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THE
AMERICAN
JOURNAL OF SCLENCE.
Epirorn: EDWARD S. DANA.
ASSOCIATE EDITORS
Proressorss GEORGE L. GOODALE, JOHN TROWBRIDGE,
W. G. FARLOW anp WM. M. DAVIS, or Camsripce,
Proressorss ADDISON E. VERRILL, HORACE L. WELLS,
L. V. PIRSSON anp H. E. GREGORY, or New Haven,
Proressor GEORGE F. BARKER, or PuHtapEeLPeun,
Proressor HENRY S. WILLIAMS, or Itwaca,
Proressor JOSEPH S. AMES, or Battimore,
Mr. J. S. DILLER, or Wasuineron.
FOURTH SERIES
VOL. XXVII—[WHOLE NUMBER, CLXXYVII.]
WITH PLATES I-IV.
NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT.
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THE TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR COMPANY,
NEW HAVEN. —
CONTENTS TO VOLUME XXVIILI.
ING Dery: (:
Page
Art. I—Diopside and its Relations to Calcium and Magne-
sium Metasilicates ; by E. T. ALLEN and W. P. Wuire.
With Optical Study; by F. E. Wericur and H. 8.
Pee suns oo Waltmeetate, b)2 os oe See eee 1
II.—California Earthquake of 1906; by G. K. GiLBEeRT __-- 48
I1f.—Descriptions of Tertiary Insects; by T. D. A. Cocx-
BRST noe Se eee pe se eu ac OS
IV.—Electrolytic Estimation of Lead and of Manganese by
the Use of the Filtering Crucible ; by F: A. Gooou and
CDs Be LSEDY ETERS 2 Pe Ee me ce 59
V.—Specific Radio-Activity of Thorium and its Products;
Seer co NSHINGAING > feeee ty Seka To eden 65
V1I.—Coronas with Mercury Light; by C. Barus__-.-._---- 73
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
Chemistry and Physics — Attempt to Produce a Compound of Argon, FISCHER
and Inrovict: Explosive Crystallization, Wrston, 82.—Constituents of
Ytterbium, A. v. WELsBAcH: New Form of ‘‘ Tin Infection,” von Hass-
Positive Rays, W. WiEN: Spectral Intensity of Canal Rays, J. Stark and
W. STENBERG: Canal Rays, J. Stark: Potential Measurements in the
dark Cathode Space, W. WrEstTPpHAL, 84.—EHlements of Physics, NicHoLs
and FRANKLIN: Text-Book of Physics, 89.
Geology—Publications of the United States Geological Survey, 86.—Canada
Geological Survey: North Carolina Geological and Economic Survey,
87.—Report of the State Geologist of Vermont for 1907-8: Thirty-
second Annual Report, Indiana Department of Geology, 88.—Illinois
State Geological Survey, Year-Book for 1907: New Zealand Geolog-
ical Survey: Report on the Eruptions of the Soufriére in St. Vincent in
1902, and on a Visit to Montagne Pelée in Martinique, T. ANDERSON and
J. S. Fiert, 89. —Geology and Ore deposits of the Coeur d’ Alene District,
Idaho, 90.—Geologie der Steinkohlenlager, DANNENBERG: Geology of
Coal and Coal-mining, W. Gipson: Physical History of the Earth in Out-
line, J. B. Baspitt: Triassic Ichthyosauria. with special reference to
American Forms, J. C. Merriam, 91.—Fossil Vertebrates in the American
Museum of Natural History, Part I—Fishes, L. Hussaxor, 92.—Conrad
Fissure, B. Brown: Four-horned Pelycosaurian from. the Permian of
Texas, W. D. MatrHew : Osteology of Blastomeryx and Phylogeny of the
‘American Cervide, W. D. MatTHEw: Rhinoceroses from the Oligocene
and Miocene deposits of North Dakota and Montana, E. Doveuass, 93.—
Fossil Horses from North Dakota and Montana, E. Doveiass : Some Oli-
gocene Lizards, E.-DoucLass: Preliminary Notes on Some American
Chalicotheres, O. A. PETERSON, 94.
Botany and Zoology—Harvard Botanical Station in Cuba, 94.—Handbuch
der Bliiten-biologie, P. Knuta : Convenient Clearing and Mounting Agent,
96.—Economic Zoology: Text-book of the Principles of Animal Histology,
U. DAHLGREN and W. A. Kepner: Archiv. fiir Zellforschung, R. GoLp-
scHMIDT: Ueber die Hibildung bei der Milbe Pediculopsis graminum, 97.
Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—Artificial Daylight for Use with the
Microscope, F. E. Wricut: Ion; A Journal of Electrotonics, Atomistics,
lIonology, Radio-activity and Raumchemistry, 98.—Life and Letters of
Herbert Spencer, D. Duncan, 99.—American Association for the Advance-
ment of Science: Nature of Enzyme Action: Rivista di Scienza, 100.
Obituary—O. W. Gispps: W. E. Ayrton, 100.
lv CONTENTS.
Num ber 1538:
Page
Art. Vii.—Revision of the Protostegide ; by G. R. WIELAND.
EW:th Elates TEL ic 5 sre ae pees oe 101
VIiI.—Submarine Eruptions of 1831 and 1891 near Pantel-
leria; by H.'S. WASHINGTON) -....22._2 22 2 131
1X.—Types of Permian Insects; by E. H. Setuarps._-.-_- 151
X.—Iodometric Estimation of Vanadic Acid, Chromic Acid
and Iron in the Presence of One Another ; by G. Epear 174
XI.—Analysis and Chemical Composition of the Mineral
Warwickite; by W. M. Brapuny -_:: 1: {2
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
Chemistry and Physics—Question of Change in Total Weight of Chemically
Reacting Substances, H. Lanpott: Volume of Radium Emanation,
RUTHERFORD, 185.—New Method for Separating Tungstic and Silicic
Oxides, Drracgz: Silicide of Uranium, Deracegz: New Periodic Func-
tion of the Atomic Weight, V. Poscut, 186.—Velocity of Rontgen Rays ;
also their Influence on the Brush Discharge, EH. Marx: Radiation of
Uranium X, H. W. Scumipt: Influence of Self Induction on Spark
Spectra, G. BeErnpT: Ionization of Gases by Spark and Arc, H. Rauscu,
187.—Investigations in Radiation, W. W. CoBLentz and P. G. NuttTine,
188.
Geology—Twenty-ninth Annual Report United States Geological Survey,
G. O. SmrtH, 188.—Geological Survey of New Jersey, H. B. KumMMeEL :
Sketch of the Geography and Geology of the Himalaya Mountains and
Tibet, S. G. Burrarp and H. H. Haypen, 189.—Gases in Rocks, R. T.
CHAMBERLIN, 190.
Botany and Zoology—Forest Flora of New South Wales, J. H. Maipen,
191 —Jaarboek van het Department van Langbouw in Niederlandsch-
Indie, 1907: Origin of Vertebrates, W. H. Gasket. 192.—Ticks: a
Monograph of the Ixodoidea, G. H. F. Nuttatut, C. Warsurton, W.
F. Cooper, and L. E. Ropinson: Animal Romances, G. RensHaw: Essays
on Evolution, E. B. Poutton, 193.—Parasitology, G. H. F. Nurauy and
A. EK. Suiprey, 194.
Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—New Goniometer Lamp, F. E. Wrieut,
194.—Containing Device for Salts-Used as Sources for Monochromatic
Light, F. E. Wricut, 195.—Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian
Institution for the year ending June 30, 1908, 196.
Obituary—G. W. Hoven, 196.
CONTENTS. v
Number [59.
. e ° . . Page
Arr. XII.—Recent Observations in Atmospheric Electricity ;
Ryegcttel th Drrany sohe oe M eee er Ae es 197
XIII.—Iodyrite from Tonopah, Nevada, and Broken Hill,
New South Wales ; by E. H. Kravs and C. W. Coox-_-. 210
XIV.— Deviation of Rays by Prisms; by H. 8S. Unter-_.--. 223
XV.—Heat of Oxidation of Tin, and second paper on the
Heat of Combination of Acidic Oxides with Sodium
Beutaesemnye W.. Ge MISTER 2.55.22 0:5. 5) eb enolase 229
XVI.—Neptunite Crystals from San Benito County, Cali-
mene MOMINV eH GMORD! Soa) i 2 s242 lS LOL ose 235
XVII.—Gravimetric Determination of Silver as the Chro-
mate ; by F. A. Goocu and R. 8. BoswortuH .__--_---- 241
XVII.—Doppler Effect in Positive Rays; by J. TRowpripGe 245
XIX.—New Armored Saurian from the Niobrara; by G. R.
Pe TELAND = -:.. ge SAD ENS TE aie rc EN BAS EASE eg area eae Ooo 250
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
Chemistry and Physics—New Method of Forming Liquid Alloys of Sodium
and Potassium, JAUBERT: Determination of Cerium and other Rare Earths
in Rocks, DietRicu, 260.—Solubility of Metallic Gold in Hydrochloric
Acid in the presence of Organic Substances, AWERKIEW: The Composi-
tion of Matter, E. MuLprr, 261.—Introduction to the Rarer Elements, P.
E. Brownine: Feste Lésungen und Isomorphism, G. Bruni: Produc-
tion of Helium from Uranium, F. Soppy: Charge and Nature of the
a-Particle, EK. RUTHERFORD and H. GEIGER: Amount of Water in a Cloud
formed by Expansion, W. B. Morton, 262.—Permanent Magnetism of
Copper, J. G. Gray and A. D. Ross: United States Magnetic Tables and
Magnetic Charts for 1905, L. A. Bavrr, 263.
Geology and Natural History—Fossilen Insekten und die Phylogenie der
Rezenten Formen, A. HANpDLIRScH, 263.—Connecticut Geological and
Natural History Survey, W. N. Ricr: Mississippi State Geological Sur-
vey, A. F, Criper, 264.—Interpretation of Topographic Maps, R. D.
SaLisBury and W. W. Atwoop: Zonal Belt Hypothesis, a New Explana-
tion of the Causes of the Ice Age, J. T. WHEELER: Handbuch der Min-
eralogie, C. Hintze: Chemische Krystallographie, P. Grotu, 265.—Notes
of a Botanist on the Amazon and Andes, R. SprucE, 266.
Miscelianeous Scientific Intelligence—Carnegie Institution of Washington.
Year Book No. 7, 1908, 267.—Report of the Librarian of Congress and
Report of the Superintendent of the Library Buildings and Grounds, H.
Putnam: Harvard College Observatory, E. C. Pickrrine, 269.—Publica-
tions of the Allegheny Observatory of the University of Pittsburgh :
Washburn Observatory of the University of Wisconsin, G. C. COMSTOCK :
Treatise on Spherical Astronomy, R. Batu: Bulletin of the Mount
Weather Observatory, W. J. HumpHreys, 270.—National Antarctic Expe-
dition, 1901-1904 : Chemical Constitution of the Proteins, R. H. ADERS
PuiMMER, 271.—Standard Algebra, W. J. Mitne: Kraft, dkonomis the,
technische und kulturgeschichtliche Studien titber die Machtentfaltung der
Staaten, E. Reyer: International Congress of Applied Chemistry : The
Science Year Book, 272.
Obituary—H. G. SEELEY, 272.
vl CONTENTS.
Number 160.
Page
Art. XX.—Permeabilities and the Reluctivities, for very
Wide Ranges of Excitation, of Normal Specimens of
Compressed Steel, Bessemer Steel and Norway Tron
Rods ; by B. O. PEIRCE ween ebient br 213
XXI.—Ice Movement and Erosion along the Southwestern
Adirondacks ; by W. J. MitunR_— 2 __* eee 289
XXII.—Estimation of Vanadie and Arsenic Acids and of
Vanadic and Antimonic Acids, in the Presence of One
Another; by G. EpGAR.. 222-222 299
XXII.—Method for the lodometric Estimation of Silver —
Based upon the Use of Potassium Chromate as a Pre-
cipitant ; by F. A. Gooon and R. 8. Bosworr ----.-- 302
XXIV.—Brown Artesian Waters of Costilla County, Colo.,
their relations to Certain Deposits of Natron or Soda,
and what they teach; by W. P. HeappEN._-.-_-. =.= 305
XXV.—Volumetric Determination of Small Amounts of
Arsenic; by L: W. ANDREWs and HE. V. Warre-sseee 316
XXVI.—Preliminary Report on the Messina EKarthquake of |.
December 28,.1908; by F. A. Pureur (222 Sea 321
XX VITI.—New Connecting Link in the Genesis of ee
by C.J. MAURY... 2 52 Se ee eee 335
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
Chemistry and Physics—Method for Calculating the Boiling-points of
Metals, F. Krarrt and KNnocKEe: Some Properties of the Radium Hmana-
tion, RUTHERFORD, 836.—Method for Preparing Hydrogen Phosphide,
MaTIGNON and TRANNOY: The Theory of Valency, J. N. FrienD: Recent
Advances in Organic Chemistry, A. W. StEwart. 337.—Michelson’s Ether
Research, KE. Koni: Influence of Pressure upon Thermoelectric Force, H.
Horie: Aluminum Cell as a Condenser, J. DE MopzELEWSKI: Changes in
the Spectra of Gases submitted to the Magnetic Field, A. Durour: Die
elektrischen EKigenschaften und die Bedeutung des Selens fiir die Elektro-
technik, C. Rims, 838.—Physics for Secondary Schools, C. F. ADAmMs:
Elements of Physics, G. A. HOADLEY, 339.
Geology and Natural History—lowa Geological Survey Report for 1907, S.
Catvin: Oklahoma Geological Survey, C. N. Gouutp, L. L. HutcHison
and G. NELson, 339.—Glaciation of Uinta and Wasatch Mountains, W. W.
ATwoop : Glacial Waters in Central New York, H. L. Farrcuitp: Ground
Waters of Indio Region, California, W. C. MENDENHALL, 340.—Die Alpen im
Hiszeitalter, A. Penck und E. Brickner: Geological Survey of Western
Australia, A. G. Maittanp: Die Geologischen Grundlagen der Abstam-
mungslehre, G. STEINMANN, 341.—Mineralien-Sammlungen, W. PRENDLER:
Jadeite from Upper Burma, A. W. G. BLEEcK, 345.—Rubies from Upper
Burma, A. W. G. BLEEcK: New Group of Manganates, L. L. FERmor :
Die Bliitenflanzen Afrikas, F. THonner, 344.—Schwendeners Vorlesungen
tiber mechanische Probleme der Botanik, HoLTeRMANN : Plant Study with
Directions for Laboratory and Field Work, MrtEr, 340.
Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—Carnegie Foundation for the Advance-
ment of Teaching; Report of the President, H. S. PritcHett, and Treas-
urer, T. M. CARNEGIE, 346.—Carnegie Institution of Washington, 347.—
Report of the Superintendent of the Coast and Geodetic Survey, O. Hi.
TITTMANN.: Principal Facts of the Earth’s Magnetism, 348.
CONTENTS. Vil
Number 161.
Page
Art. XX VIII.— Weathering and Erosion as Time Measures ; 3
bye LEVERETE. 262+ oe: PL ae URIS eg gee er regs 349
XXIX.—Chalk Formations of Northeast Texas; by C. H.
oF PIRI OI 2a ee a Ae oe eG ae Oe ee Ce 369
XX X.—Devonian of Central Missouri; by D. K. Grecer-. 374
XX XI.—Volumetric and Gravimetric Estimation of Thal-
lium in Alkaline Solution by Means of Potassium
Ferricyanide; by P. E. Brownine and H. E. Patmer.-_ 379
XXXII. — Descriptions of Tertiary Insects, VI; by T. D. A.
ce 2 STR IETRETL | oer Sy tS ei pee Vee 381
XX XIII.—Divided Lakes in Western Minnedota: ; by Rk. F.
geri ie es Ss Si ie a bs fee ea as SES 388
XXXIV.—Heat of Formation of Titanium Dioxide, and
third paper on the Heat of Combination of Acidic Oxides
with Sedium Oxide; by W.'G. Mixrmer....-. 2.22.2. 393
XXXV.—Note on Cr ystal Form of Benitoite ; by C. PaLtacHE 398
XXX VI.-—-Alamosite, a new Lead Silicate from Mexico ; by
Pee eeArscHH and W..W: MERWIN .2.2.-222- s2522. 552. 399
XXX VII.—Absence of Polarization in Artificial Fogs ; by
oy En TEUS Sao eS Re ga Os She a eee eee 402
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
Chemistry and Physics— Prussian Blue and Turnbull’s Blue, MULLER and
STaniIscH: Chemistry of the Radio-active Elements, STROMHOLM and
SvEDBERG, 403.—Hydrogen Silicides, LEBEav: Determination of Boron,
Copaux and Boireau, 404.—Canal Rays, J. Stark and W. STEUBING :
Zeeman Effect of Mercury Lines, P. Gmetin: Presence of Rays of High
Penetrability in the Atmosphere, T. WuLF: Use of Radiometer for Observ-
ing Small Pressures, J. Dressar, 405.—Wireless Telegraphy and Telephony
Popularly Explained, W. W. Massiz and C. R. UNDERHILL: Introduction
to the Science of Radio-activity, C. W. Rarrerty, 406.
eee, y and Natural History—Publications of the Op Geological Survey,
G. O. SmitH, 406.—Economic Geology of the Georgetown Quadrangle,
Colorado, J. E. Spurr and G. H. Garrey, 408.—Geology of the Gold
Fields of British Guiana, J. B. Harrison, 409.—Eruption of Vesuvius in
. April, 1906, H. J. Jounston-Lavis: Essai sur la Constitution géologique
de la Cuyane hollandaise (district occidental), H. Van CAPELLE: Text-
- Book of Petrology, F. H. Hatcu, 410.—Classification of the Plutonic
Rocks, F. H. Hatcu, 411. —Elements of Optical Mineralogy, WINCHELL:
Geology of the Taylorsville Region, California, J. 5. DILLER, 412.—Explo-
rations in Turkestan: Glacial Bowlders in the Blaini Formation, India, T.
-H. Hotuanp: Guadalupian Fauna, G. H. Girry, 418.—Cambrian Sections
of the Cordilleran Area, C. D. Watcotr: Mount Stephen Rocks and Fos-
sils, C. D. Watcotr: Devonian Fishes of lowa, C. R. Eastman, 414.—
' Unterkiefer des Homo Heidelbergensis aus den Sanden von Mauer bei
Heidelberg, O. ScHortTENnsAcK, 415.—Commercial Products of India, G.
Warr, 417.—Forest Flora of New South Wales, J. H. Maren, 418.
Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—National Academy of Sciences, 418.—
Allgemeine Physiologie, M. VeRworn: Man in the Light of Evolution,
J. M. Tyuer, 419.—Harvard College Observatory, E. C. PickrRinG : Pub-
lications of the Allegheny Observatory of the University of Pittsburgh :
Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences, 420.
Obituary—Dr. Persiror Frazer, 420.
Vill CONTENTS.
Number doz: ;
Page
Art. XXX VIII.—Quartz as a Geologic Thermometer ; by
F,-E. Wrieut-and. E.'S, Larsen. /._..-., 222 eee
XXXIX.—Precipitation of Copper Oxalate in Analysis ; by
F.. A. Goocs and H. L. Warp 2) 2. an 448
XL.—Yakutat Coastal Plain of Alaska; A combined ter-
restrial and marine Formation ; by E. BhackwELDER _ 459
XLI.—Pyrite Crystals from Bingham, Utah; by A. F,
ROGERS |... 2s So ee ea Sn be ee
XLII.—Composition of Stony Meteorites compared with
that of Terrestrial Igneous Rocks, and considered with
reference to their efficacy in World-Making; by G. P.
Mamrrinn oo.) S22 aul 24 22 469
XLII.—Notes on the Family Pyramidellide; by K. J.
Buss; Pa, D, 226s ee ee eee A475
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
Chemistry and Physics—Liquid and Solid Radium Emanation, Gray and
Ramsay: Gases Evolved by the Action of Cupric Chloride upon Steels,
GouTaL, 485.—Radiation of Potassium Salts, KE. Hmnriot: Course of
Qualitative Chemical Analysis of Inorganic Substances, O. F. Towsr,
486.—Suggested Method of Ascertaining the Existence of Chlorophyll on
Planets, N. Umow: Condensation of the Radium Emanation, RUTHER-
FORD: Electric Origin of Molecular Attraction, W. SUTHERLAND, 487,.—
Physical Measurements, A. W. Durr and A. W. Ewe tu, 488.
Geology and Natural History—Monograph on the Higher Crustacea of the
Carboniferous Rocks of Scotland, B. N. PEacu, 488.—Fossils from the
Silurian Formations of Tennessee, Indiana and Illinois, A. F. FoERSTE:
Illinois State Geological Survey, C. W. Rourg, R. C. Purpy, A. N. TaL-
Bot and I, O. BAKER: Wisconsin Geological, and Natural History Survey,
iH, A. Birce and W. O. Horcuxiss: A new Locality of Diamonds in Africa,
H. Kaiser, 489.—Interferenzerscheinungen im polarisirten Licht, H.
HAUSWALDT: Complete Mineral Catalog, W. M. Foorr: Introduction to
the Study of Rocks, L. FLercHrer: Determination of Rock-forming Min-
erals, A. JOHANNSEN, 490.-—-Trees, A Handbook of Forest Botany for the
Woodlands and the Laboratory, H. M. Warp: Mendel’s Principles of
Heredity, W. Barrson, 491.—Catalogue of the Lepidoptera Phalenz in
the British Museum, Vol. VII; Catalogue of the Noctuide, G. F. Hamp-
son, 492.
Miscelluneous Scientific Intelligence—Bulletin of the Mount Weather Obser-
vatory, 492.—Field Columbian Museum, Chicago: Geographical Tables,
ALBRECHT: An Astronomer’s Wife, A. HALL: Anciennes Meures; Mas-
CART, 493,
InDEX, 494.
Cyrus Adler, a re eee
f
- | : op
Librarian U. S. Nat. Museum. ©
VOL. XXVII. JANUARY, 1909.
Established by BENJAMIN SILLIMAN in 1818.
THE
AMERICAN
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.
Epirorn: EDWARD 8S. DANA.
ASSOCIATE EDITORS
% PROFESSORS GEORGE L. GOODALE, JOHN TROWBRIDGE,
i W. G. FARLOW anp WM. M. DAVIS, or CamBrwwcz,
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Proressor JOSEPH S. AMES, or Battimore,
Mr. J. S. DILLER, or Wasuincron.
i — FOURTH SERIES
4 : No. 157--JANUARY, 1909.
VOL. XX VII-—[WHOLE NUMBER, CLXXVII_]
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RARE CINNABARS FROM CHINA.
We have still left a small lot of these remarkable Cinnabar specimens
which were described and illustrated in the November issue of this Journal.
Write for prices and illustrated pamphlet.
NEW ARRIVALS 3
Euclase, Capo do Lane, Brazil; Terlinguite, Terlingua, Texas; Eglestonite,
Montroydite, Terlingua, Texas; Patronite, S. A.; Uraninite, erystal in
matrix, Portland, Conn.; Benitoite, San Benito Co., Cal.; Neptunite, Cal.;
Crookesite, Hedenbergite, Sweden ; Lievrite, Elba ; Polybasite, Hungary and
Durango, Mexico; Josephinite, Oregon; Herderite, Maine; Smithsonite,
Kelley, N. M.; Californite, Tulare Co., Cal.; Cobaltite, loose crystals, and in
matrix, Cobalt, Ont., and Tunaberg, Sweden; Apatite, Auburn, Maine ;
Vivianite, large crystals, Colo.; Vanadinite, Kelley, N. M.; Monazite, Portland,
Conn.; Oliv enite, Utah ; Sartorite, Canton Wallis ; Jordanite, Binnenthal :
Mohawkite, Algodonite, Domeykite, Michigan ; Crocoite, Siberia and Tas-
mania ; Cinnabar, Cal. and Hungary ; Dioptase, Siberia ; Diopside, with
Essonite, Ala, Piedmont; Embolite, Australia; Gypsum, twin crystals,
Eisleben, Thuringia : Diamond, in matrix, New Vaal River Mine; South
Africa ; ‘Brochantite on Chrysocolla, Utah; Pink Beryl, small and large,
Mesa Gr and, Cal.; Kunzite, small and large, Pala, Cal.; Sphene, Binnenthal,
Titanite, Tilly Foster, N. Y.: Tetrahedrite, Utah and Hungary ; Realgar,
Hungary; Opal, Caribou River, Queensland : Octahedrite, var. Wiserine,
Binnenthal; Heulandite, Iceland; Paper Calcite, Saxony ; Torbernite, Hng.;
Bismuth, native, Cobalt, Ont. and Conn.; Silver, native with Breithauptite
and Smaltite, polished, Ont.; Emerald, loose crystals and in matrix, Ural
and Bogota; Topaz erystals with rare planes, Ural; Zircon crystals, loose,
Ural; Green and Cinnamon Garnets, Minnot, Maine; Vesuvianite, Poland,
Maine, Italy and Tyrol; Zeolites, beautiful specimens from Erie Tunnel,
Patterson and Great Notch.
CUT GEMS.
We have left over from our Christmas trade a very fine and varied lot of
large and small Cut Gems, which we are offering at unheard of low prices.
We name a few below :—
Garnets, green and red; Aquamarines; Zircons, all shades: Sapphires,
all shades ; Star Sapphires and Star Rubies ; Chrysoberyl, Cats-eye ; Spinels,
all shades; Topaz, pink, blue, brownish and golden color; Pink Beryl;
Sphene; Tourmaline, all shades; Amethyst, Siberia, royal purple color;
Andalusite; Star Quartz; Peridote; Opal matrix, Mexico and Australia ;
Precious Opal, Australia, Mexico and Hungary ; Hyacinth ; Turquoise, Mex-
ico and Persia: Kunzite; Reconstructed Rubies and Sapphires ; Emeralds ;
Opal Carvings, such as pansies, vine leaves with bunches of grapes, and
other small Opal novelties; Antique and Modern Cameos ;. Antique, Mosaic
and other semi-precious stones.
Let us know your wants, and we will send the specimens on approval to
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ree oF a i ee a ee or
THE
AMERICAN JOURNALOF SCIENCE
[FOURTH SERIES.]
0
Art. 1.—Diopside and its Relations to Calecwm and Magne-
sium Metasilicates ; by E. T. Attew and W. P. Warrs.
With Optical Study; by Freep. Evcenr Wricut and
Esper §. Larsen. (With Plate L.)
THE pyroxenes were chosen some time since as a good
subject for laboratory investigation, both by reason of their
geologic importance and because their comparative stability
and simplicity of composition seemed to offer relatively little
difficulty in their synthesis and study. Diopside is the sim-
plest of this group of minerals, but before even this could be
studied satisfactorily, a detailed investigation of both calcium
and magnesium metasilicates was found necessary; a full
account of which has been given elsewhere.* Here it will be
sufficient to state that calcium silicate exists in two crystal
forms, one of which, the mineral wollastonite (@-form), is stable
up to about 1190°, when it reverts to a pseudo-hexagonal form
(a-form) which melts at 1512°. The case of magnesium metasil-
icate is more complex. There is one form (monoclinic) strongly
resembling the pyroxenes, both optically and crystallographic-
ally, which is stable up to 1365° (@-form). Here it passes
over into an orthorhombic form (a-form) recalling forsterite
(Mg,SiO,) in its habit and optical properties. It melts at
1524°. Three other forms exist, viz., the minerals enstatite,
kupfterite, and a monoclinic amphibole similar to the latter.
_All are monotropic, and change into the 6-form when heated
to a sufficiently high temperature.
The question of the relation of diopside to its component
salts, calcium and magnesium silicate, we undertook to settle
by determinations of the melting point and specific volume
* Allen, White and Wright, this Journal, xxi, 89, 1906; Allen, Wright
and Clement, this Journal, xxii, 385, 1906. Their form, then undiscovered,
is described for the first time in these pages.
Am. Jour. Sct.—FourtH Series, Vout. X XVII, No. 157.—Janvary, 1909.
1
2 Allen, ete.—Diopside and its Relations
curves, relying on very careful microscopic examinations to
make sure of the solid phases which separated from the molten
solutions. Since we are concerned here with eguilebrium
conditions, it will be evident that the monotropic forms of
magnesium silicate do not enter into the problem.* In addi-
tion to this specific problem, viz., the relations existing between
the calcium and magnesium silicates, we planned to study the
most important properties of diopside and its transtormations
on heating, if any.
Many of the methods used im this investigation have been
already described in previous papers from this laboratory ;+
others have been devised in the course of the work.
Preparation of the Mixtures.—Quartz, magnesia and cal-
cium carbonate were mixed in the proper proportions and
melted in large covered platinum crucibles. The molten
charges were chilled by dipping the crucibles into water,
cracked out of the crucibles, crushed fine, and remelted to
ensure thorough mixing. All the materials were carefully
examined for impurities, and we are able to state with cer-
tainty that the products contained no more than 0:1 per cent to
0-2 per cent of foreign matter, except in certain cases where
the same preparation was repeatedly melted and crushed, when
as much as 0°3 per cent impurity was sometimes found.
We had considerable trouble in getting magnesia sufficiently »
pure for our purposes. The chief impurity is generally lime,
of which all the samples examined by us contained 0°5 per cent
or more. At our request, the firm of Baker & Adamson under-
took the problem of preparing pure magnesia in quantity, and
succeeded in making a “ basic carbonate” in which the mini-
mum quantity of lime amounted to about -07 per cent, or 0°15
per cent of the calcined oxide. A sample of magnesium
metasilicate prepared from one lot of this carbonate gave by
direct test 12 per cent lime. In mixtures very high in mag-
nesia a correction was generally made for this impurity, 1. e.,
the proper deduction was made from the quantity of lime
required by the particular mixture in hand. For the sake of
control we analyzed two of the preparations and the results
are given below.
At one time during the investigation, it was suspected that
some loss might be caused by the strong blast of the gas fur-
nace in which the constituent powders were first melted together
in spite of the fact that the crucible was carefully covered.
The magnesia being by far the lightest of the constituents
*Viktor Péschl incorrectly designates the series ‘‘ enstatite-diopside,”
Centr. Min., 1906, p. 572.
+ This Journal, xix, 125, 1905; xxi, 89, 1905; Tschermak’s Mitth., xxvi,
169, 1907.
=o.
Oo
to Calcium and Magnesiwm Metasilicates.
(magnesia, calcium carbonate, quartz), its loss would be dispro-
portionate to its weight in the mixture. But the analysis of
the 60 per cent MgSiO, mixture, in which the magnesia was
slightly high, shows that the suspicion was unfounded.
Found @alt
fete MoSiOe 205.55 DLT us eee gia 5D Pe = 52°67
BU OB SIO | oot CaO roe Gees 43°52 43°38
Mo Qiu wae ss 2 4°06 4°00
Be OW ete a= ‘11 ee
100-44 100:00
2607 MesiO. i222 DOM oe tes 56°80 56°73
Oh) Caso eee. CaOeie eee 19-12: 19°26
Mig Ome. 152 ess 24°11 24°01
e:O: sete. e222 “183 Eigen
100°16 =100°00
Thermal Study.—The thermal study was carried on, as in
other published work from this laboratory, by F rankenheim’s
method, melting point curves being used exclusively. Freez-
ing- _point curves are unreliable on account of the undercooling,
which, even in substances which crystallize as readily as the
metasilicates of calcium and magnesium, is often considerable.
The mixture under investigation was heated in a platinum
crucible, in an electric resistance furnace fed from a stor age
battery, ‘the temperatures were read to tenths of a degree by a
Le Chatelier thermoelement and a potentiometer, and evalu-
ated in terms of a standard saturated cadmium cell.
Since the work here described continued over a considerable
period of time, the methods used varied somewhat as sncces-
sive improvements were introduced. In the earlier portion of
it, charges of about 25 grams were used, and the thermoelement
was protected by a porcelain tube with a platinum jacket. A
control element was also employed to detect any irregularity in
the heat supply.* Soon after the work was begun, the practice
was also instituted of comparing the thermoelements with
standards in order to correct for their deterioration,t due to
contamination with iridium from the platinum crucibles and
furnace coil. This has now been greatly reduced by using
specially pure platinum within the furnace, but occasional com-
parisons with standard elements are still necessary.{ Fre-
quently the thermoelements were inserted together in the
porcelain tube and used to read the same melting point. The
* This Journal, xxi, 94, 1906.
+ The Constancy of Thermoelements, W. P. White, Phys. Zeitschr., viii,
325, 1907.
+ W. P. White, Phys. Rev., xxv, 336, 1907.
4 Allen, ete—Diopside and its Relations
readings when separately corrected then seldom varied 4°,
which was about the accuracy with which ‘any two working ele-
ments could be compared. The variations in the results, some-
times amounting to 2°, even with the-more sharply melting
substances (the end members, the eutectics, and diopside), were
therefore due to uncertainty in locating the melting point, and
not to the temperature measurements.
In the latter part of the work, charges of only 24 grams
were used, in very small crucibles of pure platinum, in which
the naked thermoelements could safely be immersed. Under
these conditions and with proper precautions, the variations
rarely exceeded $°. The small crucibles could also be more
easily moved in the hot furnace, chilled in cold water, etc., and
a wider range in the conditions of crystallization obtained.
Furthermore, the thermal lag of the dimimutive charges was
very small, and complex thermal phenomena could be analyzed
or separated with much greater certainty than with larger ecru-
cibles. The small crucibles were mainly used in investigating
those portions of the field in which the interpretation of the
phenomena had proved particularly difficult. They were used,
however, in a sufficient number of cases to afford a thorough
control of the earlier determinations made with 25 grams, and
showed that these were accurate within their own accidental
errors.
The agreement obtained between observations of the same
point in both the earlier and later work is well illustrated in
the following table:
TABLE 1.
Agreement of Observations in Earlier and Later Work.
Temperatures in microvolts. About 18 microvolts to 1°.
70% MgsSi0;: 30% CaSiOs. 28% MeSiOs : 72¢7CasiQs.
20 gr. charge. 24 gr. charge.
Sunes Ose eee 14,147 Oct: 1907. 2) 2 aaa
130 776
110 TH,
138 Ti,
148... pirat:
tay cee
Mean 2222) 14,133 13,7 06x
Average deviation, 11 my. 2 mv.
Extreme s 37 mv. a faa 08g
These particular instances were selected for illustration as
being, each in its class, the one showing the largest number of
strictly comparable observations. Each one is typical, and
to Calcium and Magnesium Metasilicates. 5
neither is the best that could be given. Each represents three ~
_ different charges.
A word :as to the exact significance of the accuracy here indi-
eated may avoid some contusion.
In comparative measurements with very small crucibles (2°5
grams) and bare thermoelements, the relative accuracy obtain-
able by the same observer with the same apparatus is $° or
better ; with the larger crucibles (25 grams) and jacketed ele-
ments, differences may reach 3°, This is shown in Table I,
page 4.
The absolute value of the measurements is not established
with this accuracy. Different observers, indeed, working inde-
pendently with different apparatus, ought not to differ much
in their results through differences in experimental iethods,
provided these are not positively faulty ; that is, provided the
thermal junction is actually at the temperature of the melting
material. This is shown by the agreement of our earlier and
later results, obtained with highly differing methods, and also,
perhaps more conclusively, by the agreement found between
Dr. Day’s special form of element* and the ordinary jacketed
element. Differences between independent observers are, how-
ever, to be expected in the thermoelement calibration, partic-
ularly at the present time, when a long extrapolation is
necessary. Practically all temperature measurements above
the melting point of copper (1084° C., Reichsanstalt Scale) are
now obtained by extrapolating some simple function which
has been experimentally established for temperatures below
that poit. With the same function and different elements,
temperatures usually do not vary more than 2° C. at 1,500°.
With different functions, the extrapolated curves may diverge
as much as 30° C. at 1,500°. An error of 0°5° in the determi-
nation of the copper point itself may cause an error of 4° in
the extrapolated curve at 1,500°. All these are differences in
the interpretation of the experimental measurements, which
will probably continue to cause considerable differences
between the results of different observers until the gas ther-
mometer scale is extended to that temperature with sufficient
accuracy, after which they can be readily recomputed to the
established scale. The temperatures here given are com-
puted from the Reichsanstalt Scale. In brief then, the accuracy
* Carnegie Institution Publication No. 31, p. 25. Our value for magne-
sium silicate is 3° higher than that found by Allen, Wright and Clement,
but this difference is only a little greater than the accidental variations
occurring in the present work. With charges of the same size, errors in the
method seem most likely to occur, if at all, as the result of a very uneven
temperature distribution in the furnace or of insufficient immersion of the
thermoelement in the charge. In a few cases where the platinum jacket
dropped down so as to rest against the bottom of the crucible, which was
cooled by contact with the pedestal below it, the melting point came about
5° too low.
6 Allen, etc.—Diopside and its Relations
of the determinations is shown by comparing the measnre-
ments among themselves. Their enterpretatcon in terms of
an absolute scale depends upon an agreement among observers,
and will vary from time to time whenever more accurate funda-
mental observations are available. At the present time the
Reichsanstalt Seale is generally accepted.
The melting points measured, like those obtained in this lab-
oratory with the feldspars, and by workers in high tempera-
tures generally, are not entirely sharp, even with substances
which theoretically should melt at a strictly constant temper-
ature. Indications that melting has already begun invariably
appear on the thermal curve 20° or 80° below the melting point
proper, and the region of strongest absorption of heat is distri-
buted over an interval of from 2° to 8°. The main cause of
this phenomenon in the present case probably lies neither
in any unusual molecular viscosity attending the change
of state* nor in experimental error of the temperature obser-
vations. It may be due to the slight impurity (1 to 2 per
cent) which chemical analysis shows to be present, even in the
most carefully prepared artificial mixtures. Similar curves are
obtained with ice to which 2 per cent or 3 per cent of salt has
been added, and at an absolute temperature five or six times
as high the same effect should be produced by about one-thirtieth
as much impurity. + The highest portion, that is, the end,
of the melting interval is taken as the melting point, since this
is probably the nearest attainable approach to what would be
the sharp melting point of the substance unaffected by traces
of impurity.
The Melting Point Curve from O per cent—46°3 per cent
MgSiO,,—The temperature- -time curves were taken on a series
of mixtures of the metasilicates 5 per cent to 10 per cent apart
except in critical parts of the curve, where shorter intervals were
chosen. The temperatures at which the heat absorptions took
place are plotted in fig. 1. The results in the case of about
one-third of the mixtures were controlled by repeating the
observations on several different preparations, and since the
thermal phenomena in certain parts of the curve were rather
complicated, a considerable number of the observations were
many times repeated, making in all nearly four hundred inde-
pendent determinations.
By reference to the diagram (fig. 1) it will be seen that the
addition of magnesium silicate to pure calcium silicate (pseudo-
wollastonite) lowers the melting point rapidly, the curve fol-
* This, of course, is not true of the feldspars, quartz, etc.
+In accordance with the Van’t Hoff-Raoult formula, where A, the
depression of the freezing point due to impurity, equals ‘02 T?
A
to Calcium and Magnesium Metasilicates. 4
lowing a slightly curved line to the eutectic point, 1848°, at about
28 per cent magnesium silicate. The curve then rises much
more gradually toa maximum of 1380° at the composition of
diopside, CaSiO,.MgSiO,, which. contains 46°3 per cent mag-—
nesium silicate. Let us first consider so much of the curve by
itself. The solid phases, which separated when the mixtures
from 0 per cent—46°3 per cent magnesium silicate were crys-
tallized as nearly as possible under equilibrium conditions, were
proved by microscopic analysis to be only diopside and pseudo-
wollastonite, making of course the proper allowance for a small
mutual solubility. The latter amounted, as we shall see, to
about 3 per cent diopside in the pseudo-wollastonite, and less
than 3 per cent of the latter in diopside.
The end members, pseudo-wollastonite and diopside, and also
the eutectic mixture, melt at a single temperature, with the
reservation just made; that is, as sharply as we have yet ob-
served with any silicate. The other mixtures show two phe-
nomena: (1) the melting of whatever amount of eutectic is
present in the mixture; and (2) as the temperature rises, the
gradual solution in the melted eutectic of the excess component
(diopside or pseudo-wollastonite, as the case may be), which lasts
till the melting point curve ABC isreached. The temperature-
time curves clearly show continuous change in character from
the end members-to the eutectic composition. Near the end
member the predominant phenomenon is the upper point,
which resembles the sharp melting of the pure component
itself ; the eutectic melting is of course small. It is clearly
distinguishable, however, even when the mixture contains less
than 1 per cent of eutectic. In mixtures farther from the end
members in composition, the absorption of heat immediately
above the eutectic melting is perceptible, and the highest point
gradually takes on more and more the character of the end of this
absorption and less and less that of a separate and independent
melting poimt. Although, strictly speaking, this upper melting
1s always a solution, the temperature at which it terminates did
not show, under the conditions described, any change with the
rate of heating. In order to test this question, the rate was in
several cases altered from 1° to 3° per minute, but the result-
ing effect on the upper point was less than the accidental errors
of the separate determinations. As the eutectic composition
is approached and the phenomenon has still more the character
of a solution and less that of a melting, the upper point
becomes less and less distinct.
Determination of the Hutectic Composition.—In the imme-
diate neighborhood of the eutectic composition the difficulty of
determining the upper point is still more increased by another
phenomenon. ‘The rapid temperature rise which immediately
Weight ¢
MgSiO;
Allen, ete.—Diopside and its Relations
Upper
Point
Temperature - Concentration Curve.
Taser II.
Eutec-
tic
Inver-
sion
Weight %
Upper
Point
EKutec-
tic
Inver-
sion
0
24
26
30
51
1510°
1511
1510
pire 40
1273 eyeie
en 47°5
ae
ets 80
13742
1380°
1380
1381
1379
1381
1381
1381
1380
1378
1378
1377
1377
1378
1409
1408
1412
1416
1452
1453
1452
138472
1343
--+<-+-
=e ee
DOMPERATURD,
to Caletum and Magnesium Metasilicates. 9
Lice &
IaNae
Sy
| eee aia ae
Za 'T >
= T
Nath
1
20 30 40 60 80 90 100
ie, MgSiOs.
CONCENTRATION.
Principal Areas of the Diagram.
AHB a-CaSiO; + liquid.
BIC Diopside + liquid.
HIMO a-CaSiO; + diopside.
OPQM £-CaSiO; + diopside.
KOPL Mix-crystals diopside in 8-CaSiOs.
CTUSR Mix-crystals of MgSiO; in diopside.
CDT Mix-crystals of varying composition + liquid.
DEV a-MgSiO; + liquid.
TUXV a-MgSiO; + diopside mix-crystals.
UXYS $-MgSiO, + diopside mix-crystals.
SOD IH OU C9 00
4
TEMPERATURE.
10 Allen, ete.—Diopside and its Relations
follows the principal melting now extends beyond the upper
point and completely overwhélms it. The difhculty of deter-
mining a small residual melting is in striking contrast to the
ease with which a slight absorption of heat can be detected
below the principal melting.* Owing to this masking of the
upper point, a direct determination of the eutectic composition
is impossible by the ordinary method; that is, we cannot dis-
tinguish within several per cent the mixture which melts leay-
Fie. 2.
yy
2
eel | ae SS
eV Nise Ses
Pie ee
eee ripe el es alas
Eg
3
apa ee
Bane
eI
Bicol
MONS
ees
7)
¢
MER Swim NeSeees
Pal eee et i
NEE al oa eels
ede 0 See BENS
Salalah geal clita
Ee ee Ne ees
es aed rl
il
| U
e
ee
eee
ENG
Ral
boats
Temperature-time curves of mixtures in the vicinity of the eutectic com-
position (pseudo-wollastonite-diopside).
I. 24% MgSiOs. II. 26% MgSiOs. III. 28¢ MgSiO;. IV. 32% MgSiOs.
V. 36% MgSiOs. .
1330°
ing no excess component, since a number of mixtures appear
to do so. This is well shown by the temperature-time curves
in fig. 2, which were made with especial care with reference
to this very point. The upper melting can hardly be distin-
guished in the 24 per cent mixture, though this contains over
8 per cent of the component in excess. (The point is in fact
so faint that we could hardly distinguish it from the minute
irregularities in the temperature curve of the furnace were it
not for the fact that it lies on the curve ABO, fig. 1, which is
well defined in other mixtures farther removed from the
eutectic.) For locating the eutectic two methods still remain.
* It was undoubtedly the difficulty of detecting the upper points in this
region and the failure to appreciate how easily such an experimental diffi-
culty might arise which led R. Freis (Neues Jahrb. Min., Beil. Bd. xxii, 76,
1907) to describe a similar series of melting points as forming a curve with
the two inclined portions separated. by a horizontal branch of considerable
extent.
to Calcium and Magnesium Metasilicates. 11
The first is to extrapolate downward the liquidus curves AB
and BC in fig. 1, and take the mean of the points where they
intersect the eutectic ine HI. The accuracy of this extrapo-
lation is limited by the uncertainty of the liquidus curve for
some distance on each side of the eutectic composition. We
found with these particular silicates that the results agreed to
ear
aaee FEMS ae
gee HHA
a
ete
—
(ol)
o>
(Yo)
oO
Neg
IS
TEMPERATURES.
HSC seen mae are
HS cee see eee ae ae
we TE Hs ag
eh ee eZ
Riven ntvihd LE
ae coer REV dREP SRR REE
eles DR eae MA Ee |
Time : 4 minute.
Location of the eutectic composition.
Curves I-I and II-II, 28 per cent and 30 per cent MgSiO; just above the
eutectic point.
Curves I’-I’ and II’-II’ the same at higher temperature.
5 per cent with a probable error of not over 2 per cent in the
eutectic composition.
A more accurate determination seemed for some time to in-
volve considerable difficulty, but a satisfactory solution of the
12 Allen, etc.—Diopside and tts Relations
problem was finally obtained in the following way: Two small
crucibles containing charges slightly different in composition
were put together in the furnace and br ought to such a temper-
ature that the main eutectic melting was completed but the
excess component, if any, still left undissolved. Then by sud-
denly increasing the furnace current and making alternate
temperature readings of the two crucibles at intervals of 15
seconds, the relative heat absorptions in the region immediately
above the eutectic melting point could be determined, and thus
in a very few trials of different mixtures the eutectic composi-
tion could be located. The results of such a determination are
shown in curves I-I and II-II, fig. 3. The temperature in
II rises more slowly than in if because of an absorption of
heat due to the melting of the excess component. The curves
were continued to a higher temperature to make sure that this
difference was really due to this cause and not to the relative
position of the two crucibles in the furnace or to some other
accidental cireumstance. ‘The curves I’ and II’ are now paral-
lel, confirming the conclusion that their previous divergence
was due to a melting in II which is now over. It will be seen
from this result that the 28 per cent mixture lies nearer the
eutectic than the 30 per cent. A similar comparison of the
28 with the 26 per cent also showed that the eutectic lies
nearer the former. These experiments are sufficient to locate
the point well within 1 per cent at the 28 per cent mixture.
The previous work had indicated that the 28 per cent was
probably the eutectic composition. Calculated in terms of
diopside, the eutectic mixture would contain in round num-
bers 60 per cent diopside: 40 per cent pseudo-wollastonite.
Diopside.— As previously stated, the melting-point of diop-
side is a maximum on the melting point curve, which fact,
taken in connection with the microscopic homogeneity at this
composition and the occurrence of a eutectic point on either
side of it, proves that it is a compound in stable equilibrium
with its own liquid. Abundant confirmation of this conelu-
sion is found in the form of the specific-volume curve, p. 27, as
well as in the close agreement of the composition of natural
diopside with the rational formula CaSiO,.MgSiO,. As an
example, we give an analysis of an exceptionally pure specimen
from a metamorphosed lhmestone which occurs in Ham Island,
Alaska. The composition of the anhydrous substance is also
given for the sake of fairer comparison. This is justifiable,
for the water is not chemically combined, a conclusion thor- —
oughly established by the fact that the substance remains
homogeneous as the water escapes.
to Calcium and Magnesium Metasilicates. 13
Diopside from Cal. to the Cal. for
Ham Island, anhydrous CaSiO;
Alaska condition MgSi0;
SiO) eo) ut She ee 54°65 55°46 53°63
Ps Cy eee eee 13 13 eee.
SaQue sce eC Ape NS OA 25°64 25°82
IO ek erg 18°78 19°06 18°55
NIE CGS Loe er cs eae 03 ete
EO ar eee es 33097 ‘O07 sew
le Oger oes ed Nice 2). ES aes Ba
100°38 100°39 100-00
When diopside is prepared by melting together lime, mag-
nesia and silica in the proper proportions, it crystallizes readily,
but not so rapidly as its constituents calcium and magnesium
silicates, forming a dense white homogeneous mass with con-
spicuous cleavage. The optical constants, a full account of
which is given in the second part of this paper, leave no room
for doubt of the identity of the substance.
