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AMERICAN
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.
Epiror: EDWARD 8S. DANA.
ASSOCIATE EDITORS
Proressorss GEORGE L. GOODALE, JOHN TROWBRIDGE,
W. G. FARLOW anp WM. M. DAVIS, or CampBrwpce,
Proressors ADDISON E. VERRILL, HORACE L. WELLS,
L. V. PIRSSON anp H. E. GREGORY, or New Haven,
Proressor GEORGE F. BARKER, or PHILADELPHIA,
Proressor HENRY §S. WILLIAMS, or Irwaca,
Proressor JOSEPH S. AMES, or Battimore,
Mr. J. S. DILLER, or Wasuinerton.
FOURTH SERIES
VOL. XX—[WHOLE NUMBER, CLXX.]
WitH 15 PLATES.
NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT.
1905
9S EOE
4 : ; :
THE TUTTLE, MORE
HOUSE
CERT pe
eS ips
VV
VWUseUN TAVOLAN):
ii, See
MOTT 41 1:
CONTENTS TO VOLUME XxX.
Number 115.
Page
Art. I.—Iodine Tiv.. %» Voltameter; by D. A. Kreiper. 1
I1.—Handling of Preci, tes for Solution and Reprecipita-
peetetnoy ll An GoOGw ose nt eee OS es ee iT
IlJ.—Estimation of Sulphites by Iodine; by R. H. Asurey 18
IV.—Revision of the New York Helderbergian Crinoids ;
fale Pareor ( (With Plates IDV). 22 24s ees: S Let
V.—Petrographic Province of Central Montana; by L. V.
oy TESS DIN Gs SRE a Be ag Mia Nee perma ees Ae UG Me 35
eee roomia paucitiora ; by I’. Horm ...2 .--2222..252-2. 50
VIl.—Relative Proportion of Radium and Uranium in
Radio-active Minerals; by E. Ruruerrorp and B. B.
Sep ATO Coe ge ee he eho oe eae Rs i BB
VIII.—Side Discharge of Electricity ; by J. TRowBRIDGE -. 57
IX.—Effect of High Temperatures on the Rate of Decay of
the Active Deposit from Radium; by H. L. Bronson-_. 60
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
Chemistry and Physics—Amounts of Neon and Helium in the Air, W. Ram-
say: Radio-activity of Thorium, O. Sackur, 65.—Use of Quartz Apparatus
for Laboratory Purposes, Mytius and Mreusser: Permeability of Quartz
Vessels to Gases, BERTHELOT: Outlines of Inorganic Chemistry, A. Goocu
and C. F. Waker, 66.—Spectroscopic Analysis of Gas Mixtures, J. E.
LILIENFELD : FitzGerald-Lorentz Effect, MorLEY and MILLER, 67.—Normal
Klement: Influence of Character of Excitation upon Structure of Spectral
lines: Radio-active Minerals, R. J. Srrutr: Absence of excited Radio-
activity due to temporary Exposure to y-Rays, 68.—Handbuch der Spectro-
scople, H. Kaysmr, 69.
Geology and Natural History—United States Geological Survey, 69.—Pre-
liminary Report on the Geology and Underground Water Resources of the
Central Great Plains, N. H. Darton, 70.—Origin of the Channels surround-
ing Manhattan Island, New York, W. H. Hoxsss, 71.—Isomorphism and
Thermal Properties of the Feldspars, A. L. Day and E. T. ALLEN, 72.—
Tin Deposits of the Carolinas, J. H. Prarr and D. B. Strerrett: Tubico-*
lous Annelids of the Tribes Sabellides and Serpulides from the Pacific
Ocean, K. J, Busu, 75.—Student’s Text-Book of Zoology, A. SEDGWICK :
Preliminary Report on the Protozoa of the Fresh Waters of Connecticut,
H. W. Conn, 76.—Etudes sur l’Instinct et les Moeurs des Insects, J.-H.
Fapre: Rocky Mountain Goat, M. Grant: Catalogue of North American
Diptera (or two-winged Flies), J. M. ALDRIcH: Fauna and Geography of
the Maldive and Laccadive Archipelagoes, J. S. GaRDINER: American
Museum Journal, 77.—Cold Spring Harbor Monographs, 78.
Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—Vom Kilimandscharo zum Meru, C.
Uutie, 78.—Glacial Studies in the Canadian Rockies and Selkirks, W. H.
SCHERZER : Solar Observatory of the Carnegie Institution of Washington,
G. E. Hate: United States Naval Observatory: Publications of West
Hendon House Observatory, Sunderland, 80.
1V CONTENTS.
Number 116.
Page
Art. X.—Mechanical Equivalent of the Heat Vaporization
of Water; by R. H. Hover . 2.) >... + ee
XI. —Phosphor escence of Zinc Sulphide through ‘the Influence
of Condensed Gases obtained by Heating Rare-Harth
Minerals ; by C. BaskERvitue and L. B. Lockwart.... 93
XII.—Action of Radium Emanations on Minerals and Gems;
by C. Baskervitie and L. B. Lockmart __..-___-_-_- 95
XIII.—Behavior of Typical Hydrous Bromides when Heated
in an Atmosphere of Hydrogen Bromide; by J. L.
KRBIDER: .. so et us a Le 97
XIV.—Glacial (Dwyka) Conglomerate of South Africa ; by
He 'T. MELLoR 250 eso ee
XV.—Formation of Natural Bridges; by H. F. Cuezanp._ 119
XVI.—Quartz from San Diego County, California; by G.
A. WARING SoS tosup oc Sel 10 Se 125
XV II.—Radio-active Properties of the Waters of the Springs
on the Hot Springs Reservation, Hot Springs, Ark.;-by
B. By Bottwoop.. i.e a 128
XVIII.—Genesis of Riebeckite Rocks; by G. M. Muregocr . 133
X1IX.—Purpurite, a new Mineral; by L. C. Graton and W:
Ty. SCHALLER = 22o0uc.. epee 2 146
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
Chemistry and Physics—Studies with the Liquid Hydrogen and Air Calori-
meters. I. Specific Heats, J. DEwar, 152.—Thermo-electric Junction as
a Means of determining the Lowest Temperatures, J. Dewar, 153.
Geology—Geology of the Vicinity of Little Falls, Herkimer County, H. P.
CusHING, 156.—Geology of the Watkins and Elmira Quadrangles, accom-
panied by a geologic map, J. M. Cuarxe and D. D. Lutuer, 157.—Geologic
map of the Tully Quadrangle, J. M. CuarkEe and D. D. LuruEer, 158.—
Contribution to the Paleontology of the Martinez Group, C. EK. WEAVER:
Faune cambrienne du Haut-Alemtejo (Portugal), J. F. N. DELeGapo, 159.
—Paraphorhynchus, a new genus of Kinderhook Brachiopoda, S. WELLER :
Sympterura Minveri, n. g. et sp.; a Devonian Ophiurid from Cornwall, F.
A. BatHEeR: Ancestral origin of the North American Unionidez, or fresh-
water Mussels, C. A. Wurre, 160.—Thalattosauria, a group of marine rep-
tiles from the Triassic of California, J. C. MerRR1am: Geology of Littleton,
New Hampshire, C. H. Hircucock: Vorschule der Geologie, J. WALTHER,
161.—Die Moore der Schweiz mit Beriicksichtigung der gesammten Moor-
frage, J. Frtw and C. Scurorer, 162.—Study of Recent Earthquakes, C.
Davison: Introduction to the Geology of Cape Colony, A. W. ROGERS,
168.—Ice Erosion Theory, a Fallacy, H. L. Farrconixp, 164.—Hanging Val-
leys, I. C. Russewx, 165.—Glaciation of the Green Mountains, C. H. Hircn-
cock: Ice or Water, H. H. Howorrts, 166.
Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—United States National Museum, R.
RatHBUN: Forestry ; Tenth Annual Report of the Chief Fire Warden of
Minnesota, C. C. ANDREWS: Les Prix Nobel en 1902: Negritos of Zam-
bales, W. A. ReEp: Magnetic Survey of Japan reduced to the Epoch
1895°0 and the Sea-level, A. TANAKADATE, 167.—Beitrage zur chemischen
Physiologie, F. Hormerster ; Du Laboratoire & V Usine, L. HOULLEVIGUE :
Traité Complet de la Fabrication des Bieéres, G. Moreau and L. Livy, 168.
CONTENTS. ar
Number 117.
Page
Art. XX.—Development of Fenestella; by E. R. Cumines.
Oia lates V5 2 Vil ands EE) coi ee Se 169
XXI.—Age of the Monument Creek Formation; by N.H.
ORPRESEEN 2 teed ee as Sse SN St A a a en Se te) 178
X XII.—Iodometric Determination of Aluminium in Alumin-
ium Chloride and Aluminium Sulphate; by 8. E. Moopy 181
XXIITI.—Secondary Origin of Certain Granites; by R. A.
2 GT Sa eae pee riieaeae EN leh etna ata Sage tric aerate LU nots 185
XXIV.—Tychite, a New Mineral from Borax Lake, Califor-
nia, and on its Artificial Production and its Relations
to Northupite ; by 8S. L. PENFIELD and G. 8. JamMIEsoN 217
XXV.—Modification of Victor Meyer’s Apparatus for the
Determination of Vapor-Densities; by B. J. Har-
EMME CMNE Seo 8 Poe cs a LN se cael tre ces Geren ODDS
XXVI.—New Lower Tertiary Fauna from Chappaquiddick
Island, Martha’s Vineyard; by T. C. Brown. (With
ere aed Sore Ce ee ee Se O99
XXVII.—Production of Radium from Uranium; by B. B.
em OO pee Be eee ee aks Se ae 2 239
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
Geology—Explorations in Turkestan with an account of The Basin of Eastern
Persia and Sistan. Expedition of 1903, under the direction of RAPHAEL
PUMPELLY, 245.
al ' CONTENTS.
Number ois:
Page
Arr. XX VIII.—Ultimate Disintegration Products of the
Radio-active Klements ; by B. B. Bottwoop .__-_.--- 253
XXIX.—Use of the Rotating Cathode for the Estimation
of Cadmium taken as the Sulphate ; by C. P. Frora ._ 268
XXX.—Crystallization of Luzonite; and other Crystallo-
graphic Studies ; by A. J. Mosus__..-__.__.- Base aa
XX XI.—Determining of the Optical Character of Birefract-
ing Minerals; by F. EH. Wrigur..-. 2.0.75) 0 ees
XX XII.—Groups of Efficient Nuclei in Dust-Free Air; by
C. Barus eet 0 ls oes a rrr
XX XIII.—Studies in the Cyperaceer ; by T. Hotm_____._. 301
XXXITV.—Preliminary Note on some Overthrust Faults in
Central New York; by P. EF. Scunumur._ 725s - 808
XXX V.—Petrography of the Tucson Mountains, Pima Co.,
Arizona; by EH. N. Guinp. > (With Plate 1X¢) 7297s 313
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
Chemistry and Physics—Gases produced by Actinium, Drprerne: New
Heavy Solution, Dusorn, 319.—Hydrolysis of very Concentrated Ferric
Sulphate Solutions, RecouRa: Separation of Gold from the Metals of the
Platinum Group, JANNASCH and von Moyer: Determination of Sugar with
Fehling’s Solution, Lavauur, 320.—Slow Transformation Products of
Radium, E. RuTHERFORD, 3821.
Geology and Mineralogy—Indiana, Department of Geology and Natural
Resources, Twenty-ninth Annual Report, W. S. BLhatcHLEy, 322.—Geo-
logical Survey of Louisiana: Geological Survey of New Jersey: Brief
descriptions of some recently described Minerals, 323.
CONTENTS. Vil
Number 119. :
Art. XXXVI.—A New Niobrara Toxochelys; by G. R.
imine (With Plate X:)\ 2 le eo et 325
XXXVII.—Contributions to the Geology of New Hamp-
shire. I. Geology of the Belknap Mountains; by L.
V. Pirsson and H. 8. Wasuineton. (With Plate XI.) 344
XXXVIII.—The Fauna of the Chazy Limestone; by P. E.
EPPA EOND esc ra oc aa ye at ey a eee a 353
XXXIX.—The Mechanical Properties of Catgut Musical
Seiten Dye divs ISUNTON: 225222080 35 2208 oo Le 888
XL.—Use of the Rotating Cathode for the Estimation of
Cadmium taken as the Chloride; by C. P. Fiora_-_- 392
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
Chemistry and Physics.—Formation of Ozone by Ultra-violet Light, FiscHER
and BRAEMER: New Reagent for Nickel, TscuHuGarrFr, 397.—Electrolytic
Dissociation Theory with some of its Applications: Soils and Fertilizers :
Engineering Chemistry, 398.—Text-book of Chemical Arithmetic: Text-
book of Physiological Chemistry for Students of Medicine: Formation
of Helium from the Radium EHEmanation, 399.—Blondlot’s ‘‘ Emission
pesante”: Diffusion of Nascent Hydrogen through Tron, A. WINKLEMANN,
400.—Landolt-Boérnstein Physikalisch-chemische Tabellen, 401.
Geology and Mineralogy.—United States Geological Survey, 402.—Osteology
of Baptanodon, C. W. GitmMorez, 403.—Cambrian Fauna of India, C. D
Watcort, 404.—Catalogue of Type-Specimens of Fossil Invertebrates in
the Department of Geology, U.S. National Museum, 405.—Graptolites of
New York; Part I, Graptolites of the Lower Beds, R. RUEDEMANN :
Mesozoic Plants from Korea, H. YABrE: Paleontologia Universalis: Ninth
Annual Report of the Geological Commission, Dept. of Agriculture, Cape
of Good Hope, for 1904: Rock Cleavage, C. K. Lerry, 406.— Experiments
on Schistosity and Slaty Cleavage, G. F. Becker: Die Alpen im Liszeit-
alter, 407.—Structural and Field Geology, J. GrrKie: Clays and Clay
Industry of Connecticut, G. F. Loucutin, 408.—Geology of Western Ore
Deposits: Delavan Lobe of the Lake Michigan Glacier, etc., 409.—
Platinum in Black Sands from Placer Mines, D. T. Day: Cassiterite, W.
EK. Hippen, 410.
Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence.—Harvard College Observatory : Pub-
lications of the Cincinnati Observatory: Report of Director of the Yerkes
Observatory, Univ. of Chicago: Carnegie Institution of Washington, 411.
—Annual Report Board of Regents Smithsonian Institution: Catalogue
of Collection of Birds’ Eggs in the British Museum of Natural History:
Bibliotheca Zoologica II, 412.
Obituary.—Baron FERDINAND VON RICHTHOFEN, Professor LEO HERRERA, Mr.
G. B. Buckxton, M. Eviste Recuvs, 412.
Vill CONTENTS.
Number 120.
Page
Art. XLI.—Two New Ceratopsia from the Laramie of
Converse County, Wyoming; by J. B. Harcuer. (With
Plates’ XII, XYIT)... 0202 a
XLII.—Restoration of the Horned Dinosaur Diceratops ;
by Ricuarp 8. Lunt. (With Plate XIV.) .._.._ 073 420
XLITI.—Triassic System in New Mexico; by Cuaruezs R.
KEYES 0025952500200 423
XLIV.—Structure of the Upper Cretaceous Turtles of New
Jersey; Agomphus; by G. R. Wiktanp. > 927 ae
XLV.—The Cambro-Ordovician Limestones of the Middle
Portion of the Valley of Virginia; by H. D. Campprtn 445
XLVI.—Relations of Ions and Nuclei in Dust-free Air; by
CARL BaRus 2.040002 202 448
XLVIL—Additional Notes upon the Estimation of Oad-
mium by Means of the Rotating Cathode, and Summary;
by:Cuartes P) Frora 220s 454
XLVIII.—The Estimation of Cadmium as the Oxide; by
CHARLES “Pe rors 2 ee22 Cees jee ee eee
XLIX.—The Mounted Skeleton of Tecan oe prorsus in
the U.S. National Museum; ie C. Scnucuerr. (With
Plate XN.) (220222 22.25 22 re
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
Chemistry and Physics.—A New Formation of Diamond, Str W. CrooKkzs:
A New Compound of Iron, Orro Hauser: Nitrosyl Fluoride, Rurr and
SrAusER, 460.—The Atomic Weight of Strontium, T. W. RicHARDS:
Qualitative Analysis, E. H. S. Barney and H. P. Capy: Charging Effect
of Réntgen Rays, Kari Haun, 461.—Emission of Negative Corpuscles by
the Alkali Metals, J. J. THomson : A New Method of showing the Presence
of Neon, Krypton, and Xenon, S. VALENTINER and R. ScumiptT: The
Mechanical Properties of Catgut Musical Strings, J. R. Benton, 462.
Geology and Mineralogy.—lowa Geological Survey, Volume XV, 463.—Sum-
mary Report of the Geological Survey Department of Canada, R. BELL:
Glaciation of Southwestern New Zealand, E..C. AnpREws, 464.—Mastodon-
Reste aus dem interandinen Hochland von Bolivia, J. F. PomprcKs:
Description of New Rodents and Discussion of the Origin of Daemonelix, —
O. A. Peterson, 465.—Economic Geology of the Bingham Mining District,
Utah, 466.—Economic Geology, 467.—Minerals in Rock Sections, L. Mcl.
LuqueEr, 468.
Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence.—National Academy of Sciences, 468.—
The Geological Society of America: A Laboratory Guide in Bacteriology,
Pauu G. HernemMann: British Tunicata, ALDER and Hancock, 469.—Cata-
logus Mammalium tam viventium quam fossilium, EH. L. TROUESSART :
Carnegie Institution of Washington: A Handbook of the Trees of Cali-
fornia, A. Eastwoop, 470.
Obituary.—Professor DEwitt BristoL Brace, Professor RALPH COPELAND,
Professor D. W. von BEzoup, 470.
InDEX TO Vou. XX, 471.
U.S. Nat. Museum: MMMM a
pe = | JULY, 1905.
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Arr. 1—An Lodine Titration Voltameter; by D. ArBert
KREIDER.
THE rapidity, accuracy and sharpness of the end reaction
of several of the methods of volumetric analysis, particularly
of the iodometric methods, have suggested the possibility of
applying them to the voltameter. A rather extensive investi-
gation of quantitative electrolytic oxidation and reduction
methods, with this aim in view, has resulted in the evolution
of a titration voltameter the accuracy of which may be
depended upon to about one part in ten thousand. The
advantages in point of manipulation and time required, as well
as its applicability to a greater range of current density, will,
in the writer’s opinion, make it of service in many investi-
gations.
The basis of the method is the electrolysis of potassium
iodide and the titration of the liberated iodine by sodium thio-
sulphate. Herroun* first’ suggested the use of iodine in this
connection. He electrolyzed zinc iodide between a platinum
anode and zine cathode in a beaker; but gives the results of
only one determination and leaves the method in an imprac-
_ticable form. *
Danneelt reports four comparative tests of Herroun’s zine
iodide voltameter in series witha silver voltameter. The results
show a difference of between +0°27 per cent and —1 per cent.
His burette readings were made to only the nearest 0°1°°, and the
total quantity of thiosulphate was small’; varying from 7 to BA.
The work of Danneel, as well as that of Kistiakowskyt on
a silver titration voltameter, seems never to have found its way
* Phil. Mag. [5], xl, 91, 1895.
+ Zeitschr. fiir Elect. Chem., iv, 154, 1897.
t Zeitschr. Phys. Chem., vi, 97, 1890.
Am. Jour. Sct.—Fourts Serizs, Vou. XX. No. 115.—JuLy, 1905.
1
g D, A. Kreider—-lodine Titration Voltameter.
into the general literature. The work of both men, on voltam- —
eters, was incidental to another research and the titles of their
articles fail to afford any clue to this particular contents. My
own preliminary search of possible reactions had been com-
pleted and I had settled upon the form of the iodide voltameter
before I learned of the work just mentioned.
Herroun rather erroneously points to the high electro-
chemical equivalent of iodine as its chief advantage; this is
obviously immaterial in a volumetric method. As a basis of a
titration method, however, iodine has peculiar advantages in
the rapid action of sodium thiosulphate upon it and in the
extreme sharpness of the end reactions, intensified when desir-
able by the addition of starch solution. Potassium iodide is,
moreover, much to be preferred to the zine salt. It 1s obtain-
able commercially quite free from iodates and its solutions
may, therefore, be acidified without the liberation of iodine,
except for the very slow action of atmospheric, or dissolved,
oxygen.
It is, of course, impracticable to electrolyze the potassium
iodide directly, when the liberated iodine is to afford a measure
of the current; this is because of the recombination of the
electrode products by diffusion. Acidifymg prevents this
recombination, or even after it has taken place, in an acid
solution the original amount of iodine is liberated, providing
‘the iodine has not been allowed to diffuse to the cathode
during the electrolysis, where it would tend to combine with
hydrogen and would be irrecoverable.
A most satisfactory action is obtained when the anode is
submerged in a strong aqueous solution of the potassium
iodide under dilute hydrochloric acid in which the cathode is
suspended. With the electrodes thus placed vertically, the
anode below, the liberated iodine, because of its great density
and solubility in potassium iodide, diffuses very slowly. After
a run of hours, and even on subsequent standing for hours
more, the solution about the cathode remains Boe color-
less and free of iodine.
The Potassium Iodide Cell.
Asa cell, I have employed a side-necked test tube, fig. 1,
drawn out at the bottom to a long capillary. Into the junction
of this capillary a glass rod was ground. The test tube was
closed by a rubber stopper with three perforations, through
the middle one of which the ground glass rod passes air tight,
though not so tightly as to prevent easy motion when moist.
The other perforations receive the glass tubes through which
the wires connect with the platinum electrodes ; anode at the
D. A. Kreider—TIodine Titration Voltameter. 3
bottom of the tube, cathode above. The size of the electrodes
was, in the small cell, 1-6 X 2-7"; in the large cell, 2°5 & 6°.
In the latter case the cathode was somewhat smaller and corru-
gated. These electrodes were bent into cylindrical form and
arranged coaxially with the tube. The smaller
cell had a diameter of 2°, length, 12™, length of
capillary, 7. Its capacity was about 30°; about
7° being required to cover the anode. The larger
cell was made in the same way, of a tube 3 in
diameter and about 15™ in length, with a capil-
lary about 18 long. With the distance of 5™
between the nearest edges of the electrodes, the
total volume required to cover the cathode was
about 60°, about 20° sufficing to cover the anode.
The apparatus was filled by raising the ground
glass rod and by diminished pressure, effected
through the side neck, drawing up through the
capillary successively the required amount of
hydrochloric acid and then the strong solution of
potassium iodide in water. In this way the anode
is completely submerged in the concentrated solu-
tion of iodide without the use of excessive quan-
tities. The hydrochloric acid serves as an elec-
trolyte, permitting the separation of the electrodes
sufficiently to preclude the possibility of any
interaction of the electrode products.
By this method of filling the cell the iodide is
sufficiently acidified, and if not too rapidly drawn in, a sharp
line will mark the junction of the two solutions of different
density. The electrolysis results in a quantitative liberation of
iodine unless the current density is too great. In the latter
case oxygen is evolved along with the iodine. With the per-
missible current densities indicated in Table I, so long as the
potassium iodide is not impoverished about the anode, not a
trace of oxygen appears and the action is entirely satisfactory.
As the iodine is liberated it sinks along the electrode and by
its convection effect renews the iodide at the surface of the
electrode without the shghtest disturbance of the supernatant
acid. In all cases where the current density has not exceeded
the indicated maximum, or where the duration of the current
has not been such as to exhaust the iodide (so that no oxygen
is evolved) the supernatant liquid remains perfectly colorless
and free of iodine, and continues to show a sharp line of
demarcation between the iodine solution and the acid.
Table I shows the possible current densities, potential
change, and permissible time of run, under the given condi-
tions. In the first column, the first figure represents the num-
4 D. A. Kreider—TIodine Titration Voltameter.
ber of grams of potassium iodide used and the second figure
the volume of its solution in water. In the fifth column,
where two figures are given, the first represents the fall of
potential through the cell at the beginning of the experiment
and the second figure that at the end of the run. The interval
is found in the sixth column. An asterisk following the
figures of the sixth column indicates that the current was con-
tinued until, and stopped at the moment of, the first appear-
ance of gas on the anode. It is evident that the liberation of
iodine is no longer quantitative for some time before this gas
appears, the safety limit depending upon the current density.
Within this safety limit the rise of potential is also not as great
as that indicated in the fifth column. The fall of potential
through the cell increases continuously and very regularly,
after the first few minutes, in which it rises rather more rapidly.
Just before the appearance of the gas the potential naturally
rises quite rapidly. The gradual change of potential is doubt-
less due to the increased resistance of the potassium chloride
solution which is formed during the electrolysis at the bound-
ary of the two solutions. This part of the cell, especially the
small one, is always considerably heated by the current, and a
conspicuous line of increased density of the solution, but
entirely colorless, gradually creeps up the tube to a distance
of several centimeters in an hours run. In the 7th experi-
ment the solution became quite warm and small bubbles of
gas appeared on the sides of the glass, long before there was
any evidence of gas being evolved at the anode. To test the
correctness of the supposition that this was merely dissolved
gas, the 8th experiment was made with the cell in a water
bath maintained at 9°. Under these conditions no gas appeared
until it was evolved at the anode. This experiment also shows
that the warming of the solution is, if anything, an advantage ;
due, doubtless, to the more rapid diffusion of the iodide or to
the greater solubility of the iodine. In experiments 38 and 10
the current was varied; the time of run for each value of the
current is given in the sixth column.
Three determinations with two of the small cells in series,
each containing 2 grams of potassium iodide in 75°, with a
current density of 0-015 amp./em’* showed the following satis-
factory agreement in the amount of thiosulphate required :
( 31°55 © 28.60% | 16°62
(4) 4 31-58« (>) 98.66 « (*) 16-60 «
A comparison between the values obtained by two of the
iodine voltameters in series with each other and with one or
more copper voltameters is shown in Table II. The titrations
lodine Titration Voltameter. 5
D. A. Kreider
in these cases were not as accurately made, nor the solutions
standardized with the same eare that peed the later
determinations, as will be seen from the sequel.
TABLE I.
Diam= of eel —— 2°":
| Length of cell=12°™.
ee : Electrodes 1:6 x 2°7™.
| Dist. between Beaeeee edges of pibereades! pe
| Current Time
KI HCl Current! density | pp ot
\grms. in cc. of (r:4) |(approx.)| (approx.) Wales oyu run,
solution cc. amp. amp fie mins.
| ql cm |
Esa =e not s 1% | 9.9% 99%
1 lino ? measured 0 13 | 0 015 | 9) Ae
Pee 5 a 0-13 | 0-015 2°00 (35*
| (| | 0-25 | 0-029 15
ane 18 4 ry — 0°40 0°046 | | 2 more
( eres) | 2402058. } | 43 more*
Ale gets: 7+5 ; | 0-5 0°058 |7-1to 7:8,15*
BS Ne aw a 20 | 0-5 0-058 [3° “ 4°7)13* ‘Solid iodine at anode
See o ee BEER aeeta HiaAS { Solid iodine at anode
tee Sia Sd RL aa al | Solution alkaline
ee a Se ee Solid iodine in large
te ry. 9 . = IDeA 66 - % =
5875 | 2 | 05 | 0-058 paw aes | Peqnantity at anode
{ Diam. of cell = 3.
3, | Length of cell = 15.
(0) Large ceil Electrode (anode) 2°5 x 6,
Distance nearest edges, d°™.
Sees 20 40 Peso ty Ob aI2+ = 65 Shia ‘Solid iodine at anode
| 0-5 0-017 |1:5 ** 2°5/91 |
10)10 ** 20 40 1-0 0-038 |4:1 ‘* 4:7 2 more |
| | 1°5 0-050 5°7 _ 1 more* Solid iodine at anode
* Gas evolved at anode.
TaBLe IT.
. Iodine voltameter. Cu- voltameter,
| Distance | Pe neeere | | ati eae
| between a ewes toute S | Copper | | 5
elec- sre =| rent ee Pets Hales o bi: equiv- Copper | ae
trodes, ae Praia ices |e bo ae alent, grins. [Ag
an | eee nea Mie | grms. ia
—— | |
ieee alee 725) 73°90| 0°2391/| |
; ; >) "237 013
1 | (b) 14 75 | 0°5 0°058 25 73-72, 0-2385 ° 379 0-0
af) (2) 514 751) onl ogeolsn § | 182°87| 0:4202|| 0°4199] 13
a) (5) 5/4 * 75| 6 O°) 0845) | 139-71] o-4198) 0-4208 7”
| | | | |
3 515 “© 7-5) 0510-05845 | 134°21| 0°4244 ae af 0-013
424
6 D, A. Kreider—TLodine Titration Voltameter.
Standard Solutions.
Sodium thiosulphate is the most convenient medium for the
titration of iodine, but it is not a very satisfactory standard
where great accuracy is desired. The salt is readily obtained
quite pure, but there is always some uncertainty as to the
amount of extraneous water the crystals may contain. Further,
on long standing, especially when exposed to the hght, it un-
dergoes a slight decomposition, with deposition of sulphur.
However, this decomposition is so slow that, if kept in the
dark, the solution will remain quite constant for months.
In all of my titrations, except those that were merely relative, I
have employed an approximately decinormal solution of sodium
thiosulphate, standardized against arsenious oxide, by means
of an iodine solution. The purest arsenious oxide obtainable
was resublimed three times and weighed from a weighing bot-
tle. This solution also was only approximately decinormal.
The weight of the arsenious oxide was carefully determined
and reduced to its weight in vacuo, and the solution accu-
rately made up to one liter at 20° in a calibrated flask. The
direct employment of the arsenic solution for the titrations
is undesirable because it necessitates an excess of bicarbonate
and the danger of loss of iodine in the neutralization requires
a complicated series of traps. Moreover, the end reaction,
when starch is employed, is much slower with arsenic than
with the thiosulphate. With the latter it is practically instan-
taneous.
The Titrations.
The titrations were performed in Ehrlenmeyer beakers.
In filling the cell, care was always taken to draw up the last
of the iodide solution as far as the ground glass joint, but with-
out admitting air which would stir up the solutions. To avoid
a possible loss of iodine through a considerable leakage of the
joint and vaporization from the concentrated solution, the
Ehrlenmeyer beaker containing about 150° of water was
placed under the cell during the electrolysis. The capillary
extension of the cell (fig. 1) reached to the bottom of the
beaker. Whenever the leakage of the ground glass joint was
sufficient to allow the iodine solution to descend the full length
of the capillary during an experiment, the joint was reground
with the finest emery. Under these conditions a loss of iodine
is impossible.
After the current was cut off, the ground glass joint was
opened slightly and the cell allowed to empty slowly. The
great density of the iodine solution keeps it continuously
covered with a layer of water of considerable depth in the
D. A. Kreider—lLodine Titration Voltameter. he
beaker, and the supernatant acid of the cell washed out the
iodine completely.
A burette of 50° capacity was employed. This burette was
carefully calibrated and was found to be surprisingly accurate.
Its error indicates an extremely minute and regular taper of
the tube and the graduations are such as to permit of accurate
readings to 0°02°. In fact I have felt considerable confidence
in reading it to 0°01°%. This, with the strength of solution
employed, was equivalent to about 0:-1™€ of -silver. In the
earlier determinations, when more than 50° of the thiosulphate
were required, the burette was in some cases
refilled, which, of course, multiplied the error
of reading. In other cases, where the amount
of thiosulphate was approximately known, a
sufficient quantity was added to the beakers
from calibrated pipettes of various size, so
that the additional amount required should be
less than 50°. This is, of course, less exact
and impractical as well, unless the amount
required is approximately known.
In the later determinations a bulb burette,
fig. 2, was employed. This contained 6 bulbs,
each of approximately 25° capacity, connected
by small tubes of about 2 to 3™™ internal
diameter. At about the middle of these tubes
marks were etched in such a way as to permit
readings without error of parallax. The
smallness of the tubes prevented filling the
‘burette from the top and to avoid the uncer-
tainty of rubber connections a small side tube,
also about 2 to 3", terminating in a funnel,
b, was sealed on and supported by a section
of cork as shown. A finger placed on @ as
the liquid is poured into } regulates the flow,
so that air bubbles are not carried along and
the burette is filled quietly and accurately.
Inclining the discharge tube, as shown, is of
great advantage in preventing any of the
grease from the cock soiling the interior of
the burette, a very troublesome feature of the usual burette.
The readings of this burette are naturally extremely accurate.
It was employed in bleaching the larger part of the iodine.
Experience enabled me to judge from the color about when
the remaining iodine was less than that bleached by the con-
tents of one bulb. If there was any difficulty in judging this,
a comparison beaker of iodine solution could be employed.
At any rate the 50° burette, with which the titration was com-
»
8 D. A. Kreider—TIodine Titration Voltameter.
pleted, was equal to two of the bulbs, and no difficulty was
experienced in keeping within that limit. In case of acci-
dentally overstepping the amount of thiosulphate required, a
measured volume of iodine solution may be added and the
titration be repeated, subsequent deduction being made for the
amount of thiosulphate necessary to bleach the added iodine.
The end reaction was in all cases taken as the bleaching of
the iodine color, without starch. This in itself is quite deli-
eate, and I have invariably been able to read it to a small frac-
tion of a drop, when the beaker stood on white paper in a
good indirect light. As a confirmation of the reading, 5° of
starch solution was then added and produced a faint purple
color. The delicacy of this end reaction was more thoroughly
appreciated when, after a number of titrations had been made
successively, as in the experiments of Table III, the addition
of the starch produced almost precisely the same shade of color
in all, despite the fact that a very small fraction of a drop of
the thiosulphate produced a distinctly perceptible change in
the color.
TABLE III.
oo KI a) ie - | Difference,
Electrodes, 2s q| grms. ® S a S Se Fev Se
om. |gSS| “in Se eee ee |
42 ce. ae a 5 vad ee fe
—EE 2 ae
16X2-7| 2 | 6 in 75)... 80-4
(1) eee 5 Ub ae ol ae 0-058 | 18067] 5
ae pe eh 1128-49] |
9) . ° = . .
(2) |} 16X27 5 | 5 BS nes 0-058 | 198-55) 0 Oops
\§ 16x27] 2 | 5“ F5) (0-058. | 197-26) nema
(3) eens 5 110 “901 ¢ °°) | 0017 | 1e746 7 ae
eee Ae oa es) (0058 |170°67|
(4)/4 16x27) 5 | 5 « 7-5/5 05 | 170°67) 0:23) 0-135
(25x60) 5 {10 “20 \ / 0-017 | 170-90
Table III is a record of a number of determinations of the
constancy of this voltameter. Two or more of the cells were
connected in series, and the conditions in each varied as shown.
The time of run for 1 to 3 inclusive was about 45 mins., for
the 4th, one hour. The amount of hydrochloric acid (1:4)
was not measured. Enough of the acid was drawn in to insure
the covering of the cathode when the iodide solution was
drawn in, and to keep the solution acid throughout the experi-
D. A. Kreider—Todine Titration Voltameter. 9
ment. The iodide was roughly weighed. No correction was
made for the blank determinations, nor was special care taken
to maintain exact constancy of temperature.
Table IV shows the results of the only two determinations
that were made by three of the iodine voltameters in series
with each other and with one normal silver gravimetric voita-
meter. The original readings of the-burettes for the required
thiosulphate is given in the 6th column. In the 7th column
is given the value corrected for the blank determinations. A
number of blank determinations for the small cell, when
5 grams of lodide were used, gave, with the blank shown in
(2), an average value of 0-07 of thiosulphate, which is the cor-
rection applied to all of the small cells. The large cell, with
10 grams of potassium iodide, showed an average value for a
blank determination of 0°21° of thiosulphate. This is three
times instead of twice the value of the small cell, as would be
expected were the result due to traces of iodate in the iodide.
The uncertainty as to the amount of iodine liberated by iodate,
or by dissolved oxygen, or by possible oxidizing impurities of
the acid, make it rather more desirable to employ known
weights of the iodide and known volumes of the acid and then
to correct for the blank determination, than the alternative of
securing absolute freedom from these extra sources of libera-
tion of iodine.
In the silver voltameter employed, the cathode was a plati-
num bowl about 8™ in diameter and 3°5™ in depth. The
anode was a silver disc, 5-8" in diameter, 0°8™™ thick, and sup-
ported by three platinum wires bent over its edges. ‘This was
wrapped in filter paper. The solution was made up of
20 grams of pure silver nitrate, dissolved in 106° of distilled
water. The deposited silver was washed with water and
allowed to stand under water over-night. Then washed again
with water, finally with absolute alcohol and heated for 4 hrs.
in an oven at 160°. Then allowed to cool for an hour in a
desiccator before weighing.
TaBLeE IV.
le cs KI | Mee as ee Silver Difference.
hehe mp ee) ae aS c Silver (in vac.) |
poems eRe g) BS | pyrex) aa | NS pease seven ie oter,| Cems. of (Pry
: Aas CG. Sree Zz Ss ; grms. silver. io
|
| (16x27 2 din 75 ) 0:058 152-07; 152°00| 1°63386 | 0-00150 |0:092
+16x27 5 | 5 * 85 -0°5 |0°058) 152-06) 151-99] 1°63375 || 1°68286 | 0°00189 |0-085
| 12-5 x 6-0 Se | ee j 0°017, 152-19) 151-98) 1°63364 | | 000128 0-078
| | | |
| | | |
/ (1 6x2:°7) 2.15 7-5 0-0 10:00 0°06 |
pete sce 7 |) bee XS 125 os § 0-058 156-40) 156-33) 1°68042 | | 167934 | 0°00106 |0°063
25x60! 5 110 * 2015 1 10°017' 156°55! 156°34! 1°68053 / 0°00119 !0°071
10° D. A. Kreider—Lodine Titration Voltameter.
The titrations in the experiments recorded in this table were
made with due regard to all possible sources of error. The
solutions were brought precisely to the temperature of 20°, at
which temperature the room was maintained. The burettes
had been thoroughly cleaned with chromate solution, and of
course, ample time was allowed for the burettes to drain to
a constant reading. The results show that the iodine voltam-
eter, even after the correction for the blank determinations,
run uniformly higher by from 0:06 per cent to -09 per cent ;
but that they agree among themselves to an order of accuracy
of about 1 part in 10,000.
Sloane Physical Laboratory,
Yale University, June 5, 1900.
=
pty
Gooch—Precipitates for Solution and Reprecipitation. 11
Arr. Il—TZhe Handling of Precipitates for Solution and
Reprecipitation ; by F. A. Goocu.
[Contributions from the Kent Chemical Laboratory of Yale Univ.—cxxxyv. ]
In many processes of analytical chemistry, the preparation
of substances in pure condition is brought about by precipita-
tion, solution, and reprecipitation ; and sometimes this cycle of
operations must be repeated. When a precipitate, gathered
upon a filter, is easily acted upon by the appropriate solvent,
the process of dissolving the precipitate from the filter is
simple; but when the precipitate is refractory toward solvents
or difficult to attack on account of its physical condition, as is
the case with many gelatinous precipitates, the proper hand-
ling of the precipitate involves some inconvenience and delay.
In meeting such difficulties, I have found it advantageous
to place within the ordinary paper filter, before filtering, a
movable lining of platinum gauze upon which the precipitate
rests for the most part and with which it may be removed.
The simplest form of this device is easily made
by cutting platinum gauze to the shape shown
in the accompanying figure. In ordinary use,
this piece of gauze, folded to make a cone of
angle a little less than 60°, and held by pincers
at the point of overlapping, is placed within this
filter and allowed to fit itself closely by the
natural spring of the gauze when released.
Upon filters so prepared a precipitate may be
collected and washed as usual; and, at the end
of the operation, the cone with nearly all the precipitate may be
transferred, by means of ivory-pointed pincers, to dish or
beaker for suitable treatment. The small amounts of the pre-
cipitate which have passed through the gauze, being somewhat
protected by the gauze against the compacting action of filtra-
tion and washing, are generally removable with ease from the
filter by a jet of the washing-liquid. After washing, the gauze
may be replaced within the same filter and serve for a second col-
lection of the precipitate to be subsequently dissolved, in case
double precipitation and solution are desirable. The final col-
lection of the precipitate is, of course, made upon paper with-
out the gauze lining, when precipitate and filter are to be
ignited.
This device has proved very serviceable in the handling of
such precipitates as ferric hydroxide, aluminium bydroxide, and
basic acetate precipitations.
12 Gooch—Precipitates for Solution and Reprecipitation.
I have used also in the manipulation of such precipitates a
regularly made cone of 60°, fitted with eyelets for handling ;
but the simple folded cone is, on the whole, more convenient.
Precipitates collected upon asbestos in the
perforated crucible are frequently removable
without difficulty by allowing a suitable solvent
to percolate precipitate and felt; but in case
the precipitate is pasty or compacted, solution
in this manner may be unpleasantly slow. In
such eases, it is convenient to remove the
greater part of the precipitate, collected and
washed in the usual manner, upon a dise of
platinum foil, perforated, fitted with a wire
handle, as shown in the figure and placed upon
the asbestos felt before the transfer of the preci-
pitate to the crucible. To make such a dise,
shown in figure 2, is the work of a few moments
only ; and by its use pasty precipitates, such as cuprous sulphoey-
anide or the sulphides of the metals, are easily handled for
solution.
These simple devices so facilitate the manipulation of preci-
pitates in many processes of analysis that they have seemed to
be worthy of description.
Ashley—Estimation of Sulphites by Iodine. 13
Art. II].— Zhe Estimation of Sulphites by Iodine ; by
R. Harman ASHiEy.
[Contributions from the Kent Chemical Laboratory of Yale Univ.—cxxxvi. |
Votuarp’s method for the determination of sulphur dioxide
and sulphites is accurate and reliable, but involves the incon-
venience of making up every solution to be examined accurately
to a standard volume of which portions are to be drawn from
a burette and made to react with definite amounts of a stand-
ardized solution of iodine. The method consists in running the
unknown sulphite or sulphurous acid solution into a known
amount of a standardized solution of iodine, acidified with
hydrochlorie acid, to the disappearance of the iodine reaction
with starch. This procedure rests upon the facts that the
oxidation of sulphite is brought about in the acidified solution
and that, as Bunsen showed, no more than a small proportion
of hydriodic acid should be present at the point at which the
bodies are made to react. The reaction for the oxidation of
sulphur dioxide proceeds normally in dilute solutions according
to the equation
2S0,+21,+4H,O = 4H1I+2H,80,,.
In solutions too concentrated, however, the secondary reaction
SO, +4HI = 2I,+2H,O+8
takes place as Volhard has shown%, and vitiates the indications.
To avoid the inconvenience of the Volhard method it has
been proposed by Ruppt to bring about the oxidation of sul-
phites- by treatment with an excess of standardized iodine in a
solution made alkaline by acid sodium carbonate, and then,
after fifteen minutes, to titrate the excess of iodine by sodium
thiosulphate. This procedure, however, is, as has been shown
by Ruff and Jaroch{ and by the present writer,$ faulty in
pr rinciple and pr actice, aud gives correct results only by a chance
balancing of opposing errors. Theoretically it might be possi-
ble to overcome the difficulties by treating with acid the alka-
line mixture of iodine and sulphite and acid sodium carbonate
* Ann, Chem. 242, 98.
+ Ber. Dtch. Chem. Ges. xxxv, 5694.
t Ber. Dtch. Chem. Ges. xxxviii, 409.
§ This Journal, vol. xiv, p. 237.
14 A shley—Estimation of Sulphites by Lodine.
before attempting to titrate by sodium thiosulphate the excess
of iodine.
In the experiments recorded in the table the following proce-
dure was followed: the sulphite was treated with 1 grm. of
acid sodium carbonate and an excess of standardized iodine
solution. ‘The solution was then acidulated with a safe amount
of hydrochlorie acid, it having been found by experiment that
the presence of 10°* of 1: 4 hydrochloric acid in 125°™* of water
was without effect upon the determination of iodine by sodium
thiosulphate. The excess of iodine after acidification was
titrated by standardized sodium thiosulphate. It will be
noticed that in the experiments recorded under A of the table, -
the excess of iodine used was small and in these experiments
large negative errors are obtained; while in the experiments
recorded under B, in which a large excess of iodine was employed,
the results are better. They are best when at least twice as
much iodine is added as is theoretically required to oxidize the
sulphur dioxide. The length of time during which the iodine
may act does not affect the results to any very marked degree.
A
Iodine Todine value Error. Excess Vol. at
value of Iodine of Na2S.03 In terms Interms of HC! titra-
SO, taken. taken. used. of Jodine. of SOz. 1:4. tion.
erm. erm. erm, erm. erm. cm®, “ems
0°2197 0°3143 0°0978 —0°0032 —0:0008 (33) ea
Re a 0°0965 —0°0019 —0:‘0005 Me ye
es es 0°0970 —0°:0024 —0°0006 ig a
0°1535 0°1913 0:'0464 —0°0086 —0°0022 “ i
ced 2 0°0467 —0'0089 -—-0°0022 a of
ae ve 0:0472 —0°0094 —0°0024 he ee
ie os 0'0465 —0°'0087 —0°0022 me of
0°2366 0'3194 0°0903 —0°0075 —0°0019 a ee
0°2906 0°3825 Oris? —0°0213 —0°0054 Y re
0°3825 0°4463 0:0750 —0'0112 —0.0028 ¢ 2
B
0°1143 0°3143 0°1990 +0°0010 +0°'0008 5°0>) Sie
ef es 0°1982 +0:0018 +0°0004 ue My
29 eS 0°1992 +0:0008 +0:°0002 sé &
ha me 0°1986 +0°0014 +0:°0003 Re Gs
0°1482 0°3187 0°1708 —0'0003 —0'0001 75 ee
0°15 76 0°3187 0°1586 +0°0025 +0°0006 us ie
Rey of 0°1643 —0:0032 —0°'0008 se Be
oe £6 0°1598 +0°00138 +0°'0003 “ ie
ee 4 0°1606 +0°0005 +0°0001 + cs
A 0°1602 +0:0009 +0°0002 ge or
Ashley—Estimation of Sulphites by Iodine. 15
(B)
Iodine Iodine value Error. Excess Vol at
value of Iodine of Na.S.O; In terms In terms of HCl titra-
SO, taken. taken. used. of Iodine. of SOx. 14: tion.
erm. erm. erm. erm. erm. emea) > yeme.
0°1576 0°3187 0°1622 —0O:0011 —0°00038 FHS) oct led 219)
0°1560 0°3195 0°1660 —0 0025 —0'0006 cs ee
0°1992 _ 0°4460 0°2482 —9°0014 —0°'0003 ee ee
O'1915 0°3825 0°1919 +0°:0009 —0 0002 ee a
0°2056 O37 71 0*1701 +0°0014 -+0°0003 ee sf
Ss rfp 0°1697 +0°0018 +0°0004 ge -
st ee 0°1707 +0°0008 +0°0002 ie rs
nee’ Ss 0°1709 +0:°0006 +0°0002 $8 36
[0°2131 0°4470 0°2412 —0°0073 —0:0018] oh s
0°2354 0°3825 0°1490 —0°0019 —0:0005 %S ge
0°2597 0°4463 0°'1869 —0°'0003 —0'0001 aé rs
0°2638 0°4463 0°1847 —0°0022 —0°0005 es ee
0°2908 0°6375 0°3505 —0°'00388 —0:0009 ee $e
0°3187 0°4463 0°1326 +0°0050 +0 0012 &¢ ge
0°3395 0°6275 0°2842 +0°0038 +0:°0009 Be ce
$2 oc 0°2852 +0:0028 +0°0007 ci oie
a sé 0°2844 +0°00386 +0°0009 “¢ ne
es ce 0'2855 +0°0025 +0:°0006 es sé
Ruff and Jaroch* take the ground that in the favorable
results occasionally obtained by Rupp’s process, an error due
to the over-oxidation of the tetrathionate normally formed in
the action of: sodium thiosulphate upon the residual iodine is
apparently balanced by some oxidation of sulphur dioxide by
dissolved air, the iodine in solution acting catalytically as well
as directly. "The theory, however, is quite at variance with the
evidence supplied in the table: for, if it were true, under no
conditions could iodine in the presence of air act as a correct
measure of sulphur dioxide, as it apparently does when used
in a sufficiently large excess; nor does the theory of the cataly-
tic action of iodine explain the fact that when a greater mass
of iodine is used, under conditions otherwise similar, we get a
larger oxidation of sulphur dioxide.
The most obvious explanation is that at a low concentration
of iodine an intermediate oxidation product may be formed and
that the formation of this product may be prevented by sufti-
cient concentration of the iodine. It is not unreasonable to
suppose that the formation of a small amount of dithionate
instead of sulphate is the occasion of the deficient expenditure
of iodine noted when the concentration of this element is low,
and that the dithionate is not formed appreciably when the
* Loe. cit.
16 Ashley— Estimation of Sulphites by Lodine.
iodine concentration is high. The dithionate once formed is
but slowly attacked by iodine, and that is apparently the rea-
son why long standing of the mixtures containing a small pro-
portion of iodine does not result in complete oxidation of the
sulphite to sulphate. From these considerations it will be seen
that the secondary error of Rupp’s process may very probably
be due to the formation of some dithionate from ae sulphite
where the concentration of the iodine is low.
The practical estimation of sulphurous acid or a soluble
sulphite may, then, be accomplished with a reasonable degree
of accuracy by adding to the solution of the substance, not
exceeding 100° in volume and containing a gram of ‘acid
sodium carbonate, at least twice as much iodine as is theoreti-
cally necessary to effect oxidation, acidifying cautiously with
hydrochloric acid, and determining with standard sodium
thiosulphate the excess of iodine remaining in the acidified
solution.
The author takes this occasion to thank Prof. F. A. Gooch
for much kind assistance.
Talbot—New York Helderbergian Crinoids. fy
Art. IV. — Revision of the New York Helderbergian
Crinoids ;* by Mianon Tarror. (With Plates I-IV.)
Tuts paper treats of the Crinoidea of the Helderbergian rocks
of New York, and is a continuation of Dr. George H. Girty’s
thesis, ““ A Revision of the Sponges and Coelenterates of the
Lower Helderberg Group of New York.” In Dr. Girty’s
paper, the term “ Lower Helderberg ” included the Tentaculite,
or Manlius, limestone; but here “ Helderbergian,” as proposed
by Clarke and Schuchert,}+ is used to include only the Coey-
mans, or Lower Pentamerus; the New Scotland, or Delthyris
Shaly ; and the Becraft, or Upper Pentamerus.
With the exception of the work done by Wachsmuth and
Springer, who probably used specimens that Hall had studied,
the crinoids of the Helderbergian rocks of New York have
not received much attention since Hall’s descriptions were
published, in 1859. Very little subsequent collecting has been
done, and for the most part the forms secured have been speci-
mens of LZomocrinus scoparius and Ldriocrinus pocilliformis
or simply stem fragments, the work of gathering being done in
the New Scotland. _
A reopening of the old locality at Jerusalem Hill was made,
however, in 1901, by Professors Beecher and Schuchert ; and
a new locality was discovered at North Litchfield, both of these
being in the Coeymans limestone. The majority of fossils
found were crinoids, but there were also cystids in appreciable
numbers and five ophiuroids representing two genera. In the
fall of 1903, these collections were increased by more material
collected at the same locality by Mr. C. J. Sarle; so that in the
Yale University Museum there are now three collections—one
from Jerusalem Hill and two from North Litchfield.
The first of these consists mainly of Homocrinus scoparius,
though it contains uncompressed forms of Cordylocrinus
plumosus and several good specimens of Jelocrinus pachydac-
tylus. In the region of Litchfield, the Coeymans limestone
attains a thickness of one hundred and fifty feet and Momo-
* This paper is part of a thesis presented to the Graduate Faculty of Yale
University for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, in June, 1904. The
larger part of the work was done under the supervision of the late Professor
Charles Emerson Beecher, for whose help and inspiration the writer wishes
to make the most grateful acknowledgment. Type specimens have been
studied in the Yale University Museum, the New York State Museum and
the American Museum of Natural History: and the thanks of the writer are
here expressed to Professor R. P. Whitfield, Dr. J. M. Clarke, Dr. E. O.
Hovey and Mr. H. H. Hindshaw, for courtesies in connection with the
study, and to Professor Charles Schuchert, who took up the direction of the
work after Professor Beecher’s death.
+Science, New Series, vo]. x, p. 876, 1899.
Am. Jour. Sci.—FourtH Series, Vou. XX, No. 115.—Juty, 1905.
2
18 Talbot—New York Helderbergian Crinoids.
crinus scoparius is said to range from the Manlius almost to
the top of the Coeymans. Most of the specimens in the Yale
collection were found about forty-six feet from the top of the
section in a twelve-inech layer containing slabs rich in Homo-
crinus scoparius and also specimens of Melocrinus pachydac-
tylus, Anomalocystites cornutus, Lepocrinites gebharde and
the ophiuroids. Cordylocrinus plumosus is abundant in the
lower bed mentioned later.
The collection from North Litchfield is chiefly from two
horizons and is extremely rich. One of these beds is a lime-
stone four inches thick in which are specimens of M/elocrinus —
nobulissimus with very large crowns and very stout, long stems
and a large form of Cordylocrinus plumosus in comparative
abundance, the majority of the individuals showing many long
cirri crowding around the calyx. The material from this zone
has one specimen of Lepocrinites gebhardi and several of
Hlomocrinus scoparvus. Although all the fossils in this bed
are ot large size, especially is this true of Melocrinus nobilis-
simus, whose columns are very thick and, though only frag-
ments, measure from fifty to seventy centimeters in length.
This is long for Paleozoic crinoids. Wachsmuth and Springer
state that no columns over three feet in length have been seen
from the Paleozoic and that generally they are not over one
foot long.* Here there are numbers over two feet in length.
The other horizon, a few inches higher in the section, has
furnished slabs covering a floor space of some sixty-five square
feet, slabs that are literally covered with ecrinoid stems and
crowns. Here, too, as in the lower bed, are stems over two
feet long. The forms represented are Mariacrinus beccheri,
Melocrinus nobilissemus, M. pachydactylus, Thysanocrinus
arborescens and Cordylocrinus plumosus. 'To show the rela-
tive abundance of these species, an enumeration of the indivi-
duals on the slabs was taken and by actual count there were
found, of Mariacrinus beecherz thirty-one specimens, of JZelo-
crinus nobilissimus six, of M. pachydactylus one, of Thysano-
crinus arborescens ten, and of Cordylocrinus plumosus eight
hundred and seventy-three, making a total of nine hundred and
twenty-one specimens. In addition to these are numerous
crinoid columns, several gastropods and brachiopods and one
cephalopod. Ona small surface of six square feet there are
three hundred and twenty crinoids.
The cover of this bed is also in the collection and it is esti-
mated that two-thirds as many more crinoids are on its lower
surface. This enumeration was made before anything was
done toward developing the slabs and such preparation may
* North American Crinoidea Camerata, vol. i, p. 39; Mem. Mus. Comp.
Zool., Harvard College, vol. xx, Cambridge, Mass., May, 1897.
Talbot—New York Helderbergian Crinoids. 19
double the number now visible; hence in this one collection,
there are undoubtedly more crinoids than in all other collec-
tions from New York combined.
The following species, listed by Hall from the Coeymans
limestone at North Litchtield, have not been recognized in the
Yale material: Mariacrinus paucidactylus (probably Melo-
crinus pachydactylus), M. ramosus, M. plumosus, Platycrinus
parvus (probably Cordylocrinus plumosus), P. ramulosus
(seems to be restricted to the Cobleskill zone of the Manlius)
and P. tentaculatus. This is not to be wondered at, however,
as a slight change of position, horizontally or vertically, often
reveals a different fauna; and as Hall’s collections represented
gatherings not only from the quarries but also from the stone
walls about the town of Litchfield, the fossils undoubtedly
came from different horizons and localities.
In the classification, nomenclature and terminology of the
erinoids, Wachsmuth and Springer have been followed and the
reader is referred to their works, ‘‘ The North American
Crinoidea Camerata”* and “The Revision of the Paleoeri-
noidea.”’ +
Order, INapuNAtTA Wachsmuth and Springer.
Suborder, Fistutata, Wachsmuth and Springer.
Family, Cyathocrinide Roemer.
Genus, Homocrinus Hall.
Homocrinus scoparius Hall. Plate III, figure 3.
Homocrinus scoparius Hall, Nat. Hist. N. Y., Pal., vol. iii, 1859, p. 102,
pl. 1, figs. 1-9.—Wachsmuth and Springer, Rev. Paleocr., Pt. I, 1879, p. 79;
Proc. Phila. Acad. Nat. Sci., vol. xxxi, 1880, p. 302.—Bather, Kongl.
Svenska Vet. Akad., Handl. xxv, 1893, p. 105.
In the collection of crinoids from Jerusalem Hill, N. Y.,
now in the Yale University Museum, there is a considerable
number of slabs showing Homocrinus scoparvus in abundance.
These slabs vary in size from a few centimeters to over half a
meter in length and the surfaces are virtually covered with
these beautiful fossils. One slab, thirty centimeters long and
twenty-three wide, has eighteen specimens, three of which are
complete, that is, have the crown and the whole length of the
column, including the distal end. Aside from these, there are
four other stems and two (possibly three) specimens of Anoma-
locystites cornutus on the same slab. On other slabs from the
same horizon are Melocrinus pachydactylus, Anomalocystites
cornutus, Protaster forbesi, and Dalmanites sp. (7). Many
* Memoirs of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College,
vols. xx and xxi, with Atlas, Cambridge, Massachusetts, May, 1897.
1 Proceedings of the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences, vols. xxxi,
XXxXiil, xxxvii and xxxviii.
20 Talbot—New York Helderbergian Crinoids.
of the specimens of /Zomocrinus are in almost perfect condi-
tion, and where the fine cirri are visible on the stem the grace
and delicacy of this species are well shown (pl. III, fig. 3).
The following additions are made to Hall’s description :—
Ventral sac strong, elongated, sometimes three-fourths as
long as the arms, the upper part composed of vertical rows of
small hexagonal plates. The upper end of the sac probably
has five large plates, which are drawn out into spines, some-
thing like those in Scaphiocrinus unicus. Three of these
spines and traces of a fourth can be seen in one specimen, and
their position shows that a fifth was probably present origi-
nally. These spines are not scattered irregularly over the
upper surface, as is indicated in Hall’s figure. Column long
and slender, consisting of irregularly alternating larger and.
smaller joints, round below and becoming obtusely angular and
enlarged above. Canal small and round, Shortest column
observed 4™ in length; longest, which is still incomplete, 15™
long. Very delicate cirri are preserved, but in no specimen
are they found above the middle of the stem. Wherever the
distal end of the column is present, there is a coil or loop, as if
the stem twined around some support (pl. HI, fig. 3). No
indications of the clustering of columns mentioned by Hall
were seen in the Yale collection.
Horizon and tecality.—Comimon in the thinly laminated or
shaly layers of the Coeymans or Lower Pentamerus, at Scho-
harie, Jerusalem Hill and North Litchfield. Hall reports the
species from the Manlius, or Tentaculite, limestone,* but no
such specimens have come under the wr iter’s observation.
Cotypes (used by Wachsmuth and Springer for the revised
genus) in the American Museum of Natural History, from
Litchfield, N. Y.
Family, Edriocrinide n. fam.
In the specimens of Adriocrinus under observation, there
are differences that at first seemed to have specific, 1f not
generic value. There are two quite common forms—one (No.
1 and No, 2)+ the small hemispherical cups, so well known to.
collectors in the Helderberg Mountains; and another (No. 3)
like the preceding only that the cup has a prominent band or
ring around the upper margin. There are other forms that
are not so common, however; and they can be divided into
two groups, or even three. One specimen (No. 4) about twice
as high as the common ones has the hemispherical cup, above
which and fused to which is a solid band; and above this still
another band of six fused plates, twice as high as the lower
* Nat; Hist. N:Y., Pals vols ain, dda, 1S8a0:
+ Numbers refer to those on pl. IV, figs. 1-6.
Talbot— New York Helderbergian Crinoids. 21
band. Another individual (No. 5) does not show the first
band, and the second is broken up by weathering into five
comparatively broad plates and one narrow one. The next
specimen to attract attention (No. 6) resembles the one just
described only that on one side the plates succeeding the cup
have the appearance of a row of three short plates, instead of
one high one.
It was not until these forms, seemingly so different, had
been most carefully compared that any conclusion concerning
them could be reached. The difficulty was due, mainly, to the
fact that in most cases the suture lines are wholly obliterated ;
but, with a trace of a suture here and another there, there was
something on which to base an interpretation. The following
solution is offered :
The genus Agassizocrinus is said to be dicyclic because
young specimens have infrabasals, although the latter are
obliterated before maturity is attained. The question has
arisen, Why may not the same be true of Hdriocrinus? By
following out this idea, these seemingly distinct forms were
reduced to two whose difference is simply i in the development
of the basals, which in one group are inconspicuous and in the
other are enlarged to form the prominent ring or band men-
tioned above.
The explanation of these varying specimens is as followin
No. 2 and No. 5, instead of being monocylie, are dicyclic, the
‘infrabasals, which are the largest, being fused with the basals.
No. 3 shows infrabasals and basals, the latter being very promi-
nently developed. No.6 has-infrabasals and fractured radials,
but no brachials. This conclusion has been reached by com-
paring opposite sides of the same specimen. Though on one
side there seems to be a short radial followed by two short
brachials in each ray, the other side shows no such division ;
and it is evident that the apparent brachials are due to the
transverse breaking of the radials. This view is supported by
the fact that the anal plate is as high as the radials and the
apparent brachials combined. No. 4 shows all the plates of
the calyx and furnishes’ the clue to the others. The promi-
nence of the basalsis hardly a specific characteristic and these
specimens are all left in the original species, 2. pocilliformis.
In the Yale collection, there is one example of /. sacculus
which gives faint indications of the presence of infrabasals,
though none of the specimens show any thickening of the basal
ring.
In regard to classification, these forms certainly cannot
belong with the genus Agassizocri inus in the family Astylo-
oo
er inidee, where Ldriocrinus was placed provisionally by Wachs-
22 Talbot—New York Helderbergian Crinoids.
muth and Springer,* because there are no supplementary anal
plates in the calyx, as is the case in Agassizocrinus. Bather
lists the genus provisionally under the order /7exibilia,+ an
order with no anal plate in the cup; but, as Hdriocrinus has
such a plate, the genus cannot be so referred. The calyx
structure is that of the Cyathocrinide but there are differences
that prevent the reference of Hdrvocrinus to this family. The
absence of a column is one of these differences and the manner
in which the rays divide is another. In Cyathocrinus, which
is the most representative genus of the family, the arms in
branching spread out irregularly, and the joints are generally -
higher than wide; while in Zdriocrinus the joints are very
short, and the arms branch as do those of Ichthyocrinus, the
divisions remaining in contact and curling inward. The arms,
however, do not form a part of the calyx as in the last named |
enus.
Family description.—Calyx elongate. Base dicyclic, prob-.
ably five fused plates in each order. JRadials with facets for
the insertion of the brachials extending across the whole width.
Arms incurved, seemingly without pinnules, divisions remain-
ing in contact ; joints much wider than long. Column wanting,
the attachment being by the infrabasals in the young stages ;
mature forms unattached.
Genus, Hdriocrinus Hall.
Edriocrinus Hall.
Edriocrinus Hall, Nat. Hist. N. Y., Pal., vol. iii, 1859, p. 119; 15th Rept.
N. Y. St. Cab. Nat. Hist., 1862, p. 115.—Meek and Worthen, Geol. Rept. I1.,
vol. iii, 1868, p. 119.—Wachsmuth and Springer, Rev. Paleoer., Pt. I, 1879,
p. 21, Pt. III, 1885, p. 10, and 1886, pp. 192, 265, 286; Proc. Phila. Acad.
Nat. Sci., vol. xxxi, 1880, p. 244, vol. xxxvii, 1886, p. 232, and vol. xxxviii,
1887, pp. 116, 189, 210; N. Am. Cri. Cam., vol. i, 1897, pp. 59 and 145.—
Zittel, Handb. d. Paleontol., I Band, 1880, p. 350.—P. H. Carpenter, Ann.
Mag. Nat. Hist., May, 1883, p. 333.—Bather, Rept. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci.
for 1898, p. 928; A Treatise on Zoology, 1900, Pt. III. The Echinoderma, p.
191.
Amended generic description.—Caylx directly cemented,
either throughout life or only in the young stages, the attach-
ment being by the large infrabasals. The cicatrix very large
in some specimens and in others obliterated, by the accumula-
tion of calcareous matter on the outer surface of the calyx
plates. Infrabasals large, their height being from one-half to
two-thirds that of the cup as ordinarily found, completely fused
so as to destroy suture lines and to make the number of plates
uncertain. Basals five, height varying in proportion to that of.
* Rey. Palzocr., Pt. III, p. 192, 1885, or Proc. Phila. Acad. Nat. Sci., vol.
xxxviii, p. 116.
+Rept. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci. for 1898, p. 923 ; also The Echinoderma, p.
191, 1900.
Talbot—New York Helderbergian Crinoids. 28
the infrabasals, generally so fused as to show no suture lines on
the outer surface, although they are often seen on the inner
side. Upper margin scalloped for the attachment of the radials
and the anal plate. MRadials five, large, rectangular, the upper
margin excavated slightly for the attachment of the brachials
and the lower curved to fit into the concave upper margin of
the basals. An anal plate half as wide as the radials and a
small plate above it furnish all that is known of the anal area.
Ventral surface unknown. Arms known in only one species,
Ey. sacculus, where they consist of very short transverse plates
and bifureate several times, but show no trace of pinnules.
Genotype, £. pocilliformis Hall.
Edriocrinus pocilliformis Hall. Plate IV, figures 1-6.
Edriocrinus pocilliformis Hall, Nat. Hist. N. Y., Pal., vol. iii, 1859, p. 121,
pl. v, figs. 8-12.—Meek and Worthen, Geol. Rept. Ill., vol. iii, 1868, p. 370,
pl. 7, figs. 5a and 5b.—Wachsmuth and Springer, Rev. Paleeocr., Pt. IIT, 1886,
p. 266; Proc. Phila. Acad. Nat. Sci., vol. xxxviii, 1887, p. 190.—Keyes,
Geol. Surv. Mo., vol. iv, 1894, p. 221, pl. xxx, fig. 7.
Amended specific description.—Infrabasals present but so
fused that their number is uncertain. Height from one-half to
two-thirds that of the cup as ordinarily found. Basals five,
completely fused with each other and with the infrabasals or
distinguished from the latter as a narrow protruding band.
Suture lines sometimes apparent on the interior. Upper mar-:
gin scalloped for the attachment of the radials and the anal
plate. Height about half that of the nfrabasals. adials five
often as high as the infrabasals and basals combined, and, like
them, fused to form apart of the cup. In most instances, how-
ever, the suture lines between the radials are plainly discernible.
As arule, the union between the radials and basals is not so
strong as that of basals with infrabasals; and the cup is gener-
ally broken off at the top of the basals. Since in no specimens
are brachials preserved, the union of brachials with radials must
have been still weaker. Anal plate as high as the radials, but
only half as wide. Radials and anal gently convex, sloping i in
all directions from the center of the plate. Arms and ventral
disk unknown. The attachment scar is visible on a number of
specimens, and in some is a short distance up on the side of the
cup, rather than on the bottom.
Horizon and locality.—Throughout the New Scotland lime-
stone in Helderberg Mountains.
Cotypes in the American Museum of Natural History.
Order, Camerata Wachsmuth and Springer.
Family, Thysanocrinide Wachsmuth and Springer.
Genus, Thysanocrinus Hall.
Thysanocrinus arborescens n. sp. Plate I, figure 2 ; text-figure 1.
Although, in America, no members of this Late have been
reported above the Niagara, a number of crinoids that must
24 Talbot—New York Helderbergian Crinoids.
be referred to this genus is found in one of the beds of the
Coeymans limestone at North Litchfield. The generic features,
as given by Wachsmuth and Springer,* are well marked—the
subelobose calyx, urn or bell-shaped; infrabasals five, small,
barely protruding beyond the column; basals five, the posterior
one truncated by a large anal plate; radials five, considerably
larger than the costals; costals two ; arms ten or twenty, rather
strong and biserial; pinnules long; first interbrachial large,
followed by smaller ones; anal side wider, first anal plate fol-
lowed by three in the next row.
The specimens under examination lack the ridges which are
so conspicuous in marking the rays in most of the species of
Thysanocrinus ; their plates are smooth, instead of being
sculptured as is generally the case in this genus, and the column
is pentangular, while in most of the species it is round. The
specimens resemble 7. dzlzzformis more closely than any other
species, but differ from it in the pentangular column and the
absence of the ridges on the radial series of plates. Not enough
is known about the bifurcation of the arms in 7”. lilaformis
to make comparison.
Specific description.—Calyx subglobose.
Surface of plates smooth. Infrabasals five,
small, projecting slightly beyond the col-
umn. Basals five, large, hexagonal, the
es posterior one heptagonal and _ truncated
Q above to receive the anal plate. NRadials
ia g five, somewhat larger than the basals, pen-
6) tagonal. Oostals two, half as large as the
cy Se radials, hexagonal, the second smaller than
the first and supporting on its slopmg upper
OLIO margins the two rows of distichals, the
| lower three of which are larger than the
ee succeeding ones and are embodied in the
epeased = Dia. calyx. Interbrachials, two ranges of large
gram of Thysanocrinus Plates followed by smaller ones. Anal
arborescens showing plate large, followed by three much smaller
position of the anal ones in the next row. Arms biserial. Each
plates and first bifur- ; :
cation of the aums . L2y. Difureates’ on the second’ costaly ama
again on the fourteenth distichal. A third
bifurcation occurs, seemingly only on the inner branches and at
different intervals in the different arms, varying from the four-
teenth to the twenty-third palmar. Pinnules found on the fifth
distichal and continuing to the tips of the arms. Column
pentagonal. Near the calyx, the joints alternate in size; but
farther down the stem every fourth joint is larger. Ina speci-
men in which the crown is 29™™ in length, the ‘column, though
incomplete, is 40™ long.
*N, Am. Ori. Cam., vol. i, p. 190, 1897.
Talbot—New York Helderbergian Crinoids. 25
This species is associated with Jelocrinus nobilissimus, M.
pachydactylus, Mariacrinus beecheri, and Cordylocrinus plu-
MOSUS.
Horizon and locality.— Upper third of the Coeymans lime-
stone at North Litchfield.
Holotype in the Yale University Museum.
Family, Melocrinide Roemer.
Subfamily, MJelocrinine.
Genus, Mariacrinus Hall.
In re-diagnosing the genera Mariacrinus and Melocrinus,
Wachsmuth and Springer recognized.the fact that the arms of
the former remain apart and do not form the tubular append-
age which is so conspicuous in Melocrinus. The only species
in the Yale collection that shows this characteristic of darza-
crinus is a new species, JZ. beecheri, in which the proximal end
of the ray forms a tube while the distal end is divided, the
arms diverging conspicuously. The species is thus seen to
hold a position intermediate between J/arzacrinus and MMelo-
crinus. As the features of the former are more strongly
developed, this species is referred to that genus.
Genotype, JZ. plumosus Hall.
Mariacrinus beecheri n. sp. Plate I, figure 3; text-figure 2.
This species bears a resemblance to Melocrinus nobilissemus
but differs from it in features other than the division of the
rays. The auxiliary arm, instead of being comparatively incon-
spicuous, as in Meloerinus, is strong and prominent and hes
alongside the tube.
The joints of the rays are longer than those
of WT. nobilissimus, so that, although the arms Hee.
are given off more ‘fr equently than in the last Ay
named species, they seem to take origin at
greater intervals. Asin J. nobdlissimus, the
stem joints alternate in size, but they are so
very thin in all parts of the stem, and especially
so near the crown, that there is no difficulty in
determining this form by the column alone.
The column is also much larger in proportion
to the size of the calyx.
Specific description.—Calyx small, elongate, | Text-figure 2.—
once and a half as long as wide, the increase in Tea fogs 2 oe
width being very gr feat Basals wider than with a, 6 and c as
long, pentagonal, not forming a projecting the last of the anal
cup, but continuing the width of the column. ee De a
Radials five, four heptagonal and one hexag- Hi
onal. Costals two, the first hexagonal, more ‘than half as lar ge
as the radials, and the second smaller, pentagonal, and support-
26 Talbot—New York Helderbergian Crinoids.
ing two rows of distichals, three ineach row. The last distichal
supports two rows of palmars, whose first two plates are con-
nected. Above this point, the palmars separate, those on the
outside of the ray forming an auxiliary arm which lies alongside
the ray but is not connected withit. The inner row of palmars
joins corresponding plates from the other row of distichals to
form a tubular appendage which extends for a short distance
only, when the divisions separate.and remain apart to the end of
the ray. On the outer side ot the ray, arms arise from every
fourth or fifth joint; but, on account of the length of the
joints, the arms are quite far apart. The arms are biserial to
the end. The first interbrachial is large, hexagonal, followed
by a double row of alternating hexagonal plates. Anal inter-
radius wider and ending in a short thick tube or sac, composed
of numerous plates which seem to have been hexagonal orig-
inally. This sac is seen in but one specimen, where the plates
are very poorly preserved (text-fig. 2). Column cireular, with
diameter large in proportion to the size of the calyx. Distally
the jomts alternate in size, but near the calyx they are very
thin and of uniform thickness.
Horizon and locality.—U pper third of the Coeymans lime-
stone at North Litchfield.
Cotypes in the Yale University Museum.
Genus, Melocrinus Goldfuss.
Genotype, Mariacrinus nobilissimus Halil.
Melocrinus nobilissimus (Hall). Plate IT.
Mariacrinus nobilissimus Hall, Nat. Hist. N. Y., Pal., vol. iii, 1859, p.
105, pl. 2, figs. 1-5; pl. 2A, fig. 1.
Melocrinus nobilissimus Wachsmuth and Springer, Rev. Palaeocr., Pt. II,
1881, p. 122; Proc. Phila. Acad. Nat. Sci., vol. xxxiii, 1882, p. 296; N. Am.
Cri. Cam., vol. i, 1897, p. 295; Atlas, pl. xxiii, figs. la, 2 and 3.—Bather, A
Treatise on Zoology, 1900, Pt. III. The Echinoderma, p. 161, text-fig.
Ixy! :
Sixteen individuals of this species have been added recently
to the Yale collections ; yet, since the type specimen is so nearly
perfect, very little additional knowledge has been gained from
this new material. Attention, however, may be called to a few
points. One specimen shows a row of three or four small
plates between the auxiliary arm and the tubular appendage.
These plates appear in the figures given by Wachsmuth and
Springer, but no mention is made of them in the deseriptions.
They seem to be interpalmars, though it is possible that they
belong to the ventral disk. The domelike extension of the anal
series of plates, which is also figured by Hall, is seen indis-
tinctly in one specimen. One crown has a column attached,
over 21° in Jength; while another column on the same slab,
and to all appearances of the same species, is over 69™ long
and gives no indication of proximity to either calyx or distal end.
Talbot—New York Helderbergian Crinoids. 27
At North Litchfield, this species was found associated with
Mariacrinus beecheri, Melocrinus pachydactylus, Cordylo-
crinus plumosus, Thysanocrinus arborescens, Homocrinus
scoparius, Lepocrinites gebhardi, and Dalmanites sp. The
crowns are not numerous, but judging from the associated frag-
ments of stems this spot must have been very favorable to the
growth of Jelocrinus nobilissimus. On one slab about four-
teen inches long (pl. 11), four crowns were found with columns
belonging to forty-six more. The only other fossils on this slab
are one Conularia and two Bryozoan fragments.
Horizon and locality.—Coeymans limestone at Litchfield
and North Litchfield.
Cotypes in the American Museum of Natural History.
\
Melocrinus pachydactylus (Conrad). Plate I, figure 1.
Astrocrinites pachydactylus Conrad, Ann. Rept. Pal. N. Y., 1841, p. 34.—
Mather, Geol. Rept. N. Y., 1843, p. 347; text-fig. 6 on p. 345.
Mariacrinus pachydactylus Hall, Nat. Hist. N. Y., Pal., vol. iii, 1859, p.
107, pl. 3, figs. 1-4.
Mariacrinus paucidactylus Hall, ibid., p. 109, pl. 3, fig. 5.
Melocrinus pachydactylus Wachsmuth and Springer, Rey. Paleocr., Pt. IT,
1881, p. 122; Proc. Phila. Acad. Nat. Sci., vol. xxxiii, 1882, p. 296; N. A.
Cri. Cam., vol. i, 1897, p. 296, pl. xxiii, figs. 4 and 5; pl. xxiv, figs. 4a and.
4b.
Melocrinus paucidactylus Wachsmuth and Springer, Rev. Palzocr., Pt. II,
1881, p. 122; Proc. Phila. Acad. Nat. Sci., vol. xxxiii, 1882, p. 296; N. A.
Cri. Cam., vol. i, 1897, p. 296.
Actinocrinus polydactylus Bonny, Schenectady Reflector, 1835.
Although this species heretofore has been considered a rare
fossil, it is now represented in the Yale University Museum by
thirteen specimens. Little additional knowledge of the calyx,
however, has been gained. In all cases where the distichals
can be distingushed from the other plates, their number is two,
instead of three. The former number agrees with all previous
figures; yet, in their description, Wachsmuth and Springer
make the distichals three in number.*
One of the rays, though incomplete, shows nineteen arms,
which are plainly seen to be uniserial, not biserial as previously
described and figured.t The actinal sideof the rays and arms
shows the ambulacral groove. As to the number of brachials
in the successive orders of the plates of the rays, careful exam-
ination of the specimens at Yale yields results different from
those reached by Wachsmuth and Springer.t Brachials of
the fourth, fifth and sixth orders have seven plates, and the
subsequent orders seem to alternate with six and seven to the
*N. Am. Cri. Cam., vol. i, p. 296, 1897.
+ Nat. Hist. N. Y., Pal., vol. iii, 1859, p. 108, pl. 3, figs. 1-3 and 4a; N.
Am. Cri. Cam., Atlas, pl. xxiii, figs. 4 and 5; pl. xxiv, figs. 4a and 4b, 1897.
¢ Ibid., vol. i, p. 297.
28 Talbot—New York Helderbergian Crinoids.
end of the ray. In one specimen, small dome-like interpal-
mars show between the auxiliary arm and the tubular append-
age, occupying the same position as in JZ. nobilissimus, but
differing in form. Stem joints alternate in size near the calyx,
but farther down the column every fourth one is larger. One
individual has a stem 19°" long, which makes a loop at the
distal end about 2°5°" in diameter. Another loop not more
than 1°" in diameter has two complete whorls.
M. pachydactylus is found at Jerusalem Hill with Lepocri-
nites gebhardi and many specimens of [omocrinus scoparius;
at North Litchfield with Mariacrinus beecheri, Melocrinus
nobilissimus, Thysanocrinus arborescens, and Cordylocrinus -
plumosus.
Wachsmuth and Springer regard J. paucidactylus and JZ.
pachydactylus as synonyms, ‘but give no reasons therefor.
Hall’s distinctions are the narrower calyx and the fewer and
more distant arms of the former. The specimen figured on
pl. I, fig. 1, is very narrow, proving the width of the calyx to
be variable. The greater distance between the branches of
the arms cannot, in itself, be considered a specific difference ;
and there seems to be no reason for referring these narrow
specimens to another species.
Horizon and locality.—Near the base of the Coeymans
limestone at Schoharie ;* in the upper third of the same lime-
stone at Jerusalem Hill and North Litchfield.
Family, Platycrinide.
Genus, Cordylocrinus Angelin.
Cordylocrinus plumosus (Hall). Plate II, figures 2 and 4; text-
figure 3.
Piatycrinus plumosus Hall, Nat. Hist. N. Y., Pal., vol. iii, 1859, PP. 113
and 148, pl. 4, figs. 1-5.
Platycrinus parvus Hall, Nat. Hist. N. Y., Pal., vol. iii, 1859, p. 114, sale 4,
figs. 6-9.
“Cordylocrin us plumosus Wachsmuth and Springer, Rev. Palaeocr., Pt, I,
1881, p. 61; Proc. Phila. Acad. Nat. Sci., vol. xxxiii, 1882, p. 230; N. Am.
Cri. Cam., vol. ii, 1897, p. 737; Atlas, pl. lxxv, fig. 20. :
Cordylocrinus parvus Wachsmuth and Springer, Rev. Palaeoer., Pt. II,
1881, p. 60; Proc. Phila. Acad. Nat. Sci., vol. xxxiii, 1882, p. 234; N. Am.
Cri; Cam,, vol, 1; 1897, -p. (ar
Clematocrinus plumosus Jaekel, Zeit. d. deutsch. Geol. Gesell., Band xlix,
1897, Verhandl., p. 47.
Clematocrinus parvus Jaekel, Zeit. d. deutsch. Geol. Gesell., Band xlix,
1897, Verhandl., p. 737.
In the Yale Museum, there are many hundreds of specimens
of this species; and at first glance it seemed that substantial
additions could be made to the descriptions already given.
Closer examination, however, revealed the fact that in only a
* Nat. Hist, N: ¥., Pal, vol aii, p..109; 1859)
Talbot—New York Llelderbergian Crinoids. 29
few specimens could the plates be distinguished. It also
seemed that there were two species, the fossils differing so
much in size, gibbosity and general appearance; but further
study failed to reveal any real differences. Some of the forms
have a hemispherical calyx, and arms only three or four times
as long as the cup, while others have a flat cup and arms five
or six times as long; and yet the plates of the calyx, the joints
of the arms,.the pinnules and the cirri seem to be the same in
the two varieties.
In the material from North Litchfield, the lower bed has
much the larger forms, all of which are compressed. The
upper bed has an abundance of the
smaller ones, a few of which have the
ealyx gibbous, not flattened. The speci- Q
mens from Jerusalem Hill are uncom-
pressed and small. Wachsmuth and
Springer consider C. parvus the young
of C. plumosus; and it may be that it
was these small, uncompressed specimens
from the upper crinoid bed that Hall
had under observation when he described
the former species. If this assumption
can be proved, it may be well toregard ea uae
C. parvus as a variety of C. plumosus, of Cordylocrinus plumo-
as these small forms occur ata slightly sus. a, right postero-lat-
higher geological horizon. eae ee Be left postero-
From a study of the specimens in the 3.01 series of oe oe
Yale University Museum, the following
new data may be given: In no ease does the length of the
column exceed once and a quarter that of the crown, which
varies from 5™™ to 32™. <A large majority of those speci-
mens which retain the column have very many unusually long
cirri.
Several of the specimens have a feature which Bather states
is found in some of the Camerata, and which he explains as
being due to the fusing of the joints of the arms.* In these
forms the arms are composed of long joints, seemingly single,
with the upper and lower surfaces parallel and horizontal. In
parts of the arm, every other joint bears two pinnules on the
same side of theray. This alternation of one- and two-pinnuled
joints does not extend throughout the whole length of the ray,
but in places it is every third joint that has this peculiarity.
Toward the base the joints are normal, that is, one-pinnuled. -
In his description, Hall mentions the fact that some of the
joints haye two pinnules; but in his figure,t he represents most
* A Treatise on Zoology, Pt. III. The Echinoderma, p. 116, 1900.
+ Nat. Hist. N. Y., Pal., vol. iii, pl. 4, fig. 4, 1859.
30 Talbot—New York Helderbergian Crinoids.
of such joints as made of two, in this agreeing with Bather’s
explanation. The specimens under examination, although one
is very well preserved, do not give the faintest trace of the
separate joints; yet this explanation for the presence of the
additional pinnnles seems to be the most rational one yet
offered.
Of the whole number of specimens examined, only one
shows the anal tube mentioned by Hall. This tube is seen
indistinctly in the photograph (pl. III, fig. 4; also text-fig.
3). The length of the tube is a little over half that of the
crown.
Horizon and locality.—Upper third of the Coeymans lime-
stone at Jerusalem Hill and at North Litchfield.
Cotypes in the American Museum of Natural History.
Order, ArticuLata Wachsmuth and Springer.
Suborder, Iwpinnata Wachsmuth and Springer.
Family, Ichthyocrinidae Wachsmuth and Springer.
Genus, Ichthyocrinus Conrad.
Ichthyocrinus schucherti n. sp. Plate III, figure 1; text-figure 4.
Specific description.—Crown, including the incurved arms,
an inverted, truncated cone with straight sides. Length and
breadth equal, 19™™, the greatest breadth
being at the point where the arms become
free. Infrabasals not shown. Basals five,
pentagonal. Radials five, hexagonal, wider
than long. Costals three in each ray, wider
than long, one hexagonal, the other two pen-
tagonal, the upper supporting two rows of
| distichals, the first three ranges of which
4) q) are quadrangular and the last pentangular
and followed by two rows of palmars. The
palmars are of different numbers in the dif-
ferent rays and even in different parts of the
SY same ray. ‘Iwo or three of the palmars are
included in the cup. Each costal and each
Text-figure 4.—Dia- distichal is wider than the plate of the same
gram of Ichthyocrinus order below it, but in the palmars there is a
schucherti. P : :
decrease in the size of the successive plates.
Anal area not shown. Arms free from the second or third
palmar, incurved. Each row of palmars divides at least once,
making the number of branches forty. Column spreading
shehtly at the pomt of union with the crown. Joints of the
column thin and equal near the calyx, alternating below, the
larger ones about three times as high as the smaller. Length
of column unknown.
Talbot—New York Helderbergian Crinoids. 31
A single individual of this species was found by Professor
Schuchert and was presented by him to the Yale University
Museum. It differs from other species of the genus, principally
in the shape of the crown, the straight sides of the cup being
very characteristic. It resembles Z. dwvis more closely than any
other, but differs from that species in the divisions of the rays
and in the fact that the suture lines are not wavy.
Horizon and locality.— Lower third of the New Scotland
limestone near Clarksville.
Holotype in the Yale University Museum.
Too little is known of the followmg Helderbergian crinoids
to make definite statements in regard to their classification :—
Genus, Aspidocrinus Hall.
Aspidocrinus callosus Hall.
Aspidocrinus callosus Hall, Nat. Hist. N. Y., Pal., vol iii, 1859, p. 123, pl.
0, figs. 15 and 14.—Wachsmuth and Springer, Rev. Paleeocr., Pt. II, 1881,
p. 228; Proc. Phila. Acad. Nat. Sci., vol. xxxiii, 1882, p. 402.
Aspidocrinus digitatus Hall.
Aspidocrinus digitatus Hall, Nat. Hist. N. Y., Pal., vol iii, 1859, p. 123, pl.
5, figs 19 and 20.—Wachsmuth and Springer, Rev. Paleocr., Pt. II, 1881, p.
228 ; Proc. Phila. Acad. Nat. Sci., vol. xxxiii, 1882, p. 402.
Aspidocrinus scutelliformis Hall.
Aspidocrinus scutelliformis Hall, Nat. Hist. N. Y., Pal., vol. iii, 1859, p
122, pl. 5, figs. 15-18.—Wachsmuth and Springer, Rev. Paleoer., Pt. II,
1881, p. 228; Proc. Phila. Acad. Nat. Sci., vol. xxxiii, 1882, p. 402.
These species of Aspidocrinus present difficulties that are
as yet unsolved. Hall described the forms as bases of crinoid
cups, but Wachsmuth and Springer listed them doubtfully as
erinoid roots. There are two reasons, at least, for thinking
that they cannot be crinoid roots or basal expansions of col-
umns. If they are basal expansions, the concave side must
be the under side and this must have rested on the mud
of the sea floor. One specimen of A. scutelliformis in the
Yale University Museum has a bryozoan attached to this con-
cave surface, proving that this surface could not have rested on
the mud. If, on the other hand, these specimens represent the
base of a cup, the presence of the br yozoan might be explained
by supposing that its growth took place after the upper part
of the dead calyx had been broken off but while the lower
part still remained attached to the column.
Again, in undisputed examples of basal expansions, the lower
or distal joints of the column enlarge and the segmentation ot
the column is continued into the upper part of the enlarged
base. No such segments are visible in any of the specimens
in question. In every good specimen, there is a clear-cut cir- |
32 Talbot—New York Helderbergian Crinoids.
cular spot, generally dark-colored, which looks like the point
of attachment of the column to the crown. With the excep-
tion of this spot, the cleavage lines of the calcite have obliterated
all traces of organic structure.
FHlorizon and locality.—At the base of the Becraft limestone,
or what was called the “Scutella limestone,” at Clarksville,
Countryman Hill and Schoharie.
Genus, Brachiocrinus Hall.
Brachiocrinus (Herpetocrinus ?) nedosarius Hall. Plate IV,
figures 7 and 8.
Brachiocrinus nodosarius Hall, Nat. Hist. N. Y., Pal., vol. iii, 1859, p. 118,
pl. 5, figs. 5-7, pl. 6, figs. 1-3.- Wachsmuth and Springer, Rev. Palzoer.,
Pt. II, 1881, p. 229; Proc. Phila. Acad. Nat. Sci., vol. xxxili, 1882) p, 4io!
Herpetocrinus nodosarius Bather, Am. Geol., vol. xvi, 1895, p. 217.
In Hall’s description, these fragments of crimoids are consid-
ered as arms or parts of arms; and this opinion was also held by
Wachsmuth and Springer, in 1881. In 1895, Bather brought
arguments to prove that they belong to columns, not arms,*
and even gave a revised diagnosis of these New York forms as
flerpetocrinus nodosarius. That he is not so certain of this
classification as the earlier paper would indicate, may be gath-
ered from the fact that in a later reference to the fossil, he lists
Brachiocrinus as Goubtfully synonymous with Herpetocrinus.t
Among other points in support of his first view, he remarks
that “cirri composed of thick, beadlike joints which increase
in size from the base to the middle and thence diminish to the
extremities,” characteristic of this species, are also found in
flerpetocrinus flabelliformis, which occurs in the uppermost
beds of the Silurian of Gotland.t
Most of the specimens in the Yale collection are so encrusted
with silica that it is very difficult to get anything but general
outlines; but one specimen is in fairly gece condition and
clearly shows the joints of the column and the cirri. The
joints are slightly wedge-form and quite thin, giving to the
fossil an irregular appearance, which is still further increased
by the difference in the size of the joints of the cirm: tae
diameter of the cirri is so great that only every third or fourth
joint is cirrus-bearing. ‘The bulb-like process, varying in size
and shape, is shown in several specimens at the end of the
column. The question has arisen whether this bulb is at the
base of the stem, or whether it is simply a thickening some-
where between the proximal and distal ends. If the latter
were the case, the central canal should show at both ends of
* Am. Geol., vol. xvi, p. 213, 1895.
+ A Treatise on Zoology, Pt. III. The Echinoderma, p. 146, 1900.
t Am. Geol., vol. xvi, pp. 215 and 216, 1895.
Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XX, 1905. Plate |.
Figure 1.—WMelocrinus pachydactylus.
FIGURE 2.—Thysanocrinus arborescens.
Figure 3.—-Mariacrinus beecheri.
a5
Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XX, 1905.
Plate Il.
USSUTMNUS.
Melocrinus nobil
Plate Ill.
Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XX, 1905.
ee
rane ree
as
1 at 3
—
Figures 2 and 4.—Cordylocrinus plumosus.
NUS SCOPAarLUS.,
Figure 1.—Ichthyocrinus schucherti.
FicgurRE 3.—Stem of Homoci
Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XX, 1905.
Plate IV.
Ficures 1-6.—Edriocrinus pocilliformis.
Figures 7 and 8.—Brachiocrinus nodosarius,
1d
Talbot—New York Helderbergian Crinoids. 33
the specimens. Although one individual shows the canal very
well at the distal end of the cirri and the proximal end of the
stem fragment, this canal is not visible at the distal end of
the bulb on any individual under observation. A small depres-
sion on one specimen looks hike a cicatrix of attachment.
Several individuals have the crescentic form of the joints of
the column, as in Herpetocrinus.
Fflorizon and locality.—Lower part of the New Scotland
limestone in the Helderberg Mountains.
Cotypes in the American Museum of Natural History and
the New York State Museum.
EXPLANATIONS OF PLATES.
Prats I.
Fictre 1.—Melocrinus pachydactylus. About natural size.
Fictre 2.—Thysanocrinus arborescens showing the hexagonal column and
the branching of the arms. About natural size.
Figure 3.—Mariacrinus beecheri showing the thin stem joints near the
erown and the separation of the two parts of the rays toward the distal
end, About natural size.
PrAre Lf
Slab containing stems and crowns of Melocrinus nobilissimus. Reduced a
little more than one-half.
Puate III.
Figure 1.—Ichthyocrinus schucherti showing the characteristic straight
sides of the crown and the straight suture lines. x2.
FiGuRE 2.—Cordylocrinus plumosus showing the long, crowding cirri and
the one- and two-pinnuled joints of the arms. x2.
Figure 3.—Distal end of the stem of Homocrinus scoparius showing the
coiling and the delicate cirri. x2.
FicuRE 4,—Cordylocrinus plumosus. The upper specimen on the plate
shows the anal sac. x 2.
Prate IV.
Figures 1-6.—Edriocrinus pocilliformis. x2.
Ficures 1 and 2.—Simple ordinary forms, basals and infrabasals fused.
Figure 3.—Cup showing fused basals as a prominent ring, also cicatrix of
attachment.
FicurE 4.—Cup showing ring of basals, not protruding, and high narrow
radials. .
FicurRE 0.—Cup showing radials, but basals indistinguishable from infra-
basals.
Ficure 6.—Cup showing basals and infrabasals fused and radials fractured
transversely.
~
FIGURES 7 and 8.—Brachiocrinus nodosarius. x2.
Ficure 7.—Portion of the column showing the bulb at the distal end and
the beadlike cirri.
Fiegure 8.—A larger bulb with the first joints of two cirri attached.
Am. Jour. Sc1.—FourtTH SEriges, Vou. XX, No. 115.—Juty, 1905.
3
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Pirssen—Petrographic Province of Central Montana. 35
Art. V.—The Petrographic Province of Central Montana ;
o> DyoLe Ve Pirsson:
Introduction.
Definition of the province.
Consanguinity shown by minerals.
Augite.
Biotite.
Hornblende.
Feldspars.
Absence of minerals.
Consanguinity shown in textural habit.
Chemical evidence of consanguinity.
General law of the province.
Application to the region.
Geographical arrangement of magmas.
Bearing on differentiation.
Regional progression of types,
Introduction.
Tue fact that mm certain areas of the world’s surface the
igneous rocks have common characteristics, which serve to
ally them together and to define them from the rocks of other
areas, is now well recognized by petrographers. These com-
mon features are sometimes expressed in the minerals, some-
times in the chemical composition of the magmas and some-
times in peculiarities of texture, but usually in a union of
these qualities. In some cases these features are clearly
marked, in others they are but slightly developed; neverthe-
less, like those indescribable characters which define a man as
belonging to one nation rather than to another, they are easily
recognized by the experienced eye.
The formulation of this principle, that the rocks of a given
region may be thus genetically related, we owe to Judd,* and
it has since been elaborated and applied with fruitful results
to yarious regions by Iddings,+ who developed it under the
expression ‘consanguinity of .gneous rocks.” Since then the
idea has been applied to various regions by other petrograph-
ers ; so, forexample, Lacroix in a recent very interesting memoir
on the alkalic rocks of northwest Madagascar, calls attention
to the great belt of types rich in soda that stretches along the
eastern coast of Africa.t Of all the various areas, however,
where the consanguinity of igneous rocks has been studied and
these relationships pointed out, there is probably none better
known or more thoroughly investigated than that of South
* Quar. Jour. Geol. Soc., 1886, vol. xlii. p. 54.
fs eee of Igneous Rocks. Bull. Phil. Soc. Washington, xii, p. 128,
+ Roches alcaline de Prov. Petrograph. d’Ampasindava Nouv. Arch. d.
Muséum, 4™¢ Ser., vols. i et v, 1902, 1903.
36 Pirsson—Petrographic Province of Central Montana.
Norway, and our knowledge of this region we owe for the
greatest part to the keen perception and untiring labors of
Brogeer, who has given the results of his work in that fine
series of monographs which have become classics in the litera-
ture of petrography.
The fact that the outlying mountain groups east of the main
chain of the northern Rocky Mountains are composed of rocks
of a special character rich in alkalies, was pointed out by
Iddings* in the work already referred to, although at that
time little was known about them. Since then investigations
and studies in the field and in the laboratory by a number of
workers have thrown a flood of light upon this region. In
the Black Hills of North Dakota the work of Caswell,+ Jaggar,t
Irving§ and the writer| has shown a prevalence of types: rich
in alkalies with soda dominating the potash.
In Montana, the most southern of the eastern outlying
groups fronting the great plains, is the Crazy Mountains, some
of whose interesting rocks of alkalic types are known through
the researches of Wolff.4 North of this come the various
groups studied by Mr. Weed and the writer; the Castle Moun-
tains ;** the Little Belt Mountains ;{+ the Judith Mountains ;¢¢
the Highwood Mountains ;8§ the Bearpaw Mountains;]|| the
Little Rocky Mountains 4 and lastly, on the border line between
Canada and the United States, the Sweet Grass Hills,*** the last
of the outliers. While some of these have been rather thor-
oughly investigated, there yet remains much to be done. The
few types that have been described from the Crazy Mountains
by Wolff, and its mapttt showing the vast complexity of the
Z Opacity spol
+ Microscopic Petrography of the Black Hills, 1876. U.S. Geog. and
Geol. Surv., Rocky Mts. region, J. W. Powell in charge. Rep. on the Black
Hills of Dakota, pp. 469-527, Washington, 1880.
{ Laccoliths of the Black Hills, 21st Ann. Rep. U. S. Geol. Surv., Pt. iii, pp.
163-290, 1901.
§ Geology of the northern Black Hills. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., vol. xii,
No. 9, pp. 187-840, 1899.
| Phonolite Rocks from the Black Hills. This Journal, 3d Ser., vol xlvii,
pp. 841-346, 1894.
“| Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., vol. iii, pp. 445-452, 1892. Bull. Harv. Mus.
Comp. Zool., vol. xvi, pp. 227-238, 1893.
** Bull. No. 139, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1896.
t+ 20th Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv., 1900, Pt. iii. p. 062. This Journal,
od Ser., vol. 1, pp. 467-479, 1895.
ae 18th sey Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv., 1898, Pt. iii, p. 437-616.
§ Bull. 237 U. 8. Geol. Surv., 1905. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., vol. vi, pp.
389 "422, 1895. This Journal, vol. ii, pp. 315-5238, 1896.
|| This Journal, 4th Ser., vol. i, pp. 283-801, 351-362, and vol. ii, pp.
136-148, 188-189, 1896.
“|"| Jour. of Geol., vol. iv, pp. 339-428, 1896.
*** This Journal, 3d Ser., vol. 1, pp. 809-3138, 1895.
+++ Little Belt Mountains Folio, Montana. U.S. Geol Surv., Geol. Atlas of
U. S., No. 56, 1899.
Pirsson—Petrographic Province of Central Montana. 37
dikes and sheets surrounding the main stocks of granular
rocks, only serve to awaken general interest as to the character
and relations of these rock masses, and it is to be greatly hoped
that Professor Wolff will be able to continue his studies upon
this interesting material and publish his results for the benefit
of petrographers and for the understanding of the revion. In
the Bearpaw Mountains the researches of the writer upon the
material collected during a hurried trip through them by Mr.
Weed, which brought out such a variety of novel types of
alkalic rocks, can only serve to demonstrate that this relatively
large area must afford a fruitful field of study in the future;
one whose complete investigation will add much to our knowl-
edge of theoretic petrology and yield many interesting rock
types.
The same must in large measure be true of the Sweet Grass
Hills. The material studied by the writer gave types much
like those of the Judith Mountains with hints of alkalic ones
accompanying them, and the appearance of some specimens
forwarded to Mr. Weed would seem to indicate that rocks of
tinguoid habit occur there. Adding these facts to Dr. Daw-
son’s* descriptions, it would seem as if they might consist
largely of laccoliths probably with accompanying sheets and
dikes similar in character and in rocks to those of the Judith
and Little Rocky Mountains and the Black Hills.
Definition of the province.
That part of this great region which has been studied by the
writer, and with which he is therefore most familiar, lies in the
center of Montana and embraces as its foci of igneous activity
the Castle, Little Belt, Judith, Highwood, Bearpaw and Lit-
tle Rocky Mountains. Since the general reader cannot be
expected to be familiar with the geography of this region and
the disposition of these groups, their arrangement with respect
to one another and to the main chains of the Rocky Moun-
tains is shown on the accompanying sketch map. It w vill there
be seen that they le in a roughly oval area stretching from
the northeast towards the southwest, about 150 miles long by
about 100 broad, in the middle of iNaearie and shown on the
map by the dotted line. It is this region which it is here pro-
posed to define as the petrographic province of central Mon-
tana; the consanguinity and general family relations of whose
rocks it is intended to describe.
This paper then may be considered as a general summation
along the line just mentioned of the work of the writer on
these different mountain groups, presenting the broad petro-
logic features they possess In common. For the separate
* Rep. Canadian Geol. Surv., 1882-4, Pt. C, pp. 16 and 45.
38 Pirsson—Petrographic Province of Central Montana.
details the reader is referred to the series of memoirs upon
them whose list is given upon a foregoing page.
The evidences of consanguinity are to be seen in two ways,
in certain mineral peculiarities and in the chemical composition
of the magmas, the first being dependent upon the second
in conjunction with the physical conditions attendant upon
erystallization.
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Map of Central Montana showing arrangement of mountain groups in
petrographic province.
Consanguinity shown by minerals.
Augite.—One of the most marked features in regard to the
mineral composition of this composite geographical rock fam-
ily is to be seen in the augite. This has been already pointed
out by Iddings,* but its application to this province is worthy
of special mention.
The augite is of a distinct green color, very rarely pleo-
chroic. It varies from very pale to a deep green. brown or
purplish augites are rare. They do occur in some of the
lamprophyric dikes and flows but are exceptional, so that in a
great preponderance of the rocks the green augite distinetly
rules. Moreover this applies through the whole series from
* Op. cit., p. 131.
Pirsson—Petrographic Province of Central Montana. 39
the most salic to the most femic types, the depth of color
usually increasing somewhat towards the ferromagnesian pole.
It is commonly supposed that the purplish color of augite is
due to the titanic oxide it-contains; and while this perhaps is
true, it should nevertheless be pointed out that one of these
green pyroxenes from the shonkinite of Square Butte, ana-
lyzed by the writer, contained over a half per cent of titanic
oxide. It is also to be noted that titanic oxide occurs in all of
these rocks, gradually increasing with the iron towards the
ferromagnesian pole, yet the rocks towards this end still have
the strong green color in the pyroxene. This is especially
noticeable in the shonkinites of Yogo peak in the Little Belts,
in the various occurrences in the Highwoods and in the Beaver
stock and elsewhere in the Bearpaws, the TiO, ranging from
0-75 to 1°50 per cent, the silica falling as low as 46 per cent in
the latter case. The occurrence of this green augite through
the whole series is more strongly marked in the Highwoods
than elsewhere and this local peculiarity did not escape Lind-
gren’s notice and he makes especial mention of it,* not only
for the Highwoods but for the other groups of the region
with which he was acquainted. ‘There is no notable exception
to this rule in any of the Highwood rocks numbering several
hundred occurrences studied by the writer, no matter how salic
or temic the types may be.
This green augite is a marked feature then of this petro-
graphic province, and in this respect it appears to differ from
many other well-marked provinces of alkalic rocks. In the
exceptional cases mentioned above, the augite is pale brown,
strong purplish colors not having been noted, so far as the
writer can recall, in the whole province.
In the salic rocks rich in alkalies, aegirite-augite appears :
this is a marked feature of those of tinguoid habit; aegirite
itself is rare. This seems to be due to the dominance of
potash over soda, as will be shown in the discussion of the
chemical peculiarities of the province. It is possible that the
characters of the pyroxene, including its green color and non-
pleochroism, are also due to this general chemical character of
the magmas.
Liotite.—Throughout the province the biotites are the
brown, strongly pleochroic variety—ordinary biotite. The red-
brown biotites of the theralite rocks found in the Crazy Moun-
tains to the southward do not occur, nor the pale phlogopites
of the rocks rich in potash of the Leucite Hills in Wyoming
as described by Zirkelt and Cross.t In some exceptional
* 10th Census United States, vo]. xv, p. 726, 1886.
+ Micro. Petrog. 40th Parallel Surv., vol. vi, p. 261.
¢ Igneous Rocks of the Leucite Hills and Pilot Butte, Wyoming; this
Journal, vol. iv, 1897, p. 120.
40 Pirsson—Petrographie Province of Central Montana.
cases of the lamprophyric dike rocks the biotites have darker
borders, otherwise they are very uniform in all classes alike.
Hornblende.—This mineral is, comparatively speaking, of
limited occurrence. It is found in an aikalic type in Square
Butte syenite (pulaskose), and in the trachyandesite (adamel-
lose) flow on North Willow creek in the Highwoods, and in
some of the porphyries composing the laccoliths in the various
mountain groups and in vogesite dikes in the Castle and Little
Belt Mountains; but, with these exceptions, when it occurs it
is clearly uralitic after augite. In this province augite rules
in the vast majority of cases and even in the quartzose rocks
(quardofelic types) it appears rather than hornblende.
Leldspars.—It cannot be said that there is any specially
marked evidence of consanguinity to be seen in these miner-
als so far as the author is able to detect. They do not present,
for instance, any such remarkable features as those seen in
the feldspars of the alkalic rocks of south Norway, shown in
their greatest development in the phenocrysts of the rhombic
porphyries. It is to be noted, however, that on account of the
tendency for potash to dominate soda in the magmas, that
orthoclase or soda-orthoclase is commonly the chief feldspar.
Albite is of rare occurrence, even in the strongly alkali types
free from plagioclase, the one instance which is an exception
to this—the porphyry of Lookout Butte* in the Little Rockies
—being a notable exception. On the other hand, it is an inter-
esting fact that in spite of the strong pr edominance of potash
feldspar in so many occurrences of all kinds, microcline may
be said to be absolutely wanting in the province. It is prob-
ably due to the comparatively recent and hypabyssal character
of these rocks and the fact that they have not been subjected
to dynamic pressures.
Absence of minerals.—The characters of a petrographic
province are shown as much by the absence of some minerals
as by the presence of others. In this one it is shown by the
rarity or absence of minerals caused by the groups of rare
earths—as they have, somewhat infelicitously, been called,—
that is minerals marked by the presence of zirconia, thoria,
cerium, lanthanum, didymium, columbic oxide, ete., ete. Even
titanite is a rather rare mineral and zircon uncommon. Expe-
rience would seem to show that it is chiefly magmas rich in
soda which these oxides accompany and that the potassic domi-
nance in the magmas of the central Montana province tends
to exclude them and to produce rocks lacking in the interest-
ing minerals they give rise to.
* Jour. of Geol., vol. iv, p. 422, 1896.
Pirsson—Petrographic Province of Central Montana. 41
Consanguinity shown in textural habit.
In some cases the consanguinity of the rock family is shown
in the repetition of certain textural habits. Thus the pseudo-
leucite basalts of both the Highwoods and the Bearpaws
closely resemble each other and ‘both of them differ in habit
from the leucitic rocks of other regions, from those of Italy
for example. A most marked instance is also seen in the
minettes of Highwood type (phyro-biotitic-cascadose). These
occur not only in the Highwoods but thirty miles to the north-
east on the Missouri River Mr. Weed collected similar rocks
and they occur doubtless in the Bearpaw Mountains.* One of
these from the Missouri River so exactly resembles the occurrence
on Williams Creek on the south slope of the Highwoods and
described in the memoir on the Highwood rocks} that hand
specimens of the two cannot be distinguished from one
another. So too, while each occurrence of shonkinite in the
region, in the Little Belts, the Highwoods and the Bearpaw
has its own peculiarities, yet taken together they form in sum
total a well marked family group.
In the salic, feldspathic types, on account of their simpler
composition these evidences of family relationship are less
distinctly marked, and yet in the porphyries composing the
laccoliths in all the groups of the province, there appears to be
a tendency towards the repetition of a type with a certain tex-
tural habit difficult to describe but easily recognizable. It
appears to be largely conditioned by a certain abundanee, size
and disposition of phenocrysts. There are many wide excep-
tions and variations of this, nevertheless the rule holds.
Chemical evidences of consanguinity.
The strongest evidences which show that the rocks of these
various groups belong to a common family are to be found in
comparing their chemical compositions. For this purpose a
sufficient number of analyses are available for the Castle, Little
Belt, and Highwood Mountains. For the Bearpaws there are
enough to show the general character of the magmas, though
more would be desirable. For the Judith and Little Rocky
Mountains there is only one for each, but the general similarity
of the types, shown by their petrographic study, is sufficient to
indicate that they must agree in essential chemical characters, and
as the rocks are of very similar nature and of simple types
the two analyses must supplement each other fairly well.
The Moccasin Mountains, which are two compound laccoliths,
are practically a part of the Judith Mountains, and their rocks,
* Judging from Dawson’s description (op. cit., p. 46) it seems probable
that the same type also occurs in the Sweet Grass Hills.
+ Igneous Rocks of the Highwood Mts., Bull. No. 237, U. 8. Geol. Surv.,
1904, p. 142.
42 Pirsson—Petrographic Province of Central Montana.
as shown by Lindgren’s* brief description and by specimens
collected by Mr. Weed, are mainly composed of feldspar por-
phyries similar to those of the Judith Mountains.
In all 58 analyses have been made and published of rocks of
this province, 15 by H. N. Stokes, 12 by W. F. Hillebrand, and
one by W. H. Melville in the laboratory of the United States
Geological Survey; 16 by the author and 14 under his direction
by Messrs. H. W. Foote and E. B. Hurlburt in the laboratories
of the Sheffield Scientific School in New Haven. It is not
Castle Mountains Magmas.
1 2 3 + 4) 6 di
pop O Fvnaihiabs Sea nba ORES 74:9 65°9 61:9 56'8 46°5 45-1 42°53
Als Ogg a erie sino 13°6 16°8 17-3 18°3 10°5 15°4 12°0
Beg @ sete ce nail 1-6 2°3 1°6 4-4 2°8 3:2
HeO Se ee eer oy th 9) 1:2 2°4 5°6 1Gs 5°6 5°83’
Meu ees hee tr 1°5 16 3°6 10°6 6°5 12°4
Ca Oe series 6 2°6 3°2 5°38 9°5 8°8 12:1
ING One ce Se eee ests 4°2 A] o°2 4°3 yall 2°8 1:2
UGG iaie A ER 4:6 31 3°8 3°3 1°5 2°8 27
Little Belt Magmas.
8 9 10 iv 12 13 14 15 16 are 18
SiO.-_-. 73:1 69:7 686 64:9 61:6 62°2 544 523 48:3 484 49-0
Al,O3 2: 14°38. 15:0 16-1 10°4* ocd) dd°8.914:3 14-0. ASS Genes
Fe.O3 _- 9) "A 2:25, 270 2:0. 18 88 2°84 A sie
HeO Res: 3 3 A EG R28 Ba a 4k 32S On aaoges
Mo Onn "2 nid oe 236 BT BO) OL 852) \ Oia aaa
CaO we. DLS 21 4 8 26 eA i le OO ie
Na,O_2... 34 3:4 4:4 4:2 4:3. 3:9 134 2:8 Sore cme
K,0O 2... 4:9 4:4 4:9 2 3°9° 4°0) SOC) 4:2 30. nO eon meee
Highwood Magmas.
Ny) 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 a1
SiO. --_ 65°5 59°2 58:0 57:2 56:4 55:2 51°9 51°7 49°6 478 48:0 460 461
Al,Os --. 17°38. 18°38 17°22. 18°5 201 18:3 15°38 14:0, 14:0" AB GE tocol
Fe.Os _- 7% 65 2:5 38'S 18 2 AQ A OL Bo eerie Al ee a
FeO_-.-) Li 14 1:2. 11 °4:4 2:17 3:2" 03°60) od), 2a ea
MeO ie HOS 4S a le8 oi 6 1:8) BO 46 62 TO OG Alen
CaO__-- .-1°9 56) .8°5) 2°3) | 21 86 6:10 70) 950 2 SiR Oram at
Na.O.-- 9°95 31: 84. 45:°56 4:0. 345 2:9 3°> 2 4 as Om reels
K,0.-.. 936 42 101 86. V1 C4077 “7:6 obs 3:2 onl omen
Little Rocky and —
Bearpaw Magmas. Judith Magmas
32 By) 34 30 36 Bye 38 39 40
SiOg>=.2 2 66°2 68°3 575 52°8 51°9 50°0 46°5 68°7 57°6
Al,O3 --- 16°2 15°3 15°4 15°7 20°3 $3) itilete) 18°3 17°5
Fe.Osz -- - 2°0 iy) 49 31 3°6 3°O 76 6 3°59
HeOlee se "2 ‘8 2) 4°8 Lie 5°0 4°4 all 1°2
MoQi ee ‘8 5 1:4 5:0 "2 11°9 47 el 2
CaQ 2 322 1°3 y) 2°6 76 16 (ay 74 10 1:4
Na,0_- 6°5 55 5'd 3°6 85 24 24 4°9 5°8
1765, jaa et 0°8 56 9°4 4°8 98 5:0 87 A°7 9.2
*This Journal, 3d Ser., vol. xlv, pp. 286-297, 1893.
Pirsson—Petrographic Province of Central Montana. 43
worth while, however, to give all these analyses,* for some of
them from a given area, for our purposes, would be merely
repetitions of one another, and in this case only one is selected
to represent this variety of magma. Only the essential ele-
ments are given and consequently the summations are omitted.
Inexamining these tables of analyses the first thing that is evident
is that in general, high silica, alumina and alkalies go together’
and are opposed to lime, iron and magnesia. ‘This is of course
merely a general truth applicable to all igneous rocks and not
a special character of the province. The special and most
obvious feature which distinguishes this district is in the rela-
tion of alkalies to one another and to silica. The potash domi-
nates over the soda.
General law of the province.—Definitely stated it is this;
The petrographic province of central Montana is char acterized
by the fact that im the most siliceous magmas the percentages
of potash and soda are about equal; with decreasing silica
and increasing lime, tron and magnesia, the potash relatively
mmereases over the soda, wntil in the least siliceous magmas it
strongly dominates. An inspection of the tables will show
that there are but a few partial exceptions to this law in the
40 analyses given, and since all which are exceptions are given,
the 18 omitted analyses would merely add the weight of
additional figures to the truth of the law.
Application to the region.—lt will be of interest now to
examine this more in detail with respect to the various moun-
tain groups. The Castle Mountains lie on the extreme southern
border of the province; their next neighbor to the south is the
Crazy Mountains group, and an examination of analyses from:
that districtt shows that in the magmas soda strongly dominates
the potash throughout the series. The writer has already shownt
that the general Castle magma was one of a very salic charac-
ter, in fact that of a granite, and that femic rocks play but a
small role. Thus in the siliceous types we see the influence
of the nearby Crazy Mountains’ magma; the soda here slightly
dominates the potash; we are on the edge of the province and
the rocks are transitional. The relation to it is seen however
in the most femic type, since here potash dominates the soda.
As we go northward from here into the province the Little
Belt rocks came next and its characters become more evident.
In percentages potash begins to rule even in the siliceous types
and in the extreme femic types this peculiarity is strongly
marked. Only two exceptions are noted, both of which are
given and both of which are narrow dikes. Their exceptional
* They may be found in the works previously cited.
+ Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv. 168, pp. 120-124, 1900.
{ Geology of the Castle Mountain Mining District, Bull. U. 8. Geol. Surv.
139, p. 138,
44. Pirsson—Petrographie Province of Central Montana.
position in the Little Belt series has been already disecussed.*
In the siliceous rocks the dominance of potash as one goes
toward the center of the province sometimes expresses itself
more strongly ; thus in the granite porphyry of Wolf Butte
on the extreme northern edge of the Little Belts the relations
are K,O: Na,O = 4:4:3°3, as shown in an analysis not quoted
above.
Next north beyond the Little Belts and near the center of
the province are the Highwoods, and here its characters reach
their highest development. The most siliceous type has equal
percentages of soda and potash; there is only one occurrence,
the syenite of Highwood peak ; in the others the potash strongly
dominates, increasing towards the femic end until in missourite
itis4to1. There is only one exception in this group which
has been found, No. 28 in the table. It is the analcite basalt
of Highwood Gap, occurring in narrow dikes.
The general line through the province to the northward now
bends to the east toward the Bearpaws. Between the Bearpaws
and the Highwoods there is an occurrence of igneous rocks in
small stocks and dikes on the Missouri river. They have not
yet been throughly investigated, but the study of sections made
from specimens collected by Mr. Weed shows them of femic
types like those occurring in the Highwoods, They are in fact
largely minettes of Highwood type, as previously mentioned,
and all their characters show that they closely conform to
the general law and that potash rules.
Next beyond these come the Bearpaws, in which the general
law of the province strictly holds. It is to be noted that towards
the southern side the rocks are femic, and as we pass through
the group we find on the northeast, on the edge of the province,
salic. (quardofelic) types occurring in laccoliths again as in
Eagle Butte, the analysis of whose rock is shown in No. 32.
Again here as on the southern edge the soda rises until it
slightly exceeds potash.
Southeast of here, defining the edge of the province in that
direction, are the Little Rockies, another laccolithie intrusion
of salic ty pes. There is some variation and the rocks pass into
a tinguaitic phase. Exactly of the same character are the
Judith Mountains; also a boundary group on the edge of the
province, of salic types running into tinguaites. There is as yet
only one analysis from each of these groups, one of a granite por-
phyry from the Little Rockies No. 39 and one of a tinguaite
(judithose) from the Judith Mountains. Thus they supple-
ment each other and the general law holds true, the potash
increasing as the silica falls. It is also to be noted that in
neither of these boundary groups do any femic types occur.
* Petrography of the Little Belt Mts., 20th Ann. Rep. U.S. Geol. Surv., Pt.
IL, a0:
Pirsson—Petrographic Province of Central Montana. 45
So far as is known, the Sweet Grass Hills off to the northwest
agree with the last two groups, but the absolute confirmation of
this must await future exploration and study. Moreover
they are somewhat outside of the general area under discussion.
In this connection however there might be mentioned Big
Snowy Mountain, south of the Judith Mountains. — This is evi-
dently a large laccolithic uplift. and from the Judith Mountains
the heavy white Carboniferous limestones dipping away from it
are clearly seen. Intelligent mining prospectors, who have
searched the mountain for ore deposits, have assured me that it is
all limestone on top and that no porphyry is exposed. The lacco-
lithic roof has evidently not yet been eroded away, but consid-
ering all the facts of structure and occurrence in this province,
there can scarcely be reasonable doubt that a concealed body
of feldspathic por rphyry lies underneath the limestone dome.
Geographical Arrangement of Magmas.
From what has been already said, it is now evident that there
is a rather orderly arrangement of magmas in the province.
Around the outer edge they tend to be strongly siliceous, low
in lime, iron and magnesia, and with the percentages of soda
about equal to those of potash, and these magmas have usually
marked their upward movement and intrusion by the formation
of laccoliths. One can say in truth that the boundary of the
province on the south, southeast, east, north and if it be extended
to include the Sweet Grass Hills, on the northwest, is defined
by laccoliths or groups of laccoliths of a rather definite type of
magma. On the west the boundary is not yet well known and
is perhaps not so clearly defined. At all events, in this direc-
tion it is eventually cut off by the main ranges of the Rocky
Mountains, whose magmas, so far as we know them, are of a quite
different char acter, belonging in fact to the gr anite-diorite series
whose surface equivalents are rhyolites, andesites and basalts.
On the border line of the province thus defined femic types
are rare or wanting. When they appear, however, they tend to
assume the regional character and potash rises. As we approach
the center of the province they become more numerous and ot
larger, volume and as silica sinks the potash rises. This is
shown by the occurrences of monzonite and shonkinite in the
Little Belts and on its northern edge. Finally, in the central
portion of the province in the Highwoods, on the Missouri
river and in part of the Bearpaws the magmas are distinctly
femic and rocks rich in ferro-magnesium components form the
largest masses, are most numerous in occurrence and distinctly
rule. There is still a recurrence of salic types, but they are of
small volume and of diminished importance.
46 Pirsson—Petrographic Province of Central Montana.
This arrangement of magmas over the region is of course not
so well displayed as if there had been outbreaks of lava and
igneous intrusions in every ten square miles of it and all con-
forming to the rule, but it is believed by the writer that one
who reads car efully the facts previously stated and studies the
map must be struck with the disposition of the magmas about
a common center as shown in the mountain groups. It does
not appear as if this could be mere chance; on the contrary, it
certainly seems to point to an orderly arra angement of things
according to some definite cause, whether we are able to discover
the latter or not.
Bearing on Differentiation.—lIt will be noticed that this
arrangement is contrary to what obtains in most cases of local
differentiation such as those of Yogo and Bearpaw peaks and
Square butte in this province, in which the border zones are
femic with a concentration of the salic components towards
the center. Washington* has shown that at Magnet Cove the
contrary is the case, the outer zone being more salic and the
inner part of strongly femic types. An instance of this also
occurs in this province in the “diorite” intrusion of Castle
Mountain near Blackhawk,+ which at the center is a monzonoid
rock with 56 per cent of silicaand grows steadily more siliceous
towards the periphery until it becomes a quartzose porphyritic
type. Other examples are described by bréggert in N orway
and Ramsay and Hackmann§ in Lapland.
Washington in discussing these cases| is inclined to view
them as results of processes of solution and crystallization in
which the magma, composed of silica, alumina and allcalies, is
the solvent, the others being the solutes, and the solvent being
in excess tends to crystallize first at the outer margins. ‘This
might explain such cases of Jocal differentiation as are seen in
laccoliths like Square Butte, but it is clear that it could not be
applied to whole regions. For granting for the moment that a
parent body of homogeneous magma can form diverse smaller
bodies by some process, it could not do so over wide areas by
one of solidification ; the facts demand that the cleaved products
should remain liquid though these secondary bodies, after intru-
sion into place, might yield diverse products by crystallization,
The writer is not inclined to believe, on the other hand, that
pure molecular flow, which Becker has shown must take
place with great and increasing slowness, can be a sufiicient
hiGa ee Complex of Magnet Cove, Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., vol. xi, p. 407,
+ Bull. 189, U. S. Geol. Surv., pp. 184 and 140, 1896.
{ Brogger : Zeit. f. Kryst., vol. xvi, 1890, p. 45.
S Ramsay and Hackmann: Fennia, vol. xi, No. 2, 1894.
| Loc. cit., p. 408.
*; Chis Journal, vol. iii. p. 21, 1897.
Pirsson—Petrographic Province of Central Montana. 47
modus operandi on a vast scale. But within limits and with
sufficient time it may be a factor of importance, and com-
bined with convection currents and forced movements on a
small scale due to the passage of heated gases, and on a large
one to dynamic movements of the crust, a variety of agencies
may be brought into play which may be sufficient. to render a
body of homogeneous magma, even if of considerable size, quite
diverse in its parts. And it is to be clearly noted that this is
quite independent of the question as to whether the magma
shell of the molten earth (supposing there ever was such a thing)
was ever homogeneous or not. ‘This is purely an academic
question and may always, as at present, remain a matter of
mere speculation. ‘Whether it was or not, the magmas under-
lying the crust are different now in differ ent regions, and this
is the basic fact with which the petrographer has to concern
himself.
On the other hand, it is the writer’s belief that it would be
unreasonable to throw away such indications as those afforded
above, that the distribution and occurrence of igneous rocks are
not due to mere chance ; to deny they are governed like other
things in nature by definite laws and processes ; to affirm that
they are caused by mere haphazard heterogeneity of the under-
lying magma, and to thus dispose of the subject by relegating it
to chaos.
In regard to local as distinguished from regzonal differen-
tiation, we know something of the conditions and occurrences
most favorable for its operation of the magmas in which it is
most likely to occur and to predict some of the probable results
of its operation. But in regard to the latter it does not seem
to the writer quite reasonable to assume that agencies and pro-
cesses that would be operative on a small scale would be nec-
essarily applicable to vast bodies of magma underlying great
regions. The writer has already discussed this phase of the
subject in another place and it is not necessary to repeat it
here.* But in the writings and speculations of many petrog-
raphers a good deal of confusion on this subject appears and
the differentiation of huge “magma basins”’ presumably cover-
ing hundreds and even thousands of square miles, is discussed
in the same terms and with appeal to the same supposed
agencies as has produced visible results in a single dike, lacco-
lith or other relatively small rock body. In the writer’s opinion
this is wrong and will only tend to throw discredit upon what
has so far been produced that is of real value. It must be
confessed that at the present time so little is known and so
much remains to be discovered that any attempt, from the
*Tgneous Rocks of the Highwood Mountains, Bull. 237 U. S. Geol. Surv.,
p. 183.
48 Pirsson—Petrographic Province of Central Montana.
datain hand, to solve the problem of general differentiation
over wide regions must be a mere speculation. While the
physical chemist therefore is attacking the problem on one side,
it remains for the petrographer, on “the other, to gather data
regarding the occurrences of igneous rocks and their interrela-
tionships and characters over definite areas, and the present
article can be considered as a contribution towards this end.
The Regional Progression of Types.
It is desired to call attention here to a phase of the occurrence
of rock types in the province in the hope that petrographers
may observe if it is of general application in different petro-
graphic provinces.
In lieu of a better name it may be called the regronal pro-
gression of types, and the idea involved in this term is as follows :
while in a given province there are certain family characters
serving to bind the various rock types into one clan, yet from
place to place within its limits the magmas may vary greatly
from each other, and there may be, as in the Montana prov-
ince, a number of centers with complexes of their own. It is
so to speak that the clan is made up of a number of families each
of which consists of individuals. In traversing the area from
one family to another, the observer will note that certain types
which are rare or sporadic in the first will become numerous
or even dominating ones in the second. Long before the second
family is reached its types begin to appear, and as the areais
approached they are likely to become more numerous, then
attain their greatest frequency and die away beyond. Thus
there is an overlapping of types and the rare one of a given cen-
ter of igneous rocks becomes the common one of a neighboring
center. It of course depends upon the gradual change in the
character of the magmas.
Some instances of this which have been observed in this prov-
ince are as follows. In the Castle Mountains a single sporadic
case of a monchiquoid rock was observed.* Going northward
into the Little Belts they begin to be more common, and the
author has described them under the name of “analcite basalts ae
while still farther to the northward in the Highwoods these are
exceedingly common rocks. They occur for the greater part
in dikes but in the Highwoods in flows also. In the midst of
the Castle rocks this type appeared out of place when consid-
ered only by itself, but if we consider it not as a member of
the Castle family, but of the central Montana clan, its occur-
rence talls into order.
*Bull. 159 U. S. Geol. Surv., pp. 68 and 114, 1896.
+ Petrog. Little Belt Mts., 20th Ann. Rep. U.S. Geol. Surv., Pt. iii, p. 543,
1900.
~z
Pirsson—Petrographic Province of Central Montana. 49
Again, in the Castle district the stock at Blackhawk described
under the name of “ diorite” has its central portion developed
as a monzonoid facies, as may readily be seen by reference
to its description and analysis.* In the Little Belts to the
north monzonite occurs in a considerable mass at Yogo Peak,t
and in the Highwoodst and Bearpaws§ it is a prominent type.
Or again, shonkinitic facies of rock masses are found at Yogo
Peak in the Little Belts and in the stock at the head of Beaver
Creek in the Bearpaws, while in the Highwoods this rock is the
common type and found in numerous masses.
So also rocks of tinguoid habit do not occur at all in Castle
Mountain or in the Little Belts im the southern part of the
province. They first begin to appear in the Highwoods in the
middle part; here they are rare, only a few occurrences being
noted, but in the Judith,| Little Rocky4] and Bearpaw** Moun-
tains which define the northern part of the province they are
very common rocks.
- Other instances might be cited but these are sufficient to
indicate the idea involved. It is in intrusive rocks of various
kinds of occurrence, and perhaps more noticeably in dikes, that
this progression of types is seen. The extrusive rocks do not
oceur so generally in this province that it may be observed
among then.
It would be a matter of interest to know if this progression
of types is a peculiarity confined to this province and occasioned
by the local distribution of magmas or whether it is of more
general application. The writer has observed indications of
it in other places, as, for instance, in central New Hampshire,
where at Red Hill and Mount Belknap centers of alkalic mag-
mas occur. ‘These are indicated at long distances by sporadic
dikes of bostonoid and camptonoid habits, the latter becoming
very numerous at the actual centers. but outside of the cen-
tral Montana area the writer has not that timate acquaintance
with other broad petrographic provinces which is necessary to
be able to apply this idea to them, and it must be left to others.
It would seem as if south Norway and central Italy and per-
haps the Bohemian Mittelgebirge, which is being so ably inves-
tigated by Hibsch, might afford good examples.
Sheffield Scientific School of Yale University,
New Haven, Conn., December, 1904.
* Bull. 139, p. 89. + Petrog. Little Belt Mts. p. 475.
¢ Bull. 237, p. 76. § This Journal, vol. i, p. 355, 1896.
| 18th Ann. Rep. U. S. Geol. Surv. Pt. iii, p. 566, 1898.
*| Journal Geol., vol. iv. p. 419, 1896.
** This Journal, vol. ii, p. 189, 1896.
Am. Jour. Sci1.—FourtH Series, VoL. XX, No. 115.—Juxy, 1905.
oa
50 T. Holm—Croomia pauciflora.
Arr. VI.—Croomia pauciflora Torr. An anatomical study ;
by Tuxo. Horm. (With one figure in the text drawn by
the author.)
Many years ago Croomia was considered a member of the
Berberrvdacee and an ally of Lerberis, Caulophyllum, Diphyl-
leia, Jeffersonia and Podophylium,* with the admission, how-
ever, that the examination of a single seed did not disclose
whether the plant was dicotyledonous or not, and that the
affinity in either case remained obscure. Several years later
the mistake was corrected by Gray himself and the genus
referred to the Roxburghiacee.t Besides the American
species there is another one in Japan: C. Japonica Mig., but
these two are the only ones, known so far, of this singular
genus. The monotypic Stechoneuron and the small genus
Stemona Lour. (Roxburghia Banks) are with Croomza the
only representatives known of. the order. MHabitually these
genera are quite distinct, Stemona being a tall climber, the
others low herbs; the floral structures have been carefully
described by Gray, Bentham and Hooker, and Engler and
Prantl. A more detailed account of the morphology of the
flower as well as the anatomy of the vegetative organs of some
species of Stemona has been given by Mr. Lachner-Sandoval.t
In regard to Croomzia Gray poimted out some few peculiarities
in the stem-structure, sufficient to prove that its systematic
position would have to be sought among the Monocotyledones,
but otherwise the genus has not been studied from this particu-
lar point of view.
Having received some fresh material from Alabama, we
have examined the internal structure of the vegetative organs
of Croomia, and the following notes may be considered as
supplemental to those of Mr. Lachner-Sandoval for illustrating
the comparative anatomy of this peculiar little order. A few
remarks upon the rhizome may, also, be inserted at this place.
As stated above, Croomia paucifiora is a low herb with a
few green leaves and two- or three-flowered inflorescences near
the apex of the single stem. ‘The rhizome represents a sym-
podium; it is slender, horizontally creeping with stretched
internodes and scale-like, mnembranaceous leaves. The termi-
nal bud produces the aerial, flower-bearing stem surrounded at
the base by three scale-like leaves, while a bud from the axil
of the lowermost of these pushes out ito a horizontal, sub-
terranean branch, which continues the direction and growth of
* Gray, Asa: Genera flore Americe bor.-orient. ill. Vol. i, 1848, p. 90.
+Same: On the genus Croomia, and its place in the natural system. (Mem.
Amer. Acad. Sce., Ser. 2, vol. vi, 1859, p. 453, plate 31.)
t Beitrag zur Kenntniss der Gattung Roxburghia. (Botan. Centralb., vol.
1, 1892, p. 69.
T. Holm—Croomia paucifiora. 51
the mother-rhizome. Dormant buds may be observed in the
axils of some of the leaves of the horizontal portion of the
rhizome. The roots are white, somewhat fleshy and sparingly
ramified; they develop mostly below the nodes or, sometimes,
a little above these.
In the Japanese species C. Japonica Mig. the habit of the
plant is the same, but the flowers are single in the axils of the
leaves, and the rhizome has no stretched internodes.
The internal structure of the vegetative organs of our species
of Croomia shows several points of interest, when compared
with the allied orders, and we will begin with the roots.
The roots.
The secondary roots are storage-roots with no contractile
power ; they are nearly glabrous and the thin-walled epidermis
persists covering directly the cortical parenchyma, no hypo-
derm being developed. The cortex consists of about fifteen
layers of thin-walled, starch-bearing cells, constituting a rather
compact tissue. There is an endodermis of exceedingly small
cells with thin walls and the Casparyan spots barely visible ; it
surrounds a continuous similarly thin-walled pericambium.
Inside this are seven narrow rays of hadrome with one to two
protohadrome vessels and about twenty, much wider, around a
narrow central group of moderately thickened conjunctive tissue.
The thin, lateral roots show a like structure, but the cortex
contains no starch and the endodermis is large-celled with the
spots plainly visible; these roots were diarchic and the position
of the protohadrome vessels was like that in the mother-root,
inside the pericambium.
The rhizome.
When we examine one of the stretched, horizontal inter-
nodes we notice a smooth cuticle and an epidermis with the
outer cell-walls moderately thickened. The cortex consists of
about twenty-five layers, of which the peripheral two or three
are collenchymatic, the others thin-walled and starch-bearing.
