210°, and often above this 
temperature, both in the presence of water, or of sulphur. 
$21. Carbon disulphide, however, in addition to relatively 
slight decompositions producible by sodium, or mercury, or 
copper ($17), at 210°, is doubly decomposed by water at this 
temperature, with the evolution of much gas, presumably H,S 
and CO,. CS, remains stable in the presence of zine white (a 
common rubber pigment), or of sulphur, or of bright steel, at 
210°. §17. Hence a thread of mercury to shut off the ex- * 
perimental tubes, § 2, is generally objectionable, as is also a 
thread of water in case of CS,. Moreover the absence of gase- 
ous reaction in case of mixed solvents, § 16, is to be attributed 
to the fact that CS, and the water are intentionally separated 
by layers of benzol or gasolene. 

An interesting question is suggested here, as to whether it 
be possible to express affinity on a scale of temperatures. Let 
it be required to determine the affinity of a metal for sulphur. 
At ordinary temperatures not even sodium decomposes C%,, 
whereas such decomposition occurs if the temperature be sufi- 
ciently high. Hence the temperature at which the decompo- 
sition definitely sets in (for copper sooner than for iron, etc.) is 


* Barus: this Journal, xxxvii, pp. 126-128, 1889. 


368 0. Barus—Solution of Vulcanized India Rubber. 


a reciprocal expression of the affinity of the given metal for 
sulphur,—bearing always in mind that the stability of the 
solid metallic molecule also enters into the consideration. The 
arbitrary reagent OS,, in its relations to all the metals to be 
examined, fulfills a similar purpose to an arbitrary spring 
balance in measuring gravitational forces. § 21. 

20. Summary of the results.—In the above paragraphs I 
have therefore indicated a method by which vulcanized india 
rubber of any quality or character whatever, as well as the 
undecomposed or reclaimable part of rubber waste, may be 
dissolved or liquified in a reasonably short time ;* the solutions 
possessing any desirable degree of viscosity or diluteness, from 
which india rubber may be regained on evaporation of the 
solvent. 

I shall elsewhere describe divers forms of apparatus by 
which the above operations may be carried out on a larger scale. 
They are of no interest here; but I mention them since it is 
only from such work that a full insight into the quality of the 
rubber deposited from any given solution may be obtained. 
Experiments made in bulk in this way showed the material 
deposited from solution to be considerably inferior to the orig- 
inal rubber, both as regards tenacity and elasticity. Its chief 
value in the physical laboratory will therefore be that of fur- 
nishing an air-tight cement or an acid-proof varnish, capable 
of withstanding more than 200° centigrade. Rubber newly 
deposited from any of the above solutions presents a very 
curious case of slowly reacting elasticity. Ifa thread, say 0-1 
em. thick, be twisted and then let go on a frictionless surface, 
it will squirm like a live worm for some minutes. If it be 
stretched, the original length is regained with visible slowness. 

Throughout my work the approximate constancy of the dis- 
solution temperature irrespective of the solvent has been the 
marked feature. Thus in case of CS,, of turpentine, of the 
~ vulcanization of dissolved pure india rubber, etc., no action 
took place below 160°. Even this temperature is higher than 
is needful for vuleanization effected in the dry way, where 
110° to 140° are deemed sufficient. Moreover the solution of 
vuleanized rubber in OS,, for instance, takes place quite as 
easily under 700 atm. as under, say 20 atm., as is particularly 
manifest from the fusion of impregnated rubber, and in special 
high pressure experiments. In my work on the compressibility 
of liquidst I showed that compressibility is essentially asso- 
ciated with the extra-molecular forces whereas the molecule 
remains relatively incompressible. Temperature, however, has 
immediate access to the molecule; and thus it follows that 


* Practically at once, if the material is not too bulky. 
+ This Journal, xxxix, p. 510, 1890. 


A. M. Edwards—Infusorial Earths of Pacific Coast. 369 


whereas the effect of temperature in experiments like the 
above is manifest, the effect of pressures of the order applied 
is relatively inappreciable. 

21. Digression.—From the above (eens I infer that 
the difficulty encountéred in endeavoring to dissolve carbon is 
probably attributable to a relatively high dissociation tempera- 
ture of the solid carbon molecule. I made many experiments 
to test this view, in all of which I failed to obtain solution 
even at low red heat and 600 atm. of pressure. My work thus 
corroborates the negative results of Hannay* on the direct so- 
lution of carbon. My tests were made with gasolene, water, 
benzol and carbon disulphide, usually at 500° and 500 atm. 
In ease of gasolene I observed at higher temperatures. Usu- 
ally the reagents were decomposed (particularly Cs,, C,H, and 
OCHCl,) with the evolution of much gas, while the carbon re- 
mained appreciably unaffected. Decomposition by metals 
(copper corroded by CS,, and gasolene acted on by palladium) 
showed sooty deposits only. 


Art. XXX V.—Leport of the Examination by Means of the 
Microscope of Specimens of LInfusorial Karths of the 
Pacific Coast of the United States; by ARTHUR M. ED- 
warps, M.D. | 


SOME time since I had transmitted to me by Mr. George 
Gibbs, the geologist of the Northwest Boundary Expedition, a 
collection of earths gathered at different points on the Pacific 
coast of the United States in the states of Washington, Oregon 
and California, as well as British Columbia, with a request 
that I would make an examination of them by means of the 
microscope, the more particularly for the purpose of determin- 
ing the characters of the organic remains to be found in them. 
Through this means I have been enabled to study and record 
the discovery of several deposits of minute organisms, and at 
the same time very materially assist in unraveling the geology 
of some points of the country hitherto found to be somewhat 
difficult of comprehension. 

At the time these examinations were made, that is to say, in 
the latter part of the year 1861, very little was known concern- 
ing many points in the veology of our Pacific Coast, and my 
own experience in the study of such earths had been rather 
slight. Hence, when I made my report in 1862, I was unable 

* Hannay: Proc. Roy Soc., Ixxx, p. 188, 1880; Chem. News, xli, p. 106, 1880. 


Cf. Hannay and Hogarth: Chem.’ News, xli, p. 103, 1880; Mallet and Hannay: 
Nature, xxii, p. 192, 1880. 


870 A. M. Edwards—Infusorial Earths of Pacific Coast. 


to go very fully into the subject of the evident mode of forma- 
tion of the strata containing the microscopic organisms. Since 
that time the Geological Survey of the State of California has 
been undertaken and a much more extended suite of gather- 
ings has come into my hands. 

Through the knowledge acquired from the examination of 
these collections made at various points from Puget Sound to 
the southernmost border of California, I have been enabled to 
furnish such information that the history of both the marine and 
fresh water, so called, Infusorial deposits of that portion of the 
country has been pretty thoroughly worked out. With regard 
to the marine strata very little has, as yet, been published. 
The results arrived at concerning one class of the fresh water 
strata has been made known in a communication of Professor 
Whitney’s read before the California Academy of Natural 
Sciences, February 4th, 1867. (Proc. Cal. Academy, vol. iii, 
p- 319.) These he has therein shown to be the beds of enor- 
mous extinet lakes or inland seas, the material of which has 
been altered in character by the superposition upon it at differ- 
ent periods of lava or sand and gravel or ashes and pumice. 
In this way it can be readily understood that, as the volcanic 
action ceases, anew growth of microscopic organisms might 
take place over the erupted material lying upon the older 
deposits and, in fact, that many such layers might accumulate 
one over the other. Such has been the case at various points 
upon the Pacific Coast from Puget Sound to Lake Mono in 
HKastern California, which is the most southern point from 
which I have received such material. At some future time I 
may have more to say with regard to this class of deposits, for 
I have examined many of them during the progress of the 
Geological Survey of California and, when my report thereon 
is published, I shall be enabled to go more fully into the sub- 
ject. As I have several specimens from strata of this charac- 
ter to describe in the present report I shall, for the time 
being, indicate them as sub-Plutonic, which is the most distine- 
tive appellation I can now find for them. | 

Among the specimens which I have examined in connection 
with this survey, and aside from those which do not contain 
any organic remains, and hence will be treated of separately, I 
have then, first, the sub-Plutonic, which I have just alluded to, 
and which are always of fresh water origin; second, the fresh 
water deposits of more recent formation and, in fact, which 
are now under process of growth all over the world beneath 
ponds and lakes, and which I have hitherto been in the habit 
of calling sub- Peat, but I have lately preferred to designate as 
Lacustrine Sedimentary, as I consider that they are better so 
indicated. Besides these two classes of deposits, which differ 


3 


A. M. Edwards—Infusorial Earths of Pacific Coast. 371 


from each other only in time and in the fact that in the most 
recent a certain amount of organic matter usually remains and 
the material is light and readily pulverulent. We have in the 
older one, on account of the volcanic heat added to, or with- 
out aqueous action, the material has had all of its organic mat- 
ter removed. And it has become a less or more hard rocky 
mass of a light color. Hence we have strata of a totally differ- 
ent character. These are of marine origin and of an age sup- 
posed to be coincident with the Miocene Tertiary. At ail 
events they are much older than the most ancient fresh water 
stratum containing Diatomacese as yet discovered. Of the 
mode of formation of these last mentioned strata I shall not 
now pause to treat, as | have already thrown out some hints 
respecting my opinions upon this point in some remarks made 
before the Essex Institute, Salem, Mass., January 4th, 1869, 
an abstract of which will be found in the Bulletin of that asso- 
ciation, vol. i, page 11. I have treated of the same subject in 
a paper read before the American Association for the Advance- 
ment of Science, at the Salem meeting, August 25th, 1869. 
Hereafter I will treat fully of this subject in my report on the 
microscopic material of the Geological Survey of California 
now in preparation. 

It will be readily perceived that it is fortunate that my 
report on the matter herein treated of was not published at the 
time it was sent in, and I feel that I can congratulate myself 
that Mr. Gibbs has again submitted the matter to me for 
revision, for at the present time I can do more justice to it and 
throw light upon some points which, at the time, I was unable 
to fully comprehend. 

The constantly recurring records of the discovery of fossilif- 
erous deposits containing the remains of such minute organ- 
isms as the Diatomacez, Radiolaria and Rhizopoda, constitut- 
ing the well known ‘Infusorial earths’ of most geologists 
reveal the fact that these atomies play a very important part 
in the world’s future; and while almost every newly found 
specimen exhibits one, if not mrore, of what have been consid- 
ered new species, it proves, at the same time, the cosmopolitan 
character of many already known forms, which are thus seen 
to oceur spread over the globe in great profusion from the 
equator to the poles. In some eases these widely-spread species 
will not vary appreciably, be their dwelling place under the 
burning sun of the tropics, the more equable climate of the 
temperate zone or the frozen fields of the poles. Other forms, 
however, on the contrary, appear to vary to so great an extent 
with every few degrees of latitude that specimens gathered at 
the equator and in localities a very little removed therefrom, 
either north or south, might be supposed, on superticial exam 


872 A. MW. Hdwards—Infusorial Earths of Pacific Coast. 


ination, to be distinct. So markedly is this the case that we 
not unfrequently find that hasty observers have so classed 
them and even made use of locality for the determination of 
specific distinctions. That the Diatomacez, which are the 
organisms with which I shall most particularly treat in this 
paper, are extremely cosmopolitan in their habits; in fact, 
perhaps more so than any other group, would seem to be 
already established, but the imperfect state of our knowledge 
of them and their life-history at present, leaves us a great deal 
in the dark as to the full extent of their variation during the. 
lapse of time or through local distribution. Much has yet to 
be done in this field of investigation and large and widely 
extended collections made of both the recent and extinet 
forms, before we can assert that we know anything very certain 
with regard to their position in the chain of being, their habits, 
history, or range of variations in time or space. I do not, at 
the present time, desire to go more fully into this branch of 
the subject, merely confining myself to a thorough report 
upon the specimens submitted to me by Mr. Gibbs. The 
student who desires to follow researches in a field which will 
yield profitable returns cannot choose for himself one in which 
less is known, perhaps, than this, and when its applications to 
geology are considered, for my part, I can hardly imagine one 
more enticing. 

Below I give a list of the specimens sent to me for examina- 
tion by Mr. Gibbs and which were collected by him during 
the prosecution of the Northwest Boundary Survey. 

* Hot spring, Harrison’s lake, British Columbia. 
Nahchess river, Washington. 
Alkaline deposit, Similkamen river, Washington. ‘ 

* Steilacoom creek, No. 1, Washington. 

*k 66 6 No. 2. 3 

* Point Roberts, 

* Bluff west of Camp Simiahmoo, Washington. 

* Camp Simiahmoo, No. 1, Washington. 


* 6¢ 66 No y) ee 
. 9 

* 66 “ No. 3, 6c 

Winass river, ks 

* Point Ludlow, es 


Those localities marked with asterisk (*), are from the west 
or coast side of the mountain range, while the others are from 
the eastern slope. This is a point of importance and to be 
borne in mind as will be shown farther on. The principal 
point to be decided in examining these specimens was whether 
they contained any traces of organic remains by means of 
which their marine or fresh water could be determined. There- 
fore they were first superficially examined so as to note if any 


—— 


A. M. Edwards—Infusorial Earths of Pacific Coast. 373 


such remains appeared and those that showed signs of yielding 
definite results were set aside for further study after they had 
been properly prepared. In this way all of the specimens sub- 
mitted to me were examined. 

Most of them were found to contain no traces of organic 
remains by means of which might be ascertained their origin, 
as desired. The presence of the siliceous skeletons of Diato- 
maces in any earth, or deposit of any kind reveals at once the 
fact that such a deposit has formed beneath the surface of 
water or, if the remains are not evenly distributed throughout 
its mass, it may have been overflowed by water having Dia- 
tomaceze living in it. Besides this, it may be also ascertained 
as to whether it has been thrown down from fresh water or in 
the ocean. Although this branch of the subject has not 
received the attention that its importance deserves yet we can 
with some considerable degree of certainty even determine as 
to whether the water from which such a deposit was thrown 
down was a lake, a bog or marsh, an estuary or the open ocean. 
As the matter comes to be more fully studied and the knowl- 
edge of facts is increased we shall doubtless be able to deter- 
mine these and similar points with a greater degree of accuracy. 

The indestructible nature of these skeletons, on account of 
their consisting mainly if not entirely of silica, deposited dur- 
ing the life of the plant in its tissues, preserves for the student 
of nature a record of former aqueous submergence, and, as 
their distinctive characters are not very difficult of recognition 
by careful students we thus have typical forms of organisms 
to use for the purpose of determining the marine or fresh 
water origin of any specimen under examination. At the same 
time it must be remarked that by far the greatest portion of 
the time that has been spent by most observers on the Diato- 
macez has been evidently mainly for the purpose of discover- 
ing new forms rather than ascertaining the life-history or even 
the distinctive characters of already known species. So that 
our lists have become but a heterogeneous mass of mere names 
applied to often accidental, sometimes distorted or even frac- 
tured specimens. I[ can not too earnestly enter my protest 
against the recognition of the species-monger as a naturalist ; 
such observations and records as those [ allude to do not only not 
advance our knowledge but certainly retard its progress by 
placing new obstacles in the path of the student of nature. 
Elsewhere I have spoken more fully on this subject and shown 
how it is that this branch of biology has fallen undeservedly 


_into disrepute among scientific naturalists; at the present time 


I will refrain from saying more than I have already put upon 
record. 


874. A. WM. Edwards—Infusorial Earths of Pacifie Coast. 


From what has been said with regard to distinguishing the 
origin of a deposit by means of the minute remains present 
in it, it will be readily understood that we can thus determine 
to a certain extent its age, as to whether the overlying water 
has been fresh, brackish or salt. In the last case we shall find 
present such oceanic genera as Triceratium, Coscinodiscus, 
Aulacodiseus, or Actinocyclus. If the source of the deposit 
has been the shallow water along shore we should expect to 
find littoral species among which would be some of the Pleu- 
rosigma or Amphiprora; often, of course mixed with deeper 
water forms or even fresh water varieties accidentally mixed by 
being washed down from elevated stations. On the other 
hand if we find the genera Tabellaria, Cocconema or Himan- 
tidium to be present, the fresh-water origin of the gathering is 
established. So a group of mixed marine and fresh-water 
species would indicate the formation of such a deposit under 
very peculiar circumstances, but such mixtures are extremely 
rare. One of the few of this character which I have seen 
being a gathering of living specimens from the St. Johns 
river in Florida, which on account of its course being nearly 
North and South, is so affected by the tides that the marine 
species of Diatomacege at least are carried up almost to its head. 
At some future time when the life history of these minute 
forms is better understood observers will doubtless be able to 
ascertain from the examination of gatherings of the siliceous 
skeletons whether they have grown and been deposited in a 
lake, river or brook, near the level of the sea or at high alti- 
tudes as well as the fact of the fresh or salt character of the 
water. In fact [ feel convinced that a time will come when 
this mode of study applied to deposits generally will reveal 
many circumstances connected with the formation of most of 
the strata constituting the available mass of the earth. At the . 
present time so little is known of certainty with regard to the 
life-history of the Diatomaceze; the attention of observers 
having been mainly turned towards the finding of new forms 
and manufacturing them, when found, into so-called species, 
that little can be stated definitely with regard to their distribu- 
tion or habit. For years [ have been engaged in gathering 
material to illustrate this point and [am in hopes that, as 
facilities for collection increase valuable information will be 
accumulated. With regard to the mixture of forms considered 
peculiar to fresh or salt water respectively, a case of supposed 
mixing of species in a lake into which the ocean had access at 
certain periods of high tides is recorded by Dr. Gregory in the - 
celebrated ‘Glenshira sand,’ as it has been called, and such may 
have been the circumstances under which this deposit was 
thrown down for we have an example of a similar phenomenon 


A. M. Edwards—Infusorial Earths of Pacific Coast. 375 


in the case of the Mystic Pond, near Boston, Mass. Here the 
bed of the pond is much below that of the river which serves 
as its outlet, so that at the time of high tides the salt water, 
which on account of its superior density creeps up beneath the 
fresh water, runs over the bar at the entrance and flows down 
into the pond, thus mixing the forms of life found therein. 
An account of this locality with a list of the forms of Diato- 
maceze observed in the mud brought up from the bottom of 
the pond by Messrs. Greenleaf and Stodder will be found in 
the Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History, 
vol. viii, page 119. So also I have examined a locality of a 
like kind upon Phillips’ Beach between Swampscott and 
Marblehead, Mass. Herea small mass of fresh water fed at 
uncertain periods by intermitting streams, by drainage or by 
infiltration of water through the beach sand, by which the salt 
is removed, lies a short distance within and at a lower level 
than the shore and in it grow many fresh water plants and 
are found several fresh water animals. Yet at times of high 
tide or during storms the salt water must find egress, for in it 
I observed marine species of Diatomaceze in the mud taken 
from the bottom and, in fact, some few were noticed living in 
the water of the pond. 

The microscope thus applied to geology, in the hands of 
experienced and competent observers, besides the above, re- 
veals the fact as to whether a gathering under examination be 
of recent origin, deposited in a pond, Jake, river, marsh, bay, 
or ocean in existence at the time; or contain mostly extinct 
forms or be situated in time below the alluvial, and hence to 
be classed among the truly fossil strata. So that by means of 
such an examination we come to classify specimens containing 
Diatomaceze according to the age or mode of occurrence of 
these forms, and I have provisionally grouped my gatherings 
into, first: Recent, both marine and fresh water; second, 
Lacustrine sedimentary, now forming, although in many cases 
dating their period or origin as far back as the Post-Glacial. 
The recorded occurrences of similiar deposits of fresh water 
forms in the Tertiary I consider extremely doubtful; third, 
we have then the deposits to which I have given the distine- 
tive title of snb-Plutonic and the mode of occurrence of which 
I have alluded to above; fourth, thereafter and lastly we have 
the true Marine Fossiliferous strata which, as far as recorded, 
have been found only in the Lower Miocene Tertiary. A 
subdivision of some of these groups is convenient; as, for 
instance, the recent gatherings may be so arranged as to indi- 
cate the peculiar habitat of the species contained in it; the 
so-called ‘natural leathers” and “paper ;’ the soundings from 


Am. Jour. Sc1.—TuHirp Series, Vou. XLII, No. 251.—NovemBeEr, 1891. 
26 


376 A. M. Hdwards—Infusorial Earths of Pacifie Coast. 


the sea-bottom or shell cleanings, as well as harbor muds, 
the contents of the intestines of marine and fresh water ani- 
mals and the like be indicated. However, I think that nearly 
all gatherings may be fairly grouped under the four heads I 
have adopted. 

As the tendency of most persons who have turned their 
attention to the Diatomacez, which are the organisms I shall 
more particularly consider in this report, has been towards 
looking for differences where similitudes should have been 
searched after, | must be permitted to say a few words on that 
point. The progress of time, the more especially if it be very 
much extended, may, and in fact will, so change the apparent 
characters of. all living organisms that they can hardly, in the 
present condition of our knowledge, be distinguished one from 
another; but they will most assuredly revert to the parent 
type, even if the modifying influence be continued in power, 
so strong, so persistent, so fundamental is the inherent germ- 
force implanted in the individual. The Diatomaceze are not 
so liable to be influenced by outward circumstances, apparently, 
as some other groups ; but, at the same time, understood energies 
do affect them very materially, so as to change their outline, 
for instance, leaving their main characters of sculpture intact. 
I very much doubt if time has as great or as lasting an effect 
in causing such modifications as locality and, therefore, must 
consider the use of this point as a basis for distinguishing 
species to be unscientific and unjustified, at least with regard 
to these organisms. 

Among the specimens I have to report upon herein, we 
have examples of all of the four groups I have adopted, as 
Recent, Lacustrine, Sedimentary, and sub-Plutonic, under which 
head are to be placed the tripolis of commerce and Marine 
Fossil strata. 

The first Lacustrine Sedimentary deposit discovered in this 
country was that found by the late Prof. J. W. Bailey at 
West Point, N. Y., and was described by him in volume 
xxxv of this Journal. Since that time similar deposits 
have been discovered at many widely separated points in this 
country and in Europe, which bears out the opinion expressed 
by Prof. Bailey that strata resembling the West Point earth 
in general characters would be found under every bog in the 
country. In Europe such has been the case, as the Lough 
Mourne, Premnay, Peterhead, Toome Bridge and Mull in 
Great Britain and others on the Continent bear testimony. 

After receiving from Mr. Gibbs the collection of specimens 
I have already given a list of, he also sent three more, and 
these I shall include here, as they come from the same portion 
of country as the first. They are marked as below: 


A. M. Edwards—Infusorial Earths of Pacific Coast. 377 


* Shookum Chuck, a branch of the Chihalis river which flows 
into Gray’s Harbor, Washington. 

* Colseed Bay, Hood’s Canal, Washington. 

Pit River, eight miles from Fort Crook, Cal. 


These may all be supposed to belong to the western or coast 
slope of the mountain range, although Mr. Gibbs says that that 
from Pit river, the eastern branch of the Sacramento, may 
belong to either side. 

Of the fifteen earths but seven were found to contain the 
remains of Diatomacez. 


* Hot Spring, Harrison’s lake, B. C. 


This consists of a saline mass evidently deposited by the hot 
spring, but contains no organic remains. 


Nahchess river, Washington. 
No organic remains. 
Alkaline deposits, Similkamen river, Washington. 


This specimen is of very much the same general character as 
the first. 
* Steilacoom Creek, No. 1, Washington. 
* Steilacoom Creek, No. 2, : 
* Point Roberts, Washington. 
* Bluff west of Camp Simiahmoo, Washington. 


No organic remains. 
* Camp Simiahoo, No. 1, Washington. 
A lacustrine sedimentry deposit, containing: 


Amphiprora navicularis. Gomphonema intricatum. Himan- 
tidiura bidens. Himantidium gracile. Melosira varians. Pin- 
nularia major. Pinnularia viridis. Pinnularia mesolepta. Stau- 
roneis anceps. 


Camp Similkamen, No. 2, Washington. 
No organic remains. 

* Camp Similkamen, No. 3, Washington. 
A lacustrine sedimentary deposit, containing : 


Amphiprora navicularis. Cocconema leptoceros. Cocconema 
lanceolatum. Cymbella?. C.?. Gomphonema (Pinnularia) 
amphioxys. Gomphouema olivaceum, Himantidium arcus. Hi- 
mantidium biceps. Himantidium bidens. Himantidium ?. 
Navicula elliptica. Navicula cuspidata. Navicula amphigom- 
phus. Nitzschia (Synedra) spectabilis. Orthosira distans. 
Pinnularia gigas. Pinnularia dactilus. Pinnularia nobilis. Pin- 
nularia mesclepta. Pinnularia viridis. Pinnularia tabellaria. 
Pinnularia Johnsonii. Pinnularia ?. Stauronies phcenicenteron. 
Surirella craticula. 


3878 A. MW. Kdwards—Infusorial Earths of Pacific Coast. 


Amphiprora navicularis is the one Ehrenberg has given that 
name to and is quite common in lacustrine sedimentary de- 
posits in this country although I do not remember ever to 
have seen it anywhere else. The form I have called Watzschia 
spectabilis evidently belongs to that genus and appears to be 
identical with Synedra spectabilis C. E. Wenish (Syn. Brit. Diat. 
1853, 1389), who describes a form as WVetzeschia scalaris W.S.., 
thus claiming the authorship, although he gives Synedra scalaris 
as the original form and Kiitzing as the founder. The fact is 
that Synedra scalaris was founded by Ehrenberg (Amer. 137, 
IJ, ii, 18) and his form was from freshwater at Surinam, and 
Andover, Conn. <A form answering to it in every way is not 
uncommon in this country in both the recent state and in 
deposits. It varies much in size and in coarseness of its mark- 
ings but always preserves essentially the same characters. I 
cannot see in what particulars Synedra scalaris differs from 
Synedra spectabilis except in size, a character which can hardly 
be considered specific. I prefer to group all of these forms 
together. | 

In this specimen Himantidium soleirolw oceurs with the 
internal cells described by Ralfs in the Quart. Jour. of Mic. 
Sci., vi, 14, and which peculiarity has also been seen in 
Meridion and Odontidium. 

Winass River, Washington. 

A hard white mass not readily broken down and contains no 
organic matter, that having been burned out; in fact it is a 
specimen of the kind of strata I have mentioned above which 
Prof. Whitney has shown to have been affected by volcanic 
heat. On the Columbia River these strata were found for the 
first time by Fremont and examined by Bailey who however 
did not understand their distinctive character. They are of 
particular interest as having been hitherto only found on the 
Pacifie shore of this continent. Nowhere else apparently have 
there existed such enormous masses of fresh water which have 
become dried up by the elevation of the country, through 
volcanic agency and subsequent hardening of the material 
constituting their beds by the action of lava. This particular 
specimen is made up for the most part of one species of 
Cyclotella and there are present a few individuals of Odon- 
tidium mesodon, Orthosira punctata and Orthosira arenaria. 


* Point Ludlow, Wash. A sub-Plutonic deposit containing : 

Cyclotella rotula. Epithemia granulata. Pinnularia major. 
Pinnularia ?. Orthosira orichalea. Surirella ?. 

* Skookum Chuck, Wash. A sub-Plutonic deposit containing: 

Cocconeis placentula. Cocconema cymbiforme. Cocconema 
lanceolatum. Cyclotella Kiitzingiana. Cymbella Ehrenbergii. 
Encyonema cespitosum. Epithemia adnata, Epithemia gibba. 


A.M. Hdwards—Infusorial Harths of Pacific Coast. 319 


Epithemia gibberula. -Epithemia granulata. Gomphonema di- 
chotomum. Odontidium mutabile. Orthosira?. Pinnularia ?. 
Synedra capitata. Synedra radians. Tabellaria flocculosum. 

~ * Colseed Bay, Hood’s Canal, Washington. A lacustrine sedi- 
mentary deposit containing : 

Cocconeis placentula. Cyclotella rotula. Epithemia adnata. 
EKpithemia luna. Gomphonema vibrio. Melosira?. Navicula 
elliptica. Navicula ?. Pinnularia major. Pinnularia ?. Ortho- 
sira orichalea. Odontidium? ‘Tetracyclus ?. 

Pit River, 8 miles from Fort Crook, Cal. A sub-Plutonic 
deposit. 

Amphora ovalis. Cyclotella Astrea. Cyclotella rotula. Cym- 
bella ?. Cymatopleura elliptica. Fragillaria striatula. Gompho- 
nema capitatum. Gomphonema constrictum. Gomphonema ?. 
Epithemia gibba. Epithemia luna. Surirella splendida. Suri- 
rella linearis. ‘Tetracyclus lacustris. Stauroneis punctata. Pin- 
nularia major. Orthosira?. Navicula cuspidata. 


Having now given the results of the examination of the 
first parcel of earths submitted to me by Mr. Gibbs I will 
point out some of the results arrived at. Bailey having had 
sent to him several specimens of so-called ‘infusorial earths’ 
as those brought home by Fremont, Blake and others, ascer- 
tained, as he supposed, that all of those collected upon the 
eastern slope of the Sierra Nevada Mountains were of fresh 
water origin, while those from the Coast Range contained the 
remains of Diatomacez only. It became interesting, there- 
fore, in examining the specimens put into my hands to ascer- 
tain if therefrom I was prepared to confirm or refute this 
assertion of Bailey’s, upon which, of course, geologists had 
depended for drawing deductions. Up to the time of the pub- 
lication of the paper of Professor Whitney in the Proceed- 
ings of the California Academy, which I have alluded to, the 
true character of these sub-Plutonic deposits was entirely mis- 
understood. And this arose, doubtless, to a certain extent, 
from their occurring only in one portion of the world where 
naturalists have traveled little and where the microscope as 
applied to geology has as yet not made much progress. But 
the lacustrine sedimentary, or sub-Peat, deposits are found 
all over the world and have been much examined by micro- 
scopists. That these and the first mentioned should have been 
classed together and neither of them understood is, perhaps, 
not so surprising when we consider that few microscopists are 
naturalists; that instrument having been too often used as a 
toy and not employed as an instrument of research. It is not 
to be wondered at perhaps that Bailey did not comprehend the 
origin and geological position of these two classes of strata and 
it is to be hoped that what I have said herein will at least 


380 A. M. Hdwards—Infusorial Earths of Pacifie Coast. 


help to prove interesting upon this point. Both of these 
classes of deposits have been called ‘fossil,’ but if either of 
them can be properly so designated it must be the sub-Plutonie 
one alone; the others are of recent origin and identical 
deposits are now undergoing formation all over the world. 
Thus, all through the New England States they are very com- 
mon. At Bemus Lake, in New Hampshire, the bed of that 
piece of water when stirred up by means of a pole is seen to 
be almost white in color and consist entirely of the dead shells 
of Diatomacese. As Bailey’s conclusions, although they had 
been fonnded upon extremely slight foundations, had been 
accepted by geologists generally it came to be asserted that no 
fresh water deposits of Diatomacez were to be found upon 
the coast side of the Sierra Nevada, only marine strata being 
there seen and not extending to the western slope of the 
mountains. Hence, it became of interest to determine whether 
the deposits discovered since Bailey’s time in that part of the 
country bore out his theory or not, and this was one of the 
questions put to me when these specimens were placed in my 
hands. 

As will be seen, all of the seven deposits which I found to 
contain the remains of Diatomaces, in the above mentioned 
collection, are of fresh water origin, three of them being 
decidedly of recent formation, or lacustrine sedimentary, and 
the other four from the beds of extinct lakes, or sub-Plutonie. 
Tt will also be noted that all of them with the exception of 
one, that from Winass River, are from the western side of the 
mountains, that one being from the east. However, from 
what I have already said respecting the mode of formation of 
these fresh water strata containing Diatoms it will be under- 
stood that but little of geological value attaches to the examina- 
tion of such strata by means of the microscope unless they are 
proved by other evidence to be of greater age than the present 
period. So that my examination even taken for what the 
results obtained are worth does not bear out Bailey’s theory. 

The second parcel of earths which I received for examina- 
tion were for the most part collected by Dr. J. S. Newberry 
during prosecution of the survey of the Colorado River by 
the expedition under the command of Col. Ives, and also 
while connected with the Pacific Railroad Survey under Lieut. 
Williamson. They were as below: 


1. 26. Shores of Lower Klamath Lake, borders of Oregon 
and California. 
* 2, 23. Monterey, Cal. 


3. 1. San Francisco, Cal. 
AA San Diego, Cal. 
* 5. 55, Pitdaiver Valley, Cal: 


A. M. EKdwards—Infusorial Earths of Pacific Coast. 381 


* 6. 56. Near Monterey, Cal. 

* 7, 53. Pit River, Lower Cafion, Cal. 
* gs. 54. Pit River, Lower California. 
* 9. 60. Monterey, Cal. 

=a0. 057. . Monterey, Cal. 


*11. 58. San Francisco, Cal. 
* 12, 54. Pit River, above Lower Cafion, Cal. 
ES. Dalles of the Columbia, Oregon. 
*14. 28. San Diego, Cal. 
5." 9.. San Pablo Bay, Cal. 
16. 516. Black Cafion, Colorado River, Cal. 
17. 506. “ White Rock,” Colorado River, Cal. 
18. 519. ‘“ White Rock,” Colorado River, Cal. 
10. 496. “ White Rock,” Colorado River, Cal. 
e217: - Monterey, Cal. 
#91. 24. Monterey, Cal. 
22. 155. Psucseeque Creek, Oregon. 


23: Monterey, Cal. 
? 24, $07. [Smithsonian Catalogue. | 
#25. ~ San Joaquin Valley, Cal. 


I have indicated the geographical position of the localities 
in this list, as far as known, in the same manner as employed 
in the preceding catalogue, that is to say, those marked with a 
star (*) are from the western side of the mountains, while the 
others, with the exception of No. 1, 20, which is from the gap 
between the Sierra Nevada where it joins the Cascade, which 
is a portion of the Coast Range, are from the east of the slope. 


1. 26. Shores of Lower Klamath Lake, borders of Oregon 
and California. 


The position of the bed from which this specimen was taken 
and its relation to the overlying trap will be understood from 
what Dr. Newberry has said in his report on the geology of 
this section of country. (P. BR. R. Report, vol. vi, part 
I, Geology, pp. 87 and 38.) It is sub-Plutonie. 


Cyclotella rotula. Epithema granulata. Orthosira orichalcea. 
Pinnularia viridis. 

* 2. 23. Monterey, Cal. 

Of this as well as those numbered No. 3, 4, 6, 9, 11, 14, 15, 


21, 23, and 25, I will speak hereafter together, as they all 
came from the same strata of the Miocene Tertiary. 


* 5. 55. Pit River Valley, Cal. 


From a sub-Plutonic deposit. On the banks of the Pit 
River these so-called “infusorial marls” present a very strik- 
ingly peculiar appearance and often modify very greatly the 
character of this whole tract of country. Dr. Newberry 
(p. 82) has pointed out the characters of this district and, in 


. 


382 A. WM. Hdwards—Infusorial Earths of Pacifie Coast. 


connection with the examination of these specimens it may be 
of interest here to quote somewhat.from his report. He says 
that ‘they appear on both sides of Pit River at intervals of 
several miles, being in many places interrupted or covered by 
the beds of clay. They are perhaps best exposed in the cafion 
formed by the passage of the river through ‘Stoneman’s 
Ridge,’ the most conspicuous of the lines of upheaval, which 
form what is known as the lower cafion of Pit River. They 
here exhibit a thickness of about fifty feet, but are considera- 
bly tilted up, and covered by a thick bed of trap, which has 
been poured out over them. In some places this alternation 
of Diatomaceous deposit and trap is often repeated as, for 
example, on the Psucseeque Creek, a tributary of the Des 
Chutes River; the bank is capped by hard columnar trap and 
beneath this are successive strata varying in thickness and 
forming steps of thirty to forty feet wide. These steps, which 
at this point number twelve, have been formed by the more 
ready wearing away by weathering of the ‘infusorial’ deposits, 
they being protected above and below to a certain extent by 
layers of tufa, concrete or trap. These deposits represent the 
enormous extinct fresh water seas which at one time extended 
over a large part of our continent. Those who are interested 
in the subject will find more particulars in the sixth volume of 
the Pacific Railroad Survey, in the paper by Professor Whit- 
ney I have alluded to above, and in a paper read May 16, 1870, 
before the New York Lyceum of Natural History by Dr. J. 
S. Newberry and published in the Proceedings for that month. 
I found the following : 


Amphora ovalis. Cyclotella operculata. Cyclotella rotula. 
Epithemia granulata. Gomphonema intricata. Orthosira granu- 
lata?. Pinnularia nobilis. 

* 8, 54. Pit River, Lower Canon, Cal. A sub-Plutonic de- 

osit. 

: Campylodiscus ?. Cocconema lanceolatum. Cocconeis pedicu- 
lus. Cyclotella rotula. Cyclotella operculata. Encyonema 
cespitosum. Epithemia granulata. Gomphonema cespitosum. 
Gomphonema intricatum. Orthosira punctata. Pinnularia nobilis. 
Surirella ?. 


This deposit, together with No. 5. 55. agree in many 
respects with some infusorial earths described by Bailey in 
vol. xvii, of this Journal for March, 1854. The earths he 
describes were sent to him by Lieut. Robert Williamson and 
were collected in Oregon and California. In fact one of 
Lieut. Williamson’s earths is labelled ‘ Pit River, Washington 
Territory,” and agrees with the two deposits described above 
and marked Nos. 5. 55. and 8. 54. as I have ascertained from 


A. M. Edwards—Infusorial Earths of Pacifie Coast. 383 


personal examination of the original material in the Bailey 
Collection, Boston. 


*10. 57. Monterey, Cal. 


A sub-Peat deposit of JMelosira varians with sporangia. 
There are small quantities of Synedra radians, Nitschia 
linearis and Fragillaria virescens. 


* 13. Dalles of the Columbia, O. 
A sub-Peat deposit containing sand and Orthostra punctata. 
* 20. 17. Monterey, Cal. 


A specimen of a Miocene, Oligocene or Eocene Tertiary as 
is proved by the shells of Foraminifera contained in it. 


* 9. 23. Monterey, Cal. 
38. 1. San Francisco, Cal. 
BWA, San Diego, Cal. 
6. 56. Near Monterey, Cal. 
9. 60. Monterey, Cal. 
+71. 58.. San Francisco, Cal. 
*14. 28. San Diego, Cal. 
*15. 9. San Pablo Bay, Cal. 
*21. 24. Monterey, Cal. 
72S. Monterey, Cal. 
cape San Joaquin Valley, Cal. 


These specimens are evidently gatherings made at different 
parts of a marine fossiliferous deposit discovered by W. P. 
Blake and described by him in the Proceedings of the Phila- 
delphia Academy of Natural Sciences, vol. vil, page 328 for 
1854-5. The locality is mentioned as being about two miles 
distant from the town of Monterey and the stratum is revealed 
on the side of a hill some 500 to 600 feet high, consisting for 
the most part of this white ‘infusorial earth’ interstratified 
with compact siliceous layers of a dark material supposed to 
be bituminous in character. The earth is similar in most of 
its characters to the celebrated stratum underlying the city of 
Richmond, Virginia. The Diatomacez agree very closely with 
those of Richmond, Petersburg, Piscataway and Nottingham 
deposits which extend from the Patuxent River in Maryland 
to Petersburg in Virginia. The genera most largely repre- 
sented are: 


Actinocyclus. Biddulphia. Grammatophora. 
Actinoptychus. Campylodiscus. Isthmia. 
Arachnoidiscus. Coscinodiscus. Navicula. 
Asteromphalus. _ Creswellia. Rhabdonema. 
Aulacodiscus. Gephyria. Triceratium. 


Auliscus. 


384. A. WM. Hdwards—Infusorial Harths of Pacifie Coast. 


Thus then we have described seven new fluviatile fossil- 
iferous deposits from Oregon, California and Washington, four 
of which are from the Western side of the mountains, one 
from the gap and one from the east, proving that the fresh- 
water deposits are confined to neither side of the mountains. 
The Monterey deposit is marine Miocene Tertiary. 

New York, 1870. 


NOTES ON THE ABOVE. 


The deposit from Lake Mono, Cal., to Winas River, Wash.. are parts of the 
same, and it extends from Winas River, Wash., on the north and Lake Mono, Cal., 
on the south to Great Salt Lake, U., on the west. That is tosay the most northern 
point I have it from is Winas River, Wash., and the southernmost point is Mono 
Lake, Cal., on the west and Great Salt Lake, U., on the east. They were investi- 
gated by I. C. Russell (U. 8. Geological Survey, 1885), in Western Nevada when 
he described ‘‘ Lake Lahontan,” which includes Honey Lake, California, Hum- 
boldt, Pyramid, Winnemucca, North Carson, South Carson and Walker Lakes, 
Utah; by C. K. Gilbert (U. S. Geological Survey, 1890), when he described ‘* Lake 
Bonneville,” which includes Great Salt Lake and Sevier Lakes, Utah, and at 
Mono Lake, California, by I. C. Russell, which includes two or three little lakes. 
(U. 8S. Geological Survey, 1886-7.) The three are made separate lakes by 
Gilbert but when we look at a map of the Great Basin we see they are all one. 
This one great lake or Occidental Sea extends from Washington on the north 
to Arizona on the south, and California on the west to Utah on the east. 
The country is flat, making the Great Plain of Fremont, and this great fresh- 
water sea is shown by the Diatomaceze composing the freshwater marls, of a 
white or nearly white color, which in some places, as at Psucseeque Creek, are 
twelve in number. and intercalated with lava which flowed from the volcanoes of 
the Lassen’s Peak district over the whole extent of surface. At the same time 
the country was raised and earthquakes were common and are still common and 
the Sierra Nevada is rising now. This sea was drained into the Pacific Ocean, 
first by the Colorado, and afterwards by the Columbia, and subsequently the 
Klamath, Pit, Feather and San Joaquin rivers. It was bounded by the Rocky 
Mountains on the east and the low range of mountains made up principally by 
the Coast Range on the west. The species of Diatomacez present are Lysigoniwm 
oricalchee M. (Gallionella distans C. C. KE.) and Cyclotella operculuta C. A. A. (C. 
Kiitzingiana T.) mixed with several other species in small quantity. But the 
Lysigonium and Cyclotella are common and always present. Thus showing that 
it was a lake of still water, for these species now grow in freshwater lakes and 
not in running water or in the ocean. 

My reasons for making this one Occidental Sea and including Mono, Honey, 
Lower Klamath, Goose, Clear, Upper and Middle in Modoc Co., Eagle Horse and 
Swan Lakes in California; Upper Klamath, Rhett or Tule Wright, Christmas or 
Warner and Maleur Lakes in Oregon; Chelan, Great Salt, Utah, Sevier Lakes in 
Utah and Red Lake in Arizona besides several small lakes in these States, are the 
finding of one or two species of Diatomaceze in the freshwater marls as two and 
sometimes twelve strata interstratified with lava. The flat plain, the Great 
Plain of Fremont, whose rocks are present as faulted monoclines over the sur- 
faces, takes in the eastern portion of California, three-quarters of Oregon, half of 
Washington nearly the whole of Idaho, all of Utah and Arizona and half of 
New Mexico and perhaps extends into Mexico. 

Whether this includes the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers, that empty by 
way of the Golden Gate into the Pacific Ocean is doubtful, but extremely likely, 
as the Sierra Nevada is later in time of formation than the Coast Range. Tulare 
Lake, Cal., the sink of the Kern River, is also most likely the end of an Intra- 
glacial deposit. But this has not been geologically investigated. 

The geological period of the Occidental Sea is most likely Oligocene Tertiary 
though Gilbert places *‘ Lake Bonneville” in the Pleistocene. That is to say 
‘Lake Bonneville” was finally dried out in the Pleistocene. The Occidental Sea 
was formed and the freshwater marl laid down in the early Tertiary. 


E.. H. §. Bailey—Tonganoxie Meteorite. 385 


This determines, of course, that the species are confined to the ocean, 
brackish or freshwater. Some experiments Iam making would seem to point to 
the fact that the Diatomacez originated in freshwater and were carried down to 
brackish water and so to the sea. Brackish forms, as Nitzschia scalaris ©. G. E. 
have been seen growing in great profusion in a freshwater pond without any 
outlet, and brackish forms, as Amphiprora alata C. G. E.. Amphora aponina F.T.K., 
Bacillaria paradoxa G., Cyclotella operculata F. T. K., Fragilaria capucina L. W. D., 
Melosira nummuloides F. T. K., Navicula minutua W. S., Nitzschia angularis W. S., 
N. dubia W.S., N. lineris W.S., N. reversa W.8., Shizonema conferta W.S., S. 
crucigera W.S., S. Smithit C. A. A., Surirella ovata F. T. K., and Synedra tabulata 
F, T. K. have been grown in freshwater. The concentration of freshwater in the 
western lakes, as at ‘‘ ake Bonneville” and ‘‘ Lake Lahontan” have resulted in 
brackish water. 


Newark, N. J. 1891. 


Art. XXXVI.—The Tonganoxie Meteorite; by E. H. S. 
BaILey. With Plate XIII. 


[Contributions from the Chemical Laboratory of the University of Kansas, 
No. I1.] 


In “Science” of Jan. 2, 1891, Dr. F. H. Snow published a 
preliminary notice in regard to the discovery of the Tonga- 
noxie meteorite. The specimen was picked up in 1886, by 
Mr. Quincey Baldwin, on his farm a mile west of the town of 
Tonganoxie, Leavenworth County, Kansas. The true nature 
of the specimen was not understood by the original owner. 
He experimented with it so far as to make a fish hook from a 
fragment of it, and thought its occurrence was an indication 
that there was an iron mine on his farm. Since, however, he 
was unable to find any more specimens, the iron mine theory 
was abandoned. Mr. Baldwin disposed of the meteorite to 
Mr. H. C. Fellow, then Principal of the Friends’ Academy in 
Tonganoxie, and from him it has been purchased by Dr. Snow 
and it is now in the Museum of the University of Kansas. 

The specimen originally weighed a little over twenty-six 
pounds, but a siice has been cut from the smaller end, in order 
to obtain a plane surface, that the structure might be studied, 
and the present weight is twenty-three and one-quarter pounds 
[10°55 kilos.} Its shape is that of an irregular triangular 
pyramid ; the length beg 94 inches, the width 63 inches, and 
the depth 43 inches. The specific gravity is 7-45, as compared 
with water at its greatest density. This specific gravity was 
taken by weighing the whole meteorite. 

As can be seen by an examination of fig. 1, the surface of 
the meteorite shows numerous depressions, some of them 
quite large. The entire exterior is covered with a reddish black 
coating. This seems to be composed of scales of oxide of 
iron. These scales are brittle and readily attracted by the 


386 i. A. S. Bailey—Tonganoxie Meteorite. 


magnet. After the specimen had been for some time exposed 
to the air, after being handled, numerous droplets of chloride 
of iron appeared on the surface. These seem to exude from 
minute cracks or to come from under the scales. The occur- 
rence of chloride of iron, and its exuding in this way, is by no 
means uncommon in meteorites. To the fact of its presence 
is probably due the great tendency to scale noticed above. 
This iron salt gradually changes to a brown friable oxide. 
The analysis shows the following composition : 


ton: 224 ae ee oe ee Lie 
Nickel. 00 ee. fe jee ye eee ee 7°93 
Coltaltn: 250 ck tet it ye cee 0°39 
Phosphorast2a0) 2a: ees 010 
Copper ot te ae ate ee a trace 

99°60 


A test made for sulphur, on the same sample analyzed above, 
showed only a possible trace, but an examination was made of 
a sample of turnings, somewhat oxidized, and a very percepti- 
ble precipitate of barium sulphate was obtained. Scattered 
over the polished surface may be seen occasional long slender 
crystals, sometimes branching, and also several nodular masses, 
of a bronze color. These are without doubt troilite; [iron- 
nickel sulphide]. The larger particles are near the center of 
the polished end, as though the last to crystallize. The troilite 
cannot be seen till the surface has been polished with oil and 
emery. As this mineral is so irregularly distributed there was 
probably only a very small quantity in the particular piece 
analyzed. The Widmanstiattian figures came out very per- 
fectly with nitric acid. Figure 2, reduced one-fifth from a 
photograph, shows the characteristic forms The octahedral 
form of crystallization is apparent, but it is not possible to 
distinguish the Neumann lines, that are believed to indicate the 
cubic form of erystallization. It is however possible, as some 
observers have noted, that some other surface, if polished, 
would show this form. A crack extends across the surface on 
the etched side, and other small cracks lead into it. These 
are all filled with a black mineral, probably made up of the 
oxidized metals. The cracks in an irregular way follow the 
lines between the crystals. 

On examining this meteorite with the magnetic needle, it 
was found that there were several distinct poles. Mr. A. G. 
Mayer has plotted the lines of magnetic force, so as to show 
their true relation. The position of the poles might be ex- 
pected to be near the ends, but this is not the case in this 
specimen. 


Waggener—-Proposed Form of Mercurial Barometer. 387 


As the meteorite is irregular as described, and quite flat and 
comparatively free from cavities on one side, the question 
naturally arises, is it not a fragment thrown off from a much 
larger mass. A careful examination of the mass will render 
such a theory, to say the least, very probable, but whether this 
mass was brought here by human or geologic agencies, or 
whether its companions still exist in the vicinity, it is at 
present impossible to state. A careful search in the vicinity 
of the farm where it was found, fails to reveal any other 
specimens. | 

University of Kansas, July 10, 1891. 


Art. XXX VIL—Proposed Form of Mercurial Barometer ; 
by W. J. WAGGENER. 


THE form of barometer to be described in this paper is 
shown in the accompanying figure. It should 
be made with all its parts of glass united into 
a single piece in the form of a tubular loop 
having two dilatations, B and C; the latter ne 
serving as cistern. S and S’ are two care- 
fully made stop-cocks connecting the cavity 
of C with the atmosphere. Through §, the 
atmospheric air is to be admitted when the 
instrument is in use. «we and yy are prolon- 
gations of the tubes T and T’ into the cistern, 
their openings, 0, 0’, being very near together 
and to the center of the cistern. The capac- 
ity of the latter should be about four times 
that of the vacuum, VV, so that the openings 7 T 
oo’ shall always be immersed in mercury 
whatever the position of the barometer. 

To prepare the instrument for use, the 
manipulations will be as follows: 


1, Place it in a nearly horizontal position and 
fill the whole cavity with mercury. 

2. Close the cocks and place the instrument in 
the erect position. 


3. Open the cock S. Mercury flows out, the Tre 
Torricellian vacuum forming at E, C re- By Ae ee 
maining filled with mercury. dllz Fe=9 

4, Close the cocks tightly and leave the barom- C 
eter for some time, first in the erect, after- y 


ward in other positions, so that the air 
and moisture of the cavity may enter the 
vacuous space. 


388 O. B. Thwing—Color Photography. 


5. Regarding the instrument as in the figure, rotate it around 
the line of sight and in the plane of the paper, thus causing 
any air or vapor accumulated in the vacant space to pass 
into the cistern, whence it can no more pass into other parts 
of the cavity. 

6. Repeat the foregoing manipulations in order, until the vacuum 
in V is as nearly perfect as possibile. (Probably No. 1 need 
not be repeated often.) 


Doubtless the apparatus would work well if made without 
the return tube T’ and its prolongation yy, being sealed at D 
and E; but the complete loop has evident advantages, among 
which is the fact that it allows the tubes to be of small bore 
without impeding the flow of the mercury and the transfer of 
air-bubbles, thus greatly diminishing the amount of mercury 
required. 

The principal features of this construction occurred to me 
some two years since, but my attention was taken from it by 
other matters until recalled by reading an account of the 
method proposed by G. Guglielmo,* this method being essen- 
tially the same as that involved in the foregoing manipula- 
tions; but his apparatus seems to me less perfect and conven- 
ient than that described above. He claims that this method 
gives better results than that of boiling the mereury, but it is 
evident that heat can easily be used with the loop form of 
tube, if desired. 

Boulder, Colorado, July 29, 1891. 


Art. XXXVIII.—Color Photography by Lippmann’s 
Process; by CHARLES B. THwine, Evanston, Ill. 


In a communication to the Académie des Sciences on the 
second of February last, M. G. Lippmann opened an entirely 
new line of experimentation on the problem of the photo- 
graphic reproduction of the colors of nature. To Lippmann’s 
account of his discovery is appended in Comptes Rendus a 
note by Mons. Edw. Becquerel to the effect that the process 
of Lippmann differs radically from the discovery made by him- 
self in 1848, in that while Becquerel was able by photo-chem- 
ical means to produce a colored image of the spectrum which 
could not be exposed to light since the action of the usual fix- 
ing agents reduced the deposit to a,mere film of metallic silver, 
Lippmann, on the other hand, had by a physical process ob- 
tained an image which retains its colors after treatment with 
hyposulphite of soda, and is, therefore, as permanent as an 


* Atti della reale Accad. dei Lincei, August, 1890. 


C. B. Thwing —Color Photography. 389 


ordinary negative. The peculiarities of Lippmann’s method 
consist, first, in the use of a plate which is transparent and free 
from grains; second, in the exposure of the plate with its film 
side resting against a reflecting surface of mercury. The inter- 
ference of the reflected with the incident ray of light divides 
the film into a number of layers at the maxima which will cor- 
respond in their distance apart with the wave length of the 
incident light, and will, therefore, be able to reproduce by 
reflection the color which produced the layers. 

Lippmann says that the plates are positive for reflected and 
negative for transmitted light (négatif par transparence). By 
negative he means showing the complementary color. In that 
one of Lippmann’s negatives which I have seen and all those 
obtained by myself, the plates are opaque to transmitted light, 
showing only differences of density like an ordinary negative. 
The reverse side of the plate, however, shows the comple- 
mentary colors, somewhat fainter than the original colors which 
appear on the film side of the plate. 

If the plates were, in reality, negative by transmitted light, 
it might be possible to obtain by two steps instead of the one 
employed in ordinary photography, a number of copies from a 
single negative. The remaining method is to copy the reflected 
image, and, as the reflected colors are bright, this may not 
prove impossible. In my experiments certain modifications were 
introduced with a view of determining several points which 
are not brought. out by the original experiment as reported by 
Lippmann. It is difficult to obtain a plate which shall be 
transparent and yet possess any sufficient degree of sensitive- 
ness. The plates I have found most satisfactory hitherto are 
of collodion on a thin substratum of albumen. 

Following is the formula employed: 


Cadmium bromid@s..o5 4. Si 22224 25 go. 
(omc waAleahal) 23 Ssh Seo es get 280 ¢.c¢. 
Eivdrochlone acid. 244 242 oo eee 5 Gs€ 
ULES EES UA Dah re a a Eg eo ogo a 5 ¢.¢ 
Bip iNe rigors heres lee ee ry Ne 40 ¢.¢ 
PesyiOre VANCE Oe Rash ee 2¢ 


Sensitize by adding, drop by drop, a solution of silver nitrate, 
1 g., in alcohol, 10 ce, and pour without waiting for the 
emulsion to ripen. 