Measurable crystals was prepared by crystallizing this prod-
uct from molten calcium chloride—Le Chartier’s method.* This
may be very conveniently done in platinum as described in a
previous paper on magnesium silicate.+ It is not possible,
however, to perform the operation in hydrochloric acid gas, as
was there done, for the diopside is then decomposed into eal-
cium chloride, tridymite and magnesium pyroxene. The last
two products were identified optically without ditticulty. The
ealcium chloride should first be melted in the sealed crucible,
traversed by a stream of dry hydrochloric acid gas. Then
after the crucible has been cooled and the hydrochloric acid
replaced by dry air, the crucible is unsealed and the silicate
quickly introduced. In this operation some moisture doubt-
less gets in. Before heating again, dry indifferent gas is
introduced. The crucible is heated for a number of days, the
entering and exit tubes being guarded by driers. When the
operation is completed, the excess of calcium chloride is
removed by water. The product is usually in the form of
transparent crystals of rhombic habit which sometimes attain
to dimensions of several millimeters. The planes are often
slightly coated with a thin film of what is probably calcium
hydroxide, which doubtless comes from the decomposition of
calcium chloride by the water vapor which could not be
entirely excluded. It gives a strong alkaline reaction and may
be readily removed with a little dilute HCl. Analysis shows
that no lime is dissolved by the crystals, though they are not
quite tree from chlorine.
* Comptes Rendus, Ixvii, 43, 1868. + This Journal, xxii, 389, 1906.
14 Allen, ete.—Diopside and its Relations
Cal. for
CaSiOs,
Found MgSiO;
sid, Fay ee Sees ss 55°59 55°62
EES ON ie ge aR RSD gE AGT 3} ORS orc Ss
MgO Wy ween otseigie in Mee ORL may tcc Span Hehe G) Sra
PEO Petes ae 18 e
ER lia Bite ee ANCES Monty 8 ie OE: trace ee,
100°11 100:00
Several products made in this way were united and tested
in a mixture of methylene iodide and benzene to see if all was
of uniform specific gravity. A small fraction, containing some
of the larger crystals, floated, while the rest sank. These er ys-
tals seemed to differ from the rest only in porosity. The
remainder were then divided into two fractions of only slightly
different density and the specific gravity of each was deter-
mined by the pycnometer.
Sp. gr. at 25° ah
HO at 25°
2. Heavier “ ms 3°275
3. Natural diopside
from Ham Island,
Alaska, cs 3°268
An idea of the expansion of the diopside in the process of
melting may be obtained by comparing this constant with the
specific gravity of the glass of the same composition :
Glass at 30°
HO at 25°
The description and angular measurements of these erystals
are to be found in Part II of this paper.
Melting Point Curve from 46°3—100 per cent MgSi0,.—
Referring again to fig. 1, it is seen that beyond 46°3 per
cent MoSi0,, the addition of it lowers the melting point
gradually but very slightly, until about 68 per cent has been
reached. Near this point there is an abrupt rise, the curve
finally terminating at 1524°, the melting point of magnesium
silicate. On the first branch of the curve (46°3-68 per
cent) mix crystals of magnesium silicate in diopside sepa-
rate. This conclusion was tentatively reached in the prelimin-
ary thermal work when it was found that the addition of a
large percentage of magnesium silicate lowered the melting
point of diopside very little, while the mixtures contimued to
show but one absorption of heat. The thermal evidence was
subsequently confirmed by the specific volume curve, and by a
very elaborate microscopic study.
1. Lighter fraction
= Boal):
to Calcium and Magnesium Metasilicates. 15
Solid solution determined by microscopic homogeneity ex-
tends as far as 66°5 per cent MgSiO,: 33°5 per cent CaSi0,.
The solid phases separating on the branch of the curve DE
were found to be the mix-erystal just mentioned, and
a-MgSi0O, in all cases. All the mixtures from about 68-95
per cent MgSiO, showed an absorption of heat at 1375°. This
is evidently a eutectic line and there is no doubt that we have
There a case of Roozeboom’s mix-crystal Type V,* where each
of two mix-crystals /owers the melting point of the other to a
eutectic. Points on this line to the left of the eutectic point
could not be located since the liquidus curve lies only 2° to 3°
higher up. The eutectic composition is about 68 per cent
MeSiO,: 32 per cent CaSiO, and consists therefore of about
es = 95°5 per cent of the diopside mix-crystal and about 4°5
per cent of free a-MgSiO, (in which about 2 per cent CaSiO,
or 3°7 per cent of diopside is dissolved ).
Inversion of MgSiO,.— About 1365° pure magnesium silicate
undergoes a reversible change into an orthorhombic form.
The heat of transformation is small, and apparently the change
does not all happen at once, but extends over quite an inter-
val of temperature. This is the only satisfactory way of
accounting for the fact that while a small absorption of heat
is observed in most of the mixtures of magnesium silicate from
70 per cent on, in the pure substance and in the mixtures near
100 per cent MgSiO, it was entirely overlooked. The exist- —
ence of a form stable above 1365° was proved by erystallizing
a melt near the melting point, and then suddenly chilling the
crystals in water. Thus the form was instantly brought into
a temperature region where viscosity was great enough to
prevent an inversion. The inversion temperature was deter-
mined approximately as follows: One tenth of a gram of the
substance was placed in a small platinum tray shaped from a
piece of platinum foil. This was suspended by a fine plati-
num wire inside the furnace. After the material was melted
and crystallized near the melting point, the temperature was
lowered to a given temperature and held there about a half
hour. The furnace in which the heating was done was
designed for calorimetric purposes, and had a removable
bottom which was swung aside at the proper moment,
when the suspension wire was instantly melted by an electric
current, allowing the charge to drop into a basin of water.
The results were as follows:
* Zeitschr. f. Phys.-Chem., xxx; 403.
16 Allen, etc.-—Diopside and its Relations
1 Chilled from an initial temperature of 1346°; all orthorhom-
bic crystals (a-form).
-2 Chilled from an initial temperature of 1337°; all the crystals
were orthorhombie.
3 Chilled from an initial temperature of 1324°; all monoclinic
crystals (8—form).
4 Chilled again from 1324° with the same result.
After the existence of the a-form had been established, the
inversion point was repeatedly sought for by the Frankenheim
method and a very small minimum between 1405° and 1435°
was found in many cases but by no means in all, and the point
was so small that one might well have hesitated to interpret it
as an inversion, had other evidence been lacking. Taken in
connection with the sharp heat change which occurs in the
mixtures (see below) at about 1365°, it appears that the inver-
sion point is overstepped about.40° in both directions, which
is in perfect accord with the sluggish behavior of solid silicates.
The inversion point in pure magnesium silicate is represented
in the diagram (fig. 1) as falling somewhat as it dissolves eal-
cium silicate, because this is the relation which commonly
holds, but it is manifestly impossible to settle the question at
present.
a-Magnesium Silicate.—This form, which has already been
described, crystallizes in the orthorhombic system in equant
crystals on short doubly terminated prisms which resemble
forsterite in habit, mdex of refraction and _ birefringence.
Its specific gravity, judging from its index of refraction, varies
little from that of 8-magnesium silicate (3°192). It was found,
by applying the floating method to a single small erystal, to
be about 3°16. Fortunately, in several instances a few well-
formed, separately developed crystals were found on the sur-
face of charges of magnesium silicate which had been melted
and crystallized in the furnace, though usually all was com-
pletely inverted into the magnesium pyroxene. The measure-
ments of these crystals which are recorded in Part II of this
paper prove conclusively that this isa form entirely distinct
from forsterite or enstatite.
Inversion in the Mixtures.—The inversion line is traced in
all the mixtures from 68 per cent to 98 per cent magnesium
silicate and varies little from 1365.° Some typical curves.
showing both the inversion and eutectic points are plotted in
figs. 4 and 5, eurves II, V, VI, VII, and VIII. The signifi-
cant feature of these curves is the gradual diminution of the
heat absorption at the latter (eutectic) temperature and the
gradual increase of that at the former (inversion), as we pass
toward 100 per cent magnesium silicate. Thus in the 70 per -
cent mixture the eutectic melting is large, while in the 95 per
to Caletum and Magnesium Metasilicates. 17
Fie. 4.
eee eee EE A
Mee iss lee ral | Tele tI
CEE CEC
__ SJE ASa See e Zee ase eee
. JeRS ESE eeeaseenee
El al
_~ JUS RUE ERR RERR ee Se! ia
| Ee saan SERA)
pee see ert ey EEE
SR GR ey see ney conn ee nee SUSIE
EE Bild H+
Temperature-time curves showing thermal Selstae of. mixtures rich in MgSiOs.
Curve I-I, 60 ¢ MgSiOs. II-II, 70 4 MgSiOs.
Fig. dS
PLCC
- {TSE RSaRRRREE S/S0c0ee eee
EEEECCCCCECC CE
__ CUS RRB RES See ae ane
ee ee ee ee V7
eee ea Ae
Ss SRReSEeSes a ae
PCE ere
SERERY CEO ZGEORRES Ae ae |
OGRE aes Zeek ee SE
HA a eer
eee ee a eer
_-. 625 0SSeasee aes sade e eee
eee
Temperature-time curves showing thermal behavior of mixture rich in MgSiOs.
Curve IIT. 65 @ MgSiOs.
coy ers Se a MgSiO. ery stallized below 1300° by heating the glass.
rs V. 73% : not far below 1365".
se WA 80 % “e “é
‘é Vil. 90 & ce ce ce ce a4 ce
“ec VII. 95 4 “e ce “ce ce ‘cc a4
Am. Jour. Sct.—FourtH Serres, Vou. X XVII, No. 157.—Janvuary, 1909.
2
13909 |
1380°
18 Allen, ete.—Diopside and its Relations
cent it is minute and in the 98 per cent can be no longer
detected ; while the inversion, small in the 70 per cent mixture,
is much greater in the 90 per cent and 95 per cent mixtures.
The 98 per cent mixture, where solid solution of calcium sili-
cate begins, shows the inversion plainly but not so markedly as
the 95 per cent mixture. It evidently partakes of the char-
acter of the pure silicate, which is more resistant to rapid
change. Dissolved calcium silicate therefore facelitates the
inversion of magnesium silicate, while, as we shall presently
see (page 20), dissolved magnesium silicate hinders the inver-
sion of calcium silicate. It is not strange that the properties
of a substance should be modified by solid solution, though it is
evident that the direction of such a change cannot yet be pre-
dicted, but why an excess of foreign solid should affect the
inversion point of a substance is not clear. The influence of
solid diopside in concentrating or sharpening the inversion of
magnesium silicate, however, seems to be established.
Curves I and III show the behavior of materials which con-
tain no free magnesium silicate and therefore show no inversion.
Curve [IV shows what happens when mixtures are chilled to
glass and then heated. Crystallization then leads to enstatzte,
which evolves heat slowly over a long range of temperature.
Since this evolution covers the region above 1300°, the small
absorption at 1365° is effectually hidden, where, as explained,
the inversion seems to be lengthened out.
Solid Solutions.—The system CaSiO,-MgSi0, contains six
different series of solid solutions, in only two of which is there
more than a few per cent of the smaller constituent. The
limit of solubility was determined by the thermoelement, by
the microscope or by both when possible.
So far as thermal tests are concerned, the results refer of
course to the presence or absence of a eutectic melting, 1. e.,
the solubility at the eutectic temperature is approximately
determined. The microscope, on the other hand, makes its
determinations at ordinary temperatures, where presumably the
solubility is generally greater. In almost all cases the solu-
bility as determined by the microscope is a little higher, but
how far this is a real difference and how far it is due to a differ-
ence in the delicacy of the methods, it is unsafe to say on
account of the uncertainty in establishing equilibrium in these
solid silicate solutions; in other words, it is impossible to say
whether a given solution is saturated or not. In the diagram,
fig. 1, we have drawn the lines straight with a single exception,
where we have more evidence that solubility increases with
falling temperature.
1. Diopside in a-MgSiO,. On account of the difficulties
involved, this series was not investigated.
to Calcium and Magnesium Metasilicates. 19
2. Diopside in B-MgSiO,. The microscope detected inho-
mogeneity in the 3 per cent CaSiO, mixture, but none in the 2
per cent. No eutectic was observed in the latter. We may
therefore put the solubility as 2 per cent CaSiO,, or 3°7 per
cent diopside.
3. MgSiO, in diopside. The microscope places the limit of
solubility at about 66°5 per cent MgSiO, : 33°5 per cent CaSi0,,
1. e., the quantity of diopside in the saturated mix-crystal
would be 33°5/53°7 = 63°4 per cent. In other words, diopside
is capable of dissolving 37°6/62°4 = more than 60 per cent of its
own weight of magnesium silicate. This remarkable series of
mix-crystals strongly resembles diopside. The optical work
described in detail in Part Ii shows that the extinction angle
and the optic axial angle both fall about $° for each
additional per cent of magnesium silicate. The specific
volume curve (fig. 9) shows that the solution is attended by
expansion.
4. Calcium silicate in diopside. The microscope detected
inhomogeneity at 44°5 per cent MgSiO, while the thermoelement
detected a plain eutectic in the 45 per cent MgSiO,. The
limit of solubility is doubtless small, certainly less than 100—
45/46°3 = 3 per cent CaSiO,,.
5. Diopside in a-CaSiO, (pseudo-wollastonite). Mixtures
containing as much as 8 per cent MgSiO, plainly showed
inhomogeneity when examined by the microscope. The
inhomogeneity took the form of irregular bands, irregularly
distributed, which showed a distinctly lower birefringence
than the rest. The 2 per cent MgSiO, solution showed traces
of the above structure and gave a plain eutectic when examined
thermally. The 1 per cent solution is microscopically homo-
geneous and gives no more than a suspicion of aeutectic. The
error will be shght if we put the limit of solubility at about
1-2 per cent MgSiO,, or in round numbers, 3-4 per cent of
diopside.
6. Diopside in 8-CaSiO, (wollastonite). In this case a
thermal test is obviously useless. The microscopic analysis
showed that solution ceased at about 17 per cent diopside (8 per
cent MgSiO,). Crystallization took place at about 1058°. The
crystals of diopside and wollastonite are both monoclinic and
the latter resembles diopside more closely than pseudo-wollas-'
tonite, so that it is not surprising that wollastonite should dis-
solve diopside in large quantity.
These solutions showed a very interesting behavior when
they were heated. To understand this clearly, it should be
remembered that the eutectic between pseudo-wollastonite and
diopside melts at about 1348°, while wollastonite has an inver-
sion point at about 1190°. Upon heating crystals of wollaston-
20 Allen, etc.—Diopside and its Relations
ite carrving 1 per cent MgSiO, (2:1 per cent diopside) for one
hour at 1221°, no change was apparent. Heated again for two
hours at 1245°, the inversion was slight. The inversion point
of wollastonite appears, therefore, to be raised 40°—50° by the
solution of only 2 per cent diopside. (See p: 187}
Since time is an important factor in sluggish changes, a
direct comparison was made between pure wollastonite and two
mix-crystal preparations of this series by heating all three in
the same furnace for the same length of time, viz. 1 "homme
The temperature ranged from 1257° to 1263°, i. &,. about 65°
above the inversion point of wollastonite. The wollastonite
was completely inverted, the 2-1 per cent solution slightly
inverted, while in the 4°3 per cent solution (2 per cent MeSi0,)
it was doubtful if any change at all had taken place. The two
solid solutions were now returned to the furnace and held an
hour longer between 1273° and 1300°,.about a hundred degrees
above the inversion point of pure calcium silicate. The weaker
solution was now found to be much changed, the stronger one
less so. The 8 per cent solution of MgSiO,, containing 17°3
per cent diopside, was heated for an hour at 1278° to 1280°,
90° above the inversion point of calcium silicate. A car eful
microscopic examination of the crystals then showed a con-
siderable change in their appearance; a new product had sepa- ~
rated but it did not show the ohamanien istics of pseudo-wollas-
tonite. Such optical properties as could be measured in fine-
grained material (index of refraction, birefringence) agreed
with diopside. This indicates that the solubility of diopside
in wollastonite is greater at lower temperatures where the
crystallization occurred, or perhaps that the solid solutions,
being formed by rapid erystallization, were supersaturated. In
either case the excess separates when the solution is heated to -
higher temperature.
Heated an hour longer at a temperature of 1298°—1308°,
more diopside separated, but the signs of inversion were still
doubtful. Again, the crystals were returned to the furnace
and the heating continued another hour at 1327°-1348".
This time inversion was evident. These experiments show
either a marked rise in the inversion temperature of wollas-
tonite or else a great increase in molecular sluggishness caused
‘by the dissolved diopside.
A brief discussion will make it clear under what conditions
an inversion point may be raised and thus help to decide
whether we have a real rise in the inversion temperature or
not. By a thermodynamic method Beckman* has shown that
the freezing or inversion point of a substance is changed by
* Ostwald’s Lehrbuch der Chemie, vol. 2, pt. 2, pp. 38, 68.
to Calcium and Magnesium Metasilicates. ZE
Taste IIL.
Inversion Temperature of Wollastonite-Diopside Mix- Crystals.
(Inversion point of wollastonite, 1190°.)
of Composition of Peeeer) Results.
Exper. ‘Heating eh
1 1% MgSiOs; (2°1% diopside) Eber: 1221° No change.
2 1% MgSiO; (2°1% diopside) 2 hr. 1245° Inversion slight.
Continuation of Exper. 1
0% MgSiO; Completely
inverted.
3 1% MgSiO; (2°1% diopside) hr. 1257--1268° Slightly “
2% MgsiOs; (4°5¢ diopside) Doubtful
(1¢ MgSiO; (Continuation : oy > § Largely inverted
és 1 24 MgSiOs of Exper. 3) foe; Les Muchless ‘‘
> 84 MgSiO; (17°3¢ diopside) hr. 1278-1280° Separation of
diopside. No
inversion.
6 8% MgSiO; (17°3% diopside)
(Continuation of Exper.5) lhr. 1298-1303° Inversion
doubtful.
7 Continuation of Exper. 6 lhr. 1827-1848° ‘¢ evident.
re: 76:
To Hs
Fic. 6 shows under what conditions an inversion point remains unaltered
after the formation of a solid solution.
the solution of another substance according to the equation
O25 1? mgt
iT —(C,—C,) where A = the depression in the tem-
perature, T = the absolute temperature of the inversion point in
the pure substance, / = its latent heat of fusion, C, = the con-
centration of the solution above the inversion point and C, =
the concentration of the solution below the point.
22 Allen, etc.—Diopside and its Relations
This formula holds approximately for concentrated solutions.
When C, = C,, i. e., when the concentration of the solid solu-
tion is not changed by the process of inversion, there will »
evidently be no change in the inversion point; when C,>C,,
the temperature will fall, but if C,, the concentration below
the freezing point, is greater, then A will have the opposite
sign, and the freezing point will be higher than that of the
pure substance.
The same conclusion is reached by a graphic method.* In |
fig. 6 let AB represent the vapor pressure curve of the pure
solid below the inversion point, BC the vapor pressure above
it, and T, the inversion temperature. Now if this solid forms
a solid solution, the vapor pressure of the former will be
lowered according to the concentration of the solution. Sup-
pose that this is the same above and below the inversion point,
and that the vapor pressures are lowered to the same degree in
both. It is evident that the new curves DE and EF will inter-
sect at the same temperature and the inversion temperature is
therefore unchanged. i
In fig. 7 let us suppose that the concentrations of the two
solid solutions are unequal, the one below the inversion point
being the more dilute. The curve AB will be lowered to DE
and BC will fall to EF by reason of the greater concentration
of the second solution. DE and EF now intersect at E, at a
temperature lower than T,. By similar reasoning we conclude
that when the solid solution below the inversion point is the
more concentrated the inversion point will be raised. (See
fig 8.) Apparently the lower concentrations of diopside in
wollastonite remain the same when the mix-crystals invert,
for about 1-2 per cent MgSiO, is dissolved by the pseudo-
wollastonite. In these cases,\therefore, the inversion point
theoretically should not change. ‘These solutions, however, are
unquestionably less changed at the same temperature than
wollastonite is. We therefore conclude that the solution of
diopside has increased the intermolecular friction of the crys-
tals. It is also possible that these solutions of wollastonite-
diopside which are more concentrated than 1-2 per cent
MgSiO, really have a higher inversion point than 1190°.
If the crystals saturated at this temperature remain more con-
centrated in diopside than the pseudo-wollastonite is, this must.
be true. A decision cannot be reached until we have some
sure metiod of establishing equilibrium. Day and Shepherd
found that solid solutions of lime or silica in calcium metasili-
cate inverted to wollastonite on cooling. Since the pure meta-
silicate does not behave so, we naturally conclude that the
internal friction was lessened by the lime or silica. Magnesium
* Bodlander, Neues Jahrb. Min., Beilage Bd. xii, p. 52.
to Calcium and Magnesium Metasilicates. 23
metasilicate has no such influence. The 4:3 per cent of diop-
side in pseudo-wollastonite was cooled from 1209° to 1050°
during a period of 1% hours without producing any change
in the crystal form. In the diagram, fig. 1, we have drawn a
ieee
el a
Fie. 7 shows under what conditions the inversion point of a solid is
depressed after the formation of a solid solution.
dotted line through the points where this series of solutions
was actually observed to invert, but it must not be accepted as
a true inversion line. The inertia of these mix-crystals of wol-
lastonite causes them to exhibit a curious and variable behavior
GaSe ie
A
D
0
Ty T
P| SES ea en SSNS
Fie. 8 shows under what conditions the inversion point is raised after
the formation of a solid solution.
24 Allen, etc.—Diopside and rts Relations
when heated, which in the beginning of the work was quite
confusing. The normal behavior of a solution of wollaston-
ite containing more than 2-4 per cent of diopside, (the
limit of solubility of the latter in pseudo-wollastonite) would
be as follows: First, an inversion should occur somewhat above
1190°, giving crystals of pseudo-wollastonite saturated with
diopside, and an excess of free diopside. At 1348° some
eutectic melting would be noted, and finally, when the melting
point curve is reached, another thermal point would be found.
Under ordinary experimental conditions, however, where the
rate of heating is about 3° per minute, solutions containing 5
per cent MgSi0, (10°8 per cent diopside} showed no melting at
the eutectic temperature. Evidently no mversion had taken
place. When the rate of heating was considerably slower a
slight eutectic melting was noted, while if the crystals were
previously held for some time at 1360°, there was a strong
absorption of heat at the eutectic temperature. In the 8 per
cent MgSiO, solution (17°3 per cent diopside) the eutectic failed
in one instance, 1. e., there was no melting at the eutectic
temperature. Mixtures of saturated mix-crystals of wollaston-
ite-diopside give, when the heating is not too slow, three points,
the eutectic at about 1348°, a further melting accompanying
the inversion at a higher temperature,* and finally, the point
on the melting point curve where all becomes liquid. ‘Thus
the 10 per cent mixture (containing about 4 per cent of free
diopside) showed heat absorptions at 1340°, 1877° and 1451°.
The 8 per cent solution showed a similar behavior, indicating
that some inversion may have occurred below the eutectic points.
Another explanation is perhaps more probable, viz.: that the
lowest point may be due to an unstable eutectic between wollas-
tonite and diopside, since the latter was found to separate from
the more concentrated solutions at the higher temperatures.
If so the point hes very near the pseudo-wollastonite diopside
eutectic. A fact that seems to favor the explanation is that
the 10 per cent solution always gives this lowest point although
it has been proved that the more concentrated solutions invert
with greater difficulty. Moreover, when the 28 per cent solu-
tion was crystallized below 1190° and therefore contained no
pseudo-wollastonite (a conclusion also verified by the micro-
scope), all melted at 1358° as usual.
Specific-volume curve.—In 1890 Retgerst stated clearly two
arguments to prove that diopside was a chemical compound in
distinction from a mix-erystal. The first was that the minerals
in nature which contain the metasilicates of calcium and
* Since the solution of the diopside in the wollastonite crystals prevents
partly or wholly the eutectic melting at the proper temperature, this melting
will at once occur when the crystals are inverted.
+ Ann. Ecole Polytech. de Delft, iv, p. 186, 1890.
to Calcium and Magnesium Metasilicates. 25
magnesium vary comparatively little from the compositions
CaSiO,, MeSiO, and CaMgSi,O,; and the second, that the
specific volume of diopside could not be calculated additively
from the volumes of the constituents. Retgers’s method of
solving the question of isomorphism or isodimorphism between
two substances is well known.’ It consists in the preparation
of a suitable series of mix-crystals of the two substances and a
study of the relation which their specitic volumes bear to one
another. He proved by many examples that the specific vol-
umes of isomorphous mixtures (as he defined them), when
plotted as a function of the composition, form a straight line.
In the paper quoted above, Retgers said that this would be
the best way to prove whether calcium and magnesium sili-
cates form a double salt or are isodimorphous, if their mixtures
could only be crystallized in sufficiently large individuals for
specitic gravity determinations. He used the floating method,
which is not adapted for very small particles, and he empha-
sized the importance of making sure that the material is both
physically and chemically homogeneous. He therefore used
only transparent individuals for fear that aggregates might
contain some foreign material which would escape optical
detection. It has been shown in this laboratory that the spe-
cific gravities of mineral powders, if not évo fine (100-120 mesh),
can be determined with a degree of accuracy (+001 for
substances of the gravity of 3) very nearly as great as those
obtained by Retgers’s method. Of course, the particles should
be free from air bubbles or vacua, and it must be admitted
that powders require a very car eful microscopic investigation
to decide this point. Mixtures of calcium and magnesium
silicate generally show a certain amount of “dustiness” due
to very minute inclusions, or more probably to vacua. These
are more numerous in the mixtures which are rich in mag-
nesia (70-97 per cent). but not in the pure magnesium
silicate itself. When large masses of material (100 grams) are
crystallized slowly, the density is greater and the microscope
shows that. the vacua are fewer and smaller. Although the
specific gravities of the mixtures crystallized in this way are
still too low, we judged that they would probably be approx-
imately comparable among themselves, and this conviction ‘
has been justitied by experiment.
The specitic-volume curve (fig. 9) plainly consists of three
branches. AB is the locus of the volumes of mechanical mix-
tures of the pseudo-wollastonite and diopside (leaving out of
the question the small mutual solubility). Independently of
microscopic or thermal evidence, it would, of course, be
impossible to say whether this line indicated a series of
mechanical mixtures or a series of mix-crystals between two
26 Allen, ete.—Diopside and its Relations
isomorphous substances. In either case the volumes would
form a straight line between the two constituents. DO is
made up of diopside mix-crystals with magnesium silicate.
The limit of the solubility of the latter in diopside is at about
70 to 72 per cent MgSiO, as determined by the specific volume
Tasue LV.
Specific Gravities and Specific Volumes of Mixtures of
CasiO, and MgsiO.,.
Sp. ar: Sp. v.
0% Mesi0, oe WAY ee So REN a 2°912 °3434
8 of Seg em ee Mie Th 2°965 3373
10 rR Riel te Neonat ante eT Sn 2°947 3362
20 ae Winn soe ama Mire ARNE rat acne 3°046 3283
30 SMe ake eae Lenn yt MMR Read 2 3°11 3215
40 Goh) gp ae Moho Megs aul nn a 204 °3125
Ah pie ee irre | OER ak ae 2 eM es ea cena 3°229 °3096
32237 °3089
46°3 Eee sie a PR Os Ge As Ep AONE) °3090
3°24] °3086
ALI) BEG Ohya taal Clie eRe ae ts 3°246 3081
50 PATTEM SE de Rs Rete Ne ao 3°245 3089
3°255 °3072
55 CERI Ay ge our nae 3°24) °3086
3°24 1
60 ee BA Ata ci me eed Pat 0 3229 "3096
65 Beas Pe Conga for AN Tae ne, tae Bey 3115
3°212
70 SO ta churtes Lh Ba MRE IE a 3°205 °3120
3°198 nie
2 af ip ten ay hes alee! 3°196 °3129
3°196 [oO om
5 i eres SAIS MEIER | SUF th Cots 3°194 °3130
80 Fee a ed gy i ate 3°198 sol 2g
3°192 3132
85 Bei Boece 98 Sie ae ee a a ae
90 Se tpi Ney Ln in 7 RR tame 3°188 “ola k
95 re RRL Aaa es ORE a 8t "3140
100 FEN ete AC Lee So pee a 3°193 "3132
Where two different numbers are given, they belong to different prepara-
tions.
eurve. The microscope sets the limit at about 66:5 per cent.
The discrepancy is probably due to experimental error in the
specific gravity determinations caused by the presence of bub-
bles in the grains. An inspection of the curve shows that the
volumes of these solid solutions all lie above a line joining b
and D. They are, therefore, greater than the volumes calcu-
to Calcium and Magnesium Metasilicates. 27
lated on the assumption of a purely additive relation. A sim-
ilar expansion is known in other cases.* CD contains the
volumes of mixtures of magnesium silicate and the diopside
mix-crystals. The minimum B, indicating a compound, falls at
about 49 per cent MgSiO, instead of 46°3 per cent, which is
demanded by the formula CaSiO,.MgSiO,. This is because a
Fie. 9.
ele a
ee eee
ee ee yee eel drei 4
wie eee
pe emer ee ho
feces bodende
i ¢
SPECIFIC VOLUME,
LOT cone a) 2.40.62 50" 6017082 80) 90) 110
CaSiO3 MgsiO,
Weight per cent.
melt of the latter composition forms a crystalline mass which
always appears to contain more bubbles than the other compo-
sitions In its immediate neighborhood, so that the density of
the crystals is not only absolutely but also relatively too. low.
It will be remembered in this connection that the diopside
which was crystallized from calcium chloride had a specific
gravity of 3°275, while that which was crystallized trom a melt
of the composition CaMgSi,O, had a density of only 3°24.
* EK. S. Shepherd, Journ. Phys. Chem., viii, 245, 1904.
28 Allen, etc.—Dviopside and its Relations
- We made a number of experiments with the intention of
finding whether the mix-crystals of diopside and magnesium
silicate could be erystallized again from calcium chloride, or if
not, what change in composition they would show with varying
quantities of the chloride, but the products obtained were not
only not homogeneous, but the crystals were too small to sepa-
rate from one another and the microscope was unable to
identify them. One difficulty in these experiments was the
impossibility of entirely excluding water from the apparatus.
Its reaction with the calcium chloride, of course, formed some
free lime, which was dissolved by the silicate. Pure diopside,
as we have seen, does not dissolve lime, but magnesium silicate
does. Three grams of the latter, containing only 0°12 per cent
of lime, was crystallized* from calcium chloride and analyzed
after the excess of the reagent was removed. It now contained
3°04 per cent of lime, an increase of 2°92 per cent. |
Part Il. Optical Study, by Frup. Euemne Wriagut and -
Esper 8. Larsen.
In the foregoing pages the theoretical aspects of the Ca-Mg-
metasilicate problem have been treated at length, evidence
from all sources, chemical, physical, optical and_ erystallo-
graphic, having been brought to bear on its solution. In this
general presentation of the problem, however, only the more
important and decisive optical and crystallographic data have
been made use of, their detailed tabulation having been
reserved for a separate section. In the following paragraphs
those details which are still lacking are listed, and in order to
avoid repetition, general theoretical considerations have been
avoided so far as possible. In the attack on the present prob-
lem the effort has been made from the very first to combine
the evidence from all viewpoints and to test each conelusion
by such evidence. It has been found that by this method the
constant interchange of ideas and the discussion of the details
of the problem have tended greatly to improve and to
strengthen the final result.
For the sake of convenience the optical and crystallographic
features of the three compounds of this series will be considered
first, after which will follow the particular features of the
intermediate preparations.
Calcium Metasilicate—The two enantiotropic forms of
this compound, wollastonite and pseudo-wollastonite, have
already been described in detail in this Journalt+ and the
evidence need not be repeated at this point. Since the publi-
* The crystals were small but well-developed.
+ This Journal, xxi, 108-108, 1906.
to Calcium and Magnesium Metasilicates. 29
cation of the above paper, however, better facilities for refrac-
tive index determinations have been acquired and the refractive
indices of the two compounds have been redetermined. The
measurements were made on polished plates of the crystalline
ageregate, experience having taught that even under such
conditions it is possible to determine y and a in sodium light
with the reducing attachment of the Abbé-Pulfrich total
refractometer, while 8 can also be ascertained if the individual
grains are sufficiently large. For wollastonite the new values
are, Yna = 1°632+-002; By, = 1°628+:008; ay, = 1:616 + 002;
y—a = 016, y—8B = (004, B—a ='012. The refractive indices
of pseudo-wollastonite are : yy,=1°650+:002; ay, =1:609+008 ;
birefringence y—a = 041. The birefringence of both wollas-
tonite and pseudo-wollastonite was furthermore checked by
direct measurement in the thin section; y—a for wollastonite
being 014 and for pseudo-wollastonite -043.*
Magnesium Metasilicate—Like the calcium metasilicate,
this compound has also been described in a special paper in
which the optical characteristics are considered together with
the other properties. Four different forms or phases were
there mentioned bearing monotropic relations to each other,
the monoclinic Mg-pyroxene being the one stable form. In
the course of the past winter, however, still another phase has
been discovered, orthorhombic in sy mmetry and in general
aspect and development not unlike that of olivine erystals.
TABLE V.
No. Letter Symbol Miller 0) p
1 Exe) 0 001 py 2° 00’
2 a 0 0 100 90° 00 [9052.00
3 b On 010 0 00 <6
4 m oe 110 44 04 se
5 Ni oo 2 120 Do. ON oy
6 Gets} oo 250 17 756 i
7 k (?) 3.0 310 70 44 .
8 no (2) 20 210 66 54
9 s 11 111 AB 1X0) 88 58
10 é 12 1a) Bite BIS yeaa a
Tt p 10 101 90 00 29 - 09
b2: 0 1 111 46 48 AQ Ot
13 Z 12 12h 28; 30 ey ylhO)
14 ra) 10 103 90 00 Fi -455
15 (?) Aes 103 90 00 ye
* Opportunity may here be improved to correct several of the optical data
in the paper on the Lime-Silica Series of Minerals (this Jour., xxii, 293-302,
1906). At top line of p. 297 read: a= 1°609+ 008, y = 1°620+ 002, instead
of the values given; on p. 298, 11 lines from the top, «= 1°534+°002 and
w = 175444 002; on p. 299, 8 lines from bottom, 1°585 and 1°621; and 2
lines from bottom, a = 1590; on last line, p. 299, read -019 instead of ‘020,
30 Allen, etc.—Diopside and its Relations
The optical data of the monoclinic Mg-pyroxene form
given in the above article can now be supplemented by more
accurate figures in several instances; and at the same time
several errors in the crystallographic data can be rectified.
The §8-MgSiO, is monoclinic and the observed form and
measured angles are listed in Table V above.*
The reflexion signals from many of the faces were multiple
and wide variations in the angles occur. The best average
ratios from these values are about
fo ='d8 g,=°60 e=-046 w= 87°26; or
G50 Gi NOS i060: 3998, = 8 ae ee
~ values which are closely similar to those for enstatite but less
so for diopside. The variations are not such, however, as to
preclude isomorphic relations between the two. The plane of
the optic axes les normal to the plane of symmetry and not in
the plane of symmetry as in most pyroxenest ; the bisectrix c
is inclined to the vertical axis c, 21°8°. The optic axial angle
was measured on the universal stage and by means of the two
screw micrometer ocular. Care was taken to select favorable
sections and the probable error in each case was not large.
The average of all good determinations by both methods is
2V = 53°5°+1°, or 2E = 96°. The overlapping of the twin-
ning lamellae often causes abnormal variations in this optic
axial angle and it proved a difficult matter to find suitable
sections. Etch figures on the cleavage face were also obtained
and will be considered later, together with the etch figures of
the other members of this series.
The a-Mg8i0,, to which reference has already been made,
crystallizes readily and is obtained by quenching the crystal-
lized melt from temperatures above 1365° to prevent its
inversion to the 8-form. Once obtained it can be held for
apparently an indefinite period at ordinary temperatures with-
out inversion to the more stable 8-form. The erystals are
orthorhombic in symmetry and in certain positions bear strong
resemblance to the characteristic crystal habit of olivine. On
the surface of a melt held at 1510° and then chilled rapidly,
several crystals, water-clear and sharply bound erystallographi-
cally, occurred, and three of them (1x °5 x:2™™) were measured
* Compare with Table II on page 598, vol. xxii, 1906, this Journal, in which
several letters were unfortunately transposed, although the relations are
correctly represented in the gnomonic projection plat on the same page.
+ The relations of the different pyroxenes, particularly of the magnesium
iron group, have been recently discussed in an interesting paper by W. Wahl
(Die Enstatit-augite, Tschermak’s Miner. Petrogr. Mittheil., xxvi, 1-181,
1907), who proposes the name clino-enstatite for the 6-MgSiO; or magnesium
pyroxene. The suggestion is a good one and may well be adopted, the two
latter terms being long and cumbersome.
to Calcium and Magnesium Metasilicates. 31
on the goniometer. The reflexion signals were not of the best
and the angles of the table can be considered only approxi-
mately correct, an error of +15’ being easily possible.
TaBLE VI.*
No. Letter Miller Symbol o p
1 b 010 Qce 4405037 90°00’
2 mM 110 oe) 40 08 90 00
3 k 011 O1 0 O1 25 09
From the angles the crystallographic constants can be eal-
culated : Dee = 0-40 G.,— O40
or G0 26 = VAS: 1: O47.
The crystals are often tabular and prismatic in shape
after 010 as indicated in fig. 10. In other cases the prism
zone is less prominent and the crystals are of
equant development. The forms 6, m, and k_ Fie. 10.
were observed on all three crystals. Cleavage after
100, good.
The plane of the optic axes is the cleavage plane
100 and the acute bisectrix isc. The optical orien-
tation is, therefore,a@ = 6; 6=c; and optical char-
acter +. The refractive indices were determined
by the immersion method in refractive liquids; a
= 1-641 + 008; B=1-648 +003; y = 16634-0083;
y—a=022; y—B=015; B-—a=-007. The birefringence
y—8 = -016 was furthermore measured directly on a tabular
erystal 0°182™" thick by use of the Babinet compensator.
The optic axial angle is large and was measured with the
two-screw micrometer ocular on two sections showing an
optic axis in the field of vision. The average of the two
values thus obtained (2V = 59°5° and 61:0°) is about 2V
= 60°3° and 2K = 111°. The axial dispersion is fairly
strong, 2 Vp > 2V».
* The angles in the table are the averages of the different values obtained.
These measurements were made on January 17, 1906, and since that time no
suitable crystals for goniometric measurement have again been observed.
Although the original notes stated definitely that these ‘‘ crystal angles do
not coincide with those of enstatite’’ while ‘‘the optical relations do not
correspond with those ofolivine,” and this same form was observed at that
time in at least seven different preparations, its importance was not realized
and its presence was ascribed to impurity. In later experiments practically
no chilling was done and not until the thermal data indicated to Dr. A. L.
Day the presence of a high-temperature phase, enantiotropic to the first,
were quenching experiments again resumed and with them the true signi-
ficance of the a-MgSiO; became apparent.
32 Allen, ete.—Diopside and its Relations
In several of the larger crystals of the a-Me@SiO, a character-
istic arrangement of inclusions and lines of growth was observed
and strongly resembled the hourglass structure of certain
pyroxenes, the hourglass portions of each crystal showing
abnormal interference phenomena, due either to incipient
changes into the 8-form or to peculiar intergrowths or possibly,
but not probably, to strain phenomena.
The a-form is readily distinguished from the 6-form by its
lack of polysynthetic twinning, parallel extinction and stronger
birefringence ; from olivine and enstatite by its cleavage and
the position of the optic axial plane relative to the cleavage.
It is of interest to note that the a-MgSiO,, which is unstable
below 1865° and cannot be obtained except under very special
conditions, has not been observed in nature, thus establishing,
as in the case of pseudo-wollastonite, a high temperature limit
for the formation of certain minerals.
. Dropside.— This third compound of the series is an excellent
erystallizer and can be formed in a number of different ways
and at different temperatures. The best crystals were obtained
by heating glass of the composition CaMgSi,O, in a flux of
CaCl, in an atmosphere of dry HCl at 1000° for one week. The
crystals varied in size up to 2™™ in diameter, were water-clear
and of simple crystallographic habit. Three crystals were
measured on the goniometer with reducing attachment. The
reflexion signals obtained, were not of the best and the values
of Table VII are the averages of the observed angles. A
number of other crystals were selected and mounted on the
goniometer, but the reflexion signals from their faces were
often multiple and unsatisfactory, and not suited to improve
the results already obtained from the three measured crystals.
Tasie VII.
Artificial Diopside ° Natural Diopside
No. Letter Miller Symbol Q p 0) p
ik b 010 0 00 90 01 0 00 90 00
2 mM ie) AB 30 90 40 43 33 90 00
3 S Tli : =I 94 51 Ba) Os 25 O7 33 04
4 x LD —2 35 a2 55 20 Bo 22 55.19
5 X(?) 331 —3 39 17 66 17 38 19 66 04
For the sake of comparison, the angular values @ and p for
the same forms on natural diopside (Goldschmidt, Winkelta-
bellen, p. 288) are included in this table. From these angles
the average value of p, = 539; ¢, = 568; ¢ = -276, and w =
73° 59’; ora@:6:¢= 1:096:1%7 7591. For mnatuxalidigpemes
p, = 05390; g, = 0:5670; e.= 02781; = (eave ee
to Calcium and Magnesium Metasilicates. 33
a@:b:¢ =1:0934:1:05894. Both the angular values and the
calculated crystallographic constants prove the close resem-
blance of the artificial diopside crystals to the natural mineral,
the differences observed being within the limits of error possible
with the quality of reflection signals Rie Ui
obtained from the artificial crystals. OS he
Except for the form 2, which was observed
only once, the crystal habit is simple
and requires no comment. ‘Twinning after
100 is common and one of the three
erystais measured was thus twinned, the
twinning plane dividing the crystals into
two nearly equal halves. Polysynthetic
twinning after 100, however, occurred only
rarely and is not characteristic.
Prismatic cleavage after 110 is good; in diopside crystallites
from the melt indications of a parting after a dome or basal
pinacoid face at an angle of about 66° with the prismatic
cleavage cracks were also recorded.
The refractive indices were measured on polished plates of
the crystalline material on the total refractometer in sodium
light :
Yna = 1°694 + 002; By, = 1°671 + *002; ay, = 1°664 + -002
ae 0S 028 Ga — OT
Direct determinations of the birefringence were also made in
the thin sections with the result: y—a = -030 + ‘062 (average
of three measurements on good sections). The optic axial
angle was measured on a number of different sections both
with the universal stage and with the two-screw micrometer
ocular. The average of four good determinations is:
2V = 59°32-1°; 2H = 114°.. The optical axial dispersion
is weak, 2Vp>2V,. The plane of the optic axes is the plane
of symmetry (010).
Extinction angles were measured both on the clinopinacoid
aoa the prism tace 110. On 010¢:¢= —38°°5 241°. On 110
e:¢c=—32°9+1°. The position of total extinction was
ascertained in each case by use of the new bi-quartz wedge
plate* and the values should be correct within 1°. Extinction
angles were also measured for different faces in the prism
zone. Suitable crystals, held in a specially constructed device,t
were immersed in a liquid of the refractive index 8 and the
extinction angle read for different angles of revolution of the
crystal from its position of zero extinction when the ortho-
pinacoid is normal to the axis of the microscope.
* This Journal, xxvi, 377-379, 1908. + This Journal, xxvi, 388, 1908.
Am. Jour. Sc1.—Fourts Series, Vou. X XVII, No. 157.—January, 1909.
9
2
34 Allen, etc.—Dvopside and tts Relations
o* i E,
Ob 0° On
Os —13° —12°°5
20> —20°'9 —21°°7
30° —27°:] —27°°9
40° —32°°2 —31°°9
SIO) — 32°°9 —32°°5
510) © —34°°3 —34°°6
60° —35°°5 —36°°4
FO; —387°2 —37°°6
80° —38°°5 —38°°3
90° —38°°5 —38°°5
* d=angle of prism face with orthopinacoid 100.
These figures indicate that for the first 40° from the ortho-
pinacoid the extinction angle rises very rapidly while for faces
near the clinopinacoid the variations are very slight.
For the sake of comparison the theoretical valnes of the
extinction angles indicated by the Michel-Lévy formula* are
listed under column E..
From the melt diopside crystallizes readily, usually in the
form of radiating prismatic individuals intricately intergrown
and overlapping. A characteristic microscopic feature is the
presence of fine bubble-like inclusions or cavities throughout
the crystallized mass. These cavities are either tubular in
shape and parallel in a general way the prismatic elongations
of the crystallites; or they appear cutting across the sections
in an irregular way not unlike the cavities in a section of
worm-eaten wood. ‘The cavities are probably due to the
shrinkage accompanying the crystallization of diopside from
the silicate melt.—Such air spaces in the crystals from CaCl,
fluxes were only rarely observed and are not characteristic
of the same.
The Intermediate Compositions.—In studying the prepara-
tions of this series intermediate in composition between the
compounds, the microscopic analysis has been directed along
two principal lines: (1) To ascertain whether or not the prod-
uct is homogeneous ; (2) to determine as accurately as pos-
sible the optic properties of the one or more components in
each preparation. Experience with both thermal and optical
data has shown that in certain instances limits of homogeneity
cannot be detected within one or two per cent optically and
the optical determinations of the limits of solid solution in
this series given below may easily be in error therefore one or
two per cent.
* Les Mineraux des Roches, p. 11, 1888. In this formula the following
values Nee used: V=29"'6, -y=0°, ext. angle=358 -)/oriu—6 (0) vem
do Ds ,
to Calcium and Magnesium Metasilicates. 35
When out of the melt of a readily crystallizing substance,
minute quantities of a second substance crystallize, they are
usually so completely hidden in the mass of the first crystals
that the process of finding them microscopically is not unlike
that of “finding the needle in a haystack,” particularly when
the optical pr operties of the two substanees are closely similar.
It has been found by experience that the best method for
detecting inhomogeneity is to immerse the powdered material
(finely divided by tapping the substance in a mortar) in a
liquid of the refractive index of the predominating substance ;
in this the minute particles of the second substance can be
seen at a glance, if its refractive index be different from that
of the first. For this purpose, a set of refractive liquids of
indices ranging from 1:450 to 1-790 has been used, the refrac-
tive index of each successive liquid differing from the forego-
ing by -005. The refractive indices of these liquids were
determined directly on an Abbé-Pulfrich total refractometer and
their constancy checked every three months at least.* The
liquids are kept in small dropping bottles (80° capacity)
with ground glass stopper and ground glass cap, and the
refractive indices of the liquids change either very slightly or
not at all in three months.
In ascertaining the different optic properties of the members
of this series, the following methods have been found most
serviceable and seem best adapted to work of this character:
Refractive indices were measured by use of refractive liquids
after the immersion method of Schroeder van der Kolk.
Wherever possible, especially on homogeneous preparations,
* The following is the list of liquids used in the preparation of this set.
(On an average the change in refractive index of a liquid is about ‘001 for
a change of 3° ©. in temperature.)
Refractive Index. Liquids used.
1-450 to 1°-465 Mixtures of chloroform and carbontetrachloride.
1-470 to 1°495 Mixtures of turpentine and xylol.
1°500 to 1°505 Mixtures of xylol and monochlorated benzene.
1°510 Aethyliodide.
1°515 to 1:°520 Mixtures of cedar oil and clove oil.
1520 Monochlorated benzene.
1°530 Mixtures of cedar oil and clove oil.
1°555 Mixture of aethylbromide and monochlorated benzene.
1°540 to 1550 Mixtures of clove oil and cinnamic aldehyde.
1°555 Nitro-benzol.
1-560 Benzene monobromated.
1°565 to 1615 Mixtures of clove oil and cinnamic aldehyde.
1°620 to 1635 Mixtures of benzene mono-chlorated and a-monochlorated
naphthaline.
1°640 to 1°655 Mixtures of a monochlorated naphthaline and a-mono-
bromated naphthaline.
1°660 to 1-740 Mixtures of a-monobromated naphthaline and methylene
iodide.
1°740 to 1°790 Mixture of methylene iodide and sulphur.
36 Allen, ete.—Diopside and its Relations
the refractive indices were measured directly on the total refrac-
tometer, experience having shown that with polished plates of
the crystallized mass of substance the y and a limiting refrac-
tive index lines can usually be distinguished if the reducing
attachment be used. In such cases where the maximal and
minimal indices are determined from aggregates of erystals -
rather than from one crystal, it is of course not possible to
determine also the refractive index 8. Optic axial angles
were determined by use of the two-screw micrometer ocular
and also by the modified universal stage* of Fedorow. Extine-
tion angle measurements were made with the aid of the bi-
quartz wedge plate,t care being taken to select favorable
sections in each case. Direct determinations of the birefrin-
gence in the thin section or in flat crystal grains were accom-
plished by measuring the thickness of the plate or grain with
the micrometer screw of the microscope (model Fuess) and
then ascertaining the path difference of the emerging waves
by means of a Babinet compensator. By this method only a
fair degree of accuracy can be obtained because of the
Fie. -12:
| | bok | BIMa SiO,
lO : =
| lige
0) 1G 20 50. 40 50 6D 10 30
* This Journal, xxiv, 317-869, 1907. + This Journal, xxvi, 377-879, 1908.
to Calcium and Magnesium Metasilicates. 37
difficulty of determining the thickness of the plates accu-
rately. This error was “reduced so far as possible by taking
the average of a number of measurements of thickness
on the same section and by grinding the sections thicker
than usual.