No endodermis was to be observed, and the mestome-bundles
possess only a weak support of stereome, which does not form
a continuous ring around these. It is merely represented by a
few, one to two, layers on the inner face of the mestome-
bundles or on the sides of these; on the leptome-side this
tissue is, also, poorly developed, sometimes entirely wanting.
The structure of the mestome-bundles is very irregular.
They are apparently arranged in one or two circles, but several
of these having fused together so as to form several groups of
leptome and hadrome in immediate connection with each other,
their number or real position could not be ascertained. As
will be seen later, the mestome-bundles of the stem above
52 T. Holm—Croomia paucifiora.
eround are leptocentric, and this structure is, also, to some
extent to be observed in the rhizome, but much less regularly ;
the following variations were noticed. A few were collateral
with the leptome and hadrome radially opposite each other and
supported by stereome on both faces, the outer and the inner.
Or the leptome was found to be surrounded by the vessels on
the sides, and these bordering again on other groups of leptome
with or without some support of stereome; in others the lep-
tome constituted but one group with some vessels on the sides,
while inwards it was separated from the pith by layers of
stereome. Near the periphery of the cortex were observed
two isolated, collateral and, in transverse section, orbicular
mestome-bundles.
The central portion of the rhizome is occupied by a thin-
walled, starch-bearing, solid pith.
A much more regular structure exists in the short, vertical
internode below the uppermost of the three scale-like leaves
which surround the base of the flowering stem. In this inter-
node the fourteen mestome-bundles are located in an almost
regular circle ; nine of these are leptocentric and much larger
than the remaining five, which are collateral and orbicular in
transverse section. In regard to the disposition of these two
forms of mestome-bundles, there is usually a small one between
each two of the larger ones. They all are surrounded by
stereome and separated from each other.
The stem.
A like structure was observed in the iong internode of the
stem above ground. This stem-portion is cylindric and solid ;
the cuticle is wrinkled and covers a small-celled epidermis,
which is moderately thickened, perfectly glabrous and almost
destitute of chlorophyll. The cortex consists of about four-
teen strata of which the peripheral three or six are collenchy-
matic, and the innermost layer did not show the characteristie
structure of an endodermis. A circle of thirteen mestome-
bundles is imbedded in the cortex; each of these are com-
pletely surrounded by two to three layers of moderately thick-
walled stereome, which enters into the leptome as a separate
group in the larger bundles or merely as a bridge im the
smaller ones (fig. 1). ‘he mestome-pundles are all more or
less oval in transverse section and contain a very large group
of small-celled leptome, completely surrounded by a ring of
scalariform and spiral vessels.
A pith of large, thin-walled cells without starch occupies the
center of the stem.
By continuing our investigation to the structure of the axis
of the inflorescence, we notice here the same arrangement of
the tissues, but the structure is somewhat weaker. There is
T. Holm—Croomia paucifiora. 53
only one peripheral layer of collenchyma and the stereome is
reduced to a few isolated cells on the leptome-side instead of
forming a closed ring around the bundle. The mestome-
bundles themselves occur in a smaller number, from eight to
nine, and are strictly collateral ; they border on a narrow cen-
=
rons
ee:
G
RS =6Y,
See,
Sirs
sine
&
2
si
o
)
7an§e
seemless
<S
yn
p
L\2
Px
\
i
on)
Ol
|
POX
[Bsns
ee
Gore
oe
Fic. 1. Transverse section of a mestome-bundle from the stem above
ground ; 500 x natural size. :
tral cylinder of pith. A corresponding structure is to be
observed in the peduncle of the flower, but this possesses only
two mestome-bundles, both of which are collateral.
The leaf.
The petiole: About three almost continuous, subepidermal
layers of collenchyma surround the thin-walled cortex in which
only a small amount of chlorophyll was observed. There is no
stereome and no endodermis is differentiated. Seven collateral
mestome-bundles traverse the petiole; they are arranged in a
crescent corresponding with the outline of the petiole, and the
mediane is the largest.
The blade: A thin smooth cuticle covers an epidermis with
the outer cell-walls slightly thickened on both faces of the leaf-
blade; the stomata are level with the epidermis and they are
not parallel with the longitudinal axis of the blade; they occur
only on the lower face. The chlorenchyma consists of five
homogenous layers of oblong cells, which are not perpendicu-
lar, however, on the leaf-surface; this tissue is a little more
54 TL. Holm—Croomia paucifiora.
open on the lower face, thus representing some kind of pneu-
matic tissue. No stereome is developed, but there is a promi-
nent ridge of colorless tissue above and below the midrib and
the larger secondaries which becomes collenchymatic where it
borders on the epidermis. But this is the only mechanical tissue
in the leaf. The mestome-bundles are all collateral and single.
Characteristic of Oroomia paucifiora is, thus, the structure
of the mestome-bundles in the stem above eround, being lepto-
centric as well as in the rhizome, but simply collateral in the
axis of the inflorescence, in the peduncles and in the leaves.
The presence of similar leptocentric mestome-bundles is,
moreover, characteristic of the genus Loxburghia in accord-
ance With Mr. Lachner-Sandoval’s investigations, cited above.
This peculiar structure, where the leptome is surrounded, more
or less completely, by the hadrome, is well known from various
other orders among the Monocotyledones, but mostly from the
rhizomes of these*; it is known, also, from mestome-bundles
of certain Dicotyledones, which are located in the pith. In
other words, it seems as if this peculiar structure of the mestome-
bundles is principally observable in storage-organs and tissues:
rhizomes and pith. But in the Roxburghiacew this structure
is, furthermore, met with in the stem above ground instead of
only i in the rhizome.
Another peculiarity is the presence of stereome in the lep-
tome, sometimes as an isolated group in the larger mestome- —
bundles or as a br idge in the smaller ones. The occurrence of
thick-walled cells in the leptome has been described by several
authors and defined as an abnormal thickening of the companion
cells or, in some instances, of the sieve-tubes themselves instead
of pertaining to the adjoining strata of stereomatic tissue.
However it has been admitted that it is only occasionally that
such thick-walled cells in the leptome are clearly distinguish-
able from true stereome-cells. In Cvoomia, as far as the
writer has been able to ascertain, these cells were inseparable
from the supporting layers of stereome; thus we have described
them as belonging to this tissue.
It appears as it leptocentric mestome-bundles in stems above
ground are uncommon, at least among the Monocotyledones.
No such ease has, so far, been recorded in the voluminous
literature dealing with Graminece and Cyperacee, and Mr.
Schulze does not mention the occurrence of such structure in
any of the Liliacew, Haemodoracee, Hypouideew or Velloz-
acew, which he has studied and described in his interesting
paper on these orders.t
Brookland, D. C., April, 1905.
*Compare Chrysler, M. A.: The develorment of the central cylinder of
Aracee and Liliacece (Bot. Gazette, vol. xxxviii, p. 161, 1904).
+ Engler’s bot. Jahrb., vol, xvii, p. 295, 1893.
Rutherford and Boltwood—Radium and Uranium. 55
Art. VIL — The Relate Proportion of Radium and
Uranium in Radio-active Minerals; by E. Ruruerrorp
and B. B. Bourwoop.
THE experiments made by one of us* have shown that
within the limit of experimental error the amount of radium
present in radio-active minerals is proportional to the content
of uranium. The amount of radium corresponding to each
gram of uranium in a mineral is thus a definite constant which
is of considerable practical as well as theoretical importance.
The proportionality between the content of uranium and
radium in radio-active minerals strongly supports the view that
radium is a decomposition product of uranium. According to
the disintegration theory, the amount of radium per gram of
uranium present in a mineral should be a constant whose value
can be approximately deduced if the relative activity of pure
radium and pure uranium is known.
In order to determine the amount of radium associated with
one gram of uranium it is only necessary to compare the
activity of the emanation produced by a standard quantity of
pure radium bromide with that produced by a quantity of
mineral containing a known weight of uranium.
In the experiments which are to be described, a standard
solution of radium bromide was prepared from a specimen of
radium bromide, which had been found experimentally by
Rutherford and Barnes to give out heat at a slightly greater
rate than 100 gram-calories per hour. The radium bromide
was, therefore, probably pure. About one milligram of the
salt was taken and weighed as accurately as possible on a bal-
ance. The weighing was confirmed by comparing the relative
gamma-ray effect produced on an electroscope by the sample
in question and the effect produced by a quantity of radium
bromide weighing 23-7 milligrams. The determinates by the
two methods were found in good agreement.
The known weight of radium bromide was dissolved in water
and solutions were successively made up which contained 107?
and 10-4 milligram of radium bromide per cubic centimeter.
Of the more dilute solution a quantity equivalent to 1:584°°
was carefully weighed out, transferred to a glass bulb having
a capacity of about 100° and diluted to a volume of about 50°
with pure, distilled water. The bulb was sealed and allowed
to stand for about 60 days in order that the maximum quan-
tity of emanation might accumulate. At the end of this
period the emanation was completely removed by boiling the
* Boltwood, Phil. Mag. (6), ix, 599, 1905.
56 Rutherford and Boltwood—Radium and Uranium.
solution and was transferred to an air-tight electroscope, in
which its activity was measured. The observed activity corre-
sponded to the emanation from 1:58410~4 milligram of
radium bromide, which was assumed to be equivalent to
0-926 X10-4 milligram of radium.
The activity of the maximum or equilibrium quantity of
emanation produced by the radium associated with one gram
of uranium in a radio-active mineral was determined by the —
method which has already been described.* The mineral
chosen was a very pure sample of uraninite from Spruce Pine,
N. C., containing 74°65 per cent of uranium.
The activity of the emanation from the standard radium
bromide solution was equal to 24°24 divisions per minute. The
activity of the emanation from 0-1 gram of the mineral was
equal to 14°45 divisions per minute, corresponding to 193°6
divisions per minute for each gram of uranium present. These
values indicate that the quantity of radium associated with
one gram of uranium in a radio-actwe mineral is equal to
approximately 74x 10-7 gram. One part of radium is there-
fore in radio-active equilibrium with approximately 1,350,000
parts of uranium. |
By the application of these numbers to the ordinary ores of
uranium it is possible to determine their actual content of
radium. Thus a high-grade pitchblende ore containing 60
per cent of uranium carries approximately 0-40 gram of
radium, equivalent to 0°69 gram of radium bromide, per ton
of 2,000 pounds. A low-grade 10 per cent uranium ore will
contain per ton approximately 0-067 gram of radium, equiva-
lent to 115 milligrams of radium bromide.
The amount of radium occurring with uranium is about the
amount to be expected if uranium is the parent of radium, but
a satisfactory comparison of theory with experiment is not
possible until the relative activity of pure radium and pure
uranium is more accurately determined. Experiments in this
direction are in progress and the results will be given in a
later paper. A method has been devised for determining in
a radio-active mineral the proportion of the total activity due
to the presence of uranium, radium and the other radio-active
bodies. The results obtained lead to the conclusion that -
actinium is not a direct product of uranium in the same sense.
as is radium. An account of these experiments will be pub-
lished later. e
* Boltwood, loc. cit.
J. Trowbridge—Side Discharge of Electricity. 57
Art. VIII.—Side Discharge of Blecrieity ; by Jonn Trow-
BRIDGE.
Tue installation of a large storage battery of 10,000 to 20,000
cells presents many interesting problems in regard to insula-
tion; and modern theories of ionization receive great support
from a study of the phenomena observed in the region surround-
ing the poles of the battery. There is a great probability of
an invisible ionization which is constantly taking place between
the earth and the battery.
+ ie
Such ionization immediately becomes visible in an interesting
form of Geissler tube shown in fig. 1. ,
The terminal A is connected permanently with the pole of
the battery through a large water resistance (several megohms).
The terminal B is connected to the negative pole by a spark gap 8.
E is ecnnected to the earth. At the instant the spark occurs a
brilliant side discharge occurs between EK and Bb. If the nega-
tive pole of the battery is permanently connected through the
large water resistance to B, and A connected by a spark gap
to the positive pole of the battery, the side discharge takes
place between E and A. At the same time that these side
discharges take place, a discharge passes between A and b. It
is evident that the capacity of the region outside the battery,
the room, and building charges up under the difference of
potential between it and the poles of the battery, a difference
58 J. Trowbridge—Side Discharge of Electricity.
of potential which is greater than that between A and B,
which are connected by the small resistance of the rarified gas.
This phenomenon suggests a photometric method of com-
paring the capacity of large condensers and also of obtaining
the capacity of the immediately surrounding space. Fig. 2
represents a modification of the tube represented in fig. 1.
To the arm C and D of the cross are attached the condensers
which are to be compared. At the instant of the completion
2
A
B
of the circuit with the storage battery under the conditions
mentioned above, two side discharges take place from C and D
either to A or B. By bringing the light of these two simulta-
neous discharges into a suitable photometric arrangement, one
can compare the capacity of the condensers to the degree of
accuracy obtainable by ordinary photometric determinations.
Since it is difficult to obtain an estimate of the capacity of
large bodies of irregular shape and of large extent, this method
may be of use. By a suitable vacuum tube and proper
exhaustion the method does not require a large number of
cells. )
It was noticeable that when a stratified discharge was estab-
lished between A and B fig. 1, there being no spark gap in
the cireuit except that of the rarified space between A and B,
J. Trowbridge—Side Discharge of Electricity. 59
fluctuating feeble discharges took place to earth through E.
This phenomenon seems to indicate a discontinuity in the
stratified discharge.
When the small spark gap, either at the positive or nega-
tive pole, is of a suitable length, the discharges between E and
either pole of the battery succeed each other so rapidly that
the side discharges to earth appear continuous. If a large con-
denser is substituted for the earth at E, one plate of the con-
denser being connected to earth, the time between each dis-
charge is lengthened. This time of charging can be well illus-
trated by connecting condensers directly through a large water
resistance directly to the poles of a large storage battery and
allowing the condensers to discharge through a spark gap. The
time of discharge can be regulated through a wide range and
the arrangement can be termed an electric clock.
It is probable that in the case of lightning side discharges take
place to the earth in the manner indicated by this method; the
potential between the positively and negatively charged clouds
rising to a higher value than that between the clouds ; the
earth space beneath the clouds acting as a localized capacity.
60 H. L. Bronson—Decay of Deposit from Radium.
Art. IX.—The Effect of High Temperatures on the Rate
of Decay of the Actwe Deposit from Radium; by Howarp
L. Bronson.
In the course of a careful investigation of the decay of the
active deposit from radium, some experiments of Curie and
Danne* were repeated. These consisted in determining the
change which high temperatures produce on the rate of decay
of this active deposit. As a result of the following experi-
ments, a different conclusion from that offered by Curie and
Danne has been arrived at.
Miss Gatest showed that high temperatures produced at least
a partial separation of the components of the active deposit
from radium, owing to the fact that they are not all equally
volatile. Curie and Danne verified this, and also found that
the rate of decay of the active deposit apparently was perma-
nently altered by exposure to temperatures between 650° and
1300° C. The following table gives some of their results:
t i)
6 30° 29°3
8 30 24°6
10 00 21:0
11 00 20°3
12 50 24°1
13 00 25°4
Here ¢ is the temperature in degrees centigrade to which the
active deposit was raised, and @ is the “ period,” that is the
time in minutes required for the activity to fall to half value.
From this table it is seen that the rate of decay increased as
the temperature was raised from 650° to 1100°, but decreased
again at still higher temperatures. Curie and Danne also
stated that the decay curves were exponential, and they there-
fore concluded that the rate of decay had been permanently
altered.
In the following experiments the measurements were all
made with an electrometer, and the “constant deflection
method” described by the writer{t was employed. The active
deposit was collected on platinum wires by connecting them to
the negative pole of a battery of 400 volts, and exposing them
for several hours in the emanation from radium. After
removal the wires were kept for a few minutes at the desired
temperature in a small electric furnace, made by Dr. C. A.
* Comptes Rendus, cxxxvili, p. 748, 1904.
+ Physical Review, May, 1903.
+ This Journal, Feb., 1905.
699
Log. of maven, of radiation.
B01
602.
H. L. Bronson—Decay of Deposit from Radium. 61
Timme of Berlin, and were then placed in the testing vessel.
A calibration curve for the furnace had previously been made
by the use of a platinum-rhodium thermo-junction.
A large number of experiments were made using several
temperatures between 700° and 1100° C. An example of
the kind of results obtained is given in fig. 1. ~A, B, C
and G are four decay curves of the active deposit, which
had been previously heated to about 800° C. In the ease
of D, E and F the temperature used was about 900° C.
The time is reckoned from the removal of the wire from the
100
Time in minutes.
emanation. The first points on curves F and G should be at
about 200 and 300 minutes respectively, as in these cases the
wires were not placed in the furnace until several hours after
their removal from the emanation. These curves are apparently
exponential, as was found by Curie and Danne, but @ does not
at all seem to be a function of the temperature, for its value
seems just as hable to change when the temperature is kept
the same as when a different temperature is used. In fact 0
was found hable to take on any value between nineteen and
‘twenty-seven minutes, and this was true for all temperatures
between 700° and 1100°. Among these values of @ there
were, however, a large number between nineteen and twenty-
one minutes. This was nearly always the case when the wire
was not heated until several hours after removal from the
emanation.
Now Rutherford* has shown that, negiecting the first half
* Philosophical Transactions, 204, p. 196.
62 H. L. Bronson—Decay of Deposit from Radium.
hour, the decay curve of the active deposit from radium is
satistactorily explained by assuming two successive products,
radium B and radium C; the matter B giving rise to no rays,
and the matter C toa, ® and y rays. Taking twenty-eight
minutes as the decay period of one of these, he calculated that
the period of the other must be twenty-one minutes. Theoret-
ically it makes no difference whether the longer period belongs
to the matter B or C, but the above mentioned experiments of
Curie and Danne supplied the evidence which decided this
question in favor of the matter C.
2
lor)
fer)
ATT .602
Log. of intensity of radiation.
B01
The fact that so many of the values of 2, obtained after
heating the deposit, were in the neighborhood of twenty-one
minutes, made it seem quite possible that the matter C had
the shorter period, and not that its period had been changed
by heating. Also the fact that the rayless change in the active
deposits from thorium and actinium each have a longer period
of decay than the change immediately following, possibly is
evidence in the same direction. If this be the case, then all
the larger values of @ must have been produced by mixtures of
the two kinds of matter, b and C, in different proportions.
This, however, would not give an exponential decay curve, but
the period would continue to increase, since the ratio of the
matter having the longer period to that having the shorter
would increase with the time.
In order to see if this were the case, the decay of the activ-
ity of the heated deposit was measured over a long period of
H. L. Bronson—Decay of Deposit from ftadium. 63
time. Fig. 2 shows the result of two experiments of this
kind. 1A,1Band1O are three sections of the same curve,
obtained after heating the active deposit to about 650°C. 1A
was taken immediately after heating, 1 B after about two hours,
and 1C after about four hours. The respective values of 0
were 22°4, 23-6, and 25°5. In the case of curve 2, the tem-
perature used was about 800°C. 2A was taken immediately
after heating, 2B after about one hour, and 2 C after about
178 845
699
Log. of intensity of radiation.
AT 602
301
100 125 150 175 200 225
Time in minutes.
two and one-half hours, and the values obtained for @ were,
respectively, 20°1, 21°3, and 22.8.
The above results furnished very strong evidence in. favor
of the supposition that the heating did not actually alter the
rate of decay of the active deposit. In order to make this
conclusive, the wire on which the active matter had been
deposited was sealed, before heating, in a piece of glass com-
bustion tubing. This prevented the escape of any volatile
products, which in the previous experiments had evidently
been the uncertain factor. By exhausting the glass before
sealing, it was found that it would stand temperatures high
enough to melt the copper wires, which were used in this case.
64. FT. L. Bronson—Decay of Deposit from Radium.
A number of experiments were made in this way, using the
same temperatures as before, but in no case did @ fall below
twenty-six minutes.
B, fig. 3, is the logarithmic decay curve, obtained when the
active deposit was sealed in a glass tube and heated to 900° C.
A is the normal decay curve for the active deposit. These
curves are approximately parallel, showing that the rate of
decay had not been measurably changed by a temperature of
900° C.
It is thus evident that temperatures between 700° and 1100° C.
have very little, if any, effect on the rate of decay of the active
deposit from radium. The results obtained by Ourie and
Danne and those given in the present paper are satisfactorily
explained by assuming that radium C has the shorter instead
of the longer of the two periods, and that radium B is the
more volatile, but that in general a part of it still remains on
the wire after heating.
The measurements made in this investigation also seem to
show that both twenty-eight and twenty-one minutes are too
large for the decay periods of radium B and C, and that
twenty-six and nineteen minutes are nearer right. Experi-
ments are at present in progress which it is hoped will settle
this definitely.
In conclusion, I desire to thank Professor Rutherford for
his many suggestions and kind supervision of this work.
Macdonald Physics Building,
McGill University, Montreal, June 5, 1909.
a
Chemistry and Physics. 65
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
I. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS.
1. Amounts of Neon and Helium in the Air.—Str WiiiamM
Ramsay, in connection with previous investigations, has roughly
estimated the amount of helium in the atmosphere at one or two
parts per million, and the amount of neon at one or two parts per
hundred thousand. He has now made more accurate determina-
tions of these constituents, and finds one volume of neon in about
81,000 volumes of air, or ‘00086 per cent by weight, and one
volume of helium in about 245,000 volumes of air, or -000056 per
cent by weight. (In the published article the percentages are
erroneously given as 100 times smaller than the above.) The
method used in these determinations was based upon the absorp- -
tion of gases by charcoal as recently studied by Sir James Dewar.
The charcoal was kept at —100°, at which temperature neither
neon nor helium is absorbed in appreciable quantities, while the
other constituents may be almost completely absorbed by repeat-
ing the treatment. In this way about 2°° of gas were left from
the treatment of 181. of air, and after the residual air had been
removed by sparking, the residue, which gave no spectrum of
argon, was measured in a delicate apparatus. The neon was then
condensed by charcoal at the temperature of liquid air in order
to separate it from helium as far as possible, and the separate
gases were afterwards measured. It appeared that this separa-
tion was a satisfactory one, although not absolute, and that the
helinm determination may be somewhat too high.
It is interesting to notice that Ramsay collected the lighter
gases from 540° of liquid air, corresponding to about 400 |. of
the gas, and that while he obtained a fair yield of neon and
helium, he could find no evidence of the presence of hydrogen in
this residue. The result appeared to show that there must be
less hydrogen in the air than 1/500 of the combined neon and
helium, but the author does not regard the experiment as quite
conclusive.— Chem. News, xci, 208. H. L. W.
2. The Radio-activity of Thorium. — An account is given by
O. Sackur of a product obtained by fractionating a mixture of
barium and radium bromide obtained from 2°5 tons of thorianite.
It was found by Hahn that the more soluble fractions of this mix-
ture of bromides did not continually decrease in activity, as
would be expected from the removal of radium, but, after a series
of crystallizations, became more active. A strongly radio-active
product was obtained from this liquid by precipitation with
ammonia, and by solution in acid and precipitation with ammo-
nium oxalate the activity was still further concentrated. It was
found that the emanation from this substance lost one-half of its
activity in 52-55 seconds, and that it consequently corresponds
to the thorium emanation. This was confirmed by determining
Am. Jour. Sci.—FourtH Series, Vout. XX, No. 115.—Juty, 1905.
5)
66 Screntific Intelligence.
the decay of its induced activity, which showed a period of 11:2
hours for the half value, while Rutherford has given about 11
hours as the characteristic period for the induced activity pro-
duced by the thorium emanation. It may be considered certain,
therefore, that the substance obtained by Hahn gives off the
thorium emanation; but, since comparative tests showed that the
product possesses a power of emanation about 250,000 times
greater than thorium, it is concluded that it contains a new radio-
active element which produces the thorium emanation. The
question arises whether two distinct elements may produce the
same emanation, or whether the activity of thorium may be due
to a mixture with this new element—a question which has not yet
been decided.— Berichte, xxxviil, 1756. H. L. W.
3. The Use of Quartz Apparatus for Laboratory Purposes.—
Myuivus and Mrvussrr of the Phys.-Techn. Reichsanstalt at Char-
lottenburg have investigated the action of various liquids upon
quartz vessels by finding the loss in weight after such action.
They find that water has no appreciable effect either at ordinary
temperature or at 100°. In fact, the electrical conductivity of
water may be diminished by boiling off the carbonic acid in these
vessels. The vessels are attacked by alkaline liquids, and in this
respect they appear to possess no advantage over glass. Dilute
acids, with the exception of hydrofluoric, and concentrated sul-
phuric acid have no appreciable action at 100°, or at lower tem-
peratures. Corrosion is produced by phosphoric acid when it is
concentrated above 400°, and white silicylphosphate separates.
Quartz vessels possess the property of absorbing certain dyes
from their solutions. The amounts thus absorbed are exceed-
ingly small, forming a uniformly colored film when the vessels
are rinsed, and this can be removed by the use of hot solvents.—
ZLeiischr. Anorgan. Chem., xliv, 221. H, L. W.
4. Permeability of Quartz Vessels to Gases.—It has been
observed that vessels of quartz glass are permeable to helium at
temperatures below red heat, and BrrruELor has recently found
that other gases, for instance, atmospheric nitrogen, are capable
of penetrating tubes of this material at a temperature of about
1,300°. This property of fused quartz will somewhat limit its
applications for investigations at high temperatures.— Comptes
Rendus, cxl, 821. H. L. Ww.
5. Outlines of Inorganic Chemistry; by Frank AuvstTINn
Goocn and CLaupE FREDERIC WALKER. 12mo, pp. xxiv +233
+514. New York, 1905 (The Macmillan Company).—This text-
book of elementary chemistry, a large and comprehensive work,
is divided into two distinct parts, ‘“‘inductive ” and “ descriptive.”
About twice as many pages are devoted to the latter part as to
the former. -It has been the aim of the authors to introduce the
student to chemistry by consideration of the simplest and fewest
things, and much attention has been paid to the inferences to be
drawn from experimental phenomena. Part I takes up the con-
secutive experimental development of the principles upon which
lor
Chemistry and Physics. 67
chemistry rests. Only in the final chapter of this part is the
notion of the atom introduced. Part II is arranged in accord-
ance with a modification of Mendeléeff’s Periodic System.
Graphic symbols are freely used, and ionic terminology has been
employed, although the extreme developments of the idea of free
ions have not been made use of. Careful introductions to group
characteristics, and full summaries covering the relations in
detail, are given in this part of the book. 13 LAN
6. Spectroscopic Analysis of Gas Mixtures. — Many investi-
gators have endeavored to use the sensitive portion of the positive
discharge in a Geissler tube as a qualitative means of determin-
ing proportions of gases in mixtures. Secchi, however, found
that oxygen of air could not be detected in this way. EK. Wiede-
mann has shown that mercury vapor masks the hydrogen and
nitrogen spectra even when a large proportion of these gases are
present. Collieand Ramsay found the method inoperative in the
case of some gases. J.H. LILiENFELD, by suitable forms of tubes
and proper arrangement of electrical circuit, finds that the method
can be made extraordinarily sensitive, and gives the following
table :
Smallest visible Collie
aN _ E. Wiedemann. Lilienfield.
quantities. and Ramsay.
Hein N . 10% a 07%
per an. N 37% | =e 0.932 %
| (in air)
N in Hg Ss | approx. 30 % 0-7 %
H in He A foe 80 & 07%
The author shows that the theory of ionization explains the
masking of the spectra of gases in a mixture. The presence of
one gas prevents the dissociation of another gas.— Ann. der Phys.,
No. 5, 1905, pp. 931-942. 3 BL
7. The Fitz Gerald-Lorentz Hffect.—FitzGerald and Lorentz, in
reference to Michelson and Morley’s experiments on the drift of
the ether, suggested that the dimensions of the apparatus might
be modified by its motion through the ether. Professors MoRLEY
and Miter have, therefore, taken up the experiment anew and
conclude their paper as follows: ‘ We may declare, therefore,
that the experiment shows that if there is any effect of the nature
expected, it is less than the hundredth part of the computed
value. If pine is affected at all, as has been suggested, it is
affected to the same amount as sandstone, If the ether near the
apparatus did not move with it, the difference in velocity was
less than 3°5 kilometers per second, unless the effect on the mate-
rials annulled the effect sought. Some have thought that the
former experiment only proved that the ether in a certain base-
ment room was carried along with it. We desire to place the
apparatus on a hill covered only with a transparent covering, to
see if an effect could be there detected.” The authors propose to
make this experiment.— Phil. Mag., May, 1905, pp. 680-685. J. 7.
68 Screntific Intelligence.
8. Zhe Normal Element. —'The weighty questions in regard to
the conditions of stability of the mercuric sulphate do not appear
to be solved. At present the silver voltameter is as reliable as
the Weston element, and there does not appear any reason why
those countries which have adopted the silver voltameter as a
standard should give it up for the Weston element.—Physk.
Techn, Reichsanstalt, 1904. ste.
9, Influence of Character of Excitation upon Structure of
Spectral lines. —If a Geissler tube is excited by electric oscilla-
tions, the fine spectral lines undergo a marked change, which is
probably due to an increase of temperature arising from the
electrical oscillations.— Phys. Techn. Reichsanstalt, 1904. 3.7.
10. On the Radio-active Minerals.—In a paper upon this sub-
ject in the Proceedings of the Royal Society (A, Ixxvi, 88-100)
the author, R. J. STRUTT, summarizes his results as follows :
(1) The conclusion, that the amount of radium in a mineral 18
proportional to the uranium, ws confirmed. The investigation of
this point has brought to light the existence of uranium in some
minerals not previously known to contain it, monazite, for instance.
(2) It is shown that thorium minerals invariably contain the
uranium-radium combination. The observation is difficult to
interpret, but it may possibly indicate that thorium 1 is producing
uranium.
(3) Helium never occurs except in very minute quantity unless
thorium is present. The helium of minerals, therefore, is proba-
bly produced more by thorium than by radium.
(4) Thorium minerals vary much in emanating power. Some
retain nearly all their emanation, others give off large quantities.
11. On the Absence of excited Radio-activity due to tempo-
rary EHeposure to y-rays.—This subject is discussed by J. J.
Thomson and by H. A. Bumstead in brief articles published in
the Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, vol.
xXlll, part 2 (pp. 124, 125-128). Thomson says:
‘“‘Hxperiments were made to see if the radiation given out by
metals could be temporarily increased by exposure to the radia-
tion from radium. The method used was to measure the satura-
tion current inside a closed metallic vessel, then to place a sealed
glass tube containing 30 mg. of radium bromide inside the vessel
and leave it there for times varying from one hour to ten days ;
the radium was then removed and as soon as possible afterwards
the saturation leak again measured ; experiments were made with
vessels made of lead, brass, tin, but no increase in the saturation
current attributable to exposure to the radium was ever detected.
The measurement of the saturation current took at least five
minutes after the removal of the radium, so that a very short-
lived increase might escape detection by this method.”
The last mentioned point was independently investigated by
Bumstead, who experimented with copper, lead, tin and uranium
nitrate by a method specially devised for the purpose, but also
without positive results. The author remarks:
bias
Geology and Natural History. 69
“ With the four substances tested, therefore, the result is nega-
tive. If they retain the power of giving out any rays capable of
penetrating 0°7° of air and 0:00005°™ of aluminium, for 0:009
seconds after exposure to the B- and y-rays from 30 milligrams of
radium, these rays must be considerably less intense than those
due to a layer of uranium salt whose surface-density is 1 milli-
gram per square centimeter.”
12. Handbuch der Spectroscopie; von H. Kayser. Dritter
Band. Pp. viil, 604; 3 plates, 94 figures. Leipzig, 1905 (S.
HrrzeL).—Upon the appearance of the first volume of this work
on Spectroscopy by Professor Kayser, a somewhat extended
notice was published in this Journal, giving an outline of the
whole plan (see vol. x, 464,1900}. Since then the second volume
has appeared, followed now by the third. So thorough and
exhaustive, however, is the work which the author is doing, that
it has been found necessary to enlarge the original plan and
devote two volumes instead of one to the subject of absorption,
here discussed. The present volume contains the description of
methods and of apparatus for the investigation of absorption
spectra, a discussion of our present knowledge in regard to the
connection between absorption and the constitution of the sub-
stance; and, finally, a presentation of the results of observations
both for inorganic and artificial organic substances. The remain-
der of the subject, reserved for the next volume, includes the dis-
cussion of the natural organic coloring materials, both vegetable
and animal, and also the phenomena connected with absorption;
that is, dispersion, fluorescence and phosphorescence. The devo-
_tion with which the author has given himself to the subject and
the thoroughness of his treatment of the entire subject matter are
both noteworthy. Inthe preparation of the first volume he has
had the assistance of Professor W. N. Hartley, of Dublin, who
discusses very fully the question of the connection between con-
stitution and absorption, where the author regarded himself as
not sufficiently informed in reference to the chemical side to
enable him to handle it satisfactorily. It needs hardly to be said
that this chapter (pp. 144-316) shows the same degree of com-
_ pleteness and careful handling which characterizes the whole
work.
Il. GroLocy anp NaturRAL History.
1. United States Geological Survey, Charles D. Walcott,
Director.—Recent publications by the U. 8. Geological Survey
include the following :
Foutos: No. 120, Silverton Folio, Colorado. This includes a
description of the Silverton Quadrangle by Wuirman Cross,
Ernest Howe and F. L. Ransome; also geography and general
geology of the Quadrangle by Wuirman Cross and ERNEST
Howe.
No. 121, Waynesburg Folio, Pennsylvania, by Raren: W.
STONE.
70 Scientific Intelligence.
Bur.etins. No. 248. Cement Materials and Pee by
Epwin C. EckEeL. 395 pp., 15 plates.
Niose255. “ie F'luorspar Deposits of Southern Illinois; by
H. Foster Bain. 75 pp., 6 plates.—This bulletin gives an
account of the fluorspar mines in Hope and Hardin counties in
the extreme southern part of Illinois. The principal mines are
near Rosiclare, Elizabethtown and Cave-in-Rock on the Ohio
river in Hardin County. The discovery of the deposits goes
back to 1839, although the material was not definitely mined
until the early 70’s. The author discusses the geology of the
region in detail, and shows that the deposits of fluorspar, with
the accompanying ores of lead and zinc, are vein deposits occur-
ring along faulting fissures. The amount of fluorspar produced
from the region in 1903 was 18,360 short tons, as compared with
29,000 tons from Kentucky and 628 from Arizona and Tennessee.
The highest grade is used in the enameling, chemical and glass
trades. The second grade is used in steel making, being used
in open-hearth work because of the great fluidity which it gives
the slag. ‘Twenty thousand tons are used annually in this work.
The lowest grade is used in foundry work, and there seems to be
an almost unlimited market for it.
WatTER Suppty Papers. No. 126. Report of Progress of
Stream Measurements for the calendar year 1904. Prepared
under the direction of F. H. Newetz, by N. C. Grover and
Joun C. Horr. « Part III, Susquehanna, Patapsco, Potomac,
James, Roanoke, Cape Fear and Yadkin river Drainages.
No. 260, Contributions to Kconomic Geology, 1904; 8. EF.
Emons, C. W. Hayes, geologists in charge. 620 pp., 4 plates,
25 ficures.—The prompt and liberal return which the Geological
Survey makes to the country at large for its pecuniary support
is well shown by the numerous publications, appearing each year,
which to a greater or less extent are devoted to Economic Geol-
ogy. The publications of 1904 of this character, for example,
included a Monograph by Van Hise; ten professional papers,
chiefly on ore deposits in different regions ; ; three bulletins and
two folios, the last on the Globe and Bisbee Districts in Arizona.
The present bulletin is the third bearing this title, its predeces-
sors being Nos. 213 and 225, for the years 1902 and 1903. The
object of these particular bulletins is to bring before the public,
with all possible promptness, the economic results obtained by
the Survey parties. Many of the subjects here presented are to
be more fully discussed in other papers, appearing independently.
The production of gold and silver are naturally presented at
length; also that of tin, copper, zinc, lead and iron. Special
chapters are given to some of the rare elements, as molybdenum,
vanadium and uranium in Utah, ete. Coal, oil, gas and salt
also form the subjects of special chapters. Many different authors
contribute to the volume. |
2. Preliminary Report on the Geology and Underground
Water Resources of the Central Great Plains ; by N. H. Dar-
Geology and Natural fistory. 71
TON. 433 pp., 4to, 72 plates, 18 figures. U.S. Geological Sur-
vey, Professional paper 32.—The area covered by the discussion
in this volume embraces nearly all of South Dakota, Nebraska
and Kansas, and extends westward to central Wyoming and
Colorado. Over most of the region the rolling plains of the
eastern portion rise gradually and uniformly to the westward.
The geological structure is comparatively simple for the most
part, with the exception of the Black Hills region in South
Dakota and portions included of the Big Horn and Laramie
Ranges in Wyoming and Colorado. The geological features are
very fully presented in the first half of the present volume, the
descriptions being based upon work by numerous geologists
in the past, supplemented by that of Mr. Darton and his assist-
ants. Numerous excellent views from photographs, and also
geological maps and sections, accompany the text. The chief
interest of thé investigation, however, lies in the question of
water supply, which in many parts of the region is very deficient
and must be supplemented where possible by artesian wells.
Great numbers of these have already been sunk, many of them
with excellent results, and the study that Mr. Darton has made
so carefully of the region gives promise that still more will be
accomplished in the future. Although the rocks of Cambrian,
Ordovician, Carboniferous and Jurassic age are believed to
underlie the entire area, almost no wells exist lower than the Cre-
taceous, and the water horizon of the Dakota sandstone is the
most widely extended and the most useful. The author states
that over a thousand deep wells have been sunk east of Missouri
River most of which are from 500 to 1000 feet in depth and yield-
ing a large supply of flowing water, most of which is used for
irrigation. The aggregate flow from these wells is estimated to be
about 7,000,000 gallons a day. From the Fox Hills—Laramie for-
mation the supply is much more limited. The Tertiary deposits
also yield useful wells, particularly in the Denver basin. Finally,
the alluvial deposits of the Quaternary afford large quantities of
water from limited depths (5 to 50 feet), while the tubular wells
in east South Dakota and east Nebraska bring the water of the
glacial drift mainly at the base of the till.
The great pressure under which the water exists is a point of
much interest and shows that it must owe its origin to an altitude
some thousands of feet above. Several wells in eastern South
Dakota, for example, show surface pressures over 175 pounds to
the square inch, and two are a little over 200 pounds; the latter
indicating a pressure of 780 pounds at the bottom of the well.
The theoretical hydrostatic pressure is, however, much dimin-
ished by the leakage of water to the east and south. Full
details are given in the volume in regard to existing wells, and
the work closes with a chapter upon the Economic Geology of
the region, that is, the supplies of coal, oil, gas, salt, etc.
3. Origin of the Channels surrounding Manhattan Island,
New York; by W. H. Hoszs. Bull. Geol. Soc. America, xvi,
72 Scientific Intelligence.
pp. 151-182, plate 35.—The author has made a careful study of
the data now obtainable in regard to the various channels around
the Manhattan Island, with a view to deciding as to their proba-
ble origin. In 1881 the subject was discussed by J. D. Dana*
and their formation ascribed to the presence of belts of hmestone
whose-erosion was believed to explain the topographic features.
Hobbs, however, concludes that there is no sufficient evidence of
a correspondence between the directions of belts of limestone, or
dolomite, and those of the various channels; on the contrary, he
regards them as owing their origin to lines of jointing and dis-
placement. The account of Julien is appealed to, giving the
location and orientation of the principal dikes on the island,
which quite generally run along the direction of the avenues.
Julien shows that the orientation of the drainage has been largely
determined by the planes of fracture. Julien has also shown
that, besides these, there is a system of cross faults nearly at
right angles to the avenues, or, in other words, along the cross
streets. Thus the fissure planes occupied by the dikes, and the
perpendicular series often occupied by quartz lenses and pegma-
tite, both correspond very closely in their direction with the two
series making up the main drainage system. The observations
of the author also show that many of the most prominent joint-
planes in the rocks of the island have the direction of the cross
fissures, N60°W. He concludes that ‘‘the role of the dolomite
in fixing the locations of the present channels would thus appear
to have been a subordinate one, excepting in so far as the direc-
tion of its boundaries has been determined by its fissure planes.”
4. The Isomorphism and Thermal Properties of the Feld-
spars. Part I, Thermal Study ; by Arraur L. Day and E. T.
ALLEN, pp. 13-75. Part II, Optical Study; by J. P. Ippinés,
pp. 77-95. Plates 1 to xxv1. With an introduction by GEroRGcE
¥. Brecker, pp. 4-12. Publication No. 31 of the Carnegie
Institution of Washington.—The first part of this volume gives
the complete presentation of the results obtained by Day and
Allen in their very important work upon the thermal relations of
the feldspars. This is accompanied by a series of twenty-six
beautiful plates illustrating the crystallization of the various
compounds and the effect of very high temperatures upon them.
An extended abstract of this paper has already been given in the
number of this Journal for February, 1905 (pp. 93-142).
Part II gives the results of an optical study by Iddings of the
series of lime-soda feldspars synthetically obtained by crystalli-
zation in open crucibles from fused constituents. In addition to
the detailed description of thin sections of the individual com-
pounds, a general summary is given which contains some points
of so much importance in petrography that we quote largely
from it:
“The results of these synthetical experiments agree closely in
some respects while differing in others. They agree in general
* This Journal, xxi, 25, 443; xxii, 313, 1881.
Geology and Natural History. 73
3
in the habit and arrangement of the crystals of the different
feldspars produced, while differing in the size of the crystals of
the various feldspars according to their composition. These
results have an important bearing on the problem of texture and
granularity in igneous rocks.
First, as to the habit of the feldspar crystals produced from
solution of the feldspar constituents without admixture of other
material. So far as can be determined by microscopical study of
the sections, the crystals are in most cases blade-like in form ;
that is, they are elongated plates. They vary, however, from
one extreme to another, being in some cases equidimensional
plates of extreme thinness, in other cases prisms, elongated in
one direction with the other two dimensions equal. The develop-
ment of these forms takes place in feldspars of various composi-
tions, and appears to be chiefly a function of the rate of crystalli-
zation and not of the chemical composition of the feldspar,
except as this modifies the viscosity of the solution. It is not
possible to recognize any fixed relation between the habit of the
erystals and the composition of the feldspar. This is, of course,
in accord with the well-known isomorphism of the feldspar group.
The common mode of crystallization in these preparations is
that of spherulitic aggregations, more or less completely devel-
oped in spherical forms,
The elements of the spherulites are bundle- or sheaf-like aggre-
gations of long,-thin blades, which blades lie nearly parallel to
one another in the middle or narrower part of the bundle, and
diverge at the ends into fan-like or plumose forms. Several of
these bundles or blades cross one another at the middle, and
when there are a sufiicient number of bundles, or when they
diverge sufficiently, a completely spherulitic aggregation results.
In some cases a spherulite consists of bundles or prisms that
extend uninterruptedly from the center to the outer margin, the
rays of the spherulite being nearly straight. In other cases the
spherulite is a composite of divergent bundles shorter than the’
radius, which have been added to one another as though new
plumes had started from the ends of earlier ones.
In most cases the middle portion of the feldspar bundles con-
sists of stouter crystals than the outer parts. It also appears
that the middle portion is more prismatic, in certain cases some-
what cuboidal, the outer parts becoming delicately tabular. This,
with the divergence in position, explains the spread of the outer
part of the sphere. There is a great increase in the number of
individual crystals in the outer portion of the spherulite, and in
some cases the crystals also increase in size in the outer part.
The shapes of the crystals are due to the flattening of the crys-
tal parallel to the second pinacoid (010), and its elongation paral-
lel to the erystal axis a. The outlines of the plates appear to
conform to traces of several pinacoids in the zone of the 6 axis,
(001), (201), (101), (201), (304), (203), not all of these occurring
together. It is quite probable sae pinacoids i in the zone of the
c axis also may be developed, but they were not recognized.
74 Scientific Intelligence.
Bladed forms in some cases prove to be aggregates of thin
plates not strictly parallel to one another in the plane of flatten-
ing, so that the blade is curved and not straight in the direction
of its longest axis.
In some spherulites the component crystals are prisms through-
out, with no tabular flattening. The number of crystal prisms
increases from the center of the spherulite outward by the devel-
opment of new prisms at slightly divergent angles, in arborescent
arrangement.
The most complex arrangements are produced by twinning and
' divergence combined, resulting in feather-like aggregates. Long,
narrow, tapering blades in albite twins form a shaft, elongated
parallel to the crystal axis @, on two sides of which diverge at a
slight angle a double set of thin blades, like barbs. These con-
sist of branched smaller blades or prisms, like barbules, the
branch prisms having approximately the direction of the crystal
axis ce. The two sets in each “barb” are apparently related to
one another as the halves of a manebachtwin. The small prisms
are composed of many subparallel plates flattened in the plane of
the second pinacoid (010). These correspond to barbicels in a
feather.
With respect to the size of the crystals it is extremely signifi-
cant that pure anorthite (An) develops in comparatively large
plates, 5™™ thick and 20 to 30™™ long, in a few hours, whereas
the more sodic.the feldspar the smaller the individual crystals
formed under almost the same conditions of cooling. Thus with
oligoclase (Ab,An,) the individual crystals composing a bundle
of blades are considerably less than 0:01™™ thick, probably about
0°001™™, a difference in thickness when compared with anorthite
of about 5,000 to 1. This as shown elsewhere is due to the
greater viscosity of the liquid feldspars near their solidifying
point as they approach the albite end of the series.
Any comparison of the grain of rocks, that is, the size of the
constituent crystals, with a view to determining the physical con-
ditions attending the solidification of the magma, must be based
in the first instance on a knowledge of the behavior of the vari-
ous rock-making minerals under similar physical conditions, both
separately and in combination, that is, in solution with one |
another. The granularity of rocks is clearly a function of the
chemical composition.
With respect to the homogeneity of the crystals separating
from the liquid, it is observed that the great part of each crystal
aggregation appears to be of one composition, but that in some
cases a small proportion, probably less than 1 percent, is different
from the bulk of the feldspar, both in composition and habit. In
one instance this small variant differed in composition but not in
habit from the main mass of crystals.
In the first case it appears that crystallization began with feld-
spar richer in the anorthite molecule than the solution and deyel-
oped cuboidal forms. These were prolonged into prismatic
Geology and Natural History. TS
bundles, the prisms having the composition of the main mass of
crystals.
In the second case the small variant crystallized toward the end
of the crystallization and contained more albite molecules than
the main mass of feldspar crystals. It had the same habit as the
other more calcic portion, and appears to have crystailized at the
same time with it, the crystals with different optical properties
being by the side of one another and not in zonal relation.
Neither of the feldspars represents the end members of the series,
An or Ab.”
The Introduction to the volume by Becker, to whom the orig-
inal plan of the work is largely due, will be read with much
interest.
5. The Tin Deposits of the Carolinas; by J. H. Prarr and
D. B. Sterretr. 64 pp. Raleigh, 1904. Bulletin No. 19 of the
North Carolina Geol. Survey, J. A. Holmes, State Geologist.—
The occurrence of tin in the country, and the southern states
particularly, is mentioned in Bulletin No. 260 of the Geological.
Survey, noticed on page 70. This paper, by Pratt and Sterrett,
appears from the North Carolina Geological Survey and takes up
in detail the tin deposits of North and South Carolina. The first
discovery of tin ore was made near Kings Mountain, North Caro-
lina, in 1883, though but little progress was made until 1903,
when the Ross mine at Gaffney, South Carolina, was discovered.
During these twenty years, considerable prospecting has been
done on the Carolina tin belt, so that this can now be traced
quite definitely in a northeasterly direction from Gaffney, Chero-
kee county, South Carolina, across Gaston and Lincoln counties,
North Carolina. Tin deposits also occur in Rockbridge county,
Virginia.
A full account is given of the work which has been accom-
plished thus far, and a brief statement is added of the occurrence
of tin in other parts of the country and abroad. At present, the
practical work in the Carolina belt is limited to hydraulic mining
in the alluvial gravels, the vein tin requiring different and more
expensive treatment. Such deposits as those of the Ross mine
are regarded as thoroughly remunerative, but in a large propor-
tion of the alluvial deposits the yield of cassiterite is relatively
small and this fact makes successful mining more problematical.
6. Lubicolous Annelids of the Tribes Sabellides and Serpu-
lides from the Pacific Ocean; by Karuarine J. Busy, Ph.D.
8vo, 130 pp., 44 plates.—This admirable memoir forms part of
volume xii of the reports of the Harriman Alaska Expedition. It
includes a list of all known Pacific Ocean species of these groups
and a very complete bibliography. The systematic portion
includes full descriptions and illustrations of all the known
species from California to Alaska. In the case of Spzrorbis all
the known species are reviewed from other regions also. Many
of the illustrations are from photographs reproduced as_helio-
types. The northwest coast of America seems to be one of the
76 Scientific Intelligence.
great headquarters of the Sabellide, for the species are unusually
large, handsome, and numerous. Many new genera and species
are described and the previously known genera are revised.
AL Me We
7. A Students Text-Book of Zoology, Vol. IL; by Apam
Sepewick. London: Swan Sonnenschen & Co. New York:
Macmillan Co. 705 pp., 333 cuts.—The second volume of this
excellent text-book has been received. It includes the true Ver-
tebrata and Cephalochorda. These are treated with unusual full-
ness both systematically and anatomically, and are well illustrated,
though a large part of the cuts are the same as those used in the
well known work of Claus. About fifty cuts are new. In the
case of fishes the somewhat old classification of Gunther has been
followed. Many later improvements in that group might well
have been adopted. Onthe whole, it is the best text-book on the
morphology of the Vertebrata now available. A. Ey V.
8. A Preliminary Report on the Protozoa of the Fresh Waters
of Connecticut ; by Herbert Wittiam Conn. Bulletin No. 2,
Connecticut State Geological and Natural History Survey. 69 pp.,
34 pls., 1905.—This report deserves more than a passing notice
because it is the first attempt yet made to enumerate and illus-
trate all the unicellular animals found in any locality in America.
As implied by the title, the present report is but the beginning of
an extensive work, in which it is aimed to eventually include a
general study of all the Protozoa found in the State, with a con-
sideration of their habits, evolution, geographical distribution,
and their economic relation to the purity of drinking waters.
The preliminary work for such a study must be the identification
of the species, and to aid microscopists in recognizing the forms
already found the present report is provided with 303 figures, all
of which are from original drawings by the author from speci-
mens collected in the State, and include every species which the
author has thus far recognized in the region. No attempt has
been made to give names to the new genera and new or unidenti- |
fied species which are thus illustrated, such forms being desig-
nated merely as “new genus” and “sp. (?)” respectively. Inthe
final report it is intended to furnish generic and specific diag-
noses of all these forms, but the present work is provided with a
brief description of the recognized genera only, specific descrip-
tions being wholly omitted. There are admirably arranged keys
to orders and genera. The figures are remarkably well drawn,
and are printed in such a manner as to reflect great credit on the
officers of the Survey, as well as on the author. The excellence
of these plates is in striking contrast with the character of the |
illustrations published in the majority of State reports in recent
years.
The value of this work will go far in justifying the inaugura-
tion of the newly established Geological and Natural History
Survey of the State and forms a worthy leader of its series of
zoological publications. WwW. BR. .
Geology and Natural History. TT
9. Etudes sur VInstinet et les Moeurs des Insects; by J.-H.
Fasre. Souvenirs Entomologiques, 9° Série, pp. 374. Paris.—
This ninth volume of the author’s very interesting accounts of
the domestic life of insects describes in popular language some
of his extensive observations on the habits and instincts of sev-
eral species of spiders, a scorpion, gall insects, ete. We Rs C2
10. The Rocky Mountain Goat ; by Mapison Grant. Reprinted
from the 9th Annual Report of the New York Zoological Society.
New York, Office of the Society, 1905. 36 pp.-—A well illus-
trated account of the systematic position, habits, and distribution
of this little-Known game animal, which is not strictly a goat,
but the sole American representative of the Rupicaprinae, or
mountain antelopes. W. RB. C.
11. A Catalogue of North American Diptera (or two-winged
Flies) ; by J. M. Atpricn. 680 pp. Washington, 1905. Smith-
sonian MiscelHaneous Collections, No. 1444, part of vclume xlvi.
—The author states that this work is based upon the second
edition of Osten Sacken’s Catalogue of North America Diptera,
published in 1878. It is by no means a reproduction of this,
however, for the twenty-five years that have passed since Sacken’s
Catalogue have doubled the number of species and otherwise
brought many changes; the careful labors of the author, aided by
many gentlemen interested in the subject, have brought all this
material together into a valuable and homogeneous volume.
12. The Fauna and Geography of the Maldive and Lacca-
dive Archipelagoes; by J. STANLEY GarpinER, M.A. Vol. I,
Part IV, pp. 807-921, with plates Ixvii-lxxxvil and text illustra-
tions 127-139. Oambridge, 1905 (The University Press).—This
continuation of the account of the collections made by the expe-
dition of 1899-1900, repeatedly noticed in this Journal, contains
the following reports: 1. The Alcyonaria of the Maldives,
Part III, by Sydney J. Hickson. 2. Marine Crustaceans, XIV,
Paguridae, by Major Alcock. 3. Hydroids, by L. A. Borradaile.
4. Notes on Parasites, by A. E. Shipley. 6. Marine Crustaceans,
XV, Les Alpheidae, by H. Coutiére.
Supplement I, pp. 923-1040, with plates lxxxvili-c and text-
illustrations 140-153. This supplement contains the following
reports: 1. Marine Crustaceans, XVI, Amphipoda, by A. O.
Walker. 2. Madreporaria, II] Fungida, IV Turbinolide, by J.
Stanley Gardiner. 3. Scyphomedusae, by Edward T. Browne.
4. Coleoptera, by D. Sharp. 5. The Cephalopoda, by W. E.
Hoyle. 6. Notes in the Collection of Copepoda, by R. Norris
W olfenden.
13. The American Museum Journal. Published quarterly by
the American Museum of Natural History, New York City.—
The second number of volume y, “the Brontosaurus number,”
contains an account of the mounted skeleton put on exhibition
in February, 1905. It also describes the two bird groups recently
completed in the museum, one of Flamingos, the other of the
summer bird-life of San Joaquin valley, California ; the former
is particularly striking and successful.
oie Scientific Intelligence.
14. Cold Spring Harbor Monographs. Published by the
Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences, March, 1905.—The fol-
lowing additional numbers have been issued.
IV. The Life History of Case Bearers: 1, Chlamys plicata; by
Ella Marion Briggs, 12 pp., with one plate and eleven text-figures.
V. The Mud Snail: Nassa obsoleta; by Abigail Camp Dimon,
48 pp., with two plates.
15. Montana Agricultural College Science Studies ; Ria
Published quarterly by the College, Bozeman, Montana, 1905.—
Numbers 1, 2 and 3 of volume i, 139 pp., issued together, contain
the following papers:
AS century of Botanical Exploration in Montana, 1805-1905,
Collectors, Herbaria and Bibliography; by J. W. Blankinship.
II. Supplement to the Flora of Montana, additions and correc-
tions; by J. W. Blankinship.
Til. Common names of Montana Plants; by J. W. Blankinship
and Hester EF’. Henshall. This is accompanied by an excellent
colored plate of the pretty Bitter-root (Lewisia rediviva.)
TIJ. MiscELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
1. Vom Kilimandscharo zum Meru; von C. Unute. Zeit-
schrift fiir Erdkunde, Berlin, Jahrg. 1904, No. 9 und 10.—This
preliminary account of a journey of exploration in German Kast
Africa contains much that is of interest. In reading the opening
pages one cannot help reflecting how greatly the task of explor-
ation in eastern Central Africa has been simplified in the last
two or three years by the opening up of the Uganda Railway.
The long and trying journey across the eastern desert region,
which exhausted so much of strength, energy and resources
before the real work began, is now performed in comparatively
few hours. Thus our author leaves the coast on the 12th of
September, and nine days later with his caravan is at Moschi on
the lower slope of Kilimandjaro, ready to commence the ascent.
This he made from the eastern side without apparently any
serious difficulty beyond the suffering entailed by the sudden
change from the tropics to an arctic region. It will be recalled
that Kilimandjaro has two summit peaks, a higher snow-capped
one to the west called Kibo, and a lower one to the east called
Kimawenzi or Mawenzi ; these are separated by a deep saddle.
Uhlig reached a height of about 19,500 feet on Kibo, but was
unable to attain the highest point, which was about 200 feet
more above him. He gives a number of interesting details con-
cerning the snow and glacier formations accompanied by excel-
lent photographs. Since the last ascent by Hans Meyer the
amount of ice and snow appears to have distinctly increased.
One striking feature was the occurrence along the snow slopes of
long processions of weird and bizarre- -shaped | figures several feet
high, similar to those observed, of much greater size, in the Andes,
amd to which the name of “nieve penitente ” has been given
from the suggestion which they offer of processions of white-
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 79
robed penitents. Uhlig remarks that those he saw much more
resembled trains of white poodles, rabbits and the snow men
made by children than penitents. He ascribes their formation to
the ablation from insolation and the dryness of the air, though
other factors must be sought to explain their regularity of arrange-
ment, as they appear in two distinct lines, one up and down the
slope, the other at right angles, i. e. along contour lines. The
mention of this arrangement by Uhlig suggests that perhaps
cracking of the hardened snow into such systems, combined with
the agencies mentioned above, may explain the phenomenon.
He also made a second ascent of Kibo from the south into the
glacier zone and discovered a new one, not previously mapped,
to which the name of Richter glacier is given. A fine photo-
graph of Kibo from the south shows a great snow-covered dome
with long glacial tongues reaching down from it.
After this work on Kilimandjaro, Uhlig turned his attention to
Meru, a great volcano which rises to the westward. Its height
is about 15,200 feet. His first ascent was made from upper
Aruscha on the south flank, at an elevation of about 4,500 feet.
At 7,000 feet a girdle composed of dense masses of bamboos was
encountered, which lasted to about 8,800 feet, and which required
the greatest efforts to penetrate. It appears quite similar to the
bamboo zone which Gregory encountered on Mt. Kenia, and
which he found so difficult to surmount. Above this the moun-
tain offered no especial difficulties aside from the extraordinary
steepness of its slopes. ‘Towards its upper limit the flora assumes
the distinctly alpine character noted on the other great volcanoes
of equatorial Africa. Some forms of vegetation, grasses, com-
posite and Arabis albida, persist even to the top. No snow was
found on Meru, its summit falling over 2,060 feet short of the
snow-line on the neighboring Kilimandjaro. Nor were any marks
of a former period of glaciation visible, although on Kilimandjaro,
according to Meyer, the glaciation once extended some 3,000 feet
lower than at present, and Gregory found evidences of much
more extended glaciation on Kenia than it now shows. It is pos-
sible, however, that Meru may have had small hanging glaciers.
At the summit Uhlig found himself on the edge of a vast crater,
whose precipitous walls fell beneath him, over 4,000 feet to the
bottom. The highest point, on the opposite wall, he attempted
in a second ascent from the northeast, but was unable to attain.
Meru is a concentric crater which shows several periods of vol-
canic activity. There is an outward somma with broad opening
to the east. Within this and close to it is an inner somma with
a narrow opening to the west through it and the outer one.
Within these is the deep caldera mentioned above with relatively
level surface, on the south side of which and near the encircling
wall, rises an ash cone which Uhlig believes to have very recently
been in an active condition. The caldera is about one and a half
miles broad.
Miigge, who studied the rock specimens brought back by
Fischer* from his journeys in equatorial Africa, found the sam-
* Neues Jahrb. fiir Min., Beil. Bd. iv.
80 Seventific Intelligence.
ples collected near the base of Meru to be of tephrite, leading to
the suspicion that the voleano was built up of extrusive magmas
of alkalic nature. This was fully confirmed by the material col-
lected by Uhlig, the preliminary study showing it to consist of
varieties of the phonolite-tephrite family. There is thus added
another instance to confirm the highly alkalic character of the
East African petrographic province, whose nature and extent
through the studies of Hyland, Gregory, Prior, Lacroix and
others, we are now beginning to appreciate. Now that the way has
been opened into eastern equatorial Africa, we may expect that
detailed studies of the region, such as Uhlig has been making in
the Kilimandjaro region, will furnish in geography, in geology
and in other fields of science, results of great importance and
interest. Lc:
2. Glacial Studies in the Canadian Rockies and Selkirks.—
A paper upon the above subject, by W. H. Scuerznr, is contained
in Part 4, Vol. Il, of the Quarterly Issue of the Smithsonian Mis-
cellaneous Collections. This gives an account of the results
obtained in connection with the Smithsonian Expedition of 1904.
It is made particularly interesting by a series of excellent illus-
trations reproduced from photographs. Many of the details of
elacial structure are particularly well shown; as, for example, the
Forbes ‘dirt bands,” the ‘‘dirt stripes,” the stratification and
shearing exhibited in the glacial front, also the various forms of
moraines under many different conditions.
8. The Solar Observatory of the Carnegie Institution of
Washington; by Grorce E. Hate. 22 pp. with 5 plates.
Contributions from the Solar Observatory, Mt. Wilson, Cali-
fornia, No. 2.—This second contribution from the Mt. Wilson
Solar Observatory (see p. 473 of the June number) details the
special objects aimed at in its construction and the particular
lines of work which it is proposed to carry through. An account
is given also regarding the erection of the Snow telescope, sent —
out by the University of Chicago, and also the progress made in
the construction of other buildings. The present staff of the
Observatory is as follows: Director, George EH. Hale; Astronomer
and Superintendent of Instrument Construction, G. W. Ritchey;
and Assistants, Ferdinand Ellermann and Walter S. Adams.
4. United States Naval Observatory, Rear-Admiral Colby
M. Chester, U.S. N., Superintendent. Second series. Vol. IV,
Appendix IV. The present status of the Use of Standard Time ;
by Epwarp E. Haypsn, Lieut. Commander, U. 8. N. 28 pp.
Washington, 1905.—This paper explains the use of “standard
time ” and shows the remarkable extension of this system over
the world.
5. Publications of West Hendon House Observatory, Sunder-
land. No. III, 1905. Pp. xi, 122, with 9 plates.—This volume
contains the results of an extended series of observations by Mr.
T. W. Backhouse, upon certain variable stars, made during the
years 1866-1904.
Ut Ne Oe, te eS pee le ear
ET ay tA Sa ¢
y
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Tin Deposits of the Carolinas, J. H. Prarrand D. B. Sterretr: Tubico-
lous Annelids of the Tribes Sabellides and Serpulides from the Pacific
Ocean, K. J. Busu, 75.—Student’s Text-Book of Zoology, A. SEDGWICK :
Preliminary Report on the Protozoa of the Fresh Waters of Connecticut,
H. W. Conn, 76.—Etudes sur l’Instinct et les Moeurs des Insects, J. hie
FABRE : Rocky Mountain Goat, M. Grant: Catalogue of North American
Diptera (or two-winged Flies), J. M. ALDRIcH: Fauna and Geography of
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Museum Journal, 77.—Cold Spring Harbor Monographs, 78.
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Usuie, 78.—Glacial Studies in the Canadian Rockies and Selkirks, W. H.
SCHERZER : Solar Observatory of the Carnegie Institution of Washington,
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THE
AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
[FOURTH SERIES. ]
Arr. X.— On the Mechanical Equivalent of the Heat
Vaporization of Water; by R. H. Hoven.
Tue object of this investigation is the development of a
method for the determination of the mechanical equivalent of
the heat of vaporization of water directly in ergs: i. e., of a
method not involving the use of the calorie.
This equivalent, which will be designated in what follows
by L, is usually expressed in terms of the calorie varying from
536 C. to 540 C., depending on the particular calorie taken as
the unit and the particular method pursued.
Regnault’s is the only classic determination. He defined
the calorie as the amount of heat to raise a kilogram of water
from 0° to 1°, and worked out the following formula :
L=606°5 —0°695¢—0:00002¢? — 0:0000003¢3
At standard pressure this gives the value 536°5, which is
generally used by physicists, notably by Joly in the reduction
of his determinations with the steam calorimeter. In close
agreement with this value is the 536-2 of Berthelot, whose
method was much less complicated. The empirical formula of
Griffith :*
L=596'73—0°601¢
gives the value 536°63 in terms of the calorie from 14°°5 to
15°°5 centigrade. This agreement is only apparent, and a
more just value of L is obtained by following Callendar,t who
estimated L from the observations of Joly and Barnes. Jolyt
* Griffith, Phil. Trans. A., 1895, p. 261.
+ Callendar, Proc. Roy. Soc., lxvii, 1900.
t Joly, Proc. Roy. Soc., xlvii, 1889.
Am. Jour. Scl—FourtH Series, VoL. XX, No. 116.—Aveust, 1905.
6
82 Hough— Mechanical Equivalent of the
determined the mean specific heat of water from 12° to 100°
in terms of the calorie at 20° using the following relation :
wL= Ws(t, —t,)
observing w, W, ¢,, and ¢,, and taking Regnault’s value of L,
5365. Callendar substitutes in this relation Joly’s observa-
tions of w, W,Z,, and ¢,, and Barnes’* determination of the
mean specific heat of water from 12° to 100° in terms of the
calorie at 20° and solves for L. This gives the value of 540-2
in terms of the calorie at 20°. Callendar prefers this value to
that of Regnault and uses it in his work on the properties of
steam. It is probable that even this value is low, since Barnes’t+
values for the specific heats of water from 40° to 100° are
almost parallel to but much lower than those of Regnault.
There is much uncertainty as to the value of L in calories.
There is as yet no absolute determination of Lin ergs. It
may be expressed in ergs, however, as the product of L in
calories into the mechanical equivalent of heat. Using 540-2
as the most probable value of L in calories at 20° and
4:18410' as the most probable value of the mechanical
equivalent at 20°, this being an average of the values due to
Barnes, Rowland, Griftith, Schuster, and Moorby, gives
2°26 10" against 2°24 10" from Regnault’s value.
The sources of error for this value are many. It can not be
stated that the mechanical equivalent of the heat of vaporiza-
tion of water is known with certainty to one per cent.
In any method of calorimetry involving the use of the
calorie, no greater degree of accuracy can be attained than that
of the calorie itself, But the determination of the value of ©
involves the use of the thermometer and all the errors incident
to the measurement of temperature. That these are greater
and more varied than is commonly supposed, and can only be
corrected for by the exercise of the greatest care and skill, is
definitely shown by Rowland{ in his work on thermometry.
He sees visions of careful, painstaking observers conscientiously
reading with telescope and micrometer eye-piece to the thou-
sandth part of a degree, unconscious of the fact that variations
due to internal and external pressure, apparent friction and
previous history, to say nothing of those due to the sectional
calibration and the fundamental points, are many times as great
as the usual errors of parallax and estimation.
Griffith,s who is not so caustic though quite as vigorous,
eee “ The difficulties with regard to the measurement of
temperature are not peculiar to the electrical method of inves-
* Brit. Assoc. Rep., 1889. + Phil. Trans. A., 1902, vol. exevii.
¢ Rowland, Proc. Am. Acad. of Arts and Sciences, vol. xv.-
§ Griffith, Phil. Trans., 1898.
Heat Vuporization of Water. 83
tigation, and therefore I need not dwell upon them. I would,
however, venture to add my expressions of astonishment to
those of Rowland, that so many enquirers attach so little im-
portance to this point: many investigators, whose methods
have otherwise been of a high order of accuracy, having satis-
fied themselves with the mercurial thermometer as a standard.”
Rowland* rejects, as having no weight, previous determinations
in which the thermometer readings were not reduced to the
air scale. As to the dificulty of this reduction, and. to the
general uncertainty of the apparent readings of the ordinary
thermometer, a very instructive object lesson is to be found in
an article by Cole and Durgan,t entitled “An Example in
Thermometry.”
It is the record of a systematic calibration of a Gerhardt
thermometer, made in a concise and thorough manner. The
mere statement of the corrections made, the record of the
observations, and the results of the calculations, stated as
briefly as consistency with clearness would permit, occupy
twenty pages. In his determination of the mechanical equiva-
lent of heat, Rowland made the most involved and elaborate
corrections on his thermometer readings, and only brought his
results and those of Joule into agreement by making the same
kind of corrections for the latter’s thermometers. Without
_ raising the question of the soundness of such corrections, it is
evident that a method for the determination of any fundamen-
tal heat constant independent of them is desirable if only to
serve as a check: for the only way to minimize their effect is
to extend the range of temperature, which is sure to increase
the errors due to radiation, conduction and the calorimeter con-
stant.
The error due to the latter constant need not be large,
provided only that the water equivalent of the calorimeter be
small compared with that of the substance under observation,
and this can usually be accomplished without much difficulty.
The error due to the water vapor in the steam is only
present in methods of steam calorimetry and is almost entirely
eliminated by the differential method.
The errors due to radiation, convection and conduction are
more serious. Reynoldst remarks on Joule’s determination
“that notwithstanding the greater facilities enjoyed by subse-
quent observers owing to the progress of physical appliances,
the inherent difficulties remained: the losses from conduction
and radiation could only be minimized by restricting the range
5
of temperature and this ensured thermometric difficulties, par-
* Rowland, Proc. Am. Acad., vol. xv.
+ Cole and Durgan, Phys. Review, vol; iv, 1896.
¢ Reynolds, Phil. Mag., 1897.
84 Hough—Mechanical Equivalent of the
ticularly with the air thermometer which does not admit of
very close reading.” In fact, so uncertain are the corrections
for radiation and conduction, that Griffith* asserts as “the
general principle on which he proposed to work, that of elimi-
nating the effects of radiation, conduction, ete:, rather than
that of ascertaining the actual loss or gain due to such causes.”
He eliminates these effects by maintaining the walls of the
chamber enclosing his calorimeter at a constant temperature
and gradually raising the temperature of the calorimeter from
some point below to some point above that of the jacket, such
that the gain and loss by the calorimeter are equal. This he
calls the null point and determines it experimentally. The
correction for convection by this method is doubtful. Row-
land, who also bunches the losses due to radiation, convection
and conduction, estimates the loss by convection to be more
than 75 per cent of the total losses from these causes. He
likewise corrects empirically. Obviously a better plan would
be to eliminate not only the effects but the cause of these
errors by maintaining the calorimeter, the jacket and the inter-
vening medium at the same constant temperature, if a method
admitting of such a process is possible. In fact, the principle
of elimination of source of error is fundamental to all physical
measurements since minimization and correction formule can
never be more than a series of successive approximations.
The grounds then for a new method of determining L
are: (a) the absence of any authoritative determination ; (6)
the absence of any absolute method; (c) the inherent sources
of error in the present indirect methods. These are suffi-
cient but there are weightier considerations: i. e. the advan-
tages resulting from the use of L as the primary heat unit.
Much can be said in favor of L instead of C as the primary
heat unit, especially since the development of steam calori-
metry by Bunsen and Joly.
The substance under calorimetric observation may be in a
thermo-dynamic or in a thermo-static condition. The tempera-
ture may be changing, or it may be constant. In the first case
the thermometer should be accurate, delicate and sensitive.
That is to say, that not only should all corrections to reduce its
readings to the air scale be definitely known, but it should
respond to small variations of temperature in a readable degree
and respond quickly. In this case the readings must be taken
rapidly and are necessarily limited in number. In the second
case the thermometer should be accurate and delicate but not
necessarily sensitive to a higher degree. The readings may be
taken more leisurely, with greater precision, and are only
* Griffith, Phil. Trans., 1883.
Heat Vaporization of Water. 85
limited in number by expediency. It is apparent that methods
necessitating observations of the first class are, other things
being equal, inferior to those involving readings of the second
class only. The determinations of Regnault, Joule, Rowland,
Moorby, Griffith and Barnes all involve observations of the
first class. In Joly’s method of steam calorimetry, however,
the temperature readings are made while the substance is in a
state of thermal equilibrium which may be maintained almost
indefinitely.* In this respect his method is unsurpassed. An
absolute determination of L substituted for the Regnault value
used by Joly would enhance the value of his work many fold.
His differential method is unquestionably the best general
method of calorimetry yet devised, the use of an uncertain
constant being, as Joly himself pointed out, its weakest point.
Barnes’ curve for the heat capacity of water from 0° to 100°
will never be changed much except, perhaps, by shifting the
origin along the axis of specific heats. Rowland determined
only a small portion of this curve, which from 10° to 20° is
practically parallel to Barnes’ but lower in value. Regnault
determined the portion of the curve between 40° and 100°.
It is also practically parallel to Barnes’ but much _ higher.
This indicates the presence of constant errors—but where ?
‘ In this particular work the men are to be given almost equal
weight. A constant error in Rowland’s work, whose results
agree among themselves most perfectly but for which he only
claims an accuracy of two parts in a thousand, is hard to locate.
It is possibly due to the sensitiveness of his thermometers not
being great enough for observations on a substance in a ther-
modynamie condition. Regnault’s constant error is likely due
to several causes, including radiation, while Barnes’ is possibly
due to the position of his thermometers, as this is a source of
error common to all continuous methods and very hard to elim-
inate or to correct for. In some preliminary work on the ratio
of L to C, an attempt was made to develop a continuous
method of steam calorimetry. It was abandoned for a time at
least because the results, while agreeing very well among them-
selves, were fouud to be a function of the position of the ther-
mometers placed in the ingoing and outcoming water. It
would not be safe then to decide which of these curves, agree-
- ing so well in all but their positions, is nearest to the true one.
The substitution of the true value of the heat of vaporization
of water in Joly’s determination of the mean specitic heat of
water from 12° to 100° in terms of the calorie at 20°, would
give a value by which Barnes’ curve could be shifted. In this
way much of the work of previous investigators in calorimetry
* Joly, Proc. Roy. Soc., vol. xlvii, 1889..
86 Hough— Mechanical Equivalent of the
would be enhanced in value. Hence an absolute determina-
tion of the mechanical equivalent of the heat of vaporization
of water is a thing to be desired in itself.
The present method aims at the elimination of the errors
due to thermometry, the calorimeter constant, the water vapor
in the steam, radiation and convection, and a rigorous correc-
dh
tion for conduction. The devices used to attain these ends
will be described in detail followed by a discussion of the prin-
ciples involved.
The general plan of the machine and the relation of its parts
is best shown by the photograph (fig. 1) and the conventional
diagrams (figs. 2 and 3). It consists essentially of (a) a vertical
feat Vaporization of Water. 87
shaft to which power is supplied: (6) a friction brake of pecu-
liar design to convert the mechanical energy into heat: (¢) a
controlling device to maintain a convenient constant load: (d)
2
B
Vp, pros
LLL
Ye “WY PB
WIN
Wi Via
SO ASS
Ys
§
SS
YZ
SSS
SSS
SAN
W
SY
ESS
SS
S
RS SSS
SS
wi
IN" /;
SS
OES
q
O00
e[ SSAA
NW ASSASS
RS
N
=
AGES
=
Gr:
LEON
ieee Ee
=
:
po)
88 Hough—Mechanical Equivalent of the
a cup suspended from the arm of a balance to hold the water
to be evaporated: (e) two bent levers to balance the friction
against gravity: (7) a recording device to plot the variation of
the mechanical force with the number of revolutions: (g) a
counter to register the number of revolutions: (A) a clutch for
throwing the recorder and the counter in or out of gear at will:
(z) a double-walled jacket: (7) a shield between the cup and the
jacket to prevent radiation: (£) a steam supply to furnish the
steam bath.
The vertical shaft consists of a hollow steel tube turned and
fitted to accurately bored brass boxings. Power is communi-
cated to this through the bevel gearing at the top from the
horizontal shaft which is driven by a motor. To this horizon-
tal shaft is geared, through the clutch by
which they are operated, the recorder and
the counter. The counter is a Veeder
and gives excellent service. The recorder
consists simply of a horizontal drum whose
angular velocity isa linear function of that
of the brake. This carries the paper verti-
cally under the marker. The marker is
moved horizontally by means of the famil-
iar device for parallel motion imvented
by Watt. The parts of this registering
apparatus are very light and accurately
centered on hardened steel cone bearings.
They communicate directly with one of
the bent levers so that the position of the
marker at any instant is a linear function
of the mechanical force. The marker is
RSS SASSAS SL SASS SSNS SS SS
1s)
KSASAASSSSSSSSSS SSS
¥
g
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
g
Z
Y
Z
Z
y
Z
g
Z
Z
Z
Z
g
Z
g
g
y
g
Y
Z
Z
4
Wy Tea c notin continuous contact with the paper,
Ate YA but only for an instant at regular inter-
iH j tt vals when struck by a bar which is actu-
il Y i Db ated by a cam geared directly to the
AL j Ht —e drum. The bent levers consist of accu-
| LY Y it ed, Dee pee with aes
Ay | i réie>s—-ei4__r dened steel knife edges bearing on har-
eZ. Y eh g dened steel surfaces. Attichedie these
WV Y} 4 pulleys are pendulum bars and _ bobs.
Hf Y Y} D> i Flexible steel tapes with swivel joints
HY j q Y; i transmit the moment from the disk of
i j 5 Yj Ht H the friction brake to the pulleys of the
We ] a HV bent levers. The friction brake consists
HH j = ] i of a bobbin threaded to the vertical shaft
05: K and rotating with it. Two rubbers,
Saw
by
EE) quadrant sections of a turned steel tube,
N
N
N
N
N
N
Heat Vaporization of Water. 89
are hinged to the bobbin by means of a double joint which
permits radial motion. A toggle joint, operated by a rod
inside the vertical shaft, connects the two rubbers diametrically
through an opening in the bobbin. This rod is foreed upwards
by means of a strong spiral spring in the bottom of the bobbin,
and draws the rubbers in toward the center at the same time.
When pressed down by the controlling device at the top, it
forces the rubbers out radially. Surrounding the rubbers and
accurately turned to fit them, is a cylinder supporting a torsion
disk at the top. As the shaft rotates the rubbers move with it,
and on account of the friction drag the cylinder and the tor-
sion disk at the top with them. This motion is communicated
by the tapes to the pulleys of the bent levers and the pendu-
lums are displaced until their moment is equal to that of the
friction. The double hinged joints are the important feature
of this device. They permit the rubbers to seat themselves
perfectly in the cylinder and the resulting friction is very uni-
form. In fact, the small periods of its variations are so short
compared to that of the long bent levers that they are com-
pletely integrated by these levers, the record being almost a
straight line. The controlling device consists of a hand screw
to force down the rod operating the toggle joint. This pres-
sure is transmitted through the ball-bearing since the rod is
rotating with the shaft.
The manipulation of the machine is quite simple. A steam
bath is allowed to flow through the chamber from the boilers
throughout the experiment, maintaining all parts inside the
shield at the temperature of the bath. The motor is started
and the load is gradually increased by the control to the desired
constant. When the water is evaporating freely and the ther-
mal conditions have been maintained constant for some time,
the weights are adjusted a little ight and, as the water in the
cup evaporates and the pointer comes to the zero, the clutch
is operated throwing the counter and the recorder in gear, the
weights and the counter having been observed and recorded.
After any convenient period the weights are again adjusted a
little ight and the clutch again operated just as the pointer
comes to zero, the counter and the weights being observed and
recorded.
The calculation of the mass of the water evaporated is made
in the usual way, but that of the mechanical energy may need
a word of explanation. Since the ordinates and the abscissas
of this curve are linear functions of the friction and the num-
ber of the revolutions of the rubbers, the following relations
hold:
W =F ds
“0
90 Hough— Mechanical Equivalent of the
=Of y.de
0
ce OH
but
Nt IX ay
= O,8y
where ¥ = average ordinate
S = 2.27r
where n = no. of revolutions
7 = radius of disk
W,
Y W,
where w, = total weight of paper
w, = weight of A
¢ =width of paper
Cag te
where g = acc. due to gravity
G = mass in grams to
displace marker 1°™,
We SG. Daa
Ww,
The constant G is determined by empirical calibration, for
which four steps are necessary: the calibration of the seale of
one of the pendulums in grams per centimeter by suspending
weights in a pan from the pulley: the adjustment of the mass
of the other pendulum bob to the same grams per centimeter :
the adjustment of either tape until any deflection of the disk
gives the same displacement on both scales: the calibration of
the marker in terms of these scales. This determines G.
A second set of observations is taken using a second cylinder
of different conductivity capacity from that of the first and L
is determined from the following relation :
W=u,+4,+R
where wv, = heat in ergs to the rubbers
wu, = heat in ergs to water
R = heat in ergs radiated
if the temperature of the shield approaches
that of the cylinder
Rh. 0 and
W=u,4+4,
but u,=(m+m')L
where m = apparent loss of
water in the cup
m'= water deposited
on cup due to
water vapor in
steam
and if m =O
u,=mL
WwW = u,+mL.
Heat Vaporization of Water. 91
Let
W =u, +u, for the first cylinder
W'=w',+w’, for the second cylinder
and t= W
wim Vs
u, W—-mL
Pe Nl:
But —du, = ts a (T, —T, )dt
Di a (T, — T, )d
Ui _ AA i/
du’, 5 ee ee i is
du = a A pe — T’)dt
where & = specific conductivity
A = cross section of con-
ductor
£ =length of conductor
T = temperature
} == time
integrating
t
fe ak (r= ja
: 0
t
yes ae (T, —T, at
; th
ee as (T’, — T’,)d¢
me = f (T!, —T ae
and ae Jat
oe (TT de
he, Ay uy (T, = T, at
HA, Se. _— 1" )dt
92 Hough—fleat Vaporization of Water, ete.
where R= ratio of the conductivity
capacities of the two
cylinders.
aes e b
ae hee NR
pe Nh
See
m W—mL
mR a Wa :
L— W i 1 i a )
m ley Th 70 m’
In the second term of the right hand member the two fac-
tors always have opposite signs. The correction is therefore
a negative quantity. By reducing the conductivity capacity
of the rubbers and increasing that of the cylinder, this correc-
tion is reduced. to a minimum. Only the ratio of the conduc-
tivity capacities is demanded by this formula, not the specific
conductivities. This ratio is determined by the method of
cooling. :
The advantages of this method are: the measurement of all
quantities involved to a high degree of accuracy, depending
only on the skill of the mechanician: the elimination of all
errors due to thermometry, the calorimeter constant, the water
vapor in the steam, radiation and convection: the minimiza-
tion and rigorous correction for conduction.
Preliminary tests of the most rigorous type show that all the
factors that enter into this result are entirely within control.
A long series of observations are to be made during the coming
year, from which it is confidently expected that a value accurate
to at least one part in a thousand will be obtained.
University of Pennsylvania.
Baskerville and Lockhart—Zine Sulphide. 93
Art. XIl.—The Phosphorescence of Zine Sulphide through
the Influence of Condensed Gases obtuined by Heating
Rare-Harth Minerals ; by CHaRLes Baskervit1e and L. B.
LockHART.
Hetium has been shown to be a product of the disintegra-
tion of radium emanations; it is also obtained from minerals
which contain thorium and uranium. It has been shown by
Afanassiew, Mme. Curie, Crookes, Strutt, Hoffman, Basker-
ville, and Boltwood that minerals containing these elements
are radio-active.
It seemed to be of interest to ignite these minerals and con-
dense the gases given off and note their effect upon phospho-
rescent zine sulphide. The method of procedure was essen-
tially that described in the preceding paper, except that the
pulverized mineral was placed in the closed tube of hard glass
instead of aradium preparation. Screens of Sidot’s. blende
were prepared in strips for the purpose. The glowing of the
screen was assumed to indicate the condensation of the emana-
tion.
- No final conclusion could be drawn from the experiments,
which were distinctly qualitative. It appeared, however, that
those minerals which offer the richest sources of helium gave
the greatest amount of emanation. Most of the minerals were
obtained by purchase, but we are indebted to Dr. Geo. F.
Kunz for some of them, to Dr. H. 8. Miner, of the Welsbach
Lighting Co., for others, and to the Nernst Lamp Co., Pitts-
burg, Pa., for still others.
In addition to the minerals we made some experiments with
uranium compounds*, commercial thorium oxide, and the frac-
tions of that element obtained in our laboratory.
The list of minerals, and observations follow:
Mineral, Locality. Result.
Aeschynite Hitteré, Norway Fair glow
Allanite (orthite) | Amherst Co., Virginia No glow
Allanite Amherst Co., Virginia No glow
Annerédite Norway No glow
Auerlite Henderson, N. C. Fair glow
Bastnisite Manitou Springs, Col. No glow
Brookite Arkansas ~ No glow
Carnotite La Salle Creek, Mont. Co.,
Colorado Fine glow
Carnotite Utah No glow
Catapleiite Brevig, Norway No glow
Cerite Bastnis, Sweden Fair glow
Cleveite Moss, Norway Fine glow
Columbite Amelia Co., Virginia No glow
Crytolite Bluffton, Texas Faint glow
with Fergusonite (Llano)
* For which we are indebted to Dr. S. A. Tucker, Columbia University.
94 Baskerville and Lockhart—Zine Sulphide.
Mineral.
Crytolite
Euxenite
Euxenite
Fergusonite
Gadolinite
Gummite
Hjelmite
Monazite sand
Monazite
Monazite sand
Mixite
Orangite Norway
Orthite Arendal, Norway
Pitchblende
(Uraninite) 7
Pechurane Bohemia
Samarskite Mitchell Co., N. C.
Steenstrupine Urals
Thorite Langesund, Norway
Thorite (Orangite) Brevig, Norway
Thorogummite Bluffton, Llano Co., Tex.
Tritomite Brevig, Norway
‘Tyrite Tromsé, Norway
Uraninite North Carolina
Uraninite Joachimsthal, Bohemia
Uranite (rare)
Uranophane Spruce Pine, Mitchell
Co., N. C.
Xenotime Hitteré, Norway
Yttro-tantalite Ytterby, Sweden
Zeunerite S. B., Germany
Substance. Prepared by Result.
Uranium Tucker No glow
carbide
Uranium oxide Tucker No glow
Uranium
nitrate Purchased No glow
Thorium—-X Miner. From 100
gals. wash-water
Thorium oxide Same as for - Fair glow
: Welsbach burners
Berzelium* Irwin. Monazite No glow
oxide sand
Thorium* Davis. Monazite Fair glow
oxide sand !
Carolinium* Skinner. Monazite No glow
oxide sand
Locality.
S. Co., Texas
Spangercid, Norway
Arendal, Norway
Ytterby, Sweden
Fahlun, Sweden
Mitchell Co., N. C.
Karapfvet
Brazil, 8. A.
Norway
Mitchell Co., N. C.
Joachimsthal, Bohemia
Fair glow
Result.
No glow
Fair glow ©
Good glow
Fine glow
No glow
No glow
No glow
Fair glow
Medium
Very faint glow
No glow
Medium
No glow
Medium glow
(below fair)
Strong glow
Fine glow
No glow
Fair glow
Fair glow
No glow
No glow
No glow
Fine glow >
Very faint glow
No glow
Fair glow
Faint
No glow
No glow
Remarks.
Not expected
from our knowl-
edge of the activ-
ity of uranium.
Slight glow with
tiffanyites. No
glow with solid
willemite.
No glow with
tiffan yites.
Slight glow with
tiffanyites.
*These preparations were made in our laboratory, University of North
Carolina.
the electrical and photographic methods.
All showed some but not the same radio-activity when tested by
»
Baskerville and Lockhart—Radium Emanations. 95
Arr. XII.— The Action of Radium Emanations on Min-
erals and Gems ;* by Cartes BaskervitLe and L. B.
LockH ART.
Kunz and Baskervillet have made some interesting observa-
tions concerning the action on minerals and gems of radium
compounds of the highest activity enclosed within glass, as
well as of mixtures of weaker preparations with a limited num-
ber of minerals, especially diamonds, willemite and kunzite.t{
Rutherford used willemite most satisfactorily$ for demonstra-
ting to a large audience the condensation of the emanations by
means of liquid air. It was thought advisable to subject other
minerals, found by Kunz and Baskerville to be fluorescent or
phosphorescent, or both fluorescent and phosphorescent under
the influence of ultra-violet light, to similar treatment. We
wish to express our obligations to Dr. Geo. F. Kunz, who gen-
erously provided us with most of the minerals, all of which
were authenticated.
The method of testing was as follows: About 0°25 gram of
radium chloride, 7000 ‘uranies| strong, was placed in a hard
glass tube 2" in diameter, sealed at one'end. This was bound
to a glass tube, provided with a stop-cock, which was bent so
as to reach through one of the two holes in a rubber stopper to
the bottom of a test-tube 2™ wide and 15™ deep. Through
the other hole was passed a bent tube so that it just projected
below the rubber. This tube was provided with a glass stop-
cock and connected with an ordinary vacuum pump. The
material upon which the action of the emanation was to be
determined was placed in the wide test-tube. The tube was
then dipped into liquid air contained in a suitable unsilvered
Dewar bulb.
On opening the cock next to the pump while it was in
operation a good vacuum was produced in the container tube.
When this cock was closed, the radium chloride was heated to
low redness. The cock between this and the test-tube was
opened. ‘The emanations were swept in and condensed. In
every case the tube and contents were allowed to remain in the
liquid air until they were assumed to have obtained an uniform
temperature. All experiments were carried out in the dark
and observations were made only after the eves had become
accustomed to the conditions.
* Read before the Washington Section of the American Chemical Society,
April 6th, 1904. + Science. t Patent applied for.
§ Address before the American Association for the Advancement of Sci-
ence, St. Louis, Mo., Meeting, Dec., 1903.
| By an ‘‘uranie” is meant the radio-activity of metallic uranium, which
is taken as the standard.
96
Baskerville and Lockhart—Radium Emanations.
It was learned that tiffanyite diamonds are quite as sensitive
to the action of the emanations as the phosphorescent zine
sulphide.
We did not have enough diamonds to change for
each experiment, so in each trial a strip of Sidot’s blende
screen was inserted. This served to show that the emanations
had been condensed. We were much surprised to learn on
frequent repetition of the experiment that kunzite, which is so
responsive to radium, neither fluoresced nor phosphoresced
when the emanations were condensed thereon.
fore, responsive to the beta- and gamma-rays only.
Before giving the results of the observations, which follow
in tabulated form, it may be well to relate the results obtained
in several experiments, the bearing of which upon the question
In mind
is apparent.
It is, there-
The cooling of zine sulphide to the temperature of liquid
air does not cause it to glow, with or without vacuum. A good
vacuum and a sudden releasing of the same does not cause zine
sulphide to glow. but warming it to ordinary temperature
after removal from liquid air does cause it to glow brilliantly.
Chlorophane and kunzite cooled in liquid air show no phos-
phorescence. :
Action of emanations from radium chloride (7000 activity) on :
Mineral. Locality.
W ollastonite Harrisville, Lewis
Corn eN yea
White wollaston-|Morelos, Mexico
ite(withidocrase
and pink garnet)
Wollastonite Franklin Tunnel,
Pectolite Havers, N. Y.
Pectolite Paterson, N. J.
Pectolite Guttenburg, N. J.
Spodumene Paris, Me.
Spodumene (hid-
denite)
Spodumene
Spodumene (kunz-
ite)
Willemite
Greenockite
Hyalite
Colemanite
Chlorophane
Tiffanyite
Alexander Co., N.
C
U.G., Brazil, S. A.
Pala, Cal.
Franklin, N. J.
Yellowstone Park
Mono Lake
Amherst, Va.
5 Dutch diamonds,
QV k.
With Ultra-Violet
Result. Remarks. Tent
Slow to phosphor-/Tribo-luminescent|Phosphorescent
esce, faint
Glows brilliantly |Loses glow in less|Phosphorescent
than five min-
utes
Glows brilliantly |Loses glow quick-|Phosphorescent
ly
Nothing Phosphorescent
Nothing Phosphorescent
Nothing Phosphorescent
Nothing Nothing
Nothing Nothing
Nothing Nothing
Very slight re- Phosphorescent
sponse
Glows well Not so sensitive as|Fluorescent and
Glows strongly
Nothing
Nothing
Nothing
Glows very easily
and. brilliantly
|
zine sulphide, or
tiffanyite ; glows
with emanations
from commercial
thorium oxide
Goes away quickly
Lastsseveral hours
phosphorescent.
Fluorescent
Fluorescent
_|Phosphorescent
Phosphorescent
Phosphorescence
prolonged
J. L. Kreider— Behavior of Typical Hydrous Bromides. 97
Art. XIII.—Zhe Behavior of Typical Hydrous Bromides
when Heated in an Atmosphere of Hydrogen Bromide ;
by J. Lenn Kreiper.
{Contributions from the Kent Chemical Laboratory of Yale Univ.—cxxxvii. |
In former papers from this laboratory* the results obtaimed
in the dehydration of certain hydrous chlorides in air and in
an atmosphere oi hydrogen chloride have been studied and
compared. In the present paper the effects of treating typical
hydrous bromides in air and in an atmosphere of hydrogen
bromide are described. |
Hydrous barium bromide has been taken as a type of
hydrous salts which when heated in air lose their water with-
out much further decomposition; hydrous magnesium bromide
as typical of salts which lose part of their water without much
further decomposition and the remainder with simultaneous
evolution of hydrogen bromide; and hydrous aluminum bro- -
mide as typical of salts which lose their water ony with simul-
taneous loss of hydrogen bromide.
The method of experimentation was very sinter to that
followed by Gooch and McClenahan+ in their experiments
with hydrous chlorides.
For these experiments two combustion tubes 30™ in length
and 2°" in diameter, set horizontally side by side in a tubulated
parafiine bath, served as heating chambers. Each tube was
fitted with a thermometer. Portions of the hydrous bromides
to be treated were weighed into porcelain boats. One of
these boats was inserted in each tube about midway in the
bath (heated to a regulated temperature) and below the bulb
of the thermometer, so that the temperature to which the
material in the boat was submitted might be indicated by the
thermometer as accurately as possible. Through one tube
was drawn slowly a current of air purified by sulphuric acid,
and through the other was sent a slow current of purified
hydrogen bromide, generated in a flask by the action of bro-
mine on a heated solution of naphthalene and kerosene, and
passed through a purifying apparatus consisting of a tower
containing successive layers of red phosphorus and glass wool
and a wash bottle charged with a saturated solution of hydro-
bromic acid. At the end of a definite period, the boat was
withdrawn, placed in a desiccator for a suitable interval to
cool, and weighed. The residue in the boat was dissolved in
water, and the bromine was precipitated by silver nitrate, the
silver bromide being weighed on asbestos. In this way it was
*Gooch and McClenahan, this Journal [4], xvii, 365. McClenahan, this
Journal [4], xviii, 104. t Loe. cit.
Am. Jour. Scl.—FouRTH SERIES, VOL. XX, No. 116.—AtGUST, 1905.
7
98 J. L. Kreider—Behavior of Typical Hydrous Bromides.
possible to determine the loss of water and hydrogen bromide
from separate portions of the salt under examination, during
definite intervals and at fixed temperatures, both in an atmos-
phere of hydrogen bromide and in air, and to find for each
portion under examination what proportion of the total loss
was hydrogen bromide and what was water. The tabular
statements and the diagrains show the course of decomposition
of the various salts for the temperatures indicated.
Hydrous Barium Bromide.
For the experiments with hydrous barium bromide, a well
crystallized specimen was prepared by taking commercially
pure barium carbonate, dissolving it in hydrochloric aeid,
precipitating by ammonium carbonate, washing the precipitate,
dissolving in hydrobromie acid,-and crystallizing and drying
the crystals by pressing between filter papers. The analysis
of different portions of this salt showed a definite composi-
tion, corresponding very closely to theory.
Found. Theory.
Pais ea ee 41°69% 41°60%
10S eat ch Ana MS ioe SS 48°05 47°95
DEO) yi coe ate aoe 10°26 10°45
100:00% 100°00%
The progress of the decomposition of this salt in air and in
hydrogen bromide when submitted for a half hour to the tem-
peratures indicated is shown in the accompanying table and
diagram. |
Here may be noted a gradual loss of water from 70° C. to
160° C., at which point the water is entirely expelled, without
an appreciable loss of hydrogen bromide, either in air or
hydrogen bromide, and that hydrogen bromide influences the
process of dehydration in no marked way. ‘There is nothing
to show that any part of the water sustains a peculiar relation
to the salt.
Hydrous Magnesium Bronide.
Similar experiments were performed with hydrous magne-
sium bromide, prepared by dissolving magnesium ribbon in
hydrobromic acid and crystallizing the salt over sulphuric acid.
The analysis of the salt gave a definite constitution correspond-
ing fairly to theory.
Found. Theory.
Nonny bye a SNe 08°68 08.27
ES eee as eae Mea Re 54°61 54°69
GE Oe Ce mags 36°71 37°04
100°00 100°00
J.L. Kreider—Behavior of Typical Hydrous Bromides. 99
Dehydration of Hydrous Barium Bromide.
BaBr.* 2H.0.
eee na Bromine in residue. ae Time.
oo ees fea
ere iP 10n er
. BE oa Las orm. sas from eae hrs ture.
theory.
: HBr} -2377 |-0165|06-94| -1130/47°56|—0°39 | 06°55 : 0°
Air | °2364 |:0107/04°52| -1141/48°24/+0°29 | 04°81 2 :
2} HBr} -2309 |:0147|06°36| -1105/47°82|—0°13 | 06°23 y 80°C
Air | °2247 |-0125/05°56| °1082/48°16| +0-21 | 05°77 2
: ( HBr| -2299 |-0121/05-26] -1115|48-49/+0°54| 05°80 é 90°C
] Air | -2311 |-0127|05-49] -1115|48-26/+0°31| 05°80 | 2
4} HBr}| -2413 |-0121/05-01| -1173/48°58|+0°63 | 05°64 4e aa
Air | -2416 |:0134/05°54) -1167|48°33|+0°38 | 05°92 2 :
2 HBr} -2399 |-0118/04°91| -1157/48°26) +0°31 | 05°22 iS lineG
Air | °2342 |-0128)05-50; °1162/48°09| +0°14) 05°64 2 :
: HBr| :2296 |:0115/05-:00) -1111/48°41/+0°46 | 05°46 1 |190°C
Air | °2287 |:0127/05°50) -1095/47°91|—0°04 | 05°46 2 5 ;
7 HBr| -2501 |-0157|06-27| -1208|/48°32| + 0°37 | 06°64 Asses
Air | °2472 |-0135/05°46] -1195|48°37|+0°42 | 05°88 2 ; #2
8 | HBr} -2389 |-0198|06°58/ -1147/48°03/ +0-08 | 06°66 th eners
Air | -2304 |-0148/06-42/ -1113/48°31/+0°36 | 06°78 2 P
: HBr} -2491 |-0258/10°36| °1190/47°78) +0°17 | 10°19 tee
Air | :2438 |-0251/10°29| -1167/47°86|—0:09 | 10°20 DA le ag
2 i HBr 2460 |-0269|10-93| -1190/48°37| +0°42 | 11°35 y heote
) Air | -2416 |-0242/10-01| -1166/48-26] +0°31 | 10°32 2 :
Ba Bra. 2hr 9.
° © e
gio £0 90 yoo WO sao 190 140 /50 160°
100 J. L. Kreider
Dehydration of Hydrous Magnesium Bromide.
MgBr,° 6H.O.
Behavior of Typical Hydrous Bromides.
From these results
Weight Loss on Bromine in | HBr |Water ee
Atmos- | taken. | heating. residue. lost. | lost. "| Temper-
ae grm. | grm. cea a peat bent ae ES —
, | HBr) -2389 | 0000; 00-00) °1310) 54-81) 00-12) 00°12), ie
| Air | +2400 | 0000} 00-00] 1319) 54:98] 00-29] 00-29; 2 ;
§ HBr| +1370 | °0000! 00°00) -0751| 54°85) 00:16] 00-16), 80°
“(| Air | °13880 | 0012} 00°86] 0752) 54:55] 00:14| 00-72) 2
3 ) HBr) 1259 | 0019) 01°50) 0693) 54-96] 00°27) 01-77), 90°
| Air | *1482 | 0023) 01:95] 0813) 54°87) 00°18} 02-13) 2
4) HBr) 1220 | 0053) 04°34) -0664| 54:46) 00°28) 04-11; 4 1002
| Air | +1448 | -0048) 03-31] 0797] 55-07] 00-38) 03-69} 2
5 ) HBr} 1345 | 0070) 05-20/ 0736) 54-76] 00°07) 05°27, Tae
| Air | *1384 | 0103] 07:44) -0752| 54-33] 00-36] 07-80) 2
6} HBr} -1374 | -0115] 08°36] -0751| 54°69) 00-00] 08°36) 120°
Air | *1853 | 0120) 08°86] -0737| 54°50) 00-19] 08:67} 2
, § HBr) -1331 | 0114) 08°56) -0724/ 54-41/ 00-28) 08°28), |, 400
| Air | °1817 | -0128] 09-71] -0714| 54-28) 00-41) 09-30) 2
s | HBr) -1345 | 0140) 10°40) -0784) 54-58) 00°11) 10-29) , | 1,50
Air | -1369 1/0183) 13:37) -0733| 53269) 01-11) 10-36) 2
g § HBr} 1375 | 0216) 15°71) 0748) 54°47) 00°22/ 15°49) [1.00
| Air | 11358 | 0251) 18°48) -0727| 53°58] 01°12) 17°36) 2
10| HBr] +1313 | 0140) 10°66) 0714) 54-46/ 00-23) 10:46, 4 |, goo
Air | °1311 | 0824] 24-71] 0698) 53°26] 01:44) 23-27, 2
11 § HBr) +1366 | 0170) 12°44) -0744/ 54-39) 00-31) 12°13) 4 [400
| Air | °1379 | -0159| 11°53| 0744) 54-00] 00-69] 10-84) 2
yg) HBr} +1399 | -0220) 15°72) 0760) 54:35) 00°34) 15°38) | ape
(Aur | 21858 )/50232)17 08/0723) 58.27) Oul-43 a5 -Giaimeee
19 ) HBr) 1285 | -0217) 16°89) 0696 54-75) 00-06) 16:95), | 990
| Air | *1324 | :0275| 20°77) 0702) 53-06] 01°65] 19°12)?
14) HBr} -1345 | 0284) 21-11) 0731) 54:42) 00°27) 20°84, |oop0
| Aim} <1382 | -0312) 22-57))-0730) 52287| 0184) 20-7) gee
15 ) HBr] 1349 | 0282) 20:90/ 0731) 54:19/ 00°50) 20°40, J5 4 46
| Air | 13850 | -0331) 24°51) 0704) 52°20] 02°51) 22-00) 2
1g) UBr) °1837 | 0297 22-21) 0722) 54-01) 00°68 21°53) 1 |oag0
| Air | °1820 | -0379) 28°71] -0686) 52-03| 02°69] 26-02) 2
17) HBr] -1354 | -0340) 25°11) 0731) 54-02| 00-67) 24-47, |oane
“) Air | -1373 | -0606| 44-13] -0649| 47-43] 07-35] 36°78}. 2 |"
1g ) HBr] 1376 | -0401) 29°14) 0740) 53°69) 01-01) 28°13] 4 [a4 50
| Air | °1360 | :0555| 40°80} -0665| 48°93] 05°80| 35°00) 7? |~
it appears that approximately a third of
the water may be removed from the hydrous magnesium bro-
mide, submitted at once to the temperatures indicated, either in
air or in an atmosphere of hydrogen bromide, without consid-
erable simultaneous loss of hydrogen bromide from the salt,
the trifling loss being somewhat less in the atmosphere of
J. L. Kreider—Behavior of Typical Hydrous Bromides. 101
hydrogen bromide than in air, Thereafter the loss of hydro-
gen bromide when the salt is heated in air increases generally
with the temperature and is inhibited, as is the loss of water,
9
~
eA
i bose fave,
: é
Jers a Prornide
Ong Pan. L442?
a7 J Sosa pov
ay - in
Sens it
I. 4 eS rs
7 0° Zo" 90° wo? 0° s20° 130° 140° 75:0" 160°17 08° 90° 90" gab 2 10H 02 Zb2KO” CL
by the atmosphere of hydrogen bromide. It appears that
about a third of the water of magnesium bromide bears a
relation to the salt different from that of the remainder.
102 J. L. Kreider— Behavior of Typical Hydrous Bromides.
When submitted at once, without preliminary heating, to a
temperature of 170° in air and 160° in hydrogen bromide, the
hydrous salt melts and in the melted condition loses water less
rapidly than the solid salt at a somewhat lower temperature.
This is what makes the break in the curves which indicate the
losses of water and hydrogen bromide. When the salt was
heated successively, for intervals of a half hour, at tempera-
tures varying by ten degrees, the progress of dehydration was
more uniform, as is shown in the accompanying diagram, all
the water being lost at 160° in air and 220° in hydrogen bro-
mide, the inhibiting action of hydrogen bromide upon the
dehydration being more marked as the temperature rises from
the point at which the first third is lost. |
3
3¢- i HBT
aoe. - . — : .
7A 60 FO s0O NO 129° 440140 4F0 160 120° 180 °/90" 209° 240°220 6
Hydrous Aluminum Bromide.
The hydrous aluminum bromide used was prepared by dis-
solving pure aluminum chloride in water, precipitated alumi-
num hydroxide by ammonium hydroxide, filtering off the
aluminum hydroxide, and washing until free from impurities.
This precipitate was then dissolved in hydrobromic acid, and
J. L. Kreider— Behavior of Typical Hydrous Bromides. 103
the solution thus formed allowed to crystallize by evaporation
in yacuum over sulphuric acid: the crystals thus formed were
of nearly normal constitution.
Found. Theory.
(SAORI Ota ta 07:254% 07:20%
Wipe PRA ss. ee 63.90 63°95
Ge eek «hen 28°85 28°85
100-00 100-00
The coarse of dehydration of hydrous aluminum bromide in
air and in an atmosphere of hydrogen bromide is shown in the
accompanying table and diagram.
Dehydration of Aluminum Bromide.
AI1Br;° 6H20.
Weight Loss on Bromine in | HBr | Water Time
Atmos- | taken. heating. residue. lost. | lost. Temper-
SES ee ee
Melee 1306 | 00000000) 6-2 eS. Peli Se 2S ‘ 0
1) Air eee ooo ooo | et 10"
Peete 1394.) 0000) 00/00) 9) 2: We. pecs) eal), 30°
mere ots ST) 0000) 00-00) 22.2) | lek |e
pect) 1344-0000) 00°00) - es) 37-2) 2 =2-y 90°
{ Air | °13860° | -0000/ 00°00) ----| Be les he Wee Sono 7
7 HBr} +1317 | 0008) 00°60) 0831 63°13) 00°83| 00:23), | jo 90
Air | 1316 | -0014| 01:06! 0842) 64:05! 00°10} 01-16! ?
5 ) HBr) +1364 | -0008| 00-58) 0861) 63°60) 00-35) 00°23) 4 | 1490
| Air | -1378 | °0024| 01-74] -0865| 62°83| 01:13] 00°61; ?
g ) HBr) 1381 | -0008| 00°57) 0878 63°62) 00-33| 00°24) 4 | Ja90
| Air | +1367 | -0054) 03°95) 0834 61:07] 02°91) 01:04) * |
,) HBr) 1297 | -0006/ 00°46) 0825 63°64) 00°31/ 00°15) 4 | 1599
| Air | 1318 | :0106| 08-04| -0767| 58°24] 05°78] 02°26| .?
g ) HBr +1379 | -0011) 00°79) 0831 60°82| 03°67 02°89) | 4440
| Air | -1357 | -0127| 09°35) 0771) 56-85| 07-18] 02-17; 2
g ) HBr, +1366 | 0113) 08-27) -0730 53°46) 10°62) 02°35) 150°
| Air | 1355 | :0549) 40°51) °0485| 35°84| 28-46| 12°05)?
10 | HBr| -1308 | -0121) 09:25] 0740) 56°57| 07°43) 01°82 4 | 160°
Air | °1348 | :0668| 49°55| 0413) 30°66] 33:71| 15°84| *
11) HBr -1580 -0270| 19°56| -0703) 50-94| 13°17| 06°39], 10°
| Air | -1390 | 0919) 66-11] -0281) 20°72] 43°77| 22°34| ?
19) HBr| -1378 | -0561| 40°71] °0477| 34°65| 29°67| 11°04) | 180°
( Air | -1346 | -0949/ 70°50} 0232) 17°28] 47-26] 23°24] ?
13 ) HBr! 1331 | 0850) 63-86) 0280) 21-09) 43-40/ 20°46 | J 990
| Air | -1307 | 0976! 74°67| -°0193| 14°80] 49°72| 24°95, *
14) HBr} -1362 | 0938) 68-87| .0232) 17-08| 47-46 21:41 + | 200°
( Air | 13877 | °1090| 79°15} -0197| 14:33] 50°24| 28°91
15 § HBr) -1355 | °0958) 70°70; 0246 18°04) 46-49 24:21, 4 | 41 G0
| Air | -1345 | -1040| 77°32| -0158! 11-76 Q4-A7\
52°85
104 J. L. Hreider—Behavior of Typical Hydrous Bromides.
4
52 BEF},3. 6420
Ja ar,
v ba WA
aoe
2 ete
4)
A.
e o
100° 770° yao’ 739° Jyo° 180° 160° 470° 480° 90° 200° 9 jo
~HWEG CN PO
From these results it appears that, at 100° and higher tem-
peratures, hydrous aluminum bromide loses water and hydro-
gen bromide simultaneously, both in air and in an atmosphere
of hydrogen bromide; but that the loss of water, as well as
of hydrogen bromide, from the salt is retarded by the atmos-
phere of hydrogen bromide: At the highest temperature
recorded, 210° C. the salt still retained bromine. ‘There is
nothing to indicate that any part of the water possesses a dif-
ferent relation to the salt from that possessed by any other —
part of the water.
Discussion of Results.
In correlating the phenomena noted, Cushman’s hypothesis
of inner and outer linkages of water relative to the molecular
complex, upon the assumption of quadrivalent oxygen, seems
applicable.
=e
J. L. Kreider— Behavior of Typical Hydrous Bromides. 105
Thus the symbol
r= 0G
Ba if Fe
NBr=0C 93
for hydrous barium bromide, showing two molecules of water
externally attached, suggests the observed easy removal of all
water without simultaneous loss of hydrogen bromide, and
indicates, as was observed, that concentration of hydrogen
bromide in the system is not likely to affect the course of
dehydration.
The symbol
Ho i
Ho 0 Be oct
ee
eee HL ii
\b = 6 Br =0¢4
Heer
for hydrous magnesium bromide, in which two molecules of
water are externally attached and four internally, shows why
one-third of the water may be removed at a moderate temper-
ature, without much loss of hydrogen bromide; why the
remaining two-thirds of the water require a higher tempera-
ture for their removal with simultaneous evolution of hydro-
gen bromide; and why increase in the concentration of
hydrogen br omide in thé system retards both the loss of water
and hydrogen bromide, after the first third of the water has
been expelled.
The symbol
|
ee
as
|
Sa
Boe eae ae ca
| :
erp lee elles eae nestor ha
|
eg
Sk
=
a
bors.
rg
we
Se
ee
106 J. L. Krevder— Behavior of Typical Hydrous Bromides.
for hydrous aluminum bromide suggests the observed impossi-
bility of evolving water without simultaneous loss of hydro-
gen bromide, the salt tending on continued heating to go over
to the oxide. With asalt showing this constitution the natural
effect of the concentration of hydrogen bromide in the system
would be to retard the dehydration of the salt, as was observed.
So it appears that the phenomena of dehydration of the
hydrous bromides under discussion admit of explanation upon
Cushman’s hypothesis of the molecular attachment of water
within and without the complex.
The author is greatly indebted to Prof. F. A. Gooch for
advice and assistance throughout this work.
E.. T. Mellor— Glacial Conglomerate of South Africa. 107
Arr. XIV.—The Glacial (Dwyka) Conglomerate of South
Africa; by Epwarp T. Mettor.
[Communicated by permission of the Director of the Geological Survey of
_the Transvaal. |
Introductory.—Few rocks have aroused so widespread and
so sustained an interest as the Glacial Conglomerate occurring
at the base of the Karroo System of South Africa, generally
known as the Dwyka Conglomerate. From the time when
attention was first directed to it by Bain in 1856, down to the
present, the Dwyka Conglomerate has continued to be a source
of almost continual discussion.
In the first instance, this interest was in a great measure due
to the very different views held by various geologists as to the
nature of the conglomerate, and especially to the opposition
offered by many to the theory of its glacial origin—a question
which one may venture to regard as finally settled by the
accumulation of evidence in recent years. This establishment
of the glacial character of the deposits included under the
term Dwyka Conglomerate, which occur over thousands of
square miles in South Africa, and which correspond closely
with similar formations of corresponding age in India, Aus-
tralia, and South America, lends a newer and perhaps more
widely spread interest to the study of this series, and of the
conditions under which it was formed. To the South African
geologist the rock derives additional interest from the fact that
it affords the only geological horizon common to the various
colonies yet established with any degree of certainty.
Nomenclature.—The term “ Glacial Conglomerate ”’ was used
by E. J. Dunn on his map published in 1873* for the northern
outcrops of the conglomerate, while he still retained for the
more southerly occurrences an old name, “ Trap Conglomerate,”
used by Wyley. In the second edition of his map,+ two years
later, while retaining the term Glacial Conglomerate for the
northern outcrops, Dunn applied the term “ Dwyka Conglom-
erate” to those of the southern parts of Cape Colony and
Natal. The term Dwyka is derived from a river of that name
in Cape Colony in the neighborhood of which the conglom-
erate is typically developed. The name is now frequently
applied to the glacial conglomerate at the base of the Karroo
System generally throughout South Africa. It might perhaps
be more appropriately restricted to the southern type, which,
as will be pointed out, differs in some important respects from
the more northerly occurrences, especially as the intermediate
*E. J. Dunn, Geological Sketch Map of Cape Colony, London, 1873.
+ E. J. Dunn, Geological Sketch Map of South Africa, London, 1875.
108 £. 7. Mellor—Glacial Conglomerate of South Africa.
phases have not yet been fully worked out. For the northern
conglomerates the original term ‘‘ Glacial Conglomerate ” is as
appropriate as ever, and I have preferred it in various descrip-
tions of these conglomerates in the Transvaal.
Lnistribution of the Conglomerates.—The main area occupied
by the Karroo System covers a large part of South Africa,
including the major portions of Cape Colony and Natal, nearly
the whole of the Orange River Colony and most of the south-
eastern Transvaal. This area would be included roughly
between lines drawn from a point on the south-east coast of
Cape Colony, near to the mouth of the Gualana River, W. to
near the head of the Doorn River beyond Matjesfontein, NNE.
to the Lange Berg on the southern border of Namaqualand,
NW. by Prieska and Kimberley to Middelburg and Belfast in
the Transvaal, SSE. by Amsterdam to Vryheid, and SSW. to
the coast of Cape Colony at the mouth of St. Johns River.
This area includes most of the higher portions of South Africa,
and almost the whole of it lies above a level of 3000 feet. In
the Drakensberg the uppermost portions of the Karroo System
attain an elevation of over 8000 feet.
The series of glacial deposits at the base of the system crop
out almost continuously around the margin of the vast area
occupied by it, following approximately the lines given above.
Along their southern margin the Karroo rocks, particularly the
Dwyka Conglomerate, have been affected by the intense folding
characteristic of the southern portions of Cape Colony. There
the lowest Karroo Beds are frequently highly inclined, and
their outcrop is correspondingly reduced in width, but over
the whole of the remainder of the area occupied by them the
Karroo rocks are practically horizontal, and the outcrops of
the various divisions occupy broad tracts of country. This is
especially the case with the Glacial Conglomerate and lower
portions of the system, which in many places form extensive
outliers around the margin of the main area as above defined.
Lelationships and Age.—In its southern portions in Cape
Colony the Dwyka Conglomerate grades downwards into a
series of greenish shales (Lower Dwyka Shales) some 700 feet
in thickness, which in turn lie comformably upon the quartzites
of the Witteberg Series. These, together with the Bokkeveld
Beds. and the Table Mountain Series, constitute the ‘*‘ Cape
System” of Cape Colony.
Passing northwards, the Dwyka Series overlaps the lower
divisions of the Cape System, which thin out in that direction,
and comes to lie unconformably upon various much older
systems of rocks. In all the more northerly localities where
the conglomerate has been studied, it lies uncomformably on
the older South African rocks, the surfaces of which are fre-
E, T. Mellor—Glacial Conglomerate of South Africa. 109
quently glaciated. In Cape Colony and Natal the Dwyka
Conglomerate passes upwards into the Ecca Shales, a series of
shales and mudstones identical in character with the shales
occurring with the Dwyka Conglomerate, and in composition
corresponding with the finer portions of the matrix of that
rock. The Ecca shales are succeeded by a very extensive
series of sandstones and shales, attaining a maximum thickness
of some thousands of feet, and including on at least two dif-
ferent horizons seams of coal. These, together with the Ecca
Shales and Dwyka Conglomerate, constitute the Karroo System
of South Africa. Intrusive sheets of diabase occur throughout
the Karroo rocks, and the uppermost portion of the system
consists, for the most part, of a succession of lava-flows usually
amy odaloidal and of basaltic composition interbedded with
sandstones containing much fragmental material of volcanic
origin.
The Bokkeveld Beds of Cape Colony have yielded a numer-
ous assemblage of fossils related to the Devonian fauna of
Europe; the Witteberg beds which succeed them and underlie
the Dwyka Series have so far afforded only a few imperfect ~
specimens showing general Carboniferous affinities. With the
Keca Shales in Cape Colony and with the beds associated with
the Coal Seams of the Transvaal, which sometimes, as at
Vereeniging, lie immediately above the Glacial Conglomerate,
a fossil flora is associated of Permo-Carboniferous age* having
a number of genera in common with the lower part of the
Indian Gondwana System, and the Coal Measures of New
South Wales.
Compared with the southern and eastern margins of the
Karroo area, the northern outcrops of the Glacial Conglomerate
and associated beds show a considerable diminution in thick-
ness, a feature shown also by the other divisions of the Karroo
System. In the southern outcrops in Cape Colony the Dwyka
Conglomerate has a thickness of about 1000 feet; on the north
of the Colony, in the neighbourhood of Prieska, it is stated not
to exceed 500 feet.t In Natal and the eastern Transvaal the
thickness of the conglomerate is about 300 feet,t while on the
northern border of the formation, in the central portions of the
Transvaal, it rarely reaches 100 feet, and may be locally absent
altogether. As will be seen from the descr iptions given below,
this difference in thickness corresponds with differences in com-
position, and in general characters dependent upon variations
in the original conditions of deposition in the different localities.
* A.C. BO Notes on the Plant Remains from Vereeniging, Q. J. G.S.,
vol. liv, pp. 92-93. London, 1898.
tA. W. Rogers, The Geology of Cape Colony, London, 1905.
¢G. A. F. Molengraaff, Geology of the Transvaal, Edinburgh, 1904, p. 73.
110 #. 7. Mellor— Glacial Conglomerate of South Africa.
Description of the Dwyka Uonglomerate in the Southern
Outcrops.—The earlier. studies and descriptions of the Dwyka
conglomerate were confined to its occurrence in the southern
portions of Cape Colony and in Natal. In the southern
examples especially the conglomerate has certain characteristics
which led to much controversy as to its origin. Its appear-
ance in the Dwyka locality was thus described by Mr. E. J.
Dunn:* “The conglomerate consists of a bluish grey base so
fine that its constituents are not resolvable, except under high
magnifying power, and then no crystals are disclosed; it
appears to be a very fine indurated mud; in this base are
enclosed bowlders, pebbles, angular fragments, and grains of a
great variety of rocks, such as granite, granulite, gneiss, mica,
and other schists, quartz rock, hard sandstone, jasper, hornfels,
quartz, small pieces of felspar, ete.”
The included fragments, which range in size from mere
grains to bowlders several feet in diameter, are distributed in
the matrix without definite arrangement. The rock as a whole
is very hard and fractures pass indifferently through matrix
and bowlders alike. By weathering it frequently produces a
yellowish clay, through which the hard rock fragments and
bowlders of the original conglomerate are scattered. Besides
the conglomerate beds, other shaly beds occur devoid of
included fragmeits. Individual beds persist over long dis-
tances, maintaining at the same time their distinctive litho-
logical characters. The conglomerate beds vary from a few
inches to hundreds of feet in thickness. In the southern parts
of Cape Colony the conglomerate often shows a_ schistose
structure resulting from the earth movements which have
affected that area—to the effects of which is probably also due
in part the extreme hardness of the southern rock as compared
with its northern representative.
Various theories concerning the Origin of the Dwyka Con-
glomerate.—The dark green color of the conglomerate, its rich-
ness in minerals not usually abundant in rocks of sedimentary
origin, including much chloritic material, its extreme hardness,
its crystalline appearance and the frequent absence of bedding
through great thicknesses of rock, disposed almost every
observer, including many geologists of wide experience, to
attribute to the conglomerate an igneous origin. Expressive
of these views are the following names applied to the rock at
various times by different workers: ‘‘ Claystone-porphyry,”
“ Trap-conglomerate,” ‘‘ Melaphyre-breccia,” ‘‘ Volcanic-brec-
cia,” “ Trap-breccia.” Many and various were the theories
advanced at different times and by different observers to
*E. J. Dunn, Report on the Camdeboo and Nieuwveldt Coal, p. 7, Cape
Town, 1879.
EL. T. Mellor—Glacial Conglomerate of South Africa. 111
account for the peculiar characters of the conglomerate. A. G.
Bain, “The Father of South African Geology,’ who first
described the Dwyka Conglomerate in 1856, suggested that it
represented a flow from an immense volcano. Prof. A. H.
Green thought it to be a “coarse shingle formed along a reced-
ing coast-line,’ while from Green’s specimens Sir A. Geikie
and Dr. F. H. Hatch considered it had the aspect of a volcanic
breccia. The majority of South African geologists favored
the igneous theory, accounting for its peculiar characters and
occasional stratification by referring its origin to submarine
volcanoes.
A glacial origin was first attributed to the conglomerate in
1868 in a paper on the Geology of Natal by Dr. P. C. Suther-
land,* who had previously regarded the rock as a lava-flow.
Sutherland, who was familiar with the conglomerate in Natal,
where the rock has more the features of a terrestrial glacial
deposit, and rests in places upon striated rock surfaces, clearly
stated the reai character of the rock. The glacial view
received early support from Stow,t who, however, referred
the glaciation to a much later period, and subsequently from
Schenck.t Dunn, who did so much to work out the main fea-
tures of the distribution of the Glacial Conglomerate as shown
in the various editions of his “Geological Sketch Map of
South Africa,” regarded the rock as largely due to the action
of floating ice, an agent which no doubt had much to do
with the southern deposits.
It is only quite recently, however, that owing to the accumu-
lation of evidence§ from various localities in South Africa the
glacial origin of the Dwyka Conglomerate has received anything
approaching general acceptance.
Lecent Studies of the Glacial Conglomerate——In 1898 Dr.
Molengraaff| published a description of the Dwyka Conglom-
erate, and overlying Ecca beds, as developed in the Vryheid
district of the Transvaal, to the north of the Natal border (now
included in the latter colony). In the Vryheid: district the
Dwyka Conglomerate averages about 300 feet in thickness, and
lies unconformably upon an old land surface composed mainly
of the hard quartzites and shales of the Barberton formation—
the surfaces of which are frequently polished and striated.
Both the conglomerate and succeeding Ecca Shales offer good
* P. C. Sutherland, On the Geology of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 1868.
+G. W. Stow, On some Points in S. A. Geology, Q. J. G. S., vol. xxvii,
pp. 497-548. London, 1871.
tA. Schenck, Die Geologische Entwickelung Siidafrikas, Pet. Mitt., Band
xxxiv. Gotha, 1888.
$See recent reports of the Geological Surveys of Cape Colony, Natal and
the Transvaal.
|G. A. F, Molengraaff, The Glacial Origin of the Dwyka Conglomerate,
Trans. Geol. Soc. S. A., vol. iv, 1898.
112 #. 7. Mellor—Glacial Conglomerate of South Africa.
opportunities for study in the many sections exposed in the
deeply cut valleys of the eastern rivers: In this district the
Dwyka Conglomerate includes both unstratified and stratified -
portions, in each of which facetted and striated bowlders are
abundant, together with many angular and sub-angular rock
fragments. The stratified beds are sometimes almost devoid
of bowlders and pebbles, and include mudstone and shales,
the latter indistinguishable from the overlying Ecca Shales into
which the Dwyka Conglomerate gradually passes.
In 1899 Messrs. Rogers and Schwartz* studied the Glacial
Conglomerate in the Prieska district in the north of Cape Col-
ony. They found the Conglomerate here to present all the
features of a true ground moraine, with abundance of facetted
and striated bowlders; and lying unconformably upon all the
older rocks of the district, fragments of which occur in the
conglomerate and which afford fine examples of ‘‘roches mon-
tonnées” and striated surfaces: The direction of the striz and
distribution of the bowlders point to a movement from the
north southwards.
In his report for the same year Dr. Corstorphiney summed
up the results obtained in the north and south of Cape Colony
and elsewhere, and compared the features of the northern and
southern deposits, contrasting the northern Glacial Conglom-
erates, possessing the characters of a ground moraine, with the
southern Dwyka, which is to be looked upon as “a sediment
formed under a probably inland water, into which there floated
the icebergs calved from the front of the glacier or glaciers on
the northern shore.”
The identity in character of the Glacial Conglomerate with a
true ground moraine, seen in the northern parts of Cape Col-
ony, comes out with even greater clearness along the northern
edge of the main area occupied by the Karroo System in the
Transvaal. :
The Glacial Conglomerate in the Transvaal._—In the cen-
tral portions of the Transvaal, and particularly in a district
lying along the eastern railway line from Pretoria to Middel-
burg, I have recently mapped many outliers of Karroo rocks
isolated by the progress of denudation from the main body,
which covers extensive areas to the south and south-east.
These outliers sometimes include portions of the sandstones,
grits, and shales associated with coal-seams which form the
upper portion of the Karroo System as developed in this part
* Rogers and Schwartz, Ann. Rep. of the Geol. Commission, 1899. Cape
Town, 1900. Onthe Orange River Ground Moraine. Trans. Phil. Soc. S. A.,
vol, xi, part 2, 1900.
G. S. Corstorphine, Ann. Rep. of the Geol. Commission, 1899. Cape
Town, 1900. (Full references to the previous literature will be found in this
paper.)
E. T. Mellor—Glacial Conglomerate of South Africa. 118
of the Transvaal. They are, however, frequently reduced to
patches consisting almost entirely of the Glacial Conglomerate
and associated beds. The copious sandy drift shed by these
outliers frequently renders their examination dificult, but in
some cases they offer more than usually good opportunities for
the study of the Glacial Conglomerate and its relationships to
the underlying rocks. In the district here more especially
referred to, the glacial deposits consist for the most part of a
conglomer ate showing all the characters to be expected in one
formed beneath an extensive ice-sheet. This conglomerate is
i!
very irregular in distribution, and varies greatly in thickness
within short distances, partly in consequence of its original
deposition on an irregular land surface, and partly as a result
of subsequent denudation. Its average thickness is about fifty
feet. In depth the rock is sometimes greenish in color, but
at the surface it is usually light yellow, and crops out in char-
acteristic humpy masses (see fig. 1). The matrix is a sandy-
looking material consisting of sharply angular fragments of
quartz “and of various rocks—quartzites, hard shales, felsites,
granophyres —common in the district. These angular frag-
ments vary in size from the smallest particles to pieces several
inches in diameter. Irregularly distributed through the
matrix, and with a conspicuous absence of any sort of arrange-
ment as to size or orieritation, occur abundant pebbles and
Am. Jour. Scl.—¥YouRTH SERIES, VoL. XX, No. 116.—AvgGust, 1905.
8
1l4 #. 2. Mellor—Glacial Co Nepean of South Africa.
bowlders of very Secelane ome composition, and ranging in
size up to a diameter of eight or ten feet. These pebbles and
bowlders are frequently facetted, and those of very hard mate-
rials are always lighly polished, while bowlders of somewhat
softer nature, especially if fine in grain, such as hard shales
and weathered felsitic rocks, frequently show striations. A
network of cracks in some cases divides the pebbles into a num-
ber of fragments which have been again cemented into a
whole. In any particular locality there is always a prepon-
derance of bowlders derived from rocks which locally underlie
the Glacial Conglomerate, associated with others easily recog-
nizable as derived from more distant sources, which are always
to the north of the present position of the bowlders. Thus
along the eastern railway line, to the south of an area mainly
occupied by the Waterberg Formation and the Red Granite,
the Glacial Conglomerate contains an abundance of bowlders
derived from these rocks, South of the outcrop of the hard
white Magaliesberg quartzites, fragments of the white quartz
ites are very abundant. Those lying nearest to the ridge from
which they were derived are angular and frequently of huge
dimensions, so that when weathered out and lying on the sur-
face they are conspicuous objects at a distance of two or three
miles. On the eastern Witwatersrand the conglomerate con-
tains many bowlders derived from the Rand Series together
with others formed of the hard cherts of the Dolomite to the
north. Except quite locally, the lower and more massive por-
tions of the conglomerate rarely show any traces of bedding,
but are occasionally traversed by irregular partings dividing
the rock into rude sheets with undulating billowy surfaces.
Towards the upper portions of the conglomerate, lenticular
beds of fine-grained massive sandstone frequently occur,
together with patches of white and cream-colored shales and
mudstones. The shales appear to have been formed in local
pockets below the ice. They consist of the finest glacial mud.
The examination of a district of some hundreds of square
miles in extent leads to the conclusion that at the termination
of the period during which glacial conditions obtained, the
country was left covered with an almost complete mantle of
glacial deposits, quite similar in character and distribution to
those remaining in other parts of the world from extensive
glaciation of more recent date. After the cessation of glacial
conditions the conglomerates and associated deposits appear to
have suffered a certain amount of sub-aérial erosion and denu-
dation, during which materials derived from the glacial
deposits underwent re-arrangement and re-deposition, giving
rise in some cases to beds of conglomerate very similar in com-
position and general appearance to those of glacial origin, with
E. T. Mellor— Glacial Conglomerate of South Africa. 115
which they are lable to be confused, but differing in the more
orderly arrangement of their materials, including a definite
orientation of the pebbles and bowlders. These secondary
conglomerates occasionally occur at the base of the purely
sedimentary series which succeed the true glacial deposits, and
by which as a result of a period of long continued subsidence
the latter were ultimately entirely covered. This sedimentary
series included the succession of beds constituting in the Trans-
vaal area the upper portion of the Karroo System. Later
formations were also possibly represented but of these no ves-
2
bw
=
coll
tige has hitherto been discovered in the Transvaal. Raised
subsequently to an average elevation of 5000 feet above the
sea, the Karroo System has been again subjected to denuding
forces and the removal of the overlying sandstones, shales,‘and
grits of the Coal Measures has laid bare extensive areas of the
underly: ing Glacial Conglomerate.
Although modified by the double process of denudation‘to
which it has been subjected, it still presents in its distribution a
striking similarity to that of more recently formed glacial
deposits. Following the contours of the land surfaces upon
which it was originally laid down, it ranges within distances of
a few miles through variations in elevation of three to five
hundred feet. It is frequently well developed on one slope of
a hill and entirely absent from the other. When protected
116 £. 7. Mellor—Glacial Conglomerate of South Africa.
from erosion it fills preéxisting valleys, and is usually espe-
cially abundant below ancient escarpments of the older rocks,
and in such places bowlders often of very large size, attaining
in some cases eight or ten feet in diameter, are exceptionally
numerous, After the complete weathering away of the matrix
the bowlders remain abundantly scattered over areas previ- ;
ously oecupied by the conglomerate. (See fig. 2.)
Glaciated Surfaces below the Conglomerate Direction of
Ice-Movement. denudation of
the Glacial Conglomerate around the margins of the areas now
occupied by the Karroo System and its outliers continually lays
bare fresh portions of the underlying old land surface. Where
these include outcrops of hard and moderately fine-grained rocks,
the latter frequently present excellent examples of elacially
striated surfaces,* some of which are represented in the photo-
graphs reproduced in figures 3, 4, 5. Striated surfaces of
this kind were long ago described by Sutherland in Natal, by
Griesbach in the same colony, by Dunn and Schenck in the
neighbourhood of the Vaal River, and more recently by Molen-
graaff in the South-Eastern Transvaal, and by Rogers and
Schwartz in the Prieska district in the north of Cape Colony.
While working on an area lying about 25 miles east of Pretoria
in 1903, I found the surface shown in figure 3, and later those
in figures 4 and 5. These latter occur on the edge of an out-
her of Karroo rocks some 25 miles further east, which includes
the coal seam worked at the Douglas colliery. I have since
met with many similar surfaces distributed over an area of
some 300 square miles. The striation in most cases is exceed-
ingly clear, and the direction of ice-movement easily deter-
mined and remarka ably consistent. In all the examples found
it only varies within a few degrees from magnetic north and
south, the direction of movement being ina southerly direction,
which is also true in general for the other districts in South
Africa where striated surfaces have been found. This con-
sistency of direction over so considerable an area and in the
case of surfaces lying 25 miles apart, points to the existence of
an ice-sheet of considerable magnitude, rather than to that of
a number of more or less isolated glaciers, a conclusion which
is supported by the nature of the land surface laid bare by
the disappearance of the Karroo deposits.