The film obtained is a pale opalescent blue, almost perfectly 
transparent, and requires an exposure of twenty minutes or 
more in direct sunlight to produce images of the green and 
red. It should be remarked, however, that the image is not 
latent but appears nearly as strong without the use of a devel- 


390 W. EF. Hillebrand—Analyses of Uraninite. 


oper as when development is resorted to. Suitable developers 
will doubtless reduce the time of exposure. 

The plates were exposed against mercury, not, however, to 
the spectrum, as with Lippmann, but to light transmitted by 
strips of variously colored glass, one object being to determine 
whether the ordinary colors of objects, consisting, as they do, 
of a mixture of rays of several different wave lengths, would 
be reproduced with the same fidelity as were the pure rays of 
the spectrum. The composition of the light transmitted by 
the strips of colored glass employed as determined by the spec- 
troscope is shown in the following table: 


Red: All the red with distinct traces of orange and green. 

Orange: The entire spectrum reduced in intensity. 

Green: A band extending from the middle of the blue to the 
middle of the red. 

Blue: Blue, with bands throughout the green and red. 

Purple: Green and red. 


The results obtained, though by no means conclusive at all 
points, seem to indicate: First, that mixed colors may be 
reproduced with some fair degree of accuracy, though some 
curious modifications sometimes occur. Thus, a thickening of 
the film between exposure and final drying, will occasionally 
change all the colors in the direction of the red end of the 
spectrum. A shortening of the distance between the thin 
plates, and a consequent displacement toward the violet, on the 
other hand, may be produced by allowing the incident light to 
strike the reflecting surface of mercury, at an angle other than 
the normal, thus shortening the distance between the maxima 
which mark the layers of reflecting deposit in the sensitive 
film. Second, that an exposure sufficiently long to give a clear 
image of the red is quite certain to obliterate the blue by over- 
exposure. Third, that an over-exposure may completely reverse 
the colors, causing the original colors to appear on the reverse, 
and the complementary on the film side of the plate. 


Art. XXXIX.—New Analyses of Uraninite ; by Wea: 
HILLEBRAND. 


SINCE the publication of a former paper on the occurrence 
of nitrogen in uraninite and on the composition of uraninite 
in general* no advance has been made toward clearing up the 
mystery surrounding the composition of that mineral, although 


*This Journal, III, xl, p. 384; Bull. U. 8. Geol. Survey, No. 78, 1889-1890, 
p. 43. 


W. F. Hillebrand—Analyses of Uraninite. 391 


considerable work has been done in certain directions, some of 
which is of sufficient interest to be produced later in a separate 
publication. Im addition several analyses of uraninite have 
been made, the material being in part from localities hitherto 
unrepresented by analytical data, and these form the subject 
of the present paper. 

A first glance sufficed to show that the specimens were not 
fresh and that therefore analysis could throw no light on the 
ultimate composition of the mineral, but valuable data to be 
obtained as to the presence or absence of nitrogen and of the 
rare earths furnished ample excuse for the work. 


i 1 PEE Lvs > 
Llano Co., Texas. Ville- Johanb- . 
: b. Marietta neuve P. georgen- 
Hidden and South Quebec, stadt, 
Hillebrand Mackintosh. Carolina. Canada. Saxony. 
UO; 44-17 46°75 83-955 41°06 59°30 
UO, 20°89 19°89 34°67 22°33 
Tho, - 6°69 757 1:65 6°41 ) 
ZrO» 0-34. 0-20 we | 
CeO, 0°34 0-19 ‘40 & none. 
La group. 2°36 2°05 Detsl ts 
Y group. 9°46! Ie 2 6°16 2577 J 
CaO 0°32 0°41 aa) 1:00 
PbO 10°08 10°16 Be te! 127 » 6:39 
H.O 1-48 2-54(ign.)  undet. 1-47 3-17 
N 0°54 a 0°86 0°02 
$i0, 0°46? 0-20 0-19 0°50 
Insol. 1-478 1°22 0:13 
Fe,03 0°14 0°58 tr. 0°10 0°21 
x ye 0-099 570310 
98°74 39°93 98°39 100°72 97°95 
Sp.G. 8-29 8-01 6°89 


1At. wght. 111°4. 2From thorogummite. 3Mainly fergusonite. 4 At. wght. 1242. 
.5AsU;0;,. 6Atomic weight 113°6. The oxalates of this group were white, not pink 
like those in Ia, but the color of the ignited oxides was the same in both cases and 
very light. 7 Atomic weight l1l°2 approximately. § MgO,Na,.O. 9 Bi.O3. 10 Includes: 
Al,03(?) 0°20, Bi.O; 0°75, CuO 0°17, MnO 0:09, MgO 0°17, Na,.O 0°31, P.O; 0°06, As,O; 2°34, 
V,.05, WOs, MoO;(?) 0°75, SO; 0°19=5°08. 


No. Ia isa re-analysis of nivenite from Llano County, Texas, 
the material for which was kindly given by Mr. W. E. Hidden. 
It agrees in the main with the original analysis of this variety 
by Hidden and Mackintosh,* which is reproduced under Id, 
and it confirms the presence of nitrogen, suspected but not 
proven by them. A small remnant of their original powdered 
sample gave me 0°52 per cent of nitrogen. In a the earths 
appear in slightly greater total amount than in 6 and they are 
more subdivided into groups and elements, which accounts 
fully for the difference between the atomic weights of the 
metals of the yttrium group of the two analyses. It was 
rendered certain by a second test that a group of earths whose | 


* This Journ., III, xxxviii, 1889, p. 481. 


AM. JOuR. SCI.—THIRD SERIES, Vou. XLII, No. 251.—NOVEMBER, 1891. 
27 


392 W. EF. Hillebrand—Analyses of Uraninite. 


sulphates are insoluble in potassium sulphate other than those 
of Th, Zr, and Ce is present.* A very satisfactory turmeric 
paper reaction for zirconia was obtained in this analysis as also 
in that next following, which would go to show that the hypo- 
thetical ZrO, of several of my earlier analyses was probably in 
fact zirconia. The cause of the considerable loss shown by the 
analysis is not known. It may be mentioned that nivenite is 
more soluble than any uraninite heretofore examined by me, 
not even excepting cleveite. One hour sufficed for complete 
decomposition in very dilute sulphuric acid (1H,SO, to 6H,O) 
at the temperature of boiling water. | 

No. II is from a new locality, Marietta, Greenville Co.,. 
South Carolina, and the total amount found, a few small frag- 
ments, was kindly given by Mr. W. E. Hidden for examina- 
tion. It was impossible to free the least altered portions from 
the yellow and orange alteration products with which they 
were intimately commingled, therefore the analysis represents 
the composition of a mixture. Unfortunately also the portion 
in which UO, and N were to be estimated was lost, but it was 
seen that the mineral was very soluble and gave oft consider- 
able gas. From the preponderance of the yttrium group over 
the other rare earths the mineral is to be classed with nivenite 
and cleveite rather than with those varieties rich in thoria, a 
a conclusion already foreshadowed by its ready solubility. 

No. III is an analysis of uraninite from the Villeneuve mica 
mine, Township of Villeneuve, Ottawa County, Province of 
Quebee, Canada. To Mr. G. C. Hoffmann, of the Canadian 
Geological Survey, who first recognized and reported this occeur- 
rence,t I am indebted, for the material analyzed. It was 
evidently somewhat altered and was accompanied by oxidized 
alteration products. Hoffmann gives the density of a piece as 
9:055. Crystalline form was lacking, but it unquestionably 
belongs to the crystallized uraninites, being found like most if 
not all of them in coarse granite (pegmatite). 

No. IV represents the composition of a specimen from 
Johanngeorgenstadt in Saxony, received from Mr. A. Lésch, 
of St. Petersburg, through Mr. E. A. Schneider of the U. 8S. 
Geological Survey. Notwithstanding the altered and crumb- 
ling character of the specimen it is proper to publish the 
analysis, since the only one previously made that has come 
under my observation, by Pfaff in 1822, is very incomplete. 
By panning, a very fair article as regards visible impurity was 

* It may be here remarked that the subdivision of the earths into the groups 
indicated by (La,Di),O, and (Y, Hr).Os3 in all my former analyses should not be 
taken too literally. By the former is meant those earths insoluble in potassium 


sulphate and by the latter those soluble in that reagent. 
+ Annual Report Can. Geol. Sur., vol. ii, 1886. Report T, p. 10. 


W. F. Hillebrand—Analyses of Uraninite. 393 


obtained. It is not known wherein the loss is to be sought. 
Like the great mass of the Bohemian mineral this showed no 
evidence of ever having- been crystallized, and as in that also 
rare earths are absent, and also nitrogen except for an uncertain 
trace. 

From the analyses of uraninite thus far made it appears 
that the species may be broadly divided into two groups, the 
one of which is characterized by the presence of rare earths, 
the other by their absence. With the former group nitrogen 
appears to be invariably associated, while in the latter it is 
present, if at all, only in minute quantity. Besides these 
chemical differences there is one of another kind, for probably 
all varieties of the first group occur in more or less well defined 
crystals, while the members of the second group are generally, 
if not altogether, massive and free from crystalline form. These 
differences suggest naturally a dissimilarity of origin and envi- 
ronment. Examination shows that the manner of occurrence 
and the association of other minerals is different and in such a 
way as to render an unlike immediate origin probable. All of 
the rare earth uraninites, with exception of the zirconiferous 
variety from Black Hawk, Colorado, occur as an apparently 
original constituent of coarse oranites (chiefly pegmatitic), 
while the others are evidently of secondary formation, as evi- 
denced by their presence in metalliferous veins in more or less 
intimate association with numerous sulphides of silver, lead, 
cobalt, nickel, iron, zinc, copper, etc. The Colorado variety 
occupies an anomalous position as regards the two groups. I 
prefer to regard it provisionally as a member of the second 
group, where its mode of occurrence and want of crystalline 
form as well as small percentage of nitrogen seem to place it, 
although its zirconia and traces of other earths would admit 
it to the first. 

Attention is called to the above points merely to show that 
the chemical and physical differences of the two groups may 
be susceptible of more simple explanation than would appear 
from the face of the analyses. 


Laboratory U. 8. Geological Survey, Washinton, D. C., June, 


3894. Rk. &. Cull—Silicified Woods of Eastern Arkansas. 


Art. XL.—TZhe Tertiary Silicified Woods of Eastern 
Arkansas; by R. ELLSwortH CALL. 


(Published by permission of the State Geologist of Arkansas.) 


THE occurrence of silicified wood in the sands and gravels 
of the Tertiary of the Lower Mississippi Valley has long been 
known. Aside, however, from the numerous localities men- 
tioned by Hilgard,* nearly all of which are in the state of 
- Mississippi, little attention has been given it. Numerous geolo- 
gists have spoken of it or incidentally studied it in connection 
with other investigations, but hitherto no attempt has been 
made to recognize the species and fix their taxonomic value, 
if, indeed, they possess any such value. Among those who 
have investigated the Orange Sands and other Tertiary deposits 
of the Mississippi Valley and who have added to our informa- . 
tion as to the occurrence of these fossils are Hilgard,+ Pen- 
rose,t and Knowlton.§ i 

The last named has made the only microscopic study of 
these fossils which is on record. Since his investigations are 
based upon material which, for the most part, was collected by 
the writer, it is thought that it will be useful to place on 
record in this form, a more detailed statement of the conditions 
of the occurrence of the silicitied woods, their peculiarities, 
their structural relations and their stratigraphical position, in 
the hope that it may eventually prove to be of use in correlat- 
ing the deposits in which they are found. 

These fossil woods occur throughout the area covered by 
Tertiary sands and gravels in the State of Arkansas. When 
in large masses they are apparently rarely far removed from 
beds of Tertiary lignite; if in small masses or in small frag- 
ments they occur in the gravels of nearly all the region and in 
the beds of the streams and brooks of the area covered by the 
Tertiary. Occasionally whole trunks of trees are found, often 
partially buried in the sands or deeply imbedded in the 
gravels which cover the flood plains of the creeks and ravines 
within the Tertiary area and especially along Crowley’s Ridge, 
from Helena to the Missouri line. Specimens have been 
obtained from logs or stumps 27 se¢w and in undisturbed Ter- 
tiary beds at the following points: Hope, Hempstead county ; 


* Agriculture and Geology of Mississippi, 1860, pp. 20, 21, e¢ seg. 
+ Agriculture and Geology of Mississippi, 1860, pp. 20, 21, e¢ seg. 

First Annual Report of the Geological Survey of Texas, 1889; “ A Prelimi- 
nary Report on the Geology of the Gulf Tertiary of Texas from Red River to the 
Rio Grande.” By R. A. F. Penrose, Jr., pp. 1-101. : 

§ See Annual Report of the Arkansas Geological Survey for 1889, vol. ii, pp. 
249-267, Plates IX—XI. 


R. FE. Cali—Silicified Woods of Hastern Arkansas. 395 


Camden, Ouachita county; near Red Land, Cleveland county ; 
at Red Bluff, Jefferson county; at Helena, Forrest City, Witts- 
burg, Wynne, Harrisburg, Jonesboro, Gainesville, Boydsville, 
and St. Francis in the country traversed by Crowley’s Ridge 
in the eastern part of the State. All of these localities have 
furnished examples of silicified wood from large logs or stumps 
in place and always imbedded in Tertiary sands or gravels. 
It is a remarkable fact that hitherto, in Arkansas, silicified 
woods have been seen but very rarely in the Tertiary clays. 
At all the localities mentioned above, except one, the wood is 
found only in gravels or sands, 27 s2tw, or in redeposited gravels 
and sands in the low valleys. 

The geological section of the Crowley’s Ridge region, to 
which area this paper especially refers, shows the following 
sequence, seen in the generalized section in St. Francis county 
which is characteristic for the southern portion. 


Generalized Southern Section on Little Crow Creek. 


1, A loess soil, with enough sand to render it decidedly siliceous. 
This is the surface member and is usually of but little depth. 

Typical loess, varying in depth from thirty to ninety feet, 
eroding rapidly, and presenting a characteristic loess topog- 
raphy. ‘This member caps the ridge even at its highest 
points. 

3. A clayey, pebble-bearing, bluish or otherwise dark colored 
loess clay which forms the base of the typical loess deposits 
and probably marks the first stage in the loess deposition. 
This member varies somewhat in different localities, being 
often quite thin and is even sometimes wanting. The peb- 
bles are most abundant in the lowermost portion. 

4, Orange-colored gravels, irregular in thickness, rudely stratified, 
sometimes well assorted so that only coarse gravels, or vice 
versa, are seen; there are occasional pockets or lenses of 
sand derived from the underlying member. In rare instances 
this bed lies directly upon the clays. Silicified coniferous 
wood often occurs in this member. 

5. Party-colored sands, of variable fineness, often quite irregu- 
larly stratified, sometimes overlying the pebble bed but 
usually occurring underneath it. The sand grains are well 
rounded. ‘There are occasional masses or pockets of red, 
drab, white, or yellow pipe clay. 

6. Blue, black or drab clays, horizontally stratified, with small 
sometimes large pieces of coniferous lignite. This member 
constitutes the greater portion of the body of the ridge. 
Along its margin it is to be seen only in the deepest ravines, 
or along the St. Francis and such of its small tributaries as 
flow from the ridge. It is often penetrated in deep wells, as 
at Forrest City, and underlies the whoie region. The lower 
exposed portion is fossiliferous, the fossils are marine, and 
Claibornian in age. ‘The clays are therefore Eocene Tertiary. 


bo 


396 Rk. &. Call—Silicified Woods of Hastern Arkansas. 


Slight differences in the section appear in various portions 
of the Ridge but are not worthy of remark in this connection. 
The generalized section for the northern portion of the Ridge, 
made at a point seventy-five miles north of St. Francis county 
shows the following sequence: 


Generalized Northern Section near Gainesville, Greene County. 


1. A humus, largely siliceous, or a soil mainly sand. At the 
highest hilltops this soil contains gravel or may be entirely 
replaced by waterworn gravel. 

2. Gravel bed, commonly removed by erosion. 

3. Sands of Tertiary age, false bedded, party-colored, coarse or 
fine, banded often with drab, red or white pipe clay, or the 
last may be in pockets or lenses. These sands are generally 
loose, but in certain localities they have metamorphosed into 
avery hard, glassy quartzite. The areas of metamorphism 
are linearly distributed over many square miles but are con- 
fined chiefly to the west side of the ridge. Silicified woods 
are found in this member at many localities, but none has 
yet been discovered in the metamorphosed portions. 

4, Drab, blue and black clays of Hocene Tertiary age, horizon- 
tally stratified, occasionally fossiliferous, the fossils being 
chiefly the leaves of deciduous trees. These clays contain 
rare beds of lignite of small extent and erratic vertical dis- 
tribution. Moreover, the clays are commonly gypsiferous 
and are further characterized by abundant small plates of 
muscovite in the cleavage planes. Silicified wood was seen 
at a single locality, on Cache River. 


The absence of fossils mn nearly all the members of the 
Arkansas Tertiary renders necessary their distinction upon 
lithological and structural data. The large masses of silicified 
wood in the upper members of the series are the only organic 
forms known above the Eocene clays. If in any way these 
silicified woods may be genetically connected with the lgnite 
beds a means of correlation will not certainly be had but the 
fact may sometime possess taxonomic value. Studies made in 
eastern Arkansas seem to show that all or nearly all of the 
silicified woods of the Tertiary sands and gravel beds are 
derived in some manner from the underlying beds of lignite. 
In many places whole tree trunks, stumps standing in place, or 
large fragments of silicified wood occur so related to lignite 
deposits as to show that they are derived therefrom. In the 
northwestern portion of Greene county, on the west side of 
Crowley’s Ridge, are masses of wood partly in the form of lig- 
nite and partly silicitied. The lignitized part is buried in 
Eocene clays; the silicified ends are buried in Eocene Tertiary 
sands. It would appear that in this case, before the sands 


R. FE. Call—Silicified Woods of Eastern Arkansas. 397 


were eroded away, the portion of the trunk which had been 
buried therein was subjected to the action of waters contain- 
ing silica in solution and the lignitic matter was replaced by 
silica. 

The silica is, of course, all present as secondary quartz, is 
often massive but, also, frequently crystallized. Especially is 
holoecrystalline quartz abundant in specimens of wood that 
were partially decayed when the older lignification process 
began. In the drusy cavities of such lignite are found large 
numbers of perfect and rather large quartz crystals. These are 
often, in some specimens always, characterized by a uniform 
dark or brownish color which is due to inclusions of limonite.* 

Professor F. H. Knowlton, of the U.S. Geological Survey, 
has studied microscopically both the lignite and silicified woods 
found in eastern Arkansas. The results of his work may be 
found in vol. ii of the Arkansas Geological Survey, Reports 
for 1889. His studies have developed the interesting fact 
that the woods belong to both dicotyledonous and coniferous 
types. This occurrence is the first known dicotyledonous wood 
found in this country in rocks older than Pleistocene and is 
the first dicotyledonous form determined by internal structure. 
If, therefore, examinations of both lignites and silicified woods 
are made and it results that the same form or forms are repre- 
sented in both, a strong reason exists for genetically connect- 
ing the silicified woods with the lignites. | 

Unfortunately for taxonomic purposes all the forms described 
by Prof. Knowlton are new, but some otherwise valuable 
results have been reached. In the first place he finds, among 
the four new species studied, two forms which are clearly dicot-* 
yledonous, and two others distinctly coniferous in relationship. 
The species are: © . 


Coniferous. Dicotyledonous. 
Cupressinoxylon Arkansanum,  Laurinoxylon Branneri, 
Cupressinoxylon Calli, Laurinoxylon Lesquereuxiana. 


There was also a single additional specimen whose affinities 
appeared to be dicotyledonous and to belong to Laurinoxylon ; 
the condition of the material would not admit of closer: deter- 
mination. The specimens found indicate comparatively few 
species but these few must have existed in great numbers. 
One of the most valuable and pertinent facts in this connec- 
tion is the finding of the dicotyledonous Lawrinoxylon Bran- 
nerz in the lignite bed of Bolivar Creek, as lignite, deeply 
buried in Eocene clays in massive form. 


* An especially fine example of this nature was taken from a section in Ter- 
tiary sands 13 miles southeast of the town of Camden on the line of the Camden 
and Alexandria railroad. Of the many thousands of quartz crystals which this 
specimen exhibits not one has been seen which is free from inclusions of limonite. 


398 =f. & Call—Silicified Woods of Hastern Arkansas. 


Thus far sufficient distributional facts to give a taxonomic 
value to the fossil woods have not been discovered. Until 
extensive collections throughout the whole region of the south- 
ern Tertiary have been made it will not be possible to use these 
forms for purposes of differentiation or of correlation. It is be 
lieved, however, that since in the Tertiary sands of Arkansas, 
Louisiana, Texas and Mississippi the same relations of silici- 
fied woods to lignites have been observed, it may be possible to 
coordinate the divisions recognized in those states by geologists 
and devise a system of nomenclature that will explain the 
relationships of the various beds to each other, though it ean- 
not be done at present. 

During the progress of the study of the region by the 
writer it became more and more clear that the silicified wood 
had some intimate relation to the pockets or beds of lignite 
which are scattered throughout the ridge. It was early noticed 
that no lignite occurs in the sands or gravels above the clays, 
and that no detached masses of silicified wood occur entirely 
in‘the clays. As the investigation proceeded it became a favor- 
ite hypothesis that the silicified wood was transformed ‘lignite, 
and that careful microscopic study would probably prove the 
hypothesis to be correct. Professor Knowlton’s investigations 
appear to verify the hypothesis. 

The opinion that the silicified wood was, in some way, to be 
connected with the lignites of the beds underlying the sands 
was suggested by Hilgard* many years ago. Speaking of the 
occurrence of fossils in the Orange Sands he says: “.. . 
The closest scrutiny I have bestowed on hundreds of extensive 
exposures, has failed to detect any fossil apparently peculiar to 
the formation as such. This might seem paradoxical enough 
to any one acquainted with the fre equent occurrence of silicified 
wood in these strata, but it soon becomes quite obvious to an 
attentive observer that the regions of the frequent occurrence 
of this fossil in the Orange Sand are coextensive with those in 
which fossil wood, either silicified—when imbedded in siliceous 
sands—or lignitized, occurs in the underlying lignitiferous 
Cretaceous or Tertiary strata. It is not unusual to find trunks 
of silicified wood imbedded partly in the unchanged lignitie 

strata, partly in the Orange Sand; the portion contained in the 
latter. being nearly or w holly deprived of carbon, while the 
part imbedded i in the lignitie material is, if at all silicified, of 
an ebony tint and often “contains pyrites.” Again, “I am con- 
vinced that the great part, if not all of this fossil wood is 
derived from the underlying strata and will be represented in 
their flora.” 


* This Journal, IT, vol. xli, p. 313, 1866. 


R. EF. Call—Silicified Woods of Hastern Arkansas. 399 


There can be little question, therefore, that the process of 
silicification has occurred, in some cases at least, since these 
masses were torn from the underlying beds by the waters 
which deposited the sands above the clays.* As ordinarily 
understood the process is purely a chemical one and perhaps 
very slow. It consists in the replacement, particle by particle. 
of the carbon of the lignite by silicic acid, or silicon dioxide. 
It is by no means essential that the organic matter be unchanged 
when the process begins. If the belief that this wood repre- 
sents what was once lignite be a correct one, then the process 
of silicification can occur in the case of organic matter which 
has already undergone a partial change. 

Where found in clays in a silicified condition, it has probably 
resulted from the same processes that are seen to obtain in the 
highly siliceous sands or gravels which overlie them. Though 
the impervious nature of most clays renders the percolation ‘of 
of silica-charged waters a matter of great difficulty such perco- 
lation certainly occurs in them. The silicified masses of wood 
are often far too large to have been removed from the clays 
and deposited in the overlying gravels by an ordinary wave or 
current action for they sometimes weigh tons. In the form of 
lignite the same masses could have been transported by cur- 
rents but since very large pieces have been rarely, if ever, 
found far from lignite deposits even that proposition has very 
little weight. 

The vertical distribution of the silicified woods of the Arkan- 
sas Tertiary is limited by the line of contact between the sands 
and clays which constitute the Arkansas series. Below this 
line the silicified wood never occurs, with the single exception 
above,t so far as observations have yet extended. Aboveit no 


* Dr. R. A. F. Penrose, Jr. (op cit., pp. 24, 26, 50, et seg.), has placed on record 
the numerous occurrences of silicified wood in the Tertiary of Texas; he finds it 
in both sands and clays. In his description of the Sabine River beds he says: 
‘ Silicified wood is of very frequent occurrence in these strata; sometimes occur- 
ring as small fragments; and at other times as large trunks of trees. On the 
Brazos River, in the northern part of Milam County, was seen a trunk one anda 
half feet in diameter, protruding from a clay bed. Ten feet of it were exposed, 
while the rest was imbedded in the clay. In manv places such fragments are 
collected in great quantities, but it is especially plentiful in the lower part of the _ 
Fayette beds. It is generally dark brown or black inside, and weathers gray or 
buff color on the outside. Sometimes it occurs partly lignitized and partly silici- 
fied. It frequently shows shrinkage cracks which are filled with quartz or 
chalcedony, and are often lined with quartz crystals.” 

In this case stratification was but partial or was still in progress and since 
there is exposed in the face of the bluff a log which was partially lignitized and 
partly silicified it proves all but conclusively that, even in the Texan Tertiaries, 
the lignitic precedes the siliceous condition of these woods. 

+ In this case the stumps are still standing, the roots, also silicified, ramifying 
in all directions in Eocene blue clays. Less than one hundred feet east, however, 
the line of contact between the sand beds and the clays was disclosed 1n a ver- 
tical cut in a hillside. ‘This line was at or near the elevation of the stumps. It 


400 Lt. EF. Call—Silicified Woods of Hastern Arkansas. 


lignites have ever been found. The vertical range is therefore 
limited by the thickness of the sand and gravel bed which is 
commonly, in Arkansas, between fifty and eighty feet. 

There is a marked difference in the vertical range of this 
fossil in the Tertiary of Arkansas and the Tertiary of California. 
In the latter State the vertical range is often many hundreds, 
even several thousands, of feet. Whitney says:* “It will 
be proper to add to some of the most important facts gathered 
during the investigation of the gravel deposits in regard to 
the mode of occurrence of the fossil plants of the Pliocene 
epoch. The vertical range of these has been alluded to, and it 
may be more distinctly stated that either fossil wood or leaves 
have been found at every elevation, from the lowest to the 
highest, where gravels occur. Even as high as Silver Moun- 
tain City, at 7,000 feet of elevation, large masses of fossil wood 
are found in the voleanic deposits ; and in Plumas county the 
same occurrence has been noted on several of the highest 
mountains in the region, as Penman’s Peak and Clermont, 
peaks from 7,000 to 8,000 feet high ...... Fragments and 
often large masses of wood are found, both in the gravels 
and the associated clayey and tufaceous beds. In the gravel 
they frequently bear the marks of transportation from a dis- 
tance, as would be expected.” 

In the California Tertiary the most completely silicified and 
best preserved specimens of wood occur in connection with 
deposits of a voleanic character, sometimes a rhyolitic ash.t It 
is suggested by Whitney that these relationships have some- 
thing to do with the process of silicification. For that region 
Whitney believes that not only were the woods silicified after 
their imbedding in white pulverulent volcanic ash but ‘ the 
lava itself exhibits signs of having been acted on by silicifying 
agents after its deposition.” That the greater part of the series 
of beds included in the gravel formation has been thoroughly 
permeated with waters holding silica in solution and that 
chemical changes induced thereby are sufficient to explain the 
phenomena appears quite probable. The relations which the 
phenomena sustain to the facts of voleanism so abundant in that 
region are set forth and the conclusion is drawn that that rela- 
tion explains silicification in these woods. In California it 
becomes a subordinate problem under volcanism. 

The chemical processes which obtained in the case of the 
Arkansas gravels were not codrdinate with those of California, 


was clear that, if the stumps did not actually project into the overlying sands, they 
were but a short distance below and under conditions to favor silicification from 
waters percolating through the clay to them. 

* Auriferous Gravels of the Sierra Nevada, pp. 235, 236. See also this Jour- 
nal, II, vol. xli, p. 359, 1866. 

+ Op. cit., pp. 327-329. 


Weed and Pirsson—Sulphur, Orpiment, Realgar, etc. 401 


for there is no evidence of volcanism or any similar phenomena 
associated with their silicification. The silica in the eastern 
locality must be sought in the accompanying sand beds and 
was probably brought into solution by the action upon it of 
organic acids. 

The study of the Arkansas Tertiary silicified woods appears 
to justify the following conclusions: 

1. The silicified woods of eastern Arkansas are all of Ter- 
tiary age. 

2. They are derived from the beds of Eocene clays that 
underlie the sands and gravels in which they commonly occur. 

3. They are silicified lignite; the process of silicification has 
occurred either while they were still in clays or most often 
after they were removed and buried in the sands or gravels. 

4. They possess as yet no taxonomic value in determining 
the relative ages of the members of the Tertiary series. 

Geological Survey, Little Rock, Ark,, July 15, 1891. 


Art. XLIL—Occurrence of Sulphur, Orpiment and Realgar 
in the Yellowstone National Park ; by WALTER H. WEED 
and Louis V. Pirsson. : 


SULPHUR. 


In the Yellowstone National Park there are besides the well 
known geyser basins, many small hot spring areas and localities 
where fumeroles and solfataras are still active. At most of these 
places deposits of sulphur occur, in and around the vents from 
which sulphurous vapors issue. At the Highland Hot Springs 
and at Crater Hills these vents are quite abundant and large 
deposits of sulphur are found frequently having most beautiful 
clusters of delicate crystals. The latter locality, from which 
the specimens herein described were obtained, is a small group 
of hills whose white and steaming slopes form a prominent 
feature of the eastern part of Hayden Valley, the open grassy 
country traversed en route from the Grand Canyon of the 
Yellowstone to the Lake or the Firehole geysers. The hills, 
often called Sulphur Mountain, rise about 150 feet above the 
surrounding level, and are formed of fragmentary material 
wholly rhyolitic, decomposed and cemented by the vapors that 
rise at innumerable points through the hills. There are but 
few springs at this locality; the most prominent and most 
active is an ever-splashing bowl of green sulphurous waters 
known as the Chrome Spring. Behind this basin the slopes 
are light colored, chalky white, rose-pink and dull yellows 


. 


402 Weed and Pirsson—Sulphur, Orpiment and 


being the predominant tints Large masses of rough clinker- 
like rock he scattered about the slopes, resting upon small 
pieces of the same cemented material or upon the smoother 
slope of white pulverulent silica resulting from the complete 
decomposition of the rhyolitic material by the acid waters and 
vapors. 

Several parts of the slopes show the dull yellow color of sul- 
phur, such places usually being further marked by many steam- 
ing orifices a few inches across. These vents are generally 
lined with a layer of radially fibrous sulphur, whose surface is 
thickly set with delicate frost-like clusters of crystals. Many 
of the vents are partly closed by the sulphur and others com- 
pletely sealed but filled with hot vapor which is copiously 
emitted when the roof is broken. No temperatures above 200° 
F. were obtained from any of the vents. It is im these closed 
vents that the largest and most beautiful crystal clusters have 
been found. Upon taking such.a specimen from one of these 
vents it is a deep orange tint, and of course quite hot; as it 
cools the crystals loosen with a loud and continuous crackling 
so that a slight jar is sufficient to cause many of the clusters to 
fall to pieces when cooled. These crystal clusters are of 
interest as sulphur in the crystal form has been described from 
but one American locality—Nevada.* In examining a mass of 
these crystals it is seen that the crystalline mass is of great 
brittleness, owing largely to the fact that the crystals are gen- 
eyally hollow. Often a mere skeleton of what would otherwise 
be a good sized crystal is present. One that would be an inch 
high and proportionately broad and wide consists only of nar- 
row strips preserving the edges of the pyramids on each other ; 
this frame work is then filled with other crystals and parallel 
growths, also of hollow delicate material. In general the mass 
is made up of confused erystal aggregates closely united below 
and toward the top branching into arborescent forms. Often 
small solid crystals occur attached to the mass. Several of 
these were selected for measurement. They 
proved to be of the usual orthorhombic sym- 
metry. The habit is strongly pyramidal. One 
of them that is typical of the series is shown in 
the figure. The forms which were identified on 
j, this crystal are: 


c, 001, O. e, 101, 1-2. y, 112, +. a, 183, 1-3. 
im, VO, L.: mn, O11, 1-%, s, 113, + gq, 131, 3-3. 
h, 130, 2-3, reek blag é, 115, 4. 


The identification of these forms is shown by 
the following tables of caleulated and measured angles. For 


* KH. 8. Dana, this Journal, xxxii, p. 389, 1886. 


. 
a 


Realgar in the Yellowstone National Park. 403 


the calculated angles the axes of Kokscharow* have been taken 
in which, 


ae 
WavreG = UsSls0o le 90359 


Forms. / Calculated. Measurement. . 
pap Wall Oar 5a g4P ol, 94? AN?” 94" 40? 
pap Winall 36 404 (SOLAS USSG" 44z 
pam 111.110 iB 204 pile 200 lS ecoo8. 
peel) ~ 101 | 36 41 3b, 45,30.» DO 
mam 111 011 | 47 26 is eres nau” ua 
ae 111.133 | Di 29 ia Dad. > dome vleaites ene © DFT 30 
mag 111131 | 29 104 D9) AB 206517 
May AV11,. 112 | 15 11% 15 134 
Wins Jill. 113 26 293 26/ 284, 26 304 
wer AIT x 115 | 40 33+ 40 34 
pac 111.001 71 393 wl) 414 


In general the planes, even though minute, gave fair reflections 
owing to the brillianey of their surfaces. 


The only exception 


to this was the plane 2-3 1380, from which no satisfactory reflec- 
tions could be obtained. It is easily identified however since 
it lies in the zones 110,110 and 001,181. 

Though no tests were made the material is apparently of 
great purity. It is very homogeneous and is of a delicate 
sulphur-yellow. 


ORPIMENT AND REALGAR. 


The presence of arsenic in the hot spring waters of the Yel- 
lowstone Park, and the deposition of the hydrous arseniate of 
iron, scorodite, by them, has already been noticed in this Jour- 
nal.* While studymg the hydro-thermal phenomena of the 
region for the U. 8. Geological Survey, under the direction of 
Mr. Arnold Hague, a careful search for deposits of the arseni- 
eal sulphides was rewarded by the discovery of realgar and orpi- 
ment, at the Norris Geyser Basin. This locality, though pos- 
sessing few geysers worthy of comparison with those of the 
Firehole basins, is peculiarly interesting by reason of the new- 
ness of its geysers and the great variety of its chemical deposits. 
It covers an area of some six square miles situated amid the 
forests of the great rhyolite plateau of the Park whose gradual 
slopes rise on every side. The area of present activity is 
included between a loop of the Gibbon river and two spurs of 
Gibbon Hill, an eminence of rhyolite that rises above the gen- 
eral level of the country to the south. The multitude of 


* Min. Russl., vi, p. 368, 1874. 
* A. Hague, this Journal, vol. xxxiv, Sept., 1887. 


404 Weed and Pirsson—Sulphur, Orpiment, Reulgar, ete. 


vividly colored pools and equally bright tinted waterways, the 
white sinter flats, and the creamy rose and yellow shades of the 
decomposed rhyolite, the whole surrounded by a setting of 
dark green pines, presents a strange picture not easily for- 
gotten. 

The specimens of realgar and orpiment come from the 
western part of this basin, between the 100 spring plain and 
the Gibbon river. The deposits of siliceous sinter so abundant 
elsewhere in the basin are here quite scanty and form a thin 
coating upon rock composed of small angular fragments of 
pearlite, obsidian, and other forms of rhyolite—generally more 
or less decomposed and mixed with quartz grains, the whole 
compactly cemented by silica deposited by the hot spring: 
waters. Several small outflows of clear and hot acid water 
issue from this cement rock, their united overflow forming a 
small stream which flows through a shallow gutter in the rock 
and joins the Gibbon river a few hundred yards beyond. Near 
the vents the channels are lined with an incoherent deposit of 
milky sulphur which frequently coats and obscures a growth 
of alge. The gray surface of the rock shows no trace of the 
brilliantly colored arsenical sulphides, and it is only upon 
breaking this rock about the vents and prying up the plates at 
the margins of the channels that the realgar and orpiment are 
noticed. Plates of rock thus obtained show a brilliant red and 
yellow surface of the mixed sulphides and large pieces of rock 
from about the vents are penetrated and filled with deposits of 
the yellow orpiments, the dark red realgar, and the mixture of 
the two. Many of the specimens show layers of waxy dark 
red translucent realgar an eighth of an inch thick, covered by 
incoherent amorphous orpiment and alternating layers often 
occur. The orpiment generally possesses a tangled filamentous 
structure upon the surfaces of the plates as if deposited upon 
alow threads, and where the surface of the plate is covered 
with realgar as is frequently the case, it too possesses this 
curious form, the mineral being in stalagmitic aggregates with 
a general fibrous matted structure. | 

In the channels the rocks show no surface coloring from the 
deposition of the sulphides but many small pebble-like masses 
occur, lying in the bottom of the stream, which consist almost 
entirely of dark red translucent realgar. This appears to be 
the most promising material collected for mineralogical exami- 
nation, but unfortunately none of the specimens proved to con- 
tain any crystals which could be measured and identified under 
the microscope it proved to be in rounded stalagmitie growths 
consisting of a confused crystalline aggregate. Such light 
reflecting surfaces as were seen proved to be small cleavage 
planes. In the closed tube the substance melts and then forms 


L. V. Pirsson—Mineralogical Notes. 405 


a reddish translucent sublimate. In the open tube with a good 
eurrent of air volatilizes and deposits in the upper part small 
glittering octahedrons, which under the microscope in polar- 
ized light proved isometric (As,O,). Before the blowpipe on 
charcoal gives characteristic odors for sulphur and _ arsenic. 
Fused with carbonate of soda gives the reactions on dissolving 
for sulphur and arsenic. 

The association of the realgar and orpiment is such that no 
definite statement can be made as to which forms first, but 
realgar is certainly the last formed upon many of the speci- 
mens. Whether it is formed through a conversion of the 
orpiment or as a separate deposition is uncertain, but the 
specimens seem to indicate that the latter is the case. Sili- 
ceous sinter is the only other mineral occurring with these 
arsenical sulphides. 


Art. XLIL.—WMineralogical Notes; by L. V. Presson. 


1. Cerussite.—Some specimens of cerussite, obtained through 
Messrs. English & Co., of New York, from the Red Cloud 


Mine in Yuma Co., Arizona, contain twin crystals in which 


the twinning plane is the uncommon form 7-3, 130. Since, 
moreover, they show some unusual developments in their erys- 
tal form, it has been thought that a description of them would 
be of interest. The specimens are in the cabinet of Prof. 
George J. Brush. 

The greater number of those observed have the form shown 
in fig. 1, which presents them in a basal projection. This 


gives a much better idea of these crystals, shaped like arrow- 
heads, than an orthographic projection. They are of various 
sizes up to half an inch in length, the largest observed. They 


406 L. V. Pirsson—Mineralogical Notes. 


resemble the example of this method of twinning given by 
Kokscharow* in the development of the brachydomes. The 
figure shows them in ideal symmetry; they are generally at- 
tached by the barb-shaped end; sometimes one barb or indi- 
vidual is free with the faces developed as in the figure; in other 
forms both individuals are attached and the barb-like part is 
wanting. They occur on the specimen seen, with cerargyrite 
and wulfenite. The forms observed on these erystals are: 


r, 1-3, 130; k, 1-%, 011; », 3-%, 031; a, 4-%, 012; m,I, 110; p. 1, 111. 
Also the pinacoids 2-2, 100 and 2-2, 010, the pyramid 3, 112 


and the brachy-diagonal pyramid 2-2, 121 have been identified 
in zones on the reflecting goniometer and measured with some 
accuracy, but they are too minutely developed to give any 
character to the crystals and are hence omitted in the figures. 
The crystals are well suited for measurement, the faces gener- 
ally giving good reflections of the signal. 

Fig. 2 shows a crystal from the same place with a different 
habit, the large $ brachydome & and great development of the 
brachy-prism 7 having resulted in a long spindle-shape form. 
Fig. 8 shows the same individual in basal projection. It oce- 
curred, attached at the end with the re-entrant angle, which in 
consequence was somewhat broken. Otherwise the crystal is 
quite perfect and in size about an inch long. The zone of 
brachydomes is somewhat striated, causing a rounding off 
toward the point. The signals of the prominent faces are, 
however, very distinct and give good measurements. On this 
crystal the forms observed were: 


b, 4-7, 010; c, O, 001; 7, 4-3, 130; &, 1-4, 011; a, 4-4, 012. 


The following table shows the identification of the forms by 
calculated and measured (supplementary) angles. 


Calculated. Measured. 
kap O1lLAIIL 43° 50” 40” 43° 517 
map LO ALL sya 25) 0) 30 42, oD 50, 35 49 
kxGr “OLD ~ 130 a9 03 10 59 00 
Di el le ie 49 59 30 49 58 
WAT VO i30 29 OT 730 30 00, 30 01 
pat) Wade 45 19 55 45 16, 45 22 
vad.) O81,0081 49 30 49 27 
kaw Ooo 15. 59. 30 16 00, 16 04 
Kak SOLU 108 16 108 12, 108 14 
raw -lBOn 012 (ie. Bish Blo) nwo 
cae. 00012 L9' 52, BO 19 48 
rab 130.2010 ze 39 30 28 37, 28 31 
knb 0114010 54 08 54.17 
001,112 34 46 34 54 
1214121 85 59 86 00 


* Min, Russl., vi, pp. 106, 1870. Also Atlas Taf. Ixxx, figs. 20 and 20 bis. 


L. V. Pirsson—Mineralogical Notes. 407 


2. Hematite and Cassiterite.—Interesting specimens of hem- 
atite and cassiterite intimately associated and ‘crystallized have 
been forwarded by Prof. F. A. Genth for crystallographie ex- 
amination. The place from which they come is Mina del 
Diablo, Durango, Mexico. Among them a number of un- 
doubted pseudomorphs of cassiterite after hematite were ob- 
served. They are too small and lusterless for the forms to be 
determined, but the whole grouping is precisely the same as 
that of hematite in the familiar “ EKisenrose” habit, consisting 
of radiating plates. Often the central portion of these plates 
consists of a piece of hematite, the outer surrounding part of 
tin oxide. There were also seen pseudomorphs of cassiterite 
after some octahedral mineral, probably magnetite. 

These occurrences of cassiterite and 
hematite have already been described 
by Genth and vom Rath,* but in 
these specimens lately examined an 
additional point of interest was noted. 
This is the presence of cellular crys- 
tals of hematite filled with cassiterite. 
~ One of these is shown in fig. 4. The 
forms present on this crystal are 

G, 0001, O- a, 1120, 7-2: 7, 1011, R; 7, O111,-1; s, 0221, -2; n, 2243, 3-2; 

d, 1012, 4; ©, 2021, 2. 
Those chiefly developed are the prisms and the basal pinacoids 
which give the crystals its habit. Im reality these faces are 
present to a considerable degree only along the edges, the re- 
maining parts being sunken and filled with a roughened surfag¢e 
_ of cassiterite which runs on through the crystal. The polish 
and luster of as much of the face as is present is, however, 
very fine and brilliant. 

A thin section of this dividual was prepared parallel to 
the unit prism to ascertain if the cassiterite had here also any 
definite orientation in regard to the hematite. None was ob- 
served. The two minerals, both appearing fresh and unaltered, 
were present in irregularly mingled masses. The cassiterite 
was formed of an intimate crystal aggregation as shown by its 
sight but uniform action on polarized light. 

From these facts it would seem as if the two minerals had 
been formed simultaneously and the hematite having a greater 
tendency to crystallize than the cassiterite had assumed its 
erystal boundaries without regard to the latter. 

3. Gypsum.—The erystals which are illustrated in fig. 5 are 
from Girgenti, in Sicily, and are now in the cabinet of Prof. 
Geo. J. Brush. They are twinned according to the usual method, 


* Proceedings Am. Phil. Soc:, 1887, xxiv, 23. 
Am. Jour. So1.—TH1RD SERIES, VoL. XLII, No. 251.—NovEMBER, 1891. 


408 L. V. Pirsson—Mineralogical Notes. 


the twinning axis a normal to 100 and the following simple 
forms are present, m, J, 110; 6, 24, 010; 
Ds l, -1, 111; and e, 4, 1038. Since the or- 
thodome 4-2, lacks only about two degrees 
of forming a right angle with the orthopin- 
acoid, the two domes in twin position prac- 
tically present the appearance of a basal 
plane and the whole crystal that of hemi- 
morphic orthorhombic rather than of mon- 
oclinic symmetry. This pseudo-basal plane is rough and oscil- 
latory and the very slight salient angle cannot be detected. 
The crystals are of good size and very symmetrical except at 
the end where the twin pyramids are; they are attached by 
this point and are as a consequence broken and disturbed at 
this place. es 
4. Pennine.—The crystal form and optical properties of the 
violet chrome pennine or kimmererite from Texas, Penn., 
were originally described by Cooke* from ‘specimens from the 
cabinet of Prof. Brush. At the request of Prof. HE. S. Dana I 
have recently studied the suite of specimens in Prof. Brush’s 
collection from this locality and thanks to the present perfec- 
tion of apparatus for crystallographic investigation, I have 
been able to make out several forms observed by Prof. Cooke 
but which he was not then able to determine. The forms ob- 
served on these crystals are as follows: 
O, 0001; R, 1011; y, 2, 2025; 9, #%, 40-413; 2, 4, 10135 sp eae 
%, 1-2, 1122. 


The last three are new. The habit is shown in figs. 6 and 7. 
Fig. 6 is very similar to that given by Cooke, omitting the 
pyramids of the second order. As observed by him the erys- 
tals are generally twins. The planes forming the re-entrant 
angle are nearly always more or less striated, moreover this re- 
entrant angle is, so far as observed, invariably formed by the 
unit rhombohedron R (1011). Fig. 7 shows a case where there 
was practically no striation and the angle could be measured. 
The presence of pyramids of the second order is a noteworthy 
characteristic, on no crystal out of a large number was it ever 
wanting. With one or two exceptions, on very small crystals, 
they were invariably striated as shown in fig. 7. These stria- 
tions all lie in one zone, and this having been determined, it 
was possible to measure from the base along this zone, the re- 
flections of various pyramids which stood out in the band of 
light connecting them. a A 

In this way the presence of 4-2 (1126), 4-2 (2245), =%-2 
(9°9°18-20) and 2-2 (7-7°14°8) was determined by moderately 


* This Journal, vol. xliv, pp. 201, 1867. 


L. V. Pirsson—Mineralogical Notes. 409 


good measurements, some of which were repeated on several 


erystals. 


The following table shows the identification of the forms by 


calculated and measured angles. 


ments of Cooke are taken, in which 
pet. 3- 4951. 6. (0001 ,1011)=76° 05’. 


CAT 
cad 
CAY 
CAZ 
Cap 
Zap 
CaAX 


Forms. Calc. 
0001 .1011 103° 55’ 
0001 . 4:0°4:13 51 09 
0001 ~ 2025 58 13 
0001 . 1013 53 224 
0001 . 1124 60 134 
1013 . 1124 25. 5A 
0001 . 1122 14 05 


For the calculated the ele- 


Meas. 
104° 
51° 067 
58 05 
53 48 
60 35 
25 22 
74 10 


The form 1-2 (1122) was also identified by the fact that it 
lies in the zone between 4 (1018) and 7, R, (1011). 


5. Mordenite.—The author desires to correct a small error 
which crept into the determination of the constants of this 


mineral as given in this Journal, xl, page 236. 


read 


instead of the figures there given, which are 


Mineralogical Laboratory, Sheffield Scientific School, 


a: 


=>) t 
a:b:e¢ 


\ 


New Haven, Nov., 1890. 


These should 


b:¢:; 0:40099: 1: 0°42792 angle B—88° 29’ 46" 


:10°40101: 1; 0°42623 angle 6=88° 30’ 30’. 


410 J. Fi Kemp—Peridotite Dikes near Ithaca, NV. Y. 


Art. XLIII.—Peridotite Dikes in the Portage Sandstones 
near Ithaca, VN. ¥.; by J. F. Kemp. 


In the valuable paper on the peridotite* at Syracuse, N. Y. 
which appeared in this journal in August, 1887, the follow- 
ing statement is made and it doubtless expresses a very wide- 
spread and general impression. “This rock is interesting 
as being the only known instance of igneous intrusion in the 
unaltered and undisturbed Palseozoic strata of New York” 
(p. 144). Since the writer’s first residence in Ithaca (1886), 
the occurrence of trap dikes in tbe vicinity has been a sub- 
ject of frequent discussion in the geological laboratory of 
Cornell University. Conversations with alumni who were 
students under the instruction of Professor C. F. Hartt 
(1868-1878), revealed the fact that he made frequent men- 
tion of them and created the impression that. they were 
well recognized phenomena in two of the neighboring gorges. 
They do not appear to have become a matter of record 
except in two cases. Professor O. A. Derby (now in Brazil) 
in a short paper in the Cornell Review (which was the 
student publication of that date), vol. i, p. 70, 1874, entitled 
“ Hints to Geological Students,” mentions a number of loeali- 
ties involving in all four dikes. Three of these are in Casca- 
dilla Creek on the confines of the university and the fourth, 
said to be the best for study, is in Six-Mile Creek, two or three 
miles distant. Professor F. W. Simonds (now of Texas) pub- 
lished in 1877, a short article in the American Naturalist (vol. 
xi, p. 49) on the Geology of Ithaca, N. Y., and vicinity. The 
Six Mile Creek dike is again mentioned and described as filling 
a crack in the sides of the gorge but as pinching out before it 
reached the surface. Long before this, however, in 1842, in 
the Report on the 3rd District, N. Y. State Survey, p. 169, 
Vanuxem recorded four narrow dikes in the Genesee slate near 
Ludlowville, which is ten miles north of Ithaca. The locality 
has been recently visited by the writer but only the two dikes 
near the upper falls of Vanuxem could be found. They are 
each about an inch wide and only show over a short space as 
they disappear above and below. ‘They were inaccessible and 
from the distance of a few feet their igneous nature was not 
conclusively shown. The other two could not be found. Van- 
uxem also mentions another dike (1. e. pp. 207-208) at Manheim 
Bridge east of Little Falls, N. Y., more than one hundred miles 

*G. H. Williams: The Serpentine (Peridotite) occurring in the Onondaga Salt 


Group at Syracuse, N, Y., this Journal, August, 1887, p. 144. See also Proc. Geol. 
Soc. Amer., vol. i, pp. 533, 534. 


J. FF. Kemp—Peridotite Dikes near Ithaca, N. ¥. 411 


northeast of Ithaca and seventy-five miles from Syracuse, but 
what its character is or whether it is indeed igneous is unknown 
to the writer. 

The dike in Six Mile Creek near Ithaca was re-located in 
1887, and slides were at once prepared. It proved to be 
a thin mass 14 to 2 inches wide and fills one of the numerous, 
parallel, north and south joints which are extremely abundant 
in the shaly sandstones of the region. It crosses the stream 
like a narrow ribbon and pinches out a few feet above the sur- 
face of the water. It has a light brown or drab color with 
darker spots scattered through and is provided with numerous 
seales of a reddish mica. It effervesced and in the slides 
showed a mass of alteration products with very strong sug- 
gestions of an eruptive structure, but as the material was so 
decomposed it was decided to be too meagre, to deserve men- 
tion. It was subsequently submitted to Messrs. G. H. Wil- 
hams, Diller and Derby and the last two were strongly of the 
opinion that it was igneous and suggested blasting. Later dis- 
coveries make this procedure hardly necessary and prove the 
specimen to be undoubtedly an eruptive rock in advanced 
decomposition. 

During a visit from Professor Derby, the past autumn, the 
subject of dikes was again brought up and the probable loca- 
tion of one in Cascadilla Creek was indicated. The point is 
under the discharge raceway of the reservoir forming Willow 
pond, just east of the entrance to the Cornell Campus. In a 
receut drouth it became accessible. The dike is about three 
‘feet in width and strikes north and south right across the 
course of the creek. It is in a recess formed by its weather- 
ing and a corresponding recess appears on the opposite side, 
filled however with dirt. It is covered with sand in the creek. 

The rock itself is very dark green to black. Its surface is 
mottled by black protuberances which look very much as if 
they were pebbles. But they readily crumble under the 
fingers to a black dirt. The fresher portions have a porphy- 
ritie aspect and suggest a peridotite at once, and this is verified 
by the slides. In the sections the rock is seen to be highly 
altered. The black masses prove to be the remains of large 
olivine and enstatite or bronzite crystals. 

The latter show very generally the striated appearance so 
characteristic of these pyroxenes but the silicate itself has 
changed to serpentine and carbonates. The crystals are 8-5™™ 
in diameter. The recognizable olivine is in smaller crystals 
than the pyroxene as a general thing, but appears in no incon- 
siderable amount. It is very probable that the larger, unstri- 
ated alteration masses were also olivine. The characteristic 
reddish biotite of the peridotites is distributed through the 


412. S. F. Kemp—FPeridotite Dikes near Ithaca, N. Y. 


rock, and is still quite fresh. The crystals run about 0-2-0:3™ 
long. Their distribution imdicates at times an excellent flow 
structure. Magnetite is abundant both in irregular grains and 
rude crystals. A small amount of a reddish brown mineral, of 
high index but not entirely isotropic, is also present. It is 
probably perofskite. The groundmass consists in large part 
of numerous small acicular crystals of highly inclined extinct- 
ion which are augite. The groundmass seems originally to 
have been glassy. An analysis which was kindly made in the 
chemical laboratory at Cornell by Mr. W. H. Morrison, grad- 
uate student in chemistry yielded the following results. 

SiO; Fe,0, Al,O, Ca0Q MeO K,O Na.O | igssye aan 
2/2 8444 11°92 © 28°60 5-45) 1-97 1-02 0-9 a ee 

The analysis shows at once the advanced stage of the decom- 
position and yet indicates a very basic rock. Qualitative tests 
failed to show chromium. 