The optical data prove that wollastonite can take up in solid
solution about 17 per cent of diopside, while pseudo-wollaston-
ite can absorb only about 4 per cent of diopside in solid solution ;
that in diopside only a small amount of the calcium metasil-
icate, not over 5 per cent, can enter into solid solution, while
mixed er ystals containing up to about 39 per cent of MeSiO, |
in diopside can exist ; the maximal solid solution of diopside
in B-MgSiO, is not oreat and does not exceed 5 per cent.
These relations were ascertained both by observing the limit of
homogeneity of the preparations and by observing the changes
in the different optic constants of the prepar ations.
In fig. 12 the optic constants are represented graphically and
the limits of solid solution are indicated by the breaks in the
eurves. The optical data from which these curves were drawn
are included in the following table (V II]).
Although every effort was ; made to reduce the probable error
of the values listed in this table, the very nature of the mate-
rial precluded accuracy of a very high order. The refractive
indices given in the table may be considered exact within
+°003 ; the direct determinations of birefringence within
+°003, especially when checked by refractive index determi-
nation ; the optic axial angles are not all of the same order of
accuracy,—that of psendo-wollastonite being the least satisfac-
tory, with 8-MgSiO, next; in general the probable error does
Sei exceed 1"; the extinction angle determinations on 110
probably vary less than 1° from the true values.
Table VIII as well as fig. 12 prove conclusively that diopside
is a compound, and that the limits of solid solution for
the different members of the series is that indicated above.
Beginning with wollastonite, the refractive indices, the birefrin-
gence and the optical angle of the pure compound increase with
increasing admixture of MgSiO, up to about 8 per cent MgSiO,,
after which the curves are practically horizontal, thus marking
the limit of crystal miscibility with diopside. In the sections
free diopside was observed first in the preparation containing
10 per cent MgSiO,.—For pseudo-wollastonite the refractive
indices, the birefringence and the optic axial angle increase
shghtly only up to about 2 per cent MgSiO,, and the exami-
nation of the preparations proved that beyond this limit inho-
mogeneity exists and diopside is present.—The limits of solid
solution of CaSiO, in diopside were difficult to determine optic-
ally with any devree of certainty. .The data indicate only
slight solid solution, probably not below 45 per cent MgSiO,,
or not over 2 2 per cent of calcium metasilicate. In the prepa-
38 Allen, etc.—Diopside and its Relations
TaBLe VIII.
| ea 5
| Resets 3 |Optical| Dis-| PARC
Composition | | | =| axial | per-| Ae
% MgSiO; |} @ | B | y |y—a*|y—aly—B\y—'lS | angie |sion eer ae
| | [ anaras :
| | st 110
| | O |
0 | Wollastonite ee /1°616 1°628/1-6382) -014 | 016) -004| -012 |—| 388°°8 |p> w ia
0 |Pseudo-wollastonite|/1°609) -. |1°650) -043 |-041; __)| __ |+] 75] _. Soe
de bs [oben ie ele nt ae 2 Rr em paememmime (ho ear
3 | a (164 2be 2654 |; 043-1 04215 Soe ts al hee Ae ose
5 +c were ee pee AGT biases as sci 10°°5 ae stant
5 Wollastonite .-.--- | SO OO OR ee el 3 eke
7°95 a '1°620,1°630/1:634) -014 | -014/ -004) -010 |—| 41°°0 | __ Sees
7°95 |Pseudo-wollastomite| _-°| <2 | vei) 2 tS) oe) Se ee
10 |Wollastonite ----_- wa | ee Olses heres ae oe ol ee nae
10-74)“ Pe eee
28 | e bese enee a ie Pn Pn eee ire.
BS on Dio psid eke saa serae nn ees ee enn ee meme N Cao) oes) Se
40 Be 1670) (1-694) 1024). ssc ok Sh eye oie ee lee ctas
44°5 ! eo ays ==} 22 | 0804 2 ee | eer ee
ee a Peeler teres ee SS eae
AGP) er 1-664 1°671'1-694| -030 | -030) -023) -007 | +) 59°°3 | __ | —82°-8
OMe she 11664) 2 |1°692). 22 1028) «2 2 le OS See nie
i eae uae (1-662). 11°684) -027 | 022) 2 | 2s
5) Uae ee aa '1°660} __ |1°684) -024 |°024).02 2) >. 2/52) SG RS eer
Gor anels sige, 1°654! > {17678} --022: |-024) oo) DAR OR eee eee
66:5 |“ ly oe 098 |) nol panel ee
BS.a x wer na an re rime ei | me I,
a | es ew Bate Oe: oe ie Be iy MA yo) ey oe
Ohne Where wo fete hell dh ea | ol ea
wi. * Se eee ce) s088 | 2S) 2s | Sle see
SOr tary Bes Peat mere wef SSE a 2s sa ee aa
OO pL OSS Sr
Os ah wee oD pole bo ee =| cS) el Seat
97° .\B-MgSiOg = =2-.2527 (1-650) 2.2 /1°660) 22. | O90) e225) 6 225) 4. ee ees
98 | er Se Read (0 eal J sad se eel ooeg om eam bie
100 | eS 1:645|1°647)1°655| -009 | 010) 008) -002 | +| 53°°5 | _- ere
100. “ia-MeSiO3-2 22 22.28 '1°64111°648 1°663) __ 1-022) -015) 007 1+] 60°°3 [p> v Bes S
* y—a in this column was determined directly by measurements on plates in the thin
section.
rations between 40 and 45 per cent peculiar phenomena were
observed and no satisfactory tests of homogeneity could be
made.—Between diopside and pure magnesium metasilicate
mixed crystals extend from diopside up to about 66 or 67
per cent MgSiO, of the series. ‘The appearance of all prepa-
rations between pure diopside (46°12 per cent MgSiO,) and 67
per cent MgSiO, is that of diopside in the thin section so far
as the optic properties are concerned. The refractive indices,
the birefringence, the extinction angles and the optic axial
angles all decrease gradually but noticeably, and the sections
appear homogeneous under the microscope except for the
minute air spaces. The crystallized melt changes noticeably
moreover in appearance from the large, bright and glistening
to Calcium and Magnesium Metasilicates. 39
ageregates of diopside to dull, lusterless, white granular masses
of much finer grain and higher MgSiO, content.
Beyond the 68 per cent the preparations appear Inhomoge-
neous, the 6-MgSiO, appearing in increasing amounts as its
composition is approached. In the preparations ranging from
68 to 90 per cent MgSiO, in composition, 6-MgSiO, appears
almost without exception intergrown with the diopside and
usually oceupies the center of the large diopside sections. The
8-MgSiO, is invariably twinned polysynthetically after 100 and
on sections approximately normal to the prism axis, the pris-
matic cleavage lines can be seen cutting across both the diopside
and the B-MgSi0,, thus indicating. the close crystallographic
symmetry of the two compounds. In such sections the B-MgsSiO,
is characterized by its weak birefringence and by the position
of its optic axial plate parallel with the twinning lamellae, while
for the enclosing diopside substance the optic “axial plane i is at
right angles to the twinning lamellae.—The limit of crystal
miscibility of diopside in B-MgSiO, is above 98 per cent MgSiO,,
since preparations of that composition are clearly inhomoge.
neous. ‘The optic properties of the 8-MgSiO, change slightly
between 98 and 100 per cent MgSiO,, but only enough to indi-
cate very slight solid solution, probably not over 2 per cent
of diopside.
Lich figures.—Proot of the fact of solid solution for composi-
tions ranging from pure diopside to about 67 per cent MgSiO,
was also gained by etching the erystals with hydrofluoric acid.
At the present time isomorphism ; is a much discussed subject
and its final definition has not yet been agreed upon. Emphasis
has been placed on similarity of the crystal form of the two end
members, on analogous chemical composition, on complete misci-
bility, and on the fact that for some of the physical properties,
as specific volumes, the properties of the intermediate mixtures
are additive functions of those of the end members. This
last assumption of Retgers has been questioned recently, * while
the qualification of analogous chemical composition has long
been considered unnecessary by certain investigators.
Briefly stated, the tendency seems to exist for crystallizing
substances to absorb, during the process of crystallization, large
or small amounts of other material. The more closely similar
the absorbed material is to the absorbing crystal in crystal
structure, dimensions and tendencies, the greater the amount
in general which can be thus taken up. In certain instances,
the properties of two substances are so similar and their molec-
ular volumes so nearly equal, that the solid solution or crystal
miscibility extends from the one compound without break to
the second, and the physical properties vary continuously
throughout the series. In such a case of complete miscibility
no doubt can existas to the isomorphic relations of the two end
*B. Gossner, Zeitschr. Kryst., xliv, 417-519, 1908.
40) Allen, ete.—Diopside and its Relations
members. But in case the crystal miscibility is incomplete or
limited the term isomorphism has not yet been defined with
adequate precision nor the criteria therefor developed with
sufficient sharpness to permit one to state in every actual case
whether or not isomorphism does exist. Itseems proper, how-
ever, to speak of the two compounds in the first case as com-
pletely isomorphous, while in other instances the isomorphism
isincomplete or limited. In the case of incomplete isomorphism,
criteria such as crystallographic similarity, additive character of
certain physical properties in the intermediate mixtures, chem-
ical analogy are then relied on to prove isomorphism.
In the present series, the diopside and 8-MegSiO, are of the
same crystal system and somewhat similar in crystallographic
properties. Limited miscibility has been shown to exist and
the physical properties prove that the two are incompletely’
isomorphous. This being the case, it is reasonable to suppose
that their internal crystal structure is similar, that the distri-
bution of the effective crystallographic forces is analogous.
In the intermediate mixtures, therefore, the distribution of the
forces is represented, approximately at least, by the resultants
of the er ystallographie forces of the end members in their proper
intensities. One of the best methods for studying the distribu-
tion and relative intensity of crystallographic forces is by means
of etch figures. On the above assumption, the etch figures of
the intermediate members should be intermediate in character
between those of the end members, diopside and 8-MgsSi0,.*
After considerable experimentation on the conditions best
suited to produce favorable results, both with respect to the
etch figures and the handling and photographing of the exceed-
ingly small crystals, this statement has been substantiated. The
etch figures on 110 were produced by immersing cleavage
pieces from the different preparations in hot commercial hydro-
fluoric acid. (heated over a steam bath in a platinum crucible)
for 40 seconds and then stopping the reaction by plunging the
crystal into cold water. The crystal was then mounted on the
condenser lens attachment of the universal stage} and examined
in strong reflected are light and turned, until the proper cleavage
face, 110, was normal to the axis of the mier oscope. The etch
fioures on 110 thus obtained were not of equal size or develop-
ment for the different members of the series. The largest and
best developed etch figures are those of diopside (Plate I,
photomicrographs a and 6), while the least favorable are those
of B-MgSiO,, which are exceedingly difficult to obtain under
* The value of etch figures in determining isomorphism has been strongly
advocated by Retgers (Zeitschr. f. Phys.-Chem., xvi, 35, 1895) and notwith-
standing the objections which have been raised to this criterion, it does
apply in certain series. In the present case of limited isomorphism the eteh
figures sustain the contention of Retgers.
+ This Journal, xxiv, p. 342, and fig. 7, p. 332, 1907.
to Calecum and Magnesium Metasilicates. 41
any conditions and are excessively small. The photomicro-
graphs (Plate I), a—/, illustrate the changes in the shape of the
etch figures thus produced on 110 in preparations ranging from
diopside to pure 86-MgSiO,. The etch figures on diopside (a
and 6) are long spindle-shaped pits with an upper blunt termina-
tion. On an average their length is four times the width and
the angle a between the two sides at their point of junction at
the lower extremity is about 18°. These etch pits are similar
in every detail to those on 110 of natural diopside from Ala,*
Piedmont. Etch pits on the face 010 were also cbserved and
likewise resembled those on 010 of the natural mineral.—The
etch pits on 110 of the preparation 50 per cent MgSiO, (c) are
very similar to the figures on diopside, the angle a between the
two sides at the lower extremity being slightly greater perhaps.
On crystals of the composition 55 per cent MgSiO, (d) the etch
pits are noticeably wider and the angle a has increased to about
35°. This angle a gradually increases until at the limit of solid
solution it measures approximately 50°( 7). ‘The relation of the
length of the etch pits to their width changes from about 4: 1 in
diopside to 3: 1 in the 55 per cent and about 5:3 at the limit as
_ represented by the etch figures of the 75 per cent preparation,
which were chosen in place of those of the 67 per cent because
of the sharper definition of the particular figures photographed.
The transitional changes in the shape of the upper portion of
the etch figures are also characteristic. The etch figures on
the cleavage faces of 8-MgSiO, (e) are exceedingly small and
triangular in shape; the angle a measures 55°—60° and the rela- .
tion of length to width is about 3:2. Other details of the etch
figures appear in Plate I and the evidence from all view-
points tends to strengthen the assertion, that in this case of
limited or incomplete isomorphism the character of the etch
figures does change continuously with increasing MgSiO,, and.
in the direction of the type of the etch figures of pure 8B-MgSiO,.
It is of interest to note that the 6-MgSi0,, the low tempera-
ture form, takes up very little if any diopside in solid solution.
This may be due to the fact that the high temperature-, a-form,
is orthorhombic and therefore would have less tendency to take
up the diopside molecule.
On the calcium side of diopside the erystal miscibility i in the
series is very slight, diopside taking up only small amounts
of the calcium metasilicate. Wollastonite, on the other hand,
can absorb up to 17 per cent of diopside and still remain homo-
geneous, whereas pseudo-wol:astonite takes only 4 per cent at
most of diopside in solid solution. No satisfactory explanation
has been found to account for these differences in the behavior
of the different compounds of this series.
*Compare R. A. Daly, Proc. Amer. Acad. of Arts and Sciences, xxxiv,
373-428, pl. iv, No. 18, 1899.
42 Allen, ete.—Diopsidle and tts Relations
In Part I of this paper, the fact of eutectic mixtures and
its bearing on the present problem are shown to be of prime
importance. In the case of alloys eutectic textures are
definitely recognized and it is natural to expect such textures
in silicate melts. In the latter, however, power and rapidity
of crystallization, combined with viscosity, frequent absence of
stable equilibrium, and other factors, tend usually to veil
effectively such textures which might otherwise develop.
Indications of probable eutectic textures were occasionally
recorded in this series, but as a rule the crystallization appar-
ently takes place so rapidly with strong undercooling that
normal, theoretical conditions of equilibrium do not exist. —
It is also of interest to note that throughout this series
the melts of the pure compounds are, as a rule, of coarser
grain than the intermediate compositions and of more vitreous
luster. The intermediate mixtures frequently resemble porce-
lain in appearance. This change in aspect undoubtedly results
from the decrease in granularity and lack of continuity of the
single crystallites.
The inversion of the a- and B-MgSiO,.—With pure MgS8i0,-
melts the thermal data show practically no heat effect at the .
temperature of inversion of the §- into the a-form and vice -
versa, and only after the admixture of several per cent of
diopside does the thermal effect produced by the inversion
appear. The yuenching experiments of Dr. A. L. Day, how-
ever, proved definitely that the a-MgSiO, did exist, and
_attempts were then made to fix the temperature of inversion
by use of a specially constructed thermal microscope.* (Fig.
13, a and 6.)
* Constructed in the workshop of the Geophysical Laboratory after plans
by Dr. Arthur L. Day and the writer. The details of construction of the
electric resistance furnace are given in fig. 186, two important features of
which were suggested by Dr. Day, namely, the enclosing of the whole in
a suitable water jacket and the splitting of the thermoelement wires to serve
as a support for the preparations. By this latter device the purity and
temperature of the preparations even at high temperatures is insured. The
microscope is fitted with revolvable nicols ; at the base of the furnace there
is a thin metal slide, As, by means of which part or all of the field can be
shaded and the characteristics of the light emitted and transmitted by the
body studied with respect to effects of polarization. A plate at high tem-
peratures may become often self-luminous and it is then necessary to
adopt special devices to detect transmitted polarized light and with this end
in view the optical system of the microscope has been arranged. With it,
also, the character of the emitted light alone can be examined with respect
to polarization effects if such exist. At high temperatures the white heat of
the furnace tends to veil the interference phenomena unless the transmitted
light be of greater intensity, and this condition has been met by using an
electric arc as source of light. With this furnace the birefringence of
quartz has been measured up to 1300° and it is proposed to study the optical
changes in several minerals at different temperatures in this way.—Tempera-
ture readings are made either roughly on a direct reading Siemens and
Halske voltmeter or accurately by use of the potentiometer.—The water
jacketing of the furnace permits its use on any microscope in which the
distance between the stage and the objective can be made great enough, the
optical system remaining thereby unchanged.
to Calcium and Magnesium Metasilicates. 43
Fig. 13, a.
44 Allen, ete.— Diopside and its Relations
Fics. 18, a and 6.--Microscope equipped with electric resistance furnace.
With the exception of the base and the upper tube, which were taken from
« Fuess universal stage microscope, this thermal microscope was constructed
in the workshop of the Geophysicai Laboratory. The microscope is fitted
with revolvable nicols and a low power 38-inch objective. The furnace rests
directly on the stage of the microscope and can be revolved through small
angles. Its different parts are shown in cross section in fig. 186 (one-half
actuul size). The water jacket consists of three parts; We, base; D, side
cylinder, and W;, cap. Each of these parts is complete in itself and by
means of rubber tubing (fig. 15a) the water is made to pass through We, then
D and finally W,;. At G in both W, and We glass plates are introduced
and allow light rays to be transmitted without permitting the heat to reach
the objective and lower condenser system. The circulating water is suffi-
cient to keep these plates cool. In the first experiments air bubbles from
the water collected between the plates and seriously disturbed. the clearness
of vision. This difficulty was overcome by means of rubber plungers fast-
ened to A, and A, (fig. 15) which could be passed back and forth in front of
the plates and the bubbles brushed aside. By means of the rod A; with its
attached brass plate, transmitted light from any part of the field can be shut
off and the effects of emitted light alone studied. The furnace itself con-
sists of a tube F (fig. 136) 7:5" long, 4:5“ outside diameter and 1™ inside
diameter, wound on the inside with fine platinum wire ‘30™™ diameter. The
thermoelement wires are supported by the porcelain tube T, which rests
directly on the asbestos paper covering the upper plate of W2. The thermo-
element wires are introduced into the furnace at M (fig. 18a) and the furnace
wires on the opposite side of the microscope. The sides of the furnace,
F, are surrounded with magnesia powder and the ends capped with asbestos
paper, to prevent loss of heat from radiation so far as possible.
Better results were obtained by another method, in which
single,water-clear crystals of 8B-MgSi0, (about -2x° 21m) were
mounted in cedar-oil on the universal stage and turned until the
clinopinacoid was normal to the line of vision and the twinning
planes appeared as sharp lines. After photographing in this
position (magnification 100 diameters) the crystal was placed
in a specially prepared platinum basket and heated in an
electric resistance furnace to a specified temperature, either
above or below that of the 6-MgSiO, inversion. After cool-
ing, the crystal was again photographed under precisely the
same conditions as before heating. The study of a long series
of negatives prepared in this way has brought out several
interesting points: In the inversion of a single crystal of
8-MgSiO, to the a-form, no great volume change is involved
nor eyen a great redistribution of the molecules. This is
evident from the fact that after reversion from the a- to the
8-MgSi0O, the original crystal is intact and its faces still fairly
sharp. Twinning planes are still present though usually in
different positions, each lamella extending the entire length of
the crystal as before heating. On such ~paramorphic change,
inversion into one form and reversion to the original, it might
be expected that, as in crystal aggregates for med by precipita-
tion, many crystal nuclei would be formed,* and that on
reversion each one of the new nuclei would produce at least
one separate individual of the original form, with the result
*This actually happens on- the inversion of wollastonite into pseudo-
wollastonite. This Journal, xxi, 107, 1906.
to Calcium and Magnesium Metasilicates. 45
that instead of a single crystal or a regularly twinned crystal,
the aggregate of irreoularly oriented individuals would result.
In case, however, the molecular redistribution was slight, the
inversion might preceed in regular fashion throughout the
entire crystal and the effect of inversion and reversion be
chiefiy one of shifting of the ever present twinning lamellae.
And this is the exact state of change in the 8-MgSi0O, crystals.
Rarely the subdivision of a erystal into several irregularly
bounded parts was noted and usually only the shifting of the
lamellae. It was also of interest to observe that occasionally
a shifting of the twinning lamellae took place in crystals heated
to temperatures slightly below the inversion point. Because
of this property, no decisive determinations of the inversion
point could be made and recourse was taken to sudden chilling
experiments——the preparations being first melted, the tempera-
ture then lowered and kept at a specified point for one hour,
aiter which the preparation was dropped into cold water and
chilled almost instantly. The a-MgSiO, thus obtained clearly
showed the effect of incipient change even under these condi-
tions, the major part of the powder being ful] of minute
dustlike particles or cavities and as a result was semi- or sub-
transparent, and only now and then were clear portions of the
a-form observed. Whenever the a-MgSi0, was held at tem-
peratures slightly below the inversion point and then quenched,
the entire preparation consisted essentially of the twinned
8-form alone in clear transparent individuals, the dusty effect
as well as the a-MgSi0, aggregates having practically disap-
Bo.
peared except for an occasional clear crystal of the same.
Summary.
1. The end members of the system CaSiO,-MgSiO, both
exhibit enantiotropy. The inversion point in the former is
about 1190°. The a-form, pseudo-wollastonite, is unknown
in nature. The #-form is the mineral wollastonite. The
8-form of magnesium silicate is the magnesian pyroxene occur-
ring in meteorites and in intergrowths with enstatite and has
recently been called clino-enstatite.* At about 1865° it is
transformed into an orthorhombic form quite distinct from
enstatite and unknown in nature.
2. Only one stable compound appears, viz., CaSi0,.Me¢Si0,,
identical with diopside. It melts at 1380° and has a specific
gravity of 3°275. It was obtained in well-formed, measurable
crystals extremely pure, when erystallized from molten calcium
fe
A eutectic occurs between diopside and pseudo-wollas-
eet at the composition 60 per cent diopside: 40 per cent
calcium silicate. [t melts at 1348°. A second eutectic occurs
at about 68 per cent MgSiO,: 32 per cent CaSiO,. It is com--
*W. Wahl, Die Enstatit-augite, Tschermak’s Mitth., xxvi, 1-131, 1907.
46 Allen, ete.—Diopside and its Relations
posed of about 95°5 per cent of a mix-crystal containing about
62°5 per cent of diopside, 37°5 per cent magnesium silicate,
and 4°5 per cent a-MgSi0,. Its melting temperature is 1375°.
Microscopically eutectic textures were observed rarely if at all.
4. Six solid solutions appear in this system. Only two of
them contain more than three or four per cent of the lesser
component, and only these will be mentioned here.
a. B-calcium silicate (wollastonite) forms a saturated solution
of wollastonite containing about 17 per cent diopside (8 per cent -
MeSsiO,): 83 per cent CaSiO,, when crystallization takes place
in the neighborhood of 1050°, 1. e., wollastonite is capable of
dissolving about 93720 ber cent of its own weight. ‘This series
of solutions is interesting from the fact that the inversion point
of pure calcium silicate (1190°) appears to be raised by the addi-
tion of MgSi0,, up to 100° in the most concentrated solutions.
This is probably largely, if not wholly, an apparent rise in the
inversion point due to viscosity, for, as is well known, an inver-
sion point should be raised only when the concentration of the
solution below the point is greater than that above, while here
there is a rise in the weaker solutions which suffer no change
in concentration when they invert. Again, the concentration of
solutions just below the inversion point cannot be determined
with accuracy on account of the difficulty of establishing an
equilibrium in solid silicate solutions.
b. Diopside dissolves about 60 per cent of its own weight,
forming a solution which contains 66°5 per cent MgSiO, : 33°5 per
cent CaSiO,. This saturated solution is very similar to diopside
in all its properties. Its melting point is only 3° lower (i. e., the
maximum heat absorption falls there, the melting interval is
unknown). The specific gravity changes very little; the optic
data show slight but noticeable changes: the refractive indices,
the birefringence, the optic axial angle and the extinction angles
all falling continuously with the addition of MgSiO, from diopside
up to the limit of solid solution at 66°5 per cent MgSi0O.,.
5. In the series of limited solid solution between diopside
and clino-enstatite, the effect of the addition of MgSiO, to
diopside 1s, furthermore, clearly shown by etch fioures on the
prismatic cleavage faces. On passing from diopside to the
limit of solid solution at about 66°5 per cent MgSiO,, the
shape of the etch pits changes gradually, their character, on
preparations of intermediate composition, being intermediate
between those of the two compounds, diopside and pure
8-MgSi0O,, thus proving that actual solid solution does exist in
the series, and that the effects of the end members are felt
crystallographically in the solid solutions of the same.—For
the observation, under the microscope, of changes which take
place in substances at high temperatures, a special micro-
to Calcium and Magnesium Metasilicates. 47
scope, fitted with electric resistance furnace, fig. 13a, has been
constructed and found useful in the study of these etch pits.
6. The specific-volume curve consists of three well-defined
branches, the first of which is the locus of the volumes of
mechanical mixtures of pseudo-wollastonite (a-CaSiO,) and
diopside; the second, that of the solid solutions of magnesian
pyroxene (8-MeSiO,) in diopside; and the third the locus of
the volumes of mixtures of saturated mix-crystals just men-
tioned, and the free magnesian pyroxene. The volume of the
solid solutions is greater than the sum of the constituent
volumes. There is a sharp minimum on the curve at the
composition of diopside CaSi0,.MgSiO,. On account of the
_ presence of minute bubbles in the crystals and the compara-
tively small difference between the specific gravity of diopside
and that of the magnesian pyroxene, the critical points on the
curve are several per cent in error.
7. A method for the more accurate determmation of the
composition eutectics is described; also a method for the
approximate location of inversion points in inert substances.
The accidental variations between different determinations of
the melting point of a sharp melting silicate seldom amount to
1° up to 1500°. This is the accuracy available for compara-
tive measurements. The absolute accuracy of a determina-
tion is less than this on account of the present limitations of
the absolute scale.
The authors wish to express to Dr. Arthur L. Day their
hearty thanks for valuable assistance in connection with the
study of the a-magnesium silicate.
Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington,
Washington, D. C., July 10, 1908.
48 Gilbert—The California Earthquake.
Art. Il.—The California Karthquake of 1906 ;* by G. K.
GILBERT.
TureeE days after the California earthquake of April 18,
1906, Governor Pardee appointed a commission for its scien-
tific investigation. No funds were at his disposal to defray the
expenses, but provision was made later by the Carnegie Insti-
tution, and the Institution is publishing the reports. Volume
Pm two parts with atlas, has recently appeared, and a second
volume is to follow.
Volume Lis by Andrew C. Lawson, chairman of the com-
mission, and includes contributions from a large number of
collaborators. After an introductory account of the geology
and morphology of the Coast Ranges, it treats at length of the
physiographic. features and physical changes associated with
the earthquake, of the distribution of intensity, and of the
directions of vibratory motion. The marine phenomena, the
composition of the main shock, the sequence of after shocks,
and various minor topies are presented, and account 1s given of
earlier severe earthquakes in the same region.
The earthquake was of the tectonic class, and was occasioned
by a slipping on the plane of an old fault. The fault outcrops
at the surface, and there was a visible displacement of consid-
erable amount. The line of outcrop trends NW.—SE., and
the fault plane is vertical. There was, however, very little
vertical displacement, the differential movement being almost
wholly horizontal. The country adjacent to the fault on the
SW. side moved bodily toward the NW., and the country
on the NE. side moved toward the SE. The changes did
not tend to increase the height of a mountain or the depth of a
valley but merely to distort the land horizontally. The amount
of displacement was measured in two ways, (1) by observation
of the dislocation of roads, fences, etc , traversed by the fault,
(2) by the remeasurement of a net of triangulation previously
made by the Coast Survey. Fences and roads were usually
offset from 8 to 15 feet, and the results from triangulation
showed relative dislocation of about the same amount for
* The California Earthquake of April 18,1906. Report of the State Harth-
quake Investigation Commission. In two volumes and atlas. By Andrew
C. Lawson, chairman, in collaboration with G. K. Gilbert, H. F. Reid,
J. C. Branner, H. W. Fairbanks, H. O. Wood, J. F. Hayford and A. L.
Baldwin, F. Omori, A. O. Leuschner, George Davidson, F. HE. Matthes, R.
Anderson, G. D. Louderback, R. S. Holway, A. S. Eakle, R. Crandall, G. F.
Hoffman, G. A. Warring, E. Hughes, F. J. Rogers, A. Baird, and many others.
Vol. I, pp. xviii + 461, 146 pls. Atlas, 25 maps, 15 pls. seismograms.
Washireton, D. C., 1908. (Published by the Carnegie Institution of Wash-
ington.)
Gilbert—The California Earthquake. 49
points near the fault line. For points at greater distance the
changes were less. The discussion of the data, by J. F. Hay-
ford and A. L. Baldwin, led to the conclusion that’ the absolute
movement was greater west of the fault than east of it, and in
both directions diminished with distance from the fault, the dimi-
nution being most rapid in the immediate vicinity of the fault.
This: ear thquake is practically unique, among the small
group that have been broadly studied, in that the stress couple
to which the fault may be referred lay in the horizontal plane.
The main associated distortions were distortions in ground
plan, with little vertical complication. They were, therefore,
exceptionally adapted for measurement by the method of
triangulation, and the results actually obtained are more syste-
matic than any previous results of the same character. It is,
therefore, peculiarly unfortunate that they were qualified by
a lack of chr onologic unity in the trigonometric surveys
preceding the fault, which were strung along through several
decades. This fact made it impossible to discriminate between
deformation at the time of rupture and progressive deforma-
tion during accumulation of strain before rupture; and if
progressive deformation took place before rupture, the pre-
cision of the adjusted triangulation was thereby impaired.
Nevertheless the results invite the careful attention of geophys-
icists. To the reviewer the distribution of dislocation, and
especially the existence close to the fault, on each side, of a
belt of maximum distortion, seems clearly not that which
would obtain if the fault passed completely through a solid
crust to a liquid substratum. And it appears also that, on the
assumption of continuous solidity from the surface downward,
the geodetic results might yield to adequate analytic treatment
a conception of the order of magnitude of the vertical distance
to which the fault penetrated.
The surface outcrop of the fault was definitely traced from
San Juan to Point Arena, a distance of 190 miles. At Point
Arena it passes under the sea, and there is doubt as to its
further course. A fault made at the same time on a more
northerly part of the coast may be its continuation, after
inflection, or may be on an independent line; but in either
ease the total length of dislocation was about 270 miles.
At all points the, fault foilows a peculiar topographic feature
to which the name San Andreas rift was given; but the rift
is more extensive than the fault of 1906. having feed traced to
the Salton basin, several hundred miles southeast of San Juan.
In its larger expression the rift is a trough, a trough coin-
ciding in general trend with the Coast Ranges, but crossing
various mountain ridges obliquely, or even following their crests.
Am. Jour. Sci.—FourtH SERIES, Vou. XXVII, No. 157.—January, 1909.
4
50 Gibert—The California Earthquake.
In detail it comprises many small ridges and hollows, approxi-
mately parallel but otherwise irregularly disposed, and evi-
dently caused by splintery dislocation. Streams zigzag more
or less about the ridges, and the hollows contain many small
ponds and marshes. There are reports of long cracks which
appeared in different parts of the rift in connection with various
earthquakes of the last century, and it is inferred that each of
these cracks was the surface expression of a fault-slip similar
to that of 1906. It is further inferred that the rift as a whole
marks the outcrop of a long fault or fault zone, separating two
crustal tracts which are slowly moving past one another, with
eradual accumulation of strain and stress, and occasional relief
by local sipping when the stress at some point overpowers
the adhesion on the fault plane. The physiography of the rift
is illustrated by numerous excellent photographs, and by a local.
contour map by F. E. Matthes. Although the rift has been
mentioned in various writings of earher date, its description in
this volume practically adds a type of surface configuration to
physiographie science.
In the discussion of the intensity of the shock, a distinction
is recognized between the elastic wave propagated from the
origin through the crust, with gradually diminishing magnitude,
and the phenomena of emergence, conditioned by the nature
of the surface formation. The intensity observed at the surface,
and expressed chiefly by damage to buildings and other struc-
tures, is called ‘apparent intensity,” and this only is mapped.
The general map shows a long narrow belt of high intensity, fol-
lowing the fault, with peninsulas and outlying islands where
destructive effect was enhanced by the presence of incoherent
formations; but this elongation is less characteristic of the
lines limiting the areas of low intensity. The outer line,
touching the most remote points of sensible tremor, traverses
southern Oregon, central Nevada and southern California.
In view of the ideas recently advanced by W. H. Hobbs,
there is a careful review of the relation of local intensity to
the known major faults of the region, about forty in number.
In three cases it was thought possible that some portion of.
the movement of dislocation was diverted from the main (San
Andreas) fault to the planes of intersecting faults. A special
intensity map of San Francisco, by H. O. Wood, shows with
ereat detail the grades of violence; and its comparison with a
geologic map brings out forcibly the intimate relation between
effective intensity and the underlying formation.
The subject is further elucidated by the report of an experi-
mental study by I. J. Rogers. By mechanical arrangements
similar to those employed by the Japanese commission in inves-
tigating the principles of earthquake-proof construction, har-
Gilbert—The California Larthquake. 51
monic horizontal motion was given to an open box containing
some loose material such as sand. A block resting on and
anchored to the upper part of the sand, so as to share its motion,
was found not to have harmonic motion, but motion of a dis-
tinet type which varied with the conditions of the experiment.
Under certain conditions the amplitude of its motion was
greater than that of the motion of the box, and its maximum
acceleration—the factor corresponding to earthquake inten-
sity—very much greater. These novel experiments are not
only valuable in their immediate results, but of signal import-
ance as indicating a line of study which should develop a com-
plete theory of the phenomena of the emergence of earthquake
waves.
The marine phenomena were in accord with the terrestial
in that they indicated no bodily movements of the ground
except in a horizontal sense. Vessels at sea experienced a
shock; there were boilings of water near the shore; a small
selche was started in San Francisco bay; a wave several feet
high washed the east shore of Tomales bay, a narrow sheet of
water traversed by the fault; but there was no great sea wave
such as accompany vertical dislocations of the ocean bed.
The main shock, which was of about one minute duration,
was reported by many observers as consisting of two parts, or
having two maxima, but by others as continuous. Consider-
ing the improbability that movement was synchronous and
similar over the entire plane of rupture, it is to be assumed
that the vibration had different characters at different places,
but the observations are not discussed with reference to geo-
graphic distribution. There are many records of preceding
or accompanying sounds, all of low pitch. The after shocks
were of normal character, diminishing with time in frequency
and average strength, and continuing for at least ten months.
The report enumerates more than 100 in the first 24 hours ;
about 300 in the first month; and for succeeding months,
pee 4 8 Ie i 13, 15, 21 23 2. . Lhe: record. is
recognized as fragmentary, and the actual number of sensible
shocks was probably much larger. There was somewhat volu-
minous testimony to the occurrence of visible undulations of
the surface of the ground, the speed of which was much slower
than that of the elastic waves in rock.
Cracks opened in many places near the fault; from several of
these were large temporary discharges of water or of water and
sand; the circulation of underground water was seriously and per-
manently deranged, springs being destroyed, created or changed
in volume; landslides and earthflows were precipitated in great
number. Alluvial lands slumped toward stream channels, and
soft ground was in some localities left with a wavy surface.
52 Gilbert—The California Earthquake.
The volume closes without discussing the subject of future
earthquakes in the San Francisco region, but furnishes material
pertinent to that discussion by publishing accounts of the earth-
quakes of 1868, 1865 and 1857. The fault in 1857 was on the
southern part of the San Andreas rift, and the fault in 1865
may have been on the same rift near the southern end of the
fault of 1906. The fault in 1868 was on a parallel rift east of the
southern arm of San Francisco bay. In each ease the distri-
bution of intensity in San Francisco was substantially the same
as in 1906, the character of the ground having more influence
than the direction of the origin.
The second and closing volume of the report will be by H.
I’. Reid, and will treat of the theory of the seismogram.
T. D. A. Cockerell—Descriptions of Tertiary Insects. 538
Arr. III.—Deseriptions of Tertiary Insects; by T. D. A.
CocKERELL. Part V.
Some New DIptTeRA.
Lasiosoma mirandula sp. nov. (Mycetophilide : Sciophiline).
Expanse 16™; length of body about 10™, of wing 7™™;
abdomen reddish, with the hind margins of the segments rather
broadly blackened, its whole surface with minute appressed
hairs; legs pale brown, the femora minutely hairy; wings
wonderfully preserved, strongly rufescent, with a purple or
pink tinge, nervures darkened. By the dusky wings and the
short prostrate hairs on abdomen it agrees with the living LZ.
pallipes (Say), but it is considerably larger than Say’s species.
The venational features are as follows: the costal thickening
extends a short distance beyond the tip of the ultimate branch
of the radius (third vein); swbcosta, much as in the fossil
Sciophila hyattc Secudd., does not distinctly reach the costa,
but is evanescent after the little vein which passes from it to
the radius, meeting the beginning of the inferior branch of the
latter ; small vein from costa to subcosta distinet, oblique,
forming an angle of 45° with each, and placed a moderate dis-
tance (about 2mm) from base of wing ; branches of radius as in
Sciophila, with the same little cell formed in the fork by
R,,; running up to join R,: media, as usual, weaker than
radius, and forking almost immediately after leaving the radio-
medial cross-vein, so that the stem before the fork is shorter
than the cross-vein, although the latter is short and not very
far from vertical; cubitus forking not far from base as in
Sciara ; anal with its apical portion wanting, as in Ceroplatus.
In Williston’s tables (N. A. Diptera, 3d ed.) this runs exactly
to Lasiosoma, and seems to accord well with that genus.* The
living American species are northern.
flab.—Florissant, Colorado, in the Miocene shales, Sta. 14
GS. A. fohwer, 1907).
Holotype in Peabody Museum (Yale).
Tetragoneura peritula sp. nov. (Mycetophilide : Sciophiline).
Length 4°"; wing 33, antenna 12™™; dorsum of head, tho-
rax and abdomen dark brown, the rest of the body pallid ;
legs long and slender; wings hyaline, with brown nervures.
*Tt differs, however, iat Handlirsch’s figure (Foss. Ins., pl. vi) of Lasio-
soma in the shorter subcosta, not ending on costa, and also in the more ver-
tical radio-medial cross-vein. Handlirsch’s figure does not show any cell in
the forks of the radius, so it may not be of this genus.
54. 7. D. A. Cockerell—Descriptions of Tertiary Insects.
Antennee with about 16 joints, the middle joints much broader
than long (about 102 mw broad, and 76 long); scutellar region
with two very long stout bristles, 459 w long, the other bristles
of thorax much shorter ; thorax very strongly convex above ;
legs and abdomen with extremely fine hairs; hind tibize with
a row of short black bristles, about 93 uw long. Venation: sub-
costa reaching to about the middle of the wing, that is to say,
not abbreviated, and ending in a very broad V, the upper
branch extending to the costa, and the lower to “the radius ;
radius normal, its lower branch leaving it a short distance
before the termination of the subcosta, and emitting, shortly
after that termination, the oblique cross-vein to R, which
really represents R»,3; Rus normal, ending very near apex of
wing; oblique radio-medial crossnervure very long, about
three times as long as the nearly vertical first section of lower’
branch of radius; media with a long fork; cubitus not dis-
tinctly preserved (it ought to be forked).
Hab.—A few miles north of Rifle, Colorado, in rocks of
Kocene age, probably of the Green River Group, but possibly
Wasatch. Type in collection of Dr. 8. M. Bradbury. This
cannot be identified with any of Scudder’s fossil Mycetophi-
lide. Professor O. A. Johannsen very kindly examined my
sketch and notes, and suggested the generic reference. He
writes as follows :
“The subcosta in most of the species thus far described is
short, and ends either free, or in R; in one species described
by Walker it ends in the costa; in one species of Meunier it is
long, though ending in R. As only about sixteen species
(including fossils) are known of this genus, and these quite
rare, its limitations are difficult to define. I should be inclined
to call your fossil Zetraguneura, though acknowledging it as
somewhat aberrant” (litt. Aug. 19, 1908). The known fossil
species of Tetragoneura number seven, all from Baltic amber,
described by Meunier. As the amber is of Oligocene age, the
species now described is the oldest known.
Alepidophora g. nov. (Bombylide).
A genus with elongate, subcylindrical abdomen, looking not
unlike a bee. In Williston’s tables (N. Am. Dipt., 3d ed. , p. 216)
it runs to 29, and has very much the build of Lepidophora
lepidocera (appendiculata), except that it is not at all scaly, the
wings are very much shorter, and so far as can be seen, the
mouth- -parts are not elongated. The anterior tibize (the only
ones visible) are not bristly, as they are in Sphenoidoptera. In
the hairy abdomen it differs from Paracosmus; but the course
of the second vein is as in Paracosmus, not as in Metacosmus.
T. D. A. Cockerell—Descriptions of Tertiary Insects. 55
By the characters of the abdomen and venation it 1s excluded
from Aphoebantus and the related Epacmus and Hucessia.
The characters of the venation are as follows:
(1.) Second vein (Re4s)) arising at the same point as the
third, and about 390 mw basad of discal cell. Near its end it
curves upwards, and ends on costa at an angle even more obtuse
than that presented by Pantarbes (Williston, l. ¢., p. 212). —
(2.) Third vein Ry, robust, gently curved, with its lower
branch (R,) forming a gently curved but nowhere angled line;
upper branch (R,) leaving it at right angles, and after 255 fb
bent at a right angle, but emitting a short vein (rudiment of
the cross-vein) in a str aight line with the second section, so that
the whole branch represents a T resting on the third vein, and
having one of its sides prolonged and bent upwards to reach
the costa. The end of the branch is not bent nearly so much
as the end of the second vein, and its inner angle with the
costa is not very much greater than a right angle. In general,
all this is much as in Pantarbes, except as to the rudimentary
cross-vein directed basad (in Pantarbes the cross-vein is com-
plete and directed upwards).
(3.) Radio-medial cross-vein much beyond middle of discal
cell (about 760 w from its apex), and 255 mw long.
(4.) First posterior cell open at apex, the opening about
120 mw wide.
(5.) Discal cell long and rather narrow (its length about
23™™) shaped as in Systrophus (the bounding nervure having
the same curves), except that 1t is much longer.
(6.) Second posterior cell narrow (806 mw) at base, and
extremely broad at apex (i.e. on margin); third posterior
broad at base, and narrowed apically; fourth (morphologically
fifth) very broadly open, formed as in Pantarbes, but longer ;
its base is 476 w from base of discal cell.
(7.) Anal cell rather widely open.
Alepidophora pealei sp. nov.
Length 12"; of wing 63; of abdomen about 8; width of
abdomen 32™™"; head and thorax black ; abdomen dark reddish-
brown; wings hyaline, nervures brown, costal region (between
costa and radius) reddened; as preserved, the abdominal seg-
ments appear as widely separated dark chitinous bands, with
broad colorless intervals between, these intervals being about
half the size of the chitinous rings. Eyes with facets of two
sizes, the smaller about 22 mw diameter, the larger about 42 yp;
the two kinds seem to be about equally represented, the division
apparently longitudinal, and not abrupt. Tarsi with scattered
strong bristles. Third abdominal segment slightly bristly or
hairy, fourth with a conspicuous patch of dark hairs on éach
side, fifth and sixth moderately hairy, the hairs dark.
56 7. D. A. Cockerell— Descriptions of Tertiary Insects.
Hab.—Florissant in the Miocene shales, 1908. On the same
slab, close to the fly, are the leaves of Hagus longifolia. While
I was preparing the above description, Dr. A. C. Peale, the
discoverer of the Florissant shales, visited my laboratory. It
is with much pleasure that I dedicate the species to him.
Holotype in Peabody Museum (Yale).
Pachysystropus gen. nov. (Bombyliide).
Rather large, cylindrical-bodied, with a strong projecting
proboscis; antennge with a sharp apex, constructed essentially
as in Geron ; hind femora stout and hairy. In Williston’s
table (N. Am. Diptera, 3d ed.) it runs straight to Dolichomyia
(the eyes are not very distinct, but I feel sure not holoptic),
Gel
Pachysystropus rohweri Ckll.
but the venation agrees better with that of Systropus, differ-
ing, however, as follows:
(1.) The lower half of the cross-vein from the bend of R, to
R,43 1s present, and very distinct, though the upper half is
wanting. ‘This vein is absent in iy ystropus (though the abrupt
bend remains to indicate where it was), but is complete in
Pantarbes and Hxoprosopa. :
(2.) The first posterior cell is closed just before the margin
of the wing, a condition approximately intermediate between
that of Systropus (in which it is open) and Pantarbes.
(3.) The anal cell is closed just before the margin, as in
Ocondocera (N. Am. Dipt., f. 82). The venation is very well
T. D. A. Cockerell— Descriptions of Tertiary Insects. 57
preserved, and the existence of only three posterior cells is
certain. The anal cell in the 8. African Systropus crudelis
(as figured by Sharp) is like that of Soa irop 6.
Pachysystropus rohweri sp. nov. Fig. 1.
Black or dark brown, the wings hyaline, with dark nervures;
apical half of area between radius and costa fuliginous ;
length (excluding proboscis) 153™"; proboscis rather stout,
a little over 3™™ long ; antennee 22™™, the last joint very sharp-
pointed, 663 w long; width of thorax 4™™; of the parallel-sided
abdomen about 21™™, its apex not swollen; lateral anterior
corners of first three abdominal segments (especially the sec-
ond) projecting at an acute angle; fourth and fifth segments
with dark hair at sides; hind femora about 4™™ long, stout,
the posterior side with much long dark hair; length of wing
82™™; base to anterior cross-vein 52™™,
Hab Florissant, in the Miocene shales, Sta. 9. (S. A.
Rohwer, 1906.)
Holotype in Peabody Museum (Yale).
Callimyia (?) hypolitha sp. nov. (Platypezide).
A small stout-bodied fly with long wings; as preserved, the
head and thorax are dull black; the abdomen conspicuously
shining, dark reddish-brown, with the hind margins of the
segments black; wings hyaline, nervures pale.
Length of body 43™™, of wing 453; length and width of
abdomen each about Qin, but the apex is not visible (appar-
ently turned downwards) ; ‘thorax robust; head broad, but not
quite so wide as thorax.
Venation, as preserved (the subcosta, radius and branches,
and anterior cross-vein are visible), exactly as in Callimyia
eWalici N= Ams Dipt., 3d ed., p. 242, £. 2) except. that |
cannot demonstrate any spinulosity on the radius, but the veins
are so nearly the color of the rock that this might well be
invisible. The first posterior cell is widely open, as in Cadli-
myia. The subcosta ends on the costa at about the middle.
flab.-—Near Rifle, Colorado, in Eocene rocks; the locality
and other particulars being the same as already given for
Tetragoneura peritula.
Only two Tertiary Platyperidze have been previously de-
scribed ; Oppenheimella baltica Meunier, from amber; and
Callimyia torporata Seadder, from the Green River beds of
Wyoming. C. hypolitha is a much larger species than C.
torporata.
Since writing the above I have found the reverse impression
of C. hypolitha, showing the anterior branch of the media
58 TL. D. A. Cockerell—Deseriptions of Tertiary Insects.
very distinetly. The media turns downwards near its distal
end, and the first posterior cell is more widely open than in
Callimyia. This downward bend is to the apical corner of
the discal cell, which forms a somewhat acute though large
angle, and from that point onwards the media is directed
straight to the margin. (The margin and immediate vicinity
at this place are not visible.) This arrangement of the media,
ete. resembles that of Ocydromia (Empidide). Scudder’s C.
torporata also has the very widely open first posterior cell.
Leptis florissantina sp. nov. (Leptide).
A small, slender species, beautifully preserved, with expanded
wings. Length 8"; wing 7; expanse 15"™; width of head
2™", of the abdomen 14. Antennze not well preserved, but -
the third joint seems to be large, much as in H/elarimorpha ;
I cannot see the styles. Eyes very widely separated above ;
head broader than long; thorax small ; head and thorax black ;
wings hyaline, without spots, veins dark reddish-brown; abdo-
men parallel-sided, a little broadened to the obtuse apex, the
basal two segments pallid, the others largely dark (perhaps
originally wholly dark). Venation as in Leptis ; compared
with ZL. mystacea Macq. (Williston, N. A. Dipt., 3d ed.,
p. 157) the following shght differences are found :
(1.) Costa not or barely arched near base.
(2.) Wings narrower. :
(3.) The second vein ends nearer apex of wing, beyond level
of middle of cell in forks of third.
(4.) Bases of second and third posterior cells about half a
millimeter back of level of base of cell in forks of third vein.
(5.) Anterior cross-vein (radio-medial cross-vein) nearer to
middle of discal cell. The anal cell is barely closed, just on the
margin of the wing; there may be an infinitesimally small
opening.