Where the Waterberg Sandstone Formation, which occupies
much of the district here referred to, has been ‘long exposed to
ordinary denudation, the rivers cut deep valleys and gorges in
the sandstone, giving rise to very varied and occasionally rug-
*E. T. Mellor, On Some Glaciated Land Surfaces occurring in the Dis-
trict between Pretoria and Balmoral. Trans. Geol. Soc. S. A., vol. vii, part 1,
1904.
E. T. Mellor— Glacial Conglomerate of South Africa. 11%
3
|
|
118 £. 7. Mellor—Glacial Conglomerate of South Africa.
ged scenery. Where, however, the overlying Glacial Conglom-
erate is only now in process of ‘removal, the country retains the
rounded outlines characteristic of a olaciated landscape.
Northern extension of the Glacial Conglomerate.
I have recently met with good examples of the Glacial
Conglomerate much further to the north than any hitherto
described.* (Figures 1 and 2.) These are situated near the j june-
tion of the Elands and Olifants Rivers, about 90 miles north of
the latitude of Johannesburg, and are interesting for the addi-
tional light they throw upon the northward extent of the coun-
try subjected to glacial action in early Karroo times.
EXPLANATION OF FIGURES.
Figure 1.—Glacial conglomerate near the junction of the Elands and
Olifants Rivers, Transvaal (75 miles NE. of Pretoria).
FicurE 2.—Weathered-out Glacial conglomerate, same locality. The
figure stands upon grits of the upper Karroo formation.
FicuRE 3.—Glaciated surface. Elands River Vailey (25 miles E. of Pre-
toria).
Ficures 4 and 5.—Glaciated surfaces north of Balmoral (50 miles E. of
Pretoria).
The striated rocks are red quartzitic sandstones of the Waterberg Series.
Geological Survey, Pretoria, Transvaal.
*K. T. Mellor, Outliers of the Karroo System near the Junction of the
Elands and Olifants Rivers in the Transvaal, Trans. Geol. Soc. S. A., vol.
vii, part 3, 1904.
H. F. Cleland—Formation of Natural Bridges. 119
Arr. XV.—The Formation of Natural Bridges; by
HerpmMan F. CLEenanp.
Untri recently the text-books of Geology and Physical
Geography have given the idea, whether intentionally or not,
that natural br idges are univer sally formed by the partial caving
in of a long cavern, the bridge being that portion of the roof
strong enough to span the cavity.* The belief seems to be
prev alent that these cavities ae for long distances, a
condition comparable to that which would exist if the greater
part of the roof of Mammoth Cave should fall in, leaving a
small portion as a bridge. This theory is simple and logical
‘and is one which immediately appeals to the reader, but, as will
be seen from the examples cited in this paper, not only i is it
not of universal application but it must be exceptional rather
than otherwise. The writer was led to this study by an
examination of the natural bridge near North Adams, Mass.
which has long been considered to be a typical example and
proof of the formation from caverns.
The North Adams Natural Bridge spans Hudson Brook and
has been an object of more than local interest for many years
both because of its natural beauty and because of the rarity of
these objects. Hudson Brook is a small stream emptying into
Beaver Creek, a tributary of the Hoosick River. From the
dam (shown in the sketch tig. 1) to the pre-glacial valley the
brook flows through a gorge 30 to 60 feet deep and from’ 5 to
40 feet wide, the average width above the bridge being from
1 to 10 feet and below from 10 to 30 feet. This gorge is cut
in a coarsely crystalline marble which, because of its color and
texture, presents a striking appearance. The rock is Cambro-
Silurian and belongs to the Stockbridge formation.
The top of the natural bridge is 44 feet above the water of
the stream and the bridge itself is about 8 feet thick. The
span of the bridge is less than 10 feet long and the width at
present 25 feet, but at one time it probably extended a short
distance farther south where it is now fallen in. It is
extremely dificult to take a good photograph of the bridge
because, as will be seen from the sketch, the stream turns
sharply ‘both above and below. Because of this condition it
was found necessary to make a drawing, in order to give a cor-
rect idea of its appearance.
Prot. E. Hitchcock described the North Adams Natural
Bridge and published a rough drawing of it in 1841.+ Con-
cerning this drawing he says, “I thought it better that a sketch
* Chamberlain and Salisbury, Geol., vol. i, pp. 145-147.
+ Geology of Mass., by Edward Hitchcock, vol. i, 1841, pp. 287-288.
120) H. £. Cleland—Formation of Natural Bridges.
should be taken by one not at all accustomed to drawing, than
that no memento be left of this interesting place,” (there was
danger at that time that the bridge might “be destroyed by the
quarry-men.) Hovey* in his “ Celebrated American Caverns”
describes this bridge but gives the locality as Adams, Mass.
The explanation of the for-
mation of the North Adams
Natural Bridge, as given by
Hitcheock and accepted by
Hovey, is that it is the section
of the roof of a cavern, the
ends of which have fallenin.
In illustration of this point,
Hovey states that, “the com-
bination of cave, chasm and
natural bridge, on Hudson
Brook, Mass. is even a better
example (than that of the
Natural Bridge in Virginia)
of the same (thinesaeeemes
“that what are now. open
canons were once caves, the
arch being merely a remnant
of an ancient cave roof.”
On examining the course of
the stream and the rock in the
vicinity of the North Adams
Natural Bridge one is struck
with the width of the joints,
O___5o'_joo'_/s0" and the fact that the stream
Fie. 1.—Sketch map of Hudson has, for a portion of its course,
Brook, Mass., showing the position of followed the joint planes. In
the natural bridge, the joint planes the upper part of the accom-
A-A, and the pre-glacial valley. panying aleetrelh (fig. 1) Alte
relation of the stream to the Joint planes is indicated by the
dotted lines A-~A. The channel through which the stream
flowed previous to the formation of the bridge is also well
marked a few feet to the west at b. <A pot-hole situated near
the edge of the gorge at B is further evidence of the former
position of the brook.
The bridge was probably formed as follows: When the
stream flowed into the gorge through the ancient channel, it
plunged over a fall into the pre-glacial valley. Some of the
water in the joint plane nearest the present bridge seeped
through an approximately horizontal crack a short distance
under the present arch of the bridge. The solvent power of
* “Celebrated American Caverns,” H. C. Hovey, pp. 14 and 206.
=- Dam
H. F. Cleland—Formation of Natural Bridges. 121
the water containing carbon dioxide (CO,) gradually increased
the size of the crack until it was still further enlarged by the
erosion of the stream. The stream was finally entirely diverted
from its former channel at B to its present course. The gorge
from the dam to the pre-glacial valley is a succession of broken
pot-holes varying in size up to 6 or 8 feet in diameter, showing
Fic. 2.—The North Adams Natural Bridge as seen from the south.” For-
merly the bridge probably extended nearly to the foreground of the picture.
that after the tunnel was made the gorge was largely excavated
in this way. The pre-glacial valley in which the Hudson
Brook flows below the gorge is broad but to some extent
choked with glacial drift. —
The origin of the famous Natural Bridge of Lexington, Va.,*
as explained by Walcott, was similar to that of the Natural
Bridge of North Adams, Mass., but is ona larger scale. Before
* National Geographic Magazine 1893, vol. v, p. 59.
122 Af. F. Cleland—formation of Natural Bridges.
the formation of the bridge the stream, which now flows
under, then flowed upon the surface of what is now the arch
and probably plunged over a fall a short distance below the
present site of the bridge. While the stream was flowing over
this fall a portion of the water was percolating through a
joint plane or other crack up stream and discharging into the
stream under the fall, enlarging its passage by its solvent
power. In the course of time this passage became sufficiently
large to contain all of the water of the stream, and the bridge
resulted. It is not possible to say what the length of this
underground passage was. It must have been somewhat
longer than at present, but “ whether one hundred feet or sev-
eral hundred feet” it is not possible to determine.
The description of some wonderful natural bridges in Utah,*
in a recent paper, suggests an explanation similar to that
given above, except that, in the case of these bridges, the rock
is said to be a sandstone (pink or gray) instead of a limestone.
The most probable explanation is that, at one time, the river
flowed over a fall a short distance below the lowest bridge
and that, as the stream was cutting back, a portion of the
water was pouring through a fissure up the stream and reap-
pearing at the brink of the fall, dissolving out the cement of
the sandstone along its course. This underground passage was
gradually enlar ved by the washing out of ‘the unconsolidated
sand, resulting in a tunnel of sufficient size to hold the entire
volume of the stream. After this event the valley was eroded
to nearly its level. This process was repeated three times with
the formation of three bridges. When it is remembered that
one of these bridges spans a canyon 335’ wide, that the lower side
of the arch is 357’ above the stream and that the material of
which they are constructed is sandstone, it will be seen that
any explanation requiring a tunnel of gr eat size extending for
a long distance is untenable. It is, howe ever, unsafe to do
more than speculate upon the formation of these bridges, since
so little is known of the rock of which they are composed.
In the Yellowstone National Park occurs a small naturai
bridge of rhyolite. The bridge consists of two vertical slabs of
lithoidal rhyolite, parts of the contorted layers of lava flow,
which stand nearly vertical in this place.+ They are slightly
curved and are separated by open crevices with roughened
scoriaceous walls. Of the two slabs forming the ledge the
eastern is two feet thick at its ends and thinner in the middle.
There is a space of two feet between it and the western slab,
which is four feet thick. ‘The span of the arch is about 30
feet and it rises about 10 feet, the top of the bridge being some
*W. W. Dyar, Cent. Mag., vol. Ixviii, 1904, pp. 505-511.
+ Geo]. of Yellowstone Nat. Park, U.S. G.S. Mon., vol. 32, pt. II, pp. 386-7.
H. F. Cleland—Fformation of Natural Bridges. 128
40 feet above the stream.” The explanation of the formation
of the bridge is as follows: The stream which flows underneath
Fic. 3.—Vertical plates of rhyolite. Yellowstone Natural Bridge. (Mon.
U.S. G. S. 32, pt. II, plate 49.)
124 A. EF. Cleland-—Formation of Natural Bridges.
the bridge has been able to excavate, owing to a former water-
fall and the peculiar platy structure of the rhyolite, in which
curved layers of extremely different physical texture and fria-
bility offered a favorable site for attack by frost and water.
The formation of lava bridges is usually explained as follows:
The surface of a lava flow cools and hardens while the interior
is still in a molten condition. Asa result of this condition, if
the molten rock beneath continues to flow, a tunnel will result.
Such tunnels are of common occurrence on Mt. Vesuvius, the
volcanoes of the western states and in other volcanic regions.
From such a tunnel a bridge might be formed by the caving in
of the greater part of the roof. A study of the photograph
(tig. 3) showing the structure of the lava of which the Yellow-
stone Natural Bridge i is formed shows that such an explanation
is untenable in this case at least, the rock being composed of
approximately vertical plates uf lava of different degrees of
compactness. The writer has not made a study of other lava
bridges, but it seems probable that the mode of formation of
the Yellowstone bridge may be exceptional for bridges of this
character.
In each of the cases cited the top of the bridge was formerly
a portion of the bed of the stream. If natural bridges were
formed as commonly supposed, it would be unusual to find that
a surface stream had once been superimposed upon the cavern
for its entire length. There is, for example, seldom any rela-
tion between the surface topography of a country and the
underground passages of extensive caves.
Occasionally a small natural bridge occurs near the opening
of a cavern or where a spring flows from beneath a cliff. Such
a bridge is the sandstone arch spanning a spring which emerges:
from beneath the sandstone capping of Lookout Mountain near
Chattanooga, Tenn. The bridge is formed by the widening of
a transverse joint, first by weathering alone and later by “the
ote a action of w eathering aud erosion, thus separating the
bridge from the cliff. The breadth of the span was increased |
largely by weathering.
The conclusion to which one is led by this study of natural
bridges from different parts of the United States and composed
of various kinds of rocks—marble, limestone, sandstone, and
lava—is that, although bridges may be formed, and undoubtedly
have occasionally been formed, by the partial falling in of the
root of a long underground tunnel, the usual mode of forma-
tion is that described above. It should, however, be said that
examples exist concerning which it is difficult to say which
mode of formation was the more prominent.
Williams College.
Waring— Quartz from San Diego County, California. 125
Arr. XV1.— Quartz from San Diego County, California ;*
by G. A. Warrne, Stanford University, California.
Ty quartz crystals occurring in the pockets of the gem-bear-
ing pegmatite veins of the Pala and Rincon districts, San
Diego County, California, several peculiarities of crystallization
have been observed, which it is believed have not before been
described. These crystals occur attached to the sides of the
cavities, associated usually with albite and orthoclase. The
most remarkable feature about them is the common develop-
ment of tetartohedral faces.
On two crystals, figs. 3 and 7, the facial angles were measured
by means of a Fuess reflecting goniometer, “and the followi ing
rare faces determined, according to Bravais-Miller system of
notation.
On the small crystal, fig. 7:—
Measured. Given by Dana.
maT (4041) he 12! if cout
max (5161) Pie rsO: i eeame
On the crystal, fig. 3 :—
Measured. Given by Dana.
m~x (5161) eae Bare Taree
Ae eS)
may (4151) 14° 54! VA aS:
TAS HO:
mas (1121) 37° 39’ 37 DS.
The I (4041) and M (3031) faces also are present on this
cerystal, determined by measurement with the contact goni-
ometer, and the w-face (3141) is also developed ; it is distinctly
visible with the pocket-lens, but too small to be measured with
certainty. It has the terminal pyramids partly developed at
the other end also, and imperfectly showing the rare faces. It
is lntergrown with a left-handed er ystal which on the face
preserved exhibits the faces s (2111), # (6151) and T (4041).
Twinning is common and, so far as observed, is always
according to the Dauphiné law. The upper part of the crys-
tal shown in fig. 3 is such a twin, of two right-handed indi-
viduals very perfectly joined, the twinning plane but faintly
shown by cloudy patches within the crystal.
Fig. 1 is a twin of two left-handed individuals, the plane of
twinning being well marked on the surface by a discontinuity
in the prismatic striations, and by a plane of dark patches
* Sincere appreciation is expressed to Dr. M. Murgoci of Vienna for
assistance in the measurement of the inter-facial angles, and to Dr. J. P.
Smith of Stanford University for advice and aid in the preparation of this
article.
126 Waring—Quartz from San Diego County, California.
within. This twinning is also markedly shown at the junction
of the prism and pyramid faces, by the development on one
individual of the e (5051) face and on the other of the I (4041)
face. This twin has ne on one member between the
m and z faces the x (6151), T (4041) and e (5051) faces, and
between m and 7 on the adjacent edge to the right, the # (6151)
Group of quartz crystals from Pala and Rincon,
San Diego County, California.
and e (5051) faces; while the other member has developed only
the T'(4041) face.
In figs. 8a, 3b and la, Lb are given orthographic and clino-
graphic projections of the two erystals numbered 38 and 1
respectively in the group of crystals above, showing the relative
size and Poros of the rare faces.
Figs. 2 and 4 also are distinctly marked twins; the one
shown by a joint or break along the prism face, the other by
a distinct difference in opacity of the two members.
Waring— Quartz from San Diego County, California. 127
Deformation, or abnormal growth, is also met with. Fig. 6
is an example of parallel orowth, while figs. 8, 9 and 10 are
distorted forms. In fig. 10 the crystal i is placed with its major
axis perpendicular to the paper, so that one is looking down
on the apex of the pyramid.
Corrosion or etching of the pyramidal faces, while those of
the prism are unaffected, is illustrated in figs. 11 and 12.
3a. ar
Orthographic and clinographic projections of quartz crystals
from Rincon, California, from figs. 5 and 1, p. 126.
One other extremely interesting point is that of the evidence
of secondary crystallization, as shown by the filling up of the
“, y, aud é-M faces to a level, or nearly so, with the prism face.
This is well exhibited in figs. 5 and 10.
While the s face occurs rather commonly elsewhere, the x
and y faces are of much rarer occurrence. It is therefore
worthy of note that upon the crystals of this region it is the
trapezohedral faces that develop most frequently, while the s
face, the trigonal pyramid, is seldom found.
Stanford University, California.
128 Boltwood—fadio-active Waters, Hot Springs, Ark.
Art, XVII.—On the Radio-active Properties of the Waters
of the Springs on the Hot Springs Reservation, Hot Springs,
Ark.; by Bertram B. Borrwoon.*
Tue Hot Springs Reservation is situated in Garland County,
Ark., on the western slope of the iiot Springs Mountain, a
spur of the Ozark Range. On the grounds of the Reser vation
the thermal waters rise thr ough over fifty separate sources, and
the total flow is estimated to be over 800,000 gallons in twenty-
four hours.
During the summer of 1904, at the direction of the Seere-
tary of the Interior, a thorough examination of the waters
of these springs for radio-active properties was carried out by
the writer. Samples of the waters were collected at the
springs, some in July by Dr. Joseph H. Pratt, and the remain-
der in August by Mr. Martin A. Eisele, Superintendent of
the Reservation. The samples were taken directly from the
springs and were immediately introduced into large, Glass
receptacles. These receptacles were tightly corked and the
corks were covered with a heavy coating of hot sealing-wax,
thus hermetically sealing up the sample contained within them.
The samples were shipped by express to New Haven, Conn.,
where the tests described in this paper were conducted. The
samples were collected and shipped in separate lots of six each,
and the tests were carried out as soon after the receipt of the
samples as possible. The average time required for the trans-
portation of the samples by the express companies was about
seven days.
The constituents tested for were radio-active gas (emanation)
and radio-active solids. An examination was also made of the
tufa deposited hy certain of the springs in order to determine
whether this contained any radio-active substances.
The methods employed in the determination of the radio-
active gas contained in the water, and in the determination of
the presence of radium salts in ‘solution, have already been
deseribedt in an earlier paper. The plan there followed of
expressing the activity of the dissolved radium emanation in
terms of the uranium equivalent has been modified to the
extent of introducing a correction for the proportion of radinm
emanation lost by the pulverized sample of uranium mineral
used for determining the standard.{ Since the quantity of
* Published with the permission of the Secretary of the Interior.
+ This Journal, xviii, 378, 1904.
+ A method for determining the proportion of emanation which spontane-
ously escapes from the cold, finely-ground mineral has been described in the
Phil. Mag. (6), ix, 599.
Boltwood— Radio-active Waters, Hot Springs, Ark. 129
radium associated with a definite weight of uranium in a radio-
active mineral has been shown* to be a perfectly definite and
unvarying quantity, this method of expressing the activity of a
given quantity of emanation affords a convenient and accurate
standard for the comparison of samples of water from different
sources.
Samples of water from forty-four of the different hot springs
were examined. The properties of the gaseous, radio-active
constituent were found to be identical with those of the radium
emanation. The activity of the gas fell to one-half value in
about 3°9 days and the active deposit, after two hours from the
start, had a half-value period of twenty-eight minutes.
In the following table are given’ the quantitative results of
the examination of the waters. The first column gives the
laboratory number of the sample, the second column contains
the number representing the activity of the gas actually
obtained from one liter of water expressed in terms of the
uranium standard,} the third column gives the number of days
which transpired from the time of collecting the sample to
the time of testing the water, and the fourth column gives the
initial activity of the water (per liter) as calculated from the
equation: 1. = eae)
Observed activity Days from Calculated
Laboratory per liter water time of initial
number. gx10-4 uranium. collection. activity.
2Q2A C°9 8 3°7
293A 3°8 7 14°4
24A iS ih 6°8
(25 A 3°9 7 1571
26A 8°4 Tr ra ets)
27A U4 8 1°6
29A 6°3 7 23°9
30A 12°5 7 49-0
382A 9) 7 28°9
383A 3°] 7 11°8
384A Wee 7 29°35
385A Ly ee 7 65°4
386A 14°4 7 54°7
387A Seal 9 10°3
388A 0-9 7 3°4
389A 8°5 9 41°6
40A 2°6 10 15°3
41A 1°5 10 CoG
A3A 13 7 4°9
* Boltwood, this Journal, xviii, 97; Phil. Mag. (6), ix, 599.
+ The number denotes the weight in grams of the quantity of uranium in
a radio-active mineral which is associated with a quantity of radium, the
total emanation from which would be equivalent to the emanation obtained
from one liter of the water.
AM. JoUR. ScI.—FourtTH Series, Vou. XX, No. 116.—AveGtst, 1905.
9
130 Loltwood—fadio-actwe Waters, Hot Springs, Ark.
Observed activity Days from Calculated
Laboratory per liter water time of initial
number. gx 10-4 uranium. collection. activity.
44 A 5°8 7 2250
45 A 0-9 9 4°4
46A 1S g 8°8
ATA S*1 6 23°5
A8A 1°3 7 4°9
50B i? 9 8°3
51B 1°3 8 5°3
52B O17 6 0°5
54B O°4 7. 1°5
55B 2°1 7 8°0
56b O'2 8 0°8
59B 3°4 i 12°9
60B 1°8 7 6°8
61B 4°9 6 14:2
62B 3°9 mh 14°8
636 25°6 7 97°3
64C 90 6 26°1
65C 3°0 6 14°5
66C 10°5 6 30°5
67C 2°5 8 10°2
68C 9°0 6 2671
69C 13°8 6 40-0
70C 91°6 6 265°6
71C 3°6 i 13°7
72C 3°9 i 14°8
Radio-activity of Water on Standing.
A sample of water No. 39A was sealed up in a large recep-
tacle holding about twelve liters and allowed to stand undis-
turbed for thirty-two days. At the end of this period the
activity of the gases contained in the water was tested. The
activity was very low and was not greater than the natural
residuum which would remain from the emanation originally
present. This indicated that the water contained no radium
salts in solution.
A quantity of water No. 70C, from which the gas had been
removed by boiling after acidifying with acetic acid, was
allowed to stand in an open vessel for two days, and was then
sealed up for twelve days longer. At the end of this time it
was tested for radio-active gases, but no radio-activity could be
detected in the gas which was obtained during the second boil-
ing operation. ‘This also indicated the absence of radium salts
in solution.
Residues from Water.
About twenty liters of water from sources No. 39A and 67C
were evaporated to dryness and the residue tested in the elec-
Boltwood—fiadio-active Waters, Hot Springs, Ark. 1381
troscope. No indication of any activity in the solid substance
could be obtained. The mineral salts in the residue were con-
verted into chlorides, dissolved in water, and the resulting
solution was sealed up for thirty days. The accumulated gases
were boiled off and tested. The observed radio-activity was
too slight to measure with any accuracy, and corresponded at
most to the smallest detectable trace of radium salts in the
waters.
Tufa from Springs.
On issuing from the ground a number of the springs form a
deposit of ‘“tufa,’ consisting chiefly of carbonate of calcium.
A sample of this material weighing 100 grams was dissolved
in dilute hydrochloric acid and the gas evolved was conducted
into a strong solution of sodium hydroxide. A small residue
of gases not absorbed by the sodium hydroxide solution was
examined in the electroscope. The radio-activity of these gases
indicated that the quantity of radium present in the tufa was
less than one-millionth of the quantity of radium associated
with an equal weight (100 grams) of uranium in pitchblende.
Gas from Springs.
Samples of the gases which rise with two of the springs
were tested under conditions identical with those under which
the gas obtained on boiling the water was tested. The measure-
ments were carried out eight days after the gases had been col-
lected at the springs, and the activity of the gases was found
to be less than that of equal volumes of gases obtained by boil-
ing the waters from the same springs. :
Water from Cold Springs.
In addition to the hot springs, there are on the grounds of
the Reservation two cold springs, situated on the northern slcpe
of Hot Springs Mountain, and issuing from the earth about
800 feet from the nearest hot spring. An examination of the
waters of these springs gave the following results :
Observed activity Days from Calculated
Laboratory per liter water time of initial
number. gx10-4 uranium. collection. activity.
73D 6°O 6 17-4
74D 18-1 10 106°8
Discussion of Results.
One of the most interesting results of the present investiga-
tion is the demonstration of such marked variations in the
activity of the water from such a closely related series of
springs. The temperature of the different springs varies from
132 Boltwood—Radio-active Waters, Hot Springs, Ark.
°C. to 64° C. and the total solids in the waters vary from
170 to 810 parts per million,* while the average amount of
solids in all the springs is between 275 parts and 280 parts. In
only a few of the springs do the solids fall below 270 parts or
rise above 290 parts per million.
In their general chemical characteristic the waters from the
different springs show a marked reseinblance to one another, and
such a great variation in the activity of the different waters
was entirely unexpected. It will be noticed that the most
active spring water (No. 70C) is over 500 times more active
than the least active (No. 525).
That these variations were in no way due to the conditions
under which the particular samples were collected and tested
was shown by the fact that duplicate samples collected at dit-
ferent: times and by different persons gave closely agreeing
results.
All of the hot springs are situated on a narrow strip of land
about 500 yards in length. No connection can be discovered
between the location of the springs and their radio-active prop-
erties. The more active springs are widely scattered and
adjacent springs usually show great differences in the radio-
active properties of their waters. As a general summary it
ean be stated that it has been found impossible to establish any
connection between tne temperature, flow, location or chem-
ical composition of the waters of the springs and the observed
differences in the radio-active properties.
Another interesting point is brought out by the relatively
high activity of the ‘two cold springs as compared with the
least active hot springs. It will be noted that the second most
radio-active water was that from the cold spring No. 74D.
This would seem to indicate that the thermal qualities of the
waters and their radio-active properties are due to quite inde-
pendent causes.
The results of this investigation demonstrate the necessity of
the quantitative examination of the water from each separate
spring in order to obtain a definite knowledge of the radio-
active properties of the waters derived from a ‘number of adja-
cent, individual sources.
139 Orange St., New Haven, Conn., June, 1905.
* A very complete chemical examination of the waters of these springs has
been made by Mr. J. K. Haywood of the U. S. Department of Agriculture.
The results have been published under the title of ‘‘ The Hot Springs of
Arkansas,’ Senate Document No. 282, Government Printing Office, Wash-
ington, 1902.
Murgoci— Genesis of Riebeckite and [iebeckite Rocks. 138
Arr. X VIII.—On the Genesis of Riebeckite and Rviebeckite
ftocks ;* by G. M. Murcocr, Bucharest.
ReEcENT investigations have shown that riebeckite rocks are
not uncommon; new occurrences are being discovered, and in
old localities alkali rocks described as containing black or blue
hornblende are often identified as really containing riebeckite.
These rocks are attracting special attention, because of the
presence of this rare e sodium-iron amphibole, and because some
of them are the most acid of alkali rocks, rising to 78 per cent
in SiO, (according to the analyses of butureanu, Ludwig,
etc.) and to 10 per cent in Na,O and K,O. |
I have discovered these interesting ‘roeks in Dobrogea at
Jacobdeal and Piatra rosiet (at the mouths of the Danube),
and was able to study zm sztu their geological characters and
relations to the enclosing rocks. I have also compared them
in the laboratory with similar rocks from other localities. A
résumé of the facts in Dobrogea is as follows:
In the Paleozoic formations composed of quartzites, sand-
stones and conglomerates, calcareous and argillaceous shales
and crystalline “limestone, the foliowing rocks are found as
intrusive masses: various kinds of or -anites, microgranites,
- quartz and orthoclase porphyries, diorites and olivine eabbros,
ete., which in general occupy the anticlines of the sedimentary
formations. All the foregoing rocks and the Triassic sand-
stone and limestone are penetrated by dikes of microgranites,
porphyries, diorites, pearl and porphyritic diabases, etc. It.
has been proved satisfactorily that there have been two epochs
of voleanic activity: Paleozoic (pre-Permian) and Triassic.
Sometimes the mesocratic rocks of the two series are very
similar and could easily be confused one with another, if the
field relations are not correctly interpreted.
The rocks of the first voleanic epoch, usually alkali rocks
(Mrazec), show a consanguinity obvious in the field and con-
firmed by investigation in the laboratory, Dobrogea being in
this respect a very interesting petrographical province. Rie-
beckite rocks, however, are confined to the hills of the western
Dobrogea in two of the anticlines of the slightly metamor-
phosed argillaceous shales and sandstones. The anticlines have
a northwest-southeast strike and in the region of Carjelari run
* Preliminary communication read before the Geological Society in Phil-
adelphia, December, 1904.
+ G. M. Murgoci, Ridicari geologice in N. Dobrogei, Bull. Soc. Ingineri-
loc de mine, 1898, Bucuresti.
Among the specimens that I collected in the quarries of Jacobdeal, Prof.
L. Mrazec recognized riebeckite granite and described it in: Note prelim-
inaire sur un granite & riebeckite and aegirine des environs de Turcoaia
(Dobrogea). Ibidem. 1899.
184 Murgoci— Genesis of Riebeckite and Riebeckite Rocks.
together, forming, by their uniting cores, one single large mass
of eruptive rocks.* In this zone, oranites (soda-granites, nord-
markite, and quartz syenite) microgranites and granite porphy-
ries (2 ranophyre and paisanite) and typical quartz and ortho-
clase porphyries are found together in the same or neighboring
localities. One may remark, according to the present expo--
sures and topography of these rocks, that the porphyritic
masses, with or without riebeckite, occupy a larger area at the
surface than the granite (in the proportion of 3:1); the region
is much eroded, the layers are almost vertical and the porphy-
ritic facies occurs in the western part of the granite zone.
In this case the porphyritic rocks can not be regarded only as
marginal facies of the granite massif. On the other hand, the
various rocks with riebeckite form large streaks and patches
(schlieren) mixed at random in the massives, with similar
masses without riebeckite, but very acid and poor in black
constituents. Some masses, especially those of more basic
character, were obviously homogeneous and _ polygeneous
inclusions. Although there are many quarries in the two hills
of Jacobdeal and Piatra rosie, which furnish exposures, dike
rocks of pegmatitic, aplitic or lamprophyric characters could
not be found. In one place a rock of the type of nordmark-
ite occurs in such a manner that it might be regarded as a dike
terminating abruptly upwards; the same rock, however, occurs
in the neighborhood as polygeneous inclusions.
Owing to the absence of obvious dikes, it 1s impossible to
determine the order of the ascension and consolidation of the
magmas forming these various rocks. Their occurrence and —
structure, their study by chemical and petrographical methods
and the relations between them, reveal to us only local phe-
nomena which occurred during the consolidation of the large
molten mass.
It is well known what a tendency the alkali magmas have to
differentiate and especially in massives of sodic rocks; this fact
can be very well confirmed, as shown by numerous researches.
This phenomenon, often described in the alkali rocks of the
trachyte syenite series (especially in nephelite syenites), 1s also
mentioned in massives with riebeckite rocks of the granite-
rhyolite series, when studied over large areas. There might
be cited the classic researches by Brogger (Christiania region),
Tenne (Yemen), Washington (Essex County, Mass.t), Lacroix
* See the geological map by R. Pascu, Moniteur du Petrole roum. 1904.
Bucharest.
+ In the neighborhood of Boston, ‘‘the glaucophane granite” studied by
White has been determined by Washington as riebeckite granite (Journal
of Geology, vol. vi, No. 8 and foi., 1898-1899), and among the specimens
which I possess through the kindness of Prof. Kemp, I was able to distinguish
riebeckite granophyre, paisanite, interesting inclusions, etc. Even White
described gradual variations of structure and composition in one and the
same massif. Proc. of the Boston Soc, of Nat. Hist., 28, No. 6, 1897.
Murgoci— Genesis of Riebeckite and Riebeckite Rocks. 135
(Madagascar, Corsica, Colorado), Pelikan (Socotra, ete.), Har-
ker (I. of Skye, etc.), and many interesting remarks in Rosen-
busech’s writings, where he discusses amphibole and pyroxene
granites, ete. The very interesting example is given by Lacroix*
in the rhyolite of Somalis, where schlieren of microgranite
were observed in the rbyolitic mass.
I have recently compared my riebeckite rocks with those
from Scotland, Wales and Massachusetts, and have been able
to extend and generalize the conclusions of Lacroixt deduced
from observations on different granites with riebeckite and
egirite, and I would include also microgranitic and porphy-
ritic types from granite and quartz syenite series. Summariz-
ing the observations, we may emphasize the characters which
reveal to us the genesis of the riebeckite rocks as follows:
1. The massives with riebeckite rocks are characterized by a
great variety of types rich in soda as schlieren or as dikes.
In such massives there is very frequently a tendency towards
a pegmatitic or miarolitic structure in some of the schlieren,
and a fiuidal or microgranitic one in others. Schlieren with a
protoclastic structure may be observed in the holocrystalline
types and also in porphyritic ones.
2. Variations occur not only in the structure, but also much
more in the constituents, especially in the dark-colored ones,
which are, however, almost always amphibole, or pyroxene, or
both, often grown together or zonal. The amphibole in the
most acid rocks is of the arfvedsonite-riebeckite group, in the
relatively basic ones it is of the kataforite-barkevikite group ;
the pyroxene is egirite or egirite-augite. dAlgirite nearly
always accompanies riebeckite ; but while egirite occurs often
as well developed, more or less idiomorphie, crystals, the large
patches of riebeckite have, as is well known, a spongy,
poikilitic structure with a well marked allotriomorphic devel-
opment. The character of its occurrence, in even granular
rocks and in porphyries, shows that riebeckite has been formed
continually during the whole time of the consolidation of the
magma. It is found as microlites, in small and minute prisms
and needles or fibers, included in other constituents such as
feldspar, quartz, etc.; as large dark-blue crystals grown together
with other minerals, such as eegirite, zircon, and pyrochlore ;
as patches cementing feldspar and even quartz; as poikilitic
shreds and beads in the groundmass of the porphyritic rocks ;
further it is found in miarolitic cavities, in pneumatogeneous
inclusions, in the cracks and druses of the rocks filled by
pegmatitic masses, ete.
* A. Lacroix, Les Rhyolites & aegirine and’ riebeckite de Somalis. C. R.,
Ac. Sc. Paris, exxviii, 1899.
+ A. Lacroix, Materiaux pour la Minéralogie de Madagascar. Nouvelles
Archives du Muséum d’Hist. Natur. IV’ s, 1902, p. 164, etc. See also Les
travaux de M. A. Lacroix, 1903.
186 Murgoci— Genesis of Riebeckite and Riebeckite Rocks.
3. The riebeckite rocks represent in the massives the peg-
matitic varieties, consolidated under special physical conditions,
riebeckite being a mineral which requires pneumatolitic con-
ditions for its formation. All petrologists, who have studied
riebeckite rocks, mention pegmatitic, micropegmatitic or grano-
phyric structures as being characteristic of them. Brogger*
has remarked that riebeckite (and arfvedsonite) occurs espe-
cially in rocks rich in quartz (over 60 per cent, according to
the analyses of Butureanut and E. Ludwig}, up to 78°5 per
cent), and on the other hand, while segirite occurs in almost all
the rocks of the Christiania. region, riebeckite appears only in
those which indicate high pressure, and is wanting in those peg-
matitic dikes, where severite is the most frequent mineral.
Flink & Boggilds have described riebeckite (“type II of arfved-
sonite,’ Riebeckite?) in the pegmatitic schlieren of Greenland
(Narsarsuk), which are also very rich in egirite. It must be
noted, that the syenite pegmatites of Narsarsuk occur not as
veins or dikes, like those from Christiania, but “there are
dike-like syenite formations, which differ from the ordinary
typical syenite, in having as chief elements constituents, rich
in iron, of the pyroxene and amphibole series. There can be
no question of dikes or deposits, ... . . the minerals show
that the pegmatitic formations have arisen simultaneously with
the bulk of the,rock.” Heddle, Prior, Kénig, etc., have also
studied pertect crystals from quartz dikes or miarolite cavities
only. On the other hand, Lacroix| has described very eharac-
teristic pegmatites, containing the only large crystals of rie-
beckite known, which come from Colorado (Sau Petro’s Dom),
Corsica, Madagascar, ete. The riebeckite crystals occur in the
pegmatite- ike black tourmaline in common pegmatites ; the
riebeckite pegmatites pass over gradually into eranitic or
microgranitic rocks.
*W.C. Brégger, Eruptivgesteine der Kristiania Gebietes, i, 1894, pp. 36,
09, 184, 186, etc.
+ V. Butureanu, Sur la composition des granite & Riebeckite de Jacob-
deal, Dobrogea. Annales scientifiques de ?Université de Jassy, 1898. An
analysis of riebeckite too.
{ A. Pelikan, Petrographische Untersuchungen von Gesteine der Inseln
Sokotra, Abdel Kiri und Semba. Denkschriften der Math. Naturw. Klasse
der k. Akademie Wien, 1902, Ixxi. Analyses by Prof. E. Ludwig.
§ J. Flink, O. Boggild and Chr. Winter. Untersuchungen tiber Mineralien
von Julianehaab. Meddelelser om Groenland, 1899, 24. Reference in Zeit-
schr. f. Kryst. and Min. xxxiv, 1901.—N. v. Ussing (ibidem, 1894, Abstract in
Neues Jahrbuch f. Miner., etc., 1901, 45) cites riebeckite also in syenite.
| A. Lacroix, after the communications to Academie de Sciences, Paris
(Colorado, Comptes Rendus cix, 1889, Mt. Saber, C. R. cxxviii, 1899) returns
to the Corsican rocks (described first by Le Vevier, C. R. cix, 1899, and
Nentien, Mem. carte géol. France, 1897) in Minéralogie de la France, 1, 699,
and recently discusses the general question in Materiaux pour la Minéralogie
de Madagascar. Nouv. Archives du Muséum d’Hist. Natur. 1902-1903. See
also: Les travaux de M. A. Lacroix, 1903.
Murgoci— Genesis of Riebeckite and Riebeckite Rocks. 137
4. I may further emphasize the similarity of riebeckite,
in its occurrence and petrographic characters, with the tourma-
line from tourmaline granites, aplites, ete. The poikilitic
structure of the large crystals, hypidiomorphie and _ allotrio-
morphic forms in one and the same rock, are characters com-
mon to both riebeckite and tourmaline. The rocks with
tourmaline are very alkalic like those with riebeckite* ; rie-
beckite like tourmaline eliminates other black constituents
such as biotite. The riebeckite rocks have their special acces-
sory mineral, zircon, in the same way that tourmaline rocks
carry cassiterite. i
5. The quartz and the feldspars (which are orthoclase either
with patches of soda-microcline or with albite in microperthite
intergrowths, all more or less idiomorphic) contain many inclu-
sions of riebeckite, zircon, and liquids with bubbles and cubes
of common salt.
6. A great deal of zircon accompanies the riebeckite ;
Brégger, Washington, Mrazec, Lacroix and Souza Brandao
(1905) emphasize this fact. Lacroix found as much as 7-5 per
cent zircon in the rocks of Madagascar. The barkevikite rocks,
on the other hand, contain much titanite. It is worthy of men-
tion in this connection that Brogger{ states that in the middle
of a dike of quartz-lindodite (of west Aker, Christiania) riebeckite
oceurs with much zircon, crystallized atter riebeckite, whilst at
the salband there is katoforite and egirite without zircon ; on
the other hand, zircon is very frequent in the pegmatitic dikes
at the Christiania region. Zircon ard titanite have been formed
during the whole time of the consolidation of the magma-like
riebeckite.
7. In miarolitic cavities of these rocks fluorspar, galena,
zircon (spinel?) and riebeckite have been found together.
Brogger, Lacroix and Washington state that fluorspar is often
a constituent of the rocks rich in soda, which contain egirite
and riebeckite, and in general I have also found it in many of
the rocks of the region studied by me and in those of other
places, such as in the Quincey granite, the trachyte of Berkum
near Remagen, the microgranite of Ailsa Craig, ete.
The occurrence of fluorspar in certain granites is very
important from a theoretical standpoint; in ’ them fluorspar
occurs as small crystals, often microlites, grown together with
or included in the egirite; riebeckite when inter-grown with
egirite is quite free from such fluorspar inclusions, but may
contain small pockets of rare carbonates (parisite?). In general
* The complicated composition of riebeckite is well known. I know of
six analyses and no two alike ; the differences can not come from mistakes
only. On the other hand, riebeckite contains FI also.
+ A. Lacroix, Materiaux de Madagascar, loc. cit., i, p. 89.
zt WwW: C: Brogger, loc. cit., pp. 187, 138.
188 Murgoci— Genesis of Riebeckite and Riebeckite Rocks.
gegirite granite carries much fluorspar; in the pure riebeckite
granite, on the other hand, it is almost entirely wanting.
Bri bg oer mentions the occurrence of much fluorspar and
eeirite on the salbands of the grorudites of Ombholtsaeter,
which are apophyses of the soda-granite of Kongsberg and in
relation with the genuine peomatitic dikes and akmite granite
of Rundemyr. According to Rosenbuscht in this massif there
occurs also riebeckite eranite.
Brogger{ described also a peripheral transformation of bar-
kevikite into segirite and lepidomelane with a rich accompani-
ment of fluorspar, and he explains this change as due to pneu-
matolitie action at the end of the consolidation of the hydato-
pyrogeneous mass or immediately after it. This may be
possible in the pegmatitic dikes of Christiania, where Brogger
has proved four phases of pneumatolitic action, egirite being
formed in the third phase. If the rock contains both riebeck-
ite and segirite, often grown together with fluorspars and car-
bonates, I believe the process to have occurred in another
manner, riebeckite and segirite being primary, fluorspar and
carbonates also. It is well known what complicated relations
of zonal and other intergrowths there are between the pyrox-
enes and amphiboles when they occur together, especially in
eegirite-riebeckite rocks ; some petrologists have considered the
eegirite as a transformation product of riebeckite, and others
have taken the riebeckite for a secondary product of eegirite.
Among other examples there might be mentioned the one
furnished by Crosss in his description of amphiboles from
Silver Cliff, Col., and another by Béggild (loe. cit.), who has
found in the peematitie schlieren of Narsarsuk arfvedsonite
covered by secondary zgirite, and in the same rock riebeckite
with a core of segirite. ” Most petrologists state, however, that
riebeckite and eegirite are primary in their rocks. Without deny-
ing the later transformation of riebeckite into eegirite, a fact
easy to imagine considering that their composition is similar and
that.eegirite seems to be the more stable form, I believe, how-
ever, that in general riebeckite and egirite are both primary
in rocks, and if transformations have taken place, they must
have occurred before the consolidation of the magma.
The genesis at the same time of these two minerals of almost
identical composition is a very interesting phenomenon and
deserves to be taken for a momient into consideration: Steen-
* W.C. Brégger, ibidem, p. 190.
+ H. Rosenbusch, Massige Gesteine, II ed., p. 59.
t W. C. Brégger, Die Mineralien der Syenit-pegmatitgiinge von Norvegien.
Zeitschrift der Krystallographie und Mineralogie, 16, 1890. The first part is
devoted to the rocks of that region.
$ Whitman Cross, Note on some secondary minerals of the amphibole
and pyroxene groups. This Journal, xxxix, 1890.
Murgoci— Genesis of Riebeckiie and Lriebeckite Locks. 139
strup* by melting arfvedsonite has obtained egirite ; Doelter
by melting gastaldite in sodium fluoride has also obtained
egirite or akmite, but without fluoride there resulted an
amorphous mass. These two experiments and many others
have shown that eegirite and pyroxene can originate in molten
masses under ordinary conditions. This is, however, not the
ease with amphiboles, and recently Vogt}; has demonstrated
again that amphiboles require high pressure for their forma-
tion. Considering the facts more closely, for a medium to be
capable of giving rise to the riebeckite or egirite- molecule
(which may be expressed by Si,O,,Fe’’’, Fe” Na,t), there
appear to be two chief factors necessary, namely pressure and
mineralizers§. The obvious fact that these two minerals can
originate at the same time in a magna, shows that there cannot
be much difference between their coefficients of solubility, 1. e.,
their capacity for forming saturated solutions in the molten
mass; on the other hand, the melting point of these minerals
(aeg.=940°, rieb.=945° C. according to Doelter) is not differ-
ent under ordinary circumstances and cannot vary much if
the circumstances vary in the same way for both minerals.
The structure of the riebeckite-egirite rocks and the mode of
occurrence of these minerals support the statement of Hépfner
verified by Vogt (1. ¢.), that pressure has not much influence
on the order of separation of the minerals in a magma and on
the composition of eutectic mixtures. I may add, with
respect to the ideas of Loewinson-Lessing,| that pressure alone
is not sufficient to force a dimorphous substance to crystallize
in one form rather than in another, although one may have a
smaller true molecular volume than the other. According to
this general dynamic rule, egirite, with the smaller molecular
volume, should be the characteristic mineral of the abyssal
rocks rich in soda. Observation and experiment contradict
this: eegirite can form under ordinary pressure and occurs
much more in hypabyssal and volcanic rocks than in abyssal
ones; riebeckite has not been obtained at ordinary pressure,
but it occurs in trachyte with fluorspar and in rhyolites, which
clearly show evidences of a pneumatolytic process. On the
* The best argument for the primary existence of the egirite is its occur-
rence, in the same rock, with little thin needles of riebeckite, which could
not resist even the slowest and slightest action of transformation.
+ T. H. Vogt, Die Silikatschmeltzlosungen.- Mem. of the Acad. of Chris-
tiania, 1904.
¢ This formula given by K6nig, and confirmed by Butureanu on the
eee riebeckite, agrees very closely with the analyses of egirite by
§ This question in particular I intend to take up again, after some experi-
ments, with more detail.
| F. Loewinson-Lessing, Studien iiber Eruptivgesteine. Memoires du Con-
gres Geol, de St. Petersburg, 1897, p. 325 f.
140 Murgoci— Genesis of Riebeckite and Riebeckite Rocks.
other hand, the schistose metamorphosed riebeckite rocks of
Glogenitz and Alter Padroso, etc., show no transformation in
this respect, seginite and riebeckite having the same character
and both being primary, often grown together or zonal, as in
the unpressed eruptive rocks. We are forced accordinaly to
invoke, besides the composition of the magma and the pressure,
also that important agent, which has left its traces in the com-
ponents of these rocks, the mineralizers.*
If now, p represents the conditions of pressure, which may
be unity,-or one atmosphere, and m the mineralizers}, which
may be much reduced, of a magma in which the whole sub-
stance $i,O0,, Fe’, Fe’’ Na, may crystallize as egirite, then P and
M may be the conditions of minimal pressure and mineralizers
in which the same substance may erystallize as riebeckite.
One can imagine that between the points p, m and P, M there
may be a large number of stages (P,, M,), where there can
arise a variable percentage A of egirite to & of riebeckite,
more or less respectively, accordingly as a particular stage is
nearer to the point p, m or P, M.t The variation of the
medium (composition of magna + mineralizers) influences
in large proportion the phenomena, and the representative
curve of the phenomena f (m, p) is displaced in plane, and for
a definite value of # we meet with a critical point for the for-
mation of riebeckite; m a magma below this limit,—rie-
beckite can no longer form under any pressure by the given
mineralizers. And according to these different conditions of
a magma, pressure and mineralizers, there can originate in one
and the same igneous mass and at the same time of consolida-
tion rocks with riebeckite only, rocks with riebeckite and
eegirite in all proportions, and those with eegirite alone.
In this way we can explain the relations which have been
observed between riebeckite, segirite and fluorspar. The min-
* F, Loewinson-Lessing in his interesting discussion (1. cit. p. 359) admits
the necessity for pressure and an active gas (he means water) for the forma-
tion of amphiboles. The experiments which he has made by melting pyrox-
enes and amphiboles in an atmosphere of water vapour have not been suc-
cessful in producing hornblende. It would be very interesting to know what
would be the result of an experiment in a fluorine atmosphere under a high
pressure! IJ may note that the only synthetic hornblende (with 2% Na2O)
was obtained by Chrustschoff (1891) in sealed tubes in the presence of water
at high temperature.
+ That is to say, the capability of the mineralizers for forming minerals.
+t This question is a very complicated one and we do not know how many
substances and how many phases there are ata given moment. We may,
however, imagine the simplified case of n substances (magma, iron-sodium
silicate and fluorine mineralizers) and n+1 phases (magmatic solution, rie-
beckite, egirite and gas). The most analogous example is to be found in
the crystallization of calcite and aragonite (or conchite) from a dilute solu-
tion at varying temperatures. See: Beitrage zur mineralogischen Kenntnis
der Kalkausscheidung im Tierreich von Agnes Kelly. Jenidischen Zeitschrift
fiir Naturwissenschaft, 1900.
Murgoci— Genesis of frebeckite and Rrebeckite Locks. 141
eralizers have not a catalytic action only; it has been demon-
strated several times that they have an active part in the con-
solidation of magmas and in the formation of minerals.
Accordingly, in a magma of a definite composition containing
mineralizers and under a sufficient pressure to give rise to rie-
beckite, a part of the mineralizers (I'l, Na, Ti, Zr, etc.) play
an active role in the formation of the riebeckite, entering also
into its composition.* Where there is low pressure and the
mineralizers are not appropriate for the formation of riebeckite,
egirite is formed, and the mineralizers, which it does not
require for its production, react on the magma and among them-
selves, giving rise to other characteristic minerals with the
form and paragenesis which we have seen above.
8. The former presence of high pressure and abundant
active mineralizers can be clearly deduced from the study of
riebeckite rocks, as may be seen from the works of Brogger,
Lacroix and others. Lacroix, in particular, concludes from the
presence of fluorspar, valena, zircon, and the pseudomorphie
changes and alterations undergone by riebeckite and egirite,
that emanations characterized by fluorine and zirconiuin were
active at the moment of consolidation, and that in riebeckite
rocks zirconium plays the part of tin in alkali rocks with tourma-
line. He, like Brégger, assumes a powerful manifestation of
post-voleanic activity, which in some cases has produced deposits
of eryolite, as at St. Peter’s Dome, Colo., and in Greenland, or
marked transformations in the structure and composition of
the rocks, as in the rhyolite of Somalis.
According to my researches in Dobrogea the post- -voleanic
activity is almost wanting in massives with many schlieren and
much variation in the kinds of rocks. No pegmatitic dikes or
veins like those in Greenland or Norway have been seen in the
many quarries in Jacobdeal and Piatra rosie, and the contact
metamorphism of the neighboring rocks is very small. I may
add that, in this respect, the alkali granite of Macin and
Pricopant shows much greater contact phenomena and eae
matolitic post-voleanic activity. In the cracks of the Jacob-
deal granite | have found only afew spots coated with little
erystals of quartz, hematite, very rarely fibers of crocidolite,
and beautiful dendrites of ferromanganese hydroxides like
those from the Quincy granite.
* This deduction finds a certain verification in the composition of rie-
beckite ; unfortunately the existing analyses are very unsatisfactory. Ina
recent conversation with Dr. Tassin, he informed me that he had found
fluorine in a riebeckite which he is analyzing.. Amphiboles with fluorine are
known; for example, see the pargasites, etc., in the table of analyses by
Hintze, and the hornblende from Grenville (Quebec) with 2°8 per cent Fl
(Harrington, B., this Journal, 1903, p. 392). Perhaps the loss in Ké6nig’s
(riebeckite) analyses (made, he says, with all precautions) may be fluorine.
142 Murgoci— Genesis of Riebeckite and Riebeckite Rocks.
The pneumatolitic elements have been in the magma and
reacting rather dnring the time of the consolidation of these
riebeckite rocks than later (as I have attempted to show above).
The study of the inclusions of riebeckite granite give further
support for this statement. Such inclusions have been men-
tioned by Brégger, Washington, and White, but do not seem
to have aroused much interest. I have found many inclusions
in the granite of Jacobdeal and Piatra rosie, and have observed
some in the Quincy granite. They may be classified as
follows :
Homogeneous inclusions, that is aggregates of riebeckite
which are often fibrous (crocidolite ?), with spongy quartz,
zircon and hematite; the riebeckite forms large prisms but is
not well developed.
Pneumatogeneous inclusions, that is, those formed by miner-
alizing vapors which are porous or hollow, with a great deal of
fluorspar, galena, pyrites, pyrotite, mispikel, hematite and
many earthy looking minerals which are certainly alteration
products of other minerals; riebeckite and augite-egirite are
rare, feldspar is more fr equent and there is very little quartz.*
Polygenous and enalugenous inclusions formed by varying
combinations of processes, of variable size and composition ;
in such inclusions occur large crystals of orthoclase and albite,
pyroxenes, amphiboles (but no riebeckite), astrophillite, mica,
etc. Through the assimilation of these inclusions local varia-
tions in the composition and structure of the granite arise,
and rocks are formed (endopligenous inclusions) of the types
of nordmarkite, akerite, grorudite, paisanite and even quartz-
pulaskite and sélvsbergite. The occurrence of these different
rocks as inclusions is very striking in the many quarries of
Dobrogea and also in specimens from Quincy, Masst. In
many of these rocks riebeckite is replaced by katoforite or
barkevikite, and this fact can be explained, in my belief, by
variation in the composition of the magma under definite limits,
while pressure and mineralizers remain the same as in the
main mass.
Lacroix has described from Ampasibitika contact rocks of a
riebeckite granite (perhaps in part inclusions) and states that
they contain the same minerals, riebeckite—sometimes in pseu-
domorphic forms—egirite, fluorspar, spinel and zircon, which
occur in the granite. The contact of Dobrogea does not show
marked metamorphism; there are epidote, pyroxene and
amphibole hornfelses, but without riebeckite, and it may be
* G. Murgoci, Minerale din Dobrogea. Publicatiunile Soc. Naturalistilor,
2, 1902. Bucharest.
+I may further remark that the analyses of an enclosure in granite of
Pigeon Hill, by Washington (loc. cit.), does not differ at all from the akerite
analyzed by the same investigator. Journal of Geology, 1898-99.
Murgoci— Genesis of Riebeckite and Riebeckite Rocks. 148
added that in general this mineral does not occur in genuine
schists. The well known forellengranulite (orthogneiss) of
Glogenitz,* the riebeckite granulite of Alter Pedroso in Por-
tugal,t are surely eruptive rocks,{ and their characters are
quite similar to those summarized above. Lacroix§ mentions
genuine schists with riebeckite from Corsica, from the Alps of
Savoy, from Bulgar Dagh in the Taurus, ete., which occur asso-
ciated with glaucophane schists. It is to be noted that the rie-
beckite of these rocks occurs as needles and fibers, radially
spherulitic or lenticular, and it has always been compared with
the tourmaline of ]uxullianite. In some rocks, especially holo-
erystalline ones, needies and fibers of riebeckite(?) are found in
such relation to large erystals of riebeckite or egirite, that they
look like secondary products and are quite similar to those
described by Cross, Lane, White and Washington. Cross has
identified the blue amphibole of Silver Cliff with the crocidolite
of Lacroix]; perhaps it is the case that all these kinds of blue
amphiboles should be referred to crocidolite.4/ Crocidolite
seems to be different from riebeckite both in occurrence and
composition ; its genesis in riebeckite rocks seems to show that
it should there be primary, indicating circumstances which Wein-
schenk presupposes in piezocrystallization ; and many characters
of crocidolite are in accordance with this hypothesis, as S.
Franchi has deduced for the glaucophane (and crocidolite)
schists. |
From the above mentioned characters of riebeckite and of
the rocks in which it occurs, we may, to some extent, deduce
the circumstances under which these rocks have been formed,
especially those from Dobrogea.
The magma which has given rise to the riebeckite rocks
ascends from an alkaline magma basin, from which it is derived
by a process of magmatic differentiation. The molten mass,
*H. Keyserling, Der Gloggnitzer Forellenstein: Tschermak’s Mineral.
petrogr. Mittheilungen, xxii, 1903.
+ V. de Souza Brandao, Ueber einen portugesischen Alkaligranulit. Cen-
tralblatt fur Mineralogie, Geologie und Paleontologie, 1902, p. 50.
¢ Dr. Teall and Fleet have found, last summer, in Wales, a riebeckite gneiss
which in mineralogical and petrographical characters seems a granite gneiss.
S A. Lacroix, Mineralogie de la France, i, p. 697.
| With the blue amphibole described by W. Cross, C. Palache has identi-
fied another blue amphibole, crossite, from an albite schist of Berkeley,
Bul. of Geol. Depart. Calif. Univ., i, 1894. I may observe, however, fol-
lowing the comment of Lane and my own determinations, that this cannot
be done ; the crossite of Berkeley is a blue amphibole (glaucophane) which
has the plane of the optic axes perpenaicular to (010), b:c=16°. But I have
found the amphibole of Cross in a syenite from Spanish Peak, Cal., and it
looks like crocidolite.
*| S. Franchi, Prof. Louderback. etc., have found crocidolite quartzite in
the area of glaucophane schists which are very similar to the riebeckite
schists described by Lacroix.
144 Murgoci— Genesis of Riebeckite and Riebeckite Rocks.
isolated perhaps in an anticline or im a laccolith, is maintained
for a long time as a mother liquor im a state of hydrothermal
fusion in which there swim crystals already formed, or in pro-
cess of formation. On account of the impermeability to vapor
of the beds of shale, quartzite, etc., between which it has been
introduced, the mineralizers cannot escape, they continue to
act on the magma and to be gradually assimilated. The pres-
ence of fluorspar, zircon, titanite, and sulphides as constituents
of the riebeckite rocks, the occurrence of pneumatogeneous
and polygeneous inclusions and of schlieren with characteristic
minerals confirm this view.
The chief factors in the formation of riebeckite rocks are
the pressure and definite mineralizers; with the variation of
these two factors and of the composition of the magma, the pro-
ducts of erystallization are also changed. Only under high’
pressure due to tectonic movements and to the persistent reten-
tion of mineralizing vapors, and with a large quantity of the
latter present, could riebeckite be formed ; it one of these
factors varied, ‘especially the pressure, segirite ‘would then oceur
in addition to riebeckite. Of course the pressure, the mineral-
izers and the composition of the magma usually differ from
one point to another, as may be seen from the quantitative and
qualtative variation of the mineral elements of the rocks.
Especially had the assimilation of inclusions of neighboring
rocks provoked such variations of chemical and physical con-
ditions, that riebeckite could no longer be formed.
In addition to the chemical, a mechanical action was present 5
new upwellings of fluid magma and of mineralizers cause
streams and vortices in the consolidating molten mass. ‘These
influence the crystallization and aid in the formation of
schlieren ; in the more quiet parts a pegmatitic or a granular
structure is produced; there in the streams and more agitated
areas a fluidal or a pr otoclastic structure originates ; the rapid
sinking of the temperature, the loss of thineralizing vapors,
or lowering of pressure in other parts, determines a porphyritic
structure with the two periods of consolidation more or less
well pronounced of the mineral constituents.*
Riebeckite forms only in the relatively most acid magmas,
and especially under the influence of mineralizers: its compo-
sition, content of fluorine, long period of crystallization from
the beginning up to the end of and even after the consolida-
* In respect to the conception of the role of the mineralizers and inclu-
sions, their influence atthe time of consolidation of the magma, the form-
ing of schlieren and of the structure, I incline toward the views of the
French petrologists. None the less, in the ideas of Prof. E. Weinschenk I
have found many points & propos to these views; the short and clear chap-
ters on these questions in his book, Gesteinskunde I, 1902, excite my hearti-
est admiration.
Sa
Murgoci—- Genesis of Prebeckite and Riebeckite Rocks. 145
tion of the magmas; its occurrence in cavities and its para-
genesis with zircon, pyrochlore, fluorspar, sulphides, etc.; its
presence as large er ystals j in pegmatites in immediate relation
with veins of fluorspar or eryolite, and its absence in non-
eruptive rocks, are many facts which support the view as to its
origin presented in this paper.
The mineralizers which aid to produce it are not rich in
water and sulphur vapors, but are characterized by an abund-
ance of Zr, which has played a part in riebeckite granite’
similar to that of Sn in cassiterite granites. Zircon also forms
throughout the whole period of consolidation. One can cor-
relate: tourmaline—Sn; riebeckite— Zr and katoforite (or
another soda amphibole)—T1i.
The magma has been fairly rich in Al,O,, Na,O, and K,O,
but a large quantity of soda and iron have been brought j in “by
mineralizers and the genesis of riebeckite facilitated. The
occurrence of masses and small areas of hematite and limon-
ite, around or across the inclusions and schlieren, does not
come from secondary alteration, but from areas which at the
moment of consolidation were still more or less impregnated
with iron compounds and water vapors.
Doubtless new upwellings of magma and of mineralizers
have caused some transformations in the minerals already
formed in the riebeckite and egirite, but needles and fibers
of crocidolite could be formed in eruptive rocks, as well as in
metamorphic schists, as a phenomenon of piezoerystallization,
which is quite in accord with the process which I have here
tried to sketch.
Am. Jour. Sc1.—FourtH Series, VoL. XX, No. 116.—Aveust, 1905.
10
146 Graton and Schaller
Purpurite, a new Mineral.
Arr. XIX.—Purpurite, a new Mineral ;* by lL. C. Graton
and W. 'T. ScuHaLurr.
Introduction.
In the central portion of the Carolinas there occurs a belt of
metamorphic rocks penetrated by narrow dikes of pegmatite,
many of which contain lithium minerals. There can be little
question but that the dikes of pegmatite represent the final
product of a parent magma which has crystallized as granite
and appears almost continuously along the extent of this belt.
Attention was first directed to these pegmatites by the
discovery of cassiterite in them. In the autumn of 1904; one
of the writers made an examination of these tin deposits for
the U. 8. Geological Survey. During the course of this study,
Mr. J. L. Daniels, superintendent of the Faires tin mine at
Kings Mountain, Gaston County, N. C., called attention to a
purplish material encountered within a few feet of the surface
in the workings of that mine. Thanks are due to Mr. Daniels,
who kindly supplied much of the material obtained. Prelimi-
nary examination failed to identify the material with any
known mineral, although its properties seemed to be those of
a definite crystalline compound. Chemical analysis shows that
the material is a new mineral, being a hydrous manganie ferric
phosphate—the only manganic phosphate known.
The most striking feature of this mineral is its purple or
dark reddish color, and for this reason it has been named
purpurite, from the Latin purpura, purple or dark red.
Since the discovery of this mineral in North Carolina, the
same mineral has been noticed on some specimens from San
Diego County, California, These had been collected by one of
the writers, and through ‘the courtesy of Mr. F. M. Sickler, of
Pala, several more specimens from this locality have been
obtained. They are from one of the lthium-bearmg pegma-
tite dikes on Hiriart Hill, Pala, San Diego County. The
mineral occurs with triphylite, and possesses the same purple
color as the North Carolina specimens. Under the microscope,
the appearance and properties of the mineral from the two
localities are identical. There is, however, not enough of the
California material for chemical examination.
Occurrence and Physical Properties ; by L. C. Graton.
The mineral purpurite is found in small irregular masses in
the tin-bearing pegmatite dikes, and in the near-by schist at
the Faires mine. In most cases it occurs in narrow lenses or
* Published by permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey.
Graton and Schaller—Purpurite, a new Mineral. 147
veinlets, and appears to have been deposited from solution in
cavities. Occasionally, however, it is found in the midst of the
pegmatite as if it were an original mineral.
The question of the origin of purpurite is one of interest.
Pegmatite dikes believed to be closely related to the tin-bear-
ing dikes carry the rare-earth phosphate, monazite. Among
the primary minerals of the tin-bearing pegmatites are cassi-
terite, tourmaline, apatite, spodumene, lepidolite, and a yellowish
brown, iithia-bearing phosphate which is doubtless lithiophilite.
The last two minerals have been found only in small quantities.
Partially decomposed specimens of this pegmatite frequently
show much manganese dioxide as thin mammillary coating on
the other minerals. I[lmenite is often included in crystals of
eassiterite. Itis evident, therefore, that the elements manganese
and iron (as monoxides), lithium, and phosphorus (as phosphate)
were primary components of the pegmatite magma.
The mineral presumed to be lithiophilite is always surrounded
by a coating of black, secondary material. In one case, a nar-
row zone of purpurite was found between the lithiophilite and
the black mineral. It is believed that this single occurrence
furnishes the explanation of the origin of purpurite. <A lithia-
manganous-ferrous phosphate, probably lithiophilite, was
attacked by oxidizing solutions. The lithia was almost wholly
earried away, while of the remaining elements, iron and man-
ganese were oxidized to the state of sesquioxides and were
recrystallized with the phosphoric acid and water to form
purpurite. The trace of lithium which this mineral contains
is a remnant of that from the lithiophilite. In some cases the
recrystallization took place without transportation of the
materials, forming pseudomorphous replacements, but in gen-
eral the materials were carried in solution to cavities and there
deposited.
Purpurite is probably orthorhombic, but no specimens have
been found which show crystal outline. A cleavage which is
probably pinacoidal is of rather perfect development, but the
cleavage surfaces are often curved as if the orientation of
adjoining grains were not exactly the same. A second cleay-
age, presumably at right angles, is considerably less distinct.
The mineral has an uneven fracture and is rather brittle. It
is scratched without difficulty by the knife, but on the other
hand just scratches fluorite, and hence has a hardness of 4—4°5.
Mr. Schaller determined the specific gravity as approximately
3°15. In color the mineral is a rich deep red or reddish pur-
ple, sometimes with a slight bronzy iridescence, and not
uncommonly darker on the cleavage planes. The powder and
the streak have a decided purple or deep rose color. The
mineral has a peculiar satiny luster or sheen, more noticeable
on fracture surfaces than on cleavage planes.
148 Graton and Schaller—Purpurite, a new Mineral.
Although transparent in very thin pieces, the ordinary thin
section allows the passage of very little hght through purpurite.
The colors in transmitted light are very beautiful. Pleochro-
ism is noticeable. Parallel to the cleavage the color is a deep
scarlet, inclining to rose-red, while across the cleavage the
absorption is greater and the color becomes a beautiful purple.
This absorption, it will be noticed, is similar to that of tourma-
line and a few other minerals, in which the greatest absorption
is at right angles to the direction of cleavage or elongation.
Extinction is generally parallel; an inclination up to three or
four degrees, which has been observed in a few instances, has
probably been due to the orientation of the sections examined.
It may be, however, that the mineral is monoclinic, with a
very small extinction angle. Sections which were transparent
were not of sufficient size to give an interference figure. No
sections showing the intersecting cleavages were seen, and in
all the sections examined the traces of the cleavages are parallel
to the direction of greater elasticity of the section; so if the
mineral is biaxial, the intersection of the cleavages is parallel
to a. This is also the direction of least absorption. The
refractive index is somewhat greater than that of Canada bal-
sam and probably hes between 1°60 and 1°65. The difference
of the indices or the double refraction is high, and although it
could not be measured at all accurately, is probably not much
below :060. One effect of this high double refraction on the
very thin sections examined is that under crossed nicols the
mineral appears to transmit as much and as brilliant light as
without polarization. The red interference colors are very
striking.
The purple mineral is always covered or surrounded by a
greater or less thickness of a black or brownish black material
of pitchy luster and uneven or sub-conchoidal fracture. This
material, which is soluble in hydrochloric acid, has been found
by Mr. Schaller to contain iron, manganese, phosphoric acid,
and water. Under a lens the black material can be seen to
encroach upon the purpurite, eating in along the cleavage
planes and gradually replacing the purple mineral. It is
undoubtedly a decomposition product of purpurite and is cer-
tainly the same as that which surrounds the supposed lithiophi-
lite. Viewed with the aid of the microscope it appears to be
a definite mineral, having an imperfect cleavage, and a brown-
ish yellow color in transmitted light. Extinction is nearly or
quite parallel to the cleavage, and the trace of the cleavage is
the direction of least refractive index of the sections examined.
Pleochroism is distinct and, as in the case with purpurite,
absorption is greatest across the cleavage. The index of refrac-
tion is greater than that of Canada balsam, and the double refrac-
Graton and Schaller—Purpurite, a new Mineral. 149
tion is probably rather high. It is hoped that sufficient of this
material for analysis will soon be obtained.
The occurrence of purpurite in material collected from
California by Mr. Schaller throws additional light on the
origin and association of this mineral. It occurs with a black
material which appears to be identical with that described
above, and both are undoubtedly decomposition products of
the accompanying triphylite, the iron-rich member of the
lithia-manganous-ferrous phosphate series, of which lithiophi-
lite is the manganese-rich end. .
The small number and rarity of minerals containing man-
ganic oxide, Mn,O,, may be due to the relative instability of
that base in comparison with manganese dioxide.
Chemical Composition ; WatpdEMAR T. SCHALLER.
About a gram of pure material was separated by Mr. Graton.
This was divided into several portions, using about a fifth of a
gram for each determination. The most interesting part of -
the analysis was to determine the state of oxidation of the
manganese. When the mineral is treated with hydrochloric
acid, chlorine is readily given off. The manganese present
can therefore not be in the manganous state, and the absence
of ferrous iron and the presence of ferric iron suggested that
the manganese was present as a manganic salt. Such was
found to be the ease.
A fifth of a gram was dissolved in sulphuric acid with a known —
amount of ferrous ammonium sulphate. All precautions were
observed to avoid the presence of air, the entire operation being
conducted in an atmosphere of carbon dioxide. The water
used had been boiled and cooled out of contact with air. Just
before the iron sulphate was introduced into the flask contain-
ing the mineral, an equa] quantity was removed from the stock
solution and titrated with permanganate. Thus, the amount
of ferrous iron introduced into the flask with the mineral was
known. After the mineral had been decomposed by the sul-
phuric acid, the flask was cooled and the solution titrated, the
amount of iron sulphate oxidized by the liberation of oxygen
from the mineral beg determined in this way. From these
data the amount of Mn,O, was calculated and found to be
30°47 per cent.
A second sample was decomposed by hydrochloric acid and
the chlorine evolved passed into a solution of potassium iodide.
The liberated iodine was then titrated with sodium thiosul-
phate, the latter being standardized with pure copper. Cal-
culating from the results obtained, the amount of Mn,O, was
found to be 27-93 per cent. Though these results vary some-
what, yet, considering the small amount of material used
150 Graton and Schaller—Purpurite, a new Mineral.
(1/5 gram) sa the many operations necessary, the agreement
is as close as could be expected. The average of the two
results is 29°20 per cent.
A direct determination of the total manganese, w eighed as
anhydrous sulphate, gave as the amount of Mn,O, in the min-
eral, 29°35 per cent, which agrees almost exactly with the
average of the two indirect determinations.
The remaining constituents were determined as follows: A
portion of the mineral was dissolved in hydrochloric acid and
a known weight of iron added (as ferric chloride). <A basic
acetate separation was then made, boiling the solution for fif-
teen minutes, which according to Bunsen will precipitate all
the phosphoric acid with the iron and will not precipitate any
manganese. The precipitate was dissolved in hydrochloric acid,
and reprecipitated by ammonia, after the addition of some
ammonium chloride. The two filtrates were united, man-
ganese precipitated by hydrogen sulphide and finally weighed
as anhydrous manganese sulphate. Calcium was then thrown
out, dissolved and reprecipitated and magnesia found to be
absent. The iron-phosphate precipitate was dissolved in
hydrochloric acid and divided into two portions. In the one,
the iron and phosphoric acid were precipitated by ammonia
and weighed. ‘This was then fused up with sodium bisulphate
and tested for manganese with silver nitrate and ammonium
persulphate. None was present. In the second portion, the
iron was reduced by hydrogen sulphide and titrated with per-
manganate. Phosphoric acid was determined in the usual way
and a second value obtained by the difference between the iron
and the iron plus phosphoric acid. The alkalies were deter-
mined by the Lawrence Smith method. The final solution of
chlorides gave a strong spectroscopic test for lithium. The
water below 105° was determined directly, using a toluene
bath. The total water was determined directly by heating in
a glass tube according to Penfield. The water is all given off
at a low temperature, that at 105° being given off very readily,
and at one time. Further heating at 105° failed to remove
any more. The values obtained are as follows:
AV. Ratio.
Hie O22 2b. 22 15788, 15°89 =: 1:08 Ls oe
MikOee? sas 29°35, 30°47, 27°93 99°25 1:93
P.Orag es ie 47°64, 46°96 47:30 3°47
Hi Oceans ker 26 5°26 3-04
CAO oe 1:48 1:48 a is
Na. 22) Soe "84 "84 14
POR LIS Sao tr. tr.
Pusol en ee BY 52
100°54
Graton and Schaller—Purpurite, anew Mineral. 151
The amount of water given off at 105° is 3°31 per cent. As
all of the water is so readily given off, it is most probably pre-
sent as water of crystallization.
Considering that the calcium and soda require some phos-
phorie acid, the ratio of R’’,O,: P,O,: H,O is approximately
3:3:3. Combining the ratio of the calcium and sodium with
that of the iron and manganese, and reducing these to their
hydrogen equivalent, the ratio becomes
H4 P.O4) 32 8-04H.0
18-58 6:94 26-64
or 2H, P.,.O,,,] +°92H,0.
The acid is therefore H,PO, The formula for the mineral
then becomes R’’”’,O,. P,O,+H,0.
It is not known in just what state of combination the cal-
cium and sodium are. They most probably represent some
slight impurity. If the manganic and ferric oxides are iso-
morphous in the sense that manganous and ferrous oxides are,
the ratio of Mn,O, to Fe,O, being nearly 2:1 is of no signifi-
eanece and the formula then should not be written Fe,Q,.
2Mn,O,. 3P,0,+3H,0O, but (Mn’”, Fe’’).O,. P,O,+H,O, the
mineral purpurite being near the manganic end of an isomorph-
ous series having as its two end members:
Fe,0,. P,O, + H,O
Mn,0,: P,0,+H,0.
There are only a few hydrous phosphates of the normal
division in which the base is trivalent, such as scorodite and
strengite. All of these, however, contain more water than the
mineral here described.
While no manganic phosphates were noted in the literature,
there are a number of arsenates containing Mn,O,, with none
of which, however, can purpurite be classed. Synadelphite,
flinkite, arseniopleite, and perhaps hematolite, contain Mn,O,
with AJ,O, or Fe,O,, while in durangite and arseniosiderite,
Mn,0, is reported in small amounts.
The mineral fuses easily and readily gives off water in a
closed tube becoming yellowish brown. It is readily soluble to
a clear solution in hydrochloric acid, while in mitric acid a
black oxide of manganese separates out. The specific gravity
determined on the powdered mineral by the Thoulet solution
is approximately 3°15.
4-04
152 Scientifie Intelligence.
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
I. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS.
1. Studies with the Liquid Hydrogen and Air Calorimeters.
I. Specific Heats ;* by Sir James Dewar.—‘‘ The calorimeter
employed in the following researches was similar to that described
in my paper on ‘The Scientitic Uses of Liquid Air,’+ and in an
improved form in Madame Curie’s work ‘Recherches sur les
Substances Radio-Actives,’ 2d edition, p. 100. A sketch of the
apparatus appears in my paper on ‘The Absorption and Thermal
Evolution of Gases Occluded in Charcoal at Low Temperatures.’{
The arrangement employed consists essentially of a large
vacuum vessel capable of holding 2 or 3 liters, into which is
inserted a smaller vacuum vessel of 25 to 50 ¢.c. capacity consti-
tuting the calorimeter, the latter being sealed on to a long narrow
tabe which projects from the mouth of the exterior vessel, in
which it is lightly held by a loose packing of cotton wool. A
little below the upper end a branch tube is taken off which con-
veys the volatilized gas from the calorimeter to the gas receiver.
To the extremity of the projecting tube a small test-tube, to hold
the portions of substance experimented on, is attached by a short
piece of rather wide rubber tubing which forms naturally a mov-
able joint that can be bent into any position. With care I have
found this valve gives as good results as more elaborate means of
securing the dropping of the substances into the calorimeter. A
small vacuum vessel containing solid carbonic acid, liquid ethy-
lene, liquid air, ete., into which the test-tube is placed, cools the
materials to different temperatures below those of the laboratory,
or alternatively it may be heated in the vapour of water or other
liquids.”
The general constants for liquid gas calorimeters (here omitted)
show that “(an instrument in which liquid air is used has twice
the sensibility of a corresponding one in which liquid ethylene is
employed, whereas the substitution of liquid hydrogen for liquid
air increases the delicacy of the calorimeter some seven times.
It is easy to detect the tranference of 1/50 of a gram-calorie in
the liquid air instrument, whilst 1/300 of a gram-calorie can
be similarly observed in the liquid hydrogen form of the calori-
meter.”
A detailed account is given of the method of use of the instru-
ment and also of the various sources of error. Of the experi-
ments described the following results were obtained for carbon
in the form of diamond and of graphite, and for ice.
* Extracts from an advanced proof (received from the author) of a paper
read June 8, before the Royal Society of London.
+ Proc. Roy. Inst., 1894, vol. xiv, p. 398.
t Proc. Roy. Soc., 1904, vol. Ixxiv, p. 123.
Chemistry and Physics. 153
Substance. 18° to —78°. —78° to —188°. 188° to — 252°°5.
biemmion de: ae2 0:0794 0°0190 0°0043
Graphite los. 2s os 071341 0°0599 0°0133
00) Se Ae see re 0°463* 0°285 0°146
“It appears from these values that between the ordinary tem-
perature and the boiling point of hydrogen the specific heat of
the diamond has been reduced to 1/19, whereas under similar
conditions graphite has diminished to about 1/10. Further it
will be observed that at the lowest temperatures the specific heat
of graphite is about three times that of the diamond. It is also
worthy of being recorded that the values of the specific heats of
diamond and graphite taken between the temperatures of liquid
air and boiling hydrogen are far smaller than that of any known
solid substance, being even lower than that of any gas taken
under constant volume.”
Another table gives the results obtained, at temperatures
extending down to —188°, for the specific heats of various sub-
stance including German-silver, brass, tellurium, sulphur, etc., to
solid carbon dioxide, solid ammonia and solid sulphur dioxide.
The author concludes with the remark that “an almost endless
field of research in the determination of specific heats is now
opened, in which the use of liquid air and hydrogen calorimeters
are certain to become ordinary laboratory instruments.”
2. On the Thermo-electric Junction as a Means of Determin-
ing the Lowest Temperatures; by Sir James Dewar.t—‘ The
inconvenience of using the gas thermometer at very low temper-
atures and the failure of platinum and other metal-resistance
thermometers within 30° or 40° of the absolute zero, led me some
years ago to consider the experimental behavior of the thermo-
electric junction at the lowest temperatures. My special object
at the time the experiments were made was to have a further
confirmation of the melting point of hydrogen, and also of the
lowest temperature reached on exhausting solid hydrogen, other
than that I had tound by means of the hydrogen gas thermome-
ter.{ The results have remained unpublished, because my inten-
tion has always been to extend them to other thermo-electric
combinations. Not having been able to accomplish this project,
they are now abstracted as affording useful information in this
field of investigation, and as furnishing a general confirmation of
my previous investigations.
A German-silver platinum couple was selected as likely to give
the most uniform results at low temperatures, although subse-
quent experiments have led to the conclusion that it would have
been better to have replaced the platinum by gold. As regards
resistance thermometers, I have shown that gold is more reliable
* This from —18° to —78°.
+ Extracts from an advance proof (received from the author) of a paper
read June 8 before the Royal Society of London.
{ The Boiling Point of Liquid Hydrogen, determined by Hydrogen and
Helium Gas Thermometers, Proc. Roy. Soc., vol. Ixxviii, 1901.
154 Scientific Intelligence.
than platinum at temperatures near the boiling point of hydro-
gen.* The difficulties of the investigation were considerable:
it had to be carried out at the time in the neighborhood of the
machinery producing the liquefied gases required in the investi-
gation, namely, oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen, so that the zero
of the delicate galvanometer employed did not remain quite con-
stant. ‘To remedy this I inserted a rocking make-and-break in
order to get the readings of each observation at both ends of the
scale. In the process of removing one difficulty another pre-
sented itself, through the development of small but appreciable
thermo-electric currents in the rocker. Precautions had to be
taken against these and at all other metal junctions against
similar small thermo-electric currents, and it was even found
necessary to have a vorrection on account of the resistance box,
inserted in the circuit to bring large readings within the limits of
the scale. The galvanometer and resistance box were inserted in
the German-silver branch of the couple, the points of junction of
the copper leads with the German silver ends of the couple being
insulated and placed close together within a vacuum test-tube
packed with cotton wool to ensure equality of temperature.
Preliminary experiments showed that the junctions altered after
having been subjected to the temperature of liquid hydrogen.
However, on re-soldering the junctions with hard silver solder
instead of soft solder, the thermo-couple accurately repeated
observations at the temperature of liquid oxygen, after having
passed through a liquid hydrogen bath. - From this it appears
that all such couples before calibration ought to be cooled sud-
denly in liquid air and then rapidly heated to the ordinary tem-
perature, a similar operation being repeated with liquid hydrogen.
If the couples return to their original state after such abrupt
changes of temperature, then they are in a fit state for calibration.
Three series of observations were made to determine whether
the resistance of the junctions varied to a noticeable extent with
the temperature, namely, at the freezing point of water, at the
boiling point of oxygen, and at the boiling point of hydrogen. Six
very concurrent observations with varying resistances in the resis-
tance box were made between 0°C. and 15°C. These were reduced
by the method of least squares, and gave for the resistance of the
circuit 3°500 ohms. Five similar results between the melting
point of nitrogen and the boiling point of oxygen gave, by least
squares, 3°293 ohms. Only two observations were taken in liquid
hydrogen, which are therefore not entitled to the same weight as
those already given, but the resistance appeared again about 3°3
ohms. As the variation of the resistance of the circuit was so
slight, an attempt was made to reduce the results on the assump-
tion of constancy, but this was not satisfactory. However, on
treating the variation of the resistance of the circuit as linear
with the temperature, the data came into better agreement.
* Bakerian Lecture, ‘‘The Nadir of Temperature and Allied Problems,”’
Proc. Roy. Soc., vol. Ixviii, 1901.
Chemistry and Physics. 155
The following table contains the details of the observations
made with the silver soldered German-silver platinum couple, the
recorded readings of the galvanometer being the means of several
observed readings, corrected when necessary for resistance intro-
duced into the circuit :—
No. Substances used for Corresponding ee ae Pepa
of difference absolute temper. aN d K/dt.
Bao of temperature. temperatures. ature. | reading.
1 |Water of 15° and ice} 280°, 273° 2804° | 463°2 | 30°88
2 \Boiling carbonic acid
and ethylene--_--.- 195, 170 1824 693°5 | 27°74
3 |Boiling ethylene at
102" and oxyeen__ |. 1285, 905 107 724°0 | 21°94
4 Boiling oxygen and
MnO Genes. aed Ore Tle 84 279°0.| 21°46
5 |Boiling nitrogen and
melting nitrogen_- (i lieay eee 70 320°7 | 21°38
6 | Boiling hydrogen and :
melting nitrogen -- 6255 2205, 415 623°5 | 14°84
7 |Boiling hydrogen and
meltine hydrogen) |: 203, 2 ? 51-0 ke
8 |Boiling hydrogen—
solid hydrogen
amount: 20m le DOR eh? ? 64:0 ?
where d E/dt is the quotient of the mean galyanometer reading
by the difference of the temperatures in the third column.
On plotting the first six of these results the Ist, 2d, and 6th
and means of the other three, viz., dE/dt= 21°59 at t= 87°, lie
nearly on a continuous curve. The continuity of the curve, with-
out any approach to abrupt change of form, even in the region of
liquid hydrogen, shows that a silver-soldered German-silver plat-
inum couple is an efficient instrument for the determination of
the lowest temperatures hitherto reached.”
A detailed discussion of the four sets of observations, Nos. 3,
4, 5, 6, follows, with the results given below; those from Nos. 5
and 6 are probably the most accurate.
“The general results with the German-silver platinum junction
may be summarized in the following table, the typical equation
being dE/dt=m + nT.
Melting point Solid hydrogen
Source of constants. m n of hydrogen. exhausted.
(ayand (6). 520 2 12°52 0°108 16°°4 Gs air
(4) and (6) -.--- 11°49 0°158 15) 8) 147
i) tee a1 ad Oh erate 9°931 0°231 lieO ee)
Graphically - - --- 10°2 0°167 15°°5 14°°15
Mi GAN cc 2 len. anes RE Poet 14°°4
nbs) ava Scrventifie Intelligence.
It is added that in the paper on liquid hydrogen, already referred
to, the temperatures obtained by the hydrogen gas thermometer
for the boiling point of hydrogen and the solid under exhaustion
were 19°63 and 14°34 respectively. Finally it is concluded that,
‘at as low a temperature as 6° absolute, the sensibility of this
couple is still half what it was at 203° absolute, and therefore
that, unless some absolute breakdown in the law connecting elec-
tromotive force and temperature below 14° takes place, it must °
continue to be an excellent thermometer, and will record temper-
rature with considerable accuracy down to the boiling point of
helium, which is about 5° or 6° degrees absolute.”
Il. GroLoey.
1. Geology of the Vicinity of Little Falls, Herkimer County ;
by H P. Cusuine. Bull. 77, New York State Mus., 1905, pp.
95, pls. 1-15, and topographic and geologic maps.—Mr. Cushing
here gives an account of the geology of one of the most inter-
esting regions in New York. In this presentation he does not
limit himself to the area of his map, but notes as well the general
geology of the Adirondack region, thus setting forth in a philo-
sophical manner the historical events which have taken place in
northeastern New York.
The author states that the Adirondacks formed a low-lying
land when the Potsdam sea encroached upon it. ‘It is possible
that a small area may have persisted above sea level throughout
[to the close of Utica time], though it is not likely, and in any
case it was very small.” ‘The southern part of the Adirondack
mass was the last to pass beneath the sea. The Potsdam is
thickest on the northeast border, thinning out both westward and
southward ; it is not known on the south side about Little Falls.
Upon the Potsdam along the eastern side was laid the Beekman-
town limestone, but, according to the reviewer, it is questionable
whether the so-called Beekmantown of the southern exposure is
of the same age. These southern dolomites are 450 feet thick at
Little Falls, but diminish to “nearly or quite zero at the northern
limit of the sheet.” Upon this formation in both areas follow
the limestones of the Mohawkian series and then the Utica
shales. At the top of the Utica “the present Adirondack region
was either wholly submerged or else so nearly so that only a few
small islands were left protruding above the water.” This is not
the generally accepted view and the occurrence of Potsdam
within the Adirondack mass will have to be explained as
depressed fault-blocks.
“ Following the deposition of the Utica formation came a
movement of disturbance and uplift of the region on the north-
east and east. This apparently raised the present Champlain
valley and northern Adirondack region above sea level, while the
southern portion was not affected and remained submerged. .
“‘ Quite possibly the first faulting of the region took place at
the close of the Lower Silurian coincidently with the ‘l’aconic
Geology. 157
disturbance. . . . The Little Falls fault has a throw of nearly or
* guite 800 feet at Little Falls.”
One of the most interesting problems suggested by this bulletin
is—What is the relation of the so-called Beekmantown forma-
tion of this Little Falls region to the true Beekmantown of the
Champlain valley? The author shows how these dolomites over-
lap and disappear northward over the Adirondack mass. ‘ Nor
does the basal bed at Little Falls appear to represent the real
base of the formation, deep well records to the west seeming
to indicate an increased thickness in that direction.” The
sequence of the Upper Cambrian and the succeeding dolomites
of the Great Interior Sea apparently denote continuous deposition
and show that the dolomites along the south side of the Adiron-
dacks are those of a shallow sea, with a sparing fauna. Their
age is probably closely connected with the Cambrian and is
doubtless older than the Beekmantown of the Lake Champlain
area. The faunas of the two areas are widely different, that of
the Lake Champlain district being a normal marine one abound-
ing in large cephalopods and gastropods, hardly any of which
are found in the Mohawk valley. Again, the sequence varies
greatly in the two areas, as in the Lake Champlain region the
Beekmantown is followed by the Chazy, while in the Mohawk
valley the Lowville reposes on the so-called Beekmantown dolo-
mites. On the northeast side of the Adirondacks the Paleozoic
section is at least 3000 feet thicker than in the Mohawk valley.
Cs.
2. Geology of the Watkins and Elmira Quadrangles, accom-
panied by a geologic map; by Joun M. CrarKe and D. Dana
Luruer. Bull. 81, New York State Mus., 1905, pp. 1-29, with
a map and asection.—This Bulletin describes in detail the Upper
Devonian strata of these quadrangles, with considerable notation
of the occurrence of the faunules of the following horizons :
Feet.
( Chemung sandstone and shale 800
EEE ) Prattsburg slide see et ia oe 250
( High Point sandstone. ----- 85
West Hill flags and shale... 315
Grimes sandstone soo) 623.) 75
. Hatch shale and flags_____.- 440
Neodevonian 4 g | Rhinestreet black shale ___.- 1
| Dene a 4 Parrish limestone, in the
Cashaqua shale. _----_--- 207
West River shale ....___..- 35
| Genundewa limestone.__.-_.- 1
i le Geneseershviles 22). o oe 6+
Much detail is presented in regard to the distribution of the
characteristic Naples or black shale fauna and its interlocking
but rarely commingling with the eastern or Ithaca fauna. The
latter is a direct outgrowth of the Hamilton, as may be seen from
158 Scientific Intellagence.
Bulletin 82, reviewed below. The eastern or Ithaca fauna appears
for the first time, but sparingly, in the lower portion of the
Cashaqua shale, as far west as the region about Watkins Glen,
and there are several alternations of this fauna with the Naples
in the higher Hatch shale. The Iowa Lime creek fauna of 32
species has its only occurrence near the middle of the High Point
sandstone, while Spirifer disjunctus, apparently a migrant also
from the west or southwest, is seen for the first time in the Gen-
esee valley, in the lower portion of the Prattsburg shale. ‘‘The
horizon of Spirifer disjunctus follows close on the change from
the Naples fauna in western New York at a high altitude above
the base of the Portage formation. In central New York there
is no such change, but the gradation from the Ithaca fauna out
of the Hamilton fauna upward into the association which carries
species elsewhere concurrent with Sp. disjunctus is very easy,
and it is extermely difficult to draw a division plane anywhere
except on the basis of refined distinctions into successive faunules.
Spirifer disjunctus in this eastern region did not appear till this
period of ‘Chemung’ deposition was well nigh over.” CS:
3. Geologic Map of the Tully Quadrangle; by Joun M.
CruarKE and D. Dana LutHErR. Bull. 82, New York State Mus.,
1905, pp. 35-70, with map.—This Bulletin describes the follow-
ing formations :—
Feet.
( Ithaca Ithaca flags and
sandstones 450
Neodevonian Senecan { Portage Sherburne flags 210
| Genesee Genesee shale 75
| Tully Tully limestone 23
Moscow shale 180
Hamilton Ludlowville shale 350
( Erian 4 Skaneateles shale 335
| ey Cardiff shale 175
Mesodevonian : | Marcellus Marcelliac cee 100
| Ulsterian Onondaga Onondagalimestone 65
Oriskanian Oriskany Oriskany quartzite 6
Paleodevonian New Scotland
Helderbergian Helderberg limestone and
Coeymans limestone 40
Manlius limestone 74
Manlius Rondout dolomite 40
Shean Caracas Cobleskill dolomite 6
yus ! Sali Bertie dolomite 15
Ea Camillus shale 40
The evidence regarding the presence of the New Scotland in
this area is not convincing. As the present writer did not find this
formation to the east, about Litchfield, it appears to him more
probable that the New Scotland does not occur in the Tully
quadrangle.
Geology. 159
Dr. Clark adds a chapter on the “Ithaca fauna of Central New
York,” and lists 199 species collected by Mr. Luther from 80
stations. Of these forms, not less than 106 occur beneath the
top of the Tully, abundantly confirming the statement of the
author that “the fauna in point of number is prevailingly affil-
iated to that of the Hamilton.”
The leading Hamilton species commonly found at these stations
are the following: Phacops rana, Pleurotomaria sulcomarginata, —
Actinopteria boydi, Glyptodesma erectum, Modiomorpha concen-
trica, M. mytiloides, Grammysia bisulcata, Cimitaria recurva,
Microdon bellistriatus, Nuculites oblongatus, Nucula bellistriata,
Paleoneilo ema? -ginata, Paracyclas lirata, Rhipidomella vanux-
emt, Spirifer mucronatus, Cyrtina hamiltonensis, Camarotcchia
congregata and Tropidoleptus carinatus. C: 8.
4, Contribution to the Paleontology of the Martinez group ;
by Caartes E. Weaver. Univ. California Pub., Bull. Dept.
Geol., pp. 101-123, pls. 12, 13, date of printing not given.—This
Eocene fauna consists of 67 species. Of these 18 are new and
with 3 others are described and illustrated.
“The Martinez represents a distinct division of time in the
geological history of California. It contains a fauna distinct
from both the Chico and the Tejon. On the average it is com-
posed of about two thousand feet of thick-bedded sandstones,
together with some shales, thin-bedded sandstones and conglom-
erates. . . . Its position in the geological scale seems to corre-
spond most closely to a portion or all of the lower quarter of the
Eocene.”
“There was probably no direct faunal connection between
India and the Western Coast of North America in Martinez
times. . . . The evidence seems also to point to the fact that
during this period the Martinez seas were isolated from the
regions of the southeastern United States.” Cals:
5. Haune cambrienne du Haut-Alemiejo (Portugal); par J.
F. Nery Deteapo. Comm. Serv. Geol, du Portugal, v, 1904,
pp. 307-374, pls. 1-6.—This work describes a very interesting
Lower Cambrian fauna. It is especially noteworthy because of
an abundance of bivalve shells of which 9 species are described,
whereas in North America the Olenellus fauna is known to have
but 2 species and but one of these is common.
The author regards this fauna as probably Lower Cambrian;
from a survey of the genera adopted, however, his readers would
be perplexed to know to what age these beds should be referred,
were it not for the good photographic plates illustrating the
species. Paradoxides choffati is clearly an Olenellus. The several
species (9) of Hicksia are very suggestive of Lower Cambrian
Solenopleura and especially of a form found at York, Penn. Of
Microdiscus, the author describes 5, but M. caudatus, M. subcau-
datus, and M. wenceslasi must be placed under a new genus,
because they have dorsal eyes and a caudal spine. As MV. souzai
and M. woodwardi have eyes, they, too, should be referred to
160 -Serentifie Intelligence.
another genus. It may be best to erect a new genus with J.
woodwardi as the genoholotype, and a new subgenus with M1.
caudatus as the type species.
The Pelecypoda, as far as their generic reference is concerned,
are very inadequately treated. One is referred to Posidonomya ?, 2,
2 to Modiolopsis, 1 to Synek ?, 3 to Davidia, and 1 to Ctenodonta.
While these names may indicate the types of pelecypods repre-
sented, yet it is safe to state that a careful study will show that
all belong to other, probably new genera. ‘he species are small
and thin-shelled. In a conversation with Professor Verrill he
concluded that all these Lower Cambrian bivalves were probably
free-swimming forms.
The brachiopods are also very unsatisfactorily referred gener-
ically, and the illustrations are inadequate for more accurate
determination.
This fauna of Portugal is certainly of Lower Cambrian age,
and while it has relationship with that of York, Penn., yet in its
trilobites and especially in its pelecypods it has a faunal facies
entirely distinct from any American Lower Cambrian fauna.
C.'8:
6. Paraphorh cs, a new genus of Ninderhook Brachio-
poda,; by Stuart WeEtier. Trans. Acad. Sci. St. Louis, xv,
1905, pp. 259-264, pl. 1.—This rhynchonelloid form has the inte-
rior generic characters of Camarotcechia, with the exterior of
Pugnax, to which is added a finely striated surface of the shell.
The genoholotype is Paraphorhynchus elongatum, sp.nov. Other
species are P. transversum, sp. nov., Lhynchonella striatocostata
Meek and Worthen, &. medialis Simpson, and Lt. striata Simpson.
C. 8.
7. Sympterura Minveri, n. g. et sp.: a Devonian Ophiurid
Srom Cornwall, by F. A. Barurr. Geol. Mag., II, 1905, pp.
161-169, pl. 6.—This important paper describes in detail the
skeleton of this brittle-star. The description is followed by a
learned interpretation of the parts of the organism and their rela-
tion to other ophiurid structures. Gist
8. The ancestral origin of the North American Unionidae, or
Sresh-water Mussels ; by CHarLtes A. WuiTEe. Smithsonian Misc.
Coll. (Quarterly Issue), June, 1905, pp. 75-88, pls. 26-31.—After
a long silence in Paleontology, Dr. White returns to a group of
shells on which he has often worked.
The oldest American Unionide occur in the Triassic. They
‘are all of simple form, and none of them exhibits distinctive
prototypal relationship to the living Mississippi River fauna.”
Of Jurassic species, but seven are known and none of these
appears to be directly related to the living shells. ‘Toward the
close of the Cretaceous, “the family received an extraordinary
development” and increased its diversity. In the Laramie
strata are found the greatest number of species of Unio having
prototypal features connecting them with existing species in so
marked a manner “that Professor Whitfield has given names to
Geology. 161
the fossil forms [three] which are only modifications of the names
of the living forms which they so closely resemble.” In the
Tertiary all connecting forms are absent, but the author explains
that the Cenozoic species thus far found are plain types such as
are now obtained only in still waters or lakes. ‘‘'The more diverse
and ornamental forms of living Uniones occupy fluviatile, or
other running or moving waters. None of the deposits contain-
ing the Tertiary Uniones referred to gives any inherent evidence
of having been formed in fluviatile or estuarine waters.”
_ Fresh-water gill-bearing faunas have as certainly descended
genetically through successive geological ages to the present time
as have marine faunas. ... There has never been any intermission
of such continuity because the fresh-water supply has never
failed, and because, as a rule, rivers have been among the most
persistent of the earth’s surface features.” a era
9. The Thalattosauria, a group of marine reptiles from the
Triassic of California ; by Joun C. Merriam. Mem. California
Acad. Sci., V, 1905, pp. 1-52, pls. 1-8.—During the past three
years the Geological Department of the University of California
has been collecting the remains of the marine reptiles from the
Upper Triassic of Shasta county. From the fact that both are
_ black, the material is very difficult to clear from the matrix, the
latter being a shaly limestone,
This memoir describes in detail the skeletal structure of the
Thalattosauride, comprising the genera Thalattosaurus (T. alex-
andre, T. shastensis sp. nov., T. perrini sp. nov.) and Wectosau-
rus gen. nov. (WV. halius sp. nov.). The pen and ink illustrations
are good.
“The Thalattosaurs represent an early adaptation to marine
conditions of that division of the Reptilia which has persisted in
measurably primitive form in the Rhynchocephalia. During the
early history of that group it gave rise to a numerous company
of forms taking quite divergent paths in their evolution. Of the
older orders only the Proganosauria were aquatic. They appear,
however, to have been limited to fresh water. The Thalattosaurs
are evidently the marine representatives of this great rhyncho-
cephalian or diaptosaurian group.” C. S.
10. The Geology of Littleton, New Hampshire; by C. H.
Hircucock. Pp. 38,2 plates and map. Reprinted from History
of Littleton, 1905.—This paper brings together all that is known
in regard to the geology about Littleton, including the recently
published article by Hitchcock (Bulletin Geol. Soc. America).
The strata present are referred to the Quaternary, Helderberg,
Silurian, Lower Silurian or Cambrian, and eruptives. In an appen-
dix, Mr. Avery E. Lambert describes a new trilobite, Dalmanites
lunatus, with notes on other fossils from the Littleton area. .S.
11. Vorschule der Geologie; von Jouannes WatruEr. Pp.
144, and 98 original text figures. Jena, 1905.—This very inter-
estingly written, simply stated, and well printed little book on
elementary geology is intended for beginners in geology. They
Am. Jour. Sci.—FourtH Series, Vou. XX, No. 116.—Auv@ust, 1905.
11
162 Scientific Intelligence.
are led to observe nature for themselves and are shown how to
determine the stratigraphic sequence in the profiles leading up to
map making. Comparative stratigraphy and historical geology
are not here considered.
There are 18 chapters, as follows: 1. Introduction; 2.
Geological exposures ; 3. Weathering (physical, chemical, and
organic); 4. Results of weathering; 5. Kinds of rocks; 6. Rock-
clefts or joints ; 7. Subterranean waters and springs; 8. Infiltra-
tionof jointsand caves; 9. Flowing waters; 10. Standing waters;
11. Sea-shore; 12. Mountains and hills; 13. Deformation and
earthquakes ; 14. Plutonic appearances ; 15. Volcanic activity ;
16. Stratigraphic sequence; 17. Maps; 18. Chronological sequence.
The book is distinguished for two things: The “ Aufgaben ”
and the many clear and well-drawn diagrams of geological struc-
tures. At the end of each chapter, under “ Aufgaben,” the
student is directed how and where to look for the things
described. ‘There are 110 of these lessons. Ci.)
12. Die Moore der Schweiz mit Berickhsichtigung der gesammten ,
Moorfrage ; von Dr. J. Frtm und Dr. C. ScurétTErR. Herausge-
geben von der geologischen Kommission der Schweiz-Natur-
forschenden Gesellschaft. Preisschrift der Stiftung Schnyder
von Wartensee. Pp. 751, 5 plates, figures in text. Bern, 1904.—.
This voluminous quarto report comprises a most elaborate treat-
ment of swamps and peat-bogs, particularly in regard to those of
Switzerland. Dr. Frith, professor of geography, and Dr. Schroter,
professor of botany, at the Polytechnikum at Zurich, have com-
bined in a most thorough manner the knowledge concerning
these deposits from the point of view of geography, climatology,
and botany. ‘The first part of the work deals with vegetal
deposits now making in northwestern and central Europe and in
a general way with those of other districts, with reference to the
classification of the deposits and an analysis of all the conditions
which affect the growth of the plants and the accumulation of
vegetal deposits. The second part of the work is devoted to a
detailed description of local deposits within the confines of Switzer-
land. Throughout this work the botanist and the geographer —
have labored together to present precisely and technically the
varied conditions which are displayed in the various plant colo-
nies encountered within their field of study. Over 6,000 micro-
scopic preparations were examined in the study of the strati-
graphy of peat-beds. Helpful schematic tables arranged in the
form of geological cross-sections of the types of swamp accumu-
lations present a summary of the chapters of description, in
which climate, altitude, position in relation to sunshine, slope,
drainage, and accidental factors, are equally faithfully portrayed
with encyclopedic fulness. A useful discussion of the world
distribution of vegetal accumulations of the present day is accom-
panied by a mercator’s chart showing the grouping of the broader
divisions of vegetal deposits. There is also a chapter on the
flora of the interglacial deposits. The authors, notably Frith, do
not find that bacteria are effective producers of the change from
Geology. 163
ordinary cellulose to the peaty state of vegetable matter. As a
contribution to the ecology of plants the work is of exceptional
interest. To the student of Pleistocene and Post-glacial deposits
it seems clear that a hke investigation of the vegetal deposits of
America, for which there is abundant material, would prove
equally valuable. There is an appended bibliography of 280 or
more papers, and a topographic map of Switzerland on the scale
of 1 :530,000 showing by colors the distribution of swamps.
J, Be We
13. A Study of Recent Karthquakes; by CHaruEs Davison,
Sc.D., F.G.8. Pp. xi + 355, with 80 illustrations. London,
1905 (Contemporary Science Series. The Walter Scott Publish-
ing Co.).—The scope and object of this work are well stated in
the opening paragraph of the preface, here quoted :
“The present volume differs from a text-book of seismology
in giving brief, though detailed, accounts of individual earth-
quakes rather than a discussion of the phenomena and distribution
of earthquakes in general. At the close of his Les Zremblements
de Terre, Professor Fouqué has devoted a few chapters to some
of the principal earthquakes between 1854 and 1887; and there
are also the well known chapters in Lyell’s Principles of Geology,
dealing with earthquakes of a still earlier date. With these
exceptions there is no other work covering the same ground; and
he who wishes to study any particular earthquake can only do so
by reading long reports or series of papers written perhaps in
several different languages. ‘The object of this volume is to save
him this trouble, and to present to him the facts that seem most
worthy of his attention.”
The eight earthquakes selected are those which have been most
thoroughly studied, “or which are of special interest owing to
the unusual character of their phenomena, or the light: cast by
them on the nature and origin of earthquakes in general.”
This volume is a welcome addition to recent earthquake litera-
ture, and forms what may be regarded as a valuable supplementary
volume to the recent work of Dutton’s treating of earthquakes
in general. IB.
14. An Introduction to the Geology of Cape Colony ; by A. W.
Roeers, Director of the Geological Survey of Cape Colony.
With a chapter on the fossil reptiles of the Karroo Formation by
Prof. R. Broom, M.D., BSc., of Victoria College, Stellenbosch.
463 pp., 21 plates, 22 text figures and a colored geological map.
London, 1905. (Longmans, Green & Co.)—This well written and
clearly printed book makes a very desirable addition to geclogical
literature, bringing into one compact volume the geology of Cape
Colony and enabling the specialist in other geological fields to
gain, with a minimum of effort, a comprehensive idea of this
distant part of the earth.
The Cape System is the oldest within which organic remains
have been found, the middle member consisting of shales and
thin sandstones 2500 feet thick containing fossils identical with
or closely related to species which are found in Devonian rocks
164 Scientific Intelligence.
of America and Europe. Beneath the Cape System are found a
great thickness of closely folded and metamorphosed sedimentary
formations largely injected with granite and embracing as many
as four unconformable subdivisions. -
The base of the Cape System consists of the topographically
prominent Table Mountain sandstone, with a maximum thickness
of 5000 feet, remarkably constant in character over the whole
area of its present occurrence, probably over 90,000 square miles,
pointing to its deposition over a wide shallow platform with
unknown limits fronting a land which probably lay to the north-
ward. An interesting feature is the occurrence of a thick shale-
band with pebbles up to five inches in diameter occasionally
flattened and striated. The pebbles are scattered irregularly
through the shale and mudstone without any tendency to form
beds of conglomerate. Considering all the evidence, it is con-.
cluded that the pebbles were distributed by floating ice some-
where early in Neopaleozoic times.
Following the Cape System, conformably in the south but
unconformably in the northern portion of the Colony, is the
Karroo System, with a maximum thickness of not less than 14,000
feet; it is rich in the remains of Permo-Carboniferous and Triassic
reptiles. Its base, the Dwyka Conglomerate, a thousand feet in
thickness, appears to consist in the south of iceberg deposits and
in the north of true bowlder clay resting unconformably upon
striated and moutonnéed surfaces with indications of ice move-
ment from the north toward the south. Several plates from pho-
tographs illustrative of these highly interesting occurrences are
iven.*
: Sometime after the middle of the Karroo a period of folding
set in, building the mountain structures of Cape Colony facing
outwards toward the oceans. This was followed by a period of
great basic intrusions and of volcanism closing the ‘Triassic.
Since that time the history of Cape Colony has been preémi-
nently one of successive uplifts and erosion ; an erosion history
interrupted in early Cretaceous times by a partial subsidence and
probably an increased aridity of climate, and checked occasion-
ally in later times by an approach of the river valleys to base
level.
It is to be noted that on the southeast the even coast line cuts
across the folded structures for a distance of four hundred miles,
and there are indications, as in a downfaulted remnant of the
Cretaceous, that post-Cretaceous faulting has played an important
part in this truncation of older structures and the present ter-
mination, at this place, of the continental platform. J. B.
15. Jce Erosion Theory a Fallacy; by H. L. Farrcesip.
Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., vol. xvi, pp. 13-74, pls. 12-23. Pub-
lished Feb., 1905. Read Jan. Ist and Dec. 30th, 1904.—In this
article the author defines glacial erosion as the power of making
vast and deep excavations in the solid or live rock, resulting in
* See also the article on this subject by E. T. Mellor in this number, pp.
107-118.
Geology. 165
the excavation of fiords and large lake basins, a power which is
questioned by many geologists and accepted by others equally, if
not more, numerous; the capacity of removing loose material
and of plucking away frost-loosened blocks, especially where
facilitated by vertical jointing, being, on the other hand, univer-
sally conceded.
The arguments for deep erosion are discussed in detail and are
considered to be inconclusive. Following this, concrete illustra-
tions are given from. several glaciated mountain ranges, showing
a scouring and polishing action in valleys originating from pre-
glacial erosion rather than a topographic transformation of the
preglacial surface.
Among the important consequences from such conclusions,
Fairchild considers that fiords and hanging valleys may and
ordinarily do occur as the result of preglacial erosion, masked,
however, by the glacial occupancy and signifying therefore cer-
tain preglacial changes in the altitude of the land. It is con-
ceded, however, that glacial action emphasizes and makes more
conspicuous hanging valleys of preglacial origin.
Following the above is a discussion of the evidence from the
state of New York, with the conclusion that continental as well
as Alpine glaciation is ineffective as a powerful erosive agent.
In many ways the quantitative value of ice erosion is an impor-
tant problem and the writer has certainly presented ably his views ©
upon the subject, but they would probably have met with a readier
acceptance among those holding different opinions if prefaced with
a less assertive and combative title. Many details of the argument,
such as the significance of cross striae as indicative of weak ero-
Sive power, are still open to discussion in a manner similar to that
on the subject of hanging valleys; but coming down to the essen-
tial conclusions of the problem, Professor Fairchild and many of
his opponents upon this question are probably nearer together
than would at first appear, the problem turning on the quantita-
tive value of ice erosion: the one side holding that it is rapid and
important, the other that it is slow and very subordinate to the
aggregate effects of the previous fluvial and subaérial sculpture.
oy iBe
16. Hanging Valleys; by I. C. Russert. Bull. Geol. Soe.
Amer., vol. xvi, pp. 75-90. Read Dec. 30th, 1904. Published
Feb., 1905.—A number of prominent physiographers have con- |
sidered hanging valleys to result as a rule from the unequal
erosion of valleys by glaciers of unequal size and to represent
therefore the differential erosive power of the main and tributary
glaciers, the total erosive power being necessarily still greater.
Dismissing the idea of glacial action as being the sole or neces-
sary cause, a hanging valley may be defined, as stated by Cham-
berlin and Salisbury, as “when the lower end of the tributary
valley is distinctly ‘above the level of its main.” On this basis
Russell divides hanging valleys into four species, namely, stream-
formed, ocean-formed, diastrophic, and glacier-formed. Even
166 Scientific Intelligence.
among the glacier-formed ‘‘there appear to be at least six sets
of conditions or processes each of which may produce glaciated
hanging valleys without necessitating a conspicuously great
measure of differential ice erosion.” Illustrations confirmatory
of these conclusions are cited from Stein mountain in south-
eastern Oregon and from the Sierras.
The discussions of this paper may be considered as an amplifi-
cation of one phase of the general problem presented in Fairchild’s
paper, and tending likewise to diminish the conception of the
total magnitude of ice erosion. Bae
17. Glaciation ofthe Green Mountains ; by C. H. Hircucock,
LL.D., pp. 21. ‘Montpelier, Vt. (Argus and Patriot Press, 1904.)—
After a review of the literature and an examination of the data
in regard to all the higher summits of New England and New
York, Dr. Hitchcock concludes that all, including Mt. Katahdin,
Mt. Washington and Mt. Marcy, were completely buried beneath
the continental ice and that any nunataks must be sought for
among the Catskills or some other highland comparatively near
the ice-border just as they are in Greenland to-day. J. B.
18. Ice or Water, by Sir Henry H. Howorru. In three
volumes. London, 1905 (Longmans, Green & Co.).—This volu-
minous work, each volume consisting of some five hundred pages,
is by the author of a previous work of the same character entitled
“The Glacial Nightmare and the Flood.” He calls the present
volumes “ Another appeal to induction from the scholastic meth-
ods of modern geology,” and reiterates and amplifies the views
current in regard to the origin of the “drift or diluvium™” pre-
vious to 1840.
For geologists there is no need of a review of this work as the titles
of this and the previous one are sufficiently explanatory, but as the
former has met with some little acceptance among those interested
in geology but not specialists in the science, as is witnessed in a
recent work by the Rev. N. Hutchinson, and as this is doubtless
intended for the same class of readers, it may be well to say that
the conclusions drawn in these volumes are essentially those held
previous to 1840, thoroughly threshed out during the next twenty
years and as thoroughly abandoned by all active geologists for
the past thirty. A considerable part of the argument turns upon
the idea that since the causes of the ice age are but poorly under-
stood and there is as yet no unanimity of opinion upon that sub-
ject, therefore it is bad logic to believe in the existence of an age
of ice at all.
The author has, however, read up glacial literature with con-
siderable thoroughness, and he destroys to his satisfaction every
theory of the glacialists including those which are founded upon
the best accepted facts as well as those proposed upon insuflicient
knowledge and which have been already left. by the wayside by
all prominent glacialists themselves. In reading these volumes
one is reminded of a criticism of Broégger dealing with a similar
reversion to an earlier period of thought ‘ Der menschliche Geist
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 167
ist wunderbar conservativ: denn Ansichten, die man schon laingst
als todt und begraben ansehen miisste, stehen immerfort wieder
als Gespenster aus der Vergangenheit auf.” dn 8
Ill. MiIscELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
1. The United States National Museum ,; by Ricnarp Ratu-
BUN. Report of the U. 8. National Museum for 1903, pp. 177-
309, with 29 plates. Washington, 1905.—This is a very readable
and well illustrated account of the Government Museum build-
ings in Washington ; the first of these is the picturesque Smith-
sonian building finally completed in 1855 and restored in 1865—
1867 after the partial destruction by fire in January, 1865. This
was followed by the National Museum, completed in 1881 under
Secretary Baird. The plans for the new Museum building, the
foundations of which have been recently begun, are also presented.
2. Forestry: Tenth Annual Report of the Chief Fire Warden
of Minnesota, for the year 1904; by C. C. ANDREWS. 135 pp.,
with 17 plates.—The annual appropriation by the State of Minne-
sota in behalf of the preservation of its forests amounts to the
very small sum of $5,000. The present report shows how much
can be accomplished with even this amount, and it cannot be
believed that the strong plea of the Chief Fire Warden for ade-
quate support and an enlightened policy can be disregarded; cer-
tainly the matter is one in which the State has a vital interest.
8. Les Prix Nobel en 1902. Stockholm, 1905.—The Swedish
Academy of Sciences has recently distributed an interesting
volume giving an account of the distribution of the Nobel prizes
in 1902, with plates showing the medals and diplomas, also the
portraits of the recipients accompanied by brief biographies.
The prizes were awarded as follows, viz.: in physics, to H. A.
Lorentz and Pieter Zeeman; in chemistry, Emil Fischer; in
medicine, Ronald Ross; in literature, Theodor Mommsen. The
volume also contains the Nobel lectures by Professors Lorentz,
Zeeman, Fischer, Ross and Ducommun.
4. Negritos of Zambales ; by Witt1am ALLEN REED. 90 pp.,
62 plates. Manila, 1904 (Ethnological Survey Publications, vol.
Ii, Part 1)——Of the various publications which appear from
time to time from Manila, not the least important are those
devoted to ethnological subjects. The present paper, which forms
Part I of vol. I, is devoted to an account of the interesting race
of pygmy blacks, the Negritos of Zambales Province; it pre-
sents the subject very fully, with a large number of plates, repro-
duced from photographs.
5. A Magnetic Survey of Japan reduced to the Epoch 1895:0
and the Sea-level, carried out by order of the Harthquake Investi-
gation Committee. Reported by A. TanaKkapaTE. 347 pp., 98
plates, Tokyo, 1904. The Journal of the College of Science,
Imperial University of Tokyo, Japan, vol. xiv.—This large
volume presents the results of the Magnetic Survey of Japan,
168 Scientific Intelligence.
carried on, under the auspices of the Earthquake Investigation
Committee, during the four summers from 1893 to 1896. The
Appendix gives a complete list of the observations, reduced to
1895°0 and sea-level. A large number of plates and eleven
beautifully executed maps accompany the text. Many of the
maps are double, a thin rice-paper chart covering a second one
on thick paper; in this way a double series of data are presented.
6. Berirdge zur chemischen Physiologie, herausgegeben von F.
HormeisterR. Band VI. 1905. Braunschweig (F. Vieweg und
Sohn).—The present volume, like its predecessors, contributes a
large number of new data to the literature of physiological chem-
istry. Only a few of the 41 papers can be selected for special
mention in this place. Many of them deal with the chemistry of
metabolism. Thus von Bergmann and Langstein have investi-
gated the “residual nitrogen” of the blood; Knop, the meta-
bolism of aromatic fatty acids; Eppinger, the physiological
formation of allantoin and urea; Blumenthal, the assimilation
limits for common sugars after intravenous introduction ; and
Steinitz and Weigert, the composition of the body after improper
nutrition. Dr. von Fiirth has published the details of an
extensive study of the oxidative decomposition of proteids.
Friedmann’s research on the chemical structure of adrenalin,
Pollak’s paper on the diversity of trypsins, and Embden’s variqus
papers on carbohydrate metabolism indicate the scope of the
journal. Students of haemolysis and related topics will be inter-
ested in the papers by Pascucci upon the chemistry of the stroma
of the red blood corpuscles, and one by Hausmann on the
behavior of saponin in the presence of cholesterin. L. B. M.
7. Du Laboratoire 4 ? Usine; par Louis Houttevicun, Pro-
fesseur 4 Université de Caen, 299 pp., 12mo. Paris, 1904 (Ar-
mand Colin).—This useful little book discusses in elementary
form a wide range of well-selected practical topics: the part
played by machines ; the gas meter; the transformation and dis-
tribution of energy; the industrial Alps; electro-chemistry ;
lighting by incandescence; the production and use of extreme
cold ; molecules, ions and corpuscles. The method of presenta-
tion is adapted to the requirements of the ordinary public inter-
ested in the applications of science. ;
8. Traité Complet de la Fabrication des Biéres ; par MM. G.
Moreau and Lucimn Livy. 674 pp., 5 plates, 173 figures in the
text. Paris, 1905 (Libr. Polytechnique, Ch. Béranger Editeur,
successeur de Baudry et Cie.).—This volume, like others which
have preceded it from the same publishers and belonging to this
series, is a very complete and exhaustive discussion of the subject
of which it treats. This is somewhat out of the range of this
Journal, but attention may be called to the discussion of the
botanical side of the various forms of hops and barley, also of
the yeast, and of the part played by bacteria; these have more
than a technical interest. ‘The illustrations are numerous and
good and the whole presentation of the technical part of the sub-
ject is very thorough.
Pieri eee
ye UR)" IAT ee he
ae Sr tate
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CONTENT se
Page
Arr, X.—Mechanical Equivalent of ue ‘Heat Vaporization-
of Water; by iR. He Houce (2. (220 ae oe eee 81
XI. —Phosphor escence of Zinc Sulphide through the Ipfluence
of Condensed Gases obtained by Heating Rare-Harth
Minerals ; by C. Baskrrvitie and I. B. Lockpart.... 93
XIJ.—Action of Radium Emanations on Mineralgand Gems;
by:C. Baskiurvitir and L. B. Locknarr 2. >. eeeee 95
XIII.—Behavior of Typical Hydrous Bromides when Heated
in an Atmosphere of Hydrogen Bromide; by J. L.
KRBIDER (ooo i ee ee ee ee
XTV.—Glacial (Dwyka) Conglomerate of South Africa ; by
BR. -T, Menor 2s eer 2 ee ae
XV.—Formation of Natural Bridges ; by H. F. Ciuzanp.. 119
XVIL—Quartz from San Diego County, California; by G.
A. WARING 230 Oo OMe tere cee eo 125
XV II.—Radio-active Properties of the Waters of the Springs
on the Hot Springs Reservation, Hot Springs, Ark.; by ;
B. By BOLEWOOD |. ee 2 oe Ee eee 128 We
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
Chemistry and Physics—Studies with the Liquid Hydrogen and Air Calori-
meters. I. Specific Heats, J. Dewar, 152.—Thermo-electric Junction as
a Means of determining the Lowest Temperatures, J. Dewar, 153.
Geology—Geology of the Vicinity of Little Falls, Herkimer County, H, P.
CusHiInG, 156.—Geology of the Watkins and Elmira Quadrangles, accom-
panied by a geologic map, J. M. Cuarxe and D. D. Luter, 157.—Geologic -
map of the Tully Quadrangle, J. M. CLarke and D. D. Luraer, 158,.—
Contribution to the Paleontology of the Martinez Group, C. E. WEAVER;
' Faune cambrienne du Haut-Alemtejo (Portugal), J. F. N. DELGabo, 159.
—Paraphorhynchus, a new genus of Kinderhook Brachiopoda, S. WELLER :
Sympterura Minveri, n. g. et sp.; a Devonian Ophiurid from Cornwall, F.
A. BaTHER: Ancestral origin of the North American Unionide, or fresh-
water Mussels, C. A. Wurter, 160.—Thalattosauria, a group of marine rep-
tiles from the Triassic of California, J. OC. Mereram: Geology of Littleton,
New Hampshire, C. H. Hircucock: Vorschule der Geologie, J. WALTHER,
161.—Die Moore der Schweiz mit Beriicksichtigung der gesammten Moor-
frage, J. Frvw and C. Scurormr, 162.—Study of Recent EKarthquakes, C.
Davison: Introduction to the Geology of Cape Colony, A. W. RoGzErRs,
163.—Ice Erosion Theory, a Fallacy, H. L. Farrcuiip, 164.—Hanging Val-
leys, I. C. RussELu, 160. —Glaciation of the Green Mountains, C. H. Hircx-
cock: Ice or Water, H. H. Howortn, 166.
Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—United States National Museum, R.
RatHBun: Forestry ; Tenth Annual Report of the Chief Fire Warden of
Minnesota, C. C. ANDREWS: Les Prix Nobel en 1902: Negritos of Zam-
bales, W. A. Reep: Magnetic Survey of Japan reduced to the Epoch
1895-0and the Sea- level, A. TANAKADATE, 167.—Beitrige zur chemischen
Physiologie, F. HorMeisTER: Du Laboratoire & V Usine, L. HOULLEVIGUE :
Traité Complet de la Fabrication des Bieres, G. Morgav and L, Livy, 168.
SEPTEMBER, 1905.
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THE
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FEOUR DH SE RES. |
Art. XX.— Development of Fenestella; by Epear Roscor
Cumines, Ph.D. (With Plates V, VI, and VIL.)
Introduction.
Durtine the past two years, the writer’s studies of the devel-
opment of Paleozoic Bryozoa* have brought out some very
interesting points bearing upon the earliest stages of Lenestella.
The present paper deals with the development (astogeny) and
morphology of Henestel/a, and is based entirely upon calcified
material from the Hamilton formation of Thedford, Ontario.+
This material consists of numerous bases of /enestella colonies.
In these, the minutest details of internal structure are pre-
served with remarkable fidelity. The method of study has
been the preparation of both thin and serial sections. The
latter were obtained by slowly grinding down the bases and
accurately drawing each stage as seen by reflected or in some
eases by transmitted light. ‘The specimens studied are in vari-
ous stages of growth. Some represent the bases of adult
colonies from which the adult (ephebastic) portion has been
lost; others are minute bases, which in their growth never
- proceeded farther than the nepiastic stage. In these nepiastic
* In a former paper, a classification of the growth stages of the bryozoan -
colony was given, together with a general classification of the growth stages -
of any colony belonging to any group of organisms. The terms applicable
to the growth stages of any colony are: Nepiastic, neanastic, ephebastic, and
gerontastic, corresponding to the well-known terms nepionic, neanic, ephebic,
and gerontic, applicable to the growth stages of the individual. Dr. Ruede-
mann has recently proposed the term astogenetic with reference to the colony,
as the term parallel with ontogenetic with reference to the individual. The
astogenetic stage of a colony, therefore, corresponds with the ontogenetic
stage of an individual.
+ This Fenestella is probably the form listed by Grabau as Semicoscinium
labiatum.
Am. Jour. Sci.—FourtH Series, Vout. XX, No. 117.—SEPTEMBER, 1905.
12
170 E.R. Cumings —Development of Fenestella.
colonies, the zocecia emerge upon the surface; but in the older
ones, the apertures of the zocecia in the basal portion are sub-
merged in a copious deposit of punctate sclerenchyma. In all
cases, however, there has been no resorption of the earlier
zocecia, So that sections of the bases of ephebastic or gerontas-
tic zoaria reveal the morphology of the earliest stages as
faithfully as sections of a nepiastic colony. As an aid to the
elucidation of the astogeny of /enestella, the writer studied
the astogeny of Lvetepora phenicea, a recent bryozoan morpho-
logically very similar to the ancient Fenestellas and Poly-
oras.
: In the writer’s former paper on the development of Paleo-
zoic Bryozoa, the term protecium was introduced as designating
the primary individual of the colony. In this sense, it would
have the same signification as the term ancestrula of Jullien
or primary cell of Hincks. In the Cyclostomata, as is well
known, the first zocecium surmounts a hemispherical base
(basal disc), which serves as the point of attachment of the
young colony to the substratum. This basal disc has been
shown to be the calcified wall of the metamorphosed and
histolyzed embryo (Barrois and others). It is believed by the
present writer that the persistence of this structure (kathem-
bryonic stage) in the ancient order of Cyclostomata is not
without significance, especially in view of the fact, to be
shown presently, that it is a conspicuous feature in the
development of the ancient Cryptostomata and possibly of the
Trepostomata (Phylloporina corticosa). The basal dise is
probably the ¢rwe first zocecium. In the present paper, there-
fore, the term protwciwm is restricted to the basal dise or its
equivalent, and the superjacent portion of the primary cell is
designated the ancestrula. In many recent Chilostomata,
there seems to be no distinction of protcecium and ancestrula.
This may mean that the extreme acceleration of these modern
types has practically eliminated the protcecium from the on-
togeny. In the ancient Cryptostomata, on the other hand, the
proteecium greatly predominates over the ancestrula, which is ~
often little more than an exaggerated aperture to the former.
In any case, the ontogenetic stage of which the protcecium is
the index is always present throughout the Ectoprocta, for by
a degenerative metamorphosis they all give rise to a hemi-
spherical kathembrvo, from which the adult polypide arises by
a sort of budding process. Furthermore, this kathembryo
becomes invested with a calcareous or chitinous ectocyst, which
is the first skeletal structure of the developing individual.
The proteecium is therefore very closely. analogous to the
protegulum of brachiopods, the protoconch of cephalopods,
etc.
E.R. Cumings—Development of Fenestella. 171
DEVELOPMENT OF EF ENESTELLA.
The Proteecium.
Many well-preserved Fenestella bases show a minute circular
pit on their basal surface. This can be seen only in colonies
that were attached to a substratum which disappeared in the
process of fossilization, leaving the basal surface of the colony
free from all extraneous matter. Where the colony is still
attached to the substratum, frequently the frond of another
bryozoan, the circular pit can always be demonstrated by
means of thin sections. This pit is the protceecium. As will
be seen from the longitudinal sections (figs. 20, 36, 387, 59),
the protcecium is separated from the substratum by a thin
basal membrane. In such sections, this pit appears as a semi-
circular object in the proximal portion of the colony. In trans-
verse sections, it appears as a dark ring surrounded by concen-
tric zones of punctate secondary sclerenchyma. That the
protcecium has its own proper wall, similar to that of ordinary
zocecia, is shown by numerous sections (figs. 86-38, and 59).
The diameter of the protcecium is from 0-4—0°6™, or about
three or four times that of the ordinary zoccia. In form and
position it corresponds precisely to the basal disc of Cyclosto-
mata, and there can be little doubt that it has the same
morphological and developmental significance.
The Ancestrula.
The protcecium is surmounted by a tubular structure arising
from the center of its distal surface. This is the ancestrula.
In some of the earlier sections prepared by the writer, one of
the primary buds was mistaken for the ancestrula, and its size
and shape were therefore thought to be different from what
was shown in later sections. It is considerably smaller than
the primary buds, being both shorter and of less diameter. It
seems altogether likely that the primary polypide never per-
manently ascended into the ancestrula as in the Cyclostomata.
On the other hand, the ancestrula of Fenestella is far from
being the homologue of the vestibule of ephebastic zocecia.
It is not built up of secondary deposits, but is composed of the
same thin non-punctate substance as the proper wall of the
proteecium and other zoccia. The homology of the ancestrula
of Fenestella is with the tubular primary zowcium of the
Cyclostomata. Figures 59 and 60 indicate the shape and
appearance of the ancestrula_ as seen in the majority of prop-
erly orientated longitudinal sections,* and figures 10-13, 24,
43, and 54 in transverse sections.
* The zoecium marked J, in figures 19 and 20, was at first thought to be
the ancestrula, since it communicates freely with the protecium. A careful
study of the appearances possible in a series of longitudinal sections with
172 LE. £. Cumings—Development of Fenestella.
The Primary Buds.
Two lateral primary buds arise from the primary zocecium
(figs. 8-7, 21-23, 40-43). There is still some question as to
whether these buds arise from the protcecium or from the
ancestrula. The sections figured reveal all that can be ex-
pected. The question becomes one of interpretation and of
analogy with recent Bryozoa. The proximal ends of the pri-
mary buds are in contact with the protcecium and are separated
from its cavity by a very thin ecaleareous wall, which is fre-
quently broken away (figs. 19 and 20). The appearance of this
wall is well shown in figure 36. Figures 3-7 and 38-40, 42
show the intimate relation of the primary buds to the pro-
toeclum. From the analogy of recent Bryozoa, on the other
hand, these buds might be expected to originate from the
ancestrula. A median primary bud is not indicated by any of
the sections. If it existed, it certainly arose from the ances-
trula.
The size, shape, and position of the primary buds is beauti-
fully shown in figures: 38 and 39, and in the transverse sections.
These buds are long and tubular, and diverge but slightly from
the axis of the zoarium. There is no long vestibule as in
ephebastic zocecia, but the whole aspect of the buds is that of
a simple tubular zocecium, quite similar to that of the Cyclos-
tomata. There is also no indication of hemisepta or any other
structures within the zocecium.
Secondary Buds.
All buds of the second generation from the protcecium are
designated secondary buds. The series of sections (figs. 1-16)
seems to indicate that each of the primary buds produces a
lateral and a median bud. The lateral buds are very clearly
shown in such a position that they could have originated from
no other source than from the primary buds (see especially
figs. 5,41, and 42). The median buds belong to the second
tier of zocecia. They are designated //,, and //,, in figure 13.
The shape of the secondary buds is quite similar to that of the
primary ones (figs. 37,45, 59, and 60). Figure 50 is a drawing
different assumed orientation has convinced the writer that the zocecium in
question is a primary bud. To test this, four different bases in which the
protceecium and primary buds could be seen on the basal surface (in some
cases only after slight etching) were sectioned in the direction j — 7, figure
48, which had been determined by previous inspection of the basal surface,
and marked by carefully drawing a fine line through the center of the pro-
toecium and as nearly as possible between the primary buds. Every one of
these sections has the appearance shown in figures 59, 60, and 45. It is
therefore unlikely that figures 19 and 20 (which were orientated at random)
represent the ancestrula. It is needless to state that only a very small
proportion of the many sections prepared in this study are figured.
EE. R. Cumings—Development of Fenestella. 173
of a secondary bud, and may be compared with figure 53, which
is a drawing of two zocecia of Protocrisina (after Ulrich), a
eyclostomatous bryozoan from the Trenton. The resemblance
* is too striking to need further emphasis. No internal zocecial
structures have been observed in the secondary buds.
Tertiary and Later Buds.
One bud of the third generation from the ancestrula occu-
pies a position in the first tier of zocecia, diametrically opposite
the ancestrula (/Z/, figs. 6-18, 24, 26, 48, 54-58). The shape
of this bud is well shown in figures 37, 45, 59, and 60. There |
is no means of telling from which of the two secondary buds
this tertiary one is derived. It may have originated now from
one, now from the other. In figure 43, it is rather more inti-
mately associated with 32, which was in turn derived from the
right lateral primary bud. Figure 13 indicates that each of
the secondary buds gives rise to a median bud lying in the
second tier of zocecia. :
Ascending the axis of the zoarium (figs. 17-20, 36-39), there
is exhibited a series of zowcia very symmetrically arranged
about the axis. In transverse sections, above the level of y,
figure 17, these present a peculiar star-shaped appearance seen
in 1 fioures 15, 16, and 58, as well as in figure 61 of the writer’s
former paper. The order of budding of these later zocecia
cannot be determined, although the writer has devoted a large
amount of time and study to this point. It is probable that
the order of budding 1 in these later generations is without sig-
nificance. An important point shown by the sections, how-
ever, is the shape and size of these zocecia. ‘This is best seeti
in fiour es 17 and 38. The zoecia are tubular, but somewhat less
elongate than the earlier ones. It is not ‘until the zoarium
begins to expand into its characteristic infundibular form that
the zocecia assume the shape normal to Fenestella. Figure 51
shows a row of zocecia from the neanastic region (base of the
cone) of the specimen represented in figure 38. For com pari-
son with this is inserted figure 52, showing a specimen otf
Fenestella acmea from the Waldron shale of Tarr Hole, Indiana.
The resemblance is striking. The adult zoccia of the Thed-
ford Fenestella are shown in figure 49.
Discussion and Conclusions.
The morphological element of the bryozoan colony which
corresponds to the primitive integument of Mollusca, Brachio-
poda, ete. (that is, to the protoconch, protegulum, ete. ), is the
protecvum, or basal disc, of the primary individual of the
colony. The protcecium is the calcareous or chitinous wall of
174 EE. R. Cumings— Development of Fenestelta.
the kathembryo. In /enestella it is very large and in every
way similar to the protcecium (basal disc) of the Cyclostomata.
The ancestrula is the tubular superstructure of the primary
individual. It is a simple, undifferentiated, tubular zocecium.
The earlier formed zocecia (nepiastic zocecia) of the Fenestella
colony differ markedly in shape and size from later formed |
(neanastic and ephebastic) zocecia. In every feature in which
they depart from the ephebastie zocecia of Fenestella they
approach the ephebastic zocecia of the Cyclostomata.
From these observations, it may be reasonably concluded that
Fenestella as well as the entire order of Cryptostomata is
derived from the Cyclostomata. Certain other general conclu-
sions, more or less speculative, are suggested by a consideration
of the probable significance of the protcecium and ancestrula.