The rock resembles very closely the Syracuse serpentine 
described by Dr. G. H. Williams in its general macroscopie ap- 
pearance and in many of its microscopic characters. The large 
phenocrysts are the same but the olivine is less fresh than at 
Syracuse. The reddish mica is present in both. It has also 
been compared with the peridotite from Elliott Co., Ky.,* and 
that of Pike Co., Ark.,} and evidently belongs to the same fam- 
ilv of rocks but as might be expected it resembles the Syracuse 
rock most closely. 

The occurrence is interesting because it shows the further 
distribution of igneous rocks in a region supposed to be free 
from them. Ithaca is some seventy-five or eighty miles south 
of Syracuse and much higher in the geological scale. The 
local rocks are shaly sandstones of the Portage stage and are 
extensively seamed by a series of north and south joints and 
another series, of west-northwest strike. The dikes in all cases 
follow the northerly series. It is not improbable that they 
belong to the same eruptive outbreak that found a larger mani- 
festation at Syracuse. If so the intrusion is put at a date later 
than the Upper Devonian, but beyond this no further deter- 
mination can be made with the data at hand. 

Geological Laboratory, Columbia College, New York City. 


* J, S. Diller: The Peridotite of Elliott Co., Ky. Science, Jan. 23, 1885, p. 65. 
Bulletin No. 38, U. S. G. S., 1887. 
+ Branner and Brackett: Peridotite of Pike Co., Ark. This Journal, July, 1889, 


p. 50. 


A. E. Foote—Meteorie Lron of Cation Diablo. 413 


Arr. XLIV.—A Wew Locality for Meteoric Iron with a 
Preliminary Notice of the Discovery of Diamonds in the 
Tron';* by A. E. Foote. With Plates XIV, XV. 


Historical sketch of the discovery.—tin the latter part of 
March, 1891, the mining firm of N. B. Booth & Co., of Albu- 
querque, New Mexico, received a letter from a prospector in 
Arizona informing them he had found a vein of metallic iron 
near Cafion Diablo, sending them at the same time a piece 
with the request for an assay. Sometime in April this piece 
was examined by a Colorado assayer who reported ‘76:8 per 
cent of iron, 1°8 per cent lead, 4 oz. silver, and a trace of 
gold. From its appearance we should take it to be a furnace 
product.” + 

This result was naturally not satisfactory to the mining firm 
and a mass weighing forty pounds was broken into several 
fragments with a trip hammer. One of these was sent to the 
President of the Santa Fe Railroad, and another to Gen. Wil- 
lhamson, the land commissioner of the Atlantic and Pacific 
Railroad Co., nm Chicago. Gen. Williamson consulted me as 
to the probable value of the so-called mine of “pure metallic 
iron,” stating on the authority of the prospector that the vein 
had been traced for a distance of about two miles, that it was 
forty yards wide in places, finally disappearing into a mountain 
and that a car load could be taken from the surface and ship- 
ped with but little trouble. 

A glance at the peculiar pitted appearance of the surface 
and the remarkable crystalline structure of the fractured por- 
tion convinced me that the fragment was part of a meteoric 
mass, and that the stories of the immense quantity were such 
as usually accompany the discovery of so-called native iron 
mines, or even meteoric stones. As soon as possible, in June, 
I made a visit to the locality and found that the quantity had, 
as usual, been greatly exaggerated. 

There were some remarkable mineralogical and geological 
features which, together with the character of the iron itself, 
would allow of a good deal of self deception in a man who 
wanted to sell a mine. 

Description of Locality.—Nearly all of the small fragments 
were found at a point about ten miles southeast from Cafion 


* Read before the American Association for the Advancement of Science, 
August 20th, 1891. 

+ This assay was of such a remarkable character that I took the trouble to stop 
at the city where it was made and ask how such extraordinary results were 
obtained. I was informed that the lead, silver and gold were probably the results 
of the materials used in making the assay. . 


414 A. H. Hoote—Meteoric Lron of Cation Diablo. 


Diablo near the base of a nearly circular elevation which is 
known locally as “Orater Mountain.” I believe this is the 
same as Sunset Knoll figured on the topographical sheets of 
the U.S. Geological Survey. This is 185 miles (297-72 kilo- 
meters), due north from Tucson and about 250 miles (402°34 
kilometers) west of Albuquerque. 

The elevation, according to the survey, rises 432 feet (131°67 
meters) above the plain. Its center is occupied by a cavity 
nearly three quarters of a mile (1:2 kilometers) in diameter, 
the sides of which are so steep that animals that have de- 
scended into it have been unable to escape and have left their 
bleached bones at the bottom. The bottom seemed to be from 
fifty to one hundred feet (15:24 to 30°48 kilometers) below the 
surrounding plain. The rocks which form the rim of the so- 
called ‘‘crater” are sandstones and limestones and are uplifted 
on all sides at an almost uniform angle of from thirty-five to 
forty degrees. A careful search, however, failed to reveal any 
lava, obsidian or other volcanic products. I am therefore 
unable to explain the cause of this remarkable geological phe- 
nomenon. I also regret that a severe gallop across the plain 
had put my photographic apparatus out of order so that the 
plates I made were of no value. 

About two miles (3°22 kilometers) from the point at the base 
of the “crater” in a nearly southeasterly direction, and almost 
exactly in a line with the longest dimensions of the area over 
which the fragments were found, two large masses were dis- 
covered within about eighty feet (24°38 meters) of each other. 
The area over which the small masses were scattered was about 
one-third of a mile (0°53 kilometer) in length and one hundred 
and twenty feet (86°57 meters) in its widest part. The longer 
dimension extended northwest and southeast. 

Description of the specimens.—The largest mass discovered 
weighs 201 pounds (91:171 kilos,) and as the photograph 
shows, Plate XIV, has a somewhat flattened rectangular shape 
showing extraordinarily deep and large pits, three of which 
pass entirely through the iron. The most remarkable example 
of such perforation is the Signet Iron from near Tucson, Ari- 
zona, now in the National Museum and figured in Prof. F. W. 
Clarke’s Catalogue.* 

One other large mass was found weighing 154 pounds (69°853 
kilos?) This is also deeply pitted. A mass weighing approxi- 
mately 40 pounds (18°144 kilos) was broken in pieces with a 
trip hammer and it was in cutting one of the fragments of this 
mass that diamonds were discovered. Plate XV. 


* The Signet Iron was discovered about 30 miles (48°28 kilometers) from Tue- 
son. Dr. Geo. H. Horn states that 25 years ago he was told by the Spaniards 
that plenty of iron could be found on a range of hills extending northwest and 
southeast half way hetween Albuquerque and Tucson. 


A. E.. Foote—Meteorie Iron of Cation Diablo. 415 


Besides these masses of considerable size.a careful search 
made by myself with the assistance of five men was rewarded 
by the discovery of 108 smaller masses. Twenty-three others 
were also discovered making a total of 131 small masses rang- 
ing in weight from ,'; of an oz. (1°79 grm.) to 6 lbs. 10 oz. 
{3006 kilos.)* A brownish white slightly botryoidal coating 
found on a number of the meteorites, is probably aragonite. 

A thorough examination of many miles of the plain proved 
that the car load of iron existed only in imagination. Accom- 
panying the pieces found at the base of the “crater” were’ 
oxidized and sulphuretted fragments which a preliminary 
examination has shown are undoubtedly of meteoric origin. 
About 200 pounds (90-718 kilos) of these were secured, from 
minute fragments up to 3 pounds 14 oz. or (1°757 kilos.) 
These fragments are mostly quite angular in character, and a 
very few show a greenish stain, resulting probably from the 
oxidation of the nickel. This oxidized material is identical in 
appearance with an incrustation which covers some of the iron 
masses and partially fills some of the pits. 

Composition.—After obtaining the meteorite I was unable 
to return to Philadelphia for sometime, and, therefore, sent a 
fragment of the 40 pound mass (18:144 kilos) to Prof. G. A. 
Koenig for examination. Prof. Koenig was compelled to leave 
town before this examination was completed. I take the fol- 
lowing, therefore, from his letters to me and from an account 
furnished the daily Public Ledger by Dr. E. J. Nolan, Secre- 
tary of the Academy of Sciences, of a preliminary notice made 
by Prof. Koenig, June 23rd, before the Academy of Natural 
Sciences of Philadelphia. In this account he says: 

“In cutting the meteoric iron for study it had been found of a 
extraordinary hardness, the section taking a day and a half, and a 
number of chisels having been destroyed in the process. When 
the mass, which on the exterior was not distinguished from 
other pieces of meteoric iron, was divided, it was found that 
the cutting apparatus had fortunately gone through a cavity. 
In the attempt to polish the surface so as to bring out the char. 
acteristic Widmannstattian figures, Dr. Koenig received word 
that the emery wheel in use had been ruined. 

On examination, he then found that the exposed cavities 
contained diamonds which cut throngh polished corundum as 
easily as a knife will cut through gypsum. The diamonds 
exposed were small, black, and, of course, of but little com- 


* Oct. 18th.—During September I received three additional large masses weigh- 
ing respectively 632, 506 and 145 pounds (or 286°678, 229°516 and 65°771 kilos.) 
The two latter were each perforated with three holes. A number of smaller 
masses up to 7 pounds, (3°175 kilos.) were discovered by digging. The three 
large masses and one of 23 pounds, (10°432 kilos) were covered with grass and 
earth.—A. E, F. 


416 A. EL. Foote—Meteoric Iron of Cation Diablo. 


mercial value, but, mineralogically, they are of the greatest 
interest, the presence of such in meteorites having been 
unknown until 1887, when two Russian mineralogists dis- 
covered traces of diamond in a meteoric mixture of olivine and 
bronzite. Granules of amorphous carbon were also found in 
the cavity, and a small quantity of this treated with acid had 
revealed a minute white diamond of one-half a millimeter, or 
about =!, of an inch in diameter. In manipulation, unfortu- 
nately, this specimen was lost, but others will doubtless be 
obtained in the course of investigation. The minerals, troilite 
and daubréelite, were also found in the cavities. The propor- 
tion of nickel in the general mass is three per cent, and the 
speaker was not as yet able to account for the extraordinary 
hardness apart from the presence of the diamonds in the 
cavities.” 

Prof. Koenig in a letter to me gives the following points as 
definitely known. 

“(1.) Diamonds, black and white established by hardness 
and indifference to chemical agents. (2.) Carbon in the form 
of a pulverulent iron carbide occurring in the same cavity with 
the diamonds. The precise nature of this carbide, whether 
containing hydrogen and nitrogen is not ascertamed except in 
so far that after extracting all iron by nitro-hydrochlorie acid, 
the black residue goes into solution with deep brown color 
upon treating it with potassium or sodium hydrate. From 
this solution acids do not precipitate anything. (38.) Sulphur 
is not contained in the tough malleable portion of the mete- 
orite but in the pulverulent portion. (4.) Phosphorus is con- 
tained in the latter, and not in the former. (5.) Wickel and 
Cobalt in the proportion of 2:1 are contained in both parts 
nearly equally. (7.) Sedécon is only present in the pulverulent 
portion. (8.) The Widmannstittian figures are not regular. 
(9.) The iron is associated with a black hydroxide containing 
Fe, Ni, Co, P, in the ratio of the metallic part and therefore 
presumably derived by a process of oxidation and hydration 
of the latter.” 

Conclusions.—As this meteoric iron contains only 3 per cent 
of nickel while that from the Santa Catarina Mountains, 30 
miles (48°28 kilometers) southeast of Tucson and 215 miles 
(346 kilometers) from this locality, contains from 8 per cent to 
9 per cent, according to the analysis of Brush and Smith, they 
are quite distinct although somewhat alike in external appear- 
ance. They also somewhat resemble the Glorietta meteoric 
irons from about 3800 miles (482°8 kilometers) to the east north- 
east, in New Mexico. These contain 11:15 per cent of nickel. 


i em 1... > 


a 


Wadsworth—Trap Range of Keweenawan Series. 417 


The most interesting feature is the discovery for the first 
time of diamonds in meteoric iron.* This might have been 
predicted from the fact that all the constituents of meteoric 
iron have been found in meteoric stones, and wice versa, 
although in different proportions. 

The incrustation of what is probably aragonite shown by 
some of the masses has rarely been noticed (I find two records 
by J. Lawrence Smith which he states to be unique, and both 
of these were from regions south of this one). The incrusta- 
tion is especially interesting as showing that the meteoric irons 
must have been imbedded a long time, as the formation of 
aragonite would be exceedingly slow in this dry climate. 

The remarkable quantity of oxidized black fragmental 
material that was found at those points, where the greatest 
number of small fragments of meteoric iron were found, would 
seem to indicate that an extraordinarily large mass of probably 
' 500 or 600 pounds (226°796 or 2727156 kilos) had become 
oxidized while passing through the air and was so weakened 
in its internal structure that it had burst into pieces not long 
before reaching the earth. 


Art. XLV.—The South Trap Range of the Keweenawan 
Serves; by M. E. Wapbsworrn, State Geologist of 
Michigan. 


In a former communication published in the August num- 
ber of this Journal, it was shown that the eastern or supposed 
Potsdam sandstone, east of the copper-bearing rocks, underlies, 
in an apparently conformable synclinal fold, a limestone of 
Trenton or of some adjacent Lower Silurian formation. It 
was then suggested that the contorted state of the sandstone 
might have some weight in deciding the relative age of the 
eastern sandstone and the adjacent copper-bearing rocks. 

In endeavoring to contribute something to the solution of 
the relation of these two series of rocks, a party under the 
charge of Mr. A. E. Seaman of the Michigan Geological Sur- 
vey was directed to go to “Silver Mountain,” and thence to 
study the “South Trap Range,” in order to ascertain, if pos- 
sible, the exact relations of the lava flows of that range and 
the eastern sandstone. Part of this work has been done, and, 


* Attention may be called to the discovery by Haidinger (1846) of cubic crystals 
of a graphitic carbon in the Arva meteoric iron, and also of somewhat similar 
erystals from the Youngdegin, W. Australia iron, described by Fletcher (1887) 
under the name of cliftonite. Both have been regarded as pseudomorphs after 
diamond. 


418  Wadsworth—Trap Range of Keweenawan Series. 


although far from being as decisive as could be wished, yet 
the observations would appear to be of considerable interest 
and importance. 

“Silver Mt.” (See. 1, T. 49, R. 36 W.) was found to be com- 
posed of interbedded lava flows, of which at least ten flows 
were made out with more or less certainty. These flows dip 
to the northwest at an angle of from ten to sixteen degrees. 
No sandstone was found nearer than two miles. This has a 
slight dip to the northwest. On Sec. 29, T. 47, R. 37 W., a 
series of melaphyr flows were observed dipping at a low angle 
to the north or a little west of north. The angle of their 
greatest inclination being from 15° to 20°. 

These flows are interbedded with sandstone which holds 
fragments of the melaphyr. A felsite dike also cuts through 
the beds. 

Similar lava beds are found on Sec. 25, T. 47, R. 38 W., 
and Sec. 80, T. 47, R. 37 W., which lie at a low angle, 9° 
to 16° north or a little west of north; while on See. 1, T. 46, 
R. 39, the flows dip from 9° to 20°, the principal dip being to 
the north at an angle of 14°. Outerops of the same old 
basaltic rocks occur on Sec. 35, T. 47, R. 88 W. and See. 8, 
T. 46, R. 39 W., which show a very low inclination. 

The most important observations were made in Sees. 11, 13 
and 14, T. 46, R. 41 W., where the sandstone was found over- 
laid by some of the lava flows. The sandstone is found in con- 
tact with schists presumably of the Archean or Azoie Age. 
The base of the sandstone is of a conglomeritic character com- 
posed of rolled pebbles of quartz cemented by an argillaceous 
matrix formed from the debris of the underlying steeply in- 
clined and contorted schists. This sandstone dips at a low 
angle of from 12° to 14° northerly, its strike being S. 60° E. 

The conglomerate passes into a coarse reddish sandstone 
which can be traced in pits and exposures northwesterly, 
where the same coarse red sandstone is seen to pass up into a 
fine grained indurated sandstone or quartzite, which in its turn 
passes into a fine-grained indurated argillaceous schist and chert. 
This indurated zone is in immediate contact with the over- 
lying lava flow of the south trap range. The structure here is 
apparently that of a series of flows arising along a pipe or fis- 
sure, and shows the remains of the solidified neck with the 
downward bent sandstone or schist strata, together with the 
strong induration produced by the overflowing Java. The 
str ucture is indicated in the accompanying figure. 

It may be remembered that this structure is similar to that 
observed by the present writer in 1879, on the Douglass 
Houghton and Hungarian Rivers, except that at the latter two 
places much decomposition has occurred, leaving it a disputed 


A. Cary— Geological facts on Grand River, Labrador. 419 


question whether the superposition of the lava on the sand- 
stone is due to its having flowed over it, or to a reversed fault. 

In connection with the above it may be pointed out that the 
eastern sandstone on Traverse Island, in Keweenaw Bay, was 
found by the Michigan Geological Survey to dip westerly at 
an angle of from five to fourteen degrees, and that the present 
writer showed that the eastern sandstone in the vicinity of 
Torch Lake, generally dipped from five to twenty-three de- 
grees northwesterly toward the copper-bearing series, and that 
it actually passed under the lava flows. 


1, lava flows; ¢, cherty bands; s, s, indurated sandstones. 


The above observations would go to show that the lava 
flows of the “South Trap Range,” east of Lake Gogebic do 
not dip at a high angle, as has been generally asserted, and 
further that the eastern sandstone is not horizontal, as has 
been generally stated, but that the two dip at a low angle, 
generally 5° to 20°. These observations also indicate that the 
eastern sandstone, and the lava flows of the South Trap Range 
are one formation, and are as conformable as eruptions of lava 
ean be with a contemporaneous sedimentary deposit. 

The study of the South Trap Range will be continued. 

Michigan Mining School, Houghton, Mich., October Ist, 1891. 


Art. XLVI.—Geological Facts noted on Grand River, Lab- 
rador ;* by AUSTIN CARY. 


THE map of Labrador shows on its eastern coast one deep 
indentation. This body of water, comprised of Hamilton inlet 
and Lake Melville, is 140 miles long in all, and washes at 
almost every point the Archean rock of the country. 


* Prof. Leslie A. Lee in planning the Bowdoin expedition to Labrador the past 
summer determined to send a party up the Grand River to investigate its falls 
_ and obtain such scientific information as might be possible. This paper embodies 
the geological facts noted by that party. ‘Their meagerness and lack of detail 
must be largely attributed to the hurried nature of the trip and the serious acci- 
dents met with. 


420 A. Cary—Geological facts on Grand Riwer, Labrador. 


Lake Melville receives at its head three large rivers. One 
of these, the Grand or Hamilton river, the largest in the 
peninsula, prolongs for many miles the general westerly trend 
of the inlet. Not only this, but the valley in which it flows is 
a continuation of the basin of the inlet, largely similar in char- 
acter, direction and width. For sixty miles the river flows on 
loose sedimentary material, lying again between steep rocky 
walls nowhere less than six or eight miles apart. The conti- 
nuity of this valley, from this point to the open sea seems evi- 
dent. It is a wide trough, 200 miles long, cut into the edge 
of the Labrador plateau and through its outlying hills. 

Seldom does the river in this region touch the rocky wall, 
but at a point 25 miles from the mouth it has dug into the 
southern wall, and a remarkably round gneissic hill some 400 
feet high has been formed. Here also a half mile of fall and 
rapid makes a drop in the river of 70 feet. At the bottom of 
the section of sedimentary material thus exposed, fossiliferous 
Champlain clays were found, the total height of the section at 
this point being something over 200 feet. Toward the river 
mouth, it gradually drops to the level of the stream, while 40 
miles farther up terraced banks of sand rise to a height of 400 
or 500 feet. 

At a point between 60 and 70 miles from Lake Melville the 
sides of the rocky valley approach till they are but about a 
mile apart. This is well within the Labrador plateau which 
in this region is tolerably level, so that from the deeply sunk 
river bed its edges have the appearance of high, steeply slop- 
ing ridges. Parallel, and from a half mile to three miles apart, 
they extend for more than 200 miles, their regularity broken 
only by the deep-worn valleys of the largest streams, and by 
occasional perpendicular bluffs. Changes in direction are 
generally slow and easy. 

Marks of former deposit and wear are everywhere. Sand ter- 
races border the river in quiet regions, while beaches of water- 
worn stones mount the sides of the valley to a great ‘height. 
Typical potholes were noted in one place 50 feet or more above 
the present river level. It is worth remark that while the 
general height of the plateau, as set by a former traveler* is 
2000 feet; this altitude is not generally gained by a single slope. 
At many places when the bank rises by. a steep angle or a bluff 
to a height of 500 or 600 feet, the remaining height is gained 
by a much more eradual slope. 

The Grand River in this region flows through one large lake 
called Waminikapou. This is but a portion of the river val- 
ley 40 miles long from which the loose material has been 


* Holme, Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc., April, 1888. 


A. Cary—Geological facts on Grand River, Labrador. 421 


cleared out. From one to three miles wide, it contracts to 
about a quarter mile at its outlet, where the current passes out 
between perpendicular rocky bluffs, the talus from which 
serves in part to dam up the water. 

Of the geological features observed on this river the great 
cafion at the head of our travel is judged the most remarkable. 


_ At the upper end of this structure the river, which above 


here has been flowing on the plateau level, makes an abrupt 
drop and flows off with many sharp turns, a succession of falls 
and rapids, between abrupt walls. These walls, without a 
single break, continue for 20 miles, during which they are 
very often absolutely perpendicular, and at few points so slop- 
ing that it is possible to reach the river’s bed on foot. About 
100 yards wide at the bottom, the gorge at its head is 150 feet 
deep, at its foot as much as 800. Grand in dimensions and 
unique in character as is this gorge, it has never been appre- 
ciated by the few men who have seen it. We suggest for it 
the name “ Bowdoin Cajfion.” 3 

At its mouth the cafion opens into the side of the river val- 
ley described above and at right angles to it. The difference 
in structure here is very marked. The broader valley extends 
both ways the same in direction and character; but while, as 
seems probable, the main drainage of the country flowed origi- 
nally through this channel, it now holds but a small stream 
compared with the volume pouring out of the cafion. 

Several interesting facts were noted at the fall which seem 
to determine its present position. The river above this point 
is flowing on a hard, moderately coarse syenite which is hori- 
zontally jointed. At the crown of the fall the jointing, as is 
shown by a very plain section, takes a gradual curve. This 
curve the water follows downward until having reached a very 
considerable angle, it takes a perpendicular drop. The walls 
of the basin into which the river falls, while inaccessible to 
close inspection, were intersected by what appeared to be two 
or three trap dikes; while just here also was a region of 
special jointing and seaming. Somewhat below the fall the 
rock was noted as having changed to a syenitic gneiss. Our 
party spent four days in travel on the plateau in the neighbor- 
hood of the fall and cafion. So far as observed the plateau 
surface is worn down to a pretty even general level with per- 
petual minor elevations and depressions. Almost its whole 
surface is covered with angular bowlders. One rounded hill, 
from 500 to 800 feet in height was ascended, by far the highest 
elevation in a radius of many miles. It was christened by the 
party Mount Hyde. Glacial markings and bowlders were 
found on its summit. 


422 Scientific Intelligence. 


SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 


I. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS. 


1. On the so-called “ Black Sulphur” of Magnus.—Kwarr 
has examined the mode of formation and the properties of the 
so-called “black sulphur ” first described by Magnus. He finds 
that the best mode of preparing it is to heat suddenly a mixture 
of sulphur and oil ; such for example as is obtained by dissolving 
almond oil (0°2 to 0-4 gram.) in ether, mixing the solutien thor- 
oughly with 50 grams flowers of sulphur and then evaporating 
the ether. Ifa small portion of this mixture be dropped from 
the point of a knife on to the bottom of a red hot platinum cruci- 
ble, most of it is volatilized, but there is left a loose black residue, 
which after cooling is removed. By repeating the operation, the 
product may be increased indefinitely. Even with the greatest 
precautions, the yield is very small, only 0°685 gram having been 
obtained in this way from 100 grams of sulphur and 0°4 gram of 
oil, as a mean of 23 experiments. The oil treated alone in this 
way gave only’ 0-011 gram of residue. As thus obtained the 
“black sulphur” contains some yellow sulphur, and if the mate- 
rials were not pure, also some ash. Its density varies from 2°622 
to 1843, this want of homogeneity being due to the difficulty of 
reculating the temperature. It is insoluble in hot and cold water, 
alcohol, ether, hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, aqua regia, ammonia, 
caustic alkalies even when concentrated, and potassium cyanide. 
On evaporating it with potassium hydroxide solution, it is at- 
tacked just as the hydroxide is becoming solid and dissolved to a 
humus-brown mass soluble in water with a deep brown color, 


‘ yielding a solution in which acids give a brown precipitate. On 


heating the black sulphur in the air it undergoes no change other 
than the loss of moisture and yellow sulphur until the tempera- 
ture reaches 200°-300°, when sulphurous oxide is formed. Ata 
red heat the mass takes fire. In the absence of air, the black 
sulphur slowly loses weight and continues to do so for many 
hours even at ared heat, no vapor of sulphur or empyreumatic 
vapors being evolved. After the weight becomes constant, the 
residue burns away in the air entirely. The amount of this resi- 
due was 43°59 per cent. Its quantity did not seem to vary when 
the heating took place in carbon dioxide and no brown sulphur 
vapors appeared in the vessel, although considerable potassium 
sulphide was formed when the delivery tube from this vessel was 
conducted under potassium hydroxide solution. The sulphur in the 
“black sulphur” was estimated by evaporating a known portion 
with potassium hydroxide and potassium nitrate solutions and heat- 
ing, until the residue was white. Three determinations gave 53°77, 
56°76 and 57:07 per cent of sulphur, respectively. The residue left 
at a red heat contained 22°78 per cent of sulphur. Thus 44-46 per 


Chemistry and Physics. 423 


cent of the sulphur is expelled at a red heat, while the residue 
contains 10 per cent only of sulphur mixed with 33-34 per cent 


of carbonaceous matter. Only 13-14 per cent of the total sul- 


phur is dissolved by potassium dichromate and bromine. Hence 
the author concludes that the ‘black sulphur” of Magnus is not 
in itself a modification of sulphur, but consists of such a modifi- 
cation either adhering to-or condensed with, a carbonization pro- 
duct of the oil, itself containing sulphur. The new form of sul- 
phur does not vaporize below a temperature which is far above 
the boiling point of yellow sulphur. Moreover its vapor is color- 
less and not brown; and it evolves sulphurous oxide below a 
visibly red heat without combustion. ‘Though evidently unstable 
in the free state, it can exist readily in contact with any surface 
which affords a substratum for its development. This the author 
finds in the blue color developed by sulphur on platinum, silver 
and lead sulphide, and in the blue of ultramarine.—J/. pr. Ch., II, 
xliii, 305; J. Chem. Soc., 1x, 877, Aug. 1891. Gy FB. BE, 

2. Ona new form of Silicon—W aRREN has described a new 
form of silicon crystallizing in well-defined oblique octahedrons, 
obtained by subjecting potassium silicofluoride to an intense heat 
in contact with impure aluminum. On separating the graphi- 
toidal silicon thus produced, by the aid of acids, the new variety 
was obtained though only in small amount. The yield was in- 
creased by proceeding as follows: Pieces of aluminum the size 
of a walnut were thrown into a clay crucible containing a mix- 
ture of 4 parts of potassium silicofluoride, one part potassium 
carbonate and 2 parts potassium chloride, in a state of fusion. 
After the violent action was over, the crucible was heated to 
whiteness for about five minutes. On cooling a button was ob- 
tained containing 80 per cent of silicon. This was placed in a 
plumbago crucible with 12 parts of aluminum and 2 parts of tin 
and the whole was covered with a layer of sodium silicate. 
After heating to the highest attainable temperature for two 
hours, the crucible was cooled and the aluminum button was 
broken. It contained the new modification of silicon in large 
perfect crystals, having a full metallic luster and resembling the 
erystals of cast iron seen on breaking a pig of this metal. The 
silicon crystals are infusible and insoluble in all acids except 
hydrofluoric.— Chem. News, Ixiii, 46; J. Chem. Soc., |x, 799, 
July, 1891. G. F. B. 

3. On a new Alkaloid from Conium maculatum.—The new 
alkaloid which was observed in Coniwm maculatum by Merck of 
Darmstadt, has been submitted to a careful chemical examina- 
tion by LaprENnBuRGe and Apam. As received it was a white 
powder, easily soluble in water, alcohol, ether and benzene and 
forming salts with acids. The new base was purified in two 
ways: first by distillation and second by recrystallization from 
toluene. Both portions had the same melting point and both 
gave on analysis similar numbers: carbon 66°66 and 67°14, and 
hydrogen 12°33 and 12°35, the nitrogen being 9°88. This agrees 

Am. Jour. Scl.—Tuirp Serizs, Vou. XLII, No. 251.—NovemBer, 1891. 

29 : 


424 Scientific Intelligence. 


with the formula C,H,,NO which is that of conhydrine. Being 
quite similar to this base the authors call it pseudoconhydrine. 
It boils at 229°-231°, the distillate solidifying crystalline, and 
fusing at 100°-102°. It is optically active, ap = 4°30°. Its con- 
stitution has not been fixed.—Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., xxiv, 1671, 
June, 1891. G. F. B. 

4. On TIron-tetracarbonyl and Nickel-tetracarbonyl.—Monp 
and QurINcKE have succeeded in forming a compound of iron 
with carbon monoxide analogous to the compound of nickel with 
this gas described by them in conjunction with Langer. When 
very finely divided iron, obtained by reducing iron oxalate in a 
current of hydrogen at the lowest possible temperature, but little 
over 400°, and then cooled in the gas to 80° is treated with car- 
bon monoxide, the escaping gas imparts a yellow color to the 
flame of a Bunsen burner into which it is passed, this result con- 
tinuing even at ordinary temperature for several hours. On pass- 
ing the gas through a heated glass tube at 200° to 350° a metallic 
mirror is formed, while at higher temperatures black flakes are . 
produced. Upon dissolving these mirrors in acid, the solutions 
gave all the known reactions of iron in remarkably brilliant 
colors. A solution in nitric acid, precipitated by ammonia, 
weighed and reduced by hydrogen gave 70°48 and 69°94 per cent 
of iron in the oxide in two cases, the theoretical amount being 
70°00. Even under the most favorable circumstances, however, 
the quantity of iron obtainable in this way is very small. On 
treating 12 grams of finely divided iron with carbon monoxide 
for six weeks, only about two grams of the metal volatilized. 
After a time the action diminished in intensity, and it was found 
necessary to heat the iron in a current of hydrogen at 400° for 
about twenty minutes every five or six hours. When 23 liters of 
carbon monoxide passed per hour over the iron, the issuing gas 
contained not more than 0:01 gram of iron per liter; equivalent 
to less than 2 c.c. of Fe(CO),. Sulphuric acid absorbs the gas 
completely, but the solution decomposes very rapidly. Benzine 
and heavy mineral oils partially absorb it, producing tawny col- 
ored solutions which decompose on exposure to the air with sepa- 
ration of iron hydroxide. The analysis of the gas was effected 
by saturating a mineral oil with it by passing it through the oil 
for 8 to 16 hours, raising the temperature to 100° under a pres- 
sure of 500 mm. of mercury to free it from air and dissolved OO, 
and then to 180°, at which temperature the iron compound was 
decomposed, the carbon monoxide being evolved and the iron 
separating in the metallic form. The ratio of the CO to the Fe 
was found to be in five experiments 4°144, 4:030, 4°150, 4°264, and 
5042 ; thus rendering it probable that the substance is iron-tetra- 
carbonyl, corresponding to the nickel compound. ‘The authors 
suggest that this iron compound may play a part in the process 
of cementation.—J. Chem. Soc., lix, 604, Aug., 1891 ; Ber. Berl. 
Chem. Ges., xxiv, 2248, July, 1891. G. F. B. 


TS oy eda 
& 


Chemistry and Physics. 425 


BeERtTHELOT also has observed the formation of this iron-car- 
bonyl compound. If finely divided iron, obtained by reducing 
the precipitated oxide at ‘the lowest possible temperature or by 
igniting the oxalate in hydrogen, be treated at 45° with carbon 
monoxide, the escaping gas contains iron and burns with a 
brighter, sometimes whiter, flame than the monoxide itself. 
This flame produces spots on a porcelain surface held in it, these 
spots consisting of iron and its oxide. On passing the gas 
through a heated tube a metallic ring is deposited consisting of 
iron containing carbon. With concentrated hydrochloric acid, 
the gas gives ferrous chloride. On standing over water contain- 
ing air, iron oxide is deposited. The quantity of the iron com- 
pound is very small. Berthelot has also examined nickel-tetra- 
carbonyl and finds that it is permanent and without marked 
dissociation-pressure at ordinary temperatures. When preserved 
under water it is not decomposed if air be absent. When heated 
suddenly to above 60° it explodes, producing carbon and carbon 
dioxide besides nickel and the monoxide ; according to the equa- 
tion C,0,Ni= (CO,),+C,+Ni. It is not soluble in water, dilute 
acids or alkalies or acid cuprous chloride ; though hydrocarbons, 
especially oil of turpentine dissolve it. Mixed with air or oxygen 
it detonates on ignition and sometimes spontaneously as when the 
dry gas mixed with oxygen is agitated over mercury. In pres- 
ence of water, a greenish-white gelatinous precipitate is formed 
which contains nickel, oxygen, water and combined carbon, and 
which deposits carbon on heating. In the liquid state, nickel- 
tetracarbonyl shows similar reactions. Concentrated sulphuric 
acid explodes it, while its vapor when mixed with nitrogen is 
gradually converted by this acid into four times it volume of 
carbon monoxide, the nickel going into solution. Ammonia does 
not act at once on the pure gas, while if oxygen be present white 
fumes appear immediately. Hydrogen sulphide gives a black 
sulphide, hydrogen phosphide a black mirror-like deposit. Nitro- 
gen dioxide when mixed with the liquid or its vapor, produces a 
blue cloud which gradually sinks to the bottom of the vessel ; 
the resulting gaseous mixture containing nitrogen dioxide, car- 
bon monoxide and a new nickel compound. The author calls at- 
tention to the analogy between carbon monoxide and the radicals 
contained in the so-called metallo-organic compounds.—C. R 
exil, 1343; Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., xxiv, Ref. 593, July, 1891. 

G. F. B. 

5. On a sensitive Reaction for Tartaric acid.—MouLER has 
observed that when crystals of tartaric acid are thrown on sul- 
phuric acid of 66° B., containing one per cent of resorcinal, and 
the whole is heated gradually, a fine red-violet coloration is pro- 
duced when the temperature approaches 125°; complete carboni- 
zation taking place at 190°. Water destroys the color. The 
coloring matter could not be isolated since it was not soluble in 
ether, amyl alcohol, acetone, chloroform, or benzine. Using other 


‘phenols, similar colors are produced ; phloroglucinol giving a red 


426 Scientific Intelligence. 


and pyrogallol a fine violet color. Since these reactions are not 
given by succinic, malic, citric or benzoic acids, tartaric acid may 
readily be detected when mixed with any of these acids. To de- 
tect 0°01 milligram, the author evaporates the solution to be 
tested to dryness, one c.c. of the resorcinal solution is added, and 
the whole is gradually heated to about 125°. At first reddish 


streaks appear and then the. sulphuric acid becomes colored | 


throughout. If organic substances which char with sulphuric 
acid are present, the tartaric acid is removed by precipitation as 
lead tartrate and then tested, nitrates and nitrites should not be 


present.— Bull. Soc. Chem., Il, iv, 728; J. Chem. Soe., lx, 867, 


July, 1891. G. F. B. 

6. Photography of the Spectrum in natural color.—H. W. 
VoGEL gives a historical account of the photography of color 
and an explanation of the failures to accomplish it. It appears 
that Zenker, in 1868, indicated the method of depositing layers 
of silver of suitable thickness to produce by interference of light 
colored photographs, a method which Lippman has lately devel- 
oped. Lord Rayleigh’s (1886) explanation of the colors in pho- 
tographs produced by adjusting the layers of silver to wave 
lengths in order to produce colors by interference is a repetition 
of the explanation of Zenker. In the earlier processes Ag,Cl was 
used in the sensitive film and the fixing of the image produced in 
this film, by hyposulphite of soda, destroyed by separation of fine 
silver particles the regular layers which were necessary to pro- 
duce interference colors. Lippman uses pure bromide of silver 
which, under the operation of fixing, leaves the film in homoge- 
neous, regular layers suitable for producing interference colors.— 
Verhandl. d. Physik. Ges. Berlin, 10, p. 33, 1891; Photogr. 
Mittheil., 28, p. 7. a a 

7. Discharge of Electricity through exhausted Tubes without 
Electrodes.—J. J. THomson points out that the oscillations of 
the discharge from a Leyden jar produce during the short time 
of their duration enormous currents in the wire connecting the 
coatings of the jar, and therefore produce by induction very 
great electromotive force in the neighborhood of the wire. He 
therefore investigates the discharge by induction in rarefied ves- 
sels by wrapping these vessels with the wire connecting the coat- 


ings of a Leyden jar; thus producing luminous discharges in . 


these vessels without the direct passage of electricity from metal- 
lic terminals in the gas. Professor Thomson points out that the 
phenomena bear upon his theory of tubes of electrostatic induction. 
He regards the distinction between electrostatic and electromag- 
netic electromotive forces as one introduced for convenience of 


analysis rather than as having any physical reality. “The only ~ 


difference which -could be made, from a physical point of view, 
would be to define those effects as electrostatic which are due to 
tubes of electrostatic induction having free ends, and to confine 
the term electromagnetic to the effects produced by closed endless 


tubes. It is only when the electromotive forces are produced ex- ~ 


Chemistry and Physics. 427 


clusively by the motion of the magnets that all the tubes are 
closed : whenever batteries or condensers are used, open tubes are 
present in the field.” The bearing of Professor Thomson’s ex- 
periments on the aurora is extremely interesting. The most re- 
markable appearance was presented when the discharge passed 
through oxygen. In this gas the bright discharge is succeeded by 
a phosphorescent glow which lasts for a considerable time, some- 
times for more than a minute. The spectrum of the afterglow is 
a continuous one, without bright lines. The only gas besides oxy- 
gen which shows the afterglow is air. The spectrum of the air 
glow showed bright lines. “Professor Thomson is continuing his 
investigation.— Phil, Mag., Oct., 1891, pp. 323-336. doa 

8. Latio of Electromagnetic to Electrostatic units —J. J. 
Tomson and G. T. C. Szarte have undertaken a redetermina- 
tion of the value of this ratio. A complete account of their ex- 
periments can be found in Phil. Trans., Lond., 181 A., pp. 583- 
621, 1890. The value obtained is v=2°9955'10"" cm. sec.~’. 

HB 

9. Hxpansion of Water.—A useful table of the expansion of 
water from temperatures 0° to 31° is given by W. Marek.— Ann. 
der Physik und Chemie, No. 9, 1891, p. 171. apy i 

10. Hxperimenis in Aerodynamics, by 8. P. Lanetry. 115 
pp. 4to, with 10 plates. Washington, 1891 (Smithsonian Contri- 
butions to Knowledge, 801).—When the investigation of a sub- 
ject like that of “flying machines ”—at once so stimulating to 
the popular imagination and yet almost an ignis fatuus in the view 
of sober minds-—is made the subject of careful scientific experi- 
ment in skillful hands the results are sure to be of unusual 
interest and value. This is eminently true of Prof. Langley’s 
investigations in aerodynamics which briefly demonstrate experi- 
mentally that mechanical flight under proper direction is prac- 
ticable and further that the support of heavy bodies in the air, 
combined with very great speeds is not only possible but within 
the reach of mechanical means now available. 

The experiments detailed in this memoir were carried on at 
Allegheny Observatory between 1887 and 1891. They describe 
in the first place the “suspended plane ”-—a thin brass plane a 
foot square weighing two pounds hung vertically by a spring 
- from a surrounding frame and capable of receiving rapid lateral 
motion. Briefly expressed the important result of the experi- 
ments is to prove that the downward pressure diminishes as the 
velocity increases, the spring contracting as the plane is carried 
forward. A second instrument served to show graphically the 
direction of the total resultant pressure on a square inclined 
plane and to roughly measure its amount—this is called the 
“resultant pressure recorder.” Still another instrument, the 
‘“‘plane-dropper,” was used to demonstrate that a horizontal 
plane in lateral motion requires an increased time for its descent, 
and also to measure the time of fall for different planes and other 
related points, thus giving the soaring speeds of wind-planes 


428 Scientific Intelligence. 


set at varying angles and making it possible to compute the 
work expended in their uniform horizontal flight. Thus it is 
proved that less work is required in the aerial motion of heavy 
inclined planes at higher speeds than at lower ones. In the 
quantitative experiments connected with this part of the subject, 
a “component pressure recorder” was used together with a 
‘“‘dynamometer-chronograph” to record the speed, the resistance 
to forward motion at the instant of soaring and other attendant 
phenomena. 

Reference must be made to the memoir itself for the details of 
the methods and results of the experiments with the instruments, 
alluded to. It is interesting, however, to note the conclusion 
reached, that, “‘so far as the mere power to sustain heavy bodies 
in the air by mechanical flight goes, such mechanical flight is 
possible with engines we now possess, since effective steam engines 
have lately been built weighing less than 10 pounds to an horse- 
power, and the experiments show that if we multiply the small 
planes which have been actually used, or assume a larger plane 
to have approximately the properties of similar small ones, one 
horse power rightly applied can sustain over 200 pounds in the 
air at a horizontal velocity of over 20 meters per second (about 
45 miles per hour) and still more at still higher velocities.” The 
author adds further that the experiments “afford assurance that 
we can transport (with fuel for a considerable journey and at 
speeds high enough to make us independent of ordinary winds) 
weights many times greater than that of a man.” He goes on to 
say (we quote the author’s words) that he has “not asserted 
without qualification that mechanical flight is practicably possi- 
ble since this involves questions as to the method of constructing 
the mechanism, of securing its safe ascent and descent and also 
of securing the indispensable condition for the economic use of 
the power I have shown to be at our disposal, the condition, I 
mean, of our ability to guide it the desired horizonal direction 
during transport—questions which in my opinion are only to be 
answered by experiment and which belong to the inchoate art or 
science of aerodromics on which I do not enter. I wish, how- 
ever, to put on record my belief that the time has come for these 
questions to engage the serious attention not only of engineers 
but of all interested in the possibly near practical solution of the 
problem, one of the most important in its consequences of any 
which has ever presented itself in mechanics ; for this solution it is 
here shown cannot longer be considered beyond our capacity to 
reach.” 

11. The Chemical Analysis of Irnon.—A complete account of 
all the best known methods for the analysis of iron, steel, pig- 
iron, iron-ore, limestone, slag, clay, sand, coal, coke and furnace 
and producer gases by ANDREW ALEXANDER Brarr. Second 
edition. 314 pp. Philadelphia, 1891 (J. B. Lippincott Com- 
pany).—The first edition of this valuable and attractive work 
was noticed in volume xxxvi (p. 387) of this Journal. In the 


ss 


Geology and Mineralogy. 429 


present edition some new analytical methods have been added, 
the table of atomic weights has been revised and the errors 
noted during its use for the past three years have been corrected. 

12. Die Fortentwickelung der elektrischen Hisenbahn-Einrich- 
tungen, von L. Koutrtrsr. Vienna, 189 (A. Hartleben’s Ver- 
lag).—This volume is published in the same form as those of the 
‘“‘ Hlektro-technische Bibliothek ” repeatedly noticed in this 
Journal. It is devoted to the various applications of electricity 
to railroad traffic, in the telegraph, telephone, signals, etc., and 
‘gives much information on these practical subjects compressed 
into a small space. 


Il GroLnocy AND MINERALOGY. 


1. Report of Hxploration of the Glacial Lake Agassiz in 
Manitoba; by Warren Urpnam. 156 pages 8vo, with two 
maps and a plate of sections; forming Part EK, Annual report of 
the Geological and Natural History Survey of Canada, vol. iv, 
for 1888-89.—The departure of the ice-sheet of the Glacial 
period is shown to have been attended with the formation of a 
vast lake in the basin of the Red River of the North and of 
Lake Winnipeg, held by the retreating ice-barrier. It exceeded 
in extent the combined areas of the great lakes tributary to the 
St. Lawrence, and had a maximum depth of about 600 feet. 
Seventeen shore-lines, marked by beach-ridges of gravel and 
sand, are found at successive levels upon the northern part of 
this lacustrine area which are referable to stages of the glacial 
lake while it outflowed southward by way of Lakes Traverse and 
Big Stone and the Minnesota River. At lower levels, eleven 
later shore-lines belong to stages of outflow northward, previous 
to the recession of the ice from the region crossed by the Nelson 
River, whereby Lake Agassiz was reduced to Lake Winiipeg. 
The earliest and highest beaches have a gradual ascent of about 
one foot to the mile northward along an explored extent of 400 
miles from south to north ; but in the lower beaches there is.a 
gradual decrease of this ascent, and the latest and lowest beaches 
are very nearly level. It is thus known that the area of Lake 
Agassiz was undergoing a differential northward uplift during 
the time of the ice-departure, and that the uplift was nearly 
completed within that time. On the adjoining country of Min- 
nesota and North Dakota eleven distinct terminal and recessional 
moraines indicate the maximum extension of this ice-sheet and 
stages of halt or re-advance interrupting its general retreat ; and 
five of these moraines, namely, the Dovre, Fergus Falls, Leaf 
Hills, Itasca, and Mesabi moraines, were accumulated after Lake 
Agassiz began to exist in the Red River Valley. 

An appendix of this report gives a tabulation of glacial striz 
on the region of Lake Agassiz and the country northward to 
Hudson Bay and the Mackenzie; and another appendix notes 
altitudes determined by the Canadian Pacific railway surveys in 
Manitoba and westward to the Pacific. 


430 Screntific Intelligence. 


2. Geological Survey of Texas, 2nd Annual Report, 1890. 
K. T. DumB.ez, State Geologist. 756 pp. 8vo, with maps, plates 
and sections. Austin, Texas, 1891.—The introductory chapter 
of this second Annual Report by Mr. Dumble reviews the work 
of the year, and the subjects of metallic and other mineral and 
economical resources of the State. It is followed by an account 
of the geology and resources of the iron ore district of East 
Texas, by E. T. Dumble, Wm. Kenedy, J. H. Herndon and J. 
B. Walker; on the geology of northwestern Texas, by W. F. 
Cummins ; on the geology and resources of the central mineral” 
region of Texas, by T. B. Comstock ; and on the geology and 
mineral resources of Trans-Pecos, Texas, by W. H. von Steernu- 
witz, with a report on the Cretaceous rocks of the region by J. 
A. Taff. 

Mr. Cummins, in his account of the Permian—the lower divis- 
ion of the Red Beds,—makes them in places 5000 feet thick, and 
every where conformable with the Carboniferous. He divides 
the formation into the Wichita or Lower, consisting of sand- 
stones; the Clear Fork beds, limestones, shales and sandstones, 
and some gypsum; and the Double Mountain beds, including 
limestones, shales and thick beds of gypsum. The overlying 
Triassic commences with sandstones and conglomerates, which re- 
semble and are supposed to be the equivalent of the Shinarump 
conglomerate of Powell—made the beginning of the Trias by 
Mr. C. D. Walcott. The Permian series is not separable from 
the Triassic by any marked unconformability, yet it is evident, 
Mr. Cummins remarks, that there was not continuous sedimenta- 
tion between the two. 

3. Preliminary Notice of a New Yitrium-Silicate; by W. 
EK. Hippen. (Communicated).—Associated with the huge crys- 
tals of gadolinite, with yttrialite and the other yttrium minerals, 
found in Llano County, Texas, two years ago, I have discovered 
a few masses of a new species that is exceedingly rich in the 
yttrium earths. A preliminary examination has shown its den- 
sity to be 4°515. Its color is pale drab-green when pure. In 
thin splinters it is perfectly transparent. Its alteration products 
are of a waxy brick-red color and quite easily distinguished from 
those of gadolinite and allanite. It is easily soluble in acids, 
leaving gelatinous silica. The following are the results of an 
unfinished analysis by the writer : 


SLO) cy een 8 ir |e ae 25°98 
JO. ebt gmerees ore, 2. Sane 61°91 atomic weight =118. 
BPe® . 22) eee oy Sire, ales 4°69 

DOk: © Si Seer ts ee 0°40 

Cd os. cr be ea 0°19 

Ign, - loss 2 Sees a. oe 2°01 


No thoria is present and but very little of the cerium earths. 
The oxygen ratio of the bases found to the silica is 83°47 : 86°60, 
or pointing to 1:1 if the analysis had been completed. Its for- 


Geology and Mineralogy. 431 


mula would then be 3 SiO,, 2R,O, or of a mineral quite distinct 
from the gadolinite and yttrialite with which it is found asso- 
ciated. For this silicate so remarkably rich in yttria, I propose 
the name of Rowuanpire, after Professor Henry A. Rowland, 
whose spectrographic work on the so-called “rare-earths” is so 
novel and important. As opportunity offers a more extended - 
description will be given of this very interesting new species. 

4. Anatase from the Arvon Slate Quarries, Buckingham Co., 
Va; by Grorcre H. Wiriiams (communicated).—The rarity 
of American localities for anatase is a sufficient warrant for 
recording a recent discovery of this mineral in its original posi- 
tion, made by the writer during June last. In the course of a 
trip through central Virginia occasion was taken to visit the 
State quarries five miles south of Bremo Bluffs on the James 
River railroad in Buckingham County. The largest of these 
quarries, belonging to the Williams Brothers, is situated at the 
terminus of the short branch railroad, Arvon station. This con- 
tains-the best quality of slate, but it is proportionately devoid of 
anything of mineralogicai interest. About a mile west of this 
place, however, where the slate of this district was first opened 
in what is now known as the Robert’s quarry, the cleavage is 
less perfect and regular, while cross joints are of frequent occur- 
rence. ‘These irregularities, which detract so seriously from the 
economic value of the slate, make this quarry more interesting 
than the other to the geologist and mineralogist. Here beauti- 
fully crinkled varieties of slate occur, and one regularly mottled 
sort is quite abundant, which in the field was surmised to contain 
ottrelite, but was found on more careful examination to owe its 
knots (“‘knoten”) to small rhombohedrons of some carbonate 
which is but feebly transparent on account of the great number 
of inclusions, probably of carbonaceous matter, which it con- 
tains. Huge blocks of this imperfect or “ bastard slate” have 
been thrown aside as worthless, and it was on the end of one of 
these, cut off very evenly at right angles to the cleavage by a 
cross joint, that the anatase crystals were found. 

The surface presented by this joint plane was of large size and 
was completely covered with small quartz crystals, among which 
were scattered minute individuals of pyrite and the anatase. The 
latter was fairly abundant and closely resembles the black, 
metallic, steep pyramidal variety, so well known from the 
Tavetsch valley in Switzerland. Hardly any crystals were 
noticed over a millimeter in length, while most were less than 
this. No forms except the unit pyramid, 1 (111), and the base, 
0 (001), were observed. The pyramidal faces are horizontally 
striated and often built up into little flights of steps by an oscil- 
latory combination, as is so frequently the case with the Swiss 
crystals. The faces have a high metallic luster but are broken 
by growth, irregularities, and vicinal planes, which makes the 
reflected images multiple and the measurements unsatisfactory. 
The best crystal gave : 


432 Scientific Intelligence. 


(111) : (111) OB ati” 97° 51’ (cale, v. Kok.) 
(111) .a(ODIg AIL 36") ADL Ag” 
(101) SC 136° 20". Jase 


The smaller crystals when placed under the microscope are 
found to be translucent with a rather pale yellow color, metallic 
lustre, and high refractive index. These show parallel extinction 
and a uniaxial figure. 

I am indebted to my friend, Prof. W. G. Brown of Washington 
and Lee University, for chemically examining one of the crystals, 
which he found to be composed largely of titanic oxide. 

Baltimore, Aug., 1891. 


5. Ilvaite ; by G. Cu. Horrmann (communicated).—Several 
specimens of what proved to be the rare mineral, ilvaite, were 
received for identification from a gentleman who described it as 
occurring in large irregular masses in a vein about twenty feet 
wide, near the head of Barclay Sound, Vancouver Island, British 
Columbia. ‘Portions of the material were fairly free from for- 
eign admixture containing only small quantities of a white trans- 
lucent, cleavable calcite, this, however, was in some fragments 
supplemented by inclusions of altered tremolite, and in others by 
a brownish-yellow andradite. It had a more or less closely com- 
pacted crystalline structure. The lateral faces of crystals were 
not infrequently striated longitudinally, and sometimes exhibited 

a slight iridescent tarnish. Color, iron-black ; streak, greenish- 
ene luster, sub-metallic, brittle ; fracture, uneven. Before 
the blow-pipe fuses quietly at about 2°5 to a black magnetic 
globule. Hardness, 5°5 ; specific gravity, 3°85. Readily decom- 
posed by hydrochloric acid, forming a yellow jelly. 

An analysis conducted upon very carefully selected and pre- 
pared material, dried at 100° C., afforded the following results : 
SiO, Al,O3 Fe.0; FeO MnO CaO MgO H.O 
29°81 0°16 18°89 32°50 2°22 13°82 0°30 1°62:=> 89722 

6. Synthese du Rubis, par EK. Fremy. 30 pp. 4to, with 28 
colored plates. Paris, 1891, (Vve. Ch. Dunod.)—The synthetic 
formation of minerals in general is a subject of great interest and 
one in which French chemists have made remarkable progress of 
late years. The results reached by one of the laborers in this 
field, M. Fremy, in the artificial production of rubies are given 
in this beautiful volume. In the most successful method, the 
rubies were obtained in an earthen crucible by the reaction at a 
very high temperature of a mixture of alumina (with more or 
less potash) upon barium fluoride, with bichromate of potash as 
coloring matter. They are well crystallized, clear, of brilliant 
color and sometimes weigh one-third of a carat. The author 
claims for them usefulness both in jewelry and in watchmaking. 
A series of fine colored plates show sections of the crucibles with 
the rubies scattered through the gangue, also clear isolated rhom- 
bohedral crystals (magnified), and further, the rubies cut and 
mounted for ornament in various forms. 


Geology and M ineralogy. 433 


7. Brief notices of some recently described minerals.—BRAND- 
titE. A hydrous arsenate of manganese and calcium, formula 
Ca,MnAs,0,+2H,O, found at the Harstig mine, near Pajsberg, 
‘Sweden. It is analogous to roselite and fairfieldite in composition 
and closely similar to the former species in its triclinic crystals. 
The color is white with vitreous luster, hardness =5-5'5; sp. 
gravity =3°671. An analysis gave: 

MOO. | MnO CaO JPbO. FeO ~MeO Cl 4,0 insol. 

nO eens.  td035 25:07 096 > 0:05 40°90. 0°04 -°8°09 0:04 = 99-71 - 
Named by Nordenskidld and later described by Lindstrém.— G. 
For. Forh., xiii, 123, 1891. 