/Tab.—Florissant, in the Miocene shales, Station 13 B (WS. A.
Lohwer, 1908). Four species of Lepizs have been described
from amber.
Tipula heertana nn.
Tipula lineata Heer. Ins. Oen. II, p. 194, t. 15, 24
(1849).—Miocene of Radoboj (not 7. lineata Scopoli, Ent.
Carn., p. 320).
Tipula lineata Heer, Scudder, Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., 1894,
jOn 2
Limnophila meunieri n.u.
Limnophila gracilis (Lw., as Tanysphyra, Scudder, Proce.
Am. Phil. Soc., 1894, p. 21 (mom. nud.); Meunier, Ac. Se.
Nat. (9) iv, p. 382, t. 14, f. 9 (1906).—Baltic amber (not
L. gracilis Wiedemann, Auss. Zw. 1, p. 28).
Gooch and Beyer—Electrolytic Estimation of Lead. 59
Arr. IV.—The Electrolytic Estumation of Lead and of
Manganese by the Use of the Filtering Crucible; by F. A.
Goocn and F. B. Bryer.
[Contributions from the Kent Chemical Laboratory of Yale Univ.—exciii. |
Ly a former paper* we have shown that the filtering crucible
may be put to advantageous use in an electrolytic cell for the
treatment of deposits not compact and adherent enough to be
handled rapidly and conveniently by ordinary methods of
electro-deposition. Four devices were described: I, a closed
ceil in which the perforated platinum crucible is adapted to
use as an electrode and to filtrations after interruption of the
electric current; II, a closed cell in which the perforated
platinum crucible is used as an electrode and in subsequent
filtrations without imterruption of the current; III, a cell in
which the perforated platinum crucible is adjusted to a filter-
ing flask for continuous filtration during electrolysis; IV, a
cell in which a perforated porcelain crucible with included
electrode of platinum is arranged, like the platinum crucible
of Iil, for continuous filtration during electrolysis. It was
shown that by either of the devices described reasonably rapid
and accurate electrolytic determinations of copper may be
made without the use of rotating motors or expensive apparatus
of platinum. Im testing these devices, copper sulphate was
electrolyzed, with an error ranging between +0°v003 grm.
and —0:00038 grm. upon approximately 0°1274 germ. of copper
or 0°5000 grm. of the sulphate. The duration of the elec-
trolysis was about thirty minutes in the processes involving
continuous filtration and forty-five minutes in the processes in
which filtration was begun after electrolysis was completed.
The metallic copper deposited upon the cathode was partly
compact, partly spongy. In the work to be described the
apparatus has been tried in the more difficult determinations
of manganese and lead as the dioxides formed upon the anode
in very imperfectly adherent condition.
The Determination of Lead as the Dioxide.
In depositing lead dioxidet electrolytically, solutions contain-
ing nitric acid are employed; precautions must be taken in
regard to concentration of acid, strength of current and tem-
perature ; and the liquid is siphoned off before interruption of
the current. With the rotating cathode making 600 revolu-
tions a minute and a sand-blasted platinum dish for the
anode, Exner obtained in ten to fifteen minutes adherent
* This Journal, xxv, 249, 1908.
+Smith, Electro-analysis, p. 101, edition of 1907.
60 Gooch and Beyer
Electrolytic Estimation of Lead.
deposits with a current N.D.,,.=10 amp. and 4°5 volts, acting
upon 125° of solution contaming 20° of concentrated nitric
acid.
In some of our preliminary trials of electrolysis in the closed
cell with subsequent filtration it was found that when the con-
centration of nitric acid amounted to 10° in 60°™ of liquid,
with a current of 4 amperes (N.D.,,,=10 amp.) and 6 volts,
two sources of error appeared. In the first place, the depo-
sition of metallic lead upon the cathode was often noticeable ;
and secondly, it appeared to be impossible to make the precip1-
tation of lead dioxide complete so long as that substance was
allowed to float in the liquid. Similar results were obtained
in experiments in which urea
was added to the liquid for the
purpose of obviating the sol-~
vent action of dissolved oxides
of nitrogen upon lead dioxide.
In the experiments with this
form of apparatus the stirring
of the asbestos felt by gas
evolved upon the bottom of the
erucible used as an anode, as
well as the deposition of oxide
on the outer surface of the
crucible, was prevented by tak-
ing the precaution to moisten
the asbestos, from the outside,
with a drop of nitrobenzene
which, being insoluble in
water, prevents the contact of
the aqueous electrolyte with
the electrode surface under-
neath the asbestos. An increase
of nitric acid to the proportion
of 30°™" in 100°" (or solimtien
served to prevent the deposi-
tion of lead upon the cathode,
but to prevent the re-solution of lead dioxide it was found
to be necessary to use the process of continuous filtration,
so that the deposit might be compacted upon the felt, and
after deposition was complete to replace the acid liquid by
a solution of ammonium nitrate without interruption of the
current. After washing out the nitric acid with the solution
of ammonium nitrate the tinal washing was completed with
water. The form ot apparatus employed, shown in figure 1,
and the manner of using, were fully described in the former
article to which reference has been made.* In Table I are
* This Journal, xxv, 249, 1908.
1NEs, 5 Ie
Gooch and Beyer—L lectrolytic Estimation of Lead. 61
given the results of experiments following this procedure, and,
for comparison, the result of an experiment, (1) in which it
was found that, though electrolysis was continued by the cir-
culating process until the filtrate contained no lead, traces of
lead dioxide went into solution after the amount of electricity
which passed had been diminished by the gradual dilution with
water used in washing to replace the electrolyte. Tests for
lead in filtrates and washings were made by neutralizing with
ammonium hydroxide and adding ammonium sulphide, or
acetic acid and potassium chromate.
TABLE I.
Electrolysis with Continuous Filtration.
HNO; Current
Pb(NOs)2 Vol. cone, ———-+-
— Time PbO. Theory’ Error
Amp. NDjoo Volt found for PbO,
cem®*, Mifiss | SUM: erm. erm.
A
With no ammonium nitrate in electrolyte or in wash-water.
(1) 0°2028 50 15 2 5 4 5
4 10 5 1380 0°1460 0:1436 —0°0024
B
With ammonium nitrate in electrolyte and in wash-water.
(2) 0°2022 50 15 2 3) “ 40
4 10 5 100 0:1459 0°1462 +090:°0003
(3) 0°2014 50 15 2 5 4 9)
4 10 5 115 0°1454 0°1458 +0:0004
(4) 02001 50 15 2 a) + 5
ASO 5 115 0°1444 0°1442 —0:0002
(5) 0°2006 50 15 2 5) a 5)
4 10 5 115 0°1448 0°1446 —0:0002
(6) 0:2046 50 15 2 5) 4 9)
4 10 5 115 0°1477 0°1472 —0:0003
With ammonium nitrate in wash-water only.
(8) 0°2020 50 15 2 5 + 5)
4 10 5 115 0°1458 0°1460 +0:0003
(9) 0°2037 50 15 2 9) + 3)
4 4 10 5 115 0°1470 0°14738 +0:00038
From the results of the experiments described, it appears
that good analytical results may be obtained with the filtering
crucible used as an electrolytic cell if nitric acid be present to
the proportion of 30° of the concentrated acid in 100°™ of
solution, the liquid kept in continuous filtration until the elec-
trolysis of the lead salt is complete, the acidic liquid replaced
by a solution of ammonium nitrate so that the electric current
passing shall not fall off until the nitric acid has been removed,
62 Gooch and Beyer—KElectrolytic Lstumation of Lead.
the final washings made with water, and the deposit weighed
after drying at 200°. The time required for the complete
deposition of 0°15 grm. of lead dioxide under the conditions
described is about two hours.
The Determination of Manganese.
For the electro-deposition of manganese as the dioxide
various processes have been described.* With stationary
electrodes solutions containing nitric acid, sulphuric acid,
Fie. 2.
acetic acid, formic acid with or without a formate, or ammo-
nium acetate alone, with chrome alum, or acetone, have been
employed. For use with the rotating anode, solutions contain-
ing ammonium acetate with chrome alum or alcohol have
been adyocated.+ In all these processes hydrated manganese
dioxide is deposited upon a large anode which is preferably a
roughened platinum dish of considerable capacity.
The experiments to be described have been made to test
the utility of the electrolytic filtering cell in the determination
of manganese as the dioxide. The procedure adopted was the
* Smith’s Electro-analysis, edition of 1907, p. 134 et seq.
+ Koester, Zeitsclhr. Electro-chem., x, 553, 1904.
Gooch and Beyer—Electrolytic Estimation of Lead. 63
simplest. Fifty-centimeter portions of a solution of pure
manganese sulphate, standardized by evaporation of measured
portions and gentle ignition of the residue over a radiator,*
were treated, in each case, with six drops (0°17) of concen-
trated sulphuric acid and electrolyzed in the filtering cell
with a current of 2 amperes (ND.,,,.=5 amp.) and 20-10
volts, the voltage decreasing as the solution became heated.
In one set of experiments the process of continuous filtration
during electrolysis, for which the adjustment of apparatus is
shown in figure 1, was employed: in a second set of experi-
ments the closed cell, shown in figure 2, was used during the
electrolysis and the adjustment for filtr ainem made subsequently
as previously described.+ The time required for the deposition
of 0°1860 germ. of the dioxide was one hour and three-quarters
in the former process: a period varying from two hours and
ten minutes to two hours and fifty minutes is required in the
latter process. Tests with hydrogen dioxide and ammonia
showed that the deposition was complete in the process of
continuous filtration and practically so in the closed-cell pro-
cess. The closed-cell process naturally requires less attention
during the electrolysis, and so it is advantageous to run the
process for a period, perhaps two hours, with the closed cell
and then to adjust the apparatus for filtration during further
electrolytic action in order that floating particles of the dioxide
may be drawn to the felt and completeness of precipitation
may be assured. In this way the advantage of the circulating
process may be obtained with less attention to manipulation
than is required when the filtration is continuous from the
start. The deposit was washed with water after interruption
of the current, first dried at 200° for ten or fifteen minutes
and weighed, and thereafter ignited to low redness in the
spreading flame of a large burner.t Results of experiments
with the cell arranged for continuous filtration, and of experi-
ments in which the closed cell was used until the electrolysis
was nearly over, are given in the accompaning table.
The results are evidently as good as could be expected of
any process which involves the weighing of manganese
dioxide brought to condition by heating. The degree of
oxidation of the oxide thrown down under the conditions
which obtain apparently approximates closely to that of the
ideal oxide represented by the symbol MnO,.H,O, formerly
assigned by Riidorff$ to the electrolytically formed oxide,
and differing in that respect from the electrolytically deposited
oxide which was studied by Groeger.|
* This Journal, v, 209, 1898. + This Journal, xxv, 249, 1908.
t This Journal, v, 214, 1898. S$ Zeitschr. angew. Chem., 1892, 6.
| Zeitschr. angew. Chem., 1895, 253.
(eye 50) al
64 Gooch and Beyer—Klectrolytic Kstumation of Lead.
TABLE IT.
Solution H.SO, Theory MnO, MnO,
of MnSO, cone. Current for weighed weighed Error
taken = MnO. as MnO, as Mn;0,
em® em? ‘Amp. ND.100 Volt erm. erm. erm.
A
Electrolysis with continuous filtration.
(1) 50 Olen 2 3) 20 — 12 01860 0:'1862 + 0:°0002
0°1858 —0°0002
) 50 0°17 2 3) 20 — 12 0°1860 0°1856 —0°0004
0°i856 —0°0004
5 PAY —— A PMID Op lleiess —0°0017
0°1872 +0°0012
bo
B
Klectrolysis in closed cell with subsequent filtration. >
(4) 50 Oy 2 5) 20° — 12 O18607 O21860 0:0000
0°1853 —0-0007
(5) 50 On Tae 2 9) 20 — 10 O°-1860 0°1856 — 0°0004
0°1856 —0°0003
(6) 50 0-17 2 5) 18 — 10 01860 0°1853 -— (0007
0°1858 0°0002
Somewhat greater regularity in results might be expected if
the manganese dioxide could be converted to manganous sul-
phate and weighed as such, but experiments made with this
end in view were unsuccessful. The application of gaseous
sulphur dioxide proved to be ineffective and sulphuric acid
attacked the asbestos felt during ignition, causing a permanent
increment of weight. The substitution of spongy platinum
for asbestos in the filtering crucible, as suggested and used by
Monroe,* served to obviate the difficulty due to the action of
the sulphuric acid upon the filtering medium, but the process
of removing the necessary excess of sulphuric acid by gentle
heating over radiator was exceedingly slow and, if pushed,
liable to errors of mechanical loss. To weigh as either form
of oxide, in this process, is therefore better than to attempt the
conversion to manganese sulphate.
The processes demonstrated for the electrolytic deposition
of lead dioxide and manganese dioxide with the use of the
filtering crucible are obviously inferior in point of convenience
to the more rapid processes which demand the use of large and
special platinum containers and rotating motors, but in absence
of such apparatus they may serve a useful purpose.
* Chem. News, lviii, 101.
Ashman—Radio-Actwwity of Thorium. 65
Art. V.—The Specific Radio-Activity of Thorium and
its Products; by G. C. AsHMAN.
THE radio-activity of thorium compounds and minerals was
discovered by Schmidt* and independently by Mme. Curiet ;
Struttt also found that all thorium minerals examined by him
showed radio-active properties. Debierne§ discovered actinium
while working up uranium ores containing thorium. The
similarity of the chemical properties of actinium and thorium
led to the suggestion by a number of chemists that the activity
of thorium is not due to thorium itself but to slight traces of
actinium, since actinium is very difficult to separate from tho-
rium and the other rare earths. This view is hardly tenable
in the light of the fact that thorium and actinium give emana-
tions with totally distinct properties: their rates of decay are
widely different, and their products are in no way identical. In
1902 Hofmann and Zerban| announced that they had obtained
an inactive thorium preparation from a Brazilian monazite sand,
and that thoria prepared from various minerals, although
active at first, became inactive after a few months. Basker-
ville and Zerban4| also claimed they had separated from a
South American mineral thoria which was perfectly inactive.
A little later Hahn** and Ramsaytf extracted from the min-
eral thorianite a radio-active preparation several thousand
times more active than thorium itself and yielding a propor-
tionately larger amount of thorium emanation. This discovery
made it appear possible that the activity of thorium might be
due wholly to radiothorium since the latter possesses an extreme
tendency to retain its association with thatelement. Papers bear-
ing on this question were published simultaneously by Bolt-
wood ,ttby Dadourian,$§ and by McCoy and Ross||._ The con-
cordant results of these three independent investigations proved
conclusively that the intensity of the radio-activity associated
with thorium in any mineral is directly proportional to the tho-
rium content of the mineral. This work, together with the
preparation of radiothorium from thorium minerals by Hahn and
* Ann. d. Phys., Ixv, 141, 1898.
£C. i, cxxvu, 1101, 1898::
{ Proc. Roy. Soe., London, Ixxvi, 88 and 312, 1905.
SCOR. xxix, 593, 1899 5 exxex: 206, 1900.
i Ber. d. Chem. Ges., XXXV, 531, 1902.
“| J. Amer. Chem. Soe. ils 1642. 1904,
** Ber. d. Chem. Ges., xxxvili, 3371, 1905.
t+ J. de chim. phys., iii, 617, 1906.
t{ This Journal, xxi, 409, 1906.
S§ Ibid., xxi, 497, 1906.
||| Ibid, xxi, 433, 1906.
Am. Jour. Sco1.—FourtH SERIES, VoL. X XVII, No. 157.—January, 1909.
5
66 Ashman—Ladio-Activity of Thoriwm.
Ramsay, and the demonstration that the extracted radiothorium
produced thorium-X and the subsequent products left no
doubt that radiothorium was produced by the disintegration of
thorium, but the question still remained whether this disintegra-
tion of thorium itself was accompanied by a-rays; that is,
whether thorium 7¢self was radio-active. McCoy and Ross
found that all of the activity of a thorium mineral, not due to
uranium, remained in the pure thorium dioxide, separated by.
Neish’s method : the measurements were made at the end of a
month to allow the accumulation of the maximum amounts of
thorium-X and subsequent products. Pure thorium dioxide
made from commercial samples of thorium nitrate had about
half the normal activity. This was at first thought to be due
to the removal of part of the radiothorium in the technical
process of purification. McCoy and Ross attempted to separate.
radiothorium completely from thorium, but found it apparently
impossible to do so. Hahn found that the activity of com-
mercial samples varied with the age of the material; the
activity was smallest for samples three to nine years old. A
sample twelve years old had greater activity. To explain these
results, Hahn* suggested that there is a rayless intermediate
product, mesothorium, having a period of about seven years,
between thorium and radiothorium ; that this is separated in
the process of extraction of thorium from minerals, and that the
radiothorium, which has a period of two years, decays with time,
causing the observed fall of activity of commercial samples.
Some observations by Boltwoodt tended to confirm this view.
Later quantitative experiments by McCoy and Ross showed
that the hypothesis was in good agreement with the facts and
that the period of mesothorium was five and one-half years;
this value has since been confirmed by Hahnt by new quan-
titative measurements. Hahn also compared the activities of
old and new thorium by means of the a-rays, the @-rays, and
the emanation ; the variation with age in activity of the emana-
tion is greater than the variation in the a-ray activity. The
removal of thorium-X caused a greater proportional decrease
in the activity of new than in old thoria. The activity of
radiothorium, when freed from thorium-X, was decreased to a
smaller fraction of its original value than that of any ordinary
thorium preparation similarly treated. These facts led Hahn
to conclude that thorium itself has a typical a-ray aca
but he gave no estimate of its intensity.
Rutherford and Soddy§ had observed that in the case of
thorium precipitated with ammonia, its final or maximum
* Phys. Zeitschr., viii, 277, 1907.
+ This Journal, xxiv, 93, 1907.
+t Phys. Zeitschr., ix, 246, 1908.
§ Phil. Mag., iv, 378, 1902.
Ashman—Radio-Actwity of Thorium. 67
activity after one month was about four times the initial activ-
ity. McCoy and Ross* found the ratio of final to initial activ-
ity to be approximately 2°5 for various samples of thoria
prepared from a commercial nitrate. The corresponding ratio
for thoria prepared from minerals was about 3:2. The authors
at that time considered this to prove conclusively that thorium
is itself active, and estimated that the specific activity of
thorium dioxide was between 100 and 130. The work here
described was undertaken at the suggestion of Professor
McCoy with the object of determining the a-ray activity of
thorium itself with accuracy. A brief preliminary mention
of my results was made in the paper of McOoy and Ross.
The activity of thorium itself is found from the experi-
mental data as follows: The activity of new thorium freed
from the easily separated products thorium-X emanation,
thorium A, thorium B, and thorium ©, is due to Th + Rt.
But in the course of a month the products ( Pr) accumulate in
equilibrium amounts, and the activity is then due to Th + Rt +
Pr. The activity of old thorium freed from the products
is due to Th + #Rt, where z is the fraction of the equili-
brium amount of radiothorium in the sample; and after an
interval of one month the activity is due to Th = (RE
Pr). These four relations lead to four equations by means of
which the four unknown quantities, activity of Th, Rt and Pr,
and the fraction « may be found. McCoy and Ross explained
that the uncertainty of the data upon which their estimate
was based was due to the fact that by the large number of
precipitations with ammonia, which were necessary to remove
the separable products, Th-X, etc., large quantities of silica
aud other impurities from the glass and reagents were intro-
duced into the thorium. A further disadvantage of the am-
monia method arises from the fact that Th-A, with the com-
paratively long period of 11 hours, is precipitated with the
thorium. This makes it necessary to carry out 12 to 15 pre-
cipitations in the course of three or four days in order com-
pletely to remove the separable products.
Schlundt and Mooret found that in the precipitation of
thorium by fumaric acid, according to Metzger’s method for
the analytical separation of thorium from other rare earths,
Th-A as well as Th-X remains in the solution to a very large
extent, while Th-B is carried down with the thorium. This
method would therefore seem to offer an easier way to separ-
ate the active products of thorium than the precipitation with
ammonia; but it had the disadvantage of requiring an expen-
* J. Am. Chem. Soc., xxix, 1709, 1907.
tJ. Phys. Chem., ix, 682, 1905.
68 Ashman—Radio-Activity of Thorium.
sive reagent and the necessity of working in alcoholic solutions.
Schlundt and Moore* also found that precipitation with nitro-
benzoic acid removed some form of radio-active matter from
thorium but they did not identify the products separated.
The extensive use of meta-nitrobenzoic acid by McCoy and
Ross} in the analysis and purification of thorium minerals sug-
gested also the use of this reagent as a substitute for fumarie
acid. It was found that the first precipitate of thorium with
meta-nitrobenzoic acid lost its activity at a much greater rate
than would correspond to the period of thorium-A. The
minimum activity was reached in four or five hours, then an
increase due to the growth of thorium-X and its products set
in. When the precipitate was dissolved and the thorium
reprecipitated at the end of two hours the activity was dimin-
ished still further; and it was found that two additional pre-
cipitations at intervals of two hours gave finally pure thorium
dioxide free from thorium-X and all its subsequent products.
The activity of the oxide prepared by this method began
immediately to increase. On account of the convenience of
working in aqueous solutions and the ease and rapidity with
which filtration takes place, the nitrobenzoic acid method
offers many advantages over the fumaric acid method, and
leaves nothing to be desired concerning purity of the product
and completeness of separation. The precipitation with nitro-
benzoic acid was carried out in the following manner: The
solution of thorium nitrate, containing approximately 2 grams
of thoria, was nearly neutralized with dilute ammonia, methyl
orange being used as indicator, a slight excess of a saturated
solution of nitrobenzoic acid was slowly added, and the mix-
ture kept at a temperature of 80° for a short time. The pre-
cipitate of thorium nitrobenzoate was filtered from the solution
and washed well with water. Two hours later it was dissolved
in dilute nitric acid, ciluted to about 300°, almost neutralized
with ammonia and the thorium then reprecipitated by the
addition of 400° more of the nitrobenzoic acid solution. The
fourth thorium precipitate was rapidly filtered from the solu-
tion, placed directly in a platinum crucible and ignited first
over a Bunsen flame and finally at the highest attainable tem-
perature of the blast lamp for ten minutes. Four lots of
thorium oxide were thus prepared ; two from “old” material,
two from thorite. Oxide “A” was: from sample “A” of
thorium nitrate described by McCoy and Ross.{ It had been
precipitated 100 times with ammonia and was known to be
poor in radiothorium. It was repurified by the nitrobenzoie
* loc. .cit.
+J. Am. Chem. Soc., xxix, 1709, 1907.
tJ. Am. Chem. Soc., Ob. 1719, 1907.
Ashman—Radio-Activity of Thorium. 69
acid method and converted into the oxide by ignition. Oxide
“B” was from sample “B” of thorium nitrate described by
McCoy and Ross. It had been precipitated 40 times with
hydrogen peroxide and contained about one third of the
equilibrium amount of radiothorium. It was twice purified
by Neish’s method, and finally by four precipitations with
nitrobenzoic acid, made at intervals of two hours, Samples
“C” and “ D” were oxides made from thorite from Arendal,
Norway. Nine grams of the finely powdered mineral were
digested for a number of hours with concentrated hydro-
chloric acid. The chlorides were dissolved in hot water and
filtered from the insoluble residue. The thorium was then
precipitated with a boiling solution of oxalic acid and washed
free from the excess of the acid. The precipitated oxalates
-were decomposed by boiling them for ten minutes with fifteen
grams of potassium hydroxide in 30° of water. The thorium
hydroxide was washed free from alkali and dissolved in dilute
nitric acid. From this solution the thorium oxide was obtained
free from thorium-X and all subsequent products by four
precipitations with nitrobenzoic acid in the manner described.
The thoria thus prepared was made into films, 7 in
diameter, as quickly as possible by Boltwood’s method,* paint-
ing the paste onto a metal disc with a camel’s-hair brush.
Owing to the rapidity with which the activity of the thoria
increased, the slower sedimentation process,+ which yields
more uniform films, could not be used. _ However, the error
due tolack of uniformity was doubtless negligible since one
set of films, “ D,,’’ made by the sedimentation process gave the
same maximum specific activity, 948, as did the painted films
from the same material; see Table l. Activity measurements
were made in the manner described by McCoy and Ross,t and
with the same electroscope.§ From five to eight films were
made from each sample; the films were made thin, 0°2 to 7 mg.
per square cm., in order to avoid errors due to the evolved
emanation in the case of material containing the equilibrium
amount of Th-X.|
In order to find the activity of the thorium oxide at the
time zero, i. e., at the moment when thorium-X and its prod-
ucts were completely removed from it, the activity of each
film was measured at intervals of a few hours during the first
day after its preparation. The increase of activity with time
was plotted and the activity at time zero found by extending
the curve back to the ordinate for zero time as illustrated in
* This Journal, xxv, 269, 1908.
+ McCoy, J. Amer. Chem. Soc., xxvi, 391, 1905.
¢ Loe. cit. § This Journal, xxvi, 521, 1908.
|| McCoy and Ross; this Journal, xxi, 483, 1906.
Activity.
.80
-60
70 Ashman—Radio- Activity of Thorium.
the accompanying curve, which represents a film of sample
“DD.” The activities are in terms of the U,O, standard, which
had an activity of 35:0 units. This correction was necessary
as the time intervening between the last precipitation of the
thorium and the first activity measurement was usually one to
two hours.
LEW eE, 8 1b.
a}9)
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Time in Hours.
Table I gives the results obtained from the four samples of
oxide.
TABLE I,
Date of Measurement
Date of Minimum of Maximum
Sample preparation* activity maximum activity activity
<A? Aug. 28 167 Oct, = Al 400
De Oct, 19 167 Nov. 21 380
oe Cid Aug. 29 286 Oct. 4 921
os D7 Oct. 23 292 Nov. 23 948
se) iy Je Oct. 23 —-— Nov. 23 948
* All dates refer to the year 1907.
Ashman—Ladio-Activity of Thorium. (al
From these figures the specific activity of thorium alone can
be calculated. The average value of the specific activity of
thorium dioxide plus radiothorium and its products given by
samples “C” and “ D” is 989. That of thorium plus radio-
thorium obtained from the same samples is 289. Therefore
that of the products alone is 650. From samples “A” and “ B”
the value of the activity of Tha (Rt + Pr) is found to be 390.
That of Th + w (Rt) is 167: therefore «Pr is 223 and ¢ =
0:3446. Since Th + Rt = 289 it follows that Rt = 185, and
therefore the specific activity of thorium dioxide is 104, or that
of thorium is nearly 119.
Taxing the period of mesothorium as 5°5 years and that of
radiothorium as 737 days, McCoy and Ross* have shown that it
is possible to calculate the activity of a sample of thorium
dioxide at any time, #, after the separation of all the mesothorium,
therium-X and its produets. The maximum activity of sample
“A,” Oct. 1, 1907, was 400. On Feb. 27, 1908, 149 days later,
it was 346. In this interval of time the radiothoriam present
on the former date would decay to e472 — 0-869, where X,
is the disintegration constant of radiothorium, and the prod-
ucts of radiothorium would disappear in the same proportion.
The specific activity of thorium dioxide itself is 104. If no
radiothorinm had been formed from the new mesothorium
produced from thorium during the interval of 182 days between
the date of preparation of the oxide, Aug. 28, 1907, and Feb.
27, 1908, the activity would have been 0-869 (400 —104) ate
104=361. The activity of the equilibrium amounts of radio-
thorium and all its products is 885. Now some radiothorium
must have been produced from the mesothorium formed from
thorium during the interval 182 days; the activity thus gained,
~according to the formula of McCoy and Ross, would be
$36 J 1— eS ee pecs ee ears det —4,
Dy cam ert
* The calculated specific activity on Feb. 27, 1908, is therefore
361 +4= 365. The observed activity was 346. Table IL
gives the activities observed and calculated of samples “A,”
“B” and “ D” on various dates since their proparalon.
TABLE II.
Date of
Sam- prepar- Date and max.
ple ation activity Date and activity Date and activity
1997 1907 1908 Obs. Cal. 1908 Obs. Cal.
RS pe ES SS SSO SS Ga 2S= =
“A” Aug.28 Oct. 1 400 Feb.27 346 365 Aug.26 308 336
“B” Oct. 19 Nov.2! 380 Feb.27 346 359 Aug.29 308 331
“D” Oct. 23 Nov.23 948 Apr. 841 854 Aug.28 767 765
* Loc. cit.
72 Ashman—Radio-Activity of Thorium.
It is seen that in the case of sample “ D” the observed and
calculated activities agree quite closely. The discrepancies are
probably due mainly to errors of experiment. In samples “A”
and “ B” the calculated activity is somewhat greater than the
observed activity, for which there is no adequate explanation.
The quantitative changes with time in the activity of thorium
and its products would be effected to a slight extent by the
presence of actinium or ionium* in the thorium extracted from
uranium-bearing minerals ; but, as the percentage of uranium
in the mineral used was not determined, the magnitude of
this effect can not be calculated.
The more important results of this investigation may be
given as follows: An expedient method for separating thorium
and radiothorium from the other disintegration products of
the element has been described. Additional evidence has been ~
obtained which supports the view that thorium on disintegrating
emits an a-radiation. Thespecific activity of thorium is about
119; this is 11 per cent of the activity of the same thorium
when equilibrium amounts of its disintegration products are
present. Of the remaining activity 20 per cent is due to
radiothorium and 69 per cent to Th-X, and subsequent prod-
ucts. The activity ascribed to thorium itself is too much in
excess of the activity of the ionium associated with thorium in
minerals to warrant the conclusion that the observed activity
of thorium is due wholly or largely to the presence of ionium.
The earlier conclusions of Hofmann, and of Baskerville and
Zerban, that thorium itself is inactive, were without doubt due
to the fact that the methods used were not sufficiently refined
to detect the low activity of the element free from its short-lived
active products, and other radio-active impurities.
* Boltwood, this Jour., xxv, 269, 1908.
Kent Chemical Laboratory,
University of Chicago,
October, 1908.
C. Barus—Coronas with Mercury Light. 13
Art. V1.— Coronas with Mercury Inght; by C. Barus.
1. Preliminary Survey.—The inferences of the preceding
papers* gave promise that on judiciously using monochromatic
light as the source of illumination, the optical nature of the
coronas might be fully brought out. Such hght must be strictly
homogenous and at the same time very intense. Hence the
usual methods of obtaining it are unsatisfactory. The strong
green line of a mercury lamp, however, fulfills the require-
ments admirably, and this was therefore used. The results
show that the green dise and the first green ring alternately
vanish as the result of the interference phenomenon superim-
posed on the diffraction phenomenon. If therefore the nucle-
ation of a highly charged medium is systematically reduced,
a series of angular diameters may be obtained both for the
green disc and the inner or outer edge of the first green ring.
From the loci of these values the position of the first diffrac-
tion minimum for green light may be inferred, and the size
of droplets computed from the usual equation for small opaque
particles.
If the reduction of the nucleation is accomplished by succes-
sive partial exhaustions, all of them identical, while filtered air
is allowed to enter the receiver systematically between the
exhaustions, the nucleations of any two consecutive exhaustions
should show a constant ratio. Allowances must, however, be
made for the subsidence during the later fogs and for time
losses, if any. This is the method used hitherto in my work
and the results seem to have been trustworthy. |
In the case of mercury light, however, it is now possible to
compare the latter with the former (diffraction) method of
obtaining the diameters of particles, with a view to throwing
definite light on the optical phenomenon. Subsidence methods
are out of the question for large coronas, as these are invariably
fleeting in character and pass at once into smaller coarse
coronas.
The results of the two methods may be regarded as coinci-
dent as long as not more than 300,000 nuclei per cubic centi-
meter, or diameters of particles not smaller than -0003™ are in
question. For larger numbers and smaller diameters the
divergence rapidly increases. Indeed, for particles larger than
the size given, the optical loss per exhaustion exceeds the
exhaustion ratio, a result which is satisfactorily explained by
the cotemporaneous subsidence of these relatively large par-
ticles. For particles smaller than the limit in question, the loss
* This Jour., xxv, p. 224, 1908; xxvi, p. 87, 1908; xxvi, p. 324, 1908.
(Cc: C. Barus—Coronas with Mercury Light.
computed by the optic method is larger than the exhaustion
loss, as if fresh nuclei were produced, or rather made available
at each exhaustion. It is this result which the present paper
purposes to bring out in detail and to consider in its bearings
on the optical phenomenon.
2. Apparatus.—The fog chamber was of the usual pattern,
cylindrical in form, with its axis horizontal. The clear walls
being of blown glass showed some refracting disturbances, not
however of serious character. The fog chamber was connected
with a large vacuum chamber by a short, wide passage way,
though width is of little consequence here. The cylinder was
lined with wet cloth, closely adhering, except at the narrow
horizontal windows for observation.
For exhaustion this stopcock was suddenly opened at the
beginning of the first second, closed after five seconds and the ©
corona quickly measured. Filtered air was then at once intro-
duced and the next exhaustion made at the beginning of the
sixtieth second. This rhythm is essential. The isothermal
value of a drop of pressure [67,] was carefully predetermined.
It fixes the ratio, y, of the geometric progression of nucleation,
since
y = (p—=—[8p,)) / (P—7)
where » is the barometric pressure and 7 the vapor pressure
at the given temperature. If the cock were left open for a
longer time than five seconds, [6,| would increase to the limit
Op,
ihe goniometer was of the usual type, ne eye being at the
center or apex, while two needles on radii 30 long registered
the angular diameter of the coronal discs or annuli. Formerly
the whole instrument was placed on the near side of a fog
chamber, the eye being about 30™ from the nearest wall.
It conduces to ‘much oreater sharpness of vision, however,
and admits of a measurement of larger coronas, caet. par.,
if the eye is placed all but in contact with the nearer wall and
the needles (or in this case preferably the inner edges of round
rods) beyond the further wall. In such a case the refraction
errors are also diminished. In addition to these advantages I
may mention the decidedly increased (about 25 per cent) value
of the aperture obtained. These excessive apertures show,
however, that the ordinary diffraction equation for coronas
is not fully applicable; for aperture varies with the position
of the eye along the line of sight. It is often surprising how
large a corona can be measured by the second method in a
small fog chamber, scarcely six inches long. The distance
between lamp and chamber is kept about D = 250™.
3. Hquations.—The equations needed in the present work
are derived in my last Report,* and need merely be summarized —
* Carnegie Publications, No. 96, 1908, Chapters I, III (equat. 1 to 12).
C. Barus—Coronas with Mercury Light. 15
here. If y is the exhaustion ratio, the nucleation n, of the
zth exhaustion in terms of the original nucleation 1, will be
n, = n,y* (1-8/8) (1—-S/8,).---0—8/s*_,)
where S is a subsidence constant and s the chord of the
angular diameter of the coronal disc on a radius of 380™.
To find S, two consecutive values of s suffice, or
S=s,' (1—3,'y,/ys.)
approximately. The diameter of particles, d, is in terms of n,
d*=6m/rn
If rx = 54:6 X 107° em. is the wave length of green mercury
light and @ the angular radius of the first green minimum of
the coronas
sin 0="61 X/(d@ /2). Simee.sin’? = s/ 2h,
f? being the radius of the goniometer of which s is the chord,
d’ the diameter of fog particle (the primes referring to optic
measurements)
d' = :004/s
for mercury light. Hence, optically, the nucleation
10-* n' = 29°8 ms’,
where m grams of water are precipitated per cubic centimeter
on exhaustion, and found in the exhausted fog chamber.
4. Data with green mercury light, 10°~%=54:6™".—Omitting
the correlative data with white light and removing all tables
for lack of space, the charts figure 1 contain results obtained
with a mercury are lamp as the source of light. Different
annuli are measured and the chords, s, on a radius of 30™ are
distinguished by accents, as follows:
s’ is the chord of the green disc,
s‘ is the chord of the inner edge of the first green ring,
s’’’ is the chord of the outer edge of the first green ring.
The edges are fairly sharp. Hence
s=(s' + 8")/2
may be taken as the chord of the first green minimum. Optic-
ally the diameter of the particle is then d’ =-004/s.
The water precipitated per cubic centimeter, m, differs with
the drop of pressure, dp,/p, and the temperature. In the sue-
cessive parts of the chart the data are ey
Parts I, U, 10°m=4'1 grams, n'=122 s* (omitted)
Parts [II, IV, =4-12 grams, 2p ese
Parts V-VIII, =4:02 grams, n'=120 s°
76 C. Barus—Coronas with Mi ercury Laght.
where 7’ is the optical value of the number of nuclei per cubie
centimeter.
In parts I-IV the angular diameter, s’, of the green discs
a0 18 16 HT. 10 8 6 4 A 0
only were measured. The diameter s of the corresponding
first minims may, however, be obtained by using the method of
reduction found in parts V and VI where s=-44+°85 s’.
In parts V and VI the data for s’ and s’’, the angular diam-
C. Barus—Coronas with Mereury Light. 77
eter of the inner edge of the first ring, are both observed, while
in parts VII and VIII data for s’ and s’”, the outer diameter
of the first ring, appear.
In parts I and II (omitted) the goniometer was in front of
the fog chamber, and in series I a two-minute interval between
exhaustions was (exceptionally) introduced. The result is not
good; for a sudden break of the curve appeared after the
seventh exhaustion, probably due to the time losses in the extra
minutes. The reason, however, is by no means obvious. In
series II, for one minute intervals there was no break and the
locus passing through the points for green discs (the others, not
marked g, are here and elsewhere to be disregarded) is per-
sistently straight throughout. The curves show
For series I, ds / dz = 1°00, and
For series II, ds / dz = °80,
suggesting a time loss in the first case.
Compared with the preceding table, the values of ds/dz
should be in the ratio of red and green minims, or
ds, / dz : ds, / dz = °95/°80 correspond to d, /A, = 63:0 / 54°6 ;
the last ratio, 1:15, is somewhat short of the former, 1°19.
In series [II and IV the pins of the goniometer are behind
the fog chamber, the eye being at the front wall. In series III
the relation,
s’ = 2°30 + 1°15 (19—2)
is remarkably well sustained throughout; and in series 1V
s' = 2°50 + 1°18 (18--2)
gives a good account of the green coronas, if the dull cases are
ignored.
The most interesting results are given in parts V and VI of
figure 1, and in the subsequent paragraphs the computations
have been fully carried out. In these cases the chords on a
radius of 30™ of the edge of the green disc, s’, and the inner
edge of the first green ring, s’’, were successively observed.
Figure 1 contains both pairs of curves and their linear character
is again astonishing. We may write
Part V, s’'=2-0+1°10 (19—2), Part VI, s’=2:0+1:13 (18—a),
s’=3'44+1-21 (19—2), s’=3°3+1°30 (18-2),
s="59+ 1:06s' =—~“56+°96s", s=°50+1-07s'==—-44 + "938",
where the minimum is located midway-between s’ and s’’, both
of which are fairly sharp.
From both series the mean value
$= °55 + 1:06 s's=— 50 4+ °93 8"
78 C. Barus—Coronas with Mercury Light.
may be derived, for the general reductions in this and other
cases where s’ is observed. ‘The individual data are omitted.
With the given value for s the optical data for the diameters
of the par ticles, d'='004/s and for the nucleation, n’=120 s°,
were computed.
The subsidence constant
S = 5) (1—s,,,/y 8)
was obtained from the observations between z=13 and 2=19,
and a mean datum, S=12, accepted as most satisfactory. It is
then possible to compute n,, the original nucleation, as
n, =, / {y* (I—S/s,")----(1—8/8,"4)}
from each of the groups of values specified. The mean results
are
Part V, 1,=4 540 000
Part VI, (=3) 430 000.
Knowing 7,, the series of data for the nucleation n X 107°
follow; from these the diameter 10‘d=199 n-+ of fog particles
and the apertures s=:004/d are finally computed. In other
words m and d are the data obtained in view of the occurrence
of geometric series of nucleations with allowance for subsidence.
All these results have been constructed graphically in figures
2 and 38, for parts V and VI of the above charts respectively.
The observed and computed apertures s are first given; then
the observed are optically computed @ and the computed d trom
sequences appear, and finally the observed or optic m’ and the
computed nucleation » from sequences. The corresponding
data coincide very closely after 9 to 11 exhaustions, i. e. for
moderately small coronas: but in the case of large coronas
and nucleations, there is marked systematic divergence. A
discussion of these results will be given presently.
Finally, parts VII and VIII of fig. 1 contain measurements
of the chord of the angular diameter (radius of goniometer of
30°") of the outer edge of the green disc s’ and the outer
edge of the first ring s’”. The minimum may be deduced from
s’, since s="54+1- 06s" has been accepted. From s the optic |
value of diameter of fog particle d’ and the nucleation 7’
have been computed. The apertures are very fully given in
figure 1, in relation to the number z of the exhaustion. The
curves are again linear in character, but in case of the outer
edge s’”’, the insufficient size of my fog chambers and the
greater vagueness of definition interferes with close measure-
ment. ‘The results are
Part , ==1:00+1°07 (18—z), part VIIs’= 50+1:13 (17—2),
V==3200 4 93 (18—z2), s'"= 1504213 17 —2),
s =161+1-14 (18—2), s =1:08+1:20 (17—2).
O. Barus— Coronas with Mercury Light. (3
Asarule s’” is less than twice s’. The data for s’ and s are
obtained alternately as the figure shows, the green color passing
from the disc of the first ring and returning again, in suc-
cession.
eS U.—_—_>
Pee
alae
3
bo
Y
10
40 8 ost geet f
4
nx10°°
30 6 0
Ss,
| aa 773
20 4
a es aden
ee ae ee
10 2 jod= dfs |
Jano"
! dai ee xh Jl, a>
CN NIN 170) Pe MAI IB AB. SRO
Inferences.
5. Interference and diffraction.—The tables and chart show
in the first place, that the disc and first ring of the coronas are
alternately of a vivid green, other colors being dull because the
remaining lines of the mercury spectrum are faint. At inter-
80 OC. Barus—Coronas with Mercury Light.
vals neither disc nor ring are quite green. Hence there is a
periodic term impressed on the diffractions, which may be iden-
tified as an interference similar to the case of the lameiiar
grating referred to in another paper.*
When monochromatic light is used it is necessary, therefore,
to observe both the edge of the disc and the inner edge of the
first ring; for neither appear vividly at the same time. The
chord s on a radius of 30°" for the minimum in terms of
the corresponding chords s’ and s’”’, of the first and second
edges specified, may then be written.
s= ‘55 + 1:06:87,
9 5 — 50) ob DA g
Probably the ratio-s/s’ and s/s’” should be constant and the
absolute term in these equations is an error of observation; but _
as it is small, little depends upon it, millimeters only being
significant.
If we summarize all the observations for ds/dt, the agree-
ment as a whole is in keeping with the nature of the observa-
tions and reasonably satisfactory. Thus, in
Series I, II, d’s/dz = -90, | s='44 + °85 s' (goniometer in front),
III, Iie,
IV, ese |
Vs 110, | s=54+4+1-:06 s’ (goniometer behind),
VI, 1-13, r mean ds’ / dz = 1°12.
Vie ise |
VIII, LOZ, |
The feature of these data is the occurrence of linear loci for
s and 2 nearly throughout the extent of the curves. It is as
difficult to even conjecture a reason for this, as it is easy to find
reasons against it. The presumptive equation for s is
s = 004 (1/6m)* n?, x 34/0
and for n’, if II denotes the product,
Mz =e
Hence,
s = '004 (xn, /6m) * (y: M)*
if we disregard the subsidence correction for large coronas
ds | dea y*"*
in which there is no suggestion of a sustained constancy of the
coefficient ds/dz such as the experiments show.
To come to some conclusion as to the cause of the discrepancy
between the optic value of the nucleation mn’ and the presum-
able value n (geometric progression), we may compare the
-* This Journal, xxv, p. 224, 1908.
C. Barus—Coronas with Mercury Light. 81
successive value n’,,,/n’, = S°,,,/s*, in their relation to y = “771
the exhaustion applied. - The table shows that for very large
coronas n’,,,/7', >y, whereas for very small coronas 7’,,,/n’, <y.
For the intermediate coronas (g,), 1. e., from the seventh to the
tenth exhaustion among twenty, the ratio is nearly equal to y.
Ratios smaller than y may be reasonably interpreted as due to
subsidence and the constant Sis actually of the order of values
to be computed from the viscosity of the medium and the size
of the vessels and fog particles. Within this range (coronas
smaller than g,) the optic and the presumptive nucleation may
in fact be brought into agreement.
In case of the large coronas, however, subsidence is virtually
absent and the occurrence of n’,,,/n,/ > y calls for some appar-
ent production of nuclei at each exhaustion, which is altogether
improbable. Therefore, fig. 2 and 3, compare n’ and n, whence
n-n' shows the number of nuclei not registered by condensation.
For, no matter whether condensation on a given group of
nuclei occurs or not, no matter how many nuclei have failed of
catching a charge of water, the identical removal of nuclei by
partial exhaustion must take place. Such removal is indepen-
dent of condensation, and would occur in a dry atmosphere
under similar treatment. Consequently y cannot be too large.
It may be too small not only from subsidence, but from time
losses (decay), or as the result of the purification of air due to
turbulent motion across a solid or hquid surface. Consequently
nm may be regarded as an interior limit of the nucleation with
a probably close approximation to the true value. A comparison
of n and n-n’ would, in such a case, show the percentage of
nuclei of irregular size which have failed of capture, the
number being n-n’.
At the same time it must always be recalled, that no ade-
quate theory of coronas exists and that therefore the meaning
of 7’ is obscure. We must in any case place a part if not all
the discrepancy between n and n’ within the province of such
a theory as is evidenced by the dependence of aperture on the
position of the eye. The need is particularly manifest for the
large coronas, in which there is accentuated superposition of
interference and diffraction. Small coronas may be tested by
coincident results obtained from subsidence and the agreement
is then well within the errors of observation.
Brown University,
Providence, R. I.
Am. Jour. Sci.—FourtTH Series, Vou. XXVII, No. 157.—January, 1909.
6 ,
82 Scientific Intelligence.
SCE Nea EC, INTELLIGENG
I. OHEMISTRY AND Puysics.
1. An Attempt to Produce a Compound of Argon.—Assum-
ing that any compound which argon might form would be
endothermic, and would hence require a large amount of energy
and a high temperature for its production, and assuming also that
such a compound would need tv be quickly cooled in order to
prevent its decomposition, FiscuER and Ixtovici have passed elec-
tric sparks, as well as the electric are, between poles of cadmium
in liquid argon. Cadmium was selected for these preliminary
experiments on account of the fact that Kohlschiitter and Miiller ~
had found that the pulverization of cadmium by the electric
discharge was abnormally great in argon gas, as compared with
other gases. The argon was prepared from atmospheric air by.
the absorption of the other gases by means of calcium carbide.
An elaborate apparatus was devised for carrying out the experi-
ments, in which it was found necessary to keep the argon at a
pressure near that of the atmosphere, for liquid argon boils at
—189°6° C. under a pressure of 7607", while it solidifies only
2°70 below this point, and below a pressure of 500™™ liquid
argon does not exist. As a result of the passage of electric
sparks and the arc through this liquid there was produced a new
compound, cadmium nitride, due to traces of nitrogen in the
argon used. ‘This nitride, which was mixed with pulverulent
metallic cadmium in the product produced by the are, gave off
nitrogen when heated in a vacuum, and this nitrogen was found
to contain a considerable amount of argon. ‘The authors con-
sider this argon as due to adsorption, but propose to continue
their experiments under different conditions.— Berichte, xli, 3802.
ees OL
2. Huplosive Crystallization.—Having occasion to evaporate
a solution containing a sulphate and a thiosulphate enclosed in a
bell-jar under a diminished pressure of about 207", WuxsTon
found that an apparent explosion violent enough to break the bell-
jar had occurred during the night, when the liquid had become
very concentrated. Soon afterwards he attempted to crystallize
two solutions of a sulphite, which were probably supersaturated,
under the same conditions. In this case he saw a part of the
contents of one of the dishes violently ejected so that the dish
was broken, the other dish was upset, and the whole apparatus |
was so shaken that the glass plate upon which the bell-jar rested
was broken. The author is of the opinion that crystallization
was suddenly induced on the surface of the basin with a con-
sequent sudden increase in the vapor-pressure of the surrounding
liquid, which under the very low pressure existing in the beli-jar
Chemistry and Physties. 83
caused the liquid to boil violently. It appears to the reviewer
that this explanation overlooks the chief cause of the sudden
boiling, namely, the great amount of heat that is set free by the
sudden crystallization of a large amount of salt from a supersatu-
rated solution. This sudden warming under low pressure and the
presence of much solid salt in the liquid explain satisfactorily
these interesting accidents. — Chem. News, xcvill, 27. H. L. Ww.