The meaning of the degenerative metamorphosis of Bryozoa
has always been a puzzle to students of this class. The striking
analogy of this metamorphosis to the degeneration of an ordi-
nary polypide and production of a brown body, together with
the nearly identicai life history of the regenerating polypide or
of ordinary buds and the primitive polypide issuing from the
kathembryo, have more than once led to the suggestion that
the primitive polypide is in the trne sense a bud. The writer
is inclined to hold this view. Assuming, therefore, that the
primitive polypide is a bud, the following suggestions may be
made in regard to the significance of the metamorphosis and
of the resulting protcecium:
1. In the primitive bryozoan, there was no histolysis of the
larval organs. The development was direct and resulted in a
primitive zocecium and polypide.
2. This primitive zocecium was hemispherical in shape and
possessed a simple aperture in the center of its upper surface.
Some ancient types of Cyclostomata retain nearly such a form
of zocecium (Stomatopora of the Trenton, especially S. twrgida).
3. This primitive zocecium might now give rise to a linear
adnate series of zocecia, as 11 Stomatopora, or to a series of
superposed zocecia, as in the Trepostomata. By variations of
zoarial habit based upon one or the other of these fundamental
plans of budding all existing types of Bryozoa could have been
produced.
4. In accordance with the law of tachygenesis, later in
the history of the bryozoan group a tendency toward concen-
tration of the early stages in development would arise. In any
colony the tendency to degenerate may be supposed to have
applied to the primitive polypide as well as to later ones,
and finally to have become an invariable part of its life history.
By the continued operation of the law of tachygenesis, the life
history of the first polypide- became so abbreviated as to be
E.R. Cumings— Development of Fenestella. 175
represented only by its degenerative stage, that is, by its latest
growth stage, all the earlier growth stages having been crowded
out or back into the larval stage.
In accordance with this interpretation of bryozoan develop-
ment, the large size of the protcecium in ancient types is ex-
plicable and is thought to be due to a less degree of acceleration,
the calcification of the zocecial wall of the primitive individual
being allowed to proceed nearly to completion before the second
zoceclum was superposed upon it. The probability that the first
polypide remains in the protceecium in /enestella, instead of
ascending into the ancestrula as in-modern Cyclostomata, may
indicate a still more primitive condition. The relations of the
protcecium and ancestrula in the Cyclostomata and in Fenestella
suggest the normal relation of superposition of the zocecia in the
Trepostomata. «It is not without interest to find evidence, in the
development of Paleozoic Bryozoa, of the fundamental relation-
ship of these great groups. Ulrich (Geol. Surv. Illinois, vol.
vill) has already suggested such a relationship on the ground of
the resemblances of such types as the early Fenestellas, Phyllo-
porma and Protocrisina. The evidence presented by these
adult types is greatly strengthened by the striking parallelism
of the nepiastic stages of Henestella with the series of adult
types named above.
Paleontological Laboratory, Indiana University,
June, 1905.
EXPLANATION OF PLATES.
Description of Figures.*
Letters having the same meaning for all the figures :—
a, 6, c, d, e, primary carine (except figs. 17, 24, 47, and 48).
J, fenestrule.
Kk, carina.
0, protoecium.
s, substratum of bryozoan colony.
z, z', etc., zocecia of generations later than the primary zoccia.
A, ancestrula.
I, primary bud.
II, bud of second generation, that is, derived from a primary bud.
III, bud of third generation.
2, left lateral bud.
- 3, right lateral bud.
23, right lateral bud of the second generation, derived from a left lateral
primary bud.
32, left lateral bud of the second generation, derived from a right lateral
primary bud.
* All drawings except figures 1-16 were made with the camera lucida.
Figures 30-32 are after Barrois, and figure 53 is after Ulrich. All the speci-
mens of Fenestella are from Thedford, Ontario.
176 E.R. Cumings—Development of Kenestella.
PLATE V.
Figures 1-16.—Transverse serial sections of a Fenestella base. These six-
teen sections represent 1™™ thickness of rock.
Fiaures 1, 2.—Proteecium (cf. figs. 40, 41, 31-35).
FIGURE 3.—Section in the plane of a-a, figure 47, cutting the proximal ends
of the primary buds and the buds of the second generation (secondary
buds) (cf. fig. 42).
FIGURES 4, 5. —Successively higher sections.
Ficure 6.—Section in plane of a/-a', figure 47, cutting the proximal end of
the tertiary bud (cf. fig. 45).
FIGURES 7-12. —Successively higher sections between the planes of a/—a’ and
c-c, figure 47, showing the development of the initial buds. Figures
10-12 cut the aperture of the ancestrula (cf. fig. 24, with fig. 12).
Fiaure 13.—Section cutting the proximal ends of buds of the second tier
(IIo1, I13,, IIIb, and JTIc) (cf. fig. 26).
FicuRE 14.—Section just cutting the distal end of the aperture of the
ancestrula.
Figures 15, 16.—Assumption of the star-shaped arrangement of zocecia,
characteristic of the paranepiastic stage of Fenestella.
PrarnoVi:
Figure 17.—Longitudinal section of a Fenestella base. cutting in the plane
of e-e, figure 47, and: a-a, figure 48. This section passes through the
edge of the protcecium and misses the ancestrula entirely. 6, 6’, buds
of the second tier. At z and z' the zoccia are vertically above each
other; at 2’, z'’ they alternate, and at the top of the figure they lie side
by side. x 17. ;
Ficure 18. —Longitudinal section cutting still more excentrically than that
shown in figure 17, probably in the plane of b-0, figure 48. This misses
the proteecium and ancestrula entirely, but their relative. position is
shown atoand A. The vertical alignment of zocecia is shown at 2-2’
and the ordinary arrangement, on either side of the carina, at z". The
bifurcation of a primary branch is shown at g-h (between z” and g, h).
In each new branch, the zocecia first alternate and later lie side by side.
Normal arrangement shown atk’ k". x17.
Fiaure 19.—Longitudinal section cutting in the plane of c-c, figure 48. The
section cuts a row of zoccia (z'—z") nearly iongitudinally. x17.
Figure 20.—Section in nearly the same plane as in figure 19 (d-d. figure 48).
This section was orientated by polishing and etching the basal surface of
the colony and marking the position of the protcecium and primary
buds. The section was then ground as nearly as possible in the marked
direction. A primary bud is very clearly shown (J), x17.
FicuRE 21.—Transverse section in the plane of a-a, figure 47. The primary
buds are very distinct. x17.
FIGURE 22.—Similar section of another specimen, cutting the proximal end
of the ancestrula. x17.
FIGuRE 23.—Transverse section of avery slender base. Section in about
the same plane as 22. x17.
FicurE 24.—Section in the plane of 6-0, figure 47. Ancestrula very dis-
tinct, x17.
Figure 25.—Longitudinal section of a base from which the substratum was
absent. x17.
Ficure 26.—Transverse section in the plane of d-d, rae 47, showing the
proximal ends of two buds of the second tier (z, z’) (ef. fig. 13) a tcslie
Figure 27.—Protecium and ancestrula of Retepora phoenicea from St.
Vincent’s Gulf, Australia. x 27.
Figure 28.—Ancestrula and three primary buds (7, 2, 3) of Retepora phe-
WIGS KX 29’
Figure 29.—Profile view of protecium and ancestrula of another specimen
of Retepora phonicea. x27.
Am. Jour. Sci., Vo!. XX, 1905. Plate V.
Plate VI.
Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XX, 1905.
Plate VII.
Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XX, 1905.
E. R. Cumings—Development of Fenestella. aN
_ Figure 30.—Protecium, ancestrula, and primary bud of Tubulipora. After
Barrois. x27.
FIGURE 31.—Same:; seen from the under surface. x 27.
FIGURE 32.—Ancestrula and primary bud of Schizoporella. x 38.
Figure 33.—Protecium and primary zowcia of Phylloporina corticosa from
Cannon Falls, Minnesota. x17.
FiGuRE 34.—Protecium of Polypora from the Lower Helderberg of Indian
Ladder, New York. x28.
Figure 35.—Protecium of Thamniscus from the Upper Coal Measures of
Kansas. x17.
Puate VII.
FiGcuRE 36.—Longitudinal section of Fenestella, in the plane of f-f, figure
pear Lt:
Figure 37.—Longitudinal section in the plane of g-g, figure 48. x17.
Figure 38.—Longitudinal section in the plane of h-h, figure 48. This sec-
tion shows remarkably well the shape of the nepiastic zocecia. x 17.
FiIcuRE 59.—Longitudinal section in the plane of 7-7, figure 48. x17.
Figure 40.—Transverse section in the plane of a-a, figure 47. Shows the
primary buds (2, 3). x17.
Ficure 41.—Transverse section of another specimen in which the primary
and secondary buds have a rather unusual arrangement. x17.
FicuRE 42.—Transverse section in the plane of a'-a’, figure 47 (cf. fig. 5).
Same specimen as figures 54-58. x17.
Ficure 45.-—-Transverse section in the plane of 6-0, figure 47. Shows the
proximal end of the tertiary bud (ef. fig. 10). x17.
Figure 44.—Probable interpretation of figure 39. Section in the plane of
ii, figure 48. é
Figure 45.—Semidiagrammatic drawing of a longitudinal section (in the plane
of j-j, fig. 48) of a specimen showing the ancestrula and two zocecia,
probably one of the secondary buds and a tertiary bud (UJ, lJ). x17.
FiGuRE 46.—Semidiagrammatic drawing of a longitudinal section (in the
plane of ‘-k, fig. 48) of the ancestrula and protcecium of another speci-
men. 6. X17.
Figure 47.—Semidiagrammatic drawing from figure 37, to show the position
of transverse sections.
Figure 48.—Semidiagrammatic drawing from figure 43, to show the position
of longitudinal sections.
Fieurs 49.—Ephebastic zocecia of Fenestella. Specimen from Thedford,
Ontario. x17.
FicuRE 00.—Nepiastic zocecium of Fenestella. Specimen from Thedford,
Ontario. x17.
FIGURE 01.—Neanastic zoecia of Fenestella. From the proximal portion of
the cone of the same specimen as that shown in figure 88. x17.
FIGURE 02.—Ephebastic zocecia of Fenestella acmea from the Waldron shale
of Tarr Hole, Indiana (ef. fig. 51). x17.
FIGURE 03.—Ephebastic zocecia of Protocrisina exigua Ulr. from the Tren-
ton limestone of Montreal, Canada (cf. fig. 50). After Ulrich. x18.
Ficures 54-%8.—Serial sections of a Fenestella base. Same specimen as
that shown in figure 42, figure 54 being the next section above. Fig-
ures 99-08 are successively higher sections. x17.
Figure 59.—Longitudinal section (in the plane of j-j, fig. 48) of a Fenestella
base, showing the shape of the ancestrula most often seen, and three
nepiastic zocecia (JI, ITI, z"). x17.
Figure 60.—Semidiagrammatic drawing from figure 59.
{|
178 Darton—Age of the Monument Creek Formation.
Art. XXI.—Age of the Monument Creek Formation ;* by
N. H. Darton.
Tus contribution is an account of additional evidence as to
the Oligocene age of the Monument Creek formation, or at
least of its upper member, afforded by the discovery of Titano-
therium and other fossil bones at several localities.
On the high divide between the Platte and Arkansas drainage _
basins, at the foot of the Rocky Mountains, there is an extensive |
deposit of sands, gravel and clay to which F. V. Hayden gave
the name of Monument Creek group.t This observer recog-
nized the fact that the group overlies the Laramie formation
unconformably, but apparently he included im its lower portion
more or less of the beds later separated, as the Arapahoe and
Denver formations in the Denver region, The opinion was
held that it was of early Tertiary age, but no precise correla-
tion was suggested. In 18738, Prof. E. D. Cope examined a
portion of the deposit and found a few bones in regard to
which he made the following statement :t
“The age of the Monument Creek formation in relation to
the other Tertiaries not having been definitely determined, I
sought for vertebrate fossils. “The most characteristic one
which I procured was the hind leg and foot of an Avrtiodactyle
of the Oreodon type, which indicated conclusively that the
formation is newer than the Eocene. From the same neigh-
borhood and stratum, as I have every reason for believing, the
fragment of the Megaceratops coloradoensis was obtained.
This fossil is equally conclusive against the Pliocene age of the
formation, so that it may be referred to the Miocene until
further discoveries enable us to be more exact.”
Doubtless Professor Cope regarded the fauna as belonging
in the White River group, which is now generally considered
to be Oligocene. He added nothing regarding the precise
locality, or stratigraphic position of the fossils. So far as I
ean find, no further paleontological evidence has since been
offered, regarding the age of the formation. A brief account
of the Monument Creek formation was given by G. H. Eldridge,
in the “ Geology of the Denver Basin.”§ The true strati-
graphic limits of the formation in relation to the underlying
5 * Published by permission of the Director of the United States Geological
vey.
Wprolieianey field report of U. S. Geological Survey of Colorado 4nd New
Mexico, 1869, p. 40.
t [7] eer ‘Report of the United States Geological and Coon
Survey of the Territories, embracing Colorado, Report for 1873, by F. V
Hayden, p. 480.
§ United States Geological Survey, Monographs, vol. xxvii, pp. 202-204.
Darion—Age of the Monument Creek Formation. 179
Laramie, Arapahoe and Denver formations were recognized,
and it was shown that the formation consists of two distinct
members separated by a well-defined break in deposition. The
lower member lies on an uneven floor of Denver formation
at the north and Laramie to the southeast. It displays “marked
regularity in the succession of its beds, excepting at the base,
where, owing to the uneven floor, the material varies from
conglomerate through sandstone to arenaceous shale. A
short distance above the base are two broad bands of green
shale separated by one of pink and capped by a fine grit, or
sandstone, which is soft and friable and easily disintegrates.”
The thickness is estimated to be about 900 feet. The sand-
stones and grits of the lower member are mostly of granite
debris. The upper member consists of sandstones and shales,
with numerous beds of conglomerate, and between the two
there are local deposits of rhyolitic tuff, in places 40 feet thick,
which are quarried extensively for building stone near Castle
Rock. In the lower part of the upper member many frag-
ments of this rhyolitic tuff occur, a feature which is notably
displayed in the breccia and conglomerate capping the butte
known as Castle Rock. The thickness of the upper member
is estimated by Eldridge at about 400 feet. In portions of
the area, I have observed that in the lower member there are
extensive deposits of massive clay, very similar in appearance
and properties to the fullers earth which is characteristic of
the Chadron formation, or Titanotherium beds, of the White
River group in the Big Bad Lands of South Dakota and
elsewhere.
In the general résumé of the geology in the Monograph on
the Denver Basin,* Mr. Emmons suggests that the vertebrate
remains of Miocene age probably were from the lower mem-
ber of the formation and that the upper member might be
correlated with the Pliocene. This suggestion was based on
the fact that the uppermost Tertiary deposits in the eastern
portion of Colorado are of Pliocene age, and in the region
north of the Platte River they lie unconformably on White
River beds. Mr. Emmons recognized the fact that these beds
differ somewhat from Monument Creek beds in character, yet
this could be explained by the proximity of the Monument
Creek formation to shore lines along the mountain front.
_Two years ago, while examining the southern portion of the
Monument Creek area, I obtained from the conglomerate four
miles northwest of Calhan, the distal end of a large humerus
which Dr. F. A. Lucas has identified as Titanotherium. This
conglomerate is the upper member of the formation and caps
along line of buttes and extensive plateaus. A number of |
* Loc- cit., p. 39.
180 Darton—Age of the Monument Creck Formation.
bones have also been collected for me along the valley of
Cherry Creek, half way between Castle Rock and Elizabeth,
consisting mainly of bones of titanotherium. They were
obtained at many localities and all from the sandstones of the
upper member of the formation. A fragment of a lower jaw
of titanotherium was the most distinctive fossil obtained. It
was found in the upper beds, at Kaumpfer’s ranch, 7 miles
southwest of Elizabeth. In Wild Cat Canyon, 6 miles west-
by-south of Elizabeth, were found fragments of a jaw and the
distal ends of a titanotherium tibia and humerus. Portions of
a lower jaw of hyracodon, apparently nebrasenszs, were found
in a well at Anderson’s place 6 miles south-southwest of Eliza-
beth, together with various turtle bones. All of this material
appears to have been obtained from the upper beds and it cor-
relates these beds with the Chadron formation of the White
River group, or Oligocene. No evidence was obtained as to
the age of the lower member, but the fullers earth, as before
mentioned, is similar to that which is so characteristic in other
areas. The presence of the unconformity between the upper
and lower members suggests that the latter may be of Wasatch
or Bridger age. The nearest locality to the Monument Creek
area, at which Oligocene deposits occur in eastern Colorado, is
im the vicinity of Akron and Fremont’s Butte, where titano-
therium remains occur in abundance. Farther north, in the
region about Pawnee Buttes, there are well-known localities
of the titanotherium and overlying beds. In the low inter-
vening area, east and southeast of Denver, Oligocene deposits:
are absent, but it is probable that originally they extended con-
tinously from the vicinity of Akron to the foot of the Rocky
Mountains in the Monument Oreek area. There is much evi-
dence throughout the Great Plains region that the Ohgocene
deposits were originally of wide extent, for outliers occur along
the mountain slopes and in many widely separated areas. ‘They
have been. subjected to extensive degradation in Miocene,
Pliocene and later times and probably removed from large
districts, especially in the wider valleys. In my recent report
on the Great Plains,* there is given a map showing their pres-
ent distribution and probably former great extent.
* United States Geological Survey, Professional Paper No. 82, pl. xliv.
tue
Moody—Todometric Determination of Aluminium. 181
Arr. XXI1.— The lodometrie Determination of Aluminium
in Aluminium Chloride and Aluminium Sulphate; by
S. E. Moopy.
[Contributions from the Kent Chemical Laboratory of Yale Univ.—cxxxviii. |
A process for the gravimetric determination of alumina in
salts of aluminium has been described by Stock,* who bases
the method upon the reaction represented by the following
equation :
Al,(SO,), +5KI+KIO, +3H,O
= 2Al(OH),+3K,SO,+61
This equation would show that iodine is liberated when
potassium iodate and potassium iodide are together added to
a solution of aluminium sulphate. It was found, however, that
in the action of the iodide-iodate mixture upon a solution of
potassium alum, only about two-thirds of the iodine corre-
sponding to the aluminium salt is accounted for ; and this sug-
gests that the reaction is not completed according to the
equation, and that the precipitate formed is not the simple
hydroxide. Upon ignition the precipitate yields, however, the
total amount of alumina present; and, since the character of
the precipitate is good, the process is easily managed and gives,
as Stock has said, an excellent gravimetric method for the
determination of alumina.
Taking aluminium chloride, AlCl,.6H,O, and proceeding
in the same manner, similar results are obtained, and after dis-
solving the precipitate in sulphuric acid and adding silver
nitrate to the dilute solution, a decided precipitate of silver
chloride is observed, which upon washing, drying and weigh-
ing is found to be about one-third of the amount of that sub-
stance corresponding to the original aluminium chloride. This
indicates that it is an oxychloride which is formed on the addi-
tion of potassium jodide and iodate ; moreover, upon removing
by sodium thiosulphate the iodine first set free in the action
and allowing the mixture to stand, progressive hydrolysis takes
place as shown by the return of color due to iodine, and this
change can be still further hastened by heating after adding
an excess of sodium thiosulphate to take up the iodine as lib-
erated. The attempt was made, therefore, to complete the
reaction between the iodide-iodate mixture and the aluminium
chloride, or alum, by heating the solution in a Voit flask
through which steam or, still better, hydrogen was passed, as
an aid in the transfer of the iodine liberated to a receiver
* Ber. Dtsch. Chem. Ges., 1900, xxxiii, i, p. 548.
182 Moody—lLodometric Determination of Aluminium.
charged with a solution of potassium iodide. The iodine col-
lected was titrated with = sodium thiosulphate.
Table I gives results obtained by this method. The details
of the experiments in which steam was used as an agent to
force the iodine over are given in section A, while those of the
experiments in which hydrogen was employed are indicated in
section B.
TABLE I,
Approx. a | ae
Alumini x 2
chloride | HIOs.| KI. | Time in APPYOX. jo/calculated| Diff.
solution. grm. grm. minutes. | Na.S.Os. grm. grm.
em?. em?,
A
25 O°3 1°0 25 25°05 0°0427 |—0°0007
25 0°3 1°0 90 25°15 0°0428 |—0-°0006
B
25 0°3 1°0 20), 25°05 0°0427 |—0-0007
25 0'3 1:0 15 25°10 0°0428 |—0°0006
25 0'3 1:0 15 25'00* | 0:0426 |—0-:0009
25 0°3 1°0 ae li) 25°00* | 0:0426 |—0:0009
In each of these experiments the iodide-iodate mixture was
made by exactly neutralizing iodic acid with potassium hy-
droxide, adding a minute erystal of the iodic acid, introducing
the potassium iodide in solution and taking up with a drop or
two of sodium thiosulphate the iodine set free. This mixture
was put into the Voit flask together with the aluminium chlor-
ide, and the whole was heated in the current of steam or
hydrogen. |
Applying the process to a solution of potassium alum the
results recorded in the following table were obtained.
TABLE II.
n
Approx. 10 noone A a:
Aluminium |KIO;.| KI | Time in * 10} caleu- | Al,O; Diff.
potassium | grm.|grm. | minutes. | Na2S.O3. | lated. ‘found. grm.
alum. emi: erm. | grm.
cm?, |
25 One ca tc Ohs 30 24°55 |0°0410,0°0414; —0°0004
25 O73) lc 0 30 24°60 |0°0411/0°0416| —0°0005
25 Oar Oe 25 24°50 |0°0409/0°0414; —0:0005
25 Oo akon 30 24°70 =|0°0413/0°0416) -—-0°0003
25 Or3 te ae@ 35 24°50 |0°0409,0°0415| —0°0006
25 O34 120 30 24°55 = |0°0410/0°0415) —0°0005
29 VN Osa ae lO 25 24°50 |0°0409'0°0415| —0°0006
* New standard.
Moody—TLodometrie Determination of Aluminium. 183
In Table III are shown results of the application of the
process to an ammonium alum.
TaBLeE III.
Approx. Ss n
Ammonium | KIOs. Ge Time in APDEOS: 10
alum. grm. grm minutes. | Na.S2Oz.
em?. eme:
25 0°3 1:0 20 25°20
25 0°3 1°0 15 25°17
25 0°3 1:0 20) 25°10t
25 0°3 1°0 25 25°20
95" 0°3 1:0 12 25°70+
25s 0°3 1:0 12 24-65+
25 0°3 1:0 20 25°20f
25 0°3 1:0 25 25°15]
25 0°3 2°0 25 25°20f
25 0°3 2°0 20 25°15}
Al 2 O 3
calculated
erm.
0°0429
0°0429
0°0427
0°0429
0°0421
0°0420
0°0430
0'0429
0°0430
0:0429
Diff.
germ.
+0:°0007
+ 0°0007
+0°0005 |
+0:°0007
—0°0001
—0°0002
+ 0:0008
+ 0°0007
+ 0°0008
+0°0007
These results proved to be too high and led to the conclu-
sion that the ammonium sulphate was acted upon by the iodic
mixture, liberating an additional portion of iodine.
ments with ammonium sulphate verified the supposition, and
the process is, therefore, less accurate in the presence of
ammonium salts.
the solution.
Experi-
In fact, ammonium sulphate in the amounts
taken may be completely hydrolyzed in the course of three
hours, about one-half of the iodine liberated by the sulphuric
acid formed in the hydrolysis being available for estimation
under the conditions of the foregoing determinations.
however, the distillate is collected in a solution of potassium
iodide containing sufficient acid to combine with the ammonia
volatilized, iodine is liberated in amount equivalent to the
entire quantity of sulphates present, and may be titrated with
sodium thiosulphate.
The reaction between iodine and ammonia in alkaline solu-
tion, and the hydrolysis of ammonium salts, are undergoing
further investigation by the writer.
The attempts to obtain a complete reaction by heating the
mixture in a pressure bottle showed that the results of this pro-
cedure are low, although but slightly deficient, and cannot be
used for estimating correctly the amount of aluminium salt in
When,
The following method can be recommended as one giving
constant results which correspond closely with the gravimetric
* Liquid in Voit flask not clear.
+ New standard.
¢{ New standard.
184. Moody—TLodometric Determination of Aluminium.
determinations and the theoretical amount of alumina in neu-
tral aluminium chloride, sulphate, or alum, little time being
necessary for a single determination :
Measure 25°™* of the approximately 3 solution of the neu-
tral aluminium salt to be analyzed into a Voit flask and to this
add a mixture of 10°™* of a solution of neutral potassium iodate
(30 grms,. to a liter) and 1:0 grm. potassium iodide. Pass a cur-
rent of hydrogen through the liquid and heat for fifteen to
twenty-five minutes, or until the solution is nearly colorless,
collecting the iodine liberated in a Drexel flask, about half full
of water, in which 3 grms. of potassium iodide is dissolved.
Titrate with sodium thiosulphate the iodine in the Drexel
flask and that which remains in the solution in the Voit flask,
and calculate the amount of alumina, Al,O,, corresponding to
the iodine, 61, liberated.
The writer wishes. to thank Professor F. A. Gooch for
friendly assistance during this investigation.
R. A. Daly—Secondary Origin of Certain Granites. 185
Arr. XXIII.—The Secondary Origin of Certain Granites ;
by Reeivatp A. Day, Ottawa, Canada.
[Published by permission of the Chief Commissioner for Canada, Interna-
tional Boundary Surveys. |
CONTENTS.
General thesis of the paper.
A. The Sills of the British Columbia (International) Boundary.
The Moyie Sill.
Field Hypothesis.
B. Occurrences in Minnesota.
(a) Pigeon Point.
(6) Governor’s Island.
(c) Lake Superior islands and Logan sills.
(d) Cook County, Lake County and other localities.
C. The Sudbury intrusive sheet.
Synthetic discussion.
Magmatie assimilation.
Summary,
Asymmetry of the intrusive bodies.
Magmatic Differentiation.
General Application.
General thesis of the paper.—Igneous rocks originate in
magmas. ‘The discovery of the laws governing the immediate
derivation of such rocks from their parent magmas is, there-
fore, not the final aim of the geologist. He is logically com-
pelled to refer rocks themselves to the yet more fundamental
problem of the origin of igneous magmas. Whence come the
raw materials of basalt, gabbro, porphyry or granite ?
One of the earliest answers to this question has been grad-
ually assuming a systematic statement in the form of the
‘assimilation theory”. This theory holds that some igneous
rocks are derived from the compound magmas formed by the
local fusion of solid rock in molten rock of a different chemical
composition. The process can be imitated in the laboratory
furnace, and has certainly operated on many igneous contacts
in nature. Yet one of the very latest utterances of one of the
world’s greatest petrologists reads thus: “The untenability
of the ‘assimilation’ or fusion theory I regard as definitely
proved.”* On the other hand, a no less well known authority
claims assimilation on a large scale as a necessary stage in the
preparation of the Christiania granite.t Brdgger and many
of his followers hold that the contact phenomena of this granite
show that the assimilation theory breaks down even when
applied to a most favorable case.
* **Die Unhaltbarkeit der ‘ Assimilations’- oder Hinschmelzungs-Theorie
betrachte ich als endgiiltig bewiesen.”—J. H. L. Vogt, Die Silikatschmelz-
lésungen, Part II., Christiania, 1904, p. 225.
+F. Loewinson-Lessing, Comptes Rendus, 7th Session, International Geo-
logical Congress, 1899, p. 369.
Am. Jour. Sc1.—FourtTH Series, VoL. XX, No. 117.—SEPTEMBER, 1905.
13
186 R&R. A. Daly—Secondary Origin of Certain Granites.
This divergence of view is, of course, due to the lack of
definite knowledge of the vital conditions controlling the
activities of such an intrusive body as the Christiania granite.
The study of its accessible contacts can, of itself alone, furnish
neither proof nor disproof of the doctrine of wholesale assimi-
lation. Without the aid of other geological data the attempt -
to solve the problem is like the attempt to produce graphically
a complex curve of which but two points are known and fixed.
Deep-seated assimilation about any magma chamber can only
be finally discussed and evaluated if the complete form of the
chamber and the complete composition of its rock-filling are at
least tolerably known.
The present paper furnishes a brief discussion of a number
of cases where it is believed that magmatic assimilation on a com-
paratively large scale has taken place. It is believed, further,
that the geological conditions in these cases supply elements
generally untouched in earlier discussions of the doctrine. The
original magma had the composition of a gabbro intruded in
the manner of sills; the invaded formations are ancient sand-
stones, both normal and feldspathic, with associated argillites
or schists; the invaded formation, in every case, is more acid
than the gabbro; the product of assimilation is always a granite
graduating into granophyre. The acid magma is believed,
however, to have been derived indirectly from the compound
magma of assimilation through a systematic kind of differen-
tiation. The primary cause of the differentiation is referred
to the perfect or nearly perfect density stratification of each
magmatic chamber.
The result of the investigation has been to conflrm the
writer’s general theoretical conclusions on the subject of assi-
milation where it was necessarily introduced among the tests
of the hypothesis of magmatic stoping*. Assimilation and
differentiation are not antagonistic processes ; both of them are
involved in the secondary origin of some granites.
A. The Sills of the British Columbia (International) Boundary.
During the field season of 1904 the writer developed a geo-
logical structure section along the 49th parallel of latitude
between Port Hill, Idaho, and Gateway, Montana, the two
points where the Kootenay River crosses the boundary line
between Canada and the United States. It was found that
the mountains traversed by the section are for the most part
composed of two very thick siliceous sedimentary formations
which, in all probability, are of pre-Cambrian age. The two
are conformable.
The lower formation has been called the Creston quartzite.
It is a remarkably homogeneous, highly indurated light- to
medium-gray sandstone, generally thick-platy in structure but
*This Journal, xv, 269, 1908, and xvi, 107, 1903.
R. A. Daly—Secondary Origin of Certain Granites. 187
oceasionally interrupted by thin intercalations of argillaceous
material. The formation is generally composed of nearly pure
quartz with a little mica, but some bands are feldspathic toa
notable extent. The total thickness of the formation is at least
9900 feet in the vicinity of Port Hill; its base was not directly
observed.
Immediately overlying the Creston quartzite is the conform-
able Kitchener quartzite, composed of about 7400 feet of a
highly ferruginous indurated sandstone. This formation is, in
the field, distinguished from the Creston quartzite not only by
the rusty color of the outcrops but also by a relatively thinner
bedding and a greater proportion of micaceous cement, once
somewhat argillaceous. Individual beds of the Kitchener
quartzite are charged with detrital feldspar, but the formation
as a whole is essentially composed of cemented quartz grains.
Dark-colored red, brown, and gray shales with thin inter-
ealations of gray quartzite conformably overlie the Kitchener
quartzite. The series, totalling 3200 feet in thickness, has
been grouped under the name of the Moyie argillite. This
formation appears but twice in the section and then only in
comparatively small areas.
This great group of formations, from end to end of the sec-
tion, has been mountain-built. A few open folds broken by
faults appear in the eastern half of the belt, but the deforma-
tion has generally been due to the tilting of monoclinal blocks
separated by strong normal faults and, more rarely, by thrusts.
The tiltmg ranges though all angles up to verticality, but the
average dip is less than forty-five degrees. In consequence of
the deformation and subsequent denudation the edges of some
20,000 feet of well-bedded ancient sediment are now exposed
for study. There have also come to light a number of thick
sills of gabbro intruded at various horizons into the Kitchener
quartzite and the upper part of the Creston quartzite. The
intrusion and erystallization of the gabbro is believed to have
taken place before the upturning of the sedimentaries. The
faulting and tilting has repeated the outcrops of certain of the
sills. One of the thickest of them has, along with the quartz-
ites, been warped into one of the rare synelinal folds. The
thickness of the sills varies from 100 feet to more than 2500
feet.
The main mass of each sill was uniformly found to consist
of a hornblende gabbro with essential green (primary) horn-
blende and plagioclase (labradorite to anorthite, the latter in
the cores of occasionally zoned feldspars). Accessory quartz,
often in considerable amount, always accompanies the other
accessories, which are titanite, titaniferous magnetite, and apatite
with often a little biotite and sometimes a little orthoclase in
addition. Epidote and chlorite are the principal secondary
188 LR. A. Daly—Secondary Origin of Certain Granites.
minerals. The structure of the rock is typically hypidio-
morphie-granular.
Already in those sills that range from 400 to 500 feet in
thickness, the gabbro is acidified near its upper contact. The
change from the normal composition is seen in the great increase
of biotite, orthoclase, microperthite and interstitial quartz.
2
Fic. 1. Map of Moyie Sill, taken from plane-table sheet of the Interna-
tional Boundary Commission. 1. Moyie argillite. 2. Kitchener quartzite.
3. Hornblende gabbro sill. 4. Acidified (granite) zone of sill. 5. Creston
quartzite. 6. Alluvium. Conventional sign for strike and dip. Scale:
one inch = about one mile.
Biotite and quartz then assume the proportions of essential
minerals. The quartz is characteristically in poikilitic relation
to all the other constituents except orthoclase and microper-
thite, with which it is m true micrographic intergrowth. From
this micropegmatite-bearing phase of the intrusive there is a
gradual transition to the normal gabbro which thus composes
the lower three-fourths or four-fifths of the sill.
R. A. Daly—Secondary Origin of Certain Granites. 189
The Moyie Sill.—The acidification of the upper zone of the
gabbro being generally in a direct ratio to the strength of the
sill, the phenomenon is specially marked in the greatest of all
the intrusions. On account of its importance both in size and
character, this rock-body is called the “ Moyie Sill,” the name
referring to its situation on the Moyie River. A map and sec-
tion of this sill are given in figs. 1 and 2, which illustrate one
of the fault-blocks so characteristic of this part of the Boundary
belt.* The sill is rather more than 2500 feet in thickness. It
follows the bedding of the Kitchener quartzite, which here dips
about sixty degrees to the eastward. The intrusive mass 1s
seen to be cut off at its northern end by a master-fault which
has dropped the Moyie argillite down into contact with the
Fie. 2. Section of Moyie Sill, along line of the International Boundary.
gabbro. This faulting is believed to have occurred after the
sill-intrusion. There is a complete lack of contact metamor-
phism in the argillite where it adjoins the gabbro.
Since the Moyie sill, throughout the six miles of linear out-
crop studied, is in intrusive contact with the Kitchener quartz-
ite alone, the other sedimentary formations need not here be
described in detail. The Kitchener quartzite is, on the whole,
a homogeneous terrane. Ona fresh fracture the rock is seen
to be a fine-grained, vitreous, light to darkish gray, well-bedded
but tough, metamorphic sandstone, splittmg with some readi-
ness along the darker colored layers. The rusty color of the
joint-surtaces and bedding planes is due to the leaching out and
subsequent deposition of the iron contained in the pyrite, mag-
netite, etc., disseminated through the rock.
Under the microscope the rock is always seen to be essen-
tially a fine-grained aggregate of interlocking quartz grains,
seldom showing any direct traces of their detrital origin. The
quartz mosaic is, in every thin section, shot through with
abundant crystals of biotite which is often developed in pheno-
eryst-like individuals occasionally as much as one centimeter
in diameter. Sericitic muscovite is seldom absent as an essen-
tial, and sometimes rivals the biotite in abundance. Only
* All the line-drawings used in illustration of this paper have been made
for the most part by the aid of a typewriter, provided with a few special keys.
The machine permits of a great saving of time in the preparation of the
manuscript drawings. Cf. this Journal, vol. xix, 1905, p. 227.
190 &. A. Daly— Secondary Origin of Certain Granites.
rarely is feldspar essential; in one slide it seems to compose
ten to fifteen per cent of the rock. So far as observed, the
feldspar of the staple quartzite is orthoclase. No sodiferous
mineral has been certainly determined in the rock. Epidote,
zoisite, titanite, magnetite, leacoxene, pyrite and zircon, besides
chlorite, secondary after biotite, are the other, always subordi-
nate, constituents.
In marked contrast to the normal quartzite is the rock col-
lected at a point thirty feet from the upper contact of the
Moyie sill. It is a very hard, vitreous, massive, light bluish
gray quartzite carrying much feldspar. The whole rock
seems to have been recrystallized. The granular-mosaic strue-
ture has been largely replaced by poikilitic and micrographic
structures. Quartz is thus either regularly intergrown with
feldspar or else encloses non-oriented individuals of the same
mineral. The feldspar proved to be orthoclase, albite and
microperthite, named in the order of their relative abundance.
Biotite and sericitic muscovite are, as usual, in considerable
amount. <A little magnetite and a few minute crystals of ana-
tase are the subordinate minerals. The characters of this con-
tact phase point to the thorough metamorphism and notable
feldspathization of the quartzite in the external contact zone
of the gabbro. ;
The main mass of the sill-rock has the composition noted
above as found in the sills generally. The grain is here
medium to coarse, the structure hypidiomorphic-granular.
At the lower contact the grain of the gabbro is somewhat
finer than in the interior of the sill, but the rock is still
medium-grained and never compact. At the same time, inter-
stitial and poikilitic quartz, along with biotite, orthoclase and
microperthitie feldspar, are increased in amount. There is
thus some acidification of the sill at its lower contact, though
the rock is still gabbroid in macroscopic appearance and has
hornblende and plagioclase (andesine to labradorite) as the
chief constituents. Acidification of this order is visible for at
least 200 feet from the lower contact. The intrusive rock is
yet more abundantly charged with quartz, biotite and alkaline
feldspars in the vicinity of the occasional xenoliths torn from
the invaded quartzites.
The conditions are different at the upper contact. They
may be readily studied on the wagon-road that threads the
floor of the western meridional valley, shown in fig. 1. From
the upper contact inward for a perpendicular distance of about
150 feet the intrusive is a highly siliceous rock, the mineralog-
ical composition of which is shown in Table I and Table LI.
The structure of this rock varies irregularly, even in the same
slide, from the hypidiomorphic granular of granite to the
structure of granophyre or micropegmatite.
R.A. Daly—Secondary Origin of Certain Granites. 191
TABLE [.
Mineralogical composition of Rocks showing secondary deriva-
tion of Granite. (Essential minerals noted in italics.)
I. Movie SILL.
Gabbro. Intermediate rock. Granophyre-granite.
Hornblende FHornblende Biotite
Labradorite Biotite Soda orthoclase
Quartz Andesine Microperthite
Titanite Quartz Micropegmatite
Biotite Chlorite Quartz
Apatite Titanite Andesine
Titanif. magnetite | Muscovite
Apatite Titanif. magnetite
Apatite
Calcite, epidote, kaolin
Country rocks: highly acid mica-bearing quartzite, sometimes
slightly feldspathic, containing quartz, biotite and muscovite
(sericite) as principal constituents, with orthoclase, epidote,
titanite, magnetite, pyrite, zoisite, chlorite, leucoxene and zircon
as subordinate minerals. Occasionally a thin layer or parting of
more argillaceous composition.
II. Prcron PoInt.
Gabbro. Intermediate rock. Granophyre-granite.
Olivine Hornblende Anorthoclase
Diallagic augite Anorthoclase Oligoclase
Basie labradorite Plagioclase Quartz
Apatite Quartz Micropegmatite
Titanif. magnetite Micropegmatite Chlorite
Chlorite Augite (occasional)
Magnetite Muscovite
Apatite Rutile
Rutile Leucoxene
Hematite
Apatite
Country rocks: feldspathic quartzite and slate, containing
quartz, orthoclase, plagioclase, chlorite, green mica, biotite, mag-
netite, leucoxene. Feldspar sometimes 75 per cent of the quartzite.
III. SupBpury DtstRict.
Norite. Intermediate rock. Granophyre-granite.
Hypersthene Hornblende or Biotite
Augite Hypersthene Orthoclase
Bytownite Biotite Micropegmatite
Quartz Oligoclase-andesine Microperthite
Biotite Orthoclase Microcline
Hornblende Microperthite Oligoclase
Apatite Quartz Quartz
Magnetite Epidote Epidote
Sulphides Apatite IIlmenite
Magnetite Titanite
Country-rocks : sandstones, graywackes, slates, conglomerates,
greenstones, volcanic tuffs and granitoid gneiss.
192 Lf. A. Daly—Secondary Origin of Certain Granites.
TABLE IT,
Showing the weight percentages of minerals as determined by the Rosiwal
method.*
ils 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Me
Iiornblende -:_2..... 58°7) 54:8 49:9 49:47 2 ee
Bigtitel . eS tee LORY ce bees SG. VBO) 8°9 2 2250) aloe
Labradorite, a
Ab, An,—Ab, An, B28, 2010 7-2 ee
Andesine, Ab An, *.2..-5 2.2 " 18'a) 16> =
Oligoclase, Abb; Anis.) 222-24 Sol a) 2 one
Soda-bearing ortho- } es a1 ae
clase |
Microperthite -2-. .:2- Je ORAS og ea Sows
Quartye See oo ee 4:0 6°38. 22°8 1l-7 57-1) AGsOReasleG
NGUISCOR ANG. 4 Ses oak el oe kl ele) 8B ae ace
AWavilewen = ee men or Oe cnn ieee tint ac Sic 3) "2
Titanite 3.2 2. lec 4, 80 8 Ie a
MBenenler =a we 2 an ee ei SN 281) Dee
Chionitesa see eee wee LEO cee a eer
Calette tir ce ee | Ue bt a Se eee A) eae
Total is 100 in each ease.
1, Normal unacidified gabbro from sill about eleven miles east
of the Moyie sill.
Nos. 2 to 7 inelusive are types from the Moyie sill, specimens
taken thus : |
2. Thirty feet from lower contact.
Two hundred feet from lower contact.
Two hundred feet from upper contact.
Fifty feet from upper contact.
Forty feet from upper contact.
Fifteen feet from upper contact.
~T O> Or H CO
Table II was constructed by the use of the Rosiwal method
for the determination of the relative quantities of the different
constituents. The values are only approximate, owing to the
difficulties of exact measurement and identification of the min-
eral grains. No account was taken of the sometimes abundant
grains of epidote, occasional grains of calcite (measured in one
instance), and often rather abundant scales of kaolin which
occur in the slides. These minerals are products of the altera-
tion of the feldspars, that alteration affording another diffi-
culty in using the Rosiwal method for this suite of rocks. The
proportions of the micas are probably too high on account of
their not being even approximately equidimensional. Though
these rocks do not lend themselves to a very satisfactory
employment of the method, and though the table cannot be
considered as accurate, the strong contrasts between the acid
and basic phases of the sill are clearly evident.
* Verh. Wien. Geol. Reichs-Anst., vol, xxxii, 1898, pp. 148 ff.
R.A. Daly—Secondary Origin of Certain Granites. 198
Since the compositions of the hornblende, biotite and soda-
bearing orthoclase are not known, the chemical analyses can-
not be caleulated from Table II. Direct chemical analyses of
types Nos. 1 and 7 in Table II have been made by Professor
Dittrich, of Heidelberg, and are recorded in Table III.
TaB_eE III.
1. 2.
SHOR nn kee os Cee 51:92% 71-69%
HO eles Pe eo wee a Bea "83 59
POROR eco ret re oe oe, 14°13 13°29
eR OMe re gue Ne. 2°97 83
eOue . eee ra ee GROD 4°23
iO putes oe ee ee hE 14 09
Me Ome ew. 1 809 1:28
CVO) eae Ver, ete a eee Nee} 1°66
INLD O) ci ae a ra 1°38 2°48
TEC Oe ila a a ee “47 DBT
tee O ibelow, 1102 'C,) 7. J - 10 14
EO (above 110% ©.) 222. LO 7 BIL
PAO) ie ee ene ee 04 O07
CO... 3 ae 06 13
99°78 100°16
SDs CE ae ee 3°000 2773
1. Normal unacidified gabbro from sill about eleven miles east
of the Moyie sill.
2. Acid rock fifteen feet from upper contact of the Moyie sill.
The rock of col. 2 belongs to the granite family. The
silica is normal ¢higher in types of cols. 5 and 6, Table I),
but the total of the alkalies is extraordinarily low, namely 4°85
per cent, or °76 per cent lower than the total of the potash and
soda in the least alkaline among the twenty-six types of granite
analyses selected for Rosenbusch’s “Elemente der Gesteins-
lehre.’ The comparatively high content of lime is probably
to be referred to a not unimportant mixture of lime feldspar
and alkaline feldspar in isomorphous relation, as well as to a
small amount of secondary epidote.
Col. 1 shows the gabbro to be a normal type in some respects,
but the high content of silica and relatively low content of
alumina and soda are abnormal for gabbro. These features
are partly due to the predominance of hornblende over feld-
spar and to the presence of free quartz. It can be seen by
inspection of cols. 1 and 2, Table Ul, that the gabbro at the
bottom of the Moyie sill would give an analysis very close to
that of col. 1, Table III, which represents a good type of the
194 R&R. A. Daly—Secondary Origin of Certain Granites.
average gabbro from the many sills of the Boundary belt. A
comparison of cols. 2,4 and 7, Table II, shows that col. 4
corresponds to a rock-type intermediate between the two types
actually analyzed. It is planned that a rather complete set of
total analyses of the various phases of the Moyie sill will be
published in the final report of the Chief Commissioner for
Canada on Boundary Surveys.
Partially absorbed inclusions of the quartzite occur also in
the upper, granitic zone of the intrusive.
Next to the peculiar granite-granophyre is a hundred-foot
(thick) zone of intermediate rock which, with rapid transition,
3
Fic. 3. Photograph of specimens showing contrast of color between a
basic and a normal phase of the gabbro of the British Columbia sills and
between both of these and two phases of the Moyie Sill granophyre-granite
shown on the left.
replaces the acid rock as the section is thus carried inwards
through the sill. The mineralogical composition of this inter-
mediate rock is shown in Tables [ and II.
The structure is again hypidiomorphic-granular with con-
tinual gradations into the granophyric. The grain varies from
medium to rather coarse.
The intermediate rock grades imperceptibly into the normal
gabbro of the internal part of the great intrusive body.
The variation in mineral composition among the zones of
granite, intermediate rock and gabbro are shown in Table II.
R. A. Daly—Secondary Origin of Certain Granites. 195
The profound macroscopic differences of aspect are imperfectly
illustrated in fig. 8, which shows the variation of color-tint.
The corresponding variations in the specific gravity of speci-
mens taken in the cross-section of the sill is shown in the fol-
lowing table:
Locality of specimen. Sp. gr.
15 feet from upper eye: Bpabee Pele teps A APs 2°773
40 66 66 Rena CCE ae Meee ee PAT Caer Mat 2°784
50 ce ce 6¢ ce emer Ae we ea lg OO (()
Average for granite zone about ---- ---- 2°790
280 feet rom) upper contact... 22. 22-+ 2.2. 3°020
Average for middle of sill about _-_----- S020
au0nteet trom lower contact... _)..-.-..-+- 2°967
30 feet “ bs “ eh Tic ud Se heh GRASS
A series of determinations showed in addition that the average
specific gravity of the normal gabbro in all the siJls of the
Boundary belt is about 3-020.
Exomorphic contact action was observed at both upper and
lower contacts with the Kitchener quartzite. It has taken the
form of increasing the already high induration of the sedi-
ments with an accompanying special development of biotite at
both upper and lower contacts. Though there is evidence of the
feldspathization of the quartzite at the upper contact, none has
yet been forthcoming for the lower contact, where, neverthe-
less, feldspar may have been similarly introduced from the
magma. Doubtless on account of the chemical nature of the
invaded sediments contact metamorphism is not conspicuous
in the field, nor is it easy to trace its influence. The writer’s
impression is that the effects are more manifest, the action
haying been more intense, at the upper contact than at the
lower, but additional field study will be required to test the
real truth of that impression.
Apart from the development of exotic feldspar in the quartz-
ite, dications of true pneumatolytic action seem to be lack-
ing at both contacts. Mineral veins, including quartz veins,
except occasional stringers of quartz, are conspicuously absent.
field Hypothesis.—The hypothesis adopted in the field
to explain these rocks and their relations involved a secondary
origin for the granite-granophyre zone at the top of the sill.
That zone was thereby interpreted as due to the contact-action
of the gabbro intrusion on the adjacent Kitchener quartzite ;
digestion and assimilation of the sediments both on the main
or “molar” contacts and on the peripheries of blocks shattered
off from those contacts, was credited with the formation of a
uew compound magma from which the highly acid and some-
what anomalous granite was derived. The tact that the acid
196 &. A. Daly—Secondary Origin of Certain Granites.
rock is practically confined to the upper contact-zone was
explained by the collection of the products of digestion at the
upper contact by gravitative adjustment in the magma. The
low density of the locally formed new magma of assimilation
would tend to effect its upward diffusion and the consequent
cleansing of the heavier gabbro magma from such acid material.
The comparatively slight acidification at the lower contact was
attributed to the solution of the quartzite in the period imme-
diately preceding the final consolidation of the sill; at that
time the viscosity of the magma was too great to allow of the
upward diffusion.
A principal test for such a hypothesis is obvious. If it be
true, there should be other examples among the great basic
sills cutting siliceous sediments. It has already been noted
that there is actually such acidification of the other gabbro sills
encountered between Port Hill and Gateway, and that m them
the acidification is always most marked at the upper contact.
Much more striking examples have been described with unusual
thoroughness in Minnesota and Ontario. The comparison of
these other cases is so important that the best established types
will here be sketched and illustrated in some detail. The fur-
ther discussion of the Moyie sill will be postponed to later
pages, in which a synthetic treatment of all the examples will
be undertaken.
B. Occurrences in Minnesota.
(a) The very able and specially detailed memoir of Bayley
on the rocks of Pigeon Point contains, doubtless, the most
elaborate argument in favor of the secondary origin of some
granites. A brief summary of his facts and conclusions may
well be given in the works of Bayley’s own outline forming
the introduction to his paper.
‘Pigeon Point is the northeastern extremity of Minnesota. It
is one of a series of parallel points extending from Minnesota and
Canada eastward into Lake Superior. Its backbone is a great
east and west dike-like mass of a gray, coarse-grained rock that
has always been called gabbro. This consists of phenocrysts of
plagioclase in a diabasic groundmass of the same mineral, olivine
and diallage, and consequently, it is a diabase porphyrite. ... .
“The rocks through which the gabbro cuts are evenly bedded
slates and indurated sandstones of Animikie age. ‘They dip
south-southeast at 15 to 20 degrees, except at a very few places
near the contact with other rocks, where they are more or less
COMmborteds = 9.940.
“The most interesting features in the geology of the point
relate to the series of rocks usually occurring between the gabbro
and the clastic beds. Beginning on the gabbro side the series
R.A. Daly—Secondary Origin of Certain Granites. 197
comprises in succession coarse-grained red rocks, a fine-grained
red rock that is sometimes porphyritic and a well-marked belt of
altered quartzites.
“The fine-grained red rock has all the characteristics of an
eruptive. It sends dikes into the contiguous bedded rocks, and
consists essentially of a hypidiomorphic granular aggregate of
plagioclase, anorthoclase and quartz. The quartz and anorthoclase
often form micropegmatite, while the plagioclase is in compara-
tively large grains, some of which have hardly defined idiomorphic
outlines. At afew places this red rock is porphyritic, with bipyra-
midal quartz crystals imbedded in a red granophyric groundmass.
The rock is similar to many of the augite-syenites described by
Irving as occurring in the Keweenawan series, and is in structure
and composition a quartz keratophyre.
“The coarse-grained rocks between the gabbro and the kerato-
phyre are intermediate in character between these two. The
variety nearest the gabbro differs but slightly from the basic
eruptive. In addition to the gabbro components it contains a
little quartz and red feldspar—constituents derived from the
keratophyre. As the latter rock is approached, the augite, olivine,
and plagioclase disappear, while increased quantities of quartz,
red feldspar, and brown hornblende make their appearance, and
the rock becomes more and more like the fine-grained red rock.
Finally the hornblende disappears and the keratophyre is reached.
Since the intermediate rocks occur only between the gabbro and
the fine-grained red rock, and since all gradations in composition
between the two end members of the series are represented, the
coarse-grained red rocks are regarded as contact products formed
by the intermingling of the gabbro and the keratophyre mag-
mas.””*
After describing the compound external zone of contact
metamorphism, Bayley continues :
“ From the above-mentioned facts it is concluded that the con-
tact belt represents Animikie slates and quartzites that have been
altered near their contact with an intrusive rock. The meta-
morphism of the quartzites has resulted simply in the recrystalli-
zation of the quartz and feldspar of the fragmental grains, with
the addition, perhaps, of a little orthoclase.
“Since, in several instances, the gabbro is in direct contact
with the metamorphosed rocks, while the keratophyre is not to
be found in the neighborhood, it is inferred that the former rock
and not the latter was the cause of the contact action.”
The significant paragraph follows :
“Inclusions of fragmentals in the gabbro and the keratophyre
have alike suffered the same alterations as have taken place in
the various members of the contact belt, with this difference, that
quartzite inclusions in the basic rock are often surrounded by a
*W.S. Bayley, Bull. 109, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1893, p. 11.
198 L.A. Daly—Secondary Origin of Certain Granites.
rim of red rock, identical in all its properties with the kerato-
phyre. This suggests that the keratophyre itself may be of con-
tact origin.”
Finally :
“'The conclusion reached is that, in all probability, the kera-
tophyre is of contact origin—that is, it was produced by the
Eig Sie ke ior
Fie. 4. Diagrammatic map of part of Pigeon Point, Minnesota, showing
general relations among the different rock formations; after Bayley.
1. Animikie quartzites and slates. 2. Contact zone in the Animikie sedi-
mentaries. 3. Olivine gabbro. 4. Intermediate rock. 5. Soda granite and
keratophyre. Conventional sign for strike and dip. Secale: nine inches =
one mile.
fusion of the slates and quartzites of the Animikie through the
action upon them of the ‘gabbro.’ The magma thus formed
then acted in all respects like an intrusive magma. It penetrated
the surrounding rocks in the form of dikes, and solidified as a
soda-granite under certain circumstances, and under others as a
quartz-keratophyre.”*
*Op; cits, p, 12.
R. A. Daly—Secondary Origin of Certain Granites. 199
The diagrammatic map of fig. 4 generalizes the field rela-
tions as expressed in Bayley’s maps. There have been omitted
from the diagram certain complexities in the maps showing
the actual geology. The essential features are thus made all
the more evident; at the same time it is believed that this
arbitrary treatment of the maps does not introduce error in
principles.
A summary of the mineralogical compositions of the gab-
bro, intermediate rock, granite- -keratophyre (granophyre) ‘and
invaded sediments is given in Table I. The correlative dif-
ferences in chemical constitution are noted in Table LY.
TaBLE IV.
Selected Analyses, Bayley on Pigeon Pt.
A. B. C. D. E. EB.
siO, ..--- 49°88% 57:98 72°42 73°85 59°71 70°31
Men. 41-19 1-75 40) “05 tr. tr.
mPOr ===. 18°55 15°58 13°04 10°91 18°32 12°81
mie 2. 2-06 Sob 68 6-98 8-11 7-26
BeQ 22 - - 8°37 8°68 2°49 89 "85 8x8)
i) 09 13 “O09 Rea oe ae ies
Cer == 912 2-01 66 “44 1°05 “50
i "02 O04 15 ae wets eae
Lo ao o°77 2°87 58 1°52 3°O4 2°03
a 68 3°44 4°97 1°39 3°43 1°90
IAL... 2°59 356 3°44 2°28 1:93 2°19
2 1-04 2°47 al 1°88 3°24 229
2 16 29 20 oF an ae
100°12 9991 100°33. 100:19 100°18 100°20
Sp. gr... 2°923- circa 2620 notgiven, not
2970 2°740 prob. ca given,
220)": prob:
ca 2°75
A. Olivine diabase ; aver. of five specimens. -p. 37
Preairermediate. rock: 2.220208 Ft. aos eee OS
C. Red granite ; aver. of 7 specimens._--..--. 56
'D. Unaltered quartzites ; aver. comp. -_.- -_-- 90
ip Wnithreredgnlater 28 ea oh Se se 90
F. Approximation to aver. comp. of sediments 113
The general similarity in the character and spatial arrange-
ment of the rocks at Pigeon Point and on the Moyie River is
apparent. The comparison of conditions is obscure only as
relates to the structural cross-section. The Moyie intrusive is
unguestionably a sill. The underground relations of the
Pigeon Point intrusive, for lack of decisive field evidence,
have not been fixed beyond the possibility of doubt. Bayley
Says :
200 LR. A. Daly—Secondary Origin of Certain Granites.
“The most prominent features of these gabbro masses are
those of dikes. As has already been mentioned, the larger one
[the one referred to in the present paper] in many places presents
perpendicular walls both to the north and to the south. It occu-
pies all the highest portions of the point, and these are in a
straight line. It has the appearance of an intrusive mass, and is
like any one of those forming the numerous points to the north
of the international boundary line. It has been regarded as a
dike by both Irving and N. H. Winchell. Its contact with the
sedimentary rocks is only occasionally to be seen. At several of
these contacts the eruptive has the appearance of having escaped
from between the dike walls and thrust itself for a short distance
between the fragmental beds, or having piled itself up around
the dike orifice and overlapped the intruded rocks. . . . . At only
two places on the north shore do the fragmental rocks appear,
and at these places they are far below where they should be were
they interbedded with the gabbro, and in neither case is the con-
tact like that of interbedded eruptive and sedimentary rocks.”
He coneludes that :
“The larger mass of the Pigeon Point gabbro is in the form of
a dike, which has broken through its walls at certain places and
intruded itself between the strata of the surrounding rocks.”*
In accordance with his view Bayley’s cross-sections show
vertical contacts among all the igneous rock members and also
between sediments and eruptives.
On the other hand, Professor N. H. Winchell states, in a
personal letter to the writer :
‘‘ All my observations bearing on the relations of the gabbro to
the Animikie on Pigeon Point lead to the conclusion that the
gabbro is later than the Animikie. But the term gabbro here is
made to include those coarse non-ophitic dikes that resemble gab-
bro and which are also allied to diabase. There are abundant
places where this rock is in the form of sills in the Animikie.
The great backbone of Pigeon Point, which is the most dis-
tinctly gabbroid of the intrusive rocks, is simply a large example
of a sill, while, as I interpret the structure, many of the dikes
cutting the Animikie are only contemporary offshoots from it.”
With Winchell’s view there agrees the observation of Bayley
that the feldspar phenocrysts of the porphyritic gabbro are
sometimes ‘‘arranged in rude layers parallel to the dip sur-
faces of the quartzite. Their longer axes are usually in the
. direction of the dip of the sedimentary rocks.’+ This orienta-
tion suggests flow-structure parallel to contacts. Professor
Bayley has, by letter, restated to the writer his conclusion that
“the gabbro was intruded as a boss or huge dike, certainly not
* Op. cit., pp. 22-28. quOp lt... Parco:
RL. A. Daly—Secondary Origin of Certain Granites. 201
as a sill,” but adds the remark that “ while the contacts of the
quartzites with the red rock and gabbro so far as they were
seen are vertical, it does not necessarily follow that they are
vertical with depth.” He continues: “I have no means of
knowing the date of the intrusion. With respect to the tilt-
ing (of the quartzites) my guess is that the intrusion was prior
to the latest tilting, but later than an earlier tilting lakeward.”
The possibility that the Pigeon Point eruptive is either a
true sill only locally breaking across the bedding of the sedi-
ments or at any rate dips as a whole to the south-southeast-
ward, is further suggested by the analogy of the many
undoubted sills of gabbro cutting the southerly to southeasterly
dipping Animikie of Minnesota. Some of these sills have
likewise zones of soda granite lying between the gabbro and
the sediments on the southerly flank of the gabbro. Thus in
those cases the sediments dip under the gabbro on the one
side of the eruptive body and away from the granite on the
other side.
Bayley’s full and trenchant argument for the contact origin
of the soda granite and granophyre need not be repeated.
The independent origin of the acid rock is rendered highly
improbable by the occurrences of the intermediate rock lying
directly between the gabbro and the sediments without the
intervention of the true granite or granophyre.
The efficiency of contact-shattering in aiding the digestion
of the slates and quartzites is strikingly manifest in Bayley’s
descriptions.
*“« Very close to the red rock appears a belt in which the various
rocks are in the most complicated relations imaginable. In the
-eastern portion of the point this belt is well seen on the southern
shore, about one-third of a mile from the end of the point. (See
Pl. XVI.) Here the red rock is exposed in low cliffs, and in it
are small, sharp slate and quartzite inclusions, into which the red
rock penetrates in every direction. The exact line of contact
between the red rock and the bedded fragmentals cannot be
detected, as they appear to merge gradually into one another, the
latter becoming redder and redder as they approach the former,
which penetrates them in veins and dikes, and finally includes
numerous pieces in such a way as to yield a good eruptive
breccia.”
“Some of the inclusions are very sharp and but little altered,
while others are partially dissolved, and are surrounded by con-
centric zones, resulting from the action of the red rock upon the
material of the inclusion, and the reciprocal effect of the partially
dissolved inclusion upon that portion of the red-rock magma
immediately contiguous toit..... Thus it would seem to be a
fact beyond controversy that the red rock is the immediate cause
of the alteration noticed in the fragmental rocks and of the brec-
Am. Jour. Sci1.—FourtTH SERIES, Vout. XX, No. 117.—SEPTEMBER, 1905,
14
202 &. A. Daly—sSecondary Origin of Certain Granites.
cia observed along its contact with them. If, however, the con-
tact beltis examined very closely, itis found that although the red
rock is always accompanied by a zone of this belt, there are
localities in which the latter occurs without the presence of the
POTMEN ey wee The metamorphosing rock seems to be the gabbro.
Just as in the case of the contacts with the red rock, the quartz-
ites become mottled as they approach the eruptive, and inclu-
sions of the former in the latter are so frequent that there appears
to be a gradual transition between the two rocks.’*
Similar shatter-breccias are described at the northern con-
tact. The metamorphism of the inclusions is there the same
in kind as on the southern contact but is less intense.t
(>) A significant discovery was made at a mining prospect
on Governor’s [sland just south of Pigeon Point. The shaft
started in hardened slate at the surface, then struck red quartz-
ite and finally red granite where the sinking was discontinued.
In this case there is no question that the sediments overlie the
granite in a relation similar to that involved in the sill theory
of the Pigeon Point intrusive.t
(c) Parallels to the Pigeon Point case have also been found
on Spar, Jarvis and Victoria Islands.§ Lawson has deseribed
other examples among the Logan sills of Lake Superior, and
says that the sills are repeated by step-faults gently tilting the
sills to the southeast at the maximum angle of five degrees.|
(7) Grant describes the great gabbro area of Cook County,
Minnesota, as a laccolith in the gently dipping Animikie quartz-
ites, slates and graywackes. He maps soda granites passing
into alkaline quartz porphyries on the southern flank of the
gabbro or init. This latter occurrence is possibly to be related
to the occasional horizontal dips of the Animikie.4]
N. H. Winchell maps a broad band of the red granite to the
southward of the huge gabbro mass of Lake County. He
states that the southern limit of the gabbro forms the northern
limit of the red granite, but that there are numerous places
where these rocks are intricately interbedded and in some
instances isolated areas of the red rock are surrounded by
gabbro.** The official atlas of the Minnesota Geological Survey
indicates still other large-scale examples of the same or similar
close relations of gabbro and red granite—notably those mapped
in vol. vi, plates 68, 69, 84, 85 and 87.
*Op--Citz. 8p. 2o-c0- +: Op cits, op. 8:
t Final Report, Geol. Surv. of Minnesota, vol. iv, 1899, p. 516, and vol. v,
Te op. cit., p. 30; cf. E. D. Ingall, Ann. Rep. Geol. Surv. Canada,
1888, Pt. H, pp. 45 and 49.
| Bull. 8, Geol. Surv. Minnesota, 1893, pp. 80-33-42-44,
*| Final Rep. Minn. Geol. Surv., vol. iv, 1899, pp. 328 and 826.
** Tbid., pp. 296-7.
R. A. Daly—Secondary Origin of Certain Granites. 208
C. The Sudbury Intrusive Sheet.
A still more remarkable parallel to the conditions of the
Moyie sill has been rather fully described by Barlow and
Coleman, following the earlier work of Walker in their respec-
tive memoirs on the geology of the Sudbury District, Ontario.
In the scale of the various related phenomena, in the wonder-
fully systematic arrangement of the different rock-formations,
and in the occurrence of valuable ore-bodies directly and geneti-
Fic. 5. Diagrammatic map of part of the Northern Nickel Range, Sud-
bury District, Ontario; after Coleman.
1. Granitoid gneiss, greenstones and graywackes. 2. Norite. 935. Inter-
mediate rock, transitional between norite and micropegmatite. 4. Micro-
pegmatite. 5. Slates, sandstones and volcanic tuffs. (The position of the
sulphide ores shown by heavy black line.) Conventional sign for strike and
dip. Scale: one inch = two miles.
cally associated with the intrusive, the Sudbury District exam-
ple stands unique in petrographical records.
The latest reports of Barlow and Coleman agree in the con-
clusion that the famous nickel-bearing eruptive has the form
of an enormous intrusive sill of a composition exactly analo-
gous to that of the Moyie sill excepting as regards the develop-
ment of the valuable sulphides. It is “a vast sheet of erup-
tive rock having a basin shape; a sheet nearly 40 miles long
204. Rk. A. Daly—Secondary Origin of Certain Granites.
and 17 miles wide, and probably a mile and half to two miles
thick on the average, tf the (average centripetal) dip (of the
sheet) is 45 degrees.”*
This great sheet cuts sediments and schists referred to the
Laurentian and Upper Huronian. Their general field relations
are summarized in the diagrammatic map of fig. 5, drawn from
a part of Coleman’s official map of the “‘ Northern Nickel
Range.” Again the gabbroid rock (norite) is seen to be con-
centrated on the lower contact of the sheet, the acid rock,
micropegmatite or granophyre, graduating into true granite, on
its upper contact, while between the two is a zone of inter-
mediate rock. On the ‘Southern Nickel Range” across the
spoon-shaped basin, Barlow has determined the same arrange-
ment of acid, intermediate and basic zones in the sheet, which
there, however, agreeably with the basin theory of structure,
has a northerly dip; so that in this case, the norite occurs on
the south side of the sheet, the granite-granophyre zone on its
northern side. On the basin theory of the structure, the
volume of the granite-granophyre in this sheet is to be meas-
ured by hundreds of cubic miles.
All around the basin the nickel ores form a more or less
continuous zone at the lower contact of the norite. The sul-
phides are also to be found in especial abundance as segrega-
tions in apophysal offshoots of the norite where the basic magma
penetrated fissures outside the lower contact of the sheet.
Coleman states that where the band of eruptive (outcrop
edge of the sheet) is narrow, there is less change in the rock in
passing from the lower to the upper contact, the most basic
norite as well as ore being absent for the most part. He also
notes the absence of granophyre or granite in the smaller
intrusions of the norite which occasionally appear outside the
main basin.t
Eruptive breccias due to the shattering of the invaded forma-
tions by the hot magma are found at both upper and lower
contacts.
Coleman notes that in the northern nickel range the con-
tact metamorphism is more intense next the upper acid zone
than next the norite. He explains this as possibly due to the
fact that the rocks at the lower contact were already well erys-
tallized before the intrusion took place, while the sediments
along the upper contact were then capable of notable minera-
*A.P. Coleman, Rep. Bureau of Mines, Ontario, 1903, p. 277. Cf. A. E.
Barlow, Ann. Rep. Geol. Surv. Canada, vol. xiv, 1904, p. 72; also stereogram
accompanying Coleman’s report.
+ 1904 report, p. 212, and 1903 report, p. 286.
tA. E. Barlow, op. cit., pp. 122, 129 and plates; A. P. Coleman, Rep.
Bureau of Mines, Ontario, 1904, p. 213; T. L. Walker, Quart. Jour. Geol.
Soc., vol. liii, 1897, p. 54.
R. A. Daly—Secondary Origin of Certain Granites. 205
logical changes. The metamorphism on the upper contact
extends outward for a distance of from 1000 to 1500 feet. |
There seems to be a decided lack of pneumatolytic action
(other than that due to water vapor) incident to the intrusion.*
Coleman has coneluded that the intrusion of the sheets
antedated the synclinal warping of the region to which the
present basin shape of the sheet is attributed.t
The mineralogical ‘compositions of the norite, intermediate
rock and micropegmatite-granite are summarized in Table L.
Their chemical compositions are entered in Table V, taken
from Walker’s paper, page 56. The corresponding specific
grayities also show the significant homologies existing between
these rocks and those of Pigeon Point and of the Moyie sill.
The value of a close study of these tables will appear in the
following general comparison of the rocks and of their rela-
tions to one another.
TABLE V.
Tt 2. 3. 4, 3.
8i0, eee re AO O0G, 51°52% 64°85% 69°27% 67°76%
TiO, Lhe Saree tee 1°39 ieee °78 "46
5/0 Se a 16°32 19°77 11°44 P26 14°00
Be O- Bernat ro EGeHIRS “AT 2°94 2°89 ways
re ee i 13°54 6207 6°02 4°51. 5°18
MgO 3 af Eagan ala ee 6°22 6°49. 1°60 ‘O91 oO)
od oe ee 6°58 8°16 3°49 1°44 4°28
Na,O cy ED ae Ee 1°82 2°66 3192 SL? eee
K,O Re Sees a 2-25: [7 OR. 3°02 ano 1°19
OE eee "76 1°68 “78 “76 lee Ouk
Os a) Gia See ley “10 “24: °06 "19
99°03 99°71 98°30 99°35 100°29
= Le ol 3°026 2°832 2°788 2°724 2°709
1 to 5—‘Specimens range from north to south” across the
Sudbury intrusive sheet, that is, from near lower contact (No. 1)
to near upper contact (No. 5).
Synthetic Discussion.
Magmatic Assimilation.—The secondary origin of granite
has long been maintained by N. H. Winchell, who has referred
to the Pigeon Point case as, among others, demonstrating the
fact.t Bayley came to the same belief for the granite and
granophyre of the point, but did not extend his argument in
detail to cover other occurrences among the Minnesota intru- °
sives. On the other hand, the principle has not been accepted
* A. E. Barlow, op. cit., p. 129.
+ 1903 report, p. 277.
t Final Rep. Minn. Geol. Surv., vol. v, 1900, p. 62, ete.
206 Lt. A. Daly—Secondary Origin of Certain Granites.
as applying to these localities even by Van Hise, whose rare
knowledge of Lake Superior geology must give his opinion
exceptional weight.* Even the latest text-books of geology
give most inadequate treatment of the doctrine though it refers
to one of the most important problems in the whole field of
geology. Doubtless the majority of petrologists are to-day
unfavorable to the assimilation theory of granite and its rela-
tives except as it applies to a very limited, in point of volume
insignificant, modification of certain magmas at their contacts.
Van Hise’s chief argument against the contact origin of the
Pigeon Point granite emphasizes the fact that that rock has
not the chemical composition either of the sedimentary forma-
tion or (as especially shown in the surplus of alkalies and the
deficiency of iron in the granophyre-granite) of a direct mix-
ture of gabbro and sediments.t The much quoted argument
of Brogger with reference to the Norwegian granites is based
on a similar fact. Many. other writers have, on a similar
ground, excluded contact assimilation as playing any consider-
able part in the formation of abyssal or hypabyssal magmas.
In practically every case the opponents of the assimilation
theory have treated of the assimilation as essentially a static
phenomenon. ach interpretation of field facts has been
phrased in terms of magmatic differentiation versus magmatic
assimilation as explaining the eruptive rocks actually seen on
the contacts discussed. Nothing seems more probable, how-
ever, than that such rocks are often to be referred to the com-
pound process of assimilation accompanied and followed by
magmatic differentiation. The chemical composition of an
intrusive rock at a contact of magmatic assimilation is thus not
simply the direct product of digestion. It is the net result of
rearrangements brought about in the compound magma of
assimilation. In the magma, intrusion currents, convection
currents and the currents set up by the sinking or rising of
xenoliths must take a part in destroying any simple relation
between the chemical constitutions of the intrusive and invaded
formations. Still more effective may be the laws of differen-
tiation in a magma made heterogeneous by the absorption of
foreign material which is itself generally heterogeneous. The
formation of eutectic compounds or mixtures, the development
of density stratification, and other causes for the chemical and
physical resorting of materials in the new magma ought cer-
tainly to be regarded as of powerful effect in the same sense.
A second fundamental principle has as a rule been disre-
garded in the discussions on magmatic assimilation. The form
* Monograph XLVII, U.S. Geol. Surv., 1904, pp. 730-733.
+ Op. cit., p. 733.
¢ Die Eruptivgesteine des Kristianiagebietes, Pt. II, 1895, p. 130.
R. A. Daly—Secondary Origin of Certain Granites. 207
of the intrusive body, and the relation of the accessible points
of its contacts to that form as a whole, must be taken into
account. If, for example, differentiation of the compound
magma has taken place so as to produce within the magma
chamber layers of magma of different density, the lightest at
the top, the heaviest at the bottom, the actual chemical com-
position of the resulting rock at any contact will depend
directly on the magmatic stratum rather than on the composi-
tion of the adjacent country-rocks.
Thirdly, the method of intrusion is of primary significance
in the discussion of assimilation in a given instance. There
are strong reasons for believing that the subterranean cham-
bers of stocks and batholiths have been opened largely or at
least in part through magmatic “stoping,” whereby magmas
have made their way upward through the invaded formations
by engulfing suite after suite of blocks shattered off from those
formations by the heat of the intrusives.* In such a case the
destructive action at the molar contact is chiefly physical, and
chemical solution is subordinate. Most of the solution takes
place in the complete digestion of the sunken blocks and is
therefore abyssal rather than marginal. The conditions are
peculiarly favorable for the systematic differentiation of the
new compound magma. The chemical composition of the
intrusive at any contact will thus depend on the constitution of
a (possibly well differentiated) magma containing materials
won from a@// the invaded formations and not simply materials
won from the immediately adjacent country-rock. Brégger’s
argument derived from the low content of lime in the Chris-
tiania granite cutting thick limestones (themselves overlying an
enormous thickness of crystalline schists, etc.) is clearly incon-
clusive until it can be shown that this and the other two
factors just noted have not been at work.t+
Magmatic stoping has, in all probability, taken place to some
extent in the great intrusive body at Pigeon Point. The
specilic gravity of the gabbro varies from 2°923 to 2°970.
Molten at 1400 degrees Cent., its specific gravity, at atmos-
pheric pressure, would be not far from 2°43 to 248. The
specific gravities of the intermediate rock and granite are
respectively 2-740 and 2620; molten at 1400 degrees Cent.,
they would, at atmospheric pressure, be about 2°30 and 2°19
respectively. The specific gravity of the invaded sediment
varies from 2°70 to about 2°75. Blocks of the quartzite and
slate immersed in any of the molten magmas and there assum-
ing the temperature of 1400 degrees Cent., would at the same
*Cf. R. A. Daly, The Mechanics of Igneous ees this Journal,
vol. xv, 1903, p. 269, and vol. xvi, 1903, p. 107.
+ Cf. Loewinson-Lessing, op. cit., p. 368.
208 L. A. Daly—Secondary Origin of Certain Granites.
pressure have specific gravities varying between 2°60 and 2°65.
There are good reasons for believing that plutonic pressures
would not essentially affect these contrasts of density. Assum-
ing a certain degree of fluidity in the magma (an assumption
underlying the whole of this paper and believed to be demon-
strated by such facts as the patent ease of diffusion that once
reigned in each of the intrusives), it appears that blocks of the
sedimentary rocks must sink in the magma, whether acid or
basic.*
The actual shatter-breccias described by Bayley are there-
fore to be attributed to the last destructive effort of the magma,
which, at that time, through cooling, had become too viscous
to allow of the sinking of the xenoliths.
A precisely similar argument applies to the Moyie and Sud-
bury examples (see table of specific gravities and table in this
Journal, vol. xv, 1908, p. 277). All these igneous bodies,
though ‘not intruded by magmatic stoping, yet show that pro-
cess to have assisted in the production of the granites and
granophyres. Whether this process has there been more or
less efficaceous than molar or marginal assimilation, perhaps
cannot be determined.
In all these cases the stoping that did occur must clearly
have tended to destroy a simple chemical identity between
igneous rock and country-rock at any given contact.
Summary.—lt will be useful to review the chief field and
laboratory observations so far noted as favoring the assimila-
tion theory when applied to the granites and granophyres
described in this paper.
1. Bayley’s elaborate argument is believed to be valid except
as it fails to take differentiation into account. No fact has been
noted either by the writer in connection with the Moyie sill or
in the descriptions of the other examples which tends to weaken
that argument.
2. Belief in the truth of his conclusion is greatly strengthened
by the repeated occurrence of essentially the same phenomena
in widely separated regions.
a. At Pigeon Point, at Sudbury and on the Moyie River
there occur intrusive bodies of gabbro passing by gradual tran-
sitions (as shown by chemical, mineralogical and specific gravity
determinations) into the border phases of granite and grano-
phyre. Both types of rock clearly belong to the same period
of intrusion.
b. All three igneous bodies are of relatively great thickness,
which means that, other things being equal, they possessed
relatively great stores of thermal energy.
*Of. R. A. Daly, op. cit., 1903, p. 277, etc.
R. A. Daly—Secondary Origin of Certain Granites. 209
c. In each occurrence the gabbro contains xenoliths of the
more acid sedimentary rocks. These blocks are commonly
more or less digested and the product of this local solution is
always closely allied to, if not equivalent to, the granophyre-
granite phase.
d. In each case there is correspondence though not equiva-
lence between the composition of the acid border-phase and
the average composition of the invaded formation. This
important fact is emphasized in Tables I, II, III, IV and V,
in which the silica and alkalies are either directly or inferen-
tially seen to be more or less abundant in the granophyre-
granite according to the relative abundance of those oxides in
the respective country-rocks.
e. A considerable number of other examples not as yet
thoroughly studied have been noted in British Columbia and
Minnesota. The conditions are throughout identical or so
allied as to favor one explanation common to all the occur-
rences.
jy. The assimilation theory is also supported by certain other
facts which have already been mentioned but merit a more
detailed discussion such as is attempted in the sequel.
3. The principal objection to the doctrine of assimilation,
namely, the objection that chemical analyses disprove any genetic
relationship between intrusiveand invaded formation at certain
accessible contacts, cannot hold, because that objection allows no
place for differentiation in the magma made compound by
assimilation.
Asymmetry of the Intrusive Bodies——There remains for
particular explanation the cardinal fact that all the intrusive
bodies are asymmetric. The granophyre-granite is always con-
centrated on one side of the intrusive, that is, along the upper
contact or the side away from which the enclosing sediments
dip.
In all the localities the dips of the sedimentaries and of the
intrusive sheets are believed to have been flatter at the time of
the injection of the magma than those dips now are. It
is, indeed, possible that, in every instance, the gabbro sheet lay
practically horizontal during the period of cooling and consoli-
dation. In any case the granophyre-granites appears to have
always overlain their respective cabbroid associates.
Three possible explanations have offered themselves for this
asymmetry. (a) It is conceivable that extensive assimilation
occurred only on the upper contacts; or (6) the asymmetry
may be due to the density stratification of magma compounded
of gabbro and digested sediments ; or (c) due to a combination
of both those factors.
One or more subordinate suppositions are necessary if the
assimilation be credited essentially to the upper contact. On
210 R.A. Daly—Secondary Origin of Certain Granites.
the one hand, the invaded formations above and below the
gabbro might be lithologically so different that the one above
was much more subject to contact alteration than the one below.
This idea is at once declared irrelevant in the British Columbia
and Minnesota cases, where there is certainly no evidence of
differences of digestibility. | j
On the other hand, it is possible that the original gabbro was
differently constituted, and thus more energetic in assimilation,
along the upper contact than elsewhere. Magmatic water or
other strong solvents may thus be conceived to have early con-
centrated in the upper zone of each sill. In favor of this view
would seem at first sight the fact that at Pigeon Point the zone
of external metamorphism is reported by Bayley to be much
wider on the upper contact than on the lower. (See fig. 4.)
The same seems to be true in the Sudbury case, but is explained
by Coleman as noted on a previous page. The writer could
find no absolutely certain evidence of such differential meta-
morphism about the Moyie sill, yet considers it as probable.
That the conditions for the complete assimilation of the
invaded formations obtained throughout the intrusive bodies is
illustrated in the unmistakable digestion of xenoliths found at
all depths in the gabbro. As already pointed out, the assimi-
lation here belongs to the period immediately preceding the
consolidation of the gabbro. A much greater volume of sim-
ilar material derived from the interaction of gabbro and sedi-
mentary rock must have been formed from other blocks in the
hotter, more fluid, and more energetic magma of the preceding
period. There seems to be no possible doubt that most of that
material has diffused upward and now forms part of the grano-
phyre-granite zone.
The simplest and most probable cause for that diffusion is,
as suggested in the field hypothesis for the Moyie sill, the dif-
ference of density between the acid magma of assimilation and
the enclosing gabbro.
It is quite possible that the metamorphosing effect of the
new magma may have been greater than that of the original
pure gabbro.. The new magma would presumably carry with
it the water derived from the digested sediments which, appar-
ently in every case, are notably more hydrous than the original
gabbro magma. The accompanying table shows the propor-
tion of water (or loss on ignition) found in the analyses of the
rocks of Pigeon Point.
Rock. Per cent of water.
Gabbro Peers fee eines ree ee RES yeaa etn
Intermediate tocki 2442 2 ee meatier san OAT
Red soda eramite tae vs) os Sek ea se 1°21
Seve he ae Ie es ak th sce Rape Wilh Sr, Ben CeO) ak
Quartzite (loss on ignition) ..-..-..----- 1°88
R. A. Daly—Secondary Origin of Certain Granites. 211
So far as such water determinations in the crystallized rock can
be considered as indicating a true condition of the magma
before solidification, the table imphes that the compound
magma corresponding to the “intermediate rock” still held
the extra water of assimilation up to the moment of erystalliza-
tion ; and, secondly, that the well differentiated magma corre-
sponding to the soda granite had lost about half of the water
of assimilation before final solidification. It is, accordingly,
quite possible that this extra water which the upper acid zone
could not hold in permanent combination, has been responsible
for the unusual amount of external metamorphism in the sedi-
ments south of the Pigeon Point intrusive. Similar reasoning
may apply to the Sudbury example, but the required elaborate
chemical study of its more complex terranes has not yet been
made.
In favor of this hypothesis is the fact that, so far as known
to the writer, differential contact metamorphism of the kind
here in discussion has never been described in connection with
a sill that does not also show evidence of strong internal assimi-
lation. |
Finally, there is no cause yet well determined why water or
other solvents should be systematically concentrated from the
original magma along the roof of an intrusive sill. Such con-
centration may, indeed, be the rule, but it has apparently not
been announced by any worker among the thousands of basic
sills described in geological literature.
The conclusion seems justified that the special intensity of
the metamorphism on the upper contact of certain imtrusive
bodies is probably not due to the special activity of solvents in
the original magma along that contact. The explanation
seems to lie partly in the different lability of the roof-rocks
and floor-rocks to metamorphic change, but yet more in the
metamorphic effects of water vapor set free in the digestion of
the invaded hydrous sediments. This water vapor may have
also assisted in the solvent work of the magma at the main
upper contact, and, finally, in increasing the fluidity of that
magma.
Magmatic Differentiation.—The development of basic,
intermediate and acid zones in each of thesills is, thus, believed
to have been the result of the density stratification of the com-
pound magma of assimilation. The etticiency of differential
density in separating out lighter acid material from the
heavier basic, has been ably discussed and affirmed by Loew-
inson-Lessing.* It isunnecessary to recapitulate his argument,
with which the present writer isin full accord.
* Op. cit., pp. 344-854.
212 Rk. A. Daly—Secondary Origin of Certain Granites.
Loewinson-Lessing points out that when large amounts of
foreign rock-material is digested in a magma, there is established
a special tendency toward a systematic differentiation of the
mixture.* Liquation will then take place when the cooling
mixture reaches a certain temperature. The same author also
holds that, according to the principles of physical chemistry,
a magma becomes actually more fluid as a result of digestin
foreign material. Differentiation is thereby faciliated
Vogt’s valuable researches tend to corroborate this view.t
The granites and granophyres of the Moyie sill, of the Pigeon
Point intrusive, and of the Sudbury sheet are to be regarded
as not directly or merely due to the contact solution of sedi-
mentary rocks and schists by gabbro; they are controlled
in their final composition by a common process of differentia-
tion supplementary to the gravitative effect. At Pigeon Point
the acid rock, whatever its structure and grain, is a rather
definite mixture of oxides. This is illustrated in the analyses
of granular soda granite, the “quartz keratophyre’, and the
porphyry of Little Brick Island near Pigeon Point.{ For. lack
of sufficient analyses the same statement cannot be made con-
cerning the Moyie sill, but within limits it applies to the huge
Sudbury sheet.$
The acid zone may have won some of its soda from the
original magma; the gabbro may now hold some of the pot-
ash with the silica derived from the micaceous and feldspathic
quartzites and other sediments. It is obvious, however, that
all the details of the chemical processes engaged in this type
of magmatic separation (chemical affinity in magma disturbed
by gravitative diffusion currents) cannot be worked out from
existing data on the magmatic behavior of silicates.
The intermediate rock at all three localities may be regarded
as occupying zones of incomplete differentiation.
Special interest attaches to the occurrence of the nickel ores
along the lower contact of the Sudbury sheet. Barlow, Cole-
man, Vogt and Walker agree that these sulphides are soluble
in magmas. The solubility is in inverse proportion to the
acidity of those magmas.| The fact suggests that the sul-
phides have been precipitated from the norite which has been
acidified by assimilation. The concentration of the ore, on
the lower contact is again the result of differentiation through
contrasts of density, the sulphides settling to the bottom of
the sheet. LLoewinson-Lessing has already suggested this gen-
= Opcis,, PP.-oout,
+ Op. cit., Part 2.
t Bull. 228, U. S. Geol. Surv., p. 89
S$ See A. P. Coleman, 1904 report, P. 218.
|J. H. L. Vogt, op. cit., p. 229.
R. A. Daly—Secondary Origin of Certain Granites. 218
eral hypothesis to explain the segregation of sulphide-ores,
without, however, connecting the concentration with oravita-
tive influence. Coleman has announced the view that the
ores have thus settled to the bottom of the sill, but has not
connected the action with the digestion of acid rock in the
norite.* The whole array of facts connected with the Sudbury
intrusive is so accordant with the double theory of assimilation
and differentiation through density stratification, as to single
out this particular case as perhaps, of all those noted in the
present paper, the most convincing and illuminating.
It is necessary that brief reference be made to an alternative
view of all these related phenomena. One may conceive that
the granite-granophyre, intermediate rock and gabbroid rock
in each of the intrusive sheets may be explained by simple
differentiation from an orzginal magma through density strati-
fication but without the aid of significant assimilation of the
country-rocks. Lack of space forbids that this hypothesis be
here discussed at length. The writer believes that the hypoth-
esis is untenable or, “at least, is much less adapted to explain-
ing the facts than the hypothesis of assimilation accompanied
and followed by differentiation. Most of the facts on which
that belief is founded have been already implied or expressly
noted.
Among the significant facts are the following:
1. There is a close similarity in composition between the
granite-granophyre zone and rims of manifest digestion about
xenoliths now surrounded by gabbro. ‘This consanguinity is
inexplicable on the theory of mere differentiation within the
original magma.
2. The genetic relationship between the granite-granophyre
zone and the invaded sediments is further shown by certain
special features already described among the structures of the
acid rock in the Moyie sill, and of the overlying, metamor-
phosed quartzite. For example, the development of remark-
ably poikilitic quartz im the granite-granophyre and in the
recrystallized quartzite (the quartz of the latter being largely
or wholly indigenous) may be mentioned. This repeated
occurrence of a peculiar structure finds no simple explanation
on the pure-differentiation theory.
3. In the period of high temperature preceding the viscous
period when the visible xenoliths were frozen in the gabbro,
thousands or millions of other xenoliths were completely or in
part digested in the gabbro magma. The product of their
digestion can be found, apparently, i in no other place than in
the existing acid zone of each intrusive sheet.
* 1903 report, p. 277.
2 fi AY Daly—Secondary Origin of Certain Granites.
4. Mere differentiation of an original magma (through
density stratification) cannot readily explain the slight but
certain excess of silica along the lower contact of the Moyie
sill. That degree of acidification is readily understood on the
assimilation theory. |
5. Along the British Columbia boundary a large number of
contemporaneous gabbro sills of practically identical min-
eralogical and chemical composition have been found. In
most of these no true granite-granophyre zone occurs. The
composition of these gabbros is essentially equivalent to that
of the gabbro in the central part of the Moyie sill; yet, on the
pure-differentiation theory we should expect a distinct differ-
ence of composition between these other sills and the basic
pole of differentiation in the Moyie sill. The assimilation-
differentiation theory finds no difficulty in the essential equiva-
lence of composition.
6. The assimilation-differentiation theory demands that a
great absolute amount of thermal energy be credited to a sill
in which secondary granite has been formed; that sill must
always be thick. Other things being equal, granite formed by
mere differentiation from an original magma should be found
also in sills of less thickness, though here again the absolute
thickness must be considerable. True granite with the rela-
tions described in this paper has never been found as a contin-
uous zone in any intrusive sheet 500 feet or less in thickness.
On the pure-differentiation theory it is difficult to understand
why differentiation should afford true granite in a sheet of the
strength observed at Pigeon Point, and should not afford a
true granite zone in a sheet 400 or 500 feet thick. The
assimilation-differentiation theory readily interprets the fact as
due to the relatively enormous amount of heat required for
the generation of the granite-granophyre zone, namely, an
amount of heat characteristic only of thick intrusive sheets.
7. The pure-differentiation theory has to face another diff-
cult question which does not arise if the assimilation-differen-
tiation theory be accepted. Why was differentiation in the
original magma postponed to the moment of intrusion? This
difficulty is, of course, by no means conclusive against the
pure-differentiation theory, but it means one more unavoidable
theoretical burden weighting the pure-differentiation theory in
a way which renders, by contrast, the assimilation-differentia-
tion theory one of relative simplicity and, by so much, of
greater strength.
General Application.—In the foregoing discussion the sec-
ondary origin of some granites has been deduced from the
study of intrusive sills or sheets; but it is evidently by no
means necessary that the igneous rock body should have the
R.A. Daly—Secondary Origin of Certain Granites. 215
sill form. The wider and more important question is immedi-
ately at hand—does the assimilation-differentiation theory
apply to truly abyssal contacts? Do the granites of stocks
aid batholiths sometimes originate in a manner similar or
analogous to that just outlined for the sills?
The writer has briefly noted peneral reasons affording affir-
mative answers to these questions.*
Gabbro and granophyre are often characteristically associated
at various localities in the British Islands as in other parts of
the world.t The field relations are there not so simple as in
the case of the Moyie sill, for example, but otherwise the recur-
rence of many common features among all these rock-associa-
tions suggests the possibility of extending the assimilation-
differentiation theory to all the granophyres. Harker’s excel-
lent memoir on the gabbro and granophyre of the Carrock Fell
District, England, shows remarkable parallels between his
“laccolite’’ rocks and those of Minnesota and Ontario.{
At Carrock Fell there is again a commonly occurring tran-
sition from the granophyre to true granite, and again the gran-
ophyre is a peripheral phase. Still larger bodies of gabbro,
digesting acid sediments yet more energetically than in the
intrusive sheets, and at still greater depth, would yield a thor-
oughly oranular acid rock as the product of that absorption
with the consequent differentiation. This does not imply, ot
course, that all granites are of this origin, but it is quite pos-
sible that most intrusive granites are either of this origin or
have been more or less modified through assimilation.
The difficulty of discussing these questions is largely owing
to the absence of accessible lower contacts in the average
granite body. All the more valuable must be the information
derived from intrusive sills. The comparative rarity of such
rock-relations as are described in this paper does not at all
indicate the exceptional nature of the petrogenic events signal-
ized in the Moyie, Pigeon Point or Sudbury intrusives. It is
manifest that extensive assimilation and differentiation can
only take place in sills when the sills are thick, well buried,
and originally of high temperature. All these conditions apply
to each case cited in the present paper. The phenomena
described are relatively rare largely because thick basic sills cut-
ting acid sediments are comparatively rare. |
On the other hand, there are good reasons for believing that
a subcrustal oabbroid magma, actually or potentially fluid, is
general all around the earth; and secondly, that the overlyi ing
solid rocks are, on the average, crystalline schists and sediments
* This Journal, vol. xv, 1903, p. 269, vol. xvi. 1903, p. 107.
+See A. Geikie, Ancient Volcanoes of Great Britain, 1897.
¢ Quart. Journal Geol. Soc., vol. 1, 1894, p. 311 and vol. li, 1895, p. 125.
216 L&. A. Daly—Secondary Origin of Certain Granites.
more acid than gabbro. Through local, though widespread
and profound, assimilation of those acid terranes by the gab-
bro, accompanied and followed by differentiation, the batholithie
oranites may in large part have been derived. * True batho-
hths of gabbro are rare, perhaps because batholithic intru-
sion is always dependent on assimilation.
The argument necessarily extends still farther. It is not
logical tu restrict the assimilation-differentiation theory to the
granites. The preparation of the magmas from which syenites
and diorites, for example, have crystallized, may have been
similarly affected by the local assimilation of special rock-
formations. The development of some of the anorthosites of
the Canadian and Adirondack Archean was possibly condi-
tioned on the digestion of part of the associated crystalline
limestones by plutonic magma.
The officers of the Minnesota Geological Survey have shown
that the same magma represented in the soda granite and grano-
phyre of Pigeon Point forms both dikes and amygdaloidal
surface flows.+ The assimilation-differentiation theory is evi-
dently as applicable to lavas as to intrusive bodies. but
demonstration of the truth or error of the theory will doubt-
less be found in the study of intrusive igneous bodies rather
than in the study of voleanoes either ancient or modern.
Finaliy, the fact of “ consanguinity” among the igneous rocks
of a petrographical province may be due as much to assimilation
- as to differentiation.
* Cf. Ac Daly, op: eit:
+N. H. Winchell, Final Rep. Minn. Geol. Surv., vol. 4, 1899, pp. 519-22.
S. L. Penfield and G. S. Jamieson—Tychite. 217
Art. XXIV.—On Tychite,a New Mineral from Borax Lake,
California, and on its Artificial Production and its
Relations to Northupite; by 8. L. Prnrrerp and G. 8.
J AMIESON.
Historical.—The new mineral to be described in this paper
was discovered by the merest chance in 1895, when some
minerals from Borax Lake, San Bernardino County, California,
were being studied by one of the present writers (Penfield).
At the time mentioned, word had been received from Mr.
Warren M. Foote of Philadelphia that he had some unknown
minerals from the Borax Lake region, and arrangement was
made for their examination in the mineralogical laboratory of
the Sheffield Scientific School. One of the minerals, which
proved to be a new species, consisted of octahedral crystals,
averaging about 3" in diameter, and concerning it Mr. Foote
wrote that it was a carbonate of magnesium and sodium con-
taining chlorine. The material sent for examination consisted
of a large number of the octahedral crystals, and from
amongst them a small one, which was perfect in form and
seemed to be in every way typical of the lot, was selected for
the purpose of making a. few preliminary tests. It was
brought in contact with adrop of nitric acid on a watch glass
and dissolved with effervescence; the solution gave the flame
test for sodium, a minute drop of it gave the reaction for
magnesium with ammonia and sodium phosphate, but a test
for chlorine with silver nitrate gave a negative result. Think-
ing over what else might possibly be present, the idea of a
sulphate suggested itself, and a test with barium chloride
indicated the presence of the SO, radical. Accordingly, a
letter was sent to Mr. Foote informing him that there evidently
was some mistake, for the mineral he had sent proved to be a
sulphate and not a chloride. This elicited an immediate reply
from Mr. Foote, stating that, on the contrary, the mistake was
on our part, for he had always obtained the test for chlorine
and had repeated the experiment with like results; thereupon
the test was repeated by us, and the presence of chlorine was
found in one crystal after another. The fact, therefore, was
established, that in the material sent there were two minerals
erystallizing in octahedrons, one containing the sulphate radi-
eal, the other chlorine, and that by chance a erystal of the
rarer sulphate happened to be the one first selected for making
the initial examination. A preliminary notice of the chlorine
compound was published by Mr. Foote,* who named the min-
eral northupite after Mr.C. H. Northup of San Jose, California,
* This Journal (3), 1, p. 480, 1895.
Am. Jour. Sct.—FourtH Series, Vou. XX, No. 117.—SEepTEMBER, 1905.
15
218 S. L. Penfield and G. S. Jamieson—Tychite.
who first observed the new mineral and supplied the material
for investigation. A complete study of the chemical composi-
tion and physical properties of the new compound was subse-
quently made by Pratt, who found the composition to be
MgCoO,.Na,CO,. NaCl, his results being published in this
Journal.*
Being assured of the existence of a second, new, octahedral
mineral, associated with the northupite, Mr. Foote generously
responded to our request to send to New Haven his entire
stock of crystals im order that a search might be made for the
missing sulphate. The following simple method of testing was
employed, which did not in any way injure the specimens:
Some dilute nitric acid containing a little silver nitrate was
prepared, and with a broom-straw a minute drop of the liquid
was applied to each crystal. Thus, if chlorine was present, a
little silver chloride would be formed and the drop of liquid
would become milky-white. In testing several hundred erys-
tals in this way, only two were found which did not give the
reaction for chlorine. One of these was a small but perfect
octahedron, the other a small cluster of octahedrons, of some-
what inferior quality: together they weighed only about 0°10
gram. It was hoped, however, that by sacrificing the speci-
mens for chemical analysis sufficient determinations could be
obtained for deriving the formula; but in this we were disap-
pointed, for, unfortunately, the analysis met with an accident
before a single determination had been made. We were thus
compelled to abandon the hope of determining the composition
of the new mineral until other crystals should be found in new
lots of the northupite.
Recently our attention was called to the unknown sulphate
by observing in the stock of Mr. Lazard Cahn of New York
a supply of northupite crystals which he generously loaned to
us for examination, but when tested they all proved to be the
chlorine compound. Likewise Mr. Warren M. Foote of Phila-
delphia has been kind enough to send us his entire stock of
northupite, consisting of something over four thousand crystals,
among which we had the good fortune of finding one small
octahedron, weighing but 0:0109 gram. Curiously enough,
this was among the last ten crystals which were tested, and
was found after hope of obtaining the desired sulphate had
practically been given up.
Artificial production.—Beheving that the unknown sulphate
would prove to be closely related to northupite, and knowing
that de Schultent had succeeded in making the latter arti-
ficially, it occurred to us that possibly the wished for sulphate
* This Journal (4), ii, p. 188, 1896; also, iii, p. 75, 1897.
+ Bull. Soc. Franc. de Min., vol. xix, p. 164, 1896.
S. L. Penfield and G. S. Jamieson—Tychite. 219
might also be prepared synthetically. Following in general
the method of de Schulten, 8 grams of Na,CO, and 34 grams
of Na,SO, were dissolved in 120° of water, and to the solution
1-4 grams ‘of MgSO, were added, which immediately produced
an amorphoid precipitate, presumably of some basic magnesium
earbonate. The mixture, contained in a flask, loosely stop-
pered to prevent evaporation, was then heated on a steam
bath. By using chlorides in the place of sulphates, as
described above, de Schulten succeeded in making northupite
in a crystallized condition in about seven hours; in our exper-
iment, however, we waited five days, the solution being heated
without interruption, before any signs of crystallization
appeared. In the meantime we had tried heating a similar
mixture in a sealed tube at a high temperature, without
definite results, and had practically given up hope ot obtaining
the desired crystals. It was almost a matter of accident,
therefore, that the flask contaming the mixture was left stand-
ing on the steam bath for so long a time. When the crystal-
lization had once started, however, it apparently proceeded
quite rapidly, and the insoluble material in the flask was
almost wholly converted into octahedral crystals, very sym-
metrical in development and remarkably uniform in size, about
Q-15™" in diameter. Having once produced a crop of crystals,
we are now able, by “seeding ” or adding some of the product
already formed ‘to a new experiment, to produce crystals in
fifteen hours, though it still seems to take several days to
complete the reaction. When examined under the microscope,
it was found that each crystal contained minute inclusions,
presumably of basic magnesium carbonate, but the inclusions
constituted a very small proportion of the total bulk of the
material. The crystals were next suspended in acetylene
tetrabromide, diluted with benzol, and it was found that they
all floated when the specific gr avity was 2°594, and on diluting
to 2°583 almost all of the material sank. The mean of the two
values, 2°588, may therefore be taken as the specific gravity of
the mineral. It was found that the lighter crystals, left float-
ing on the heavy solution, were preceptibly richer in inclusions
than those which sank at 2°583. The crystals are quite hard
and give a gritty sensation when ground in an agate mortar.
They seratch calcite and probably, like northupite, have a
hardness between 3°5 and 4. The crystals are isotropic when
examined in polarized light. Using two surfaces which come
together at the apex of an octahedron as a prism, it was pos-
sible to determine approximately the index of refraction, but
the surfaces of the crystal were not good enough to make the
determination accurate beyond the second place of decimals:
the value found was 1°510, while mn, for northupite was
1514.
220 S. L. Penfield and G. 8. Jamieson—T. ychite.
An analysis of the purest material, separated by means of
the heavy solution, gives the formula 2MgCO,.2Na,CO,.
Na,SO,, the results being as follows:
fe ie Theory.
SOW Sea eter 15°08 15°06 15°38
CONS oie eee 33°55 33°45 33°72
Mio. ues eer e ses 15°83 15°77 15°33
INaeO Sree eke 30°49 35°65 35°62
99°95 99°93 100°60
The slight discrepancies between the results of the analyses
and the theory are probably to be accounted for by the pres-
ence in all of the crystals of the minute inclusions mentioned
on the previous page.
The finely powdered salt does not dissolve to any extent in
hot water, nor does it suffer decomposition. Some powder,
boiled with water for a considerable time, then filtered and
dried, gave the following results :—SO,, found 15-21 per cent,
theory 15°33 per cent. The filtrate gave only a shght reaction
of a sulphate when tested with barium chloride.
Name.—We have named the new and rare sulphate tychite,
from tvy7, meaning luck or chance, a name which it well
deserves, when itis considered that out of fully five thousand
specimens examined, the very first crystal and one of the ten
last crystals tested proved to be the sulphate, and only two
other specimens were found, the ones lost in an unsuccessful
attempt to make an analysis.
Comparison of the artificial salt with the natural mineral.—
Without question, the artificial salt is identical with the mineral
found at Borax Lake: they both contain the same constitu-
ents. They crystallize not only in the same system, but also in
octahedrons. They are isotropic, although the last crystal of
tychite found showed some slight action on polarized light,
_ which seemed to be confined only to the exterior portions of
the crystal, for fragments from the interior were wholly iso-
tropic. The specific gravity of the artificial salt is 2°588, of
the erystal examined by Pratt (the analysis of which was lost)
2°456, and of the last crystal found by us 2°30. The last erys-
tal, however, contains numerous inclusions, which undoubtedly
account for its low specific gravity. As far as can be recol-
lected, the crystal examined by Pratt was very white and pure,
but not equal in transparency to the artificial crystals. Both
Pratt’s determination, 2°456, and ours of the artificial salt,
2°588, are somewhat higher than the specific gravity of
northupite, as might be expected from differences in composi-
tion: Pratt found the specific gravity of northupite to be
[
S. L. Penfield and G. 8. Jamieson—Tychite. 221
2°380, and de Schulten determined that of the artificial salt
as 2377. By using two of the faces which meet at the apex
of the octahedron as a prism, we have succeeded in determin-
ing the index of refraction of the last crystal found. The
surfaces of the octahedron were not very perfect, and had to
be covered over for the most part, taking the reflections of the
signal from only the tip end-of the crystal, and the refraction
of light through the same. The value obtained, n,=1-508,
compares favorably with that of the artifical salt, 1-510, espe-
cially when it is taken into consideration that the condition did
not favor exact determinations in either case. A further argu-
ment for the identity of tychite and the artificial salt, if any is
needed, is that at Borax Lake both tychite and northupite occur
together, and were formed undoubtedly under similar condi-
tions, while in the laboratory either of these closely related
chemical compounds may be made by only varying the condi-
tions of the experiment by using sodium sulphate for the one
and sodium chloride for the other.
Of the four specimens of tychite thus far found, three have
been very symmetrically developed octahedrons, but small,
measuring not over 3™™ in diameter, and noticeably whiter
than the average of the northupites. It is the small size of the
erystals which favored the discovery of the new mineral, for
in the original preliminary test one of the smallest and whitest
specimens was selected, both because of its evident purity, and
also with the idea of not using up any more material than was
necessary. Those who may happen to have northupite crystals
and wish to search for specimens of the new mineral, may
jook for tychite therefore among the smaller crystals. We
are informed in a recent letter from Mr. Northup that the
chances of finding additional crystals of tychite, or of the asso-
ciated minerals, northupite and pirssonite, are too remote to be
seriously considered, as the old borax works are now disman-
tled. ‘Tychite, therefore, promises to be a very rare mineral,
unless a new locality for it happens to be discovered. The
single crystal which we recently had the good fortune to find,
Mr. Foote has generously presented to the Brush Collection of
the Sheffield Scientific School, and both for this gift and for
the interest he has taken in assisting us in our investigation we
take pleasure in expressing our most sincere thanks.
Comparison of tychite and northupite.—The two minerals,
found so intimately associated with one another and both erys-
tallizing in octahedrons, are chemically closely related, but in
order to show the relation it is necessary to double the formula
of northupite, as determined by Pratt. The compositions
may then be expressed as follows :
bo
bo
bo
S. L. Penfield and G. S. Janvieson— Tychite.
Tychite, 2MgCO,. 2Na,CO,. Na,SO,,.
Northupite, 2MgCO,.2Na,CO,.2NaCl.
Other physical properties are given below:
Specific gravity. Index of refraction, 71,.
Teens s 2°456 natural. 1°508 natural.
J , 2-588 artificial. 1510 artificial.
. 2°380 natural. ° 1514 natural.
Northupite, §.377 artificial.
Theoretical.—There seems to be far more interest connected
with the present investigation than the mere description of a
new species. Although northupite is somewhat slowly soluble
in cold water, and is quickly decomposed by boiling water with
the separation of magnesium carbonate, tychite is almost
insoluble, even when its fine powder is treated with boiling
water. Unlike. most insoluble substances, however, which
precipitate quickly as soon as the constituents necessary for
their formation are brought together, northupite and tychite
are formed slowly. In de Schulten’s experiment, northupite
was obtained after seven hours heating, and in ours it took
nearly as many days of continued heating to obtain crystals of
tychite. It would seem as though the slowness with which
these substances are formed might be taken as an indication of
their having a complex molecular structure, and that the
element of time is necessary for the arrangement of the atoms
in a state of equilibrium. Just what the arrangement of the
atoms is, we are not able to determine, but the simplest and
most symmetrically developed formulas which suggest them-
selves are the following:
Na=O02 VO=Na
Oo —- C — O
ge a
Northupite, Na—O—C—O—Mg—Cl Cl—Mg—O—C—O—Na
ae
SOr ea CSO
Na—O~ ~O—Na
Na —O._LO—Na
—- GC — O
eg a
Tychite, Na—O—C— O — Mg — (SO,) — Mg—O—C—O—Na
RNS a
on OO ON: Oe
Na —O~ ~O—Na
In these formulas the four carbon atoms are united by
oxygen in ring formation, which it may be assumed it takes
some time to establish, but, when once established, accounts
S. L. Penfield and G. S. Jamieson—Tychite. 223
for the stability of the compounds. It is possible also that
the assumed symmetrical arrangement of the atoms in the
molecule is the cause of the crystallization of these compounds
in the isometric system, for, as a rule, salts of a highly com-
plex nature crystallize in some system other than the isometric.
Moreover, if the above formulas are correct, it might be
expected that tychite would be more difficultly soluble in
water than northupite, for the SO, radical uniting the two
magnesium atoms would serve, as we might say, to protect the
latter from attack, while the sodium atoms could not be taken
away without disturbing the equilibrium of the molecule.
Perhaps also the union of the magnesium atoms by the SO,
radical in tychite is more difficult to establish than the com-
bination of the two chlorine atoms with magnesium in north-
upite, which may account for the greater length of time
required to make the sulphate compound artificially.
In these compounds, two chlorine atoms in the one and a SO,
radical in the other play the same role, and are isomorphous
with one another in the broader sense of the term, namely, that .
different constituents may enter into similarly constituted mole-
cules without changing the crystalline form. In simple chemical
compounds, it is contrary to all experience that a chloride and
a sulphate should have the same crystalline form, or be isomor-
phous with one another. In the salts under consideration,
however, it is assumed that some definite arrangement of the
large number of sodium, oxygen, carbon and magnesium atoms,
by virtue of mass effect,* determines the crystalline form of
the compounds, and that the roles played by two chlorine
atoms in the one and a SOQ, radical in the other are relatively
so unimportant that either of these constituents may enter into
the molecule without changing the crystalline form. Whether
it is possible to obtain a single crystal containing both the two
chlorine atoms and the sulphate radical replacing one another
as isomorphous constituents, or to obtain a single crystal with
a nucleus of one salt and an external growth, in parallel posi-
tion, of the other, we are not as yet able to state, but experi-
ments along these lines, to determine to what extent the prin-
ciples of isomorphism may be applied to so widely different
radicals as Cl, and SO, under the influence of mass effect action,
will be carried on and form the subject of a later communica-
tion. In one experiment, in which the attempt was being
made to obtain a product containing both Cl, and the SO,
radical, a small] crop of octahedral crystals was formed which
reacted for neither chlorine nor sulphate. In appearance
* Compare mass effect action as applied to tourmaline (Penfield and Foote,
this Journal (4), vii, pp. 122-124); also to the alunite-jarosite group of min-
erals (Hillebrand and Penfield, this Journal (4), xiv, pp. 216-220).
224 S. L. Penfield and G. S. Jamieson —T ychite.
the crystals were in every respect like those of the artificial
northupite and tychite. As seen with the microscope the
crystals were full of inclusions, and, in forming, had evidently
enclosed an unusually large amount of amorphous magnesium
carbonate precipitate. We assumed at once, and correctly, that
the compound would prove to be like northupite and tychite,
except in having a OO, radical in the place of Cl, and SO,,
namely, 2Mg¢CO,.2Na,CO,.Na,CO,; see page 222. The analy- '
sis, made on a small quantity of the rather impure product,
gave almost the theoretical percentage of CO,, but the MgO
was high and the Na,O low, which was to be expected.
Attempts will be made later to produce this salt in a state of
purity, when it will be described more minutely.
Mineralogical Laboratory of the
Sheffield Scientific School of Yaie University,
New Haven, Conn., July, 1905.
Harrington— Modification of Victor Meyer's Apparatus. 225
Art. XXV.—A Modification of Victor Meyer's Apparatus
for the Determination of Vapor-Densities; by B. J.
HARRINGTON.
THE ingenious apparatus devised by the late Professor
Victor Meyer for the determination of vapor-densities has
been in use for many years and has proved of great value for
the purpose for which it was intended. It, however, has
certain imperfections, being awkward on account of its height
and very liable to be broken, especially in the hands of inex-
perienced workers. Two modified forms of the apparatus
have been devised by the writer and have proved so useful in
our own laboratories that it has been deemed worth while to
publish a description of them. In both cases an attempt was
made to simplify the apparatus and make it more convenient
and rapid to work with.
The first form tried is that shown as fig. I in the accompany-
ing illustration. It will be observed that the receptacle dd 1 is
horizontal instead of vertical and that the long stem of Meyer’s
apparatus is bent upon itself a number of times ; the apparatus
accordingly occupying but little space. Instead of the long
outer tube or jacket ordinarily employed, a box made of tinned
iron or copper is used.
In making a actual determination the space around the
glass at m and & (fig. IL) is packed with a little asbestus, and
it has been found advantageous to lay a piece of asbestus ‘card
on the cover of the box.
The weighed material in the ordinary stoppered tube or
bulb is dropped in at e (fig. fT) and as it has not far to fall
there is no need of the usual cushion of asbestus or sand. As
soon as one operation is completed the vapour is quickly swept
out of the apparatus by connecting the tube ao (fig. I) with
the vacuum-pump, the water in the box 7 (fig. If) being kept
continuously boiling. In this way one operation quickly
succeeds another, and it has been found that students can make
two or three determinations in the time required for one with
the ordinary apparatus.
The second form experimented with is shown at III. In
this the receptacle dd of I is placed vertically, as it was
thought that the vapor would be less likely to be carried into
the delivery tube than if the horizontal position were adopted.
The tube ¢ is somewhat longer than in the first form (1) but
the curve at the bottom checks the velocity of the little tube
containing the liquid and no asbestus is required at the bottom
296 Hurrington—Modification of Victor Meyer's Apparatus.
of dd. Like No. I, this form is much more easily dried out
than the ordimary apparatus. The metal box for No. III. is
ale sM dyes bald fa forbe Pec lenfefe lade bole Lok
Ve as
(Gea OU Aset
~
ae
h----2
4
ee
e °
ena et
ees oe
at
not shown in the drawing, but its construction can be readily
understood. With both forms of apparatus é was closed with
Harrington— Modification of Victor Meyer's Apparatus. 227
an ordinary cork, a correction being made for the small quan-
tity of air displaced by the cork, but of course one of the
improved appliances for imtroducing the liquid could be
employed. So far the apparatus has been tried only for bodies
with comparatively low boiling points, but it could no doubt
be adapted for use with liquids with higher boiling points.
The following table gives a series of molecular weight
determinations kindly made for me by Mr. Douglas McIntosh,
D.Sc., of this university, with the different forms of apparatus,
and vives an idea of the results which may be expected.
Apparatus No. II. has, on the whole, been found to give more
concordant results than No. I, but the latter is simpler and less
likely to be broken than the former and in either case the
fioures obtained are sufficiently accurate for the purpose.
They were obtained by working very rapidly and with no
special precautions, and cannot therefore be fairly compared
with those given by Victor Meyer’s apparatus in the last
column; for in the case of the latter Dr. McIntosh states that
he took every precaution in order to ensure the most accurate
results possible. —
MorecuLtar Weieust DETERMINATIONS MADE BY Mr. Dougias
McIntosu, D.Sc. (Air=2 x 14:44)
Modified Modified Meyer’s
Apparatus Apparatus Apparatus.
Now: Nori
Methyl 35°0
Alcohol 36°0
CH,OH 36:9 32:9
(32) 36°5 33°4
34°60 33°5 31°91
36°9 33°] 31°94
34°7
34°8
37°2
Mean 35°8 Mean 33-2 Mean 31:93
Methyl 46°0
Alcohol 43°71 44°]
C,H,OH 45:0 44:7 46°70
(46) 44°5 44°3 46°10
43°6
42°3
—EEEE, eee ——
Mean 44:1 Mean 44:4 Mean 46:40
228 Harrington—Modification of Victor Meyer's Apparatus.
Modified Modified Meyer's
Apparatus Apparatus Apparatus,
No. I. No. II.
Acetone 59°4
CH BY
cH eo 59°2 58°9
(58) 58-0 59-0 57°90
59°O 58°'5 : 5780
59°1
Mean 58°6 Mean 58°8 ’ Mean 57°85
Ether 76°1
(OME @ 80:0
(74) 82°6 Deh
74:9 75:0 75°70
82°6 al 76°90
76°1 76°2
Mean 78:7 Mean 76°5 Mean 76°30
Benzol Wulae
(C.H,) 73°3 Sige
(78) 80°2 80°8 79:00
tod BPI 80°4 79°20
81°7 79°77
Mean 78:7 Mean 80°5 Mean 79:10
Chloroform 134°9
CHCl, 131°5
(119°5) 122°6
126°3 P2AS
136°8 124°9
125°5 L228 123°230
125°8 L262; 123°00
Mean 129°1 Mean 124°5 Mean 123°10
McGill University, May, 1905.
St tae
T. C. Brown—Frauna trom Chappaquiddick Island. 229
Art. XXVI.—A New Lower Tertiary Fauna from Chappa-
quiddick Island, Marthas Vineyard ;* by Tuomas C.
Brown. (With Plate VIL)
CuHappaguippick Island lies at the eastern end of Martha’s
Vineyard and owing to the shifting nature of the sands and
varying tidal currents, it is at times connected with that island,
but it is for the oreater part of the time completely separated
from it. Dr. Arthur Hollick has made a very careful study
of the structure of this island and collections of the molluscs
and plants found fossil upon it.* The fossil plants have been
very fully described by him in the Bulletin of the New York
Botanical Garden, vol. 1, No. 7. The mollusc material has
not been described and its horizon was provisionally set as Cre-
tacic by Dr. Hollick because of the similar lithological char-
acter of this material with other deposits on Martha’s Vineyard
containing undoubted Cretacic fossils.
A eareful study of the fossils has shown that this material is
not Cretacic but Eocene in age and that it contains a new and
peculiar fauna, a fauna which differs considerably from that of
the Eocene deposits of the southern Atlantic slope.
In describing the deposits from which these molluscan
remains were obtained Dr. Hollick says: “. . . the Island may
be said to be composed of reassorted drift. . . . These hills in
general may be described as kame-like, both in appearance and
in composition. They are rounded accumulations of sand,
gravel and cobble stones, with some bowlders, and were evi-
dently formed by water action. In many places the sand and
oravel is cemented together by limonite, forming hard lenses
and strata, and ferruginous concretions and shaly fragments
are abundantly represented.” +
In his geological studies of Martha’s Vineyard and surround-
ing islands Professor Shaler recognizes these ferruginous con-
cretions and concerning them he says: “On the Island of
Chappaquiddick and in the region near Edgartown, occasional
fragments of a ferruginous sandstone are found which closely
resemble in their general character the materials containing
the Cretaceous fossils, but as they offer no organic remains I
hesitate to consider them of that age.” t+
Dr. Hollick considered these concretions as lithologically
identical with those contaming Cretacic molluscs and plants
and set out to make a collection of organic remains that would
* The investigations on which this paper is based were carried on in the
Paleontological Laboratory of Columbia University and the types of these
species are in the university collection.
+ Bull. N. Y. Botanical Garden, vol. ii, No. 7, p. 399.
tN. S. Shaler, 7th Ann. Report U. S. G.S., p. 3826:
230 T. C. Brown—Ffauna from Chappaquiddick Island.
substantiate the point. “A systematic exploration of all expo-
sures was therefore prosecuted ; hundreds of the concretions
and shaly fragments were broken open and critically examined
and the result was a collection, not only of molluses but also of
plant remains, a few of which were found sufficiently well pre-
served for identification.’’*
Upon his return Dr. Hollick submitted the molluses to
Professor K. P. Whitfield of the American Museum of Natural
History for a hasty examination, and concerning them Pro-
fessor Whitfield spoke thus: “ I have examined the fossils you
sent the other day but I cannot satisfy myself as to their age.
They consist of a JModzola, which apparently does not differ
from our common AZ, plicatula, of the harbor here ; an Anomia
which might pass for A. gigantarva of the lower greensand
marls of New Jersey, if it were not for the Modzola; also a
single imperfect internal cast of a small (young?) Pectunculus
not enough of it to tell the species, and a small bivalve of
which I cannot yet determine the genus. These are the onl
shells I can recognize, and from their evidence I should think
the rocks could hardly prove to be Cretaceous.” +
These fossils were also submitted to Professor Grabau of
Columbia University for examination. ‘ Mr. Grabau is of the
opinion that they may represent a new fauna, of more recent
age than the Cretaceous, and this is quite consistent with the
conditions under which they occur, so far to the south of any
recognized Cretaceous outcrop. ‘The character of the matrix
also, with a single exception, is notably different from that in
which undoubted Cretaceous molluscs have been found else-
where, being a micaceous sandstone instead of a hardened clay
or greensand.” +
A careful study and detailed comparison of these fossils
with descriptions, figures, and specimens of the Cretacic and
Eocene species shows that these fossils represent a new fauna
of Eocene age. This fauna, however, differs widely from that
of the Eocene deposits of the South Atlantic coast and seems
to be more closely allied in general to the Eocene of England.
Some of the specimens are very well preserved, while others
are only represented by external and internal molds. Many of
these molds are of such a nature and so well preserved that a
wax impression can easily be taken and the characters of the
fossil observed and compared. The following descriptions and
comparisons include the best preserved and most typical speci-
mens. Some of these are not perfect enough to be described
as new species, but most of them can be generically placed.
* Bull. New York Botanical Garden, vol. ii, No. 7, pp. 399-400.
+ Bull. N. Y. Botanical Garden, vol. ii, No. 7, p. 400.
t Ibid., p. 401.
T. C. Brown—Fauna trom Chappaquiddick Island. 231
Modiola vineyardensis sp.n. Pl. I, fig. 1.
Shell strongly ventricose, with a very prominent, almost
angular umbonal ridge extending from the beak to the ventral
margin. Shell distinctly concave anterior to this ridge; pos-
terior to this ridge it becomes flattened toward the posterior
margin ; anterior end extremely short barely extending beyond
the beak ; posterior margin angulate, front margin nearly
straight only a slight emargination occurring, basal end
rounded ; the portion of the margin from the end of the hinge
line to near the point of angulation, and from beyond the point
of angulation to the ventral margin, are almost straight lines.
Surface with pronounced raised radii, flattened at the top and
separated by spaces equal to or slightly wider than the radii ;
the radii are very fine and crowded on the anterior portion of
the shell, much coarser on the median and posterior region,
and distinct from the beak to the margin. They increase in
size progressively from the dorsal to the ventral portion of the
shell, with a corresponding increase in the width of the inter-
spaces. They increase in number by intercalation as well as
bifureation. Fine distinct growth lines cross and cancellate
the radii.
This species resembles J/. alabamensis Aldrich,* from the
Eocene of Maryland, but differs from it in general outline. It
has a less curved anterior border and more radu, which are very
distinct from the margin to the beak. The shell is shorter
antero-posteriorly, and the posterior margin is more obtusely
angulate. The shell of J/. vineyardensis is also more ventri-
cose and the umbonal ridge more angular and more pro-
nounced. |
In general outline this species approaches more nearly J/.
grammatus Dall,t from the Oligocene of Florida. The sur-
face ornamentation is very similar, but judging from Dall’s
figure his shell is less ventricose and thé umbonal ridge less
angular and less distinct.
But even closer than to any of these is the resemblance of
this species to I. elegans Sowerbyt from the Eocene of Eng-
land as figured and described by Wood among the Eocene
bivalves. In general outline and surface ornamentation the
resemblance is very close. JZ. elegans is, however, slightly
less angulate at the postero-dorsal margin and judging from
the figures is less ventricose.
Compared with the modern J. plicatula Lamarck, living
along the Atlantic coast, J/. vineyardensis seems to be nar-
* Bull. of Am. Palaeont., vol. i, p. 68, pl. v, fig. 18.
+ Trans. Wagner Free Institute of Sci., vol. iii, pt. 4, p. 794, pl. xxx, fig. 2.
¢ Paleontological Soc. Monographs, London 1861-71. Eocene Bivalves,
p. 60, pl. xii, fig. 5 (c).
232 T. C. Brown—Ffauna from Chappaquiddick Island.
rower toward the ventral portion of the shell, while the pos-
tero-ventral margin is more nearly a straight line and the radii
are more numerous and finer and proportionately more widely
separated. In JL. vineyardensis and M. plicatula the mode
of increase in the number of the radii by occasional intereala-
tion and bifurcation is very similar. In J. plicatula the
umbonal ridge is less angulate and less pronounced.
The shell described is a left valve with the following meas-
urements: length 32°5™™, width 14™™. Several small specimens
of this same species occur in other fragments of the conere-
tions, as well as imprints of these shells. These smaller speci-
mens correspond exactly with the growth lines of the younger
stages in the larger individuals.
Modiola vineyardensis mut. inornata.
This mutation is very similar to the type of the species
described above, except that the radii are very faintly marked.
Fine, distinct, concentric growth lines mark the surface. Dis-
tinct radii can be seen on the anterior and umbonal region of
the shell. These radii are flattened on top and separated by
very narrow impressed lines. They fade out as they pass away
from the umbonal and completely disappear on the ventral
portion of the shell.
This mutation is represented in the collection by a compara-
tively small left valve.
Modiola Hollicki sp.n. Pl. VIII, fig. 2.
Shell ventricose, with a prominent umbonal ridge extending
from the beak to the ventral margin; shell sloping abruptly to
the anterior margin and becoming flat in the postero-dorsal
part; anterior end rather short; anterior end rounded, front -
margin slightly arcuate, ventral margin broadly arcuate,
rounded, postero-dorsal margin obtusely angulate; cardinal
line straight; surface without ornamentation except for rather
faint concentric lines of growth.
In general outline this species somewhat resembles J/.
Mitchelli Morris,* from the Eocene of England. It has a more
obtuse postero-dorsal angle and is slightly narrower, with a
slightly arcuate anterior margin instead of being emarginate
as In that form.
Represented in the collection by two specimens, one nearly
perfect left valve (fig. 2) and a valve lacking the beak and
hinge area. These occur together with the Corbulas (see be-
low) in a fine-grained hard ferruginous lutyte concretion quite
different in character from the micaceous sandstone concretions
in which all the other fossils are found.
* Palaeontological Society Monographs (see above), p. 68, pl. xiii, fig. 10.
T. C. Brown—Fauna from Chappaquiddick Island. 233
Corbula Whitfieldi sp.n. Pl. VIII, fig. 3.
Shell large for the genus, ventricose and subtriangular ; beak
high and incurved ; anterior margin sharply rounded, ventral
margin broadly arcuate in the median and anterior portions
but sinuously emarginate posteriorly ; the posterior end of the
shell is narrow, produced and abruptly truncated. Surface
marked by distinct concentric asymmetrical folds or concentric
wrinkles which are broadly rounded on top, with the dorsal
border slightly broader and not as abruptly sloping as the
ventral border. The folds are separated by narrow channeled
interspaces. These folds constitute a surface ornamentation,
and not lines of growth, asis shown by the fact that they
increase in number by intercalation, some folds extending from
the anterior to the median portion of the shell, while others
extend almost to the posterior end. The principal folds extend
to the posterior end and are there sharply tlexed. These folds
are well defined on the ventral half of the shell and become
finer and more crowded on the umbones and almost disappear
at the beaks.
This species approaches very closely in general outline and
surface ornamentation to C. alaeformis* Gabb, trom the
Tejon formation of California, but is less than one-half as
large. The concentric folds become finer and more crowded
on the umbonal region in the specimen from Chappaquiddick
than in that figured by Gabb.
This species also somewhat resembles C. swhengonatat Dall,
from the Eocene of Maryland and Virginia, but differs from
that species in being narrower anteriorly and more produced
posteriorly, and in the absence of a subcarinate ridge extending
from the umbo to the posterior margin. The concentric folds
are also more crowded and less prominent on the umbonal
region.
The material in hand represents a right and a left valve.
These specimens occur in a very fine-grained hard ferruginous
lutyte concretion, quite different in character from the material
in which most of the other fossils are found.
Anomia simplexiformis sp.n. PI. VIII, fig. 10, 11.
Shell subovate and prolonged in the region of the beak ; left
valve very globose, nearly equilateral, “somewhat irregular ;
beak located in median dorsal portion of the shell, submarginal,
slightly projecting and incurved; surface without plications
or ornamentation, except possibly very faint indications of
concentric lines of growth.
* Palaeontology of California, vol. ii, p. 177, pl. xxix, fig. 638.
+ Md. Geol. Sur., Eocene, p. 163, pl. xxxii, figs. 1, la, 2, 2a, 2b.
Am. Jour. Scit.—Fourts SERIES, Vou. XX, No. 117.—SEPTEMBER, 1905.
16
234 7. C. Brown—Fauna from Chappaquiddick Island.
A portion of a right valve, probably of this species, is present
in a fragment of the ferruginous coneretion (fig. 11). It is
very much flattened, more or less irregular, with large byssal
opening and indications of very faint concentric growth lines.
This species is represented by several complete or nearly
complete left valves, varying greatly in size, the length ranging
from ten to thirty millimeters. It resembles very closely the
modern A. semplex from the shores of Long Island. It has
the same general outline and shape, and approaches that species
in size and in the absence of surface plications and other orna-
mentations.
Anomia paucistriata sp.n. Pl. VIII, fig. 12.
Shell subcircular, somewhat irregular; left valve convex,
nearly equilateral; beak submarginal, dorso-medially placed
and not pronounced ; surface marked by a few faint radiating
striations, crossed and cancellated by very fine concentric lines
of growth.
This species is smaller than the preceding, averaging in
length about ten to twelve millimeters. It is represented by
several left valves. Right valve unknown. .
Glycymeris sp. ?.. Pl. VIII, fig. 138.
Represented by several internal molds not preserving char-
acters sufficient for specific description. The figure shows the
internal characters of the shell and is drawn from a wax im-
print made from a mold. |
This species is smaller and more ovate in form than G.
idoneus Conrad, from the Nanjemoy and Aquia formations of
Maryland. In size, form and general appearance it resembles
more closely Glycymeris (Pectunculus) decussatus Sowerby,
from the Eocene of England.
Nucula sp. ?.
Represented by a few small internal molds. In one at least
the dental characters are very well preserved. In general out-
line these resemble very closely VV. potomacensis Clark, from
the Eocene of Maryland, but do not preserve sufiicient charac-
ters for specific identification or description.
Turritella sp. ?. Pl. VIII, fig. 4.
Shell small, spire high, angle about twenty-five degrees
each whorl marked by a distinct, well-defined anterior and
less prominent posterior spiral carinate ridge, following around
above and below the suture, otherwise the surface is smooth
and free from ornamentation ; suture distinct; whorls closely
placed and rapidly increasing in size.
T. C. Brown—Fauna From Chappaquiddick Islund. 235
This species resembles very closely a Turritella not specifi-
eally identified from the Eocene of Whellock, Texas, in the
University collection. The Whellock specimen is larger but
has the same apical angle, is free from ornamentation and has
the anterior and posterior carinate ridges present but faintly
marked.
This description is based on a wax imprint made from a very
perfectly preserved external mold in a red micaceous sandstone
eoneretion. The full length of the shell is not represented, so
that the number of whorls and dimensions cannot be given.
There are no characters of aperture and lips apparent.
Terebra sp. ?. Pl. VIII, fig. 5.
Shell elongate, spire elevated, whorls closely placed, rapidly
enlarging, flat on the outer surface between suture, free from
ornamentation or with very faint revolving lines, aperture
elongate elliptical, pointed anteriorly, rounded posteriorly ;
outer lip thin and broadly arcuate, inner lip smooth without
eallus or ridge. |
The specimen figured occurs on the edge of a small fragment
of rock. The apex is concealed in the matrix and the anterior
end of the aperture is slightly injured so that it does not show
the minute characters.
Terebra juvenicostata sp.n. Pl. VIII, fig. 6.
Shell small and slender, spire elevated ; apex pointed, acute
with an apical angle starting at about thirty degrees and
decreasing toward the body whor] where the sides of the spire
approach to parallelism; the whorls are closely placed and
flattened between the sutures. There are distinct ribbings on
the earlier whorls which become less distinct along the advanc-
ing spire and disappear on the body whorl. :
Odostomia semicostata sp. n. Pl. VIII, fig. 7. -
Shell small, consisting of six or seven volutions, spire ele-
vated, apical angle thirty degrees; sutures very pronounced ;
volutions flattened convex between sutures; earliest whorls
marked by distinct transverse plications or ribs which become
almost or quite obsolete on body whorl; outer lip distinctly
denticulate within.
The aperture and columella of this specimen is not fully
preserved so it cannot be accurately described. Length of
shell as preserved 9°5™™.
Odostomia crenulata sp.n. Pl. VIII, fig. 8.
Shell very small, spire high and closely coiled, apex sub-
acute, whorls flattened externally, faintly crenulate along the
posterior margin, suture distinct, aperture and lips unknown.
236 7. C. Brown—Launa from Chappaquiddick Island.
Genus? sp.? Pl. VIII, fig. 9.
Shell small, loosely coiled, apex acute, whorls five or six,
well rounded, rapidly increasing in size, smooth without any
ornamentation: suture quite deep and distinct, character of
aperture and lips unknown.
This species is very similar to a Lemnaea in shape but ean
hardly be one of these as it appears to be a salt water form.
Represented in the collection by a small but very perfect
external mold of which a wax impression was taken.
Ostrea sp.? |
Several small internal molds of representatives of this genus
are present among the fragments of the concretion. These are
not sufficiently well outlined to be specifically determined.
They seem to represent at least two or three different species
and all are comparatively very small.
Cardium? sp.?
Several casts doubtfully referred to this genus are to be
found among the fragments of concretion collected by Dr.
Hollick.
These fossils represent a new and distinct fauna markedly
different from that of any other Eocene deposits of this
country. Since this fauna does not contain a single species in
common with the Eocene faunas of the Atlantic slope and
gulf deposits, it cannot be accurately correlated with these
beds and assigned its proper place in the geologic scale.
Nevertheless from the general characteristics of the contained
species and their affinities to forms from widely distant prov-
inces, the horizon of these deposits can be ascertained with
some approximation to the truth.
Considering the marine Eocene deposits of this country as a
whole, we find that they naturally fall into several provinces
lithologically quite distinct, and containing faunas with very
few species in common. In New Jersey there is a small and
isolated area known as the Shark River beds from their out-
crop along that river. According to Clark, these beds repre-
sent lower Eocene and rest conformably upon the Cretacic
below. By early writers they were considered a part of the
Cretacic, as there was no marked line of separation between
them and the underlying strata. The fossils, however, were
found to be of undoubted Eocene character, and although the
fauna was lacking in some of the most widely distributed
Eocene species, it still contained no characteristic Cretacic
forms.