GANOPHYLLITE.—A hydrous silicate of alumina and manganese 
from the Harstig mine, Sweden. It occurs in monoclinic crys- 
tals with perfect basal cleavage. The color is brown ; hardness 
=4-4'5 ; sp. grav. =2°84. An analysis gave: 
si0, <Al,O, Fe.0; MnO CaO MgO PbO? K.O Na.O H,.O 
Pome Oo 30°90 doo » lett 0720. “0°20 20). 2°84 “OeT9l== 99:85 
The formula calculated is 7MnO. Al,O,. 8SiO,.6H,O ; the author, 
A. Hamberg, proposes to include it among the zeolites.— G. Lr. 
Forh., xii, 586, 1890. 

PyRopHANITE.—A manganese titanate, MnTiO,, like the pre- 
ceding species from the Harstig mine. It occurs in rhombohe- 
dral crystals isomorphous with hematite and ilmenite and is 
probably tetartohedral like the latter species. ‘The color is deep 
blood-red ; hardness =5 ; sp. grav. =4°537. An analysis gave: 
TiO, 50°49 MnO 46°92 Fe,03 1°16 Sb203 0°48 SiO5 eae) — 10063 
Also described by Hamberg, ibid. 

OFFRETITE.—A new zeolite near phillipsite in composition, 
from Mt. Simionse, Montbrison, France. It occurs in white 
hexagonal crystals with sp. grav. =2°13. An analysis gave: 
SiO, 52°47 Al,O; 19°06 CaO 2°43 K.0 7-72 H,O 18:90 = 100°58 
Described by F. Gonnard, C. &., cxi, 1002, 1890. 

Kauitire.—A nickel ore from the Friedrich mine near Schoén- 
stein a. d. Sieg. It occurs in massive form with a light bluish 
gray color. Analysis gave: ) 

S Sb As Bi Ni Fe Co 
14°39 44°94 2°02 1G 26°94. 0:27 0:89 = 101°21 
This corresponds essentially to NiSbS. ' Described by Laspeyres, 
Zs, Mryst, X1x, 12, 1891. 

SYCHNODYMITE.—A cobalt ore also described by Laspeyres 
(l. ¢., p. 17) from the Kohlenbach mine at Hiserfeld near Siegen. 
It occurs in isometric crystals of a dark steel-gray color. Analy- 
SIS gave : 

S 40°33 Cu 17°23 Co 35°64 Ni 5°74 Fe 0:82 = 99°76 
This corresponds to (Co, Cu, Ni),S,, ike polydymite. | 

Umaneirrn.—A selenide of copper occurring with eucairite in 
the Sierra dé Umango, Argentine Republic. It occurs in fine 
granular massive forms, with metallic luster, dark cherry-red 
color ; hardness =3; sp. grav. =5°620. Analysis gave: 


434 Seientific Intelligence. 


Se 36°18 Cu 44°27 Ag 0°45 Fe 0°16 
The calculated analysis is Cu,Se,. Described by F. Klock- 
mann, Zs. Aryst., xix, 269, 1891. | 
ANTLERITE.— A basic sulphate of copper of a light green color, 
occurring in massive form at the Antler mine, Yucca Station, 
Mohave Co., Arizona. After deducting 6 to 8 p. c. gangue, the 
mean of two analyses gave : 
SO; CuO ZnO CaO H,0 
Sp. atay. = 3793 20°98 67°91 0°16 0°05 10°94 = 100°04 
The formula suggested is 3CuSO,. 7Cu(OH),. Described by W. 
F. Hillebrand, Bull. 55, U. 8S. G. Surv., p. 54, 1889. 
PLUMBOFERRITE.—A mineral from the Jakobsberg mine, Nord- 
mark, Sweden, occurring in black cleavable masses. Analysis 
gave: 
Fe,03 PbO FeO MnO MgO CaO 
60°38 23°12 10°68 2°20 1:95 1:67. = 100 
Described by Igelstr6m in 1881, and again in 1891, Zs. A7ryst., 
REx, G7 
8. Catalogue of Minerals and Synonyms, by T. Heieston, 
378 pp. 8vo. New York, 1891 (John Wiley & Sons).—The mine- 
ral collector, perplexed by the confusing multiplicity of mineral 
names, will find much assistance from the present volume. It 
gives a very full alphabetical list of mineral synonyms with ref- 
- erences to the names of the recognized species, under which they 
are arranged chronologically with the author’s name. This work 
is expanded from a similar earlier list, which appeared as Bulle- 
tin 33, of the U. 8S. National Museum (noticed in this Journal, 
XXXVI, 494, 1889). 


Il]. Botany. 


1. Some Museums and Botanical Gardens in the Equatorial 
Belt and the South Seas.—(Fourth paper). The Queensland 
Museum, at Brisbane, under the charge of Mr. de Vis, is rich in 
specimens illustrating the Natural History and Ethnology of the 
Colony. It is well arranged, although much crowded, and is 
thoroughly appreciated by the community. Here, as elsewhere 
in the Colonies, much attention is paid to the collection and con- 
servation of objects which are of special significance in the 
locality : hence many of the collections are treasure-houses of 
incalculable value to the colonial and to the general student. 
Even the smaller collections of minerals and of aboriginal curi- 
osities are well managed, so that the amount of material at the 
command of a student in any of the departments of Natural 
History, Geology, Ethnology, and Anthropology, is large and 
readily available. ‘To this is to be added the statement, that the 
Curators of the collections, although sedulously guarding the 
unique specimens, afford every facility for their comparison and 
examination. 

The voyage from Brisbane northward to Java is intensely inter- 
esting. In the first place, the steamers stop at various points 


Botany. 435 


along the coast of Queensland, giving opportunity for a hasty 
glance at the natural features, while in the second place, the 
waters through which one sails, are protected by the long barrier 
reef. These coral reefs extend from 24° 30’ south latitude as far 
as Torres Straits at the North, in latitude 10°. The distance 
between the irregular reef and the shore varies greatly, being in 
some places about one hundred miles, in others less than ten 
miles. For a good part of the voyage near the upper extremity 
of the great York peninsula, the shore is plainly in sight, while 
on the other side of the ship one can see the low-lying islands of 
the Barrier Reef. The whole distance from Brisbane to Thurs- 
day Island, 1430 miles, is under the direction of coast pilots. 

The voyage at this part is almost like a sail along the banks of 
a wide river. The shore is frequently fringed by mangroves, 


. while on the higher land the tropical trees are thickly crowded. 


For considerable distances, the steamer keeps so close to the 
shore, that one can discern the habit of the larger trees. At cer- 
tain straits one can see distinctly even the hills of the white ants, 
and the forms of the lower shrubs. 

It is impossible to forget, as one sails along this coast, how 
closely every part is connected with the discoveries of Capt. 
James Cook. The names of some of the headlands and bays 
bear witness to the arduous efforts of this intrepid navigator, 
and serve as the lasting memorials of the perils and adventures 
of Cook’s “first voyage.” Among these names are: Weary 
Bay, Cape Flattery, Cape Tribulation, Repulse Island, and so 
on; together with many which simply note the dates on which 
the places were touched during the voyage, such as Whitsunday 
Passage, Pentecost Island, Wednesday Island, Thursday Island. 
The place last named has the safest harbor in the region. It is 
at this point that the coast pilot relinquishes his charge to the 
captain. 

At Thursday Island, our ship was placed in quarantine, owing 
to a case of supposed scarlatina. This disease had been epidemic 
‘at our port of departure, Brisbane, and a single slight case on 
board appeared to justify the health officer of the port in preventing 
any of the passengers from landing. Therefore we remained 
nearly a day in sight of an interesting shore, with no opportunity 
to visit it or receive collections from it. 

The passage through Torres Straits is considered one of the 
most dangerous bits of navigation in the world, owing to the 
presence of numerous small islands and hidden reefs, with cur- 
rents which are as yet not fully understood. It was at this place 
that the “ Quetta ” sank just one year before we passed the spot ; 
her commander was in charge of our own steamer and gave us 
harrowing details of that disaster. 

At Torres Straits we were only a few miles from the southern 
part of New Guinea, but we passed it at night and did not catch 
a sight of land. The first land sighted, but still at a considerable 
distance, was Timor Laut, after we had traversed the Arafura 


— ss Se 


4°, Ee 


436 Scientific Intelligence. 


Sea. Many of the larger islands in the lower part of the Banda 
and Flores seas are seen plainly, the steamer often going near 
enough to enable passengers to make out points of interest on 
land. Every facility was afforded me for securing photographs 
of this region. Some of the views: are fairly satisfactory. 
Sumbawa, Lombok, Bali and Madura, are among the vivid recol- 
lections of this portion of the voyage. The volcanic character 
of the commanding mountains which, with their outlying flanks, 
make up the islands, is impressed upon every feature of the 
scenery. ‘The same is true of the long island of Java which we 
skirted on its northern side. 

At Tanjong Priok, Java, the harbor of Batavia, we were every- 
where surrounded by tropical vegetation. All the land there lies 
very low, and has a bad reputation on account of the fevers 
prevalent at the coaling station. Passengers make their way, 
past very considerate custom-house officials, to the train in wait- 
ing, and thence over a level plain, to Batavia, a few miles away. 
The city of Batavia is full of interest to a naturalist, but the 
attractions at points farther up the railroad leave but scant time 
for the city. 

My objective point was, of course, Buitenzorg, the locality of 
the famous garden. For a good many years, accounts by friends 
in Holland had led me to form high expectations with regard to 
this Javan garden. I may say that in no respect were these ex- 
pectations unrealized. It is impossible, as I have said in a former 
paper, to compare the garden at Péradeniya, in Ceylon, with this 
in Buitenzorg, although they belong to the same class. No intel- 
ligent visitor can fail to be gratified by these glimpses of well- 
arranged tropical vegetation: if the traveler can take into his 
tour: both of the gardens, by all means let him do so; but let him 
not fail to go out of his way to see at least one of them. 

Etymologically, Buitenzorg is almost the exact equivalent of 
Sans Souci ; besides, each has its palace. Hence, as might be 
inferred, Buitenzorg possesses a strong park-like character at that 


portion which is near the government grounds. Aside from this,” 


the arrangement is that of a botanic garden proper, and every- 
thing is made tributary to it. 

The large specimens of trees have proved in some cases em- 
barrassing’ to the director in his endeavors to rearrange the plants, 
but he has wisely left the most important of these in their old 
places, seeing to it, however, that they are so conspicuously 
labelled that no confusion is likely to result. 

At the time of my visit, a display of tropical fruits had been 
arranged in one of the lar ge plant houses for the inspection of 
the Crown Prince of Russia, “and I had the pleasure of examining 
carefully what was consider ed one of the lar gest collections ever 
brought together. Nothing could give a better idea of the im- 
mense resources of the earden. 

Dr. M. Treub, the Director of the Garden, has carried out 
well-matured plans for the establishment of a station for phyto- 


Botany. 437 


logic study, and the government has given him adequate support. 
In his admirable laboratories, students can find every appliance 
for their investigations. The Annals of the Botanic Garden at 
Buitenzorg show how well these advantages have already been 
improved. Dr. Treub authorizes me to state to American stu- 
dents of Botany, that he would be happy to communicate with 
any who are prepared to undertake special investigations. Ar- 
rangements are now in progress at Cambridge, by which it may 
be possible for one American student of Botany to be supported in 
Buitenzorg, for a term of one year: it is among the possibilities 
that a fund may be obtained by which such an subvention may be 
made permanent, and that American botanists may have this privi- 
lege of examining tropical plants under the most favorable condi- 
tions. It is not amiss to say in connection with this subject that 
the climate of Buitenzorg is healthy and agreeable, and also that 
the surroundings are exceedingly interesting in numerous ways. 

On a contiguous mountain, the garden supports an annex. Here 
are cultivated the plants which are impatient of the temperature 
of Buitenzorg. Experiments in acclimatization can be carried on 
in both places. Not very far away from the the main garden, 
are the economic grounds, and in these are the laboratories re- 
cently established to supplement those at the main garden. The 
products of useful plants can here be examined chemiéally and 
physically, by the side of the plants which produce them. The 
suites of varieties under cultivation are very large, and constantly 
receive additions from other tropical regions. 

It is needless to say that the region lying to the east of Buiten- 
zorg, the hill country, with its ruined temples and with its active 
volcanoes, ranks among the most interesting places in the world, 
whether regarded from an ethnological or a geological point of 
view. 

The voyage from Batavia to Singapore, 380 miles, takes one past 
the island of Banca and close by Sumatra, but the vegetation cannot 
be made out clearly except at one or two points. 

The garden at Singapore, under the direction of Mr. Ridley, is 
very attractive. The plants are in good condition and everything 
is kept up to a high standard of efficiency. Here also there is an 
experimental garden filled with useful plants in great variety. 
Mr. Ridley has wisely left one part of his garden in its wild 
state. In this bit of untouched jungle, uninvaded by even a single 
foreign plant, except at the border, one can see many of the trop- 
ical plants in the thickest of their unrelenting struggle for exist- 
ence. With creepers swaying from the lofty tropical trees, inter- 
twined in confused tangles ; with pitcher-plants at one’s side and 
under foot ; with the chatter of monkeys overhead, and the cries of 
the startled birds all around, one can appreciate the endless variety 
of organisms in favored regions in the tropics. The Malaccan 
garden which lies a short distance to the north of Singapore I did 
not have time to visit. 

The last of the tropical gardens seen by me on the present 
journey was in French China, at the city of Saigon. Hverything 


we ee 


a 


438 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


here was frightfully dry after a comparatively rainless season, but 


strenuous efforts were being made to renovate the grounds before 
the arrival of the Russian Crown Prince. .The grounds appeared 
to have been given up almost as much to an attempt to make a 
Zoological Garden as a Botanical one, but many of the animals 
had been temporarily carried to another place, and the display was 
very meagre. ‘The plants were mostly young and although very 
interesting, possessed no features worthy of special remark. The 
supply of water for the garden at Saigon did not seem copious 
or good. Under such circumstances, it must be a discouraging 
task to organize a botanic garden. At the time of my visit, the 
directorship was vacant, and the grounds were in charge of a 
foreman. ‘The gardens are here, as in: other tropical ports, one 
of the principal attractions for the steamship passengers and for 
the townspeople. This fact leads the directors to make the 
grounds as attractive as possible from a scenic point of view, 
without injuring them for the purposes for which they are 
primarily designed. | 

Hong Kong has a very charming park which may also rank as 
a Botanic Garden. It is beautifully laid out on a very irregular 
hill or series of slopes. Many of the specimen trees are in 
excellent condition, and all of them are effectively grouped. 

The small parks at Shanghai cannot in their present condition 
be regarded as gardens. ‘The climate favors the growth of warm 
temperate plants, and these, as cultivated in the private gardens 
of the China coast, are said to be among the most interesting ex- 
amples of Chinese horticultural work accessible to visitors. Time 
did not permit me to examine any of them. G. LG. 


LTV. MiIscELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 


1. Leidy Memorial Museum.—As a memorial to the late Dr. 
Joseph Leidy it is proposed to raise a fund to establish and endow 
the Leidy Memorial Museum as an independent part of the great 
museum now forming at the University of Pennsylvania. The 
amount desired for this purpose is $50,000. The interest derived 
from this fund will be devoted exclusively to Dr. Leidy’s family 
during the lifetime of his widow. Subscriptions may be made 
payable at once or in instalments extending over two or three 
years as may be approved by the donors. Contributions of all 
sizes will be received gladly ; it is designed to make this a gen- 
eral tribute. Checks should be drawn to the order of Robert R. 
Corson, Treasurer, 37 Forrest Building, Philadelphia, Pa. 

2. Bibliotheca Zoologica, Il, Dr. O. TascuEnperG. Neunte 
Lieferung, sig. 321-360, pp. 2611-2928. Leipzig, 1891. (Wm. 
Engelmann).—The ninth part of this great work has recently 
appeared, containing the closing part of the bibliography on 
Insects, also on Molluseoidea, from Bryozoans to Gasteropods. 

3. Catalogue of Minerals.—Messrs. George L. English & Co. 
have issued a supplement of 20 pages to their Catalogue of Min- 
erals. It gives a list of new species, with republished notes on 
various old species, especially of American source. 


TSCHEFFKINITE. 


Our Mr. English has just returned from a very snecassetl tap to 
North Carolina, where he visited a number of important localities and 
we announce the results as follows : 

é Tscheff kinite, the excessively rare silico-titanite of the cerium 

by ton earths, etc., in fine masses, 50c. to $0.00; small specimens, 
10c. to 35c. 
Gem Oligoclase, transparent, very rare and interesting, 25c. to 
ae $2.00 ; small clear pieces, 10c. For description see this Jour- 
tes nal, September and November, 1888. 
Ry tae Beryl Crystals, terminated, loose and in the matrix, 10c. to 
See wee =, $1.00. 
age Gummite, Uranotile, and Uraninite, beautifully combined in the 
specimen, 50c. to $2.50. 
_Samarskite, good masses, 25c. to $1.00. 


JAPAN. 


We have just received a lot of fine Topaz crystals which were espe-- 
cially selected for us in Japan, from a great quantity of crystals, at our 
request, by a prominent American mineralogist, who visited that 
country thissummer. The largest crystal is three inches long and two 
and half inches thick. A number of the crystals are especially inter- 
esting on account of being curiously etched. Large crystals, $5.00 to 

$12.50 ; small ones, averaging 3/ inches in length, but interesting form, 
pee 50¢., ‘75c., and $1.00. 


RARE SILVER MINERALS. . 


_ Wecan supply the following rare Silver Minerals in good specimens 
-_at prices quoted. They are all well crystallized except Native Silver, 
pore and Argyrodite. 
*, _ Native Silver, Freiburg, Saxony, 75c. to $3.00. 
_ Argentite, Freiburg, Saxony, 75c. to $5.00. 
- Acanthite, Freiburg, Saxony, $1.50 to $3.00. 
Sylvanite, Nagyag, Hungary, $2.50 to $5.00. 
Pyrargyrite, Freiburg, Saxony, 75c. to 2.50. 
Proustite, Freiburg, Saxony, 75c. to $8.00. 
Polytelite, Freiburg, Saxony, 75c. and $3.50. 
Stephanite, Freiburg, Saxony, 7dc. to $3.50. 
Polybasite, near Lawson, Colorado, 25c. to $2.50. 
ae Aguilarite, Guanajuato, Mexico, $1.00 to $10.00. 
ge é Argyrodite, Freiburg, Saxony, $3. 50 to $5.00. This is the only 
oS known mineral containing Ger manium. 


“CATALOGUE OF MINERALS AND SYNONYMS,” 


by Prof. THos. EGLESTON, handsomely bound in cloth, $2.50; postage, 
16c. extra. 


oF “TABLES FOR THE DETERMINATION OF MINERALS,” 
= by Prof. PERSIFOR FRAZER, bound in cloth, $2.00; postage, 5c. extra. 


“ELEMENTS OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHY,” 


Bs | by Prof. GEORGE H. WILLIAMS, bound in cloth, $1.25; postage, 10c. 
ae extra. 


GEO. L. ENGLISH & CO., Mineralogists, 
733 & 735 Broadway, New York. 


oie 


CONTENTS. 


Art. XX XIV.—The Solution of Maes India Rubber ; 


by; Car. Bamve’t oo 5.2 ee > 359 jf a ‘ 


XXXV.—Report of the. Examination ae means of the 
Microscope of Specimens of Infusorial Earths of the | 
Pacific Coast of the United States; by A. M. Epwarps 369 | 

XXX VI.—The Tonganoxie Meteorite; by K. H. $8. Battery. 


With Plate XU... 0. 0 98 385 
XXXVII.—Proposed Form of Mercurial Barometer; by #4 
WowJdi: WAGGENER 200005 eo as eee ae er 387 
XXX VITT.—Color Photography by Lippmann’s Process; by 
CoB. THWING 3260.00 52, Soke 2 
XXXIX.—New Analyses of Uraninite; by W. F. Hitre- 
BRAND «chlo | iouameey ae JS SiS rr 
XL.—The Tertiary Silicified Woods of Eastern Arkansas; ee. 
by KR. ELrsworte Cal =o) e:5 7) ood or 394 
XLI.—Occurrence of Sulphur, Orpiment and Realgar in the _ 
Yellowstone National Park ; by W. H. Weep and I. 
NSPIRSSOMN el a a ee 401 
XLII.—Mineralogical Notes; by L. V. Pieseon en 405 — 
XLUL—Peridotite Dikes in the Por tage Sandstones near 
Ithaca,N. Y.;.by'd. FY Kemp. 2 3 > 2. oe 410 
XLIV.—New Locality for Meteoric Iron with a Preliminary 
Notice of the Discovery of Diamonds in the Iron; by i 
A. K,-Foors.:.; With Plates X1V, XV- 0224) eee 413. 
XLV.—The South Trap Range of the Keweenawan Series; 
by M:.#; WapswoOrth >... foo 22... a 
XLVI.—Geological Facts noted on Grand River, Labrador; 


by) AWC RRY PDOs ee as Se ia err 419 


SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 


Chemistry and Physics—-So-called ‘‘ Black Sulphur” of Magnus, KNAPP, 422.— — 
New form of Silicon, WARREN: New Alkaioid from Conium maculatum, 
LADENBURG and ADAM, 423.—Iron-tetracarbonyl and Nickel-tetracarbony]l, 
MonpD and QUINCKE, 424.—Sensitive Reaction for Tartaric acid, MOHLER, 425. 
—Photography of the Spectrum in natural color, VoGeL: Discharge of Elec- 
tricity through exhausted tubes without electrodes, THOMSON, 426.—Ratio of 
Electromagnetic to Electrostatic units, THOMSON and SEARLE: Expansion -of 
Water: Experiments In Aerodynamics, LANGLEy, 427.—Chemical Analysis of 
Tron, BLAIR, 428.—Die Fortentwickelung der elektrischen Eisenbahn-Hinrich- 
tungen, KOHLFURST, 429. 

Geology and Mineraiogy—Report of Exploration of the Glacial Lake Agassiz in 
Manitoba, W. Upnam, 429.—Geological Survey of Texas, 2d Annual Report, 
1890, EK. T. Dumper: Preliminary Notice of a New Yttrium-Silicate, W. H. 
HippEn, 430.—Anatase from the Arvon Slate Quarries, Va., G. H. WILLIAMS, 
431.—Ilvaite, G. Cu. HorFMANN: Synthese du Rubis, KE. Fremy, 432.—Brief 
notices of some recently described minerals, 433.—Catalogue of Minerals and 
Synonyms, T’. EGLESTON, 434. 

Botany--Some Museums and Botanical Gardens in the Equatorial Belt and the 
South Seas, 434. 

Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—Leidy Memorial Museum: Bibliotheca Zoo- 
logica, O. TASCHENBERG: Catalogue of Minerals, 438. : 


Chas. D. 
U. S. Geological Survey. 


DECEMBER, 1891. 


: aa by BENJAMIN SILLIMAN in 1818. 
2 ELE 


AMERICAN ae 


EDITORS E e 
JAMES D. anp EDWARD 8. DANA. ee 
i | ASSOCIATE EDITORS | 
| Proressors JOSIAH P. COOKE, GEORGE L. GOODALE 
ann JOHN TROWBRIDGE, or Camsrince. i 
PROFESSORS H. A. NEWTON anp A. E. VERRILL, or 
New Haven, 2 
 Prorzssorn GEORGE F. BARKER, or Pumape.ruta. | 4 
THIRD SERIES. een 
VOL. XLIL—[WHOLE NUMBER, OXLIL = 
5 . ae 
No. 252.—DECEMBER, 1891. B 
p, ie PLATE XVI. one : a 
ye ares 
i j 
e NEW HAVEN, CONN.: J. D. & E. 8. DANA. : 
4 } 1891. 


TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR, PRINTERS, 371 STATE STREET. 


Published monthly. Six dollars per year (postage prepaid). $6.40 to foreign sub- 
‘seribers of countries in the Postal Union. Remittances should be made either by 
3 antiga orders, registered letters, or bank checks. 


~~ ie + ‘ ‘ay e; tA oy } Hehe nd + peg ne) ay. Site oa * 
+ Xe a a ser o. 
at 


oe 


HOLIDAY PRESENTS. 


The systematic collections that we put up are very attractive as wa" as” 1S 
instructive. The hard wood boxes add much to the desirability of the collections — 
for presents to young people. Many a child might have its tastes turned oN Mi 
natural history by even the 50c. collection which is very pretty. a 


Mee F he § 

NUMBER OF SPECIMENS. Yar ces lies ae | eye 100 200 | 300- 
| | “| | 

/ | hee 
Crystals and fragments, 34in .......... | $ by | 2 ee | » 00 $1 00 $2 00 $4 00 
Student’s size, larger, 14g x 1gin...... | 6 00 5 00 10 00 20 00 
ape S Size, 234 x SS WAMOR eee kc". he! oo ae ae i eae 10 00 20 00 45 00 
eee School, or Academy size, 246 x 34 in., Shelf Specimens........ 25 00 50 00 125 00 
ollege size; 344 x6in-, Shelf Specimens ..6 20-2 iden sd deceeaecneeee 50 00 100 00 250 00 


s 
ay 


Petrified wood (described last month), garnets from Alaska, Salida and many 
other localities, opals from Mexico and elsewhere and many beautiful species for 
presents for collectors can be supplied. 

Meteoric Iron from Cafion Diablo in complete pieces from 25c. upward. This 
is the cheapest and most interesting meteoric iron ever sold. 

Matlockites, Phosgenites from England. We have received from the collec- 
tion of a gentleman recently deceased at the locality the finest specimens ever 
offered for sale in this country. They are priced lower than the price paid the 
men at the locality. Anglesites from the same locality and some yellow from 


ae i a eb ame ae 


i 
~~ 


Fresno, Utah, just determined. 


Chrysoberyl. Fine twin crystals on the gangue from a new locality in 


Maine, 25c. to $5.00. 


Diaspore Margarite and Corundophyllite from Chester, “Mass., from 10e. 


to $5.00. Many other new arrivals. 


SCIENTIFIC BOOKS. 


Some Rare and Valuable Books from the largest stock of Scientific and 
Medical books in the World. Send for catalogues specifying in what branch you 


are interested. 


Holbrook’s Herpetology. Very rare. $50.00. 
Barton’s Medical Botany. $10.00. 
Says. Entomology, edited by LeConte, 2 vols. 64 plates plain, $5.00, colored 
edition. $8.50. 
Agassiz. Echinodermes, 2 vols. 63 plates, 4to. and folio. $7.50. 


Bureau of Ethnology, 6 vols. Colored plates, 4to. 1879 to 1885. $12.50. 
Cuvier. Animal Kingdom, edited by Griffith, Pidgeon, et al. 16 yols. 799 


~~ 
oy. 


L , d “ 
Ae ee ee ee eee ee Fe gd Ee Se 


plates. $20.00. a 
Pacific R. R. Survey, 13 vols. $12.50. 
American Journal of Science and Arts, 138 vols. $275.00. 
Hayden, U.S. Geological Survey. Monographs, 12 vols., 4to. $27.50. 
Wheeler’s U.S. Geological Survey, 8 vols., 4to. $20.00. 

U. S. Geological Surveys. Annual Reports, 10 vols., 4to. $12.50. : 
Baird, Cassin & Laurence. Birds of North America, 2 vols. $5.00. . 
Holbrook, North American Herpetology, 4 vols. $75.00. 
Agassiz. Contributions to Natural History of U.5S., 4 vols., 4to. $25.00. 
Popular Science Monthly. Complete set to 1890. $35.00. 


Humphreys & Abbot. Physics and Hydraulics of the Mississippi, 20 plates, ~ 


$3.50 22 


4to. ; 
American Naturalist. Complete set to July, 1891. $60.00. 
Elliott, Botany of South Carolina and oats 2 vols., 1824. $7.50. 3 
Nature. Complete set to 1890. $50.00. d 
Pennsylvania Geological Survey, 100 vols, _ $35.00. 


Baird, Brewer & Ridgway. North American Birds, 3 vols., 64 plates, 593 


illustrations, Ato, 1874. 


Bischoff, Chemical and Physical Geology, 3 vols. 1854-1859. — $10.00. 
Lowe and Howard. Beautiful Leaved Plants.. 60 colored plates, 1872. $5.00. 


Sowerby, Recent and Fossil Shells. 264 plates, 1825. 
Torrey, Botany of New York. 161.plates, 4to. 


Shaw & Stephens. Zoology, 28 vols. 1200 plates, fine calf. $20.00. 


Hayden, Geological Atlas of Colorado, Folio, 1878. 


King, Exploration of 40th Parallel, 9 vols., 4to, and folio complete. $40.00. 


Pursh, Plants of North America. 24 colored plates. 
Coffin, Winds of the Globe, 4to. 


Lowe, British and Exotic Ferns, 8 vols., 479 colored plates, 1880, $20.00. 


PAS ss EO eG 


4116 Elm avenue, Philadelphia, Pa. U. 8, A. 


$20.00. 
$15.00. 
$7.50. 
$3.50. - 


$10.00, 
$5.00. 


OD.WALCOTE 


7 EE 


AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE 


[THIRD SERIES,] 


+O 


Art. XLVII.—On Percival’s map of the JSura-Trias. trap- 
belts of Central Connecticut, with observations on the up- 
turning, or mountain-making disturbance, of the Korma- 
tion; by JAMES D. Dana. Witha map. Plate XVI. 


In my paper on the features of non-volecanic igneous ejec- 
tions as illustrated in the Four “‘ Rocks” of the New Haven 
region at page 79 of this volume, the resemblances in general 
structure and system of arrangement between the West Rock 
trap-ridge and the other trap-ridges of the Jura-Trias in the 
Connecticut valley are referred to as evidence of oneness in 
method of origin; and also of oneness in time of origin, 
whether before or after the upturning of the sandstone, the 
great mountain-making event of the valley. This evidence— 
now contested though formerly considered conclusive-—cannot 
be fully appreciated without a knowledge of the general ar- 
rangement of the trap-belts of the valley. Happily, we have 
an excellent map of these belts in Percival’s geological chart, 
published in his Report of 1842 on the Geology of the State 
of Connecticut.* 


* An octavo volume of 496 pages, with a folded geological chart of the State. 

James G. Percival, born and brought up in the township of Berlin, southwest 
of Hartford, was early familiar with all the intricacies of that knotty region of 
trap-belts. He became a great scholar in all the learning of the day—an excel- 
lent mathematician, a professor of chemistry in 1824, a learned linguist and phi- 
lologist, one of the best of geographers; and in all departments he was an acute 
and thorough student and observer. Along with this he had a wonderfully good 
eye for topography, and a memory which retained all the facts that ever en- 
tered it. Nearly all the money he received went for the purchase of books, and 
he thus acquired a very valuable library at the expense of poverty to himself. At 


Am Jour. Sci1.—Tuirp Serizs, Von. XLII, No. 252.—DECEMBER, 1891. 
30 


eae 
. 


440 J.D. Dana—Percival’s Map of the Sura-Trias. 
The Map: some of the Features of the area, and facts con- 
nected with its Southern termination. 


As Percival’s Report is little known among veologists I in- 
troduce a photo-engraved copy of the middle portion of his 


chart, which includes the larger part of the Jura-Trias area, 


along with borders of the eastern and western metamorphic 
regions of the State. It makes Plate XVI. j 

The Jura-Trias area, or that of the Connecticut valley sand- 
stone, is the colored portion. The length from the Sound to 
the northern limit, 8 miles north of Hartford, is about 374 
miles. It contains all of the more complicated portion of the 
trap-region of Connecticut, the part omitted having only the 
continuation of the two western belts and another smaller on 
the western margin of the area. 

The narrow linear areas on the map are the trap-belts. They 
include, according to Percival, simple trap-dikes and dikes 
with outflows between layers of sandstone. The breaks in 
the trap-belt of a range generally correspond to actual intervals 
in the extrusions of trap. But in some cases, as in the body 
of Mt. Carmel, they indicate only abrupt depressions in the 
ridge, Percival appearing to regard them as a consequence of 


‘partial interruptions in the outflow; and in the southern end 


of West Rock, where the bay of sandstone just north (Plate VI) 
evidently suggested a similar supposition. 

About New Haven the figures 1, 2, 3, 4, mark successively 
East Rock, Mill Rock, Pine Rock and the West Rock Ridge. 
The long southern part of the latter is lettered W S I, and the 
northern WSII. North of North Haven at 6 is Mt. Carmel. 
In the northern part of the town of Meriden are the “ Hanging 
Hills”; and 8, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and others beyond are parts of 
the longest and most elevated trap-range of the valley; it con- 
tinues to Mt. Tom in Massachusetts, nearly 56 miles, and has a 
height of 996 feet at its southern end according to Guyot’s 
barometric observations. 

To the east of New Haven and New Haven Bay, in East 
Haven, the bow-shaped trap-ridge, E I, is the Saltonstall 


his death it was sold for $20,000. Such was the man that made the remarkable 
survey of the trap-belts of Connecticut. He received but small pay from the 
State, and at last had to content himself with a very insufficient sum for the pub- 
lication of his Report—‘‘not exceeding $1,500, for printing and superintending.” 
The Report is therefore but an abstract, as he says in his Preface, of what with 
more generous treatment he would have published. 

His geological science was not altogether that of the present day; for he be- 
lieved that the crystalline formations were segregations out of a world-wide 
magma; but he still, as he says, recorded in his note-book more than 8,000 dips 
and strikes, realizing their value in investigation far better than many a recent 
student of such rocks. It is greatly to be regretted that a full Report was not 
published. ; 

Percival was born in 1795 and died in 1856. 


J. D. Dana—Percival’s Map of the Jura-Trias. 441 


ridge (Pond ridge, of Percival) on the west side of Saltonstall 
Lake. To the north of this ridge, and a little to the eastward, 
is another bow-shaped ridge, the Totoket; and the line of 
these two ridges is continued northward by other high trap- 
ridges, extending along the western borders of the townships 
of Durham and Middletown and beyond toward Hartford. 

In the metamorphic region, outside of the Jura-Trias, there 
are two dikes, one on the east, and another on the west. They 
are referred by Percival rightly to the same system as those 
within the area. That on the west is the “ Buttress Dike” in 
its course through Woodbridge and Orange, lettered W. 1. 
The eastern one commences in Branford and is continued 
through North Branford, where it is lettered 3 E. 1., and 
northeastw ard, as mapped by Percival, to the Massachusetts 
line. 

The large river in the northeast corner of the map is the 
Connecticut. At Hartford its course becomes changed from 
south-by-west to south; and at Middletown it leaves the Jura- 
Trias area and goes off southeastward to the Sound, the waters 
having been forced from their former course by the barrier to 
the west made of belts of trap and adjoining hard sandstone—an 
event which took place whenever this trap region was raised 
above the sea-level. The valley lying to the west of the Mt. 
Tom trap-range contains to the north the large bend of the 
Farmington River; the left side of the bend received waters 
from the nor thwest, the right continues the flow northeastward 
to the Connecticut. South of this there are the head-waters of 
the Quinnipiac, and still farther south, Neck River, the stream 
also called Mill River. 


The southern end of the area, as is shown on the map, nar- 
rows rather abruptly, owing mainly to the bending westward 
of the eastern side. While the width is eighteen miles in the 
latitude of Middletown, it is hardly two at the entrance to 


New Haven Bay, the southern end of the Jura-Trias estuary. 


The granitoid gneiss of the eastern shore and of Light House 
Ledge extends to within two miles of the slaty rocks (chloritic 
hydromica schist) of the western cape, or Savin Rock ;* and as 
the depth off the latter cape is but a few feet and over sands 
for a long distance out, the actual width of the interval may 
not be more than a mile and a half. The outline on the east 
is followed closely by the easternmost trap-dike, showing, ap- 
parently, that the narrowing is a fundamental feature of the 

* The granite and gneiss of the eastern Cape are probably Archezean, and the 


hydromica schist of the western side with the feebly crystalline limestone which 
occurs in it, and with other schists to the west, may be early Paleozoic. 


442 J.D. Dana—The Upturning of 


area, and not one due to a subsequent uplifting of the coast- 
region and its denudation. This narrow channel at the end is 
the more remarkable in view of the fact that only five miles 
north of the outcropping granite of the shore, the sandstone, 
—as the recent condition of the boring at the Winchester Re- 
peating Arms Factory shows—extends to a depth below the 
sea-level of at least 3,100 feet. The metamorphic rocks of the 
hills to the west are only two miles distant, and hence that side 
of the trough has a mean pitch of 1 : 54, or about 173 degrees, 
but much larger than this, probably in the western or outer of 
the two miles, and smaller in the inner. The southern extrem- 
ity of the Jura-Trias trough or geosyncline has, hence, some- 
thing of the shape of the prow end of a boat. 

These facts seem to prove that the Jura-Trias trough, or at 
least its lower 3,100 feet, did not extend out into the Sound 
but had its termination in what is now New Haven Bay. 

For explanations of the lettering on Percival’s map and 
other details, reference must be had to his Geological Report. 
The scale of the map is nine-tenths of an inch to five miles. 


The uplifts, whether before or after the trap-ejections. 


Isthe West Rock trap-range in which the uplifting preceded 
beyond question the eruption, typical for all the north-and-south 
trap-ranges? The form of the trap-belt on the map is strik- 
ingly like that of other trap-ranges in the valley, in the little 
width of its outcrop, in the composite character of the belt, in 
its.hooked extremity, in the curvature and overlapping feature 
of the parts, and in its gradual disappearance seventeen miles. 
to the north just west of where another greater range—the 
Mt. Tom Range begins. The fact that this western range was 
erupted after the upturning of the sandstone affords hence 
some reason for suspecting that this was true also of the rest 
of the trap in the system of ridges. 

In East Haven, east of New Haven, the first trap-ridge west 
of Saltonstall Lake afforded, at its southern end, the section on 
page 104, proving that this belt also, like that of West Rock, | 
was erupted after the upturning of the sandstone. This ridge 
is only 500 yards west of the Saltonstall Ridge, and it may be 
reasonably believed that the bow-shaped ridge was also an 
outflow after the upturning. This conclusion is sustained by 
the further fact that the third example of trap overlying up- 
turned sandstone mentioned on page 105, stands directly to the 
east and only 8000 yards away. Moreover Dr. E. O. Hovey, in 
his paper already referred to, makes the trap of Saltonstall 
ridge intrusive; and the conclusion, according to my own 
examination with him of his facts, I believe to be right. 


the Connecticut Valley Sandstone. — 4438 


Again, Dr. Hovey has proved that the first trap-belt east of 
the Saltonstall belt, just across the lake, is a dike. It is shown 
by the hard-baked condition of the sandstone on its east side. 
He infers also that it was subsequent in origin to the Saltonstall 
belt, since the overlying sandstone contains stones of vesicular 
trap which were derived with little doubt, like those of the Jura- 
Trias bowlder-conglomerate south of the northeastern extrem- 
ity, from this northeastern extremity. The position of the hills 
of bowlder-conglomerate is shown on the map (Plate X V1). 

Further the bow-shaped form of Saltonstall ridge is repeated 
almost exactly in the larger ridge next north, the Totoket, and 
hence whatever is true of one as to origin is pretty certain 
to be true of the other. And what then of the other ridges 
farther north in the same line ? 

We note also that these bow-like shapes, in the trap, with 
the dip of the associated sandstone on the east side of each—as 
observed by Professor Davis, and later for Saltonstall ridge by 
Dr. Hovey—toward the center of the arc, is not the form or 
condition to be looked for in regions of monoclinal uplifts. 
The dip is nearly centroclinal not monoclinal. 

The map enables the reader to observe that the facts here 
cited favoring ejection after the upturning, that is, after the 
great mountain-making event of the valley, are from the whole 
width of the southern end of the Jura-Trias area; and it is 
also seen that from this end northward there are suggestive 
facts bearing in the same direction. Still they are not com- 
plete demonstration that this is true for the northern part 
of the area. We have to leave the question here until other 
long east-and-west sections of north-and-south trap ridges as 
complete as that of West Rock have been reported upon. 

In the account of the East Rock ridge (page 98 of this 
volume) the separation of the Snake Rock trap-mass from that 
of East Rock and Indian Head, and the bow-like shape of the 
latter with centroclinal dip in this southeastern part, have been 
attributed to the caving in of the hanging wall of the eastward- 
dipping fissure that supplied the lava. It is worthy of consider- 
ation whether the south end of the Totoket bow and the north- 
ern of the Saltonstall line may not have had a similar origin. 


Character of the Mountain uplifits made at or near the close 
of the Jura-Trias period. | 

Like the post-Carboniferous mountain-uplifts, the parallel- 
series made at the close of the Jura-Trias were commenced by 
the accumulation of sediments in gradually deepening depres- 
sions of the earth’s crust, or geosynclines; but while the era of 
deposition in the former ended in displacements producing great 
flexures of the accumulated formations besides profound faults, 


444 J. D. Dana—The Upturning of 


that of the latter ended in producing monoclinal uplifts, and 
also, it is believed, great faults. Further, while the post-Car- 


boniferous uplifts of the Atlantic border include three individ-. 


ual mountain-ranges: (1) That of the Appalachian area from 
Alabama to the Catskills, 1500 miles long; (2) That extending 


from Newfoundland southwestward through Nova Scotia, and 


probably to Rhode Island, in all 1000 miles long, and that of 
the Gaspé-Worcester range,* the post-Jura-Trias system em- 
braced eight or more individual ranges, of cotemporaneous 
origin, each of the several basins having been independent in 
its geosyncline and in its uplifts. 

Of the two mountain-making epochs, only the latter included, 
‘ among the events of each mountain-individual, extensive igne- 
ous eruptions. Of the ejections in the Connecticut Valley, 
those of West Rock Ridge and of at least two others in Hast 
Haven occurred, in the course, or near the close, of the moun- 
tain-making movements. If this proves to be the time of the 
event in general for the other trap ridges of the valley, then 
all were a result of, or a sequel to, the movements. But if, as 


Professor W. M. Davis holds, the trap of most of the ridges — 


originally alternated in sheets with horizontal layers of sand- 
stone and both were uplifted together into monoclines, then 
the ejections occurred while deposition in the geosyncline 
was in slow and quiet progress. The decision of the question 
is, therefore, one of dynamical importance. Professor Davis 
states that the eruptions had nothing to do with the upturn- 
ing, and this is true in either case. 


Fault planes concerned in the uplift. 


The conformity between’ the general direction of the struc- 
ture-lines of the Jura-Trias formation and that of the crystalline 
schists adjoinmg and the mountain ranges to the west, has 
‘Jong been recognized. The view suggested by Prof. Davis 
goes beyond this in supposing a conformity also between the 
dips of the foliation-planes and those of the fault-planes. He 
says: “‘A group of inclined slabs compressed by a horizontal 
force about at right angles to their strike might yield in part 
by minute internal rearrangement; and in part by slipping on 
their divisional surfaces, so as to reduce their breadth by 
standing more nearly vertical, that is, more nearly at right 
angles to the compressing force. In so doing, the upper sur- 
face of the group would be somewhat elevated, and at the 
same time the bevelled edge of every slab would be tilted over 
by a tolerably constant angle in one direction, and separated 
from the neighboring slabs by a dislocation with the uplift on 


* This Journal, xxxix, 380, 1890. 


EE — 


+... ee 
“ip ie a 
‘ 


the Connecticut Valley Sandstone. 445 


the side of the direction of dip. In case the compression 
varied at different depths, diminishing downwards, a shearing 
force would be introduced, by which the slabs could be 
thrown over past the vertical.”* Accordingly, his figure rep- 
resents the sandstone overlying the inclined upper surtaces of 
the successive slabs or blocks, and as deriving in this way its 
eastward dip. The fault-planes, it will be understood, are not 
those of the fissures that supply the trap; for in his view the 
trap and sandstone were in alternating sheets before the up- 
turning took place. These fault-planes are nowhere open to 
view, and hence the idea has not been sustained by actual 
comparisons. It is presented by Prof. Davis Bey as an 
hypothesis for future consideration. 

Assuming with him, as we may safely, that the dip of the 
fault- planes is eastward, I mentioned in my former paper as 
an exception to the hypothesis, a want of correspondence be- 
tween the strike of the West Rock dike and other dikes near 
New Haven and that of the schists within a mile to the west- 
ward of West Rock, confining my statement of facts to those 
of the New Haven region. This objection is not quite appo- 
site, since the comparison is made with the direction. of trap- 
dikes and not with the strike of the sandstone which most 
nearly represents that of the fault-planes. I now. mention 
other facts bearing on the question. West of the New Haven 
region, along a line through Orange and Birmingham sixteen 
miles long, there are five changes between eastward and west- 
ward in the dip of the metamorphic schists, and in the course of 
them there are variations in the dip from horizontal to vertical. 
The last of the five is a case in which a broad and low anti- 
clinal, consisting of coarse gneiss and mica schist with a bed 
of ery -stalline limestone, has the beds for a long distance near- 
ly horizontal. As the mean width of the Jura-Trias area in 
Connecticut is twenty miles, there is therefore room for 
equally large variations in the dip of the erystalline schists 
beneath it. Again, in Berkshire county, Massachusetts, as well 
as to the north and south, among the metamorphic rocks of 
the earlier Paleozoic, or Taconic, series, the dips vary from 
east to west, and from zero to 90 degrees. Such tacts, however 
exceptional, make it necessary to substitute for the expression 
“planes of foliation,” that of planes having the mean or the 
prevailing, direction of the foliation ; for these would be the 
planes of easiest cleavage in schists of great thickness. 

Again, as another modification in the statement of the hy- 
pothesis, it appears necessary to make the chief foliation- 
planes not those of the rocks constituting the upper one, two 


* This Journal, xxxii, 349, 1886. See also 7th Annual Report of the Director 
of the U. S. Geological Survey. 


446 J. D. Dana—The Upturning of 


or three miles of the crust, but those below, where Archean 
rocks and those subjacent to the Archean exist. For the frac- 
tures were begun below, and in these nether rocks foliation has 
probably, as a consequence of Archzean pressure or tension, 
much greater uniformity than in those of the surface. Still the 
more superficial foliation would have its influence. 

Again, the direction of planes of fracture, or of faulting, would 
have depended largely on the direction of the lateral thrust or 
pressure in the earth’s crust producing the strain, whether 
normal or oblique, to the plane of easiest cleavage; an idea 
which, under large extension has been applied by the writer in 
an explanation of the origin of the courses in the feature-lines 
of the globe. 

The production of an eastward slope in the upper surface of 
the faulted blocks by compression and molecular transfer, 
sufficient by the hypothesis to produce the dip in the sand- 
stone, may be questioned ; and also the view that the horizon- 
tal force concerned would make, in gneiss, and in other rocks 
equally firm, faulting along foliation-planes of the high east- 
ward dip of 60° to 80°, instead, for the most part, of fractures 
oblique to these planes. To obtain a dip of 20° in the top- 
surface of the westernmost slab or block (and the sandstone 
over it), the displacement a mile down would have to amount 
to 1800 feet; and to render the westward shove below, to 
this distance, possible, the compression would have to take 
much from the thickness of this western block on its western 
side, and much from the rock next west, a part from each. 
This would be required whether the other blocks were com- 
pressed or not. When done, it would suffice to give the same 
dip to the top-surface of all the blocks in the series without 
their compression; but these would also be compressed, and 
the result would be a large increase eastward of dip—a con- 
dition which does net accord with observation. 

But suppose the blocks to be so displaced, and pushed up 
thereby nearly to verticality, or beyond it, then they would 
have had little or no westward thrust against the sandstone, 
and accordingly none is appealed to in the statement of the 
hypothesis. Yet, a pitch of 10° to 25° in the sandstone im- 
plies much diminution in the width of the area. If the mean 
dip is 18° the diminution would be, theoretically, 5-per cent, 
equivalent to 1 foot in 20; or if 14°, 3 per cent.* The effect 
should have been manifested in wide longitudinal fissures if 
this were not prevented by a westward thrust of the sandstone. 


*The sandstone in some portions is nearly horizontal, as in the region of the 
Portland quarries, on its eastern border; and occasionally the dip is westerly. 
Hence a mean dip of 14° is probably most correct. Small flexures also occur but 
only locally. 


the Connecticut Valley Sandstone. 447 


I pass here to an explanation of the origin of the dip in 
the sandstone which appears to me to harmonize best with the 
facts. 

Daubree’s experiments on the effects of lateral pressure, pub- 
lished in his “ Géologie Expérimentale” (and briefly presented 
in my Manual of Geology), have appeared to me to sustain the 
idea that the great fault-planes of the earth’s crust made by 
lateral pressure must be, as a general rule, very oblique. I 
have accordingly been led to suppose that the fault planes in 
the case of the Jury-Trias were examples, and I have referred 
in my Geology to the dip of nearly 45° in the East Rock dike 
as having this explanation. Two, three or more such fault- 
planes, coming up from the depths below and entering the 
geosyncline, would have among their effects: (1) the narrowing 
of the are of the Connecticut valley geanticline; (2) the forc- 
ing of the sandstone to accommodate itself to the diminished 
width through fractures, faults and displacements; (8) the pro- 
duction of earth-shakings of great violence which would have 
produced other fractures through the 5000 feet or so of sand- 
stone and multitudes of pieces by minor fractures. In this 
state of the sandstone, the shoving of it to the westward by the 
westward-and-upward movement of the faulting blocks, would 
make monoclines with eastward dips, and not flexures, because 
the blocks into which the formation had been divided were 
each too short for flexures and the piles of layers would neces- 
sarily, under the circumstances, become pushed up one over 
another. I stated in my former paper that slickensided surfaces 
of the East Haven sandstone covered blocks of all sizes, from 
those no larger than the hand to those constituting large sections 
of a quarry, and also in some places the upper and under surfaces | 
of the layers of sandstone; and this fact accords well with the 
above explanation of the method of upturning. 

If this view is the right one, the westward dip of the Jura- 
Trias sandstone in New Jersey and to the south was due to 
fault-planes having a reverse direction from that in the Con- 
necticut valley, that is,a westward dip. The fundamental fact 
awaiting explanation is not, therefore, the opposite directions 
of dip in the Connecticut Valley and New Jersey sandstone, 
but the opposite directions of fault-planes in the subjacent 
rocks. The two directions of strain appear to have anticlinal 
relations. 

The above explanations, for the reasons already stated, have 
no reference to the origin of the fissures for the trap ejection. 
If they are mostly of later date than the upturning, tension 
may have had much to do with their production. In any case, 
the old fissure, or part of them, would probably have again 
been used. 


448 FE. A. Gooch and 7. S. Hart—Detection and 


ArT. XLVIIL—TZhe Detection and Determination of Potas- 
sium Spectroscopically ; by F. A. Gooeu and T. 8S. Hart. 


[Contributions from the Kent Chemical Laboratory of Yale College—X. ] 


Bunsen and Kirchhoff originally determined the delicacy of 
the spectroscopic test for potassium by exploding in a dark- 
ened room a mixture of potassium chlorate with milk sugar, 
and observing the amount of finely divided chloride which it 
was necessary to diffuse through the given space in order to bring 
out unmistakably the spectrum of the metal. These investiga- 
tors were able to state that the presence of no more than =)4>5 
of a milligram of the potassium salt is sufficient to give to the 
flame the characteristic spectrum of the element. By similar 
methods, the delicacy of the tests for lithium carbonate and 
sodium chlorate were shown to be a thousand times and three 
thousand times as delicate respectively. Practically, the de- 
tection of lithium and sodium spectroscopically is extremely 
easy and satisfactory, the only difficulty being that the exceed- 
ing delicacy of the sodium test, and the ubiquitousness of 
sodium salts often make a decision doubtful as to whether that 
element is present essentially in the substance under examina- 
tion, or by accident. With potassium the case is different, and 
experience shows that, when the test is to be made for very 
small amounts of potassium, the simple method in vogue for 
developing the luminosity of lithium and sodium—the dipping 
of a single loop of platinum wire in the liquid or solid sub- 
tance, and the placing of the loop in the Bunsen flame—fails, 
because, as it seems to us, so great a proportion of the material 
_ is dispersed before the heat of the flame effects the dissociation 
of the metal which precedes the production of the spectrum. 

We have endeavored to improve the conditions of exposure 
of the test-substance by making use of more powerful flames 
and by substituting for the single loop the hollow coils ot 
platinum wire first recommended, so far as has come to our 
knowledge, by Truchot* in the description of a method for 
the quantitative determination of lithium. Such coils are 
easily made by winding the wire somewhat obliquely about a 
rod of suitable size, pressing the coils close together, and 
gathering the free ends into a twisted handle. The size of 
the coils is adjustable without difficulty, so that each coil may 
be made to hold almost exactly any appropriate amount, and 
to take up this amount with very little variation in successive 
fillings, provided only that the precaution be taken in the pro- 
cess of filling to plunge the coil while hot into the liquid, and 
to keep its axis inclined obliquely to the surface of the liquid 


* Compt. Rend., Ixxviii, 1022. 


Determination of Potassium Spectroscopically. 449 


_ while withdrawing it. How closely the capacity of such coils 
may be adjusted, and how unitormly they may be filled is 
shown in the figures of the accompanying record. 