3. Constituents of Ytterbium.—AvER VON WELSBACH, whose
work on the rare earths is well known, particularly his splitting
up of old didymium into neodymium and praseodymium, has suc-
ceeded in obtaining two earths from ytterbium. This was done
by long continued fractionation, particularly of the ammonium
double oxalates. He has named the new elements, Aldebaranium
and Cassiopeium, Ad and Cp. Their distinguishing feature is
In their spark spectra. Their reactions are those of ytterbium,
and they cannot be distinguished from one another by any
chemical reactions. They form only one oxide, the sesquioxide,
which is stable at a red heat. All the salts are colorless if the
acid is not colored. The atomic weights found were 172-90 for
Ad and 74:23 for Cp. The cassiopeium was not obtained abso-
lutely free from the other earth, but it is the author’s intention
to repeat the separation with a larger amount of material in order
to obtain purer cassiopeium, which he designates as the last in the
series of rare earths. It will take six or eight years to complete
this tedious task. — Monatshefte, xxix, 2. H. L. W.
4, A New Form of “ Tin Infection.” —It has been known for
a long time that metallic tin at low temperatures is subject to a
physical change which renders it grey and very friable. For
’ instance, it is said that the tin buttons on the uniforms of
Napoleon’s soldiers in the Russian campaign fell to pieces. This
behavior was formerly attributed to the simple action of low tem-
perature, but in recent times it has been shown that it is due to a
recrystallization which can be communicated to any piece of tin
at a low temperature, by contact with an affected piece of tin, or,
as it may be termed, by inoculation. It has been recently observed
by von HasstinGEr that a piece of tinware soldered with tin which
had been stored for two years in a place which was always heated
in winter showed a dull surface, a crystalline structure under the
' microscope, and a friability corresponding to the change that
usually takes place only at low temperatures, It was found
further that this material was capable of inoculating unchanged
tin, either in the form of ordinary tin plate, tin foil or cast tin, at
such temperatures as 7°, 19° and 37° C. The growth of the
infected spots of nearly circular form was at the rare of from 3
to 5™™" per day, but it was noticeable that this growth became
slow as it extended farther from the inoculated center.— Monat-
shefte, xxix, 787. H. L. W.
5. The Heat Evolved by Radium.—A new determination of
this constant has been made by von ScuweEiIpLeER and Huss, with
the result that 118-0 gram-calories per hour were found. Previ-
84 Scientific Intelligence.
ous observers have obtained results varying from 100 to 134 in
the same terms. The material used consisted of 1:0523¢. of radi-
um-barium bromide, corresponding to °7951g. of radium. The
method used was that previously employed by Angstrém for the
same purpose. It consisted in placing the radium in a calorimeter,
and keeping a second, exactly similar, calorimeter at the same
temperature by an electrically heated wire of known resistance.
The elevation of temperature thus produced in the calorimeters
amounted to 5°5° ©. At first only 40 per cent of the expected
heating was produced, probably on account of the escape of some
emanation before the beginning of the. experiment, but this
increased from day to day. ‘The radium employed was in equi-
librium with its decomposition products of short period, but its
contents of the products from radium D to radium F was uncer-
tain.—Monatshefte, xxix, 853. H. L. W.
6. Positive Rays.—W. Wtsn arranged an apparatus which
enabled him to, transmit the canal rays some distance through a
capillary tube which was exhausted by means of charcoal and
liquid air to a low vacuum. He concludes from his observations
that the particles in the canal rays which are least influenced by
a magnetic field are those which carry the light emission. More-
over, the condition of equilibrium of particles of equal weight—
which may be destroyed by a magnetic field—reasserts itself dur-
ing the length of path of the rays. The length of this path
increases with higher potentials.—Phystk. Zeitschrift, No. 22,
Nov. 1, 1908, pp. 765-767. Jes
7. Spectral Intensity of Canal Rays.—The observers of the
Doppler Effect in canal rays in hydrogen agree that the displace-
ment observed is a band which is separated from the hydrogen
line by a space showing no band. J. SrarK and W. STENBERG
select the method of viewing the hydrogen line at right angles
to the direction of the canal rays, in order to determine its
changes in intensity. No Doppler effect of course is seen, but
the photometric measures indicate the changes in velocity of the
positive particles. They state that the intensity of the canal
rays depends upon their velocity. They also find a minimum
intensity in the Doppler effect.—Ann. der Physik., vol. xxvi,
1908, pp. 918-926. Stele
s. Canal Rays.—J. SvarK discusses the bearing of modifica-
tion of the electromagnetic theory of light upon the phenomena
of canal rays, especially Planck’s theory of electrical resonators, .
and Einstein’s discussion of Lichtquantenhypothese, and believes
that this latter hypothesis must stand or fall with further observa-
tions of the canal rays.—Physik. Zeitschrift, No. 22, Nov. 1,
1908, pp. 767-773. Tole
9. Potential Measurements in the dark Cathode Space.-— W.
WestpHat has confirmed Prof. J. J. Thomson’s theory that the
cathode rays are due to impacts of positive particles impinging
through the cathode space upon the cathode, and shows, also,
that measurements of this potential by means of sounding wires
=
Chemistry and Physies. 85
does not introduce an appreciable error. He finds that Poisson’s
equation is applicable to electric discharges through a gas.— Ann.
der Physik, No. 13, 1908, pp. 571-588. Tee.
10. The Elements of Physics; Vol. II, Hlectricity and Magnet-
ism; by E. L. Nicuous and W. 8S. Franxiin. New edition, pp.
vii + 303, with 196 figures. New York, 1907 (The Macmillan
Co.).—This edition of the second volume of Nichols’ and Franklin’s
Elements of Physics has been entirely rewritten. No statement
is made here, however, concerning a new edition of the other
volumes, nor have we seen any announcement elsewhere.
The most salient feature of the new edition is the discarding
of the traditional treatment of electrostatics, beginning with elec-
trostatic attraction and the definition of the electrostatic unit of
charge. The authors say: “It seems better to approach this sub-
ject from the standpoint of the ballistic galvanometer, inasmuch
as, when so developed, the theory of electrostatics is a logical con-
tinuation of the foregoing theory of the electric current.” ‘ Most
students begin electrical theory at both ends and never reach the
middle.” 3
The columns of mechanical and electrical analogies at the end
of Chapter VII and at the beginning of Chapter XVI are inter-
esting and complete. At the close of the book a list of 145 well-
selected problems is given. The volume as a whole is attrac-
tively executed and reflects credit both on the authors and on the
publishers. ~ : Hi) Ss. Ur
11. A Text-Book of Physics ; edited by A. W. Durr. Pp. xi +
680, with 511 figures and 225 problems. Philadelphia, 1908 (P.
Blakiston’s Son & Co.).—This volume is a new departure in the
writing of college text-books, in that seven experienced teachers
have contributed to its production. The various divisions of the
subject and the authors responsible for them are as follows:
Mechanics, pp. 1-177, written by A. W. Duff; Heat, pp. 179-281,
by K. E. Guthe; Wave Motion and Sound, pp. 283-328, by W.
Hallock; Light, pp. 329-474, by E. P. Lewis; Electricity and
Magnetism, pp. 475-630, by A. W. Goodspeed; Conduction of
Electricity through Gases and Radio-Activity, pp. 631-666, by
hk. K. McClung.
An obvious danger attendant upon each contributor writing
about his special field is that of his treating the subject at such
length as to weaken in the student’s mind the contrast between
the fundamental facts and those of less significance. In other
words, too much detail tends towards a dead level of the special
branch under discussion. This danger does not seem to have
been successfully avoided, in spite of the fact that the sections
written by each author were freely criticized by his six collabor-
ators. This objection is especially pertinent to the chapters on
Light. In the preface the suggestions are made: “Some may
find the material included in the book too extensive for a single
course. If so, a briefer course can be arranged by omitting all
of the parts in small print together with as much of those
86 Scientific Intelligence.
in large print as may seem desirable.” This is unquestionably
true from the theoretical standpoint, but we have found by
experience that, in general, much culling out of paragraphs is not
conducive to the best results on the part of the student.
The processes of the differential and integral calculus are used
only in the small-print paragraphs and the notation of infinitesi-
mals occurs very infrequently in the large-type articles. Never-
theless, several useful formule, which in their less rigorous,
algebraic clothing are very useful in numerical examples, occur
only in the small-print paragraphs in conjunction with the more
rigorous, calculus expressions for the same laws.
The problems are not numerous and are grouped at the ends
only of the chief divisions of the entire subject to which they
-appertain. The percentage of rather poorly drawn, shaded
figures is appreciably greater in this volume than is usually the
case with recent books of college grade. - H. 8. U.
Il. Gronoey.
1. Publications of the United States Geological Survey,
GrorGE Otis Suiru, Director.—Recent publications of the U.S.
Geological Survey are noted in the following list (continued from
p. 402 of vol. xxvi):
Topocrapuic ATLAs.—Thirty-five sheets.
Forio No. 161. Franklin Furnace Folio, New Jersey. Descrip-
tion of the Franklin Furnace Quadrangle ; by A. C. Spencer, H.
B. Ktmuet, J. EK. Wourr, R. D. Sarispury, and CHARLES
PatacHe. Pp. 27, with 6 maps, columnar sections, 15 figures.
Burvetins.—No. 347. The Ketchikan and Wrangell Mining
Districts, Alaska; by Frep EuGrense Wricut and CHARLES
Witt Wricat. Pp. 210; 12 plates, 23 figures, 3 maps in pocket.
No. 349. Economic Geology of the Kenova Quadrangle, Ken-
tucky, Ohio, and West Virginia; by WiLit1am Ciirron PHALEN.
Pp. 158, 6 plates, 21 figures. ;
No. 351. The Clays of Arkansas; by Joun C. Brannur,
Pp. 247; 1 plate, 20 figures, 1 map in pocket.
No. 352. Geologic Reconnaissance of a Part of Western
Arizona ; by Wiis 'T. Lex. With notes on the Igneous Rocks
of Western Arizona; by ALBERT JOHANNSEN. Pp. 96 ; 11 plates,
16 figures.
No. 355. The Magnesite Deposits of California ; by Frank
L. Hess. Pp. 67, 12 plates, 4 figures.
No. 357. Preliminary Report of the Coalinga O11 District,
Fresno and Kings Counties, California ; by Rates ARNOLD and
Rosert ANDERSON. Pp. 142, 2 plates, 1 figure.
No. 362. Mine Sampling ‘and Chemical Analyses of pe
tested by the United States Fuel-testing Plant, Norfolk, Va.,
1907; by Joun SHOBER BuRRows. Pp. 23.
Geology. 87
No. 369. The Prevention of Mine Explosions, Report and
Recommendations; by Vicror WaATrEyNE, Cart MEISSNER and
ArTHur DresporovueH; with letter of transmittal by J. R. Gar-
HIGLD. -4p. 11. |
Also 341-A. Advance chapter on the Coal Fields of North
Dakota and Montana from Bulletin 341, Contributions to Econ-
omic Geology, 1907, Part II. »
Further, Mineral Products of the United States, 1896-1907.
Tabulated on large sheet ; also numerous advance chapters from
Mineral Resources of the United States, 1907 ; and
WatTeER-SUPPLY Papers.—No. 219. Ground Waters and Irri-
gation Enterprises in the Foothill Belt, Southern California; by
WatteR C. MEnNDENHALL. Pp. 180, 9 plates, 16 figures.
No. 220.—Geology and Water Resources of a Portion of South-
Central Oregon ; by GreRatp A. Warine. Pp. 86, 10 plates, 1
figure. |
gio. 222. Preliminary Report on the Ground Waters of San
Joaquin Valley, California; by Water C. MENDENHALL. Pp.
52, 1 plate. .
2. Canada: Geological Survey. A. P. Low, Director,
Ottawa.—Recent publications from the Geological Survey of
Canada, including the Department of Mines, are included in the
following list: (See p. 239, vol. xxvi.)
Seventeen maps, giving plans and sections of the Gold Districts
of Nova Scotia. |
Preliminary Report on a Part of the Similkameen District,
British Columbia; by CHartes CamsELt. Pp. 41, with folding
map.
Depariment of Mines, R. W. Brock, Acting Director.
Report on a Portion of Conrad and Whitehorse Mining Dis--
tricts, Yukon; by D. D. Carrnezs. Pp. 38, 8 plates, folding map.
Preliminary Report on a Portion of the main Coast of British
Columbia and adjacent Islands included in New Westminster and
Nanaimo Districts; by O. E. Leroy. Pp. 56, 4 plates, 6 figures,
folding map.
Report on a Recent Discovery of Gold near Lake Megantic,
Quebec ;- by Joun A. Dresser. Pp. 13, folding map.
Report on the Landslide at Notre-Dame de la Salette, Liéore
River, Quebec; by R. W. Exits. Pp. 10, 7 plates.
3. North Carolina Geological and Economic Survey, JosEPH
Hyper Prart, State Geologist.
Economic Paper No. 14. The Mining Industry in North Caro-
lina during 1906; by J. H. Prarr. Pp. 142, 20 plates, 5 figures.
Raleigh, 1907.
Bulletin No. 16. Shade Trees for North Carolina; by W. W.
AsHE. Pp. 72, 10 plates, 18 figures. No.17. Terracing of Farm
Lands ; by W. W. Asuz. Pp. 72, 6 plates, 2 figures. Raleigh,
1908.—The total value of the mineral productions of North
Carolina, in 1906, was some $3,000,000, having increased from
$1,800,000 since 1901. The most important items, making up
two-thirds of the whole, are clay and coal. Following these are
88 Scientific Intelligence.
mica ($218,000), copper ($136,000), gold ($122,000) and monazite
($126,000). The present report, by Dr. Pratt, gives an account
of the mining industries of the state, particularly as related to
gold, mica and monazite.
The accompanying bulletins discuss the introduction of shade
trees in the cities of the state, and the methods of terracing farm
lands. This latter subject is particularly important in a region
where the prosperity of the community depends so largely upon
the preservation of the natural soil, which, when left to natural
processes, soon suffers destructive erosion and is permanently lost.
4. Report of the State Geologist of Vermont for 1907-8.
Pp. 302, with 59 plates.-—In the first portion (pp. 1-57) of this
volume, the state geologist, Professor G. H. Perkins, treats of
the mineral resources of the state, of which marble forms the
bulk. In 1906 marble worth nearly four and one-half million dol-
lars was produced, and of granite about four million dollars. T.
Nelson Dale describes the Granites of Vermont ; H. E. Mervin,
Some Late Wisconsin Shore Lines ; C. H. Hitchcock, the Geology
of the Hanover, New Hampshire, Quadrangle ; G. H. Perkins,
the Geology of Franklin and Chittenden Counties; George EH.
Edson, the Geology of the Town of Swanton ; and C. H. Richard-
son, the Geology of Newport, Troy and Coventry.
An interesting discovery is the finding at St. Albans of a
Middle Cambrian fauna with Paradoxides. The fine skeleton of
a Pleistocene whale, Delphinapterus vermontanus, long shown
at the State Museum, is here described and illustrated at great
length by the state geologist. Professor Richardson seems to
have fossil evidence indicating that the highly metamorphosed
_sedimentaries lying between the eastern foothills of the Green
Mountains and the valley of Lake Memphremagog are of Cambro-
Ordovician age. The fossils appear to be crushed graptolites.
Cc. 8.
5. Thirty-second Annual Report, Indiana Department of
Geology, W. S. Buarcu.ey, State Geologist. Pp. 1231, with 22
maps and 55 plates. Indianapolis, 1908.—Nearly 300 pages are
devoted to a description of the soils of 17 counties of Southern
Indiana by Messrs. Shannon, Lyons, Snider, Ward and Ellis.
The vast odlitic limestone industry is described at length by the
state geologist and associates. There are also the annual reports
of the inspector of mines and natural gas. The chapter on the
petroleum industry in 1907 states that since 1891 there have been
sunk for oil 24,297 wells into the Trenton limestone and of these
15,210 were producing last January. Last year the total shipped
output was nearly five million barrels of 42 gallons each, bring-
ing about 88 cents per barrel.
About one-half of the book is devoted to “'The Stratigraphy
and Paleontology of the Cincinnati Series of Indiana,” by Prof.
R. E. Cumings. Sixty-seven local sections are described in detail
and the fossils listed for each bed. This is followed by a general
discussion of the Cincinnatian series. The greater part of the
Geology. | 89
work is devoted to redescriptions of the 422 species collected,
most of which are illustrated on 55 plates. The final paper by
D. Reddick describes the mushrooms of Indiana. C. 8.
6. Illinois State Geological Survey, Year-Book for 1907 ;
H. Foster Barn, Director. Bulletin No. 8, 374 pp., 23 pls., 32
figs. with map. Urbana, 1907.—A number of papers contained
in this report have been already published (this Journal, xxiv,
447, xxv, 353-354, xxvi, 166). The remaining papers deal chiefly
with economic subjects, including cement materials, clay industries,
petroleum, artesian wells, lead and zinc, concrete, land reclama-
tion, and valuable studies relating to the alteration of coal, with
detailed investigations in certain areas. H. E. G.
7. New Zealand Geological Survey, J. M. Bett Director. The
Geology of the Cromwell Subdivision, Western Otago Division ;
by James ParKx. Bull. No. 5 (new series). Pp. 86, pls. 20, maps
10, geol. sections 6. Wellington, New Zealand, 1908.—The geo-
logical section of the Cromwell area includes, in the Paleozoic sys-
tem, two series: the Maniototo series of mica and chlorite schists
which have an extreme thickness of 30,000 feet and a remarkably
uniform schistosity, sills and dikes being almost completely absent
over the wide area of five survey districts; and the Kakanui series
of upper schists which are less metamorphosed. The Pliocene is
represented by the Manuherikia series of shales and clays, con-
taining valuable seams of lignite. The region has been glaciated,
as indicated by the moraines and extensive terraces and river
gravels. All the glacial and fluviatile deposits are gold-bearing,
and the principles underlying the concentration of gold in these
gravels are discussed. Petrographic descriptions are given of the
following rocks: Chlorite and mica-schist, grey wacke, serpentine,
hypersthene-diorite, feldspar-porphyrite, mica-gneiss, biotite-
granite, augite-hypersthene-diorite, augite-diorite, hornblende-
schist, hornblende-camptonite, sandstone, and chemical analyses
are given of altered greywacke, serpentine, mica-schist, and
chlorite-schists. Physiographically, the region is a part of the
central Otago peneplain, now deeply dissected into “ high table-
top mountain ranges intersected by deep water courses and
separated from each other by river valleys or cleft in twain by
profound gorges”. Mr. Park enters into an extensive discussion
of the origin and development of the block mountains, with their
intervening basins. H. By G:
8. Report on the Eruptions of the Soufriére in St. Vincent in
1902, and on a Visit to Montagne Pelée in Martinique. Part
IT. The Changes in the Districts and the Subsequent History of
the Volcanoes; by Tempest ANDERSON. Petrographical Notes
on the Products of the Eruptions of May, 1902, at the Soufriére
in St. Vineent; by Joun S. Frert. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soe.
London, series A, vol. cevili, pp. 275-332, 27 pls. London, 1908.
—Dr. Anderson revisited St. Vincent and Martinique in 1907.
His descriptions of the changes which have taken place between
1902 and 1907 constitute an interesting study of the secondary
90 Scventific Intelligence.
phases of volcanic activity and also of the rapidity of erosion in
volcanic materials, and the ease with which vegetation in tropical
countries takes possession of a region which is absolutely barren.
The sixteen plates from well selected photographs are excellent,
and when compared with those taken in 1902 from approximately
the same localities, constitute a history of stream development,
erosion, and changes in voleanie materials which is very striking
indeed. The present volume also contains the “Petrographical
notes on the products of the eruptions of May, 1902, at the
Soufriére in St. Vincent,” by John 8. Flett. The scientific world
is fortunate in having these volcanoes studied by Anderson, La
Croix, Hovey, and Heilprin, whose combined reports constitute
perhaps the most elaborate treatise on any single volcanic disturb-
ance in the world’s history. The bibliography which accom-
panies the report is fairly complete, but fails to mention the
writings of one of the most industrious students of this district,
viz., Angelo Heilprin. ) H. E. G.
9. The Geology and Ore deposits of the Coeur d’ Alene Dis-
trict, Idaho ; by FrepERick Lestiz Ransome and FRanK CaTH-
CART CaLxins. Professional paper 62. U.S. Geological Survey.
Pp. 203, pls. xxix, figs. 23. Washington, D. C., 1908.—This
report is of great interest to geologists since it embraces an area of
404 square miles constituting the well known Coeur d’Alene min-
ing district of northern Idaho and gives the detailed strati-
graphic and structural geology of a portion of a region concern-
ing which but.-little has been previously known.
The district, as shown by the map, is one of maturely dissected
mountainous topography showing a relief between river bottom
and mountain top of about 4000 feet. It lies in the midst of a
region which while not attaining elevations as great as certain
others in the Cordillera, yet is, on the whole, of a particularly wild,
rugged and forested character. The sedimentary rocks except
for the surface gravels belong entirely to the great Algonkian
system known as the Belt, from the earlier studies in the Belt
mountains of Montana. The section here attains a thickness of
17,200 feet, the base not exposed and the top removed by erosion.
They vary from sandstones to argillites and throughout the
greater portion of the system the argillaceous formations show
marks of shallow water deposition and subaérial exposure. No
great limestone formations such as the two which occur farther
east are found in this region and it is concluded that the -sedi-
ments came from the west. <A great fault, however, whose out-
crop at the surface is known as the Purcell trench cuts off the
system to the west, beyond this a highly metamorphic complex
being exposed. The igneous rocks are all intrusive, the large
masses varying from monzonites to syenites. The region is com-
plexly folded and faulted but, as in other portions of this province,
the rocks are remarkably free from regional metamorphism, giv-
ing unusual opportunities for studying an Algonkian system.
The mineral resources in the order of their present importance
are (1) lead silver ores, (2) copper ores, (3) gold ores. J. B.
Geology. 91
10. Geologie der Steinkohlenlager ; by DANNENBERG. Erster
Teil. Pp. 197, 25 figs. (Gebriider Borntraeger.) Berlin, 1908.—
This publication is evidently one of importance, and will be
reviewed after the appearance of the second part, which the
publishers announce will be issued sometime within the coming
year. H. E. G.
11. The Geology of Coal and Coal-mining ; by Watcor
Gipson. Pp. x,328,8 plates. London, 1908 (Edward Arnold.)—
_ Geologists and engineers will be interested in the series of works
on economic geology, dealing with mining, quarrying, water
supply, etc., to be issued under the general editorship of Pro-
fessor Meer. The above volume is the first of the series and dis- |
cusses varieties of coal, their formation, origin, distribution, value
of fossils in coal exploration, and methods for a study of exposed
and concealed coal fields. Somewhat over half of the book is
devoted to a critical discussion of the coal fields of the world,—
those of Great Britain being treated with the greatest detail.
Eighteen pages are devoted to the North American coal fields,
and little use is made of the valuable investigations of the United
States Geological Survey and the various state surveys. Mining
engineers, prospectors, and students of economic geology will
find Dr. Gibson’s book helpful reading. H. ¥. G.
12. Physical History of the Earth in Outline; by James B.
Baspitt. Pp. 212, 6 illustrations. Boston, 1908 (EK. E. Sherman
& Co.)—The object of this book is to explain the changes of cli-
mate through geological time, on the assumption that the earth
has a “proper rotary motion transverse to or across the diurnal
rotation.” An idea of the author’s views in relation to orthodox
science may be gained from the fact that he accepts Agassiz’s
account of glaciation in Brazil and believes the irregular coast
lines of Maine, Norway, and the world in general, as well as the
river system of North America, to be due to glaciation. H. E. G.
13. Triassic Ichthyosauria, with special reference to American
Forms ; by Joun C. Merriam. Memoirs of the University of
California, Vol. i, No. 1. Pp. 155, text-figures 154, plates 1-18.
Berkeley, 1908 (University Press), —The inaugural number of
this new series of memoirs contains the results of twelve or more
years of thorough work upon one of the most important groups
of fossil vertebrates. Ten field-expeditions, sent out by the
University of California and generously aided by a patron of that
institution, have brought together a magnificent collection of
ichthyosaurs from the marine Triassic of California and Nevada.
While this collection forms the chief subject of the memoir, the
European genera are also reviewed. Admirers of the author,
and they are many, will be glad to learn that the present work,
with all its breadth of treatment and refinement of detail,
“can be considered as no more than a report of progress, as
new material and additional information regarding the structure
and affinities of the Triassic forms are constantly being obtained.”
In this case one of the great difficulties met with in paleonto-—
t
92 Scientific Intelligence.
logical research has been tactfully overcome, viz., the question
when an author should turn from the work of investigation and
take the scientific public into his confidence.
From the occurrence of considerably specialized ichthyosaurs
in the middle Triassic of regions as widely separated as Europe
and western North America, it is argued that these forms had
long been in existence as a marine type. Thus in the division of
the memoir on general skeletal structure, the skull of Cymbo-
spondylus, from the middle Triassic of West Humboldt Range in —
Nevada, is shown to be “the product of an ancestry which had
expressed this special type of aquatic adaptation for a long
period.” In this connection it is interesting to learn that Cym-
bospondylus is still the only Triassic ichthyosaurian genus
represented by a well-preserved skull. In the known Triassic
forms the number of presacral vertebrae is proved to be generally
larger than in the typical Jchthyosaurus. This is slightly dis-
turbing to the view held by some paleontologists that the
Phytosauria are ancestral to the Ichthyosauria,; and there are, the
author states, a number of other characters apparently indicating
that these two groups have arisen independently of each other.
The principal points of difference between the Triassic and the
Jurassic ichthyosaurs are arranged in parallel columns so as to
demonstrate that the characteristics of the earlier genera are
practically all nearer to those of land or shore animals, while
“the characteristics of the later genera take the direction of
specialization toward an adapted fish-like form.” Yet on the
whole, this evolution from a semi-aquatic reptilian type to one
better fitted for life in deep water has been extremely gradual,
and the unity of the Jchthyosauria (here divided into the families
Mixosauridae and Ichthyosauridae) can not be questioned. At
precisely what geological period the “unknown crawling ances-
tor” of the ichthyosaurs asserted its independence from the
parent shore-type, Prof. Merriam wisely does not state; but he
places this event not later than the early part of the Trias—
possibly at an even earlier period. The text-figures and plates
are excellent ; and a carefully prepared index adds greatly to the
value of the work. G. F. E.
14. Catalogue of the Type and Figured Specimens of Fossil
Vertebrates in the American Museum of Natural History, Part
I—Fishes ; by L. Hussaxor, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., Vol.
XXv, pp. 1-103, with one diagram and plates i—vi, June, 1908.—
In this exhaustive catalogue not only are all of the primary and
secondary types of fossil fishes in the American Museum enumer-
ated, but the condition of the specimen, together with the literary
reference of the original description, or descriptions, is given. In
all 49 text-figures are printed, while a number of specimens, mainly
the types of Cope and Newberry, are illustrated in the excellent
plates. The diagram gives in tabular form the classification and
geological summary of the 562 types included in the catalogue.
R. 82.
Geology. 93
15. The Conard Fissure, a Pleistocene Bone Deposit in North-
ern Arkansas, with descriptions of two new genera and twenty
new species of Mammals ; by Barnum Brown. Memoirs Amer.
Mus. Nat. Hist., Vol. ix, Part iv, pp. 155-208; pls. xiv-xxv.—Mr.
Brown has made a most notable contribution to our knowledge of
North American Pleistocene forms, not alone by this excellent
work, but by the rare skill with which he explored and collected
the material upon which the volume is based. The assemblage of
animals contains thirty-seven genera and fifty-one species, of
which four genera and twenty-one species are considered extinct.
There is a notable absence of ground sloths, tapirs and proboscid-
ians ; the fauna being characterized by northern forms, such as
the musk ox and wapiti deer, among others. The condition
of the bones, association and predominance of certain forms
indicate that this fissure was the home of several contempora-
neous species which preyed on others and brought their remains
into it, the fauna being typically that of a forest region with open
glades similar to present conditions. Re Se ie,
16. A Four-horned Pelycosaurian from the Permian of Texas ;
by W. D. Marruzw. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. History, Vol. xxiv,
Art. xi, pp. 183-185.—This remarkable genus, Zetraceratops, is
based upon the partially complete skull of a highly specialized,
predaceous type. It is characterized mainly by the development
of horn-like prominences—one in advance of each orbit and one
arising from each of the premaxillaries. Among reptiles the
nearest approach to them is seen in the carnivorous dinosaurs
Ceratosaurus and Allosaurus, in both of which bony horns are
found upon the prefrontals while the first-named genus bears a
median nasal horn as well. The horns are more highly developed
however, in Tetraceratops. Dr. Matthew’s choice of name may
lead to confusion, as the group of great horned Dinosauria, the
Ceratopsia, includes the genera Ceratops, Diceratops and Tricera-
tops, and the unrelated Zetraceratops should logically belong to
the same group, if one were to judge from the name. iB. S. L.
17. Osteology of Blastomeryx and Phylogeny of the American
Cervide ; by W. D. Martuew. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist.,
Wel: Xxiv, Art. Xxvil, pp. 535-562.—The lower Miocene fauna has
supplied the connecting link between the Oligocene Leptomeryx
and the later American deer in the form of Blastomeryx, the
osteology of which is completely known. This enables Dr.
Matthew to trace the evolution and relationships of the American
Cervide in a way which places the phylum on a plane with those
of the Horses and Camels. Figure 14 is a diagram showing the
evolution and migration into South America of the North
American deer, while fig. 15 gives us a most valuable summary
of the geological distribution and phylogeny of the American
ruminants as a whole. R. 8. L.
18. Lhinoceroses from the Oligocene and Miocene deposits of
North Dakota and Montana; by Kart Doveuass. Ann. Car-
negie Museum, Vol. iv, Nos. iii and iv, 256-266, pls. 1x1, lxiv.—
94 Scientific Intelligence.
In this brief paper Mr. Douglass describes a new species of the
genus Aphelops, A. montanus, from the upper Miocene of Flint
Creek Valley, Montana. Aphelops ceratorhinus, previously
described by the writer, is made the subject of a more elaborate
description, based upon the fully prepared type and upon other
material referable to the same species. R. 8. Li:
19. Hossil Horses from North Dakota and Montana ; by Haru
Dovetass. Ibid, pp. 267-277, pls. lxv-lxviii—The middle Miocene
of Montana has yielded a new genus and species of horse, Aléippus
taxus, while from the Loup Fork of Montana is described a new
species of Merychippus, JZ. missouriensis. In the Oligocene Mr.
Douglass found four species of Mesohippus, one of which he con-
siders new, Mesohippus portentus. R. Sala
20. Some Oligocene Lizards; by Haru Doveuass. Ibid, pp.
278-285.—In this paper Mr. Douglass describes a curious armored
lizard from the Titanotherium beds of Montana and which he
refers with a query to Glyptosaurus Marsh. The writer also
enumerates the eight species of Glyptosaurus described by Pro-
fessor Marsh, with brief diagnoses, for comparison with his
present form. ‘There are also described and figured skulls from
the White River formation of Sioux Co., Neb., which the writer
refers to Rhineura hatcheri Baur and Peltosaurus granulosus ?
Cope. R. 8. L.
21. Preliminary Notes on Some American Chalicotheres ; by
O. A. Peterson. American Naturalist, Vol. xli, pp. 733-752.—
Mr. Peterson has been fortunate in securing from the remarkable
Agate Spring Quarry (Lower Harrison) of Sioux Co., Nebr., a
good deal of material which decidedly increases our knowledge
of the curious genus, Moropus, first described by Professor Marsh.
The present writer figures a partially complete skulJ, which he
refers to Moropus elatus? Marsh, as well as excellent photo-
graphs of the fore and hind feet. Mr. Peterson’s conclusions are
thussummed up: ‘“(1) That Moropus is, excepting its unguiculate
feet, essentially a perissodactyl in structure. (2) That the later-
ally compressed and cleft condition of the terminal phalanges is
quite distinct in some of the early Perissodactyla, and that by
adaptation through geological ages the unguals, as well as other
parts of Moropus, were specially modified and should not, in the
mind of the writer, be regarded as of ordinal importance. (3)
That Moropus is generically separable from other known forms
of the Chalicotherioidea.” _ R. 8. L.
III. Borany anp Zoonoey.
1. The Harvard Botanical Station in Cuba.—In December
1899, the writer, in company with Mr. Oakes Ames, Assistant-
Director of the Botanic Garden of Harvard University, visited
the sugar estate of EK: F’. Atkins, Esq., with the view of ascertain-
ing what opportunity, if any, existed for conducting experiments
Botany and Zoology. 95
on the improvement of the cane. The estate is situated a short
distance from the harbor of Cienfuegos, on the coast of the
south-central part of Cuba. It was found that the estate, of
large size, was supplied with all modern appliances for the manu-
facture of sugar to the best advantage, and that facilities were
there presented for conducting investigations in regard to cane-
fertilization under favorable conditions. The services of the skilled
chemists at the factory on the estate were placed at our disposal,
for the determination of many questions arising with reference
to yield and sugar-content of the cane. The results of the pre-
liminary examination were so favorable that the work of crossing
was actively begun, and continued the next year. Mr. Robert
M. Grey, who had been very successful in hybridizing orchids,
was invited to make a careful examination of the conditions pre-
sented by the locality, and he gave a conservative report which
was decidedly encouraging. In 1902 we had also an inspection
of the place by Mr. C. G. Pringle, who is well known as a hybrid-
izer of cereals, and he likewise expressed the opinion that the
estate afforded good opportunities for fruitful crossing of varie-
ties. In the early part of the next year, Mr. Grey was made super-
intendent of the newly formed station, and began systematic
experimenting along the lines laid down by the sugar-cane
experts in Java. We were so fortunate as to have, also, the coun-
sel of Dr. John C. Willis, Director of the Royal Botanic Gardens
of Ceylon, who made a careful investigation of the capabilities
of the station. His favorable report led to immediate extension
of the originai plan, and the development has steadily progressed
with practially no interruptions except during the short period of
the late insurrection. At present, ten years after the first work
in crossing was done at this locality, the experiment may be
regarded as successful. At great cost we have secured from the
most remote localities, authentic specimens of the finest canes now
known, and the varieties have been carefully perpetuated under
the best conditions for each. Meanwhile we have added to the
station the principal economic plants of the warm and the hot
tropics, and have indicated the lines of research likely to prove
most satisfactory. The results which have been reached by Mr. .
Grey have depended upon his skill both as a cultivator and as
a plant-breeder. His monthly reports exhibit a very wide range
of experimenting and wholly fruitful outcome.
Fortunately, from the very first we have been able to maintain
agreeable relations with sister stations in Cuba and the West
India Islands, and have received constant aid from all officials.
Of course by reciprocity our results are placed at their disposal.
Some of the more striking of the results have been published in
the Boletin oficial (Cuba) and in the West India Bulletin. The
monthly reports from the station are now becoming of so much
interest that some of the particular features seem to require pre-
sentation in a regular publication. As to the form of this, no decis-
ion has yet been made.
96 Seventifie Intelligence.
Mr. Atkins, who has sustained the enterprise from the outset,
expresses himself as satisfied with the substantial results reached.
It is a great pleasure for the director, assistant-director, and
head-gardener of the Harvard Botanic Garden to aid the rapid
development of the station by every means in their power.
G. L. G.
2. Handbuch der Bliten-biologie, von Dr. Paut Kwnourn.
Leipzig (Wilhelm Englemann). Handbook of Flower- Pollina-
tion, by Dr. Pau Knutu; translated by J. R. Ainswortu Davis,
M.A. * Oxford (Clarendon Press).—This excellent translation
brings into two volumes the subject matter contained in the three
German volumes (bound in five parts). The original work is based
on the interesting treatise by Hermann Miiller which, it will be
remembered, greatly stimulated research in the attractive field
of the pollination of flowers. The innumerable contributions to
this subject soon outgrew the limits which could naturally be
assigned to a second edition, and necessitated entire reconstruction.
Professor Knuth undertook this reconstruction, while carrying.
the pressure of the double burden of deep affliction and impaired
health. It was hoped that a long journey, which he prosecuted
in the search for fresh material, might lighten this burden, but
this did not prove to be the case. His early death left an
immense mass of material partly published, but to a great extent
uncoérdinated. Willing hands have from this material completed
a lasting monument to the author. Its comprehensiveness and
accuracy will enable this work long to maintain its place as a
memorial. The translation presents the whole treatise in a very
convenient form for the English-speaking student. GL. G .
38. A Convenient Clearing and Mounting Agent.—To a
perfectly clear solution of potassium silicate add one third to one
half volume of glycerine and after warming the whole, slightly
shake until the two liquids are thoroughly mixed. The result-
ant clear liquid has proved to be an eflicient agent for
clearing such objects as pharmaceutical powders and the lke.
If the powder, for instance, capsicum, is placed on a glass slide
and the glycerin-silicate placed carefully thereon, a cover-glass
can be at once put in position and held for a couple of minutes or
so, when it will be found to have “‘set”’ more or less firmly, constitut-
ing a fairly good mount for use within the next few days. If the
edge of the cover be carefully cemented by a mixture of potas-
sium silicate and barium sulphate, the mount becomes permanent.
Two precautions must be observed; first, use enough of the
glycerin-silicate to flow, at the outset, ‘to the edge of the cover-
glass, all around, and ‘second, on no account allow any of the
agent to touch the front of the objective.
A mixture of sodium silicate and glycerin (see Schirhoft,
quoted in Journal of Royal Microscopical Society, 1902, p. 622)
does not appear to clear the objects under inspection quite so
well as the one here suggested. G. L. G.
Botany and Loology. — 97
4. Economic Zoology; An Introductory Text-book in Zoo--
logy, with special reference to its applications in Agriculture,
Commerce, and Medicine ; by HERBERT Ossporn. Pp. xv, 490,
with 269 figures. New York, 1908 (The Macmillan Company).
—A recent tendency to emphasize those features of a science
which have a practical bearing on human affairs finds expression
in this little text-book, which differs from others of its class mainly
in the relative amount of attention devoted to those animals
which are of economic importance. The book has the usual sys-
tematic arrangement, and all the groups of the animal kingdom
are included, but where a choice of examples is possible the
species which concerns the human welfare is selected and its
significance discussed. The numerous illustrations are largely
selected from other books issued by the same. publishing house,
and are in many cases not so well printed as in the works from
which they are taken. W. R. C.
5. A Text-book of the Principles of Animal Histology ; by
Utric DanierEen and Witriam A. Kepner. Pp. xii,515. New
practically all the text-books of histology in the English language,
which deal largely or exclusively with human or mammalian struc-
tures, this new book discusses the tissues of all classes of animals.
It is therefore possible to treat the subject much more broadly and
satisfactorily than has hitherto been done. The increased range of
material makes possible the incorporation of new and vastly im-
proved illustrations in place of the worn-out cuts of most other his-
tologies. ‘The animal tissues are discussed in systematic order,
and the modifications of the tissues of the invertebrates find their
place beside the better known vertebrate structures. The orig-
inality of the work is most praiseworthy, and although some of
the illustrations are rather crude, they give at least a diagram-
matic illustration of the structures they are intended to represent,
and will be welcomed by all teachers of the subject. This book
will doubtless supplant in many cases the older works, adapted
chiefly to the needs of the student of medicine, which have
hitherto alone been available for scientific college courses.
W. B.C.
6. Archiv fiir Zellforschung; hrsg. von RicnHarp Gotp-
scuMipT. Bd.1, Heft 1-4; pp. 622, pl. i-xxi. Leipzig, 1908 (Wil-
helm Englemann). —This newly established ; journal, devoted to the
study of cellular structure and phenomena of animals and plants,
takes its place at once among the highest type of biological publica-
tions. It is intended for the publication of the results of original
research, and is illustrated by the finest lithographic plates.
This first volume contains fifteen original contributions by some
of the most prominent cytologists of “Eur ope, the subjects of their
investigations covering a wide range of cytological problems,
both in plants and animals. Wt ket @e
7. Ueber die Kibildung bei der Milbe Pediculopsis graminum;
von Enzio RevurEer.—A reprint from the Festschrift fur Palmén
Am. Jour. Scil.—Fourts Series, Vout. X XVII, No. 157.—Janvary, 1909.
; Y
98 — Scientific Intelligence.
( Helsingfors, 1907 ) containing an account of a case of ovogenesis
in which certain of the egg cells, possibly those normally destined
to produce the male sex, are absorbed by the more vigorous
(female?) cells, thus producing a preponderance of female indi-
viduals. W. R. C.
TV. ‘MiscenuAaneous Screntiric INTELLIGENCE.
1. Artificial Daylight for Use with the Microscope ; by FrEp.
KucenE Wrieut. (Communicated from the Geophysical Labora-
tory.)—For microscopic work with rocks, and especially with arti-
ficial products, daylight on dark winter days is a factor much to be
reckoned with, and the want of a good substitute for it has long
been felt by the writer. Many different kinds of artificial light —
are available, but the results obtained by their use have not, on
the whole, been satisfactory. The natural colors of mineral sec-
tions, and also interference colors, appear abnormal and unnatural
in artificial light, the illumination of the field is not even, and
good interference figures on small plates are not as a rule obtain-
able. Recently, however, the following illuminating device has
been tried and has proved so satisfactory that it deserves brief
mention.
The source of light is an acetylene burner fed by a J. B. Colt
generator No. 102, and placed at the focus of a large condens-
ing lens of about 20™ focal length. Compared with daylight,
acetylene light is slightly too strong in yellow, but ny passing the
parallel rays from the condenser lens through a pale blue cobalt
glass plate of the proper intensity, this difficulty is eliminated
and the field appears white and the colors, both natural and inter-
ference colors, are normal and correct. In certain tones, very
slight differences can be detected, but these are of an order
noticeable in different sections of the same substance and are not
serious. With this arrangement, acetylene light, condenser lens
and pale blue glass ray filter, the observer has at hand a source of
illumination which is practically identical in its effect with day-
light, and which is available at any moment.
2. Lon. A Journal of Klectrotonics, Atomistics, Tonoloqgy,
Radio-activity and Raumchemistry. Edited by CuHarzizes H.
Watrer.* Vol. I, Fasc. 1. Pp. 80. November, 1908. London
(16 Heathfield Gardens, Turnham Green, W.).—An unavoidable
result of the recent development of science along special lines has
been the establishment of many new journals of more and more
restricted field. This multiplication of periodicals is in many
respects an admirable thing, having a decidedly stimulating effect
upon the workers immediately interested, but, at the same time,
it has its drawbacks and adds a somewhat heavy burden upon
science in general. In Germany, in particular, these specialist
* The name of Frederick Soddy appears on the title page as an editor-in-
chief, but in Nature for Nov.-26, Professor Soddy announces that he has
‘withdrawn from all connection with the journal.”
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 99
periodicals are very numerous ; in England there have been but
few. There is more room, therefore, for this new journal, the
“Ton,” which is started with the design of covering the field of
physico- chemistry, or in other words the various special branches of
physics in which the electron is the essential conception ; one of
the most highly developed of these is the subject of radio-activity.
Associated with the editor-in-chief are the following : Sv. Arrhe-
nius, Stockholm ; W. H. Bragg, Adelaide; A. 8. Eve, Montreal ;
O. Hahn, Berlin; W.H. Julius, Utrecht; A. Werner, Ziirich ; G.
Bruni, Padua; Mde. Curie, Paris; Guilleaume, Paris; Van’t
Hoff, Berlin ; W. Marckwald, Berlin ; W. Wien, Wiirzburg.
The first number of Ion bears the date of November, 1908, and
opens with an account of M. Henri Becquerel, the founder of
radio-activity, by F. Soddy, who also contributes a paper on the
charge carried by the a-particles. Other articles are on uranium
and ‘zeology by John Joly; the transmission of energy in the
world of electrons by H. W. Julius; and actinium C by Otto
Hahn and Lise Meitner. Following these articles are some
twenty pages devoted to reports of papers published elsewhere
and notices of new books.
The new journal will be issued in monthly numbers of 64 to
80 pages, at the price of 30s. per volume; the editorial address is
Byer above.
Life and Letters of Herbert Spencer ; by Daviy Duncan.
Two volumes. Pp. vii, 414 and vil, 444, “with seven full- -page
illustrations, New York, 1908 (D. Appleton & Company).
—These two attractive volumes portray the human side of the
life of the great philosopher and form a fitting complement to
Spencer’s own voluminous autobiography. The author and
compiler was commissioned by Spencer himself to prepare such
a work for publication, and to incorporate certain unpublished
papers and portraits. From the vast amount of correspondence
which passed between Spencer and members of his family, friends,
and the scientific men of the day, the author has made such
judicious selection, and has woven the whole together so skill-
fully by explanation and anecdote, that the work can be read with
perfect smoothness. And at the same time the reader gains such
vivid pictures of the real man, his attitude toward the great ,
problems of his day, and with frequent glimpses of his scientific>
associates, as could hardly be secured in any other manner. The
letters are arranged largely with refereuce to subject matter, but
with some regard for chronological order, and the work is illus-
trated by a number of portraits not only of Spencer at successive
periods of his life, but also of persons with whom he corresponded.
In five appendices appear several hitherto unpublished essays,
together with lists of his writings (the titles covering fifteen |
pages) and the honors which were offered the great scholar by
upwards of thirty universities and learned societies. It should
be added that these honors were, however, with few exceptions
declined. We EG:
100 Screntific Intelligence.
"4, American Association for the Advancement of Science.—
The sixtieth meeting of the American Association is held at
Baltimore, under the auspices of Johns Hopkins University, dur- —
ing the week from Dee. 28, 1908 to Jan. 2, 1909; Prof. T. C.
Chamberlin of Chicago is President. This is the seventh of
the ‘“‘ Convocation week” meetings; some twenty-four affiliated
societies meet at Baltimore at this time. A Darwin commemo-
rative meeting takes place on January 1, under the combined
auspices of the Association and the Society of Naturalists. Also
a meeting of the American Health League is called for Dee. 31,
in connection with Section I of the Association, as a symposium
a Public Health:?
5. Lhe Nature of Enzyme Action; by W.M. Bayuiss. Pp.
90. London, 1908 (Longmans, Green “& Co. ).—This is the first of
a series of monographs on bio-chemistry planned to supplement
the current text-book treatment of topics in rapidly developing
departments of this science. Enzyme action is shown to be a type
of catalytic reaction the features of which are subjected to critical
analysis by the author, and compared with the behavior of other
catalysts. Special consideration is devoted to the nature of
colluids as exemplified in enzymes, to the reversibility of enzyme
action, and to changes 1n the rate of reactions as affected by them.
Other appropriate details, such as the relation of the enzyme to
its substrate, the influence of “co-enzymes” and “ anti-enzymes, ”
temperature and concentration, etc., are also discussed. ‘The
treatment is quite original. L. B. M.
6. Rivista di Scienza.—This valuable “ International Review
of Scientific Synthesis,” commenced in 1907, has now completed
its fourth volume. A recent number includes eight articles,
among which may be mentioned the following: G. H. Bryan on
the diffusion and dissipation of energy ; W. Ritz on the role of
the ether in Physics; G. Haberlandt on motion and sensation in
the plant world; G. Schiaparelli, on the astronomy of the
Bablyonians.
B. G. Teubner’s Verlag auf dem Gebiete der Mathematik Naturwissen-
schaften and Technick nebst Grenzwissenschaften. Mit einem Gedenktage-
buche ftir Mathematiker und den Bildmissen von G. GALILEI, etc. Dem IV.
Internationalen Mathematiker-Kongress in Rom. 6-11. April 1908. Pp. 392.
OBITUARY
Dr. Otiver Wotcorr Gises, from 1863 to 1887 Rumford
Professor of Applied Science in Uarvard University and for
thirty years an Associate Editor of this Journal, died at his home
in Newport, R. I., on December 9, in his eighty-seventh year.
A notice is deferred until a later number.
Professor Wittiam Epwarp Ayrron, the eminent English
engineer, died on November 8, at the age of sixty-one years.
New Circulars.
84: Eighth Mineral List: A descriptive list of new arrivals,
rare and showy minerals.
85: Minerals for Sale by Weight: Price list of minerals for
blowpipe and laboratory work.
86: Minerals and Rocks for Working Collections: List of
common minerals and rocks for study specimens; prices
from 1% cents up. ,
Catalogue 26: Biological Supplies: New illustrated price list
of material for dissection; study and display specimens;
special dissections; models, etc. Szxth edition.
: Any or all of the above lists will be sent free on request. We are
constantly acquiring new material and publishing new lists. It pays to
‘be on our mailing list.
Ward's Natural Science Establishment
76-104 CoLiEeGE AVE., Rocurstmer, N. Y.
Waro’s Natura Science EstastisHment
A Supply-House for Scientific Material.
Founded 1862. Incorporated 1890.
DEPARTMENTS :
Geology, including Phenomenal and Physiographie.
Mineralogy, including also Rocks, Meteorites, etc.
Palaeontology. Archaeology and Ethnology. —
Invertebrates, including Biology, Conchology, etc.
Zoology, including Osteology and Taxidermy.
Human Anatomy, including Craniology, Odontology, etc.
Models, Plaster Casts and Wall-Charts in all departments.
Circulars in any department free on request; address
Wards Natural Science Establishment,
76-104 College Ave., Rochester, New York, U. S, A.
CONTENTS.