These Shark River deposits were thought by Harris to rep-
resent a higher horizon than the Eocene deposits of Maryland
T. C. Brown—Fauna from Chappaquiddick Island. 237
and Virginia, and Dall, in his correlation tables of the North
American Tertiaries, has placed them in the Claibornian stage
or equivalent to upper Middle Eocene. The fossils of this
province differ so widely from those of the regions immedi-
ately to the south that correlation is very difficult, and even
now there is doubt as to the exact position of these beds.
A second province of the Eocene, generally known as the
Pamunkey formation from its typical development along the
Pamunkey River in Virginia, begins in Delaware and extends
across Maryland well into Virginia. Lithologically these
deposits have more similarities to those of the provinces to the
south than to the Shark River beds of New Jersey, yet they
are sufficiently distinct both lithologically and in their con-
tained fauna to require complete separation. According to
Clark these deposits “ constitute a single geological unit.”
A third province embraces the Eocene deposits of the Caro-
linas and Georgia and affords a far more complete series of
Eocene strata than either of the more northern areas. The
lower beds consist of arenaceous and conglomeratic deposits,
rather sparingly fossiliferous, probably because the material by
its very nature was not adapted to permit the preservation of
fossils. The middle and upper beds are well developed and
represented by limestones and marls containing an extensive
fauna, yet quite distinct from the surrounding provinces.
A fourth, the Gulf provinee, is by far the most extensive of
the Eocene areas. It extends from Florida to Texas and
includes the so-called Mississippian embayment, an area extend-
ing well up into the Mississippi basin. All stages of the
Eocene are nore fully represented, but both lithologically and
paleontologically this province is very distinct from those
along the Atlantic coast. Peculiar conditions in this area
resulted in the interbedding among the other deposits of many
lignitic strata.
A fifth marine Eocene province occurs along the Pacific
coast, and outcrops along the coastal range in California, Ore-
gon and Washington. These deposits are generally known as
the Tejon group and were originally referred to the Cretacic.
Later study has shown them to be of Eocene age, and yet their
fauna differs widely from those of the Atlantic and Gulf
provinces.
The fauna from Chappaquiddick represents a new and dis-
tinct Eocene province, differing from all the other provinces
but no more widely different from these than they are from
one another. Although in this fauna there are several species
somewhat resembling those of the provinces to the south, on
the whole it would seem to be more closely allied to the
Eocene of England. The genera most abundantly represented
238 7. C. Brown—FHauna from Chappaquiddick Island.
in these Chappaquiddick deposits, e. g., odiola, Glycymeris,
are also among the most abundant in the English deposits.
These same genera, although represented in the Atlantic and
Gulf provinces, are there more sparsely distributed and occur
with other more abundantly represented genera that appear to
be altogether wanting in the Chappaquiddick deposits.
A comparison of this Chappaquiddick fauna with other
Eocene faunas indicates that it is of lower EKocene age, the
species most closely resembling those found in this fauna being
found in the lower beds of the Atlantic and Gulf provinces,
the Tejon of California and the lower beds of England. These
deposits may possibly be of the same age as the Shark River
beds of New Jersey, but being deposited in a region separated
from this have no forms in common with it, but such correla-
tion could be only conjecture. As the cor relation of the well’
known Eocene deposits is even yet very uncertain, it is unnec-
essary and impossible to place these beds any more definitely
than simply to say they are lower Eocene.
Columbia University, New York City.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE VIII.
HicuReE 1.—Modiola vineyardensis 2.222252 — 228 2 p. 282 >
PIgurRE(2:——Modiola hollickt \ {evs 2 eee eee p. 202
FIGURE 3.—Oorbula Wiihacks WTA ek SE A ALS ana p. 233
Fiaure 4,—Turritella a8 elias Cees SIES Gv eeu p. 234
FIGURE 0.7 erebra Spit eos -2 ee ee p. 289
FiGurRrE 6.—PLerebra juvenicostata 2s. 2522. one eee _ p. 235
FIGURE 7.—Odostomia semicostata .___...-..-.++-=.---2--- p. 2390
HicuRre 6:—Odostomia crenulata ee os ee ee ee p- 285
RicgurE: 9:— Genus? sp. ?.2oio Ses ee ee p. 236
FraurEs 10 and 11.—Anomia simplexiformis __.----------- p. 238
Fiagure 12.—Anomia POU ELES wikia SAU AG i Oe ery eh em p. 234
HiGuRE 13:—Glycymeris Sp.-2s a5 2s 2 ee eee ae p. 234
Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XX, 1905. Plate VIII.
Fie. 12, x 2.
- Boltwood—Production of Radium from Uranium. 239
Arr. XX VII.— The Production of Radium from Uranium ;
by Bertram B. Bottrwoop.
THE A orice that-radium is a disintegration product of
uranium has been greatly strengthened through the demonstra-
tion of the fact that in radio-active minerals the quantity of
radium is directly proportional to the quantity of uranium
present.* On the basis of the disintegration theory a propor-
tionality of this sort is to be expected between the parent
element and its radio-active successor.
Additional data on this highly important question are how-
ever desirable, and a single experiment likely to further eluci-
date the problem has been independently undertaken by a
number of different investigators. This experiment consists in
observations conducted on a carefully purified uranium salt
with a view to determining whether, with the lapse of time,
measurable quantities of radium will be produced within it.
If radium is a direct product of uranium through the inter-
mediate stage of uranium-X and if the average life of radium
is approximately 1,000 years, then it can readily be deduced
that, with the delicate methods of measurement at command,
the quantity of radium formed in a few hundred grams of
uranium salt will be readily detectable and measureable after
the lapse of a period no longer than a month. If, however,
one or more transition products of a relatively slow rate of
change intervene between the substance uranium-X and radium,
the production of radium will be so protracted that no quantity
of it sufficiently great to permit its detection will be formed
within a greatly extended period.
The difficulties involved in the experimental demonstration
of the growth of radium do not appear to be great. Uranium
forms no radio-active, gaseous disintegration product, while the
radium emanation affords a most convenient means of quanti-
tatively estimating any radium which may be present. A
solution of a carefully purified uranium salt can therefore be
prepared and can be tested at intervals for radium emanation.
If radium is formed from the uranium its existence will be
indicated by the presence of radium emanation in the uranium
solution.
Three papers in which an experiment of this character is
described have been published by Mr. Soddy.t In the first
* Boltwood, Phil. Mag. (6), ix, 599; Strutt, Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond., Ixxvi,
88 ; McCoy, Berichte d. deutsch. chem. Ges., xxxvii, 2641.
f ‘The Life-history of Radium,” Nature, Ixx, a0; seo the Gren of
Radium,” Nature, lxxi, 294; “The Production of Radium from Uranium,”
Phil. Mag. (6), ix, 768. Mr. ’Whetham has also published two contributions
on the same general topic (Nature, 1xx, 5; ibid., Ixxi, 319) in which he states
240 Boltwood—Production of Radium from Uranium.
paper, published May 12, 1904, very scanty details of the
experimental procedure are given, but a summary of the con-
clusions reached at that time by the author is as follows:
1. The quantity of radium which has accumulated in one
kilogram of uranium nitrate in twelve months is less than 107"
gram.
2. The question so far as the production of radium from
uranium is concerned is practically settled.
3. If uranium changes into radium, less than one ten-thou-
sandth part of the theoretical quantity is produced during the
first year’s accumulation.
4, The evidence may be taken as indicating that uranium is
not the parent element of radium.
The second paper, published Jan. 26, 1905, eighteen months
from the commencement of the experiment, is likewise lacking
in a detailed account of the experimental methods, but the
author states that measurements carried out at that time with
the kilogram of uranium nitrate under observation indicate
that it contains 15x<10~° gram of radium, a quantity which,
while of considerable relative magnitude, is only one five-hun-
dredth of the amount to be expected from the disintegration
theory on the assumption of a direct change. The author
suggests that the greater part of the radium emanation may
(under the conditions of the experiment) be retained in the
uranium solution and not evolved as a gas. On the basis of
tbe amount of radium assumed to be then present it is deduced
that the fraction of uranium changing per year is 2107".
After pointing out certain sources of error likely to have
exercised a disturbing influence during the elapsed period of ©
observation, the author adds,—“‘if the whole series of meas-
urements from the commencement are recalculated, eliminat-
ing the error alluded to, they are fairly consistent with there
having been a steady production of radium at this rate contin-
uously from the commencement.” One of the sources of
error alluded to was the introduction of very considerable
quantities of radium salts into the laboratory during the
period when the kilogram of uranium nitrate was under obser-
vation. It is stated that the presence of this radium greatly
disturbed the electroscope in which the measurements were
conducted. Additional difficulty had been previously experi-
enced in attempting to standardize the measuring instrument
with the emanation corresponding to a known weight of pure
radium salt.
that he also believes that he has observed indications of the growth of
radium in uranium compounds. Since Whetham’s communications contain
neither any account of experimental details nor any record of quantitative
measurements, it is impossible to judge as’ to the value of the data on which
the author’s conclusion is based.
Boltwood—Production of Radium from Uranium. 241
The third and more elaborate article by the same author
appeared in the June number of the Philosophical Magazine.
The data briefly given in the earlier articles are here treated
at greater length and a closer insight can be gained of the
experimental methods and the results on which the author’s
later conclusions are based. Although it is stated in this paper
that observations had been taken occasionally over a period of
eighteen months and that these observations indicated a grad-
wal growth of the emanating power of the uranium solution,
the only definite and directly comparable numbers are restricted
to a total period of about three weeks (Dec. 17, 1904 to Jan.
9, 1905) and include only four measurements conducted at the
close of the period of observation.
Without entering into a discussion of various minor details
in Mr. Soddy’s papers, it is desired to call particular attention
to the followmg important considerations in relation to the
experimental data submitted :
First. No conclusive evidence is brought forward to show
definitely how much or how little radium was present in the
uranium solution at the commencement of the experiment.*
Second. It appears extremely possible that the increase in
the content of radium which Mr. Soddy believes he has observed
in his uranium solution may in fact have been due to the acci-
dental and unconscious introduction of radium salts during the
tests conducted at the end of the twelve months period.
According to his own statements these tests were carried out
in a laboratory notably contaminated with various radio-active
products, and the accidental introduction of the sub-micro-
scopic quantity of material (1-6 x10~° gram.) which was after-
wards detected would account for the later positive results.
The liability of contamination from an extraneous source is
strongly suggested by the behavior of Mr. Soddy’s electro-
scope, In which the normal air leak has risen from 0:048 divi-
sion per minute to 1°56 division per minute, an increase of
over thirty times, during the period covered by his experi-
ments.
The conditions essential to the elucidation of the question of
the actual production of radium in uranium compounds would
seem to be:
* The writer of the present paper convinced himself at the beginning of
his own experiments that the method of procedure followed by Mr. Soddy
in testing his solations for radium emanation is entirely unsuited for the
determination in question. A concentrated solution of incompletely puri-
fied uranium nitrate containing traces of radium gave up only a fraction of
the total radium emanation generated within it when the solution was
allowed to stand for days in contact with a small air space and air was
bubbled through it. It was speedily found that only by boiling the solution
vigorously for about fifteen minutes could the total emanation present be
positively separated.
242 Boltwood—Production of Radium from Uranium.
(a) The employment of a method for the determination of
radium which gives positive and quantitative results. The
method must be suitable for the determination of very small
quantities of radium and must be capable of indicating the
maximum quantity present at all times.
(6) The preparation of a pure compound of uranium and the
demonstration that-the compound is initially free from radium.
(c) Proper conditions for testing and preserving the uranium
salt in order to preclude the introduction of radium or radium
emanation from external sources, so that if the presence of
radium is noted it can be assumed with certainty that the
radium found has actually been formed in the solution.
It would appear that none of these essential conditions has
been fulfilled in the experiment described by Mr. Soddy.
The writer of the present paper has been conducting an
experiment on the growth of radium in a uranium solution for
the past thirteen months. The conditions of the experiment
were the following: In May, 1904, a kilogram of “ purest
uranium nitrate”? was purchased from Eimer & Amend of
New York City. This material was tested qualitatively for
radium (through the emanation) and readily detectable quanti-
ties of this element were found to be present. The salt was
dissolved in distilled water and the solution was filtered. The
compound was then recrystallized five separate times, the con-
ditions being so chosen that the separate crystals of each of the
different crops were not over two millimeters in cross-section.
The mother lquors were each time removed from the crystals
on a suction filter, and the crystals were washed with a small
quantity of ice-cold water.
The final yield of purified material was a little in excess of
200 grams. Of this 100 grams were taken and dissolved in
pure, distilled water. This solution was introduced into a
glass bulb with a capacity of approximately 400°, diluted to
about 250°, and the neck of the bulb was drawn out into a
short capillary and sealed in the flame of the blowpipe. The
solution was sealed up on July 8, 1904. Thirty days later the
bulb was opened under conditions which precluded the escape
of any portion of the contained gases and the entire gaseous
contents were removed and transferred to an electroscope. In
order to completely displace the dissolved gases and any radium
emanation which might have been present the solution was
boiled vigorously for about fifteen minutes.*
*The removal and collection ‘of the gaseous contents of the bulb was
accomplished by the use of the apparatus which has been described in a
previous paper (this Journal, xviii, 379). The neck of the bulb containing
the uranium solution having been first notched with a file, it was inserted
in the rubber tube D, the point was broken off within the tube, and the
gases displaced from the bulb on heating were collected in the burette D,
which was filled at the start with boiling water.
Bolitwood— Production of Radium from Uranium. 248
The type of electroscope used in this investigation has
already been described (this Journal, xviii, 97). The ema-
nation from the radium associated with 0°1 gram of uranium
in a radio-active mineral caused a leak of approximately 21
divisions per minute. Assuming that the 100 grams of uranium
nitrate contained 48 grams of uranium, the leak correspond-
ing to the quantity of radium in radio-active equilibrium with
48 grams of uranium would be approximately 10,000 divisions
per minute. The normal air leak of the instrument was 0-012
division per minute, and an increase of 0°005 division per
minute could have been detected with certainty. The electro-
scope was therefore capable of indicating the presence of a
quantity of radium equal to 5x10~ of the equilibrinm quan-
tity. The actual quantity of radium equivalent to a leak of
0-005 division per minute was 1°7<10~" gram.*
On introducing the gases present} in the uranium solution
into the electroscope no wncrease in the leak of the mstrument
could be detected although the observations were continued
over a period of eight hours. The quantity of radium present
at the start was therefore less than 1-710" gram.
The uranium solution in the bulb was allowed to cool, and
the neck of the bulb was again sealed. At the end of six
months trom the start, in January, 1905, the uranium solution
was again tested under conditions identical with those under
which the first test was carried out. Entirely negative results
were obtained and the quantity of radium then in the solution
was still less than 1-7x10~-" gram. A similar test was con-
ducted on August 2, 1905, 390 days from the commencement,
and no evidence of the presence of radium emanation was
even then obtained. It can therefore be positively stated on
the basis of sound experimental data that in 390 days the
quantity of radium formed from 48 grams of uranium in a
uranium nitrate solution is iess than 1-°7X10~" gram.
The quantity of radium which can have been produced in
the given time is therefore less than one two-millionth of the
equilibrium quantity and less than one sixteen-hundredth of
the quantity which would be expected from the disintegration
theory if the value of X for radium is taken as 8°8x107*
(year)”.t The quantity is furthermore only about one-tenth
of the quantity assumed by Mr. Soddy to have been formed
from an equal quantity of uranium in his solution during an
interval of eighteen months.
It is important to add that the whole series of measurements
has been conducted in a laboratory which has been carefully
* Rutherford and Boltwood, this Journal, xx, 55.
+ At the end of the 30-day period.
¢ Rutherford, Trans. Roy. Soc. London, (A) eciv, 215.
244 Boltwood—Production of Radium from Uranium.
protected from contamination by the salts of radium or other
radio-active substances, and that the electroscope used has been
reserved for this particular research, its original normal air-
leak having remained unaltered throughout the entire period.
It has therefore been unnecessary to introduce any corrections
or to make any allowances for possible errors due to known
causes of any description.
The experiments described in this paper are considered to
indicate that the results obtained by Mr. Soddy are without
significance and that one or more products of a slow rate of
change intervene between uranium and radium.
It is claimed, moreover, that the conclusions in Mr. Soddy’s
first paper, so far as they relate to the dvrect transformation of
uranium into radium, are more truly in accord with the actual
facts than are those contained in his later publications.
139 Orange street, New Haven, Conn.
August, 1905.
Geology. 245
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
;
Il. GroLoey.
1. Heplorations in Turkestan with an account of The Basin
of Eastern Persia and Sistan. Hapedition of 1903, under the
direetion of RAPHAEL PUMPELLY. 4to, 324 pp., 6 pls., 174 figs in
text. Washington, D.C. (Published by the Carnegie Institu-
tion of Washington. Publication No. 26. April 1905.)—This
publication contains the following five papers: Archeological and
Physico-Geographical Reconnaissance in Turkestan by Raphael
Pumpelly ; A Journey across Turkestan by William M. Davis;
Physiographic Observations between the Syr Darya and Lake
Kara Kul, on the Pamir, 1902, by Raphael W. Pumpelly; A
Geologic and Physiographic Reconnaissance in Central Turkes-
tan, by Ellsworth Huntington; The Basin of Eastern Persian
and Sistan, by Ellsworth Huntington.
Professor Pumpelly states in the introduction that “At the
end of 1902 the Carnegie Institution voted a grant to me
‘for the purpose of making, during the year 1903, prelimi-
nary examination of the Trans-Caspian region, and of collecting
and arranging all available existing information necessary in
organizing the further investigation of the past and present
physico-geographical conditions and archeological remains of the
region.’
“The investigation was proposed because (1) there is a school
that still holds the belief that central Asia is the region in which
the great civilizations of the far East and of the West had
their origins ; and (2) because of the supposed occurrence in that
region, in prehistoric times, of great changes in climate, result-
ing in the formation and recession of an extensive Asian Medi-
terranean, of which the Aral, Caspian, and Black seas are the
principal remnants.
“it had long seemed to me that a study of Central Asian arche-
ology would probably yield important evidence in the genealogy
of the great civilizations and of several, at least, of the dominant
races, and that a parallel study of the traces of physical changes
during Quaternary time might show some coincidence between
the phases of social evolution and the changes in environment ;
further, that it might be possible to correlate the physical and
human records and thus furnish a contribution to the time scale
of recent geology.
“ At my request Professor William M. Davis assumed charge
of the physico-geographical part of the preliminary reconnais-
sance.”
In concluding he remarks that “We have shown that the
recent physical history of the region is legibly recorded in glacial
sculpture and moraines, in orogenic movements, in valley cutting
and terracing, in lake expansions, and in the building up of the
246 Scientific Intelligence.
plains, and we have made some progress in correlating these
events.
“We have also found full confirmation of the statements as to
a progressive desiccation of the region of long standing, which
has from a remote period continually converted cultivable lands |
into deserts and buried cities in sands.
‘We have found, widely distributed, great and small aban-
doned sites of human occupation, with evidences of great
antiquity.
“We have reason to think that a correlation of these physical!
and human events may be obtained through a continuance of the
investigation, and that archeological excavations will throw light
on the origin of Western and EKastern civilization.”
In the second article Professor Davis describes his observations
upon the Caspian region with its abandoned shore lines up to 600
feet above the present water-level, and the traces of the Pliocene
sea whose deposits, as the Russian geologists have shown, under-
lie the plains of southern Turkestan. He says of the Piedmont
plains that: “Since the withdrawal of the Pliocene sea, the eastern
and southern borders of the plains of southern Turkestan appear
to have been aggraded by the rivers that flow out upon them
from the mountains. That a certain measure of such construc- -
tive action has taken place is announced by the Russian geolo-
gists, but itis not apparent that the full measure of river action
has been recognized. Some of the strata of the plains are said
to be not fluviatile but lacustrine, because they are. of fine texture
and uniform structure, without the variable layers of gravel that
are by implication supposed to be always indicative of river
work; but this seems to be a simpler solution than the problem
deserves. ‘There are many rivers that do not carry gravel, and
there are many river plains whose smooth surface must receive
very even and uniform deposits of flood-laid silts over large
areas. Records of boring are quoted by Walther which show
river muds on sand and loess to a depth of nearly 50 meters
beneath the bed of the Amu River at Charjui, where the
great railroad bridge was built. The record of a well boring
at Askhabad, quoted by the same author, shows variable pied-
mont deposits over 2,000 feet deep. It seems, indeed, as if we
had in the plains of Turkestan and the Great Plains of our
West one of the most striking of the many physiographic resem-
blances between Eurasia and North America; and that there as
well as here an increasing share may be given to the action of
agerading rivers in forming the plains, as observations are
extended. It is well known that the tide of geological opinion
in this country has in recent years turned more and more toward
a fluviatile origin for the strata of the Great Plains that slope
eastward from the Rocky Mountains, and the traditional lacus-
trine origin of the plains strata has been repeatedly questioned ;
sO we may expect, as closer attention is given to the details of
river-laid formations, that a larger and larger share of the fresh-
Geology. 24:7
water strata that slope westward from the mountains of Central
Asia may be interpreted as fluviatile rather than as lacustrine.”
“The irregular structure of the piedmont slope, as exposed in
cuts along the railroad line, is well described by Walther. There
is a frequent and irregular alteration of stratified or massive
loess-like clay, finely stratified sands, and coarse gravel, with
many local unconformities; all this being the result of the varia-
ble action of floods that sweep suddenly, unguided by channels,
down the piedmont slope; now eroding, now depositing; here
sweeping along coarse blocks, there depositing fine silts. Ten
miles south of Askhabad, where the railroad station is 819 feet
altitude, we saw, when returning by the Meshed road from an
excursion in the Kopet Dagh, more abundant piedmont deposits
of mountain-waste dissected to depths of several hundred feet.
A great thickness of these deposits has been penetrated by the
artesian boring in the suburbs of Askhabad, already mentioned,
2000 feet deep, and therefore with more than half its depth
below sea level, but without securing a water supply. The
whole depth, as shown in the record quoted by Walther, is in
variable layers of clay, sand, and gravel, similar to the deposits
seen in the barrow-pits near the railroad embankments, or in the
natural sections; and all of this heavy deposit is therefore best
explained by conditions and processes like those of to-day during
persistent depression of the surface. The failure to secure a
water supply from this deep well is in itself very suggestive of
the irregular underground structures and of their torrential
origin.”
An excursion into the Kopet Dagh and the mountains of
Persia revealed abundant evidence of sub-recent terracing in the
valleys of a character to suggest a relative uplift of the heart of
the chain. The desert plains from Askhabad to Samarkand are
characterized by aggrading rivers. “The most notable feature
of this district was the absence of valleys. The rivers have
channels in which their waters are usually restrained, but there
were no valleys in which the river floods were limited. The
plains were open to overflow as far as flood supply held out. We
were told, however, that some distance upstream (to the south)
the Murg-ab has a flood-plain slightly depressed beneath the
plain. This we interpreted as meaning that the river had there
changed its habit from aggrading to degrading. On crossing
the Amu at Charjui we saw a low bluff on the north or right of
its course, although on the south the plain is not significantly
above the river.
“The general absence of valleys is a natural, indeed an essen
tial, feature of a fluviatile plain in process of aggradation by
flood deposits. It is peculiarly appropriate to rivers like the
Tejen and Murg-ab, which dwindle away and end on the plain,
so that every grain of sand and every particle of silt must be
laid down as the water volume lessens and disappears. The
absence of valleys would, on the other hand, be surprising in a
248 Scientific Intelligence.
lacustrine or a marine plain, for the reason that coincidence could
hardly be expected between the slope that might be given to
such a plain when it is laid bare and the slope that is satisfactory
to the graded rivers that run across it. It is not, however, as has
already been pointed out, always the case that fluviatile plains
have no valleys eroded beneath their general level. The river-
made plains of northern India are now commonly somewhat
trenched by their rivers. Our Great Plains, piedmont to the
Rocky Mountains, are likewise in process of dissection by their
rivers. The plains of Turkestan are therefore somewhat excep-
tional in this respect. As a result we had unfortunately no
opportunity of seeing sections of the plains in which the struc-
ture of the deposits could be examined. A well on the Ozar’s
estate at Bairam Ali, a modern village near Old Merv, where we
were most agreeably entertained by the superintendent. Mr.
Dubassof, was said to have shown nothing but ‘sand and loess.’
The desert and river deposits found by borings beneath the Amu
River beds at Charjui have already been noted. The inspection
of these vast plains of silt was very suggestive in connection
with the problematic origin of the fresh-water Tertiary forma-
tions of the western United States. Certainly no one who sees
the river-made area of the plains of Turkestan can doubt the
capacity of rivers to lay down extensive fine-textured deposits.”
In regard to the Tian Shan mountains Professor Davis states
that “ A number of the mountain ranges that we saw were of
vigorous form, with sharp peaks and deep-carved valleys, in
which it was impossible to recognize any trace of the original
unsculptured mass ; but certain observations made in the central
and northern ranges, near Lakes Son Kul and Issik Kul, and on
the steppes that border the mountains on the north, led to the
belief that the region had been very generally worn down to
moderate or small relief since the time of greater deformation,
which probably occurred in the Mesozoic age; that large areas of
subdued or extinguished mountain structures are still to be seen
in the low ranges and in the steppes north of the Ili River; and
that the present relief of many of the higher Tian Shan ranges
is the result of a somewhat disorderly uplift and of a more or
less complete dissection of dislocated parts of the worn-down
region. Mr. Huntington’s report shows the application of these
conclusions to a large part of the central and southern Tian
Shan.” The space devoted to a notice of so wide ranging a
report forbids further detailed mention of the numerous observa-
tions of the author upon river and glacial phenomena of the
valleys of the Tian Shan.
In the article by Mr. Pumpelly, an account is given of the
Kara Kul, a lake of bitter salt water, and its desert shores,
and also a good description of the moraines in the mountains.
Indications of two long-separated ice advances were noted
and signs of a feeble third. Variations of lake level and ice
advance are attributed to climatic control. Hviden-e is discussed
Geology. 249
to support the supposition that in early Pleistocene time the Alai
mountains wasted down until a detritus-covered piedmont plain
formed on the north of the range, whereupon a dislocation seems
to have occurred nearly parallel to the range and north of it with
sinking of the plains still farther north or with uplift of the
range. The relations of the river work to this change of altitude
are briefly explained.
In his article on central Turkestan Mr. Huntington gives a
summary of the geology and topographic development. Of the
Paleozoic series he states: “In Central Turkestan a single suc-
cession of strata is repeated again and again, with only slight
local modifications. The oldest observed formation is an ancient
white marble, shot through and through with intrusions of gran-
ite. It was noticed only in the Alai Mountains in the neighbor-
hood of Kok Su and Karategin. Its junction with the overlying
formation was not seen, but the contact presumably shows an
unconformity, as a conglomerate near the base of the covering
strata contains pebbles of the marble. The granite which is
intruded into the marble is of much later date, for it occurs
abundantly in the Paleozoic series in the ridges of the Tian Shan
plateau and along the north side of the Alai range. The main
body of the Paleozoic series is a great thickness of limestones,
many of them slaty, which are stated by Tchernachef to be of
‘Devonian and Carboniferous age. They are greatly folded and
have been penetrated not only by granite intrusions, but also by
some basaltic lavas, as may be seen, for instance, in the Sugun
Valley west of Shor Kul. The folding of the Paleozoic strata
is of the sort which is associated with mountain building, hence
at the end of the Paleozoic era or in the early part of the Meso-
zoic this part of Central Asia must have been highly mountain-
ous. In evidence of this it may be pointed out that the succeed-
ing unconformable conglomerates are so coarse that they could
only have been formed subaerially in a region of considerable
relief, and yet at the time of their deposition the old folds of
limestone and slate had already suffered great denudation. <As a
rule, the hard Paleozoic strata are found in the highlands, while
the softer Mesozoic and Tertiary strata occur in basins among
the highlands and mountains; but this seems due less to the
superior resistance of the older rocks than to the fact that they
were bent down where they are covered, and that the younger
strata were largely formed in the very basins which they now
occupy.”
“The conditions under which the Mesozoic-Tertiary series were
deposited seem to have been largely subaerial, or at least non-
marine. The coarse conglomerates at the base probably indicate
arid or semi-arid conditions in a region of considerable relief.
As relief grew less, or as the climate grew moister, the gravel of
the conglomerate gave place to sand, and that in turn to shale ;
in the latter are four or five coal seams. ‘The next period, that
of the vermilion beds, seems to have opened at a time of sub-
Am. Jour. Scr.—FourtH Series, Vou. XX, No. 117,—SEPTEMBER, 1905.
17
250 Seientific Intelligence.
aerial deposition when the conglomerates and the cross-bedded
sandstones were formed; but toward the end the encroachment
of the sea is indicated by the deposition of the marls and fossil-
iferous limestones. Elsewhere throughout the whole Mesozoic-
Tertiary series fossils seem to be wholly absent, although the
deposits are well fitted to preserve the remains of plants and
animals if any had existed ; but here the calcareous strata, which
show other evidences of being marine, contain fossils in abun-
dance. Above he limestones the strata are at first red, as though
the shallowing of the sea allowed the very highly weathered soil
of an old land mass to be washed farther and farther out into
the area of deposition. The succeeding formations, the pink and
brown sandstone and the brown conglomerate, show a nearer and
nearer approach to present conditions. It appears as though,
after the retirement of the sea, the land was covered with great
playas, on which water first stood in thin sheets, forming ripple-
marks in the mud, and then retired or was evaporated, allowing the
surface to become sun-cracked. As time went on streams began
to flow across the playas, at first slow and broad and able to cut
only shallow channels, which were afterwards filled and covered,
assuming the form of very thin lenses of a material slightly dif-
ferent from that of the surrounding playa strata. ‘Then, as the
strength of the streams increased, sand was deposited over the
whole area, and the channels, now deep and distinct, were filled
with gravel. Lastly, gravel was deposited almost everywhere.”
Central Turkestan exhibits a recently warped and elevated
peneplain the dissection of which is assumed to have begun in
the closing Tertiary, though the uplift is placed mainly in
Pleistocene time. Summit glaciers were found among the moun-
tains between Marghilan and Issik Kul. From his observations
upon the ancient moraines of these glaciers the author concludes
that: ‘‘ Wherever old moraines are well developed they indicate
that the glacial period is divisible into two or more subdivisions ;
and where the valleys are large and reach high enough still to
contain glaciers the number of these subdivisions is five, marked
by successive moraines, each of which is smaller and at a greater
altitude than its predecessor. ‘Two theories present themselves
as worthy of consideration in explanation of these facts. Accord-
ing to one there was but a single glacial advance and retreat.
The retreat was not accomplished uniformly or rapidly, but by
successive steps, after each of which there was a long pause that
gave opportunity for the accumulation of a moraine; thus five
moraines were formed by each glacier and those now in process
of deposition belong to the sixth step of the same long retreat.
According to the other theory, each moraine represents a distinct
‘glacial epoch, during which the glaciers first advanced and then
retreated. Under this theory the intervals of retreat were as
warm as or warmer than the present and the ice retreated far
into the mountains during each of them.
Geology. 251
“For fifteen out of the twenty-four glaciated valleys examined
the first theory is sufficient, but it will not explain the other
nine. In eight of these nine valleys one or more of the older
moraines lies upon a topography different from that of to-day, so
as to suggest that the moraines and the floor on which they rest
have been trenched by a valley of stream erosion. In this valley
lie the younger moraines, leaving the older moraines as terraces
which extend beyond the later moraines both up-valley and down-
valley ; the up-valley extension of the morainic terrace gives a
minimum measure of the retreat of the glacier during the inter-
glacial epoch. In the ninth valley a detached portion of an older
moraine lies far up-valley from its successor and even above the
main part of the modern moraine. These facts are to be ex-
plained only by supposing a glacial retreat and advance in each
interglacial epoch, and hence a warmer interglacial epoch between
colder glacial epochs. Another sort of evidence of a warmer
interglacial epoch is found where one moraine lies upon its prede-
cessor in an attitude which indicates that before the deposition
of the younger moraine the older one was first an area of erosion
and later of deposition. All these facts accord with the theory
of successive advances and retreats, and thus warrant the division
of the glacial period into several glacial and interglacial epochs.
In one place or another signs of an interglacial retreat are found.
between each successive pair of the four earlier moraines, while
the fifth moraine stands apart from the others, except at Kan Su,
where the time during which there is evidence of retreat may be
either between the third and fourth or fourth and fifth advances
of the ice. Everywhere the climate of the successive glacial
epochs seems to have grown less severe, and the duration of the
interglacial epochs seems to have diminished in the same ratio.”
A succession of terraces found in the valleys are regarded as
the result of a climatic change. The number of climatic swings
thus inferred agrees essentially with the series of cold epochs
based upon the occurrence and distribution of moraines. He
states: “‘ The essential point in our study of the recent geological
history of Turkestan is this: From three separate lines of rea-
soning, based on the allied yet distinct phenomena of glaciation,
terracing, and lake expansion, we arrive at the same conclusion,
namely, that during the Quaternary era there have been a num-
ber of colder or glacial epochs, five or more, separated by warmer
interglacial epochs when the climate was similar to that of to-day;
and further, that these epochs progressively decreased in length
and intensity.”
In the final article on the basin of eastern Persia and Sistan
Mr. Huntington discusses briefly the geology and in a more com-
plete way the physiography of this desert basin. In a summary
paragraph he states: “The facts set forth above, so far as they
warrant any conclusion, suggest that in Eastern Persia the lower
strata of the basins are generally greenish shales, which are now
exposed along the edges of the basins where they have been
252 Screntific Intelligence.
extensively warped and compressed. Above them occur reddish
silts containing more or less sand and gypsum and warped like
the underlying shales, although to a less extent. In certain
places toward the top of the series the red strata alternate with
green clays. Above all lie the deposits of silt and gravel which
are to-day accumulating. Although these different strata show
varying degrees of warping along the edges of the basins, it is
noticeable that toward the centers they approach the horizontal
position. It is probable that in the centers of many of the
basins an uninterrupted series of strata has been deposited from
the time of the post-Cretaceous uplift of the country until now.
At first a shallow sea or large lakes probably occupied the cen-
tral portions of Iran and allowed the deposition of the green
shales. ater, as the great basin was broken into smaller basins,
the larger bodies of water gave place to smaller ones, and these,
under the influence of a dry climate, gave place to playas or |
shallow salt lakes where the prevailing deposits were reddish
silts. Still the process of deepening the basins and decreasing
their area went on, with the result that the green shales were
more highly warped and the red deposits were also uplifted along
the borders of the basin and were exposed to erosion. Mean-
while the superficial deposits which now cover the plains were
laid down and the country assumed its present form. It is not
to be supposed that every basin has gone through exactly the
same process, or that a single process has everywhere taken place
at the same time. Accidents have intervened. At Zorabad the
damming of the Heri Rud formed a lake and greatly altered the
_ course of events. At Sistan, and probably elsewhere, a series of
lakes appears to have occupied the basin during the glacial
period. Nevertheless the general course of events was a gradual
progress from larger basins to smaller basins, and from sub-
aqueous to subaerial deposition.”
The report is well illustrated and its publication in this country
cannot but help correct the too great reluctance of American
geologists to depart, in their interpretation of the continental
deposits of western America, from the traditional invoking of
those processes which in the infancy of geology were the sole
known agencies of change because they are the controlling ones
in its birthplace. The English geologists in India and Persia
long ago pointed out the magnitude and characteristics of the
reproductive work of rivers, and of the changes going on in arid
regions; and Mr. Huntington well observes that the likeness of
the physical history in Central Asia and the western and south-
western portions of the United States is now and has been in the
course of geological time very striking both in product and
process. J. B. W.
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CONTENTS.
Page
Art. XX.—Development of Fenestella; by E. R. Cumines.
{With Plates V; VI, and VID)..2 2. 2 169
XXI.—Age of the Monument Creek Formation 5 we N. H.
DARTON 2225 0224 Ue ee ee 178
X XII.—Iodometric Determination of Aluminium in Alumin-
ium Chloride and Aluminium Sulphate; by 8S. E. Moopy 181
XXITI.—Secondary Origin of Certain Granites; by R. A.
DALY. 6 ae ee 185
XXIV.—Tychite, a New Mineral from Borax Lake, Califor-
nia, and on its Artificial Production and its Relations
to Northupite; by 8. L. Penrir=np and G. 8. Jamirson 217
XXV.—Modification of Victor Meyer’s Apparatus for the
Determination of Vapor-Densities; by B. J. Har- —
RINGTON [0201.5 2225 2 oS ee ee ee ee 225°
XXVI.—New Lower Tertiary Fauna from Chappaquiddick
Island, Martha’s Vineyard; by T. C. Brown. (With
Plate VID) 222 229
XX VII.--Production of Radium from Uranium; by B. B.
BottTwoop _ 2.0 sci. tes ee ee
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
Geology—Explorations in Turkestan with an account of The Basin of Eastern
Persia and Sistan. Expedition of 1903, under the direction of RAPHAEL
PUMPELLY, 240.
J
ok
a.
Bie
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“te
ey
a
Ain WY Uo FAUIN1,
Librarian U. S. Nat. Museum.
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[FOURTH SERIES. |]
Arr. XX VIII.—On the Ultimate Disintegration Products of
the Radio-active Klements; by Bertram B. Borrwoop.
ly a paper by Rutherford and Soddy,* the authors have
ealled attention to the probability that an intimate knowledge
of the composition of radio-active minerals will lead to the
recognition and identification of the ultimate, stable products
formed by the disintegration of the relatively unstable radio-
active elements.t
It is an extremely impressive fact that it was from the some-
what meager information available on the occurrence of helium
in radio-active minerals, and from the consideration of the data
derived from the experiments of one of them on the nature of
the expelled alpha particle, that in 1902 the same authors were
enabled to make that brilliant prediction of the production of
heliumt which was afterwards confirmed by the experiments
of Ramsay and Soddy.
The natural minerals represent chemical systems which are
in most instances of extreme antiquity, their original formation
having frequently taken place during the earliest geological
periods of our planet. With the assistance of the data supplied
by geology and mineralogy, it is often possible to assign the
- origin of a given mineral to some definite geological period and
to arrange a series of different individuals roughly in the order
* Phil. Mag. (6), v, 576 (19083).
+ ‘‘ In the naturally occurring minerals containing the radio-elements these
changes must have been proceeding steadily over very long periods, and, un-
less they succeed in escaping, the ultimate products should have accumulated
in sufficient quantity to be detected, and should therefore appear in nature
as the invariable companions of the radio-elements.”—Ruther ‘for d and Soddy,
loc. cit.
¢ Phil. Mag. (6), iv, 582.
Am. Jour. Sci1.—FourtH SERIES, Vou. XX, No. 118.—Octossr, 1905.
18
254 B. B. Boliwood— Ultimate Disintegration
of their production, obtaining in this manner an approximate
knowledge of their relative ages. In dealing with the question
of radio-active change, where the element of time is such an
important factor in the solution of nearly every problem, the
advantages to be derived from the careful study of the radio-
active minerals can therefore scarcely be overestimated.
From a knowledge of the chemical properties and the erys-
tallographie, optical and other physical properties of a given
mineral specimen, together with an understanding of its oceur-
’ rence and of the other mineral substances with which it is found
associated, it is generally possible to definitely determine whether
the mineral was formed simultaneously with the mass of mate-
rial or geological formation in which it now occurs, or whether
it is of more recent production, having originated through the
action of percolating waters or of subterranean vapors or gases
on some original constituent. In the former case, when all
available data indicate that the formation of the mineral was
coincident with that of the mass of rock in which it occurs, the
mineral can be classed as primary; in the latter case, when it
has apparently originated through the alteration of primary
compounds, it can be considered as secondary. The term
secondary can also be applied in a restricted sense to such
minerals as occur in veins, where the general character of the
vein indicates that it has originated through the formation of
fissures in existing strata and that the contents of the vein is
of an age inferior to that of the mass of rock by which it is
bounded.
In applying these considerations to the greater number of
minerals which have up to this time been observed to contain
radio-active constituents, it may be considered as fortunate that
these minerals occur under conditions which would seem to
render the task of assigning the individual species to one or the
other of the above classes a relatively simple one
The most prominent radio-active mineral, uraninite, more com-
monly known as pitchblende, occurs both as a primary consti-
tuent of granitic rocks and also as a constituent of metalliferous
veins cutting geological formations of a relatively recent geologi-
cal period. When occurring in a granitic rock the uraninite 1s
frequently quite perfectly crystalline in form and the rock itself
is of the type called pegmatite; the most noted localities fur-
nishing specimens of this primary uraninite being southern
Norway, particularly in the neighborhood of Moss, North
Carolina, Llano Co., Texas, and Connecticut. Prominent local-
ities where uraninite occurs as a constituent of metalliferous
veins are Johanngeorgenstadt, Marienberg and Schneeberg in
Saxony, Joachimsthal and Piibram in Bohemia, Cornwall in
England, and Colors and South Dakota in the United States.
Products of the Radio-actwe Llements. 255
The term secondary uraninite will be used in referring to the
material from these latter localities.*
Among the radio-active minerals other than uraninite which
occur as primary constituents of pegmatite may be mentioned
thorite, samarskite, fergusonite, aeschynite, euxenite, monazite
and the recently describedt+ thorianite. Associated with, and
obviously resulting from the alteration of, the primary min-
erals through the action of percolating waters and other
agencies, are secondary minerals, the more prominent of which
are gumuinite, thorogummite, wranophane and autunite.
In considering the available data on the composition of
radio-active minerals, with a view to discovering the ultimate
disintegration products of the radio-elements, it is therefore
necessary to give strict attention to the question of the prim-
ary or secondar y origin of the individual specimens and the
geological period at which they were formed. The nature of
the associated minerals is also usually of considerable signifi-
cance, since through them it is frequently possible to discover
some clue to the conditions under which the mineral origi-
nated and some indication of the influences to which they have
been subjected since they were first formed.
Lead.
In reviewing the various published analyses of minerals
containing notable proportions of uranium, and particularly of
those which are evidently of primary origin, one can not fail
to be impressed by the frequent and almost invariable occur-
rence of lead as one of the other constituents. Out of a con-
siderable number of analyses undertaken with the particular
object of discovering whether or not lead was present, I have
been unable to find a single specimen of a primary mineral
containing over two per cent of uranium in which the presence
of lead could not be demonstrated by the ordinary analytical
methods. The same is moreover true of the secondary ura-
nium minerals which have been examined, although in a single
case, namely in a small specimen of uranophane from North
Carolina, the proportion of lead was so low as to require the
working up of a gram of material in order to conclusively
demonstrate the presence of lead as a constituent.
Through a dawning appreciation of the significance of the
persistent appearance of this element in uranium minerals, the
writer was led to suggest in an earlier papert that lead might
prove to be one of the final, inactive disintegration products
of uranium. All the data which have been obtained since
that time point to the same conclusion.
* Hillebrand, this Journal, xl, 384 (1890).
+ Dunstan and Blake, Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. (A), Ixxvi, 253 (1905).
¢ Phil. Mag. (6), ix, 613 (1905). :
256 B. B. Boltwood— Ultimate Disintegration
I have been particularly impressed by the information
kindly supplied in a private communication by Mr. W. F.
Hillebrand of the U. 8. Geological Survey, a recognized
authority on the analysis of uraniuin minerals, that so far as
his experience goes he does not remember to have found
uranium in any mineral without its being accompanied by
lead, and he adds: “the association has often caused me
thought.”
Additional weight attaches to these experimental indications
because of the theoretical considerations leading to a similar
conclusion. It has been pointed out by Rutherford,* that if
the alpha-ray particle consists of helium, since four alpha-ray
products intervene between radium and the final, inactive sub-
stance radium-G, the indicated atomic weight of radium-G is
sufficiently near to that of lead to be impressive. Thus one
alpha particle is expelled by each of the atoms Ra, Ra-Em,
Ra-A, Ra-C and Ra-F, making five particles in all. The loss
of five alpha particles with an atomic weight of 4 from the
atom of radium with an atomic weight of 225 would cause a
reduction of this by 4X5=20 units, with the formation of a
chemical element having an atomic weight of 205 or there-
abouts. This is not far from the accepted atomic weight of
lead, namely 206°9.
Thorium (Rare earths).
Another element which occurs quite commonly with uranium
is thorium, and the common association of these two elements
has been noted by Strutt and interpreted by him as indicating
that thorium is possibly the parent of uranium.y; Aside from
the very doubtful hypothesis that the atomic weight of thorium
is greater than that of uranium, his conclusions would seem
open to serious objections. His statement that all thorium
minerals contain readily detectable quantities of uranium, while
some minerals containing notable quantities of uranium are
comparatively free from thorium, is manifestly in accord with
his experimental data, but it would appear that his thorium
minerals containing uranium are all old minerals, while his
uranium minerals containing no thorium are of relatively
recent origin. If his theory is correct, the existence of very
old minerals containing high percentages of uranium and no
thorium should be possible, but that such minerals have been
found is not indicated by any of the reliable analyses available.
The experimental data offered by Strutt, as well as those to be
derived from other sources, can all be much more consistently
interpreted by the assumption that thorium is a disintegration
product of uranium having a life considerably longer than that
* Silliman Lectures, Yale University, 1905. Not yet published.
+ Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. (A), Ixxvi, 88 (1905).
Products of the Radio-actiwe Hlements. O57
of its parent and long as compared with the oldest of the known
minerals. This hypothesis is supported by the circumstance
noted by Strutt, that in general the minerals containing high
proportions of thorium also contain a comparatively high pro-
portion of helium, a point which will be referred to later in |
the course of this paper. Since the present knowledge of
radio-active phenomena leads to the assumption that the aver-
age life of uranium is of the order of 210° years, while the
average life of thorium is apparently in excess of that number,
it seems scarcely reasonable to expect that minerals will be
found which are sufficiently old for a state of equilibrium to
have been reached between thorium and uranium. ‘The pro-
duction of a slowly changing disintegration product from a
more rapidly changing parent is in no way contradictory to
the disintegration theory, since a number of examples of this
are at present recognized.* The common association of the
other rare earths with thorium may indicate, as suggested by
Strutt, that these are possible final products of the latter ele-
ment.
Bismuth.
The oceurrence of bismuth as a constituent of the more
highly radio-active minerals is another significant indication
of a possible end product. The proportion of bismuth which
is present in the older radio-active minerals is, however, very
small, so small indeed that its occurrence is but seldom detected
in the ordinary course of analysis. It is only in treating
considerable quantities of material for the extraction of
polonium that the presence of bismuth becomes evident.
This occurrence of bismuth in small quantities is suggestive
of its formation from the disintegration, either of a parent
having a relatively long life, or of one which is itself produced
in only relatively small quantities. The former requirement
would seem to be fairly well filled by thorium, in which case
it is to be expected that in two minerals of equal age, the one
containing the greater proportion of thorium would also con-
tain the greater relative amouht of bismuth. An opportunity
has not yet been found for the experimental investigation of
this question. The fact that the atomic weight of bismuth
differs from the atomic weight of thorium by exactly 24 units,
an even multiple of 4, is possibly significant.
Barium.
Another element which persistently appears as a minor consti-
tuent of uranium minerals is barium. Its production, if it is
* One example is the production of the active deposit from the thorium
emanation, the parent with a half-value period of less than one minute, the
product with a half-value period of eleven hours.
258 B. B. Boliwood— Ultimate Disintegration
actually a disintegration product, is certainly slow, for only
very small relative amounts of it are found in some compara-
tively old minerals. In primary minerals the amount of lead
present is always greatly in excess of the barium, which occurs
_ only in traces made evident in the separation of the radium
from considerable quantities of material. As in the case of
bismuth, the barium might be produced either from a slowly
disintegrating parent or from a radio-active body existing only
in comparatively small amounts in the radio-active system.
Certain data, to be published later by the writer, have been
obtained which seem to indicate that the amount of actinium
in a radio-active mineral is dependent on the amount of ura-
nium present, thus suggesting that uranium is the parent of
actinium as well as of radium, but other results lead to the
conclusion® that actinium is not a direct result in the same
sense as is radium. The quantity of actinium produced in a
radio-active mineral is apparently small as compared to the
radium, and it may therefore be possible that the barium pres-
ent is a final product of the actinium.
Hydrogen.
A point which has caused much speculation on the part of
mineralogists is the apparent hydration of the greater number,
if not all, of those minerals which are now known to contain
radio-active constituents. That this state of affairs is in some
way connected with the disintegration processes taking place
in these compounds would not appear impossible, since the
production of such an elementary substance as hydrogen as one
of the products of the radio-active decay of the atoms of |
elements of high atomic weight is in fact suggested by much
of the data on the nature of the expelled alpha particles.t It
would seem possible that the difference in ionizing power, of
the power of penetration, ete., shown by the alpha particles
from certain of the radio-active types of material may perhaps
be due to a difference in the mass of the projected particle,
and that the occurrence of notable quantities of water in the
primary radio-active minerals, which is otherwise most difficult
to explain, may be considered as indicating that hydrogen is in
fact one of the disintegration products, originating as an alpha-
ray particle from one or more of the numerous radio-active
substances which have already been identified. The origina-
tion of hydrogen in a mineral containing oxidized constituents
would in all probability lead to the reduction of .the more
readily reducible of these with the consequent production of
water.
* Rutherford and Boltwood, this Journal, xx, 56 (1909).
+ Rutherford, ‘‘ Radio-activity,” p. 328 and elsewhere.
Products of the Radio-active Hlements. 259
In the greater number of instances where water is found
‘present in these minerals, it is quite impossible to explain how
it could have penetrated into them from without, since their
close-grained and impervious nature is impressively indicated
by the very notable quantity of helium which they have
retained. Moreover non-radio-active minerals which occur
associatéd with the radio-active species, and which have been
subjected to the same external influences, are often quite
anhydrous, e. g., apatite, magnetite, ete. The mineral thorite
has been ealled to the attention of the writer by Professor S.
L. Penfield. This mineral frequently occurs in very perfect
erystals, which however exhibit only the optical properties of
an isotropic and amorphous compound. ‘This species has been
long regarded as having undergone alteration, but that the
causes of the alteration existed within and not without the
erystals is, | believe, a new and somewhat novel explanation.
It is a significant fact that results obtained* in the examina-
tion of certain radio-active minerals indicate that hydrogen
occurs as one of the gaseous constituents of many of these com-
pounds. A further interesting point bearing on this question
is mentioned by Hillebrand,+ who observed that when urani-
nite was mixed with sodium carbonate and fused in an atmos-
phere of carbon dioxide, the lead present was apparently
entirely reduced and collected in globules. Mixtures of cor-
responding proportions of lead oxide (litharge) and U, O, or UO,,
when treated in an identical manner, showed no reduction of
the litharge to metallic lead. This distinctive difference in
behavior is strongly indicative of the presence of hydrogen as
a constituent of uraninite.
Argon.
Results obtained by Ramsay and Travers{ may further indi-
cate that another of the disintegration products of radio-active
substances is the Inert gas argon. It is stated by these authors
that most minerals which evolve helium also evolve argon in
small quantity. It may not be impossible that some of the
rayless changes which have been observed by Rutherford to
take place in radio-active bodies, may be accompanied by the
expulsion of alpha particles consisting of argon, which owing
to their relatively high mass are projected at too low velocities
to cause ionization of the surrounding gases and to permit
* Ramsay, Collie and Travers, Jour. Chem. Soc., Lond., xvii, 684 (1895),
state that hydrogen in varying quantities was evolved by yttrotantalite,
samarskite, hielmite, fergusonite, tantalite, monazite, xenotime, columbite,
perofskite, euxenite, orthite, gadolinite and cerite. Also Ramsay, Proc. Roy.
Soc. Lond., lix, 3825 (1896).
+ Bulletin of the U. S. Geological Survey, No. 78, p. 59 (1891).
¢ Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond., lii, 316 (1898).
260 B. B. Boltwood— Uitimate Disintegration
their detection by the ordinary electrical methods. It has been
pointed out by Rutherford* that the kinetic energy of certain -
alpha particles approaches quite closely to the critical value
below which no ionization would be produced. It is moreover
quite interesting that the assumption of a difference of atomic
mass of 40 units between certain successive radio-active trans-
formation products wonld greatly facilitate their assignment to
vacant positions in the periodic system of the elements.
Composition of Uraninite.
The suggestions offered in the foregoing pages as to the pos-
sible nature of some of the disintegration products resulting
from the process of radio-active change can be more clearly
understood, and the basis of fact from which they have been
derived can be more correctly appreciated, by a consideration
of some of the results which have been obtained in the analysis
of radio-active minerals.
The most accurate and reliable of the available data on the
composition of uraninite have been published by Hillebrand.+
TABLE I.
Locality Glastonbury, Conn. Branchville, Conn. Colo. N. Carolina.
STE ale aa II III IV Vin att Val VII VIII Ix x XI
UO; 22°08 23°30) 22°22 2648 23°0818-°27 21 4 14:00 | 25°26 | 50°88 44:11
UO~z 59:13) 58:01 59°31 57:48 59°98.72°25 64°72 70°99 58°51 | 89°31 46°56
Total | wine fe ss | Nees
Soca | 70% 10 70 72 72 | 74 75 74 12 Tire rae
PbO fee Eh BRL Oe SUG case koh bossy a) Maley oo alee | 0°70 4°20 4°53
ThO,. pute aR, nave O79 eh 207 6950" Gros mOeO 2°78
Total fare | 9-57 10-24 10°31 10-37 1110, 720 726 6:2 |. 7-61 ieee
Nat gs Re Sen ORM a) tee Sel 0862 oe lee
H.O LQ il Aertel ol cake ates). (Oy 0°43 0°68 067 0°68 | 1:96 1°23
Sp. G | 9-12 9°05 a5 ie 9°58 9:62' 9°73 956 9°35 8:07 9°08 9°49
The results of his analyses are given in a condensed form in
‘Baibie a
* Phil. Mag., July (1905).
+ Bulietin of the U.S. Geological Survey, No. 78, p. 48, 1891 ; this Journal,
xl, 884 (1890) ; ibid., xlii, 890 (1891).
Various important details such as the general character and appearance of the different
samples and the indication of alteration from external causes in a number of specimens will
be found in Hillebrand’s papers. ‘
Blank spaces in the table signify that the indicated constituent was not determined.
1 Hillebrand assumed that the inert gas present was nitrogen and the percentages of this
element shown in the table are calculated on the basis of that assumption.
these numbers by 7 a maximum value for the helium separated is obtained.
> ThO. + ZrO, ?
By dividing
Products of the Radio-active Elements. 261
Neglecting for the present the results under rx and xx,
which are types of secondary uraninites, it will noticed in an
examination of the numbers given in Table I that—
1. In specimens from the same general locality, viz.: from
Connecticut, from Norway and from North Carolina, a rough
- proportionality is shown between the content of uranium and
the content of lead, rare earths, helium (nitrogen) and water.
A still more striking relation appears to exist between the pro-
portion of uranium in the form of the lower oxide, UO,, and
the amount of helium (nitrogen). This was remarked by Hille-
brand, who makes the following statement* in connection with
the results obtained from the analysis of the first eighteen samples:
“Throughout the whole lst of analyses in which nitrogen
has been estimated the most striking features is the apparent
relation between it and the UO,. This is especially marked
in the table of Norwegian uraninites recalculated+, from which
the rule might almost be formulated that, given either nitrogen
or UO, the other can be found by simple caleulation. The
same ratio is not found in the Connecticut varieties, but if the
TABLE 1
: Norway. Texas. | S. Carolina. | Canada. Saxony.
Xa DIA GE XIV xeVves XVI XGVALE XVIII MIX | XX XOX, XGXGITE
es ense 22-04 32:00 35°54 42°71 26°81) 44-17 |. 2:2 | 41-06 59°30
46-13 50°74 43-03 43°88 48°38 24:18 4418 | 2089 _... | 8467 | 22°33
66 66 57 65 68 56 61 Bees ee 65 68
9-04 10°06 858 9:46 9:44 10°54 10°95 | 10:08 8°58 | 11°27 6:39
GUiereas 2. *- 8:98-6:68 2 45 6°39 1:65 6°41 0:0
7-62 9:03 8-43 10-48 8:09 13:42 13°87 | 19:19 10°25 10°49 0-0
meee OR 1-08) 12038 C108) a 124 O54 piso 0°86 0:02
O74 0-75 0°74 0:77. - 0°79 4-23 2. TEASE oe ks PA rnoe Sg
S690 9414> 8°32 - 8-96 8:98. 7-50: ... 8:29 Raa ee Oco
Of the samples from Norway XII was from Anneréd, XIII and XIV from Elvestad, XV
from Skaartorp, XVI from Huggendskilen, and XVII and XVIII from Arendal. Sample
XIX was from Llano Co., Texas, XX from Marietta, South Carolina, XXI from Villeneuve,
Canada, and XXII from Johanngeorgenstadt, Saxony.
determination of nitrogen in the Branchville mineral is to be
depended on, the rule still holds that the higher the UO, the
higher likewise is the nitrogen. The Colorado and North
Carolina minerals are exceptions, but it should be borne in
mind that the former is amorphous like the Bohemian and
possesses the further similarity of containing no thoria, although
zirconia may take its place, and the North Carolina material is
* This Journal, x1, 391 (1890). + Excluding the insoluble matter.
262 B. B. Boltwood— Ultimate Disintegration
so much altered that its original condition is unknown.”
This generalization can apparently be extended to include lead
also.
2. When the analyses of samples from the same actual
locality are compared it will be evident that, in general,
a) The content of rare earths increases with the amount of
lead present. This is most strikingly shown in the groups
I-V, VI-vill, xim—xtv and xvi-xvir. The simultaneous
variation of thorium is also indicated somewhat imperfectly
in those instances where this constituent was separately deter-
mined.
b) That in those specimens having the highest specifie gray-
ity (v and vu) the proportion of helium compared with the
lead present is greatest. It is in general to be expected that
the denser and therefore less porous material would retain a
greater proportion of the helium formed within it. The low
proportion of gas compared with lead in x and xix might
well be due to the high emanating power of the former* and
the greater porosity of the latter indicated by its low density.
It is moreover interesting to note that those specimens (x,
XIX, XXI) containing disproportionately large amounts of
water contain a relatively low amount of helium compared
with the lead present. It is possible that these minerals were
sufficiently porous to permit the entrance of water from with-
out while at the same time a part of the helium formed has
escaped from within them.
It is evident that, in Table I, a lack of agreement exists
between the proportion of lead and rare earths and the pro-
portion of helium in the Connecticut material and the propor-
tions of the corresponding constituents in the Norwegian sam-
ples. In the latter the amounts of lead and rare earths as
compared with the gas present are much greater than in the
former. This can be explained by assuming that the Nor-
wegian minerals are considerably older than the American varie-
ties, and that the Norwegian specimens examined by Hillebrand
have in some manner lost a large part of their helium.
The geological data available on the relative ages of the
American and N orwegian occurrences, while not entirely in
accord with the assumption of such a oreat difference in age,
would not appear to be sufficiently definite to preclude such a
possibility.
In considering the bearing of the results of the analyses
of the two secondary uraninites, rx and xxi, on the general
theories proposed in this paper, it is evident that the presence
* Phil. Mag. (6), ix, 609.
Products of the Radio-active Hlements. 263
of the low proportion of lead and helium, and the practical
absence of thorium in 1x, is quite in accord with the geological
indications that this material is of an age ereatly inferior
to that of the primary uraninites. In xxir the very notable
amount of lead shown by the analysis would seem to offer no
serious obstacle to the theory, since this material occurs inti-
mately associated with the sulphide of lead and other similar
minerals, and the massive and amorphous form in which it is
found would indicate that the conditions under which it was
originally deposited were not favorable to the separation of a
pure uranium compound. The statement of Hillebrand* that
nitrogen (helium) and the rare earths were practically absent
in specimens of secondary uraninite from Piibram, Joachims-
thal and Johanngeorgenstadt, which he examined, is also of
interest in this connection. The experience of Debiernet in
separating actinium from a secondary uraninite of this charac-
ter, is, however, indicative of the existence of smal! amounts
of thorium in these minerals.
Other Radio-active Minerals.
In the table which follows (Table IL) will be ne some
data compiled from various sources on the composition of a
number of primary and secondary radio-active minerals.
As bearing on the topic under discussion it is interesting to
note the following _—
i> Phe sr eatest proportion of helium with respect to the
uranium and lead present has been observed in those primary
minerals which have the lowest emanating power and the
highest specific gravity, i. e., in the most compact and least
porous minerals. Examples are furnished by thorianite, fergu-
sonite, samarskite and monazite. (Of the varieties of thorite,
much greater proportions of helium have been observed in the
var iety known as orangite, which has also the greatest density.)
2. Greater proportions of lead and helium with respect to
uranium are found in those primary minerals which occur in
the oldest geological formations. This point is well illustrated
by thorianite, which is found in Ceylon in a geological forma-
tion which is probably of the Archean period.
3. The primary minerals containing the greatest proportion
of thorium are in general the most hydrated.
In considering the secondary radio-active minerals certain
probable conditions must be recognized. Where these minerals
are formed by the alteration of primary minerals in place,
namely, where the primary mineral is acted on by underground
* Bulletin U. S. Survey, No. 78, p. 72.
t Compt. rend., cxxx, 906 (1900).
PbO
264 B. B. Boltwood— Ultimate Disintegration
TABLE II.
PRIMARY MINERALS.
Species. Loeality. ThO2 UO,
Thorite, Hitterd, Norway ---- 48°66 900’
Mackintoshite, Llano Co., Tex. 45°30 22°40
Yttrialite, Llano Co., Tex. .__- 10-85)" wlsos
Phorianite, Ceylone = ee UOISG ne eat
Samarskiteen 2° Ge eee .---. 10-18%
ms (2) Colorado: 22% 3°64 4:02
Anneroédite, Anneréd, Nor._.. 2°37 16°28
Hniwenite tad oo ei eee Lams EY OG
Hielmite, Falun, Sweden ..-._ ? 234"
Polycrase, Slattakra, Nor. ---. 3°51 18°45
Fergusonite, Llano Co., Tex... 0°83 7:05°
66 Bini ? Biofeh S
Xenotime, Narest6, Sweden... 2°43 3°48?
Monazite, North Carolina _.... 5°00 0°40°
126
3°74
0°80
2°59
0°72
2°40
0°92
0°21
0°92
1°43
0°16
0°08
tr.
SECONDARY MINERALS.
UO;
Gummite: North Carolia <2" 2:25" 75-20
Thorogummite, Llano Co., Tex. 41°44 22-43
Carnotite, Colorado, 2325274 0205 2 52325
Uranophane, North Carolina.. ..-.° 66°67
1 Wis Os. 2 UO, 6°03 -+ UO; 9:07.
5°57
2°16
0°25
0°60
H.O He
10°88 X®
Ae Bi Oke
OFS? Nees
X* 0°39%
8-1% X°
[258 ieee
R19 ae
Ail ?
223 oe
AT lee Ne
20 Oar
ee OOS)
Li 7 fea
0-20) Xe
10°54 ?
7°88 2
3°06) 2 Oe
1202) a
Reference.
Dana, p. 488
sae
va
vee
Dana, p. 740
Dana, p. 741
Dana, p. 744
Dana, p. 742
Dana, p. 745
Dana, p. 730
Dana, p. 749
Dana, p. 892
A
5
BN.
Dana, p. 699
> Hofmann and Strauss (Berichte, xxxili, 3126) state that they found both
thorium and lead in samarskite and in euxenite.
4 UOs. 5 UO; and Wi@r
6 The composition of monazite given above is derived from experiments
of the writer.
7 Specimens of gummite from North Carolina analyzed by the writer have
been found to contain from 2 to 8 per cent. of thoria.
8 It is stated by Adams (this Journal, xix, 321 (1905) that helium is absent
from this mineral, which is to be expected since it is highly porous and of
recent formation.
’ Samples of this material have been examined by the writer in which no
thorium could be detected.
X* Helium has been found in the variety of thorite known as orangite.
X> Hillebrand’s experiments suggest the presence of helium in this mineral.
X¢ Including this species among the primary minerals is possibly open to
objection.
from 1°¢ to 2° of helium per gram.
Hillebrand’s experiments would seem to indicate that it contains
X4 The analyses of Dunstan ‘and Blake (see Ref.) do not indicate the
presence of water, but several tests made by the writer, on samples kindly
supplied by Mr. Geo. F. Kunz, suggest the presence of water in quite notable
quantities.
X° The occurrence of helium in samarskite, hielmite, polycrase, xenotime,
monazite, orangite, and other radio-active minerals is described in papers
by Ramsay, Collie and Travers (Jour. Chem. Soc. Lond., Ixvii, 684) and
Ramsay and Travers (Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond., 1x, 442).
A, W. F. Hillebrand, this Journal, xlvi, 101 (1893). —
A» Hillebrand, this Journal, xiii, 195 (1902).
As Dunstan and Blake, Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. (A), Ixxvi, 253 (1905).
A, Ramsay and Travers, Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond., lii, 316 (1898).
A; Hillebrand and Mackintosh, this Journal, xxxviii, 480 (1889).
A, Hillebrand and Ransome, this Journal, x, 120 (1900).
Products of the Radio-active Klements. 265
waters, etc., with the removal of certain constituents and the
substitution of others originally dissolved in the waters, the
resulting hydrated residue will in some cases consist of a mix-
ture of several different chemical compounds and its general
composition will not correspond to any definite formula, but
will depend on chance and the accidental local conditions. An
excellent example of a secondary product of this character is
afforded by the mineral known as gummite, which occurs as
an alteration product of the North Carolina uraninites. Sam-
ples of this mineral from the Flat Rock mine have been exam-
ined by the writer, in which great variations in the proportions
of lead, thorium and uranium present were observed in samples
removed from different parts of the same comparatively small
specimen. The mineral known as uranophane from the same
locality shows corresponding variations in composition. Both
these substances are amorphous in structure but very frequently
occur with a crystalline form as pseudomorphs after the origi-
nal uraninite. It is obvious that these facts must be considered
in attempting to arrive at any conclusions from a chemical
examination of these materials.
In other cases the percolating waters undoubtedly dissolve
the more readily soluble components of the primary minerals
and deposit them again as definite, crystalline compounds of a
relatively high degree of purity. Examples of this sort are
afforded by such minerals as torbernite [Col UO) EO, 3H,01,
autunite [Ca(UO,),P,O,°8H,O,], uranocircite [Ba(UO,),P,0,
8H,O], zeunerite [Cu(UO,), As,O,-8H,O], uranosphaerite
[(BiO),U,O,°3H,O], and a considerable number of others.
The examination of minerals of this character will probably
afford data of considerable value on the nature of the ultimate
disintegration products of uranium.
The mineral mackintoshite is quite possibly of secondary
origin, but owing to some doubt in the matter it has been
placed among the primary minerals. It may represent a
variety of thorite, containing originally a considerable propor-
tion of uranium, ‘which has under gone alteration owing to the
radio-active processes which have taken place within it. The
evidence is strongly in favor of the view that the thorogum-
mite has been formed from the alteration of the mackintoshite
through external causes.
Any definite conclusions at present as to the formation of
carnotite are quite impossible. Its composition and occurrence
are both so unique that little or no analogy with other known
uranium compounds can be detected. It seems highly probable,
however, that its age is not relatively very great and its general
composition, ¢. g. the low amount of lead present and the
practical absence of thorium and helium, is quite in accord
with such a conclusion.
266 B. B. Boltwood— Ultimate Disintegration
An interesting radio-active mineral has been described by
Danne.* This substance is stated to be a phosphate of lead,
or pyromorphite, containing quantities of radium equivalent to
about 6 per cent of uranium. It is asserted, however, that
no uranium is present in the mineral, although considerable
deposits of uranium minerals are known to exist at no very
great distance in the same region where it occurs. According
to Danne, the pyromorphite is found in fissures through which
underground waters containing radium salts are constantly per-
colating, and he suggests that the radium contained in the min-
eral is derived from the water. It might also be conjectured
that the lead of the mineral has resulted from the disintegra-
tion of radium, the radium itself having been formed from the
disintegration of uranium in the neighboring deposits.
Occurrence of Minerals.
It would seem possible that some general data on the disin-
tegration products of radio-active substances might be derived
from the study of the conditions under which the radio-active
minerals occur in nature. The following suggestions may
perhaps be of interest im this connection. The primary min-
erals found in the pegmatitic dikes include uraninite, thorite,
fergusonite, aeschenite, euxenite, columbite and monazite, all
of which, with the exception of columbite,t probably contain
thorium in greater or smaller proportions. The theory gener-
ally accepted by geologists is that the pegmatites were formed
under conditions of so-called hydro-igneous fusion, involving
high temperatures and the presence of considerable water
vapor which was prevented from escaping by the high pressure
due to incumbent masses of rock of great thickness. Assum-
ing the prior existence of considerable deposits of uranium
compounds at great depths, it would appear probable that in
an upheaval of deep-lying material, with the intrusion of the
plastic magma into the upper layers from below, the conditions
would be favorable to the separation of the various constituents
of the already partially disintegrated uranium with the pro-
duction of new minerals representing new combinations of the
various elements present. Thus some of the uranium might
separate out as the oxide (uraninite), either quite free from
other elements or with admixtures of other isomorphous oxides
(thorium oxides and other rare earth oxides), while the thorium
might be greatly concentrated in the form of such minerals as
thorite and thorianite, containing mixtures of variable propor-
* Compt. rend., cxl, 241 (1905).
+The very common association of radio-active elements with niobium,
tantalum, etc., in minerals is possibly significant of some ultimate relation
between them.
Products of the Radio-active Hlements. 267
tions of uranium and the rare earths. Others of the rare
earths present might be themselves concentrated to form such
minerals as allanite and gadolinite, compounds containing but
relatively small proportions of the radio-elements.
When uraninite is found in metalliferous veins the general
indications point to its transportation hither from greater
depths by thermal waters and its deposition at a temperature
considerably lower than that existing in the plastic pegmatite.
The association of the secondary uraninites with the sulphides
of iron, copper, lead, bismuth and other metals is indicative of
conditions of deposit unfavorable to the simultaneous produc-
tion of rare earth minerals, which have never been observed to
occur under similar conditions in any locality.
The mode of occurrence of radio-active minerals would
therefore appear to offer certain valuable data on the processes
taking place in the radio-elements and the products formed by
their disintegration. |
Origin of Elements.
If it can be ultimately demonstrated that lead, bismuth,
barium, hydrogen and argon, or any one of them, actually
result from the disintegration of uranium, an interesting ques-
tion which naturally arises will be: Have the quantities of
these chemical elements already existing been produced wholly
in the same manner? Any discussion of this problem at the
present time would certainly be premature, but the time may
not be very far remote when this question will deserve serious
consideration.
Summary.
Various data have been presented which are interpreted as
indicating that the ultimate disintegration products of the
radio-elements may include lead, bismuth, barium, the rare
earths, hydrogen and argon. |
The writer is fully conscious of the meagerness of the data
upon which the hypothesis of the production of these substances
is founded, but the suggestions are made in the hope that the
attention of other investigators may be directed to the possi-
bilities offered by a careful study of the composition and
occurrence of the radio-active minerals, and that their interest
may be sufficiently awakened to induce them to independently
undertake the experimental investigation of the theories which
have been suggested.
139 Orange St., New Haven, Conn.
August 16, 1905.
268 Llora—Lstimation of Cadmium taken as the Sulphate.
Art. XXIX.—The Use of the Rotating Cathode for the Esti-
mation of Cadmium taken as the Sulphate; by Cuarizs
P. Fora.
[Contributions from the Kent Chemical Laboratory of Yale Univ.—cxxxix. |
In a recent paper from this laboratory* has been described
the application of the rotating cathode to the rapid estimation
of copper, silver and nickel; and, in a later paper,t its fitness
for the estimation of cadmium as well as several other metals
has been shown. The object of the present investigation has
been to more thoroughly study the conditions under which
cadmium may be estimated by this means. The apparatus
used was that described in the previous papers. Since it had
already been shownt{ that cadmium taken in the form of the
sulphate can be estimated by deposition of a solution shghtly
acidulated with sulphuric acid, this formed the natural point
of departure.
I. In Solutions containing Sulphuric Acid.
A solution of cadmium sulphate was prepared, containing
approximately 16°6 grams of the salt to the liter of water.
Portions of this solution were carefully measured from a
burette, diluted to the desired volume, a few drops of dilute
sulphuric acid (1:4) added, the proper connections made and
the electrolysis conducted as previously described. The fol-
lowing were the results obtained upon two different solutions :
SOLUTION A.
No. Sol. H.SOQu.. Cur’t E.M.F. Cd.
of taken. (1:4) Time. read. = N.D.i00 approx. found
Bxp..* 4em?-> drops. , min. amp amp. volts, erm.
Ike 15 a) 18 0°4—1:0 1°2—3°0 8 O- aut
2. 15 9) 10 0°4—0°5 dl ed 8 0°1090
3. 15 9) 16 0°4—0°9 ]°2-2°7 8 O°1115
4, 15 7 35 0°5-1°0 PSB) 8 071117
5. 15 12 2D Oleg) 3°0—4°5 § O-1115
6. A 10 35 1°0-1°5 3°0-4°5 8 01120
le 15 18 30 1°5—2°0 4°5—6'0 8 Ould ig
8. 15 15 25 1°5—2°0 4°5—6°0 8 Ov LEG
9. 30 ~=Indef. 15 3°O0—4°0 9°0-—12°0 8 0°2235
10, 20 12 35 2 0-3°0 6:0—-9:°0 8 0°1491
EL. 15 io Andel e260 2°0 6°0 8 Ol E20)
In experiments numbered 1 to 4, the liquid at the end of
the period indicated showed traces of cadmium remaining, but
in the seven experiments following these the cadmium was all
deposited upon the cathode in a satisfactory condition. These
* Gooch and Medway, this Journal [4], 320 (1908).
+ Medway, - is Journal [4], xviii, 56 (1904). 1 Toc. eit:
Flora—Estimation of Cadmium taken as the Sulphate. 269
results were therefore taken as indicating the standard of the
solution used, the mean of the series showing the presence of
0-007454 germ. of cadmium in each cubic centimeter of the
solution.
In a second solution which it became necessary to standard-
ize the following results were obtained :
SoxLvuTiIon B.
No. Sol. Curt Cd.
of taken. Time. read. = N.Dioo E.M.F. found.
Exp. cm. min. amp. amp. vts. erm.
qT: 20 27 1:0-—1°5 2 O0-- 4° 7:9 00816
2. 25 30 2°0—3°0 6°0— 9:0 7:9 0°1018
3. 25 dd 2°5—4°0 7°5—-12°0 7°6 01019
4, 30 25 2°0-2°5 6°0- 775 12°0 0°1224
dD. 30 20 1:0 3°0 Lo 0°1228
6. 30 10 1°5—2°5 A°5— 7°5 7°8 0°1226
The mean of these six experiments gives a value of 0°10194
grm. of cadmium for every 25°™* of the solution, or 0:0040776
grm. for each cubic centimeter. This value was taken as the
standard whenever this solution was used.
One point which was not mentioned in the former paper* on
the estimation of cadmium by this method, but which is of
much importance, is that of dilution. The earlier experiments
in this work were performed at a dilution of from 65°™ to 75°™,
Much trouble was experienced, however, at this dilution; for
the last traces of the metal were driven from the solution only
with extreme difficulty and with much loss of time, as may be
noted by comparing the time interval of most of the experi-
ments with the shorter interval of the last two experiments of
the second series, where the dilution was 45 to 50™. More-
over it was found advisable, in order to avoid mechanical
loss, to deposit not more than 0:2 grm. to 0°25 grm. of the
metal upon the cathode, while even smaller quantities are to
be preferred. The current density must also be kept within
the limits indicated; for otherwise a spongy deposit may result.
Cadmium seems to be especially liable to the formation of
these spongy, unweighable deposits, and the greatest difficulties
experienced in this investigation have come from this behavior
of the metal.
The best condition, therefore, may be briefly summarized as
follows: Cadmium sulphate, equivalent to not more than
0-2 to 0°25 grm. of the metal, is dissolved in 45°™* to 50°™ of
water ; ten to fifteen drops of dilute sulphuric acid are added ;
and the proper connections made and the solution subjected to
electrolysis as described, fifteen minutes being sufficient time
tor the complete deposition of the metal upon the cathode. It
* Loe. cit.
Am. Jour. Sci.—FourtH Series, Vou. XX, No. 118.—OcToBER, 1905.
19
270 =Flora—Lkstimation of Cadmium taken as the Sulphate.
is not necessary to heat the liquid, as the passage of such large
currents soon heats it sufficiently. When electrolysis is com-
plete, the excess of sulphuric acid may be destroyed with a
shght excess of ammonia water, the current broken, and the
cathode removed, thoroughly rinsed with water and alcohol,
and dried by waving over a free flame. If the deposit is not
spongy the drying is a matter of only a few nioments, and
there is no danger of oxidizing the metallic deposit. If it is
preferred, the current may be reduced by interposed resistance,
the rotation stopped, and the liquid readily siphoned without
danger of injuring the metallic coating.
Il. Ln Solutions containing Acetates.
The next method to be studied in its application to the rotat-
ing cathode was the use of solutions containing acetates, as
recommended by Edgar F. Smith. Originally, Smith used a
solution obtained by dissolving cadmium oxide in acetic acid*
but later found that the electrolysis proceeded equally well in
solutions containing the nitrate, chloride or sulphate of cad-
mium with an excess of sodium acetate.+ In the study of the
application of this method to the estimation of cadmium, taken
as the sulphate, upon the rotating cathode, two methods of
proceeding were followed, both of “which had been previously
used by Exner} in his work upon the rotating anode. In
series A, of the experiments following, measured amounts of
cadmium sulphate solution were run off from a burette, the
indicated amount of sodium acetate was added in solution, a
small amount of potassium sulphate was added to increase the
conductivity of the solution, the whole diluted to the desired
volume and electrolysis conducted as with the solution contain-
ing sulphuric acid. In series B, the cadmium in the measured
solution was precipitated as the hydroxide with a sodium
hydrate solution, the precipitate dissolved in a very slight
excess of acetic acid, potassium sulphate added as before, and
the solution subjected to electrolysis.
SERIES A.
Cd. Cur’t
taken. NaOC.H;0. K.SO,.. read. = N.Dioo. E.M.F. Time. (Cd. fd. Error.
No. grm. grm. grm. amp. amp vts. min. grm. grm.
i 0°1864 1g) 0°5 2°0 6°0 8°0 : ($) aes
2. 0°1491 2°0 1:0 1°5 4°5 8:0 15 (||) eee
3. Of TNS 0°5 ue) 1:0 3°0 8°0 20 Osi + 0°0005
+ 0°1491 1°5 0°5 0°9 Dei 8°0 15 0°1494 + 0°0003
5. 0°1491 1°5 0°5 0-9 742) 8°0 15 0°1496 + 0:°0005
6. 0°12238 1°5 0°5 0°75 22 US 20 0°1237 +0°0014
* Ber., xi, 2048 (1878). + Am. Ch. J., ii, 41 (1880).
+ J. Am. Ch. Soe., xxv, 896 (1903).
& Did not weigh, as precipitate was non-adherent.
cadenium present. | Donen spongy and blistered. Too much electrolyte present.
Current too high for quantity of
DOT eR Oo pO
Flora— Estimation of Cadmium taken as the Sulphate.
271
SERIES B.
Cd. Cd.
‘taken. NaOH. K.SO,. Cur’t= N.Djoo E.M.F. Time. found. Error.
erm. grm. crm. amp, ~ amp. vis. min. grm. erm.
0°1491 excess 0°5 12554 29) 830 10s yO 4 96 + 0°0005
61491 0°2 OS real Vets) 2°4 80 15 Ost 491 + 0°0000
071491 O'2 O5d>- 9-058 2°4 8°0 15 =—0°1493 + 0°0002
0°12258 0°5 O22 ese Oe nOme eb 22Ots Oe O41 225 + 0°0000
0°1223 0°5 Uae tl 0) SneOr erm Os Ze 021225 + 0°0000
0°1223 0-2 0°5 2 eo a 75 OO ale 2 +.0°0004
In both series the volume of the solution was about 60° to
65°. The sixth experiment in each series will indicate the
result when the greater concentration of 45°" to 50°™* was tried.
In these cases the precipitate showed a tendency to sponginess,
which was more noticeable in series A. At the greater dilu-
tion, the deposition of the cadmium proceeds rapidly and satis-
factorily ; ; the deposit is rather crystalline, fairly compact, and
easily washed, so that the method forms one of the very best
where the cadmium is taken in the form of the sulphate: the
chloride and nitrate behave differently and will be treated
later. The second modification seemed to give deposits more
satisfactory than the first. Certain cautions, however, are to
be observed. Not more than 0°1500 grm. may safely be esti-
mated; the normal current density should not exceed 3-0
amperes if a spongy deposit is to be avoided; and, for the
same reason, a large excess of electrolytes is to be avoided.
II. Ln Solutions containing Cyanides.
The deposition of cadmium from a solution of the double
cyanide has always been very satisfactory, and the results with
the rotating cathode were in complete accordance with previous
work on this method. The range of conditions of current and
quantity of electrolyte is broad, the deposit is a beautiful
silvery plate, so compact as to be rubbed off only with dift-
culty, which dries very quickly; and although the complete
deposition of the metal is not so rapid as it is from solutions
containing sulphates or acetates, it is sufficiently rapid. Care
should be taken to avoid foaming of the solution, as this
retards somewhat the deposition of the final traces of cadmium.
Generally, a volume of 65° to 70° was found most satisfac-
tory. The solution was run off into a beaker of convenient
_ size, the cadmium precipitated with sodium hydroxide, and the
precipitate redissolved in potassium cyanide. The following
results were obtained :
272 =Flora—Lstimation of Cadmium taken as the Sulphate.
i Cur’t Cd.
taken. “NaOH... KCN: read) NaDion. E.M.F. Time. found. Error.
No. grm. erm. grm. ~ amp. amp. vts. min. grm. erm,
PONT AOL 1B Oe 5 8 35 0'1498 +0-0007
2. O-1491 1°0 05 25-45 7:5-13°5 8 30 0°1490 —0-0001
3. 0°1223 1°5 1:0 2°5 bus EO 8 35 0°1225 +0°0002
IV. In Solutions containing Pyrophosphates.
Brand* has recommended the use of a solution containing
sodium pyrophosphate for the electrolytic estimation of metals,
among others, cadmium: and the fitness of this solution for
use with the rotating cathode was now studied. In each ease
the cadmium was precipitated with the indicated amount of
sodium pyrophosphate, the precipitate dissolved in an excess
of ammonium hydroxide (series A), phosphoric acid of 1:7
specific gravity (series B), sulphuric acid (series C), or hydro-
ehloric acid (series D), and subjected to the action of the
eurrent. The volume of the solution was 60°’.
While fairly accurate results may be obtained, the method
is neither so accurate as those previously described, nor are the
conditions so flexible. Particular care must be used to avoid
too large a current, as a spongy deposit may result. The
following were the results obtained :
SERIES A.
Cd. Cd.
taken. NaiP20O;. Cart = 2 N. Dios: )) Ee Mow Times one Error.
No. )grm.. grm. NH,O8. amp. amp. vis. mins. ono germ.
1, 0°1491 05 15°7°(1:4) 1°0-1°5 3°0—-4°5 8 15 0°1498 +0-0007
2 OAD Oxo e€XCess. 0°4 1:2 8 15 01489 —0:0002
8. 0°1864 9 0:5), 15°" " (cone) 4.9,0°7 Za 8 15 0'1869 +0°00005
SERIES B.
H;PO,
(1°7 sp. gr.)
4, 0°1491 1:0 oe 1:0 30 8 30 0'1496 +0 0005
5. 0°1864 1°0 IOs 1'0-1'°d = 8" 0—-4°5 8 30 O°1857 —0:0006
6, -OMAOK 410 AO 0) 3°0 8 30 01493 +0°0002
SERIES C.
H.SQx.
TOON SaeO Qemr(d: A) © 2:0-2°5 2-0-7") 8 30: O'1501. + 0;0010
8. 0°1864 0°5 excess. 1:0—2:0. 3:0-6°0 8 30 ©0°1862 —0°0002
SERIES D
HCl.
9. 0°1491 0°5 sit. excess. 1°0 3°0 8 37 O°'1499 +0°0008
10, O:L491G. 0-55,-25* Fs: 1:0 3°0 8 36 0°1486 —0°0005
*Z. anal. Ch. xxviii, 581 (1889).
No.
a
PSD MTS oR PP
Flora—Estimation of Cadmium taken as the Sulphate. 278
In Nos. 1 and 3 a small amount of dilute sulphuric acid was
added to increase the conductivity of the solution, but the time
was not reduced thereby, while the resulting deposit was
slightly spongy.
In No. 3 the cadmium was not quite all precipitated.
In No. 7 the precipitate was spongy.
V. In Solutions containing Phosphates.
The use of a solution contaming the orthophosphates dis-
solved in phosphoric acid has_been recommended by Smith*,
and this solution was next tried. The following results will
show the scope of the modifications tried:
Cd. H.PO, Total Od:
meen PNAS OO, (1:7). vol. Cuart.=- N.Dioo.3-E.M.F. Time. -fd. Error.
grm. erm. ems 726M. >" amp. amp. Vis. Min: > erm. grm.
0°1491 0°5 1°0 (ose OS) 2) 30-136 8 20 071477 —0:0014
0°1491 0°5 5-02 foe -2°0=2°5 -6°0=- 725 8 23 0°1496 +0°0005
0°1491 0°5 a:08 756 -2:0-1:5 > 6:0= 45 8 30 071508 +0:°0017
0°1491 0°5 3°0 75 2°5 4D 12 25 0O°1502 +0°0011
. 071491 0°5 4:0 75 2°5 iD 8 25 01485 —0:0006
071491 9°5 2°0 75 2°5 75 12 0d =0°1501 +0°0010
0°1864 0°25 2°0 75 2°0-3°0 6:0-— 9:0 12 40 0°1861 —0-:0003
0°1491 0°3 1°5 Ths 3°5 10°5 2 30 6071502 +0°0011
0°1019 0°25 2°0 75 2°5-3°0 7°5—-9:0 TS. 2305 0-024: + 0:0008
071019 0°25 5°0 75 3°0-3°5 9°0-10°5 78 30 0°1027 +0°0008
0°1225 0'2 5°0 75 3°0-3°5 9°0-10°5 78 40 071221 —0°0002
No. 1.—Not all out. No. 2.—Slight yellow color with H,S.
No. 8.—Shght yeliow with H,S. No. 4.—Spongy. No. 5.—
Not all out. No. 6. —Spongy. No. 10.—Spongy. No. 11.—
Slight test with H,S.
From this series of experiments it may be seen that the
method may be made to give fair results if the following con-
ditions are closely adhered to: for a total volume of 75°™*, the
cadmium is precipitated with 0-25 erm. of hydrogen disodic
phosphate, 5™* of phosphoric acid (sp. gr. = 1:7) added, and
the solution electrolyzed with a current of about 8 volts poten-
tial. If the normal current density does not exceed 9 amperes,
the deposit will be fair, and complete in about 30 minutes.
VI. In Solutions containing Oxalates.
Much work was expended upon the oxalate method, but in
spite of this, a satisfactory deposit could not be obtained.
When ammonium oxalate was present, even in small amounts,
the deposit was very spongy: while the use of sodium oxalate
alone, when carried down even to the smallest excess possible
*Am. Ch. J., xii, 329 (1890).
274 Llora—kstimation of Cadmium taken as the Sulphate.
to give a soluble double oxalate,
The dissolving of the pr ecipitated oxalates in various reagents
furnished no solution to the problem.
The results in the following table will show the scope of the
work done:
gave results much too high.
| Cd. Am. Pot. nittiel coy Ae 1a eOAOhae
No.| tkn. oxalate. oxalate. Solvent mes nee ie a8 fd. Errem
| grm. erm. erm. P P. cope = = grm. seer
1. 01491) excess none none 3-0 9:0 |12 | 2 | 0-1558 | +0-0067
2. 0:1491 | slt. excess none ie 25 73d |12 | 80 | 0°1506 | +0-°0015
3. | 01491 2° 0°5 z 2-0 -2°5 | 6-0 — 7:5) 8 | 25 | 01531 | +0-0040
4. |0-1491| none 0:5 his aps 255 75 |8 | 30 | 0-1476| —0-0015
5. | 0°1491 « 8-0 none 2-0 6-0 6-2} 20 | 0-1507 | +0°0016
6. | 0°1118 4:0 none “ 1°5 4:5 6-1} 20 | 0°1272 | +0-0154
aol | § NH,OHs ) ux ; .
Lee none 5:0 \ fewom., | 20 -8°5 | 6-0 -10°5| 6-8] 18 Q Q
8. 01118 “ | 5:0 | none 1:5 4:5 6-0) 15 | 0:1129 | +0-0011
9. 6°1019 “ | 4:() «6 2:0 -3:0 6-0 — 9-0 8 | 20 | 0-0995 | —0-0024
10, 01019 «“ | 6-6 “ 0-5 -1°5 | 1-5 — 4:5) 4-6] 35 | 0-0982 | —0-0037
11. | 0:1019 « 5-0 « 1-0 3-0 5°5| 55 | 01033 | +0-0014
12. | 01019 «i 7-0 ve 0-5 15 0=6«| 4 «| «58 | 01080 | +0-0011
13. | 0-123 2-0 8-0 z 0-1 -0°15 0°3 -0:45| 4 | 60 | 0-1286 | +0-0013
14. | 0:1223 2-0 8:0 0:02-0:10 -06- 0°34 | 76 | 0-1229 | +0-0006
Keses KOH H.SO, dil.| § ae acid i : ‘ ;
15. 0°1228 user. tie aoe 3-0 90 | 8 | 40 | 0-0876| —0-0347
; aya |b Olek oxalic acid
16. | 071228 |) 0-95 orm SEs yee Sas Bier are <3
17. |o1019| 2 Ye ee Bea io 3-6 | 8 | 35 | 0-1088| +0-0014
; | § oxalic acid : G
18. | 0°1019 is a hos ei 3 9 8 | 60 | 0:1018 | —0-0001
Of these, numbers 1, 2, 8, 6, 8, 9, 14, 15, 17, and 18 gave
very spongy precipitates, while No. 7 was so spongy that it
could not be satisfactorily dried, and so was not weighed. In
experiments numbered 4, 9, 10, 14, 15, and 18 the “cadmium
was not all precipitated in the time allowed. In No. 10, also
the precipitate was non-adherent. In No. 16, the oxalate was
precipitated and was not broken up by the current.
VIL.
Balachowsky* obtained good results by the electrolysis of
solutions containing, in addition to cadmium salts, urea and
various aldehydes. These solutions were found to offer no
difficulties with the rotating cathode, when cadmium sulphate
is taken, as may be seen from the following results.
deposits ‘were gray, compact, and quickly dr ied. The solution
was diluted to about 60° or 70, and the best current poten-
tial was found to be that given by six storage cells connected
in serles—approximately 11°8 volts.
* Compt. rend., cxxxi, 385 (1900).
In Solutions containing Urea, ete.
Tes
Flora—Estimation of Cadmium taken as the Sulphate. 275
SeRtes A.—Urea, 3 grms.
Cd. Cd.
taken. Cur’t = NDipo.* Lime. found. Error.
No. grm. amp. amp. min. grm. grm.
f= “01019, ©0°25-0°5 (0°75 =1°5 35 01018. —0-0001
2. 071223 0-2 0°6 395 0°1223 +0°0000
3. 0°1223 0°25—-0°5 0°75-1°5 30 0°1230 +0°0007
Series B.—Formalin, 2°™°.
fe 0-bO19). 0:1. 1-0: +03) 3-0 30 071018 —0:0001
Pee Ost 223. - 025-10" 2-0°6 = 30 30 0:1224 +0°0001
ee 501993"... 02 —1:0.- 0°6.=8°0 30 0:1225 +0:0002
Series C.—Acetaldehyde, 2°™°.
ee Os10 19%) Ost —0'8 0:3 9-4 "85 071022 +0-0003
ee 21293. O21 0°83 2-4 30 0°1228 +0:0005
Beet 29S) 0° 078 =. 0°38. 284 30 0°1222 —0-0001
Since the conductivity of the solutions containing urea and
the aldehydes is comparatively low, the effect of adding elec-
trolytes was tried. The rate of deposition was very much
increased, but the precipitated metal showed such tendency
toward sponginess that this procedure is not to be highly
recommended. ‘The following were the tests tried: *
SeRreR A.—Urea, 3 grms.; Time, 20 min.; EMF., 78 volts ; Current read,
0°5 amperes; N.Djoo, 1°5 amperes.
Cd. taken. Cd. found. Error.
No. grm. Electrolyte. grm. erm. Notes.
04019 -K'SO0...0°5 orm. -/0°103 1 * + 070022. “spongy.
2. 0°1019 same 0'1031 + 0°0022 af
{ H,SO, (1:4) i ;
3. O°1019 ys drps. 0°1023 +40°0004 good ppt.
4. 0°1019 same as 3 0:1027 +0°0008 — slt. spgy
5. 01019 eo) 0°1027 + 0°0008 “
1 8 drps.
Series B.—-Formaldehyde (formalin), 2°5°™; Time, 20 min.; E.M.F. 7:9
volts. Current started at 0°5 ampere and rose to 1:0 ampere at the end
of the process (N. Dio. = 1°0-3'0 amperes.) In each case the precipitate
was good. Ten drops of dilute sulphuric acid were added to increase
the conductivity of the solution.
Cd. taken. Cd. found. Error.
No. erm. grm. erm.
i 0°1019 0°1020 +0-0001
2 0°1019 0°1019 + 0:0000
VU. Ln Solutions containing Formates.
The use of the solutions containing potassium formate and a
slight excess of formic acid has been recommended,* but I
* Warwick, Z. anorg. Ch., i, 285 (1892); Avery and Dales, J. Am. Ch.
Soc., xix, 380 (1897).
‘A
o
(OTH TRON
276 Flora— Estimation of Cadmium taken as the Sulphate.
was unable to adapt this method to the rotating cathode.
When potassium formate was present in even the smallest
amounts the precipitate was spongy, and non-adherent. From
solutions containing formic acid alone, however, the metal is
deposited in a satisfactory form, but only after long passage of
the current. The following results will show the limit of
applicability of the process, experiments numbered 8 and 9
seeming to represent the most desirable conditions:
In the experiments numbered 5, 6 and 7 the cadmium was
not all precipitated in the time indicated, as was shown by
testing the solution with hydrogen sulphide.
IX. in Solutions containing Tartrates.
Solutions containing ammonium tartrate were also tried, but
failed to give satisfactory deposits, the deposit in each case
being spongy. If the solution contain only tartaric acid, how-
ever, in place of its salts, fairly satisfactory results may be
obtained, as shown by the following table:
Ca Tartaric
Cd. KCHO, Cd.
tkn. sat. sol. Curt — N. Ditton OHM BP Pimes gee ede Error.
erm. em®. HOCHO. amp. amp. vis. min. grm. grm.
071019 2 ae 1:0 —2°0 3-6 8 17 | Not weighed ;
Ort D2 3-20 <9 hp O°4 122 8 .. | “ppt. blistered
071223 075 a 0°4 1°2 8 ae r and dropped
O12 3e 2 O25 sh 0O°4 1:2 8 ay off.
0-223 oe 15 dps. 0°25-0°8. 0°75-2°4 2 25 0°1228 +0:°0005
Ome ae RS orto 0°25-0°8 0°75—2°4 8 25: 0°1212 —0-0010
0°1223 was ie eas 075 -1°5) «1°95 -—4%5) «612-16 35 ©0°1202 —0°0021
0°1019 ae fee! 32 2075 1-0 less 330 12 60 0O°1022 +0°00038
0°1223 pe: Heeest 0-4 -—1°0 1°2 —3:°0 12 55 0°1218 —0°0005
tkn. acid. Cur’t = N.Diono. © E.M.F. Time. (Cd. fd. Error.
Tests with hydrogen sulphide showed that the cadmium was
No. grm. erm. amp. amp. vts. min. germ. grm.
1, 0°1223 3 0°5-1°0 = 1°5—3:0 8 20 071212. —0o-0011
2. 071223 2 0°5 1°5 8 30 0°1216 —0-°0007
3. 0°1223 2 0°5 1°5 8 50 0°1215 —9:0008
4, 01019 3 1°5 Rae ER Seal es) 0°1022 +0°00038
not all precipitated in the tests numbered 1, 2 and 3, which ~
were performed at a dilution of 70°™*; experiment 4 was per-
formed at a dilution of 50°. It will be noted that, as in the
sulphate process, the last traces of cadmium are thrown out of
the higher state of dilution only with extreme difficulty.
A. J. Moses—Crystailization of Luzonite. 277
Arr. XXX.—The Crystallization of Luzonite ; and other |
Crystallographic Studies ; by Atrrep J. Moses.
1. The Crystallization of Luzonite.
Tue reddish bronze, fine-grained variety of Cu,AsS, which
is found in the copper veins of Mancayan, Luzon Island in
the Phillipines, has been generally accepted as dimorphous
with enargite, but the minute erystals, “tiny individuals of
unrecognizable form,”* observed in the cavities growing from
the granular mass have not been measured but rather referred
to as ‘indistinct, uneven, striated crystals not rhombic but
monoclinic or even Peclince! et
Recently Mr. Maurice Goodman, senior field assistant in the
Bureau of Mines, Manila, collected a number of |uzonite speci-
mens showing these crystals in cavities, from which I selected
and measured the crystals here described.
Crystals No. 1 and No. 2.—A mass of typical luzonite, free
from all visible columnar blackish enargite, showed a number
of cavities the walls of which were crystallized ; that is, little
detached fragments of the walls under the microscope were
seen to be facetted by minute crystals which projected very
slightly and the faces of which could be traced down until
they merged in the bronze-colored mass. They were not
implanted on or enclosed in the mass, but distinctly suggested
that the mass on solidifying for med little facets such as form
on the cooling of a fused mass of pyromorphite. Itis curious and
probably of genetic significance, that the terminal planes of these
crystals are decidedly lighter in color and of less brilliant luster
than the side planes, the latter suggesting the dark gray otf
enargite or stibnite and the former a reddish steel-gray not
very different from the tint of the massive luzonite. In more
than one instance in which a fracture extended across a crystal
into the massive material it was impossible to see any difference
in the color or character of the surfaces.
Two little crystals were mounted for measurement. No. 1,
shown in fig. 1, was only 4 to 4™™ in any direction, but was
attached to a fragment of the mass from which it had devel-
oped. Signals were obtained in the two-circle goniometer
from seven se but were a little blurred. Crystal No. 2,
shown in fig. 2, was the largest crystal I observed as a cay ity
wall facet, and its terminal face was approximately a rhomb of
14x3"". It also yielded signals from seven faces and a series
of sionals from a curved triangular surface.
In both crystals the terminal faces were reddish steel-gray
and the vertical faces dark gray. Taking the terminal faces
* Weisbach, Tscher. Min. Mitth., 1874, 257.
+ Frenzel, ibid., 1877, 303.
278 A. J. Moses
Crystallization of Luzonite.
as ¢ = 001, the consideration of the angles in the vertical zone
suggested an orientation for comparison with the common
orms of enargite as follows:
forms of gite as foll
1 2
Enargite Crystal No. 1. Crystal No. 2.
Form. Face. Signal. Measured 4d. Face. Signal. Measured @.
C001 Al. Sain Bis ae 1 Fair ease
(=O Ionlole ale” Bl" 2 Double 49° 02’
6 eC AOS BG) 5 Fair 48° 44!
(2 elinreds e438: 130: é Wes on
Jo NW20) eves ee ‘Spa 3 Faint Bl” AL
== 1SX0) 2 Fair OO Dy! u Eee Pee
4 Double 19> 17" E tA Sa
b=010 3 ho Om tiou e ee is aS
C= 100 ae See or i Double 89° 46’
hol x Merits Gat curved Series 90° 0’
The comparison of the averaged angles is:
Enargite @. Crystal No. 1 ¢. Crystal No. 2 9.
Wm==48° 59! 47” 48° 48’ 48° 56’
N= 29 rod aS), NS. 31° 44
1=20° 58’ 38” DO? DO! eee
Et) On 5 eee
a=90° bynes 89° 46’
That is, ad? the angles are those of the common forms of
enargite within the limits of accuracy that the measurement
of minute crystals with rather dull ¢ faces and somewhat
striated vertical faces would permit.
Crystals No. 3 and No. 4.—The relatively simple erystals
from the cavity walls connect directly with the two other
more highly modified crystals here described.
Upon another specimen and so in contact with the massive
luzonite as to be, In my opinion, developed from it, were a
number of little, bright, highly modified crystals which like
Nos. 1 and 2 are much lighter colored on the terminal faces
than on the side or prism faces. Crystal No. 3 was the best
of these found, and as shown in fig. 3 it proved to include all
the forms of Nos. 1 and 2 as well as those of the later described
crystal 4. Its size was 4X$x1™ in the directions @, 6, ¢
respectively.
A. J. Moses— Crystallization of Luzonite.
279
From still another specimen of massive luzonite, but resting
upon it rather than growing from it, was a little group of
black lustrous crystals, the best of which, crystal No. 4, shown
in fig. 4, measured 3; X$X2™™ in the directions a, b, c, which,
while differing from all described enargite crystals in the pres-
ence of a pyramid, P= 223, as its most prominent terminal form,
connects directly with crystal No. 3 by the fact that this pyramid
and all the other forms of the crystal are prominent on crystal 3.
Both crystals were measured in the two-circle goniometer.
Crystal No. 3 yielded good to fine signals from twenty-one
faces and poorer ones from four others, while crystal No. 4
yielded good signals from twelve faces and poorer from two
others. The average results tabulate as follows:
Numb Measured angles. Computed enargite angles.
Number
Form. Crystal.| faces. @ eka @ | p
¢ (001) 3 1 ae 0° Bee aoe
e 4 1 acre oe eee | Baa
b (010) 3 is Oe 89° 492" 0° 90°
a (100) 3 2 90° 044! 90° 90° 90°
« Ae 2 Approx. 90-90 *| ee penne
7m ©) 4 AGO rk 90r a. ABS 59°47" | 90°
Bees oc 4 4 Sea ace | aoe
h (120) 3 4 99° 564’ U0 1.29754 13" 90°
+ 1 30° 03’ SO as eee pees ei (or ele
Z (130) 3 1 MeO ele 907. 20; 58: 38> 5 gue
s (011) 3 bree eee SOC 0. aie BO. SOleMG.
O51 3 os 0° bn6 18. 0° iG BAO!
PATOL): | -:3 Do dy SOM gy wes | 43° 39) 902 [243° B45 6"
. 4 2 Bi eA ASAD! si iid otha
P (223) 3 4 49° 12’ | 39°54 | 48° 59' 47" | 40° 387 16"
4 4 PS oe es. Ochi een sh Oe
* Poor signals.
280 A. J. Moses—Crystallization of Luzonite.
The Calculated Angles of Hnargite—The axial elements
calculated by Dauber* in 1854 are
@:b:¢= 0°8711 31: 0°8248
based upon angles of mm = 82° 7’ and cs = 89° 81’.
In 1895 Fletchert calculated new elements
a:b: ¢=0°8694 : 1: 0°8308
based upon angles mm = 82° 03’ and ck = 48° 42’
This value of mm is the average of so many measurements
that it cannot well be questioned and it is not far from the
angles here obtained since the mean of twenty ¢ angles of 110
and 223 is 48° 574’ and Fletcher’s mm = 82° 04’ yields @ of
110 = 48° 592". .
Fletcher’s value for ¢, however, considers only the faces
k= 101 and is the mean of some fourteen values of ck. The
new pyramid, P = 223, is represented on crystals Nos. 3 and 4
by eight good faces and the readings especially in crystal 4 are
close. The angles ¢ and p of 223 in crystal 4 vield a:b: ¢=
8698: 1:°8241, essentially those of Fletcher in the case of @
but not so near in the ease of ©. .
I have therefore used in my calculation an intermediate
value for ¢ of -8274, which is also an approximate mean be-
tween the ¢ values of Fletcher and Dauber.
In conclusion, these results show that the crystals which form
at the solidification of luzonite and those which form possibly
later on luzonite have the angles of enargite. In other words,
“luzonite ”’ is not an independent species but merely a variety
of enargite. 7
I base this claim principally on the angles here recorded for
the small and relatively simple crystals Nos. 1 and 2, which are
types of the cavity-wall crystals so connected with the massive
material that it is impossible to doubt that they are the results
of its solidification.
Crystal No. 3 I believe to have formed in the same
manner but under more favorable conditions, while crystal No.
4 is evidently secondary. The new form P = 223, prominent
in both, connects them however.
The observed color difference on the terminal faces and ver-
tical faces of the cavity-wall crystals, and crystal No. 8, prob-
ably has genetic significance. The recorded analysis by.
Winkler is of practically pure material, which makes inadmis-
sible a theory of crystallographic regularity in elimination of
impurities. The comparative dullness of the basal plane in
Nos. 1 and 2 might suggest a light effect explaining the color,
* Pogg, Ann., lxxiii, 383, 1854.
+ Mineralogical Magazine, xi, 73, 1895.
aang
A. J. Moses—Crystallization of Luzonite. 281
but in erystal No. 3 ¢ is bright and the color is still reddish
steelgray. Tarnish does not seem to explain it, as enargite
usually tarnishes a blue-black, and finally the possible deposi-
tion of a thin layer of dark-colored enargite observed on pyrite
associated with Morococho enargite seems not to explain, since
the cleavage on No. 3 is also of the dark gray color.
2. Crystallized Wolframite from Boulder Co., Col.
Mr. Morris K. Jones, of Boulder, Colorado, sent me a sack
of tungsten ore from different lodes in the property of the
Great Western Exploration and Reduction Co., situated about
twelve miles west of the city of Boulder.
The mineral, which varies in the percentage of manganese
in the different lodes, occurs in most of the specimens as the
cementing material of a brecciated rock composed chiefly of
fine-grained quartz and partially decomposed feldspar. The
spaces between the angular rock fragments are filled with the
5
erystalline black ore, the crystals often crossing the crevices.
Occasionally the ore thickens to a considerable mass.
On breaking the specimens numerous black brilliant little
crystals were found, rarely exceeding 1$ to 2™™ in their
longest dimension. So far as observed none of the crystals is
doubly terminated in the direction of the 6 axis, but all have
grown out in that direction from the mass. This and the
frequent existence at the visible end of a rectangular face or
cleavage b= 010 suggests at first examination a simple com-
bination of the three pinacoids. ‘The actual form, however, is
that shown in figure 5.
Two crystals, each ending in a 6 cleavage and essentially
alike in habit, were measured. Crystal No. 1 was 4 x 4 x 3"
in the directions a, b, c, and crystal No. 2 a trifle larger.
The forms identified by the measurements were:
Prismatic zone—l = 210; m=110; 6=010; all yield-
ing good signals from bright decided faces of both crystals.
In addition a signal was obtained from both erystals which
closely corresponded to d = 310. It was, however, evidently
a second element in the striations upon the faces / = 210.
282 A. J. Moses-—Crystailization of Luzonite.
The largest face in each crystal was undoubtedly ¢= 001,
but these faces were so striated’ that the series of images gave
values for p each side of the correct position through four or
five degrees, and probably involved various indeterminable
domes h Olandh 01.
The remaining forms determined were ¢ = 102 well devel-
oped; A = 112 minute but bright, and a new form, p = 214
occurring as a narrow truncation.
The comparison between the measured and computed
coordinate angles for 2, m, ¢t, A and p is:
Measured. Calculated.
Face. i) p iy p
U 67° 362" 90° 67° 344 90°
Mm SOS Ney 90° 50° 274! 90°
t 89° 524’ 28° 103' 90° UiS har
A lle Be, 34° 104! a0 7 bs 347 20%
p 68° 45’ 302 17, 68° 6! 3 OreiGen
Upon a few of the specimens there were small yellow
sphalerite crystals and small crystals of seheelite not suitable
for measurement.
3. New Faces on Sylvanite Crystal from Cripple Creek, Col
Some three or.four years ago Mr. F. C. Hamilton purchased
some telluride specimens from a dealer at Cripple Creek, Col.,
and presented them to Columbia University. Among these
was a mass of 3% 0z. in weight which consisted almost entirely
of large erystals and crystal bunches some of them 20 & 5™
in length and breadth. Nearly every one of these was partly
coated with a thin layer of chalcedony, but many brilliant
faces and cleavages were visible.
There were a few smaller crystals upon the mass which were
nearly free from chalcedony; one of these was so symmetrical
that it was measured under the impression that it was ortho-
rhombic and possibly a highly modified krennerite. The
angles, however, quickly proved its identity with sylvanite.
The dimensions of the erystal were approximately 1x 1 2™™
in the directions @, b,c. For better adjustment the crystal
mas mounted in the two-circle goniometer with the large
= (010) face parallel to the vertical circle, and centered by
ie face and the faces of the zone [100 001]. The results
were then transformed.
Twenty-six forms were identified, 5 which twenty have been
previously described by Dr. Chas. Palache* on erystals from
Cripple Creek; two others, J/=101 and p=112, are recorded
forms not previously noticed on the er ystals from this locality
* This Journal, x, 419, 1900.
A. J. Moses—Crystallization of Luzonite. 283
and four are new domes H=102, 7=103, /=203 and L=208.
The following angles give the proofs for these previously un-
recorded and new forms:
Measured p. Calculated p.
SA) ETH ON |e SES Nee tel rea eater 34° 354 Byers ase
ed GO aye a eee ahs ee PO TQ! 19° 124!
SOUT ea eee en ease 24° 508’ 94° 55’
eel enter. Ae ea yee, oe 13° 164 138° 41’
rane ene, eet tee OAS NS! WO Ts
For the pyramid p=112
Measured angles-.------ o—3 il 18! p= 33) wade
Calculated angles...---- Goo 0s Sh N= OA oOo s :
The oceurring forms and their relative development may be
judged by the following tabulation. The forms in the first
column are in most cases composed of fine relatively large
faces; the largest, however, being the three pinacoids and the
three domes 102, 101, 303. All of these domes are new to the
locality.
Faces yielding Faces yielding Faces yielding
Type. fine signals. good signals. faint signals.
Pinacoids__ 001, 010, 110 ea cei
ieee See 110. 210 310 bee
(3) See cere O11 ce
1 ee ei 102, 101 203 | 103
Ld 2a eg Meee LOR203 aes ae
OO aa ee 121, 321 ET 112, 123 TA) 3258 O24
Oh 2a era Rts ie 23 521
4. Hematite Purting from Franklin Furnace, N. J.
A mass of ore from Franklin Furnace, N. J., weighing
about two pounds, consisted principally of hematite with a
very marked rhombohedral] parting. With the hematite was
calcite also showing a parting (parallel to 0112) and enclosed
within the calcite was a broken crystal about one inch in diam-
eter which consisted of a well-defined crust of hematite with
the parting, the red streak, the very feeble manganese and very
weak magnetism; and a core of franklinite with different luster,
no parting, brown streak, decided manganese reaction and
decided magnetism.
For record the nearly cubical parting was measured. The
signals are not bright and there is a little calcite between the
parting surfaces. “Two angles of a fragment yielded respect-
ively 94° 35’, 93° 52’ or an average of 94° 13’. The unit
rhombohedron angle of hematite is 94° 0’.
284 A. J. Moses—Crystallization of Luzonite.
Mr. John Crawford, Jr., made triplicate analyses for me of
selected material for total iron and for I'eQ, the result being:
Fe per cent. » FeO per cent.
67°15 Shy)
67°07 1°66
67°22 1°54
67°15 average. 1-72 average.
Dedueting the 1°34 Fe equivalent to 1°72 FeO leaves 65°31 Fe
present as Fe,O, or 94:00 per cent.
The total analysis becomes:
Tnsoluble se oe ee
CaO calculated to CaCO, ------ 2°85
B60 Ve os ea
HeQ ex SiG ei 8 ed a ee ei
100°07
Or recalculating the Fe,O, and FeO to 100 per cent.
Ke OX se ie eee 98°20 per cent.
HeO ss 3 he eee ean as 1°80 z
Columbia University, June, 1905.
Wright—Optical Character of Birefracting Minerals. 285
Arr. XXXI.—The Determination of the Optical Character
of Birefracting Minerals; by Frep. Eveenr Wriaut.
MineErRALs are recognized in the thin section chiefly by their
crystallographic properties and by the effect they have on
transmitted light. The more important optic features used in
their microscopic discrimination are color, pleochroism, refrac-
tive index, birefringence, optical orientation, angle between
the optic axes (2V),* and optical character. Of these the latter
two are determined in convergent polarized light and are well
adapted for general application. They furnish exclusive data
as to the nature of a given raineral, and can be accomplished
by ordinary petrographic microscopes.
The optical character of a mineral, whether positive or nega-
tive, depends by definition solely on the value of the bisector of
the acute angle between the optic axes; it is, therefore, inde-
pendent of the erystal system and pertains to all biretracting
minerals. The usual methods available for its determination,
however, apply in practice only to uniaxial minerals and to
those biaxial minerals for which the angle between the optic
axes in air (2E) is less than 80°; if 2K exceeds this limit, the
traces of the optic axes lie outside of the microscopic field
and give rise to uncertainty as to the position of the acute
bisectrix, thereby seriously affecting the results. There are
several methods, however, which, although not novel in prin-
ciple, are scarcely recognized iD literature, and which practi-
cally obviate this difficulty. They are based on phenomena
observed in convergent polarized light with nicols crossed and
apply equally well to uniaxial and biaxial minerals.
A general consideration of microscopic mineral determina-
tion shows conclusively that the optical character of minerals
is one of their most useful traits for practical determination
since the means employed are simple and of easy application.
The following paragraphs aim to present these methods from
a working standpoint, the necessary theoretical data appearing
in fine print.
The crystal sections of birefractng minerals, from which
decisive interference figures can be obtained, are those cut
exactly or nearly perpendicular to the bisectrices of the optic
axes, to the optic axes, and parallel to the plane of the optic
axes. These sections and the methods applicable to them can
be discussed tor all birefracting substances if uniaxial minerals
are treated as a limiting case of biaxial minerals.
* The use of the term optic binormal in place of ‘‘ optic axes” as pro-
posed by Mr. L. Fletcher in his treatise on The Optical Indicatrix may be an
improvement on the original term, but since the distinction implied by the
words uniaxial and biaxial is in use in all languages, is convenient and
causes no confusion, it is probable that the original designation will remain.
Am. Jour. Sci.—FourtH SERIES, Vou. XX, No. 118.—OcToBEr, 1905.
20
286 Wright—Optical Character of Birefracting Minerals.
The figures 1—6, used to illustrate the methods, were obtained
in part by graphical and in part by mathematical means based
on the law of Fresnel, that the planes of polarization for rays
traveling in any direction bisect the angles between the planes
containing the ray and the two optic axes respectively ; in
other words, the directions of extinction for any face bisect
the angles between the projections of the optic axes on the face.
Plates cut perpendicular to the acute bisectria.
For birefracting minerals in which 2E is less than 80°, the
methods ordinarily described in text-books are applicable and
satisfactory. Both optic axes appear then in the field, and the
optical character can be ascertained in convergent polarized
hight by observing the change in position of the lemniseatie
interference curves in alternate quadrants on the insertion of a
quartz wedge or a plate showing the interference-color red of
the first order, or a quarter-undulation mica plate. The
numerical value of 2E can also be measured on the same sec-
tion by the Bertrand-Mallard* method described below. For
minerals whose 2E is greater than 80°, a method deseribed by
Michel Lévyt for determining whether the section is perpen-
dicular to the obtuse or the acute bisectrix can be used to
advantage. It consists in observing the angle of revolution of
the stage from the position where the black achromatic curves
of the interference figure form a cross to that at which they are
tangent to a given circle (usually field of the microscope).
From this angle 2E can be determined, and from it in turn
the true optic axial angle (2V), if the medium index of refrac-
tion of the substance be known.
It can be proved both mathematically and graphically that
the dark achromatic hyperbolas, which form during the revolu-
tion of the stage, pass through the traces of the optic axes and
recede from the field along the diagonals of the principal
planes of the nicols.’ Practically, the course of procedure is to
find a plate cut perpendicular to the bisectrix, to record the
angle of revolution of the stage from the point where the dark
hyperbolas intersect to that at which they are tangent to a given
circle within the field of vision. From this angle the corre-
sponding axial angle in air can be obtained by using fig. la,
provided the Mallard constant of the microscope has been pre-
viously determined. If the medium refractive index of the
mineral is also given, it is possible to convert 2E into 2V_ by
means of fig. Lb.
* EK. Bertrand in Mallard, Miner. physique, 11, 418. E. Mallard, Sur la
mesure de l’angle des axes optiques. Bull. Soc. miner., 1882, page 77 et seq.
+ Michel Lévy, Minéraux des Roches, 94-95.
287
Wright— Optical Character of Birefracting Minerals.
Rire:
: \ \ \ \ |
« - x - \ + ‘ > oh 4
\ { \ \ |
| jana ae pe A UU
peak) rts ithe bebe aay | ecksh be
hig cede Pe wlll di i
5 SAN id 6. SASSO WE i SEDATE: INE g as
288 Wright—Optical Character of Birefracting Minerals.
Bertrand-Maliard method for measuring the optic axial angle
(2K) under the microscope. Mallard has shown that the distance
of the trace of an optic axis from the center of the interference
figure is proportional to the sine of the angle which the optic
axis makes with the axis of the microscope; that, if the distance
D be measured by means of a micrometer ocular, the angle E
can be figured from the formula
sin HK = uD
Kk
in which I< is the constant of the microscope to be determined
once for all on a substance whose 2E is known. By drawing a
circle of radius Kt in fig. la (once for all), the angle EK corre-
sponding to any number of divisions of the micrometer ocular is
then the angle in the figure included between its base and the
radius passing through the intersection of the are K with the
horizontal line at the distance D from the base line. To convert
2K into 2V use fig. la, which was derived from the formula
} sin EK
aia Ws
nN
mM
nm,, being the medium refractive index of the substance. The
angle 2V is then the angle on the degree circle included between
the base line and the horizontal line which passes through the
intersection of the radius EK and the given refractive index are.
Michel Lévy method. Michel Lévy has developed a formula
from which approximate values of the axial angle 2K can be cal-
culated, provided the index of refraction of the objective lens
in which the interference figure is observed be known. As this,
however, is not generally the case, a modification of the formula
by introducing Mallard’s constant in place of the refractive index
is better suited to actual practice.
ie, Be
adoeaecthsoce
meee
eas
a
=x
In fig. 2* let the plane of the paper represent the section per-
pendicular to the bisector of the acute optic axial angle and the
figure itself the achromatic lines observed in convergent polar-
* Compare Preston, Theory of Light, 3d ed., pp. 400-401.
Wright— Optical Character of Birefracting Minerals. 289
ized light ; A,A,, the projection of the optic axes, and P that of
any ray in the achromatic hyperbola. Fresnel’s law states that
the planes of polarization of rays traveling in any direction P
are the bisectors of the angles between the planes A,P and A,P.
' For small angles of incidence, the traces of the planes of polari-
zation of the rays will approximately coincide with the bisectors
of the angle A,PA,. Since P is a point of the achromatic curve,
the bisector of the angle A,PA, must be parallel to one of the
principal planes of the nicols. ‘The triangle FPA, is then isos-
celes, and the triangles PFD and PDA, are similar. Therefore
Depa Oe ete
; eres Ia (2)
Y= Ya YT Y,
wy = ay, (2)
the equation of an equilateral hyperbola. In order that this
curve be tangent to a circle, its tangent must be perpendicular to
the radius the equation for which is
Y= —— & (3)
Soe d
By substituting the value of ~ from (2), (83) becomes
BG
wy (4)
which shows that the hyperbolic curves are tangent to the circles
along the diagonals of the nicols. For these points (2) reads
C= HY, (5)
Transforming (5) to polar codrdinates, we find
== SIN (6)
From Mallard’s method above, it is evident that
7=K sin E
and p=K sin O
sin O
Therefore, sin EK = —
‘/ sin 2h (7)
where sine O is the constant of the circle used and to be deter-
mined once for all by the Mallard method. For any given angle
of revolution (¢) the corresponding E can be found by finding
in fig. 1b the intersection of the horizontal line at the distance
sine O from the base line with that are which corresponds to the
angle @. 2E can then be reduced to 2V by fig. la, if the medium
index of refraction be known.
Owing to the width of the achromatic curves, the results
attained by this method are only approximate but of sufficient
accuracy to be useful in many instances. The angles ¢ can also
be figured for sections not exactly perpendicular to the bisectrix ;
they possess, however, only slight practical value.
290 Wreght—Optical Character of Birefracting Minerals.
The mathematical formula above is only an approximate one,
while a graphic method can be applied which is theoretically
correct and by which more accurate results can be obtained.
The method has been used by Michel Lévy, Viola,* von Fedorow
and others in their feldspar studies and is well adapted for
general use in the study of optical phenomena.
The lines along which any face will extinguish can be found
by passing planes through the normal to the face and the optic
axes respectively, and bisecting the traces of these planes on the
face. In order to do this readily, a stereographic projection of
the optic axes In any desired position should first be made. By a
revolution about each of two horizontal axes in the principal
planes in the nicols, any face normal can be brought to coincide
with the pole of the projection and the face with that of the
paper. The bisectors of the angles between the straight lines
drawn through the pole of the projection and the optic axes in
their new positions are then the desired directions. The achro-
matic black hyperbolas of the interference figure correspond to
those face-normals whose extinction lines are parallel to the axes
of revolution of the projection. In the projection the achro-
matic lines, however, do not appear as they do when observed
under the microscope, for its interference figure can be considered
with shght error as an orthographic projection of the rays on a
sphere, as shown by Mallard’s formula above. ‘The curves of
the stereographie projection must therefore be replotted by
making the polar distance sine E instead of tan 9 28 it Is in the
stereographic projection. The general aspect of the curves is
not changed by this transformation. The graphic method has
been applied to the methods below with satisfactory results.
(Figs. 4 and 6.)
The interference figure from the section perpendicular to
the obtuse bisectrix differs from the above only in the wider
optic axial angle, which can be measured by the same methods.
Plate perpendicular to an optic axis.
The interference figure obtained from this plate consists
ordinarily of a black achromatic bar which revolves in a
direction opposite to that of the stage. In general the bar is
a straight line only when it is parallel to the planes of polari-
zation of the nicols ; in the intermediate positions it is more or
less convex, depending on the angle between the optic axes.
If 2K, however is equal to 90°, the curve is a straight line in
all positions for the usual microscopic field of vision.
* Michel Lévy, Sur la determination des feldspaths, 1894, pp. 15-20. C.
Viola, Zeitschr. fiir Kryst., xxx, 232, xxxi, 484, xxxii, 305. E. von Fedorow,
Zeitschr. fir Kryst., xxxi, 579, xxxii, 246.
291
racting Minerals.
ler
£
a
“Ve
WAM Re abteay DAY nV AD jy RASS Dal ete tay en
IG eo:
Wroght— Optical Character of B
ent
Eee
ff
5 A vp nfl ALMA DearS A
|
2
etromn rie mrimslailebtpiniabure Ay SI AtOE SD Hifi
N
>
Vv
or
2a
ri Wee
Zoe
OA
Sr alt Ta i
J i NG Z ‘ \
Ms : oe na
A Tine seTaSeSSS - ss
Tere.
292. Wright—Optical Character of Birefracting Minerals.
An examination. of the curves for the several optic axial
angles, figs. 3 and 4, indicates clearly that the convex side of
the bar in the diagonal position points toward the acute bisec-
trix. The determination of the optical character is effected
then most readily by means of the red of the first order plate.
If the achromatic bar of the interference figure be placed in
the position of fig. 8 with the convex side of the hyperbola
pointing to the northeast and the arrow of the plate (direction
of least ellipsoidal axis) also in the same direction, the convex
side of the curve will show a blue interference color if the
mineral is optically negative; the blue spot will be on the con-
cave side of the curve if it is optically positive.
This method can always be applied if the convexity of the
curve can be discerned. In certain plagioclase feldspars, the
limiting case of 2V =90° is encountered occasionally and there
the bar is in fact a straight line. For most of the feldspars,
however, the curvature is sufticiently marked to enable a deter-
mination of their optical character. The result can be checked
by extinction angles of the section and adjacent twinning
lamellee after the method of Michel Lévy.
The approximate formula for the achromatic curves from this
plate can be derived from a discussion of fig. 5, which is based on
assumptions similar to those obtaining for the curves of the eee
perpendicular to the acute bisectrix.
Hic. 9d.
vara
= ak (1)
Wright— Optical Character of Birefracting Minerals. 293
the equation of an equilateral hyperbola passing through the
zero coordinate point with asymptotes parallel to the X and Y
axes. For the special case under consideration where x, = y,, the
formula becomes
igs gs (3)
From (3) the curves of fig. 3 were plotted in gnomonic pro-
jection.
For «, =, equation 3 becomes
cay
the equation of a straight line passing through the zero point at
an angle of 45° with the codrdinate axes. If the formula of
Mallard were exact, x, could not assume a value greater than 1
(sine 90°); since it is approximately correct only for small angles,
the above remark does not obtain. The gnomonic projection
was, therefore used in fig. 3 instead of the orthographic.
In such limiting cases “the graphic method gives more satisfac-
tory results and is in general better suited to the study of optical
phenomena. In fig. 4, the stereographic plat with curves for
Somevaxial angeles 0°, 15°, 45°, 75°, and 90° is given. ‘Their
course in the vicinity of the pole of the projection only is repre-
sented since it corresponds to that portion which is seen under
the microscope.
Plate parallel to the plane of the optic axes.*
In the uniaxial minerals this plate corresponds to any section
in the prism zone.
The interference figure from the section can be recognized
by the fact that in the position of darkness the entire field is
practically dark and that a small revolution of the stage (5°)
will cause the faint hyperbola to recede entirely from the field
of vision. In the diagonal position the colored interference
curves have the form of hyperbolas.
Since ordinary approximate methods of calculation do not
apply to this section, the graphic method with the stereographic
projection plat as base was adopted. The result, as depicted
by the curves of fig. 6, shows that the recession of the dark
achromatic lines for the optie axial angles 2V=0°, 10°, 80°,
and 90° after a revolution of 1° of the stage is very marked,
and that, except in the limiting case of oY = o Ome thie dark
hyperbolas pass out of the field most slowly in the direction of
the acute bisectrix. For 2V=90° the hyperbolas in all quad
rants recede from the center with equal rapidity. In fig. 6
* Compare F. E. Wright, this Journal, xvii, 387-391.
294 Wreght— Optical Character of Birefracting Minerats.
the lines between the outer and inner circles represent the
actual position of the bisectrices and optic axes under the
conditions stated. |
Owing to the fact that for this section the angles of extine-
tion are very low for all rays whose angle of incidence is small,
the intensity of the rays adjacent to those of the achromatic
curve is also low, since it varies with the square of the sine of
Fie. 6.
the angle p between the planes of polarization of the nicols and
that of the section according to the formula
Des sila 2 sin : (o—e)
The black curves are therefore indistinct and require careful
scrutiny to be observed at all.
The colored hyperbolic interference curves which appear in
the interference figure most sharply in the diagonal position of
the section can also be used to locate the direction of the acute
bisectrix. It can be proved in several different ways that the
acute bisectrix is generally direction of less birefringence than
the obtuse bisectrix. The birefringence of any section can
be figured approximately by the formula
y'—a'=(y—a) sin 6, sin 6,
where y’ and a’ denote the maximum and minimum refractive
indices of the given section, y and a those of the mineral, 0,
and @, the angles between the normal to the section and the
Wright— Optical Character of Birefracting Minerals. 295
optic axes respectively. The formula indicates clearly that,
except in the limiting case of 2V=90°, the birefringence for
sections in the alternate quadrants containing the acute bisec-
trix is less than that for corresponding sections in the two
remaining quadrants. The rule resulting from this fact is that
the interference colors for points in the quadrants containing
the acute bisectrix are lower than those for corresponding
points in the direction of the obtuse bisectrix.
After the direction of the acute bisectrix has been found by
one of the above methods, its value (c or a) can be readily
ascertained by ordinary methods either in parallel or conver-
gent polarized light.
Summary.
In the practical determination of minerals under the micro-
scope advantage is taken chiefly of those properties which are
definite in character and which can be readily ascertained. Of
these the optical character is one of the most useful since it
apples to all birefracting minerals and can be determined in
convergent polarized light on plates cut along one of several
different directions :
1. On plates perpendicular to the acute bisectrix, by obsery-
ing the direction of movement of the curves of the interfer-
ence figure on the insertion of a quartz wedge, mica plate, or
plate showing the interference color red of the first order. If
the loci of the optic axes lie outside of the field, determine
whether the plate is perpendicular to the obtuse or acute bisec-
trix by measuring the optic axial angle in air by the modifica-
tion of the Michel Lévy method described on page 288. The
reduction of the observed optic axial angle to that in the crys-
tal ean be accomplished only when the medium refractive index
of the substance is known and then easily by fig. 1.
2. On a plate perpendicular to an optic axis by noting that,
when the black achromatic bar lies in a position diagonal to
that of the principal planes of the nicols, its convex side points
toward the acute bisectrix and that on the insertion of a plate
showing the interference color red of the first order, the con-
vex side will be colored blue if the arrow (nv) of the inserted
plate les in the plane of the optic axes and the mineral is
optically negative ; if the blue spot lies on the concave side of
the bar and the arrow of the plate still liés in the plane of the
optic axes, the mineral is optically positive. This method is
applicable whenever the curvature of the achromatic bar can
be observed. ‘The section is moreover easy to find because in
parallel polarized light with nicols crossed it remains nearly
dark for all positions of the stage.
296 Wreght—Optical Character of Birefracting Minerals.
3. Ona plate parallel to the plane of the optic axes the direc-
tion of the acute bisectrix can be located by two different
methods:
a. Kevolve mineral from the position of darkness through a
small angle and note that the direction in which the faint dark
hyperbolas recede from the field is that of the acute bisectrix.
6. In the diagonal position of the interference figure observe
the interference colors of corresponding points in adjacent
quadrants and note that the points i the direction of the acute
bisectrix show the lower interference colors. In both cases
the value of the acute bisectrix (c or a) can be determined
either in convergent or parallel polarized hght by the usual
methods and thus the optical character of the mineral be ascer-
tained.
U.S. Geological Survey, Washington.
Barus— Groups of Efficient Nuclei in Dust-Free Air. 297
Art. XXXIL—On Groups of Efficient Nuclei in Dust-Free
Air; by O, Barus.
1. Dustfree Air.—By this term I refer to atmospheric air
ae with extreme slowness (through large wide filter of
packed cotton) and thereafter left without interference for
two or more hours. Such air shows a high fog limit. In the
fog chamber used the coronal condensation begins at a pressure
difference of about 69 = 26 em., rain-like condensation at
eg — 21 cm.
Tn the present experiments all tests are made at 6p = 41°5 cm.,
at a pressure difference therefore much above the fog limit,
and probably approaching the condensing power of the appa-
ratus. The number of nuclei computed from the coronas
observed is an approximation merely, as the constants needed
for the very large range of variation in question are not avail-
able. Nev ‘ertheless, if the same 6p is used throughout, the
nucleations obtained are immediately comparable. With these
reservations* the number of nuclei found in the dust-free air
and at the 6p in question is about 880 x 10° to 460 x 10° per
em*. Itisobvious, more-
over, that these nuclei %0-5p & 30 3 4G 45
are excessively small,
much smaller than ions,
smaller even than those |
which would respond to — g9—
smaller exhaustions,
exceeding 6p = 26 em.
In fioure Ll have.
given an vexample of these
eelamons. Between’ ,
dp = 21 and 26 (for this
apparatus: condensation probably takes place largely on ions
above that on the nuclei of dust-free air. The upper dotted
line shows the limit of value found, the latter being variable
because (as will appear more clearly below) the ionization of
atmospheric air is essentially variable. Though relatively
small in number, the ions from their larger size probably cap-
ture much of the moisture.
2. Lifect of Radium.—Now let the fog-chamber (fig. 3) be
subjected to the radiations from weak “yadium (10,000 x,
10 mg.) contained in a thin hermetically sealed aluminum
tube. As the walls of the fog-chamber are °3 em. thick and
300;
* The nuclei are supposed to be removed by exhaustion, faster than they
can be restored, either by radiation or by the molecular mechanism.
298 Barus—Groups of Lficient Nuclet in Dust-Free Atr.
the end (bottom) toward the tube nearly 1 em. thick, y-rays
only will penetrate into the inside apart from the secondary
radiation there produced. In figure 3 /’is the cylindrical fog-
chamber, / the radium tube at an axial distance ) from the
nearer end. In addition to this the radium was also tested at
T (top) in the figure, where it is nearest the body of dust-free
air under experiment.
Within the fog-chamber the coronas are everywhere normal
and of the same size, in spite of the axial length of 45 em.
available. This is a singular result when contrasted with the
marked positional effect observed for the case of radium placed
at the different distances D outside of the chamber. The
data investigated are shown in the curve (fig. 2), where the
abscissas are the distances and the ordinates the number of
epicrent nuclei per em’.
= oom 40 6 80
It follows from the graph that as the radium is brought in
an axial direction from o to the end of the fog-chamber, the
number of efficient nuclei in the dust-free air contained is
gradually but enormously reduced to a minimum for D = 25 em.