I a. III. IV. Vv VI 
grm erm grm. grm grm. grm 
Weight of filled coil-_--- 071996 02780 0°:2794 0°2844 0°3572 0:3296 
ne gk Sh ter 071996 0-2780 0°2794 0°2845 0°3571 0°3296 
“4 me er ae 071996 0°2780 0°2794 0°2844 0°3572 0°3298 
ce eo Se 0 TR96 Or2780 9 027384 02845 9 | 03571 0°3298 
a Pra pty ies 34 01996 0-278] 02794 02844 O°3571 0°3296 
“ empty coil__._ 0°1986 0°2760 02764 0°2804 0.3521 0°3100 
* contents(mean) 0°0010 000202 0°0030 0-00404 6:00504 001968 


It is plain that we have in these coils simple means of taking 
up known amounts of material in solution; and by gentle 
heating the liquid may be evaporated and the solid material left 
thinly and uniformly spread, not easily detachable, and so in con- 
dition to be acted upon with effect when brought to the flame. 
The evaporation may be conducted with little danger of loss 
of material by holding the handle of the coil across the flame 
with the coil proper at a safe distance outside; but we have 
generally, and preferably, used a hot radiator over which the 
coils are exposed, the handles resting upon a flat asbestos ring. 
The burner which we have used in heating the coils before 
the spectroscope is of the Muencke pattern and gives a power- 
ful flame 3 em. wide at its base. We have generally adjusted 
the flame to a height of 20 c¢m., and have introduced the coil, 
after thorough drying, just within the outer mantle, on the 
side next the spectroscope, with the axis transverse to the slit 
of the spectroscope and the handle across the body of the 
flame. In cleaning the coils we have found it convenient to 
heat them in the flame of an Argand burner of the Fletcher 
pattern, beneath which is burned, in a small lamp, alcohol con- 
taining about a twentieth of its volume of chloroform. The 
products of combustion of the alcohol and chloroform are con- 
veyed to the interior of the flame above by a glass funnel 
fitted by a cork to the tube of the Argand burner. This 
arrangement of apparatus gives a hot colorless flame through 
which hydrochloric acid is constantly diffused in condition to 
clean the wires completely and without attention. The spec- 
troscope which we have employed is a well-made single prism 
instrument provided with a scale, and a movable observing 
telescope so that different portions of the spectrum may be 
viewed or ent off at will. The slit is adjustable, but for meas- 
uring its width we have been obliged to have recourse to the 
device of closing it upon wires of known gauge. Our work 
has been done in the ordinary diffused light of the laboratory, 
care having been taken to cut off from the room direct sun- 
light only; but in observing it has been our custom to shield 
the eye in use as completely as possible with the hand or with 


450 F.. A. Gooch and T. 8. Hart— Detection and 


a dark handkerchief, and to cover the eye not in use. We 
have found it desirable to use the scale of the instrument, 
illuminated to the lowest degree of visibility, to aid the eye in 
placing barely visible lines. 

Upon experimenting with the apparatus described, it was 
found that the largest coil used was best adapted to our pur- 
pose, and, accordingly, in all the experiments made subse- 
aun aly and recorded in the following account, coils holding 
37 Of a gram of water, measuring 2 mm. in diameter by 1 em. in 
length, made of No. 28 wire (0°32 mm. in diameter), and wound 
in about thirty turns, were the ones employed. With these 
coils and the flame adjusted toa height of 20 cm. we have been 
able to recognize the presence of potassium, taken in the form 
of the chloride, in a coil- full of liquid containing 0:00066 grm. 
of the metal in 10 cm.’, when the slit had a width of 0°18 mm. 
and containing 0-0005 erm. in the same volume of solution, 
when the slit was set 0°23 mm. wide. That is to say, -4, mg. of 
potassium to the coil-full produces a line distinetly visible with 

slit of 0-18 mm., and 5,45 mg with a slit of 0°23 mm., and 
it is evident that this practical method of producing the 
spectrum of potassium gives results of a delicacy approaching 
that indicated in the experiments of Bunsen and Kirchhoff. 

These determinations were made with pure potassium chlo- 
ride carefully prepared from the chlorate, but in practical 
analysis it almost always happens that sodium is also present. 
Experiments were therefore made to determine the influence of 
varying amounts of the latter upon the visibility of the potas- 
sium line. The dilution of the potassium chloride was ad- 
justed nearly to the last limit of ae so that a coil-full 
of the liquid should contain ~4, mg., or ;a/y7 mg. of the element, 
according as the slit was 0°18 mm. or 0°23 mm. wide; to this 
solution were added weighed amounts of pure sodium chloride 
twice reprecipitated and “washed by hydrochloric acid; and the 
spectroscopic tests were carried out as before, the sodium line 
being kept within the field of view with the potassium line. 


Weight of K Weight of Na Ratio Width Number Characteristic 
“in a ina of of of of 
coil-full. coil-full. Na:K. slit. trials. line. 
0°0010 mg. 0:0000 mg. 0:1] 0 23 mm 3 visible 
0:0010 0°0020 eal Oras 3 visible 
0:0010 ¢! OOLOO LO sed Othe 3 visible 
00010 ‘ 00200 * AO Tees ie 3 visible 
0:0010" 0°0400 ‘ 40:1 Oona 3 visible 

00010 * 0:0500 ‘ 50: ] 0:234 4 very faint or none 
00.0 10 0:1000 * LOO at OV3ers 3 none 
00010 * 02000 ‘4 200% 1 Cea S 3 none 
070014 ‘ 00000 * 0) 015.4 3 visible 
0:0014 * 00560 * 40:1 on te 3 visible 
0-004 = O-O700 * DOL KOs Samer 3 visible 
{00014 * 0:1400 ** 100: 1 Oa i kx 2 visible 
100014 * 01400 “ 100: 1 01.8) 4 2 none 


Determination of Potassium Spectroscopically. 451 


It is obvious from these results that a considerable amount 
of sodium may be present in the flame, when the sodium line 
is in full view in the spectrum, and the slit adjusted to nearly 
the lowest limit of visibility of pure potassium, without inter- | 
fering with the appearance of the potassium line, but that a 
quantity of sodium amounting to a hundred times that of the 
potassium is suflicient to entirely overpower the spectrum of 
the potassium. The inference is plain that the proportion of 
sodium to potassium should not be permitted to reach 100: L 
when it is desirable to bring out the full delicacy of the spec- 
troscopic test with the sodium line in the field of view. 
When too great a proportion of sodium is present, its influ- 
ence may be moderated by throwing the sodium line out of 
-view, if the mstrument in use possesses the necessary adjust- 
ment; otherwise, it is easy to effect a partial separation of the 
sodium chloride from the potassium chloride, before bringing 
the solution to the test, by precipitating with alcohol. Our 
experience shows that the delicacy of the test for potassium 
is not impaired materially by such treatment of the mixed 
ehlorides. We found, for example, that 0-0070 grm. of potas- 
sium chloride mixed with 0°5 grm. of pure sodium chloride, 
dissolved in the least amount of water, and extracted carefully 
by about 7 em.* of absolute alcohol applied in successive por- 
tions, was so completely retained in solution and separated 
from sodium, that a coil-full taken from the solution diluted 
to 140 em.* gave the spectroscopic test for potassium distinctly 
with the slit at 0°23 mm. In this case, at least, the treatment 
did not diminish the delicacy of the test; for, a coil- -_ of 
the diluted solution could not have contained more than TO00 
mg. of potassium, 1f nothing had been lost. It was found, in 
like manner, that, by taking” pains to evaporate the alcoholic 
extract, and to dissolve the residue in a drop of water, 0:0001 
erm. of potassium originally present as the chloride with 0-5 
erm. of sodium chloride, was easily found. By turning the 
observing telescope so as to cut off as completely as possible 
the sodium light we were able to detect potassium in four suc- 
cessive tests of a drop of the final solution which was just 
large enough to fill the coil four times, when the original 
amount of potassium present with 0°5 gr. of oe chloride 
was 0°00001 grm. ‘This is equivalent to detecting z4, mg. of 
potassium in a drop large enough to fill the coil once. We 
were assured of the entire absence of potassium from the 
sodium chloride which we used by the fact that the similar 
extraction of | grm. of the salt by alcohol left a residue which 
yielded no line of potassium when examined spectroscopieally. 
It is perhaps worth noting in passing that the coil may be 


452 EF. A. Gooch and T. S Hart—Detection and 


made to pick up a drop of a size only sufficient to fill it by 
simply touching the coil while hissing hot to the drop. 

Certain experiments in which the method of manipulation 
which we have described was applied to the determination of 
potassium salts other than the chloride indicated that the test 
is less delicate in the case of the sulphate, and rather more 
delicate in the case of the carbonate. We were able to find 
the red line of potassium unmistakably, when only 5, of a 
milligram of potassium was introduced into the flame in the 
form of the carbonate. 

The quantitative determination of potassium by the spectro- 
scope has never, so far as we know, been accomplished heretofore. 
Sodium appears to have been successfully estimated by Cham- ~ 
pion, Pellet and Grenier* by the use of comparison flames, 
produced by the aid of complex mechanism, and a spectro- 
photometer of original construction. Lithium has been deter- 
mined more simply, Truchott having been the first to suggest 
a method of manipulation which was modified by Ballmannt 
and taken up later by Bell§ apparently without knowledge of 
the previous work on the same line. Truchot’s method con- 
sists In comparing the duration and strength of the spectral 
imes developed by exposure to the Bunsen flame of portions 
taken up in a platinum loop from the test-solution and standard 
solutions of different strengths. No analytical proofs of the 
value of the method were given and accuracy was not claimed 

beyond the recognition of differences of from three to four 
milligrams in a liter of liquid when amounts not exceeding 
forty milligrams per liter were compared. Dallmann discards 
as valueless the observation of the duration of the spectral 
line, advocates the dilution of the test and standard solutions 
to the absolute extinction of the line, and employs hollow 
cones, measuring 2°5™™ by 3:5™™, to carry the liquids to the 
flame. Bell follows Ballmann’s method of diluting the solu- 
- tions to be compared to a common condition, but takes the 
vanishing point of the line instead of the point of absolute 
invisibility and makes his loops of platinum very small. Both 
Ballmann and Bell were able to estimate thallium similarly, 
but neither determined potassium, Bell declaring specifically 
that the method is inapplicable to the handling of that ele- 
ment. 

Our success in determining potassium qualitatively by the 
use of powerful flames and coils of large dimensions was such 
as to encourage the attempt to apply quantitatively the same 
method of manipulating; and from certain preliminary experi- 


* Compt. Rend., lxxvi, 707. + Compt. Rend., Ixxviii, 1022. 
{ Zeitschr. fiir Anal. Chem., xiv, 297. § Am. Chem. Jour., vii, 35. 


Determination of Potassium Spectroscopically. 4538 


ments looking in this direction we found it best, for our pur- 
pose at least, to fall back upon Truchot’s method of comparing 
visible lines, rather than to try to fix the vanishing point or 
the point of extinction of the spectral line. We chose a dilu- 
tion of the standard solution which corresponds to the presence 
of =1, mg. of potassium to the coil-tull, and set the slit at a width 
of 0:23™", having found it most advantageous to work with 
lines for comparison bright enough to be visible without much 
effort. Our mode of proceeding is to dilute the test-solution 
until the line given by the potassium contained in a coil-full is 
of the same brightness as that given by the same quantity of 
the standard solution. From the final volume of the test- 
solution the quantity of potassium present in it is directly cal- 
culable ; for, since any given volume of the test-solution at its 
final dilution contains exactly the same amount of potassium as 
the. same volume of the standard solution, we have only to 
multiply the number expressing the volume in cubic centime- 
ters of the test-solution by the weight in grams of the potas- 
sium contained in one cubic centimeter of the standard in 
order to obtain the weight in grams of potassium in the whole 
test-solution. We found it convenient to use several coils 
adjusted to the samie capacity, and to clean, fill, dry and ignite 
them before the spectroscope in the manner previously de- 
scribed. From time to time the capacity of the coils should 
be readjusted, or else the final comparison tests should be made 
with a single coil. It is essential that the eye of the observer 
should be kept as nearly as possible in the same condition of 
sensitiveness and in the same position in making the compari- 
sons, and to accomplish this end we found it best to hold the 
eye at the observing telescope during the entire interval be- 
tween the exposures, to shade it carefully by the hand, or 
otherwise, to cover the eye not in use, to cut off all direct sun- 
light from the work-table (though the diffused light of the 
room is not objectionable), and to light the comparison scale of 
the spectroscope to the faintest possible visibility in order to 
fix exactly the position in which the line is to be sought. It 
is important, too, that the trials of the test and standard 
should come as closely together as possible in point of time. 
The observations of a series should be made by the same indi- 
vidual, the preparation and exposure of the wires being made 
by another. It is not possible to attain the best results in such 
work single handed. The dilution of the test-solution is made 
conveniently, and with sufficient accuracy, in 100cm.* cylinders 
graduated to half cubic centimeters, the mixture being made 
thorough by passing the solution from vessel to vessel. It is 
often advantageous to divide a liquid which is to be diluted 
and to work with aliquot portions, so that it may be possible to 


454 F.. A. Gooch and T. S. Hari— Detection and 


retrace a step without trouble in case a portion of the solation 
has been unwittingly diluted too much; such a mode of pro- 
ceeding is, of course, necessary when the final dilution must 
exceed 100 cm*, unless large graduates are called into use. 
Excepting the cases of very concentrated solutions, no signifi- 
cant loss of material is occasioned by the filling of the coils, 
the error thus introduced being trivial in comparison with that 
inherent in all photometric processes. The following is the 
record of our experience in the comparison of solutions of 
pure potassium chloride, the strength of the test solution being 
unknown to the observer. 


EXPERIMENT IT, 
Characteristic of 


EXPERIMENT I. 
Characteristic of 


Volume of line compared Volume of line compared 
test-solution, with standard. test-solution. with standard. 
20 cm* stronger 30 cm* stronger 
DO stronger 60 “ stronger 
LOO stronger g2° = weaker 
POs stronger LOE stronger 
20 stronger 1s stronger 
NS (UIs hike Licipe stronger 
ZOO) E* weaker BO) like 
166." weaker 
50 9 like 


(150 X 0°0001 = 0°0150) (80 X 0°0001 = 0°0080) 


Potassium found. --.- - 0°0150 grm. Potassium found .---- 00080 
oe taken bo. 20" Ohot 0. e taken J eee8 0:0080 

De att oe NOMI OO; #6 aye ; 0-0078 
Limits on either side 06-0160. « Limits on either side 0-0082 
Hrror ee oe ace OFOOO0** Error... 3 ee 0:0000 


These results show a degree of accuracy in the process quite 
unexpected. In the former no attempt was made to approxt- 
mate as closely as possible to the limits of dilution on both 
sides of the condition of equal brightness in test and standard, 
but in the latter great care was taken in this respect and the 
possible error cannot exceed two and a half per cent of the 
entire amount of potassium involved. 

Experiment III was made to discover the effect of the 
presence of a reasonable amount of sodium chloride upon the— 
determination of the potassium. Toa portion of the solution 
if pure potassium chloride containing 0-01 grm. of the element 
was added 0:1 grm. of sodium chloride taken from the salt 
purified as previously described. This solution was diluted 
and the comparison made with the standard according to the 
accompanying account. 


Determination of Potassium Spectroscopically. 455 


EXPERIMENT III. 


Volume of the Characteristic of line 
test-solution. compared with standard. 
25 em? stronger 
SO: $4 stronger 
Sot stronger 
B00% stronger 
9B; + stronger 
105.) stronger 
120,988 like 
(120 x 0:0001 = 0:0120) 
orsesiurm TOWMMOr. 28 Ne co eo. 0°0120 grm. 
o BUC ee ne oe eh O-0100 
TPE OO' Es Reesegtlt St lt enti a Sha cee Po sete acter as 0°0020." « 


The result of this experiment was most surprising; for, in- 
stead of diminishing the delicacy of the test we find that the 
presence of a moderate amount of sodium chloride tends to 
increase the brilliance of the potassium line. The sodium 
chloride employed was a part of that prepared and tested as 
previously described and used in the experiments upon the 
qualitative determination of potassium. By no possibility 
could the O-l grm. of it taken in the experiment have con- 
tained more than 0:000001 grm. of potassium. It is evident, 
therefore, that the brilliance of the potassium line gained 
twenty per cent in strength by the influence of sodium 
chloride amounting to ten times the weight of the potassium 
present when the effect due to impurity of the salt could by 
no means exceed a hundredth of one per cent; that is to say, 
the observed effect is, at the very least, two thousand times 
greater than that which might have been conceivably produced 
by contamination of the sodium salt. 

In the following experiment the effect of varying amounts of 
sodium chloride upon the spectrum of the potassium is shown. 
The sodium line was turned out of the field of view to obviate 
the dazzling effect of the sodium light, and a solution of potas- 
sium chloride containing 0:01 grm. of the element in 100 em’. 
was examined spectroscopically after the addition of successive- 
ly increasing amounts of sodium chloride, the strength of the 
line observed being brought into comparison with that produced 
by similar portions of the potassium solution containing no 


sodium. 


Characteristic of 
line compared 


Sodium chloride Potassium Ratio of Width with standard con- 
ina coil-full. inacoil-full. NaCl: K of slit. taining no NaCl. 

07002 mg. 0°002 mg. 1 0:18 mm. like. 
O-010' 7 0:002 * Bil Oukee,” like. 
O;020%00" 0-002 ‘* LO OE ea a little stronger. 
0040 * 0002 * 20:1 0-33 much stronger. 
0°200 “ 0002 * 100: 1 0723." very much stronger. 
0-400 ‘ 0002 “ 200: 1 O31 much stronger. 
0-600 > “ 07002 * 300: 1 OP28r 4 much stronger. 


Am. Jour. Sct.—Tuirp SerRtEs, Vou. XLII, No. 252.—DECEMBER, 1891. 


456 FF. A. Gooch and T. S Hart—The Detection and 


From this it appears that the maximum strengthening effect 
occurs when the sodium chloride stands to the potassium in 
the ratio of 100:1. The apparent diminution of brilliance 
when the sodium is increased beyond that proportion is doubt- 
less due to the effect of the strong light diffused through the 
field of view by the intensely bright sodium flame in spite of 
the fact that the line itself is cut off from direct vision. 

The cause of the brightening effect of the sodium chloride 
we are inclined to attribute to the chemical action of the sodium 
dissociated in the flame. The effect of ammonium chloride, 
and of hydrochloric acid, in destroying the potassium light is 
well known, and is due, presumably, in very large degree to 
the prevention of the dissociation of the potassium chloride. 
The dissociated sodium should naturally by its mass-action 
reinforce the disintegrating action of the heat upon the mole- 
cule of potassium chloride. 

It is plain that the complication introduced into the quanti- 
tative spectroscopic determination of potassium by the presence 
of the sodium salt in the test can be obviated if it can be 
brought about that both the test and the standard solution shall 
contain the same amount of that reagent. It is a matter of 
interest, therefore, to discover whether it is possible to match 
sodium lines of considerable intensity so closely that the quan- 
tities of that element in solutions brought into comparison shall 
be practically equal, and so may be relied upon to give the 
same strengthening effect to the potassium spectrum. The 
following statement is the record of an attempt in this direc- 
tion. The narrower slit was found to be best adopted to the 
comparison of the sodium lines. 

Characteristic of line as 


NaCl in a coil-full NaCl in a coil full Width of compared with that of 
of new solution. of standard. slit. standard. 
0-010 mg. 0:02 mg. 0:18 mm. weaker. 
OPO ieee: 0:02 “ 018 ‘ weaker, 
0:019 * O02) a" OnSaoe weaker. 
0:020 * Or OZ aes Ons a like. 


The result shows the possibility of matching the sodium 
lines with a degree of approximation sufficient for the purpose 
in view; and, accordingly, a new standard solution was made 
containing 0°01 grm. of potassium taken in the form of the 
chloride and 0:1 grm. of sodium chloride in 100 em*. and with 
this new standard the following determinations were made. 
The experiment was performed in three stages: first, the test 
solution was diluted until its potassium line matched approxi- 
mately with that of the standard; secondly, sodium chloride 
was added to the solution thus diluted until the sodium lines 
were brought to equality; and, finally, the test solution and 
the standard were again brought into comparison. 


Oe eee eee ee a ee ee ee 


— 


ERRATUM.—In the December number of Volume XLII of this Journal 
the last seven lines of page 457, printed as a foot note, are to be read 
with Experiment IV; the five lines immediately preceding the last 
seven belong with Experiment VI. 


Bay 
} 
J 
% 
P 
ht 
] 
4 
: 
, 
' 
! 
A . 


Determination of Potassium Spectroscopically. 457 


é 


EXPERIMENT IV. 


Part I. Parr IT. | PART OEE. | 

: {2 ; | 2250 || apie) aan 
ee lasses os | = |ESSe| us | 4 | Beese 
os Se enon all. Soe S ete ae ate. fase 2 ma Oe 
eee | OfoF S| ae | fs |S5ed|| ge |. s8.} 82°Fs 
53 ca | 2se5q)| 28% Sa |eseee|| Be | Sa | Seaee 
4s aOR eo = |} &Soq |; Ss HOS 

30 cm?. 0°23 mm. Stronger 0°01 grm. 0°18 mm. Weaker) 108 em,?* (0°23 mm. Weaker 
7 |0:23 “ \Stronger ;|0-°03' “ |0°18 .“. |Weaker)/108 “ (0°23 ‘* | Stronger 
100 |0'23 “ |Weaker |/0°05 “ (0°18 “ |Weaker,| | ( Weaker 
| |}O208 <> O18. | Weaker |409 “0°23 “ | ~ Stronger 
0092 (018° “ | Weaker || | | Like 
Ode Gf 0rrs 8" Like *] | | 
EXPERIMENT V. 
Part I. | Part II. | Part III. 

S| Pee S | Bons || a lag. 
SS Pease 62 .| 4 |2eeall Ss w | wSesg 
ee Seers|| ss | Sy | sees] 28 | ge | BESES 
ce eS | Fao S| Zs is | = | &§O0.9 || Can = HORS 
PS eae By Su 9a|| gs | aes a” 

_ + Tek | ait 4 \SoFe|| = ess 
40 cm,.? 0°23 mm. Stronger 0:025 germ. 0°18 mm.| Weaker! 16) cm.? 0°23 mm. Stronger 
100 “ (0°23 “ |Stronger 0050 “ (0:18  “. |\Weaker|/180. ©. |0-23 * | Stronger 
P6G = oaio23  “ |Weaker |/0°085 “ (0°18 ‘' |Weaker||190 “ (0°22 “ | Stronger 
| 0°100 “* j0°18 ‘ |Weaker|;200 ‘* (0°23 ‘ | Stronge 
| 0110 * 0-18 “ | Like |1205 “ |0-23- “ | Weaker™ 
I 1210 “ '0°23 “* | Weaker 
205 x C0001 = 0°0205 ) lee 
(oon x 0°0001 = 0-0200 5 Mean = 002025 
Potassium found_........... 0°02025 grm. 
TAROM St ae lee 0°02000 ‘ 
EMO eee eee ke! ee Se 0700025 ‘“ = 1-25 per cent. 
EXPERIMENT VI. 
Parr [, | Part IT. | Parr III. 
: ~) : | oo . : i) 
5g. | Sg sev | Ss Sas 
ee | = |2ee8u| 88 | y (BEBE) cS | 3 |BBeS. 
25 - 2 OLS | ice: ne ee Basa|| 3s a) tee oes 
‘a Be Peeaos|| OFS | ss |#egall es Sse ($4008 
+» Beles | Sy za° aed a Sa 
Bae ese] 8 1% deed PR |” esas 
40 cm.?\0-23 mm. Stronger 0°045 grm.t 0:18 mm. Weaker |110 cm.’ 0°23 mm.) Stronger 
80 “ (0°23 “ (Stronger 0-082 ee Ue aH ce e200. 023i aSironger 
100 *“ |0°23 “ |Stronger || | sO 2's Slorgsre Like 
Me wees | Like '' | ) | 
. * Originally present. 
(130 x 0:0001 = 0°0130) 
Potassivim founds 20 2 0:0130 gram. 
gh bdiecune Seer COLAO 
BevOr o APEeR eee Lt). O0010 | *h) = percent: 


+ The test-solution having been accidentally over-diluted, its strength was 
increased by the addition of 00010 grm. of potassium and this amount was added 
in the computation below to that originally in the test-solution. 

F (109 x 0:0001 = 0:0109) 
Potassium found_.-.-- 0°0109 grm. 
8 takente 27. O-OL1O0 es 
PT ORY 9 Span eas eek 2S 00001 “ =0°9 per cent. 


458 EF. A. Gooch and T. S. Hart—The Detection, ete. 


EXPERIMENT VII. 


PART I. | PART II. | Part III. 
Tara fo | : 9 On ° 
=| layses I =) =a CTU “ = ' 
sf | sy |Bedes | .BS | 3 | SEER | BB | g [Bzzes 
on a3 | OBOE ™o, 3 ys! el Redan et 2 eas D4Sea 
as oo SS8a5d O8S ee Nese a =e ce) \S2a0% 
22 =A | go%oR SOP «2 | 830m ah =a So%OR 
oon oe aeges | 48% Bc: | gees ee | gee8s 
oO | 2A eo mo | Sigy Dee 8 O+- o, 
+ ue: See bai | OorEe 2 oo 
30 cm.?\0.23 mm. Stronger | 0°05 grm.* |0°18 mm. Weaker = 
90'S 10:23.) a eSaroneer Osi" 0°80" 4" Weaker 100 em.?0°23 mm.| Stronger 
LOO FOS 0285 ie et Wiealser (10709) e 018 .“ | Weaker. 1/120 )* stoner Stronger 
| hike’ "/Os10)5=* (OL Sat Like 130 02a Stronger 
| | Stronger |}140 ‘* (0:23 “ Stronger 
: | Stronger || Weaker 
Second. 
: 120 cm.?/0°23 mm.| Stronger 
140) * 02a ee Stronger 
| - Stronger 
‘c ar bs 
| 150 * [0-23 | ee 
160% G25 ar Weaker 
First. Second. 
(140 x 0.0001 = 0:0140) . (159 x 00001 = 0-0150) 
Potassium found_-_---- O18 erm.) hs es ee 0°0150 
2 Laken COLO es NY 0°0150 
Hrtor ow ee eee O'O0LO “=7 per. cent’ 20) ae 0:0000 


From these results it is plain that the sodium in test and 
standard may be matched closely enough to allow a fair approxi- 
mation to be made in the determination of the potassium. In 
Experiments IV, V and VI, no readjustment of the percentage 
of sodium in the final dilution, subsequent to the matching of 
the sodium lines, was attempted; in Experiment VII this 
point was looked to, so that in this determination the strength 
of the sodium was kept equal to that found in the matching 
process. In Experiments IV and VII, the matching of the 
sodium in the test-solution against that in the standard proved 
to have been exact; in V, an excess of 10 per cent was added, 
and in VI, the point of equality was thought to have been 
reached while there was still a deficiency of 25 per cent’in 
the sodium chloride of the test-solution. 

The error in the determination of the potassium in Experi- 
ment VI may, perhaps, be accounted for by the mistake in 
matching the sodium; that of the first attempt in Experiment 
VII, we are disposed to attribute to lack of care in keeping 
the eye of the observer in the most sensitive condition, and of 
attention to the point of bringing the wires to the plane in 
quick succession. The largest absolute error met with amounted 
to one milligram in a total of fifteen. Though not accurate to 


* Originally present. 


G. EF. Hale—The Ultra- Violet Spectrum, ete. 459 


the last degree when large amounts of potassium are to be 
estimated, the method, we think, offers some advantage with- 
out too great sacrifice of exactness in the determination of 
small amounts. In qualitative work the mode of manipula- 
ting described is exceedingly satisfactory. Aside from the 
practical application of the method the point which has been 
of greatest interest to us is the development of the fact that 
the presence of sodium salts in the flame is of direct influence 
in strengthening the spectrum of potassium. 


Art. XLIX.—The Ulira- Violet Spectrum of the Solar Prom- 
inences ; by GEORGE EK. HALE.* 


In various papers published during the past year, I have 
called attention to some of, the advances in our knowledge of 
the Solar Prominences which might be expected to follow the 
application of photographic methods to a study of their forms 
and spectra. A recent number of this Journal, August, 1891, 
p- 160, contains reproductions of some photographs’ obtained 
in the course of my investigations on this subject at the 
Kenwood Physical Observatory. I am indebted to Professor 
Lockyer for the use of a measuring machine during a recent 
visit to London, and I am now able to give my determinations 
of wave-length for the new prominence lines, and some con- 
clusions to be drawn from them. But perhaps it will first be 
well to consider for a moment the apparatus and methods at 
present employed in the work. 

To the eye end of the 12:2 inch equatorial refractor of the 
Kenwood Observatory a large solar spectroscope is rigidly 
attached by three steel tubes, and as the spectroscope extends 
about five feet beyond the focus of the telescope, the declina- 
tion axis is placed at the center of the combined lengths of 
the two instruments, in order to reduce the amount of counter- 
balance required at the object-glass end. The result is very 
satisfactory, and there can certainly be little fear of flexure in 
the combination. The whole spectroscope may be rotated by 
a rack and pinion, so as to make the slit tangential or radial at 
any point on the sun’s limb. The object-glasses of the col- 
limator and observing telescope have 34 inches clear aperture, 
and 423 inches focal length. The 4-inch Rowland grating is 
ruled with 14,438 lines to the inch, and as the telescopes make 
with each other a constant angle of 25°, different orders of 


* Read at the Cardiff Meeting of the British Association for the Advance- 
ment of Science, August, 1891. 


460. G. EH. Hale—The Ultra- Violet Spectrum 


spectra are brought into the field of view by rotating the 
grating. A diagonal eye-piece at the end of the observing 
telescope allows the spectrum to be observed after the photo- 
graphic plate is in position. 

In photographing the spectrum of a prominence the follow- 
ing is the ordinary process. Let us suppose that it is desired 
to use a radial slit, in the H and K region of the spectrum. 
The C line in the second order is brought into the field, and 
while observing this line the spectroscope is rotated until the 
slit is radial at some point on the limb where a prominence is 
seen. The driving-clock is then started, and the telescope 
clamped, so that the sun’s image is kept as nearly as possible 
stationary on the slit plate. A small strip of metal, pushed in ~ 
just behind the slit, excludes the direct solar light, except from 
a small region near the limb. The whole collimator is next 
moved by a screw until the slit is brought to the proper focus 
of the equatorial for K, and the collimator and observing tel- 
escope are set at the focus for the same line, the positions being 
taken from a table of foci, determined by experiment, for the 
principal lines in the spectrnm. After placing the sensitive 
plate in position, the grating is rotated until the K line in the 
fourth order is in the middle of the field, the slit is covered, the 
slide drawn, and the proper exposure given. ‘The exposure of 
course depends upon the aperture and focal length of the equa- 
torial, the width of the slit, the brilliancy of the grating, the 
sensitiveness of the plate, etc., but with tae ordinary dry plate 
of sensitometer No. 23 furnished by the Seed Company, and a 
slit about 0:001 inches wide, I usually find that an exposure of 
from 20 to 80 seconds gives the best result. 

For the first time without an eclipse the prominence spectrum 
was thus photographed early m April of the present year. 
The only bright lines then obtained were found to fall nearly 
at the centers of the dark bands H and K of the solar spec- 
trum, but these were remarkably strong, seeming to fully equal 
C in intensity, and were present in every prominence photo- 
graphed. Work was continued on the violet and ultra-violet for 
some weeks, but, with the exception of some lines which had 
all the appearance of ghosts of the brilliant H and K reversals, 
no new lines were discovered until June 23, when an excep- 
tionally bright prominence was found. This gave four lines 
in the ultra-violet, and the least refrangible of these was found 
to be double. A line slightly less refrangible than H, nearly 
but not quite at the position where the first ghost would be 
expected to fall, was much stronger than any of the other 
ghosts, and it seemed very possible that it was an independent 
line. This prominence remained visible for several days, and 


of the Solar Prominences. 461 


a number of photographs o. its spectrum were made with 
both radial and tangential slit. 

In reducing the wave-lengths of these lines it might be con- 
sidered easy to obtain values for a given line agreeing closely 
in the hundredths place of tenth-meters, but two causes have 
combined to lessen the accuracy of determinations. The H 
and K reversals almost invariably show some indications of mo- 
tion of the prominences in the line of sight, and the conse- 
quent distortion renders somewhat difficult the proper setting 
of the spider line of the measuring machine. Again the plate- 
holder used was made for another purpose, which required 
that the plane of the plate should be at right angles to the axis 
of the observing telescope. As the object-glass of the tele- 
scope is corrected for the visual region, it is evident that near 
K there must be a slight change in focus from one side of the 
plate to the other, and a small error is thus introduced. It will 
be seen, however, that the measures are sufficiently accurate to 
allow very little doubt as to the identity of most of the lines. 
The fact that the solar spectrum, due to the diffuse light 
of the atmosphere, is photographed simultaneously with the’ 
prominence spectrum, is of great advantage in determining 
the position of the prominence lines, though it has a corres- 
ponding disadvantage in concealing very faint lines, which 
would otherwise be brought out. The wave-lengths of certain 
standard lines in the solar spectrum have been taken from the 
list published by Professor Rowland,* and it has thus been 
easy to find the wave-lengths of the prominence lines by 
simple interpolation. The value of the micrometer screw has 
been determined for several regions on every plate by measur- 
ing the positions of properly distributed standard lines, the 
number of separate settings of the spider line in each case 
ranging from five to fifteen, depending upon the character of 
the line measured. In the following table the first column 
contains the wave-lengths of the ultra-violet prominence lines ; 
the second the positions assigned by Ames to the lines in the 
hydrogen stellar series; and the third, the wave-lengths of the 
calcium lines at H and K, which Professor Rowland has been 
kind enough to furriish in advance of publication. I am in- 
formed that they are provisional only, but may be relied on to 
within 1 or 2 in the last place of decimals. In the case of 
hydrogen, Ames considers that the error in any wave-length 
cannot amount to more than 0:05 of a unit,t and my own 
values for the prominence lines must possess at least an equal 
degree of accuracy, though I am inclined to believe some of 
them even more reliable. In the fourth and fifth columns I 


* This Journal, p. 182, 1887. + Phil. Mag., July, 1890, p. 49. 


462 G. L. Hale—The Ultra- Violet Spectrum 


have added Cornu’s measures of the hydrogen lines,* and Dr. 
Huggins’ wave-lengths of lines in the hydrogen stellar series,+ 
both reduced to the seale of Rowland’s map. 


Prominences. Hydrogen. Calcium. Hydrogen. First Type 
Stars. 
Hale. Ames. Rowland. Cornu. Huggins. 
3968°56 oe. 3968°61 (i) ree Bevctes 
3933°86 wre 2 3933°80 (Kx) bere era 
3888.73 ah? mers aye EMS 
3970°1] (?) 3970°25 SES 3969°6 3969°6 
3889°14 3889°15 ewig "ss 3888°5 3888°2 
3835°54 3835°6 pipes 3835'1 3834°6 
3798°1 3798°0 pers 3797°5 37956 
3770°8 3770°7 Lagi 3770°0 3768°1 
BeN. e 3750°15 = eg) 3749°9 3746°1 
hae ts 37384°15 ERE 3734°2 3730°6 
bie tle 3721°8 as Tak 3717°9 
Lis he 3711°9 42 vas 371171 3707°9 
4 tee B Wat ; Fei erin. 3699°4 


Let us first consider the prominence lines which lie near the 
centers of the broad dark shades at H and K. In his observa- 
tions of the chromosphere and prominence spectrum at Mount 
Sherman, in 1872, Professor Young succeeded in seeing these 
reversals in a number of cases, but the character of the bright 
lines could not be made out, and it was considered probable 
that the broad dark bands were included in the reversal, only 
the brighter central portions, however, being strong enough to 
affect the eye. We now find, on the contrary, that the sub- 
stance producing the bright prominence lines may possibly be 
entirely distinct from that causing the broad bands in the solar 
spectrum, for though the lines certainly do lie near the centers 
of the bands, they are narrow and sharp, and it is easily con- 
ceivable that their position may be simply the result of chance, 
though perhaps probability would point the other way. We 
are hardly in a position to discuss the cause of the unique ap- 
pearance of the dark H and K_ bands, but it may be that we 
may learn something in tais connection from Dr. Huggins’ im- 
portant investigations of stellar spectra. It will be remembered 
by everyone that in his memoir ‘“ On the Photographic Spectra 
of Stars” communicated to the Royal Society in 1880, Dr. 
Huggins arranged the stars observed in a series, in which the 
tal criterion of position was the character of the K line. 

n Arcturus, for instance, this line is broader and more diffuse 
than in the sun itself, while in Sirius it has narrowed down to 


* Journal de Physique, 1886. + Phil. Trans., Part IT, 1880, p. 669. 


of the Solar Prominences. 463 


a fine, sharp line. Other stars give intermediate breadths, and 
in some instances it has entirely disappeared. In the case of 
H the question is complicated by the fact that hydrogen and 
calcium possess lines which form a close double at this point, 
so it is best to consider only K. From the variations of this 
line it will be seen, apart from the interesting subject of stellar 
evolution so evidently suggested, that the narrow dark line at 
the center is very possibly produced by the same substance 
which, vibrating under different conditions, causes by its ab- 
sorption the broad dark band. 

As the central dark line is known with a high degree of cer- 
tainty to be due to calcium, it becomes likely that the band is 
due to the same substance, and as the central dark line of H is 
_also a calcium line, it might perhaps be safe to attribute the H 
band to thesame metal, though in neither case is it well to be 
too positive in the assertion, for it is somewhat peculiar that 
the bands and lines appear together in the solar spectrum. If 
the same substance produces both, and each requires different 
conditions, possibly of temperature or pressure, for its produc- 
tion, these conditions must presumably exist at different eleva- 
tions above the photosphere. is 

The question now arises whether the bright lines in the 
prominence spectrum agree in position with the dark lines at 
the center of the H and K bands. Only one or two of my 
prominence spectra happened to be given the proper exposure 
to bring out both the bright and dark lines, but in these the 
coincidence is fairly satisfactory. I have not as yet, however, 
been able to obtain the wave-lengths of the dark lines in 
hundredths of a tenth-meter, but Professor Rowland’s deter- 
minations of wave-lengths for the corresponding calcium lines 
will answer nearly as well. These have been given in the 
third column of the table of wave-lengths. It will be seen 
that in the case of H the prominence line is 0-05 tenth-meters 
more refrangible, while at K the prominence line is 0:06 tenth- 
meters less refrangible. Professor Rowland considers his values 
correct within 1 or 2 hundredths tenth-meters, while the prob- 
able errors in the position of the prominence lines, deduced on 
the assumption of equal weights for the wave-lengths given by 
each of six plates, are 0-021 and 0-036 tenth-meters for H and 
K respectively. On the whole, then, there can be little doubt 
that these prominence lines are due to calcium, and are there- 
fore probably true reversals of the central dark lines of the H 
and K bands. 

It will be of interest next to consider briefly the character of 
these two prominence lines. In all cases they are quite narrow 
and sharp, except when motion in the line of sight has pro- 
duced broadening or distortion. In seven photographs made 


464 G. E. Hale—The Ultra- Violet Spectrism, 


with a radial slit both lines gradually become narrower as the 


distance from the limb increasesyand have a pointed appear- 


ance. This might be due to an actual decrease in the width of — 


the lines, but, as there is usually a certain increase of intensity 
toward the limb, the effect may be purely photographic. In 
several plates, however, there is so little change of intensity 
that the widening can hardly be due to this cause. The arrow- 
head appearance so frequently seen with the C and F lines, is 
often shown when the slit is radial. A rather curious appear- 


ance has been found on three plates made with radial slit, and — 


in the two which best show the effect there is a very sudden 
decrease of intensity in the upper part of the lines. Instead of 
becoming narrower toward the top, the lines seem to expand 
symmetrically on either side, and the edges become hazy and 


indistinct. As in the case of the pointed lines, there is also an — 


expansion toward the limb, but here the edges are clearly 
defined. The arrow-head appearance is shown in two of these 
plates. With a tangential slit two plates show the lines 
expanded at the ends, and in one plate they are pointed. 
Though in most cases the forms of H and K are very similar, 
there is a single instance where K_ is shown sharply double in 
the fainter portions at each end of the line, and at one end the 
components seem to diverge slightly. That this is not the 
result of poor focusing is attested by the sharpness of the lines 
in the background of solar spectrum; at the same time the 
appearance is hardly that of an ordinary reversal. One further 
peculiarity will show that it is safest, for the present at least, 
not to draw any conclusions from such appearances as have 
been noted. In a certain position of the mirror of the measuring 
machine the illumination was such that the edges of the radial 
black lines appeared bright, while the Fraunhofer lines of the 
solar spectrum were also bright, as with ordinary illumination. 
One of the negatives, in which H and K were broader and 
fainter at the top, brought out the effect particularly well. The 
central dark line extended two-thirds of the distance to the top 
of the prominence, and in the upper part it was excessively 
narrow and delicate. Lower down it gradually widened, until 
at a point very near the limb the widening became much more 
rapid, and at the limb itself the line was nearly as wide as 
when seen under ordinary conditions. 

A paragraph from Dr. Schuster’s report on the results 
obtained with the spectroscopic cameras at the total eclipse of 
August 29, 1886, seems to refer to a somewhat similar appear- 


ance. Speaking of the photographs of the coronal spectrum, | 


Dr. Schuster remarks :* ‘ A bright line shows black on the neg- 
ative, and is bounded on both sides by an apparently lghter 


* Phil. Trans., vol. clxxx, (1889), (A.), p. 328. 


of the Solar Prominences. 465 


background. This is a well-known contrast effect. The H 
and K lines, for instance, seem to be surrounded by a lighter 
band, which follows the contour not only of the lines, but also 
of the wing by the side of the prominence. If, now, a Fraun- 
hofer line happens to be by the side of a bright line, the con- 
trast is strengthened, and both the bright and the dark lines 
appear more distinctly than they otherwise would. This is the 
only simple way in which I can explain some of the appear- 
ances of the photographs.” The first part of the quotation is 
ali that concerns us at present, for in the negative which I have 
mentioned as showing this peculiarity particularly well, the 
Fraunhofer lines are hardly visible above the limb, and none 
appear within the dark bands at H and K. As Dr. Schuster 
does not speak of the illumination, I assume that the appear- 
ance was generally seen, and this constitutes another point of 
difference. A penumbra formed by light retlected from the 
back of the plate would probably extend but little higher than 
the central line, but in the future plates backed with a dyed 
eollodion film will be employed to obviate any effects of this 
kind. No entirely satisfactory explanation of the peculiar ap- 
pearance of these lines has as yet suggested itself. 

But on another point there is little room for doubt. The 
bright H and K lines certainly extend to a very considerable 
elevation above the sun’s limb, and it is extremely probable 
that calcium is carried to the very top of the highest prom- 
inences. With the improved apparatus to be used in a contin- 
uation of this research, [ hope to be able to ascertain the 
relative heights of various lines in the prominence spectrum. 
For instance, while a photograph is being made of H and K, 
the height of C in the same prominence can be measured with 
a micrometer. The comparative observations and photographs 
made up to the present time suggest the belief that calcium 
attains the highest elevations reached by hydrogen, and the 
remarkable brilliancy of H and K at the eclipse of 1882 attest 
the importance of calcium in the prominences. Dr. Schuster 
is of the opinion that the coronal spectrum contains calcium 
injected by the prominences, and this may only very gradually 
descend again to the level of the photosphere.* This supposi- 
tion seems a very plausible one, and if it be at the same time 
considered probable that the H and K bands and their central 
lines are produced by the same substance, the possibility is 


- suggested that the broad dark shades may be caused by the 


absorption of the cooler vapor at a considerable elevation, 
while the absorption near the photosphere gives rise to the 
narrow central lines. This view need not necessarily conflict 


* Phil. Trans. vol. clxxx, 1889, (A.), p. 328. 


466 G. EL. Hale—The Ultra- Violet Spectrum 


with a belief in a shallow reversing layer, where absorption 
ordinarily takes place, for the H and K bands are unique in 
the solar spectrum. It rests, however, on somewhat insecure 
foundations, and cannot be credited with much weight. 

On account of the dark shades at H and K it has proved 
quite easy to photograph prominence forms with an open slit. 
With other prominence lines the brilliancy of the background 
is much increased when the slit is opened, but this is not the 
case with H and K, and it is often possible to use a slit nearly 
a quarter of an inch wide. The fourth order spectrum has 
been employed for this work, and the best results are obtained 
with an exposure of about one second. It is considered that 
great advantage will result from a material reduction of this 
exposure, as the disturbances in our atmosphere have as yet 
made it impossible to secure the finest details of structure. 

It is of interest to note, however, that the first photograph 
ever taken of the rapid development of a prominence was 
made in this way by my assistants on July 8, 1891, at 23h. 
45m., Chicago M. T. As at first observed through C, the 
prominence was low, but very bright, and changing rapidly. 
A great tongue moved rapidly out to an elevation of about 
80,000 miles, and at this time the extension was photographed 
through H and K. In fifteen minutes the prominence had 
returned to its original form. A reproduction of the photo- 
graph is given in the August number of this Journal, and 
though much has been lost in the printing process, some idea 
of the actual appearance of the prominence may be gained. 
A new apparatus for photographing the prominences is now 
being constructed as the outcome of my investigations on this 
subject, and this is expected to do away with many of the 
difficulties previously encountered. It will consist of two 
curved slits, moved in opposite directions across the ends of 
the stationary collimator and observing telescope by means of 
a peculiar form of clepsydra. The sun’s image and photo- 
graphic plate will be stationary, and the apparatus is thus to 
be constructed on the principle of the second method devised 
by myself in 1889, but so altered as to avoid the defects of the 
original scheme.* 

Decision must be reserved for the present as to the line at 
4 397011. The wave-length has been determined from four 
plates, and its probable error is 0:030, but as the line is not far 
from where a ghost of H should fall, I cannot be certain that 
it belongs to the prominence spectrum. At the same time it is 


* For previous papers on prominence photography see—'Technology Quarterly, 
vol. iii., No. 4, 1890; Astronomische Nachrichten, Nos. 3006, 3037 and 3053; 
Sidereal Messenger, June, 1891; This Journal, August, 1891. 


of the Solar Prominences. 467 


very much brighter than any other of the seven ghosts of H 
and K, and its position with respect to H is not symmetrical 
with that of the first ghost on the opposite side of this line, 
while in the case of K the ghosts are very regularly spaced. 
My assistants report that they were able to see H very plainly 
double in a brilliant metallic prominence observed July 27, 
and on one or two occasions Professor Young has made out the 


_same thing. The agreement in wave-length with Ames’s 


hydrogen line at 3970-25 is by no means satisfactory, and more 
observations and measures are required before a conclusion can 
be reached. . 

No one can doubt that the next four prominence lines are 
members of the well-known hydrogen series, for their agree- 
ment in wave-length with the values given by Ames is cer- 
tainly very striking. Cornu’s measures show considerable 
differences, as do also those of Dr. Huggins, but the small dis- 


persion employed by the latter in this vestigation must be 


borne in mind. There can be little question that Ames’ wave- 
lengths are very near the truth, for they almost exactly corre- 
spond with those calculated by Balmer’s formula. The meas- 
ures of the prominence lines also serve to confirm them. 

The remaining prominence line at 4 3888-73 has not been 
accounted for. It forms a close double with the hydrogen 
line at A 3889-14, and with it attains as great elevations above 
the limb as those reached by H and K. The character of the 


_ lines, however, is quite different, for while the hydrogen line 


is wider, and slightly diffuse, the line at A 8888-73 is very 
narrow and sharp. I have seen no statement that the hydrogen 
line has shown any signs of duplicity, and, as Mrs. Huggins 
has had the kindness to examine the corresponding line in 
some very sharp photographs of steller spectra with the same 
result, we have reason to consider an independent origin prob- 
able. 

The results so far obtained can only be regarded as prelim- 
inary, for with the improvements now being carried out in the 
telescope and spectroscope, and the much greater frequency 


of metallic eruptions as the maximum sun-spot period is 


approached, it is certainly to be hoped that many more lines 
will be photographed. The ultra-violet spectra of sun-spots 
have also been worked upon with some indications of success, 
and there will evidently be no lack of opportunity in the new 
and interesting fields thus opened to investigation. 

London, August 13, 1891. 


468 £7. Cutter—Phonies of Auditoriums. 


Art. L.—Phonics of Auditoriums ; by EPHRAIM OUTTER, 
M.D., New York. 


Reciprocation of sound.—-When two strings of the violin 
family are tuned in unison, on causing one to sound “the air 
around it assumes a vibratory movement and this being propa- 
gated to the second string causes it to vibrate and emit the 
same sound or tone because each aerial pulse communicates 
motion to the second string, and as the movements of both are 
by the supposition isochronous each succeeding impulse aug- 
ments the effect of the preceding and this phenomenon is 
termed the reciprocation of sound. Instances have occurred 
of persons who by modulating their voices, have excited vibra- 
tions in glasses so powerful as to overcome the cohesive attrac- 
tion that held the particles together and consequently break 
them in pieces.”—Bird. Nat. Phil. 

An effect of air vibration is seen when a shrill whistle or 
infant’s cry produces a flaring or upward projection of an ordi- 
nary gas or oil flame turned on just so as not'to blaze. The jet 
shoots up in long digitations which cease to project when the 
tone stops. 

Green in his History of the English People, vol. i, p. 67, 
writes of Dunstan the Ecclesiastical statesman: ‘‘ One morn- 
ing a lady summons him to her house to design a robe which 
she is embroidering, and as he bends with her maidens over 
their toil, his harp, hung upon the walls, sounds without mortal 
touch, tones which the excited ears around frame into a joyous 
antiphon.” This would be unintelligible but for the “anti- 
phon” which means that he sung and the harp responded. 

A thousand years later a Yale student sounding a upper 
line bass clef 215 vibrations to the second, heard the A string 
of a ’cello in a distant corner of the room, face to walls, audi- 
bly antiphone with the same number of vibrations. 

In the case of the two strings vibrating in unison within 
half an inch of each other it is easy to understand why one 
string would induce vibrations—from their proximity. But 
in the last example given there was a distance of 15 to 20 feet 
between the causal vocal tones and the string A. The other 
strings G 96°7, D 145 vibrations per second, would not respond 
when their tones were sung, showing a peculiarity of the A 
tone vibrations. C 64:5 vibration was too low for the voice. 
In a church when the pipe F of the subbass sounded the walls 
and floors would vibrate. Tunes performed in the key of F 
went with a vim perceptible even to listeners outside. 

These examples suffice to show that even musical vibrations 
act more strongly on the ear and induce objects capable of the 


FE. Cutter—Phonics of Auditoriums. © «469 


same number of vibrations to produce the same musical tone. 
The size of the auditorium seems to govern this tone, which has 
been called the key note of the auditorium. Every room has its 
key note. No one will dispute that music in the key note of 
the auditorium is more effective than when it is not in that 
key. An opposite opinion clashes against the above facts. 
This being so with music, how is it with Phonics ? 

The differences between music and speech are much less 
than their joint properties. Both need normal vocal bands. 
Surgery shows this. A tumor exists which I removed from 
the vocal bands in 1866. For years before, the patient could 
not speak nor sing. She could only whisper. In 1891 she 
speaks and sings. 

The same oripulations belong to speech and song. Song 
prolongs the basic vowel syllable sounds more than speech. 
These sounds are chiefly formed by the vocal bands alone as the 
writer since 1862 has shown to himself and others in his own 
larynx. Speech shortens these sounds. Speech is staccato in 
music with the rests left out. 

The consonants are the same as a general rule in speech and 
song as to production. Speech and song have pitch, forte and 

iano. : 
° From this—as Phonics in auditoriums are often a failure, 
i. e. people can’t hear—is there not some remedy by making 
phonic laws conform to those of music? We think there is 
and for one thing would suggest phonics in the key note of 
the auditorium. 

That is have the pitch of the speaker hold to the key note 
of the auditorium and vary only as a well regulated song, for 
example like “ Annie Laurie.” 

The writer has seen this done successfully as follows, in 

1. Cincinnati Music Hall, capacity 6000 people, key note F. 

2. Prince Albert Memorial Town Hall, Leeds, England. 

3. Section rooms of the X International Medical Congress, 
Berlin, 1890, and other places. 

1, 2, 3, were of exceptional difficulty: 1, from its vast size. 
2, elegant to the eye but hard for the ear. 38, were picture 
galleries never intended for the ear. 


To find the key note. 


Sing the natural scale slowly, evenly and smoothly, or play 
this seale on piano or organ similarly. The note which is most 
prominent will be the key note. 

Those who control auditoriums may employ an expert to do 

‘this and post the result. For example, an auditorium of the 
City Hall at Saratoga Springs was thus tested 1890, and a notice 
was put up: “ The key note of this hall is F.” 

September, 1891. 


470 G. C. Comstock.—The Secular Variation of Latitudes. 


Art. LIl.—The Secular Variation of Latitudes ; by GHORGE 
C. CoMSTOcK. 


[Read at the Washington Meeting of the American Association for the Advance- 
ment of Science. | 


A POSSIBLE secular change in the position of the terrestrial 
pole has long been a subject of discussion among astronomers 
and physicists, and the history of investigations made in this 
connection resembles in many respects that of. similar researches 
upon stellar parallaxes. The early investigators expected to 
find, and announced the actual discovery of, very sensible varia- 
tions of both kinds while their successors overturned their 
conclusions and traced their results back to errors of observa- 
tion. Less than a decade ago a vigorous interest in the matter 
of latitudes seemed to be aroused by Fergola. A plan for 
systematic research was proposed and adopted and for a time 
we appeared to be on the eve of a repetition of the brilliant 
success attained by Bessel and Struve a half century ago in 
the determination of parallaxes. But Fergola’s plan seems to 
have been abandoned without a trial and so far as astronomers 
are concerned these investigations have fallen into abeyance. 

But an urgent demand for further research comes now from 
another quarter. The geologists having tried one by one the 
various hypotheses which have been advanced to account for 
the glacial periods have found them successively inadequate 
and untenable. In the inelegant but expressive language of 
one of these gentlemen they are “ina hole,” and the only 
escape from the difficulty seems to be through the assumption 
that the terrestrial pole has wandered widely from its present 
position during recent geologic time. 

I am no geologist, but since my attention was especially 
directed to the problem in hand by geologists, let me briefly 
summarize the case from their standpoint. The phenomena 
of erosion indicate that the last glacial epoch is separated from 
us in time by a period which is to be measured by thousands 
of years and probably not a very great number of thousands. 
At that epoch a certain portion of the earth’s surface, includ- 
ing parts at least of Europe and North America, was buried 
in ice much as the continent of Greenland is now covered by 
an almost continuous glacier. Only recently has the area cov- 
ered by the ice been delimited, but as a result of surveys made 
during the past five or six years it appears that the ancient 
glacier covered a region approximately bounded by a small 
circle of the earth whose pole lies somewhere in Greenland 
and whose angular radius is not far from 35°, 2. e. the amount 


G. C. Comstock—The Secular Variation of Latitudes. 471 


of ice present in the northern hemisphere at the time of maxi- 
mum glaciation was distributed in a manner very different 
from the present arrangement, and this different distribution 
will be fully explained by shifting the terrestrial pole from its 
present position to the center of ‘Greenland. Opposed to this 
explanation, however, stands the common belief of astronomers 
that the position of the pole if not absolutely fixed is subject 
only to very inconsiderable changes. 

To guard against any possible misapprehension let it be 
stated once for all that the questions here raised do not relate 
to the direction of the earth’s axis in space, 2. ¢. to the phe- 
nomena grouped under the names precession and nutation, but 
to the position of the points in which the rotation axis inter- 
_ sects the earth’s surface. 