Arr. I.—Diopside and its Relations to Calcium and Magne-
sium Metasilicates; by E. T. Atuen and W,. P. Wurrs,
With Optical Study ; ; by F. E. Wricst and EH. S:
Larsen. (With Plate I)
Il.—California Earthquake of 1906; by G. K. GiLBert? ___-
Ill.—Descriptions of Tertiary Insects ; ; by T. DAS Cogm
EREEL?:< Part oes ee sini = a ed ee
IV.—Electrolytic Estimation of Lead and of Manganese by
the Use of Uhe Filtering Crucible ; by F. A. Goocn and
V.—Specific Radio. Activity of Thorium and its Prodaete
by G. C. AsHMan
VI.—Coronas with Mercury Light ;
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
Chemistry and Physics — Attempt to Produce a Compound of Argon, FISCHER
and In1ovict: Explosive Crystallization, Weston, 82.—Constituents of
Ytterbium, A. v. WELSBACH: New Form of ‘‘ Tin Infection,” von Hass-
LINGER: Heat Evolved by Radium, von ScHWeEIDLER and Hess, 83.—
Positive Rays, W. Wien: Spectral Intensity of Canal Rays, J. STarK and
W. STENBERG: Canal Rays, J. Stark: Potential Measurements in the
dark Cathode Space, W. WrstTPHAL, 84.—EHlements of Physics, NicHous
and FRANKLIN: Text-Book of Physics, 89.
Geology—Publications of the United States Geological Survey, 86.—Canada
Geological Survey: North Carolina Geological and Economic Survey,
87.—Report of the State Geologist of Vermont for 1907-8: Thirty-
second Annual Report, Indiana Department of Geology, 88.—Iilinois
State Geological Survey, Year-Book for 1907: New Zealand Geolog-
ical Survey: Report on the Eruptions of the Soufriére in St. Vincent in
1902, and on a Visit to Montagne Pelée in Martinique, T. ANDERSON and
J. S. Fietrt, 89.—Geology and Ore deposits of the Coeur d’ Alene District,
Idaho, 90. —Geologie der Steinkohlenlager, DannuNBERG: Geology of
Coal and Coal- mining, W. GIBSON: Physical History of the Earth in Out-
line, J. B. Bappitr: Triassic Ichthyosauria, with special reference to
American Forms, J. C. Merriam, 91.—Fossil Vertebrates in the American
Museum of Natural History, Part I— Fishes, L. HussaKxor, 32.—Conrad
Fissure, B. Brown: Four- horned Pelycosaurian from the Permian of
Texas, W. D. Marriew : Osteology of Blastomeryx and Phylogeny of the
American Cervide, W. D. MatrHew: Rhinoceroses from the Oligocene
and Miocene deposits of North Dakota and Montana, E. DouGuass, 93,—
Fossil Horses from North Dakota and Montana, E. Dovenass: Some Oli-
gocene Lizards, EK. DouGuass: Preliminary Notes on Some American
Chalicotheres, O. A. PETERSON, 94.
' Botany and Zoology—Harvard Botanical Station in Cuba, 94.—Handbuch
der Bliten-biologie, P. Knut : Convenient Clearing and} Mounting Agent,
96.—Economic Zoology : Text-book of the Principles of Animal Histology,
U. DaHLGREN and W. A. Kepner: Archiv. fiir Zellforschung, R. GOLp-
ScHMIDT : Ueber die Hibildung bei der Milbe Pediculopsis graminum, 97.
Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—Artificial Daylight for Use with the
Microscope, F. E. Wricut: lon; A Journal of Electrotonics, Atomistics,
Tonology, Radio-activity and Raumchemistry, 98,—Life and Letters of
Herbert Spencer, D. Duncan, 99.—American Association for the Advance-
ment of Science: Nature of Enzyme Action: Rivista di Scienza, 100.
Obituary—O. W. Gipps: W. E. Ayrron, 100.
. Cyrus Adler, —
Librarian U. S. Nat. Museum. 0 =a '
VOL. XXVIII. . FEBRUARY, 1909.
Established by BENJAMIN SILLIMAN in 1818.
THE
AMERICAN
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.
»
=
Eprrop: EDWARD S. DANA.
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Ce a eee Se i a a
FOURTH SERIES
No. 158—FEBRUARY, 1909.
eee
VOL. XXVII-[WHOLE NUMBER, CLXXVIL]
WITH PLATES II-IV.
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THE
AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
POUR th SERIES .|
ee
Arr. VII.— Revision of the Protostegide; by G. R.
Wreranp. (With Plates II-IV.)
[Contributions from the Paleontological Laboratory of Yale University. |
Tuerre is no family among all American fossil turtles which,
following the discovery of its initial type, has so steadily
yielded new forms and additions to our knowledge of the
structure and history of marine turtles as the Protostegide.
True enough, no further members of the family were noted
and few specimens were collected for twenty years after Cope’s
original discovery of Protostega gigas; but then came the
addition of the related genus Avchelon from the Pierre Cre-
taceous in 1895, smmce which time scarcely a year has passed
without yielding new data to the structure, extent and signifi-
cance of the Protostegide.
Indeed, even before the discovery of Archelon the attention
of the brilliant and incisive Baur had been turned to Protos-
tega; and since then Hay, Case, Williston and Wieland have
all contributed in turn to the literature of the Protostegida,—
while in Europe Dollo has published papers of the greatest
supplemental interest dealing with the origin of marine turtles.
Furthermore the collection of the splendid cotypes of Pvo-
tostega gigas showing the complete limb structure, now in the
Carnegie Museum of Pittsburg, and more recently the mount-
ing for exhibition of the huge type of Archelon ischyros in
the Yale Musenm, have contributed much toward the increas-
ingly accurate picture of the Protostegidee. With the descrip-
tion of new species, meanwhile, and the appearance of the
great volume of Hay—easily the foremost contribution to the
literature of the Testudinata yet made—it is already evident
that the Protostegidze include a series of forms of the greatest
structural interest, and that further additions to the family are
Am. Jour. Sc1.—Fourts Serres, Vou. XX VII, No. 158.—Frsrvuary, 1909.
8
102 G. R. Wieland—On Marine Turtles.
certain to be made. Moreover, to all these newer facts and
viewpoints we are enabled to add the description of a new
species, calling for analysis of the group.
To these forewords to the present revision I wish to add
praise for the painstaking labor bestowed upon the mounting
of Archelon by the Yale Museum preparator Mr. Hugh
Gibb. Likewise we are indebted to the rare skill of the well
known scientific illustrator and artist Mr. R. Weber for the
illustrations folowing.
CHELONIOIDEA Baur.
SUPERFAMILY OF THE CRYPTODIRA.
A parieto-squamosal arch ; palatine foramen and free nasals
sometimes present (Desmatochelyidee); fourth cervical cyrtean,
with the centra of the sixth to eighth less modified in Creta-
ceous than in recent forms.
The five great marine families, namely, the Cheloniide,
Protostegidee, Desmatochelyidz, Toxochelyide, and Dermo-
chelyidee, all doubtless independently acquired their equipment
for life in the sea.”
Family Protostegide Cope.
Turtles with highly specialized thalassic humeri, but with
three or more claws. A leathery hide and osteodermal arma-
ture evidently present. Carapace usually greatly reduced in
later forms, the disk investing less than one-half the rib lengths.
Plastron not markedly reduced. Peripherals serrate to
strongly digitate on their interior borders; intra-peripheral
dermogene ossicles sometimes present (known in Avrchelon
only). Plastron very large, dactylosternal, with prominent
fortanelles ; epiplastra small, out-turned, separate, and wholly
supported by the very large T-shaped entoplastron; hyo- and
hypoplastra moderately digitate (Protostega advena) to strongly
digitate (Archelon); xiphiplastra short and bowed. Pelvis
with obturator foramina enclosed by complete ischio-pubic
border. Coracoid extending all the way back to the pre-pubis
except possibly in P. Coper. Skull large; temporal region
broadly roofed over; descending processes of parietals ; ant-
orbital projection marked ; quadrato-squamosal vertex much
depressed ; narial aperture more or less upturned ; choanee far
forward, opening free behind vomer.
Genus PrRoTrosTeGa Cope, 1872.’
Premaxillary beak less developed than in Archelon , maxilla
with rather broad grinding surface, which extends backward
to behind front of orbit. Lower jaw with rami early coossi-
G. R. Wieland—On Marine Turtles. 103
fied. Neuralia normal so far as yet seen, and without median
pits or grooves. . Radial process of humerus large and project-
ing.
Species of Protostega.
A. Niobrara Cretaceous :—
1. A medium-sized to large turtle, with a thin cara-
pace investing one-third the rib lengths, and
interior borders of marginals splitting into
medium-sized digitations. P. gigas.
2. A small turtle, with more than half the rib
lengths expanded and with less reduced plas-
tron than the preceding ; the hyo- but not the
hypoplastra meeting on the median line;
xiphiplastrals only shghtly bowed ; marginalia
heavy and without digitation of interior
borders. P. advena.
3. A medium-sized turtle, with a comparatively
thick carapace investing the proximal half of
the ribs; plastral form nearly as in P. gigas
but with more numerous digitations and smaller
fontanels; marginal borders serrate rather than
smooth ; limb bones relatively short and small.
This form has the heaviest shell of any Pro-
tostegid. The carapace is little more, and the
plastron less reduced than in the Cheloniide. P. Copei.
4. A large turtle, with xiphiplastra nearly joined
on the median line and epiplastral pittings on
outer anterior projection of hyoplastra. P. potens.
B. Pierre Cretaceous :—
5. An immense turtle, with neuralia like P. Copez,
but humerus without a markedly strong radial
process ; marginalia strongly digitate on inte-
rior borders. P. (Archelon) Marshii.
Genus ArcHELoN Wieland, 1896.°
Premaxillary beak greatly developed and strongly decurved ;
crushing surface of upper jaw set far forward and limited to
vomero-maxillar region; lower jaw with rami not codssified
until old age. Neuralia greatly reduced, to partly abseut
anteriorly, and replaced by epineuralia with a deep median
suleus nearly continuous to the eighth true [underlying]
neural; tenth rib relatively large, free, and extending out to
marginalia. Radial process of humerus weak.
Archelon ischyros from the uppermost Pierre Cretaceous of
the valley of the South Fork of the Cheyenne River is the
only species.
104 G. R. Wieland—On Marine Turtles.
Protostega Copei sp. nov. (Figures 1-4).
A new species, which may be appropriately named for the
illustrious discoverer of the Protostegidee, is indicated by the
most complete and best conserved specimen referable to its
family, thus far obtained. This splendid fossil is from the
Niobrara chalk of the Hackberry Creek Valley, Gove county,
Kansas, and was found in the summer of 1905, by the veteran
collector and explorer, Mr. Charles H. Sternberg.
Brew:
FIGURE 1.—Protostega Copei. Photograph of skull and lower jaw of type
as mounted in the Yale University Museum by bringing together the disso-
ciated and for the greater part but little crushed cranial elements. One-
fourth the natural size.
Only minor portions of certain boundaries had to be restored. A little
atvention will at once reveal the limiting sutures of the premaxillary, max-
illary, frontal, post-frontal, parietal, jugal, post-frontal and squamosal.
Only the boundaries of the quadrato-jugal are generalized. The premax-
illary is a little crushed to the left, and the most striking feature is the
low-set position of the squamosal, which is but little if at all exaggerated.
Cf. figure 6.
Not only is the present type one of the most complete of
fossil turtles, but more than any other known specimen of
Protostega, it permits exact comparison with Archelon, being
for the most part free from the crushing which so often
obscures the characters of the otherwise fine material from the
G. R. Wieland—On Marine Turtles. 105
Kansas chalk. Owing to this freedom from crushing, it has _
been possible to restore with approximate accuracy the outline
of the skull, carapace, and plastron, although all the elements
of the entire skeleton were dissociated during erosion from
their matrix, those recovered being as follows:
Skull, with lower jaw,—nearly complete, one squamosal and
certain minor portions only missing.
Carapace: Nuchal; first to fourth neuralia; pygal; fairly
complete series of ribs; first and second marginalia of both
sides, with third and fourth of right side.
Plastren - Alee of the entoplastron; hyoplastron of right
side; hypoplastra and xiphiplastra complete.
Shoulder girdle: Both humeri and the procoraco-seapulars,
with coracoid of right side only.
Pelvis: Only the right ischium missing.
The chief parts lacking, therefore, are the radius and ulna,
the femora, and the bones of the hands and feet.
The dissociated elements of the cranium, as brought together
and mounted with the lower jaw, afford the most satisfactory
representation of a Protostegan skull thus far seen. In fact,
the result displayed by photographic figure 1 must be of
nearly the true form, since in addition to the presence of the
lower jaw and nearly all the exterior elements, the main
outline is further confirmed by the pr actically complete pala-
tines, pterygoids, and quadrates. Only in the interior of the
skull are clear characters lacking; for instance, the descending
process of the parietals, noted by Dr. Hay in Protostega
advena, cannot be observed.
In the main, the present fine cranium merely serves to
corroborate the characters of the Protostegan skull, as already
determined, and to bring out more clearly the major ‘differences
from Apchelon. Thus, the strongly decurved beak and the
upturned nares of the latter genus are absent, the outlines
being more like those of cther sea-turtles, with the orbits fairly
well forward. The low-set squamosal, which certainly sent up
a process along the posterior border to meet the parietal, how-
ever, 1S a family characteristic. The general outline reminds
one not a littlé of the skull of Colpochelys Kempi Garman.
Interiorly, there isno great conelike palatal pr ojection of the
vomer, as seen in Ar chelon.
While the present species is here defined as new, there is no
very marked character not possessed by Protostega ¢ Jigus, spe-
cific differences being mainly exhibited by the smaller limbs
and the heavier carapace and plastron now to be described.
Carapace.—Hitherto it has not been possible to gain a
satisfactory picture of the shell of any species of Protostega.
All the specimens known have either lacked a large part of the
106 G. R. Wieland—On Marine Turtles.
neuro-pleural series, or they have been so badly crushed as to,
render the general form and structure more or less doubtful,
as in the case of the Carnegie Museum specimen that yielded
such clear testimony to all the characters of limb organization ;
and even in the present instance the evidence is not so convine-
die 2),
FIGURE 2.—Protostega Copei, 1/7 natural size. Carapace of the type as
mounted in the Yale University Museum, from little crushed but dissociated
elements lacking those portions marked by an (x) or else given in dotted
outline. The portions actually present thus include a fine nuchal (with a
nether process), the four first neurals and pygal with the three first margin-
als perfect, together with eight pairs of pleuralia. The disk is then correctly
indicated ; but concerning doubts as to the existence of a large ninth pair
of ribs in contact with the marginals consult the text.
ing and complete as in Avchelon, where the series of ribs is not
only entire, but articulated. Nevertheless, owing to absence
G. F. Wieland—On Marine Turtles. 107
from crushing, splendid conservation of all surface features, and
the presence of a nearly complete series of ribs, with the
nuchal, the anterior neurals. and important marginals com-
pleting all the frontal border, the present carapace must be
regarded as a magnificent specimen. In fact, the only
structural point in the restoration here given, which awaits
confirmation or disproval by future discovery, is the degree
of development exhibited by the tenth pair of ribs. They are
represented free, as in Archelon in figure 2, and such ribs
extending out to meet the final marginal are regarded as a prob-
able family distinction. It may be, however, that placing
the proximal portion of the right fifth pleural as assigned and
then restoring a sixth and a seventh pleural on the left side are
not warranted. In such a contingency two suppositions are,
therefore, open, as follows: (a) The pair of ribs shown as the
tenth may be really the ninth, and the true tenth pair of ribs
may not be present, perhaps being only slightly smaller than
those shown in the restoration, but passing out to meet the
marginals. Such being the case, the only error made is in
placing the pleuralia, from the fifth pair of ribs on, one number
too far back; (6) An unrecovered tenth pair of ribs may be
reduced, as in the Cheloniidse, and may not have passed out to
the final marginal. In this case, the post-fifth pleuralia would
not only be one number too far back, but the carapace would
be as here represented several centimeters too long. If either
error has been made, the former seems by far the more
probable. |
The neuraha are heavier than in Protostega gigas, and
form a strong unbroken mid-ridge of normal Testudinate form
in sharp distinction to the epineural grooving and anomalous
structure of Archelon. Though it is to be noted that on the
first neural, the second and third, evidently on the fourth and
fifth, and probably on the missing eighth and ninth, there is
a strong accentuation of the mid-ridge, suggesting the appear-
ance seen in Zoxochelys Bawri. In the latter form, however,
this feature is due to discrete epineural ossicles, while in P7ro-
tostega Coper there is no evidence of osteodermal elements.
Nor are there any hornshield groovings; on the contrary, the
evidence is always to the effect that the Protostegide were
enveloped in a leathery hide.
Fortunately, the nuchal is sufficiently complete to show the
entire outline as a heavy normal element much as in Osteo-
pygis, except that a prominent nether process is present. The
first marginals, which are rather short and flat elements, are
quite complete, as is also the rather long second marginal
of the left side, with the distal half of that of the right side.
On the latter may be traced with precision, one after the other,
108 G. R. Wieland—On Marine Turtles.
the articular digitations and grooves corresponding to those of
the next member of the marginal series, namely, the third,
which is also complete and is followed by a fourth in equally
good preservation. J am thus explicit, because it is important
to note that all the anterior border of the carapace is indicated
with certainty, and shows the presence of a peculiar upturning
Fie. 3.
LEN
FIGURE 3.—Protostega Copei. Plastron of the type x 1/7 nearly. The
hypo-xiphilastre are especially well conserved, and the left hyoplastron in
fair condition. The right hyoplastron and portions of the T-shaped epiplas-
tron are not present; and as indicated in the figure, the ends of most of
the digitations of all the elements are missing. Nevertheless the plastral
form is quite accurately indicated in its entirety by the original specimen
as here outlined.
of the portion of the carapacial edge formed by the junction of
the third and fourth marginals. Evidence is here furnished
that the strong anterior and much upturned prolongation of
the third marginal of Archelon was an articulating portion
G. R. Wieland—On Marine Turtles. 109
rather than a spine; and use has been made of this fact,
although it might have remained in doubt but for the exact
testimony of the present fine specimen. The interior borders
of these marginals, however, do not have the strong digitation
seen in Archelon, being only slightly serrated.
Iie. 2h
Ficure 4.—Protostega Copei. Shoulder girdle with humeri and the
pelvis of the type x 1/7. The only portions restored are the left coracoid
and the right ischium. These elements belong to the very same individual
as the skuil, carapace and plastron shown in figures 1-3. [It is likely that
consonant with the heavy carapace the limbs were shorter than in P. gigas,
and that the coracoids did not actually come into contact with the ecto-
pubis. ]
Protostega Coper was not so orbicular a form as Archelon
ischyros, and its plastron was relatively much shorter. As to
the elements other than those now described, it appears neces-
sary only to state that the accompanying illustrations suffi-
110 G. R. Wreland—On Marine Turtles.
ciently exhibit not merely their characters, but their chief
dimensions. Certain measurements, however, are appended, as
follows :
Length of cranium from snout to condyle (accurate) _. 24:0°™
Greatest width of cranium across the condyles (close)__ 20°0
Length of lower jaw (on median lime) 2). s2. 15:0
enethsof carapace (estimated). = She es ee eas 80°+
Greatest, length: of plas trol mee erect ee ee 63°5 +
Greatest. width: of; plastrem Sse eee oe eee 66:0
Greatest thickness of plastral elements measured through
their centers of ossification : ;
Kutoplastron.35- 2 Gee 2 eee ee pee
Hyoplastron ..55. 25 2 2 ee eee
Hypoplastroms) 2. ee ee
Aiphiplastrons 22s Vos ee ee een 13°
—<——
SSS 8 SS SSSSSS=
FIGURE 0.— Protostega(Archelon) Marshii. Right third marginal x4. Dorsal
view to the left, and ventral view showing large pit for the second rib to the
right. [{Dactylations should be represented as distinctly acuminate, but not
much longer.| Observe, that as proven in Protostega Copei, articulation with
the second marginal was formed by the long upward and forward projection,
resulting in abrupt change in direction of the marginal line at the humeral
notch, as revealed further by the figures of the entire skeleton.
Protostega (Archelon) Marshii Wieland” (Figure 5).
In this Journal for April, 1900, I gave a brief description of
a new species of Archelon, which was based on the portion of
a skeleton collected by me in 1898, on the left bank of the
Cheyenne River. Until further material is found, as will with
certainty transpire, the fragmentary condition of the present
remains will scarcely justify much work upon them by a pre- |
G. R. Wieland—On Marine Turtles. WI
parator; nevertheless, the species represents an important
fossil ty pe.
A reéxamination, of the specimen confirms the characters
given, namely, a relatively short humerus and great thickness
of the plastron, the latter being half as thick again as that of
Archelon. As it is probable that the present ‘turtle was not
“quite as large as A. ischyros, type (3°-4 m.—11 feet long),
however, it may be that its plastron was proportionally twice
as thick as that of the latter species.
A fine third marginal of the right side shown in figure 5 is
also present, and with it are articulated the keels of the more
fragmentary fourth and fifth marginals. These elements are
of much the same form as in A.zschyros, type, and although
relatively heavier than in that species do not show the great
disparity in weight noted in the plastron. More obvious differ-
ences of taxonomic bearing, however, are exhibited by a frag-
mentary, though otherwise finely conserved neural from near
the middle of the neural series. This lacks the groove so
highly characteristic of Archelon, and has a strong and continu-
ous median ridge precisely like that in Protostega Coper. It
therefore becomes necessary to transfer the present species
from the genus Archelon to Protostega, where it holds a posi-
tion of importance, as exhibiting not only the continuation of
the latter genus from the Niobrara into the Fort Pierre, with
marked increase in size, but, as far as we know, represents the
closest structural approach of the genus Protostega to Archelon,
thus far observed.
The Mounted type of Archelon ischyros (with Figures 6-12, and
Plates I[-IV).
All the material thus far referred to the genus Avrchelon has
been discovered and collected by myself during the past four-
teen years. ‘The original type of Archelon ischyros was found
in the brakes of the south fork of the Cheyenne River, about
five miles west of the mouth of Rapid Creek, Custer county,
South Dakota, in August, 1895. Though a remarkably com-
plete fossil, it ‘lacked the ‘skull, which, however, was supplied
by an excellent younger specimen with a fine cranium and the
lower jaw in place, obtained in 1897. This is here shown by
the photographic drawing, figure 6. In 1898, the related type
Protostega (Archelon) Marshir was procured from the same
horizon as the specimens of Archelon, but on the east bank of
the Cheyenne, in the Pine Ridge Indian reservation. Later
still, in 1902, a large individual of A. ¢schyros, nearly identical
in size with the original type, was collected at a point several
miles farther south, on the west bank of the Cheyenne. This
112 G. R. Wieland—On Marine Turtles.
specimen has been of considerable value in showing the more
important carpals in natural position, and in yielding additional
finger bones and the epiplastron. A well-conserved lower jaw
with fully codssified rami accompanies it. Like the type, it
was completely imbedded in one of the lenticular masses of
marl or clayey limestone common in the Pierre, but as this
was much checked by cleavage planes there has been consider-
able shifting of parts. The specimen, while good, is not com-
parable to ‘the original type, which, barring the lack of the
skull (destroyed by erosion), is one of the finest of all oreat
fossil vertebrates. It was but little crushed, and nearly all
the parts present were in their normal position.
In addition to the examples mentioned, fragmentary portions —
of other specimens were obtained at different times, all per-
taining to the uppermost one hundred feet of the Pierre, and
all from within an area of about eight square miles. The best
skeletal conservation was found in the bluish clays of the
upper thirty feet of the Pierre, as covered by the Oligocene
overlap in the Cheyenne River valley; but most unfortunately
a broad Oligocene river, the clearly marked bed of which I
definitely located west of the Cheyenne, scooped out of these
Pierre strata exactly the portion that must once have con-
tained the most numerous and the best turtles, as indicated
by frequency of occurrence as well as fine conservation on both
banks of the old Oligocene valley.
The various specimens of Archelon have been made the sub-
ject of five contributions to this Journal. * * ™". These par-
tial descriptions have been repeated in a summarized abstract,
with certain additional interpretations and views, in Dr. Hay’s
great volume on the “ Fossil Turtles of North America.” ”
It does not therefore seem necessary again to repeat the
preliminary descriptions, except in so far as needed to call
attention to inaccuracies disclosed by the final mounting of the
type specimen, together with the great additions to our - knowl-
edge of Pr otostega made during the past half dozen years.
It is the present purpose to give in concise form the features
of this greatest of marine turtles disclosed by new discoveries
and by mounting, which always sheds new light on the char-
acters of a fossil vertebrate ; and especially to give the facts of
classificatory value, together with a discussion of relationships.
The Skull (fizure 8). —It is to be hoped that a second skull
may be recovered. Thus far only the type skull and one addi-
tional lower jaw have been found ; hence, it is not possible to
add to the earlier descriptions except in ‘wholly minor points
of interpretation. Moreover, abstracts of these descriptions
with figures are given in admirable form in Hay’s work previ-
ously cited, a work which ever y student of the Testudinata must
G. R. Wieland—On Marine Turtles. 113
find indispensable. It may, however, be stated that in the res-
toration, Plate IV, the skull undoubtedly shows the exact
proportions of the supra-occipital, this being an improve-
ment upon the earlier figures.
The Vertebral Column.—The fact that the vertebral column
of Archelon is so nearly complete and uncrushed, with nearly
all the elements in undisturbed natural position, gives to the
restoration high value. Only the four proximal cervicals and
a few of the smaller caudals from near the tip of the tail are
missing, while from the eighth cervical to the fifth caudal,
Hie. 6:
FIGuRE 6,—Archelon ischyros. Skull of cotype shown about 1/8 natural
size. The bounding sutures of all the exterior elements may readily be
distinguished. [The restored supra-occipital crest, perhaps, is shown .too
slender.| The low set squamosal is, in comparison with P. Copei and P. gigas,
seen to be a family character of the Protostegide.
inclusive, all the vertebrae are complete and in natural contact.
Further, in the large specimen collected in 1902, the fourth
cervical is present and of the normal or cyrtean form common
to all marine 'Testudinata.
In Archelon, the cervicals succeeding the fourth are ccelo-
cyrtean, with the inferior sides of the centra heavily double-
keeled. The valley between the keels is broad and shallow.
Neither in form nor size is there much variation in the distal
cervical centra. Aside from strength and great size, the dorso-
114 G. R. Wieland—On Marine Turtles.
sacral series presents no marked peculiarity, while the caudal
series is rather short. The arches of the first eight to ten
caudals are free, but those of the: remainder of the series are
strongly fused to their centra. It is not likely that the tail
could have been so freely moved as might be implied from the
over strong curve in the restoration.
EG Rae
Figure 7.—Archelon ischyros, x 1/36. Dorsal view of original type.
It is not necessary to give in detail the exact outline of the restored portions.
The skull is outlined from a cotype, and the right hind flipper shown in
the normal outline was not present beyond the proximal half of the tibia
and fibula, having, as explained in the text, been bitten away in the early
life of the turtle.
Note on the mid-line following the nuchal seven larger plates followed by
four smaller ones and then the pygal. All these eleven plates intervening
between the nuchal and the pygal are adjudged to be epineurals seated on
the greatly reduced neural series which did not, as in all other turtles except
Dermochelys, normally come into view at all.
Observe the nine pairs of fully developed ribs, of which the first large pair
is the second, the small first pair not coming into view. Infra- and supra-
peripherals not indicated.
The Curapace.—The nearly orbicular form of the carapace
is a striking feature. The nwchal is very large and very thin,
G. R. Wieland—On Marine Turtles. 115
especially in the lateral portion, indeed so thin as to suggest
the necessity for strengthening by overlapping dermal ossifica-
tions. The anterior edge is strongly concave, being sharp, not
rounded, in the middle region. The nether or cervico-neural
articular process is prominent; it takes the form of a heavy
trapezoidal ridge, longest in front, with a keel-like buttress
radiating from all four corners.
The medial elements of Archelon are anomalous and require
discussion as well as description. At first sight one would
certainly say that there is a series of seven larger neurals fol-
lowing the broad thin nuchal, with four much smaller neurals
preceding a single pygal element and making eleven neurals
in all. On closer inspection, however, it is found that despite
the fact that the neural region of Protostega is of simple and
normal structure there is in Avchelon a more compiex arrange-
ment of parts than in any turtle thus far discovered—a condi-
tion moreover that has a more distinct bearing on the meaning
of the Dermochelan anatomy than any other thus far observed
in fossil turtles.
In my original description I stated that “The medial plates
unite very imperfectly by means of loosely doubled interlock-
ing sutures and overlapping digitations grading into freauent
free spines {spine-like projections] posteriorly. These digita-
tions are mostly long, thin and ribbon-like, and produce a
junction quite different from the usual suture. In many cases
there is an appearance such as would result if the digitations
of the one plate had lain upon the surface of the adjoining
plate when it was in a plastic condition and thus raised rounded
ridging about their edges. The order of the digitations and
their size is rather regular.” It was also explained that the
carapace was very thin on the midline and that at a break expos-
ing the section back of the sixth rib there were thin layerings.
And it should now be added that, bearing in mind that in the
mounted specimen the dorsal vertebree remain articulated as
originally, [ am, perhaps, censurable for not having the cara-
pace sawn through at the line say of the third, sixth and eighth
dorsal centra. However this may be it was not done, and,
awaiting further specimens, the type specimen in which all
details are certainly present must yield as its only quota of
new fact the superticial details. Indeed, were it not for the
accidental fact that back of the ninth medial element two
prepygal median elements are missing, and yet that there is
continuity of the carapace, it would likely escape us that two
layers of bone are present on the midline. At the point where
these elements have become disarticulated one can see that the
pleurals expand broadly beneath the median plates, but we
cannot tell to what extent they replace or crowd the neurals,
116 G. R. Wieland—On Marine Turtles.
which are evidently small posteriorly. Immediately back of
the nuchal, however, there does not appear to be an underly-
ing neural, and one may say with certainty that all the anterior
neurals at least are very greatly reduced. It is, too, equally
clear that these mere thin sheets of underlying bones that
can be referred to neurals, so far as they were seen in
fracture sections, have had their function taken over by the
FIGURE 8.—Archelon ischyros, x 1/36. Ventral view of type. Compare
legend of the preceding figure. Note that all the elements of the plastron
here shown occupied their normal position as originally recovered. Only
the doubtful position of the omitted epiplastra prevents final accuracy.
Note also the great length of the plastron; it is nearly as long as the cara-
pace. Observe the small size of the femoral notches. The rib pair passing
beneath the hyo-hypoplastral suture is the fifth.
outer dermal series, which is continuous from nuchal to pygal
and thus corresponds to the neural keel of Dermochelys.
On the nuchal itself no additional elements were observed,
but, as just stated, one may suppose from the great reduction
in thickness such may well have been present. Indeed, it is
not impossible that the posterior end of the nuchal extended
beneath the first of the median supra-neural elements, and
5 G. R. Wieland—On Marine Turtles. ly
that as a consequence our restoration is thus some ten centi-
meters too long.
Summarizing then: there are to be seen on the midline
_ apparently overlapping all the neurals and the proximal bor-
ders of the lamine of the nine pairs of normal ribs which
pass out to meet the marginals, a series of eleven thin supra-
neural elements simulating in size and outline a neural series.
These supra-neurals form a distinct median keel and are of
distinctly quadrangular outline all the way back to the eighth
and ninth, which are short on the median line, but nearly as
broad as the others. The digitate character of the sutures
between the successive members, but more particularly of the
pleural overlap, has already been commented upon. All the
outlines are quite exactly shown in my original figure (refer-
ence 6, Plate VI). A dominant feature of the midline is a nar-
row median groove which extends from the second to the
seventh member inclusive and is most pronounced in the sec-
ond and fifth. In the mid-region of each neural enumerated the
groove is somewhat widened and deepened, sending out a
radially ranged series of nutrition furrows or striations which
form a dominant sculpturing of the mid-region of the cara-
pace. Some further horny or even ossitied elements may have
occupied the mid-region of these shields. The aspect of the
neural keel is thus seen to be different from that of any other
turtle.
The supra-neurals of Avchelon, be it noted, vary distinctly
from those of Zowxochelys in which the series is not contin-
uous and corresponds to a normal series of vertebral horn-
shields. |
In Archelon, however, a leathery hide must have been pres-
ent, witha system of keels of the usual number, as denoted
by dermogene ossifications rather than hornshields; these will
be treated more fully later on. An ossicle like the supra-
neurals of Zoxochelys was found by Hay accompanying
Protostega advena, but its derivation was left in doubt.
The pleural investment of the 72bs occupies only the proxi-
mal fifth of their length. The free ends of the ribs are thus
the dominating feature of the carapace. They are very heavy,
in compensation for the light to almost paste-board thickness
of the carapacial shield. The first rib is small and more or less
~ euryed and flattened. As in Protostega, it passed well to the
front beyond the expansion of the first pleural, and may have
supported either the thin posterior nuchal ala or possibly some
osteodermal element.
It is here necessary to note that the type specimen remained
packed, partly in the matrix, from 1898 until 1906. Owing
primarily, however, to a luckless defect in my field notes,
Am. Jour. eae oe Vou. X XVII, No. 158.—Frsrvuary, 1909.
118 G. R. Wieland—On Marine Turtles.
which rendered a lapse of judgment easy, it was thought for
a time that the crushed coracoid of the specimen collected i
1902 was a heavy first rib.
Asa result of this misconception, together with the uncer-
tainty regarding the carapace that had long existed in the
mind of every student of the Testudinata, I published the
Fig. 9.
FiGurRE 9.—Archelonischyros, x 1/36. Ventral view of the type with plastron
removed. Compare legends of the two preceding figures. Recall that as
originally collected the vertebral column from the fourth cervical on was
found normally articulated and complete all the way to the smaller caudals,
a few of which were missing. Observe that the coracoids pass all the way
back to the ectopubes. Note in the hind paddle the large size of the tibiale
and fibulare, and the pisiformoid development or functioning of the fifth
carpal.
erroneous figure of my paper of 1903." But why Dr. Hay has
reproduced this in his volume,’ I fail to understand, as I spe-
cifically declared the figure to be a mistaken one several years
ago. I can only regret that the original figure of A. eschyros*
was not used, and still more deplore the fact that the labor of
preparation on the type was not sufficiently advanced to permit
G. R. Wieland—On Marine Turtles. 119
the offer to Dr. Hay of a photograph of the mounted skeleton
in time for use in his volume.
The tenth ribs verify the original and excellent figure of the
carapace in an important detail. In that figure, these ribs are
both shown as distally restored to a length indicating support
of the last marginal, were that element present. This restora-
tion is correct, the right tenth rib having since been found
complete, so that the length of the entire series is now abso-
lutely known; and it should here be emphasized that while
some of the ribs had disintegrated on one side or the other of
the carapace, there is not a pair in the succession, from the
first to the tenth inclusive, that lacks either a right or a left
member complete to the tip.
This functional development of the tenth rib is unique in
the Thecophora. It denotes either a more primitive condition
or a restrengthening of this element in compensation for a
carapacial shield not only in process of reduction, but probably
also of replacement by an external dermal series corresponding
to the usual Testudinate keels or lines of longitudinal develop-
ment.
The Marginals.—The marginal series of A. eschyros, type,
is considerably restored in the figures given (Plates II-IV), but
not hypothetically so. There are present in sufficiently good
condition for the determination of all the main features, margin-
als referred to ribs extending all the way from the second to
the eighth or ninth rib. Further, the fine third marginal is
present (cf. figure 5), which in Protostega (Archelon) Marshir
is suturally united with the fourth to sixth, the latter species
having marginals of quite the same form as in A. ¢schyros, type.
In the additional specimen of A. éschyros obtained in 1902, the
seventh (?) marginal is also present, while the first to fourth
are positively known in Protostega Copei (cf. figure 2).
Hence, remembering the functional tenth rib, it may be defi-
nitely stated that each rib beginning with the second bore a
marginal and that the pygal marginal, the only member of the
peripheral series not recovered in any of the larger forms
of the Protostegide (it is present in P. advena), was thin,
short, and broad, and must have had the form shown in the
restoration (Plate II).
The noteworthy and strange feature of the marginals is the
strong digitation of both the superior and inferior plates and
also of the anterior elbow formed by the outer border of the
third marginal. Were it not for the fact that in 7. Copez the
junction with the second marginal is definitely shown, it would
scarcely be suspected that the true articulation of the third
marginal with the second in A. ischyros, type, takes place by
means of its long spinelike extension, which projects upward
120 G. R. Wieland—On Marine Turtles.
and forward; for even in that portion of the outer border next.
to the humeral notch there are blunt spines.
Did the spines of the marginals articulate with one or more
carapacial and plastral rows of dermal ossifications, and thus
afford the nearest approximation to the osteodermal mosaic of
Dermochelys yet discovered by adding dermal ossification on all
the keel lines, that is the neural keel, the pleural keel, the supra-
marginal, and marginal
keel? I believe such to
S be the case, for at least
two elements referable
to a similar additional
series corresponding to
the supra-pleural keel of
Dermochelys have been
recovered: || NO ice am
strange that more have
not been obtained. A
fine shark’s tooth per-
taining to a scavenger
ies related to Lam-
Figure 10.—Archelonischyros x4. A-large Se ae i as aan ce
dermal ossicle found in connection with the 7% Was found with the
- plastron of the original type, but possibly type, and clearly indi-
dorsal. O, the outer view ; S, sectional view cates that all dermal por-
showing the extreme thinness of the element. ,: .
Note that the asymmetry of this element and tions loosely affixed to
its dactylate border indicate not only connec- other elements of the
tion with other dermal elements, but the e@ arapace or plastron
probability of the presence of entire series of jyst have been pecu-
such elements. 5 3 Eee
larly lable to disassocia-
tion. In what other than a supra-marginal or intra-marginal
position is it possible to place the thin and distinctly asym-
metrical element shown in figure 10? It represents an
integral part either of the carapace or of the plastron. Further,
the likewise unique element shown in connection with the
marginal in figure 11 can not be interpreted as in other
than a natural position. From the fact that it is digitate all
around and slightly asymmetrical, it may be inferred that a
series of such elements lay inside of, and articulated with, the
superior borders of the marginals, alternating quite regularly
with them in about a double number, and that beyond this
space a second much thinner supra-marginal series was present.
The space between the latter and the midline of the cara-
pace, where, as has been already seen, the presence of a median
row of supra-neural or in part osteodermal elements is demon-
strated, may or may not have been continuously occupied by
ossifications. In any event, there are the seven dorsal keels,
as in Dermochelys. On the plastral side, direct evidence of
Fie. 10.
G. R. Wieland—On Marine Turtles. 121
dermal elements is lacking, although an agreement with the
five plastral keels of the leatherback may be conjectured.
The Plastron (figure 8).—The nearly perfect plastron of the
type has suffered somewhat during collection, by its removal
from an exceedingly hard marl matrix into which the numer-
ous and often interlocking spines of the mid-plastral region
penetrated. Nevertheless, as finally mounted, the plastron
may be said to be in splendid condition. All the central
Fie. 11.
FicureE 11.—Archelon ischyros. Left eighth or ninth marginal as found
in conjunction with an additional element in a supra-marginal position.
Shown 1 natural size. If the anomalous element is not a supra-marginal
it must be referred to the supra-neural series just anterior to the pygal. A
slight asymmetry does not prevent, although it makes such a position less
probable. It is easier to consider this element as having been found in a
natural position, and as perforce thus accounting for the supra-marginal
keel of the carapace of Dermochelys.
portions of the large plates are present, with most of the spines,
so that neither their size, form, length, or number, is ever in
doubt. More important still, all the elements are but little
crushed and, save the epiplastra, are present in their normally
articulated position, just as they were figured in 1898." In
122 G. R. Wieland—On Marine Turtles.
commenting on this figure, Dr. Hay states that a length of.
2100 millimeters is thus indicated for the plastron, making it
larger than the carapace, which he considers impossible.
Neglecting my measurement of the plastron, which was given
as 2000+ millimeters, as well as the fact that the entoplastron
is very plainly shown a little anterior to its true position, he
also fails to note that the exact length of the carapace with
the nuchal in position had not been determined by anyone.
His first premise is therefore unfounded and his conclusion a
pure assumption. :
The important point, however, is that in the restoration,
where the length of both carapace and plastron is definitely
determined, the two are found to be nearly equal. In the
dorsal view, the plastron appears a little shorter than the cara-’
pace, while ‘in the ventral view, the enormous expanse of the
plastron, greater by far than in ’ Protostega Coper and greater
than in any other sea-turtle, entirely cuts out the carapace.
Archelon ischyros was certainly a very singular marine form ;
with its enormous size, huge plastron, and small femoral notch
set far back, it had need of the great humerus, which by reason
of form and musculature represents a powerful sea-type.
The unique T-shaped entoplastron of the Protostegide has
had an interesting history. First called a nuchal by Hay in a
Kansas specimen, it was left for Wieland*® to determine con-
clusively and figure both these elements in A. zchyros, although
there was uncertainty whether epiplastra were present at all.
For reasons that now appear trivial, being merely an imper-
fectly indicated condition of overlap seen in the field, the excel-
lent point of view developed in the paper just mentioned was
abandoned for a time.”
Meanwhile the specimen of 1902 was obtained and was
found to inelude still another puzzling bone,—the element
that must be regarded as an anomalous epiplastron ; and still
later the fine type of Protosteya Copei, here described, was
discovered by Sternberg and acquired for the Yale collections.
Thus was I enabled to determine finally that the nuchal and
entoplastron noted in the paper of 1898° were truly such.
This correction appeared in the Annals of the Carnegie
Museum of Pittsburg for 1906.”
That scarcely one of the naturalists interested in the Pro-
tostegidze escaped from wrong conclusions as to the nuchal and
entoplastron, is after all not surprising. Both elements are of
a form not before observed, this being especially true of the
entoplastron, which except in P. potens Hay shows no indica-
tion of any ordinary type of epiplastral superposition or
junction.
G. R. Wieland—On Marine Turtles. 123
The epiplastra are doubtless of the form shown in figure 12.
Referring to my first description, however, Dr. Hay thinks
that the element figured must be the right, not the left
member; superposition would therefore not be of the out-
turned Trionychoid type that I have supposed. Dr. Hay saw
this element soon after it was collected, and is consequently in
a position to judge; nevertheless I think he errs and that the
explanation of his opposite opinion is the condition he has
observed in the entoplastron of P. potens. Moreover, I am
not sure that he has correctly determined the hyo- and hypo-
plastra in that turtle, for the elements he figures as xiphiplastra
veh Wey
Figure 12.—Archelon ischyros. Left epiplastron, x +. Ectal view on
the right below and ental view on the left. On the right above, the ante-
rior, and on the left, the posterior edge views of the recovered portion are
shown. (There is no doubt that the restoration of the thin dactylate end is
fairly accurate both as to form and size.) This element was not present in
the original type, having only been observed once in all the history of the
Protostegide.
I should certainly have called hyoplastra. In either case,
however, P. potens, the type of which Dr. Hay was kind
enough to show us, is a-quite different turtle from any of the
foregoing, and the evidence it affords as to the form of the
epiplastra is only negative and quite uncertain. It seems
much better to accept the positive evidence at hand, which is
to the effect that if the element figured is the true epiplastron,
it projected beyond the anterior border of the entoplastron and
was borne on it quite as in Trionychids. But rather than risk
finality in error, it has not been given a place in the restored
type of A. ischyros.
124 G. R. Wieland—On Marine Turtles.
The Ayo- and hypoplastra exhibit no very unusual features,
except a great number of peripheral spines. The curved or
somewhat boomerang-shaped az~phiplastra are of course more
primitive than are the long and straight forms common to the
Cheloniide.
That the plastral fontanelles appear to be of less area than
is shown in figures of Protostega, is due more to the fact that
the plastron under consideration is the best and most complete
example known in the Protostegidee than to any marked vari-
ance in proportions. The plastral resemblance in Protostega
and Avrchelon is very striking, in view of other differences
separating these genera.
The Shoulder Girdle and Manus.—The marked feature of
the huge shoulder girdle is the projection of the coracoid all
the way back to the pubis, a feature also present in Protostega
and common to the existing Hretmochelys. The most charac-
teristic element in the shoulder girdle of Avchelon is the
humerus because of its distinctly thalassic type. |
The testimony as to the organization of the manus is reason-
ably complete and aside from minor differences exhibits general
agreement with that of Protostega. The centrale in the latter
is, for instance, more distinctly angled. While all the carpal
elements of either a right or a left flipper are present, only the
principal bones of the carpus have been found in position or
approximately so. It is only in the left flipper that bones
from another specimen have been introduced, namely, carpale
I, the intermedium, and the pisiform, which fortunately were
found together in this supplementary specimen. The only
element in doubt was the centrale, but this seems to have been
of a rounder form than in Protostega.
Of the metacarpals and phalanges, the majority are present
and the proportions of the fingers are essentially those adopted
in the restoration, although when a specimen is once found with
these elements in place, as in the case of the Pittsburg Museum
specimen, some slight modification of the present restoration
may prove necessary.
The important anatomical features of the front flipper then
are: (a) Agreement with Protostega ;. (b) general agreement
‘with the Cheloniidee, the centrale exhibiting strong. contact
with metacarpal I, instead of exclusion from contact with this
element by junction of the intermedium and carpale I1;
(c) the comparatively slight modification and elongation of the
phalanges for pelagic life, as contrasted with the much
modified thalassic humerus. Although the latter is thus mod-
ified, it lacks much of the strength exhibited by the paratha-
lassic Dermochelan humerus; for. while the radial crest has
shifted toward the middle region of the shaft, it has failed to
G. R. Wieland—On Marine Turtles. — 125
retain a strong pedestal affording a powerful and firm type of
muscular insertion. Curiously enough, the earlier Niobrara
Protostega was better provided in this respect, since its radial
crest forms a distinct ala nearly as prominent as that seen in
Dermochelys.
This failure of Avchelon to develop or retain, as the case may
be, a prominent crest with stronger type of radial musculature
may indeed indicate a certain failure to progress in swimming
power and in resultant ability to follow the southward retreat
of the great central Pierre sea. Im fact, it was at just about
this period of culmination in‘size of the Protostegidee that the
Dermochelan line more successfully accomplished such a
change, as shown by the Eocene Psephophorus, a turtle nearly
approaching Archelon in size and having a strongly pronounced
and very low-set radial crest. Itis on such grounds, as much
as by the possible destruction of the eggs of the young by
marine or even by newly evolved mammalian enemies, that sufh-
cient cause is surmised for the extinction of these most gigantic
of all marine Testudinates.
The Pelvic Girdle and Pes (figure 9).—The very perfect
and uncrushed pelvis of the type was accompanied by the left
femur, tibia, fibula, tarsals, and nearly all the metatarsals. On
the right side, the femur is also present, with the proximal two-
thirds of both tibia and fibula, which end in obliquely bitten
off but healed surfaces. Both the femur and those mutilated
elements are lighter and several centimeters shorter than the
corresponding bones of the left side. In short, the evidence
is conclusive and unmistakable that this animal had its right
flipper bitten off when still young, and that as a result of this
injury the remaining portion of the flipper was more or less
arrested in growth by disuse. Such accidents are now and then
noted in fossils. The type of Dromocyon voraz shows a broken
lower jaw, subsequently reknitted, which was doubtless received
in some raid on the young of Paleosyops, while a large per-
centage of existing marine turtles have had their flippers more
or less mutilated by predaceous fishes and sharks.
I need not remind those familiar with the Testudinate osteol-
ogy that the tarsal region of the sea-turtles is decidedly more
variable in its organization than is the carpal region. Owing
to this cause and to the failure to identify the excellently con-
served tarsals with those of the crushed elements of Protostega
gigas, it has not proved possible to orient the tarsals except in
the most provisional manner. ‘They are all free and heavy
bones, and there is little doubt that all were present on the left
side, however difficult and uncertain exact orientation may be.
The metatarsals are more readily recognizable, the fifth be-
ing much flattened and highly characteristic. Its distal half
126 G. R. Wieland—On Marine Turtles.
is largest, not smallest as in Protostega gigas. In closing this
brief. “description of the flippers of A. eschyros, type, it should
be emphasized that while there is marked resemblance to
Protostega, it is only the resemblance of members of the same
family, and that the chief variation is in the humerus and the
pes. [The other region of marked variation is on the neural
line ; the crania do not differ greatly. |
he more important measurements of Avrchelon ischyros,
type, are as follows :—
| Weight of humerus, exactly 75 pounds = 34 kilograms. |
Length of cranium from beak to occipital condyle 60°°™
four distal cervicals (estimated)._...-. 35°
ie four proximal cervicals (present) -- ---- 33°
S ten dorsal centra measured on the ven-
tral: face ti iis 28 Wace Se eee eee 125°
- two sacral vertebrev2 2 22). wee eee 9°5
Hf eighteen caudal centra (estimated ; only
a tew of the more distal members are
absent ise as ee eee ge a eos ne Ona
Total absolute length from beak to tip of tail,
from measurements on ventral face of centra 329°5
(The corresponding total exterior measurement is not so
accurately obtained, being slightly affected by pressure, but
must have been 3:4" = 11 feet.)