(about), after which the number again increases to the maxi-
mum at 2 =0. Curiously enough, if the radium is further
approached to the body of the air by being placed at 7, the
number of nuclei does not increase; in some observations it
even diminishes.
If the radium is enclosed in a long thick lead tube (60 em. long,
walls °5 em. thick), the nucleation is but moderately reduced
(see fig. 2, crosses), showing that y-rays are in question.
4. Cause of the minimum.—This is easily explained since
the ions are relatively large bodies and relatively few in num-
ber as compared with the nuclei of dust-free air for the same
6p. Hence the ions virtually capture the moisture more and
more fully as their number, with diminishing distance D,
becomes greater. At D == 25 em. probably the whole of the
Barus—Groups of Lifficient Nuclei in Dust-Free Air. 299
moisture is condensed on ions, and as their number increases
as D vanishes, the minimum in question results.
In fact it was shown elsewhere, that below the fog-limit of
air, the nucleation observed and due purely to radium at differ-
ent distances D, is for example (6p = 22)
ji =e 0 10 30 50 100
INES Ara eee Salt 2X0) 50 32 20 12 Ke,
agreeing in character as far as may be expected with the data
here in question. These data multiplied by 4,1.e., 4 < 10™, are
also given in figure 2 for comparison. Hence the ions caught
at 69 = 41°5 are about four times more numerous than at
6p = 22, and correspondingly smaller. They are, therefore,
markedly graded, but nevertheless, as a group, throughout
much smaller than the nuclei of dust-free air so long as the
radiant field is appreciable. Whether the latter are agglomer-
ated under the influence of radiation to make the ions (as
would seem more probable), or whether the ions are made from
the molecules themselves so that the ions and the nuclei of
dust-free air are present together, is a question beyond the
scope of the method. While the number of nuclei continually
grows smaller, with diminishing J, the efficient or capturing
nuclei may nevertheless increase again below a certain JD,
seeing that the nuclei in dust-free air are enormously in excess,
only a few of which are caught even in the absence of radium.
4. Cause of the maximum.—lt is more difficult to account
for the result that the same nucleation is observed wherever
the radium touches the elongated fog-chamber. In other
words, radium at the end of the chamber produces at least the
same nucleation as when at the top, although the distances
from the center of mass of the glass are as 3 to 1. The same
kind of explanation already given in $38 may possibly hold.
The radium tube when placed on the top (7’in figure 3) and in
contact with thinner glass, may act with sufficient imtensity to
admit of the formation in turn of a group of nuclei larger than
ions. This is what actually occurs in the case of X-rays. But
it is more probably connected with the uniform distribution of
nuclei within the chamber (§ 1) and in some way reterable to
secondary radiation evoked within the chamber. Secondary
radiators added on the outside are quite without effect.
5. General Conclusion.—The occurrence of a continuous
succession of groups or gradations of nuclei in the curve of
figure 2, each of which groups constitutes a condition of chem-
ical equilibrium for the given radiating environment, is sugges-
tive. In the first place, it may be recalled that the nuclei of
dust-free air are an essential part of this body as much as the
molecules themselves. Such nuclei if withdrawn by precipi-
300 LBarus—Groups of Lfficient Nuclec in Dust-Free Air.
tation are at once restored. Again air left without interference
for days shows a maximum of this nucleation for the given
conditions of exhaustion when all foreign nucleation must have
vanished. Indeed the molecules themselves may be treated as
a continuous part of the nucleation in question, the frequency
of occurrence being a maximum for the molecular dimensions.
Furtbermore in the presence of radium the character of the
phenomenon is the same, only the nuclei are larger. If with-
ee by precipitation, they are at once restored. They are
an essential part of the air in the new environment.
it is natural to compare the particular nuclear status intro-
duced in the latter case by a particular kind of radiation (y
rays), with the former case of dust-free air in the absence of
recognized radiation. In other words, quite apart from the
details of the mechanism, chemical agglomeration might be
considered referable to an unknown radiant field, but be other-
wise essentially alike in kind to the much coarser nucleations
observed in the known radiant fields of the above experiments.
But the effect of radium, however distant, is always virtually
an increase of the size of the air nuclei and a decrease of their
number. Hence if we were to fancy that the nucleation (not
the ions, of course) of non-enereized dust-free air BESO 8 to
its own radiant. environment, this radiation would have to be
special in kind.
Returning to the case of the gamma rays, fig. 2, (or of the
X-rays coming from a distance,) let me recall that the effective
radiation within the fog chamber is everywhere the same and
the same in all directions. Hence whether the radiation be
corpuscular or (in other cases) undulatory, the interior is noth-
ing less than an ideal Lesage medium; and there must there-
fore be a tendency at least to agglomerate the colloidal nuclei
of dust-free air into fleeting nuclei or ions, so long as the
radiation lasts. When it ceases the ions are free to fall apart,
so far as external influence goes, as they actually do. Further-
more since the pressure so obtained would increase with the
number of corpuscles per cubic em. and with the square of
their velocity, it is conceivable that with increasing electrifica-
tion this pressure would become strong enough to bring about
permanent union of the aggregates, corresponding to the
observed continuous transition of the ions into persistent
nuclei, produced by the X-rays. Again a different nucleus
would presumably correspond to the bombardment of the
negative corpuscles as compared with the residual positive
quantities. Finally, if any physical or chemical process like
combustion or ignition or electric charge, or the case of phos-
phorus, ete. is accompanied by intense ionization, one would
for the same reason anticipate the presence of nuclei in such a
field.
Brown University, Providence.
T. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacee. ION
Arr. XX XIII.—Studies in the Cyperacee ; by Toro. Horm.
XXIV. New or little known Carices from Northwest
America. (With 18 figures, drawn from nature by the
author.)
Wirn the object of preparing a treatise of the genus Carex
as represented in the northwestern part of this continent the
writer has examined several very extensive collections, con-
taining a vast number of specimens, among which some few
have been observed as imperfectly understood or as hitherto
undescribed. Inasmuch as the treatment of the genus in a
subsequent paper will be from a geographical point of view,
we prefer to publish the diagnoses of the new species sepa-
rately with some remarks upon their affinities.
These species are:
Carex limnca sp. n. (figs. 1-8).
Rhizome vertical with ascending shoots and light brown,
fibrillose leaf-sheaths; leaves a little shorter than the culm,
narrow, but flat, glaucous, scabrous along the margins; culm
about 60™ in height, erect or slightly curved above, very
slender, triangular, scabrous, phyllopodic ; spikes 3 to 5, but
mostly 4, the terminal staminate or, sometimes, androgynous,
the lateral pistillate, the uppermost contiguous, the lowest
remote, sessile to shortly peduneled, erect, not very dense-
flowered, cylindric, about 2°" in length, subtended by sheath-
less, foliaceous bracts, the lowest one often exceeding the
inflorescence ; scale of staminate spike lanceolate, light pur-
plish-brown with green midvein; scale of pistillate spike oblong,
obtuse, black with hyaline apex and greenish midvein, shorter
than the perigynium ; perigynium stipitate, slightly spreading,
narrowly elliptical; granular, plano-convex, prominently many-
nerved on the outer (convex) face, three-nerved on the inner,
pale green with a black, entire and very distinct beak ; stig-
mata 2, style long and exserted.
Oregon: Crater Lake National Park, Cathedral spring, col-
lected by Mr. F. V. Coville, September, 1902 (No. 1456); Four-
mile Lake, Klamath County, in meadows, and between Dia-
moud and Crescent Lakes, Gascade Mountains.
The graceful habit of this species reminds us more of @.
rhomboidea than of C. vulgaris, but when we, nevertheless,
prefer to place it nearer C. vulgaris it is on account of the
structure of the perigynium, narrowly elliptical and promi-
nently many-nerved.
Am. Jour. Sci.—Fourts Serizs, Vou. XX, No. 118.—OcToBER, 1905.
21
302 T. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacee.
Carex brachypoda sp. n. (figs. 4-6).
Rhizome short with ascending shoots and persisting, dark
brown leaf-sheaths; leaves shorter than the culm, relatively
broad (about 5™™) and flat, deep green, scabrous along the
margins and lower face, glabrous above; culm about 35™ in
height, erect, stiff, triangular, scabrous, phyllopodic; spikes 3
to 4, mostly 4, the terminal staminate, the lateral pistillate,
somewhat remote, sessile or the lowest one short-peduncled,
erect, dense-flowered, cylindrical, from 1 to 2° in length, sub-
tended by sheathless bracts with narrow blades much shorter
than the inflorescence; scale of staminate spike lanceolate, red-
dish brown with pale midvein; scale of pistillate spike ovate,
obtuse, black with green, not excurrent midvein, a little shorter
than the perigynium; perigynium minutely stipitate, erect,
almost orbicular, granular and denticulate along the margins
above, compressed, nerveless, pale green, the minute beak dark
purple with the orifice entire, papillose; stigmata 2.
Oregon: Orater Lake National Park, Cathedral spring, col-
lected by Mr. F. V. Coville, September, 1902 (No. 1455).
The affinity of this species 1s with C. gymnoclada, but it
differs from this by the perigynium for instance, which is more
roundish, denticulate and very shortly beaked.
Carex pachystoma sp. n. (figs. 7-8). |
Rhizome ceespitose with strong roots and persisting, reddish
leaf-sheaths; leaves almost as long as the culm, quite broad
and flat (0:5), glabrous, hight green; culm from 30 to 56™ in
height, erect, somewhat slender, triangular, scabrous, phyllo-
podic; spikes 4 to 6, the terminal and uppermost lateral stami-
nate, the others pistillate, remote or the uppermost contiguous,
all, especially the lower ones, slenderly peduncled, erect or
spreading, dense-flowered except at the base, from 3 to 5™ in
length, subtended by sheathless, leafy bracts about as long as
the inflorescence or a little longer; scale of staminate spike
lanceolate, obtuse, purplish brown with green midvein; scale
of pistillate spike lanceolate, mucronate, deep purple with
broad, green midvein, narrower, but longer than the perigy-
nium; perigynium sessile, slightly spreading, elliptical, granu-
lar, compressed, nerveless, green or purplish-spotted above, the
beak short and thick, sparingly denticulate, the orifice very
narrow, slightly emarginate on outer face; stigmata 2.
Oregon: Crater Lake National Park, Anna Creek Canyon,
near the falls (No. 1862) and near Odell Lake, Klamath
County (No. 520), collected by Messrs. Applegate and Coville.
Washington : Springy places, northern slope of Mt. Adams,
and Falcon Valley, W. Klickitat County (No. 2959), by Mr.
W. Suksdorf.
T. Holm—sStudies in the Cyperacee. 3038
The species may be placed between C. variabilis and C.
lenticularis, although it shows some approach to C. acutina,
though merely in respect to its habit. We have examined a
number of specimens and are unable to refer the plant to
either of those mentioned above.
Carex Nebraskensis Dew.
Habitually and in several other respects this species seems
inseparable from the dZicrorhynche, but we have placed it* as
one of the most evolute types of these on account of the biden-
tate beak of the perigynium. It is excellently described by.
Boott,t and well marked by the strong stolons covered by
brown scale-like leaves, which are never shining, by the pale,
glaucous leaves and especially by the perigynium with its
prominent ribs and bidentate beak. In the extensive collec-
tion of Mr. Suksdorf we found several specimens, which were
somewhat like this species, but a careful examination of the
spikes convinced us that these could not safely be referred to
the species, nor ought they to be considered as simply varieties,
hence we prefer to describe them as two distinct species: C.
eurycarpa and C. oxycarpa.
Carex eurycarpa sp. n. (tigs. 9-10).
Rhizome stoloniterous with persisting, brown leaf-sheaths
and strong roots; leaves half as long as the culm, narrow (3™™),
carinate, light green, scabrous along the keel and margins;
culm 60™ in height, erect, slender but somewhat stiff, scabrous,
triangular, phyllopodic; spikes 8 to 5, mostly 5, the terminal
and, sometimes, the uppermost lateral staminate, the others
purely pistillate, all remote; the pistillate short-peduncled,
erect, dense-flowered except towards the base, until 5™ in
length, cylindric, but relatively thin, subtended by narrow,
sheathless bracts, about as long as the inflorescence ; scale of
staminate spike oblong, obtuse, ight brown with pale midvein
and narrow, hyaline margins; scale of pistillate spike lanceo-
late, acute, blackish with pale, not excurrent, midvein, nar-
rower, but about as long as the perigynium; perigynium
sessile or nearly so, erect, roundish, granular, slightly plano-
convex, prominently many-nerved on both faces, brownish, the
beak short, emarginate ; stigmata 2.
Washington: W. Klickitat County, Falcon Valley, collected
by Mr. W. Suksdorf, June, 1886 (Nos. 1284 and 2962).
Carex oxycarpa sp. n. (figs. 11-12).
Rhizome stoloniferous with strong roots and _ persisting,
brown leaf-sheaths; leaves a little shorter than the culm, nar-
* The author: Greges Caricum. (This Journal, vol. xvi, p. 457, 1903.)
+ Ill. gen. Carex, vol. iv, p. 175 and plate 592.
304 LT’. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacec.
row (4™™), carinate, light green, scabrous; culm about 75™ in
height, erect, slender, but somewhat stiff, triangular, scabrous,
phyllopodic; spikes 4 to 5, the terminal staminate, long-
peduneled, the lateral pistillate, contiguous, seldom remote,
short-peduncled, erect, dense-flowered, cylindric, from 2 to 4™
in length, subtended by sheathless, narrow, foliaceous bracts,
the lowest one exceeding the inflorescence ; scale of staminate
spike oblong, obtuse, light reddish-brown with pale midvein ;
scale of pistillate spike lanceolate, acute, blackish with pale,
not excurrent midvein, narrower, but about as long as the
‘perigynium ; perigynium sessile, broadly elliptical, granular,
compressed, prominently 3-nerved, brownish, prominently
denticulate along the margins from near the base to the short,
emarginate beak; stigmata 2.
Washington: W. Klickitat County, meadows near the Co-
Iumbia, collected by Mr. W. Suksdorf, June, 1885 (No. 816).
Of these C. eurycarpa is a very slender plant and much
more so than any of the numerous specimens of C. Vebraskensis,
which we have studied. The broad perigynium with the beak
merely emarginate constitutes, also, a good distinction. In the
other, C. oxycarpa, we have, also, a plant of slender habit, but
the spikes are relatively heavy, and the perigynium is here
merely 8-nerved and with the margins quite prominently
denticulate from the base to the emarginate beak.
The affinity of these two species is unquestionably with C.
Nebraskensis Dew., next to which they should be placed in
the system.
Carex campylocarpa sp. n. (figs. 13-15).
Rhizome with short stolons and purplish, persisting leaf-
sheaths; leaves shorter than the culm, narrow, but flat, sca-
brous along the margins and on the lower face; culm about
40™ in height, erect, stiff, triangular, scabrous, phyllopodie ;
spikes 3 to 4, mostly 8, the terminal staminate, the lateral pistil-
late ; remote, sessile or nearly so, erect, dense-flowered, short
‘eylindric to ovoid, from 4 to 1° in length, subtended by sheath-
less, foliaceous bracts, shorter than the inflorescence; scale of
staminate spike lanceolate, obtuse, purplish brown with pale
midvein; scale of pistillate spike ovate, obtuse, blackish with
the midvein faintly visible and the margins narrow, hyaline,
much shorter than the perigynium; perigynium shortly stipi-
tate, spreading, elliptical-oblong, granular and prominently
denticulate along the upper margins, turgid, nerveless, pale
green with purplish spots and streaks, the beak quite promi-
nent, excurved, the orifice entire; stigmata 2, style not ex-
serted.
Oregon: Crater Lake National Park, Cathedral spring, coi-
lected by Mr. F. V. Coville, September, 1902 (No. 1457).
EF. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacee. 305
The systematic position of this species seems naturally to be
among the MZzcrorhynche, but as a deviating type on account
of the excurved beak of the perigynium, and if it were not for
the distinct marginal denticulation of the perigynium and its
slender shape the species would resemble C. scopulorum to
some extent. A perigynium of this kind is somewhat unusual
within the representatives of the grex, but is, as we remember,
very characteristic of the Spzrostachye ; in these, however, the
beak is generally bifid and more distinctly differentiated from
the body. The species may be placed next to C. scopulorum.
Carex cryptochlena sp. n. (fig. 16).
Rhizome espitose with purplish, persisting leaf-sheaths ;
leaves about half as long as the culm, broad (about 1™) and
flat, glabrous except along the margins; culm from 70 to 90™
in height, erect and stiff, triangular, scabrous along the edges,
phyllopodic; spikes from 4 to 7, the terminal and frequently
the uppermost lateral staminate, the others pistillate or andro-
gynous, contiguous or the lower ones remote, sessile or short-
pedunceled, erect or spreading, seldom nodding, dense-flowered,
subtended by sheathless, foliaceous, broad bracts of which the
lower ones exceed the inflorescence; scale of: staminate spike
elliptical-oblong, acute, light reddish-brown with pale midvein ;
scale of pistillate spike lanceolate, sharply pointed, deep pur-
plish with broad, greenish midvein, exceeding the perigynium ;
perigynium almost sessile, erect, broadly elliptic to roundish,
nerveless, pale green, granular, sparingly denticulate near the
minute, entire beak ; stigmata 2.
Alaska: Kussiloff, on sands with Elymus, collected by Dr.
Walter H. Evans, July, 1898 (No. 618), and Seldovia near
mouth of Cook inlet by Prof. C. V. Piper, August, 1904 (Nos.
4818 and 4819).
This species is somewhat remarkable on account of its resem-
blance to Carex cryptocarpa, so far as concerns the structure
of the spikes, the deep-purplish, lanceolate scales and the broad
pale-green perigynia. But it shows, on the other hand, a strik-
ing contrast to this species, C. cryptocarpa, not only by the
almost sessile and mostly erect pistillate spikes, but also by its
very broad leaves, the basal and the bracts. Habitually the
species does not resemble C. cryptocarpa, but, to some extent,
Drejer’s C. hematolepis or certain very robust forms of C.
salina ; it appears, however, to be distinct from these, and as
a type intermediate between the true Saline and C. crypto-
carpa Mey.
Carex luzulefolia W. Boott var. strobilantha nob. (fig. 18).
Taller and more robust than the typical plant; the spikes
thick and very compact-flowered ; scales of staminate and pistil-
306 T. Holin—Studies in the Cyperacee.
late spikes mostly mucronate; perigynium glabrous through-
out, famtly nerved on the inner face, nearly sessile, roundish
in outline and terminated by a very distinet, bidentate beak.
California: Above Donner Pass in Placer County, in a
subalpine meadow, where snow-drifts lie late, and usually
near granite rocks, collected by Mr. A. A. Heller, August,
1903 (No. 7187).
In the specimens of this new variety the rhizome is densely
matted with ascending shoots and covered by dark, brownish
fibers from the old leaf-sheaths. The leaves are very broad,
but much shorter than the culms. The heavy, deep-brown
spikes remind of small cones, hence the name ‘“‘ strobilantha,”
and there is quite a variation in respect to their number, posi-
tion and the distribution of the sexes. We noticed the follow- —
ing instances in 26 specimens:
2 Se AD DENG ue 3 pistillate she in 14 qeehne
i 3 5
9 66 (45 4. 66 66 oy) 66
1 66 (19 4 (54 (74 9 6¢
oy) (14 66 9 66 (55 l 66
3 (45 (44 3 (74 66 I (9
3 Re “ l androgynous “ 1 ee
In some specimens the pistillate spikes were borne on very
long peduncles overtopping the terminal, and several of these
were observed to be more or less decompound.—The structure
of the perigynium is very characteristic and differs essentially
from that of the typical plant, which, as described by W.
Boott,* is: “oval to lanceolate,” ‘“slenderly nerved, slightly
serrate on the upper margins, longer and ‘broader than. the
scale.” The accompanying figures of the perigynia show the
distinction very plainly, a distinction, however, which appears
to the writer as merely varietal.
Brookland, D. C., May, 1905.
*S. Watson: Botany of California, vol. 2, p. 250, 1880.
Figure 1. Perigynium and scale of Carex liinnea.
“e
ce
es
2. Perigynium of same, inner face.
3). Perigynium of same, outer face.
4-6. Perigynium of Carex brachypoda, outer face.
7,8. Perigynium of Carex pachystoma, outer face.
. Perigynium and scale of Carex eurycarpa.
10. Perigynium of same, outer face.
11. Perigynium and scale of Carex oxycarpa.
12. Perigynium of same, outer face.
13. Pistillate spike of Carex campylocarpa.
14. Perigynium of same, side view.
15. Same, outer face.
16. Perigynium of Carex cryptochleena, outer face.
17. Perigynium of Carex luzulefolia, outer face.
18. Perigynium of C. luzulefolia var. strobilantha, inner face.
All figures magnified.
308 Schneider—Overthrust Faults in Central New York.
Arr. XX XIV.— Preliminary Note on some Overthrust Faults
in Central New York; by Putte F. Scunerper.
My attention was recently called to two unrecorded over-
thrusts in the limestones of this vicinity by Mr. Charles E.
Wheelock, who discovered the same, and at whose request this
preliminary notice has been prepared. In company with Mr.
Wheelock the writer recently visited the locality and this
description is largely confirmatory of Mr. Wheelock’s observa-
tions, which will be given in full in a future paper.
These disturbances in the horizontally stratified Paleozoic
rocks of central New York, where for so many years it was
thought they could not exist and where the first announce-
ments of such occurrences were received with such incredulity,
are not yet sufficiently common to permit them to pass unre-
corded. The faults are furthermore important because of the
relation between them and the well known peridotite intrusives
and the probability of the identity of the causes producing the
same.
Both of the faults brought to ight by Mr. Wheelock occur
in some thinly bedded limestones which he correlates with the
Bertie dolomite as described by Clarke in his recent report on
the formations in the Tully Quadrangle,* or with the lower
layers of the Waterlime of Vanuxem,t Geddes,t Schneider,§
and Luther.|
The faults can be easily studied in the gorge of Butternut
Creek, near Dunlop’s station, one and one-quarter miles north
of Jamesville. In the east cliff, a few vards to the south of the
stairs leading from Fiddler’s Green to the gorge of the creek,
the thrust plane of the southernmost of the faults (Fault IV.
Dunlop’s) can be easily distinguished as it extends upward
from the base of the cliff through its entire height, a distance
of nearly thirty feet. At this point the cliff 1s comparatively
free from talus. The dip of the fault plane is 28° to the north-
east, N.40° W. Thisnortherly dip of the thrust planes of both
of the faults located by Mr. Wheelock is interesting inasmuch
as they seem to belong to a series of faults extending in an east
and west direction across the country, which hade to the south-
ward.4 It is ae surprising as they occur about mid-
* Bulletin 82, Y. State Museum, 1905, J. M. Clarke.
+ Rept. 3d Dist. N. Y. 1842.
& Notes on Gail of Onondaga Ge. N. Y. 1893.
|| Econ. Geol. of Onon., 15th Ann. Rept. N. Y. State Geol. 1895.
“| This refers to the overthrusts in the Helderberg limestone series only and
not to the slips and slides which are so common in or near the gypsum beds,
and which can be explained by the expansion. due to the formation of the
gypsum, or to the solution of the gypsum or salt immediately underneath.
Schnecder— Overthrust Faults in Central New York. 309
way between Gifford’s and Russell’s faults, the two disturb-
ances showing the greatest amount of displacement and practi-
cally in a straight line with them. The layers have been
sharply bent along both sides of the thrust plane and secondary
erystals of calcite have been formed in the numerous fractures
in and between the layers, but not as abundantly as at Hast
Onondaga and Marcellus. Mr. Wheelock believes the amount
of displacement is about four feet, but it is impossible to deter-
mine the thrust accurately because of the marked similarity of
the layers of limestone.
The continuation of this fault may be seen in the west wall
of the gorge, where it is not as easily accessible nor as readily
studied because of the accumulated material. The bending
and buckling of the layers is even more pronounced here than
on the east side of the stream, although the displacement was
apparently less.
Following the direction of the fault to the eastward, a cut
on the trolley line just north of Dunlop’s station is reached,
showing some disturbance and a marked anticlinal fold. The
fractured and disturbed condition of the layers in the entire
eut and especially at the fold, which is directly in the line of
the strike of the fault, makes ‘it difficult to determine whether
the faulting has reached upward to this point. The’fracturing
and shattering of the layers resembles somewhat that produced
in certain of the layers overlying the gypsum, and lends color
to the belief that Fiddler’s Green marks the position of the
gypsum deposit. A study of the gypsum ledge to the north-
eastward indicates that the gypsum occurs either just above or
just below the cut showing the shattered layers, while a com-
parison of the altitudes of the adjoining gypsum deposits shows
that it should occur at the Fiddler Green locality. Neverthe-
less it has not yet been noted there. However, the gorge of
the creek lies below Fiddler’s Green, hence it is hardly possible
that the faults just described can occur in the Bertie limestone
which is described by Clarke as overlying the gypsum. How-
ever, according to Clarke’s map the Bertie occurs in the gorge
of the creek at this point.
Fault II1. Dunlop’s—Following the gorge to the north-
ward for a hundred yards or more, the folding and buckling of
the layers give evidence of another disturbance. At this point
the force seems to have exerted itself mainly in the bending of
the layers, and without any large amount of displacement. The
thrust plane of the fault is plainly visible, dipping at an angle
of 23° to the northward. The displacement is not more than
two feet. Fault III occurs in the same formation as that
already described, the Bertie dolomite (?) The fault cannot be
seen on the west side of the gorge because of a change in the
310 Schneider—Overthrust Faults in Central New York.
course of the stream here, which change in the direction is no
doubt due in part at least to the existence of the fault right
here.
‘ault [. Dunlop’s.—In making a cutting for Jamesville
branch of the Suburban railroad about two years ago, two some-
what similar faults were exposed in the caleareous layers
occurring three-eighths of a mile farther north. These layers
may be continuously traced to the northeastward until they are
found underlying the gypsum, They undoubtedly correspond
with the limestone ledge mentioned by Clarke as containing
the Leperditia Scalaris Jones, which occurs in the Camillus
shale near the base of the Heard gypsum quarries. Inasmueh
as there is only a difference of five feet in elevation between
the altitude of these layers at faults I and II and faults ©
III and IV with practically horizontal layers between the
localities, it leaves little question but that faults II] and IV
occur in this same Leperditia Scalaris limestone and not in
the Bertie. Fault No. I may be seen in the first cut show-
ing the limestone, which is about 150 yards south of the cross-
ing of the trolley and the Jamesville and Orville turnpike.
The thrust plane of the fault cuts these somewhat thinly Jami-
nated layers, and dips at an angle of 35° to the south. The
layers show little disturbance except at the fault line. Second-
ary calcite crystals occur in the fractures of the hmestone,
near the fault. |
Fault LI. Dunlop s.—Oceurs in the same formation and in
practically the same layers twenty yards south of fault No. I.
The thrust plane dips south 32° and the layers are bent for
several yards to the southward. ‘The slickensided surfaces are
well shown, also a slight tendency toward slaty fracture. Cal-
cite crystals are lacking. The displacement is slight, probably
not more than three feet. The fault maintains its character
throughout the entire height of the cut. Owing to an accumn-
lation of talus and the dense vegetable growth the faults have
not been located on the west side of the stream.
Other evidences of slight faulting are noticeable farther
north in this cut, also some shearing of the layers with the for-
mation of calcite crystals.
The overthrusts now known and described in central New
York are—
(a) Russell’s Quarry at East Onondaga, fault plane cuts the
Manlius, Lower Helderberg, Oriskany, and Onondaga forma-
tions. Displacement for ty-two feet. Also shown in Hibbard’s
and adjoining quarries. Rocks affected for over a mile to the
eastward as shown by the marked slaty cleavage in the finer
grained limestones of the Corniferous.
Luther, “ Econ. “Geol,or Onon.,” 15th Ann. Kept. Nea
Schneider— Overthrust Faults in Central New York. 311
State Geologist, 1895. Schneider “Science Series, No. 2.,”
Onon. Acad. Science publication, 1899.
(db) Maylie’s Quarry at Marcellus, cuts Corniferous and
Seneca layers of the Onondaga. Displacement, three feet.
Shown in adjoining quarries for over one-half mile. to west-
ward. Thrust plane dips 17° to N. See preceding references.
(c) Gifford’s Glen, two miles west of Manlius. Cuts the
Onondaga and Marcellus groups. Decidedly interesting because
of the remarkable manner in which the heavy layers of Onon-
daga limestone have been arched and bent. Thrust plane not
visible. Luther makes the elevation of the limestone sixty feet,
but says it is due to bending.
(d) Fillmore’s Corners, one-half mile west of preceding.
Cuts Onondaga and Marcellus groups. Displacement, fifteen
feet. “Geological Fault at Jamesville,” Schneider. This
Journal, vol. iii, 1897.
(e) Indian Reservation Quarries. Two faults cut Onon-
daga formation. Dip 23° $8. Total displacement of the sev-
eral faults about six feet. Schneider, “‘Science Series No. IV,”
Onon. Acad. Sei. 1905.
(7) Dunlop, No. I, cuts Sealaris limestone in Camillus shale.
Displacement, three feet. Dip, 35° S.
(g) Dunlop, No I], Scalaris limestone. Displacement, three
teen Dip, 32°. 8.
(A) Dunlop, No. ILI, cuts Bertie dolomite (?) Displace-
ment two.teet... Dip, 23° N.
(2) Dunlop, No. IV, Bertie dolomite (?) Displacement, four
jee Dip. 238° Noi.
(7) Heard’s gypsum’quarry. A small overthrust in the Camil-
lus shale occurs here, apparently more deeply seated than the
displacements so common in the gypsum quarries due to the
formation and subsequent solution of the gypsum.
The writer also has MS. notes and drawings of several small
_ faults occurring in the Camillus shale near the peridotite dikes
which were temporarily exposed during the trenching of
that region for city water.
At the Solvay quarries at Split Rock in the Manlius and
Onondaga formations and in some of the adjoining abandoned
quarries several sharp folds and some slickensided surfaces
occur which tell of further disturbances. Similar evidences
occur in Madison Oo. in the vicinity of Chittenango Falls to
the east of the described localities, while to the westward they
may be seen in the same ledge about Auburn in Cayuga Co.
Cleland* mentionsa faultin the outlet of Keuka Lake, still far-
* «A Study of the Fauna of Hamilton formation of the Cayuga Lake sec-
tion in central New York,” H. F. Cleland, Bulletin No. 206, U. S. Geol.
Survey.
8312 Schneider—Overthrust Faults in Central New York.
ther west, but no facts are given, while the folds in the higher
formations are well shown in long arch at Cayuga Lake, and
similar undulations in strata at Seneca. Disturbances are also
noted by Lincoln in his account of the geology of Seneca Co.*
Inasmuch as most of the above mentioned disturbances
occur in or near the Helderberg escarpment, composed in the
main of heavy limestones aggregating several hundred feet in
thickness, and the persistence of the faults across central New
York, it would seem that all are the result of some considerable
force capable of affecting this entire region. In a general way
the solution of the salt from the Salina formation which imme-
diately underlies the Helderberg series has been regarded as an
explanation for all the disturbances in this vicinity. Mr.
Wheelock believes that the solution of all of the saline ingre-
dients of the Salina rocks together with the slight dip of rocks
of central New York is a sufficient explanation for the fault-
ing, as any settling of the layers must shorten the length of
the hypothenuse of the triangle and thus produce the force
which crumpled and fractured the rocks. The fact that the
softer shales sandwiched between the hmestone bands are some- ~
times bent and sheared while the harder layers are not affected,
and that the larger throws all occur in the more resistant layers,
he believes willfavor his explanation. This, however, would
be true irrespective of the cause, provided of course that it
were compression. It has also been suggested{t that expansion
due to the formation of gypsum would explain the faulting.
While considering the causes of the faultsit would be well to keep
in mind that there is a series of widely known intrusives which
parallel north and south this series of faults, and which extend
across the state from Little Falls on the east to Ithaca on the
west, and it is not impossible that both faults and dikes owe
their origin to the same general disturbance. The considera-
tion of this question, however, will be left to another paper.
Syracuse, N. Y.
* “© Geol. of Seneca Co.,” Rept. N. Y. State Geologist, 1894.
+E. H. Kraus, verbally.
FN. Guild—Petrography of the Tucson Mountains. 318
Art. XX XV.— Petrography of the Tucson Mountains, Pima
Co., Arizona; by F. N. Guitp, University of Arizona:
(With Plate IX.) |
Tue Tucson Range of mountains is located directly west of
Tucson and is about twenty miles long with an average width of
about seven miles. It consists of a series of jagged peaks extend-
ing nearly north and south, the higher ones of which are esti-
mated to have an altitude of 4000 feet above sea level. The
approach to the main line of peaks is over a series of low-lying
rounded knolls devoid of all vegetation except a few cacti and
other stunted growths characteristic of an arid region.
Petrographically quite a variety of rocks are represented
which are almost entirely eruptive. There occur, however, in
places, remnants of the original quartzites and limestones
through which this great mass of lava has broken. On the
west side of the range and southwest of Tucson is an elevated
plateau of an area of one hundred square miles or more, con-
sisting entirely of these limestones and quartzites. It is quite
level and the beds are exposed only along its edges and near
the center where the uplifted strata form two small buttes,
consisting almost entirely of crystalline limestone tilted to an
angle of about forty-five degrees.
It is the purpose of this paper to describe from a _ petro-
graphical standpoint the eruptive rocks without discussing their
geological relations. The question of names and classification
is not taken up, the writer considering descriptions of more
importance. With this introduction, they will be described in
the order of their relative abundance.
Lhyolite—The main line of jagged peaks referred to above
is made up of this rock, varying in color from a dark red to
nearly white. Phenocrysts are inconspicuous, not very abun-
dant and rarely exceed three millimeters in diameter. They
consist of quartz and less abundant orthoclase. Under the
microscope, the quartz is found to occur in-rounded masses
corroded by the groundmass with frequent inclusions of the
latter in the form of bag-shaped inlets. Black dust-like inclu-
sions and glass with gas bubbles are common. The feldspar,
although much decomposed and containing opaque inclusions,
still shows the characteristic cleavage of orthoclase. The
groundmass in the darker varieties is too much altered to show
any characteristic texture. In the southern portion of the
district, however, material is sometimes met with of sufficient
freshness to admit of satisfactory study, and here it is found
to have a cryptocrystalline structure. Specimens of it are
frequently found possessing faint flow lines, sometimes vis-
314 2. WV. Guild—Petrography of the 7 ‘weson Mountains.
ible to the unaided eye, but usually requirmg a microscope
to be seen. (Fig. 1, Plate IX.) Occasionally dark shredded
masses occur which may have been originally mica. Al vari-
eties contain irregular inclusions of varying size, sometimes
two inches across, of a red jasper-like substance or of sandstone
or quartzite. Frequently also rounded patches are met with
which under the microscope are found to be made up of quartz
and feldspar in equidimensional erystals, which may represent
areas of more complete crystallization of the groundmass.
Associated with these more typical rhyolites are large masses
usually of a light yellow to butt color, lacking all phenocrysts.
They correspond to rocks which have been variously called
felsite, felsophyre, granophyre, etc. They sometimes break
with conchoidal fracture, but are more often too coarse-grained
to show this characteristic. Under the microscope, quartz,
feldspar and sometimes shreds of mica can be seen in the
coarser varieties. The finer-grained types are made up entirely
of eryptocrystalline material in which none of the constituents
can be determined.
Lehyolitic Tuff.—-Associated with the outflow forming the
main rhyolite peaks, there were probably formed masses of
voleanic ash. The greater portions of this have been washed
away, but occasionally where geological conditions have been
favorable some of this material has become consolidated into a
compact rock of hght gray color of sufficient strength to be
used extensively in building. Underlying Sentinel Peak in
places there are small masses of it which have been held in
place by the basaltic outflow. Under the microscope it is
found to be made up of fragments of quartz, feldspar, glass,
ete. i 1s interesting: to note that the quartz has the same
kind of inclusions as the quartz phenocrysts in the rhyolite
described above.
Andesites.—Several types of this rock varying greatly in
appearance and texture occur. They may be grouped rather
roughly as follows:
1. Light-colored andesites containing phenocrysts of mica
or hornblende or both and of feldspar. 2. Dark-colored
andesites of non-porphyritic texture. 38. Vitrophyric andesites.
The first variety covers an area only slightly less in extent
than the rhyolites and constitutes the material of the low-lying
knolls previously referred to. It has usually a mottled appear-
ance not unlike that of some granites. The feldspar is pure |
white and the groundmass varies from white to greenish gray.
The chief variation is in the black ferro-magnesian minerals,
which are most often biotite, but in some localities hor nblende
predominates, while in still others the black phenocrysts are
quite inconspicuous. Under the microscope the feldspar is clear,
F. N. Guild— Petrography of the Tucson Mountains. 315
usually striated, and as shown by the extinction angles on the
twinning plane appears to be an acid plagioclase. The biotite
is quite fresh and of the usual dark yellow-brown color. Horn-
blende has become darkened by alteration and is often quite
opaque. The groundmass is crystalline and made up mostly
of feldspar with some magnetite and shreds of the dark
silicates.
The second yariety is found in the northern portion of
the district near the edge of the mountains about twelve
miles from Tucson. It varies greatly in both megascopic
and microscopic structure in different parts of the same
mass. Its general appearance is more like that of a diabase
except in portions where phenocrysts of feldspar appear. It
is very dark with a slight green tinge weathering red. Por-
phyritic texture is not conspicuous and may be megascopically
absent. Under the microscope, however, the rock is found to
consist of crystals of plagioclase, pyroxene, and biotite in a
variable groundmass. In some portions the distinction between
groundmass and phenocrysts is very marked, the groundmass
being typically andesitic, while in other parts there is com-
paratively little difference in size between the constituents of
the groundmass and the phenocrysts. The pyroxene is light
yellow-green in color with high extinction angle and non-pleo-
chroic and rarely occurs in crystals longer than one millimeter.
The plagioclase phenocrysts are usually somewhat larger,
ordinarily clear but sometimes opaque from decomposition.
The biotite appears in rather small crystals compared with the
other phenocrysts and is of a light yellow-brown color with
darker borders. In altered specimens the dark-colored con-
stituents have decomposed into yellow non-pleochroic masses.
The third variety, or vitrophyric andesite, is also found in
the northern portion of the district as a low rounded ridge not
more than one hundred feet above the surrounding country.
It is also a pyroxene mica andesite, and is distinctly porphyr-
itic, the phenocrysts occupying fully one half of the entire
mass of the rock. Black mica and feldspar are very conspicu-
ous and occasionally orthoclase crystals eight millimeters in
length showing well-formed Carlsbad twins occur. The
groundmass varies from a nearly black to hight gray transpar-
ent glass. Under the microscope the feldspar is found to be
of plagioclase and of an unstriated variety. It frequently
possesses zonal structure and is often much broken, appearing
in angular fragments. The biotite is in fresh hexagonal plates
and irregular shreds. Pyroxene is light green and shows high
extinction angle. Magnetite is present in the usual quantities.
The groundmass is isotropic and filled with what appear to be
small fragments of the phenocrysts and very small crystallites.
316 EF. NV. Guidld—Petrography of the Tucson Mountains.
Fine flow-lines and perlitic cracks occur in places. This
variety of andesite is very common in southern Arizona and
frequently possesses flow-lines of remarkable beauty. (Fig. 2.)
In the upper part of the andesite the groundmass has become
entirely opaque through devitrification.
Basalt.—Outflows of this rock oceur at various intervals
along the edges of the mountain range especially west and
south of Tucson. They vary greatly in character and may be
grouped into the following varieties :
1. Fine-grained olivine basalt.
2. Porphyritic basalt.
a. Containing phenocrysts of feldspar and aungite, in a
coarse-grained or doleritic groundmass. |
6. Containing porphyritic crystals of feldspar only in a
basaltic groundmass.
e. Containing feldspar, augite and olivine in an andesitic
groundmass.
3. Quartz basalt.
One of the most prominent of these basaltic outflows is one
mile west of Tucson in the form of a symmetrical cone-shaped ©
mass called Sentinel Peak. Immediately northwest of this is
another irregular dome-shaped mass of the same rock. It is
further represented in two promontory-shaped outflows south-
west of the San Xavier Mission and ten miles south of Tucson.
These elevations are made up chiefly of the fine-grained type
of basalt in which none of the constituents can be recognized
with the naked eye. It is usually compact and free from
cavities, but occasionally is. found quite cellular and even
scorlaceous in structure. The cavities are sometimes rounded
in outline with a diameter of one half inch or more, but are
more often drawn out by movements of the mass when ina
molten condition into irregular channels. These cavities are
usually empty, but are sometimes filled with gypsum or ara-
gonite. The predominating color is black, but deep red
varieties are met with, especially in the San Xavier outflow.
In places pressure and movement of the mass have developed
a schistose structure, the laminations frequently being nearly
vertical. This is especially noticeable on the dome-shaped
mountain mentioned above near the Carnegie Desert Botanical
Laboratory, and leads to the conjecture that the vent through
which the basalt escaped is located under it.
Microscopically the rock is made up of numerous feldspar
rods crowded together and frequently arranged in flow-lines,
large amounts of magnetite and rather small quantities of
olivine. Glass is pr esent in greatly varying quantities. The
olivine occurs mostly in rounded grains with a dark red halo
FN. Guild—Petrography of the Tucson Mountains. 317
of ferritic material and occasionally the interior of the crystal
has been reabsorbed leaving skeletons filled by the groundmass.
(Fig. 3.) The accompanying illustrations (figs. 3, 4) will show
the most important variation in this type of basalt, In fig. 4
the constituents are more porphyritically dispersed than is
usual in these outflows and the groundmass contains more
isotropic material, yet to the unaided eye they all appear nearly
identical.
Porphyritic basalt of the first type (a) is found underlying
the compact basalt of Sentinel Peak at its southern extremity.
That this. represents an outflow distinct from the compact
variety is shown by the sharp contact between the two, where
there is a layer of dark red basaltic tuff and breccia from two
to six feet thick. A rock practically identical with this is
found at the San Xavier Mission in a small cone-shaped eleva-
tion. This variety appears to be made up of large plagioclase
erystals constituting nearly one half of the mass, and frequent
black lustrous crystals of augite in a groundmass varying from
coarse crystalline to compact. The feldspar crystals are some-
times over one half inch in length and frequently broken.
Under the microscope they are found to be quite fresh, twinned
plagioclase filled with dark inclusions of the groundmass.
The pyroxene is light yellow with parallel cleavage cracks and
high extinction angle. The groundmass, where it can be made
out with the microscope, is mostly feldspar and augite with but
small amounts of glass. Olivine is not at all abundant and in
some slides is absent. (Fig. 5.)
The second type of porphyritic basalt (6) is found as ocea-
sional outflows south of Sentinel Peak, the largest yet observed
bemg about seven miles from Tucson. The color of the rock
is medium dark gray, and the only minerals which can be
determined in it by the naked eye are feldspar and occasionally
magnetite. The feldspar is rarely over one quarter inch in
length and is more rod-shaped than in the foregoing type. It
becomes very conspicuous only as the rock weathers. Under
the microscope the feldspar is like that in the first type. The
groundmass can hardly be resolved by the microscope but
seems to consist mostly of feldspathic material and magnetite.
The third type of porphyritic basalt (¢) occurs in a very
small mass not more than one hundred feet in length at the
southern base of Sentinel Peak. Portions of the mass are
amygdaloidal and much decomposed. The amygdules are
sometimes six inches in diameter and filled with agate, usually
in concentric rings of varying translucency, or with calcite or
siderite. Sometimes there is an outer shell of agate, the
interior being filled with calcite. Geodes of brilliant smoky
quartz have also been found. In places the rock is sufficiently
Am. Jour. Sci.—FourTH SERIES, VoL. XX, No. 118.—OcToBeEr, 1905,
22
818 LN. Guild—Petrography of the Tucson Mountains.
fresh for satisfactory study. To the naked eye the porphyr-
itic character of the rock is not at all apparent. Under the
microscope, however, it is found to be made up of distinct
porphyritic crystals of abundant feldspar, considerable pyrox-
ene, and much less olivine in a semicrystalline groundmass
consisting of a felt of magnetite and dark matter which reacts
feebly under polarized light.
Quartz basalt.—This unusual type of basalt is found in the
extreme southern end of the mountain range as a portion of
the promontory-shaped hill two miles southwest of the San
Xavier Mission. The greater portion of the outflow consists
of the compact basalt already described with cellular and
scoriaceous modifications. On the extreme eastern slope an
abundance of the quartz-bearing variety appears. Quartz
is the only mineral that can be detected with the naked eye.
Aside from this porphyritice constituent the general character
of the rock from both a megascopic and microscopic stand-
point is the same as the compact varieties described above.
The quartz occurs as rounded and semi-angular grains, rarely
more than six millimeters in length. Under the microscope
the quartz appears clear, much fractured and quite free from
inclusions of all sorts. That the quartz is primary and not
due to secondary filling of cavities is inferred from the fact
that the grains each consist of but one individual as shown by
the extinction. This is not the case where previously existing
cavities have been filled by infiltration. Amygdaloidal fillings
have been observed in this same rock and they present a struc-
ture quite different from the quartz in question. Basalts con-
taining quartz have been described by Diller,* Iddings} and
Pirssont from various localities in the United States, and by
Andreae§ and Lacroix| from other regions. By most of these
writers their origm has been discussed and they have been
held to be of primary origin. Some, like Lacroix, have, how-
ever held them to be inclusions, quartz grains caught up from
lower rocks and held in the magma.
DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES, PLATE Ix.
Figure 1.—Rhyolite, showing flow-lines in the groundmass, ordinary light,
18 diameters.
Figure 2.—Vitrophyric andesite, near Gila Bend.
Figure 3.—Basalt, Sentinel Peak, 45 diameters.
Figure 4.—Basalt, near San Xavier, 45 diameters.
Figure 5.—Porphyritic basalt, showing crystals of augite, 18 diameters.
Figure 6.—Agate, under polarized light, showing complicated structure,
found as amygdaloidal filling in porphyritic basalt (c), 45
diameters.
* This Journal, vol. xxxiii, p. 45, 1887. Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv. 79, 1891.
+ This Journal, vol. xxxvi, p. 208, 1888. Bull. U.S. Geol. Surv. 66, 1890.
t Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv. 139, p. 129, 1896.
& Zeit. deut. Geol. Gesell, 1892, p. 824.
| Enclaves des rockes volcaniques, Ann. Acad. Macon, vol. x, 1898, p. 17.
Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XX, 1905. Plate IX.
Chemistry and Physics. 319
SCN WEE hLCeINTELELGEN CE.
I. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICcs.
1. The Gases produced by Actinium.—It is known that solu-
tions of radium salts give off continuously a mixture of hydrogen
and oxygen from the decomposition of water, and it has been
found that this detonating gas contains a small quantity of
helium which is believed to be a product of the disintegration of
the radium atom. DEBIERNE has recently confirmed this behavior
of radium by using nearly a tenth of a gram of Curie’s radium
bromide and operating in a manner similar to that of Ramsay
and Soddy. He has found, further, that solutions of actinium
salts give off detonating gas containing helium, and that the
amounts of these products apparently correspond to the amounts
produced by a quantity of radium having the same activity.
For the experiments with actinium he used the whole of his
most active products, and obtained the same results with a por-
tion which had been specially purified from any possible contami-
nation with radium by adding to it barium chloride and removing
the barium. It was found, moreover, that the barium thus re-
moved did not contain an appreciable quantity of radium. It
was found also that solid actinium fluoride gave off helium.
Debierne states that in addition to the large quantity of emana-
tion with a rapid rate of decay which is given off by solid salts
of actinium, there comes from it a very small quantity of an
emanation of much slower change which he has identified as
identical with the radium emanation; but its quantity is too
small to have produced the helium found in his experiments.—
Comptes Rendus, cxli, 383. H. L. W.
2. A New Heavy Solution. — Dusorn has prepared some
liquids analogous to the well-known Thoulet’s solution, one of
which, at least, appears to possess decided advantages over the
latter. In the place of the potassium iodide used by Thoulet,
he uses sodium or lithium iodide. The alkaline iodide and mer-
curic iodide are alternately added to a small quantity of water
until saturation takes place, the temperature being slightly raised
at the end of the operation. ‘Then the liquid is allowed to cool,
and after twenty-four hours it is filtered. It was found that
Thoulet’s solution prepared in this way, and filtered at 22:9°,
gave a specific gravity of 3:196 and an index of refraction of
1730, while the sodium mercuric iodide solution, filtered at
24°75°, gave a density of 3°46 and an index of refraction of 1°797.
The lithium solution is intermediate in its density and refraction
between the two just mentioned. Analyses of the solutions
showed that their compositions corresponded closely to the
formulas K,HegI,, Na,HgI, and Li,Hgl,, and in each case the
amount of water present was somewhat more than 10 per cent.
A similar ammonium mercuric iodide solution was prepared, but
this was less dense than Thoulet’s liquid.
320 Scientific Intelligence.
The sodium mercuric iodide solution is of considerable interest,
as it is heavier than even methylene iodide. Although water
produces in it a precipitate of mercuric iodide, it dissolves with-
out change in alcohol and many other organic liquids. — Comptes ~
Rendus, exli, 385. H. L, W.
3. Hydrolysis of very Concentrated Ferric Sulphate Solu-
tions.—It has been observed by Recoura that a concentrated
solution of ferric sulphate made by dissolving the anhydrous
salt in its own weight of water is completely decomposed when
it is placed in contact with acetone for several days. The
products are sulphuric acid, which dissolves in the acetone, and a
basic ferric sulphate which separates in the solid form. The
latter is yellowish white in color, is soluble in water, and has a
composition represented by the formula 6Fe (SO): Fe, O,. H,0.
The same solid is formed without the use of acetone when a
strong solution of ferric sulphate is placed in a well-stoppered
flask and allowed to stand for a longer time. With solutions of
the strength given above, the deposit begins to form after about
twelve days and extends through the liquid in about a month.
With stronger solutions the precipitate is formed more rapidly
and abundantly, while with solutions slightly more dilute no basic
salt separates. The deposit is formed most rapidly at 20°, and
more slowly as the temperature is kept lower.— Comptes Rendus,
exl, 1685. H. L. W.
4, Separation of Gold from the Metals of the Platinum
Group.—JaNNascH and von Moyer have found that gold is
precipitated quantitatively by a salt of hydrozine in any kind of
solution. This reagent, however, on account of its powerful
reducing action does not serve to separate gold from the metals
of the platinum group, although it is thus separated satisfactorily
from potassium, sodium, barium, strontium, calcium, magnesium,
aluminium, chromium, ‘zine, manganese, iron, uranium, nickel,
cobalt, cadmium, mercury, lead and copper. Gold is precipitated
by a hydroxylamine salt in acid solution somewhat slowly, and
not below a temperature of 80°. Preliminary tests indicate that
hydroxylamine hydrochloride is a satisfactory reagent for the
separation of gold from palladium, platinum, iridium and rho-
dium, as well as from ruthenium and osmium.— Berichte, xxxvili,
2129. Hi, Le By,
5. Determination of Sugar with Fehling’s Solution.— On
account of difficulties encountered in determining small quantities
of sugar by Fehling’s volumetric method, LavatuE has modified
this by carrying it out in the presence of an excess of caustic
soda, so that the cuprous oxide produced remains in solution, and
the change i in color is more readily detected. The operation is as
follows: In a porcelain dish of 200° capacity are placed 5 or 10°
of Fehling’s solution, 30° of sodium hydroxide solution (1: 8),
and 50 or 60° of distilled water. The liquid is then heated, and
when it begins to boil the solution to be tested is gradually added.
The operation is finished when the last drop causes the blue color
of the Fehling’s solution to disappear.— Berichte, xxxviii, 2170.
H. L. W.
Chemistry and Physics. 321
6. Slow Transformation Products of Radium.—An article
by Prof. E. RuTHERFORD, in the September number of the Philo-
sophical Magazine, closes with the following summary of the
products recognized in the slow transformation of radium.
“The results of the comparison of the products of radium
with those contained in polonium, radio-tellurium, and radio-lead
are summarized below.
(Radium D=product in new radio-lead, no rays.
Half transformed in 40 years.
Products | Radium E = gives out B rays, separated with bis-
in old | muth, and iridium. MHalf transformed in 6
Radio- 4 days.
lead. | fadiaas F = product in polonium and radio-tellurium.
|
Gives out only a rays. Half transformed in 148
L days.
The family of substances produced by hie disintegration of
radium, together with the time for each to be half transformed,
is shown diagrammatically in the figure.
6d.
RADIUM EMAN. RADA Rav 8B RAD.C RaD-D RADE RAD.F
S ey &
a e e
/300 Yrs. 4dys. 3mins- aimins. &8mins 40yrs. édys. (43clys.
| | RADIO-LEAD RADIO -TEt_uriur,PoLonium
ACTIVE DEPOSIT RAPID CHANGE ACTIVE DEPOSI/IT SLOW CHANGE
It is now fully established by the researches of Boltwood,
Strutt, and McCoy that the amount of radium present in radio-
active minerals always bears a constant ratio to the amount of
uranium. ‘The investigations of Boltwood, in particular, have
shown a surprisingly good agreement between the content of
radium and uranium for minerals obtained from various localities,
which differ very widely in their content of uranium. This pro-
portionality is a strong indication that radium is produced from
uranium ; and a conclusive proof of this point of view is given
by the experiments of Soddy and Whetham, who find that there
is a slow growth of radium in uranium which was initially freed
from radium. In addition, the actual amount of radium in radio-
active minerals is of the right order of magnitude to be expected
from theoretical considerations, if uranium is the parent of
radium.
Soddy finds that the present growth of radium from uranium
is only a very small fraction of the theoretical amount. This is
most simply explained by supposing that one or more products
of slow period of transformation intervene between UrX and
radium. The uranium-radium family and their connection with
one another is summarized below.
322 Scientific Intelligence.
Uranium.
|
V
Urx.
|
V
?
|
V
Radium and its family of rapidly-changing products, viz., the
emanation, radium A, B, and C.
|
V
Radium D = primary constituent in radio-lead.
V
Radium E.
|
V
Radium F = active constituent in radio-tellurium and polonium.
No evidence has been obtained that any further active products
exist after radium EF has been transformed. If the a particle is a
helium atom, remembering that five products are present in
radium which emit a particles, the atomic weight of the trans-
formation product of radium F should be 225—20 or 205. This
is very close to the atomic weight of lead, 206°7. The view that
lead is the final or end product of the transformation of radium
is supported by the fact that lead is always found in the radio-
active minerals in about the amount to be theoretically expected
from the content of uranium, when the quantity of helium,
present in the mineral, is used to compute its probable age.* A
similar suggestion has recently been advanced by Boltwood.”
IJ. GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.
1. Indiana, Department of Geology and Natural Resources,
Twenty-ninth Annual Report, W.8. Buarcuiry, State Geologist,
1904. 888 pp., 34 pl.—This Twenty-ninth Report of the State
Geologist of Indiana is largely devoted to the economic interests
of the state, which have shown a very large increase in recent
years. Thus comparing the figures for 1895 with those for 1904,
although there has been a falling off in natural gas, the amount
of coal produced has been more than doubled and that of petro-
leum increased nearly three times, while the value of the output
of building stone and of clay products has also doubled. 'Twenty-
five years since the resources of the state were almost exclusively
agricultural, while in 1904 the total value of the mineral resources
amounted to not less than forty million dollars. The present
volume discusses very fully the clays and clay industry of the
* A full discussion of this question was given by the writer in the Silliman
Lectures, Yale University, March, 1905.
Geology and Mineralogy. 323
state, in which direction the state has been found to be very rich,
the shales, particularly those of the Coal Measures, which were
not many years since supposed to be valueless, now being turned
on an extensive scale into pipes and tiles, bricks of various kinds
and other products. An account is also given of the petroleum
industry, and the volume closes with an illustrated chapter upon
the insect galls of Indiana by Melville T. Cook.
2. Geological Survey of Louisiana, G. D. Harris, Geologist-
in-charge.—It is announced that hereafter the biennial reports
of the State Survey of Louisiana will be brought out first as
Bulletins and subsequently will be bound up in part as regular
volumes. Of the Report of 1905, three Bulletins have already
appeared: No. 1—The Underground Waters of Louisiana; No.
2—Maegnetic Survey of Louisiana; and No. 3—Tide Gauge
Work in Louisiana. These may now be had gratis by address-
ing Dr. W. R. Dodson, Director Experiment Station, Baton
Rouge, La.
3. Geological Survey of New Jersey. Annual Report of the
State Geologist, Henry B. Kimmel, for the year 1904. .317 pp.,
19 plates, 18 text figures. Trenton, 1905.—This report contains
a popular account of fossil fishes and their place in paleontology,
by Dr. C. R. Eastman, followed by a detailed account of the
fossil fishes of the Triassic as found in the Newark formation.
Dr. Weller contributes papers on the faunas and corresponding
formations of the Cretaceous of New Jersey. Professor F. B.
Peck has a chapter on the tale deposits of Phillipsburg, N. J.,
and Easton, Pa., while the molding sands are treated by H. B.
Kiimmel and 8. H. Hamilton. Progress is noted in the survey
of the pre-Cambrian rocks in coédperation with the United States
Geological Survey, and further parts treat of well records, forest
fires and mining. The work throughout the report is thorough
and of high grade; it deals largely with subjects of practical
value to the state. SE
4. Brief descriptions of some recently described Minerals.—
BECKELITE is a silicate of the cerium metals and calcium, described
by J. Morozewicz and named after Prof. Fr. Becke of Vienna. It
is found in a rock of the eleolite-syenite type, called by the author
mariupolite and forming one of the petrographic elements of the
Azov granite table. It occurs in coarse grains of a light yellow
color, optically isotropic, also in octahedrons and dodecahedrons
resembling pyrochlore. The hardness is 5 and the specific gravity
about 4115. An analyis yielded :
si0, ZrO,+R,0O, Mn,O, CaO MgO K,O Na,O ign.
17-13 65°31 0:07 15-46" 20739-20778. * 0: 99==100°13
The rare elements forming the 65°31 of ZrO,+R,O, included the
following: ZrO, 2°50, Ce,O, 28:10, La,O, 13°60, Di,O, 18°00,
Y,O,+Er,O, 2°80, Al,O, 0°30, Fe,O, tr. The calculated formula
is Ca, (Ce, La, Di), Si, O,,.— Win. petr. Mitth., xxiv, 120, 1905.
Several new species are described by R. H. Solly, in a recent
number of the Mineralogical Magazine (xiv, 72). They are
324 Scientific Intelligence.
derived from the dolomite of the quarries in the Binnenthal,
Switzerland. Hurcuinsonits, named after Dr. Arthur Hutchin-
son, of the University of Cambridge, iS a species occurring in
prismatic orthorhombic crystals, with numerous terminal faces.
The color is gray to grayish black, and the streak vermilion.
The crystals are transparent to nearly opaque. Hardness, 1°52 ;
cleavage, good, parallel to the macropinacoid. In composition it
is found by G. T. Prior to be a sulpharsenite of thallium, lead,
silver and copper ; it contains nearly 20 per cent of the rare
element thallium.
SMITHITE, named after Mr. G. F. Herbert Smith of the British
Museum, occurs in monoclinic crystals, resembling flattened hexag-
onal prisms, with prominent bas alplane. Thelustre is adamantine,
the color light red, and the streak vermilion. ‘The crystals are
transparent to translucent. Hardness, 1°5-2; cleavage, parallel to
the orthopinacoid, perfect. The surface of the crystals changes on
exposure to ight from pure red to orange red. According to G.
T. Prior, the composition is expressed by the formula AgAss..
TRECHMANNITE, after Dr. C. O. Trechmann, occurs very spar-
ingly in minute rhombohedral crystals resembling the two species
hutchinsonite and smithite in color, streak and hardness. The
crystals showed portions of hexagonal prisms, with small pyra-
midal and rhombohedral faces. Cleavage was observed perpen-
dicular to the prism. The composition is as yet undetermined.
Marriter, named after Dr. John Edward Marr of Cambridge,
occurs in highly modified monoclinic crystals, usually doubly
terminated. The color is lead- to steel-gray, the surface showing
iridescent tarnish ; the luster is metallic, brilliant. The hardness
is 3 and the fracture conchoidal; no cleavage was observed.
Only a single specimen had been found at the time the descrip-
tion was published; this showed some fifteen small crystals im-
planted upon the dolomite, hence though the crystallographic
data are complete the composition is yet to be determined.
LENGENBACHITE, named after the Lengenbach, a tributary
stream in the Binnenthal, occurs in bladed crystals often very
thin and sometimes curled up like paper. They show a highly
perfect cleavage and splendent luster; the crystals are appar-
ently twinned and are inferred to belong to the triclinic system.
The plates are flexible and somewhat malleable but not elastic.
The color is steel-gray, often with iridescent tarnish, the luster
metallic; the specific gravity is 5°80. In composition it is essen-
tially a sulpharsenite of lead with small amounts of antimony,
silver and copper, as determined by A. Hutchinson.
BowManirex, named after H. L. Bowman of the University of
Oxford, occurs in rhombohedral crystals with basic cleavage and
having the form of six-sided plates, often grouped in rosettes ;
the crystals show a pseudo-symmetry in the basal sections. The
color is honey-yellow, the luster brilliant vitreous to resinous.
The hardness is 4'5, the specific gravity 3:2. According to Bow-
man it is essentially a phosphate of lime and alumina with small
amounts of iron, water and possibly magnesia.
COLLEGES NEED:
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Clarke Restorations of Eurypterus and Hughmilleria.
Casts of Famous Inscriptions—Rosetta Stone, Black Obelisk,
Deluge Tablets, etc. =
Our Genetic Collection of Rocks.
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CONTENTS.
: Page
Art. XXVIII.—Ultimate Disintegration Products of the
Radio-active Elements ; by B. B. Botrwoop __-----_-- 253
X XIX.—Use of the Rotating Cathode for the Estimation .
of Cadmium taken as the Sulphate ; by C. P. Frora -_ 268
XXX.—Crystallization of -Luzonite; and other Crystallo-
eraphie Studies ;-by A.J “Moses = 3-2 = eee 217
_ XXXJI.—Determining of the Optical Character of Birefract-
ing’ Minerals; by FE. Wrigur. 2-522...) 3 See
XX XII.—Groups of Efficient Nuclei in Dust-Free Air; by
C. BaRUs ss 220 be eo ee ee
XXXII.—Studies in the Cyperacer ; by T. Honm_-_-_.-- 301
“XXXIV.—Preliminary Note on some Overthrust Faults in
Central New York; by P. FP. Scunriper = 228 - 308
XXXV.—Petrography of the Tucson Mountains, Pima Co.,
Arizona ; by. KON. “Guinp 203 4 ei eee 313
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
Chemistry and Physics—Gases produced by Actinium, DEBIERNE: New
Heavy Solution, Dusoin, 319.—Hydrolysis of very Concentrated Ferric
Sulphate Solutions, Recoura: Separation of Gold from the Metals of the
Platinum Group, JANNASCH and von Moyer: Determination of Sugar with
Fehling’s Solution, LavauLEe, 320.—Slow Transformation Products of
Radium, E. RUTHERFORD, 321.
Geology and Mineralogy—Indiana, Department of Geology and Natural
Resources, Twenty-ninth Annual Report, W. S. BLATCHLEY, 322.—Geo-
logical Survey of Louisiana: Geological Survey of New Jersey: Brief
descriptions of some recently described Minerals, 323.
TEN-VOLUME INDEX.
An extra number, containing a full Index to volumes XI to XX of the
Fourth Series, will be ready in December. Sent only to those who specially
order it. Price one dollar. $25
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MevOr xx 5 NOVEMBER, 1905.
a Established by BENJAMIN SILLIMAN in 1818. ~
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FOURTH SERIES
VOL. XX—[| WHOLE NUMBER, CLXxX.]
No. 119.—NOVEMBER, 1905.
WITH PLATES X, XI.
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Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XX, 1905. Plate X.
4
Carapace of Toxochelys Bauri Wieland sp. nov. from the Niobrara Creta-
ceous of Gove County, Kansas, as partly restored and mounted in the Yale
Museum.— Actual length about 53°™,
AV Tela
AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
(FOURTH SERT#S.]
Art. XXXVI.—A New Niobrara Toxochelys;* by G. BR.
Wreranp. (With Plate X.}
None of the numerous marine, or semi-marine turtles from
the Kansas chalk or Niobrara Cretaceous have proven. of
greater interest than the forms included within the genus
Toxochelys. For this wholly extinct American group unites
carapacial and plastral characters of the Lytolomas of the
Upper Cretaceous of New Jersey with Chelydra-like cranial
features, and is well represented by a considerable number of
specific forms and variations presenting fairly clear evidence
that we have here to deal with a line which independently
acquired the modifications of limb structure suiting at least
some of its members to a marine habitat. |
Moreover it is very significant that discrete epi-neural ossi-
cles somewhat similar to those the writer supposed might be
present in Archelon are borne serially either on the neural,
or over the neural junctions in an order suggesting that they
have an ancient history, possibly analogous to the ossicles of
somewhat similar form so characteristic of the Crocodilidee
and in part the Chelydride. These ossicles as noted further
on were first observed in Toxochelys (serrifer) stenoporis by
Case (2) and later more fully described and commented on by
Hay (6, 7, 8). The character of the entire series is, however,
now determined for the first time. The idea that such ossi-
* The writer’s previous contributions, mainly on the marine turtles, are as
follows :—
This Journal, vol. ii, Dec., 1896, pp. 399-412, pl. VI. American Natural-
ist (p. 446), 1897. This Journal, vol. v, Jan., 1898, pp. 15-20, pl. II;
vol. ix, Apr., 1900, pp. 237-251, pl. II; vol. ix, June, 1900, pp. 413-424 ;
vol. xiv, Aug., 1902, pp. 95-108; vol. xv, March, 1908, pp. 211-216; vol.
xvii, Feb., 1904, pp. 112-132, pls. I-IX ; vol. xviii, Sept., 1904, pp. 183-196,
pls. V-VIII.—(In Press,—Protostega ; Memoirs, Carnegie Museum of Pitts-
burgh ; Plastron of Protostegine. )
AM. Jour. Sct.—FourtH Series, Vou. XX, No. 119.—NOVEMBER, 1905.
23
326 G. R. Wieland—On Marine Turtles.
cles really represent a disappearing series of dermal elements
is further strengthened by the writer’s observation that inter-
polated ossicles also occur in the marginal series of occasional
specimens of Lytoloma angusta, as will be further considered
below.
Despite the frequent occurrence of Toxochelyds in the
Niobrara, until now no complete carapace has been described.
It is, therefore, of timely interest that a specimen collected by
Mr. Charles H. Sternberg in Gove County, Kansas, and very
recently acquired by the Yale Museum, includes a carapace
and plastron sufliciently complete to determine accurately all
the details of shell structure and form. The original locality,
according to Mr. Sternberg, is in a ravine about three miles
north of Monument Rocks, and about four miles east of the
western Gove County line. This fossil is numbered 2823 in
the Yale Museum accession list, and on the basis of the analy-
sis given below is referred to the new species Zoxochelys
Bauri, in honor of that distinguished student of the Testudi-
nata the late lamented Professor Georg Baur. As shown on
Plate X, 7. Bauri, represents one of the most ornate of all
extinct Testudinate species. The type consists in the follow-
ing elements :—
The nuchal and eight closely articulated neuralia with the
ninth median or post-neural element bipartite, and followed
by an antero-pygal and the pygal marginal (the postero-pygal
being the only ‘median element absent) ; three epi-neural ossi-
cles ‘respectively seated on the 8d and 4th, the 5th and 6th,
and the 8th-10th members of the neural series; the 1st— 3d,
and the 8th-11th right marginals; the 4th—6th, Sth and 10th
left marginals; most of the pleur alia; also the right hyo- and
hypoplastron nearly complete, and various fr agments of verte-
bree with several centra and arches. Of the right pleuralia
the first and seventh are complete, and the third, fourth and
sixth only lack rib-tips, while the expanded plates of all the
right pleurals but the distal portion of the fifth, are fortunately
present. On the left side the pleurals are not so complete,
only the proximal ends having been recovered, with the excep-
tion of the third, which only lacks a middle portion of the
Plates tc fioure 6.
The hyo- and hypoplastron lack their interior digitations,
but fortunately permit an approximate restoration from what
is known of the plastron of several other species (ef. figure 7).
The fragmentary or not directly determinable skeletal parts
include two dorsal centra, 4° in length, and several caudal
centra, with a few por tions of cervicals.
With the exception of some of the middle and anterior
marginals, which are curiously crushed from very different
G. R. Wieland—On Marine Turtles. B27
angles, the various elements of the present in reality excep-
tionally fine fossil do not appear to have been much displaced
in their original chalk matrix. This had been removed, how-
ever, and aside from the neurals, which remained for the
greater part solidly articulated, any clues to form and organ-
ization afforded by position im the matrix had been thus
destroyed before the specimen reached the Yale Museum.
Despite this crushing and dissociation of parts, as the result
of a careful joint examination by the Museum preparateur,
Mr. Gibb, and the writer, it has nevertheless proven possible
for the former to make a very handsome and successful mount-
ing of the fine carapace with the considerably restored plas-
tron in its approximately natural position, as illustrated on
Plate X, and figures 1-3, and 6, 7. In fact it is owing to the
presence of the nearly complete hyo- and hypoplastron that
we are enabled to determine the true width of the carapace,
which is indicated in the corrected drawing (figure 1) based in
part on the measurement thus obtained. The specimen itself
is mounted more nearly as removed from the chalk matrix,
the width being somewhat exaggerated by compression. For
it was at once decided that it would be far better inv mounting
the specimen to adhere nearly to the form that had resulted
from crushing in the matrix, rather than to distort the junc-
tions of the several elements in an effort to reach the elongate
form Yoxochelys Bawri really had. The restoration is accord-
ingly, although at first sight indicating a considerable length
of shell, not nearly so narrow and relatively long as originally
in life,—an interesting fact because this is almost the only
marine form with a carapace suggestive of the great length
seen in Dermochelys.
Description of Parts.
As the main features of the anatomy of the carapace appear
in sufficient detail in the summary of characters and measure-
ments given below, taken in conjunction with the accompany-
ing figures and plates, we may pass on to a discussion of the
special or unique features of interest, namely the nuchal, the
epi-neural spines, and the pygal region.
Nuchal.—The Trionychid-like fontanelles at the junction
of the nuchal, first neural and pleurals (figure 1, 7}, are circu-.
lar to slightly elliptical, and 1°" in diameter. Such have not
been hitherto observed to occur outside the Trionychids, and
with the general form of the nuchal suggest a certain connec-
tion with original lines less distant from the Trionyehid stocks
than are the Chelonine. Elsewhere the writer has suggested
that the Nuchal and Epiplastra of Dermochelys, Protostega,
and the Jurassic Thalassemyds may go to indicate a yet
~
328 G. R. Wieland—On Marine Turtles.
closer relationship to stocks ancestral to the Trionychide, and
that there are many most suggestive indications that indepen-
FiGurRE 1.—Carapace of Toxochelys Bauri Wieland, x14 nearly. (Drawn
from type.) N, Nuchal; 2, 4, 6, 8, Neuralia; 9’, posterior segment of the
9th or post-neural element of the median series; A, Antero-pygal; P, Pos-
tero-pygal; M, Marginalo-pygal; I-VIII, the Pleuralia; M0, 10th (rib-
free) Marginal; f, the post-nuchal foramina; f!, f%, Ist and 8th pleuro-
marginal fontanelles. The three Epi-neurals are not lettered.
dent marine races of Testudinates, of which at least a half
dozen may be enumerated, have been repeatedly developed
ever since the Jurassic.
G. R. Wieland—On Marine Turtles. 329
It is also of much interest that while in forms like Osteopy-
gis a nether nuchal process is wholly absent, there is in the -
present turtle a mere, although distinct beginning of such a
FIGURE 2.—Plastral view of Toxochelys Bauri Wieland, x14 nearly.
(Drawn from type).—en, Entoplastron ; h, Hyoplastron; hp, Hypoplastron ;
x, Xiphiplastron ; f, f, f, the median and the lateral hyo-hypoplastral, and
the hypo-xiphiplastral foramina; 4-7, the plastron-supporting marginalia.
Other letters as in figure 1.
process, and in Zoxochelys latiremis a vouch larger projection
for actual cervical articulation. This process thus appears to
have arisen in different groups rather than to have been com-
330
G. R. Wieland—On Marine Turtles.
monly present in Cretaceous turtles, and may now be consid-
ered to have been definitely traced to its origin in at least one
genus.
Figure 3.—Lateral view of the
Carapace of Toxochelys Bauri Wie-
land, x 14 nearly. Drawn from the
type. s,s, s, the three Epi-neural
spines supported respectively by the
3d and 4th, the 5th and 6th neurals,
and the 8th neural and the post-
neural elements; f, the post-nuchal
foramina. :
Lipi-neural Spines —The ser-
ies of epi-neural spines taken in
conjunction with the strongly
carinate neurals, and the keeled
marginals, give to the present
fossil carapace a most ornate
form. See figures 1 and 3.
The earliest suggestion of the
possible presence of epi-neural
elements in the Testudinata was —
made by the writer in his orig-
inal description of the Fort
Pierre Cretaceous turtle Avrche-
lon given in this Journal for
Dec., 1896. It appears on page
400 of that number as follows:
“One of the chief features of
the carapace is the arching into
a heavy dorsal ridge, beginning
just back of the region of the
tirst dorsal vertebra, and from
thence continuous, except in the
sacral region. It marks the
position of the neural spines
and is very distinctly grooved
from anteriorly to the region of
the eighth dorsal vertebra. Im-
mediately over the neural spines
this groove inclines to widen
and send out asteriations. In
life these grooves were no doubt
filled with horny material, and
the animal may have borne w
dorsal row of spines.”
Two years later the spines of
Toxochelys were first observed
by Case,* and have been since
more fully described and com.
mented on by Hay, who would
see in them the remnants of a
former dermal series, probably
onee common to all turtles, and
going far to explain the homol-
* Kansas Univ. Geol. Survey, vol. iv, p. 382 (1898).
G. R. Wieland—On Marine Turtles. a3.
ogy of the osteodermal mosaic of Dermochelys (6, 7). The
present is, however, the first time that the entire series of
ossicles and their relation to the successive neurals has been
determined. As may be judged from reference to the several
figures, the system of ossicles may really be a much changed
and disappearing one. ‘The first neural bears a small but very
distinct completely fused boss near its middle, and then forms
the beginning of the dorsal carina. The third neural which is
rather short, and the fourth which is abnormally long, support
a large epi-neural spine. This occupies all the median poste-
rior three-fourths of the length of the third and the anterior
fourth of the length of the fourth neurals, and is doubtless the
second member of the original epi-neural series. The second
free epi-neural [or third of the original series] is the largest,
and is equally borne by the fifth and sixth neurals. The third
free epi-neural [or fourth of the hypothetical primitive series |
rests over the ninth member of the neuralia, so as to project
slightly forward onto the eighth and well backward over all
the anterior half of the post-neural tenth. This latter epi-
neural is the smallest of the three free epi-neurals.
4
s;
Figure 4.—Toxochelys Bauri type, x'1/:. a, Vertical transverse section
through the second neural showing the average elevation and outline of the
median neural carina. b, Vertical transverse section through anterior end of
the 6th neural, and the epi-neural spine (s) borne on this and the 5th neurals.
Whether a fifth member of the epi-neural series was borne
by the postero-pygal, which would afford the symmetrical posi-
tion, is of course conjectural in the absence of this latter
member of the median series.
/
S52 G. R. Wieland—On Marine Turtles.
Whether or not the keels of the marginalia mark the fusion
of a lateral series of elements, corresponding to the epi-neurals,
is likewise only conjectural, although it appears that some
light may be shed on the subject by Proganochelys. There is
however some uncer tainty as to the number of marginals and
true significance of the peculiar marginal fringe of spines in
this singularly interesting turtle as so carefully studied by
Fraas (4) from material recovered under conditions unfavor-
able to the exact preservation of structural details. But it is
also a most interesting and suggestive fact that small ossicles
are irregularly inter polated between the lateral marginals of
the Cretaceous Zytoloma, as small triangular elements about
15° on each side. Such are shown at E, E, E in the accompany-
ing figure 5. As these epi-marginal ossicles are not equally pre-—
sent on both the right and left marginals even in the same
individual and certainly not always present in all specimens of
Lytoloma angusta, they would at first sight appear to be of
much less significance, taken by themselves, than are the epi-
neurals of Toxochelr ys. Nevertheless it would now seem that
they do represent a disappearing series that may once have
invested the entire margin of the carapace. If so, they form
one of the most impressive examples of the very last vestiges
of a vanishing series.
The truth of this hypothesis yet remains to be mainly deter-
mined by fossil evidence, which we may hope ere long to dis-
cover, 1f correct. At any rate it is extremely interesting and
suggestive to find further traces of an additional osteodermal
series in Lyotoloma, whatever may be the homology to that of
Dermochelys.
What the characteristic number of elements in this system
as developed in pre-Cretaceous testudinates was, no one has
yet attempted to suggest. Nor is it possible to reach a safe
conclusion in the absence of further paleontologic evidence.
It would appear however that the series was once at least as
complex as is the horn-shield and the bony plate series, and
that it had some form of alternate or imbricate relationship to
both these latter systems. Also, if the osteodermal mosaic of
Dermochelys arose from such an additional dermal series, such
origin must therefore have been in part by a subdivision pro-
cess such as was suggested to Baur by the ‘abnormal breaking
up into smaller ossicles along the edges of the pleurals observed
by him in Hretmochelys. Such a subdivision would of course
follow the lines of the original system, and could thus very
well produce the carapacial carina seen in Dermochelys.
It should be especially noted in this connection that such an
hypothesis for the more primitive origin of the osteodermal
mosaic does not necessarily imply a more ancient origin for
G. R. Wieland—On Marine Turties. aoe
Dermochelys than for the Chelonide, and that its correctness
would not necessarily leave Dermochelys the most primitive
of turtles, but rather the most specialized, as hitherto held by
Baur, Dollo, and the writer. As stated, only new fossil evi-
dence can settle the very interesting questions that here arise.
oor
=
FiGuRE ).—Carapace of Lytoloma angusta from the Upper Cretaceous
Greensand of Barnsboro, Gloucester Co., New Jersey. E, E, E, Epi-mar-
ginals respectively borne by the right 4th and 5th, 5th and 6th, and the left
4th and 5th marginalia. (Enough marginals are present in the original spe-
cimen—No. 625 of the Yale Collection—to determine that no further epi-
marginals accompanied these three, unless such were borne anteriorly to the
4th marginals.) Epi-marginals are not always present in L. angusta.
The pygal region.—The neural series of Toxochelys Bauri,
excluding of course the epi-neural ossicles, agrees with that of
Hardella thurgi (1) in having ten elements, in the neural row,
—in reality an interpolated element between the normal or
S04 G. R. Wieland—On Marine Turtles.
common eighth and ninth elements, or better a division of the
ninth or post-neural region of the median series. Unlike
Hardella, however, the pygal is not single, the post-neural
region being divided into an antero- and postero-pygal, as in
Osteopygzis, and in the Cheloninze. The existence and outlines
of the postero-pygal are indicated by the conformation of the
pleuralia and posterior marginals, together with the posterior
suture of the antero-pygal and the anterior suture of the. pygal
marginal, which are quite unlike. From these sutural borders
it is also quite evident that the heavy median keel which
evenly traverses all the length of the antero-pygal, finally ran
out on the postero-pygal, where it no doubt ended as a distinet
boss like that of the first neural, which would perforce repre-
sent a fused fifth member of the median or epi-neural ossicular |
system. The pygal marginal, in correspondence with the
strong keels of the marginals, is ornately double-keeled. The
organization of this region has not hitherto been determined
in any species of Zoxochelys. Both Case (2) and Hay (6) have
figured the posterior half of the carapace of 7. (serrifer) steno-
porus type, but without determining the sutures, whether
because not indicated or because of difficulty of interpretation
not being stated by either. A distinct difference from the
present specimen is, however, obviously present in the postero-
pygal region.
Synopsis of the Characters of Toxochelys Bauri (type).
Carapace.—Elliptical to elongate in outline with large and
persistent pleuro-marginal fontanelles; composed of 52 bony
plates and 3 additional epi-neural spinose ossicles; numerical
arrangement of parts combining the general alignment and
form seen in the Chelonine Lytoloma angusta with the post-
neural arrangement of the existing Hardella thurgt. Surface
finely granulate to smooth, and horn-shield sulci not apparent,
save for notches formed by the posterior border of the mar-
ginal keels. (A distinctly leathery hide is not, however, sup-
posed to be present.) Marginals, 11 pairs, rather narrow
anteriorly, increasing very slowly in breadth to the 11th, which
is still nearly twice as long as broad, outer borders all the way
to the pygal marginal more and more sharply keeled anterior
to the indistinet to absent horn-shield sulci, upper and nether
surfaces of nearly equal area, supported by rib-ends only with ~
the pits of the plastral digits small to indistinct and extending
from the 3d to about the middle of the 7th; rib-pits small,
with the 10th marginal ribless, and the 11th supporting the
9th rib anteriorly as in Chelone and Lytoloma.
Nuchal large and very broad, uniting by straight sutures
with the 1st neural and 1st pleurals, between which are formed
G. R. Wieland—On Marine Turtles. 300
posteriorly two small oval fenestrae as in the Trionychids ;
with a minute (incipient) nether articular projection but no
costiform processes. Neuralia 8 with the post-neural bipar-
FiGuRE 6.—Toxochelys Bauri (type). ' A supplementary figure to Plate
X, showing by stippled surfaces the parts of the original carapace actually
recovered. (Lettering as in figure 1.)
tite, oblong to hexagonal, prominently carinate and supporting
the three large epi-neural spinose ossicles. Antero- and pos-
tero-pygal nearly as in Lytoloma. Pleuralia more reduced
than in either Chelone or Lytoloma.
336 G. R. Wieland—On Marine Turtles.
Plastron.—Ot the same Chelydroid form seen in Osteopygis
and Lytoloma.
FIGURE 7.—Towxochelys Bauri (type). Restoration of the plastron. x+.—
The stippled surface shows the portions of the hyoplastron (h) and the hypo-
plastron (hp) actually recovered.—(The epiplastron and entoplastron is only
known in T. latiremis, cf. figure 8, and the xiphiplastron in T. stenoporus.)
Specific Relationships.
The specific identity of the Zoxzochelys described in the
foregoing pages with any of the known species of the genus
cannot be affirmed, as appears from the following analysis.—
Five species have been assigned to the Niobraran genus Zoxo-
chelys as first established by Cope in 1873, namely: 7. latire-
mis, the generic type; 7. serrifer, Cope, 1875; TZ. brachy-
rhinus, Case, 1898; and 7. procax and T. stenoporus, as pro-
posed in a recent revision of the genus by Hay (8).
With 7. Jatiremis as close a comparison as desirable is not
yet afforded, since but few of the elements of the carapace and
plastron of this form are known. It appears, however, that
the nuchal was of markedly different proportions from those
G. R. Wieland—On Marine Turtles. BS
of the present 7. Lauri, as may be noted on comparison with
a nuchal figured by Case.*
Nor is there specific agreement with the nuchal of the Yale
specimen I referred to, 7. dateremis, when describing the
accompanying flipper (10). This nuchal is here shown in
figure 8 for the sake of more convenient reference.
8
FicurEeE 8.—Towxochelys latiremis, from the Niobrara.Cretaceous, Gove
County, Kansas. (Yale accession list 2419.) x about 1.
Nuchal with the attached first marginals of both sides and the proximal
half of the right second marginal, together with the accompanying epi-
plastron.—This nuchal bears far back nearly in line with the front border
of the large curved posterior notches a large and prominent nether process
for cervical articulation.
Although true that the general form varies in turn from
that just noted as figured by Case, the differences are more
easily reconciled within specific limits. The simple fact is
that in no previously described specimen of Zowxochelys, and
in no other semi-marine, or marine member of the Chelonide,
do we observe Trionychid-like foramina between the nuchal
and first neural and pleurals. JI may add that from recent
measurements given by Hay it appears that amongst the
several Toxochelyds 7’ brachyr hinus is next related to 7.
latiremis ; and there is a question in my mind if the former
is a distinct species, the differences in cranial proportion from
T. laturemis being so slight as to be of very doubtful signifi-
cance in specimens so invariably crushed at more or less vary-
ing angles as are the Niobrara fossils.
With the skull fragments and crushed [9th] left marginal
of 7. serrifer as recently figured for the first time by Hay (8),
I am unable to identify the present handsome specimen. As
the horn-shields of 7. serrzfer formed a very deep marginal
notch leading into a pronounced sulcus (as indicated by Hay),
there appear to be distinct differences. It is, of course, one of
the difficulties of vertebrate paleontologists that species based
* University Geol. Survey of Kansas, pl. lxxxii, figure 3.
338 G. R. Wieland—On Marine Turtles.
on such meager skeletal parts accumulate in the course of
time; but surely we are permitted little diffidence in applying
the laws of priority and nomenclature now in vogue to a hand-
some and reasonably complete fossil like that discussed in the
present paper. Perhaps the day is not distant when fr agments
will be merely noted within generic limits, and then numbered
and laid aside for a certain number of years before being
arbitrarily dignified as the types of new forms. Assuredly
such a method would simplify the study of extinct faunee.
The extreme difficulty of reaching accurate specific identifica-
tions alter most painstaking comparisons and study of deserip-
tions primarily based on fragmentary material, has been espe-
cially brought home to the writer in his consideration of the
Upper Cretaceous Turtles of New Jersey, and he has great
sympathy with Professor Marsh’s oft repeated contention that
‘the types of extinct vertebrates ought to be mainly founded
on fairly complete forms.
With the isolated and imperfect skull of rather large and
robust form named 7. procaw by Hay, as with that of 7.
brachyrhinus, no comparisons are afforded by the material
thus far obtained.
From 7. (serrifer) stenoporus, finally, 7. Bawri differs
distinctly. as shown by comparison with the posterior half
of the carapace figured by Case.* From that and other
specimens of 7. (serrifer) stenoporus the present fossil differs
in being of a larger type with relatively heavier marginals
and larger pleural plates; also in the much more pronounced
sutural union of the postero- and marginalo-pygal, which 1s
reduced to peg-like junction in 7. (serrifer) stenoporus.
Systematic Position of the Genus Toxochelys.
Because of the carapacial organization with much reduced —
pleurals and marginals, as well as certain plastral characters,
all suggesting primitive relationships to the Cheloniudee, it
was first suggested by the writer on his discovery of the
organization ‘of the front lege of Toxochelys latiremis, that the
Toxochelyds do not justly constitute a separate family of tur-
tles, as proposed by Cope and held by Hay, but are better
classified as a sub- family of the Cheloniide, the Toxoghely-
dinee. eee Hay, while accepting the principle that the
limbs do furnish “a test of the correctness of this disposition
of the genus,” interprets the evidence differently (7). He now
reaches the conclusion that Wieland misinter preted the limbs
of 7. latiuremus (10), and that these, as in the Trionyehid
Amyda spinifera, were merely long fingered and webbed,
* Kansas Univ. Geol. Sur., vol. iv, plate lxxxiii.
G. PR. Wieland—On Marine Turtles. 339
and not markedly modified for marine life, so that Zoxochelys
“ did not navigate the open seas.”
In support of his contentions Dr. Hay uses a percentual
method of comparison in which the humerus is conveniently
and arbitrarily considered the unit in terms of which the
length of the digits is expressed. This very effective means
of comparison was first used by the writer in the case of forms
in other ways related, and is, within limits, unquestionably
useful in a diagrammatic sense. But Dr. Hay now mistakenly
employs it in a far wider application than originally contem-
plated, when he reaches direct conciusions as to the front limb
of Zoxochelys by comparison with the Trionychid Amyda
spiniferda, thus :—
ARM. FINGERS.
(a —— = Ee (eat —_—~— eN
Humerus. Radius. Ulna. Ist. 2d. 3d. Ath. oth.
Amyda 100 53 5) Il 69 90 98 116 98
Toxochelys 100 58 50 51 73 100+ 104+ TO
One might as well go on to prove that the “ hawks-bili,”
Eretmochelys imbricata, 1s unable to “ navigate the open seas”’.
—For similarly :
ARM. FINGERS.
ee ——*~-—-— aN Car ——_ —*~—_—_ ==>)
Humerus, kadwuse.. Ullnas ist 2d. 3d. Ath. oth.
Amyda 100 58 Hil CD. OO GS ANG Oe
Eretmochelys 100 53 FART AQT 89) 28) Obs | 44
Whence the following differences:
ARM. FINGERS.
=a SSS iS aS = \
Humerus. Radius. Ulna. SG 2d. SOL, Ail. Ohl
Amyda aa sit +7 +20 +1 __ +11 +4854
Eretmochelys — -- ae oy as Pasa Lis
It is clear that save for that short thumb and long fourth
finger of Hretmochelys, were this an extinct form, no conelu-
sive evidence of the true flipper development would be afforded
by such measurements as the above when considered alone.
For it is a noteworthy fact that the disparity between the
thumb and fourth finger of Amyda is +47 as against +53 in
Toxochelys, and +56 in Eretmochelys. Yet as a true indi-
cation of unequal finger development, instead of disparity
between only the short first and the long third and fourth
“fingers, as in Hretmochelys, there was in Toxochelys strong dis-
parity between the short first and second and the long third
and fourth fingers. There was also ulnar disparity.
All these fundamental numerical relations have been over-
looked in Dr. Hay’s criticism. He entirely ignores, too, the
340 G. R. Wieland—On Marine Turtles.
fact that as a merely web-footed turtle Zovochelys would have
been very unlike Amyda. For these percentual results must
always be considered in connection with the humeral changes
in the direction of marine forms, which are indicated in the
thalassoid humerus of Zoxochelys, as well as the enlargement
of the pisiform to nearly the same size as in Hretmochelys. In
short, it is evident that Dr. Hay overlooked important factors
and that his views are untenable.
When I originally described the flipper of Zoxochelys I was
of the opinion that it represented the most primitive form yet
discovered that could be called more distinctly marine than
merely natatorial, long-fingered and web-footed ; and now that
I have had the present opportunity to briefly reconsider the
subject I may say that I believe this interpretation in accord
with the facts.*
Dr. Hay “readily grants that the fore limb of Toxochelys
had entered on the early stages of those modifications which
resulted in the production of flippers.” But as clearly enough
indicated by the facts, much more modification had been under-
gone, and the foot was more a swimming than a walking one.
Whether the third to fifth fingers were encased in a leathery
hide, or still retained some of their freedom of motion, as in
distinctly webbed types, is open to some question ; but never-
theless finger disparity, reduction of the 3d—5th claws, pisiform
enlargement and humeral change had all been accomplished to
such an advanced extent that the limb is to be regarded as a
flipper, quite admirably fitting Zoxochelys latirenis to range
the great inland Niobrara Sea. And even were the anatomical
facts of less certain interpretation, the onws probands would
rest on him who asserted the non-marine nature of those turtles
which occur so widely distributed in as extensive a chalk forma-
tion of indisputably marine origin as the Niobrara Cretaceous.
It is very evident, therefore, that on the basis of limb organ-
ization Zoawochelys is a member of the Cheloniidee, and that as
proposed by the writer on the basis of the general organiza-
- tion, limb structure, and relationships the genus is most con-
veniently placed in the Chelonidan sub-family Toxochelydine.
As a concluding word it may be added for the sake of clear-
ness that no great diagnostic significance is attached to the
presence of the epi-neural ossicles,—certainly not if they are
to be regarded as vestiges of a disappearing system, likewise
indicated in the genus Lytoloma of the Chelonine.
Yale Museum, New Haven, Conn., Sept. 26, 1905.
*TIn view of the great interest of the subject I will as early as convenient
refigure the flipper of Toxochelys with all possible care. Dr. Hay is also of
thé opinion that the great turtles of the Fort Pierre, and perforce the Nio-
brara Protostega were likewise littoral and web-footed rather than marine.
As will be incontestably demonstrated by the writer in a forthcoming
Memoir of the Carnegie Museum of Pittsburgh, Protostega and Archelon
were powerfully equipped for their marine habitat.
G. R. Wieland—On Marine Turtles. 341
Measurements of Carapace and Plastron of Toxochelys Bauri.
(Yale Museum accession list 2823. Elements disarticulated
and more or less altered in form by crushing in matrix.
Recovered portions as shown in the accompanying figure 6 by
the stippled surfaces.)
Length of carapace (estimated to within 1 or 2%™ _______- 530m
Breadth of carapace (greatest, as measured across the
~ anterior sat OF GhetGLh Netikaky seas oN eC Bes 40+
(a) (0)
Exact length Width measured
on outer edge at notch of the
of carapace. hornshield sulci.
UN ilo See ie rae ok 12°0 ie
bstamranomales fe pe 6:0 2°5
2d Eee nee Steere tet 5°0 2°5
3d Sete ran Mace apeeet abi st te | 5°9 2°8
4th x Be peri eae See eh Bee Lt 6°0 a
5th Se ene ie wee Tas 6°95 2°8
6th ee aes ey ee ks le 70 3°3
Basle ec ees obras WS ie 75 me
Ste 2S pegs Pele Stoeger 8:0 4°5
9th Bice e Pa ea RGR Se 75 4°5
roca oe zat AO ers nce ees 7°0 4°5
PEG yp) ee 6°8 4°5
1 7 SR aA a ic aac pas 7°0 4°5
(The thickness and transverse sections of the marginals are
approximately the same as in Lytoloma angusta. Owing to the
crushing undergone by most of the marginals a closer approxi-
mation cannot readily be given.)
Length on Greatest
Median line. —_~width.
Brae lials atinsce eo aa ey 5°5 * 14:5
list: HEURAL Ss 2.12 32h0% ies repeat ae hohe 3°8 3°8
De ae hapa te NE Soe ne se Lae 4°4 3°7
SOS Preah Ni ea oe Ce EY ce 4-4 4°0
GG i, Ms ee eC 46 4:4
SU iper cdma nets = MOE Ses eet 3°4 4°5
Deepa hie oer acc Ate Oe | OR Bite Be 5°0 4°0
FE SIS NR Aa Sain ah i kta ok Rn ae a 4°0 3°8
2) 18 SL GAN SDS Sa ae eR oe Spare gn D5 8°5
Sphere hy eRe ae one eer apa Ibe. 3°d
EOS pies iS Oe Oia sca i a Saar n 2°5 3°4
PRTEDEEO NYS les os ae syns 8 4°5 5°9
(Posterd-pygal)s2 eval (3°5) (4:0)
Marginalo-pygal 22.2. 52: 2. -- 4°5 6°5
Am. Jour. Scl.—FourtTH SERIES, Vou. XX, No. 119.—NOVEMBER, 1905.
24
342 G. R. Wieland—On Marine Turtles.
Ist epi-neural Ossiclel: mld gutsy 3°5 ver
2d Ba Seats Vaan Taam oe tae wea coe 4°5 2°0
3d ie sas Se eat Rg 3°9 1°5
(Thickness of 2d neural measured through carina, 1-4°™.)
(The total height of the epi-neural ossicles is respectively, 15
21, and 15™™, the projection above the carina, 9, 12, and 9™™.)
>
(d)
(a) Length of
Length posterior (c)
over sutural Median
curvature. border. width.
Nena ts ice ney a naa [10] cn
ist pleurales 2s. eye 15°0 6°5 5:7
od a WNC eals uae Mane atin 18°5 8°4 On)
3d Se elt ceric OL AUR oily 19°5 8°4 5°0
Ath e Bs Oe SHON Yio 19°5 8°2 4:9
5th iG yt adhee ths a Samant te 19:0 Gil 4°8
Ctl NG een CN ae 17°5 6:9 AS
7th SES ANION pe agin Dane ai 14°5 5°1 3°8
8th SEN de Seeley mul etd Ad abs 2°2 3°8
(The average thickness of the pleurals is 50™™. The distance
between the bases of the rib-capitulae of the 7th pleurals is 4°.
The large pleuro-marginal fontanelles are approximately one-
half, or more than one-half the length of the pleurals which bound
them. The boa sulci, save for the notched marginals, are
indistinct.)
The Plastron. (Cf. figure 7.)
(With added width of the inferior faces of the adjoining mar-
ginals, or 2° < 2, this measurement yields as the approximate
breadth of the carapace 40°.)
Width (on antero-posterior line) of the marginalo-
hyo-hypoplastral fontanelle 2250553 a od
Length of hyo-hypoplastral suture __..-_-.---- Bel)
Least width of the hyo-hypoplastral bridge .-.-. 11:0
10)
EA.
12,
G. R. Wieland—On Marine Turtles. 343
References.
. Boulenger, G. A. : Catalogue of Chelonians, British Museum
of Natural History, 1889.
. Case, E. C.: Toxochelys. University Geological Survey of
Kansas, Paleontology, Part IV. Topeka, 1898.
. Cope, E. D.: Vertebrata of the Cretaceous Formations of
the West, vol. 1, Rep. U. 8. Geological Survey of
the Territories. Washington, 1875.
. Fraas, E.: Proganochelys Quenstedtit Baur (Psammochelys
Keuperina Qu.). Ein neuer Fund der Keuper-
schildkréte aus dem Stubensandstein. Jahreshefte
des Ver. fiir Naturk. in Wiirttemberg. Stuttgart,
1899.
. Gray, J. E.: Supplement to the Catalogue of Shield Reptiles
in the British Museum. London, 1870.
. Hay, O. P.: On the skeleton of Toxochelys latiremis. Pub-
lications of the Field Columbian Museum. Zool. I.
Chicago, 1895.
— On the group of Fossil Turtles, known as the
Amphichelydia ; with Remarks on the Origin and
Relationships of the Suborders, Superfamilies, and
the Families of the Testudines. Bull. American
Museum of Natural History, vol. xxi, Article LX.
New York, June 30, 1905.
. — A Revision of the species of the Family of
Fossil Turtles called Toxochelyide, with Descrip-
tions of two New Species of Zoxochelys and a New
Species of Porthochelys. Ibid., Article X.
. Wieland, G. R.: Archelon ischyros: A new gigantic cryp-
todiran Testudinate from the Fort Pierre Creta-
ceous of South Dakota. Ibid., vol. 11, Dec., 1896.
— Notes on the Cretaceous Turtles Zoxochelys and
Archelon, with a classification of the Marine Tes-
tudinata. Ibid., vol. xiv, Aug., 1902.
— Structure of the Upper Cretaceous Turtles of
New Jersey: Adocus, Osteopygis, and Propleura
Ibid., February, 1904.
— Structure of the Upper Cretaceous Turtles of
New Jersey: Lytoloma. Ibid., Sept., 1904.
344 Pirsson and Washington— Geology of New Hampshire.
Arr. XXX VII.— Contributions to the Geolegy of New Hamp-
shire. I. Geology of the Belknap Mountains; by L. V.
Presson and H. 8. Wasuineron. (With Plate XI.)
Introductory Note.—Our object in this paper and in one to
follow it is to present the results of a study made im the field
and in the laboratory of the occurrence and characters of a
group of igneous rocks from a locality about which little is
known. Our field work was done in two visits to the area and
covers a period of between two and three weeks, during which
it was traversed and roughly outlined and the highest peaks
and ridges ascended. ‘This was sufficient to give a good gen- —
eral idea of its geology and of the various rock types. In the
lack of a suitable base map on a sufficient scale, upon which to
make record, more detailed and careful work was not war-
ranted and would have enabled us to add little of interest to
the general results presented in this paper. The map used
and upon which our results are given is taken from that accom-
panying the Hitchcock Survey, referred to later, and which
we have modified to some extent. The topogr aphy is more or
less generalized and in places somewhat inaccurate, but it is
the only one showing topography of which we have any knowl-
edge and it has ser ved as the basis of several topographic maps
since published for the use of tourists which we have also con-
sulted.
LocATION AND GEOGRAPHY.
The Belknap Mountains form an elevated tract south and
west of Lake Winnepesaukee in New Hampshire and lying
in the townships of Gilford, Alton and Gilmanton. Although
they are sometimes referr ed to as the « Belknap Range” they
do not form a mountain range of the anticlinal type, being the
irregular, eroded upper portion of a great intrusion of igneous
rock of a generally granitic char: acter. In its greatest length,
which is northwest and southeast, the mountain tract extends
about eleven miles and its width at the broadest point east and
west is about six miles. In shape the mass is triangular, the
long side facing the west composed of the main ridge which ear-
ries the highest summits, while an eastward extension produces
the triangular shape. At the eastern end of the triangle there
is an extension running southward. On the north and east
sides the slopes descend into Lake Winnepesaukee; on the
west and south into a much- lower, irregularly hilly country,
The drainage on the west is carried off by the Gunstock River,
which in its course of about six miles runs due north at the
foot of the mountain slopes in a valley cut along the contact
Pirsson and Washington— Geology of New Hampshire. 345
zone of the igneous rock mass. On the south the drainage is
less clearly defined and is carried off through a series of small
lakes which empty to the southward. On the other sides
small brooks run into the lake. The mountains are quite gen-
erally covered with trees andebrushwood on the steeper slopes;
below these are generally open pasture fields, and the highest
erests and summits are more or less bare rock exposures with
small meadows between them. At the foot of the eastern and
northern slopes, along the shore of Lake Winnepesaukee, runs
the Lake Shore Railroad, a branch of the Boston and Maine
Railway system, which ends at Lakeport-Laconia. These
towns with Alton Bay at the south end of the lake and the vil-
lage of Gilford are the most important places in the vicinity
of the mountains, although the shore of the lake at their foot
is thickly dotted with summer cottages and places of resort.
Around them elsewhere is an open farming country and the
high valley between the northern extension and the eastward
one of Mount Straightback is also a cultivated area reached
by a road over the mountains from Gilford to West Alton.
Listoricul.—The only reference in the literature to the
geology of the Belknap Mountains which we have been able
to find is the short description by Hitchcock.* He states that
the mountains are composed of eruptive syenite similar to that
of Red Hill in Moultonborough. He describes briefly a few
localities, and mentions that in places it is in contact with
porphyritic gneiss and mica schist. He thinks that the syenite
has come up through asynclinal fault. Near the contact with the
porphyritic gneiss “it is brecciated and full of dark hornblendie
spots. He alludes to a “trap” dike ten feet wide cutting the
syenite in one place, and says that reddish feldspathic veins are
common. ‘This is an evident reference to one of the lampro-
phyric dikes and the felsitic ones. He also refers to a breccia
which is found in one locality, the coarser syenites occurring
as nodules in a rock resembling trap. The mass of diorite
(camptonose) rock above the Gilford station on the lower. west
slope of Locke’s Hill is not mentioned and was probably not
seen by him. In Hawes’t report the rocks of this area are not
mentioned, although he describes the syenite of Red Hill.
GEOLOGY OF THE BELKNAP MOUNTAINS.
The Belknap Mountaims are formed of a mass of granitic
igneous rock, the result of the upthrust of a great body of
molten magma into the rock masses surrounding it, the latter
being broken and displaced to permit of its entry. In sequence
to this major event there were later upthrusts of other maginas
* Geology of New Hampshire, vol. ii, p. 607, 1877
+ Lithology of New Hampshire, loc. cit., vol. iii.
346 Pirsson and Washington—Geology of New Hampshire.
of different composition in small amounts which now appear as
accompanying intrusive masses and dikes. Since then the
superincumbent rocks have been removed by long-continued
erosion, which has also bitten deeply into the igneous mass as
well, but this has resisted better than those which surround
it, and in consequence the igneous stock now projects as a
rough mountain tract. Lastly, much material was removed at
the time of the glacial invasion and the rock surfaces left
scored and polished. :
Lhe enclosing rocks.—Vhese are mostly gneisses and mica
schists, rocks of metamorphic character. Although they do
not especially concern us in this paper, a word or two may be
added regarding them. On the eastern side the contact is with .
a heavy solid gneiss, composed of quartz, alkali feldspars and
biotite, and often carrying red garnets. In its texture it is
rather irregular, not presenting that evenness of aspect fre-
quently shown by gneissoid granites, and it is possible that
detailed study in the future may show that it is of sedimentary
origin. It has a wide extension in this general region and has
been called the Winnepesaukee eneiss by the Hitchcock Survey.
In Mount Major and Pine Mountain’ are two small masses
of a porphyritic granite as shown on the map of the Hiteh-
cock survey. - Intheir report it is spoken of as the porphyritic
gneiss. It covers a large area to the north of this region, where
we have seen and studied it to some extent. By ‘its general
characters, contact modifications, etc., it is.clearly an igneous
rock—a granite which carries large, often huge, phenocrysts
of orthoclase. It occurs in other parts of New England and
is a type worthy of especial study. It sometimes has a pro-
nounced gneissoid structure which evidently is often a fluxion
texture, at other times it is due to dynamic shearing and in
some places it is quite devoid of any gneissic char acter.
On the west and south the Belknap massif is in contact with
micaceous gneisses, micaceous slates colored dark with organie
matter and iron ore and with mica schist rocks evidently of
sedimentary origin. The boundaries and names of these forma-
tions are those given on the Hitchcock map. The lack of
ro)
printed symbols on this map connecting the legend with the
outlined areas and the great similarity of colors makes it
exceedingly difficult, in many cases impossible, to determine
what some of these areas are meant to be, nor does the text
afford much help in this direction. The formations are men-
tioned in many places, but there is no definite description of
them given in a systematic manner by which their characters
may be recognized. From what is stated,* however, we con-
clude that fhe rocks on the west belong to he Montalban series
* Op. cit., vol. ii, p. 600.
Pirsson and Washington— Geology of New Hampshire. 347
of Hitchcock, and they are so designated on the map. Where
we have seen them they are mostly gray micaceous gneisses
and mica schists.
Geology of the main mass.—The greater part of the moun-
tain group is made up of a coarse- orained hornblende syenite,
a hornblende-grano-pulaskose in the new classification, whose
characters will be given in a succeeding petr ographical paper.
It is this rock which composes the mass of Mt. Gunstock, of
Mt. Belknap the peak next north of it and of the northern
extension’in Locke’s Hill. It occurs also in the ledges exposed
on the higher part of the road from Gilford to West Alton,
where it crosses over the mountain. It also forms the higher
parts of Piper Mountain south of Gunstock Peak, and it runs
over towards Mt. Straightback. In Piper Mountain it assumes
a somewhat porplhyritic character. It is seen on the sides and
crests of the main elevations in massive outcrops and exposures
often several hundred feet across and is thus thoroughly laid
bare. These surfaces show everywhere the planing and
smoothing of glaciation. In none of them did we find the
rock perfectly firm and unchanged. Everywhere its color
ranges from a reddish to brownish, it tends to crumble under
the hammer and in places it is loose and crumbling into coarse
gravel. The chemical analysis shows however that this is not
due to any chemical alteration of the constituent minerals, but
to mechanical disintegration from the action of frost and
weathering, which have tended to loosen the texture of the
rock. Blasting would probably reveal excellent material at a
few feet below the surface. We did not find any quarry open-
ings in this rock-materia]l; it is m general too high above the
zone of cultivation to have made such work necessary. In
only one place did we find this type at the contact zone against
the older rocks, on the southwest slope of Locke’s Hill in a
little ravine where it is in contact with mica schist. It is here
rather coarse, altered and not of typical composition.
Contact facies of fine-grained granite.— With the exception
just mentioned, in all localities examined by us, we have
found that at the contact with the enclosing rocks, not the
syenite but a fine-grained granite (grano-liparose) is present.
The lower slopes where the actual contact lies are in general
so covered with glacial drift and soil, often with a more or less
dense growth of vegetation, that it is masked and rarely seen,
but immediately above where it should be this granite appears
and beyond and above it the syenite. This we found to be the
case in a number of places on different sides of the mass, so
for example at the west foot of Mt. Gunstock, the west and
south slopes of Piper Mountain, the northeast foot of Locke’s
Hill, at West Alton and on the southern prolongation of the
348 Pirsson and Washington— Geology of New Hampshire.
mass northeast of Hills Pond. Hitchcock’s description also
gives clear indications of the same thing in other localities not
visited by us. One of the best localities for the study of the
contact that was seen by us is at the foot of the west slopes
running down from the north end of Piper Mountain in the
pasture fields south of Morrill’s farm, where the path, by which
Mt. Gunstock is generally ascended, begins. The mica
schists and other rocks, which we infer make the formation
shown by Hitchcock on his map as the Montalban, are full of
pegmatite and fine granite stringers and dikelets and ‘appear to
be enriched in feldspar. As the contact is approached they
change to a fine dark-gray gneiss which is cut by fine granite
dikes. Higher up appears the syenite itself. The attitude .
and characters of the gneisses are such that they indicate quite
clearly that they le, thinning out toward the mountain, upon a
rising slope of the igneous rock below and that the contact
plane is therefore here not vertical but dipping away from the
mountain. The syenite from the slopes above is that of the
main type but finer-grained. At the south end of Piper Moun-
tain the bordering granite has a faint but distinct gneissoid
appearance. It is also to be noted that these bordering masses
of granite are generally filled with spots and streaks of varia-
ble size of darkerinclusions, which are no doubt fragments of
the country rock thoroughly altered by immersion in the
magma.
It appears to us that the best explanation for these fringing
granite masses is to consider them a differentiated border
facies, an endomorphie contact -modification of the mam type.
They may not exist everywhere, but they have been so gener-
ally found on different sides, as seen by ourselves and indicated
by Hitchcock, that the phenomenon seems difficult of explana-
tion on any other basis. It is true that we have not been able
on continuous exposures to trace the gradual merging of the
granite into the syenite, because this should be done on the
lower slopes, and for reasons given above these do not afford
proper exposures for this purpose. We cannot affirm then
positively that these are not a series of later eruptions which
have broken out around the border of the previously intruded
syenite, but in view of their disposition such an explanation
seems unnatural, and especially so since they do not exhibit cer-
tain phenomena shown by an undoubted later intrusion of
granitic magma on the western slope of Locke’s Hill, which
will be presently described. From the facts at our command,
therefore, we are inclined to think the first explanation the |
more reasonable one and to regard the granite as a differen-
tiated border mantle of the syenite. We also do not regard
the granite border as having been produced by the melting up
ee $8
Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XX, 1905. Plate XI.
Geologic and Topographic Map of the Belknap Mountains, N. H.
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and breccia. Gneiss. saukee Series ? mica schist.
Gneiss. Cambrian ?
Seale 1 inch = 2 miles. Contour interval = 100 feet.
Pirsson and Washington— Geology of New Hampshire. 349
and absorption of the country rock with which the mass of
syenite magma came in contact for two sutticient and convine-
ing reasons. First, because as already shown, the surrounding
rocks differ widely in character and in chemical composition in
different places, while the granite border maintains everywhere
essentially the same characters, and second, because in many
places inclusions of the country ‘rock are to be seen in it which,
without regard to size, preserve all the sharpness and angulari ity
of their original fragmentary form, thus showing that, although
they have been much metamorphosed, melting of them did
not occur. On the highest peaks and ridges and in the deepest
erosive cuts into the mass it has been worn away and the main
type of syenite appears. Its thickness was quite variable, and
in a few places it did not appear at all. The line between the
syenite and granite as shown on the geological map is therefore
to be taken as a generalized expression of the existence of the
two types and not as a definite geological boundary line, since
for reasons just given this could not be definitely determined.
Gilford diorite aree.—On our first visit to the region we
found quite abundantly distributed in the form of bowlders
in the fields and stone walls of the fences along the higher part
of the land from Gilford over to West Alton, a most peculiar
dark rock composed of large dark-brown hornblendes poikiliti-
eally enclosing ophitic feldspars. In field usage it is here
ealled a diorite for purposes of geologic description ; petro-
graphically it is, as will be shown later, a grano-hornblende-
camptonose, or in the older systems an essexite. On our
second visit an especial search was made to locate if possible
the occurrence of this type, and it was found to constitute a
considerable mass on the lower west slope of Locke’s Hill and
not far from the Gilford station on the railway. Its area is
small, probably not over half a mile in length north and south
along the slope and less than that in breadth. On the north it
rises in heavy ledges above a little spring drainage and on the
west its lower slopes are covered with soil and debris, but
above this it forms a rather well-defined bench on the lower
mountain side and in rather prominent outcrops it is seen
everywhere over the pasture fields which lie upon it. On the
south it descends into a little ravine, a locality mentioned
above in connection with the syenite, and is here in contact
with the mica schists and gneisses. Its upper edge is in con-
tact with the syenite, but the actual contact was everywhere
covered so far as we could discover. We have traced it, how-
ever, to within a few yards distance, and it is then observed
that the rock diminishes very str ikingly in the size of its grain,
especially so with regard to the large poikilitic hornblendes,
ro)
and for this reason and others to be mentioned later we Weliave
350 Pirsson and Washington—Geology of New Hampshire.
it to be a later intrusion than the syenite and that it has broken
up alongside of it. The upper contact with the syenite is,
however, largely replaced by a remarkable breccia zone to be
presently described. This rock varies considerably in charac-
ters from place to place, as will be described in a succeeding
petrographic paper.
Breccia zone.—As just mentioned, the contact between the
diorite and syenite above is occupied by a brecciated rock mass.
The cement is a quartz-alkali feldspar rock much like the
granite facies previously described; it has a sugar granular
texture, and is of the character of rocks designated as aplites.
In this are thickly scattered blocks of all sizes, which may
attain an extreme dimension of four feet in length but which
average perhaps a foot or two in diameter and descend from
this size to minute fragments of a fraction of an inch. In
some places they are so thickly crowded that their mass is
much greater than that of the cement. In shape they are
usually extremely angular and the sharpness of the angles has
been perfectly preserved. In other cases they appear some-
what rounded as if partially melted, and are surrounded by
darker aureoles richer in ferromagnesian minerals. It is
remarkable, on the other hand, how some of the smallest frag-
ments retain in some cases all their distinctness of outline.
There are several different types of rocks among these included
fragments. One common one is a dense black basaltic-looking
type too compact for the component minerals to be seen, in
which lie phenocrysts of mica aud other minerals—a rock of
well defined lamprophyrice character. Other fragments are of
the diorite mentioned above, while others are obviously pieces
of gneisses and schists.
The determination of the relative age of this breccia and of
the syenite and diorite is not easy. It would be simple to
imagine that the latter is the older rock, that the syenite with
its granite border broke up alongside of ‘it enclosing masses of
femie rock. If this view is adopted, then the basaltic, lampro-
phyric and granitic and felsitie dikes which cut the s syenite
must of course be separate and later intrusions and there would
be four periods of eruption, in two of which, those of the
diorite and the lamprophyric dikes, similar magmas were pro-
duced. The oldest rock, the diorite, is then also the most dif-
ferentiated one, a fact contrary to general experience. Con-
sidering these points, we are inclined to believe the syenite the
first and oldest, to place the eruption of the diorite next, which
would also explain the distinet endomorphic contact modifiea-
tion it exhibits toward the syenite and make it contemporane-
ous with the lamprophyrie dikes. Then came an eruption of
granitic magmas, which also forms dikes in the syenite, one of
_Pirsson and Washington— Geology of New Hampshire. 351
which broke up at the border of the diorite, involving masses
of it in its various modifications and thus produced the breccia.
If this view is adopted, there are but three periods of eruption
and they follow the normal course commonly seen in such
cases.
Dikes.—l\t has been observed by us that wherever the main |
types of ignevus rocks are exposed over considerable areas in
this mountain tract they are commonly cut by dikes, and the
same is true of the border zone of the enclosing schists and
gneisses. Except, however, in the highest parts of the moun-
tains, such exposures are not very common nor are they of
great size. It seems probable, therefore, that only a very small
part of the dikes actually pr esent in the region has been seen
by us, the greater part being covered up by the heavy mantle of
debris and glacial drift.
_ «As is so often the case ein the dikes are found to be a
throng of satellites attendant upon a large body of igneous
rock, they may be readily referred to two strongly contrasted
groups. In one of these the rocks are light colored, strongly
persalic and therefore almost devoid of ferromagnesian min-
erals; in the second the rocks are dark colored, salfemic,
heavy and composed in very large, if not for the gr eater part,
of ferromagnesian minerals. They are persalanes and salte-
manes in the new classification or aplites and camptonites in the
older ones.
The persalane dikes are found cutting the main syenite in
al] directions, of a generally pink color and varying in size
from dikelets but a few inches in breadth to masses twenty feet
wide. The bare exposed slopes and ledges of the upper part
of Mt. Belknap were found cut by them in great abundance
and it was here noticed that they often ended abruptly and
appeared as if somewhat elongated roughly lenticular masses.
They were often branched, were connected with others, anasta-
mosed or formed reticulated systems, large and small together.
Their small angular chippy jointing, light color on the weath-
ered surface and flinty felsitic aspect clearly distinguished
them from the massive granular rock they cut. These same
characters were found repeated on the exposed surfaces of
Mt. Gunstock and Mt. Piper, and in one place, about half
way up Mt. Gunstock from Morris house, on the west slope
above the spring, the ledges in a pasture field on an open
shoulder of the mountain were found cut by a dike of this
nature 15-20 feet in width and with north and south trend.
It was also found that where the contact -zone was exposed at
the foot of the mountain slopes, as along the west side in the
localities described above, that both the igneous rock and the
enclosing schists and gneisses were cut by dikes and stringers
352 Pirsson and Washington—Geology of New Hampshire.
of persalic rock. While in the crest of the ridges and in the
peaks these dikes vary in texture from dense felsitic to sugar
eranular granites, in the contact zone we observed only the
latter, and they sometimes pass into varieties with pegmatoid
texture.
With only a few exceptions all of these occurrences are on
too small a seale to be shown on the map. The salfemane
dikes were not nearly so numerous, but on account of the cen-
trast made by their dark color appear more distinctly defined.
They were also observed cutting the exposed rock surfaces on
the tops of the mountains; there are several below the summit
of Mt. Belknap on the southwest side and one six feet wide
with porphyritic feldspars cuts the very highest point of the |
peak with east and west trend. Three or four of about the
same size were found on the top of Mt. Gunstock and they
were likewise observed on the crest of Mt. Piper. The
lower slopes of the mountains are probably cut by them also,
but the masses of debris and vegetation which cover them hide
the exposures in which they might be seen.
They occur also in the surrounding rock masses in which the
intrusion took place. Here again the exposures are difficult to
find, but one place, Sander’s Neck, a small promontory on the
shore of the lake north of the mountains, presents considerable
areas of the glaciated gneisses, and these we found traversed
by several intersecting dikes of these salfemic rocks. As usual
they were but a few feet in width. They occur in the mica
schists which are exposed at the foot of the lower west slopes
of Mt. Gunstock and Mt. Piper, and from what we have
observed around the similar intrusive mass of Red Hill north
of the lake, it seems probable that a more detailed study of the
surrounding region would show a considerable number of them
extending to relatively long distances from the central parent
mass. Some of those mentioned above are shown on the
accompanying map.
New Haven, Conn., and Locust, N. J., May, 1909.
f\
P. EF. Raymond—Fauna of the Chazy Limestone. 358
Arr. XXX VIII.— The Fauna of the Chazy Limestone ;* by
Percy E. Raymonp.
INTRODUCTION.
Ty several papers on the Chazy limestone, Brainerd and
Seely have given sections showing the lithological characters
and thickness of the tocks at various localities from Chazy,
New York, south to Orwell, Vermont.t These authors have
divided the formation into three parts, A, B, and ©, of which
A is the base and © the top. These divisions are founded
partly on lithologie and partly on paleontologic grounds. Only
a few species of fossils, however, were listed; hence it has
been the object of the present writer to ascertain which are
the common species in the Chazy, and to learn their strati-
eraphic and geographic distribution. For this purpose,
detailed sections have been made at Crown Point, Valcour
Island, and Chazy, and extensive collections have been obtained
at other places in the Champlain and Ottawa valleys. The
sections will be fully described in the Annals of the Carnegie
Museum. In this place, however, only a synopsis of each is
given.
DisTRIBUTION.
The Chazy formation was named by Ebenezer Emmonst
from the outcrops studied by him at Chazy village, New York,
this locality, therefore, becoming the typical one for the
formation.
In stratigraphic position, the Chazy overlies the Beekman-
town. (Calciferous) and underlies the Lowville (Birdseye)
member of the Mohawkian. It may be traced from Orwell,
Vermont (along the Champlain Valley), to Joliette, north of
Montreal, Canada. in the Ottawa Valley, it extends from
Hawksbury west to Allumette Island, 80 miles northwest of
Ottawa. The formation is seen again at the Mingan Islands
in the St. Lawrence, where it covers a small area.
In the Lake Champlain region, these strata are mostly lime-
stone, and the thickness ranges from 60 feet at Orwell to 890
* Abstract of part of a thesis presented to the Faculty of the Yale Uni-
versity Graduate School for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. The
detailed paper, with full discussion and illustration of species, will be pub-
lished in early numbers of the Annals of the Carnegie Museum. For descrip-
tion of the trilobites here mentioned, see Annals of the Carnegie Museum,
vol. iii, p. 328, and this Journal, vol. xix, p. 377. Other new forms noted in
the text are described at the end of the present paper.
+ Amer. Geol., vol. ii, p. 323, 1888; Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., vol. ii, p.
300, 1891; Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. viii, p. 305, 1896.
t ‘Geolog gy of New York, Pt. 2, Report of the Second District, 1842, p. 107.
354 P. EB. Raymond—Ffauna of the Chazy Limestone.
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feet at Valcour Island. Further north the thickness is not
definitely known. In the Ottawa Valley, the formation is
usually from 100 to 200 feet thick and is about half limestone
and half sandstone, the former u-ually overlying the latter.
At the Mingan Islands, the thickness was estimated by Sir
William Logan at about 300 feet, and the strata include both
shales and limestone.
Lake CHAMPLAIN REGION.
As the typical Chazy is exposed in the Lake Champlain
region, that area will be first taken up. In general, the Chazy
rocks are seen as a narrow belt running almost north and
south from Orwell, Vermont, to Joliette, Canada. The area
is seldom more than 10 miles wide, and is not a continuous
exposure, but occurs in small patches, in most cases evidently
fault blocks, and the strata are usually inclined at a consider-
able angle. The principal outcrops are along the west side of
Lake Champlain and on the islands in the northern part of
the lake. South of Willsboro Point, there are scattered
patches on both sides of the lake nearly to Fort Ticonderoga.
Faunal Divisions.
In the Lake Champlain region, three major faunal divisions
of the Chazy may be distinguished. Within these, there are
again various zones which are more or less local in geographi-
cal extent.
Division 1. The Hebertella exfoliata Division.—The strata
of this basal division are chiefly light-colored, impure, rather
coarse-grained limestones and frequently have shaly partings.
The thickness varies from nothing at the south end of Lake
Champlain to 300 feet on Valcour Island, 8365+ at Chazy, and
225 feet on Isle La Motte.
The characteristic fossils are: Hebertella exfoliata sp. nov.,
Orthis acutiplicata sp. nov., Strophomena prisca sp. nov.,
Scenella pretensa sp. nov., S. montrealensis, Paleacmea irregu-
laris sp. nov., Leaphistoma immatura, and Scalites angulatus.
Other species occurring abundantly in this zone are: Llastov-
docrinus carchariedens, Bolboporites americanus, Zygospira
acutirostris, Laphistoma stamineum, Lophospira subabbre-
viata, Bucania sulcatina, and Pseudospherexochus chazyensis.
Those which occur only rarely in this division, but which thus
far have not been found in higher divisions, are: Lingula
belli, Cyrtodonta solitaria sp. nov., Cyclonema ? normaliana
sp. nov., Hunema leptonotum sp. nov., and Heliomera sol.
Of the 141 species in the Chazy whose range is known, 64
make their first appearance in this horizon and 23 are found in
356 P. Eb. Raymond—Fauna of the Chazy Limestone.
all three divisions. This member is further marked by the
appearance of the earliest of American Bryozoa, and these,
unlike most Ordovician species, range throughout the entire
formation above the sandstone.
Division 1 is characterized by the predominance of individ-
uals and species of Brachiopoda. Fourteen of the 25 species
of this group occurring in the Chazy of the Champlain Valley
are found in this lowest member, while only 2 of the 16 pelec-
ypods are represented. Exactly half the species of trilobites
are also found here, but specimens are not common. Gastro-
pods are more numerous, as half the species are represented
and individuals of some forms are abundant. They do not
occur in the lower strata, but are confined almost entirely to
the upper part. :
There are three zones in this division which are worthy of
MONS == :
Zone 1,, or the Orthis acutiplicata zone, is near the base of
the division and is found at Valcour Island and Isle La Motte. ~
The characteristic fossils are: Orthis acutiplicata, Rafines- —
guina incrassata, Lsotelus harrisi, and Thaleops ovata, all
long rangers except the first.
Zone 1,. The Scalites angulatus zone. The faunule of
this zone is found at Plattsburg and Chazy. It is located
near the middle of Division 1. The characteristic fossils are :
Scalites angulatus, Raphistoma vmmaturum, fe. stamineum,
Bucania sulcatina, Camarella longirostris, [llenus globosus,
and Thaleops ovata. Only the first two are restricted to this
horizon.
Zone 1,, the Lophospira subabbreviata zone, has been found
only at Chazy, but is very strongly marked. It occurs about
75 feet below the top of Division 1. The characteristic fossils
are: Lophospira subabbreviata and Laphistoma staminewm,
both of which are very abundant. Of less importance are the
rare Schizambon? duplicemuriatus, Heliomera sol, and
Clionychia marginalis sp. nov.
Division 2. The Macturites magna Diwision.—The strata
of this middle division are usually heavy bedded, dark blue and
grey, fairly pure limestones, with an occasional layer of grey
sparkling dolomite or of light coarse-grained limestone. The
layers near the middle usually weather into nodular masses,
and the fossils are frequently poorly preserved and difficult to
extract. The thickness varies from 200 feet at Chazy to 400 ©
at Valeour Island, and decreases toward the south. The char-
acteristic fossils are: Maclurites magna, Lafinesquina cham-
plainensis, Plesiomys platys, P. strophomenoides sp. nov., Stre-
phochetus, Lospongia varians, ELotomaria obsoletum sp. nov.,
Eccyliopterus fredericus, Bathyurellus minor, Glaphurus
primus, and Leperditia limatula sp. nov.
P. EF. Raymond—Fauna of the Chazy Limestone. 357
>
Thus far, the following fossils have been found only in this
division, and most of them in but one locality : Camarotaechia
pristina sp. nov., Ctenodonta dubiaformis sp. nov., Clidoph-
orus obscurus sp. nov., Cyrtodonta expansa sp. nov., Lndo-
desma unduletum sp. nov., Scenelia robusta sp. nov... Raphis-
toma undulatum sp. nov., Helicotoma vagrans sp. nov.,
Bucania bidorsata?, Trochonema dispar sp. nov., Subulites
prolongata sp. nov., Holopea scrutator sp. nov., Hoharpes
ottawdensis, Asaphus marginals, fsotelus angusticauda, He
elus ? bearsi, Llienus punctatus, Cybele valcourensis, Cera
TUS pompilius, CU. hudsont, and Pseudospherexochus ae
mus.
This middle division is marked by an abundance of pelec-
ypods, gastropods, and trilobites, and in this respect is sharply
contrasted with the lower division. Of the 16 pelecypods, 13
are represented here. Of 35 trilobites, 27 are present.
Species of Stromatocerium and Strephochetus are common
in these rocks, but are also abundant in the lower zone of the
next division. |
Zone 2,. The MMalocystites murchisont zone. Thus far,
only one subfaunule has been detected in Division 2, and that is
at the very base. It is best developed at Valcour, but occurs
alsoon Valeour Island. The zone is characterized by the great
abundance of cystid fragments. The characteristic fossils are :
Glaphurus primus, Eohar pes antiquatus, Lonchodomas halla,
Cybele valcourensis, Malocystites murchisoni, M. emmonsi,
Glyptocystites forbest, Palwocystites tenuiradiatus, Raphis-
toma stamineum, Maclurites magna, Plesiomys strophome-
noides, and Camarella varians.
Division 3. The Camarotuchia plena Division.—The
strata of this division are rather thin bedded, light grey, coarse-
grained limestones, abounding in fossils. Near the base there
are always buft-colored, pure, fine-grained dolomites and heavy
bedded, coarse-grained blue limestones. The only fossil which
is found throughout this division is Camarotechia plena.
Other characteristic fossils are: Camarotechia major sp. nov.,
Orthis ignicula sp. nov., Modiolopsis fubaformis sp. nov., and
Glaphurus pustulatus.
There is here a decided falling off in the number of gastro-
pods and pelecypods, only 6 of the former and 5 of the latter
being represented. There are about as many trilobites (16) in
this division as in Division 1, and 8 of these are found in all
three sections. The number of species of brachiopods is about
the same in each of the three divisions, but they dominate the
fauna in the first and third. In the former, one of the Pro-
tremata (Hebertella) is most abundant, while i in the third divi-
sion one of the Telotremata ( Camarotichia) predominates.
Am. Jour. Sct.—FourtH SERies, VOL XX No. 119—NOVEMBER, 1905.
25
358 PP. &. Raymond—Fauna of the Chazy Limestone.
There are three well-marked zones in this division, as fol-
lows
Zone 8,4, the Glaphurus pustulatus zone, is found at the
base of Division 3, at Valeour Island, Chazy, Cooperville, and
Isle La Motte. The characteristic fossils are: Glaphurus
pustulatus, [llenus globosus, L. erastusi, Isotelus harrisi,
Remopleurides canadensis, Pliomerops canadensis, Amphili-
chas minganensis, Pseudospherexochus vulcanus, Camarote-
chia plena, Conocardium beecheri sp. nov., Lucania sulcatina,
and several cephalopods.
Zone 3,, the Camarotechia major zone, stands between
3, and 3, and its faunule is a transition between the two.
Camarotwchia becomes more abundant and better developed,
and fossils, while numerous, become fewer in species. The
best development is at Valcour Island. The characteristic
fossils are: Camarotechia plena, C. major, Hebertella costalis,
Matlocystites emmonsi, Malocystites sp., Palwocystites sp.,
Lllenus globosus, Pliomerops canadensis, Bucania sulcatina,
Raphistoma stamineum, and Lsotelus obtusum.
Zone 3,. The Modiolopsis fabaformis zone. In this zone,
Camarotechia plena is abundant, almost to the exclusion of
other species. The faunule extends to the top of the formation
at Chazy, Grand Isle, and Valeour Island. The characteristic
fossils are: Camarotechia plena and Modiolopsis fabaformis.
Section at Chazy, New York.
The section at Chazy has a thickness of 732 feet, but the
base of the formation is not shown.
Division 1.—The rocks carrying the fauna of Division 1 are
well exposed in the ridges south of the village, near Tracy
Brook. The thickness is 365 feet, and judging from the fauna
at the base, at least 150 feet of strata are missing. SFHebertella
exfoliata is very abundant, especially below the horizon of
Scalites angulatus. The latter zone is 217 feet above the base
of the exposed section, and is zone 1, of the generalized sec-
tion. The most common fossils are: Scalites angulatus, Buca-
nia sulcatina, Raphistoma immaturum, RR. stamineum, and
Thaleops ovata. Higher up in the section, 275 feet above the
base, is the zone of Lophospira subabbreviata, about 35 feet
in thickness. This is zone 1, of the generalized section. The
gastropods are very abundant in the three localities at Chazy
where this zone is exposed.
Division 2.—The strata of this division are about 195 feet
in thickness, and are dark blue, impure nodular limestones,
usually full of fossils which are frequently silicified. Stroma-
~
P. EF. Raymond— Fauna of the Chazy Limestone. 359
tocerium, Hospongia varians, Leafinesquina champlainensis,
Plesiomys platys, Maclurites magna, Pliomerops canadensis,
and several cephalopods are common.
Division 3.—The Camarotechia plena division is not very
well developed along the line of-the section at Chazy. The
thickness is 156 feet, but.a large part of the strata is covered
with soil. At the base are about 25 feet of grey dolomite with
almost no fossils. The remainder of the rock, as far as exposed,
is an impure shaly limestone, abounding in Camarotachia
plena. Zones 3,4, 3,, and 8, can not be distinguished just at
Chazy village, probably because the strata are so poorly ex-
posed. About 3 miles southeast of this point, however, in a
field near the lake shore, fine outcrops of zone 3, occur, and
-here Glaphurus pustulatus, Amphilichas minganensis, Llle-
nus globosus, and the cephalopods are common.
Section at Valeour Island.
On Valeour Island, the whole of the Chazy is exposed, with
a thickness of 890 feet. In one section along the south end,
almost the entire thickness is shown, while nearly all the miss-
ing parts may be seen in other sections on the east and north
sides of the island.
Division 1.—The strata of this division are well exposed on
the south end. The thickness is 314 feet. At the base is a
zone of sandstone and shale in which Lingula brainerdz is the
common fossil. Other fossils are rare, /sotelus harris: and a
species of Hecyliopterus being the only ones thus far found.
Above this zone is that of Orthis acutiplicata, 10 feet in
thickness.
The Scalites angulatus zone is not exposed on Valcour
Island, the rocks usually containing it being absent at the peb-
ble beach on the south end of the island. The Lophospira
subabbreviata zone is not well developed, but may be indicated
by a fauna found on the middle of the west side.