If any such change in the position of the pole as is supposed 
above has occurred within recent geologic time it may be 
fairly presumed that some motion will still remain although 
nothing can be predicated a priorz in regard to its amount or 
direction, and the problem which I have proposed to myself is 
to. determine whether there is any such motion of the pole of 
sufficient magnitude to be shown by existing astronomical data. 

Theoretically there are three classes of “observations which 
may contribute to the solution of the problem: determinations 
of latitude, of azimuth and of longitude; but for the present 
at least only the first of these can furnish available data and 
the amount of satisfactory data of this kind is exceedingly 
‘small. I do not wish to enlarge here upon the inherent diffi- 
culties which stand in the way of determining a change in the 
latitude of a given station, but some consideration of them is 
necessary for the proper appreciation of the conclusions which 
are subsequently reached. 

To take a concrete instance, the following Ae teinrinavions of 
latitude at Greenwich seem to indicate a progressive change in 
the position of that observatory : 


Date. Latitude. Authority. 

1693 51°28’ 41"°7 Peters.  Flamsteed. 

1751 38°72 Auwers. Bradley. 

1826 38°59 Pond. Gr. Obs. 1834 

1838 38°23 Airy. Gr. Cat. 1860 

1845 38°17 (<4 66 66 c¢ 

1855 88°15 cc cé 74 73 

1881 38°07 Christie. Ten Year Catalogue. 
1889 37°95 ae Annual Report. 


Am. Jour. Sct.—TuHirp Series, Vou. XLII, No. 252.—DEcEMBER, 1891. 


472 G. C. Comstock—The Secular Variation of Latitudes. 


We have here observations extending over a period of 
nearly two centuries during which the latitude appears to have 
diminished very appreciably, but I do not think that such a 
conclusion can properly be drawn from the data. Dr. Auwers 
informs me that Bradley’s latitude may be anywhere from 
half a second to a second in error on account of uncertainties 
inherent in the data, errors of figure and division of the quad- 
rant, errors of the tabular refraction, of the thermometer ex- 
posure, etc., and the same may probably be said of Pond’s 
latitude while Flamsteed’s is much inferior to either of these. 
If the several values of the latitude given above had all been 
derived with the same instrument and by the same method 
many of these errors would be eliminated from the differences, 
but in fact five different instruments were employed and the 
entire apparent variation of the latitude may fairly enough be 
ascribed to the undetermined errors affecting the results given 
by these instruments. The same facts obtain for much of the 
evidence sometimes cited to show a variation of latitude but 
they are not necessarily true of all of it. 

To obtain a reliable indication of a change in latitude’ we 
must compare determinations made at a sufficient interval of 
time by the use of the same instrument and the same methods, 
or we must compare determinations made by methods which 
are practically free from systematic error, such as are furnished 
by the zenith telescope and the prime vertical transit. The 
results furnished by these instruments depend upon the adopted 
star places, but by using only observations of the same stars 
made at different epochs the change of latitude may be made 
to depend solely upon the proper motions of the stars and the 
residual error in these proper motions may be almost indefi- 
nitely diminished by increasing the number of stars employed. 
I assume that absolute determinations of latitude instead of 
being the only data from which a motion of the pole can be 
concluded are in the present state of practical astronomy 
decidedly inferior to differential determinations for this pur- 
pose. If these principles are applied to the data collected by 
Ifergola and presented to the International Geodetic Associa- 
tion assembled at Rome they will be found to exclude nearly 
every case of supposed variation, although the general agree- 
ment of the data in indicating a progressive diminution of 
European latitudes must still remain a very striking fact. 

Of all the cases in which an apparent variation of an abso- 
Inte latitude is shown, the one least open to adverse criticism 
seems to be the discussion of the latitude of Pulkowa published 
by Nyrén, see Die Polhéhe von Pulkowa and Observations 
de Poulkova, vol. xiv. There are here two independent series 
of observations made with the vertical circle, the results of the 


G. OC. Comstock—The Secular Variation of Latitudes. 478 


first of which, observations of Polaris, are shown in the follow- 
ing table: 


Latitude of Pulkowa. Polaris Observations. 


Date. Observer. Latitude. No. of Obs. 
' 18438 Peters. 59° 46/ 18"-73 + 0°70138 Sil! 
1866 Gyldén. ~—6©18°65 + 014 236 
1872°5 Nyrén. 18°50 + ‘014 155 
1882:°0 ‘Nyrén. 18°40 + ‘010 184 


The first three of these values are taken from Nyrén’s paper 
on the latitude of Pulkowa, the last one is derived by myself 
from the data given at p. [50] of the volume of Pulkowa 
observations cited above, after correcting the individual results 
there given for the periodic variation of the latitude (Kiistner) 
by means of the formula 


—0-"26 sin(@ —47°) 


derived from meridian circle observations at the Washburn 
Observatory and confirmed by the special observations made at 
Berlin, Potsdam and Prague to determine the existence of a 
periodic variation. If this correction were omitted the value 
of the latitude for 1882-0 would be increased 0”-04. A graphi- 
cal treatment of these data imdicates an apparent diminution 
of the latitude amounting to 0”-005, six inches, per annum. 

To this it has been objected by Bruns (V.J. S. vol. Xxv, p. 15) 
that such a conclusion presupposes that the difference between 
the tabular refractions employed and the true refraction at the 
time of observation is the same for the several epochs and that 
this assumption requires confirmation. This confirmation is 
afforded by an investigation by Nyrén contained in vol. xiv 
above cited. From a discussion of the observations of 127. 
stars north of +45° declination, not including Polaris, treating 
the latitude and a correction to the assumed refraction as 
unknown quantities he finds for the epochs, 


1846 (?) Latitude = 59° 46’ 18’°66 
1866 pitas 18°546 
Annual variation, —0":006 — 


This astonishingly close agreement between the results of 
two independent series of observations will probably sufiice to 
establish the constancy of the refraction at Pulkowa during 
this period. The corrections to the tabular refractions for the 
two epochs differ by less than their probable errors. | 

There is available another series of Pulkowa observations by 
which to test the reality of the apparent change of latitude. 
I have compared the declinations of fourteen stars observed 


474 G. C. Comstock—The Secular Variation of Latitudes. 


with the prime vertical transit by both O6m and Nyrén, the 
epochs of their respective observations being in the mean 1862 
and 1881. Auwers has published proper motions for all of 
these stars save one for which I adopt Nyrén’s value and com- 
paring the declinations observed at the two epochs I find for 
the variation of the latitude between 1862 and 1881 —0”°12, or 
Annual Variation —0’006, agreeing exactly with the result 
furnished by the vertical circle. I very much regret that I 
have not had access to the results of observations made with 
the prime vertical transit during the years 1840-1860 by W. 
Struve. I have, however, compared the declinations of the 
three stars most frequently observed during this period, which 
are discussed in Nyrén’s paper Bestummung der Nutation der 
Erdachse, with Nyrén’s observations with the same instrument. 
From 875 observations of these stars at the mean epoch 1846 
combined with 113 observations at the epoch 1881 using 
Auwers’ proper motions I find 


Annual variation of latitude, —0”:094. 


Each star shows a diminution of the latitude. These results” 
derived from two different instruments and from different 
series of observations with these instruments seem to me in- 
explicable on any other hypothesis than that of a change of 
latitude and I adopt as the rate of variation at Pulkowa —0’-006 
per annum. | 

I know of no other European observatory at which a varia- 
tion of latitude can be established in an equally satisfactory 
manner and the only one to which reference seems required is 
Konigsberg. Two careful determinations of the latitude of 
the Repsold meridian circle have been made with the follow- 
ing results: 


Date. Observer. Latitude. 
1843°5 Bessel. 54° 42’ 50'°56 + 07-03 
1887°0 Rahts. 50°43+ 04 


No investigation of a possible change in the amount of the 
refraction between the two epochs appears to have been made, 
but in spite of this defect the precision of the observations and 
the care with which the instrumental errors were investigated 
together with the Pulkowa results in regard to the refraction 
seem to entitle these determinations to some consideration. I 
therefore adopt for Kénigsberg 

Annual variation of latitude , —0'003. 


Turning now from European to American observatories we 
find a very different set of values. I shall first consider the 
latitude of the Washburn Observatory at Madison, Wis., as 


a 


G. C. Comstock— The Secular Variation of Latitudes. 475 


determined from observations of fundamental stars made with 
the Repsold meridian circle. In the reduction of the observa- 
tions the latitude is made to depend upon the declinations of 
these stars as given in the Berliner Jahrbuch and observations 
on opposite sides of the zenith were combined in such a way 
as to eliminate the errors of the instrument and of the refrac- 
tion tables. The results of separate years are given in the fol- 
lowing table: 


Meridian circle latitudes of Madison. 
Date. Obs’r. Latitude. Ann. var. Lat. 1890-0* 


igure 9 T) 43°4"36"454- 0714 ag 36""70 
84-5 Hand ©. 3649+ 0:04 1?" 36.72 
855 H.C. and U. 36544 0-04 f 1° 36°79 
872 U.andL. 3661-— 004 + te 36°72 
886 —si&B.. 3676+ 003 7 oe 36°89 
896 Band E. 36814 003 7 1 36:83 
90°2 B. and E. 36°74 + 0°06 36°73 


It should be said in regard to these values that the observa- 
tions of each year except the first and last are distributed 
through the whole circuit of twenty-four hours of right ascen- 
sion and are sufficiently numerous to furnish a good represen- 
tation of the system of declinations adopted as fundamental. 
The latitudes thus derived are affected with whatever constant 
error inheres in the declination system and in the instrument 
itself, but since we are here concerned only with variations of 
latitude constant errors are of no consequence and we may 
therefore neglect the absolute value of the latitude and inquire 
what interpretation is to be placed upon its apparent annual 
increase. | 

I do not think that it will be seriously maintained by any 
competent critic that this variation is due to error in the star 
places for, the same stars being observed year after year, this 
would imply that the mean of the proper motions of some 
hundreds of fundamental stars is in error to the amount of 


0-06. 


The variation may be due to accidental error of observation, 
but the uniform progression and the small probable errors of 
the results render this hypothesis somewhat improbable. 

No correction for flexure has been applied to the observa- 
tions and it may be supposed that the variation is due to a 
progressive change in the flexure constants. Nearly forty 
years ago W. Struve adopted this as the explanation of an 
apparent annual variation of 0/06 in the latitude of Dorpat. 


* Computed with the finally adopted elements of the motion of the pole. 


476 G. C. Comstock—The Secular Variation of Latitudes. 


But in the present case the sine flexure is eliminated by giving 
equal weight to the observations of stars on opposite sides of 
the zenith in the reduction of each night’s work, and the co- 
sine flexure is commonly supposed to be eliminated from the 
mean of observations made Circle W. and Circle E. - 

I know of no other reasonable hypothesis to adopt in-this 
connection except that of an actual change in the latitude, but 
before coming to any conclusion it will be well to consider 
another set of latitude determinations which are available. - 
The latitude of Madison was first determined in 1873 by off- 
cers of the U. 8. Coast Survey, employing the Talcott method, 
and since that date five other determinations have been made 
by the same method. The final results of these determinations 
are contained in the following table: 


No. of 

oo Periodic Corrected 

Date. Obs’r. Obs. Pairs. Seconds of Lat. Term. Latitude. 
1873°62 Eb; 60 12 36"°94 --0".05 EO ia ee ee 
81°64 C. 26 16 86:58 = °13 +. "17 Sa6e7 
84°50 C. & H. 72 11 38698 + ‘08 — °038 36°95 
89°33 aT. 84 15 37°36 -— °-14 — OSs Serie 
90°50 Te 53 a 37°17 + 09 — :03 37°14 
91-50 C 49 13° 37°21 -— °06 = 02 Jere 


The latitudes determined in 1884, ’90 and 791 are from obser- 
vation: of substantially the same pairs of stars, the other lati- 
tudes are from other stars but all of the declinations employed 
have been taken either directly from the Berliner Jahrbuch or 
from a discussion of the data contained in modern catalogues 
of precision reduced by the application of systematic correc- 
tions to the system of Pub. XIV, Astron. Gesell. While the 
star places thus determined doubtless admit of further improve- 
ment, it seems to me highly improbable that any one of the 
above latitudes can be altered in this way by so much as 071 
and they must therefore be considered as representing the 
relation of the latitude at the epochs of observation to the 
system of declinations of the Berliner Jahrbuch within the 
limits of the accidental error of observation and such sys- 
tematic error as may affect determinations of this kind. 

I have applied to the observed latitudes the correction for 
periodic variation 


—0'"26 sin (© + 73°) 
and have obtained by a graphical treatment of the corrected 
results the 


Annual variation of latitude = +0’°043 


G. C. Comstock—The Secular Variation of Latitudes. 477 


agreeing more closely than could be expected with the varia- 
tion indicated by the meridian circle, while the several latitudes 
from which the annual variation is derived show the following 
astonishingly close agreement when reduced by it to a common 


epoch: 


Date. Latitude. 1890°0. Weight. v. 
1873°6 oe ae ay iO 4°0 —0'"'03 
81°6 ay ak 0°6 — 02 
84°5 37°19 1°6 + °06 
89°3 37°16 0°d + °03 
90°5 37°12 LZ — ‘Ol 
91°5 37°13 2°8 ‘00 


Since these two independent and dissimilar series of observa- 
tions indicate the same variation of the latitude I conclude 
that this variation is real and I adopt for Madison 


Annual variation of latitude = +0”:043 


If such a variation as this is actually in progress it must 
affect other latitudes and it should be recognized at every 
American observatory at which there is a series of latitude 
determinations extending over a considerable number of years. 
Unfortunately very few such series of observations have been 
published, the Naval Observatory at Washington being almost 
the only institution from which the requisite data can be ob- 
tained. The observations made here with the mural and 
transit circles have been discussed recently by Prof. Hall (A. J., 
No. 224) who concludes that “there is no proof of a secular 
change in the latitude.” So far as this conclusion relates to the 
meridian instruments of the observatory I concur in it, but 
Prof. Hall inciudes in his discussion a comparison of the decli- 
nations of a Lyre determined with the prime vertical transit 
in the years 1845, 48 and 1862-67, and with reference to these 
observations I dissent from his conclusion and wish to present 
in some detail the evidence furnished by this instrument which 
on account of its extreme precision and its freedom from sys- 
tematic error seems entitled to far more confidence than can 
properly be accorded to the meridian instruments. I must 
here acknowledge my indebtedness to the Superintendent of 
the Naval Observatory, Capt. F. W. McNair, U.S. N., who 
has placed at my disposal the manuscript results of unpublished 
observations made with this instrument in the years 1882-’84. 

I have collated all the observations of a Lyre, including 
fifty-eight made in the years 184650, but omitted from Prof. 
Hall’s data; have compared them with Auwers’ declination of 
the star carried back to the epochs to which the observations 


478 G. C. Comstock—The Secular Variation of Latitudes. 


were reduced and from this comparison and a similar compari- 
son with Boss’s declination I have derived the following values 
of the latitude : : 


Seconds of Latitude. Ann. - Var. 
= SS aT. si, 
Epoch. No. of Obs. Auwers. Boss. Auwers. Boss. 
b. I’, ie 
1864°5 436 38°13 Sey cei | 4+ +018 
1883°5 123 38°90 38°51 


The progressive character of the results is here unmistakable 
and the Madison variation is confirmed. But in order that my 
conclusions may not be open to the objection of resting upon 
an assumed proper motion of a single star, I have derived a 
value of the latitude for the several epochs from all of the 
observations of fundamental stars (Berliner Jahrbuch) which 
are available for this purpose with the following result : 


Epoch. No. of Stars. No. of Obs. Seconds of Lat. Ann. Var. 
1847°0 4] 461 37"°31 + 0":08 n, 
1864:5 1 436 88:13 - 06 tate 
1883°5 9 306 38°83 + .05 


Auwers’ proper motions have been employed in this com- 
parison, but it should be stated here that there is some uncer- 
tainty in regard to the proper motions employed by the 
observers in reducing the observed declinations to a mean 
equinox, since the printed volumes contain no indication of 
these. It is stated in connection with the mural circle obser- 
vations that the proper motions there employed for this pur- 
pose were taken from the Nautical Almanac for 1848, and I 
have assumed that the same practice prevailed with the prime 
vertical transit and have corrected the printed results by the 
product of the difference between these proper motions and 
those of Auwers, multiplied by the time interval between the 
date of observation and the equinox to which the observations 
were reduced. There is probably a certain amount of error 
introduced by this process into the latitude for 1847 but its 
total amount must be exceedingly small since in no case were 
the observations reduced to an equinox more than five years 
removed from the date of observation. 

The data furnished by the prime vertical transit may be 
presented in another form which eliminates the declinations of 
the stars and involves only their proper motions. There are 
nine stars.common to the observations of 1847 and 1883 
which are also contained in Auwers’ Fundamental Catalog. 
A comparison of the corrections to Auwers’ declinations furn- 
ished by the observations of 1847 and 1883 is contained in the 


G. C. Comstock—The Secular Variation of Latitudes. 479 


following table in the preparation of which I have assumed 
that the earlier observations were reduced with sufficiently 
accurate values of the proper -motions to require no further 
correction. The error of this assumption will in some measure 
tend to counterbalance the error made above in the same con- 
nection. 


Correction to Auwers’ 0. 
Star. 1847. Obs. 1883. Obs. 1847-1883. 


wn Androm. +1”-09 7, —()""14 28 24 
Gr. 1450 -+-1°12 2 +0°69 24. + 0°43 
10 Leo. Min. +1°49 2 + 0°16 10 +1°33 
31 Leo. Min. +1°79 = —0°31 Zo + 2°10 
iyo Gan. Ven... +1°79 3 —0°15 13 + 1°94 
z Herculis +1°49 5 +0°18 28 +1°3] 
S Herculis + 4°78 3 0:26 19 +2°04 
a Lyre + 1°52 Tg2 —0°10 123 + 1°62 
10 Lacertz +1°34 8 —0°12 38 + 1°46 


This comparison may be interpreted as indicating either 
that the latitude of Washington changed to the amount of 
15 between 1847 and 1883 or that Auwers’ proper motion of 
each of these nine stars is too great and that the mean value 
of this error is 0’041. I do not at present see how to draw 
any other conclusion and of the two the former appears to me 
the more probable especially as it is confirmed by the Madison 
observations. I therefore adopt for Washington 


Annual variation of latitude , +0042 


_ I have searched diligently for other American data to com- 
pare with the above but I have found nothing which certainly 
contravenes it and but little which confirms it. A comparison 
of the latitudes determined at Annapolis by Chauvenet in 
1853 and by Brown in 1883 indicates an increase of the lati- 
tude by 1’0 between these dates, but it is questionable if the 
observations are comparable. 

The results at Cambridge are conflicting as is shown in the 
following table taken from vol. xvii of the Annals of the 
Harvard College Observatory, excepting the result for 1845 
which I have derived from a rediscussion of the original data 
contained in Peirce’s memoir on the Latitude of Cambridge. 


Date. Latitude. Method Employed. 
1845°0 42° 22’ 47"-004-0""19 Prime Vertical Transit. 

55°8 47°614+ ‘08 Zenith Telescope. 

85°8 47°644+ ‘02 Almucantar. 


In my judgment no conclusion can be drawn from these num- 
bers until the relative errors of the several methods have been 


(1 } 
gi" 


480 GC. OE Secular Variation of Latitudes. 


more closely invest than has yet been done. For the 
present the only available data seems to be contained in the 
following table: 


No. of Comput’d 
Station. Longitude. Ann. Var. of ¢. Weight Determin’s. Ann. Var. 


Pulkowa —30°3  —0":006 4 3 —0":007 
Konigsberg —20°5 —0°003 1 1 —0:000 
Washington+77°0 +0°042 4 i +0°044 
Madison +894 +0°048 4 2 +0°041 


The longitudes are reckoned from Greenwich. 

I have made a least square solution of these data to determine 
the most probable direction and amount of motion of the: pole 
and find a motion of 0-044 along the meridian 69° west of 
Greenwich. The last column of the table above contains the 
values of the annual variation at the several stations computed 
from these elements. 

If the elements of the motion of the pole thus derived are 
even a rough approximation to the truth they furnish valuable 
indications of the methods by which our knowledge may be 
extended. In the first place European observatories cannot be 
expected to show any considerable change of latitude. Obser- 
vations made there will be chiefly valuable for determining 
the direction of motion of the pole and for this purpose a care- 
ful comparison of the older latitudes with modern determina- 
tions is much to be desired. In particular the latitude deter- 
minations made at Dorpat by W. Struve in 1824 and 1827 
with the meridian circle and prime vertical transit are for 
this purpose probably the most valuable data not yet utilized. 
I have endeavored to compare these with similar modern 
determinations by Schwarz and Renz but the printed results of 
the later determinations, at least so far as I have access to them, 
do not furnish sufficient data for the purpose. In America the 
older latitudes of the Coast Survey could very profitably be 
rediscussed and compared with redeterminations at such sta- 
tions as can now be identified. A redetermination of the lati- 
tude of Cambridge with both the prime vertical transit and 
the zenith telescope seems especially desirable and the Asiatic 
stations occupied by the American Transit of Venus parties in 
1874 can be made to furnish most valuable data, since their lati- 
tudes should now be three quarters of a second less than in 
1874. 

I wish now to consider briefly a plan for the systematic 
investigation of the motion of the pole. For the present it 
seems best not to attempt the absolute determination of lati- 
tudes for this purpose on account of their great liability to 
systematic error but rather to rely upon differential methods, 


G. C. Comstock—The Secular Variation of Latitudes. 481 


These methods as commonly applied require an accurate 
knowledge of the declinations and proper motions of the stars 
but it is perfectly feasible to eliminate both declinations and 
proper motions and leave the resulting variation of latitude 
almost if not quite free from systematic error. To illustrate, 
suppose two stations to be selected as nearly as possible on the 
same parallel of latitude, one in longitude 70° west of Green- 
wich and the other 110° east and let the latitudes of the sta- 
tions be simultaneously determined by zenith telescope obser- 
vations of the same pairs of stars. The difference of the 
latitudes of the stations thus determined is entirely independ- 
ent of the star places, and I know of no source of systematic 
error by which this difference can be affected except possible 
personal peculiarities of the observers which can be eliminated 
by an interchange of observers if this should be thought de- 
sirable. The periodic variation of the latitude would be 
eliminated from the mean of observations made at epochs six 
months apart. An annual motion of the pole of 0/045 wili 
alter the difference of latitude of these stations by twice this 
-amount per year giving a change in the difference of latitude 
amounting to 1” in eleven years, a quantity which cannot pos- 
sibly escape careful observations with the zenith telescope or 
prime vertical transit. If similar observations be conducted 
near the meridian 20° east of Greenwich they will furnish the. 
best attainable data for determining the direction of motion of 
the pole. The execution of this program, which can be 
effected within a dozen years, will add more to our knowledge 
of the variation, or possible permanence, of terrestrial latitudes 
than can be furnished by all the astronomical observations 
that have hitherto been made. By a proper selection of sta- 
tions it will even be possible within a year or two to test the 
results above obtained. The following pairs of stations ap- 
proximately satisfy the conditions above indicated and in addi- 
tion possess the great advantage that at each one of them a 
good value of the latitude was determined by the Talcott 
method prior to 1875: 


Vladivostok, Lat. 43° 6'-6 Peking, Lat. 39° 54’°3 
Madison, Wis. 43 46 Columbus. O. 89 57°7 
Nagasaki, Lat. 32° 48/4 
Macon, Ga. 32 50-4 


San Diego, Cal. 32 43:1 


If these stations can now be reoccupied the simultaneous 
determination of latitudes at the two stations composing a 
group will furnish the beginning of the program above indi- 
cated while the latitudes thus derived will be immediately 


482 HH. A. Newton—Capture of Comets by Planets. 


available for comparison with the earlier determinations. I 
know no reason to suppose that the determinations of latitude 
already made at the other stations are less precise than that at 
Madison and a rediscussion of this determination has shown 
that by the aid of improved star places the latitude referred to 
Auwers’ declination system is determined for the epoch 1873 
with a probable error of 0-05. If the same degree of pre- 
cision obtains at the other stations a new set of determina- 
tions in 1892 would furnish for a single pair of stations a 
value of the annual motion of the pole with a probable error 
of only 0’:003. 

But little difficulty will be experienced in securing new de- 
terminations at the American stations. I will myself become 
responsible for the observations at Madison, and it is probable 
that upon a proper presentation of the case being made to the 
Superintendent of the Coast and Geodetic Survey the observa- 
tions at Columbus and Macon or San Diego will be under- 
taken by that organization. To secure the reoccupation of the 
Asiatic stations, however, is a very different matter, for which 
concerted action of some kind will probably be necessary, and 
it is with a view to securing such action that I present this 
paper to the Section for discussion. 


ART. LIL—On the Capture of Comets by Planets, especially 
their Capture by Jupiter; by H. A. NEwToN. 


[Continued from p. 199, Sept., 1891.] 


30. IF there are assumed to be 2 comets equably distributed 
in each unit of the space near and through which a planet is 
moving, and if these comets are all assumed to be moving in 
parabolas about the sun with the velocity v, having also their 
directions of motion equably distributed, then the number that 
are moving from quits lying within an element dS of the sur- 


2a 


face of the celestial sphere will be Let v be the com- 


Aa 
mon velocity of these comets relative to the planet. Then 
suppose that a spherical surface 8’ is described with a radius 
r’ about the planet as center; 7’ being small relative to the 
sun’s distance, yet not so small as to forbid the omission of 
the planet’s perturbing action so long as the comet is without 
the surface 8’. In each unit of time out of these comets 
directed from the element dS of the celestial sphere there would 


ds 
pass nearer than 7’ to the planet nz. TP = tnyr" dS 
7 


H. A. Newton— Capture of Comets by Planets. 483 


comets if unperturbed. Evidently an equal number cross the 
surface S’ entering the sphere in each unit of time. 

If now w be the angle which the comet’s unperturbed 
motion is making with the planet’s motion, and if », or its 
equal v/./2, be the planet’s velocity in its orbit about the sun, 
then v, = 4v°[8-—2 y2cosw]. The element dS may be taken 
to be the elemental zone between the two small circles whose 
common pole is the planet’s quit, and whose distances from 
the planet’s quit are @ and o+do. Then dS = 27sinw do. 
The number of comets entering 8’ in a unit of time with quits 
within that elemental zone will be 


manor” 4 
4nvo,r" X27 sin w dw = ———(3—2,/2 cos@) sin oda, 


The integral of this, 


12 T 
Hi [e-22 cos o)* sin wade =innor”, 
2n/2e/0 
expresses the total number of comets that, under the hypothe- 
ses that have been made, would in a unit of time enter the 
sphere 8’. 

31. If we compare the two expressions obtained in Arts. 27 
and 30 we find that the number of comets which, in a given 
period of time come nearer to the sun than 7 is to the number 
that (unperturbed) come nearer to the planet than 7” as 67° is 
to 7r”. The factor 7 expresses the increase of numbers caused 
by the planet’s motion in its cireular orbit. The value of 7’, 
as has been said, must not be too small, nor yet must it be very 
large. 

82. In order to determine the number N of comets which in 
a unit of time will have their periodic times reduced below a 
given period we may make use of the isergonal curves repre- 
sented in Figs. 2-18. Although the diagrams were not con- 
structed to exhibit the motions of the bodies, yet they may be 
utilized for that purpose. Let OH be the tangent to the 
planet’s orbit, O the place of the planet considered at rest, and 
let the plane HOE contain the shortest line d between the 
two orbits. This d will be the abscissa of the point at which 
the comet’s unperturbed orbit will cut the plane. The ordi- 
nate of the same point, produced if necessary, will be the pro- 
jection of the comet’s path upon the plane HOE, and the 
comet’s path makes with the plane the angle @. The velocity 
of the comet perpendicular to the plane will be % sin 6. By 
reason of the hypothesis that the comets are equably distribu- 
ted, the points of intersection with the plane HOE will be 
equably distributed over the plane. Hence the number of 


484. HH. A. Newton—Capture of Comets by Planets. 


comets whose quits are in the element dS of the celestial sphere 
and that will pass the planet in a unit of time in such a way 
as to have their periodic times reduced below a given period 
will be equal to the area inclosed in the corresponding isergo- 
nal curve multiplied by the velocity perpendicular to the 
n 
Agr 
axis of the orbit for the limiting periodic time, the area of the 
corresponding isergonal curve will be (Art. 17). 


( fa [== cosO “)) 


plane, vp sin @, and by the factor If @ is the semi-major 


sin 6 Ss Ss 3’ 


For dS we may, as before, take 27 sin w dw, and we shall then 
have 


rn : A4m’?@? 2 6 mr\? 
N == mm fv sin pl ae — (Pees — =") eo. 


The integration must extend through the positive values of 
the quantity in square brackets beginning at w=0. [In case 
w = 0 gives a negative value for the quantity in square brack- 
ets we must integrate between the two values of w correspond- 
ing to the zero value of the bracketed quantity.] We may 
make § the independent variable by the equations 
sds = /2 snwda, y%/2 = sv, and Ys cos? = 1—s’. 

These give: 


Nie panne” [so (So) Jas 


33. If now we require the number of comets which in each 
unit of time shall pass the planet in such way as that they 
shall have after the passage respectively less than one-half, 
once, three-halves, and twice, the planet’s period of revolution, 


we may place @=*7Ts, and make T equal successively to 4, 
1, 3, and 2, and compute in each case the value of N as given 
in the last article. The results are found to be rnm’*r*v mul- 
tiplied severally by the coefficients 0-139, 0-925, 1:875, and 
2°943. 

34. By comparing the results of Arts. 27 and 33, and mak- 
ing the assumptions of Art. 26, we have the proposition, that 
the number of comets which in a given period of time pass 
their perihelia nearer to the sun than a given planet, ts to the 
number of comets whose periodic times are reduced by the per- 
turbing action of the planet so as to be less severally than one- 
half, once, three halves, and twice, the periodic time of the 
planet, as unity ts to the square of the mass of the planet mul- 
tiplied severally by 0:189, 0°925, 1:°876 and 2°948. 


H. A. Newton—Capture of Comets by Planets. 485 


35. If Jupiter is the planet, m=-+';,, and we may express 
these ratios as 


1 000 000 000 : 126 : 839:1701 : 2670. 


That is, assuming the hypotheses of Art. 26, and regarding the 
planet as without dimension so as to intercept any comets, ¢f 
in a given period of time a thousand million comets come in 
parabolic orbits nearer to the sun than Jupiter, 126 of them 
will have their orbits changed into ellipses with periodic times 
less than one-half that of Jupiter ; 839 of them will have their 
orbits changed into ellipses with periodic times less than that 
of Jupiter; 1701 of them will have their orbits changed into 
ellipses with periodic times less than once and a half times 
that of Jupiter; and 2670 of them will have their orbits 
changed into ellipses with periodic tumes less than twice that of 
Jupiter. 

36. Another and perhaps a more important inquiry is this, 
what effect have the perturbations of the planet in bringing or 
not bringing the comets to move in the same direction that 
the planet is moving after the comets have by perturbation had 
their periodic times largely reduced. For simplicity and as a 
special example I shall consider the action of Jupiter only, 
and also only his action upon those comets whose periodic 
times are reduced to be less than Jupiter’s period, the original 
_ orbits of the comets being parabolic. In other words, how 
many of the 839 comets which are reduced (Art. 35,) to have 
periodic times less than Jupiter’s period will after perturbation 


have goals distant less than 15°, 30°, 45°, etc., severally from _ 


Jupiter’s goal ? 

37. Let BA, Fig. 19, be drawn to represent v, and CA to 
represent v,/2. With A as a center and AB and AC as 
radii describe the semicircumferences BLO and CHG. Let 
the angle BAH be made equal to w and BH be drawn; then 
HA will represent the comet’s velocity about the sun, BA the 
planets velocity about the sun, and therefore HB the comet’s 
velocity v) in its orbit about the planet before perturbation. 
About B as center describe the semicircumference KHT. 
Since the relative velocity after as well as before perturbation 
is equal to HB, therefore the velocity of the comet about the 
sun after perturbation will evidently be represented by a line 
drawn from some point in the semicircumference KHT to A. 
If the velocity is increased the new velocity will be represented 
by a line to A from some point in the are KH, if diminished 
by a line to A from some point in the arc HT. If the new 
velocity is less than the planet’s velocity, and so the new com- 
etic period less than the planet’s period, the new velocity will 
be represented by a line to A from some point in the are ET. 


486 H. A. Newton—Capture of Comets by Planets. 


If in a diagram constructed for o = BAH the isergonal curve 
be drawn for @ = 7, those comets for which d and / represent 
points within that isergonal curve will after perturbation have 
velocities represented by lines drawn from points in ET to A, 
while comets for which d and / represent points outside that 
isergonal curve will after perturbation have directions of 
motion represented by lines drawn to A from points in EHK. 


PO 


Fig. 19. 


The number of comets having motions represented by lines to 
A from points in ET will be proportional to the area of the 
isergonal curve @=7. Let the angle BAS represent a limit- 
ing value w”’ of distance of quits of comets from Jupiter’s quit 
after perturbation. The comets which are thus limited and at 
the same time have @<7 will be moving in lines directed to 
A from points in the area bounded by the straight lines SA 
and AF, and the ares FD and DS. Let @ receive an inere- 
ment dw = HA and let a new semicirecumference be drawn 
with BA as radius. To the elemental are HA will correspond 
the elemental area along the semicireumference KET. If ET 
lies wholly in SAFD the number of comets that pass the 
planet in a unit of time having initial angles of direction with 
Jupiter’s motion between » and w+dq@ will be equal to the 
area of the isergonal curve for @=7 multiplied by the elemen- 
tal number 42 sin wd, and by the relative velocity % sin @ 
of the comet perpendicular to the isergonal area. If the area 
of the isergonal curve be represented by %s* sin @, then this 
product will be 


@ P msin@da nv 
——,. v, sin 8, — = — Odds, 
S$" si0") 5° 2 4 
since /2v, = sv, and /2sin wdw = sds. 
38. This expresses the elemental number of comets corres- 
ponding to the elemental area Te. The integral of this 
expression, that is, 471v/%ds, so taken as to cover the area 


ee sa 


H, A. Newton— Capture of Comets by Planets. 487 


AFDS will give the number of comets which in a unit of time 
will pass the planet in such a way as to have @<7 and 
w'<BAS. When the elemental area does not extend from 
the are DS to the line BA, the area of another appropriate 
isergonal curve is to be used in determining @. 

By Art. 17 we have 


=r for-(€=2=22) 


For the elemental areas of the surface AFDS which end on 
the are DS we make @ =7, and let ®, be the resulting value 
of @; then #, = rmr'(4-s’). 

For elemental areas that end on the radius AS the values of 
@ on that line are functions of s. To compute them let v’ be 
the comet’s velocity in its orbit about the sun, and hence equal 
to the distance of the point on AS from A; then, by the tri- 
angle of velocities 


v7? + v?—2v'v cos @" =v.°=s'v,’. 


Again by the laws of gravitation, 


* 
o=(2—2 
@ 


r r , 
Hence cut iy rp cos a", 
@ @ 
@ 3—s’—2cos® w"2 cos o'"(s’— sin? w!’)* 
or === = 
r 9—8 cos’ w" —6s°+s° 


Let # and #” be the two values of ® obtained by substituting 
in ® these values of @, #” representing the value for the point 
nearer to A. 

39. If w’’ = 90°, and therefore cos w’”’ =0, we have along 
the limiting line, the two values of @ equal, hence 
@ and @'-= aheaks 


ae s*(3—s")” 


so that the number of comets having quits less than 90° from 


- Jupiter’s quit and @<v7r is 


v2 —1)d 
< © ds—— ogee Lee —s*)\ds—A4 f Ges ue 
si 


a 1 4 
AES == if 2)=" 7012 mnvum’7 


Since the whole number of such comets is (Art. 33) equal to 
‘925 3nvm’'r’, the number of comets the distance of whose quits 


Am. Jour. Scr.—THIRD SERIES, Vout. XLII, No. 252.—DEcEMBER, 1891. 


488 H. A. Newton—Capture of Comets by Planets. 


from Jupiter’s quit is between 90° and 180° is 224 mnum’r". 
The number of the comets for which @<7 that have inclina- 
tions to the ecliptic less than 90° is to the number that have 
inclinations greater than 90° as 701 is to 224. Of the 839 
comets spoken of ir Art, 36, 203 will after perturbation have 
retrograde motions, and 636 will have direct motions. 

40. If w’’ is less than 90° the expression to be integrated in 
order to cover the area SAF'D will be 


sin w’” 2 sin 40’ 1 
P,ds =e (f,— 2’) ds — @''ds. 
V2—1 “sino” sin w”” 


If w” is greater than 90° the corresponding expression 
becomes 
2sindw” /*2 sin 40” 
D,ds—_f B" ds. 
y2—-1 “1 
As the value of @ introduces into ®’ and ®” only one radical 
in s, and that a radical of the second degree, these integrations 
are possible. JT'inite summation is however more convenient. 
Computing the values for each interval of 15° we construct the 
following table. The first column indicates the interval in values 
of w’’; the second column gives that coefficient of 4arnym’'r"* that 
must be used to obtain the number of comets which in a unit 
of time will pass perihelion nearer than Jupiter’s distance to the 
sun, shall also have their periodic times reduced to be less than 
_ Jupiter’s period, and shall also leave Jupiter’s vicinity so that 
the distance between the quits of the two bodies is between the 
two values in column [; the third column indicates the distri- 
bution of the 889 comets of Art. 36 through the twelve zones. 


Tage III. 

Coefficient of ~ No. out of 
Limiting values of 0”. trnum’?r?, 839 comets. 
Krom. 0° tol 155 26 6 
From “15° "to" 30° 401 91 
Krom )30r<to0. 45- (51 170 
From, 45° “to 60° 670 152 
From: G0y to 275° teas 124 
From 75° to’ 90° 443 101 
From 90° to 105° 296 67 
From 105° to 120° 935 53 
From 120° to 135° 162 37 
From 135° to 150° 99 23 
From 150° to 165° 50 11 
From 165° to 180° 16 4 


We see also from the last column of this table that of the 
839 comets under consideration 267 have quits less than 45° 


in ne ee 


=~ a. 4 


7 iit ll he 


H. A. Newton— Capture of Comets by Planets. 489 


from Jupiter’s quit, while only 38 of them have quits within 
45° of Jupiter’s goal. 


41. Table III gives the distribution of the comet quits rela- | 


tive to Jupiter’s quit. It may also be used to determine how 
many of the comets whose orbits are thus changed shall have 
an inclination to the plane of Jupiter’s orbit less than a given 
angle. 

et the angle be 380°. Let Q be Jupiter’s quit on the celes- 
tial sphere, Q’ the comet’s quit and S the sun’s position as seen 
from Jupiter. Then in the triangle QQ’S put w” for QQ’ the 
distance of the quits. The side QS = 90°, and QSQ’ will be 
the inclination of the orbits, Represent this angle by 7 and 
the angle Q’QS by 7. Then sin y = cot w” cot. 

Let two small circles be drawn about Q at distances w’’ and 
w’+dw" then if dw” be made 15° the numbers in the second 
or third columns of table III indicate how many quits are in 


the several zones of 15° on the celestial sphere. These may: 


be distributed at smaller intervals than 15° by known processes. 
All the quits that le in the lune between two semicircles 


drawn through S so as to make angles of 30° with QS will evi- 


dently have orbits inclined less than 30° to Jupiter’s orbit. 
From ow” = 0 to w” = 30° all the quits are included in the lune. 
From w” = 30° to w’ = 90° we compute 7 from the equation 
sin 9 = cot w” cot 30°; then the portion of the quits in any 
elemental zone that fall in the lune is to the whole number of 
quits in that elemental zone as this value of 7 is to 90°. These 
may be summed by finite summation, and the result is that 
among the 839 comets 257 would move in orbits inclined less 
than 30° to the orbit of Jupiter 

42. If a like summation be made for the equal lune that 
contains Jupiter’s goal we find 51 to be the number out of the 
839 comets which move in orbits inclined more than 150° to 
Jupiter’s orbit. That is, somewhat more than Jive times as 
many of these comets move in direct orbits inclined less than 
30° to Jupiter's orbit as move in retrograde orbits inclined less 
than 30° to Jupiter’s orbit. 

43. The comet has been thus far considered as approaching Ju- 
piter while moving in a parabolic orbit about the sun. If the 
comet however is moving in any other orbit, and it passes near 
to the planet, the result of the planet’s perturbing action will 
in general be quite similar to the result when the orbit is para- 
bolic, the other circumstances of the approach being assumed 
to be alike in the two cases. 

44, These are perturbations during one transit past the planet. 
But the comet, unless the orbit is further changed by another 
planet, must return at each revolution to the place where it 


490 H. A. Newton—Capture of Comets by Planets. 


encountered Jupiter. At some time Jupiter will be nigh that 
place nearly at the same time as the comet, and the comet will 
suffer a new, and perhaps a large perturbation. Its period 
will again be changed, being shortened or lengthened accord- 
ing as the comet passes before or behind the planet. This 
process will be repeated again and again, since after any num- 
ber of encounters the new orbit of the comet will still pass 
near to the orbit of the planet. 7 

This repeated action makes it possible to have an orbit 
shortened in period by several passages near to Jupiter instead 
of its being done at one passage. A much larger proportion 
of comets than 839 out of 1,000,000,000 might therefore have 
their periodic times reduced below the period of Jupiter. 

45. If the comet’s orbit is largely inclined to the ecliptic and 
hence it’ motion makes a large angle with that of Jupiter the 
diagraixs figs. 10-18 show that there is nearly an even chance 
‘that the velocity will be increased or diminished. A consider- 
able fractional part of the whole number of such comets will 
at each passage be thrown out of the solar system altogether, or 
thrown into such long orbits that they will return only at 
very great intervals of time. This class of comets cannot be 
therefore regarded as permanent members of the family of 
short period comets, except such of them as happen to come 
so near to other planets as to have their orbits changed in such 
wise that they do not have thereafter the near approach to 
Jupiter’s orbit. But when an orbit is greatly inclined to the 
plane of the solar system the comet passes through the plane in 
general at a considerable angle and the chance of coming close | 
to another planet is relatively small. 

46. On the other hand all the comets which after perturba- 
tion are moving in orbits somewhat but not greatly inclined to 
the ecliptic are liable to meet, in fact are sooner or later almost 
certain to meet- other planets in such a way as to suffer pertur- 
bations that will prevent future close encounters with Jupiter. 
After such changes those comets must be regarded as tolerably 
permanent members of the solar system. 

47. Comets that have motions not greatly inclined to Jupiter's 
motion are, as figs. 2 and 4 show, more likely in subsequent 
passages near to Jupiter to have their periodic times shortened 
than lengthened. On the contrary those passing in nearly 
opposite direction to Jupiter’s motion will as figs. 3, 5 and 7 
show, be much more likely to have their periods lengthened 
than shortened. 

All these causes combine and work together to the one end 
that those comets which are changed by the perturbing action 
of Jupiter, or other planets, from parabolic orbits of every 
possible inclination to the ecliptic into short period ellipses 


FF. P. Dunnington—Distribution of Titanic Ouide. 491 


and become permanent members of the solar system, will as a 
rule (but with exceptions) move in orbits of moderate inclina- 
tion to the ecliptic, and with direct motions. 

We know asa fact that most short period comets do move 
in orbits having small inclinations and direct motions, while 
long period and parabolic comets move at all possible inclina- 
tions to the ecliptic. If the short period comets have been 
changed by J upiter and other planets from parabolic orbits, 
the preceding investigation shows why their orbits have now 
small inclinations to the ecliptic, and the comets themselves 
have direct motions. 


Art. LIII.—Distribution of Titanic Oxide upon the sur- 
face of the Harth; by F. P. Dunnineron, University of 
Virginia, Charlottesville, Va. 


At the Ann Arbor meeting of the Association for the 
Advancement of Science in 1885, I read a short paper* which 
considered the occurrence of titanic oxide in considerable 
amount in certain soil of Albemarle Co., Va.; and in an article 
publishedt in 1888, by Mr. J. F. McCaleb and myself, we 
presented estimations of this substance in sixteen specimens of 
soil from scattered points of the United States. 

In view of the unfrequent mention of this element as a con- 
stituent of rocks and the very rare mention of its occurrence 
in soils, I have endeavored to secure samples of soil and some 
rocks from points scattered over the earth’s surface ; and, inelud- 
ing the before mentioned sixteen, I herewith present the 
results of examining eighty specimens. 

The method employed in the recent determinations is the 
following: weigh into a platinum crucible one gram of the 
powdered sample, ignite, again weigh, then moisten with water 
and add 2 or 3 «ce. of hydrofluoric acid,t gradually heat to 
dryness, add about 7 grams of sodium acid sulphate, gradu- 
ally heat to low redness for 1 or 2 hours, cool, digest in 
5 per cent diluted sulphuric acid for several hours, filter, to 
filtrate§ add about 1 cc. of hydrogen peroxide solution and 
compare the color so produced with one similarly obtained 
from a standard solution of titanic oxide. 


PoP TOC WA. fA. jAs Oe, SKIV ILS. ¢ American Chem. Jour., x, 36. 

¢ This acid was used: before seeing the article of Dr. Noyes in Jour. Anal. 
Chem, v, 39. 

§ Method of A. Weller: Berichte d. deutsch. chem. Gesell., xv, 2592. 


492 Ff P. Dunnington—Distribution of Titanic Oxide 


To present a more satisfactory comparison with the amount 
of titanic oxide in the rocks, the percentage on the ignited 
soil is given together with that on the air-dried soil. 

Nos. (1) to (12) are all from Albemarle Co, Va. (1) is 
dark red clay, from COarter’s mountain, farm of Rev. J. T. 
Randolph being the soil from which was formed a fulgerite (?) 
which first drew my attention to this occurrence of titanic 
oxide. (2), deep red clay, one mile south of (1). (8), red clay, 
one mile north of (1). (4), red clay, one-half mile west of (1). 
(5), light red sand, one mile northwest of (1). (6), red bot- 
tom soil, one and one-half miles northwest of (1). (7), white 
micaceous soil, near McCormick Observatory, University Va., 
_ and three miles west of (1). (8), near chemical laboratory of 
University Va. (9), mica schist, one-half mile north of (8). 
(10), deep red clay, ten miles southwest of (1). (11), red clay 
ten miles west of (1). (12), Diorite, the rock which is most 
common in the above locality. . 

Nos. (18) to (17) are from other points in Virginia: No. (13), 
is deep red clay from farm of Mr. J. Shelton, Lowesville, Nel- 
son Co. No. (14) a dark gray clay from swamp on Rappa- 
hannock River in Stafford: Co. No. (15), a gray sandy loam, 
near Williamsburg, James City Co. No. (16), a yellow clay, 
per Mr. F. P. Brent, Onancock Creek, Accomac Co. No. (17), 
white sea sand, from Virginia Beach, Princess Anne Co. The 
pee of titanic oxide found in these respectively is as 

ollows: : 


Air-dried. Air-dried. Air-dried. Tgnited. 
(1) 5°42 Gay OTE (13) .c 187 
(2) 21-45 (8) 2°86 (14) 0°88 
(3) 2°73 (9) 1°14 (15) 0°49 0°50 
(4) 2°73 (103) 5 ea (16) 0°80 0°84 
(5) 0°33 (GiB jaeihees (igs Rete Ss. 0°07 
(GV Ese T2 (12) "1s". SAyverave tae 


Nos. (18) to (40) are from other portions of the United 
States. No. (18), a light brown loam, per Dr. A. C. Hopkins, 
Charlestown, W. Va. No. (i9), a gray loam, per Mr. J. W. 
Rinehart, Foote, Mineral Co., W. Va. No. (20), pale red loam, 
a ‘limestone soil” per Mr. ©. C. Councilman, Worthington’s 
valley, Baltimore Co., Md. No. (21), a gray yellow loam, per 
Dr. Simon Gage, Cornell University, N. Y. No. (22), a gritty 
yellow loam, per Dr. F. P. Venable, Chapel Hill, N. C. No. 
(23), a light yellow clay, 1 foot deep, per Mr. R. M. Cooper, 
near Black River, Sumter Co., 8. C. No. (24) a gray clay per 
Dr. P. S. Baker, over Carboniferous Limestone, Greencastle, 


upon the surface of the Karth. - 493 


Ind. No. (25) a gray clay, per Dr. W. A. Noyes,* Terra Haute, 
Ind. No. (26), a deep orange clay sub-soil per Prof. C. E. 
Wait, Knoxville, Tenn. No. (27), a pinkish china clay froma 
10-foot seam, and No. (28), a coarse gray clay from an 18 foot 
seam, both per Mr. W. R. Searcy, Tuscaloosa, Ala. No. (29), 
a heavy gray clay, per Mr. A. P. Wright, River bottom soil, 
Bolivar Co., Miss. No. (80), light red surface loam and No. 
(31), a gray sub-soil, both per Mr. Thos. Dunnington, Pine 
Bluff, Ark. No. (32), a brown clay, 6 feet deep, per Prof. W. 
H. Echols, Rolla, Mo. No. (83), a pale gray loam, per Dr. F. 
W. Traphagen, Deer Lodge, Montana. No. (84), a gray alka- 
line soil, from Truckee Valley, Nevada. No. (35), a yellow 
surface clay, per Dr. Masser, Los Angeles, Cal. No. (86), a 
brown clay, 3 feet deep, per Prof. H. E. Storrs, Los Angeles, 
Cal. Nos. (37) to (40) were sent by Prof. E. W. Hilgard, 
Berkeley, Cal. No. (37), upland red loam Station No. 1226, from 
Yuba River near Smartsville. No. (88), yellow gray Mesa soil, 
Station No. 1281, from Chino Ranch Station, San Bernardino 
Co. No. (39), “Red Mountain Land,” Station No. 188, from 
a vineyard in Sonora Co. No. (40), a red loam, Station No. 
1110, Thermolite Colony, Butte Co. ’ : 

The percentage of titanic oxide found in these respectively 
is as follows: 


Air-dried. Ignited. Air-dried. Ignited. Air-dried. Ignited. 
(18) 0°83 0°88 (26) 0°46 0°50 (84) 0°57 
(19) 0°88 0°98 (27) £01 dg 22 (35) 0°72 0°82 
ra) ana el ey 1°26 (28) 0°67 0°76 (36) 0°49 0°53 
{21) 0°55 0°58 (29) 0°46 0°61 (37) 0°77 0°85 
(22) 0:49 0°55 (30) 0°52 0°62 (38) 0°72 0°75 
(23) 0°57 0°61 (31) 0°60 0°62 (39) 4°93 6°05 
(24) 0°71 0°76 (32) 0°57 0°65 (40) 0°90 0°97 
(25) 0°58 0°62 (33) 0°44 050 Average 0°85 0°98 


Sandwich Islands. No. (41),a dark brown loam. No. (42), 
a yellow brown loam. No. (48), a yellow brown loam. No. 

(44), a brown clay. No. (45), a gray brown loam. No. (46), a 
' light gray china clay and No. (47), a gray china clay, both per 
Miss Mildred Page, Tokio, Japan. No. (48), a piece of a gray 
brick from the Great Wall of China, per Rev. Collins Denny. 
No. (49), a pink clay and No. (50), a yellow loam subsoil from 
the bank of the Yellow River, and No. (51) a fine yellow silt 
from the old bank of the Yellow River. The three last speci- 
mens were sent by Dr. Edgar Woods, Tsing-Kiang-Pu, China. 
No. (52), light red pottery, from Kurrachee, Sind, India. No. 


* Dr. Noyes writes that he has recently found from °5 to 4° per cent of titanic 
oxide in a number of minerals from Arkansas. 


494. FF. P. Dunnington—lMistribution of Titanic Oxide 


(53), dark brown crucible clay and No. (54) red furnace clay; 
both from Tumkur, India. The three last specimens were 
sent by H. B. M’s Secretary for India. No. (55), gray loam 
from the shore of the Sea of Galilee, Palestine, per Rev. Col- 
lins Denny, of Vanderbilt University. 

The percentage of titanic oxide found in these respectively 
is given below, and in making an average the specimens (41) to 
(45) are counted as one. 


Air-dried. Ignited. Air-dried. Ignited. Air-dried. Ignited. 
(41) 043 9" 5-25 (47) 0°40 0°50 (53),.0°62.. gs 
(22) 2s a (48) 0°55  O-a5 (54) 028) iteam 
Mas) 9°25 3°11 (49) 0°58 0°68 (55) 1°80 (?) 1-90 
(44) 4:00 4°64 (50) 0°60 0°65 Average 0:90 1-18 
(45) 2°78 3°37 (51) 0°54 0°56 
(46) 0-70 ° 0-80 (52) 0°69 


Nos. (56) to (72) are soils from Europe.—Nos. (56) to (62) 
are from Russia and were sent by Prof. Nich, Menschutkin, 
Kaiser. University, St. Petersburg. No. (56) isa yellow sandy 
loam, “Souglinok,” from Borovitsky, Novgorod.’ No. (57), 
dark gray loam, Prof. Docoutschaefi’s type, “Solonetz” (bar- 
ren black earth), Prilouky, Poltava. No. (58), brown gray 
loam, forest soil, Zenkovsky, Poltava. No. (59), dark gray 
loam, “Tschernosem,” (black earth), Prilouki, Poltava. No. 
(60), sandy black earth, ‘‘ Tschernosem,” Zenkovetsky, Polkava. 
No. (61), black earth, ‘“Tschernosem,” Balashoff, Saratoff. No. 
(62), black earth, ‘‘Tschernosem,” Zoubrilovka, Saratov. No. 
(63), white porcelain clay from Halle, Prussia. No. (64,) 
white porcelain clay from St. Yrieux near Limoges, France. 
No. (65), yellow gray loam from Florence, Italy, per Dr. C. L.. 
Minor, of New York. Nos. (66) to (72) are from Great Britain 
and were collected for me by Prof. W. G. Brown, of Lexing- 
ton, Va. No. (66) black garden soil, Kensington, London. . 
No. (67), dark gray loam from coast near Brighton. No. (68), 
gray loam, Liverpool. No. (69), gray sandy loam, Donington, 
Lincolnshire. No. (70), gray sandy loam, Cambridge. No. 
(71), brown yellow clay, Inversnaid, Loch Lomond, Scotland. 
No. (72), brown clay, under Forth bridge, N. Queensferry. 