Length of first dorsal cecil Bic ch Ra ois
BECOnd LS 5:5) 25S ear keel eens Eee ae 15
es ‘hurd eS ate ta dey ae Bape tas ames
ps HOULtANe aimed Suber aera) TSC Ss 16°5
és muro ye gs Sete amr Gets ||. Vo
ge Sixt) 6 BM lela aes cae AN a ae 14:5
oe seventh “ PUMA oes hon a les
ss eighth ‘ Rae CURL a am I hyn 10°
66 ninth 6c 66 ath eS a i Ae ii
6¢ tenth 6¢ 66 RT Ry ete S's 6°
Total length of ten dorsal centra.._---.--- 124°0
renew of first. sacral centrum) <a) 2) 42) See a
second ‘ BOS Lg) AERIS aah Wh oe Ge ae ane A‘5
“ first caudal iat Mero drely ae ta 8 Ad
ae second ‘* CAN Mia Mpt ere peder tan See: ath ae Se
“ gorges 4% f Peee Me ATER re eA ON A°5
(44 fourth 66 6¢ Piso tad. Oke 2 Rue Sra taee ame 4°0
66 fifth 6é ce Gai gronl OSS Gal te Bid aie nia 4:0
be eithy o 1.8) | 66 0 SE ae eee
G. R. Wieland—On Marine Turtles.
Carapace :—
Greatest length on median line over slight curv-
RtUre; aS MOUMbEd ss. Here Swe Rie
emeatest absolute lenoth: <Soy ee aes est
127
22001
193
Greatest width over partial curvature, as mounted .2°18
Width over curvature of second pair of ribs .---
Plastron :—
Absolute length on median line_.._.._____----
Width on line drawn across the humeral notches
Greatest width of hyo-hypoplastral fontanelle
(that at hyo-hypoplastral suture) .--.-.-. --
Distance between humeral and femoral notches
2°10
lez
1°83
87
1°15
Comparative measurements of the right and left femora, tibiee,
and fibulee, showing the check on ‘erowth due to the loss of
the right foot.
Femora :—
Right —_ Left
eeureme lene thi ol a ei Ahem Agee
i dista lew idith 2 0 20°0 22°3
Least antero-posterior thickness of shaft 7:2 09°
Tibie :* —
Greatest proximal thickness... _---.--- 13°3 150
Fibule :-—
Right Left
Greatest proximate thickness._....-...--7°2°" | 8°3°m
Flippers :—
Distance between glenoid cavities... ..-- Seca:
Extreme length of front dipper outstretched
in a straight line (measure from glenoid
SEATING oS, ae Real Ve ays Gears 200°+
Extreme length from tip to tip of fully
outstretched front flippers --_--------- 458°
Distance between acetabular foramina. -- 8°
Extreme length of fully outstretched hind
LT] D) TEL? gia a yA he RM 138°+
Extreme length from tip to tip of fully
outstretched hind flippers_-..------- 304°+
A few comparative measurements of Protostega and Arch-
elon, clearly showing the differences in proportion to be
expected i in different genera, are the following :—
*The distal ends of right tibia and fibula are cut away by a clean shearing
bite ; hence the measurements of the left side are the normal ones.
128 G. R. Wieland—On Marine Turtles.
A. ischyros (type) P. gigas (cotype)*
Extreme leneth of ‘coracoidue Faroe 2) Bee 40;°m
Procoraco-scapular length -. -~-- GGse MOE See eee 30°
Median line to tip of second
Tide geen Een Cele ie L003: ak eee 56
Extreme length of dhumMeruUsy 2 e2t6Os 2 ee eee 34°
Length of ten dorsal centra- i A OF once, a a 68°
Extreme leneth of femur _...._-- BOG oS ae i anes 27°
‘e re COMET TAL eee ew ok Biss ge gph ean 20%
cs C6 ioe scan NOG eee he al aye thane oly a eae 20°5
S ee °c TaN CMG So Rati OE Eran crate a oi. 2, Dili 20°
ee peemiamiega Dab Wietens aie OF yee ease Pt NL ie
Concluding Remarks.
Not only will future field work reveal new eval eve of the
Protostegidee of the greatest interest, but quite all the skeletal
features now in doubt must certainly be clearly observed as one
specimen after another is collected. Indeed it can be freely
predicted that but a very few years will be required to accumu-
late the material demanding a second revision.
Meantime it must be left to such further discovery to deter-
mine, among various other features, what the exact condition
of the neural line of Protostega gigas really is, and whether
this species and P. Copei do not really belong to separate
genera; for there is a distinct suspicion that the species of
Protostegidee already known may really inelude a third genus.
Evidently the marked difference in the structure of the cara-
pacial midline between Avchelon and Protostega Coper indi-
cates a condition promising variations of the most striking and
interesting character, to say nothing of the possibility of variety
in the dermogene elements on the lines of the keels. These
should very “clearly be named in both Dermochelys and
other turtles, the neural, pleural, supra-marginal, and marginal
keels above, ‘and the infra- marginal, hyo-hypoplastral, and the
nether median or epi-xiphiplastral keels below.
It is not presumable that there is any doubt as to the pres-
ence of broad generic distinctions between Protostega gigas and
Archetlon, although the midline of these two forms may prove
to be much more nearly similar than we now suppose. It is,
however, a very striking fact that Protostega Cope. and P.
(Archelon) Marshii are both so much more nearly normal in
their carapacial structure than is Archelon. This is to say,
normal when we have in mind the great majority of turtles
with normal neuralia such as the early Protostegids are shown
to have. One might indeed suspect it possible from the strong
* This is the splendid specimen, No. 1421, of the Carnegie Museum,
Pittsburg.
G. R. Wieland—On Marine Turtles. 129
functional value of the epineurals of Avchelon that there are
turtles in which following elimination of a true*neural series,
an overlying dermogene series like that of Archelon has
dropped down into the neural position once more.
The possibility of such cycles is, however, only hinted at.
Taking the evidence at its face value, the important point is
that Archelon, without having lost the power to develop an
ossicular series, or perhaps in spite of having retained such a
series, once had a closed carapace and plastron like that of
modern turtles. Moreover, the earlier Niobrara Protostegas
include the primitive forms like P. Copez and doubtless P.
advena with well-developed neurals, and with far less of osteo-
dermal development than in the later Archelon.
It is thus seen that of the two camps which have attacked
the difficult and highly attractive problem of the origin of
Dermochelys, those favoring the view of a close relationship to
other turtles and a comparatively recent origin have rather the
best of the argument. We have had on the one side Cope, the
earlier Dollo, and Hay advocating an ancient and remote origin
of Dermochelys ; while on the other, Baur, the later Dollo,
and Wieland have believed Dermochelys a highly specialized
descendant of true turtles, and hence of modern or relatively
recent derivation. That the latter of these hypotheses more
nearly expresses the final truth is now evident; though both
contain elements of truth, and are by no means so remote as
they at first sight appeared to be.
Thus, just as Dollo deserted the one camp for the other, so
Hay has gradually developed, not to say modified, his premises
to a point where they adjoin our own. While not absolutely
closed, therefore, and still lacking the testimony of many forms
yet sure to be discovered, this famous controversy of the biolo-
gist as to the origin of the “leatherback ” is now nearly elimi-
nated. Nor is it too much to say that it has proved quite as
fruitful throughout as the broader but scarcely more profitable
question of the origin of the Testudinata.
References.
1 —1872. Cope, E. D.—A description of the Genus Protostega. Proc. Am.
Phil. Soc., Phila., vol. xii, p. 422.
2.—1875. Cope, E. D.—The Vertebrata of the Cretaceous Formations of
the West. Rept. U.S. Geol. Surv. Terr., vol. ii, pp. 99-1138, pls. 9-13.
Washington.
3.—1884. Capellini, G.—I1 Chelonio Veronese Protosphargis Veronensis.
R. Accad. dei Lincei. 36 pp., 7 pls. Rome.
4.—1889. Baur, G.—Die systematische Stellung von Dermochelys Blain-
ville. Biolog. Centralbl., Bd. ix, p. 189.
5.—1895. Hay, O. P.—On certain portions of the skeleton of Protostega
gigas. Field Columbian. Mus., Pub. No. 7 (Zool. Ser., vol. i, No. 2),
pp. 57-62, pls. iv and v.
130 G. R. Wieland—On Marine Turtles.
6.—1896. Wieland, G. R.—Archelon ischyros: a new gigantic Cryptodire
Testudinate from the Fort Pierre Cretaceous of South Dakota. This
Journal, vol. ii, p. 399, pl. vi.
7.—1897. Case, E. C.—On the osteology and relationship of Protostega.
Jour. Morph., vol. xiv, pp. 21-60, pls. 4-6.
8.—1898. Wieland, G. R.—The Protostegan Plastron. This Journal, vol.
Vga Os lve
9.—1898. Capellini, G.—Le Piastre Marginale della Protosphargis Veron-
ensis. R. Accad. de Scienze dell. "Ist. di Bologna.
10.—1898. Hay, O. P.—On Protostega, the systematic position of Dermo-
chelys, and the morphogeny of the Chelonian carapace and plastron.
Am. Nat., vol. xxxiii, pp. 929-948.
11.—1900. Wieland, G. R.—The Skull, Pelvis, and probable relationships
of the Huge Turtles of the Genus Archelon from the Fort Pierre Cre-
taceous. This Journal, vol. ix, p. 237, pl. ii.
12.—1902. Wieland, G. R.—Notes on the Cretaceous Turtles, Toxochelys
and Archelon, with a Classification of the Marine Testudinata. This
Journal, vol. xiv, p. 99.
13.—1902. Hay, O. P.—Bibliography and Catalogue of the Fossil Vertebrata
of North America. Bull. U.S. Geo. Surv., No. 179, p. 489.
14.—1903. Wieland, G. R.—Notes on the Marine Turtle Archelon. I. On
the Structure of the Carapace. II. Associated Fossils. This Journal,
vol. xv, p. 211. ;
15.—1906. Wieland, G. R.—Plastron of the Protosteginae. ‘Ann. Carnegie
Mus., vol. iv, pp. 8-14, pls. i. ii.
16.—1906. Wieland, G. R.—The Osteology of Protostega. Mem. Carnegie
Mus., vol. ii, pp. 279-298, pls. xxxi-xxxiii.
17.—1908. Hay, O. P.—The Fossil Turtles of North America. Carnegie
Inst. Washington, Pub. No. 75, pp. 189-208.
Washington—Submarine Eruptions of 1831 and 1891. 1381
Art. VIIL—The Submarine Hruptions of 1831 and 1891
near Pantelleria ; by Henry 8S. WasHineTon.
Introduction.—Of the regions which are noteworthy for
submarine eruptions, that part of the Mediterranean between
Sicily and Tunis has become classic. In this broad, deep strait
lie the two wholly volcanic islands of Pantelleria and Linosa,
which undoubtedly began with submarine eruptions, but whose
voleanic¢ activity seems now to be quite extinct, or almost so.
That the vuleanicity of the district is not yet at an end has been
manifested several times during the nineteenth century, in the
years 1831, 1845, 1846, 1863, and 1891, as well as possibly in
1801 and 18382. Of these the phenomena of the eruptions of
1831 and 1891 were noted by competent observers, and material
ejected by them has been preserved and studied. Specimens
of the lava from both of these came into my possession and
have been examined with the miscroscope and analyzed, in
connection with a study of the rocks of Pantelleria which is
being carried out for the Carnegie Institution.
A map of the strait between Sicily and Tunis is given in
fig. 1, based on the British Admiralty Chart No. 2158A, with
a few additional data. The volcanic islands of Pantelleria,
Linosa, and Graham are in solid black, and the site of Foerst-
ner Voleano is represented by a straight line. The locations
of the submarine eruptions of 1845 and 1846 are shown by
small crosses. The site of the eruption of 1863, though
reported to have been at that of Graham Island, is uncertain,
and a note on the B. A. Chart No. 2127 indicates that it was
searched for at the Hecate Patch. The hundred fathom line
is marked by a dotted line, and two fifty fathom lines, inclos-
ing the Adventure Bank and a small bank to the west, are
marked by dots and dashes. Small “patches,” where the
depth is less than 20 fathoms and often less than 10, are shown
by small dotted areas. Outside the hundred-fathom line the
soundings on the chart are seldom more than 400 fathoms,
though two of 717 and 890 are marked between Pantelleria
and Malta.
It will be seen that the volcanic eruptions in general have
originated in comparatively deep water and outside of the
shelves which fringe the coasts of Sicily and Tunis, on which lie
respectively the limestone islands of Malta, Gozo, Lampedusa,
and Lampione, remnants of the early bridge between Italy and
Africa, which were separated by faulting probably in Pliocene
time. The known volcanoes, therefore, occupy the site of this
fault, and the occurrence of the small, shallow “patches” in
the continuation of the deep water to the northwest is interest-
132 Washington—Submarine Eruptions of 1831 and 1891.
ing in this connection. ‘These areas of very shoal water are
all small, and usually set in groups on a rather shallow “bank.”
In some eases, as the Keith reef, the bottom is so near the sur-
face of the water that the sea breaks. Although many of
these are covered with coral, the characters of their submarine
topography (shown in detail for some on Chart No. 2127),
which resemble those of shoals known to have been the sites
of submarine eruptions, lead to the conclusion that these shal-
ine al
Aeolian
Iglandg.
Pantelleeia 14
Madrehere
Sie
x
(gee
el{nesa la
low patches have also originated in the same way, and that
submarine eruptions have been of comparative frequency in
this portion of the Mediterranean. That we have direct
knowledge of so few of them need not cause surprise, when it
is remembered that many of them probably gave rise to
no solid or lasting island, as was true of Foerstner Volcano,
and that their periods of activity were often short, so that, as
was the case with the eruptions of 1845 and 1846, it is only by
the rare chance of some passing vessel (generally the small
Washington—Submarine Eruptions of 1831 and 1891. 133
boat of some sponger or fisherman) that they are heard of.
As Merealli points out, also, our knowledge of the eruptions
of Vesuvius and Etna prior to modern times, situated on land
and in populous districts, is so fragmentary and incomplete
that our ignorance of the many possible submarine eruptions
is to be expected.
GRaHAM* IsLAND, 1831.
Bibliography.
The number of papers dealing with this eruption is fairly
long. Johnston-Lavist gives 28 titles and several others can
be added to the list. The great majority date from the year
of the eruption and those immediately succeeding, only one or
two belonging to the latter half of the last century. The more
important papers are those by H. and J. Davy,+ H. Foerstner,§
C. Gemmellaro,| F. Hoffmann,4 C. Prevost** and H.Abich; she
while general accounts are to be found in standard works deal-
ing with pees as those of Landgrebe,tt Fuchs,§§ Mer-
ealli,|||| Lyell,4§] and Bonney.***
The Eruption.
The site of the eruption of 1831 was in lat. 37° 1’ 30” N.
and long. 12° 42’ 15”" E., about 80 miles southwest of Sciacca,
on the coast of Sicily, and 33 miles northeast of Pantelleria.
The first signs of activity were shocks felt on board a vessel
sailing over the spot on June 28, earthquake shocks being also
felt in Sicily about the same time. During the first few days
of July a fetid odor was perceived at Sciacca, and fishermen
reported that the sea at the Nerita Bank appeared to be boil-
ing and was covered with floating matter and dead fish. On
* This small and ephemeral island has received seven names: Corrao, Fer-
dinandea, Giulia (Julie), Graham, Hotham, Nerita, and Sciacca. That
adopted here seems to be the best founded, as it was that bestowed by the
first person who landed on it, Capt Senhouse, and is that used by English
and many American writers. The Italians use either Giulia or Ferdinandea,
and the Germans mostly the latter.
+ H. J. Johnston-Lavis, The South Italian Volcanoes, Naples, 1891, p. 105.
{ H. and J. Davy, various papers in Phil. Feet for 1852 and 1833.
S$ H. Foerstner, Tsch. Min. Petr. Mitth., vol. v, p. 388, 1883.
| C. Gemmellaro, Atti Acc. Gioen., vol. ‘viii, p. IT, 1834.
“| F. Hoffmann, Pogg. Ann., vol. xxiv, pe 65, 1832.
** ©. Prevost, Mem. Soc. Geol. France, vol. ii, p. 91, 1832.
t+ H. Abich, Vulkanische Erscheinungen etc., Braunschweig, p- 72, 1841.
ttG. Landgrebe, Naturgeschichte der Vulkane, Gotha, p. 50, 1855.
S$ K. Fuchs, Vulkane und Erdbeben, Liepzig, D. 22, 1875.
fic. Mercalli, Vulcani in Italia, Milano, p- 116, 1883 ; and Vulcani Attivi
della Terra, Milano, p. 264, 1907.
WTC. Lyell, Principles of Geology, 11th ed., vol. ii, p. 58, 1892.
***T.G. Bonney, Volcanoes, p. 46, 1899.
Am. JOUR. ScI.—FourtTH SERIES, Vou. X XVII, No. 158.—Frsruary, 1909.
10
1384. Washington—Submarine Eruptions of 1831 and 1891.
July 8 the surface of the sea was seen to rise to a height of 80
feet, the column maintaining itself for ten minutes, and then
again sinking down. ‘This was repeated every quarter to half
an hour, and was accompanied by a dense cloud of black smoke
and loud rumblings. This column of smoke increased rapidly,
and by the 12th large quantities of light-colored pumice were
washed up on the beach at Sciacca. “This material was ana
lyzed by Abich.
On the 16th, Giovanni Corrao saw at the base of the column
a small island about 12 feet high with a crater in its center
containing boiling red water. The island increased rapidly in
size, and was visited by Professors Hoffmann and Esscher.
They estimated its height at about 60 feet and its diameter at
800 feet, though they do not appear to have landed. At this
time the island had the form of a crescentic cone, with an.
opening to the sea on its southwest side, while a column of
white smoke rose to an estimated height of 2000 feet.
A landing was first effected on Aug. 2, by Capt. Senhouse,
who took possession of it for the British crown and gave it the
name of Graham Island. After this it was visited by several
geologists and others: by Gemmellaro on Aug. 12; by Hoft-
mann on Sept. 26, and by Prevost on Sept. 29.
The voleano seems to have attained its greatest Mhineneion:
of 65 meters high, with a circumference of about 3700 meters,
in the early part of August, after which voleanic activity
oradually diminished, though an eruption took place southwest
. of the island during this month. The general form was that
of the summit of a cinder cone, the ridge being of uneven
height, with a crater containing water in the center. The
form changed materially from time to time, partly through the
accumulation of voleanic ejections and partly through the
destructive action of the sea, and the crater was sometimes
breached and open to the north, and again to the south. But
the sketches made of it are rather crude and unsatisfactory,
for the most part. Among the best are those reproduced from
drawings by Wright, given by Mercalli.”
The material of which the cone was built up is unanimously
stated to be voleanic sand, lapilli, and scoriae, arranged in
strata partly dipping inward toward the crater and partly dip-
ping outward on the outer portions. The absence of lava flows
is expressly noted by nearly all the observers. Although the
material was undoubtedly to a large extent scoriaceous and
fragmentary, yet the peculiar forms shown in some of the
sketches lead to the inference that there was involved in the
structure an upthrust of lava, probably in a highly viscous con-
dition and more or less broken at the top. That is, there was
probably present an upthrust plug or spine somewhat resem-
* Vule. Ital., plates viii and ix.
Tt
— Washington—Submarine Eruptions of 1831 and 1891. 185
bling, but on a much smaller scale than, that of Mont Pelée.
In a general way, therefore, there is some reason for the belief,
though it is now incapable ‘of proof, that the structure of the
island was similar to that of Bogoslof as recently described by
Jagger,* though with by no means so perfect a spine as that
shown in the photographs of Lacroix, Hovey, and Heilprin at
Martinique, or in those of Jaggar. The “black rock” reported
by Capt. Swinburne} as present in the bank remaining after
the disappearance of the island is also evidence in favor of the
existence of such a plug. This was 26 fathoms in diameter
and projected to within 9 feet of the surface, and was sur-
rounded by a bank of blocks and loose sand, sloping steeply
down to great depths about 60 fathoms from the central rock.
According to Davy, carbon dioxide was the only gas evolved
in considerable quantity, but other observers report hydrogen
sulphide and sulphur dioxide, the odor of which was perceived
at Sciacca, so that these may be assumed to have been present.
With diminishing volcanic activity the erosive action of the
_ waves rapidly destroyed the island. By the end of October
nearly all traces of the crater had disappeared, and the island
was nearly level with the sea, except for a small hill of scoria
which rose to a height of 190 feet on one side. During
November destruction was rapid, and by the end of December
only a small rock projected above the sea, and this soon disap-
peared, leaving a small but dangerous shoal, with a small area
only two and a half fathoms deep, as now marked on the
British charts.
An eruption near the site of Graham Island is said to have
taken place in 1632,+ and another submarine volcano is men-
tioned as having been formed in 1801.§ Subsequent to the |
eruption which has been described, another is said to have
taken place on the site of that of 1831, beginning on August
12, 1863, which is réported to have formed an island about
three-quarters of a mile in circumference, 200 or more feet
high, and with a crater 30-40 yards across. The material of
this is stated to have been loose ashes and sand, but none of it
seems to have been preserved, and the island soon disappeared.
Mercalli] also mentions two other eruptions off the Sicilian
coast. That of June 18, 1845, took place in lat. 36° 40’ 56”
N. and long. 13° 44’ 36” E., near the Madrepore Bank. About
9.30 p.m. the English vessel “ Victory” felt a violent shock,
*T. A. Jaggar, Mass. Inst. Tech. Quart., vol. x, p. 31, 1908.
+ Cf. Lyell, op. cit., p. 62.
{ Mercalli, Vule: italy) perth’:
; EK. Reclus, New Physical Geography, New York, 1886, vol. i, p. 408.
| Cf. this Journal (2), vol. xxxvii, 1864, p. 449 « : also Mercalli, Vule.
Ital., p. 120, and Reclus, op. cit., p. 408. There seems to be some uncer-
tainty as to the exact location of this eruption.
“| Mercalli, Vulc. Ital., p. 120.
136 Washington—Submarine Eruptions of 1831 and 1891.
which broke both her masts, the air was filled with a sulphur-
ous odor, and three immense globes of fire were seen. The
other eruption took place in the night of October 4-5, 1846,
a little west of Girgenti, and nine miles from the coast. There
does not appear to have been any shock, but the captain of a
passing vessel, seeing a bright light, approached, and saw an
immense mass of flames and smoke rising from the sea, from
which were hurled incandescent globes. It is reported that
the area covered by the flames was more than a mile in gir-
cumference and that the sea appeared to be boiling.
Petrography.
Although it is commonly thought that the lavas of Graham
Island were wholly basaltic, yet the descriptions of Gemmellaro
and an analysis by Abich, as well as a brief description of one
specimen by Foerstner, indicate that there was considerable
diversity among them, those belonging to the earlier phases of
the eruption having been distinctly trachytic in character.
The specimen examined by me is in the collection of the
Peabody Museum at Yale University, having formed part of
an old collection of rocks, though all record of its acquisition
has been lost, according to Professor E. 8S. Dana, to whom I
-am deeply indebted for his kindness in supplying the material
for analysis and microscopical study. The small specimen is
accompanied by a label, on which is written in now faded ink
and in an old-fashioned script: ‘Lava from the volcano that
rose from under the sea off Sciacca, 40 miles from Sicily, Aug.
1831. Water 600 feet deep. Brought home by the Rev'd
Eli Smith” (no date).’ There is no reason for doubting that it -
is what it purports to be, especially as its characters agree with ~
Foerstner’s descriptions of well-authenticated specimens.
The specimens examined by Foerstner came respectively
from the museums at Palermo, Naples, and Strasburg; the
first having been collected by C. Gemmellaro and the last
(which differed much from the others) being labeled as
‘““lapilh floating on the sea,” and thus probably belonging to
the early period when masses of such lapilli were washed
ashore near Sciacca, as pointed out by Foerstner. Of these
specimens Foerstner gives an analysis only of the first.
Megascopic.—My specimen is jet-black in color, and but
slightly vesicular, the vesicles being very minute, and much of
the small piece being quite compact. TF oerstner’s specimens
would seem to have been much more scoriaceous and vesicular.
Delicate, very small, glistening gray tables of feldspar are
abundant, but no other phenocrysts are visible. |
Microscopic.—The largest and most abundant phenocrysts
are of labradorite, in tables from 0°5 to 2:0™™ long, by 0°02 —0:10
thick, which are twinned according to the Carlsbad and albite
laws. The extinction angles show that the composition is
Washington—Submarine Eruptions of 1831 and 1891. 187
about Ab,An, or Ab,An,. These feldspars are highly euhe-
dral and the laths show well-formed terminal planes. The
tables sometimes surround portions of olivine and augite phe-
noerysts, but carry few inclusions, mostly of black dust. Oli-
vine is rather abundant, in subhedral, and often highly euhedral,
equant individuals, up to 0°5"™" in diameter. It is quite fresh
and colorless, and carries few inclusions of ores and dust.
Augite is rather less abundant than the olivine, in anhedral to
subhedral, equant individuals, up to 0°5™™", or rather larger.
It is almost colorless, but slightly yellowish or greenish, and
contains few inclusions. Opaque grains of magnetite, presum-
ably titaniferous, are not uncommon, though small in size.
Under low powers the groundmass is black and quite opaque,
but high powers resolve it into a colorless, isotropic glass,
thickly sprinkled with very minute black dusty grains. In
general characters my specimen resembles that of Foerstner
which he obtained from Gemmellaro, though the glass in his
was coffee-brown.
Chemical composition.—The results of my analysis are shown
in column I below. The analyses of Foerstner and Abich are
given also in IT and III. :
Analysis I is, in general terms, that of an ordinary feldspar-
basalt, and is remarkable in itself chiefly for the rather high
TiO, and the presence of considerable nickel. The high
amount of FeO as compared with the Fe,O, is also a note-
worthy feature, which will be referred to again.
Foerstner’s analysis (II) corresponds in general very well
with mine, showing but slightly more SiO, and Fe,O, and a
little less Na,O and K,O, while the differences in the figures
for FeO, MgO, and CaO are somewhat larger, but sufticiently
close to indicate the practical chemical identity of the two
specimens.. His much higher figure for Al,O,is, of course, to
be ascribed to the non-determination of TiO, and P,O,, both of
which would be weighed with the alumina. In a later paper,*
discussing the lava of the submarine eruption of 1891 in the
analysis of which he determined T10,, he considers that in his
analyses of the Graham Island and Pantelleria basalts the TiO,
was weighed with the silica, which should be corrected for
about 5 per cent of titanium dioxide. That this supposition is
incorrect is shown by the figures in analyses I and II above, as
by the facts of analysis. The residue left on correction of the
silica for impurities by evaporation with sulphuric and hydro-
fluoric acids consists largely of alumina and ferric oxide, and
does not contain all the titanium.t It may be noted in this
connection that this residue in my analysis amounted to only
1°73 per cent.
* H. Foerstner, Tsch. Min. Petr. Mitth., vol. xii, p. 520, 1891.
+ Cf. W. F. Hillebrand, Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv.. No. 805, p. 80, 1907.
138 .Washington—Submarine Eruptions of 1831 and 1891.
I II III IV Ia
Si0, 48°97 49°24 ay ey ice 61:08 "816
Al,0O, 16°37 19°06 15°30 17:37 ‘160
Fe,O, 1°38 w77 Rae beri 008
FeO 8°56 10°33 11:40 ee "119
MgO 6:22 5:00 8°66 4:02 "156
CaO 7°49 8°75 7°46 146 "134
Na,O 4:09 3°89 3°90 2°85 "066
K,O 2a tee ae 0°85 1:82 018
HO” alee Oust oe 163+
iO: 3°95 soe tia 145. 049
PO} 1:04 ena Lie =e 007
MnO 0:06 Le eke 0°60 0°62 001
NiO 0:08 aa: ee si ie ‘001
100°34 99°86 100°04 100°09 —
* “ Kieselerde mit Titansaiire.”’
+ ‘‘H,0 + Cl + H.S” = loss on ignition.
I. Andose (feldspar-basalt scoria). Graham Island. Wash-
ington analyst.
II. Andose (feldspar-basalt scoria). Graham Island. H. Foerst-
ner analyst. Tsch. Min. Petr. Mitth., vol. v, p. 391, 1883.
III. Black basaltic scoria. Graham Island. H. Abich analyst.
Vulk. Ersch., p. 74, 1841.
IV. Light gray trachytic pumice. Shore near Sciacca, floated
from Graham Island. H. Abich, analyst. WVulk. Ersch., Table
Til, No. 3, 1841.
Ia. Molecular ratios of I.
The analysis of basalt by Abich (II), made by fusion with
barium carbonate, is very satisfactory, considering its date and
the crude methods and reagents available at the time. It
shows the broad chemical characters of the rock quite clearly,
except the large amount of titanium, though the recognition
of the presence of this constituent is noteworthy and is indic-
ative of Abich’s acumen and the accuracy of his analytical
work. Analysis IV will be discussed later.
Classification.—Analysis I yields the following norm:
Or 10:01 ;
Ab 34°58 65:72) 0 ee ee ee Lt
An 21°12 Fem Osalane.
Bre eer 09°35 \ oe am Order 5
Ola las (oor Do germanare.
Mt 1°86} 5.) 84°01 SK Oe O Rang 3
Il 7°45 ves Sa ATs ee) eae
2 CaO dase.
p 2°35 2°35
R 0°60
vee fa K,O — 0:27 Subrang 4,
N
100°33 Na,O andose.
Washington—Submarine Eruptions of 1831 and 1891. 139
The feldspar basalt scoria therefore is an andose (I1.5.3. 4),
and it may be noted that calculation of the norm of Foerstner’s
analysis also leads to the same result. As the rock is highly
vitreous, its mode is indeterminate.
Variation in the magma.—The second analysis by Abich
(IV) was made of the light-colored pumice which was washed
up on the shore near Sciacca during the first days of the erup-
tion, while the other (III) was made of the scoria which formed
the island itself and which dates from the later period of the
eruption. They are of special interest, because, in spite of their
crudities, they indicate that the material was not uniform in
chemical character, but that the magma underwent a change in
chemical composition during the progress of the eruption.
Abich, of course, does not give any description of the micro-
scopic characters, and Foerstner’s descr iption of the ight gray
pumice (p. 392) which he also assumes to be that of the early
phase, shows rather indefinite characters. According to him it is
composed of flakes made up of minute, mostly colorless crystals,
which have little action on polarized light, with redder, rust-
brown particles and magnetite grains. ‘The gray pumice
contains fragments of material resembling the black basalt
which he analyzed. He expresses the opinion that the light
color may be due to the action of acid vapors. But his descrip-
tion, taken in connection with the analysis by Abich, which
shows a marked variation in the alkalis, much lower lime,
magnesia and iron oxides, and higher silica and alumina, as
compared with the basalt, indicates that this light-gray rock is
a pumiceous trachyte, presumably described from a differen-
tiation of the magma.
The marked change in composition is commented on by
Abich (p. 74), who suggests as a cause, either a gradual change
in the depths from a silica-rich rock to one lower in silica with
the addition of much lime (a vague forecast of the modern
notion of differentiation), or the action of the voleanie, highly
heated gases on pre-existing rocks, which gave rise to the gray
pumice, his opinion favoring this latter interpretation.
In view of the short duration of the eruption the fact of
such a decided change in magmatic character as is indicated by
Abich’s analyses is very striking. But its greatest interest lies
in that the change is remarkably like that shown in the succes-
sion of magmas on the neighboring island of Pantelleria, where
the earlier eruptions furnished highly salic and alkalic trachytes,
rhyolites, and pantellerites, followed at the close by basalts
very similar to that of Graham Island and the er uption of 1891.
This would indicate for both localities a similar original magma
and a similar course of differentiation. This matter will be
discussed at greater length in a forthcoming paper on the rocks
of Pantelleria.
140 Washington—Submarine Eruptions of 1831 and 1891.
ForrstNerR VoLcano, 1891.
Bibliography.
The eruption of 1891, near Pantelleria, is less well-known
than that of 1831. Lasting only about a week, it was not seen
by any scientific observer, and the descriptions have been
derived from the Lesuiniony. of fishermen. The fullest account —
is that of A. Ricco.* Mr. G. W. Butler visited Pantelleria
about one month after the eruption and communicates some
notes of his own,} with a brief description of the bombs (accom-
panied by an analysis by G. H. Perry). He gives a translation
of Riceo’s report,$ on which the descriptions given by Geikie§
and Merealli| are also based. H. Foerstner, in a paper describing
the rocks, gives a brief account of the eruption, based partly
on newspaper accounts and partly on Ricco’s report, though
there are some notable discrepancies.
This submarine volcano or eruptive center, which apparently
gave rise to no island which projected above sea-level, has
never been named, and is usually referred to as the submarine
eruption of 1891, near Pantelleria. For convenience of refer-
ence I would propose that it be called “* Foerstner Volcano,”
in honor of the able investigator of the rocks of Pantelleria,
adjacent to which the eruption took place, and the author of
the best analysis and only detailed petrographic description of
the rocks thrown out by the eruption yet published.
The Kruption.
The following brief account is based chiefly on Butler’s
translation of Ricco’s report, as the original was not accessible
to me. During 1890 there were premonitory symptoms on
Pantelleria, shown by increased activity of fumaroles, earth-
quake shocks (which cracked cisterns), and the elevation of a
part of the northeast coast. A sharp earthquake was felt during
the night of October 14-15, 1891, when a further rise of the
same coast line occurred, making the total elevation about 80
centimeters, as shown by a line of white incrustations marking
the old sea level and by the testimony of the sea-faring popu-
lation.
The eruption was immediately preceded by strong, sussulta-
tory shocks on Pantelleria during the night of October 16— Rie
and the eruption began on the morning of the 17th, after which
* A, Ricco, Comptes Rendus, Nov. 25, 1891: and Annali Uff. Centr.
Meteor. e Geodinam. (2), pt. 3, vol. xi, 1892.
+ G. W. Butler, Nature, vol. xlv, pp. 154, 201, 1891.
t G. W. Butler, Nature, vol. xlv, p. 584, 1891.
S A. Geikie, Textbook of Geology, I, p. 334, 1903.
| G. Mercalli, Vuleani Attivi della Terra, Milano, p. 265, 1907.
“| H. Foerstner, Tsch. Min. Pet. Mitth., vol. xii, p. 510, 1891.
,
Washington—Submarine Eruptions of 1831 and 1891. 141.
the earthquakes on Pantelleria rapidly diminished and then
ceased. Columns of “smoke,” accompanied by deep rumblings,
were seen rising from the water about 4 kilometers west of the
town of Pantelleria, at the northwest end of theisland. Those
who visited the spot found black, scoriaceous bombs, with much
steam, rising to the surface along a narrow line ‘about 850—
1000 meters long, and directed “northeast-southwest. Both
Ricco and Butler expressly state that no solid island was formed,
but that the erupted material was solely in the form of floating
bombs. According to Foerstner, on the other hand, by October
18, when the eruption seems to have been at its height, there
was formed an island about 1000 meters long, 200 meters wide,
and 10 meters high. The existence of a stable island may,
however, be doubted, in spite of these detailed figures, in view
of the explicit denial of Ricco and Butler.
Continuing their description of the eruption, vast numbers
of subspherical bombs rose to the surface, the largest having a
diameter of more than one meter. Some were thrown to a
height of 20 meters, and many ran hissing over the water,*
discharging steam, and being kept afloat “by the gases con-
tained in their vesicles. The bombs were hot, some when
recovered sufficiently so to melt zine (420° C.), and a few were
red-hot in daylight. After floating for a time, most of the bombs
exploded, the explosions succeeding each other so rapidly as to
resemble the noise of a battle, and the fragments sank to the
bottom. An odor “as of gunpowder” was noted, and some
H,S and SO, seem to have been emitted. The eruption
ceased on October 25, and little change appears to have been
produced in the sea bottom (which, however, was not well
known previously), though the present charts show a small
area, of only about 30 fathoms, at the site of the eruption.
The most striking feature of this eruption, the ejection of
the material in the form of ellipsoidal or spheroidal masses,
called “ bombs,” is of interest as bearing on the origin of the
so-called ‘ pillow ” lavas, which consist of ageregates of such.
forms. A very complete bibliography of these up to 1899 is
given by J. Morgan Clements,t who compares the ellipsoids
of the Crystal Falls District with the block lavas of Gior o10s
Kaimeni at Santorini. Among later papers treating of “the
Sale may be ea those by I. €. Russell,t R. A.
1 origin of the cpaehns is variously explained, a few
*QOne is reminded ot the behavior of a globule of metallic sodium on
water.
+ Mon. U.S. Geol. Surv., xxxvi, p. 112, 1899.
¢ Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv., "No. 199, p. 113, 1902.
Amer. Geol., vol. xxxii, p. 74, 1903.
| Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., vol. Ixiv, p- 267, 1908.
142 Washington—Submarine Hruptions of 1831 and 1891.
attributing it to the accumulation of bombs or the viscosity of
pahoehoe lava, ejected subaerially, while the greater number
connect the structure with eruption under submarine condi-
tions or with intrusions into mud or silt. The authors of the
last three papers cited, as well as Geikie and Teall, attribute it
to truly submarine eruptions, and in the discussion of the
latest paper Dr. Flett* cites “bombs” of the 1891 eruption in |
analogy with the ellipsoids of Cornwall. It is noteworthy
that, according to Butler’s descriptions, the “bombs” of this
agree in many respects with the Cornwall masses, especially
in their highly vesicular texture, arranged in bands of some-
what varying characters. As according to the account of
Ricco, some of the “bombs” of the Foerstner Voleano were
red-hot, even after floating for some time, it is evident that
they must have been distinctly viscous, so that those which
did not reach the surface and were piled up on one another
must have been more or less flattened and distorted by the
superincumbent mass, and thus have given rise to the pe¢u-
liarities of shape and mutual fitting together of the curved
surfaces so well shown in the illustrations to the papers cited
above.
Some experiments by Johnston-Lavis, who found that
globules were produced by injecting one highly viscous liquid
into another, are cited by G. Plataniat as illustrating the
formation of the spheroidal basalts of Aci-Castello. Such a
division into spheroids would be favored were the injected
material molten rock, when the influence of steam and the
spheroidal state of water, or rather here of the injected lava
surrounded by a layer of steam, would come into play,
especially if the depth, and hence the supply, of water was so
great as to prevent its exhaustion by evaporation.
It is notable in this connection that the examples of pillow-
lavas seem to be wholly contined to the so-called “ basic” rocks,
those low in silica and high in femie constituents: whereas we
find at eruptions in the open sea of lavas rich in silica (as at
Santorini) that the mass has solidified into anguiar blocks.
The difference is to be ascribed to the difference in the relative
fusibility and viscosity of the two kinds, the highly femic
magmas lending themselves readily to the assumption of a
more or less spherical form as the mass separates on issuing
into the water, while the very viscous siliceous magmas would,
on comparatively small cooling, become so nearly solid as to
crack, and their rapidly complete solidification would prevent -
the rounding of the sharp angles of the blocks.
* Quart. Jour, Geol. Soc., vol. lxiv, p. 270, 1908.
+In H. J. Johnston-Lavis, the South Italian Volcanoes, Naples, p. 42, 1891.
Washington—Submarine Eruptions of 1831 and 1891, 148
Although the eruption of Foerstner Volcano ceased in
October, 1891, there appears to have been another submarine
eruption in December of the same year, which took place
south of Pantelleria and is said to have formed a small island
about 500 meters in diameter.* Foerstner also mentions ae
formation of a small island ‘‘in the waters of Pantelleria”
July, 1881, observed by Captain Swinburne, but he cites no
authority and there would seem to be some error in the date.
This is not mentioned by Fuchst in his lst of voleanic erup-
tions of 1881, nor by Mercalli.
Petrography.
The petrographical characters of the bombs have been briefly
described by Butler,t and in greater detail by Foerstner.§
The material examined by me was obtained in 1897 from Mr.
Francis H. Butler, of London, a cousin of the author of the
papers cited above, who collected with him on Pantelleria.
Mr. Butler wrote me as follows in a letter dated 21st Novem-
ber, 1907, by which it appears that there can be no doubt as to
the authenticity of my specimen :
“My specimens of the Pantelleria rocks were collected by
myself early in November, 1891. The submarine lava was
floated to the sea among the fishing boats N.E. (séc) of Pan-
telleria during an eruption in, I think, October, 1891. .....
The vesicular submarine lava from which my specimen came
was obtained by some fishermen. Many of the masses of lava
floated to the surface exploded, and all, after awhile, that were
not saved by the fishermen became waterlogged and sank. I
was present at the purchase of the big mass of submarine lava
from which your specimen came: the greater part of the block
was presented to Prof. Judd for the Royal College of Science.”
According to G. W. Butler the bombs show a brownish out-
side layer, about one inch thick, due to the vesiculation of
brown glass, which contains phenocrysts of triclinic feldspar,
olivine, magnetite, and probably augite. Beneath this is a
darker layer about one-half an inch thick, which is mostly
glass with the same minerals. The greater part of the bomb
is coarsely spongy, perfectly black with a pitchstone-like luster,
and more highly crystalline in thin section, composed of about
one-third triclinic feldspar, olivine, and augite, and the rest a
black groundmass, opaque in thin section.
My specimen probably came from the interior, as may be
inferred from this description and-from the small amount of
*H, Foerstner, Tsch. Min. Petr. Mitth., vol. xii, p. 510, 1891.
fe2W.C. Fuchs, Tsch. Min. Petr. Mitth. VOle Vee pp: 97- 101, 1883.
{ G. W. Butler, op. cit., p. 251.
S$ H. Foerstner, op. cit., p. 513-518.
144. Washington—Submarine Eruptions of 1831 and 1891.
salt extracted by leaching. It is coaly black, with a slightly
brownish tinge and pitchy luster; very highly vesicular, with
small, rounded vesicles, the size of which varies somewhat in
different parts of the specimen, as is also true of Foerstner’s
‘piece. No phenocrysts are visible.
Microscopic.—Judging from Foerstner’s description and the
examination of my specimen there is considerable variation in
the microscopic character, though not more than is usual in
such glassy scorias. The most abundant and prominent pheno-
crysts are of a lime-soda feldspar, showing Carlsbad and less
often albite twinning, the extinction angles of which indicate
the composition Ab,An,, which is somewhat more sodie than
appears to be true of Foerstner’s rock. These feldspars are
tabular and very thin in my specimen, measuring only up to
05%" Jong by not more than 0:01—0-05™™ thick; while in
Foerstner’s they would appear to be larger and Rone euhedral,
and more nearly like those in my specimen of the Graham
Island lava. The phenocrysts of augite are few, up to about
1™™ in diameter, subhedral and stoutly prismatic, of a brownish
or greenish gray. Colorless olivine is present, apparently in.
less amount than the augite and in smaller, mostly anhedral
grains, though afew show euhedral rhombic sections.
The groundmass in my specimen consists of a brownish,
clear glass, which is very thickly sprinkled with a rusty brown
or black dust, so much so as to be almost or quite opaque in
places. Foerstner notes two varieties of the glassy ground-
mass; one highly vitreous, and the other less so, in which the
glass is present in small amount as a cement or inesostasis. He
deseribes these in great detail, which it is needless to quote
here.
Chemical composition.—The material of the bombs ejected
by Foerstner Volcano has been analyzed by Foerstner and by
Perry, the results being given in II and III below. A new
analysis made by me is given in I, the rock powder having
been leached with water, as in the preceding case, by which
process only a very small amount of salt was extracted. oerst-
ner states that his specimen contained about 25 per cent of sea
salts, so that his probably came from the exterior, and mine
from the interior, of a bomb.
My analysis shows low silica and alumina, very low ferric
oxide but very high ferrous oxide, low magnesia and alkalis
and rather high lime and phosphorus pentoxide. The most
striking feature is the very large amount of titanium dioxide,
which is almost unparalleled elsewhere among voleanic rocks,
and is only exceeded in the melilite-basalts of the Hegau. x
22) UE Grubenmann, Inaug. Diss. Ziirich, 1886.
Washington—& ubmarine Eruptions of 183Land 1891. 145
I iat Til Ta
yey aS encase £4533"... Aba AG:40 7) 7-747
OG: <a eae Hel Meco e: LOC eee BAT: Re 1S
EtO) ose fe 35 4°21 9-55 2 009
Pe Ol oes be 0d eit Wee een a 204 “164
oo Oe ene es 5°50 5°82 aay 138
CaO eee OGse Owen iOssee e b72
Iu 8 et eae 3°34 4:31 ae 0D
Pere eels 0°81 )
rE O. ee es Se 0°10 j 0°51 n.d.
Ore ee 1°40 1-41 169 = "015
Ore Sen O88.” 5°86 n.d. "086
enh pehan= ee er 0504 De bal n.d. ned. 015
brie So 0:20 0:20 n.d. 003
99°70 100°99 100°47
Analyses of basalt scoria from Foerstner Volcano (1891) :
I. Analysis by H. 8. Washington.
Il Analysis by H. PORHINTEL, Tseh. Min. Petr. Mitth., xii,
p. 512, 1891.
Ill. Analysis by G. H. Petry: Nature, vol. xlv, p. 252, 1891.
Ia. Molecular ratios of I.
The amount of nickel was not determined, but it is probably
about the same as that found in my analysis of the Graham
Island basalt (about 0°10 per cent), as shown by the depth of
the greenish tint of the filtrate from the ammonia precipitate.
Foerstner’s analysis (Il) agrees very closely with mine in
most respects, and especially shows about the same amount of
TiO, and a similar very high ratio of ferrous to ferric oxide,
though his figure for the latter is decidedly higher than in I.
His alumina must be corrected for one or two per cent of P,O,.
The alumina of Perry’s analysis (III) must be corrected “for
about 9 per cent of TiO, and P,O., the subtraction of which
would bring the figure for alumina close to those of the other
analyses. The figures for the iron oxides are reversed as com-
pared with those of Foerstner and myself, and must be
regarded as incorrect, especially as Perry himself expresses
doubt as to their accur acy.* The somewhat higher silica may
be due to its not having been corrected for impurities by
evaporation with HF. The other figures are closely concord-
ant with those of the other two analyses.
Classification. —The norm of I is calenlated to be as
follows:
* He remarks, ‘‘ As the powder was magnetic, Fe.0; was probably com-
bined with FeO to form Fe;0,. This would give FeO 7°55, Fe.O; 4°18.”
The basis of calculation for these figures is not clear, as they yield a molecu-
jar ratio of FeO: Fe.0; = 4:1.
146 Washington—Submarine Eruptions of 1831 and 1891.
FORGO e" 8-34 Sal
AL ac eee 98°30 49°43 " = 1:00 : ee III,
An Aa aff 12°79 v sell emane.
1 Big o 17°22 Te se te Order 5,
lye So. ees 5:21 } 29°21 | 16; gallare.
Ci ek a 6°78 | K
J) Capea 2°09 } 16 r 49°41 ie Nae = 1°50 Rang 3,
i Se Se 183017 ws | CaO’ camptonase. —
AD 20 ora .04 K,O |
Rest 1... 0-91 J oe gol Subrang 4,
ae Na,O camptonose
99°75
According to my analysis, therefore, the rock is a camptonose
(III.5.3.4), and falls almost exactly at the center of all the
divisions, except that it tends to be domalkalic. As regards
the femic constituents, which may be briefly considered
because the rock is salfemic, it falls in: the dopyric section of
the dopolic grad, and in the premiric section of the permirlic
subgrad, as brought out by the following ratios:
P+0 Di+Hy
Gurney = Sa 1,99) Section of orad 2 === 3-31,
M Ol
a O”
Subgrad (Ms, Ome == 65)
Na,O*
Ig, Fe)O
Section of subgrad (Me, Hoe == Diy,
CaO"
Ems) ull | a
The rock is also prehemic, since Sg 0°16, but no provision
has been formally made for recognition: of this relation in
rocks of the salfemane class, though the relations of Fe,O, and
TiO, are expressed in the suborders of classes [TV and V.*
According to Foerstner’s analysis, as given by him, the rock
falls in monchiquose (III.6.2.4), because of the higher soda
and the considerable amount of lime that enters normative
anorthite and diopside, dnd thus takes up so much silica as
to give rise to the presence of much nephelite in the norm.
‘If, however, the alumina is corrected for two per cent of
P.O,, the subrang becomes kilauose (II1.5.2.4), since much
of the lime is thus used in forming apatite, leaving more
silica for the soda. The relations are shown below.
These relations, while of no importance in themselves, are
of interest in showing the necessity of the determination of the
minor constitutents for the purposes of the quantitative classi-
fication. The norm of III need not be considered.
*Cf. Cross, Iddings, Pirsson, and Washington, Quant. Class, p. 134, 1903.
! Washington—Submarine Eruptions of 1831 and 1891. 147
Norms oF II.
Uncorrected Corrected
Oreos Sea Oro 8°34
AOE ee ae 16°24 DGS:
CANE ee 11°40 5°84
INi@est et tea ec 10°79 4°83
iter San res 31°30 24°50
Ol. reg REE 5°02 7:44.