Division 2.—The strata of this division are 406 feet in
thickness and are usually compact, dark blue and grey lime-
stones. The fossils are frequently coarsely silicified, but are
almost always difficult to extract. At the base, zone 2,; the
Malocystites murchisoni zone, is well developed, and as the
fossils weather out in this locality, some 40 species have been
listed.
While the rocks of this division usually afford poor collec-
tions, yet in favorable localities they are found to be extremely
rich in interesting species. Thus, one locality on the east side
of the island has yielded 60 species of fossils, among them such
rare trilobites as Asaphus marginalis, [sotelus ? bearsi, and
Lemopleurides canadensis, and many species of pelecypods.
360 PRP. LL Raymond—FHauna of the Chazy Limestone.
Division 3.—This is especially well developed on Valeour
Island. Zone 3, is exposed in two or three localities on the
east side. Zone 3, is best developed about Cystid Point, the
southeast point of Valcour Island, and zone 3, is exposed both
east and west of Black River Point on the north end. The
division is 172 feet in thickness and carries Camarotechia
plena throughout. The faunules given for zones 3,, 3,, and
3,., are those found on Valeour Island.
Crown Point Section.*
The section at Crown Point is 305 feet in thickness. At the
base is a zone 25 feet thick in which the strata are sandstone
and shale, and the only fossil is Lengula brainerdi. The
remaining 280 feet are impure blue and grey limestone, usually
very fossiliterous. Division 1 is absent.
Division 2.—The fauna characteristic of this division is
found all through the section at Crown Point. The character-
istic fossils—Maclurites magna, lajinesquina champlainensis,
Plesiomys platys, and Leperditia limatula—are very abun-
dant, and the whole expression of the fauna is that of the mid-
dle part of the section at Valecour Island and elsewhere.
Brainerd and Seely assign the lower 48 feet to their Division
A, and the upper 57 feet to Division ©, but faunally the whole
section belongs together. Cumarotechia plena is absent, as
are also the other fossils characteristic of Division 3. The
upper 8 feet of the section are a coarse limy sandstone, with
Plesiomys platys, Camarelia varians, Raphistoma stamin-
eum, and Lsotelus harrisi in a layer a foot thick at the top.
Orwell, Vermont.
A short distance northeast of Orweil village is the most
southern exposure of the Chazy. At that place there are
about 60 feet of strata, the fauna of which indicates that they
belong to Division 2. Another locality near by shows sand-
stone and shale at the base of the formation.
North of the International Boundary the various divisions
can not be followed in the published lists, but this is due to the
fact that no sections have been made in that region. ‘The lists
published by Billings, Logan, and Aimi, of the Canadian Sur-
vey, however, do show that fossils characteristic of all three
divisions are found in that region. The Champlain Valley
fauna of the Chazy, which will be uestajumsed as the typical one, is
found as far north as Joliette, 35 miles north of Montreal and
* For detailed description of this section, see Bull. Amer. Pal., vol. iii,
No. 14, 1902.
P. EL. Raymond—Fauna of the Chazy Limestone. 361
85 miles north of Chazy. To the west it is found as far as
Hawkesbury, 75 miles northwest of Chazy and 55 miles west
ot Montreal.
Mingan Istanps Recon.
The fauna of the Chazy at Mingan Islands is very closely
related to that of the typical Chazy of the Champlain Valley,
as is shown by the following list of species common to the two
regions :—
Bolboporites americanus. Orthoceras bilineatum.
Phylloporina incepta. O. multicameratum.
Columnaria ? ? parva. Pleisoceras jason.
Rafinesquina incrassata. Pliomerops canadensis.
Camarotcechia orientalis. Lllenus globosus.
Camarella longirostris. Loharpes antiquatus.
O.. varians.
Ottawa VALLEY REGION.
The Chazy deposits of this region have been described in
detail by Logan,* Ells,t and Ami.{t The formation is not
more than 200 feet in thickness, usually less, and is divided
into two parts, the lower including shales and sandstones, and
the upper, limestones. It outcrops in a narrow belt extending
along the north and south sides of the Ottawa River, from
Hawkesbury west to Arnprior, and is again exposed south of
Ottawa, whence another narrow belt runs to Cornwall, where
- it again turns northward. West of Arnprior there are a few
outliers ot the same formation. One large one occurs at Allu-
mette Island, north of Pembroke, and another 10 or 15 miles
south of this and west of Renfrew.
The coarse character of the sediments at the base of the for-
mation in this region poits to very shallow water and shore
conditions and a probable erosion interval between the.end of
Beekmantown time and the deposition of the strata of Chazy
age.
The writer has studied the rocks of this area chiefly in the
vicinity of Ottawa and Aylmer, and the fauna there represented
seems to consist of about 25 species, only 7 of which occur in
typical Chazy deposits. The fauna of the sandstone at the
Aylmer region is quite different from that found in the over-
lying limestone, and for that reason a list is here given of the
species found in each. An asterisk denotes that the species is
found also in the typical Chazy :—
* Geology of Canada, 1863.
+ Rept. Geol. Survey of Canada, 1899.
¢ Ibidem ; also Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, vol. ii, 1896, vol. vi, 1900, and
various other papers.
362 P. b. Raymond—Lfauna of the Chazy Limestone.
Sandstone. Limestone.
Lingula lyelli. Lingula lyelli.
* Camarotechia plena. * Camarotvchia plena.
* CO. orientalis. * Rafinesquina alternata.
Flebertella imperator.
Modiolopsis breviuscula. Modiolopsis breviuscula.
MM? parviuscula, M, parviuscula.
M., sowteri sp. nov.
Ctenodonta parvidens sp. nov.
Whitelia canadensis sp. nov.
* Archinaceila ? deformata.
*Raphistoma striatum.
*R. stamineum. Raphistoma stamineum.
Lophospira billingsi sp. nov. Orthoceras allumettensis.
Bathyurus angelint. Bathyurus angelini.
Beyrichia clavigera. Leperditia amygdalina.
B. clavigera clavifracta. *L. canadensis.
Leperditelia labellosa.
Primitia sp. LIsochilina ottawa.
Lsochilina sp. LI, amiana.
Primitia logani.
It may be seen from the above parallel lists that there are
only 6 species common to the sandstone and limestone divisions
of this formation. In the limestones the ostracods are exceed-
ingly abundant, often making up entire layers of the rock.
The two divisions are intimately connected by very well-
defined species, however, and none of the forms pass on into
the overlying Lowville limestone.
In the Ottawa Valley, the most noticeable feature of the
faunas is the absence of the cystids, Bryozoa, and Hydrozoa so
common in the typical Chazy. The large number of species
of ostracods and their great abundance are in marked contrast
to the three or four species found in the Champlain Valley.
This difference in the lithology and fauna has led the writer
to suggest the name Aylmer* formation for these deposits in
the Ottawa Valley.
SUMMARY ON THE Lake CuHaAampiLaIn, Mincan IsLanps AND
OrrawA VALLEY REGIONS.
In the Lake Champlain region occurs the fullest develop-
ment of both the strata and the fauna of the Chazy period, and
three divisions based upon faunal differences may be recog-
nized. The fauna of the Chazy at Mingan Islands, while only
partly known, shows that the typical Chazy is also found in
that rezion. West of Hawkesbury, Canada, a decided change
* Ann, Carnegie Mus., vol. iii, p. 380, 1905.
P. EF. Raymond—Ffauna of the Chazy Limestone. 363
in the fauna is seen at L’Orignal, only 16 miles from Hawkes-
bury. Here is found a section less than 200.feet in thickness,
with sandstone at the base and limestone in the upper por tion.
The fauna changes abruptly, several species occurring there
which are unknown further east. The typical Chazy fossils
found here are: Camarotechia plena, Raphistoma stamineum,
and Malocystites murchisont. From this locality west to
Allumette Island, a distance of 115 miles, the same succession
of strata may be found, and about the same fauna. All
through the Ottawa Valley the Chazy is represented by a
formation which is sandstone at the base and limestone above.
In its most western exposures, the limestones are absent and
only the sandstone remains.
The base of the Chazy is always a sandstone, but this does
not carry the same fauna in all regions, nor does the zone
Which rests upon it always have the same fauna. In the Lake
Champlain region, the sandstone always contains Lingula
brainerdi ; in the Ottawa Valley, it carries a modified Cama-
rotechia plena fauna. At the type sections, Lingula brainerds
is at the base of the formation, while the Cumarotuchia plena
fauna appears 700 feet above.
Since the fullest development of limestone deposits of this
age is in the region of Chazy and Valcour Island, New York,
that must be the locality in which the Chazy sea persisted
longest. From the evidence outlined above, it would seem
that this sea was a shallow one, invading south and west over
a slowly sinking land. Since ‘the Chazy fauna is apparently
developed less directly from the Beekmantown of the Lake
Champlain area than “from that of Newfoundland, and since
there are many European types introduced into the Chazy, it
seems. probable that this sea was open to the east.
If the sea were thus invading upon the land, the sandstone
would represent shore conditions. This is undoubtedly the
ease, for the sandstone in both the Champlain and Ottawa
valleys frequently presents evidences of shore origin in cross
bedding, ripple marks, and worm burrows.
If the sea were invading southward in the region now occu-
pied by the Champlain Valley, the sandstone should be younger
and younger in age as it is traced from north to south. That
this 1s actually the case is shown by the faunas, for at Valcour
Island all the strata of the Hebertella caf oliata division, 300
feet in thickness, were deposited before the Maclurites magna
fauna became prominent, while at Crown Point this second
fauna follows immediately upon the basal sandstone.
During the greater part of Chazy time, the transgression is
southward, but later the shore began to move westward also.
The region of the Ottawa Valley was then invaded, and the
364 P. L. Raymond—fauna of the Chazy Limestone.
sandstone brought with it a part of the Camarotechia plena
fauna. The date of this invasion to the west can be rather
closely approximated. Camarotechia plena, Raphistoma
staminewm, and Malocystites murchisoni are found in the
middle of the section at L’Orignal. At Valcour Island these
species occur together in zone A,,, 775 feet above the base,
thus showing that the formation in the Ottawa Valley repre-
sents the very latest part of Chazy time.
Ulrich and Schuchert, in their paper on Paleozoic Seas and
Barriers,* bring out this idea of a Chazy sea invading westward
and southward. They state: “ With the earlier part of this
subsidence [the Chazy invasion], the Atlantic invaded the
continent westward. ... The typical Chazy formation =.
bears evidence in its members of having encroached south-
ward and westward in the arms, the latest beds . . . extend-
ing farthest south and west.”
THe Crosinc PERIOD oF CHaAazy TIME.
In the preceding pages an effort has been made to show
that m northeastern New York and in the Ottawa Valley, the
Chazy sea invaded over a land surface of Beekmantown rocks,
and that the base of the Chazy is a tangential sandstone; also
that the invasion was first southward, covering the region of
the Champlain Valley, and later westward along the locality
of the present Ottawa Valley.t
Of the former extent of the formation throughout the St.
Lawrence Valley or elsewhere, there is at present little evi-
dence. Since the sea did not attain the region of Aylmer
until very late Chazy time, it is probable that the formation
never extended much further west than the known outcrops
in that region (Allumette Island, ete.).
From a study of the stratigraphy and faunas it becomes
evident that the upper portion of the Chazy is not represented
in the region south of Valcour Island. Hither these beds were
never deposited there or they were eroded before the Lowville
was laid down. The evidence is not of such a character as to -
prove definitely which did occur, but for reasons given below
it seems more probable that the upper beds were deposited
south of Valcour and later eroded. ‘These reasons are as
follows :—
* Rept. N. Y. State Pal., 1902, p. 639.
[+ By these terms, Champlain Valley and Ottawa Valley, the writer does
not intend to convey the impression that the Chazy deposits were laid down
in narrow arms of the sea, or that the topography was then anything like
that of the present time. It should be remembered that strata of post-Chazy
age are involved in the Green Mountain uplift, and that there are indications
that the Adirondacks did not exist in Ordovician time. |
P. E. Raymond—Fauna of the Chazy Limestone. 365
First. All through the Champlain Valley, the Chazy is
capped by a bed of sandstone 2 feet in thickness, and this
may be interpreted as the invading base of the Lowville
formation. From this it would follow that a period of erosion
existed between the Chazy ana Lowville formations.
Second. If the upper beds were never deposited south of
Valeour, the Chazy sea after advancing slowly to the south to
some point below Orwell, Vermont, must have then retreated
to the northward. Such a recedence could have been caused
only by an elevation south of Orwell, for there is no general
retreat of the Chazy sea at this time, which is proved by the
fact that at a still later period the sea advanced westward
beyond Ottawa. . That there was then no uplift in the south is
shown by the fact that the Lowville sea invades from the south-
west.* On the other hypothesis, which seems more probable,
the sea would have invaded southward to the region of Orwell
and after depositing there the final, or Camarotechia plena,
beds vanished from the area of Lake Champlain. During the
latter part of Chazy time or after its close, the Stones River
(Lowville) sea was invading from south to north and there was
a land interval in the Champlain region, during which time
some of the Chazy and Beekmantown beds were removed
along the barrier region between Orwell and the Mohawk
Valley.
Third. By taking the rate of decrease in thickness (11°25
feet per mile) of the Hebertella exfoliata division between
Chazy and Valcour Island, to compute the probable southern
extent of that division, it is seen that it would have reached
only 26°6 miles south from Valcour Island. Therefore, at the
same rate of decrease the base of the Crown Point section is
461 feet higher than the base of the Valcour Island section.
That this rate of decrease can not be used, is shown by the
fact that Division 1 at Isle La Motte is only 225 feet thick,
which is less than at Valcour Island, while Isle La Motte is as
far north as is Chazy. The only reliable data for an estimate
of this character are the facts that there are 300 feet of the
beds of Division 1 at Valcour Island and nothing at Crown
Point. This is a thinning out of 7:3 feet per mile, which, on
the other hand, is probably too small. On this basis, the
bottom of the Crown Point section is at least 300 feet above
the base of the Valcour Island section and the base of the
Orwell section is at least 424 feet above it. If this minimum
estimate of the height of the base of the Crown Point section
above that of the Valcour Island section is accepted as a work-
ing basis, it will be seen that the former lacks the upper 285
feet of the formation. This is a gradient of 6°95 feet per mile
* See Ulrich and Schuchert.
3866 P. £. Raymond—Ffauna of the Chazy Limestone.
to the top of the beds at Valeour Island. Taking the base of
the Orwell section at 424 feet, the upper 407 feet are lacking.
The thinning in the 17 miles from Crown Point to Orwell is
122 feet, or 7-1 feet per mile, while the gradient to the top of
- the Chazy at Valcour Island is 7-01 feet per mile. The close
correspondence of these gradients and the small gradient of 7
feet per mile for 58 miles are significant, and seemingly indi-
cate a base-leveled surface of this land durimg the Chazy-
Lowville interval.
REPRESENTATION oF CHAzZY TIME IN OTHER REGIONS.
The Chazy was formerly identified by various geologists as
covering a large area, but more recently it has been held that ~
while certain formations may have been laid down during
Chazy time, the typical rocks and fossils of this period are
restricted to the region of the Champlain and Ottawa valleys
and the islands in the Gulf of St. Lawrence.
The St. Peter's Sandstone.
One of the formations which has long been correlated in
time with the Chazy is the St. Peter’s sandstone, which in
lowa, Minnesota, and parts of [llinois underlies the lowest
member of the Mohawkian series. The fauna* of this forma-
tion is meagre and is contained in a few layers near the top.
It is made up chiefly of Mollusca, all closely allied to Trenton
forms. None of the species are found in the Chazy; hence
no new light is thrown on the correlation by the later studies
of the Chazy fauna. On lithological grounds, James has cor-
related it with the Chazy of the Ottawa Valley, but there are
no species common to the two formations. From the close
relationship of its fauna to that of the Mohawkian (Trenton)
it seems probable that the St. Peter’s was deposited during
Stones River time.
Stones River Group.
In the Columbia, Tennessee, folio of the U. 8. Geologie
Atlas, Ulrich has stated that the lower part of the Stones
River group, including the Lebanon, Ridley, Pierce, and Mur-
freesboro limestones, is to be correlated in time with the Chazy
of New York State.
This statement is evidently based mainly on stratigraphic
grounds, as Ulrich and Schuchert+ have held that the Low-
* F. W. Sardeson, Bull. Minnesota Acad. Sci., vol. iv, No. 1, pt. 1, p. 64,
1896.
+ Paleozoic Seas and Barriers, Rept. N. Y. State Pal.; Bull. 52, N. Y.
State Mus., 1902, p. 633.
P. EF. Raymond—fauna of the Chazy Limestone. 367
ville of New York is the northeaster n representative of ‘the
extreme top of the Stones River” group.
In the Columbia folio referred to shee Ulrich has tabulated
the fossils of all the divisions of the Stones River group as
developed in the middle Tennessee region. In the Lebanon
’ formation, the upper member of the Stones River group which
is there correlated with the Chazy, there are, according to the
table, 37 species besides 10 undescribed Bryozoa. Of these
37 species, 7 are Bryozoa and 5 are not specifically identified.
This large number of Bryozoa—17 species—at once suggests
that the formation containing them is much more closely ‘allied
to the Trenton than to the Chazy. Leaving out of account
the Bryozoa, which in the Ordovician nearly always have a
very restricted vertical range, and the 5 forms not specifically
identified, it is found that 17 of the 25 species remaining are
_ Black River or Trenton forms. All the brachiopods, 4 of the
5 gastropods, and 2 of the 3 trilobites are species occurring in
higher formations. Even if all the described species are
included, 53 per cent of the species of the Lebanon formation
are Black River or Trenton forms.
Below the Lebanon is the Ridley horizon, about 80 feet in
thickness. Of the 9 species listed from this formation, 6 are
found in the Black River.
Below the Ridley is the Pierce limestone with 12 species
listed and 20 undescribed bryozoans. Only 11 forms are
specitically identified and of these 30 per cent are Black River
or Trenton forms.
The lowest member of the Stones River group is the Mur-
freesboro, which is about 60 feet in thickness and contains 24.
species, 21 of which are identified. The fauna is composed
principally of Mollusca, of which gastropods of the genera
Lophospira and Liospira are particularly numerous. Of the
21 species, 1i are Black River or Trenton forms, so that 52
per cent of the species in this oldest member of the Stones
River group belong to the Black River or Trenton.
This | analysis may be tabulated thus :—
Rid- Murfrees- Black Tren-
Lebanon. ley. Pierce. boro. River. ton.
Bepanou.s soe. 2 25 Ae 1 ope 4 i
idlsy en ol 1 cnngeoe a 1 1
| IVES ena aie cama aa a 4 2 9 il 1 2
Murfreesboro... _-_. 3 4 1 mA 4 7
Of the 58 described species occurring in these 4 subdivisions
of the Stones River, the above table shows that, 27, that is, 46
per cent, occur in the Black River and Trenton formations.
868 P. EL. Raymond—Fauna of the Chazy Limestone.
Couiparing the large percentage of forms common to the
Stones River and to the Black River and Trenton with the
low percentage—less than 5 per cent—of forms common to
the Chazy and Trenton, it becomes evident that the Stones
River and Trenton are faunally much more closely connected
than are the Chazy and Trenton. This close relationship of
the fauna of the Stones River to that of the Trenton, coupled
with the stratigraphy, suggests that the whole Stones River is
younger than the Chazy.
Kast Tennessee.
In east Tennessee the Maclurea limestone was correlated by
Safford* with the Chazy or Black-River of New York and
“Canada. While a large part of this limestone seems to be of
Trenton age, a sono around Lenoirs has aftorded the writer
a small aia containing fossils characteristic of Division 2 in
the Lake Champlain region. This region needs further study
before definite correlations are made.
DEscrRIPTION OF NEW SPECIES.
BRACHIOPODA.
Lingula columba sp. nov.
Shell small, oval in outline, gently and uniformly convex.
There are no flat slopes and the front is semi-circular in out-
line. The posterior end is somewhat triangular, the beaks
pointed. The surface is covered by very numerous and promi-
nent concentric strie, no radiating lines showing except when
the surface is exfoliated.
One specimen is 10™ long and 7™™ wide; another is 7™
long and 5™™ wide.
Locality.—East side of Valcour Island at Chazy, and on
Isle La Motte. Type m Yale University Museum.
Canarotechia pristina sp. nov.
Shells small, transversely oval to subcircular in outline.
Both valves moderately and uniformly convex. The dorsal
valve has alow fold and the ventral valve a shallow sinus,
which is noticeable only toward the front of the shell. There
re 10 to 14 strong rounded plications, 4 on the dorsal fold and
3 on the sinus. ‘The 2 plications in the middle of the fold are
smaller than the 2 outside ones and the median plication of the
ventral valve is the weakest, which is the direct opposite of the
state found in Camar otwchia orientalis.
Locality.—Valeour Island and Chazy, New York. The
type is in the Carnegie Museum.
* Geol. Tennessee, 1869, p. 286.
P. FE. Raymond—Ffauna of the Chazy Limestone. 369
Canarotechia major sp. nov.
Outline somewhat oval, widest a little in front of the mid-
dle. Dorsal valve with 10 to 14 strong angular plications.
The ventral valve has 9 to 14. The fold and sinus are hardly
defined except by a gentle arch in front, but are outlined on
both valves by a pair of very strong plications. The dorsal fold
bears 5 plications, the middle one of which is the strongest.
The ventral sinus has 4 plications, the 2 largest in the middle.
The ventral beak is somewhat incurved.
Length of a good specimen 23™"; width 21™™.
Locality.—Southeast point of Valcour Island, New York.
The type is in the writer’s collection.
Strophomena prisca sp. Nov.
Shell of medium size, resupinate, nearly as long as wide.
Ventral valve convex at the umbo, flat in front to about the
middle of the valve and then concave. Dorsal valve flat on
the umbo and convex in front. Cardinal area narrow, the wide
delthyrinm mostly covered by the deltidium, with a small open-
ine for the pedicle at the beak. Muscle area in the ventral
valve small, confined to the space under the umbo. Surface
marked by fine alternating striz, the prominent ones being
very numerous and increasing by implantation. Between each
pair of the strong striz are two or three finer ones and the
whole surface is crenulated by fine concentrie striz. The dor-
sal valve sometimes shows very small concentric wrinkles.
One specimen is 15°5"" long and 20™" wide; another 16°”
long and 19°5™™ wide.
Locality.—All the specimens are from Valcour Island, New
York, and are in the writer’s collection.
Orthis ignicula sp. nov.
Shell transversely oval in outline, usually but little wider
than long. Hinge width nearly equal to the greatest width
of the shell. Ventral valve strongly convex, the area high
and a little incurved.
Dorsal valve nearly flat, with a broad depression near the
front. Area of dorsal valve rather wide. Cardinal process
small. Delthyrium narrow and open. Surface marked by 16
to 25 direct rounded plications which increase by implanta-
tion.
_ Locality—Found rarely on the southeast corner of Valcour
Island, New York.
3870 P. &. Raymond—FHauna of the Chazy Limestone.
Orthis acutiplicata sp. nov.
Shell small, almost circular in outline. Hinge width not gai
equal to the greatest width below. Cardinal area of ventral
ralve high and a little retrorse. Joramen narrow and open.
Ventral valve strongly convex, highest on the umbo. Dorsal
valve convex on the umbo, flattened in front. There is a
shallow sinus on this valve, which is narrow at the beak but
becomes wider in front. Surface marked by 12 to 15 sharp
simple strize separated by spaces wider than the strie.
Locality.—South end of Valcour Island. The types are
in the writer’s collection.
Plesiomys strophomenoides sp. nov.
Shell small, ventral valve convex at the umbo, concave in
front. Dorsal valve convex, with a narrow sinus on the umbo,
but frequently with a slight fold on the front of the shell, in
which ease the ventral valve shows a shallow median sinus.
Surface marked by numerous fine strie, which-inerease by
bifureation and implantation. There are usually 7 or 8 in the
space of 2 millimeters on the middle of the front of the shell.
The cardinal area of both valves is low. The ventral area
has a narrow delthyrium, which at the apex is perforated for
the passage of the pedicle. The interior of the ventral valve
shows small but strongly marked muscle scars under the umbo.
The muscle area is roughly quadrate and contains a pair of
strong diductor scars, between which are the narrow adductor
attachments. Posterior to the latter 1s a deep pedicle scar.
The lateral edges of the diductor scars are bounded by strong —
plates, which run back to support the dental lamellae. The
interior of the dorsal valve shows a robust, simple cardinal pro-
cess and small dental sockets bordered by strong plates which
do not greatly diverge. In front of the cardinal process is a
low but strong median ridge, on either side cf which are the
four sears of the adductor, not, however, deeply impressed.
Locality.— Crown Point, Plattsbure, and Valcour Island,
New York. The type is from the quarries near the Platts-
burg Fair Grounds and is in the Carnegie Museum.
febertella cafoliata sp. nov.
_ This shell is distinguished from ffebertella costalis by its
smaller size, more pronounced dorsal sinus, and by the fact
that the stria are always simple instead of bifureating. It
differs from 77. borealis in its smaller size, and in the narrow
and deep dorsal sinus.
Locality.—Common in the lower part of the Chazy at Chazy
and Valcour Island; also at Plattsburg, Valeour, and Isle La
Motte, New York. “The type is in the Carnegie Museum.
Ba s4
P. E. Raymond—Ffauna of the Chazy Limestone. 371
Orthidium lamellosa sp. nov.
Ventral valve strongly convex, the area high and curved
backward. Delthyrium narrow and open. Along the middle
of the valve is a narrow and shallow depression in which there
is one plication. The outline of the shell is subquadrate. The
greatest length is at the hinge and the cardinal extremities are
slightly alate.
The dorsal valve has a narrow median sinus, which extends
from the beak to the front and usually contains 2 plications.
There are commonly about 20 sharp pleations, which are
crossed by strong concentric lamelle of growth.
An average specimen is 8™" long and 5:5™" wide.
Loculity.—Valeour Island, Chazy, and Crown Point, New
York. The types are in the Yale University Museum.
PELECYPODA.
Ctenodonta peracuta sp. nov.
Shell small, longer than high, the beak about one-third the
length from the posterior margin. Front rather drawn out, as
in Otenodonta nasuta Hall. The greatest convexity Is at the
umbo, the posterior slope very gradual. Both slopes to the
hinge abrupt. but that to the basal margin gentle. One speci-
men is 127" long and 9”™ high. This. species may be distin-
guished from the succeeding one by its more depressed valves
and by the prolongation of the: anterior margin ito a some-
what nasute extension.
Locality.—Found in some numbers in the trilobite layers at
Sloop Bay, Valcour Island, and in the middle of the Crown
Point section. The type is in the writer’s collection.
Ctenodonta limbata sp. nov.
Outline nearly circular, the beak back of tie middle
Greatest convexity near the middle of the valve; all slopes
steep. The cast shows a few faint lines of growth.
Length of largest specimen 10"; height 10™™. <A smaller
one measures 8 x 8™™.
Locality.—All the specimens are from the trilobite layers,
Sloop Bay, Valcour Island. The types are in the Yale Uni-
versity Museum,
/
Ctenodonta dubiaformis sp. nov.
Shell small, moderately convex, beak subcentral. Greatest
convexity on the umbo, the. slope from it to the base nearly
flat. Basal margin nearly’ straight. Anterior end nasute and
3872 BP. Eb. Kaymond—Fauna of the Chazy Limestone.
longer than the posterior, which is regularly rounded. Front
margin rather acute. All the specimens are of casts without
trace of hinge teeth, muscle scars, or surface markings.
Largest specimen: Length 1 19=™. ; height, 10:5"™) Anetenr
Length 17 iskees ang: Ge
Locality. —Sloop Bay, Valeour Island. The type is in the
Yale University Museum.
Ctenodonta parvidens sp. nov.
Shell oval in outline, usually flattened, but specimens from
the harder layers show considerable convexity below the umbo,
with regular slopes to the anterior, posterior, and ventral mar-
gins. The cast shows the impression of numerous very fine
teeth on the hinge, but the number can not be counted as the
beak is always flattened down upon the impression of the
hinge. One specimen exhibits 5 teeth on the anterior portion
of the hinge. Another shows 7. The surface is marked by
very numerous fine concentric lines of growth.
Locality——In shales and limy clays at the Hog’s Back,
Ottawa.
Clidophorus obscurus sp. nov.
Shell small, longer than high, not very convex. Basal mar-
ein nearly straight, anterior margin regularly curved, posterior
end compr essed, the mar gin acutely rounded. In front of the
beak the cast shows a short clavicular impression, which
extends about half the distance to the lower margin.
Length 6™™ ; height 4™™. :
Locality.—Trilobite layers, Sloop Bay, Valeour Island. The
type is in the Yale collection.
Cyrtodonta tranceps sp. nov.
Shell roughly rectangular m outline, strongly convex at the
umbo and along a ridge which runs diagonally across the shell
to the lower side of the posterior margin. In front of this
ridge there is usually a slight depression running from the
umbo to the middle of the lower side. The posterior margin
is regularly rounded, the lower side straight or slightly
indented. The anterior end extends a short distance in front
of the beak. The slope to the hinge is flat and rather steep.
The slope to the front and base is gently convex and more
gradual. The surface is marked by numerous concentric lines.
Locality.—V alcour Island, New York. The type is in the |
collection of the Carnegie Miasoun:
P. EF. Raymond—Ffauna of the Chazy Limestone. 38
Cyrtodonta solitaria sp. nov.
Shell roughly triangular, the beak a little behind the ante-
rior end. Hinge line short. The anterior margin is narrow
and rounded, the base long and straight, incurved at about 45°
with the hinge. Posterior regularly rounded. — Shell only
moderately convex, the slope to the posterior end gradual and
to the front nearly flat.
Length 15"; height 12°5"™. Surface marked by concen-
tric lines of growth.
Locality. Ledge in pasture near Tracy Brook, Chazy, New
York. The type is in the Yale collection.
Whitella canadensis sp. nov.
Shell small, convex, subrectangular in outline. A promi-
nent ridge extends from the beak to the lower posterior corner.
From this ridge the slope to the cardinal and posterior margins
is abrupt, while there is little slope to the front until a point
in front of the beak is reached, when the slope is suddenly
deflected. The surface is marked by concentric undulations.
Locality.—Aylmer sandstone, Aylmer, Quebec.
Clionychia marginalis sp. nov.
Both valves moderately convex, the umbones somewhat
depressed, but increasing rapidly in height, the greatest thick-
ness of the valves being at about one-third the distance from
the beak to the lower margin. Hinge line short. The poste-
rior margin is broadly rounded, the lower margin semi-circular.
The front is almost straight. The greatest convexity is along
a line parallel to the front. The posterior and lower slopes
are gentle, but the front slope is abrupt, almost 90° with the
plane of union of the valves. The surface is marked by very
fine concentric strie.
One specimen is 20"™ long and 26°5™™ high.
Locality.—Chazy and Valcour Island, New York. The
type is in the Yale collection.
Ambonychia ? curvata sp. nov.
Shell large, both valves very strongly convex, especially
along the region of the front and middle of the valves. Beaks
small, incurved, directed a little forward. Anterior slope
abrupt and overhanging. Posterior and bottom slopes rather
steep. Posterior wing short. The posterior margin is almost
straight. The anterior margin is regularly curved. The
length and breadth are nearly equal.
_AM. Jour. Sci1.—FourtTH SERIES, VOL. XX, No. 119.—NoveEmBER, 1905.
3874 PP. K. Raymond—Fauna of the Chazy Limestone.
A large specimen is 277" long and 26™™ high. Another is
43™™ long and 39" high. A small one is 10™™ long and 10™™
high.
"The species is easily recognized by the curved anterior mar-
gin and the great convexity. The line of greatest convexity
follows the anterior margin. There is an elongate posterior
muscle faintly outlined on some of the casts. The general
appearance is somewhat like Ambonychia amygdalina Hall.
Locality.—V aleour Island, Chazy, and Sloop Island, New
York.
Conocardium beecheri sp. nov.
Shell very small but robust, with long anterior and short
posterior wings. The region of greatest convexity is from the
beak straight to the base of the shell, the curvature decreasing’
gradually forward to the anterior wing and rather abruptly
backward to the posterior wing. The “anterior wing is long,
with straight lower margin. The posterior wing is short and
narrow, joining the body at a large angle. The surface is
marked by 7 or 8 large plications on the anterior wing, 15 or
20 smaller ones on the body of the shell, and 3 or 4 very large
ones on the posterior wing. The dimensions of 2 specimens
are: First, length 6-5"™, height 5™™; second, lenethae
height 4"™.
Locality.—Sloop Island, east of Valeour Island, New York;
also on Valcour Island and at Chazy, Clinton County, New
York.
Modiolopsis fabaformis sp. nov.
Shell small, thick, with a strong ridge extending from the
umbo to the lower posterior angle. In front of this ridge is a
deep depression, which continues to the middle of the ventral
margin; making that margin sinuate. Anterior ear small,
convex. Anterior mar gin narrowly rounded. Posterior mar-
gin broadly rounded, not oblique as in JModzolopsis brevius-
cula and MM. parviuscula. The surface is marked by numer-
ous concentric lines of growth.
Locality.—Common in the upper layers at Valeour Island.
The type specimen is in the writer’s collection.
Modiolopsis sowteri sp. nov.
Shell of medium size for the genus, rather convex, with a
strong ridge running back from the beak to the lower posterior
angle. Toward the front is a slight depression running from
just ahead of the beaks a little backward to the basal margin.
In front of the beak is a very deeply impressed anterior scar,
P. E. Raymond—Ffauna of the Chazy Limestone. 375
which on the internal cast is represented by a rounded conical
elevation. ‘The posterior scar is large and close to the hinge
eSjryiten
Length 51™”, height 28™™.
Leneth (on Meioht 20".
Locality. —From the Aylmer sandstone, about 60 feet above
the high-water mark of Lake Deschenes, ‘at Aylmer, Quebec.
Collected by T. W. E. Sowter, for whom it is named. The
type is in the Yale University Museum.
GASTROPODA.
Archinacella ? deformata (Hall).
Orbicula ? deformata Hall, 1847, Pal. N. Y., vol. i, p. 28, pl. iv bis, figs.
10a, 10b.
Metoptoma ? dubia Hall, ibid., figs. 11a, 11b.
Stenotheca dubia Whitfield and Hovey, 1898, Catalogue of Type and Fig-
ured Specimens in the American Museum of Natural Be Bull.
Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. xi, p. 58.
An examination of the types shows that Whitfield was right
in regarding the specimen named Orbicula? deformata by
Hall as identical with Metoptoma ? dubia, which Hall described
on the same page. His species, however, must take the first
specific name ‘applied to it, even though given under the mis-
apprehension that it was a brachiopod instead of a gastropod.
The generic reference is uncertain as no specimens have
been found which show either muscle scars or pronounced
surface markings. It does not seem possible to leave it either
in the genus Jfetoptoma, where Hall doubtfully put it, or in
Stenotheca, where it was placed by Whitfield. In general
form it most resembles the numerous species of Archinacella
described by Ulrich and Sccfield, to which it may be referred
until better examples are obtained. The individual specimens
of this: shell are abundant and the characters are quite con-
stant. It is easily recognized by the low form and almost
marginal position of the beak.
Scenella pretensa sp. nov.
Shell small, aperture narrowly elliptical in outline. Height
about equal to the greatest diameter of the aperture. Beak
small, pointed backward, but not incurved. Posterior slope
nearly straight. Anterior slope convex above, becoming
straight below. Surface smooth, except for a few low concen-
tric undulations near the base. Beak a little behind the
middle.
The greatest diameter is 11™ ; the shortest is 65"™. Height
41°52”,
3876 =P. &. Raymond—Fauna of the Chazy Limestone.
Locality.—Rare at Chazy, New York, in the Lower Chazy
layers south of the lime kilns. It occurs also at Lenoirs,
Tennessee.
Scenella robusta sp. nov.
Shell large, aperture nearly circular. Beak obtuse, rather
high, and located a little behind the middle. All slopes about
equal and all convex, the whole shell somewhat hemispheric.
The specimens are all casts, showing no surface markings of
any sort.
The only perfect example is 17™™ in greater diameter and
16™™ in lesser. A much larger one is represented by a frag-
ment 27™™ long, but it had evidently been considerably larger.
Locality.—V aleour Island, in the Middle Chazy beds. Rare.
The type is in the writer’s collection.
Paleacmea irregularis sp. nov.
Shell rather large, irregular in outline, generally subcireular,
but never with a smooth curve. Beak obtuse, almost central,
sometimes a little back of the center. All slopes about equal,
generally almost straight, but occasionally a little convex.
Surface marked. by numerous fine concentric lines of growth,
which follow the irregular form of the aperture. Usually
there are a few radial folds and some irregular depressions
and pits which do not follow in symmetrical arrangement.
The greater diameter of the aperture 1s 26™™; the lesser is
10™™. The aperture of another is 19™™ long, 18™™ wide, and
the apex is 9"” above the aperture.
Locality..—Common in lower layers at Chazy, New York.
ffelicotoma vagrans sp. nov.
Shell small, somewhat J/aclwrea-like, the spire flat and
depressed below the plane of the highest points on the upper
surface. Outer edge of the body whorl angular, raised as a
high sharp ridge toward the aperture. Lower surface of the
shell rounded, the umbilicus wide. Aperture large, quadri-
lateral, angular above, rounded below. Surface marked by
fine lines of growth, which turn back on crossing the angle of
the upper surface.
Locality.— A rare fossil at Valeour Island, New York. The
type is in the writer’s collection.
KHotomaria obsoletum sp. nov.
Shell small, trochiform, with about four volutions. The
upper part is conical, the volutions are flat, and the sutures only
P. E. Raymond—Fauna of the Chazy Limestone. 377
slightly impressed. The lower surface is convex, umbilicus
small. The present specimen is a cast and shows no surface
markings. Aperture large, angulated on the side, rounded
below.
Locality.—Crown Point and Valcour Island, New York.
Very rare. The type is in the writer’s collection.
Lophospira rectangularis sp. nov.
Shell fairly large, with 5 volutions. Body whorl very large,
spire small. Last 3 whorls with sides parallel to the axis of
the shell. Aperture large, nearly circular. Upper lip nearly
straight, meeting the straight outer lip at an obtuse angle.
The inner and lower sides of the aperture are rounded. The
umbilicus is very small.
All the specimens in the collection are casts of the interior
and do not show anything more than traces of the surface
markings. They were probably the same as in Lophospira
subabbreviata.
Locality.— A rare species from Valeour Island, New York.
The type is in the writer’s collection.
Lophospira billingsi sp. nov.
Shell of 4 volutions, body whorl very large, spire low, whorls
angular, sloping gently from the suture to the keel. The under
side of the body whorl is rounded and strongly convex. The
umbilicus is small. The aperture is entire, the inner and
lower lips are rounded, the upper lip is straight from the
suture to the keel, sharply angulated at the keel and nearly
straight for a short distance below it. The surface is covered
by rather coarse lines of growth, which run first forward and
cross the upper side of the volution diagonally and backward,
again turning forward after crossing the volution. On the
under surface of the whorl, the strize turn back to the
umbilicus.
Locality.—F rom the Canadian Pacific Railroad cut, east of
Main street, Aylmer, Canada. Named for W. R. Billings ot
Ottawa, an enthusiastic student of the Chazy.
Cyclonema ? normaliana sp. nov.
Shell small, elongate trochiform, with 4 or 5 whorls, which
enlarge gr adually. Sutures not deeply impressed and volu-
tions almost flat sided. The under surface of the last whorl is
flat or slightly convex. The surface is marked by 8 or 4 revolv-
ing raised lines or low keels.
‘Locality. —lLower Chazy, near the Normal School at Platts-
burg, New York.
878 P. &. Raymond—Fauna of the Chazy Limestone.
Hunema leptonotum sp. nov.
Shell small, with about 4 whorls, which increase gradually
toward the base. The whorls are all convex, the suture is
deeply impressed. The first 8 whorls are smooth and Holopea-
like. The fourth, or body, whorl is ornamented by 5 sharp
revolving ridges, equally spaced. ‘These ridges are crossed by
fine vertical lines, which are close together and give the ridges
a pitted appearance. ‘The aperture is not seen. home
The height of the shell is 5"; the width of the body whorl
3°5mm
This shell is not uncommon in the Chazy, but on account of
its small size aud liability to exfoliation it is often overlooked
or is in too imperfect a condition to be positively identified.
Locality.— Lower Chazy, at Chazy, New York. The type
is in the Yale collection.
Trochonema dispar sp. u0v.
Shell rather large, consisting of 3 whorls with depressed
spire and very large body whorl. The suture is very deep.
The whorls are almost free. The body whorl has a flat
revolving band on the outer side. The top is flat and sloping
and the lower side strongly convex. The surface markings are
not shown. The umbilicus is large in the cast, but rather
small in testiferous specimens.
Locality.—Fairly common on Valcour Island, in a locality
at the south end. It is rare elsewhere on the island and at
Chazy, New York. The type is in the writer’s collection.
Subuliies prolongata sp. nov.
Shell small, elongate, fusiform, with about 6 (?) whorls
(specimen shows body whorl and 3 above). The whorls are
long and narrow, decreasing slowly and regularly toward the
top. The body whorl is about equal to the length of the 2
whorls above it and is contracted below. The aperture is not
shown.
The length of the fragment is 29"; the greatest thickness
is 5™™, Probably the total length was about 35™™.
Locality.—Sloop Bay, Valcour Island. The type is in the
Yale collection.
Holopea hudsoni sp. nov.
Shell usually large, with about 4 whorls. The body whorl
is large, robust, expanding rapidly. ‘The spire is fairly long,
whorls strongly convex, sutures very deep. Aperture nearly
circular, entire; the outer lip thin, the inner lip free from
the body whorl. The umbilicus is small.
P. EF. Raymond—Fauna of the Chazy Limestone. 379
The surface is usually smooth. Some casts show traces of —
lines parallel to the margin of the outer lip. These lines run
a little forward from the suture, continuing in this direction
over the bulge of the whorl, then curve a little backward and
finally forward again at the lower end.
Locality.—Rather common at Crown Point, Valcour, Val-
cour Island, Plattsburg, and Chazy, New York. The type is
in the writer’s collection.
Holopea scrutator sp. nov.
Shell of medium size, about 3 whorls, the body whorl con-
stituting by far the larger part of the shell. Spire depressed,
sutures not deep. Aperture elongate, oval, entire. Umbilicus
small.
The specimens usually occur as casts, but on a few the shell
is preserved. It shows no markings except a few growth
lines, which run diagonally back across the whorl. When the
specimeus are exfoliated the suture lines are much more deeply
impressed and the spire appears higher.
This shell is easily distinguished from the preceding by the
low spire, the shallowness of the sutures and the general
depressed form of the shell.
Locality—Common at Valeour Island and Chazy, New
York. The type is in the Yale Collection.
Conularia triangulata sp. nov.
Shell small, slender, slightly curved, 6-sided, but 3 of the
sides are so natrow as to give the shell an almost triangular
cross section. The narrow faces alternate with the wide ones,
the former truncating the angles which the latter would make
if prolonged till they met. Along each of the faces, both
wide and narrow, is an elevated line, which extends longitudi-
nally along the center of the face. The surface markings
consist of numerous fine tranverse strie, which bend backward
on crossing the raised line.
The best specimen in the writer’s collection is broken at the,
tip and at the aperture, yet is 38"" long. The original length
was at least 8™™ more. At the largest end the 3 wide faces
are each 7™™ wide and the narrow faces are each 1:°5™™ wide.
At the small end the wide faces are 2°5"™ wide and the narrow
faces are reduced to practically nothing, thus showing that in
young stages the shell was really tr iangular.
Locality. —The type specimen, which is in the writer’s col-
lection, was found in the upper part of the Chazy, on the
southeast point of Valcour Island (Cystid Point). It also
occurs near Smuggler’s Bay, in layers a little lower in the
formation. |
380 PP. EL. Raymond—Ffauna of the Chazy Limestone.
OSTRACODA.
Leperditia limatula sp. nov.
Length 105° height. 757
Length 92>; height ¢y
Length 975°"; height 6.257".
Length 192526 = height Gone.
Shell of medium size, a little smaller than Leperditia fabu-
lites, oblong in outline, higher behind than in front. Hinge
short, straight. Anterior end regularly rounded. ‘The poste-
rior end slopes back almost straight for a short distance, but is
broadly rounded on the lower posterior margin. The eye
tubercle is small, on some specimens sharp, on others obscure.
It is situated in the anterior angle, above and a little in front
of the “muscle spot.” The latter is large, circular, and very
finely reticulated. Back of the muscle spot is a region of the
shell which is covered with fine raised lines radiating from the
side of the spot. These lines frequently anastomose, making
a very pretty reticulate surface. The muscle spot is raised
above the general surface of the carapace on the lower poste-
rior side, where these lines originate, but the upper and ante-
rior sides are level with the main part of the shell.
The right valve overlaps the left valve considerably, espe-
clally along the ventral edge, which is abruptly deflected and
usually shows a low short ridge right at the keel. The lower
margins of the anterior and posterior ends are flanged. The
border is very narrow and is marked by small pits, which
increase in size ventrally. On one finely preserved specimen
the anterior flange shows 8 pits, of which the seventh, counted
from the front, is largest, and the eighth is very small. On
the posterior flange of the same specimen there are 10 pits,
the eighth from the posterior end being the largest, the ninth
a little smaller, and the tenth minute. The left valve is not so
high in proportion to the length as the right valve, but it is
also abruptly deflected ventrally. It shows neither anterior
nor posterior flanges and there is a small projection close to
the hinge line and parallel to it. Below this is a slight
depression.
Locality—Common on Valeour Island in certain localities.
Rare at Valeour and Chazy, New York.
Prinitia latimarginata sp. nov.
Carapace small and depressed. Front and posterior margins
meet the dorsal margin at angles of little more than 90°.
Both ends are broadly rounded, the ventral margin is gently
curved. The shell is a little higher at the posterior end than
P. EF. Raymond—Fauna of the Chazy Limestone. 381
in front. There is a deep sulcus just in front of the middle,
which starts from the dorsal margin and extends half-way
down the valve, turning a little forward at the lower end. On
well-preserved specimens, in front of this sulcus there is a
prominent eye spot, which is sometimes translucent. Often
there is another slight depression or sulcus in front of the eye
spot. The border is wide, concave, and of nearly uniform
width all around from the anterior angle of the dorsal margin
to the posterior one. The test is frequently punctate.
_ Locality.—Common all through the Chazy limestone at
Chazy, Valeour Island, Crown Point, and elsewhere in the
Champlain Valley.
TRILOBITA.
Heliomera subgen. nov.
fleliomera sol (Billings).
Cheirurus sol Billings, 1865, Paleozoic Fossils of Canada, vol. i, p. 288,
fig. 276.
Cephalon short, wide, the glabella very large and flattened,
the cheeks small. Glabella almost semi-circular, with 3 pairs
of long, narrow glabellar furrows, all of which turn backward
on their inner ends, each joining the one back of it, and the
third pair joining the neck furrow, thus producing a central
lobe like that of Amphilichas. This central lobe is of uniform
width up to the inner ends of the first pair of glabellar fur-
rows, but turns outward in front of that point. Toward the
front of this median lobe there is a slight depression, some-
what similar to that sometimes seen in Pliomerops canadensis.
The first pair of glabellar furrows run’ backward at an angle
of about 45°, the second pair at a smaller angle, while the
third pair are nearly parallel to the neck furrow. The glabel-
lar lobes are narrow and club-shaped. ‘This radiating arrange-
ment of the glabellar furrows and lobes probably suggested
the specific name. The neck ring is wide, flat, and separated
from the glabella by a deep furrow, which extends the whole
width of the cephalon. The cheeks are not sufficiently well
preserved to be described, but enough of the test remains to
show that the outline of the cephalon was the same as in
Pseudospherezochus vulcanus. There is a narrow smooth
border all around the front of the cephalon, and the surface is
covered with fine tubercles. The relations of this species are
rather doubtful. From the form of the cephalon it evidently
belongs close to Pseudospherexochus, but there has not been
seen in species of that genus any tendency to vary in the
direction of an isolated central lobe and long isolated glabellar
382° Poe. ie fie ooh ec aes of the Chazy Limestone.
furrows. The glabellar Fanceies in the various species of
Pseudospher exochus ave usually faint, never deeply impressed
as in this species. In this last character and in the presence
of the median depression of the glabella, it recalls Pliomerops.
The glabella is much larger in proportion to the size of the
cephalon in Heliomera sol, however, and it is probable that
this form must be regarded as intermediate between the two
genera. For trilobites with this type of glabellar structure
the subgeneric name //eliomera is suggested.
Locality.—From the Raphistoma layers in the upper part
of the Lower Chazy, at Chazy, New York. The type is in
the Yale University Museum.
Paleontological Laboratory,
Yale University Museum, June 24, 1905.
Benton—Properties of Catgut Musical Strings. 383
Arr. XX XIX.— The Mechanical Properties of Catqut Must-
cal Strings ; by J. RK. Brenton, Pa.D.
THE experiments here described were made in connection
with investigations on the stress-strain relation in elastic solids,
earried out at the Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie
Institution under the direction of Dr. G. F. Becker, to whom
the writer desires to make acknowledgment for many valuable
suggestions in regard to the work presented in this note.
Researches on the stress-strain relation have been made for
rubber and for the metals; and it was thought of interest to
experiment also on a substance of intermediate properties as
regards extension within the elastic limit; for this purpose,
catgut, as used for strings of musical instr uments, appeared to
be Dest adapted. Owing to its hygroscopic properties and the
complicated nature of the after-effects it exhibits, it was found
that a precise determination of the deviations from Hooke’s
law would involve an amount of labor far greater than was
thought to be warranted by the importance of the substance.
Such results as were obtained, however, together with general
data on the mechanical properties of catgut, seem of sufficient
interest to justify the publication of the present note.
Tensile Strength.—A piece of catgut -061™ in diameter had
an average breaking load of 12° 0 kg., corresponding to a ten-
sile strength of 43 ke. per mm* (60,000 Ibs. per sq. in.). A
piece ‘038% in diameter broke under 4°5 kg., corresponding to
a tensile strength of 41 kg. per mm’*. These figures show that
it is nearly as strong as copper wire, and must be classed as
one of the strongest organic substances, far exceeding all kinds
of wood (less than 20,000 lbs. per sq. in.), leather (5000 Ibs.
per sq. in.), and hemp ropes (15,000 lbs. per sq. in.).
Catgut musical strings, as furnished on the market, are
twisted, aud tend to untwist when subjected to tension, and to
twist up again when tension is removed. In order to study
their elasticity, this twist must be removed, which is accom-
plished by soaking the string in water. If hot water is used
the string becomes very soft, and contracts greatly in length.
In this condition it behaves very much like rnbber ; it can be
stretched to nearly double its unstrained length, and when
released it snaps back like a rubber band.
It is greatly weakened, however, by being wet; but it
regains its strength more or less completely upon drying, as
shown in the following table:
384 Benton—Properties of Catgut Musical Strings.
Catgut string, 038°" in diameter.
Average breaking load before special treatment, 4°5 kg.
A ba Treatment. ' Protas
tests. in kgs.
2 Soaked 4 hr. in water at 30° C., then tested
while wet 2°1
1 13 66 6é 6é ; 66 dried, then |
tested 5:0
bo
‘Soaked ‘1 hr. in water at 30° C., dried for
five days, then tested | 4°3, 4:4
1 Soaked 5 min. in water at 90° C., then tested less
| while wet | than 0°5
4 | é< <6 73 73 66 dried, then
tested | 1:0-1°:9
Llongation at Rupture.—A piece 0-062™ in diameter, and
59™ long, stretched to 70°" just before rupture, or 19 per
cent of its original length. Another test gave 15 per cent.
These figures include whatever stretching was due to untwist-
ing. After rupture the pieces were too much frayed out for
any determination of their length.
Specific gravity.—By weighing a piece of catgut (not treated
with water) of known length and. cross section, its et
gravity was determined as 1°18 (0°01).
All the remaining experiments to be described were made
on a violin E-string, 150° long and 0:062™ in mean diameter
(the diameter was not quite uniform, varying between 0°059
and 0°65). It was freed from its original torsion on August
20, 1904, by soaking one and a half hours in water of 30° C.,
and while drying it supported a load of 0°5 kg. The experi-
ments were carried on from time to time during the following
year, at intervals during the prosecution of other work. |
fygroscopic properties.—Upon setting up this string and
sighting with a micrometer telescope at a point near its lower
end, it was at once seen that the length of the string did not
remain constant ; and by observing at intervals and determin-
ing the humidity of the air at the same time, it was easily
demonstrated that the strmg stretched when the dampness
increased and contracted when it decreased. This is in accord-
ance with the well-known tendency of violin strings to break
in dry weather. When the weather is damp the string has to
be tightened to maintain the tension to keep it in tune; with
increasing dryness its tension increases until finally it snaps.
The actual tension required on a violin E-string to produce the
proper pitch of 640 vibrations per second may be computed
from the length of string (about 33) and its specific mass
Benton—Properties of Catgut Musical Strings. 385
(0:0035 g. per em. of length) by the well-known formula for
transverse vibrations of strings, and comes out about 6 keg., or
about one-half of the breaking load. During the above experi-
ments the cae carried a load of 1:0 kg, and the temperature
was 20 to 25° C. The order of magnitude of the changes was
0:0002 of the length of the string for each cm. of mercury of
vapor tension. Precise determination of the dependence of
length on humidity was made prohibitively difficult by the
phenomena described in the followmg paragraph.
After-effects.— Whenever any change was produced in the
conditions, the catgut did not at once come into equilibrium
under the new conditions, but did so only gradually. Thus,
—— Changes of Length—-cms,——>
in cms. of mercury
Absolube Humid ity >
a yaa
= Days (January, 1905) ——_____»
ae 7 me
Figure 1.—Length and Humidity as Functions of Time.
when the load upon it was changed, it exhibited in marked
degree the well-known elastic after-effect, requiring some days
to come to sensible equilibrium, during which time the change
in length due to change in load increased by about 25 per cent
of its final amount. It was found also that the stretch due to
humidity tended to continue after a change of humidity ceased ;
this could easily be seen in the fluctuations of humidity accom-
panying changes of weather; but no facilities for controlling
humidity were available, and so no attempt could be made to
study these phenomena thoroughly. No doubt some time is
required for moisture to penetrate into the interior of the cat-
gut. The curves of figure 1 represent change of length of the
386 Lenton—Properties of Catgut Musical Strings.
catgut, and humidity (absolute), both as functions of time.
Aiter-effects were detected also in connection with change of
temperature.
The elastic after-effect is of course responsible for the beha-
vior of new strings on violins, which get out of tune very
rapidly at first, and always in the direction of lower pitch.
With greater duration of the tension the after-effect becomes
less marked and the material approaches equilibrium under the
imposed conditions. But if left for some time, the tendency
is always towards lower rather than higher
pitch, if temperature and humidity do not
2 change. :
To protect the strmg from changes of humid-
ity, it was placed inside of a tube of galvanized
iron (“ spout-pipe’’), 6 inches in diameter, and
2 meters long, the seam of which was soldered
up (A, fig. 2). Near the top and bottom, plate
glass windows (6, 6), 74x15™, were fastened
into it and made moisture-tight by liberal appli-
cation of thick grease (‘“‘mobilubricant ”) be-
neath the glass and around its edges. Inside
the bottom of the tube a circular trough (9, fig.
2) 4™ wide was soldered against it and filled
with engine oil. A hanger was attached to the
bottom of the catgut, and hung through the
hole in the middle of the trough: {o. samc
hanger was fastened an inverted cup (@) of tin,
which dipped into the oil of the trough. Thus
the catgut was completely protected against
changes of moisture in the air, and at the same
time could be subjected to any desired tension
by placing weights upon the hanger sticking
out from the bottom of the tube. The whole
arrangement was supported from the ceiling
and braced against the floor. Micrometer tele-
scopes for reading at top and bottom were sup-
ported from the tube itself. The top telescope
took account of any sinking of the upper sup-
port; the distance between the two marks
sighted upon on the string was 138°". The tele-
scope at the bottom could be shifted bodily to keep up with
stretching of the string; a reflection prism was fastened to it
in front of its objective, and reflected into its field of view the
image of a steel centimeter scale fastened vertically near by.
In this way the shift of the telescope when moved could be
measured.
Coefficient of Thermal. Expansion.—After the catgut had
been in the tube four days, readings were made upon it from
Benton—Properties of Catgut Musical Strings. 387
time to time, and were still found to fluctuate. Upon compar-
ing these readings with those for temperature, it was obvious
that the changes were related to it, as may be seen in figure 3;
——Change of length—cms,—>
ee
ae
Daxs Gee May, 1905) mae
FIGURE 5.—Temperature and Length as Functions of Time.
eww (C)——>
th
2 .
c=]
cet
Change of length ——cms
Temperatue=—Degrees centigrade —____>
Figure 4.—Dependence of Length on Temperature.
388 Lenton—Properties of Catgut Musical Strings.
but again the state of affairs is complicated by after-effects.
These were simply neglected, however, and equations were set
up for the determination of the coefficient of expansion, using
eighteen observations ; solving them by the method of least
squares, the coefficient of linear expansion came out —0-000081
per degree centigrade. The observations used are shown
graphically in figure 4. As the coefficient of expansion comes
out negative and larger in absolute value than for most sub-
stances, the question arises whether the data obtained were not
= otal Elongation— ems—>
Ss
Hours after Temoving eRe Sut :
FIGURE 0.—Elastic After-effect upon removing 05 kg.
Time
i> 30 45 60 IT
Time Hours, after spplying eee
_ Figure 6.—Elastic After-effect upon applying 2°5 kgs.
Benton— Properties of Catgut Musical Strings. 389
influenced by humidity. In the enclosure containing the cat-
gut, the absolute humidity was constant, but the relateve
humidity increased as the temperature fell; and it may be that
under such conditions the material tends to absorb moisture
and thus increase in length. It is possible, therefore, that in a
perfectly dry atmosphere, the behavior of catgut under vary-
ing temperature might be quite different.
Elasticity.—To get at the true elastic properties of the
material it would be necessary, after each change of load, to
wait until the disappearance of the after-effect before deter-
mining the corresponding length of the string. In strictness,
=
WA, \ Ally > tio —
a 7 nga au cms———_>
bowd=— kgs——_»
an infinite time would be requisite for this; but practically
the following procedure can be adopted, and was employed in
these experiments: After each change of load, observations on
the length of the string were made at intervals of a few hours
for several days, and corrected for thermal expansion. From
the data thus obtained, a curve was plotted with times for
abscissas and lengths for ordinates ; and from this curve the
final length which the string tended to reach with disappear-
ing aiter-effect, was estimated. Of course such an estimation
involves considerable uncertainty and arbitrariness; but no
other course seems available, as long as experiments must be
Am. Jour. Sci1.—FourtH Serizs, Vou. XX, No. 119.—NoOvEmMBsER, 1905.
27
390 LBenton— Properties of Catgut Musical Strings.
limited to finite time. Two of the curves obtained in this
manner are exhibited in figures 5 and 6, together with their
asymptotes as estimated. Such curves were taken after each
change of load; but it is not thought to be of any interest
here to submit more than two of them, or to present tables of
the numerical data from which the curves are plotted.
The results obtained in this manner are summarized in the
accompanying table. After any load had acted for a few days
it was removed, and the string left unloaded a few days before
the next load was applied. The individual readings were made
to thousandths of centimeters; but the estimation of the length
to which the string tended at infinite time was carried out
only to hundredths. The first column of the table gives the
loads, in kilograms, placed upon the hanger, which itself
weighed about 0°5 kg.; the third column gives the total elon-
gation after disappearance of the after-effect, estimated as
explained above; the sixth column gives the after-effect, of
change of strain from the first instant (practically about 60
seconds) after applying the load until final equilibrium is
reached, expressed as percentage of the total final strain; the
other columns require no explanation.
&
Violin E-string, 0°062™ in diameter.
Time
Stress | Total Young’s the Mean
in kgs. | elonga- | — modulus | After- | load | temper-
Load, in kgs. per tion in |Strain.| in kgs. | effect. jacted, | ature,
mm?. cms. per mm?. in Ge
days.
ee \ Capplicd yin ha nO oO are E { 30% 5 24
UP | (removed) { Bee ( 0°62 OEE ene | 33% 5 24
1:0 (applied) 3°31 139 \O:ONOI), 2328 44% 6 24
15 (removed) | 4°97 2°26 |0°0164| 308 26% 5 25
Pal Yapiedyy iia ae Na z 29% 4 28
é 0} (removed) § oe ees Coe 29% 7 29
(applied): alo, WSETich (pees 22% 5 aL
ae | (removed) § oe eee | Dee iis 29% 4 28
3°0 (applied) 9°95 4°66 (0:0338| 294 20% 8 27
3°5 (applied) 11°60 Orie WOsOsmar lp icaO 15% 6 28
Youngs Modulus.*—The mean value of Young’s modulus
from these experiments comes out 322 kgs. per mm’, or 458,000
* The values of Young’s modulus given in the above table are obtained by
direct division of each stress by the corresponding strain. In strictness,
Young’s modulus should be determined from the slope of the stress-strain
curve at the origin. But in the special case that the stress-strain curve is a
straight line, the quotient of stress by strain for any point of the curve gives
the same result as the slope at the origin. The data under discussion not
being sufficiently regular to determine the true form of the stress-strain
curve, it is taken as a straight line within the limits of the experiments ; and
this justifies the above method of determining Young’s modulus.
Benton—Properties of Catgut Musical Strings. 391
Ibs. per sq. in. _ If observations taken immediately after apply-
ing the loads had been used, instead of those after the disap-
pearance of the after-effect, we would have about 400 ke. per
mm* for Young’s modulus; and this latter figure represents
the elastic resistance of the material to a stress applied for a
short time, as in longitudinal vibrations of the string.
Limit of Elasticity.— As is seen from the table, slight per-
manent set appears, though not with great certainty, after
applymg 2°5 kg (+0°5 ke. for the hanger). That makes the
limit of elasticity about 8 ke. per mm’, corresponding to a
strain of 2°7 per cent.
Stress-strain Pelation.—The results tabulated above are
shown graphically in figure 7. It is clear from it that Hooke’s
law is approximately true; but the results obtained are too
irregular to furnish ground for any definite statement as to
deviations from Hooke’s law. Mey
Sewickley, Penn.
392 Flora—FEstimation of Cadmium taken as the Chloride.
Art. XL.—The Use of the Rotating Cathode for the Esti-
mation of Cadmium taken as the Chloride; by Cuartus P.
Fora.
[Contributions from the Kent Chemical Laboratory of Yale Univ.—exl.]
In a previous paper®* the author has described the use of the
rotating cathode for the estimation of cadmium taken as the
sulphate. In the present paper a simular study has been made
of the behavior of cadmium when taken in the form of the
chloride. Some differences are to be expected, since it has
been established with some certainty that cadmium chloride,
when subjected to electrolysis, forms not only positive cadmium
ions and negative chlorine ions, but also complex cadmium- '
chlorine negative ions; and, in addition, the chlorine, when set
free, does not recombine with the water, to set free axygen,
but exists in the solution in its free state. That there are some
very important differences a few qualitative experiments
showed, so that the study of the estimation of cadmium when
taken in the form of this salt was now undertaken.
A solution was made up to a convenient strength, and the
standard determined by the mean of several closely agreeing
determinations by the carbonate method, which the author
had carefully tested and found to be perfectly reliable. This
showed 071589 grm.-of cadmium in 30°" of the solution, or
0°0052966 grm. per cubic centimeter.
I. In Solutions containing Sulphuric Acid.
The procedure with cadmium chloride was the same as with
the cadmium sulphate, and the results were very satisfactory.
But emphasis is to be laid upon the dilution in this case espe-
cially, for it was found that from the more dilute solution it is
almost impossible to drive the last traces of cadmium. A dilu-
tion of 45° was found to give the most satisfactory results.
To this solution ten drops of sulphuric acid of 1:4 dilution
were added before electrolysis. The following results were
obtained under these conditions :
s
Cd. Cur’t = N.Dyjoo E.M.F. Time. Cd. fd. Error.
No. grm. amp. amp. vts. min. gTm. grm.
i Ol L059 10-175 3°0-4°5 6°5-7°8 25 01054 —0°0005
10.1059 2°03 Oe GnOn oO) 7°8 15 0°1058 —0:0001
Il. In Solutions containing Acetates.
The acetate method has proved one of the most satisfactory
for the estimation of cadmium sulphate, but strangely enough,
* This Journal, xx, 268 (1905).
Flora—Estimation of Cadmium taken as the Chloride. 393
it was found to be absolutely unfitted for the estimation of
eadmium when taken as the chloride. The deposited metal
was always spongy, often non-adherent and unfitted for quan-
titative work. The sponginess was less marked when no potas-
sium sulphate was present, but the metal was still poorly
adherent and unweighable. The modifications tried are given
for the sake of comparison in the following table. The cur-
rent potential throughout was 78 volts, while the dilution,
excepting in experiment No. 4, was 45™*. In No. 4 a dilution
of 65™* was tried, but it offered no apparent advantage.
Cd. NaOC.H;0. K.SO.. Cur’t= N. Dio. Time.
No. grm. erm. grm. amp. amp. min. Notes.
I. O°1324 15 0'5 1°d fo 3 very Sponoy
2-0-1324 SS: none 1:0 3°0 8 01314 orm. fd.
3. 0°1059 1:0 * O75 225° 20 non-adherent.
4. 0°1059 15 0-5 Weoee eg cael ee
adherent
2 2 gem? formalin
0°1059 1°5 none 1:0 3 added, spongy
6. 071059 15 BE 0°75. 2:25 — non-adht., cryst.
7. 0°1059 0°5 0°5 1:0 3°0 = ee -
Ili. In Solutions containing Cyanides.
The use of a cyanide solution gave results with the chloride
of cadmium as satisfactory as were given when the sulphate of
cadmium was taken. As in that case, care must be taken to
avoid foaming of the solution. The best dilution seemed to be
65°. The time required is a trifle longer than in the estima-
tion of cadmium sulphate by this method. The following
results were obtained : :
No. Cd. KON. NaOH. Cur’t= N. Diop E.M.F. Time. Cd. fd. Error.
SE. Ci. Sri.e amp. amp... vis; min: erm, erm.
1. 0°1324
1°5 1:0 + 12 18 350 6©0°13822 —0°0002
2. 0°1324 1°5
1-0 + 12 78 40 0°1317 —0:0007
In experiment No. 2 there was much foaming, and a trace
of cadmium remained in solution, the deposition being much
retarded.
IV. In Solutions containing Pyrophosphates.
The different modifications of the pyrophosphate method
gave results which were quite satisfactory, and in every
respect comparable with the results obtained with this elec-
trolyte in the estimation of cadmium sulphate. As was the
case with that salt, the use of ammonium hydroxide to dis-
solve the precipitate gave the most satisfactory results; while .
after that, sulphuric acid seemed to be the most suitable
394 Llora—FEstimation of Cadmium taken as the Chloride.
solvent. The deposits obtained from solutions to which were
added free phosphoric acid showed a shght tendency toward
sponginess. When hydrochloric acid was added, the deposits
were good but deposition was slow. The total volume in each
ease was 45°"; the amount of sodium pyrophosphate used was
9°5 grm.; while the current potential was 7:8 volts.
The following results were obtained:
Cd. Curt = .N. Dio: Time; Conde wren:
No. grm. Solvent. amp. amp. min. grm. grm.
051324 NEL OF cones 1c: 0°5 13s) 15 0°1327 +0:0003
O:1324 HeSOR 4) 12 dps: 0°75 225 85 0°1328 +0°0004:
0:1342 H,PO, (sp. gr. 1°7), 15 dps. 0°75-1°0 2°25-3'0 30 0°1331 +0°0007
071324 HCl, 1:4, 15 dps. 07-05 21-15 45 071819 —0-0005
me Gi) 1S) te
V. In Solutions containing Phosphates.
With cadmium chloride, hydrogen disodic phosphate must
be used with even more care than with cadmium sulphate, if
deposits which are even slightly satisfactory are to be obtained ;
and even when used with caution, the tendency to form spongy
deposits is so persistent that this method is not to be recom-
mended where other methods are available. The following are
the solutions tried, the concentration being 45° throughout:
Cd. HNa,PO,. H:PO.. Curt= | N. Dio. E.M.F. Time. Cd. fd” Mirror
No. grm. orm. (Gp. i i)) vamp: amp. vis. min. owns erm.
0°1059 = 0°25 som? 20-30 60-90 78 15 0082 | EG paee
0°1324 0°25 Deremay 2 0=370 6°0—9'0 7°8 18) 071344 =+0°0020
0°1324 0°20 10 dps 1:0 3°0 78 15 0°1330 = =+0°'0006
0°1324 0°20 6dps 0°25 0°75 7'8 30 6©0'13810 )=60-—- 00014
Hq Co DO ee
Numbers 1 and 2 gave spongy deposits ; number 4 showed no
color upon testing the solution at the end of the operation
with hydrogen sulphide, but this test does not seem to be very
sensitive in this solution. Number 3 seems to represent the
best conditions.
VI. In Solutions containing Oxalates.
Several qualitative tests, using conditions identical with
those giving the least unsatisfactory deposits with cadmium
sulphate, were tried upon. the cadmium chloride, with like
unsatisfactory results, so that the work upon the oxalate method
was not pursued further.
VII. In Solutions containing Urea, ete.
A few qualitative tests seemed to indicate that solutions con-
taining urea, formaldehyde or acetaldehyde would furnish very
satisfactory media for the estimation of cadmium, taken in
the form of the chloride, but further experimentation proved
these appearances to be deceptive. Under these conditions,
No.
bo
Cd.
0°1324
0°1324
0°1324
071324 1°5
Lees I alg
Estimation of Cadmium taken as the Chloride. 395
Flora
the cadmium is deposited much more quickly from a solution
of its chloride than of the sulphate, and the deposit in the
earlier part of the precipitation appears to be very satisfactory.
But the chlorine set free apparently has some action upon the
organic compound present to produce substances detrimental to
the process. With care, however, satisfactory results may be
obtained, as may be seen ‘from a study of the following tables:
Series A.—UREA.
The amount oe urea present, therefore, should be between
15 grm. and 2 grms., and the current potential should not
exceed 8 volts, ed of the 12 volts permissible when cad-
mium sulphate was used. The test with hydrogen sulphide
does not seem to be very delicate in this solution, so that at
least 30 minntes should be allowed for each determination.
Some writers recommend the testing of the end-point im simi-
lar cases by raising the level of the liquid upon the cathode,
but this was not proved of much value in this work, as the
amount of metal deposited upon the fresh cathode surface from
the solutions near the end of the process is imperceptible.
A solution to which formaldehyde was added gave the fol-
lowing results:
SERIES B.—FORMALDEHYDE (FORMALIN).
Tot.
Gree ren. Curt — NeDi,o. MCE. Lime vol. Gad: td: Error.
erm. grm. amp. amp. vts. miny = cm? erm, erm. Notes.
spongy,
324 a 1°0 3°0 12 20 60 0°1812 —0°'0012 not all
out
( spongy,
0°1324 2 1s) a0 L2 30 60 0°1336 +0:0012 py all
fe
very
0°1324 3 1°0 She, LO eED 55 6©—0°13842 +0°0018 spongy,
all out
0°1324 2 O25 O75 SEIS, 60 0°1324 +0:0000 all out
01324 2 0°5 1:5. 12° 20 60 0°1333 + 0-0009 me SPY:
all out
0°1324 1 1-0 3:0 12 20 60 071370 -+0:0046 Very:
spongy
Paar a 0°25 —0°5- 0° 7515. 78°30 60 01328 +0°0004 good
Cotas O50 25—-0°9 0:75-5:78 30 60 0°1329 +0:°0005 fair
Tol.
Horm: Curt —- N-Dii)- KE. MCR. Time; vol... -Cd. fd: >. Error:
grm. em’. amp. amp. bse.» Mi CM: «form, erm. Notes.
x0 025-13. 0: la—f£0 78 90 Abe 2 b355 1-0-0009) tair
270 050-2°0 1°50-6°0 11°8 15 45 0°1330 +0:°0006 slt. spgy
£-5-. OAD 2°25 78 30 60 0°1324 +0°0000 compact
1°0 3°0 7°8 35 60 0°1325 +0°0001 sé
396 Flora—Lstimation of Cadmium taken as the Chloride.
It will be seen from these results that it is better to use a
somewhat smaller quantity of formaldehyde than was used
with the cadmium sulphate; the current potential should not
exceed 8 volts; while the solution should be rather dilute
(GOs)
These cautions are of even greater iipoeanee when acet-
aldehyde is used, if satisfactory results are to be obtained, as
the followmg results show :
SERIES C.—ACETALDEHYDE (95%).
Aldehd. Tot.
Cd...(992). Curt’ =] NDiog | EM Dime. vol. Cditd) hiner,
Nos Aerie) e emer: amp. NAisig ypu iagubangs (Ghaaky~ area Lia grm. Notes.
not all
1. 0:1324 52:0 0:2-0°7 > -0°6=251 7°8 30. 60) So 00"1811 —0°0013 4 out
slt. spgy
2, 2071324 ele (02-085 NOVO. 2°25) ods 30- 60 0°1346 +0°0022 spongy
: Spon y®
3: O:1324 "(0:5 -0:2-1°0)* 0:6-350 = 7-8 65 60 0:1307 —0-0017 ~ not all
out
4, 0°13824 1:0 0°1-0'°75 0°38-2°25 8:0 35 60 0:1828 —0:0001 fair
VI. Ln Solutions containing FKormates and Tartrates.
Like cadmium sulphate, so also cadmium chloride gave nega-
tive results when‘solutions containing im addition “potassium
formate in the presence of formic ‘acid were subjected to
electrolysis. Moreover, when no formate was added, but
formic acid alone, the results were still unsatisfactory. To
solutions containing 0713824 orm. of cadmium in the form of
the chloride was added 1-5°* of formic acid, the whole diluted
to 50°", and electrolysis conducted under potentials of 7-5 and
11°8 volts. In each case the precipitate was spongy and non-
adherent, while the solution persistently held traces of cadmium,
even after subjecting to the current nearly two hours.
Solutions containing tartaric acid behaved in a similar man-
ner. In the presence of 3 grm. of tartaric acid, under current
tensions of 8 and 12 volts, the precipitated metal peeled from
the cathode during revolution, the deposit was spongy, and
deposition seemed to be complete at no point of the operation.
Chemistry and Physics. 397
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
I. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS.
1. The Formation of Ozone by Ultra-violet Light.—FiscuHErR
and BraEMER, by employing a mercury-vapor lamp with quartz
walls, have studied the effect of ultra-violet light upon oxygen.
They have found that ozonization takes place if the temperature
is not too high, for above 270° ozone is decomposed more rapidly
than it is formed. ‘Thorough cooling of the oxygen by means of
a water-jacket increased the yield of ozone, while a greater
intensity of the light of the lamp also increased the yield to a
certain limit and then decreased it, probably on account of the
effect of greater heating. Upon doubling the speed of the oxy-
gen through the apparatus the total amount of ozone formed was
nearly doubled, but the percentage of ozone formed was some-
what diminished. The authors believe that their experiments
show the correctness of Warburg’s view, that the formation of
ozone by the silent electric discharge is due to the ultra-violet
light thus formed. <A short time ago one of the authors found
that their lamp could produce in a few hours the violet coloration
of glass containing manganese, which is effected by sunlight in
high mountainous regions in months or years, and in our low
regions only after longer periods, because the ultra-violet part of
its spectrum is strongly absorbed by the earth’s atmosphere. By
this absorption of ultra-violet sunlight by our atmosphere ozone
results in the upper layers of air, and when it sinks to lower
regions it is decomposed by oxidizable substances.—-Berichte,
memVIEL. 2633; - = His We
2. A New Reagent for Nickel.—Heretofore there has been no
characteristic and delicate reaction for nickel, particularly in the
presence of considerable amounts of cobalt. ‘The most delicate
of the known tests is probably the brown color produced by
alkali thiocarbonates, but this is interfered with by the presence
of cobalt. TscuuGarrr has recently found that a-dimethyl-
glyoxime,
CH,.C(:N.OH).C(:N.OH).CH,,
is an extraordinarily delicate and characteristic reagent for the
metal under consideration. ‘To make the test, the solution 1s first
freed from any excess of acid by the addition of alkali (prefera-
bly an excess of ammonia or sodium acetate solution), then some
powdered dioxime is added and the solution is heated to boiling
for a short time. If the solution is not exceedingly dilute, a
scarlet precipitate is produced at once having the composition
NiD.DH,, where DH, represents dioxime. When very small
amounts of nickel are present a yellowish liquid is obtained,
from which, after cooling, the red precipitate is deposited after a
few minutes, whereby the excess of dioxime which separates at
398 Scientijie Intelligence.
the same time is colored distinctly pink. The delicacy of this
reaction is so great that it is very distinct in solutions containing
only one part of nickel to 400,000 parts of water. The reaction
is not at all masked by the presence of ten times as much cobalt
as nickel, but since cobalt salts also react with the dimethyl-
glyoxime with the formation of a brown compound, it is expedi-
ent to modify the process when much cobalt is present by adding
a very large excess of ammonia to the liquid, then shaking
repeatedly in order to oxidize the cobalt to complex cobaitic-
ammonia compounds, and then proceeding as before. In this
case, with not too minute amounts of nickel, the reaction appears
at once, when the liquid is boiled, by the formation of a scarlet.
froth which rises upon the walls of the test-tube, but generally
it is necessary to filter the cooled liquid and to wash the residue
with water in order to detect its pink color. The author, gives a
method for preparing the new reagent, and states that it may be
obtained commercially from Kahlbaum.— Berichte, xxxvili, 2520.
H. L. W.
3. The Electrolytic Dissociation Theory with some of its
Applications ; by Henry P. Tatsor and Artaur A. BLANcH-
ARD, 8vo, pp. 84. New York, 1905 (The Macmillan Co.).—This
is an elementary treatise for the use of students of chemistry.
It deals with the fundamental topics of physical chemistry in a
very clear and simple manner, and it is undoubtedly a valuable
text-book for students who are not far enough advanced to take
up the subject more elaborately. The six chapters of the book
have the following titles: ‘‘Evidences of Electrolytic Dissocia-
tion afforded by a Study of the Properties of Solutions,” ‘“ The
Law of Mass Action and the Chemical Behavior of Electrolytes,”
“ Klectrolytic Solution Pressure,” ‘Oxidation and Reduction,”
“The More Common Ions and their Characteristics,’ ‘ Experi-
ments.” H. L. W.
4. Soils and Fertilizers; by Harry ScHNEIDER, 8v0, pp.
294. Easton, Pa.,1905 (The Chemical Publishing Co.).—This
book gives in condensed form the principles of chemistry which
have a bearing upon the conservation of soil fertility and the
economic use of fertilizers. While it is intended particularly as
a text-book for students in agricultural colleges, and includes a
course of laboratory experiments for such students, it presents
the subject in such a practical manner that, it should find exten-
sive use among farmers. ‘The present second edition has been
entirely rewritten, and has received the addition of new material.
H. L. W.
5. Engineering Chemistry ; by Tuomas B. Stittman, Third
Edition, 8vo, pp. 597. Easton, Pa., 1905 (The Chemical Pub-
lishing Co.).—The third edition of this well-known work on
technical analysis contains much new matter, especially in regard
to asphalts, lubricating-oils, Portland cement, and the technology
of the products of the blast-furnace. In its present form the
book will be more useful than ever to those who are interested
in commercial chemistry. H. L. W.
Chemistry and Physics. 399
6. A Text-Book of Chemical Arithmetic ; by H. L. Weztts,
12mo, pp. 169, 1905. New York (John Wiley & Sons).—Every
instructor in chemistry knows how difficult it is to induce students
to use their reasoning powers in solving simple problems. The
tendency is always to use a formula or a factor without knowing
or caring what these may mean. This text-book is designed to
teach chemical arithmetic, but on a basis of reason rather than
rules. Part I on approximate numbers deals with calculations
from measurements involving errors of observation. The abbre-
viated methods of multiplication and division are also given.
The rest of the book deals with chemical calculations relating to
Weights, to gases, and to volumetric analysis. Throughout the
book, a large number of very practical problems is given. A
student who has once solved these problems intelligently should
certainly have no further trouble with chemical calculations. In
an appendix, several convenient tables are given, including a table
of logarithms. HOW. F-.
7. A Text Book of Physiological Chemistry for Students of
Medicine ; by Joun H. Lone, Professor of Chemistry in North-
western University Medical School, Chicago. Pp. vili+424.
Illustrated. Fhiladelphia, 1905 (P. Blakiston’s Son).—In this
volume are presented in a clear and simple form the necessary
facts and principles underlying the science of physiological chem-
istry, written for use by students in medical schools, but few
references are made to the literature. Besides the general topics
usually treated of in a book of this character there is ‘given an
outline of the chemical phases of recent theories of immunity
together with explanations of the application of the methods of
cryoscopy and electrical conductivity and other physical processes
in the field of chemistry related to medicine. The book is well
adapted to the purpose for which it was written and should be
well received. F. P. UNDERHILL.
8. Formation of Helium from the Radium Emanation.—In
answer to many inguiries called forth by an article on this sub-
ject, published in the Berichte d. naturf. Ges. Freiburg i Br.
Xvi, p. 222, 1904, F. Hiwstept and G. Meyer relate further
experiments upon this subject. They have repeated their work
with RaBr, and also with BaBr, by the same method. Using a
much greater amount of material, they never found a trace of a
helium line. They still possess, however, three tubes which show
with the greatest ease the helium spectrum, which could not
have come from the air of the room or from any source but the
emanation.
In order to determine whether any occlusion phenomenon sim-
ilar to the occlusion of hydrogen by palladium was concerned in
the appearance of helium, they made the following experiments :
Palladium foil filled with hydrogen was placed in a quartz
tube connected to a vacunm pump, and in the process of exhaus-
tion was heated to a red heat and was flushed out with CO, until
every trace of the hydrogen spectrum disappeared. After three
400 Screntifie Intelligence.
days, on heating, the hydrogen spectrum reappeared. After
eight days, on repetition of the heating, the hydrogen lines again
appeared. Further examination was prevented by the breaking
of the tube.
The following experiment with cleveite led to a totally different
result. In a combustion tube 0: 3 g. of cleveite with SO,KH was
strongly heated and the tube flushed with hydrogen ‘until ‘no
helium lines could be seen. The tube was then exhausted as far
as possible. After three days, perhaps, there was a trace of the
helium spectrum ; but repeated heating and pumping disclosed
in fourteen days no trace of helium. This experiment was
repeated without SO,KH with the same result.
In marked contrast to this experiment was the following:
About 40 mg. RaBr, were so strongly heated in a highly exhausted
quartz tube that the substance resublimed in a cooled end of the
tube. The tube was flushed with hydrogen and exhausted, and
on the following day the substance was again resublimed ; no
trace of the helium spectrum was seen. In six weeks, however, the
helium spectrum could be readily produced in the tube. These
experiments appear to the author to dispose of the theory of
occlusion.
They point out that there may be a possibility of the forma-
tion of a helid. Instead of pure RaBr, we may be dealing with
a mixture of this substance with a small quantity of a hypothet-
ical helid. However this may be, they conclude that there is no
doubt of a connection between the radium emanation and helium.
—Ann. der Physik, No. 10, 1905, pp. 905-1008. See
9. Blondot’s “Emission pesante. ”—M, R. Buonpor published in
the Comptes Rendus issues of 1904 two papers on a phenomenon
analogous to the so-called N-rays, to which he gave the name
“emission pesante.” A preparation of calcium sulphide becomes
more luminescent under the influence of this emission. Blondlot
states that he has not only observed this increase in luminescence,
but also an effect of the magnetic field on the emission. Rudolf
F. Pozdena has made an exhaustive examination of the effects
claimed by Blondlot and cannot find any evidence of the new
emission if the observer does not conduct the experiments him-
self. The phenomenon is a subjective one and may arise in the
anatomy of the retina of the eye by a species of autosuggestion
leading to a “ Will to believe. "— Ann. der Physik, No. 6, 1905,
pp. 104-131. 5, Ts
10. Diffusion of Nascent Hydrogen through Iron. — A.
Winkieman has conducted a long series of experiments upon
this subject with the following conclusions :
The nascent hydrogen being formed on the outside of a hollow
iron cylinder which was closed at the bottom and connected at
the other end with an air pump, the iron cylinder serving as a
cathode in a suitable electrolytic cell, it was found :
(1) The quantity of gas diffusing from the outside to the inside
of the cylinder was independent of the pressure inside the cylin-
7
Chemistry and Physics. 401
der over arange of Oto 89™ of mercury. The quantity, moreover,
was not altered if the exterior pressure on the iron cylinder was
varied from one toa half atmosphere. ‘The pressure, therefore,
under which the gas is driven through the iron is of a different
nature from that which one might suppose and has an under
limit of 58 atmospheres.
(2) The diffusion with constant current strength increases nota-
bly with the temperature; and if one puts the diffusion propor-
tional to a power of the absolute temperature, this power is at
least equal to 5.
(3) The diffusion increases at constant temperature with increas-
ing current strength but not in a proportionate manner.
(4) From 1 and 3 one can understand the observations of Nernst
which show that the pressure of the ions formed electrolytically
can be very great and that this pressure depends upon the poten-
tial difference under which the electrolysis occurs. In view of
this great pressure which drives the ions through the metal, one
can understand the no effect on one to a half atmosphere mentioned
in 1; also one does not wonder at the results of Bellanti and
Lussana, who found that diffusion occurred even against a pres-
sure of 20 atmospheres.
(5) At constant temperature and similar conditions of solutions
and electrodes the quantity of diffusion was nearly proportional
to the potential difference.—Ann. der Physik, No. 9, 1905, pp.
589-626. A Pa ie
11. Landolt-Birnstein Physikalisch-chemische Tabellen. Dritte
umgearbeitete und vermehrte Auflage, herausgegeben von Dr.
Ricuarp Borxstery und Dr. WitnEetw MerYERHOFFER. 861 pp.
Berlin, 1905 (Julius Springer).—The first edition of this very
important work was published in 1883 and the second in 1894.
The decade that has passed since the latter date has seen a very
high degree of activity in physical research and a corresponding
increase in the amount of physical data. In the working over
and arrangement of this large amount of material, the editors
have had the support of upwards of forty associates, chiefly in
Germany ; the work has been carried through with the support
of the Prussian Academy of Sciences. The volume opens with
the international atomic weights of 1903 calculated with oxygen
= 16. Then follow tables of latitude and longitude of important
places and then the tables of physica! data relating to volume,
density, elasticity, tension, etc. ; then those pertaining to heat,
light, elasticity, magnetism and sound. The name of the worker
who has elaborated each series of tables is given at the bottom
of each page and following each subject are the references to the
literature giving fully the authorities quoted. The comprehen-
sive scope, “thoroughness and accuracy of this great work give it
a unique place in physical literature and make it essential to
every laboratory.
402 Scientific Intelligence.
II. Groitogy AND MINERALOGY.
1. United States Geological Survey: Cuartres D, Watcort,
Director.—Recent publications of the U.S. Geological Survey
are included in the following list. Notices are for the most part
deferred till a later number. )
Fouios: No. 122.—Tahlequah Quadrangle, Indian Territory—
Arkansas; by JosepH A. Tarr.
No. 123,—Elders Ridge Quadrangle, Pennsylvania; by Ratpu
W. STONE.
No. 124.—Mount Mitchell Quadrangle, North Carolina—Ten-
nessee ; by ArtHurR Keiru.
No. 125.-— Rural Valley Quadrangle, Pennsylvania; by CHARLES
Burrs.
Monoeraru, No. XLVIII.—Status of the Mesozoic Floras of
the United States. Second Paper ; by Lester F. Warp, with
the collaboration of Wilham M. Fontaine, Arthur Bibbins and
G. R. Wieland. Part I, Text, pp. 616. Part II, plates i-exix.
PRoFEssIoNAL Papers: No. 34.—The Delavan Lobe of the
Lake Michigan Glacier of the Wisconsin Stage of Glaciation
and Associated Phenomena; by Witiiam C. AtpEN. Pp. 106,
with 15 plates. See p. 409.
No. 36.—The Lead, Zine and Fluorspar Deposits of Western
Kentucky; by E. O. Utricu and W.S. Tancier-Smitrx. Part I,
Geology and General Relations by E. O. Uirich. Pp. 1-105,
plates i-vii. Part II, Ore Deposits and Mines by W.S. Tangier-
Smith. Pp. 107-218, plates vili-xv, 31 text-figures.
No. 38.—Economic Geology of the Brigham Mining District,
Utah ; by Joun Mason Boutrweztzt. With a Section on Areal
Geology by ARTHUR KrirH and an Introduction on General
Geology by SamuEL FRANKLIN Emmons. Pp. 413, 49 plates, 10
figures.
“BULLETINS—No. 208. Descriptive Geology of Nevada south
of the Fortieth Parallel and Adjacent Portions of California ;
by Josian Epwarp Spurr. Second edition. Pp. 229, 8 plates.
Map in pocket.
No. 235.—A Geological Be coun 1c: across the Cascade
Range near the Forty- ninth parallel; by GrorGE Orts Sire
and Frank C. Caxxins. Pp. 108, 4 plates. It is found that
“the Cascade Mountains near the forty-ninth, parallel are com-
posed in greater part of igneous rocks that belong mainly to
great batholithic masses of rather acidic composition quite com-
parable (in volume) with the immense intrusions of the Sierra
Nevada.”
_ No. 237.—Petrography and Geology of the Igneous Rocks of
Highwood Mountains, Montana; by Lovis VALENTINE PiRsson.
Pp. 208, 7 plates, 8 figures.
No. 245.—Results of Primary Triangulation and Primary
Traverse, fiscal year 1903-04; by SamuEL 8. GannerT. Pp.
328 with map.
Geology and Mineralogy. 403
No. 247.—The Fairhaven Gold Placers, Seward Peninsula,
Alaska ; by Frep H. Morrir. Pp. 85, 14 plates, 2 figures.
No. 248.—A Gazetteer of Indian Territory ; by Henry Gan-
mene. Ep.) 70:
No. 251.—The Gold Placers of the Fortymile, Birch creek and
Fairbanks Region, Alaska; by Louis M. Prinpiz. Pp. 89, 16
plates.
No. 253.—Comparison of a Wet and Crucible-fire methods for
the Assay of Gold Telluride Ores, with notes on the errors
occurring in the operations of fire assay and parting ; by W. F.
HiLLeEBRAND and E. T. Atten. Pp. 30.
No. 254.—Report of Progress in the Geological Resurvey of
the Cripple Creek District, Colorado; by Wautpemar LiInDGREN
and FrepEeRIcK Lrs_ti—E Ransome. Pp. 34.—Besides the details
of more purely economic importance it is noted that in the deeper
workings much annoyance and even serious interference with
work has been experienced from mine gases, often in spite of
vigorous measures for ventilation. The analyses showed the gas
to be a mixture of nitrogen with about 20 per cent carbon
dioxide and a small amount of oxygen. ‘The authors believe
that it represents the last exhalations from the throat of the
extinct Cripple Creek volcano.
No. 256.—Mineral Resources of the Elders Ridge Quadrangle,
Pennsylvania ; by RatpH W.SToNE. 86 pp., 12 plates, 4 figures.
No. 257.—Geology and Paleontology of the Judith River Beds;
by T. W. Stanton and J. B. HatcHer; with a chapter on the
Fossil Plants; by F. H. Knowtron. Pp. 174, 19 plates.
No. 262.— Contributions to Mineralogy from the U. 8. Geolog-
ical Survey; by F. W. Crarke, W. F. Hittesranp and others.
Pp. 147, 12 text-figures,
No. 263.—Methods and Costs of Gravel and Placer Mining in
Alaska ; by Cuest—erR WELLS Purineron. Pp. 273, 42 plates,
49 figures.
No. 266.—Paleontology of the Malone Jurassic Formation of
Texas; by F. W. Cracin; with stratigraphic notes on Malone
Mountain and the surrounding region near Sierra Blanca, Texas ;
by T. W. Sranton. Pp. 172, 29 plates.
No. 267.—The Copper Deposits of Missouri ; by H. F. Bain
and &. O. Utrics. Pp. 52.
No. 271.—Bibliography and Index of North American Geol-
ogy, Paleontology, Petrology and Mineralogy for the year 1904 ;
by Frep Boucuton WeEEks. Pp. 218.
Water Suppiy and Irrigation Parrers.—Nos. 97, 98, 99, 100,
HOS 106107, 106, 109, 100, PIE 112.113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118,
119, 124, 125, 127, 128, 129, 130, 13], 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 141,
143, 144, 146, 149.
2. Osteology of Baptanodon (Marsh); by C. W. GiLmMoRE.
Memoirs of the Carnegie Museum, Vol. II, No. 2, August, 1905.
—Mr. Gilmore’s excellent paper gives us for the first time a satis-
factory discussion of the osteological structure of the Jurassic
404 Scientific Intelligence.
Ichthyosauria of America. Notes by Marsh and Knight have
acquainted us with the essential characters of the paddles, but
little information concerning the remainder of the skeleton has |
been published, and investigators working on related groups have
had no satisfactory basis for comparison with these important
forms. .The specimens studied by Mr. Gilmore include practi-
cally all of the known Saptanodon material. The figures pre-
sented represent the complete structure of the skull in all its
aspects, the pectoral girdle, the anterior limb, and the anterior
portion of the. vertebral column. ‘The posterior limb is not cer-
tainly known.
The characters of the dentition of Baptanodon, for the origi-
nal discovery of which we are indebted to Mr. Gilmore, have
been summed up in the statement that: “‘ Baptanodon was well
provided with comparatively small, somewhat slender but func-
tional teeth that extended along the full length of the jaw; the
most anterior ones being much reduced.” In addition to the
characters of the dentition, Mr. Gilmore notes specializations in
the reduction of the cervical intercentra to a simple free element
in BL. marshi, the median fusion of the clavicles, and the pres-
ence of a sixth digit in the anterior limb.
In the comparison of Baptanodon with the European Opthal-
mosaurus, the two are shown to be remarkably similar. Dis-
tinguishing characters are found in the presence in Baptanodon
of a sixth digit in the anterior limb, the uniform biconcave. cup-
ping of the atiterior cervical centra, and the fusion of the clavi-
cles. The two types are, however, very close together, as simi-
lar as one could reasonably expect to find species so widely sepa-
rated geographically.
In the hght of what is actually known, the relation of Bap-
tanodon to the later Triassic forms of America seems still far
from close. Shastasaurus, the youngest known Triassic genus,
is at least in limb structure highly specialized along a line almost
diametrically opposite that taken by Baptanodon.. Unless a
closer connection with the late Triassic forms of this continent
can be discovered, we must continue to look upon Baptanodon
as probably a Jurassic immigrant from the old world. The close
relationship to the European Opthalmosaurus is additional evi-
dence in favor of the suggestion that Baptanodon was a Jurassic
importation. In this connection it is interesting to note that
Frass* has recently described a vertebra which he believes to
represent the genus Opthalmosaurus, from the Jurassic of North-
east Greenland. JOHN C. MERRIAM.
3. Cambrian Kaunas of India; by Cuartes D. Watcortt.
Proc. U. S. National Museum, xxxix, 1905, pp. 1-106.—This
paper is the result of a preliminary study of the Cambrian mate-
rial collected by Mr. Blackwelder, as a member of the Carnegie
Institution of Washington Expedition to China, under the léeader-
ship of Mr. Bailey Willis. Previous to this expedition, Kayser,
* HE. Frass, Meddelelser om Gronland, xxix, p. 283.
Geology and Mineralogy. 405
‘
Dames, and Bergeron had described 21 species, which are now
increased by Walcott to 172 forms, of which 118 are trilobites.
“The large fauna discovered in the reconnaissance made by
Messrs. Willis and Blackwelder is an indication of the richness
of the Cambrian faunas of eastern Asia, and of the great results
that may be expected when systematic, thorough exploration and
collecting are undertaken.”
Almost the entire Cambrian seems to be represented here, and
rests on the Tai Shan complex. The Lower Cambrian in the
Man To formation has 12 species, and as the trilobite Redlichia
is the diagnostic fossil, seemingly being a direct descendant of
Olenellus, we are led to infer that the lower portion of the Lower
Cambrian, as known in America, may be absent in China. The
Middle Cambrian in the Chang Hsia formation is the richest in
fossils. Another and higher member of this division is the Ku
San shale, with a small fauna ; followed by the Upper Cambrian
in the Chao Mi Tien limestone, having another considerable
faunal development.
“The fauna of the Ku San shale includes species of Dameselia,
Dorypyge, and genera that are typical of the Middle Cambrian
fauna, while the fauna of the Chao Mi Tien limestone... . is
more nearly related to that of the Upper Cambrian of North
America and northwestern Europe.”
Walcott’s lists clearly indicate that the Middle Cambrian of
China is directly connected with that of America, a fact long ago
noted by Dames, and recently more decidedly by Frech. The
Upper Cambrian also has the American impress, while the Lower
Cambrian is Asiatic in character.
The oldest known cephalopod is described here as Cyrtoceras
cambria. The structure, as described, is that of Cyrtoceras, but
one would rather have looked for Piloceras or Hndoceras-like
forms in the Cambrian. Brachiopods, gastropods, and especially
trilobites make up the faunas, while not a single bivalve is here
recorded. Of new genera—all trilobites—there are Dorypygella,
Damesella, Anomocarella, Pagodia, and Shantungia. C. S.
4. The Cambrian Fauna of India ; by CHagtxes D. Watcorr.
Proc. Washington Acad. Sci., vii, 1905, pp. 251-256. — The
writer here reviews the small Cambrian fauna of India first
described by Waagen ; this has also been referred to the Silurian
and Carboniferous. Walcott concludes: “In the absence of any
fossils clearly indicating the Olenellus fauna I think it unwise at
present to assume any other age for the fossiliferous Cambrian
beds than Middle Cambrian.” (oles
5. Catalogue of the Type Specimens of Fossil Invertebrates
in the Department of Geology, U. 8. National Museum; by
CHARLES SCHUCHERT, assisted by W: H. Dati, T. W. Sranron,
and R. 8. Basster. Bull. U. 8. National Museum, No. 53, Part
I, 1905, pp. i-v, 1-704.—This is an alphabetic catalogue of the
type and illustrated fossil invertebrates in this museum, previous
to 1905. It records 11,490 specimens of 6,100 species. Within
Am, Jour. Sci1.—Fourts Srrizs, Vou. XX, No. 19.—NoOvEemMBER, 1905.
28
406 Screntific Intelligence.
the past few years, three similar catalogues have been published.
The first one, by the American Museum of Natural History, New
York City; the second, by the New York State Museum, Albany,
New York, and now the one cited above. The last, however,
records the largest number of species, and is an indication of the
great amount of paleontological work done at Washington.
6. Graptolites of New York. Part I, Graptolites of the
Lower Beds; by R. RurprManyn. N. Y. State Mus., Mem. 7,
1904 (distributed March 1905), pp. 457-803, pls. 1-17.—This
very valuable monograph had its origin in stratigraphic work by
the author, in the slate belt of eastern New York. The book is
of the greatest importance, not only to paleontologists and paleo-
geographers, but as well to the stratigrapher of the older Paleo-
zoic formations. In fact, the work is so valuable that no review
could bring out its many excellent points, unless it were of great
length, for which space is not at our disposal. In this monograph
are treated the late Cambrian and early Ordovician graptolites of
America, the species and genera not only being described and
illustrated, but also their structure, morphology, reproduction,
development, mode of existence, phylogeny, and systematic posi-
tion, as well as the bearing of these organisms on the stratigraphy
and paleogeography of Ordovician time. C. S.
7. Mesozoic Plants from Korea; by H. Yasr. Jour. Col-
lege Sci., Imperial University, Tokyo, Japan, 1905, pp. 1-49, pls.
i-iv.—Here are described 21 species, 3 of which are new. Filices
are the most prevalent, being represented by 11 species.
“It is quite evident that the flora is Jurassic, for neither typ-
ically Rhaetic or Cretaceous forms are found in it.”
“Qn the whole, so far as evidence goes, the writer has little
hesitation in announcing the contemporaneity of the Naktong
flora of Korea with that of the Japanese Tetori series [about
Malm and Dogger], the affinity of the former to those of the cor-
responding age in Siberia, China, India and California being
apparently more distant.” . 8.
8. Palaeontologia Universalis.—EKarly in September of the
present year, there appeared the first fascicle of the second series
of this important publication. Ninety-four species are now rede-
scribed and refigured and brought up to date. C. 8.
9. Ninth Annual Report of the Geological Commission,
Dept. of Agriculture, Cape of Good Hope, for 1904. Pp. 181
with numerous maps and figures. Cape own, 1905.—This
report contains the description of the detailed survey of several
districts in the Colony of the Cape of Good Hope; thus adding
valuable detail to the general works on South African geology
which have recently appeared. J.B
10. Rock Cleavage ; by Cuartes Kennetu Leirn. Bulletin
239, U.S. Geol. Surv., 1905, pp. 216. 27 pls.—As noted by Dr.
C. W. Hayes in the letter of transmittal, ‘‘ The paper embodies
the results of a very careful and laborious investigation of facts
concerning rock cleavage and a discussion of their theoretical
Geology and Mineralogy. 407
significance. Its publication will place the subject of rock cleav-
age in a much more satisfactory shape and be of material assist-
ance to all structural geologists.” The writer divides secondary
or induced cleavage into flow-cleavage and fracture-cleavage. The
first is considered as depending upon a parallel arrangement of
mineral particles and is shown to be developed by rock flowage,
the cleavage, as held by Van Hise and Hoskins, developing at any
instant normal to the greatest pressure, but the final direction of
cleavage may be inclined to the direction of greatest pressure
which has produced the deformation. Fracture-cleavage on the
other hand is considered as not dependent upon a parallel arrange-
ment of mineral constituents and as arising in a plane of shear in
the outer zones of the earth’s crust. The writer follows the
inductive method of studying the facts in the field and labora-
tory and pointing out their significance. ty 1B
11. Experiments on Schistosity and Slaty Cleavage, by
Grorck F. Becker. Bulletin 241, U.S. Geol. Surv., 1904, pp.
34, 7 pls.—This bulletin. embraces the results of valuable experi-
ments upon clay and ceresin in a ‘scission engine” of the
author’s invention in order to test disputed theories of cleavage.
The results show, according to Dr. Becker, that in these cases the
cleavage arose on planes of shear and not in the planes sub-
jected to greatest pressure. This is in conformity with the
author’s conclusions published ten years previously and these are
regarded by him as establishing his contention that all cleavage
is to be regarded as arising in planes of shear. As noted in the
previous review, Professor Leith grants the occurrence of this
form of cleavage, but regards it as only of partial application to
the natural phenomena and distinct from the more common flow-
cleavage. Leith also differs from Dr. Becker in the interpreta-
tion of the experiments, regarding the results as due to flow-
cleavage. JB:
12. Die Alpen im KHiszeitalter ; von Dr. AtBRecHtT PENcK,
Professor an der Universitat Wien und Dr. Epuarp BrtcKNner,
Professor an der Universitit Bern. Part 6, pp. 545-656, 1904;
Part 7, pp. 657-784. Leipzig, 1905.—These two parts continue
the discussion of the Alps in the Glacial Period, and it is ex-
pected that the series will be completed upon the issuance of one
more part. The volumes are well illustrated by profiles, maps,
and photographs, and the names of the authors are a guarantee
as to the quality of the work.
The subjects discussed in part 6 include the glacial history of
the Reuss, Aar and Rhone valleys, the physiographic features
and the nature of the interglacial plant remains. Part 7 deals
chiefly with the French and southern Alps and discusses the
paleolithic finds and their relation to the glacial and interglacial
times. This work is of the utmost interest to anthropologists as
well as to glacialists and physiographers and will rank for many
years as a standard contribution to the Quaternary history of
Central Europe. 5 J. B.
OO
408 Serentijic Intelligence.
13. Structural and Field Geology; by James GxtKite. Pp.
xx + 435, 56 page plates, 142 text illustrations. New York,
1905 (D. ‘Van Nostrand Co.).—This volume opens by describing
the rock-making minerals, also the rocks and fossils in so far as
they are related to structural geology. Following this are
several chapters on the rock structures, such as stratification,
faults, mode of occurrence of eruptive rocks and of ore forma-
tions. A third part deals with the principles of geological sur-
veying and the economic aspects of geological structure. The
work is made very attractive by clear typography, appropriate
subdivisions, and by the number and excellence of the illustra-
tions, taken almost entirely from the British Isles, the plates
being photographic reproductions. In photographing the rock-
types, however, there is a tendency to unnaturally heighten the
color contrasts.
Within the limits indicated by the title this is an excellent
treatise, the subject matter being well arranged and classified.
The chief value is for its outdoor application, the student finding
here a good discussion of field methods and a full description
of the structures which he is to look for and identify. The
subordination of the dynamical to the structural side results
necessarily in the causal relations of earth structures and their
interpretation from being made prominent. The ultimate sig-
nificances of the geological facts are thus not well brought out,
and as these are the highest significances they should not be lost
sight of in geological instruction. However, as the volume does
not profess to cover this side of the subject, it should not be
urged as a criticism but should merely be called to the attention
of educators as not supplying the whole of the inorganic side of
the science. As a text-book presenting an excellent account of
the facts and field methods upon which geological conclusions
are based, it is of value to all students of pure or applied
geology. Tarai
14. The Clays and Clay Industries of Connecticut; by GERALD
Francis Lovertin. Bulletin No. 4 Connecticut Geol. and
Natural History Survey. Hartford, Conn. 121 pp., 13 maps
and plates. 1905.—This report gives first the geographical
distribution of the Connecticut clays, followed by a discussion
on the origin of clays in general and the geological history of
the Connecticut clays in particular. It is shown that they were
laid down in quiet waters fronting the continental glacier toward
the close of the glacial period. The gravels, sands and clays
give indications of water levels at 180, 120 and 80 feet above
the present level of the sea. The writer ascribes the highest of
these to damming by fragments of ice still lingering to the
south, as the highest indication of shore lines to the south is only
120 feet above sea level. But in view of Fuller’s recent paper
on the Geology of Fisher’s Island,* the reviewer suggests as not
improbable that these high-level ‘eravels and clays may mark a
* Bull. Geol.Soc. Amer., vol. xvi, pp. 867-390, 1905.
aia
Geology and Mineralogy. 409
deepest stage of the Champlain submergence. If so they are of
considerable scientific importance as serving to correlate the
stages of ice retreat with the several stages of the Champlain
subsidence within the New England states. Having given the
geographical distribution and origin of the Connecticut clays,
the subject is taken up of the chemistry of clays, the physical
properties of clays and their commercial classification. Follow-
ing this the composition, properties and adaptabilities of the
Connecticut clays are given in detail. The lacustrine and
estuarine clays, embracing the bulk of the clay deposits, while
suited for the best quality of common red brick at low expense,
are limited in their uses by high percentage of iron and ex-
tremely low fusing point. Part II treats of the clay imdustries
of Connecticut.
The bulletin is well written throughout and is adapted to the
comprehension of the intelligent but untechnical reader. The
limited time and money appropriated for this work prevent it
from being a final study of the subject, as noted in the introduc-
tion. Yet the results are of very considerable value, and by
calling attention to one of the resources of the state which is, at
present, but poorly developed, may ultimately yield a return in
industry many times the comparatively small expenditure re-
quired for this report. | dig ash
15. Geology of Western Ore Deposits; by ARTHUR LAKES,
late Professor of Geology at the Colorado School of Mines.
438 pp., 300 illustrations. Denver, Col. (The Kendrick Book
and Stationery Co.)—This volume is not written for the specialist
but for the intelligent miner or other person interested in the
subject of western ore deposits. Introductory chapters review
the rock-making minerals, the ore minerals, and the features of
structural and dynamical geology connected with ore deposits.
A glossary and index serve a useful purpose. The principles of
ore deposition and various types of ore deposits are treated, the
examples being chiefly drawn from Colorado, with which state
the writer is most familiar, but the mining districts of the other
western states and of Alaska are also briefly reviewed, and the
distinctive features indicated. Sap
16. The Delavan Lobe of the Lake Michigan Glacier of the
Wisconsin Stage of Glaciation and Associated Phenomena; by
Witriam C. ALDEN. 106 pp., 15 plates. Washington, 1904.
Professional Paper No. 34, U.S. G.8.—The author presents in
this paper the detailed results of several seasons field work in
the southeastern part of Wisconsin on a small tributary lobe of
the Lake Michigan glacier. The points of chief interest lie in
the proof, based on interlobate phenomena, of the contempora-
neity of the Lake Michigan, Delavan, and Green Bay ice lobes
and the simultaneous withdrawal of the two latter from their
terminal moraines ; and in the application to the deposits in this
field of the criteria for the determination of the age relationships
of the Wisconsin and pre- Wisconsin drift.
410 Sceentific Intelligence.
A large number of analyses of the drift of this region were
made and its lithological character carefully determined there-
from. The interesting result is found that 87 per cent of the
material is of local derivation, thus indicating a subglacial origin.
The surface bowlders are predominantly foreign and therefore
probably englacially transported. No essential lithological dif-
ference was noted between the drift of terminal moraines, out-
wash, ground moraines and drumlins. Ts
17. Platinumin Black Sands from Placer Mines, Davin T. Day.
—A circular sent out by U.S. Geological Survey in March, 1905,
to some 8,000 placer miners, chiefly in the United States, has thus
far brought in some 828 samples of black sands ; these are largely
from the western states and territories, but also from British
Columbia, Central America and Mexico. Of these samples, 195
specimens were assayed for gold and platinum with the result of
finding platinum in 72 of the specimens. Of these 72, 17 showed
only a trace and 14 an amount equal to two ounces or more per
ton of concentrate. A sample from Junction City mining district,
Trinity Co., Cal., showed 25°8 oz. ; one from Oroville, Butte Co.,
Cal., showed 27°45 ; and one from Riddle, Douglas Co., Oregon,
128°73 oz. In addition to these tests, 190 samples were examined
as to the minerals present with interesting results; polycrase is
noted in sands from Idaho Co., Idaho, and columbite and tantalite
from Shoshone Co. Field work has also been carried on in the
collection and examination of sands of various placer deposits, as
also from bars in the Columbia river ; important results may be
anticipated from this thorough work.
18. CASSITERITE, a new cleavage, or perhaps parting law ; by
Wiritam EH. Hippen (communicated).—Preliminary announce-
ment is hereby made of my late observation, at the Ross Tin
Mine, near Gaffneys, 8. C., of a new cleavage (or “parting”) in
cassiterite. This new cleavage is very common, almost perfect
and is parallel to e (101, 1-2). Very imperfect cleavages parallel
to s (111, 1) and m (110, I) were also noticed, those with s being
most common.
Measurements of eA é (cleavage surfaces), with hand goni-
ometer, gave 1333°, while the required angle is 133° 32", Faces
of the new cleavage up to four inches long and over two inches
wide were noticed, remarkably smooth and flat. Whey are very
characteristic of the locahty. ‘Twins parallel to the well-known
twinning plane (e, 101) were not uncommon. Some of these
were elongated with the s planes, making what seem to be pris-
matic planes, similar to sphene, ete. This new tin locality is
already credited with having produced about forty tons of cas-
siterite (yielding over 70% metallic tin) and gives good promise
for the future. The associated minerals are albite, microcline (7),
amphibole, quartz, biotite, menaccanite, rutile, garnet and proba-
bly scapolite, monazite and eudialyte.
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 411
Til. MiIscELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
1. Harvard College Observatory.— Recent publications in-
clude the following :
Annats, Vol. LIII, No. V, Phoebe, the ninth Satellite of
Saturn; by Witiiam H. Pickerine.
No. VI, Investigation of the Orbit of Phoebe; by FRanx HE.
Ross.
No. VII, Second Supplement to Catalogue of Variable Stars.
No. VIII, Martian Meteorology ; by Witittam H. PickeRtine.
No. IX, The ninth and tenth Satellites of Saturn ; by Wittiam
H. PickERING. .
Vol. LVI, No. IIL The Spectrum of Nova Persei, No. 2.
Cirocutars. No. 93, The 24-inch Reflecting Telescope.
No. 94, Variability of EKunomia (15).
No. 95, Brightness of Jupiter’s Satellites.
No. 96, 843 new variable Stars in the small Magellanic Cloud.
No. 97, Bruce Photographs of Planets.
No. 98, Stars having peculiar Spectra.
No. 99, A probable new Star, RS Ophiuchi.
No. 100, Variable Stars in the Clusters Messier 3 and Messier 5.
No. 101, Positions of Ocllo (475) during 1904.
No. 102, Positions of Phoebe in May, 1904.
No. 103, Positions of Ocllo (475) during 1905.
No. 104, H 1174. A new Algol Variable, 035727.
2. Publications of the Cincinnati Observatory. No. 15, Cata-
logue of 4280 Stars for the Epoch 1900 ; by JERMAIN G. Porter,
Director. 100 pp. Cincinnati, 1905 (University of Cincinnati).—
The stars included in this volume are all those of Piazzi’s cata-
logue which were north of the equator in 1800 except those con-
tained in the Berlin Jahrbnch and eighteen of the Pleiades
group ; stars observed by Piazzi, but not given in his catalogue,
are also included.
3. Report of the Director of the Yerkes Observatary, Uni-
versity of Chicago ; by Professor GEorcE E. Hare. 1, for the
period July 1, 1899 to June 30, 1902, pp. 32. 2, for the period
July 1, 1902 to June 30, 1904, 8 pp.—These reports, though
presented in very concise form, give a clear summary of the
various lines of important work carried on at the Yerkes Observa-
tory during the five years from 1899 to 1904.
4. Carnegie Institution of Washington.—Recent publications
from the Carnegie Institution include the following :
No. 8. Bibliographical Index of North American Fungi; by
Wiiiiam G. Fartow. Vol. I, Part I, Abrothallus to Badhamia,
Pp. xxxv, 312, 8vo. Washington, Sept. 1, 1905.
No. 25, Evolution, Racial and Habitudinal ; by Rev. Joun T
Guiick. Pp. xii, 269, 8vo. Washington, August, 1905.
No. 27. Bacteria in Relation to Plant Diseases ; by Erwin F.
SmirH, in charge of Laboratory of Plant Pathology, Bureau of
Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Volume I,
AND <2 Scientific Intelligence.
Methods of work and general literature of Bacteriology exclusive
of Plant Diseases. Pp. xii, 285, 4to, with 31 plates and 146
text-figures. Washington, September, 1905.
5. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smith-
sonian Institution, showing the operations, expenditures and con-
dition of the Institution for the year ending June 30, 1904. Pp.
Ixxix, 804, with numerous plates and text-figures.—The advance
report of the Secretary, Professor 8. P. Langley, was noticed in
the number for March, on page 261. The complete volume now
issued contains this administrative report, occupying the first one
hundred pages, and also following a general appendix, pp. 109-791,
containing, as usual, a series of articles. These give brief accounts
of important scientific discoveries, also reports of investigations
made by the workers connected with the Institution, and some
more extended papers on special subjects of interest to the cor-
respondents of the Institution. The volume closes with bio-
graphical notices of Sir George G. Stokes, Professor von Zittel
and Professor Karl Gegenbauer.
6. Catalogue of the Collection of Birds’ Eggs in the British
Museum of Natural History.. Volume IV, Carinate (Passeri-
formes continued); by Eucenr W. Oarrs assisted by Capt.
SaviItLE G. Reip. Pp. xvill, 352, with 14 colored plates.
London, 1905.—This fourth volume of the British Museum Cata-
logue of Birds’ Eggs corresponds with the fourth volume of Dr.
Bowlder Sharpe’s Hand-list of Birds. The number of species
included is 620, represented by 14,917 specimens.
7. Bibliotheca Zoologica If. Verzeichniss der Schriften tiber
ZLoologie welche in den periodischen Werken enthalten und vom
Jahre 1861-1880 selbstdndig erschienen sind; bearbeitet von Dr.
O. TascHENBERG. Siebzehnte Lieferung.—The sixth volume of
this comprehensive work is completed with the present part.
Like the parts immediately preceding, it is devoted to the
twenty-second section of the entire field, that of Paleozoology,
which it brings to a close. The volume, title page, dedication,
and table of contents are also included.
OBITUARY.
Baron FERDINAND VON RICHTHOFEN died on October 7th, at
the age of seventy-two years.
Proressor Leo Errera, Professor of Botany in the University
of Brussels, died on August 1, at the age of forty-seven years.
Mr. G. B. Buckton, F.R.S., the English Entomologist, died on
September 26, at the age of eighty-eight years.
M. Exishe Recius, the eminent French geographer, died in
July last in his seventy-sixth year.
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CONTENTS.
Page
Art. XXXVI.—A New Niobrara Toxochelys; by G. R.
WirELanp.:. (Wath {Plate XX.) 0-2 87s. po Se ee
XXXVII.—Contributions to the Geology of New Hamp-
shire. I. Geology of the Belknap Mountains; by L.
V. Pirsson and H. 8. Wasuineton. (With Plate XL ) 344
XXX VITI.—The Fauna of the Chazy Limestone; by P. E.
RAY MOND2 20 eo eB ee 3538
XXXIX.—The Mechanical Properties of Catgut Musical
Strings; by J.°R. BENTON: (2.2.00 3255/2323 ee
XL.—Use of the Rotating Cathode for the Estimation of
Cadmium taken as the Chloride; by C. P. Firora_._ 392
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
Chemistry and Physics.—Formation of Ozone by Ultra-violet Light, FiscnHer
and BRAEMER: New Reagent for Nickel, TscHuGaAnFF, 397:—EHlectrolytic
Dissociation Theory with some of its Applications: Soils and Fertilizers :
Engineering Chemistry, 898.—Text-book of Chemical Arithmetic: Text-
book of Physiological Chemistry for Students of Medicine: Formation
of Helium from the Radium Emanation, 899.—Blondlot’s ‘‘ Emission
pesante”: Diffusion of Nascent Hydrogen through Iron, A. WINKLEMANN,
400,—Landolt-Bornstein Physikalisch- -chemischg, Tabellen, 401.
Geology and Mineralogy.—United States Geological Survey, 402 ee
of Baptanodon, C. W. Gitmore, 403.—Cafibrian Fauna of India, ©.
. Watcort, 404.—Catalogue of Type- Specimens of Fossil Tiverteb ae in
the Department of Geology, U. S. National Museum, 405.—Graptolites of
New York; Part I, Graptolites of the Lower Beds, R. RUEDEMANN ;
Mesozoic Plants from Korea, H. Yase: Paleontologia Universalis: Ninth
Annual Report of the Geological Commission, Dept. of Agriculture, Cape
of Good Hope, for 1904: Rock Cleavage, C. K. Lnitu, 406. — Experiments
on Schistosity and Slaty Cleavage, G. F. Becknr: Die Alpen im Hiszeit-
- alter, 407.—Structural and Field Geology, J. GrIKiz: Clays and Clay
Industry of Connecticut, G. F. Loucutiin, 408.—Geology of Western Ore
Deposits: Delavan Lobe of the Lake Michigan Glacier, etc., 409.
Platinum in Black Sands from Placer Mines, D. T, Day: Cassiterite, Ww.
E. Hrppen, 410. t
Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence.—Harvard College Observatory : Pub-
lications of the Cincinnati Observatory: Report of Director of the Yerkes
Observatory, Univ. of Chicago: Carnegie Institution of Washington, 411.
—Annual Report Board of Regents Smithsonian Institution: Catalogue
of Collection of Birds’ Eggs in the British Museum of Natural History:
Bibliotheca Zoologica II, 412.
Obituary.—Baron FERDINAND VON RICHTHOFEN, Professor LEO ERR=ERA, Mr,
G. B. Bucgkton, M. Evistke Reouvs, 412.
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Art. XLI.— Two New Ceratopsia from the Laramie of
Converse County, Wyoming; by J. B. Harcuer. (With
Plates XII, XIII.)
[From a Monograph on the Ceratopsia by J. B. Hatcher. Published by
permission of the Director of the U. 8S. Geological Survey. |
Editorial note.—In the course of his extensive study of the
Laramie Ceratopsia contained in the U. 8. National Museum
and in that of Yale University, Mr. Hatcher discovered two
forms which were new to science. These he described in the
above mentioned monograph, giving to the first, an undoubted
Triceratops, a new specific name, while for the second speci-
men, which represents a new genus as well as species, no name
was suggested by the author. The duty of naming this form
devolves therefore upon the editor. The generic name Dicera-
tops is suggested by the lack of a nasal horn, while the specific
name hatcherz will serve to commemorate Mr. Hatcher’s work
in connection with this remarkable type. |
In view of the recent discoveries among these most interest-
ing forms, it has been deemed advisable to publish these descrip-
tions at the present time without waiting for the publication
of the monograph.—Ricuarp S. Lut.
Triceratops brevicornus sp. nov.
Plate XII, Figures 1 and 2.
Type No. 1834, Yale Museum.
Char. Specific: Supraorbital horn cores short and stout, not much com-
pressed, nearly circular in cross-section. Nasal horn core short and
stout with the anterior border vertical instead of being directed upward
and forward at an angle of 30 degrees. Vertical and longitudinal
diameters of lateral temporal foramen nearly equal. Orbit irregularly
elliptical in outline with the longer axis running from above downward
and forward, Postfrontal fontanelle open even in old individuals.
The type, No. 1834, Yale Museum, of the present species
consists of a nearly perfect skull with lower jaw and a com-
Am. Jour. Sci1.—FourtH Series, Vou. XX, No. 120.—DEcEMBER, 1905.
414 J. B. Hatcher—Two New Ceratopsia.
plete series of presacral vertebrae, together with a number of
ribs more or less complete, and portions of the pelvis, includ-
ing a portion of the right ilium and a nearly complete pubis.
The vertebral series lay in position with the vertebre inter-
locked by their zygapophyses from the axis to the last dorsal,
though portions of some of the vertebree had weathered away
when found. Behind the posterior dorsal, impressions of the
centra of the first two sacrals were preserved in the hard sand-
stone in which the skeleton was imbedded.
Locality.—The skeleton was discovered by Mr. W. H.
Utterback, and the exact locality was some three miles above
the mouth of Lightning Creek and about one and a half miles
south of that stream, in Converse County, Wyoming. The
horizon was near the summit of the Laramie, and the specimen
was collected by the present writer assisted by Messrs. W. H.
Utterback, A. L. Sullins, and T. A. Bostwick. When dis-
covered the skeleton lay imbedded in a hard sandstone concre-
tion and was much shattered and weathered about the pelvic
region. None of the limb bones and no part of the tail were
recovered.
The Skuit.
The extremely rugose nature of the skull together with the
closed condition.of the sutures, many of which are almost or
entirely obliterated, make it certain that the type of the present
species pertained to an old individual.
The Cranium.—The chief distinctive features of the cranium
are as follows: The supraorbital horn cores are unusually short
and stout, especially at the base. ‘They are less compressed
and more nearly circular in cross-section than in most other
species. The nasal horn is short and very stout with the antero-
posterior diameter much exceeding the transverse. Its anterior
border is directed upward in a line perpendicular with the
longer axis of the skull instead of forward and upward at an
angle of about thirty degrees to that axis as in the type of
T. prorsus. The lachrymal foramen, as in 7. serratus, lies
between the maxillary and the nasal, but in the present species
its anterior half is entirely enclosed by the maxillary, that bone
sending upward a short process alongside the premaxillary
process and forming the anterior one-half of the superior
border of the foramen. The orbit is elliptical in outline with
the longer diameter inclined backward from the perpendicular
at an angle of about ten degrees. The lateral temporal
fossa is triangular in outline, its respective borders describing
nearly an equilateral: triangle, the fore and aft diameter only
slightly exceeding the vertical. The rostral bone is heavy
and very deeply excavated beneath. The epijugal is rather
J. B. Hatcher—Two New Ceratopsia. 415
acutely pointed and regularly triangular in cross-section. The
infratemporal arch, as in 7. serratus, is formed by the quad-
rate with overlapping processes from the jugal and squamosal,
that from the latter element occupying a slightly more ele-
vated position in the type of the present species than in that
of Z. serratus. The exoccipital process extends distally
beyond the quadrate and projects as a small angular process.
There are six exoccipitals, borne wholly on the squamosal, and
at least three more between the last of these and the single
median one situated at the median parietal region. Though
the frill is not sufficiently perfect in this region to determine
the number of epoccipitals with accuracy, there cannot be
fewer than nineteen. The postfrontal fontanelle is large and
circular in outline. The median longitudinal crest of the parie-
tals is well defined and bears the usual rugosities. Near the
apex the right horn core has been worn into a peculiar form
by the aetion of wind, sand and water while it protruded from
the sandstone concretion in which it was found prior to its dis-
covery. The palatial view shows no characters essentially dif-
ferent from those of other species of this genus. In the region
of the supraoccipitals and parietals the sutures are so obliter-
ated by age and obscured by distortion and crushing that it is
quite impossible to determine their nature.
The Lower Jaw.—The lower jaws with the predentary were
in position and in a splendid state of preservation. The pre-
dentary is rather longer than is common. On the superior
surface of the mandibular fossa near the anterior end two large
foramina pierce the wall and pass upward toward the dental
chamber. ‘The splenial is very broad posteriorly and entirely
encloses the mandibular fossa, except at the opening of the
internal mandibular foramen. The coronoid process is low
and stout and superiorly it is produced forward into a broad
and somewhat decurved projection. At its greatest expansion
the superior border of the splenial covers over for a short dis-
tance the series of dental foramina on the inner side of the
dentary. The principal characters of the skull are well shown
in Plate XII, figures 1 and 2.
The Vertebre.—The vertebre will be fully described in
that portion of the monograph relating to the osteology of the
genus Triceratops.
Principal Measurements of Type of T. brevicornus (No. 1834,
teateshdemoim On Simi oes oa ie oy ale 1652™™
ECACeS, OTeAGIOF titles. Se a Sr Gite A 1120
Expanse of jugal ------ ema ech SoMa a ae Se 600
416 J. B. Hatcher—Two New Ceratopsia.
Expanse of frontal region at anterior border of orbits... 357™™
Greatest: diameter of onoity ch. ie sink ne We ee, eee 168 ~
Least ie Neary men any Lagi, meAN mets | 2D
Fore and aft diameter of lateral vey ore foe eae 105
Vertical ia Rn: pee care tek HES Fe" RR ene 85
Distance from posterior border of orbit to posterior border
OF Pye ee ee ee ats ee 840
Thickness of postirontal behind orbit_._-._ _-_ 27) 2a
Least antero-posterior diameter of horn core immediately
abOVe-OTDlG te oo enews ee Ea ee eee
Antero-posterior diameter of horn core, six inches above
OTD TUE eee a a Yc ay ee ve Ly
Transverse diameter of horn core immediately above orbit 140
Transverse diameter of horn core, six inches above orbit 97
Greatest lenothof squamosal::: 42 208 be ee 870
a breadth jot eS cae eG 2 acl ee ee 433
Length of parietals along median line ______._:_..-2 222 712
Distance between squamosal sutures at posterior border
Of frull 23 use Be Se ee ee ee eee 874
Distance between squamosal sutures at junction with post-
fromtals. ies 2 a MCs eee ee ee eer 330
Distance from anterior border of orbit to posterior border
of nasal opening ee ea 228
Distance between orbit and lateral temporal foramen __. 142
Distance between.lateral and supra-temporal foramina... 285
Distance from lateral temporal foramen 1 to poster ior border
Of sqQuamMosal 9 See ee ee as ee 705
Distance from occipital condyle to Saute aor margin of
CRESG) oe ee eee rea a ee 650
Distance from occipital condyle to interior border of ros-
ee eM te sens Ree ge | 8)
Distance from posterior border of anterior nares to ante-
rior borderof rostral (2. a es | Sere ee 525
Distance from postfrontal foramen to extremity of nasal
Ja 0) y (apera dese OSSCREn NR elie NS ES DIL eg 750
Greatest expanse of exoccipital processes aa eA nae pa 550
Distance from inferior border of orbit to bottom of jugal 343
Diameter of occipital condyle -22) 22). 2s. ee 88
Distance from mid-frontal region to apex of supraorbital
1A G) ott Wyse Pau N earn er Malay NRO Ten sat 500
Length of splental a. hoc Sere Soe cee re ee ae 503
es et ppmedenpary, (tree Las era ee 255
Greatest breadth ot predemtary: 2). 28.0 3 ee 142
Combined length of ene ands predenbany 72.5.0 ae aee 681
oh Ss S vartieular ss OU as wea 620
Total length of presacral vertebral series 22. 9220275222 2290
os tf ‘6 dOTSal SCTICS esas 2 ela sa ae ees 1490
J. B. Hatcher—Two New Ceratopsia. ALT
Diceratops hatcheri Lull, gen. et sp. nov.
Plate XIII, Figures 3 and 4.
Mr. Hatcher’s description is as follows :
“Char. Generic: Nasal horn core absent. Squamosal bones pierced by large
fenestre, while smaller ones penetrate the parietals. The inferior border
of the squamosal lacks a quadrate notch.
Type No. 2412, U.S. National Museum.
“Char. Specific: Supraorbital horn cores short, robust, and nearly circular
in cross-section at base, erect and but slightly curved. Orbits project
in front of the horns, the frontal region lying between the horns being
concave. Exoccipital processes slender and widely expanded.
“ The type, No. 2412, of the U.S. National Museum, con-
sists of a skull without the lower jaw. ‘The posterior portion
of the frill is somewhat weathered but the specimen appears
to have suffered comparatively little from crushing.
“ Locality: The specimen was found in a hard sandstone
concretion about three miles southwest of the mouth of Light-
ning Creek, Converse County, Wyoming. When found the
concretion in which the shell was imbedded had entirely weath-
ered out of the surrounding sandstone and stood at an altitude
of five or six feet above the ground, firmly attached beneath
to another concretion. The skull stood on its nose with the
frill pointing upward.
“ The Skull: The chief distinctive features of the skull are
as follows: ‘The supraorbital horn cores are comparatively
short, robust, and nearly circular in cross-section at the base
instead of compressed, as in most other species. They rise
more directly upward than in other species and are only shghtly
eurved. The orbits also oceupy a position more anterior
than that seen in other species; the anterior borders of the
horn cores rise from about the middle of the superior borders
of the orbits so that the orbits project well in front of the
horns. The frontal region between the orbits is concave.
The exoccipital processes are rather slender and widely ex-
panded.
“The nasals terminate anteriorly in a rounded rugosity not
developed into anything approaching a nasal horn and resem-
bling that of the type of Zrzceratops obtusus. The rostral bone
is small and firmly codsified with the premaxillaries. The lat-
ter are elongate but not deep. The maxillaries are massive
and the lachrymal foramen is elongate and below and com-
siderably forward of the orbit. The jugal is broad distally
and firmly codssified with the epijugal. The lateral temporal
fossa is nearly as deep vertically as longitudinally. The squa-
418 J.B. Hatcher—Two New Ceratopsia.
mosal is elongate, and just posterior tothe quadrate groove it
is pierced by. a large fenestra. The antero-inferior angle is
little produced and ‘there is no quadrate notch, the inferior
border in this region describing widely an open concavity. The
parietals are broad and thin and, on either side of the median
line about 235"™ in front of the posterior border, there is an
elongated fenestra with a longitudinal diameter of 150™ and a
greatest transverse diameter of 52™™. This fenestra is com-
pletely enclosed on the right side, but on the left the parietal is
injured in this region. In the drawings it has been restored
from the right side. The supra-temporal fossa is elongate.
There is a single median postfrontal fontanelle as in 77icera-
tops, but posteriorly this gives origin to two deep channels, one
on either side. These run backward along the surface of the
parietal and terminate in two small circular fontanelles, condi-
tions very similar to those which obtain in Zorosaurus.
Measurements of the type.
‘* Distance from anterior end of rostral to posterior of squa-
TOS ec ee oe lec ean ee 1990n
Distance from anterior end of rostral to anterior of orbits 845
s ‘“‘ inferior border of orbit to lower end of jugal 363
ay ‘¢ posterior border of nasal opening to ex-
tremity:of bed (205 ae ee ee ee 614
Distance from posterior border of orbit to posterior sur-
faee-o£ horn core ss j= Ae See ee ee 175
Distance between anterior bos ders: of orbits 3-233 a= 340
Circumference of supraorbital horn cores at base........ 610
ee a es 6) mM. AbOVe” OEDIty as se 340
Vertical diameter of torbits © toys 32S es Se 165
Antero; posterior ‘diameter of orbits’) 22.432. eee 12522
[ Vote.—This genus is most nearly allied to Zriceratops and is
distinguished therefrom mainly by the much smaller rostral bone ;
by the absence of a nasal horn, which in all species save i
obtusus is fairly well developed ; “by the very erect, short, robust,
supraorbital horn cores which seem to take their origin much
further back with relation to the orbit ; by the concavity of the
frontal region between the orbits and by the peculiar form of the
postfrontal fontanelle. The general proportions of the skull
resemble Triceratops rather than the contemporary genus Zoro-
saurus, in which the great frill so preponderates over the compara-
tively abbreviated facial region. ‘The parietals resemble those of
Triceratops except for the presence of the small fenestre on
either side of the median line. |
The squamosals differ from those of Z’riceratops in the con-
formation of the lower border, which lacks the quadrate notch,
and in the presence of the unique fenestre.
Plate XII.
Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XX, 1905.
\
A
\\
teenth natural size.
.
nus Hatcher, one-six
UtCO1
ceratops br
ri
Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XX, 1905. Plate XIII.