The percentage of titanic oxide found in these respectively 
is as follows: 


(56) 0°54 0°57 (62) 0°56 0-78 (68) 0-41 0°46 
(57) 0°40 = 048 (63) 0°08 0°08 (69) 0-45 0:49 
(58) 060 0-70 (64) 0-015 0017 (70) 050° Wie 
(59) 0°32 0°34 (65) 0°58 0°62 (71) 0°85 0°89 
(60) 058 0°66 (66) 0°21 0:27 (72) 2°36 2:59 


(61), 0°62 0°79 (67) 0°46 0°52 Average 0°54 0°62 


upon the surface of the Earth. 495 


This wide distribution of titanic oxide naturally suggests 
the examination of the rocks themselves. I have so far been 
able to examine only the following typical rocks, the localities 
of which have furnished also the samples for analyses already 
published: (73), Trachyte, Kiihlsbrunnen. (74), Trachyte. 
(75), Trachyte, Drachenfels. (76), Hornblende andesite, Wol- 
kenburg. These four were from the Siebengebirge. (77), 
Gabbro, Radauthal, Harzburg.* (78), Melaphyr, [lmenau, 
Schneidemuller-berg. (79), Melaphyr, Plauenschen Grunde, 
near Dresden. (80), Nosean phonolite, Castle Olbriick, Laacher 
See. These afford the following : 


TiO, mentioned in published analysis. TiO, found. 

(73) none Zirkel, II, p. 181 0°29 
(74) none a p. 182 0°86 
(75) 0°38 Q p. 181 0°64 
(70) > mone o p- 212 1°14 
(77) none o p. 116 0°10 
(78) 0°89 Pury | OS 1:01 
(79) trace Zirkel I, p. 584 0°36 
(80) none i. 0°18 

| Average 0°56 


While the frequent association of titanium with iron (as 
indicated by the color after ignition), in these soils points to 
menaccanite as a source of the titanic oxide; yet the con- 
siderable amount of this substance in some of the clays and 
rocks containing little iron suggests that it may also result 
from titanite which has been observedt to be widely dis- 
tributed in igneous rocks. | 

In conclusion I desire to thank those who have assisted me 
in this work by supplying the desired specimens. 


Sept., 1891. 


Art. LIV.—Wotes on a Missouri Barite; by C. LUEDEKING 
and H. A. WHEELER. 


A VARIETY of barite is found in Pettis County, Mo., that 
presents peculiar chemical and crystallographic characteristics. 
It occurs in clusters of simple and compound crystals that 
individually are quite perfect and which vary in size from 10 
to 200™™ in length by 1 to 30™™ in thickness and are of tabular 
habit. The peculiarity of the crystals is the occurrence of 

*J find in Bischoff III, page 467: Gabbro from Rodanthal bei Steinbruch, con- 


tains TiO.—1°75 per cent. 
+ Dana’s System of Mineralogy, p. 389. 


496 Luedehing and Wheeler—Notes on a Missouri Barite. 


white to yellowish thin bands in an otherwise normal colorless 
barite, and analysis shows that these bands consist of a mixture 
of the sulphates of barium and strontium with slight amounts 
of calcium and ammonium. 

Two distinct types of the banded crystals occur, of which 
one type (A, B) is found near Smithton, while the other type (C, 
D, E) is found at Sedalia, both localities being within seven 
miles of each other in Pettis Co., Mo. They occur in clay 
associated with galena in the lead-bearing magnesia limestone 
series of Missouri, which latter in that locality usually has 
barite very abundantly associated with the lead ores. 


The crystal, A, consists of the right rhombic prism, bev- 
eled by the right rhombic pyramid and truncated by the basal 
pinacoid ; another crystal, B, is in addition modified by the 
macro- and brachydomes, which, like the pyramid, have very 
low values for the coefficient of the vertical axis. All the 
faces of the modifications of the A and B forms of erystals, 
except the basal pinacoid, are coated with an opaque white 
variety of barite, next to which is a colorless band followed by 
a narrow white band, the body of the erystal being clear and 
colorless. The inner white band is from 0°5 to 1:0™ wide 


Luedeking and Whéeler—Notes on a Missouri Barite. 497 


and persistently occurs in all the Smithton specimens that 
have been examined in relatively the same position with re- 
spect to the development of the crystal, whether large or small 
in size. The white coating that fringes the crystals is usually 
superficial, as it most frequently is found to be underlaid by a 
clear wine-colored ground mass; in some crystals however the 
opaque matter entirely replaces this latter. 
The simple tabular crystal C has a clear colorless interior 
inclosed within a subtransparent wine-colored band 1°5™™ in 
width, that is adjoined by a white opaque band 0°5™™ in width ; 


both of these bands are parallel to the prismatic faces as like- 


wise the cleavage crack shown in the drawing.: The outer 
edge of this crystal is transparent but has the slight bluish 
tinge indicative of strontium. 

The twinned group of crystals shown in D have the edges 
of the right rhombic prism modified by either one, two or 
three modifications of the macrodome, and truncated as usual 
by the basal pinacoid ; in this type only the faces of the prism 
are coated with the opaque white barite, the rest of the mate- 
rial consisting of clear colorless and essentially pure barite. 
The thickness of this coating is variable on different faces of 
the prism, being appreciably greater on the upper face in some 
and on the lower face in other crystals and varying from 0-2 
to 2:2" in thickness; but in every case the opaque barite is 
only found on the prismatic faces. 

The crystal E is a member of the same cluster of crystals 
from which D was taken. It consists of only the simple 
rhombic prism which is thinly fringed with white barite, but 
on one of the basal faces is a series of irregular lines of a fine 
white pulverulent material that suggests the deposition of a 
sediment on an inclined surface. A subsequent deposition of 


clear barite has preserved this pulverulent matter 2m sztw. 


An analysis of the white barite showed it to be somewhat 
variable in composition, but the following gives its general 
character. 


ianumarsulpliate wet Wie ON so! 87-2 per cent. 

Strontium sulphate. .2. 2. j 2022.2 _ aeQte 4s 

Calciummsulphates |: ere ai Ong) « 

Ammonium sulphates. 2/2 S022. 22. E20, 2/6 

SViatern ovr ie ote ye Dorset ee 
100°9 


The occurrence of ammonium sulphate in barite is quite 
novel. The amount seems to be somewhat greater in the yel- 
low than in the white variety by about 0:1 per cent and is 


498 C. Barus—The Contraction of Molten Rock. 


always very small, and occasionally scarcely appreciable. The 
isomorphism of ammonium sulphate, saints ae with barite 
is worthy of notice. 

When the powdered white or yellow material 3 is heated in a 


closed tube an appreciable sublimate of ammonium salts is. 


obtained and at the same time an empyreumatic odor is notice- 
able. It was thought that perhaps the sublimate might be due 
to the decomposition of nitrogenous organic matter by the 
heat employed. That this was not the case was proved by the 
fact that it was possible by cold extraction with water to obtain 
very decided Nessler reactions for ammonia. It is therefore 
assumed by the writers that the ammonium occurs as maseag- 
nite in association with the other sulphates. 

Specimens of these Pettis Co. barites were sent to Mr. F. 
W. Clarke, of the chemical department of the U.S. Geological 
Survey, and were kindly examined by Dr. W. F. Hillebrand, 
who confirms the presence of ammonia. Mr. J. 8. Diller, of 
the U. 8. Geological Survey, also examined them microscopi- 
eally and finds that the opacity is probably due to the presence 
of myriads of cavities which seem to be filled with air. 


We wish to herewith express our thanks to these gentlemen, ~- 
as well as also to Dr. Hambach of St. Louis and Mr. pee 4 , 


of Sedalia for samples furnished. 


Art. LV.—The Contractiun of Molten Rock; by C. BARUS. 


AT the request of Mr. Clarence King I made the following 
volume measurements on a sample of diabase which he fur- 
nished. In the method employed, both the contraction of the 
rock and of the vessel containing it, were measured simulta- 
neously, and cooling was conducted so slowly that the viscosity 
of the latter remained indefinitely high relatively to the 
former, throughout. Four series of data are in hand, the 
last two of which are full and satisfactory. Thus if 3a be the 
mean coéfficient of actual volume expansion (or contraction), 
and 38 be the actual volume decrement on solidifying. where 
both 3a and 38 are referred to the unit of volume of solid rock 
at zero centigrade, I found in the third series between 0° and 
1000°, 3a = 250/10"; between 1100° and 1500°, 38a = 470/10' ; 
at 1095° op =e 39/10°: and in the fourth series, similarly, 
SoS 250/10 oo = 468/10’, 3B = + 34/10", respectively. Fu- 
sion of igneous rock (diabase) is therefore not only quite normal 
in type, but sharp at a definite melting point. ‘Thus the volume 
increments (V4 — Vo)/Vo, at consecutive temperatures, ¢, during 


& J 
iw” 4 


Lane and Keller—Notes on Michigan Minerals. 499 


contraction of the originally liquid mass were found to be, for 
instance (fourth series): O-O771 at 1421°, 0-0760 at 1388°, 
0:0730 at 1819°, 0°0721 at 1805°, 0:°0661 (sticky) at 1190°, 
0:0652 (very sticky) at 1163°, -0628 at 1112°, falling off event- 
ually to 00285 at 1093°, 0-0223 at M146, 0-U202 at 855°, ete. 
Conversely since sudden bulk contraction is a criterion for 
solidifying point, these results lead to sharp values for this 
datum. 

Finally, the density of the original (cold) rock was 3:0178 
(four measurements) and the density of the (cold) glass after 
fusion 2717 (three measurements). Now I have been at con- 
siderable pains to show that the chemical equilibrium of a 
substance (solid or liquid) varies with pressure. Since, there- 
fore, the glass obtained by fusion is permanently homogeneous 
in character, structural rock texture is due to pressure; 1. e. 
pressure induces a redistribution of molecules, such that the 
smallest specific volume possible under the given conditions 
may result. Hence it is permissible to conceive a solution- 
fusion mechanism, in virtue of which, by the mere act of 
pressure, volume changes of an order of even 13 per cent may 
present themselves. 


Art. LVI.—Wotes on Michigan Minerals ;* by A. C. LANE, 
H. I’. Keuuer and fF. F. SHARPLEsS. 


Contents: 1. CHLoRIToOID [L. and K.] § 1. Historical introduction. 2. Sum- 
mary of results. 3. Physical characters. 4. Chemical analysis. 5. Paragenesis. 
6. Comparison with previous results. 

2. GRUNERITE[L. and S.] § lL. Historical introduction. 2. Physical characters, 
3. Chemical characters. 4. Comparison with other ferromagnesian monoclinic 
amphiboles. 

3. RIEBECKITE [L.] § 1. Occurrence and optical character. 


1. CHLORITOID. 


§ 1. This mineral has been known to occur in the Upper 


} peninsula of Michigan for some years. It was first described, 


so far as we know, by Wadswortht+ as occurring at Humboldt. 
It may be found about one thousand feet 8. of the station of 
the D.S. 8. and A. R. R., and oceurs in scales 2™™ to 4™™ 
broad. It also occurs at points east and west in the same 
tange, e.g. the Fiteh Mine, 8. 24, T. 47, R. 28, and from 8. 
29, T. 47, R. 26. Recently we have found it, in dark green 


* From the laboratory of the Michigan Geological Survey, with the permission 
of M. E. Wadsworth, State Geologist. 
+ Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., vol. vii, 1880, p. 45. 


500 Lane and Keller—Notes on Michigan Minerals. 


plates several centimeters broad and up to 4™™ thick at the 
Champion Iron Mine. As it was so very large, not very im- 
pure, and extremely like the masonite from Natick village, 
Warwick township, R. I., it seemed worth while to examine it 
both chemically and optically. The results have brought out 
some new facts, which we feel justified in giving now, since 
previous data have been neither complete nor accordant, even 
though we hope to continue our investigations into the chlori- 
toid group. 7 

§ 2. We may summarize our results as follows. All the 
Michigan chloritoids, as well as the masonite, a chloritoid from 
Pregratten, one from Leeds, Canada, and one from the Apen- 
nines, appear to be optically the same. They have the usual 
trichroism and are pronouncedly triclinic. The axis of mean 
elasticity (6) is inclined some 20° to the basis (001), so that of 
the twin lamellee parallel to the basis, which commonly oceur 
in three sets, that one has the greatest angle of extinction 
which is most blue in color. The horizontal dispersion is 
strong. Tig. 1 shows the lateral cleavages, and a stereographic 
- projection on the basis of the orientation of the optical axes. 

Ali the chloritoids that we have tested, i. e. those from 
Champion, Pregratten and Natick contain constitutional alkali. 
In this respect, as otherwise in qualitative composition they 
resemble hornblendes of like pleochroism. Ottrelite from 
Ottrez seems to be optically as well as chemically different, 
and less pleochroiec. 

Spe § 3. The detailed description of 
the Champion cbloritoid is as fol- 
‘ lows: H. 65. Sp. G. 8°552. Cleav- 
' age basal, perfect, but often warped. 
One lateral cleavage (¢) and traces 
of two or three others can be seen. 
The color is dark green, almost 
black to the naked eye. It is 
decidedly brittle. 
~-%!| The measurements given below, 
used in constructing fig. 1, were ’ 
mainly made with the microscope. 
To a few of the better determined 
ones we append the probable error 
[P. E.]. The material is not suited 
for exact determinations. 

The / bpt =the Z between the 
traces on the basis of the two lat- 
eral cleavages nearest to the two directions of extinction. 


+exonpl ~ - fee -__ +ex.on b 


o BO 


Lane and Keller—Notes on Michigan Minerals. 501 


= 65°°1 [P.E. = 0°:088] 
ipm=an, 3 
ipb =a. -6 | P.E. =A), pag! 
p:t (? the best cleavage) = 80°3 + x 3 (cleavage faces) 


6? = 833° : Be aS — 
+ 10 

° Q = 8 6<¢ ce 

ae OE == §4 10 


These angles from the basis to the lateral cleavage were 
taken with a reflection goniometer. The lateral faces gave 
only a “ schimmer.” 

The sense of the angle from p to ¢, m and 4, is still uncer- 
tain, i. e. it is possible, though not probable, that one or more 
of them may be on the other side of py. The angle from the 
negative extinction to the trace of 6, in basal sections, is 14° 
[P.E. = 0°:42]. The angle from the positive extinction to the 
trace of ¢ should be, by calculation 11°. Certain observations 
give 12°°3. The directions of extinction in basal cleavage 
fragments vary from being nearly parallel to the trace of ¢, ‘to 
being nearly perpendicular to the trace of 6, which last position 
agrees best with the observations of previous writers: This 
variation is doubtless due to superposed twinned lamelle. The 
thinner fragments which have least signs of twinning, i. e.: 
sharpest extinctions and purest pleochroism, give an extinction 
angle about as drawn. 

For ¢, i. e. in cleavage bits that have a strong pleochroism, 
blue to yellow, and appear to be parallel to 7, the extinction 
angle against the trace of p averages 18°-6, but there is a 
strong dispersion of the extinction; ex. p<ex.v. Values as 
high as 21° oceur often. Such cleavage fragments are very 
frequent. 

In cleavage bits that are apparently parallel to b, and have a 
pleochroism from green to yellow, the extinction angle is 
almost inappreciable. A section artificially cut nearly per-. 
pendicular to p and parallel to m (probably) gave an extinction 
angle of 8°. The best cleavage follows ¢, the next 4, a very 
poor one 7, and there seem to be traces of a Ee: perpen- 
dicular to B. 

The refraction by the de Chaulnes method is about 1°75, 
the bi-refraction, judging from the brightest polarization 
colors, about 0°007, not above that of quartz. [According to 
Lacroix it is 0° 015, but doubtless it varies with the ratio of 
Mg: Fe.] 

In convergent light the positive acute bisectrix emerges 
doubly obliquely, i. e. so that when the cross is formed, neither 
arm passes exactly through the center of the field of view. 


502 Lane and Keller —Notes on Michigan Minerals. 


_ The arm corresponding to the plane 7f lies nearest the center. 
The veal obliquity of 7 appears to be about 17°. The direc- 
tion of 7 from the center of the field of view, i. e. the normal 
to p, makes an angle of about 150° with the direction of f ;i. e. 
7 p @=150° cirea. The optical angle does not appear large. 
(According to Lacroix it is 45°. | 

From the double obliquity of the axial image it follows that 
the position of formation of a cross by closing in of the hyper- 
bolas, which occurs approximately when is in the direction of 
one of the principal planes of the nicols, will not be a position 
of extinction. The angle to be turned varies but is always 
noticeable. ‘The formation of the cross is almost exactly paral- 
lel to the trace of 7, and makes an angle against the direction 
of extinction of from 8° to 11°. The axial image is of course 
liable to disturbance from the twinning. 

The direction of y from the normal to p also seems to make 
an angle of about 80° with the trace of 4, (in the sense opposite 
to that of the angle 02?). ! 

These data harmonize fairly, but not absolutely, and it must 
be remembered that the directions of extinction do not pass 
exactly through 7. By every indication, however, 7 lies within 
the small circle marking its position. . 

The pleochroism is as usnal:—y, yellow; £, blue, (not so 
far as I have noticed reddish); a, green. ,This so far as color is 
concerned is precisely that of certain hornblende, approaching 
glaucophane, which occurs in the crystalline schists and has a 
cellular structure [e. 2. specimen No. 11270 of the Mich. Geol. 
Survey.]| The pleochroism of such hornbiende has also been 
noted by Lacroix. Moreover, such hornblendes like chloritoid 
contain alkali as well as Fe, Mg, Al,, Fe, and Si. 

Transverse sections of the plates of chloritoid frequently 
show twinned lamelle parallel to the basis, though this Cham- 
pion chloritoid has sometimes thick untwinned plates. In 
such cases, as might be expected if the twinning was accord- 
ing to Tschermak’s law for the micas, there are three sets of 
lamelle, with different extinction angles. The larger extine- 
tion angles are in those lamelle where the pleochroism is most 
purely blne in one direction,—that near to #. The other 
lamelle: where the change of color is from green to yellow 
have far smaller extinction angles. When one set of lamellee 
have a very large extinction angle, the other two sets have 
generally quite small angles. 

§ 4. The analysis of the carefully selected material gave the 
following results :— 


Lane and Keller—Notes on Michigan Minerals. 503 


Mol. ratio. 
Eee es see 24°29 4048 
ree yo SS: 0°28 0035 
Oy .2 eo Sees -84'00 aaa at) 
tO.) 2x5 eee ee 10°55 0659000 7 
EON 6 5 epee eid & 20°51 2850 | 
__ ORE pee te a trace 
Ey a ee 1-29 0430 +9432 
1? ORS 061 0152 
SE ener 0-97 0103 ) 
Mime ee OD 0059 } *3906 
J 2) jae pen Sala 6°75 3744 { 


Sum 99°60 


From these figures we deduce the formula H,,Fe, Al,,Si,O,, 
or 8H,0°7FeO-8AI,O,:8Si0,, which is nearly identical with 
that now generally accepted for sismondine.* It will be ob- 
served, however, that the composition of our mineral, as we 
have determined it, differs from the published analyses of the 
latter in two respects: the iron is largely in the ferric condi- 
tion, and alkalies occur in notable quantity. Since the micro- 
scopic examination of the material revealed only traces of 
sericite, and the magnetite had been carefully extracted with 
the magnet, it is evident that the ferric oxide as well as the 
alkalies are essential constituents of this chloritoid. ‘The ferric 
oxide without doubt replaces part of the alumina, while the 
alkalies, it may be assumed, are substitutes for some of the 
hydroxyl-water. We have reason to believe that alkalies have 
been overlooked in many of the former analyses of chloritoid 
and the allied species. An examination of the masonite from 
Natick, for instance, showed them to be present to upwards of 
two per cent—the soda predominating—and a qualitative test 
disclosed small amounts of both potash and soda in the Pre- 
gratten occurrence. The titanic acid in our analysis was doubt- 
less contributed by a slight admixture of ilmenite or rutile. 

§ 5. Now, comparing our data with those generally given, 
we find that all authorities agree,—first, in the pleochroism ; 
secondly, that 7 is the positive acute bisectrix; thirdly, that 
there is a marked dispersion, e<v. Lacroix also mentions the 
horizontal dispersion. There is a decided difference, however, 
as to the direction of the axes of elasticity, y, Sanda. It is 
perhaps worth noting that in Rosenbusch’s ‘“ Microscopie 
Physiography” there is a statement on page 494, that in 
masonite the pleochroism of a is blue and 8 green. This is 


* Groth, Tabell. Uebersicht, 3 ed., p. 118. 
Am. Jour. Sc1..—Tuirp Series, Vout. XLII, No. 252.—DrcEMBEr, 1891. 
34 


504 Lane and Keller—Notes on Michigan Minerals. 


not true and we are told to strike it out in the errata, but the 
statement may have arisen from the fact that 8 is at a much 
greater angle to the basal cleavage than a, as we believe that 
Sanger was still at work on the chloritoids when he was inter- 
rupted by his last illness, and never put his work in final shape. 
For, as we have seen in our material, sections which show a 
change from blue to yellow are those which have the greatest 
extinction, whereas according to the orientation given in the 
Physiography they should have no angle of extinction. The 
ottrelite from Ottrez, however, shows no marked difference of 
color in the different twin Jamellee parallel to the basis. La- 
croix merely remarks that the extinctions are longitudinal but 
much dispersed. 

The triclinic character of chloritoid seems assured, for: (1), 
sections showing the pleochroism of # and 7, i. e. perpendicu- 
lar to a, have a large and dispersed angle of extinction. Con- 
sequently if monoclinic, a must be parallel to the orthodiago- 


nal 6, inasmuch as f# and + are inclined to the basal cleavage. 
Then lateral cleavage fragments showing the pleochroism from 
blue to yellow should also exhibit the directly perpendicular 
emergence of a negative bisectrix. This is not the case. 

(2.) The lateral cleavages have not a corresponding sym- 
metry. 

(3.) In a monoclinic mineral the emergence of an axial image 
from a fragment due to a solitary perfect cleavage cannot be 
doubly oblique,. but when the axial image is in the shape 
of a cross, one arm must pass through the center of the field 
of view. Or, which amounts to the same thing, when the 
mineral is in the position of extinction with parallel light, on 
changing to convergent light, without disturbing the mineral, 
the axial image must be that of a cross with one bar extending 
directly across the field of view. In this case, although the 
possible effect of twinning makes observations on basal see- 
tions the least trustworthy, it is nevertheless pretty certain that 
the above condition is not fulfilled. 

The various apparent lateral cleavage lines are numerous. 
Lacroix gives a third cleavage bisecting the acute angle be- 
tween the two better ones, while Rosenbusch describes it as 
bisecting the obtuse angle. Traces of both seem to occur, or 
rather it seems as if lines corresponding both to “ druckfigur” 
and “schlagfigur” occurred. Obviously however in erystals 
made up of twin lamelle as these so often are, cleavage lines 
are liable to pass, or be imposed, from one lamella to the next 
at an angle of about 60° from their proper direction. 

§ 6. The discussion of the paragenesis and occurrence must 
be left till later. Suffice it to say that the Champion chlori- 
toid occurs in a schist which bears a general resemblance to the 


Lane and Sharpless—Notes on Michigan Minerals. 505 


schist famous for its large pseudomorphs of chlorite after 
garnet. The most abundant impurities are ilmenite and mag- 
netite. Rutile, quartz and sericite are much less common. The 
analyzed material was examined under the microscope and, 
though not absolutely pure, was but slightly contaminated. 
The chloritoid is evidently averse to enclosing the brown mica 
and chlorite which also occur in the rock and they occur only 
at its very margins. All the Michigan chloritoids, so far as 
yet known, occur in altered arkoses or similar rocks, in one 
case both in the cement and in the basic and acid pebbles of a 
conglomerate. | 


2. Grtwerirte [L. and S8.] 


§ 1. There is a peculiar amphibole, associated with certain 
iron ores of Lake Superior, which has been called both actino- 
lite and anthophyllite. The latter name is due to Brush* who 
rightly recognized that it was essentially a silicate of Fe and 
Mg. He was followed by Brooks and Julien.t On the other 
hand Wichmant and Wadsworth§ rightly recognized that 
it was not orthorhombic, and referred it to actinolite., They 
were followed by Van Hise,| while C. F. Wright in some of 
his work called the rock in which the amphibole occurs an 
anthophyllo-actinolite schist. 

§ 2. It is in reality a ferro magnesian monoclinic amphibole, 
corresponding closely to the description of griinerite given by 
Lacroix]. The strong refraction, like that of epidote, is no- 
ticeable, not only in the thin section but in the hand specimen, 
which has in consequence a peculiarly high silky luster. It is 
much greater than that of common blue green hornblende or 
actinolite, but less than that of garnet, and by de Chaulnes’ 
method is 1-7. The bi-refraction is also strong. It varies in 
specimens from different localities, but is always stronger than 
that of actinolite and does not differ markedly from that of 
the tale into which the mineral readily changes, so that y7—a is 
always >0:030. 

The polysynthetic twinning parallel to (100) is commonly 
well marked, and with the strong optical powers distinguishes 
it ata glance from actinolite. A striation parallel to (101), 
which should be more properly (001)**, is in one case developed. 
The mineral is colorless or slightly greenish or brownish, but 


* Rep. Mich. Geol. Survey, I, p. 114. + Idem, Ii, p. 24. 

t Report Wis. Geol. Survey, III, p. 604. 

§ Notes on the Geol. of the Iron and Copper Districts of Lake Superior, p. 47, 
et passim. 

|| This Journal, xli, 1891, pp. 119 and 131. 

“[ Levy et Lacroix, ‘‘ Minéraux des Roches,” 1889. 

** G. A. Williams, this Journal, xxxix, 1890, p. 352. 


506 Lane and Sharpless—Notes on Michigan Minerals. 


never more than faintly pleochroic. The angle from ¢:y is 
between 15° and 20°. We endeavored to get the curve of the 
extinction angles in the prismatic zone, by revolving a fiber 
in Nachet’s “cuve goniometrique” filled with mono-brom- 
naphthalin. Owing to the twinning the results were not satis- 
factory but in a general way the curve starting from a 0° 
extinction at 010 rose with an initial slope of about 0-7 until 
perpendicular to the cleavage faces the extinction was nearly 
20°. After that it varied but little. 

From these observations* and from the relative retardations 
of pinacoidal sections as manifested in their polarization, values 
of —2 V between 50° and 80° are deduced. The specific gravity 
of a specimen contaminated with quartz alone was found to be 
3°2 to 3°83. 

§ 8. The purest material at hand in sufficient bulk for analy- 
sis seemed to be some from the Champion Mine, after remov- 
ing all the iron oxides from it. Unfortunately the crushing 
of a larger amount for analysis introduced unexpected impuri- 
ties. The mineral is changed to tale in spots, and there was 
some entangled quartz though apparently not enough to 
account for the high percentage of SiO, 

The following analysis which was made on material first 
treated with the magnet to remove magnetite, and then briefly 
with HCl to remove martite and hematite, has therefore merely 
a qualitative value, but shows very clearly by the absence of 
lime that the mineral is not actinolite. 


BIO! 2606.1) eae 
ALO uo. cle a 0°56 
Pe, 2 oo... -.-. fe eee eee 0°99 
HeO.e e225 Se ee Co 6°96 
Mag@e@ss. 2°: De Sed So 12-47 
Cae ete ro Sy See RRL es fags 

(NaweyO ! oie ee ae tr 
SOR Asie LS ee 
Sum wei Seo edes See 100°20 


The alteration to talcose matter is strictly pseudomorphic and 
follows lines of alteration parallel to the polysynthetie twin- 
ning (100). It must be quite extensive. The mineral is in 
small fibers, associated with quartz and iron ores, commonly 


*Tt may be shown, starting from Lévy’s equation 3, p. 20, that eos? V (sin 7+ 1) 
= cos’ &sin y—1)—1, when V is half the optical angle, 6=/¢:a, and x the 
angle from the plane (010) to the prismatic plane in which the angle of extinction 
first becomes equal to 6. We may also show that cos? V (tan + cot #)= tan 6+ 


Ba © OMS 
(initial steepness of curve of extinctions, i. e., — 
Xo 


Lane and Sharpless— Notes on Michigan Minerals. 507 


magnetite. Garnet, common blue green hornblende and brown 
mica are associated with it at times, marking stages of tran- 
sition to ordinary hornblende schist. 

§ 4. Judging from some slight variation in the optical prop- 
erties of different occurrences, it seems likely that they are 
not chemically identical. We realiy need one general name 
for all monoclinic ferromagnesian amphiboles, without regard 
to varieties differing merely in the ratioof Mg: Fe. To amphi- 
boles of this kind the names antholite, kupfferite, silfbergite, 
cummingtonite and griinerite have been applied. ‘The first 
name, antholite, has been used also for anthophyllite and is 
confined by Dana to the very magnesian varieties. Typical 
kupfferite seems to be chromiferous, but otherwise practically 
the same as antholite, though its physical relations to the 
amphiboles have not been determined so far as we know. 
Silfbergite* has 8°39 per cent MnO, as well as 30°49 per cent 
FeO, and.8-74 per cent MeO. The name cummingtonite was 
given by Deweyt to a mineral from Cummington, Mass., which 
he supposed to be a kind of epidote. There are two minerals 
from Cummington which have been taken for it, as the original 
description is not very explicit. The one is a ferromagnesian 
monoclinic amphibole in truth, with only a mere trace of 
MnO, as we have personally found. This we also find to be 
very much like our mineral but larger and coarser. It agrees 
in luster, color, brittleness and specific weight, 3:2. The mineral 
associations, optical properties and frequent twinning are also 
similar. It has been analyzed by Smith and Brush.t 

The other mineral is a manganese mineral akin to rhodonite. 
It has been analyzed by Muir§ and the name is used in this 
latter sense by Rammelsberg, Groth and other writers up to 
the present day. 

With griinerite| there is physically the closest agreement. 
Griinerite however is supposed to contain only about 1 per 
cent MgO, and to be somewhat heavier, perhaps also more bi- 
refractive. 

What the average ratio of Mg: Fe in the Michigan amphi- 
boles under consideration is,—they are of widespread occur- 
rence, and what their relations to kupfferite, etc., are questions 
that require work upon a large range of authentic material to 
settle. It seems indeed possible, in view of the tendency to 
repeated twinning parallel to 100, that anthophyllite may be 


~This Journal, xxvi, p. 157: + This Journal, viii, 1824, p. 59. 

¢ This Journal, xvi, 1853, p. 48. §$ Thomson’s Mineralogie, vol. i, p. 493. 

|| The diaeresis which strictly should be over the wis dropped by Rammelsberg, 
Tschermak, Naumann, Zirkel, Groth and Chester, and sometimes by Lévy and 
Lacroix and Max Bauer, while Dana, Lapparent, Descloizeaux and Ramsay retain 
it. 


. =. ee CSS ee lle 


——, —— 


508 Lane and Sharpless—Notes on Michigan Minerals. 


due to such molecular or submicroscopic twinning, for such a 
structure would produce a rhombic symmetry. Then antho- 
phyllite and griinerite would be related, as orthoclase (submi- 
croscopie microcline) and albite, or the two kinds of natrolite. 

Considering the unfortunate ambiguity of the word cum- 
mingtonite, its hitherto more imperfect optical description, 
and the greater length of the word, it seems preferable to 
denote the allied Michigan amphiboles as griinerite, pending 
further investigation. Inasmuch as they are concomitants of 
the iron ores, it seems the more proper to lay stress on the 
Fe,Si,O,, molecules. 


3. RI=BECKITE oR CrocipoxiTE. [L.] 


Our knowledge of this group of amphiboles is rapidly in- 
creasing, but it has not yet been so frequently observed that a 
new occurrence is devoid of interest. J have observed it as a 
secondary fibrous growth on the primary hornblende of a 
syenite.* It occurs much as those fibers do, that we often see 
in more basic rocks growing out from patches of uralite into 
the adjacent feldspar, and it is worth noting that uralite patches 
are often most bluish at the margin. The growths I have 
noticed answer precisely to those described by Cross,t+ and 
verify his observations, as I can testify from a personal exam- 
ination of his sections, which he kindly afforded me. The 
vertical axis and orientation are parallel to those of the original 
hornblende, but the angle of the + extinction is very large, 
somewhere about 75°, above, to the front, so that as Cross 
notes the nearest extinction is on the other side of the vertical 
axis from that of common hornblende. The pleochroism is,— 
a blue to greenish blue; # violet or reddish blue; y yellow. 
The bi-refraction is weak. ‘The fibers are often separated from 
the dark green hornblende by a sharp erystallographie line. 
At other times they seem to mingle and compensate, forming 
an isotropic band. | 

Michigan Mining School, Houghton, May 23d, 1891. 

* No. 583 of the Mich. State Coll.; 325 paces N., 975 paces W., of the 8. EB. 


corner of Sec. 17, T. 49, R. 25, 
+ This Journal, xxxix, 1890, p. 359. 


Chemistry and Physics. 509 


SOTHEN Tire bo... tN TPTELLIGEN CE, 
I. CHEMISTRY AND PHySIcs. 


1. On Two new Modifications of Sulphur.—Eneer has ob- 
served that if one volume of solution of sodium thiosulphate, 
saturated at the ordinary temperature, be poured with continual 
agitation into two volumes of a solution of hydrochloric acid, 
saturated at 25°-30° and cooled to about 10°, sodium chloride 
is precipitated, and the resulting thiosulphuric acid is so stable 
that the liquid can be filtered. At first the filtrate is colorless, 
but it soon becomes yellow, the intensity of the color increasing 
gradually, and sulphurous oxide being evolved. If now, after 
the liquid has become deep yellow in color, but is still entirely 
transparent, it be agitated with its own volume of chloroform, 
the chloroform removes the yellow color; and on being allowed 
to evaporate, deposits orange-yellow crystals of sulphur, quite 
different from the octahedral variety. Friedel describes them as 
rhombohedral showing the cross and rings of uniaxial crystals in 
polarized light. The rhombohedron is very obtuse, pp (normal) 
= 40° 50’. These crystals have a density of 2°135, greater than 
that of octahedral sulphur. At first they are transparent but in 


three or four hours they pass into an amorphous insoluble form.» 


They fuse below 100°, passing into the pasty condition and 
becoming partially soluble in carbon disulphide. If, however, 
the solution of thiosulphuric acid in hydrochloric acid be allowed 
to stand, the sulphur separates as a yellow flocculent precipitate, 
completely soluble in water. The solution is yellow, but decom- 
poses rapidly, yielding the ordinary pasty sulphur of the thio- 
sulphates. The original precipitate also agelomerates and passes 
into the same insoluble form, without evolution of hydrogen sul- 
phide. These varieties of sulphur are probably polymerized 
atomic forms.—C. f., cxil, 866; /. Chem. Soc., lx, 976, Sept. 
S189. , Gu, FAR, 

2. Chemistry of the Carbon compounds or Organic Chem- 
istry; by Victor von Ricuter, University of Breslau. Author- 
ized translation by Edgar F’. Smith, University of Pennsylvania. 
Second American from the Sixth German edition. 12mo, pp. 
1040. Philadelphia, 1891. (P. Blakiston, Son & Co.). 

The new edition of this excellent text-book willbe very accept- 
able to students of Organic Chemistry. The introduction con- 
tains much new and valuable matter upon the later physical and 
chemical methods of fixing the mass as well as the structure of 
the molecule, the sections on stereochemical theories and the tau- 
tomeric theory being noteworthy. In the special part, Class I is 
devoted to the Fatty bodies or the Methane derivatives and Class 
II to the Benzene derivatives. The new edition shows a large 
introduction of new matter, the chapter on the carbohydrates 
having been re-written, the sections relating to the tri-, tetra- 


and penta-methylene series greatly enlarged, and the whole — 


ee ee ee a ee ee 


sea SEs 


SE ieee 


510 Scientific Intelligence. 


brought up to date. Dr. Smith’s translation is clear, accurate 
and in every way admirable. The volume as it now stands seems 
to us one of the best and most complete text-books in the English 
language. We regret sincerely the recent death of its distin- 
guished author, who has done so much in his text-books to pre- 
sent the science of chemistry in a compact and yet comprehensive 
form. G. Fae, 

3. A System of Inorganic Chemistry ; by Wittiam Ramsay, 
Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in University College, 
London. 8vo, pp. xvi, 700. Philadelphia, 1891. (P. Blakiston, 
Son & Co.).—The system of classification adopted in this book is 
somewhat remarkable. ‘ After a short historical preface the 
elements are considered in their order; next their compounds 
with the halogens, including the double halides; the oxides, 
sulphides, selenides and tellurides follow next, double oxides, 
such as sulphates, for example, being considered among the com- 
pounds of the simple oxides with the oxides of other elements ; 
a few chapters are then occupied with the borides, carbides and 
silicides and the nitrides, phosphides, arsenides and antimonides ; 
and in these the organo-metallic compounds, the double com- 
pounds of ammonia, and the cyanides are considered ; while a 
short account is given of alloys and amalgams.” Special chap- 
ters are appended treating of spectrum analysis and of the 
periodic law ; the former chapter considering also the chemistry 
of the rare earths. Since the author tells us that “no systematic 
text-book has been written in English with the periodic arrange- 
ment of the elements as a basis,” his attempt to supply this 
deficiency in the present volume has resulted in the above classifi- 
cation. He criticises as ancient and arbitrary the electrochemical 
line of demarcation between metals and non-metals, and says that 
too great importance has hitherto been assigned to the distinction 
between acid hydroxides and basic hydroxides. Moreover, the 
chemistry of text-books he thinks has almost always been influ- 
enced by commercial considerations. While the absolute classifi- 
cation according to the periodic law here adopted brings out 
prominently the quantitative affiliations of the elements, yet 
their qualitative relations are well nigh lost sight of. Moreover, 
the above mentioned arrangement of chemical compounds would 
seem likely to be confusing to the student. Of course the 
author’s reputation is a guarantee of the accuracy and clearness 
of statement of the book. Moreover, its mechanical execution is 
excellent, and its size convenient. G. F. B. 

4. An Introduction to the Mathematical Theory of £lec- 
tricity and Magnetism ; by W. T. H. Emraae, M.A., Examiner 
in the School of Natural Science, Oxford. 12mo, pn. vill, 228. 
Oxford, 1891 (Clarendon Press). This little book supplies a want 
which has long been felt for a text book treating the mathematical 
theory of electricity within a compass suited to the brief course 
generally available. It is clearly written, accurate and follows 
the best methods. G. F. B. 


. 


Chemistry and Physies. | 511 


5. Chapters on Electricity: An introductory text-book for 
students in College; by SamuEL SHELDON. pp. 351-452. New 
York, 1891. (Charles Collins and the Baker & Taylor Co.).— 
These chapters on Electricity are reprinted from the new (fourth) 
revised edition of Olmsted’s Natural Philosophy. They give a 
concise and systematic statemert of the most essential principles 
and phenomena in the subjects of Electricity and Magnetism as 
now understood. The treatment is of necessity very brief but if 
supplemented by the illustrations and explanations of the class- 
room, the book should give the average student a satisfactory 
elementary knowledge of his subject. 

6. Apparent change in electrochemical equivalent of copper.— 
Certain observers have maintained that the electrochemical 
equivalent of copper changes with the density of the current 
per square millimeter of the surface of the electrodes. * J. VANNI 
shows that the conditions of acidity of the bath produce the dis- 
cordant results obtained by previous observers. When sulphuric 
acid is present in excess, the electrodes are attacked. By making 
a normal solution with a definite proportion of free sulphuric 
acid, concordant results can be obtained with a copper voltameter. 
The author gives results of his experiments and shows that the 
deposition of copper can be employed with great exactness to 
measure electrical currents if the proper care is taken in forming 
a normal solution- without too much acidity.—Amnn. der Physik 
und Chemie, No. 10, 1891, p. 214, 221. Seas 

7. Electrolytic generation of Gas in a closed space.—M. 
Cuapry of the Société de Biologie has succeeded in obtaining by 
this means a pressure of 1200 atmospheres. The electrolyzed 
liquid was a 25 per cent soda solution. The current had a 
strength of 14 amperes and was very constant during the experi- 
ment.— Nature, Oct. 15, 1891. J. T. 

8. Upon the damping of electrical oscillations—An important 


“paper on this subject has been written by V. BsrerKnes. The 


author discusses the mathematical theory and shows that the 
multiple resonance discovered by Sarasin and de la Rive can be 
explained by the phenomena of damping. Their results are 
therefore in accord with the experiments of Hertz. The author 
expresses his obligations to the work of Poincaré (Electricité et 
Optique, II, Paris, 1891).—Anmn. der Physik und Chemie, No. 9, 
1891, pp. 74-101. J. ee 

9. Velocity of Electrical waves in solid insulators.—Avons 
and RuseEns in a previous article (Wied. Ann., vol. xlii, p. 582, 
1891), described a method of measuring electrical waves in die- 
lectrics, which was an extension of Hertz’s method. Its pecu- 
larity consisted in the employment of a bolometer instead of an 
electric spark for the observation of maxima and minima of 
oscillations. They have extended their work to an investigation 
of Maxwell’s law connecting the dielectric constant with the 


index of refraction of the dielectric, and find a very satisfactory 


agreement between his theory and their experiments. Maxwell’s 


512 - Scientific Intelligence. 


law is n°=y4 where n = index of refraction and su = dielectric 
constant. 

The results of the authors are embodied in the following table 
(A is wave length). 


n n 
Dielectric. be 4 fe A=6m A=61077m 
Fluid paraffine_.___- F398 1°41 ory AY 1°48 
Cooling paraffine--.. 2°08 1:44 1°48 bis 
Solid paraffine_____- 1°95 1°40 1-43 1°53 
GIBSSR Ie Senne ores. 5°37 2°32 2°33 151 
CSET eae i a 5°90 2°43 2°49 1°53 
Caeter oils Post. 4°67 2°16 2°05 1 48 
Olive seilije Ala 3 07 Gis) 1 147) 
Miglol waa Bes 2°35 1°53 1°50 1:49 
‘ Petroleum 226k - won 2°07 1°44 1°40 1°45 
—Ann. der Physik und Chemie, No. 10, 1891, pp. 206-213. 


5 teed i 


Il. Gronoey. 


1. On the British Harthquakes of 1889 ; by C. Davison, of 
- King Edward’s High School, Birmingham, (Geol. Mag., viii, 1891.) 
—The more important conclusions of Prof. Davison’s paper are 
presented in the following citations from pages 10, 20 and 28. 


I believe we may, with some probability, conclude: (1) that_ 


the Edinburgh earthquake was caused by a slip of the fault 
marked BB on the map, at a spot vertically below the position 
indicated for the epicentrum, and therefore not far from the 
middle of the fault, where, probably, the throw is a maximum 
and where earthquake-action has been most frequent or most 


intense ; (2) that, on account of the simple character and short 


duration of the disturbance, the horizontal length of the fault 
over which the slip took place was very short, possibly less than 
a mile ; (3) that the slip of the downthrow side was downward 
or that of the upthrow side upward, resulting, in either case, in 
an increase of the throw of the fault in the neighborhood of the 
seismic focus; and (4) that, while the region of maximum slip, 
the focus of the earthquake proper, was probably at a depth of 
several (perhaps about 8) miles, the slip extended upwards to 
within a short distance of the surface, this part of the slip-area 
being the focus of the sound- vibrations. —p. 10. 

In both the Edinburgh and Lancashire earthquakes, he 
shock and sound, we have reason to believe, were caused by 
slipping along well-known faults, the foci of ‘the sounds being 
nearer the surface than the foci of the corresponding shocks. In 
both, also, the area over which the slip took place must have 
been very limited in extent: and, while the amount of the slip 
may have been greatest near the center of the Lancashire area, 


it must certainly have died away toward its upper and lateral . 


margins. 


Geology. 513 


Now, the seismographic records recently obtained by Prof. 
Milne and others in Japan show that earthquakes usually begin 
with a series of tremors very small in amplitude and very rapid 
in period, from six to eight occurring every second, but becom- 
ing slower before the shock takes place. These may last for 
many seconds or even several minutes. Following, and continu- 
ous with them, come the sensible vibrations, of larger amplitude 
and longer period, about three to five occurring in every second. 
One or more of these, attaining a still greater amplitude and 
longer period, of one or two seconds each, constitute what are 
generally known as the principal shock or shocks. The earth- 
quake closes with vibrations of smaller amplitude, but which 
have a period so long that no record of them can be obtained. 
The earliest tremors, on the other hand, are not registered on ac- 
count of the smallness of their amplitude, and, in all probability, 
as Prof. Milne suggests, the ‘“‘ minute movements which have been 
recorded are the continuation of still smaller and more rapid 
movements which .... have never yet been rendered visible.” 
It is to these supposed rapid vibrations which form the front 
portion of an advancing earthquake, that Prof. Milne attributes 
the origin of the earthquake-sounds. We may conclude from 


these observations that, initially at any rate, the period of the 


vibrations increases and decreases with the amplitude. 

Now, from different parts of the area over which a fault-slip 
takes place, there must proceed vibrations differing greatly in 
amplitude, and therefore also in period. From the central por- 
tions of the slip-area will come, as a rule, the vibrations of largest 
amplitude and longest period; while, from the margins there 
will proceed minute vibrations of a period so short that they may 


be perceptible only as sound. The position of the line separating 


the marginal and central parts of the slip-area will depend only 
on the amplitude of the vibrations corresponding to the period of 
the lowest sound that can be heard ; it will not at all depend on 
the amount of the slip at the center of the area, 7. e. it will be 
independent of the intensity of the shock.—p. 10. This theory 
explains (1) the fact that the sound-area is not concentric with 
the disturbed area, and the sound-focus is nearer the surface than 
the rest of the seismic focus; (2) the fact that, in great earth- 
quakes, the sounds are heard only within a comparatively small 
area immediately surrounding the epicentrum.—pp. 20, 2!. 

With one possible exception (that of Ben Nevis), the earth- 
quakes of 1889 are typical examples of British shocks—they 
occurred in districts where earthquakes are rarely felt, and their 
disturbed areas are circular or only slightly elliptical in form. 
Turning to a more distinctly seismic area, Switzerland for ex- 
ample, we find that the disturbed areas are often extremely 
elongated, the longer axes being parallel to those of the neigh- 
boring Alpine chain; earthquakes are more frequent, their in- 
tensity, as a rule, is greater, and-much larger areas are disturbed. 
Different stages in the geological history of a district are 


514 ? Scientific Intelligence. 


characterized by different kinds of earthquakes. The Alpine 
system is not yet old, fault-formation is still in progress, and the 
fault-slips are long and frequently recurring. In Great Britain, 
we meet with a later stage. Fault-formation in our seismic area 
is more advanced, and slipping takes place so slowly and over 
distances so short, that our earthquakes are rare and the areas 
disturbed by them more or less circular in form. 

Every stage in the process, however, requires investigation, 
and that of which our British earthquakes are witness is certainly 
deserving of attentive study. Unattractive though it may be at 
first sight, the epoch immediately preceding the death of a 
mountain-chain, is at least as interesting to the geologist as the 
more vigorous periods of origin and growth.—pp. 28, 29. 

2. On the Formation of Graphite in Contact-metamorphism. 
—Graphite is found naturally in various Archean rocks. Gen- 
erally it occurs in beds or pockets, in gneiss, mica slate, clay 
slate, granular limestone, etc. ; whence is obtained most of that 
used in the arts. Besides this, a second mode of occurrence of 
graphite, which is of great interest, is that in which in certain 
Archean rocks it replaces either wholly or partially, the mica. 
Graphite-mica-schists are known, and also graphite-gneisses, in 
which the scales of mica in ordinary mica-schists and gneisses 
are partly or wholly replaced by scales of graphite ; and a schis- 
tose rock called graphite-schist exists which consists substantially 
of graphite and quartz. Hven more noteworthy is the occur- 
rence of graphite scales in granite, in place of the usual mica 
scales. Brox and Luzi have now observed the occurrence of 
beautifully crystallized graphite in strata which have been meta- 
morphosed by contact with eruptive rocks, and have proved that 
these graphite crystals have originated in the amorphous coaly 
substance existing originally in the clay slates and quartzose 
schists. In the Pirna and Kreischa sections in Saxony, there are 
upper Silurian clay slates and quartz schists which are very rich 
in carbon particles; these slates and schists lying partly within 
the region of contact with granite and syenite. Now it is within 
this contact-region as the authors have shown, that these strata 
have been converted into rocks rich in graphite. For the exami- 
nation, they used a very rich chiastolite slate and a graphite- 
quartzite. The former occurs in layers in the highly meta- 
morphosed upper Silurian grauwacke of Burkhardtswalde. The 
latter is a genuine contact rock in the immediate vicinity of the 
granite and occurs in the Rohrsdorf valley near Kreischa. Both 
these rocks have come from the original quartz-schist, their strue- 
ture and composition alike showing them to be true contact- 
products. In the chiastolite slate, the graphite has taken the 
place of the finely divided coaly substance easily combustible in 
the Bunsen flame previously existing in the quartz-schist. Iso- 
lated from the rock, it appeared as completely opaque irregular 
masses dark gray in color and having a metallic luster, and from 
0:003 to 0°02 mm. in diameter ; the carbon particles in the un- 


Geology. 515 


altered schists not being over 0-001 mm. in diameter. Moreover, 
well defined single graphite crystals were observed having a 
hexagonal contour. The Rohrsdorf quartzite is still richer in 
graphite, and it is more beautifully crystallized. The rock itself 
is seen under a magnifier to consist essentially of a mixture of 
quartz and graphite, the latter feeling greasy to the touch and 
giving a metallic streak. Some of the crystals were 0°3 mm. in 
diameter. On chemical analysis, the chiastolite graphite gave 
98°84 per cent carbon and 0°21 per cent. hydrogen ; the quartzite- 
graphite 99°94 per cent carbon and 0°05 per cent hydrogen. In 
amount the quartzite contains about 2 per cent of the graphite, 
its density being from 2°62 to 2°637.—Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., 
xxiv, 1884, June, 1891. Gon p: 

3. Geological Survey of Alabama, EK. A. Smiru, State Geolo- 
gist. Report on the Coal Measures of the Plateau region of 
Alabama, by Henry McCatzey, including a report on the Coal 
Measures of Blount County, by A. M. Gipson. 238 pp. 8vo, 
with a map of the Coal-fields and two geological sections across 
the Plateau region.—The Coal-measures of all the Plateau region, 
about 4500 square miles in area, are here described except those 
of the Warrior Coal-field which were reported upon in 1886. 
The region is one of broad gentle undulations in the bedding, and 
is divided by wall-sided valleys which are cut down to the Sub- 
carboniferous and inferior strata. The coal beds belong for the 
larger part to the lower part of the coal-measures and the most 
productive bed, the Main Etna, 2 to 5 feet thick, is below the 
Lower Conglomerate or Millstone Grit. Under thisthere are four 
other beds separated by 20 to 100 feet of shale. The Subcar- 
_boniferous beds, below the coal-measures, consist of a limestone, 
the probable equivalent of the Chester group, resting on shales 
and sandstone, in all perhaps 1000 feet in thickness, and under- 
neath these, about 400 feet of cherty or siliceous limestones. All 
there is of Devonian in Alabama is a stratum of Black shale not 
over 10 or 15 feet thick. 

4. Geological Survey of Missouri, Bulletin No. 5, ArTHuR 
Winstow, State Geologist. 86 pp., 8vo.—This Report contains 


a paper by Erasmus Hawortu, on the age and origin of the. 


crystalline rocks of Missouri, and another by G. E. Lapp, on the 
clays and building stones of certain western central. counties 
tributary to Kansas City, Mr. Haworth concludes that the rocks 
of the iron region, granite and “phorphyry,” are of igneous 
origin, and this makes the iron ore deposits also igneous. As 
stated in the Preface to the Report, Pumpelly, in his survey of 
the region, decided that the rocks and ore were metamorphic. 

5. Geological Survey of Georgia. First Report of Progress, 
1890-91, by L. W. Spencer, State Geologist. 128 pp. 8vo.— 
This report, after observations on the topography of the State, 
treats of the Cretaceous and Tertiary formations, presents briefer 
notes on the older strata, and gives some account of phosphate 
beds and other mineral materials of economic value. 


<a 


516 Scientific Intelhigence. 


6. Geological facts on Grand River, Labrador; by Austin 
Cary. ‘The following note is to be added to the sentence on p. 
421 (line 14 from top) in the November number. 

“Our measurements proving worthless on account of the difii- 
culties under which they were taken, the smallest estimate made 
by the party on the spot was given. A measurement since made 
by Mr. Henry G. Bryant, of Philadelphia, makes the height of 
the fall 316 feet, from which the height of the basin wall will not 
much vary.” 

The adjective ‘ gneissic”’ in line 14 of p. 420 should be erased, 
as the nature of the rock was not positively determined. 

7. Index to the known Fossil Insects of the World, including 
Myriapods and Arachnids ; by S. H. Scupper. Bull. U. S. 
Geol. Surv., No. 71. 744 pp. Washington, 1891.—Contains exact 
references, arranged chronologically under each species, to all the 
scientific publications where fossil insects are described and 
figured, with the locality and horizon of each. The catalogue is 
divided into the sections, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic, and 
the classes and species appear alphabetically under the various 
orders. An index of generic names completes the work. 

8. Stones for Building and Decoration; by Gorge P. 
Merritt. 453 pp., 8vo. New York, 1891. (John Wiley & 
Sons).—There are few subjects of more general interest and 
about which it is at the same time more difficult to obtain precise 
scientific information than that of Building Stones. Mr. Merrill’s 
excellent volume, therefore, fills an important gap and should be 
highly valued by a wide range of readers. The book is divided 
into four parts of which the first gives a concise account of the 
minerals entering into building stones, the physical and chemical 
properties of the stones and their distribution in the United 
States. The second part, comprising the greater part of the 
volume (pp. 45-412), takes up in succession the various kinds of 
rocks and gives an account of the prominent quarries and quarry 
regions in the successive states arranged alphabetically with brief 
remarks upon those of abroad. The other parts give the methods 
of quarrying and dressing stone, the machines employed, a dis- 
cussion of the effect of weathering, and so on; also appendices 
presenting in tabular form the physical and chemical characters 
of the stones in use, prices, etc. The book is well illustrated and 
the whole forms a more than usual attractive and interesting 
volume. 