Diceratops hatcheri Lull, one-sixteenth natural size.
J. B. Hatcher—Two New Ceratopsia. 419
Aside from the general proportions of the skull, Diceratops and
Torosaurus differ in the presence in the former of separately ossi-
fied epoccipital bones around the margin of the frill. These
ossicles are apparently entirely lacking in Zorosaurus. The two
genera agree in the possession of parietal fenestre though these
are evidently not homogenous. They also agree in the form of
the postfrontal fontanelle.
While I believe Diceratops to be a valid genus, I am not
inclined to lay the stress upon the parietal and squamosal fenestrz
which Hatcher does, as they may possibly be pathologic. Those
of the squamosal bones, which are found in no other form among
Ceratopsia, are not of the same size, while only one is known in
the parietals for the sufficient reason that the bone is broken
away on the left side where the fenestra would come if present,
and it is quite possible that it may never have existed.
There is preserved in the Museum at Yale University a Clao-
saurus scapula with a clean cut foramen through it with perfectly
healed edges. This foramen is not present in the other scapula
from the same individual and Professor Marsh used to say that
the perforation was caused by a Zriceratops horn. This certainly
seems suggestive of the manner in which the Diceratops fenes-
tre may have arisen. Ricwarp 8S. Lut.
Amherst, Mass. |
DESCRIPTION OF PLATES.
PLATE XE
Skull of the type specimen of Triceratops brevicornus Hatcher. No. 1834,
Yale University Museum. One-sixteenth natural size.
FicurReE 1.—Lateral view. ang, angular; art, articular; cp, coronoid
process; D,dentary ; ep, epoccipital ; ju, jugal; Uf, lachrymal foramen;
maz, maxillary; no, nasal opening; nh, nasal horn core; o, orbit; pa,
parietal ; pd, predentary; pmax, premaxillary ; qu, quadrate; r, rostral
bone; sang, surangular; sq, squamosal ; soh, supraorbital horn core.
FIGURE 2.—Palatal view. dc, dental channel ; exo, exoccipital; ju, jugal ;
mex, maxillary; pa, parietal; pal, palatine; pmax, premaxillary; pt,
pterygoid ; gu, quadrate; r, rostral bone; sg, squamosal; BO, basi-
occipital ; C, occipital condyle.
PLATE XPT.
Type skull of Diceratops hatcheri’ Lull. No. 2412, U. S. National
Museum. One-sixteenth natural size.
Figure 1.—Lateral view. ep, epoccipital ; [f, lachrymal foramen ; mt, max-
illary teeth; mx, maxillary; n, nasal; NO, nasal opening; o, orbit;
pa, parietal; pmax, premaxillary; qu, quadrate; r, rostral bone; SF,
squamosal fenestra; soh, supraorbital horn core.
Ficure 2.—Dorsal view. ep, epoccipital; lf, lachrymal foramen; n, nasal
opening ; 0, orbit; pa, parietal; paf, parietal fenestra; pff, postfrontal
fontanelle ; r, rostral bone; S#, squamosal fenestra; sg, squamosal:
soh, supraorbital horn core.
420 Lull—festoration of the Horned Dinosaur Diceratops.
ART. XLII— Restoration of the Horned Dinosaur Dicora-
tops; by Ricuarp $. Loi. (With Plate XIV.)
THE new genus and ae described by Hatcher in the pre-
ceding articlerepresents perhaps the most bizarre and grotesque
form among all the race of horned dinosaurs, and the author
has attempted an interpretation for the purpose of empha-
sizing the features wherein this animal differed from any of
its allies.
Diceratops comes from the Laramie of Converse County, Wyo-
ming, and while contemporaneous with Triceratops and Toro-
saurus it is probably as late in geological time as any of the
species of either genus, and may be said to represent the cul-
mination of at least one phylum of the Ceratopsia. Diceratops
differs from Torosaurus in the proportions of the skull, for in
the latter genus the frill is relatively huge as contrasted with
the abbreviated facial region. In this Diceratops and Tricera-
tops agree, and it is quite evident that there is a genetic rela-
tionship between these genera, while Torosaurus represents a
totally distinct phylum.
Perhaps the most notable point of distinction between Tri-
ceratops and Diceratops is the presence of a fairly well devel-
oped nasal horn in the former while in the latter genus it is
lacking, a feature which in the author’s mane represents the
culmination of specialization.
The earliest known Ceratopsia are the J udith River types,
characterized by an incomplete frill, by rudimentary horns
above the eyes, and by a very well developed, generally erect
or backwardly curved nasal horn.
The supraorbital horns are progressive structures while the
nasal horn is retrogressive, and during the lapse of time between
the Judith River and Laramie periods, when the marine Bear-
paw shales and Fox Hills sandstones were laid down, the Cera-
topsia underwent a remarkable though unrecorded ‘evolution,
_for when they again come into view in the Laramie the arma-
ment is reversed, in that the great temporal horns are by far
the larger and more efficient weapons, and the diminishing
nasal horn, while supplementing the others in the various spe-
cles of Triceratops and Torosaurus, is vestigial in the form
under discussion.
This change of armament was necessarily accompanied by
a change in “the method of attack, for while the Judith River
types probably used the one horn much as the rhinoceros does,
with an upward thrust, Triceratops seems to have charged with
lowered head, the small forwardly directed nasal and the larger
{
"
4
%
;
4
b
y
bs
Lulli— Restoration of the Horned Dinosaur Dicerutops. \ 421
supraorbital horns meeting the enemy at the same moment of
impact. The frill now becomes of greater protective value
instead of affording leverage merely for the muscles of the
neck.
Diceratops exhibits the extreme of development of this style
of warfare, for the supraorbital horns are the sole aggressive
weapons while the widely expanded frill served admirably to
withstand the shock of the adversary’s horns. We have here
a precise analogy with the knight of old tilting with his spear
and shield.
The skull of Diceratops shows the horns to be very erect,
much more so than in Triceratops, so that the head would have
to be carried much lower in charging than in the latter genus
and the horns through relatively short are extremely powerful.
I have indicated a callosity, the last vestige of a horn, over the
nasals, for they still remain very highly arched and evidently
bore some of the impact of the adversary’s blow. The eyes
were set in deep thick-rimmed sockets which look directly out-
ward, evidently limiting the forward range of vision, but afford-
ing ample protection to these highly necessary organs.
If one will turn to Hatcher’s figure of the Diceratops skull
(Plate XIII, figures 1 and 2), he will notice in the frill several
apertures which Hatcher has called “fenestra.” Two of
these are through the squamosal portion of the frill, one on
either side, and one through the parietal.* They are irreoular
in size and in position, and while the Judith River types and
Torosaurus among the Laramie forms have parietal fenestre,
they are large and symmetrical, and there is no instance of squa-
mosal fenestree in any known genus of Ceratopsia. If the
author’s conception of the final function of the frill is correct,
there would be no reason for the development of apertures
through it, which would only tend to weaken it and mar its
usefulness. It seems vastly more probable that these are ‘old
dints of deep wounds” received in combat. None of them,
not even the great one on the left, were necessarily fatal, as
they all seem to be through the free portion of the frill,
and, while the bone was destroyed, the horny or leathery integ-
ument may have grown again over the gap as indicated in
the model. The edge of the apertures are healed, showing
that the animal lived for some time after the injuries were
received.
I have represented the gape of the mouth with much less
* Mr. C. W. Gilmore, who prepared the type specimen of Diceratops, is by
no means sure of the “‘ parietal fenestra.” There was no bone adhering to
the matrix at that point so he left the opening through the frill for want of
evidence to the contrary. The bone forming the margin of the left squamosal
aperture is decidedly pathologic.
422 Lull—fRestoration of the Horned Dinosaur Diceratops.
backward extent than in other restorations of Ceratopsia. Here
we cannot be guided by the form of the mouth in existing
reptiles, for none living have the same feeding habits as these
dinosaurs. Here the mouth may properly be divided into an
anterior prehensile portion, the turtle-like beak, and a posterior
masticating portion, the dental armature. In herbivorous
mammals the gape only includes the prehensile and never the
masticating portion, because of the necessity of muscular cheeks
to retain the food in the mouth. The Ceratopsia had a dental
apparatus which chopped the food into short lengths, and the
pieces, falling outside of the lower jaw, would have been lost
had the gape extended backward beyond the beginning of the
tooth series.
Massachusetts Agricultural College, Amherst.
y
Am. Jour. Sct., Vol. XX, 1905. Plate XIV.
Restoration of Diceratops hatcheri Lull, from a model by the author.
The upper figure is that of the front view of the model with the muzzle
somewhat depressed.
C. R. Keyes—Triassic System in New Mexico. 4238
Art. XLIII.— Triassic System in New Mexico ; by CHARLES
R. Keyes.
Tue “ Red Beds” of the Southwest, from central Kansas to
the Grand Canyon, have long defied every attempt to deter-
‘mine their geological age, and to satisfactorily settle even the
larger problems connected with their stratigraphy. In Kansas,
in Oklahoma, in Texas, and on through New Mexico and
Arizona to Utah, these formations have for more than half a
century remained a puzzle. Those who have had to give some
attention to the Red Beds have, in the absence of abundant
characteristic fossils, considered the entire sequence either Tri-
assic in age or (so-called Permian) Carboniferous.
Since the making of extensive examinations of the Red Beds
formations over broad areas in New Mexico and the adjoining
states during the past few years, it has been found that there
are a number of important general features that have either
not received the attention they deserve, or have escaped notice
altogether. When two years ago I made the statement* con-
cerning the Kansas section, that after seeing at close range the
Red ‘Beds of New Mexico sufficient data had been obtained to
clearly demonstrate that their stratigraphy could not be unrav-
eled on the basis of the Kansas scheme, the separation of
the Red Beds into their component parts was then beginning
to resolve itself into a satisfactory reality.
The Red Beds do not form the homogeneous succession that
they have been generally regarded as doing. Lithologically
they are broadly divisible into two easily distinguishable
parts. There is a large portion of the entire section composed
of heavy argillaceous shales and clayey sandstones usually of
deep red colors, rather uniform throughout, with much gyp-
sum intercalated and disseminated, and with saline shales
abounding. The upper part consists of light, sandy shales
chiefly, with some heavy sandstones; the colors, while prevail-
ingly reds, are quite varied; gypsum and saline shales are pres-
ent only sparingly. The plane separating the two parts of the
Red Beds section, as thus defined, is, when once recognized,
a conspicuous one.
In eastern New Mexico, in the Canadian and Pecos valleys,
around the northern and western margins of the Llano Esta-
cado, there is at the base of the upper one of the two terranes
a well marked conglomerate that has been widely traced. Un-
conformable relationships exist between this and the strata
beneath. In western Texas, Drake+ and Cummins have also
well established these facts.
* American Geologist, vol. xxxii, pp. 218-228, 1903.
+ Texas Geol. Sur. , Third Ann. Rept., p. 227, 1892.
>
im
494 CO. R. Keyes—Triassie System in New Mexico.
In western New Mexico, in the Zuni uplift, there exist, as
was first shown by Dutton,* similar conditions, except that
the evidences of unconformities have not as yet been noted,
and in fact no attempt has yet been made to look carefully for
them. Between the two lithologically different parts of the
Zuni section of the Red Beds there also exists an important.
conglomerate which the author just mentioned correlates with
Powell’s Shinarump conglomerate of the Grand Canyon, and
which is considered the base of the Triassic of that district.
According to all available data, derived from the biologic
contents, which at best are rather meager, the stratigraphic
relationships, and lithologic characters, there is a lower portion
of the Red Beds belonging to the so-called Permian (Carbon-
iferous) and an upper portion which appears to be Triassic in.
age.
So: great difficulty which has been encountered in the econ-
sideration of the Red Beds in the southwestern United States
has been the existence of a great erosion interval during Early
Cretaceous times when the Red Beds suffered severely from
planing off during the period when they constituted part of a
vast land area. This fact has only lately been fuily appre-
ciated,t and its full significance grasped.
The three general sections of western, central and eastern
New Mexico may. be paralleled as in the subjoined table:
Z
Bs aS Ae aed bom Set Oa Sm tial a aie ey bn) ah Sealant aetp ee Emm
ro lee See a Hed
er el eee eon
GENERAL Ren BEps Sections In NEw MEXICO.
Western Section. Central Section. Eastern Section.
Dakota sandstones - - Dakota ss. Dakota sandstones_-
Wanting cess =e. Wanting Comanche sandstones 300
Zuni shales ._.- ._-- 1200 Wanting Pyramid shales __--- 100
Wingate sandstones 800 Wanting Amarillo sandstones 200
Shinarump shales -. 1500 Wanting Endee shales__.-..- 300
Moencopie shales... 500 Wanting Cimarron shales._.- 1000
Madera limestones . Madera li. Not exposed .-__-__-
The geographic distribution of the Triassic beds presents
some special points of interest. East of the Rio Grande the
Carboniferous part of the Red Beds probably greatly predom-
inates over the Triassic portion. West of that stream the lat-
ter no doubt has very much the larger section. Owing to exten-
sive erosion that took place over the Red Beds district, at least
throughout much of what is now New Mexico, before the
deposition of the Dakota sandstone, a large portion of the Tri-
assic portion must have been removed. It may be that part
of this erosion took place just prior to Triassic times, as the
conglomerate bed 500 feet above the base of the Red Beds
*U.S. Geol. Sur. , Sixth Ann. Rept., p. 185, 1886.
+ This Journal (4), vol. xviii, pp. 360-362, 1904.
C. R. Keyes—Triassic System.in New Mexico. 425
section in the Zuni region and in the middle of the section in
eastern New Mexico would indicate. —
In the Canadian valley, at the eastern border of New Mexico,
the sediments of the Triassic system are well represented at
the top of the Red Beds section. Farther westward, where the
Rio Pecos cuts the Glorietta escarpment, Newber ry distin-
guished both Triassic and Permian (Cimarron) plant remains.
Around the entire escarpment of the Llano Estacado, or
Staked Plains, in eastern New Mexico and western Texas,
embracing an area of over 50,000 square miles, the Triassic
beds are more or less well exposed. The New Mexico portion
of this belt is 300 miles long. The greater part of the Red
Beds section seen in the Canadian and Pecos valleys is of Tri-
assic age. Only in the bottom of these valleys is the Carbon-
iferous part of the Red Beds found.
It now seems quite likely that within the boundaries of
Kansas none of the Red Beds section can be considered as being
of Triassic age. Early Cretaceous erosion, which bevelled off
the Red Beds, appears to have removed the Triassic strata alto-
gether east of the New Mexico line and north of the Canadian
river. The youngest layers of the Early Cretaceous (Comanche
series) in overlapping northward on the old, even, erosion-sur-
face, now appear to rest, in southern Kansas, on the lower part
only of the Red Beds.
West of the Rio Grande, in north-central New Mexico, along
the Chama river, at the locality known as Abiquiu, N ewberry
and Cope regarded a very thick Triassic section to be repre-
sented. Around the Zuni mountains is an important belt of
Triassic strata, which according to Dutton are more than 3500
feet in thickness.
As detailed mapping of the region goes on, the beds which
have been considered as belonging to the Triassic system will
be found to have a very much wider geographic distribution
than is at present known, and many new localities will doubt-
less be discovered in which these strata are well represented.
In eastern New Mexico the basal plane of the Triassic appears
to be well established at the bottom of a well-marked conglom-
eratic sandstone which separates the lower, dark red, clayey
Red Beds from the upper, light reddish, sandy portions. At
the base of this conglomerate there are abundant evidences of
unconformable relationships between the two parts of the
section.
These relationships are well displayed along the northern
magnificent escarpment of the Llano Estacado, which forms
the south side of the Canadian valley. Drake,* who has traced
the formation along the entire length of this great wall, and
* Texas Geol. Sur., Third Ann. Rept., p. 229, 1892.
426 CO. Le. Keyes— Triassic System in New Mexico.
who has examined its details rather carefully, says regarding
the character of this unconformity: ‘The slight difference in
dip, and sudden change in lithological character of the Triassic
beds from the Permian, point conclusively to a break in the sedi-
mentation of the two formations. At some localities the Tri-
assic beds are overlain by Cretaceous, but generally by Tertiary
material. The Cretaceous escarpments or buttes resting on
the Triassic beds are often two hundred feet thick, and mostly
limestone. The denuding forces that for an immense length
of time were cutting these Cretaceous rocks back towards their
present limits must have carried away a great deal of the Tri-
assic before it was covered by Tertiary. The strata thus
enclosed between two uneconformable beds must of necessity
vary in thickness, and so we find it varying from a few feet to:
nearly four hundred feet. Even in localities close together the
beds vary considerably in thickness. The average, however,
will probably reach two hundred feet.”
Of the appearance of the two formations a short distance
east of the New Mexico line the same writer * observes:
“The contact between the Dockum beds and the underlying
Permian is clearly marked. Both the color and lithological char-
acteristics of the two formations bear a striking contrast. The
Permian is a bright red argillaceous sand, slightly shaly,
though sometimes massive, is characteristic for stratification
planes, and below the top forty feet is interstratified with
massive and fibrous gypsum, the gypsum becoming more abun-
dant toward the base of the section exposed. The Dockum
beds, arenaceous clays, in contact are a yellowish purple or a
yellowish red, sometimes decidedly yellowish. The bedding is
usually uniform and lacks the stratification planes so character-
istic or the Permian. The contrast between the formations
along their contact is so great that the contact may be
located as far as the eye can see stratification planes in the
freshly eroded outcropping bed, or as far as it can distinguish
sharply contrasting colors.”
The upper limiting horizon of the Triassic section is well
defined. In the east, around the Llano Estacado in the Cana-
dian and Pecos valleys, the superjacent formations are beds of
the Comanche series of the Early Cretaceous. A little farther
to the westward the massive Dakota sandstone of the Mid-
Cretaceous age is the capping member. West of the Rio
Grande there comes in between the Wingate division of the
Triassic Red Beds and the undoubted Dakota sandstone a
series of red and white shaly sandstones having a thickness of
1,200 feet, the exact age of which is at present not definitely
determined. This formation is thought to belong to the Tri-
* Ibid., p. 241.
O. R. Keyes—Triassic System in New Mexico. 427
assic system. It is not impossible that it is Jurassic or Creta-
ceous in age. It is the beginning of a great formation which
extends a long distance to the northwestward into Arizona,
western Colorado and Utah and which has been regarded as
representing the Jurassic period.
East of the Rio Grande a very marked plane of unconform-
ity separates the Dakota sandstone from the Red Beds beneath.
This break in sedimentation represents a profound erosion
period, to which more detailed reference is made in another
lace
The stratigraphic extent of the Triassic strata in eastern
New Mexico embraces about 500 feet of the general geological
section. In the west the vertical measurement is very much
greater. Dutton places it at 3,500 feet.
As regards correlation of the Triassic formations, that por-
tion of the Red Beds which has been regarded as of Triassic
age may be compared, on the one hand, with the cognate beds
of the Texas section, and on the other with the enormous
thicknesses of Triassic strata in Arizona, Utah and Colorado.
The standard section of the Triassic in New Mexico should
be considered typically developed in the northwestern portion
of the region, where the section is most complete and most
extensive. In comparing this sequence with the Texas, Okla-
homa and Kansas sections of the Red Beds there are presented
some difficulties of an unusual kind. The planing off of the
folded Paleozoics including the Red Beds in great part, during
the erosion interval which existed in the eastern New Mexico
region just before the deposition of the Dakota sandstone, .
removed a very large portion of the formation. |
As at present understood, the general relationships of the
Carboniferous part of the Red Beds, the Triassic Red Beds,
and the associated formations are best indicated by diagram as
given below.
LARAMIE > OE TT ERTIARYSE
COLORA DAKOTA SANDSTONES _TAIASS IS ah HE =
—— Li. oe:
Fic. 1.—Relationships of the Triassic Formations in the southern Rocky
Mountains.
The cross-section traverses New Mexico in a nearly east and
west direction, passing through the Cerro Tucumcari and the
Zuni mountains. ;
Owing to mountain-making movements which took place in
the region in the latest Carboniferous or in Early Cretaceous
498 0. R. Keyes—Triassic System in New Mexico.
times, or possibly in both, the Paleozoic formations and Tri-
assic beds were bowed up, somewhat folded and faulted and
then eroded off as a land surface. When Mid-Cretaceous
(basal part of “ Upper”) beds were laid down, they were
deposited largely on this old land surface worn out on the
bevelled edges of the older formations.
In the east there are shown marked unconformable relation-
ships not only between the Cimarron Red Beds and the Tri-
assic Red Beds, but between the latter and the Comanche series,
between the last mentioned and the Dakota sandstone series,
and between all of these and the Tertiary formations.
In central New Mexico, the Dakota series rests directly on
the Madera limestones of the Carboniferous. The Red Beds
of both the Cimarron series and the series of the Triassic have
been entirely removed through Early Cretaceous erosion. The
Comanche series, which had “been constantly encroaching upon
the old land area from the beginning to the end of its period
of deposition, did not reach this far. In consequence the Mid-
Cretaceous sandstones (Dakota) were deposited directly upon
the Carboniferous limestones (Madera).
In the west the sequence was very much as it was in the
east, except that the Early Cretaceous appears to be entirely
missing, the Triassic section very much thicker, and the Cim-
arron eens very much reduced.
It is a singular fact that the tripartite character of the Tri-
assic sections in the west has a triple counterpart in the east.
No direct connection between the two sections has been actu-
ally traced in this field, for in central New Mexico a wide
gap exists.
Comparing the eastern section with the sections oF the
adjoining portions of Texas, this agreement is very close. The
entire Triassic section is there called the Dockum beds. As
already stated, it is not believed that any portion of the Red
Beds of Kansas are represented by the Triassic formations of
New Mexico.
In the Zuni uplift, where the Triassic beds are so well dis-
plaved, they come up from beneath the vast field of Cretaceous
sandstones. The sequence between the so-called Permian Red
Beds and the Dakota sandstones of the Cretaceous is very thick.
The data upon which the geoiogical age has been determined
have been already given. Dutton, who a quarter of a century
ago had perhaps given the subject more attention than anyone
else, was unable to satisfactorily separate the two parts. He
says that the “ Triassic system of New Mexico cannot be corre-
lated so easily with its cognate beds in southern Utah and the
Grand Canyon district as the Carboniferous and Permian. In
the former region it has yielded but few fossils, while in the
C. R. Keyes—Triassic System in New Mexico. 429
latter it has yielded none at all. We have here as well as
there only an arbitrary provisional horizon for its base, and we
are if possible still more uncertain where to assign its summit.
The paleontological doctors disagree, and who therefore shall
decide? It all hinges upon the question whether the Jurassic
system has any representatives in this region. If not, then the
summit of the Trias can be established at once. But if the
upper portion of the enormous series of sandstones and
gypsum beds which lies between the Shinarump conglomerate
and the lower Cretaceous sandstone is Jurassic, the problem
must wait for a solution.’’*
Of the Zuni section of the Triassic system it may be that
only the lower portion is represented east of the Rio Grande.
The upper part of this section has been regarded as belonging
to the Jurassic age; but until fuller data are obtained it does
not appear advisable to recognize the Jurassic system in this
part of the country. For the present, at least, all of this part
of the sequence will be considered as a portion of the Triassic
succession.
New Mexico School of Mines,
Socorro, New Mexico.
* U.S. Geol. Sur., 6th Ann. Rept., p. 135, 1886.
Am. Jour. Sci.—Fourty Series, VoL. XX, Ne. 120.—DrEcemBeEr, 1905.
30
430 G. Re. Wreland— Upper Cretaceous Turtles.
Art. XLIV.—Structure of the Upper Cretaceous Turtles of
New Jersey :* Agomphus ; by G. R. Wreranp.
THE genus Agomphus was first proposed by Cope for the
reception of Leidy’s Hmys jirmus and Adocus petrosus and
Adocus turgidus,t all of which are based on very fragmentary
and scanty remains from the Upper Cretaceous mar! beds of New
Jersey, indicating a genus of heavy shelled turtles next related
to Adocus. ‘Two of these original types, A. petrosus and A. tur-
gidus, are now conserved in the Cope Collections in the Amer-
ican Museum of Natural History, where the writer has been
extended the courtesy of seeing them, together with the allied
Adocus pectoralis Cope. An additional type from the
Tertiary of Georgia, Amphiemys oxysternum,t is no doubt
correctly referred to Agomphus, but has not been accessible.
Since the brief descriptions unaccompanied by figures were
given by Cope, the only addition to the very meager knowledge
of Agomphus was made by Baur,$ who briefly noted in addi-
tion to the close relationship to Adocws and inclusion in the
Adocidee as next related to the existing Central American
Dermatemydidee, the peculiar costiform processes and the
interesting fact that Agomphus includes forms with relatively
the heaviest carapace and plastron known. These latter facts
were doubtless based on the specimens of the Marsh OCollec-
tion obtained about the same time as the Leidy and Cope
material, but never formally described or further mentioned
although now found to make possible a complete description
of the structure of the carapace and plastron, and to include
at least two new species and a topotype as follows:
Agomphus tardus Wieland (sp. nov.). (Figures 1-7.)
By far the best specimen of the Marsh collection referable to
the genus Agomphus is that numbered 774 (Accession No. 323),
and now made the type of the new species A. tardus. This
fine fossil was obtained from the Pemberton marl pits at Bir-
mingham, Burlington County, New Jersey, in 1869. It is of
especial interest as affording the structural characters of the
* The first paper of this series, on Adocus, Osteopygis, and Propleura,
appeared in this Journal, vol. xvii (pp. 112-182, pl. I-IX), Feb. 1904, and
the second on Lytoioma, in vol. xviii (pp. 183-196, pl. V-VIII), Sept., 1904.
+ The description of these forms under the generic name Emys appears on
pages 125-8 of Cope’s Synopsis of the Extinct Batrachia, Reptilia and Aves
of North America. Philadelphia, August, 1869.—Agomphus in Supplt, 1871.
+t On a New Species of Adocide from the Tertiary of Georgia; by EH. D.
Cope. Proc. American Phil. Soc., vol. xvii, July, 1877, pp. 82-4.
§ Notes on some little known American Tortoises (on pp. 429 and 430),
Proc. Acad. of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, 1891 (pp. 411-430).
G. R. Wieland— Upper Cretaceous Turtles. 431
shell of another genus of a well represented Upper Cretaceous
to Tertiary family, the Adocidee, and as being relatively the
heaviest and most massive turtle shell yet discovered. Although
originally a perfect fossil with suturally united carapace and
plastron, only thirteen complete and five incomplete elements of
the carapace, together with the hyo- and hypoplastron, have
escaped the accidents of discovery and collection. Of the imper-
fect parts but four are diagnostic as to form, whence the recov-
ered elements that are wholly determinative virtually number
1
FIGURE 1.—Agomphus tardus Wieland (sp. nov.). Carapace and plastron
of type specimen* with the missing portions restored in the estimated
natural size and position. Actual length of carapace 33°™. Elements present
indicated in the succeeding figures 2-5.
but nineteen, or exactly one-third of the original fifty-seven
elements of which the carapace and plastron was composed.
These recovered elements of grayish to dark, marl green color,
are however perfectly fossilized, uncrushed, disarticulated, and
without crumbling or breaking of the sutural faces. Moreover
they are by a rare and noteworthy chance so distributed as to
clearly outline the missing elements and make possible a res-
toration by the Museum preparateur, Mr. Gibb, and the writer,
which it is confidently believed by both will be found essen-
* Elements present : nuchai (incomplete), 2d and 5th neurals, left 1st and
2d pleurals, right 4th and 5th pleurals (incomplete), right 6th and 7th
pleurals, left 2d marginal, left 5th and 6th marginals (incomplete), left 10th
and 11th marginals, ight 8th-11th marginals, the left hyo- and the right
hypoplastron.
432 G. R. Wieland— Upper Cretaceous Turtles.
tially correct as to form and size whenever a complete indi-
vidual of this species is fortunately discovered. <A side view
of the restoration is shown in figure 1, this being perhaps the
best view; for it was not found possible to bring all the ele-
ments into an absolutely symmetrical position, although they
are virtually so indicated in the supplementary drawings,
fioures 2-6.
2
ip
FIGURE 2.—Agomphus tardus. Left lateral view of the carapace of the
type with elements present stippled (except 9th marginal). J—-VIII and 1-71,
the respective pleuralia and marginalia ; e, epiplastron ; h, hyoplastron ; hp,
hypoplastron ; x, xiphiplastron. [Actual length of specimen 33™. |
FIGURE 3.—Agomphustardus. Right lateral view of carapace and plastron.
Drawn from type with elements present stippled. N, nuchal; c, c, 5rd and
4th costalia. Other lettering as in the preceding figure.
G. R. Wieland— Upper Cretaceous Turtles. 433
As clearly shown in the figures, A. tardus was of robust
oval form with marked depth over the inguinal region, and a
distinct flanging of the nuchal region which gives the carapace
avery symmetrical to ornate appearance. The rib capitulee
are diminutive. The medium-sized and heavy plastron with-
out fontanelles is strongly interlocked by suture with the mar-
ginals, and the axillary buttress extends forward to the 3d, the
inguinal buttress, back to the 8th marginal, as in Adocus.
Figure 4.—Agomphus tardus. Dorsal view of the carapace. Drawn from
the type with parts actually present stippled. N, nuehal; MJ, 1st marginal.
1-7 and 9, the neuralia; P, pygal; PM, pygal marginal; J-VJII, the respec-
tive pleuralia.
The most curious single feature is the complete perforation of
the first marginals by the costiform processes of the nuchal.
(Cf. figure 6.) The outlines of the transverse sections of the
several elements as shown in the supplementary figures 6 and
7, in connection with the measurements may render more
434 G. LR. Wreland—Upper Cretaceous Turtles.
detailed description of the form of the individual elements
unnecessary. These figures show in particular the enormous
thickness of the elements of the plastron, which is especially
heavy near to the hypo-xiphiplastral suture. There was, how-
ever, no trace of fusion with the pubes. The hornshields
are for the greater part indicated by narrow sulci not accen-
tuated in the nuchal region as in Adocus, with the inner
FIGURE 5.—Agomphus tardus. Plastral view drawn from the type. P,
pectoral, V, ventral, #, femoral, and A, anal hornshields; en, entoplastron.
Other letters and numbers as in figures 2 and 3.
borders of the marginalia, as is especially to be noted, not
traversing the pleuralia as in that genus, but continuing below
the pleuro-marginal sutures all round the carapace from the
nuchal to the pygal region.
Specific Relationships.—The forms with which Agomphus
tardus is to be compared are (1) A. (Hmys) firmus (Leidy),
G. R. Wieland— Upper Cretaceous Turtles. 435
(2) A. petrosus Cope, (3) A. turgidus Cope, (4) A. (Amphiemys)
oxysternum Cope, and (5) Adocus (Pleurosternum) pectoralis
Cope,—all of which are either slightly or not illustrated and
dificultly accessible or little known types, based on fragmen-
tary materials of barely diagnostic value beyond family or
generic limits. It appears, however, that in comparison
with Agomphus tardus (sp. nov.), A. ‘(Emys) jirmus was a
larger form with a shell relatively but not nearly so extremely
heavy ; that A. twrgzdus Cope (as further described from the
Marsh Cotype No. 900), is a small turtle of about the same
size as A. tardus with minor differences of form and horn-
FIGURE 6.—Agomphus tardus (type). x45. Outlines of the anterior
sutural faces or transverse sections of the 1st, 2d, 8th, 10th, 11th and pygal
marginals.—C, pit in anterior face of the right 1st marginal for the recep-
tion of the costiform process of the nuchal, which entirely perforates this
marginal ; S, sutural face for union of 8th marginal with the hypoplastron.
shield boundaries and far less robust plastron; that A. petrosus
Cope had a steeper, less flanged or shovel-shaped nuchal region,
with the hornshield sulci nearer the marginal border, and the
plastron lighter; that Adocus (Pleurosternum) pectoralis had
a much less massive plastron and narrower bridge than A.
tardus ; and that finally A. (Amphiemys) oxysternum trom
the Tertiary of Georgia is a fairly distinct species from all of
the foregoing Cretaceous Agomphids.
436 G. L. Wieland— Upper Cretaceous Turtles.
Measurements of Agomphus tardus Type.
(Yale Museum Specimen No. 774. Skeletal elements uncrushed.)
Tur CARAPACE.
Length on straight lime) oso 4.25.22. ee ee ee
Length over cuivatune ae seer sees eee 43°5 +
Width (greatest, or over 4th neural).__---..--. 23° +
Distance over curvature (greatest) ....---..--. Be° Se
Projection beyond front end of plastron--_------ 1°5
Projection beyond anal end of plastron .---.--- 7°
[Thickness of nuchal (anterior), 1:°3°" ; (posterior), 7"™ ; of the
2d neural 1°4°™; of the 5th neural 1°5°™. With the exception of
the distal extremity of the second pleural, which reaches the great
thickness of 2°2°™, the pleurals are of much the same development.
throughout, their thickness being quite nearly indicated Boe that
of the marginals given in transverse section. |
Bony PuatEs oF CARAPACE,
Length on marginal Middle length from
border of marginal border of
carapace. carapace to pleurals.
Ninehial: Shien cae BO HS
Ist: maroimial 24222555" 4° 43
D Girish Lug Bie Si nN EIST tt 4°2 4°6
3100 ae ode a LUPE CD Miner eh hfe soe
Ari Weis. 8.2 2 Ae eet ance 3°8 She
SUL ee Se ey Se eet aA ae
Othe He ee ee + a
TSG 2 Seal 2 Sie EA Rael oY a ia
SiG] eieaphay eel AM noha ker Vetta Mes eed inl eat e
QUT Ae Mele eee eee Ne 5
VO Gh eg ee ee Mies legen 3°8 4°5
TIRE aie Rea OAT NE A 4°2 4°
Marginalo-pygal ----.-..- 4: 3°
Length Greatest width
(Antero-posterior). (lateral).
NGG live pete ee EE ane 52 73
Istameunalyt. 2 we apes ee
2d as eA ne Re 4° 3°5
316 mmc eee: MOLI AE a as ae
ALT SPSS SEs pe eye is is
SIF Rn at Re emeagace aate, Conte ol EON. Aan 71 3°6
Gly, SoMe hes eee ese aS ee
TETAS USE NS ce alec er fe
Sith a SF Fie ee a _ (absent) (absent)
Oita SOOT (hs le Seana ve
Paygalos sles oe (3°) a
(Lateral length 1st, 2d, and 7th pleurals 9°5°", 12°", and 8°7°™
respectively.)
G. R. Wieland— Upper Cretaceous Turtles. 437
Tus PLASTRON.
Greatest length on Greatest
medium line. width.
Epiplastron, 222. 22-228 oe ie
Emtoplastrons 2.2. 2-2. 4:3 4°5
Revoplascron. 22) vsJ5 see 6:0 10°
Fly popiastvon 252.4222: 6°2 9°5
Xaphiplastron.-_ -=.22.- T° Se 3°3
(Greatest thickness of the hyoplastron measured on interior
border 2°7°", of the hypoplastron 3:1°%. Least width of hyo-
plastron measured across axillary border 5°6°", of the hypoplas-
tron across the femoral border 5°” ,—whence least width of
bridge, 10°6°™.)
r
FIGURE 7.—Agomphus tardus (type). x5. Outline of sutural faces (or
transverse sections) of the hyoplastron, the hypoplastron, and the 5th mar-
ginal. h,h, posterior and internal sutural face of hypoplastron ; hp, inter-
nal sutural face of hypoplastron, which placed tandem to h yields the median
transverse section of the plastron, exclusive of the epi-, the ento- and xiphi-
plastron ; 5, anterior face, 5th marginal. The arrows orient to the vertical
and median lines.
Agomphus masculinus Wieland (sp. nov.)—(Figure 8).
The beautifully fossilized plastron accompanied by various
marginals, a nuchal and fragmentary pleurals of a smaller
turtle than the preceding, received at the Yale Museum from
the West Jersey Marl Co.’s pits, at Barnsboro, Gloucester
438 G. Rh. Wieland— Upper Cretaceous Turtles.
County, New Jersey, in April, 1872, and numbered 671 in the
Marsh Collection, is here made the type of the new species
Agomphus masculinus. This specimen undoubtedly pertains to
8
Ficure 8.—Agomphus masculinus Wieland (sp. nov.). The plastron of
the type specimen (No. 671, Marsh Collection), consisting in the ento-
plastron, hyoplastra, hypoplastra and right xiphiplastron complete (with
the missing epiplastra and left xiphiplastron restored). x +.
(1) Bone plates.—ep, epiplastron ; en, entoplastron ; hy, hyoplastron ; hp,
hypoplastron ; x, xiphiplastron.
(2) Hornshields.—h, humeral (in part); p, pectoral; v, ventral ; f, femo-
ral; a, anal; ii, inframarginal region (above which the axillary inframar-
ginal appears completely outlined) ; 6, 7, inner borders of the 6th and 7th
marginal shields.
G. R. Wieland— Upper Cretaceous Turtles. 439
an originally complete fossil shell, but the several parts secured,
although as numerous as in the preceding fossil, scarcely have
the fortunate situation making possible a ‘similar restoration.
The elements are all matrix-free, uncrushed and disarticu-
lated, with the sutural faces all clearly outlined (save a small
outer border portion of the left side of the plastron). Also the
narrow to line-like hornshield sulci are all distinct in every
instance. Unfortunately, but a single example of the present
species is known with certainty.
The plastral features of A. masculinus as show in figure
8 are more nearly similar to those of A. tardus than to those
of any other known Agomphid. Specific identity is however
clearly indicated by the slightly less robust form with rela-
tively larger hypoplastra and ventral hornshields, and an ento-
plastron of sub-rhombic instead of sub-isosceles outline.
It is further to be observed that the doubly sigmoid antero-
posterior curvature of the plastron is greater than in any
other known species of Agomphus. Although this feature
does not clearly appear in the photographic figure 8, it is so
strongly accentuated in the fossil itself as to suggest that it is
an individual peculiarity denoting an old male turtle, or per-
haps better tortoise, whence the specitic name.
In addition a new specific character is exhibited by the com-
plete nuchal, and the third, eighth and tenth marginals accom-
panying the present plastr on. These show that the marginal
hornshields anterior to the eleventh did not overlap the pleuro-
marginal sutures, and that the eleventh and twelfth did do so.
As this peculiarity is not present in either A. twrgidus or A.
tardus, it in a sense unites Agomphus with Adocus since in
Adocus punctatus at least, a similar hornshield overlap begins
with the fitth marginal hornshield.
(a) Measurements of the Plastron of Agomphus masculinus
Type. |
Betremosionm the. 6 en 222 Say ae ees
Le THUTRETTTISS LG | Zt oe
Distance between the axillar and femoral borders
Length of the hyo-hypoplastral suture .__-_.--
Length of inner hyoplastral suture _---_._----
Length of inner hypoplastral suture _____---.--
Length of inner xiphiplastral suture _----_-- --
Kateral widthiot entoplastrom »2-2_..- .... ..-.
Antero-posterior length entoplastron ___-._----
Greatest thickness entoplastron -...........-.
Greatest thickness hyoplastron -_-.....-..:-.-
Greatest thickness hypoplastron ..__....-...--
Greatest thickness xiphiplastron .__-..-...----
a
aS ei HW OP OF AT OO
Or ©
DAoowk ann
440 G. R. Wieland— Upper Cretaceous Turtles.
Specimens 775 and 776.*—(Figure 9).
The characters of the plastron in the genus Agomphus are
shown in still further specific detail. by the complementary
specimens 775 and 776 of the Marsh Oollection, as represented
in the retouched photographic figure 9. These two specimens,
the parts of which are enumerated in the legend of figure 9, do
not necessarily pertain to the same species. In fact specimen
776 indicates a turtle with a slightly heavier plastron and
broader bridge than 775, although quite similar in all other
comparable respects.
Specimen 776 probably belongs to A. (Amys) turgidus,
although we note that it may perchance be separated from this
form by the different outline of the humeral hornshields, and
from Adocus (or Agomphus) pectoralis by the relatively
larger plastral bridge. The bones, while unusually robust, do
not reach the great thickness seen in both A. tardus and A.
masculinus.
It is furthermore to be observed that specimen 775 is dis-
tinguished from both the species just named as well as from
all other Adocidee so far as known, by the series of accessory
parallel growth lines of both the anterior and posterior sulci of
the femoral hornshields. This peculiarity, as distinetly shown
in figure 9, recalls the obverse condition of change from deep
sulci in the nuchal region to narrow line-like sulci on all the
rest of the carapace seen in Adocus punctatus. An imper-
fect accompanying hyoplastron however suggests proportions
similar to those of Adocus (Pleurosternum, pectoralis, which
we are fairly satisfied is an Agomphus. Were specimen 775
assigned to a new species, no one could say nay on the basis of
the material now known, but to do so could only be defended,
were no further examples likely to be yielded by the New
Jersey Cretaceous.
While it is not therefore convenient to assign these specimens
to any of the half dozen known types, and much less so to pro-
pose a new species for No. 775, it is held that whoever is for-
tunate enough to discover additional new specimens illustrating
the doubtful points involved, will first be entitled to determine
these specific values. For the present it is therefore only
attempted so far as fairly practicable to make accessible the
features of Agomphid structure. Nor do we consider that on
last analysis there is any essential difference between this
structural study and the more purely taxonomic point of view.
* No. 775 is from the Cream Ridge Marl Co.’s pits, Hornerstown, Mon-
mouth Co., New Jersey. It was received at the Yale Museum in April, 1871.
No. 776 is doubtless from the same locality, but there is a discrepancy in the
Museum record, so that it is not positively known where this fossil is from.
G. R. Wieland— Upper Cretaceous Turtles. 44]
FIGURE 9.—Agomphus. Two complementary specimens illustrating plas-
tral structure. No. 776, consisting in the hyoplastra and epiplastron, may
be doubtfully referred to A. turgidus. No. 775, consisting in the hypoplas-
tra and xiphiplastron, is of more uncertain specific reference. Both the
specimens are shown exactly ? natural size.
(1) Bone plates.—ep, epiplastron; en, entoplastron; hy, hyoplastron ;
hp, hypoplastron ; (xiphiplastron not lettered).
(2) Hornshields.—h, humeral (in part); p, pectoral; v, ventral; f, femo-
ral; ai, axillary—si, sub-axillary—mi, mesial—and 7, inguinal inframar-
ginalia ; (anal hornshield not lettered).
449 G. RB. Wieland— Upper Cretaceous Turtles.
Agomphus turgidus (Cotype).
It is of interest to further note that the specimen (number
900) from the Cream Ridge Marl Co.’s pits Hornerstown,
Monmouth Oo., New Jersey, received at the Yale Museum i in
1869, is clearly a second specimen of A. turgidus Cope, from
the same locality as the type, and exhibiting various further
structural features. Indeed here is still another instance in
which more elements are present than in the above described
A. tardus, although without the fortunate distribution per-
mitting a restoration as in that specimen. These portions are:
the entoplastron and both hyoplastra (that of the left side
articulating with the nearly complete 8d marginal), the right
5th-11th marginals (the 6th and 7th having the superior and
inferior borders broken away), the pygal marginal and the
lower halves of the left 4th, 6th and 7th marginalia; also the
second, a 6th or 7th neural, and the third and fourth neuralia
complete with the proximal ends of the left 8d—5th and the
right 4th pleuralia attached.
The specific characters of A. turgidus have already been
commented on indirectly, so that further description of the
present specimen which has been of much use in determining
the preceding new species, 1s scarcely required. The original
fossil shell was doubtless complete, and had but a few more
fortunately situated elements been recovered a restoration
could be made.
A. turgidus did not have as massive a shell as A. tardus,
but presents all the characteristic generic features distinguish-
ing Agomphus from Adocus; in particular the heavy shell,
the sharp to acuminate rather than rounded xiphiplastral end
of the plastron, and the marginalo-costal suture resting on the
marginals, instead of rising up onto the pleuralia beyond the
third marginal hornshield.
Synopsis of the Characters of Agomphus.
The description of the foregoing new species of Agomphus,
A. tardus and A. masculinus, and of the plastra of more or
less doubtful specific identity numbered 775 and 776 in the
Marsh collections, together with a topotype of A. turgudus,
finally acquaints us with the shell structure of this interesting
Upper Cretaceous genus as follows :
Carapace. —Medium sized to small, of elliptical outline,
considerable depth, and with thicker ‘walls in some species
than in any other known Testudinates. Composed of 49 bony
plates (one more or less, depending on the presence or absence
of 7th and 8th neurals), and without fontanelles. Hornshield
sulci small and line-like to indistinct.
G. R. Wieland— Upper Cretaceous Turtles. 443
(a) Bony plates :—Marginals, 11 pairs, very bene nuchal,
large, of sub-pentagonal outline, without a nether process, but
with costiform processes sometimes perforating the entire 1st
marginals (A. tardus); neural series with but seven or eight
members—the 9th or post neural being present with suppres-
sion of the 7th, or both 7th and 8th; pygal single as in
Adocus ; pleuralia very heavy with medium to slight develop-
ment of the rib capitule.
(>) Hornshields.—A medium-sized nuchal and twelve pairs
of marginals with the inner or marginalo-costal suture not
rising onto the pleurals, as in Adocus, but traversing the
marginal plates throughout (except in the single species A.
masculinus, where the penult and final or pygal shields respec-
tively overlap the 8th pleural and pygal plate.
Plastron.—Of medium size, without fontanelles and very
heavy with the strong bridge suture extending from the pos-
terior end of the 3d to the anterior end of the 8th marginal.
Entoplastron large, of sub-isosceles triangular to rhombic out-
line. LEpiplastral border rounded; anal region acuminate in
every known species—not rounded as in Adocus.
Agomphus is held to be distinct from the earlier proposed
genus Adocus mainly because of the position of the marginalo-
costal suture on the marginals, the very characteristic form of
the plastron, and the enormous thickness of shell. Although
some of the imperfectly known species may prove to intervene
and bridge these gaps—not large when taken singly,—it
appears at present that they uniformly separate an Agomphid
series of closely. related, mostly small turtles ranging from the
Upper Cretaceous into the Eocene. Therefore, as both Adocus
and Agomphus are numerous in species, it would seem to be
much the better policy to retain the latter genus so long as not
definitely proven to merge into the former. The species
respectively assigned to these two closely related genera of the
Adocidee therefore are:
1. Adocus (Emys) beatus (Leidy) Cope.
2. fe agilus Cope.
3. «< pravus (Leidy) Cope.
4, S syntheticus Cope.
bi. es punctatus Marsh.
6. ATES (Eimys) turgidus (Leidy) Cope.
ie << dfirmus (Leidy) Cope.
8. i (Amphiemys) oxysternum one) Hay.
9. petrosus Cope.
10. a (Adocus) pectoralis (Cope) Wieland.
itd e tardus Wieland.
~
2. masculinus Wieland.
—
444 G. LR. Wieland— Upper Cretaceous Turtles.
From this numerous assemblage of species we naturally
come to ask how turtles with such thick shells as the Agom-
phids, the more naturally ascribed to land forms, came to be
so intimately associated with Osteopygis, Lytoloma, and the
various other semi-marine to marine turtles and other forms
which teem in all the Agomphus localities in the Upper Cre-
taceous marl beds of New Jersey. Being mostly small turtles
the heavy specialized shells would mainly serve as a protection
from the other larger and more powerful reptiles, which
swarmed along and into the bays and estuaries of the New
Jersey Cretaceous shore line, so that a salt water littora!
habitat is not precluded. But while no specimens of the
Marsh or other collections illustrating limb or cranial structure
have yet been referred to Agomphus, it would seem that at
least some of the species of the genus dwelt back from the
shore line along the streams, on the more or less sandy river,
ox-bow, or delta banks, and doubtless in the vast numbers
paralleling the Ormocan Podocnenws, the easy prey of the
jaguar, and once far more abundant on lower river courses
than now. From such locations many shells might be carried
forward to the shore front in flood time or in the course of
estuarial change. Also, if congregating in any considerable
numbers on the more nearly forest-free river banks, or on dune
slopes, at egg-laying time, many individuals might then be
either preyed on by other animals, or swept shoreward. It is
a fact of some slight bearing on such a conjecture that while the
Adocidee are much more numerous than the other Testudinates
of the marl beds, nearly all the limb bones recovered pertain
to the semi-marine to marine Osteopygid and Lytoloman series.
Moreover the abundance of the fossils of the marl beds is
probably not generally understood, since almost no specimens
have been secured in the past twenty-five years. Only a very
few per cent of the specimens uncovered in the marl pits,
when excavation was actively carried on thirty years ago, ever
made their way into the museums; and these were all from
restricted areas, although these fossils were for the greater
part abundant everywhere in the several fossiliferous horizons
of the entire New Jersey mar! belt.
Yale Museum, New Haven, Conn.
Hf. D. Campbell—Cambro-Ordovician Limestones. 445
Arr. XLV.—The Cambro-Ordovician Limestones of the Mid-
dle Portion of the Valley of Virginia ; by H. D. Camrsett.
Neirger the Knox dolomite nor the Shenandoah lime-
stone, if used as the name of a geologic formation, should be
made to include all of the Cambrian and Ordovician limestones
of the Valley of Virginia from Tennessee to Maryland. .
M. R. Campbell* makes the Shenandoah limestone of south-
west Virginia comprise not only the Knox dolomite but at least
1500 feet of Cambrian strata beneath it. He also describes
two formations of limestone above the Shenandoah and recog-
nizes 500 feet of subjacent variegated shale and impure lime-
stone.
At the border between Tennessee and Virginiat he makes
the Shenandoah limestone include not only the Knox dolomite
but five other formations, remarking that the six merge into
one formation which prevails along the eastern side of the
Appalachian valley at least as far as Pennsylvania.
It is not the purpose of this article to discuss the correlation
of the Knox dolomite and the Shenandoah limestone, which
can be satisfactorily accomplished only after several additional
sections across the valley of Virginia have been described in
detail and the fossils from fixed horizons have been com-
pared.
This introduction is offered as an explanation for using the
‘following entirely new names for the formations recognizable
in the limestones of the portion of the Appalachian valley
near Lexington.and the Natural Bridge, Virginia.
Section of the Valley Limestones near Lexington, Virginia.
Period. Name of formation. Thickness in feet.
Baiosicnn Liberty Hall limestone | 1000+
Murat limestone 100-150
Natural Bridge limestone 3500+
akan Buena Vista shale 600-900
Sherwood limestone 1600-1800
Sherwood limestone.—In the bluff of James River at Sher-
wood, Va. and for more than twelve miles to the southwest, the
lower part of this formation consists of several hundred feet
of white crystalline dolomite. This dolomite is overlaid by
heavy beds of hght blue and gray magnesian limestone with
oceasional beds of shale and shaly limestone. It was just
beneath or at the very base of the Sherwood limestone that
*U.S. Geol. Surv., Geol. Atlas of U. S., Folio No. 26, 1896.
+ Ibid., Folio No. 59.
Am. Jour. Sci.—FourtTs SERIES, Vou. XX, No. 120.— DECEMBER, 1905.
31
446 HH. D. a Cambro-Ordovician Limestones.
C.D; Walcott found Lower Cambrian fossils. The forma-
tion is superjacent to the quartzites and shales of the Baleony
Falls section.
Buena Vista shale.—Bright variegated shale is conspicuous
in the bluffs of James River between Sherwood and Buchanan,
and along the road between Sherwood and Natural Bridge.
Red bands predominate, but green, yellow, and brown colors
are common. Mottled blue limestone beds alternate with the
shale in the lower part, and it passes by a succession of shale
and limestone beds into the superjacent limestone. In this
formation C. D. Walcott+ found a Ptychoparia closely related
to species from the Middle Cambrian beds of Tennessee. The
formation is from 600 to 900 feet thick. It receives its name
from Buena Vista, Va., where it is well developed.
Natural Bridge limestone.—The formation consists princi-
pally of heavy-bedded gray and light blue magnesian limestones
with thin siliceous laminege as a conspicuous feature, especially
upon weathered surfaces. Beds of white and pinkish dolomite
occur now and then. Calcareous sandstone strata from a few
inches to eight feet thick are occasionally prominent. Black
chert occurs in nodules more or less throughout the formation,
but heavy beds of chert are usually very conspicuous near the
top. Specimens of Lingulepis and Obolus were discovered by
C. D. Walcott in this formation two miles below Buffalo
Mills on Buffalo Creek in June 1898, thus establishing by fos-
sils the age of part of this limestone as Cambrian. Fossils —
from 300 or 400 feet below the top of this formation make
the age of its upper beds Beekmantown (Calciferous).¢
On account of the difficulty of determining the geologic
structure in this section, the total thickness of the formation
has not been accurately determined, but measurements which
were made in a continuous series where there was no indi¢a-
tion of folding or faulting indicate a thickness of over 3500
feet. The Natural Bridge and its canyon display part of this
limestone, and hence the name.
Murat limestone. —Superjacent to the heavy chert beds of
the Natural Bridge limestone occurs a massive gray crystalline
limestone containing bryozoa and other fossils in abundance.
About 125 feet of it are well exposed along Buffalo Creek at
Murat, Va., whence the formation takes its name. Its lower
portion often contains chert nodules. The deep red clay soil
resulting from the Murat limestone is conspicuous in contrast
with the gray cherty soil from the top of the Natural Bridge
formation.
*This Journal, July 1892, p. 58.
+ Ibid., p. 52.
sd Site A Bassler, Bull. U.-S. Geol. Surv. No. 248, 1900, p. 310.
H. D. Campbell—Cambro-Ordovician Limestones. 447
Liberty Hall limestone.—In describing a section through
this region in 1879, J. L. Campbell* used the name Lexington
limestone for this formation, but inasmuch as the same name
is given to certain Silurian rocks in Kentucky,ft it has been
rechristened Liberty Hall hmestone from the name of an old
historic ruin which is constructed on and of this rock, and
which has been standing for more than a century and is as
well known in this region as Lexington itself.
The Liberty. Hall limestone is usually a succession of rather
evenly banded beds of fine-grained, dark blue limestone and
darker, more argillaceous limestone which weathers shaly. As
we ascend into the formation calcareous shale predominates
and limestone beds are less frequent. In this region the forma-
tion has been much fractured and folded, and sometimes
appears massive with innumerable veins of infiltratior of cal-
eite filling the crevices. Again it appears shaly after long
exposure to weather. Brachiopods and trilobites of Mohawkian
age are especially abundant in the lower beds. From the top
of the Murat through the lmestone and calcareous shale, so
long as it carries vonspicuous limestone beds, the Liberty Hall
limestone is about 1000 feet thick. Then follows about 600
feet of shale and slabby sandstone to the bottom of the first
bed of quartzite above the Valley limestones. The thick beds
of shale above the limestones, both northeast and southwest of
the section here considered, give rise to another problem of
correlation.
Washington and Lee University,
Lexington, Virginia, October 31, 1905.
* This Journal, xviii, 1879, p. 29.
+ U.S. Geol. Surv. Geol. Atlas of U. S., Folio No. 46, 1898.
448 C. Barus—Ilons and Nuclet in Dustfree Arr.
Art. XLV 1.—felations of Lons and Nuclei in Dust-free Air;
by Cart Barus.
1. ly the following table I shall give typical results of the
nucleation computed from the coronas observed in a glass fog —
chamber, in the presence or absence of external radiation, when
the saturated dust-free air contained is suddenly cooled by par-
tial exhaustion of successively increasing magnitude. The
amount of exhaustion (with which the supersaturation goes in
parallel) may be conveniently specified in terms of the drop in
pressure, 6p, between the outside and the inside of the given
moderately efficient fog-chamber. Since the barometer was
nearly normal, the corresponding volume increase, etc., may be
readily derived.
TABLE I.—Typical results of the ionized and colloidal nucleation of dust-free
air, energized (or not) by weak and strong radiation. Fog chamber about
50 long, 15°™ in diameter; walls of glass 38°" thick, ends 1™ thick-
Piping of one inch gas pipe. Barometer about normal. JD, distance
between walls of fog chamber and anticathode or sealed alumintm tube
with weak radium.
X-rays X-rays Radium X-rays ‘X-rays
from from from from from
D=» end |D=600™ end | D=0:™ side |D=100™ end |D=50™ side
Op n x 10-2. op n x 10-3. Op nx 10-8, Op n x 10-3, Op n x 10-3.
2A 6) 19 wo) 19 2 18 0 18 0
23 oO 20 2 20 2 19 1 19 2
25 7 oe 8 21 10 20 20 PAU Mirena) 430)
O7 5 22 20 22 28 Pad By ail *98
28 18 23 28 23 38 22 50 22 57
29 Ad 24 30 24 45 24 75 24 93
30 a9 26 36 25 50 26 95 25 110
32 ae 28 37 26 52 28 110 27 138
34 87 30 39 28 53 30 124 29 145
36 100 34 4] 30 d5 39 13h) 32 155
ae see cat iat 35 56 sh he 390 160
In computing the (fleeting) nucleation one is left in doubt
whether the nuclei (ions) are restored to the air more quickly
than they can be removed by exhaustion; or whether the
reverse is true. I have assumed the former to be the case and
call this nucleation (number per cubic em.) n. If the nuclei
are removed more quickly than they are reproduced, it will be
necessary to multiply m by the corresponding volume increase,
and I shall call this value VV. In the present experimentst V
* Probably reduced by the presence of persistent nuclei in small number.
+ At high values of dp both n and N become untrustworthy as absolute
values; but they suffice very well to indicate the relations.
C. Barus—Ions and Nuclei in Dustfree Arr. 449
is usually much larger than m. In the cases of persistent
nucleation due to the X-rays or other causes, JV is obviously to
be taken; but here from the low values of 6p which suffice for
condensation, the difference is not so important.
2. To vary the intensity of radiation, the anti-cathode of the
X-ray tube or the radium tube (of thin aluminum, hermetically
sealed, holding 10 mg. of weak radium —-10,000 * — within),
is placed at a distance, /, from the outside of the fog-chamber.
This was.a horizontal cylinder of glass, 50° long and 15°™ in
diameter, with the end toward the bulb 1™ thick and the side
wall 3°" thick. When J is measured from the end, persistent
nucleation is not usually producible* because of the thickness
of the glass to be penetrated. When 7 is measured from the
sides, however, persistent nucleation just begins at ) = 50™
and increases at a rapidly accelerated rate for smaller distances.
Hence the ionization corresponding to D = 50™ is a transi-
tional value at which fleeting nuclei or ions merge into persis-
tent nuclei. : ;
3. It the data are constructed graphically, it appears that all
the curves are eventually intersected by the curve for dust-
free non-energized air. In the latter we may recognize a
region of ions (say from dp = 21™ to 27™) and a region of
colloidal nuclei for larger values of 69; but the whole phe-
nomenon is continuous. The effect of radiation as seen in the
other curves is therefore to decrease the efficient nucleation of
TABLE IT.—Persistent (large) nuclei(N, number per cm*) produced by intense
X-radiation, in dust-free air. dp —18™, being. decidedly below the fog-
limit. D measured from side of glass fog chamber (wall °3°™ thick) to
anticathode. Aluminum screen inserted.
p= 12 20 30 40 50°
MES VO> 2 = 140 56 10 1 1
dust-free air more noticeably when the radiation is weaker and
the supersaturation higher. These results may be tried directly
for instance, with the radium tube at different distances, ); for
a fixed pressure difference, dp. Thus at 9 = 41™ the nuclea-
tion passes throngh a minimum at D = 25™ when D
increases from 0 to 50™. The effect of radiation is then virtu-
ally an aggregation of the colloidal nuclei of dust-free air. If
the effect of ionization were merely to mask the presence
of the smaller colloidal nuclei, the same effect should occur at
intense ionization. Here, however, nuclei larger as well as
indefinitely smaller than the mean ionic gradation are produced
like the latter in continually greater numbers as the radia-
tion increases. The case is rather one in which relatively
*T have since succeeded in producing persistent nucleation through thin
tin plate.
450 C. Barus—Ions and Nucler in Dust-free Air.
small as well as large colloidal air nuclei are all successively
aggregated into larger particles. In other words, as the radia-
tion increases the whole air curve is bodily shitted more and
more and with change of form to the left into smaller super-
saturations, until eventually the persistent nuclei due to X-rays
actually appear, and require scarcely any supersaturation to
condense water vapor.
4. Using an apparatus with a larger exhaust cock and ex-
haust pipes and therefore more rapid exhaustion, data were
obtained of which the following table contains examples.
TaBLeE III.—Nucleation of dust-free air, energized or not. New apparatus,
116" stop cock, connections of inch gas pipe. Bar. 76°23. Walls of fog
chamber ‘38° thick. Three horizontal partitions of wet cloth within
chamber.
Op. s n x 10-°, Op. 8. mx ee
Sept.i3: 44 "7-7. 180.) | Sept.3 10:6, 216 ee
if AD 726) 195 204
35 TG 160 CANAD 5) 43
OS ice mignon 137
ee eG ae? wa
94°3 "7 2) X-rays, D=50°™ from side.
te 5) “1 48:9. ig 190
25°3 1°4 Ley 43°6 §8:°0 216
26°1 2°6 6°2 BE 6 BO 240
27°0 3°6 17 30°8 49° 258
2 6) 5°0 46 26°6 = +92 229
28°6 5°4 60 22°80 21856 LS %
29°3 6°3 92 21s) Miiee 120
30°5 7°0 125 DO cS alles 100
35°0 Cg 160 19°5 ovl 39
RO 5 136 | 18°6 Tal 1
: ny 18°3 0? 0?
II. Radium tube added on side.
Barometer 76:05 (mean values) xe
43°6 4°4 43 X-rays, D = 12° from side.
35°0 5°4 67 18°9 202 207
30°8 5°6 69 20°0 Dei 54
DOA) 576 64 210.0 Tae ae
DYDD I BSG. 60 O30 Tte73. a ie
223 5°6 57 | DA bons 195
ian) 5°6 55 298 Ors 290
20-0 4°1 20 sare 1 One 320
18°8 0 0 43°7 ||10°3 306
19°0 0 0 52°2 §9-4 240
19°0 9) gl
The feature of these data is their steadiness in the lapse of
time. The curves have naturally moved bodily into lower
*G' B P corona steadily repeated, but not quite clear. | ¢+wreg.
pl Cad ofl 2b Sw P corona. — | w y g. PO Oe tte yog’.
C. Barus—Ions and Nuclei in Dust-free Air. 451
supersaturations and the asymptotes (or maxima) are in every
ease reached and much higher in value. The range of super-
saturation within which the condensations begin and are nearly
completed is reduced so that the curves are usually steeper.
In case of the new curve for non-energized air (and to the
same extent in the others) the relative absence of nuclei in the
region of ions is a distinguishing peculiarity. Investigated by
the coronal methods, the curves rise, as it were, abruptly from
the abscissa, and there is a rise of fog limit.
'
!
/
/
/
° /
’
¢
oe /
] [7
3%
’
4 2
9 ald
S 4 >
Al) 4]
r, G)
Z eg / P
5 20 22 j 5
is)
Fic. 1.—Charts for Table IIT, showing the coronal apertures (angular
diameter being s/30) in cases of different supersaturation (pressure drop on
exhaustion dp) in cases of non-energized dust-free air, and of dust-free air
energized by radium and the X-rays from different distances, D. The dotted
curve corresponds to less rapid exhaustion (Table I). Its intersection with
the corresponding curve drawn in fullshould be noticed. It indicates the
presence of a group of larger nuclei present in the former case and absent in
the latter.
5. In connection with the present data, different suggestions
made in the earlier paper and diverging from the more usual
explanations, may be recalled: The effect of radiation if not
too strong, has been shown to be virtually an aggregation
of the colloidal nuclei of dust-free air. It seems probable
A52, C. Barus—Ions and Nuclec in Dust-free Avr.
that the ions or fleeting nuclei are such loose aggregates
built up out of colloidal nuclei, because evidence of the pres-
ence of colloidal nuclei absent at the low ionizations (exposure
to weak radiation) is manifest at the high ionizations (exposure
to intense radiation). If the radiation is very strong all sizes
are represented, showing that the aggregates are virtually
built up out of continually smaller colloidal nuclei probably
closely approaching the molecular sizes, while at the same
i :
Ve
Fic. 2.—Charts for Table III showing the nucleation 1 in terms of the
supersaturation (pressure drop dp), for dust-free non-energized air, and for
dust-free air energized by radium (10,000 x , 10 mg.) from different distances
D. The dotted curves show. the corresponding cases (Dust-free air, 4 ;
Radium, R; X-rays, X.) for less rapid exhaustion (Table I). The vertical
spaces represent 20,000 nuclei each.
C. Barus—Tons and Nuclei in Dust-free Arr. 453
time the existing nuclei are further aggregated into larger
systems.
Within the fog-chamber it 1s probable that the radiations
whether undulatory or corpuscular, is at any point the same in
all directions, for the nuclei in any given case are largely
produced by secondary radiation.
Henee it follows, qualitatively at least, that the inside of the
fog-chamber is an ideal Lesage medium. One may argue,
therefore, that a corresponding tendency for the preéxisting
colloidal nuclei of dust-free air to aggregate into ions or larger
bodies, should be manifest. Again the ions, conditioned by
the presence of radiation, must fall apart when the radiation is
withdrawn, and this is the case. One may infer also that the
nucleating effect produced by negative corpuscles would be
different from that corresponding to the positive residuals.
Let the kinetic ionization pressure be supposed to mcrease
as the square of the velocity of the corpuscles and as their
density of distribution; then if the ionization becomes very
intense it is possible that the pressure becomes strong enough
to produce permanent union of the loose aggregates, or that
the fleeting nuclei eventually become persistent, as is the case.
If the ionized field is intensely produced by corpuscles issu-
ing from within the body itself, as for instance, in combustion,
or ignition, etc., one may expect that large nuclei as well as
fleeting nuclei should simultaneously appear; or that nuclea-
tion, passing through a transitional stage from fleeting to per-
sistent as the electrification is more intense, should be the
invariable concomitant of ionization. It is probable that the
expulsion of corpuscles takes place whenever persistent nuclei
are produced. Thus in the case of the X-rays, the generation
of persistent nuclei occurs at an accelerated rate with time for
a fixed radiation. If the radiation is cut off, nuclei are spon-
taneously generated (secondary generation) for some time after.
Arguments to the same effect would follow for hight pres-
sure for wave lengths small enough to be easily scattered.
Thus persistent and fieeting nuclei as a simple continu-
ous phenomenon are produced by the X-rays (Table II), in
the manner identical with the case of ultra-violet light. Simi-
larly nuclei grow large in size as the ignition, the potential
differences, etc., are larger.
Finally, although the colloidal nucleation of dust-free air
may be conceived to be aggregated both by undulatory and by
corpuscular pressure, it is only in the latter case that the
nuclei can be influenced by an electric field because the cor-
puscles are themselves actuated. This distinction in fact exists
between nuclei otherwise quite identical fleeting or persistent,
but produced in one case by ultra-violet light and in the other
by the X-rays or the action of radium.
Brown University, Providence, R. I.
454 Flora—Cadmium by Means of the Rotating Cathode.
Art. XLVII.— Additional Notes upon the Estumation of Cad-
moium by Means of the Rotating Cathode, and Summary ;
by Cuaries P. Frora.
[Contributions from the Kent Chemical Laboratory of Yale Univ.—cexli. ]
I. The Behavior of Cadmium Nitrate.
SIncE cadmium is not readily precipitated by the electric
current from solutions containing even small amounts of free
nitrate acid, it was to be expected that cadmium nitrate
would prove to be little fitted for estimation by electrolysis,
since the action of the current would produce nitric acid.
This, in general, was the result of my experiments upon the esti-
mation of cadmium in the form of the nitrate upon the rotat-
The deposits obtained from solutions containing
sulphuric acid, the phosphates, pyrophosphates, urea or formal-
dehyde, were satisfactory, but the time necessary for complete -
deposition is so prolonged that these solutions are compara-
tively valueless for the estimation of cadmium taken as the
nitrate, since it would be easier and more trustworthy to trans-
form the salt to the sulphate by evaporation with sulphuric
With solutions containing acetic
acid the metal was not precipitated, except in a narrow ring at
the surface of the liquid. The behavior of solutions contain-
ing formic acid, tartaric acid, acetaldehyde and formaldehyde
was similar, but less pronounced. ‘The only solution from which
I was able to obtain satisfactory results in the estimation of
cadmium nitrate was a solution containing potassium cyanide.
This solution was prepared by adding to the solution of ead-
mium nitrate, which had been standardized by the precipitation
and ignition of the carbonate, the desired amount of sodium
hydroxide, and then redissolving the precipitated hydroxide in
The time needed for com-
plete deposition is somewhat longer than that required where
the chloride and sulphate of cadmium were taken, but the
deposit was bright and very satisfactory. Care must be used
to avoid the use of too large an amount of potassium cyanide.
The following table shows the results obtained :
ing cathode.
acid before electrolyzing.
an excess of potassium cyanide.
No. Cd. KCN.
grm. germ.
1.020 920. wales
2-0 O92 0 as ne)
B OO73: 2057
NaOd.
erm.
0°5
0'5
0°5
Cur’t = N.D100. E.M.F. Time. vol.
vts.
amp.
4°0
3°0
iad
amp.
12°0
9:0
Mas
min.
Tot.
Cd. fd.
cm, germ.
60 0°0933
60 0°0924
60 0:1072
Error.
germ.
+ 0°0013
+ 0:0004
—0°0001
Il. The Behavior of Solutions containing Free Nitric Acid.
If free nitric acid be added to a solution containing a salt of
cadmium, the precipitation. of the cadmium by the electric cur-
Flora
Cadmium by Means of the Rotating Cathode. 455
rent will be retarded, and even prevented altogether if the
nitric acid be present in sufficient amount. Upon this behavior
have been based methods for the separation of copper, bismuth
and mercury from cadmium.* ‘Tests were made by me to
determine the amount of free nitric acid necessary to prevent
deposition of the cadmium, and it was found that 2°" of nitric
acid of 1:4 dilution im 50° of solution (approximately 1 per
cent of free acid) will absolutely prevent the precipitation of
the cadmium upon the cathode (current, 38 amperes ; E.M.F., 7°5
volts). If less nitric acid was used, traces of cadmium were
deposited upon the cathode.
Summary of Results obtained in the Estimation of Cadmium by
means of the Rotating Cathode.
The results of the work described in this and the previous
papers upon the estimation of cadmium by means of, the rota-
ting cathode may be briefly summarized as follows: Under the
conditions used, cadmium taken in the form of the sulphate
may be very accurately and satisfactorily estimated by deposi-
tion from solutions containing sulphuric acid, sodium acetate
and acetic acid, or potassium cyanide; but little less satis-
factorily from solutions containing urea, formaldehyde or
acetaldehyde; and also with proper precautions, from solutions
containing pyrophosphates, phosphates, tartaric acid or formic
acid. From solutions containing oxalates or oxalic acid,
ammonium tartrate, or potassium formate, however, I was
unable to obtain satisfactory deposits. When taken as the
chloride, cadmium does not permit such a wide range of condi-
tions. Nevertheless, from solutions of the chloride containing
sulphurie acid or potassium cyanide, or the pyrophosphates,
the metal is deposited in a form comparable with that obtained
when cadmium sulphate is taken. Solutions of the chloride
of cadmium to which is added hydrogen disodic phosphate
gave less desirable results; while solutions containing urea,
formaldehyde or acetaldehyde gave deposits free from spongi-
ness only after careful regulation of the conditions. In addition
to the solutions containing the oxalates, oxalic acid, the for-
mates and the tartrates, negative results were given in the case
of the chloride by solutions containing the acetates, formic
acid, and tartaric acid. The nitrate of cadmium is ill-fitted for
electrolytic estimation, the cyanide solution being the only one
from which satisfactory results were obtained. From solutions
containing one per cent or more of free nitric acid, the cadmium
is not deposited by the enrrent.
* Edgar F. Smith, Am. Ch. J. ii, 42 (1880) ; Smith and Mayer, J. Ch. Soc.,
lxiv, ii, 496 (1893); Kammerer, J.. Am. Ch. Soc., xxv, 94 (1908); Riidorff,
Z. angw. Ch. (1894), 388.
456 3 Flora— Estimation of Cadmium as the Ovide.
Arr. XLVIUI-—The Estimation of Cadmium as the Oxide ;
by Cuartes P. Frora.
[Contributions from the Kent Chemical Laboratory of Yale Univ.—exlii.]
Capmium may be simply and accurately estimated by con-
verting the carbonate to the oxide by ignition. The oxide of
cadmium may be subjected to very intense heat without loss
from volatilization ; but in the presence of any carbonaceous
matter 1t is very easily reduced to the metal, which is quite
volatile at high temperatures. Consequently, this method has
always been subject to more or less change of error where:
paper filters have been used. The usual course has been to
wash thoroughly and then dry the precipitated carbonate,
which is then removed as completely as possible from the -
filter: the latter then being burned separately. Even here
there has always been avery appreciable loss, to avoid which
various more or less complicated modes of treatment have been
offered. As a type of these, we may take that of Max Mus-
pratt,” who, after noting that high results were given by the
ignition of the nitrate formed by dissolving the precipitated
carbonate in nitric acid on account of included sulphate, pro-
ceeded as follows: The precipitated carbonate was washed and
dried, and as completely as possible scraped free from the
filter paper, and then converted to the oxide by gentle igni-
tion. This carbonate was entirely free from suiphate. The
filter paper was treated with nitric acid and the resulting solu-
tion and rinsings brought into a large porcelain crucible and
evaporated to dryness. ‘The dry nitrate was gently heated and
the weight of the oxide obtained added to that of the mass of
the precipitate. Even after this tedious procedure, Muspratt
is obliged to suggest that the results will be more satisfactory
if the oxide obtained by the ignition of the paper and the
residues upon it be calculated as Cd,O rather than CdO. Evi-
dently the method would give satisfactory results if this redue-
ing action of the filter could be avoided, and in former papers
from this laboratory,+ it has been shown that this may be
accomplished by the use of asbestos filters in a Gooch crucible.
There is then no danger of loss from reduction, and the earbo-
nate method is simplified and placed among the good analyti-
cal methods. Recently, however, Miller and ‘Paget have
found that “the carbonate method is the most troublesome and
the least satisfactory ;’ but these investigators did not use the
asbestos filter.
* J. Soc. Ch. Ind.; xiii, 211 (1894).
+ Browning, this Journal (3), xlvi, 280 (1898) ; Browning and Jones, ibid.
(4), ii, 269 (1896).
+ Ch. News, Ixxxiv, 312 (1901).
Flera—Estimation of Cadmium as the Oxide. ADT
The work of the writer upon the carbonate method fully
substantiates the previous work from this laboratory. For the
determinations given, a solution of cadmium sulphate was used,
whose standard was accurately given by the average of a large
number of closely agreeing electrolytic determinations. Por-
tions of this solution were accurately measured from a burette
and diluted to 800% with hot water. A 10 per cent solution
of potassium carbonate was then added, drop by drop, with
constant stirring until no further precipitation took place.
The whole was then boiled for about fifteen minutes, when the
precipitate became granular and quickly settled. It was then
filtered upon an asbestos mat in a Gooch crucible, which had
previously been ignited and weighed, and was then carefully
washed with hot water. In several cases, washing by decanta-
tion was used. The precipitate was then dried and ignited
over a Bunsen burner, first gently, then at full red heat until
a constant weight was obtained, care being taken to avoid the
reducing action of any unburned gas from the burner.
The following results were obtained :
CdO taken. CdO found. Error.
No. of exp. erm. germ. erm.
A 0°1277 O25 —0°0002
= OZ 0°1280 + 0°00038
3. OT 27 0°1272 —0°0005
4 Ors Gou 0°1391 —0'0008
5 0°1399 0°1399 + 0:0000
6. 0°1703 0°1700 —0°0003
Qs 0°1703 071700 —0°0003
8. 0°2129 0°2128 —0°0001
9. -0°2129 0°2128 —0'0001
10. 0°2554 0°2554 + 0°0000
The method is simple in execution, and the above results
prove its accuracy.
Some of the older manuals also give as a method for the
estimation of cadmium that of igniting to the oxide the pre-
cipitated hydroxide obtained by adding a solution of sodium or
potassium hydroxide to the solution containing the salt of cad-
mium. Follenius has published* some results obtained with
the use of an asbestos filter, and it was decided to try this
method in comparison with the carbonate method. As in the
experiments with the carbonate, portions of the solution of
cadmium sulphate were carefully measured off from a burette,
diluted to about 300°’, and heated to boiling. A 10 per cent
solution of potassium hydroxide was then added drop by drop
and the whole boiled for about fifteen minutes. Upon cool-
ing, the precipitate quickly settled in a semi-granular state,
*Z. anal. Ch., xiii, 284 (1874).
458 C. Schuchert—Mounted Skeleton of Triceratops prorsus.
and was best filtered and washed by decantation. The results
were lower than when the cadmium was precipitated as the
carbonate, as is shown by the following table :
CdO taken. CdO found. Error,
No. of exp. germ. gTm. grm.
1; Om ia7 0-127 +0°0000
2: OLR 207 0:1270 —0:0007
3. 0°1277 0°1260 —0°0017
4, Oly —0'1286 + 0:0009
5. 0°1362 0°1350 —0°0012
6. 0°1899 0°1389 — 0°0010
he 0°1708 0:1697 —0:0006
8. 01703 0°16938 —0:0010
De 017038 0°1699 —0°0004
10. 0°1788 0°1802 +0°0014
1a 0°2129 0°2139 +0°0010
ee 0:2129 0°2128 —0°0001
While the figures show that fair results may be obtained by
the hydroxide method, it can be compared with the carbonate
method neither for accuracy nor convenience: the precipitate
does not attain the same granular form as that of the carbo-
nate; it is hard to filter, difficult to wash, and can be removed
completely from the beaker in which precipitation takes place
only with the utmost difficulty. :
Ann, XLIX — The Mounted Skeleton of Triceratops prorsus
in the U.S. National Museum; by C. Scuucuurtr. (With
Plate XV.)
Nore.—At various times articles on Triceratops by the late
Professor Marsh have been printed in this Journal, and as the
U. 8. National Museum is the first institution to possess a
mounted skeleton of this, the largest-headed Dinosaur, it is
deemed advisable to complete the records by reproducing here
the illustration recently published in the Proceedings of that
Museum.* Mr. G. W. Gilmore did the mounting, and from his
article the following extracts are taken :
Among the vertebrate fossils included in that part of the
Marsh collection, now preserved in the United States National
Museum, are the remains of several individuals pertaining to
the large Cretaceous dinosaur, Triceratops. All of this
material, which comes from the Laramie division of the Cre- —
taceous, was collected by or under the supervision of the late
Mr. J. B. Hatcher in the northeastern part of Converse
County, Wyoming, a locality made historic by the researches
* Article 1426, vol. xxix, 1905, pp. 483-485, 2 plates.
Plate XV.
Aime Jouneocl., Vols XA 905:
C. Schuchert— Mounted Skeleton of Triceratops prorsus. 459
of this enthusiastic student. From this one region he col-
lected the remains of more than forty individuals of the
Ceratopsia, a record that has never been equaled.
From the tip of the beak to the end of the tail the skeleton
as restored is 19 feet 8 inches in length. The skull, which is
6 feet long, equals nearly one-third of this length.- At the
highest point (the top of the sacrum) it is 8 feet 2 inches above
the base. The mounted skeleton presents several features
which would otherwise be lost to the observer if seen in the
disarticulated condition. The short body cavity, the deep
thorax, the massive limbs, and the turtle-like flexure of the
anterior extremities are characters only appreciated in the
mounted skeleton. The position of the fore limbs in the
present mount appears rather remarkable for an animal of such
robust proportions, but a study of the articulating surtaces of
the several parts ‘precludes an upright mammalian type of
limb, as was represented by Marsh in the original restoration.
Moreover, a straightened form of leg would so elevate the
anterior portion of the body as to have made it a physical
impossibility for the animal to reach the ground with its
MEAG cis 2 In constructing these parts we have followed
-Marsh’s drawing, assisted somewhat bv fore-foot material kindly
loaned by Dr. H. F. Osborn, of the American Museum ot
Natural History, New York City. /
The nasal horn of the skull used in the present skeleton
appears to be missing, and on account of the unsatisfactory
evidence as to whether the horn is wholly or‘only partly gone,
it was decided not to attempt a restoration at this time. This
will account for the absence of one of the important features
upon which the name of the animal is based, Z7rzceratops
meaning three-horn face, in allusion to the presence of the
two large horns above the eyes and the third smaller horn on
the nose.
It may be of interest to mention here that Prof. O. C. Marsh
used this skeleton (No. 4842), supplemented by other remains
now preserved in the collections of the Yale Museum, for.the
basis of his restoration of Z7riceratops prorsus, published as
Plate LX XI in the Dinosaurs of North America. . . . A com-
parison of the above restoration by Marsh with the mounted
skeleton [see Plate XV] shows several differences in points
of structure, due chiefly to the better understanding of these
extinct forms. The most striking dissimilarity is in the
shortening of the trunk by a reduction of the number of
presacral vertebree. . . . Mr. Hatcher determined, from a well-
preserved vertebral column in the Yale Museum, the number
of presacrals as twenty-one, this being six less than ascribed
to the animal by Marsh.
460 - Seientific Intelligence.
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE,
I. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS.
1. A New Formation of Diamond.—In a. lecture delivered
before the British Association at Kimberly, South Africa, Sept.
5, 1905, Str Wittiam CrookeEs stated that he had found what
were, in all probability, microscopic diamonds in residues obtained
by Sir Andrew Noble in exploding cordite in closed steel cylin-
ders. Crookes had calculated the theoretical melting point of
carbon as 4400° absolute, and the melting pressure as 16°6 atmos-
pheres; hence he concluded that the conditions of the cordite
explosions, where a. pressure of 8000 atmospheres and a tempera-
ture reaching in all probability 5400° absolute, would be favor-
able for the formation of diamonds. Upon examining the resi-
dues from such explosions, octahedral crystals were found which
had high index of refraction, the proper cleavage, and the
absence of birefringence of the diamond, and, although their
other properties have not yet been determined, the chemical
ordeal to which they were subjected in the treatment of the
material leads to the belief that they must be diamonds.— Chem.
News, xcii, 148. Fc Woeee
2, A New Compound of fron.—Orro Hauser has prepared
a curious ammonium-ferrous-ferric basic carbonate, evidently a
triple salt, to which he gives the formula
Fe’,NH,Fe’”O(CO,),. 2H,0.
It may be prepared, in the form of a crystalline precipitate, as
follows : Ammonium-ferrous sulphate is dissolved in five parts of
water, then a solution of commercial ammonium carbonate in
about five parts of water is added until the precipitate which
forms at first has redissolved. The quickly filtered liquid is then
placed in a loosely closed bottle where only a small surface of
the solution is exposed to the air. The liquid now becomes
brown very rapidly from the top downward without any separa-
tion of ferric hydroxide, and in about half an hour a slightly
greenish precipitate settles to the bottom, and after about two
days the iron is completely removed from the solution in the
form of the new compound. The substance has a light green
color when fresh, but it rapidly darkens upon exposure to the
air. It dissolves readily in acids with effervescence ; it gives a
black ferrous-ferric oxide with alkalies, and at the same time
evolves ammonia.— Berichte, xxxviul, 2707. H. L. W.
3. Nitrosyl Fluoride.—Ru¥F¥F and Stivper, by the action of
nitrosyl chloride upon silver fluoride have prepared this substance,
NOF. It is a colorless gas which melts at about —134° and
boils at —56°. In its chemical activity it resembles free fluorine
Chemistry and Physics. ‘461
as well as nitryl fluoride, NO,F, which has been prepared by
Moisson, but from the latter it differs in its density, in reacting
readily with iodine to form iodine pentafluoride, and in reacting
with water to form nitrous acid instead of nitric acid.—Zeztschr.
Anorgan. Chem., xlvii, 190. : H. L. W.
4. The Atomic Weight of Stronttum.—About ten years ago
T. W. Ricnarps determined the atomic weight of strontium by
means of a comparison of the bromide with silver. He now pub-
lishes the results of a comparison of the chloride with silver,
made several years ago, but not published at the time on account
of a discrepancy in the results due to an unknown cause. This
discrepancy has been explained by the recent revision of the rela-
tion between silver and chlorine made by Richards and Wells,
and it is found that the averages of the two series of determina-
tions agree with remarkable closeness when the correction in the
atomic weight of chlorine is made; thus:
From SrBr,, Sr = 87°663
From SrCl,, Sr = 87°661
These results are based on silver as 1077930, but Richards
remarks that this number is probably not exact in comparison with
oxygen as 16, and that the result will require modification when
the true atomic weight of silver has been determined.-——Zettschr.
Anorgan. Chem., xlvii, 145. H. LW.
5. Qualitative Analysis ; by E. H. 8. Barney and H. P.
Capy. 8vo, pp. 278. Philadelphia, 1905, P. Blakiston’s Son &
Co.—This book is interesting in being based upon the applica-
tion of the theory of electrolytic dissociation and the law of mass
action; but, however important these principles may be con-
sidered in connection with teaching the subject, it appears that
the extent to which they are carried in this case often causes a
loss of clearness and conciseness as far as qualitative analysis
is concerned. it may be mentioned that the book is not as large
as its pages would indicate, for nearly half of them are left blank
for use in keeping notes. H. L. W.
6. Charging Liffect of Réntgen Rays.—The ionizing effect of
these rays has been apparently fully proved, and there is a satis-
factory agreement in the results of observers. This is not, how-
ever, true in regard to the question whether the rays give various
bodies upon which they impinge electric charges. The subject
has been investigated by Kart Hain, whose results support the
contention of Prot. J. J. Thomson, that the rays give a positive
charge to bodies. His results are summed up as follows:
(1) All bodies upon which the rays directly impinge are
charged positively.
(2) Very thin sheets of metals are charged more strongly than
thick sheets, and the difference is greater the shorter the exposure
to the rays.
Am. Jour. Scr.-—Fourts Srrizs, Vou. XX, No. 120.—DrcrembBer, 1905.
32
462 Scientific Intelligence.
(3) The influence of the character of the metal surface is negh-
oible. 7
‘ (4) The potential of the charged plate is dependent upon :
(a) The capacity with which the plate is connected ;—the
quantity of electricity, that is, the product of capacity and poten-
tial is smaller for the greater potential, that is for smaller capac-
ity. If we assume that this is due to the conductivity of the air,
one can assume that the quantity of electricity is constant.
(0) The time of exposure to the rays. The potential increases
with the time of exposure up to 20 sec. and then remains con-
stant.
(c) On the nature of the rays. Hard rays exert a stronger
influence than weak rays.
(d) On the nature of the metals; the potential is greater the
greater the atomic weight, and the more the metal is electronega-
tive. The influence of atomic weight is more notable with the
hard rays ; the position of the metals in the electromotive series
has greater effect in the case of the weak rays.
(e) On the surrounding gas. The potential is greater in air
than in CO,.
(5) Secondary rays tend to neutralize the charges. This phe-
nomenon explains the discordant results obtained by various
observers.—Ann. der Physik, No. 11, 1905, pp. 140-171. 5. 7.
7. Emission of Negative Corpuscles by the Alkali Metals.—
Elster and Geitel discovered that even the light emitted by
a glass rod heated to a dull red heat was sufficient to cause
rubidium to emit corpuscles. Professor J. J. THomson shows
that rubidium and the liquid alloy of sodium and potassium give
out corpuscles in the dark, This result leads Professor Thomson
to speculate upon probable differences of temperature between
the interiors of bodies and their surfaces arising from the explo-
sion of atoms.—Phil. Mag., Nov. 1905, pp. 584-590. ovis
8. A New Method of showing the Presence of Neon, Krypton,
and Xenon.—S. VALENTINER and R. Scumripr depart somewhat
from the method of Dewar, by which, using the singular occlu-
sion power of charcoal at low temperatures, Dewar showed the
presence of neon, hydrogen and helium. Valentiner and Schmidt
exhaust the spectrum tube and connected apparatus ; then admit
a large quantity of argon, submit this argon to the occlusion
action of charcoal at the temperature of liquid air. By this
process neon is left in the spectrum tube ; and the quantity can
be suitably increased by varying the pressure and amount of
exhaustion. Suitable modifications of this method of employing
argon as a basis and the occluding power of charcoal at different
low temperatures enabled the authors to show the presence of
krypton and xenon.—Ann. der Physik, No. 11, 1905, pp. 187-197.
In
9. The Mechanical Properties of Catgut Musical Strings ; a
Correction by J. R. Benton (communicated).—-I have to correct
Geology and Mineralogy. . 463
an error in my article on the Mechanical Properties of Catgut
Musical Strings, which appeared in the last issue of this Journal.
On page 384, under the heading ‘‘ Hygroscopic Properties,” some
observations are discussed which appear to show that the string
in question increased in length with increasing humidity ;
although, as mentioned there, its behavior was much cemplicated
by after-effects. It is well known that the catgut strings of
musical instruments are affected by changes of humidity: but
they tend to contract with increasing humidity, and not to stretch,
as stated in the article. The string on which I made observa-
tions showed just the opposite behavior ; but it was under dif-
ferent conditions from the strings in musical instruments, In
the first place, it was under far less tension ; in the second place,
it was free from any torsion; consequently any lateral swelling
of its fibers which might occur would have no tendency to shorten
it, while such swelling would tend to shorten a twisted string.
IJ. Gkotogy AND MINERALOGY.
1. Lowa Geological Survey, Volume XV. Annual Report,
1904, with accompanying papers. Krank A. WILpER, State
Geologist; T. EH. Savage, Assistant Geologist. Pp. vill, 560, 7
plates, 51 figures and 10 geological maps. Des Moines, 1905.— '
The Geological Survey of Iowa, under the charge of Professor
Samuel Calvin, has enjoyed an excellent reputation for the thor-
ough and systematic work which it has accomplished since its
inauguration. Professor Calvin has now found it necessary to
resign from the position of chief responsibility, and the place has
been filled by Professor Frank A. Wilder, under whose auspices
the present volume has been published. This volume gives
promise that the future work done for the State will be carried
forward on the same hnes and with the same excellent results
that have characterized its predecessors.
The volume contains, in addition to the administrative report,
a chapter on the Mineral Production in 1904, by 8S. W. Beyer ;
another on Cement and Cement Material, by E. C. Eckel and H.
F’. Bain ; and then a series of chapters discussing in detail the
geology of a number of counties accompanied by geological maps.
These special reports include the following: On the Geology of
Benton County, by T. E. Savage; of Emmet, Palo Alto and
Pocahontas Counties, by Thomas H. Macbride ; of Jasper County,
by Ira A. Williams ; of Clinton County, by Jon Andreas Udden;
of Fayette County, by T. E. Savage. It is stated that the field
work for 1905 is being carried on preéminently along economic
lines, the earlier stratigraphic work having laid the necessary
foundation.
In the report of Mr. Beyer alluded to above, it is shown that
the value of the mineral productions of the State in 1904 was
464 Scientific Intelligence.
$15,000,000, of which the chief items are coal, making two-thirds
of the whole, and clay more than_a fifth; others are building
stone, gypsum, lead and sand-lime brick.
2. Summary Report of the Geological Survey Department of
Canada, for the Calendar Year 1904. Roserr Bry, Acting
Deputy Head and Director. Pp. xxxviil, 392, with seven geo-
logical maps. Ottawa, 1905. — This volume gives a concise
account of the work accomplished by the Canadian Survey dur-
ing 1904. The total number of parties engaged was twenty-
eight, and their labors extended over the entire area of the
country, extending not only from the Atlantic to the Pacific but
also into the Arctic. In general, the work carried on, as with
other surveys at the present time, was largely on the economic
side. As an illustration of what may be accomplished in this
way by careful geological work, the Director mentions the recent
discovery of a seam of coal, 10 feet thick, at a depth of 2,340
feet, near Pettigrew, in Cumberland County, Nova Scotia. The
bore-hole was sunk through an unproductive covering at the sug-
gestion of Mr. Hugh Fletcher of the Survey, as the result of his
knowledge of the minute structural geology of that district.
This successful result opens the prospect of finding numerous
coal seams through an area of fifty miles in length and thirty in
breadth. This discovery is given as an illustration of the very
important economic results that follow accurate topographical
and geological work. .
Of the special reports given in the volume, two are devoted to
the Kluane and Duncan Creek mining districts, in Yukon Terri-
tory, others to the different coal-basins of British Columbia and
so on. An interesting account is also given by Commander A. P.
Low of the expedition to Hudson Bay and northward in 1903-4
by the 8. 8S. Neptune. Among other points may be mentioned
a detailed statement of the phenomena accompanying the fall of
the meteorite at Shelburne, Ontario, on August 13, 1904.
3. Glaciation of Southwestern New Zealand. — HK. C. ANDREWS,
of the Department of Mines, Sydney, New South Wales, has
written on “Some interesting facts concerning the glaciation of
Southwestern New Zealand” (Trans. Austral. Assoc. Adv. Sci-
ence, 1904, 189-205, 8 plates), in which he sets forth with much
clearness the evidence of intense glacial erosion in the district of
the fiords about Milford sound. Hanging lateral valleys, par-
tially or totally truncated spurs, and the resulting rectilinear
cliffs or over-steepened valley sides, with lakes and over-deepened
fiords along the valley courses all occur in abundance. ‘These
peculiar features are compared with those developed by normal
erosion in the highlands of northeastern Australia (“ New Eng-
land”), and the conclusion is reached that as normal erosion can-
not possibly account for both, glacial erosion must be responsible
for the peculiar features that occur where glaciers are independ-
ently shown to have existed. In a supplementary note, Andrews
ee —e
Geology and Mineralogy. 465
well says: “The author feels confident that the glacial explana-
tion is most convincing to students of geography, who .. . have
not either lived in or even seen any region of former or present
intense glaciation. Only to such workers does the whole series
of novel perceptions presented during a first glimpse at a former
strongly glaciated region come with the startling force of a reve-
lation.” W. M. D.
4, Mastodon-Reste aus dem interandinen Hochland von Bo-
livia ; von J. F. Pomercxs. Palaeontographica, Bd. 52, 1905,
pp. 17-56, 2 pls.—Dr. Pompeckj, during his travels in Bolivia in
1902, collected near Ulloma and Calacoto a number of mastodon
jaws and teeth here described and discussed in great detail.
These were found at an elevation of 3800 meters above sea level,
and belong to Mastodon bolivianus and M. humboldti.
The belief is held by some that these mastodons lived at a
time when the mountains had a far lower altitude than now, but
Pompeckj holds quite the contrary opinion. He states:
“During Diluvial time, or at least during that portion of it
when the fauna containing Mastodon bolivianus existed, the high
Bolivian plains at an elevation of about 3800-4000 meters prob-
ably had the character of a steppe, similar to that of to-day, but
with a greater rainfall and therefore with a richer growth of
grass and bushes than at present.
“‘ Neither the geological structure of the Bolivian highland nor
its Diluvial fauna compels the conclusion of decided Diluvial or
Postdiluvial elevation of the Andes.” C8.
5. Description of New Rodents and Discussion of the Origin
of Daemonelix ; by O. A. PetERson. Mem. Carnegie Museum,
11, 1905, pp. 139-191, text figures and pls. 17-21.—The part of
this paper of greatest interest in general paleontology relates to
the interpretation of the so-called ‘“ Devil’s corkscrews,” so well
and fully described by Professor Barbour. The general explana-
tion has been that these gigantic screw casts are the fossilized
and infiltrated roots of water plants. However, the suggestion
has also been made that they represent the burrows of some fos-
sorial rodent.
Last year Mr. Peterson made a careful search for vertebrate
fossils in the Daemonelix beds as exposed in the adjoining
counties of Sioux in Nebraska and Converse in Wyoming. He
states that one is always sure to find rodent remains in a locality
where Daemonelix is found in great numbers, and he was
rewarded in his exploration by securing a number of good skele-
tons of the beaver-like Steneofiber within the spiral of Daemone-
liz or its so-called rhizome. This led him next to study the
tunnels of the living prairie-dog so common throughout the semi-
arid region of the West. He did this by making a mixture of
plaster, water, and sand, and pouring this into and filling the
tunnel. Later this filling was dug out, and two of these casts are
illustrated in the paper here reviewed; they certainly suggest
466 Scientific Intelligence.
Daemonelix. The rhizomes of the gigantic corkscrew were
found. to be either simple or several times branched ; some of
them ended in an enlargement, but none of them showed small
Daemonelix spirals emerging from them, as has been stated by
other authors. The skeletons within Daemonelix are usually
scattered “and quite often only the head is found crowded close
to the wall, or inside of the rim of the compact mass of roots.”
The best skeleton was found near the end of one of the rhizomes,
Some of the latter attained a length of fifteen feet.
In regard to the plant material found within the spirals, Mr. O.
E. Jennings states: “‘ The vegetable tissues are apparently sim-
ply the remains of a mesh of roots such as is sometimes found
clogging a tile drain or sewer. . . . Enough was evident, how-
ever, to plainly indicate that nearly all the roots were those of
angiosperms, the cells discerned being quite typical.”
The evidence thus far presented is decidedly more in favor of —
Daemonelix being the cast of fossorial rodent burrows than the
roots of some gigantic aquatic plant. CS
6. Heonomic Geology of the Bingham Mining g District, Utah;
by Joun Mason Boutwe tx; with A Section on Areal Geology,
by ArrHuR Keira and An Introduction on General Geology, by
SAMUEL FRANKLIN Emmons. U. 8. G. 8. Professional Paper,
No. 38, 396 pp., 49 pls., 10 figs. in text. —This paper, which
almost approaches a monograph in size and scope, is a valuable
contribution to the literature of economic geology as well as
being a detailed description of an important and interesting min-
ing district. Bingham has been a producing camp since about
1870. In the early days of the district the lead-silver deposits
were worked, the carbonate ores being first mined and then later
the sulphides. Some gold mining has also been carried on, both
placer and vein deposits. In 1896 large bodies of low-grade
copper ore were first seriously exploited and since then Bingham
has steadily risen in importance as a copper producer. ‘The pro-
duction of copper from the district for the year 1902 was nearly
15,000,000 lbs.
The Bingham district is situated on the east side of the Oquirrh
Mountains about fifteen miles south of Great Salt Lake. The
rocks of the section are made up chiefly of quartzites, sandstones
and limestones of Upper Carboniferous age, with intrusive bodies
of monzonite and monzonite porphyry and extrusive flows of
andesite. ‘There is one broad open flexure of the rocks in the
district, a synclinal fold which pitches toward the northwest.
Besides this many. smaller folds are found. ‘The rocks are also
extensively faulted.
The ores occur in vein, bedded and disseminated deposits. The
vein deposits are chiefly those of argentiferous lead ore which fills
fissures that traverse all of the rock types. The bedded deposits
are of copper ore and are found in the limestones, while the dis-
seminated copper ore is restricted to the monzonitic intrusives.
cso ee
aa! AE Neeps scully
Geology and Mineralogy. 467
The most important ore bodies are those of the copper-bearing
sulphide deposits which occur in massive marbleized limestones
along particular beds in the vicinity of the intrusives.
Mr. Boutwell sums up the geological history of the district as
follows: “‘ Between Carboniferous and late Tertiary time monzo-
nitic intrusives invaded sediments in the Bingham area, meta-
morphosed them and introduced metallic elements which replaced
marbleized limestone with pyritous copper sulphides. After the
superficial portions of the intrusives had cooled to at least partial
rigidity they and the inclosing sediments were rent by northeast-
southwest fissures.
“Heated aqueous solutions from the deeper unconsolidated
portions of the magma then ascended these channels, altered
their walls, and introduced additional metallic elements. At this
time more pyritous copper sulphide may have been added to that
formed earlier in the limestone in connection with contact meta-
morphism. Monzonite, including its original metallic constitu-
ents, was altered ; copper, gold and sulphur were probably added,
and auriferous copper sulphides were formed. The silver-lead
ore was deposited in the fissures, mainly by filling, partly by
replacement.
“Since this period of mineralization these original sulphide
ores have been altered by surface waters, in their upper portions,
into carbonates and oxides, and relatively enriched in their under-
lying portions.” WwW. E. F.
7. Economic Geology, a Semi- Quarterly Journal devoted to
Geology as applied to Mining and Allied Industries. Volume I,
Number 1. (Published by the Economic Geology Publishing
Company, Lancaster, Pa.)—The appearance of the first number
of this new journal is an event of unusual interest and importance.
Economie geology has only within the last quarter century estab-
lished its place as a distinct and important department of geo-
logical science. In Germany the Zeitschrift fur praktische Geo-
logie was the result of this movement among German geologists
and it has done much to place this branch of geology on a firm
basis both at home and abroad. It is only recently, however,
that in the English-speaking world economic geology has begun
to occupy its rightful position, and this new journal has been
established on account of this fact and with the hope that by its
efforts a still larger recognition may be given the subject. Until
now the American geologist who had interested himself in the
problems of ore deposits had no field for the publication of the
results of his investigations outside of the channels of the United
States Geological Survey, except in various technical or semi-
technical journals devoted to mining. It is, therefore, with a
distinct sense of congratulation that we find provided here a
proper place for the printing of such papers.
The editor outlines the scope and oftice of the journal in his
first editorial as follows: “The chief purpose of ‘ Economic Geol-
468 Scientific Intelligence.
ogy’ will be to furnish its readers with articles of a scientific
character. These will deal with the application of the broad
principles of geology to mineral deposits of economic value, with
the scientific description of such deposits and particularly with
the chemical, physical and structural problems bearing upon their
genesis. With the engineering and commercial aspects of min-
ing this journal will not be directly concerned, as these subjects
find ample representation in the technical mining journals.”
The editor of “Economic Geology” is Prof. J. D. Irving of
Lehigh University, and the associate editors; Mr. W. Lindgren
of Washington, Prof. J. F. Kemp of Columbia University, Mr.
F. L. Ransome of Washington, Prof. H. Ries of Cornell Uni-
versity, Mr. M. R. Campbell of Washington and Prof. C. K.
Leith of the University of Wisconsin.
The magazine in its mechanical make-up has evidently been.
modeled after the Journal of Geology. The paper, type, and
general appearance are all excellent. The first number embraces
100 pages, of which about three-fourths are given to articles,
whose titles ure as follows: The Present Standing of Apphed
Geology, by F. L. Ransome; Secondary Enrichment in Ore-
Deposits of Copper, by J. F. Kemp; Hypothesis to Account for
the Transformation of Vegetable Matter into the Different Vari-
eties of Coal, by M. R. Campbell; Ore-Deposition and Deep Min-
ing, by W. Lindor en ; Genesis of the Lake Superior Iron Ores, by
C.K. Leith ; The Chemistry of Ore-Deposition—Precipitation of
Copper by Nataral Silicates, by E. C. Sullivan. There are also
sections devoted to the informal discussion of topics relating to
economic geology, to reviews and to scientific notes and news.
W. E. F.
8. Minerals in Rock Sections ; the practical methods of identi-
Sying Minerals in Rock Sections by means of the Microscope ;
by Lea MclI. Luqurr. Revised Edition. 147 pp. New York,
1905 (D. Van Nostrand Co.).—The additions and changes intro-
duced in the revised edition of this useful volume (see vol. vii,
319) are numerous and such as to materially increase its value
for the practical worker with the microscope.
III. MiIsceELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
1. National Academy of Sciences.—The autumn meeting of
the National Academy was held at New Haven, Conn., on
November 14 and 15. The following list contains the titles of
papers read :
JOHN TROWBRIDGE: Slow movements of electrical discharges.
E. B. Witson: Sex-determinations and the chromosomes.
L. B. MENDEL: Studies on the chemical physiology of devclopment and
growth.
W. M. Davis: The Dwyka glacial conglomerate of South Africa.
B. B. Bottwoop: The disintegration products of thorium as indicated by
the proportions of lead and helium in minerals.
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 469
A. Hatz: Relation of the true anomalies in a parabola and a very eccen-
tric ellipse having the same perihelion distance.
S. L. PENFIELD: On a new mineral from Borax Lake, California.
F. E. Beaca: On errors of excentricity and collimation in the human eye.
©. S. Prerrce: The relation of betweenness and Royce’s O-collections.
L. P. WHEELER: Some problems i in metallic reflection.
FRANZ Boas: On Pearson’s formulas of skew distribution of variates,
A. AGassiz: On the variation in the spines of sea urchins.
W. H. Brewer: Further observations on sedimentation.
H. A. Bumsteap: The effect of Rontgen rays on certain metals.
Recent publications of the Academy are as follows:
Memoirs, Vol. [X.—Monograph of the Bombycine Moths of
North America, including their Transformations and Origin of
the Larval Markings and Armature. Part II], Family Cerato-
campide, Subfamily Ceratocampine; by ALpHEus SPRING
PackarRp. 149 pp., 61 plates, in part colored.
Vol. X, No. 1.—The Absolute Value of the Acceleration of
Gravity determined by the Ring-Pendulum Method ; by Cuarizs
E. MENDENHALL. Pp. 1-23, 3 plates.
No. 2.—Claytonia Gronoy, a Morphological and Anatomical
Study; by THEopoRE Hotm. Pp. 25-37, 2 plates.
No. 3.—A Research upon the Action of Alcohol upon the Cir-
culation; by Horatio C. Woop and Danirt M. Hoyr. Pp.
39-68, 3 plates.
2. The Geological Society of America.—The eighteenth win-
ter meeting of the Geological Society will be held at Ottawa,
Dec. 27-29, in the House of Commons Building’; this is by invi-
tation of the Logan Club of the Geological Survey of Canada.
President R. Pumpelly will preside. The Cordilleran Section of
the Society will meet at Berkeley, Cal., Dec. 29, 30.
3. A Laboratory Guide in Bacteriology ; by Pau G. Heine-
MANN. 143 pp. 1905 (The University of Chicago Press).—This
little manual of 145 pages contains clear and concise directions
for a thorough course of laboratory work in the subject, includ-
ing the preparation of culture and staining media and the col-
lection, isolation, and method of studying the different groups of
bacteria. The course, as outlined, is that pursued by the medical
students of the University of Chicago. There are descriptions
and illustrations of practically every piece of apparatus used in
the laboratory. Between each two pages is a blank sheet for
notes and additions to the text. W. RB. C.
4. British Tunicata ; by AtpER and Hancock, edited by
the Secretary of the Ray Society. Vol. I. Ray Society, 1905.
Pp. 146, with 20 plates.—This long delayed monograph, that was
begun in 1855, has now made its appearance, more than thirty
years after the death of both the authors. The entire work will
be completed in three volumes and will contain descriptions and
colored illustrations of all the British tunicates known up to the
year 1873. The present volume contains a general account of
the anatomy, physiology and relationships of the class Tunicata,
together with extended specific descriptions of the thirty indige-
470 Scientific Intelligence.
nous species of the genus Ascidia. Nearly all these forms are
illustrated by beautiful colored drawings by the authors. There
are also many anatomical figures. W. R. C.
5. Catalogus Mammalium tam viventium quam fossilium a
Doctore K.-L. Trovgssart. Quinquennale Supplementum (1899-
1904) Fasciculus IV. Pp. vil, 753-929, Berlin, 1905 (R. Fried-
lander & Sohn).—This part completes the Supplement begun in
1904 (this Journal, xviii, 95) and gives the volume contents and
index. It includes the Cetacea, “Edentata, Marsupialia, Allo-
theria, Monotremata.
6. Car negie Institution of. Washington. — Recent publica-
tions, not before announced, are as follows:
No. 9.—The Collected Mathematical Works of GrorcE
Wittam Hirt. Volume one. Pp. xviii, 363. With an intro-
duction by M. H. Poincaré and a portrait (frontispiece).
No. 35.—Investigations of Infra-red Spectra. Part I, Infra-
red Absorption Spectra ; Part IL, Infra-red Emission Spectra ; by
Winuras W. Costenrz, 331 pp., 152 figures, 3 folded plates.
No. 36.—Studies in Spermatogenesis, with especial reference to
the ‘‘ Accessory CHromosoure *; by N. M. STEVENS) 303 ppeeg
plates.
No. 37.—Sexual Reproduction and the Organization of the
Nucleus in certain Mildews; by R. A. Harper. 104 pp., 7
plates.
No. 41.—Traditions of the Caddo; collected under the auspices
of the Carnegie Institution of Washington; by Grorce A. Dor-
SEY. 136 pp.
7. A Handbook of the Trees of California ; by Attcre East-
woop, Curator of the Department of Botany. Occasional Papers
of the California Academy of Sciences, IX. 86 pp., 57 plates.
San Francisco, 1905.—The. scope of this work will be seen from
the following statement quoted from the preface: ‘The aim has ~
been to prepare a work which, while giving all the information
necessary for the identification of the different trees of our val-
Jeys and mountains, will be so brief and concise that the entire
matter can be put into a book that can be carried into the field.”
The description of species are quite brief, but are well supple-
mented by a series of 57 excellent plates.
OBITUARY.
Professor Drwirr Bristoi. Brace, head of the Department
of Physics in the University of Nebraska and author of numerous
physical papers, died at his home in Lincoln, Nebraska, on Octo-
ber 2, in his forty-seventh year.
Professor RatpH Copetanp, Astronomer Royal of Scotland
and Professor of Astronomy in the University of Edinburgh,
died on October 27, at the age of sixty-eight years.
Dr. W. von Bezoup, Professor of Physics and Meteorology
at the University of Berlin and Director of the German Meteoro-
logical Institute, died early in October, in his sixty-ninth year.
ENDEX TO.NOLUME XX;*
A
Academy, National, New Haven
meeting, 468; publications, 469.
Aldrich, J. M., catalogue of No.
American diptera, 77.
Allen E. T., thermal properties of
feldspars, 72.
Alpen, die, im Eiszeitalter,
and Briickner, 407.
American Museum Journal, 77
Arizona, petrography
Mts., Guild, 3153.
Ashley, R. H. estimation of sulphites
by iodine, 15.
B
Bacteriology, Heinemann, 469.
Bailey, E
sis, 461.
Barus, C., groups of efficient nuclei
in dust-free air; 297 ; ions and nuclei
in dust-free air, 448.
Baskerville, C., phosphorescence of
zine suiphide, 93; action of radium
emanations on minerals, 95.
Becker, rock cleavage, 407.
Beiknap Mts., N. H.,
son and Washington, 344.
Benton, J. R., properties of catgut
musical strings, 583, 462.
Bieres, Fabrication, '
Lévy, 168.
Blondlot’s Emission pesante, 400.
Bolivia, mastodon remains, Pom-
peckj, 465.
Boltwood, B. B.,
ium in radio-active minerals, 50 ;
radio-active waters, Hot Springs,
Ark., 128; disintegration products
of radio-active elements, 253 ; pro-
duction of radium from uranium,
239.
BOTANY.
Croomia pauciflora, Holm, 50.
Cyperacez, studies in the, Holm,
No. XXIV, 301.
Trees of California, Eastwood, 470,
Moreau
British Museum, Catalogue of Birds’ |
Eggs, Oates, 412.
* This Index contains the general heads,
Penck
of Tucson
H. S., Qualitative Analy- |
geology, Pirs- |
and |
radium and uran- |
Bronson, H. L., effect of tempera-
ture on rate of decay of radium
deposit, 60.
Brown, T. C., Lower Tertiary fauna
of Chappaquiddick Is. , 229.
Briickner, E., die Alpen im Eiszeit-
alter, 407.
| Bush, K. J. tubicolous annelids from
Pacific, 75
C
Cady, H. P., Qualitative Analysis,
461.
|Campbell, H. D., Cambro-Ordovi-
cian limestones of Virginia, 445.
Canada geol. survey, 1904, 464.
Canadian Rockies, glacial studies,
Scherzer, 80.
| Cape Colony, Geology, Rogers, 163.
Carnegie Institution, publications,
80, 411, 470.
|Carolinas, tin deposits of, Sterritt
and Pratt, 75.
Cathode, rotating, for estimation
of cadmium, Flora, 268, 392, 455.
Chemical Arithmetic, Wells, 399.
|CHEMISTRY.
Actinium,
319.
| Aluminium, iodometric determin-
ation, Moody, 181.
Bromides, typical hydrous, Kreider,
97
gases from, Debierne,
Cadmium, estimation of, as sul-
phate, Flora, 268; as chloride,
Flora, 392; as oxide, Flora, 457;
by rotating cathode, Flora, 455.
Ferric sulphate solutions, hydroly-
sis of, Recoura, 320.
Gold, separation from platinum
metals, Jannasch and von Mayer,
320).
Helium from radium emanation,
Himstedt and Meyer, 399.
Hydrogen, liquid, and air calorim-
eters, Dewar, 152; nascent, dif-
fusion through iron, Winkleman,
400.
Iron, new compound, Hauser, 460.
BOTANY, CHEMISTRY (incl. chem. physics), GEOLOGY,
MINERALS, OBITUARY, RocKS, ZOOLOGY, and under each the titles of Articles referring thereto are
mentioned.
472
CHEMISTRY continued.
Neon and helium in the air, Ram-
say, 65.
— krypton and xenon, new method
of detecting, Valentiner and
Schmidt, 462.
Nickel, new reagent for, Tschugaeff,
397.
Nitrosyl fluoride, Ruff and Stauber,
460.
Ozone, formation by ultra-violet
light, Fischer and Braemer, 397.
Precipitates, handling of, Gooch,
Hie
Radium. See Radium.
Solution, new heavy, Duboin, 519.
Strontium, atomic weight, Rich-
ards, 461.
Sugar, determination with Fehling’s
solution, 320.
Sulphites, estimation
Ashley, 18.
Thorium, radio-activity of, Sackur,
5
by iodine,
Zine sulphide, phosphorescence,
Baskerville and Lockhart, 95.
Chemistry, Engineering, Stillman,
98
Inorganic, Gooch and Walker, 66.
Physiological, Long, 399.
Qualitative Analysis, Bailey and
Cady, 461.
Cincinnati. See Observatory.
Cleland, H. F.,
ral bridges, 119.
Conn, H. W., protozoa of Connecti-
cut, 76.
Connecticut, clays of, Loughlin, 408.
Crinoids, Helderbergian, of New
York, Talbot, 17.
Cumings E. R.,
Fenestella, 169.
Cushing, H. P., geology of Little
Falls, N. Y., 156.
formation of natu-
development of
D
Dalyo wk as,
granites, 189.
Darton, N. H., age of Monument
Creek formation, 178; geology and
water resources of Central Great
Plains, 70.
Davison C., Recent Earthquakes,
163.
Day, A. L., thermal properties of
feldspars, 72.
secondary origin of
INDEX.
Dewar, J., liquid hydrogen and air
calorimeters, 152; thermo-electric
junction for determining ues
tures, 153.
E
Earthquakes, Recent, Davison, 163.
Eastwood, A., Trees of California,
470.
Electricity, side discharge of, Trow-
bridge, 57.
Electrolytic dissociation
Talbot and Blanchard, 398.
theory,
F
Fairchild, H. L.,
a fallacy, 164.
Feldspars, see MINERALS.
FitzGerald-Lorentz effect, Morley
and Miller, 67.
Flora, C. P.,
as sulphate, 268; do. as chloride,
392 ; do. as oxide, 457; do. by rota-
ting cathode, 455.
Forestry, report for Minnesota, 1904,
167.
Fossils, see GEOLOGY.
G
ice erosion theory,
Gardiner, J.
phy of the Maldives and Lacea-
dives, Vol. ii, pt. iv, 77.
Gas mixtures, Spectroscopic Analysis,
Lilienfeld, 67.
Geikie, J., Structural and Field Geol-
ogy, 408
GEOLOGICAL REPORTS and
SURVEYS
Canada, 1904, 464.
Cape of Good Hope, 1904, 406.
Indiana, 29th annual report, 322.
Towa, Vol. xv, 1904, 463.
Louisiana, bulletins, 328.
New Jersey, 1904, 828.
United States, 69, 402.
Geological Society of America,
Ottawa meeting, 469.
GEOLOGY.
Baptanodon, osteology, Gilmore,
403.
Bingham mining district, Utah,
geology, Boutwell, Keith and
Emmons, 466.
Cambrian faunas of India,
cott, 404, 405.
Wal-
estimation of cadmium —
G., Fauna and Geogra-.
INDEX.
GEOLOGY continued.
Cambrian, Lower, fauna of, Portu-
gal, Delgado, 159.
Ceratopsia, two new, Wyoming,
Hatcher, 413.
Chazy limestone, fauna of, Ray-
‘mond, 393.
Clays of Connecticut, Loughlin,
408.
Daemonelix, origin of, Peterson,
465.
Diceratops, restoration, Lull, 420.
Faults, overthrust, in central New
York, Schneider, 308.
Fenestella, development, Cumings,
169.
Fossil Invertebrates, Catalogue,
U.S. Nat. Museum, Schuchert,
405.
Geologic map of Tully Quadrangle,
Clarke and Luther, 158.
Geology of Bingham mining dis-
trict, Utah, Boutwell, 466 : of
Central Great Plains, Darton,
70; of Little Falls, N. Y, Cush-
ing, 106; of Littleton. New
Hampshire, Hitchcock, 161 ;
Watkins and Elmira quadrangles,
Clarke and Luther, 157.
Glacial conglomerate of
Africa, Mellor, 107.
— studies, Canadian Rockies, Scher-
zer, 80.
Glaciation of the Green Mts., Hitch-
cock, 166; of New Zealand, An-
drews, 464,
South
Glacier, Delavan lobe of Lake Mich- |
igan, Alden, 409.
Graptolites of New York, Ruede-
mann, 406.
Helderbergian crinoids
York, Talbot, ive
Ice erosion theory, fallacy of, Fair-
child, 164.
Limestones, Cambro-Ordovician of
Virginia, Campbell, 445.
Martinez group, paleontology, |
Weaver, 199.
Mastodon remains from Bolivia,
465.
of New
Mesozoic plants from Korea, Yabe, |
Monument Creek formation, age of,
Darton, 178.
Natural bridges,
land, 119.
Paraphorhynchus,
pod, Weller, 160.
new. brachio-
Peat bogs of Switzerland, Frith and |
Schroter, 162.
of |
| Hobbs, W. H.,
formation, Cle-
473
GEOLOGY continued.
Rock cleavage, Leith, 406, Becker,
407.
Sympterura minveri,
ophiurid, Bather, 160.
Tertiary, Lower, fauna of Chappa-
quiddick Island, Brown,, 229.
Devonian
Thalattosauria, California, Mer-
riam, 161.
Toxochelys, new Niobrara, Wie-
land, 325
Triassic system in New Mexico,
Keyes, 428.
Triceratops prorsus, mounted skel-
eton, Schuchert, 458.
Turtles, marine, new, Wieland,
320; Upper Cretaceous, Wie-
land, 430.
aonides origin of No. American,
White, 160.
Vaileys, hanging, Russell, 165.
Geology, Economic, Journal of, 467.
—of Cape Colony, Rogers, 163.
—Structural and Field, Geikie,
408.
Gilmore, C. W., osteology of Bap-
tanodon, 403.
Glaciation, Glaciers, GEOL-
OGY
see
‘Gooch, F. A., handling of precipi-
tates for solution and reprecipita-
tion, 11, Inorganic Chemistry, 66.
Graton, L. C., purpurite, new min-
eral, 146.
Green Mts., glaciation, Hitchcock,
166.
Guild, F. W., petrography of the
Tucson Mts., Arizona, 313.
H
Harrington, B. J., apparatus for
vapor densities, 220.
Harvard College, see Observatory.
Hatcher, J. B., two new Ceratopsia,
Wyoming, 413.
| Heinemann, P. G., Laboratory Guide
in Bacteriology, 469.
Hidden, W. E., cassiterite, a new
cleavage, 410.
Hitchcock, C. H., glaciation of the
Green Mts., 166.
origin of channels
around Manhattan Island, 71.
Hofmeister, F., Beitrage zur chem.
Physiologie, 168.
Holm T., Croomia pauciflora, 50;
studies in the Cyperacee, XXIV,
Carices from N. W. America, 301.
474
Hough, R. H., mechanical equiva-
lent of heat vaporization of water,
81.
Howorth, H. H., Ice or Water, 166.
I
Ice or Water, Howorth, 166.
Iddings, J. P, optical study of the
feldspars, 72.
India, Cambrian faunas of, Walcott,
404, 405:
Indiana, geol. survey, 322.
Ions and nuclei in dust-free air,
Barus, 448.
Iowa, geol. survey, 1904, 463.
J
Jamieson, G. S., tychite, 217.
Japan, magnetic survey, Tanakadate,
167.
K
Kayser, H., Handbuch der Spectro-
scopie, 69.
Keyes, C. R., Triassic system in
New Mexico, 428.
Kilimandjaro to Meru, Africa,
Uhlig, 78.
Korea, Mesozoic plants from, Yabe,
406.
Kreider, D. A., iodine titration vol-
tameter, 1
Kreider, J. L., typical hydrous bro-
mides, 97
L
Laboratoire del’ Usine, Houllevigue,
168.
Lakes, A., Geology of Western Ore
Deposits, 409.
Landolt-Bornstein Physikalisch-
Chemische Tabellen, 401.
Leith, J. B., rock cleavage, 406.
Littleton, N. H., geology, Hitch-
cock, 161.
Lockhart, L. B., action of radium
emanations on minerals, 95; phos-
phorescence of zine sulphide, 93.
Long, J. H., Physiological Chemis-
try, 399.
Loughlin, G. F., Clays of Connecti-
cut, 408.
Louisiana geol. survey, bulletins,
320.
Lull, R. S., restoration of Dicera-
tops, 420.
Luquer, L. Mcl., Minerals in Rock
Sections, 468.
INDEX.
M
Magnetic survey of Japan, Tanaka-
date, 167.
Maldives and Laccadives, Fauna and
Geography, Gardiner, 77.
Manhattan Island, origin of chan-
nels around, Hobbs, 71.
Manila, ethnological survey, publi-
cations, 167.
Mastodon remains from Bolivia,
Pompeckj, 465.
Mellor, E. T., glacial conglomerate
of South Africa, 107.
Merriam, J. C., Thallatosauria from
California, 161.
Metals, emission of negative corpus-
cles by alkali, Elster and Geitel,
461.
MINERALS.
Beckelite, 323. Bowmanite, 324.
Cassiterite, new cleavage, 410.
Diamond, formation, Crookes, 460.
Enargite, 280.
Feldspars, thermal properties, Day
and Allen, 72; optical study,
Iddings, 72.
Hematite, Na , 289. Hutchinson-
ite, 324.
Lengenbachite, 524, Luzonite, 277.
Marrite, 324.
Northupite, 217.
Platinum in black sands, Day, 410.
Purpurite, 146.
Quartz, San Diego Co., 125.
Riebeckite, genesis, 133.
Smithite, 824. Sylvanite, 282.
Tin deposits of the Carolinas,
“Pratt and Sterrett, 75. Trech-
mannite, 324. Tychite, 217.
Wolframite, Boulder, Colo., 281.
Minerals, action of radium emana-
tions on, Baskerville and Lockhart,
95.
—in Rock Sections, Luquer, 468.
— optical character of birefracting,
Cal.,
Wright, 285.
— radio-active, Rutherford and Bolt-
wood 5a; Strutt, 68.
Montana, Agricultural College,
Science Studies, 78.
— petrography of Central, Pirsson,
D0.
Moody, S. E., iodometric determin-
ation of aluminium, 181.
Murgoci, G. M. , tiebeckite and rie-
beckite rocks, 133.
Musical strings, properties of, Ben-
ton, 388, 462.
INDEX.
N
Negritos of Zambale, Reed, 167.
New Hampshire, geology of, Pirs-
son and Washington, 344.
New Jersey geol. survey, 1904, 323.
New Mexico, Triassic system, Keyes,
423.
New York, graptolites of, Ruede-
mann, 406
— Helderbergian crinoids, Talbot, 17.
— overthrust faults in central, P. F.
Schneider, 308.
New Zealand, glaciation, Andrews,
464.
Nobel prizes in 1902, 167.
Nuclei, efficient, in dust-free air,
Barus, 297.
O
OBITUARY.
Von Bezold, W., 470; Brace, D.,
470 ; Buckton, G. B., 412.
Copeland, R., 470.
Errara, L., 412.
Reclus, E., 412.
Von Richthofen, F., 412.
Observatory, Cincinnati, 411; Har-
vard College, 411; Mt. . Wilson,
Cal., 80; West Hendon House, 80;
Yerkes, 411.
Optical character of birefracting
minerals, Wright, 285.
Ore deposits, Geology of western,
Lakes, 409.
EP
Pacific, tubicolous annelids from, |
Bush, 75.
Paleontologia Universalis, 406.
Penck A., die Alpen im LEiszeitalter,
407.
Penfield, S. L., tychite, 217.
Peterson, origin of Daemonelix, 465.
Physikalisch-chemische Tabellen,
Landolt-Bornstein, 401.
Physiologie, Beitrige zur chem.
Hofmeister, 168.
Pirsson, L. V., petrographic pro-
vince of Central Montana, 35; |
geology of New Hampshire, 344.
Portugal, Lower Cambrian fauna,
Delgado, 159.
Pumpelly, R., Explorations in Turk-
estan, 245.
Q
Quartz apparatus for laboratory pur- |
poses, Mylius and Meusser, 66.
— permeability to gases, Berthelot,
66.
475
R
Radio-active elements, disintegra-
tion products, Boltwood, 253.
—minerals, Rutherford and Bolt-
wood, 55; Strutt, 68.
—waters, Hot Springs, Ark., Bolt-
wood, 128.
Radio-activity, absence of excited,
due to temporary exposure to y-
rays, 68; of thorium, Sackur, 695.
Radium, action of emanations on
minerals, Baskerville and Lock-
hart, 99.
—effect of temperature on rate of
decay of deposit from, Bronson, 60.
—emanations, helium from, Him-
stedt and Meyer, 399.
— production from uranium, Bolt-
wood, 239.
—slow transformation
Rutherford, 321.
—and uranium in radio-active miner-
als, Rutherford and Bol*wood, 55.
Ramsay, neon and helium in air, 69.
Raymond, P. E., fauna of Chazy
limestone, 353.
products,
ROCKS.
Andesites, Arizona, Guild. 314.
Basalt, Arizona, Guild, 316.
Belknap Mts., N. H., Pirsson and
Washington, 544.
Granites, secondary origin of, Daly,
185.
Petrographiec province of Central
Montana, Pirsson, 35.
Quartz-basalt, Arizona, Guild, 318.
Rhyolite, Arizona, Guild, 513.
Riebeckite rocks, genesis, Murgoci,
135.
Rock cleavage, Leith, 406; Becker,
AQT.
Rogers, A. W., Geology of Cape
Colony, 163.
Rontgen rays,
Hahn, 461.
Rutherford, E., radium and uranium
in radio-active minerals, 55); slow
transformation products of radium,
del,
charging effects,
S
Shaller, W. T., purpurite, a new
mineral, 146. .
Schneider, H., Soils and Fertilizers,
398.
| Schneider, P. T., overthrust faults
in central New York, 308.
:
476 INDEX.
Schuchert, C., Catalogue of Fossil
Invertebrates, U. S. Museum, 405 ;
mounted skeleton of Triceratops
prorsus in U. 8. Nat. Museum, 408.
Sedgwick, A., text-book of Zoology,
76
Smithsonian Institution, annual re-
port, 412.
Soils and Fertilizers, Schneider, 398.
South Africa, glacial conglomerate,
Mellor, 107.
Spectral lines, influence of character
of excitation upon structure, 68.
Spectroscopie, Handbuch, Kayser,
69
Stillman, T. B., Engineering Chem-
istry, 398.
Switzerland, peat bogs of, Frth and
Schrotter, 162.
T
Talbot, M., revision of the New
York Helderbergian Crinoids, 17.
Taschenberg, O., Bibliotheca Zoo-
logica, IT, 412.
Temperatures, thermo-electric junc-
tion for determining, Dewar, 153.
Trouessart, E. L., Catalogus Mam-
malium, 470.
Trowbridge, J., side discharge of
electricity, 57.
Tully quadrangle, geologic map,
Clarke and Luther, 158.
Turkestan, Explorations in, 245.
U
Uhlig, C., Kilimandjaro to Meru,
Africa, 78.
United States, geol. survey, 69, 402.
National Museum, Report for 1908,
167.
— — Catalogue of Fossil Inverte-
brates, Schuchert, 405.
Utah, geology of Bingham mining
district, Boutwell, Keith and Km-
mons, 466.
V
Vapor-densities, apparatus for deter-
mining, Harrington, 225
Virginia, Cambro-Ordovician lime-
stones, Campbell, 445.
Voltaic element, normal, 68.
Voltameter, iodine titration, Kreider,
W
Walcott, C. D., Cambrian faunas of
India, 404, 405.
beset C. F., Inorganic Chemistry,
Walther, J., Geology, 161.
Waring, G. A., quartz from San
Diego Co., California, 120.
Water, heat vaporization, mechan-
ical equivalent, Hough, 81.
Watkins and Elmira quadrangles,
geology, Clarke and Luther, 157.
Washington, H. S., geology of Bel-
knap Mts, N. H., 844.
| Wells, H. L., Text-book of Chem-
ical Arithmetic, 399.
Wieland, G. R., new Niobrara Toxo-
chelys, 325; Upper Cretaceous tur-
tles, 480.
Wright, F. E., optical character of
birefracting minerals, 285.
Wyoming, new Ceratopsia, Hatcher,
en restoration of Diceratops, Lull,
¥
Yerkes Observatory, report, 411.
Z
Zoologica, Bibliotheca, II, Taschen-
berg, 412.
Zoology, text-book, Sedgwick, 76.
ZOOLOGY—
Annelids, tubicolous, from the Pa-
cific, Bush, 79.
Birds’ Eggs, catalogue, British Mu-
seum, Oates, 412.
Cold Spring Harbor Monographs,
(ish
Diptera, No. American, catalogue,
Aidrich, 77.
Fauna of Maldives and Laccadives,
Gardiner, 77.
Goat, Rocky Mt., Grant, 77.
Insects, Habits and Instincts,
Fabre, 77.
Mammalium, Catalogus, Troues-
sart, 470.
Protozoa of Connecticut, Conn. 76.
Tunicata, British, Alder and Han-
cock, 469.
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CONTENTS.
Page,
ART. rou. New Ceratopsia from the Laramie of
Converse County, Wyoming; by J. B. Harcuer. (With
Plates: XT (X11) esi Ava”
XLIL—Restoration of the Horned Dinosaur Diceratops ;
by Rrcwarp 8..LuLu. (With Plate XIV.) >> 1a) seen
XLIIi.—Triassic System in New Mexico; by Cuartus R.
KEyESe. O02 So ee ee 423
XLIV.—Structure of the Upper Cretaceous Turtles of New
Jersey: Agomphus; by G. ‘R. Winianp.__. 2 ee 430
XLV.—The Cambro-Ordovician Limestones of the Middle >
Portion of the Valley of Virginia; by H. D. Campprtn 145.
XLVI.—Relations of Ions and Nuclei in Dust-free Air; by
OARL- BARBUS 20 eo ee ee 448
XLVII.—Additional Notes upon the Estimation of Cad-
mium by Means of the Rotating Cathode, and Summary;
by Cuarenns PP). Prora:. 0/22 ee 2 oe ee 454
CHARLES P: FrORA =< = 2: OL. BE 2S eee
XLIX.—The Mounted Skeleton of Triceratops prorsus in
the U.S. National Museum; by C. ScaucuHenrt. (Wak :
Plate: XV.) \s.2 G2 Se 458
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
Chemistry and Physics.—A New Formation of Diamond, Sir W. Croomae
A New Compound of Iron, Orro Hauser: Nitrosyl Fiuoride, Rurr and
STAUBER, 460.—The Atomic Weight of Strontium, a: “We RICHARDS :
Qualitative Analysis, E. H. 8. Barney and H, P. Capy : Charging Effect
of Réntgen Rays, Kart Haun, 461.—Emission of Negative Corpuscles by
the Alkali Metals, J. J. THOMSON : A New Method of giowing the Presence
of Neon, Krypton, and Xenon, S. VaLEentTiner ahd R. Scumipr: The
Mechanical Properties of Catgut Musical Strings, J. R. Benton, 462.
Geology and Mineralogy.—lowa Geological Survey, Volume XV, 463.—Sum-
mary Report of the Geological Survey Department of Canada, R. BELL:
Glaciation of Southwestern New Zealand, E. C. ANDREWS, 464. —Mastodon-
Reste aus dem interandinen Hochland von Bolivia, Lk POMPECKG :
Description of New Rodents and Discussion of the Origin of Daemonelix,
O. A. PETERSON, 465.—Economic Geology of the Bingham Mining District,
Utah, 466. —Economic Geology, 467.—Minerals in Rock Sections, L. MclI.
LvQueR, 468.
Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence.—National Academy of Sciences, 468.—
The Geological Society of America: A Laboratory Guide in Bacteriology,
Paun G. Hetvemann: British Tunicata, ALDER and Hancock, 469.—Cata-
logus Mammalium tam viventium quam fossilium, HE. L. TROUESSART:
Carnegie Institution of Washington: A Handbook of the Trees of Cali-
fornia, A, Eastwoop, 470.
Obituary.—Professor DEwirt BRistoL BRacE, Professor RALPH ‘COPELAND,
Professor D. W. von Brzoxp, 470.
INDEX TO Vou. XX, 471.
TEN-VOLUME INDEX.
An extra number, containing: a full Index to volumes XI to XX of the
Fourth Series, will be ready in December or January. Sent only to those
who __ Whe specially order th PE ee order it. Price one dollar.
XLVIIL—The Estimation of Cadmium as the Oxide; by
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