9. Manganese ; its uses, ores and deposits ; by R. A. F. Pen- 
ROSE, Jr. 642 pp., 8vo. Little Rock, 1891, being vol. I of the 
Anuual Report of the Geological Survey of Arkansas for 1890, 
J. C. Branner, State Geologist.—The subject of manganese has 
received exhaustive treatment by Dr. Penrose. The volume has 
a wide scope and covers, first, a discussion of the nature of early 
uses of manganese; second, the modern uses of manganese ; 
third, the manganese industry in this country and Canada; 
fourth, a general account of the ores of manganese and fifth, 


Botany. 517 


a detailed description of the manganese deposits of Arkansas, 
followed by those of other parts of the country. The final 
chapter deals with the origin, and chemical and geological rela- 
tions of manganese deposits. An examination of the volume 
shows that the author has done his work with great thoroughness 
and the large amount of new matter relative to hitherto little 
known deposits with the numerous analyses, etc., give the work 
a high value in addition to that which it has as a convenient 
digest of what was before known on the subject. 


Ill. Borany. 


1. Botanic Gardens in the Equatorial Belt and in the South 
Seas. (Fifth paper.)—In all the gardens hitherto referred to in 
this series, it is not unusual to meet with plants from different 
parts of Japan. The southern portions of Japan have contributed 
plants which thrive, or, at least, can be made to grow even in the 
warmer gardens of the tropics, while in the hill gardens of the 
tropics are found certain species from the colder regions of the 
Empire. It may therefore not be out of place for this series to 
close with a short sketch of a visit to Japan on my way home. 
The spring was far enough advanced to give mea glimpse of 
some of the most interesting vernal species, but not sufficiently 
so to present the Pzonies, one of the specialties of Japan, at 
their best. 

From Woosung it is arun of less than two days to the straits 
at Shimonoseki, where the ship enters the Inland Sea. The de- 
scriptions of this famous sheet of water do not da justice to its 
extraordinary picturesqueness. The shores and the water, with 
their ever changing scenes of interest, keep every passenger 
attentively employed in forming contrasts between these and 
similar scenes in other countries. It was worthy of note that 
travelers who had passed many times over this sea, did not 
appear to have exhausted their enthusiasm in regard to its beauty 
in any way. The older travelers were the most eager to point 
out to the novices the more striking features and combinations. 

On the northern shore, we could frequently see the prepara- 
tions made for extending the railroad, and catch now and then 
a view of arigid line of rail contrasting strangely with the 
general air of the place. There is absolutely nothing which can 
fairly be called picturesque in or around the railroad stations,— 
except the people. 

The port of Kobe is reached in twenty hours from the southern 
entrance to the sea. Hyogo, or Hiogo (pronounced by the na- 
tives almost as if written Shyogo), lies on the opposite side of the 
river, Minato-gawa, and is the native part of the double town. 
Together, the two towns occupy about three miles along the 
shore and are alike fortunate in having a charming range of hills 
behind to increase their attractiveness. The tourist loses no time 
in leaving his ship for the walk or the jinrickisha ride up the 


518 Scientific Intelligence. 


most easily accessible of these hills, and here the native vegeta-. 
tion and cultivated land are on every side. Bright green fields 
of barley and golden fields of rape-plants appear as if planted 
solely for decorative purposes, so completely do they adjust 
themselves to the tone of the landscape. The angular conifers 
seem far more irregular and picturesque than even the most con- 
torted on our Atlantic coast. It is instructive to correct, or at 
least check, this impression by a strict comparison of photographs 
of trees having somewhat similar port. On the Maine coast one 
can find specimens of Pinus rigida and even battered examples 
of Pinus Strobus which are quite as grotesque as any which grow 
naturally in Japan, but it is out of the question to find in 
America miles after miles of trees which do not regard the pro- 
prieties of growth. And further, in Japan, when by the skillful 
lopping off of a branch here or there, the grotesque effect can be 
heightened in a tree near a dwelling, or plainly in sight of one, 
such artistic pruning is pretty apt to be done. 

It may be said once for all that the Japanese give a naturalist 
to understand that he is heartily welcome to examine their plants 
to any extent, and even the poorest classes take pleasure in afford- 
ing such information regarding their plants as may be in their 
power. All are very lenient in regard to what might strictly be 
called trespassing on private grounds. Time did not permit me 
to visit any of the gardens in Kobe, for it was desirable to reach 
Tokio in the height of the Cherry-blossom season, then so close 
at hand. Reserving the railroad ride for another occasion, we 
went by steamer to Yokohama, the principal port of Japan, and 
did not again arrive in the vicinity of Kobe until some weeks 
after. By that time the spring transformation was complete. 
The trees then had much the appearance of ours in the Atlantic 
states, in June. 

Yokohama offers to the botanist some profitable excursions 
within the treaty limits, where one can travel without a passport. 
By courtesy, the Japanese government permits foreigners to 
pass and repass, on certain definite and yet very generous lines. 
Obedience to local laws, and strict regard to the limitations of 
the passport, cover all the requirements, for comfortable botaniz- 
ing or collecting. There are nineteen fixed routes which cover all 
the more interesting places in the empire, and for each of these 
routes one passport is demanded. It is obtained on application 
to the American Consul at any of the treaty ports, who transmits 
the request to the American Legation at the capital, Tokio, where 
the American Minister procures the documents from the foreign 
office. The passport, of which I made use, permitted me to 
travel from: Yokohama to Nikko and vicinity by rail; thence by 
regular routes to Kozuke, Shinano, Musashi, Sagami, Kai, Su- 
ruga, and Totomi to Nagoya, Kioto, and Kobe, with permission 
to visit Nara, en route. ‘This passport was required only at the 
railway stations and at the hotels and inns, but was not asked for 
on any walk or short excursion. ‘These facts are mentioned here, 


Botany. 519 


merely to remind intending tourists that no obstacles are now 
thrown in the way of any one desirous of exploring the Empire. 
In fact, it may be said, that it is not unusual to find even in out 


_ of the way places, people who are anxious to give any assistance 


in their power in the way of collecting, and of preparing desira- 
ble specimens. The means of communication have been so much 
improved of late years that a tourist can go by rail from Kobe, 
skirting the base of Fuji, to Yokohama, with great comfort ; or 
he can reach Nikko and the northern port of the lower island 
with great facility. At any of the points designated in the pass- 
port, the tourist can find a convenient center for local explora- 
tion. 

In Yokohama itself there is no Botanic Garden, but there are 
good opportunities in and around the city for examining Japa- 
nese horticulture. Some of the establishments are large and well 
organized, and carry a very heavy stock, while some of the 
smaller ones are interesting on account of their specialties. Few 
cultivated plants possess more interest than the dwarfed trees 
found in the larger Japanese Gardens and frequently used as 
house decorations. The extravagant claims made as to the great 
age of some of them cannot of course be established by satisfac- 
tory evidence, or, for that matter, successfully contested by 
skeptics. In no case of a potted commercial plant did hear a 
greater antiquity claimed than six hundred years; but it is said 


that in some of the gardens of the nobles, plants much older than 


this can be found. Dwarfed trees are pointed out in one of the 
larger gardens in Tokio, which are claimed to go nearly up to 
the age of a thousand years. After one has carefully examined 
the very slight growth made each year and has noted the extra- 
ordinary painstaking and skill with which every needless bad has 
been removed, it seems almost ungracious to refuse to accept the 
unwritten history. _ The methods by which plants are dwarfed 
has been clearly explained in many works, and generally with 
correctness, but a brief mention of the practice in commercial 
gardens may be useful. 

First of all, good subjects for experimenting are selected, and, 
from the outset, these are placed under favorable conditions for 
slow development. All buds which can be spared are taken off 
with great care, and the root-system is brought within as narrow 
compass as possible. In a few of the cases which were shown me 
by the nurseryman who gave me instruction, the amount of root- 
surface retained was ludicrously inadequate to supply the most 
moderate demands of a healthy plant. And, yet, the plants. in 
question were sufficiently vigorous to present an unfailing crop 
of bright foliage every year. The buds are reduced in number 
beyond what one might regard as safe limits for a healthy plant, 
and thus the dwarfed plant, crippled above and below, becomes 
almost a pathological specimen. But experience shows abund- 


Am. Jour. Sct.—Tairp Series, Vou. XLII, No. 252.—DEcEMBER, 1891. 
35 


~“mAT : SER faa 


eee 


520 Scientific Intelligence. 


antly, that the few phytomera which are left, are ample to pro- 
tect the organism against ordinary perils. The prices asked for 
the best specimens varied from forty to one hundred dollars, 
(Mexican), these plants being thrifty, clean, picturesque, and very 
old, say from two to three hundred years. Dwarfed flowering 
plants, such as cherries, magnolias, and the like, varying from 
fifteen to fifty years, ‘could be had for about thirty dollars. 
These prices differ widely in different places, and it is impossible 
to state any averages. 

Larger trees pruned into flat shapes, and encouraged to grow 
only horizontally, are common, and are among the most interest- 
ing specimens of topiary work in the world. The most remark- 
able one likely to be seen by the tourist 1s that at Lake Biwa, 
about ten miles from Kioto. Here at Karasaki, near Otsu, is the 
immense and very old Pine tree, which is trained horizontally, 
and extends over a considerable area, with its flat branches sup- 
ported on pillars and poles. Japanese traditions assign to this 
tree an exceedingly great age. It should be said in passing, that 
the practice of training also fruit trees on flat trellises is much in 
vogue. It imparts to the trees, when one looks down on them 
from a slight elevation, precisely the impression that they are 
vines of some sort, grown for shade rather than for fruit. Good 
examples of this method are-to be seen near Yokohama. 

At the time of my visit to Tokio, the cherry-blossoms were in 
perfection. In certain parts of the city and the suburbs the 
streets were thronged by Japanese who were enjoying the profu- 
sion of delicate coloring which clothed the leafless trees. The 
blossoms most in favor were the pink cherries and the pure white 
plums. The term “pink,” usually and naturally appled to the 
cherry blossoms of Japan, does them Injustice : the tint is rather 
that of the most delicate ‘‘rose-madder.” After seeing the blos- 
soms at Uyeno, one cannot wonder that these trees are chosen 
with which to surround the temples and decorate the approaches 
to them. 

It was my privilege, through the courtesy of Mr. Edwin Dun, 
Chargé d’ Affaires, of the United States, to be present at a recep- 
tion given by the Emperor and Empress, in one of the Imperial 
gardens. The cherry-blossoms were here the most interesting 
horticultural feature ; the Wistertas were not yet in full bloom, 
but their very long pendant racemes showed to what a degree of 
perfection this plant has been brought. 

The Botanical Garden in Tokio had just passed out of ‘ip 
charge of Professor Yatabe, well-known to many American bota- 
nists, and his successor had hardly yet taken his place. But I 
was able to make acareful examination of the whole establish- 
ment, and received from those in control every attention. Facil- 
ities were placed at my disposal for making my short stay as 
profitable as possible. 

The Garden is at a considerable distance from the University, 
to which it is made tributary for purposes of instruction. It 


Botany. 521 


struck me that there was abundant evidence of a lack of funds 
for the proper care of the garden: retrenchment has been carried 
too far in this interesting place. The collection of plants illus- 
trative of systematic botany is large, and many of the specimens 
well-grown. This seemed to be particularly true of the foreign 
species. There were excellent examples of trained trees, and in 
some parts of the grounds, the characteristic landscape garden- 
ing had yielded good results. The management of the conifers 
was especially noticeable. 

A small fee is charged for admission to the garden. The 
grounds are said to be much frequented at certain times. On 
the occasion of my visit, there were few visitors : this was prob- 
ably due to.the fact that the exhibition of blossoming trees in 
the vicinity of the temples was far finer in every respect, than 
that which the garden could present. 

A careful search through various horticultural establishments, 
as well as my study of the Imperial garden at Chokubutsu, has 
satisfied me that there are many more attractive plants yet to be 
brought from Japan to our country. Most of them, to be sure, 
have been already noticed in the horticultural journals, but they 
have not received the attention which they deserve. Some of 
the dwarfed flowering shrubs and trees would certainly prove 
most acceptable for house decoration, while the early flowering 
trees of large size merit a thorough trial in the middle States of 
our Union. 

Answering a question which has been often asked, it will be 
well to mention the ease and rapidity with which a tourist can 
visit the famous locality, Nikko. Of the temples there it is not 
necessary to speak, but the groves of conifers which surround 
them must be alluded to. These are of great size and of sym- 
metrical port. Many of them are arranged effectively in and 
around the temple grounds, but those ‘which are of highest 
interest are the magnificent specimens which constitute the miles 


upon miles of shaded avenues. This locality which formerly 


required a long and tedious jinrickisha ride, can now be reached 
in less than a day’s journey from Tokio. In closing, it must be 
confessed that the new railroads in Japan, which it may well be 
claimed have destroyed much of the peculiar charm of the 
Empire, have rendered accessible to many naturalists, localities 
which otherwise they could not have found time to study. 

In bringing to an end this short series of sketches of a long 
journey, I must be pardoned for calling attention. again to the 
extraordinary fact that the newly settled countries of the South 
Seas and the newly awakened people of the Orient have hastened 
to provide themselves with appliances for research and instruc- 
tion in Natural History on a scale which should put to blush 
some of our communities. There is, as we have seen in earlier 
numbers of this series, hardly a large town in Australasia which 
does not possess a good Botanic Garden or a Natural History 
Museum, or both. Even in places which do not have a Botanic 


eee eee 


522 Scientific Intellayence. 


xarden, properly so-called, there is, as in Dunedin, in New 
Zealand, and Geelong, in Victoria, a public garden, in which a 
good deal of attention is given to the exhibition of native plants. 

Can there be any valid excuse urged by the young and flourish- 
ing cities of our own country for not providing for the public, 
these simple and useful means for popular instruction ? 

To serve as a basis for comparison with our own communities, 
it is thought best to subjoin a few statistics relative to population 
taken from Hiibner’s Statistische Tabellen. The figures apply 
to the towns and cities of which mention has been made in the 
sketches. 


Melbourne and suburbs _._-. __-- 410,000 
eydmey. 2: 220i: Bae ee 
adelaide. u6oh: Sa ee eee 128,000 
Auckland.....2)- Seen 57,000 
Dunedin iad es See cee 46,000 
Chrstehurch ime (per ee ses es 45,000 
Brisbane tale Sei Ree ee 74,000 
Weellinetoniece Sams seen 28,000 
Bobat boxnitiaowren ad dots dee 25,000 
Geelong: 2922 PAS PO Se ae 21,000 


These figures, which are only approximate, correspond very 
nearly to those given in the latest Australian Year-Book (1890) 
accessible to me. Hiibner’s data are preferred, because the year- — 
book does not add in the population of the suburbs of some of 
the cities. In fairness, these should be included. 

It would seem that many of our American cities and towns 
have much to learn from these smaller communities in the islands 
of the South Seas. G. L. G. 


ITV. MIscELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 


1, Analysis of the water of the Salt Lake, Aliapaakat, on 
Oahu, Hawaiian Islands ; by Prof. Lyons of Oahu College 
(Daily Pacific Comm. Advertiser of Oahu, Oct. 8, 1891).—The salt 
lake of Oahu is situated near the sea-level, on the south side of the 
island, in a basin made of a combination of shallow craters of 
basaltic tufa. It is described by J. D. Dana in his Expedition Re- 
port, p. 245, and his work on Volcanoes, p. 297. Its position may 
be seen on the map of Oahu, Plate IV of volume xxxvil (1889) 
of this Journal. In dry seasons the bottom of the lake is covered 
with a deposit of crystallized salt. The water is saturated brine, 
yet it differs much in composition from the brine obtained by 
evaporating to saturation ordinary sea-water. The difference is 
strikingly shown on mixing the two clear fluids, when a copious 
deposit immediately forms of sulphate of lime, so that the mix- 
ture almost solidifies. The specific gravity of the water, even at 
a temperature of 80° F, is 1,256. The water of the Dead Sea is 
considerably lighter, its specific gravity having been found by 


Miscellaneous Intelligence. 523 


different observers to range from 1:13 to i:24. The results of 
the analysis are given below, together with comparative figures 
showing the composition (average of several analyses) of the 
water of the Dead Sea and that of concentrated sea water from 
Kakaako salt works. The figures represent in each case the 
quantity in grains of the ingredient contained in one wine gallon 


of the water: 


Concen- 
Salt Lake. DeadSea. trated Sea Water. 


Grains. — Grains. Grains. 
Chloride of sodium _.---.----- 6,989 aes 13,239 
Chioride of calcium... -2 2... 7,742 2,077 absent 
Chloride of magnesium --_-._-_-- 7,790 8.235 3,779 
Bromide of magnesium _------- 99 208 57 
Sulphate of magnesium ---_---- absent absent 2,478 
Sulphate of calcium --.---_--- 34 58 22 
Chloride of potassium--_------- 156 736 534 
Mopal-solids: oe) tet 5) oe 22,810 16,451 20,109 
Weight of one gallon (approxi 
DEVI) pe aS 6 Siles Teakt eae ee 73,044 68,900 72,180 


The most remarkable peculiarity of the water is the excessive 
quantity of calcium chloride, the large amount of magnesium 
chloride and the absence of magnesium sulphate. Part of the 
lime as well as the magnesia may have been supplied by the 
tufa; but there is a ledge of coral-reef rock on one side. 

2. National Academy of Sciences.—The following is a list 
of papers accepted for reading at the meeting of the Academy 
held at New York, Nov. 10-12: 


G. L. GOODALE: Some aspects of Australian vegetation. The nomenclature of 
vegetable histology. 

C. S. Hastines: Certain new methods and results in optics. 

T. C. MENDENHALL: Exhibition of the new pendulum apparatus of the U. S. 
Coast and Geodetic Survey. with some results of its use. The use of a free 
pendulum as a time standard 

K. D. Cope: Degenerate types of scapula and pelvic arches in the Lacertilia. 

T. B. OsBorNE: The proteids or albuminoids of the oat-kernel—second paper. 

C. S. Peirce: Astronomical methods of determining the curvature of space. 

J. A. ALLEN: Geographical variation among North American birds, considered 
in relation to the peculiar intergradation of Colontes Auratus and C. Cafer. 

S. C. CHANDLER: The variation of latitude. 

S. H. ScuppER: The Tertiary Rhynchitidee of the United States. 

O. N. Roop: A color system. 

J. K. Rees: Preliminary notice of the reduction of Rutherford’s photographs. 

H. A. RowuanpD: The application of spectrum analysis to the analysis of the 
rare earths, and a new method for the preparation of pure yttrium. 

THEO. GILL: A nomenclator of the families of fishes. 

A. A. MICHELSON: Measurement of Jupiter’s satellites by interference. 

W. K. Brooks: The follicle cells of Salpa. 


3. The Metal Worker: Essays on House Heating by steam, 
hot water and hot air with introduction and tabular compari- 
sons. Arranged for publication by A. O. Kirrreper. New 
York. 288 pp. 8vo. 1891 (David Williams).—This volume 
contains a number of essays by a variety of writers called out by 
a series of prize competitions established by “The Metal Worker” 


524 Scientific Intelligence. 


in 1888. They discuss, from a thoroughly practical standpoint, 
the various forms of heating in use with illustrations, tabular 
statements of cost and so on and thus give the reader a wide 
range of information on a subject of prime importance. 


The Four Rocks, with Walks and Drives about New Haven; by James D. 
Dana. 120 pp. 8vo, with 7 plates. New Haven, Sept. 1891. (EK. P. Judd)—This 
little book contains the author’s paper in the early part of this volume, and also 
eighty pages of instructions. geological notes, etc., with regard to walks and 
drives within twenty miles of New Haven. 

Copernic et la découverte du Systeme du Monde, par Camille Flammarion. 250 
pp. 12mo. Paris (Marpon et Flammarion). 

Systematic list of the British Oligocene Eocene Mollusca of the F. HE. Edwards 
Collection in the British Museum, by R. B. Newton, F.G.S. 366 pp. 8vo. .London, 
1891. 

Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science, vol. xii 1889-90. Topeka, 
1890.—Prof. 8. W. Williston gives figures of the complete skull and a cervical 
vertebra of his new Cretaceous Plesiosaur (Cimoliosaurus Snowii) from the Nio- 
brara Cretaceous of Western Kansas, on pp. 174, 176. 

Stratigraphy of the Bituminous Coal Field of Pennsylvania and West Virginia 
by I. C. White. 212 pp. 8vo, with a map and sections. U.S. Geol. Survey Bulle- 
tin, No 65, Washington, 1891. i 

The Mediterranean Naturalist, a monthiy Journal of Natural Science, edited by 
J. H. Cooke, F.G.S., at Malta.—No. 1 of this monthly of 12 to 16 pages was 
issued June 1, 1891. Price 5 shillingsa year. Address. the editor at the Lyceum, 
Malta. In number 2, a paper on the geology of the Malta Islands by the editor 
is commenced. 

Progress Report on Irrigation in the United States, under the direction of 
the Secretary of Agriculture; Artesian underflow and Irrigation Investigation, 
Part [by R. J. Hinton. 338 pp. 8vo; Part II, with maps and profiles, by H. S. 
NstTrueton, Chief Engineer of the Investigation. Washington, 1891. 


OBITUARY. 


J. Francis Wiritams, Assistant Professor of Geology and 
Mineralogy in Cornell University; died at Ithaca, N. Y., on 
November 8th, of malarial fever. He was but twenty-nine years 
of age, but had already done some excellent scientific work and 
his life, thus prematurely closed, gave promise of being highly 
useful sand successful. For the past year he had been a teacher 
at Clark University in Worcester, Mass., and under the direction 
of the University he had spent considerable time in the survey of 
Arkansas, collecting materials for a report on the petrography of 
the State, which is now ready for publication. Articles by him 
upon some Arkansas minerals have been published in the numbers 
of this Journal for December, 1890, and July, 1891. At the time 
of his death he had hardly more than entered upon his new duties 
at Cornell, but his loss is deeply felt there, as well as in circles 
where he was better known. 


A 

Academy, National, meeting at New 
York, 523. 

Aerodynamics, experiments in, Langley, 
427. 

Alabama, geological survey, 515. 

Alaska, expedition to, Russell, 171. 

American Geological Society, Washing- 
ton meeting, 77. 

Arkansas, geol. report, Branner, 347. 


Association, American, president’s ad- | 


dress, 271. 
Washington meeting, 353. 
British, 358. 


B 
Bailey, EK. H. S., Tonganoxie meteorite, 
385. 
Baker, E. P., voleano of Kilauea, 77. 


Barker, G. F., chemical abstracts, 66, ' 


169, 256, 339, 422, 509. 
Barometer, mercurial, Waggener, 387. 


Barus, C., continuity of solid and liquid, | 
125; contraction of molten rock. 498; 


solution of vulcanized india rubber, 
B09: 


Beecher, C. E., development of Bilobites, | 


51. 
Bibliotheca Zoologica. Taschenberg, 438. 
Bigelow, F. H., solar corona, ] ; causes 


of variations of the magnetic needle, | 


253. 
Blair, Chemical analysis of iron, 428. 
Botany— 

‘Annual plants, vitality, Holm, 304. 
' Botanic gardens in the equatorial 


belt and South seas, Goodale, 173, 


260, 347, 434, 517. 
Botany, 
Goodale, 271. 


Brackett, R. N., newtonite and recto-| 


rite, 11. 


Branner, geol. report of Arkansas, 347. | 


C 


Call, R. E., silicified woods of eastern | 


Arkansas, 394. 

Cape Cod, sea-encroachment at, Marin- 
din, 172. 
Cary, A., geological facts on Grand 

river, Labrador, 419, 516. 


economic possibilities of, 


INDEX TE VOLUME XLIT.* 


Chemistry, Dictionary of applied, Thorpe, 
341. 
Inorganic, system of, Ramsay, 510. 
Organic, Richter, 509. 


| CHEMISTRY — 


Alkaloid from Conium maculatum, 
Ladenburg and Adam, 423. 
Allotropic silver, Lea, 312. 
Aluminum, electro-metallurgy, Minet, 
67. 
Antimony, determination, Gooch and 
Gruener, 213. 
and arsenic separated, Gooch and 
Danner, 308. 
Battery, secondary, chemistry of, Can- 
tor, 169. 
Black sulphur of Magnus, Knapp, 422. 
Boron tri-iodide, Moissan, 256. 
Carbon compounds, chemistry of, von 
Richter, 509. 
monoxide, action of heat on, Ber- 
thelot, 67; new reaction, 170. 
Chemical and electrical energy in vol- 
taic cells, Levay, 66. 
reactions, dead space in, Lieb- 
reich, 170. 
Chlorates, estimation, 
Smith, 220. 
Hydrazine hydrate,Curtius and Schulz, 
251: 
Indigo-carmine, synthesis of, Hey- 
mann, 257. 
Iron- and nickel-tetracarbonyl, Mond 
and Quincke, 424. 
Mercury, detection in cases of poison- 
ing, Lecco, 68. | 
Oxygen, spectrum of liquid, Olszewski, 
338. 
Ozone produced by rapid combustion, 
llosvay, 339. 
Potassium determined spectroscopic- 
ally, Gooch and Hart, 448. 
Silicon, new form, Warren, 423. 


Gooch and 


Sulphur, pew modifications, Engel,509. © 


Sulpburyl peroxide, Traube, 340. 

Tartaric acid, sensitive reaction for, 
Mohler, 425. 

Tetrazotic acid and derivatives, Lossen, 
68, 

Titanic acid in soils, Dunnington, 491. 

Clarke, F. W., constitution of certain 
micas, vermiculites and chlorites, 242. 


* This Index contains the general heads BoTaNy, CHEMISTRY, GEOLOGY, MINERALS, 
OBITUARY, and under each the titles of Articles referring thereto are mentioned. 


wen 


—_—, 


ewes eT = wee = See 


— 


— 


eet 


- 


526 


Color photography, see photography. 

Comets, capture of, by planets, Newton, 
183, 482. 

Comstock, G. C., secular variation of 
latitudes, 470. 

Corona, solar, Bigelow, 1. 

Crosby, W. G., composition of till or 
bowlder clay, 259. 

Cutter, E., phonics of auditoriums, 468. 


D 

Dale, T. W., the Greylock synclinorium, 
347, 

Dana, J. D., non-volcanic igneous ejec- 
tions and the Four Rocks of New 
Haven, 79; Percival’s map of the 
trap-belts of central Connecticut, and 
the upturning of the Sandstone, 439. 

Danner, E. W., separation of antimony 
from arsenic, 308. 

Davis, W. M., fossiliferous black shale 
of Connecticut, 72. 

Davison, C., earthquakes in Great Brit- 
ain in 1889, 512. 

Davison, J. M., kamacite, tenite and | 
plessite. analyses, 64. 

Dawson, G. M., geology of the Rocky 
Mountain region in Canada, 259. 

Denning, W. F., Telescopic work for 
starlight evenings, 178. 

Denudation in the Kgyptian desert, 
Walther, 177. 

Ditt, A., Lecons sur les Métaux, 258. 

Dumble, E. T., geol. survey of Texas, 430. 

Dunnington, F. P., titanic acid in soils, 
etc., 491. 


E 
Eakins, L. G., astrophyllite and tscheff- 
kinite, 34. 
Earthquakes in Great Britain, 1889, 
Davison, 512. 
Edwards, A. M., infusorial earths of the 
Pacific coast, 369. 
Egleston, T., Catalogue of minerals and 
synonyms, 434. 
Electrical oscillations, 
Bjerknes, 511. 
on iron wires, Trowbridge, 223. 
waves, velocity, Avons and Rubens, 
511. 
Hlectricity, chapters on, Sheldon, 511. | 
discharge through exhausted tubes, 
Thomson, 426. 
and magnetism, mathematical the- 
ory, Emtage, 510. | 
Electrochemical equivalent of copper, | 
Vanni, 511. | 
Klectrolytic generation of gas, Chabry, | 
B11. 


damping of, 


INDEX. 


Electromagnetic units, ratio of to elec- 
trostatic, Thomson and Searle, 427. 

Electrometers, small. Boys, 342. 

Emtage, W. T. H., Mathematical theory 
of electricity and magnetism, 510. 


F 

Ferrier, W. F., tungsten minerals in Can- 
ada, 347. 

Flying machine, Maxim’s, 342. 

Foote, A. E, meteoric iron of Cafion 
Diablo, 413, 

Foshay, P. M., glacier scratches in west- 
ern Pennsylvania, 172. 

Fossil, see Geology. 

Frazer, R., Tables for the determination 
of minerals, 77. 

Fremy, K., Synthese du Rubis, 432. 


G 
Gas, electrolytic generation of, Chabry, 
SL). 
Geikie, A., history of volcanic action in 
the British Isles, 178. 
Geological annual, 1889, Carezand Dou- 
ville, 76. 
GEOLOGICAL REPORTS AND SURVEYS— 
Alabama, Smith, 515. — 
Arkansas, 1888, Branner, 347. 
Georgia, 1890, 1891, 515. 
Missouri, Bulletin, No. 5, 515. 
New Jersey. 1890, Smock, 70. 
Texas. Dumble, 430. 
Geological Society of America, meeting 
at Washington, 77, 344. 
Geologists, international congress, meet- 
ing at Washington, 78, 343. 
U. S. Association of Government, 
344, 
GEOLOGY— 
Archeean limestone of N. Jersey, 70. 
rocks of Missouri, origin of, Ha- 
worth, 515. 
Asphaltum of Utah and Colorado, 
Stone, 148. 
Bilobites, development of, Beecher, 51. 
Cambrian, lower, fauna of, Walcott, 345. 
St. John group, No. 2, fauna of, 
Matthew, 73. 
rock-disintegration as related to 
transitional crystalline schists, Pum- 
pelly, 346. 
Carboniferous in France, 
Zeiller, 75. 
Contact-metamorphism, formation of 
graphite in, 514. 
Fossil insects of the world, index to 
known, Seudder, 516. 
Glacial Lake Agassiz in Manitoba, 
Upham, 429. 


flora of, 


INDEX. 527 


GEOLOGY—— 


Glacier clays and till near Boston, 

Crosby, 259. 
scratches in Pennsylvania, Foshay 

and Hice, 172. 

Grand River, Labrador, Cary, 419, 
516. 

Greenstone schist in Michigan, Wil- 
liams, 259. 

Greylock synclinorium, Dale, 347. 

Tron-ores, genesis, Kimball, 231. 

Jura-Trias, see Triassic. 

Mount St. Elias, Russell, 171. 

Ouachita Mt. system, Hill, 111. 

Peridotite dikes near Ithaca, N. Y., 
Kemp, 410. 

Permian coal plants, Zeiller, 75. 

Pleistocene fluvial planes of Pennsyl- 
vania, Leverett, 200. 

Rocky Mt. region in Canada, Dawson, 
259. 

Silurian sandstone of Keweenaw Pt. 
Wadsworth, 170. 

Sphenophyllum, Newberry, 76. 

Spherulites in rhyolite, Iddings and 
Penfield, 39. 

Steep Rock Lake, Ont., geology, 
Smyth, 317. 

Stegosaurus, restoration of, Marsh,179. 

Tertiary, pre-pleistocene age of the 
orange sands, Salisbury, 252. 


silicified wood of Arkansas, Call, | 


394, 
Trap range of the Keweenawan series, 
Wadsworth, 417. 
Triassic fossiliferous black shale of 
Connecticut, Davis and Loper, 72. 
trap rocks of Connecticut, Davis 
and Loper, 72. 
of New Haven, Dana, ‘9. 
Percival’s map of, and on the 
mountain-making, Dana, 439. 
Vertebrate fossils as a criterion of 
age, Marsh, 336. 
Volcanic, see Volcanic. 
Water ofa salt lake on Oahu, anal., 522. 


Georgia, geological survey for 1890, 
1891, 515. 

Glacier, see Geology. 

Gooch, F. A., determination of antimo- 
ny, 213; the determination of potas- 
sium spectroscopically, 448; estima- 
tion of chlorates, 220; separation of 
antimony from arsenic, 308. 

Goodale, G. L., botanic gardens in the 
equatorial belt and south seas, 173, 
260, 347, 434, 517; possibilities of 
economic botany, 271. 

Gruener, H. W., determination of anti- 
mony, 213. 


*% 


H 


Hale, G. E., photographic investigation 
of solar prominences. 160; the ultra- 
violet spectrum of the solar promi- 
nences, 459, . 

Harrington, J. B., so-called amber of 
Cedar Lake, Canada, 332. 

Hart, T. 8., potassium determined and 
detected spectroscopically, 448. 

Hawaiian Islands, salt lake of Oahu, 522. 

voleano of Kilauea, 77. 

Haworth, E., origin of Archean rocks of 
Missouri, 515. 

Hice, R. R., glacier scratches in western 
Pennsylvania. 172. 

Hidden, W. H., new yttrium-silicate, 
rowlandite, 430. 

Hill, R. T., Ouachita Mt. system, 111. 

Hillebrand, W..F., new analyses of 
uraninite, 390. 

Hoffman, G. C., ilvaite, 432. 

Holm, T., vitality of some annual plants, 
304. 

I 


Iddings, J. P., spherulites from Wyom- 
ing, 39. 
India rubber, solution of, Barus, 359. 
Indian Territory, geology, Hill, 111. 
Interference of light, influence of bright- 
ness upon, Ebert, 342. 
Infusorial earths of the Pacific coast, 
Edwards, 369. 
Tron, Chemical analysis, Blair, 428. 
K 
Keller, H. F., Michigan minerals, 499. 
Kemp, J. F., peridotite dikes near 
Ithaca, N. Y., 410.- 
Kilauea, voleano of, Baker, 77. 
Kimball, J. P., genesis of iron ores, 231. 
Kittredge, The Metal Worker, 523. 
Kokscharow, N. v., Mineralogie Russ- 
lands, 77. 
L 


| Labrador, geological notes on, Cary, 419, 
516. 

Lane, A. C., Michigan minerals, 499. 

Langley, 8. P., experiments in aerody- 
namics, 427. « 

Latitudes, secular variation of, Com- 
stock, 470. 

Lea, M. C., allotropic silver, 312. 

Leidy memorial museum, 438. 

Leverett, F., pleistocene fluvial planes 
of Pennsylvania, 200. 

Light, reflection and refraction by their 
surface layers, Drude, 70. 

Luedeking, C., Missouri barite, 495. 

Lyons, A. B. _ analysis of water from the 
salt lake of Oahu, 522, 


528 INDEX. 


M 


Magnetic declination in the U. 8S. for 

1890, Schott, 178. 
needle, causes of variations, Bige- 
low, 253. 

Manganese ores in Arkansas, Penrose, 
516. 

Marindin, H. L., losses of Cape Cod by 
sea-encroachments, 172. 

Marsh, O. C., restoration of Stegosaurus, 
179; new vertebrate fossils, 265; 
geological horizons determined by 
vertebrate fossils, 336. 

Matthew, G. F., fauna of the St. John 
group, 73. 

Maxim’s flying machine, 342. 

Merrill, G. P., stones for building and 
decoration, 516. 

Meteoric iron, analyses, Davison, 64. 
Cafion Diablo, Foote, 413. 
Tonganoxie, Bailey, 385. 

Metal Worker, Kittredge, 523. 

Mineralogie Russlands, Kokscharow, 177. 

Minerals, catalogue, English, 438, 

and synonyms, catalogue of, Hgles- 
ton, 434. 
Tables for the determination of, 
Frazer, 77. 


MINERALS— 

Amber, Cedar Lake, Canada, 332. 
Anatase, see octahedrite. Antlerite, 
Colorado, 434. Astrophyllite, Col- 
orado, 34. 

Barite, Missouri, 495. Bernardinite, 
California, 46. Biotite, N. C., 242. 
Brandtite, Sweden, 433. 

Cassiterite, Mexico, 407. Cerussite, 
Arizona, 405. Chemawinite, Cedar 
Lake, Canada, 332.  Chloritoid, 
Michigan, 499. 

Ganophyllite, Sweden, 433. Gmel- 
inite, Nova Scotia, 57. Graphite, 
formed in contact-metamorphism, 
514.  Grimerite, Michigan, 505. 
Gypsum, Girgenti, 407. 

Hallite, Penn., 244. Hematite, Mex- 
ico, 407. 

Ilvaite, Canada, 452. Iron, meteoric, 
64. : 

Kallilite, Prussia, 433. Kamacite, 
64. Kaolinite, Arkansas, 17. 

Mordenite, axial ratio, 409. Musco- 
vite, Maiue, 251. 

Newtonite, Arkansas, 13. 

Octahedrite, Buckingham Co., Va., 431. 
Offrétite, France, 433. Orpiment, 
Yellowstone, 403. 

Painterite, Penn., 247. Pennine, 
Texas, Pa. 408.  Plessite, 64. 
Plumboferrite, Sweden, 434, Pro- 


MINERALS— 
tovermiculite, Ark., 242. Pyro- 
phanite, Sweden, 433. 

Quartz crystals in spherulites, 42. 

Realgar, Yellowstone, 403. Rector- 
ite, Ark., 16. Riebeckite, Michi- 
gan, 508. Rowlandite, Texas, 430. 
Rubies, synthesis, Fremy, 432. 

Sulphur, Yellowstone, 401. Sychno- 
dymite, Prussia, 433. 

Teenite, 64. Tscheffkinite, Virginia, 
36. Tungsten minerals in Canada, 
347. 

Umangite, Argentine Republic, 433. 
Uraninite, new analyses, 399. 
Missouri, geological survey, bulletin No. 

5, 515. 

Molten rock, contraction, Barus, 498. 
Mount St. Ilias, expedition to, Russell, 


171. 
N 
Newberry, J. S., genus sphenophyllum, 
76. 
New Jersey, geological report, 1890, 70. 
Newton, H..A., capture of comets by 
planets, 183, 482. 


0 
OBITUARY— 
Ferrell, W., 358. 
Joy, C. A., 78. 


Williams, J. F., 524. 

Organic dyes, optical relations of, Vogel, 
342. 

Organ pipes, energy used in, Wead, 21. 

Ostwald’s Klassiker der Exacten Wis- 
senschaften, 178. 


P 

Peloponnesus, geology of, Philippson, 
Kis: 

Penfield, S. L., minerals in spherulites 
of rhyolite, 39. 

Penrose, R. A. F., manganese ores in 
Arkansas, 516. 

Philippson, A., geology of the Pelopon- 
nesus, 173. 

Phonics of auditoriums, Cutter, 468. 

Phosphorescence, Wiedemann, 69. 

Photography of the spectrum in color, 
Vogel, 426. 

in color, Thwing, 388. 

Physical observatory, Washington, 78. 

Pirsson, L. V., gmelinite, 57; mineralog- 
ical notes, 405; sulphur, orpiment 
and realgar in the Yellowstone, 401. 

Polar light and cosmic dust, Liveing 
and Dewar, 69. 

Pumpelly, R., secular rock-disintegra- 
tion as related to transitional erystal- 
line schists, 346. 


INDEX. 529 


ae 

Ramsay, W., System of inorganic chem- 
istry, 510. 

Richter, V. von, Chemistry of carbon 
compounds, 509. 

Rotation, measurement of, Prytz, 341. 

Russell, I. C., expedition to Mt. St. 
Elias, 1890, 17]. 


Ss 
Salisbury, R. D., age of the orange 
sands, 252. 
Schneider, KE. A., constitution of certain 
micas, vermiculites and chlorites, 242. 
Schott, C. A., magnetic declination in 
the United States, 178. 
Seudder, S. H., Index to known fossil 
insects of the world, 516. 
Sharpless, F. F., Michigan minerals, 499. 
Sheldon, 8., chapters on electricity, 511. 
Silver, allotropic, Lea, 312. 
Sinter, siliceous, gold-bearing, Weed, 
166. 
Smith, ©. G., estimation of chlorates, 
220. 
Smyth, H. L., geology of Steep Rock 
Lake, Ontario, 317. 
Specific heat determined by electric cur- 
rent, Pfaundler, 341. 
Spectra, solar, photographic investiga- 
tion, Hale, 160. 
Spectrum of liquid oxygen, absorption, 
Olszewski, 338. 
ultra-violet of the solar prominen- 
ces, Hale, 160, 459. 
Solar corona, Bigelow, 1. 
prominences, photographic investi- 
gation of, Hale, 160, 459. 
Solid and liquid, continuity of, Barus, 
125. 
Sound, intensity of, Wead, 21. 


Stanley-Brown, J., bernardinite, a min- | 


eral or a fungus?, 46. 


Stegosaurus, restoration of, Marsh, 179. | 
Stone, G. H., asphaltum of Utah and | 


Colorado, 148. 


Stones for building and decoration, Mer- | 


rill, 516. 
tr 


Telescopic work for starlight evenings, 
Denning, 178. 


Texas, geol. survey, Dumble, 430. 

Thorpe, T. E., Dictionary of applied 
chemistry, 341. 

Thought transference, Lodge, 343. 

Thwing, C. B., color photography by 
Lippman’s process, 388. 

Trowbridge, J., dampening of electric 
oscillations on iron wires, 223; phys- 
ical abstracts, 69, 341, 426, 511. 


U 
Upham, W., exploration of the glacial 
Lake Agassiz in Manitoba, 429. 


V \ 
| Vertebrate fossils, Marsh, 265, 336. 
_Volcanic action in the British Isles, 
history of, Geikie, 178. 
| Volcano Kilauea, Baker, 77. 


| 


WwW 


Wadsworth, M. E, relations of the east- 
ern sandstone of Keweenaw Point to 
the Lower Silurian limestone, 170; 
trap range of the Keweenawan series, 
AIT. 

Waggener, W. J., mercurial barometer, 
387. 

Walcott, C. D., fauna of the lower Cam- 
brian, 345. 

Walther, J., die Denudation in der 
Wiiste, ete , 177. 

| Water, expansion of, Marek, 427. 

| of the salt lake of Oahu, 522. 

_ Wave, explosive, in solid and liquid 

| bodies, Berthelot, 66. 

| Wead, C. K, intensity of sound, 21. 

Weed, W. H., gold-bearing hot spring 
deposit, 166; sulphur, orpiment and 
realgar in the Yellowstone, 401. 

Wheeler, H. A., Missouri barite, 495. 

Williams, G. H., anatase from Bucking- 
ham Co., Va., 431; greenstone schist 
areas of Michigan, 259. 

Williams, J. F., newtonite and rectorite, 
2g 


Z 
'Zeiller, R., fossil flora of French Car- 
| boniferous, 75, 


a ween ras se 


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Am. Jour. Sci. Vol. XLII, 1891. 


Plate |. 


oe ae 


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4 ‘ 
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AM. JOUR. SCI. VOL. 


PLATE I] 


ois 


Py 


j 
i 


ne 


e 
Al 


AM. JOUR. SCI. VOL. XL. 


Gilli 


ayy 


Z 


ale 


st 
B ey nik 


Wii 
5a 


Mt 


NEW HAVEN REGION 
BEFORE 1640 


1 Inch=3 miles Heights above mean 
tide level. Areas of trap colored red, 


— 


17 \ 


= 


Wy 
WW 
= 


= 


_ . 
LVE HANS 


STATE ST. 


| Wir, 
i} ay 
alt 


OPAL UO Wudy pourasva 9 


499F 008 
(UVa ALIO VY MON) 


HOON LSVA 


‘TOS "HOOr ‘WV 


I GALyId 


AM. JOUR. SCI. VOL. XLI. 


TNs \\ \ 
A 


\\ 


PLATE IIl. 


EAST ROCK 
NEW HAVEN 
(Now A OLTY PARE) 
Scale 1 inch =800 feet 
Heights reckoned from High Tide 


Ss - Sandstone outcrop 
8’8” Sandstone in fragments 
A & Northern Trap-mass 
B BY East Rock Trap-mass 
C C Indian Head Trap-mass 
D D’ Snake Rock Trap-mass 
W H Whitney Ridge and Dike 
Present condition of the Rock at 
itsS S W Angle 
English Drive 
Farnam Drive 
Refreshment House 
Soldiers Monument 


QUARRY CORNER. 


209 ae 
tok o's 
Pi 
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j 
. 


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‘ASP 109119 ISUBIO TBO ‘YSOMTINOS OY} WIOAF YOOY IVA JO Mora 


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Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XLII, 1891. Plate V. 


oe 


Mace 


i) 


Vn ULI. 


Profile view of columns, East Rock, near the house on the brow of the Rock in Plate IV 
(From a photograpb.) 


<ll ; 
, 
t 
+ 
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f 
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\ 


PLATE VL. 


Heights rec 


AM. JOUR. SCI. VOR. XL. 


aa 


AM, JOUR. SCI. VOL. XLI. 


PLATE VI. 


WEST ROCK 


CONTOUR LINES EVERY 20 FEST 


Scale 1 inch=400 feet 


Heights reckoned from 


high tide level 


Am. Jour, Sci., Vol. XLII, 1891. Plate VII. 


CROSSQUP & WEST ENG. co. 


View of the south front of West Rock, showing the trap of the outflow overlying upturned sandstone for a distance of 550 feet. 
(From a photograph.) 


“tg Te 


— 


ea 


i 


Plate VIIi. 


Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XLII, 189). 


pe 


te 


Plate IX. 


Sci., Vol. XLII, 1891. 


Am. Jour. 


EGE 


a> 


niin 


SSS iiiisiss« 


Restoration of STEGOSAURUS UNGULATUS, Marsh. 


Al 
t 
ae 


One-thirtieth natural size. 


Plate X. 


Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XLII, 1891. 


Plate XII. 


Procamelus, 


uS. 
Tyracodon, 


itanops, Titano- 
Bilotherium. 


m, Palewosyops, 
Ss. 


ngulates, 
, Dryptosaurus. 


n, Selenacodon, 
opleryxz. 


1ornis. 
us, Tylosaurus. 
urs. 


rus, Diplodccus, 
u7us, Mammals, 
tenacodon. 


MIMOSAULUS. 


dents), 


} 
Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XLII, 1891. 


VEEP FALLS 


Plate’ XI. 


GEOLOGICAL Map 
STEEP-ROCK LAKE 


Scace oF FeeT. 


Le 
l= ty 
| 
a 
H - = 
——- = Cc (‘om vwvyvM wm p 
SYMBOLS 
: BASEMENT COMPLEX 
= STeEEP-RocK SERIES 
bower \warrow ATIKOKAN Do 
= = 
° Map sHowinG GEOGRAPHICAL Posit1ON OF 
SOUTH WEGT SteePp-Rock LAKE 
\BaY 
ao 
lee 
ft 
‘ A 6 fa 
i SG 
\ > Scace or Mires 
PK 
nS o 


th 


ZZ 


Mesozoic. 


PALEOZOIC. 


Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XLII, 1891. 


Recent. 
Quaternary. 


Plate XII. 


Bos, Equus, Megatheriwm, Mylodon. 


Equus Beds. 
Phohippus Beds. 


Pliocene. 


Miohippus Beds. 
Miocene. |Oreodon Beds. 
Brontotherium Beds 


is) 
is 
S 
SI 
S) 
A 
GE 
v 


Equus, Tapirus, Hlephas. 


§ Pliohippus, Tapiravus, Mastodon, Pracametus, 
( Aceratherium, Bos, Morothervm. | 


Miohippus, Diceratherium, Thinohyus. 

§ Oreodon, Eporeodon, Hyenodon, Hyracodon, 
¢« Voropus. 

§ Brontotherium, Brontops, Allops, Titanops, Titano- 
( therium, Protoceras, Mesohippus, Hiotherium. 


Diplacodon Beds. 
Dinoceras Beds. 


Bb 
a 
CI 
“™ 
~~ 
iat 
(3) 
i 


Dipilacodon, Epihippus, Amynodon. 
§ Dinoceras, Tinoceras, Uintatheriwn, Palwosyops, 


Subearboniferous, 
or Sauropus Beds. 


Eocene. ( Orohippus, Hyrachyus, Colonoceras. 
Heliobatis Beds. _| Heliobatis, Amia, Lepidosteus. 
z Coryphodon, Lohippus, Lemurs, Ungulates 
Coryphodon Beds. } Tinedonte, Rodents, Serpents. ” : 
pan 4 . |Ceratops, Triceratops, Hadrosaurus, Dryptosaurus. 
Laramie Series, or Mammuls, Cimolomys,. Dipriodon, Selenacodon, 
Ceratops Beds. _|_ Nanomys, Stagodon. Birds, Cimolopteryx. 
G Fox Hill group. 
retaceous. are Birds with Teeth, Hesperornis, Ichthyornis. 
jColorado Series, On Mosasaurs, Edestosaurus, Lestosaurus, Tylosaurus. 
Pteranodon Beds. Pterodactyls (Pteranodon). Plesiosaurs. 
Dakota Group. 
: Atlantosaurus Beds) 4 Dinosaurs, Brontosaurus, Morosaurus, Diplodccus, 
Jurassic. Baptanodon Beds. Stegosaurus, Cumptonotus, Alosaurus. Mammals, 
Hallopus Beds. Dryolestes, Stylacodon, Tinodon, Cienacodon. 
. First Mammais (Dromatherium). 
Triassic. ete OF Beds Dinosaur Footprints. Anchisaurus, Ammosaurus. 
(OMA ERUNIE) Sy BIC Crocodiles (Belodon). 
Permian. Nothodon Beds. Reptiles (Wothodon, Sphenacodon). 
1 
Coal Measures, or First Reptiles (2?) Losaurus. 
Carboniferous) Zosaurus Beds. 


First known Amphibians (Labyrinthodonts), 
Sauropus. 


Dinichthys Beds. 


4 Devonian, : 
Lower Devonian. 


Dinichthys. 


Upper Silurian. 


Silurian. 
—— Lower Silurian. 
Cambrian. | Primordial. 
Ecne 
Archean. | Tanrentian. 


First known Fishes. 


No Vertebrates known 


SECTION TO ILLUSTRATE VERTEBRATE Lire IN AMERICA. 


: 7 
m7 «4 


fae Ye 
. 
5 
P 


Plate XIII. 


Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XLII. 1891. 


. = ’ 
S\N WAT 


e 


ee 
: . ate 


et ee 


ee AUT | 


W'S 77 8 Geert 


SIZE. 


TONGANOXIE METEORITE. 
Fic. I].—Etched surface, reduced one-fifth. 


Fig. [.—Five-twelfths natural 


4 
~ 
J 
” 


" 
i 


me See ae reemapeeyy 


ae 


Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XLII, 1891 


Meteoric Ir 
Larger mas 


aime Jy hee 


yi A r 
BR ae gel Ue 
\ ay - a Ss y ay 
te eae 
5 
- r. Sth Nk 
7 = 
- “ uf s 
t ~ 
Ween 
y ’ 
i 
’ 
Y- 2 
F 
a. 
x 
xs 
‘* 


Me 
ae Sx 


4 a oi 


Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XLII, 1891, 


Plate XIV. 


Arizona, June, 1891. 
llected near Cafion Diablo, ; : 
Tae eae srahing 201 Ibs., completely perforated in three places. 


it 


a 


ed asain? tS iti 


eames 


» 


a 


Ee Speen oti gn 


Net a re treatm 


Plate XV. 


Aime Ourr oel., Vol AEM, 1eOil: 


20 NTS URES AE 


SS ae I Oe a ar re 


Polished Surface of Meteoric Iron from Cafion Diablo, Arizona. showing Widmanstattian figures. A small black 
diamond is shown protruding near one side of the central black cavity, at D; a circle of scratches made by small 
loosened diamonds can be seen near this spot. 


4 


Sar ae 


sd dete 


A 


Ss a en remem a 


¢ 


~~ 2 tee 


Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XLII, 1890. Plate XVI. 


ee 
gs = 
3 


fon | v4 , ia | can y a) Lie a) Serer 
i + « : 3 \ r 
ue cad ms " j i 
if - - ; * 2 
"} “ y x : 
| ; 
I ; 
vm > 
ie ¥ . 
ies 
{is P a 


FE norte 


vi 
> c 
Se 
a 
= 


se 


: 

+ 

a 
‘ 


CP 


ae 


tal 
» 


ab 
Nd 


oy" 
pe’ 


'§ LIV 


s==4) which are given below. 


oS 


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LITTELL & CO., 31 Bedford St., Boston. 


CONTENTS. 


Page 


Art. XLVII.—Percival’s map of. the Jura-Trias trap-belts 
of Central Connecticut, with observations on the up- 


turning, or mountain-making disturbance, of the Forma- 
tion; by J. D. Dana. With a map, Plate XVI_____- 439 


XLVIII. “The Detection and Determination of Potasstan 
Spectroscopically; by F. A. Goocn and T. §. Hart___ 448 


XLIX.—The Ultra-Violet Spectrum of the Solar Promi- 
nences;, by G.° H. HALE y. 2 52.2025 6 oie ee 


L.—Phonics of Auditoriums; by E. Currer _._...-....._. 468 
LI.—The Secular Variation of Latitudes; by G. C. Comstock 470 
LII,—Capture of Comets by Planets, especially their Capture 


by Jupiter; by H. A.“ Newton -2---_.- 2. 482 
LIII.—Distribution of Titanic Oxide upon the surface of the 

Barth; by F. P: DuNNINGTON -u.- --3.¢2 22 491 
iy Wetes on a Missouri Barite; by C. LuepmKine and 

HL. Av WHEELER -. LoSl. pee ue oo ee 
LYV.—The Contraction of Molten Rock; by C. Barus -..-- 498 
LVL—Notes on Michigan Minerals; by A. C. Lanz, H. F. 

Ke.ier and F. F. Smarpiess ._.-.---- ld er 499 


SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 


Chemistry and Physics—Two.new Modifications of Sulphur, ENG&L: Chemistry 
of the Carbon compounds or Organic Chemistry, von RicuTER, 509.—System of 
Inorganic Chemistry, Wm. Ramsay: An Introduction to the Mathematical The- 
ory of Electricity and Magnetism, W. T. H. Emragz, 510.—Chapters on Hlec- 
tricity, 8. SHELDON: Apparent change in electrochemical equivalent of copper. 
VANNI: Electrolytic generation of Gas in a closed space, CHABRY: Damping of 
electrical oscillations, BSERKNES: Velocity of Electrical waves in solid insulators, 
AVONS and RUBENS, 511. 


Geology—British Earthquakes of 1889, C. Davison, 512,—Formation of Graphite 
in Contact-metamorphism, Beck and Luzi, 514.—Geological Survey of Alabama, 
EK. A. SmirH: Geological Survey of Missouri, Bulletin No. 5, A. WINSLOW: 
Geological Survey of Georgia, L. W. SPENCER, 515.—Geological facts on Grand 
River, Labrador, A. Cary: Index to the known Fossil Insects of the World, 
S. H. ScuppEr: Stones for Building and Decoration, G. P. MERRILL: Manga- 
nese, its uses, ores and deposits, R. A. F: PENROSE, Jr., 516, 


Botany—Botanic Gardens in the Equatorial Belt and in the South Seas, 517. 


Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—Analysis of the water of the Salt Lake, Alia- 
paakai, on Oahu, Hawaiian Islands, Prof. Lyons, 522.—National Academy of 
Sciences: The Metal Worker, A. O. KITTREDGE, 523. 


Obituary—J. FRANCIS WILLIAMS. 


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