VERGE oot te. 6:03 6°03
Tg 2s synthase a ae eet Wt 9) 11°10
pete ass SONNE 5:00
spar-basalt scoria. The mode need not be discussed, as it is
indeterminate, owing to the large amount of glass present.
Correlution of the Basalts.
In the following table are presented a number of analyses
made by me of basalts from the same general region and of.
characters similar to those here described.
I Tee ELE IV V VI Vil VIL
SiO 48°97 44°83 45°72 46°22 46°55 48°84 47-66 43-64
Peelers 7 Mion h245 b2-23) 455: 14°62.- 14°36.) 13°52
Fe,O 1°33 1°35 ead 4°91 3°17 AVOu aco or O40
FeO SCY eel (a7 ee eM CM 7°88 9°00 8°44 5°52
MgO 6°22 5.90 5°29 6°74 8°61 Tole 8°19 9°36
CaO T49 9°63 9°58 9°86 SS 9°33 9°36 9°52
Na,O 4°09 3°34 3°40 3°39 Sail 2°86 3°51 3°89
K,O 1°72 1°40 1°08 ICIS) 1°62 0°89 1:54 2°18
H,O+ 0°38 0°81 0°40 0°17 0°14 0°49 0°17 0°49
H,O— 0:08 0°10 0°01 0°05 0°03 0°07 0°20 0°16
TiO 3°95 6°88 6°45 5°68 3°84 3°57 3°83 4°55
EOL 1°04 2°14 1°54 1°46 = ©=©0°55 0°36 0°45 0°74
MnO 0°06 0°20 ORUGiin Yee se 0°10 On045ty jee iy Late
NiO OOSitAr a 1 Is ee re 0°12 0:08) S222 SrO:0503
100°34 99°70 99°82 99°55 99°62 99°89 100°54 99°60
I. Andose (1.5.3.4). Graham Island, 1831.
IJ. Camptonose (III.5.3.4). Foerstner Volcano, 1891.
III. Camptonose (I1I.5.3.4). Dike in Costa Zeneti, Pantelleria.
Quart. Jour. Geol. Sac., xiii, p. 74, 1907.
IV. Camptonose (III.5.3.4). Monte Sant’ Elmo, Pantelleria.
Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., Ixiii, p. 74, 1907.
VY. Camptonose (III.5.3.4). Block in tuff, Il Fosso, Linosa.
~ Jour. Geol., xvi, p. 23, 1908.
VI. Auvergnose (III.5.4.4-5). Monte Ponente, Linosa. Jour.
Geel, xvi, p.b7,:1908)-
PEVIT. Camptonose (III.5.3.4). Castellfullit, Catalonia. This
Jour. XXiv, p. 239, 1907.
VIII. Monchiquose (III.6.2.4). La Garrinada, Olot, Catalonia.
This Jour. xxiv, p. 239, 1907.
148 Washington—Submarine Eruptions OF ISFL An TSO he
Apart from the bigher silica and alumina of the earlier one,
the basaltic lavas of the two submarine eruptions are closely
similar, I bemg slightly higher in MgO and Na,O and lower
in FeO, CaO, and P,O,. The variation in TiO, is also consider-
able, but in both rocks the amount of this constituent is higher
than usual among basaltic rocks. The distinctly more femic
character of the later eruption is in harmony with the decidedly
more siliceous and salic character of the material of the early —
phase of the Graham Island eruption, as shown by Abich’s
analysis to which attention was called above, and there is thus
indicated a progressive change in composition with increase
in femic constituents for the general magma of the region. A
change in the samme general sense has already been noted as
having occurred on Pantelleria, and asimilar relation is observed:
on Sardinia, where the large volcanoes of Monti Ferru and Arci
poured forth respectively phonolitic trachytes and rhyolites in
the early stages of activity, followed by extensive outflows of
basalt. On this island too all the small cones of the most recent
date are basaltic, though varying somewhat in composition,
and in general decidedly more salic than are those of Pantelleria,
Linosa, and the two submarine eruptions. - The basalts of
Catalonia also show great analogies with those of Pantelleria
and the neighboring volcanic vents, as has been elsewhere
pointed out. 3
Aside from the very high TiO, of all these basalts, one of
their most striking characters is the predominance of ferrous
over ferric oxide. This ratio oe reaches a maximum in the
2 3
basalts of the two submarine eruptions and in that of the
dike on Pantelleria, which are highly vesicular, and shows
a minimum in the also very vesicular lava of La Garrinada,
near Olot. Lavas showing ratios between these extremes
are either only slightly vesicular or are solid flows.
In a former paper* the difference observed at the Catalan
volcanoes was ascribed to the more favorable conditions for
oxidation of the ferrons iron when the lava issued in a highly
vesicular condition. Since, however, we find that oxidation 1s
at a minimum in the highly vesicular basalts described in the
present paper, some discussion of the matter will be pertinent.
The ready oxidizability of the ferrous iron in rocks on heat-
ing in air, even when in the solid though powdered form, is
well known to all who have had to make rock analyses, and
the researches of Gautier + have shown that steam alone also
exerts a powerful oxidizing action on ferrous silicates. On the
other hand, further researches of Gautier and of Hiittner showed
*H. S. Washington, this Journal, vol. xxiv, p. 240, 1907.
+Cf. F. W. Clarke, Bull. U. S. Geol. Serv., No. 330, 1908, p. 228.
Washington—Submarine Eruptions of 1831 and 1891. 149
that CO, can be reduced to CO by the action of hydrogen at
elevated temperatures. Gautier also showed that the reaction
is reversible, at a white heat being:
CO, + H, = CO + 1.0;
and at temperatures between 1200° and 1250°
GO + HO = CO, + He.
As Clarke remarks: “When water emitted by heated rocks
{or that of the sea, H.S. W.) mingles with carbon dioxide,
within the vent of a volcano, both reactions take place, and
mixed gases, which sometimes contain a trace of formic acid,
are venerated. This mixture isa powerful reducing agent,
which acts upon the iron silicates in an opposite direction to that
of the oxidizing vapor of water. Either oxidation or reduction
is therefore possible, according to the preponderance of one
constituent or another among the volcanic gases.”
We may therefore ascribe the difference in the iron oxide
ratios in the scoriaceous lavas to the fact that, in one case they
were erupted subaerially and in the other subaqueously. In
the former large quantities of heated air would have acted
on the highly vesicular masses during their ejection, and would
have materially aided the steam present in oxidizing the ferrous
iron of the magma. In the other, free atmospheric oxygen
was wanting and, as we know that carbon dioxide was emitted
in large amount at Graham Island, and presumably also at
Foerstner Volcano, we may suppose this and the steam to have
reacted with the formation of carbon monoxide and hydrogen,
which would have had a powerful reducing effect on any ferric
iron present in the magma. In the case of the compact and
scarcely vesicular lavas, such as those of Catalonia, which were
ejected in the form of massive flows, there would have been
comparatively little opportunity for either an oxidizing or a
reducing action, and we should expect to find, as we do, ratios
of ferrous to ferric oxide intermediate between those of the
scorias, and presumably more nearly like that of the original
magma.
The reducing conditions at the submarine eruptions must
also have been very materially increased by the hydrogen sul-
phide and sulphur dioxide, which we know to have been
present. In this connection it is of interest to recall that John
Davy found that the waters of the two small craters of Graham
Island, on August 5, contained hyposulphite of lime and
magnesia, in addition to sulphates, but no salts of the alkalis.
Although the condition of chemical analysis at the time does |
not give this statement much weight, yet it may be significant.
Abich remarks on the absence of hydrochloric acid during the
Am. Jour. Scit.—FourtsH Series, Vou. X XVII, No. 158.—Fesrvary, 1909.
11
150 Washington—Submarine Hruptions of 1831 and 1891.
whole progress of the Graham Island eruption, a gas which is
so commonly observed at other volcanoes, as Vesuvius.
The very high FeO: Fe,QO, ratio shown by the basalt of ‘ine
Zenetidike does not seem to be explicable by the hypothesis
advanced above, as it is decidedly vesicular and yet apparently
not due to a submarine eruption. Discussion of this rock
must, however, be reserved for a later publication, in connec-
tion with the geology and petrography of Pantelleria.
In both his papers cited above Foerstner suggests that the
basalts of the eruptions of 1831 and 1891, as well as those of
Pantelleria, are connected with those of Etna. Of the lavas
of Etna, however, we have no modern or satisfactory chemical
analyses, strange as it may appear. With the exception of one
of an ash by Ricciardi in 1884,* none of them are later than
1881. The lavas and ashes of Etna have been analyzedt by
QO. Silvestri, Fuchs, Giimbel, Von Lasaulx, and Ricciardi.
Most of the analyses show a general resemblance to each other,
as well as to those by Foerstner of the basalts of Graham Island
and Pantelleria, in which TiO, and other minor constituents
have not been determined. The studies of Von Waltershausen
and Von Lasaulx also show that, while the lavas of Etna are
predominantly basaltic, there are numerous flows and dikes of
more salic rocks, especially belonging to the earlier phases of
this voleano, a fact already noted by Abich. There is, there-
fore, reason for the belief that the magmas of Etna and of
Pantelleria and the submarine eruptions are chemically similar
and probably genetically connected. But, as a marked charac-
teristic of the basalts of the latter volcanoes is the high content
in titanium, it is clear that modern, complete analyses of the
Etna lavas are needed before the matter can be discussed intel-
ligently.
Locust, N. J., August, 1908.
*L. Ricciardi, Att. Acc, Gioen., vol. xviii, p. 4, 1884.
+J. Roth, Beitrige zur Petrographie, p. cxxviii, 1869, and pp. lxxvi-Ixxx,
1884.
EE. HI, Sellards-—Types of Permian Insects. Weil
Arr. [X.—Types of Permian Insects; by E. H. Seriarps.
[ Continued from vol. xxiii, p. 355, May, 1907. ]
Parr IIJ.—MzEGASECOPTERA, ORYCTOBLATTINIDZ and Pror-
ORTHOPTERA.
THe terms Dromeus, Scopus and Therates, proposed for
genera of ephemerids in Part II of this paper, have been found
to be preoccupied. As substitutes I suggest for Dromeus
Sellards (non Reiche ), J/tsthodotes ; for Scopus Sellards (non
Megerle), Aecus ;-for Therates Sellards (non Latrielle), Asca.
The term fekter should read fecter ; while Tupus ( Pt. I,
p. 249) should read Typus. For these corrections I am
indebted to Mr. Leonhard Stejneger of the National Museum.
Megasecoptera.
The Megasecoptera have four slender, equally developed
wings, which are broadest at the middle and narrowed at the
base. The anal area of the wing is notably reduced. Cross
veins are not numerous. The abdomen is long, and is termin-
ated by streamers.
The group is abundantly and typically developed in the
Commentry Coal Measure deposits of France,* and is sparingly
represented in some other European, and in the American
Coal Measure deposits.| The Megasecoptera have been known
heretofore from the Carboniferous only. Their extension
into the Permian is indicated by the genus herein described.
Opter Brongniartii gen. et sp. n. Text-figure 7.
The genus Opter is based upon a single detached wing, the
apex and a part of the mner border of which are wanting.
The wing is thin, slender, and very much narrowed at the base.
The costal border is straight. The subcosta is a thin vein run-
ning parallel to the radius. The media is united with the
radius in the basal one-fourth of the wing. At its point of
separation from the radius the media has a characteristic
downward curve ‘almost touching the cubitus. The cubitus
is two-branched. Cross veins occur sparingly in the wing.
Length of wing estimated, 13 to 15"™; width, 24 to 3™.
Type specimen No. 1286.
* Charles Brongniart, Insectes fossiles des Temps primaires, pp. 280 et
seq., 1893.
+ Anton Handlirsch, Die Fossilen Insekten, p. 312 et seq., 1906.
152 L. H. Sellards—Types of Permian Insects.
Oryctoblattinide.
The family Oryctoblattinide has been erected recently by
Handlirsch and is placed by him among the Pr otoblattoidea.*
The genera referred to this family by its author are as follows:
From the Carbonifer ous ; Oryctoblattina Scudder, Llattinopsis
Giebel, Anadyomene K. vy. Fritsch, Glaphyrophlebia Hand-
lirseh , Mier oblattina Seudder, Prisca XK. v. Fritsch, and /hz-
pidiopter a brongniart ; from the Permian, Oryctomylabris
Handlirsch, and Pseudofulgora Handlirsch. Two additional
genera obtained from the American Permian are added in the
present paper.
The family contains several forms of particular interest.
The genus Rhipidioptera was originally referred by its author,
- Brongniart, directly to the Homoptera, and to the recent
family, Fulgoridee.+ The forms known in literature as /wi-
gorina Goldenbergu Brongn. and /. ovalis Brogn., and regarded
by some as Homoptera, are included in this rev ised classification
in the genus Llattinopsis Giebel. The Permian form known
as Fulgora Hberst Dohrn ( Fulgorina Hbersi Gold.) stands as
the type of the new genus Pseudofulgora Handlirsch. Some
ot the other genera, including the type genus, Oryctoblattina,
had been previously regarded as cockroaches. It is thus seen
that the family is made up of forms originally referred to
very diverse groups. The geological range of the Oryetoblat-
tinidee as now known is through the Upper Carboniferous, and
into the Permian.
The wing venation in this family is characteristic. The
numerous veins uniting the subcosta with the costa have the
appearance of cross veins rather than of oblique branches,
differing in this respect from the blattid wing. Subcosta and |
radius are distantly separated and are united by oblique cross
veins. The radical sector arises early and is repeatedly sub-
divided. The media is two to several times branched. The
cubitus has usually numerous inferior branches. The anal
area is marked off by a thin depressed line, and is traversed
by a few strong veins.
That part of the wing lying between the sector and the
cubitus affords the specially characteristic features of the vena-
tion. Most genera have a plainly marked line extending
across fie area from the cubitus to, or beyond, the sector, thus
marking off the basal from the apical half of the wing. This
cross line is plainly marked in Slattinopsis, Anadyomene,
Prisca, Pseudofulgora, the two Permian genera deseribed
below and in two undescribed genera obtained by the writer
* Revision of American Baleozoie Insects, 705, 1906 ; Die Fossilen Insekten,
p. 155 and p. 346, 1906.
+ Insectes fossiles, p. 445, 1898.
E. H. Sellards-—Types of Permian Insects. 153
_ from the Kansas Coal Measures. The line does not appear in
the illustrations of Oryctoblattina, Glaphyrophlebia, Rhipidiop-
tera, and Oryctomylabris, although the venation is otherwise
closely similar. The cross line marks the location of a more
or less distinct break in the continuity of the veins. The ©
apical part of the wing beyond the line is closely filled with
veins.
Among modern insects a similar interruption in the vena-
tion by a cross line is best developed and most often observed
in Hemiptera, and has led, perhaps not without reason, to the
comparison of some members of this family with Hemiptera.
In pointing out recently the existence of a similar line in the
wing of Cicadide, Woodworth writes*: ‘The most curious
feature of this venation is a mark extending across the wing,
which can be seen only in certain lights upon the membrane; but
wherever this line crosses a vein, it is very evident, because
the vein is here entirely EEE TORE and: ps 1238, “In this
connection a similar structure in the fossil / ulgorina 1S, as
already pointed out, of interest.”
If this peculiarity in the wing venation occurred among
Hemiptera only (Homoptera and Heteroptera) the argument
for the Hemipterous aftinity of the Oryctoblattinidz would be
very strong indeed. Handlirsch states, however, that a similar
break occurs in some Mantide and in many other insects (p.
158, Die Fossilen Insekten, 1906.)
The body structure is unfor tunately still very imperfectly
known. Brongniart states that certain specimens representing
this family from the French Coal Measures have parts of the
body preserved. No illustrations of these specimens are given
and the description is brief. The body is said to be short;
the head rather large ; the eyes large, round, and salient. The
antenne are described as in some specimens long, in others
short. Regarding the mouth parts, it is stated that two little
pieces are observed in front of one of the impressions which may
be mandibles.t| The hind wings of the family are unknown.
Until more definite information regarding the body struc-
ture and the hind wings of the Oryctoblattinidee j is obtained a
satisfactory placing of the family seems hardly possible.
Pursa ovata gen. et sp.n. Text figure 4.
This is a genus of small Oryctoblattinide. The wings are
arched, the apices bluntly rounded. The radial sector arises
as a thin vein near the termination of the basal third of the
wing. The media is broken up at the base. Its attachment
*The Wing Veins of Insects ; by C. W. Woodworth, Univ. of California,
Technical Bulletin No. 1, Agri. Experiment Station, p. 122, 1906.
+ Insectes fossiles, p, 446. 1895. .
154 LE. H. Sellards—Types of Permian Insects.
is apparently with the sector. The cubitus has several weak,
inferior branches. A complete interruption of the veins
occurs at the cross line in this genus. The apical part of the
wing is traversed by numerous simple, parallel veins.
Length of wing, 8"; width, 3™". Type, No. 1126.
Sindon speciosa gen. et sp. n. ‘Text figure 1.
The costal border of the wing of species of this genus 1S
slightly arched. The radial sector in the type species is
divided into several branches, each of which is forked at the
tip. The media is two branched. The cubitus has numerous
strong arched parallel branches. The interruption of the veins
at the middle of the wing is much less marked than in the
genus Pursa. Cross veins are numerous in the basal half of
the wing, but are lacking in the apical half.
Length of wing, 8°”; width, 21°". ‘ype, INow sar
Protorthoptera.
The Protorthoptera although more primitive are in a general
way related to modern Orthoptera. The venation of the front
wing, while specialized in various ways, is still of a compara-
tively generalized type, the main veins of the wing being as a
rule readily recognizable. The hind wing is broader than the
front; the anal area expanded and folded. This group of
insects is predominant in the Kansas Permian deposits, both
in number of species and of individuals.
Lepiide, family new.
The front wings of the Lepiide are elongate, and of
coriaceous texture. The main veins are strong and are plainly
impressed in the thickened membrane. The interspaces between
the veins are filled with a net-work of areoles, the lines, when
seen from the top surface, showing as ridges on the membrane.
The subcosta lies close to the radius and extends to or beyond
the middle line of the wing. The radius gives off oblique
branches beyond the termination of the subcosta. The sector
is free and two or three branched. Media is also free and
several times branched. Oubitus divides early in the front
wing, the inner branch being simple. The main branch of the
eubitus, Cu,, is directed toward the inner border, but after
approaching the border bends abruptly forward, and extends
parallel with the border beyond the middle line of the wing,
giving off several inferior branches. The anal area is marked
off by a thin line and is traversed by two simple veins.
The hind wings are broad, the anal area expanded and folded.
The folded part of the wing is thin, the areoles lacking. The
LE. H. Sellards—Types of Permian Insects. 155
part of the wing not folded is coriaceous and areolated in a
manner similar to the front wing. The sector of the hind
wing either is detached from the radius or joins that vein close
to the base. Cubitus is deeply impressed and may be reduced
Fies. 1-8.
Explanation of Text Figures 1-8.
Fic. 1. Sindon speciosa gen. et sp. n. Front wing. No. 85.
Fic. 2. Horates elongatus gen. et sp. n. Front wing. No. 992.
Fic. 3. Atava ovata gen. et sp.n. Hind wing. No. 372.
Fie. 4. Pursa ovata gen. etsp.n. Front wing. The apex of the wing is
restored from the counterpart of the same specimen. No. 1126.
Fic. 5-6. Liomopterum ornatum gen. et sp. n. Front and hind wings.
No. 5. Apex of the hind wing restored from a second specimen of this
genus ( No. 657).
Fic. 7. Opter Brongniartii gen. et sp. n. Front wing. No. 1286.
Fic. 8. Lepium elongatum gen. et sp.n. Front wing. No. 182.
All illustrations four times natural size.
156 EF. H. Sellards—Types of Perma Insects.
to a simple straight vein. More commonly, however, it Bes
off a vaulted and for wardly directed branch.
The family is described from the wings, the body aes
unknown.
Lepium elongatum, gen. et sp.n. Text figure No. 8.
The wings of the insects of this genus are elongate with
rounded apex and narrowed base. The radial sector is given —
off not far from the termination of the basal third of the wing,
and in the type species is two branched. Media is free. It
divides early, M, being deeply forked. Near the termimation
of M, the areoles pass into accessory veins, of which there are
four. From Cu, several (about eight) inferior veins pass to the
border. The anal area is traversed by two simple veins. .
Length of front wing, 12™™; width, 4™™. Type, No. 132.
Lepium reticulatum sp. n.
This species is described from one complete front wing with
which is associated parts of the hind wing. Jadius reaches
farther along the costal border toward the apex than does the
radius of ZL. elongutum. The sector is three instead of two
branched, one branch being lost, however, in the areoles of the
wing, and not reaching the border. Media is similar to that of
the type species, as are also the cubital and anal areas.
The anal area of the hind wing is expanded, thin, and plicated.
Ayreoles in this part of the wing are lacking. Of the remainder
of the hind wing the apical and inner parts only are preserved.
This part of the hind wing is of a texture similar to that of the
front win :
Length of front wing, 18°"; width, 4™™. Type, No. 152.
Lepium ? sp.
A detached hind wing, contained in the collection, probably
belongs with Lepiwm or with a closely related vents, The
middle two-thirds of the wing 1s preserved, the extreme base
as well as the apex being wanting. The sector divides tardily,
resembling in this respect L. elongatum. Media is but two
branched. Cubitus is a deeply impressed vein running from
the base to the inner border. This vein gives off beyond the
middle a thin, vaulted, forwardly directed, two branched
division. The anal area is seen beneath and in front of the
wing. It is thin, traversed by parallel veins, and lacks areola-
tion. :
Width at the termination of the anal area, 4"™. Width across
the anal area probably not less than 44 to 5™™. Length esti-
mated, (ito 24s =) iv pe,.Nomaiie:
E.. H. Sellards—Types of Permian Insects. 157
Atava ovata gen. et sp.n. Text figure 3.
The genus Atava is based upon a detached hind wing which
differs so widely in venation as well as in size from other known
types of this family as to represent without doubt a distinct
genus. The radial sector is detached from the radius. It is
three branched and fills the apex of the wing. Media is two
branched. Cubitus is a straight deeply impressed vein reaching
from the base to the inner border. The anal area is wanting.
Length of hind wing, 8°"; width at termination of the anal
area, 8", Type, No. 872.
Liomopteridce, family new.
The family Liomopteride includes a group of robust
insects. The subcostal vein in this family is straight or nearly
so, never arched, and gives off numerous oblique strong
branches resembling i in this respect many of the modern mantid
species. The radius gives off oblique branches beyond the
termination of the subcosta. The radial sector is several times
branched. The media divides early. Cun, is simple. Cu, and
the media are variable in their branching.
The hind wing is shorter and broader than the front. The
anal area is imperfectly known. It is, however, marked off by
a deeply impressed cubitus, and is doubtless expanded and
folded.
The legs are preserved, in part, on the type specimen and are
seen to be relatively long and stout. The thorax is also partly
preserved and is somewhat elongated.
Liomopterum gen. n.
The front wings of the species of this genus are elongate ;
the costal border slightly arched. The subcosta lies in a shallow
furrow and ends on the costa beyond the middle of the wing.
The subcostal branches are numerous, oblique and mostly
simple. The radius lies on a fold and reaches to the tip of the
wing. Beyond the termination of the subcosta, numerous
oblique simple veins pass from the radius to the border. The
radial sector is given off at or near the termination of the basal
third of the wing, and is three branched. The media divides
early, one or both divisions being subdivided. The cubitus is
uniformly arched at the base. Ou, is sual to three-branched ;
Cu, is simple.
The hind wing is thinner than the fr ont. It is much
expanded and is folded, the fold being marked off by a strong
straight line. The radius of the hind wing is four branched,
as is also the media.
158 E. . Sellards— Types of Permian Insects.
Liomopterum ornatum sp. n. Text figures 5 and 6.
M, of this species is simple. Ou, is three branched in the
front wing. The hind wing is smaller and thinner than the
front. The radial sector of the hind wing is four branched.
Length of front wing, 14"; width, 4™™- Type, No. 5.
Liomopterum extensum sp. 0.
The media of this species is four branched. Cu, is simple.
Length of front wing, 14"; width, 42™". Type, No. 972.
Horates elongatus gen. et sp.n. Text figure 2.
A second and a somewhat larger genus is represented by the
basal half of a front wing. The media divides in this genus
much in front of the origin of the sector. Cubitus divides back
of the bifurcation of media. The strong basal arch of the
cubitus together with its late bifurcation leaves a large area
lying between the arch of the cubitus and the anal furrow.
This area is traversed and strengthened by an accessory vein
connecting the arch of cubitus with Cu,. The anal area is
displaced and crowded partly across the wine. It is traversed
as usual by two veins.
Length of the wing (estimated), 177"; width, 52. Type,
No. 992.
Probniside, family new.
The wings of the Probniside are of coriaceous texture, the
membrane indistinetly wrinkled. Distantly placed cross veins
are present. These are strong in the basal and inner part of
the wing between the media, cubitus and anal veins, but are
elsewhere weak and indistinct. The wings are long in propor-
tion to their breadth. They are insufficiently braced, and were
evidently imperfect organs of flight. The subcosta reaches to
about the middle of the wing. The radius reaches to the apex.
The sector arises early and is simple. Media divides near the
base of the wing and is two to four branched. Cubitus is long,
not infrequently reaching well toward the apical border. A
variable number of inferior branches are given off by the
cubitus.
The hind wings are broader than the front. The sector is
either detached or arises very early from the radius. The eubi-
tus is a deeply impressed strong vein directed obliquely toward
the inner border. A thin, forwardly directed, branched division
is given off from the middle of thé eubitus. The anal area of
the hind wing is imperfectly known. The venation in this
family presents many perplexing minor variations, and 1s prob-
ably lacking in constancy.
E. H. Sellards—Types of Permian Insects. 159
Probnis speciosa gen. et sp.n. Text figures 10 and 11.
The front and hind wings of the type specimen of this genus
are preserved. The front wing is slender, being approximately
three and a half times as long as broad. The membrane is
coriaceous and wrinkled ; the veins lying in the membrane are
Fies. 9-14.
10 11
Explanations of Text Figures 9-14.
Fic. 9. Stinus brevi-cubitalis gen. et sp. n. Front wing. No. 459.
Fic. 10-11. Probnis speciosa gen. et sp.n. Hind and front wings. No.
143.
Fic. 12. Stoichus elegans gen. etsp.n. Front wing. No. 974.
Fig. 18. Espira obscura gen. et sp. n. Front wing. No. 101.
Fic. 14. Stoichus arcvatus sp.n. Front wing. No. 973.
All illustrations four times natural size,
160 £. Hv. Sellards—Types of Permian Insects.
thin and indistinct. The subcosta is arched at the base toward
the costa and reaches to the middle of the wing. The radius
reaches to the apex. The sector is simple. The media divides
just in front of the origin of the sector, both divisions remain-
ing simple. COubitus is a very long vein reaching well along
the apical border. It is thin and indistinct and gives off six
slender branches.
The hind wing is broader than the front, and is not more than
three times as long as broad. The sector arises very early.
The basal part of the cubitus is a heavy, strongly impressed
vein, directed toward the inner border. From near the middle
of the cubitus a thin forwar dly directed branched division is
given off which reaches to the apical border. The greater
width of the hind wing results from the expansion of the inner
border, and the greater area occupied by the cubitus. The
anal area is unknown. The deeply impressed character of the
cubitus leads one to expect a folded anal area. The membrane
of the hind wing is of coriaceous wrinkled appearance similar
to that of the front wings.
Length of front wing about 18™"; width, 37; length of
hind wing about 12 or 123™™; width, 4™™. Type, No. 143.
Probnis coriacea sp. n.
The cubitus in this species is scarcely so distinctly vaulted
as in the case of the type species of the genus. Media divides
opposite, rather than in front of, the origin of the sector.
Length of front wing, 12™"; width, 34™™. Type, No. 655.
Espira obscura gen. et sp. n. Text figure 13.
This genus is characterized by the very early origin of the
sector ; by a three or four branched media; and by a cubitus
more vaulted and occupying a broader area, “resulting i in a pro-
portionately broader wing than inthetypegenus. Hspzraresem-
bles Probnis in the late ¢ origin of the first cubital branch. It
represents a type with broader and stronger wings, and with
thickened membrane in which the veins can scarcely be traced.
Length of wing about 114"; width, 8g™™. Type, No. 101-
Stoichus elegans gen. et sp. n. Text figure 12.
Media divides opposite the origin of the sector and is four
branched. Cubitus is short and has beyond the first strong
division but three branches. Cu, is vaulted at its separation
from Cu, and is connected to the media by a strong cross vein.
Cu, is much stronger than in the genera of this family already
described.
Length of front wing, 11™; width, 37". Type, No. 974:
E. H, Sellards—Types of Permian Insects. 161
Stoichus arcuatus sp.n. Text figure 14.
The first division of the media of this species is deeply
forked, while the second division is simple. The cubitus is
more strongly vaulted and is longer than is the cubitus of the
type species. It has five slender’ branches, the third of which
is forked.
Length of wing, 11$™ ; width, 84°". Type, No. 973.
Stoichus minor sp. 0.
This species is very much smaller than the type species of
the genus. Media, is simple: M, is three branched. Cubitus
gives off beyond the first strong branch, three inferior
branches.
Length of wing, 97"; width, 3". Type, No. 114.
Stoichus tenuis sp. n.
The wings of this species are thinner and the venation less
distinct than in other species referred to this genus. The
sector arises opposite the division of the media. Cubitus
divides very early as in the type species. The offshoot from
the cubitus is a thin vein reaching a little beyond the middle
of the wing. Two inferior branches are given off, the first
of which is forked. The first division of the media is simple,
the second is apparently once forked.
iieneth of front wing, 10°" > width, 3™™.. Type, No. 1208.
Stinus brevi-cubitalis gen, et sp.n. Text figure 9.
The cubitus of this genus is short as compared with other
genera of the family, being scarcely vaulted and reaching but
slightly beyond the middle of the wing. Only two inferior
branches are given off. The median area is correspondingly
well developed. M, in the type species vives off three infe-
rior brauches which fill the apical border. M, issimple. The
radial sector arises back of the division of the media, and is
pumaple: :
Length of wing, 124™; width,4™™. Type, No. 459.
Lecopterum delicosum gen. et sp. n.
This is a genus of small Probniside. The wing is slender
and not so coriaceous as in other genera of the family. The
veins in the apical part of the wing are thin and more or less
wavy. M,issimple. M, is three branched, Cubitus divides
early. Beyond this first division it has but two inferior
branches and is but slightly vaulted.
Length of front wing, partly estimated, 9™™; width, 3"™.
Type, No. 824.
162 i. A. Sellards—Types of Permian Insects.
Lemmatophoride, family new.
The family Lemmatophoridz includes small insects with
four membranous wings as long as the abdomen. The pro-
notum is bordered by a membranous expansion. The mesa-
and meta-thoracic segments are strong. The subcosta is
simple, and terminates on the costal border near or beyond the
middle line of the wing. Numerous oblique branches are —
given off from the radius beyond the termination of the sub-
eosta. The radial sector is simple to four branched. The
media is weak and at the base lies very close to the radius ;
media is two to four branched. The cubitus at the base has
a strong upward curve toward the media, with which it is
united by a few strong cross veins. Cu, is one to three
branched. Cu,issimple. The anal area is marked off by a thin
depressed line, and is traversed by one or two strong veins.
Cross veins in the wing are comparatively strong although
not numerous.
The hind wings are broader and shorter than the front. The
anal area of the hind wing is expanded and folded.
Lemmatophora gen. n.
This genus of small Lemmatophoridee has elongate mem-
branous arched wings. The wing membrane is minutely sealy.
Subcosta is not arched at the base and extends beyond the
middle of the wing. Sector arises near the middle of the
wing and is simple. M, is simple. M, is widely forked be-
yond the middle of the wing, and is thin at its origin
from M,. Cu, is vaulted near its origin, and is two to three
branched ; Cn, is simple. Two to four cross veins unite R,
with Rs. <A strong cross vein unites Rs near its origin with
M,; two to four other cross veins unite Rs and M,. Ou, is
united at the arch with M, by two or three strong cross veins.
The anal area is traversed by two simple veins ; inner angle
squarose.
Lemmatophora typa sp.n. Text figure 24.
Subcosta is united with the border by about nine cross veins.
‘Two prominent cross veins occur between Rh, and Ks; three
to four cross veins between Rs and M,. M, is branched. Cu,
is branched; Cu, simple. The position of the main and cross
veins of this species are very constant. Fourteen specimens
are referred to the species. The branching of the main
veins is without essential variation as is also the position
and curvature of the veins. The cross veins of the wing are
often obscure from lack of preservation, as is also the minutely
scaly surface of the wing.
Length of wmg, 7°"; width, 2273) Types Nom tale
paratypes, Nos. 30, 32, 1266, 1376, 1377, Oe
LE. H. Sellurds— Types of Permian Insects. 1638
Lemmatophora delicosa sp. n.
This species resembles Z. typa closely, both in size and in
venation. M, is, however, three instead of two branched.
Length of front wing, 7"; width, 24-™. Type, No. 1050.
Lemmatophora anomala sp. n.
One branch of the media of this species coalesces for a short
distance with cubitus. | |
Length of wing, 7 to 8™™; width, 24™". Type, No. 1089.
Lemmatophora hirsuta sp. n.
This species is described from a specimen having the two
pairs of wings and the body preserved. The prothorax is
bordered by a membranous expansion 1"" wide. The vena-
tion of the wings is partly obscured as a result of the two
pairs of wings lying together and partly over the abdomen.
The costal border of the front wing is thickly set with short.
backwardly projecting spines or hairs. In other respects the
venation so far as can be made out agrees with that of the type
species of the genus Lemmatophora.
Length of body from the prothorax to the end of the abdo-
men, 10°"; length of prothorax about 2 or 237"; length of
abdomen, 53™"; length of front wings, 7"”; length of hind
wings about 64°". Type, No. 1047.
Lemmatophora elongata sp. n.
This species has a more slender and a longer front wing than
that of LZ. typa.
Length of front wing, 9"; width, 22™. Type, No. 149.
Lisca minuta gen. et sp.n. Text figure 21.
This is a genus of small Lemmatophoride. The wing mem-
brane is scaly and resembles in texture that of Lemmatophora.
The radial sector originates not far from the middle of the
wing. It is simple and is united for a short distance with M
M, is deeply forked. Cu, is forked. Cu, is simple.
Length of front wing, 54™™; width, 2™.. Type, No. 916..
1°
Artinska gen. n.
The generic characters of this genus may be summarized as
an arched subcosta, a bifurcate radius, and a minutely scaly
wing membrane.
The wing is of an elongate shape. The subcosta reaches
somewhat beyond the middle of the wing. Oblique branches
are given off from the subcosta and beyond the termination of
the subcosta from the radius. The sector originates at the ter-
E. H. Sellards—Types of Permian Insects.
164
Fies. 15-28.
E. H. Sellards—Types of Permian Insects. 165
mination of the basal one-third or one-fourth of the wing.
_ Media divides just in front of, opposite, or just back of the
origin of the sector. Its subsequent divisions are variable with
the different species. Cubitus divides in front of the division
of the media. Its first division is variable; the second is
uniformly simple. The anal area is marked oft by a thin line
and is traversed by two veins. The cross veins are numerous
although not always well preserved. The specific characters
are taken for the most part from the median and cubital areas.
Artinska clara sp. mie) dllexct figure 25.
The radial sector is deeply bifureate. M, is simple. M, is
deeply forked. The first division of the media occurs in front
of the origin of the sector. Cu,is branched. Ou, is simple.
Length of front wing, 10°"; width, 327". Type, No. 115.
Artinska medialis sp. n.
The media divides in front of the origin of the sector. The
sector is shallow forked. M, and M, are both deeply forked.
The first division of the cubitus is simple.
Length of wing, 9°"; width, 33™™. Type, No. 1381.
Artinska gracilis sp. n.
The sector is not deeply forked. M, is shallow forked; M,
more deeply forked. Media divides opposite the origin of the
sector. Cu, is three branched.
Length about 9™™; width, 34™". Type, No. 1090.
Artinska pecta sp. 0.
The sector is not deeply forked. Media divides in front’ of
tle origin of the sector. M, and M, are deeply forked. -Cu,
is three branched.
Length of front wing, 10°"; width, 34™". Type, No. 1087;
paratypes, Nos. 437 and 1068.
Hxplanations of Text Figures 15-28.
Fie. 15. Estadia elongata gen. et sp. n. Front wing. No. 1112.
Fic. 16. Delopterum minutum gen. et sp. n. Front wing. No. 264.
Fic. 17. Delopterum latum sp. n. Front wing. No. 94.
Fie. 18. Hind wing, probably of one of the Lemmatophoridz. No. 1461.
Fic. 19. Hind wing, probably of small species of Hstadia, or related
genus. No. 758.
Fic. 20. Delopterum elongatum sp. n. Front wing. No. 61.
Fic. 21. Lisca minuta gen. etsp.n. No. 916. -
Fig. 22. Prisca fragilis gen. et sp. n. No. 128.
Fic. 23. Orta ovata gen. etsp.n. Front wing. No. 295.
Fie. 24. Lemmatophora typa gen. et sp. n. Front wing. No. 1162.
Fie. 25. Artinska clara gen. et sp. n. Front wing. No 115.
Fic. 26. Lecorium elongatum gen. et sp. n. No. 524,
Fic. 27. Stemma elegans gen, et sp. n. Front wing. No. 31.
Fie. 28. Lectrum anomalum. Front wing. No. 173.
Figures 15, 18, 19, and 26 enlarged five times; all other illustrations four
times natural size.
Am. Jour. Sci.—FourtH Series, Vou. XXVII, No. 158.—Frsrvuary, 1909.
12
166 E. H. Seliards—Types of Permian Insects.
Artinska major sp. n.
The sector is deeply forked. Media divides in front of the
origin of the sector. M, is simple; M, is deeply forked. Ou,
is three branched.
Length of front wing, 11™™; width, 4™™. Type, No. 1875.
Artinska extensa sp. n.
The sector is shallow forked. Media divides much in front
of the origin of the sector. M, is three branched; M, is
simple. Ou, is three branched.
Length of front wing, 10"; width, 4™™. Type, No. 28.
Kstadia gen. n.
The generic characters may be summarized as an arched
subeosta, and a radius which is bifureate and is fused for a
short distance with the first division of the media.
The front wings are elongate. The subcosta reaches two-
thirds of the length of the wing, and is strongly arched at the
base. The sector arises 3 or 4"" from the base and is fused
for a short distance with M,. Media is divided in front of the
origin of the sector. Its subsequent divisions are variable.
Cubitus, is simple. Cu, is bifurcate. The anal area is of the
usual squarose form, and is traversed by two veins. The
specific characters are taken, as in the other genera, from the
disposition of the veins of the median and cubital areas.
Lstadia elongata sp.n. ‘Text figure 15.
The radial sector is fused with M, for a distance of one milli-
meter. M, is shallow forked; M, is deeply forked. Ou, is
forked.
Length of front wing, 103°"; width, 34". Type, No. 1112.
Estadia arcuata sp. n.
The radial sector is fused with M, a distance of one-half
millimeter. M, is shallow forked while M, is deeply forked.
Cu, is two branched. :
Length of wing, 12"; width, 44"". Type, No. 412; para-
type, No. 358.
Estadia tenuis sp. n.
The sector is fused with M, a distance of not more than one-
half millimeter. M, is simple; M, is deeply forked. Cu, is
two branched. |
Length of front wing, 9™™; width, 34". Type, No. 1882;
paratype No. 1274.
E. H. Sellards—Types of Permian Insects. 167
Lecirum anomalum gen. et sp.n. Text figure 28.
The costal border of the front wing is gently arched. The
subcosta is but slightly arched at the base. The radial sector
arises in front of the middle line of the wing. The veins of
the wing are thin and not deeply impressed. Cu, is branched.
Cu, is forked, differing in this respect from all other genera of
the family.
Length of front wing, estimated, 10"; width, 3°". Type,
No. 173.
Prosaites compactus gen, et sp. n.
The front wings of species of this genus are compact, the
cross veins numerous. The radial sector is bifurcate. M, is
simple; M, is branched. Cu, and Cu, are both simple. The
sector in the type species is united with media for a short dis-
tance only.
Length of front wing, 84"" ; width, 3™™. Type, No. 628.
Prosaites secundus sp. n.
The radial sector of this species is united with M, for a dis-
tance of about one millimeter. M, is deeply forked.
Length of front wing, 83°: width, 3™. Type, No. 241.
Prisca fragilis gen. et sp. n. Text figure 22.
The front wing is elongate. The wing membrane is thin
and the veins indistinct. Thesector is simple and is united for
a short distance with M,. M,issimple. M, is bifureate. Cu,
is deeply forked. Cu, is simple.
Length of front wing about 9"; width, 3™™. Type, No. 128.
Lecorium elongatum gen. et sp.n. Text figure 26.
The front wingsareslender. ‘The sector is forked at the tip.
M, and M, areforked. Cu,isforked. Cross veins are present.
Length of front wing, 8"; width, 22°". Type, No. 524.
Ortade, family new.
This is a farnily of small insects. The front wings are elon-
gate, broadest beyond the middle. The subcosta reaches be-
yond the middle line of the wing. The radial sector is usually
two branched. The special peculiarity of this family is the
union of media and cubitus at the base of the wing. The anal
area is marked off by a thin line. Cross veins occur sparingly.
The body is small, and is shorter than the wings.
168 Lf. H. Sellards— Types of Permian Insects.
Orta ovata gen. et sp. n. Text figure 23.
The radial sector is bifureate. Media and cubitus are fused
at the base for a distance.of one to two millimeters. M, is
simple; M, is branched. Cubitus is divided at the point of
separation from media. Cu, is deeply forked. Cu, is simple.
Length of front wing, 7"; width, 8", Type, No. 295;
paratype, No. 190.
Stemma elegans gen. et sp.n. Text figure 27.
The front wings are long and very slender. The sector is
simple. Oubitus and media are united for some distance at
the base. Cu, arises as a branch vein from the united main
veins. M, is simple; M, is three branched. Cu, is bifureate
at the tip; Cu, is simple. | i
Length of front wing, 10"; width, 24™™. Type, No. 31.
Stemma extensa sp. n.
The front wing is somewhat shorter than that of the type
species. Cu, is simple.
Length of front wing, 8°"; width, 24". Type, No. 1272.
Delopteride, family new.
This is a family of small insects. The front wings are nar-
rowly elongate. The subcosta is short, rarely reaching beyond
the middle of the wing. The radial sector is one to three
branched. The ecubitus, instead of dividing early into two
main branches, continues simple until near the inner border,
there giving off one or two thin, simple inferior veins. The
anal area is marked off by a thin depressed line. Cross veins
are not numerous in any part of the wing.
The hind wings are of approximately the same length as the
front. They are probably expanded and plicated as in other
families of this group.
The body is slender. The abdomen is much shorter than
the wings.
Delopterum minutum gen. et sp.n. Text figure 16.
These are small insects. The subcosta is short. Radial sec-
tor is three branched. Media is two branched. Cubitus is
apparently simple.
Length of wing, 44"; width, 14™. Type, No. 264.
Delopterum elongatum sp.n. Text figure 20.
This is a much larger species, and may possibly be found to
be generically separable from Delopterum minutum. Cubitus
in this species is branched.
Length of front wing, 7"; width, 2"™. Type, No. 61.
Ef. H. Sellards—T ypes of Permian Insects. 169
Delopterum latum sp.n. Text figure 17.
This species is broader and slightly larger than the type
species. The sector arises very early. The sector is three
branched. A fourth branch is given off but is lost in the
wing membrane. Cubitus is branched.
Length of front wing, 5™™; width, 12™™. Type, No. 94.
Urba punctata gen. et sp. n.
This genus is characterized by a slender elongate anal area
traversed by three or four veins. The wing membrane has a
punctate appearance, due probably to the presence of short
_ spines bordering the veins. )
Length of front wing,:9"™"; width, 8"".. Type, No. 1117.
Correlation of the Insect-bearing Horizon.
The locality from which the insects described in this paper
were obtained is three and one-half miles southeast of Banner
City in Dickinson County, Kansas. The fossiliferous horizon
occurs close to the top of the Paleozoic section of this part of
the state and near the line of contact with the overlying
Cretaceous. Fossil plants are associated with the insects. The
matrix holding the fossils varies from an impure fine-grained
laminated limestone to a hard concretionary limestone. Most
of the insects were obtained from the laminated rock, while
the plants come largely from the concretionary limestone.
When the fossils were first discovered they were regarded as
probably occurring in the Marion formation.
As a result of stratigraphic studies made for the Kansas
State Geological Survey during the past summer, J. W. Beede
states that he has shown the plant and insect horizon to occur
within the Wellington shales lying next above the Marion,
and immediately under the Oretaceous. *
Aside from doubtful forms, the paper contains descriptions
of sixty species and thirty-five genera, all of which are new.
To complete the faunal list, the cockroaches, not included in this
paper, but described elsewhere, + should be added to this num-
ber. Of this family ten species, all new, have been recognized.
They are referred to two genera, one of which is new. Of
groups larger than genera the following have been recognized
in the Wellington shales: Odonata, Plecoptera, Megasecoptera,
Oryctoblattinidee, Protorthoptera, and Paleoblattide.
The order Odonata is represented in the Wellington horizon
by at least one form constituting a new genus and species. The
Odonate phylum is known as early as the Coal Measures, being
* Letter of Sept. 16, 1908.
+ Paper prepared for the Kansas State Geological Survey.
170 EY. H. Sellards—Types of Permian Insects.
somewhat abundant and including forms of an unusually large
size in the Commentry Coal Measures of France. Handlirseh
regards the Coal Measure types of Protodonates as constituting
an ordinal group of equal rank with modern Odonates. With
this classification I have been unable to agree, as the specimens,
from the Wellington shales at least, possess the essential
ordinal characters of true Odonata.
The order Plecoptera, or ephemerids, is somewhat abundant
in the Wellington shales. In Part II of this paper I have
described ten genera and thirteen species constituting a new
family of this order. Insects which appear to be prototypes
of the ephemerids exist in some abundance in the Coal Meas-
ures. Handlirsch* has recognized ephemerids as occurring ~
sparingly in the Permian of. Russia. With this exception,
true ephemerids have not previously been identified from
Paleozoic deposits. The relative abundance of this group of
insects in the Wellington shales affords an exceptionally strong
argument for the Permian age of that formation. That the
members of this group, as it occurs in the Wellington, are
provided with two pairs of fully developed wings and are
otherwise far more primitive than modern ephemerids, by no
means weakens the argument, since these are precisely the
characters to be.expected in early members of the order.
The order Megasecoptera is sparingly represented in the
Wellington shales, a single specimen having been obtained.
This order was described from Coal Measure specimens, from
which deposit alone it has been known heretofore. The
continuance of the order into the Permian, however, is not
unexpected. Aside from cockroaches, relatively few genera
of insects have been described from the Permian. ‘This fact
is sufficient to account for the previous lack of knowledge
regarding the continuance of the Megasecoptera into the Per-
mian. : :
The family Oryctoblattinide was established upon Coal
Measure and Permian forms, seven Coal Measure and two
Permian genera having been referred to the group. From the
Wellington shales two genera of this family, both new, are
described in this paper.
Protorthoptera is the predominant order of insects in the
Wellington shales. This order is recognized as common to both
Coal Measure and Permian deposits. Six families of the order
are described in this paper, all of which are new. ‘The forms
making up these six families constitute twenty genera and
forty-three species. 7
The cockroaches of the Kansas Permian have been described
in a paper now being published in the reports of the Kansas
* See Pt. IT, p. 345.
~
E. H. Sellards—Types of Permian Insects. Lid
State Geological Survey. A detailed account of the group is
therefore omitted from this paper. It has usually been observed,
in collecting from Paleozoic localities, that cockroaches exceed in
number of individuals all other insects combined. In the
Wellington shales the cockroaches are much in the minority.
A collection of something over two thousand insect specimens
was found to contain only about seventy cockroaches. From
these, two genera and ten species were identified. Of the two
genera, one is the well known Coal Measure and Permian genus
Etoblattina. The second genus is new. The ten species ob-
tained are new. The rarity of cockroaches in the Wellington
is in marked contrast to their relative abundance in most Coal
Measure and early Permian localities.
Fossil insects have been obtained from the Birmingham
shales near Steubenville and Richmond, Ohio, in the Cone-
maugh series just above the Ames or Crinoidal Limestone.
Recently reptilian remains heretofore supposed to be Permian
have been found near Pitcairn, Pennsylvania, in the red clay
below the Ames limestone.* The presence of the reptilian
remains has given rise to a question as to the age of the Cone-
maugh series. In the collection of insects from that locality,
Scudder recognized twenty-two species referable to three genera.
All of these are cockroaches, other families not having been
found at this locality. Of these twenty-two species, seventeen
were referred by Scudder to the genus Etoblattina, three to
Gerablattina, and two to Poroblattina. Of these genera
Etoblattina alone is recognized in the Wellington shales, and
as already remarked, the cockroach family is in the minority at
that locality. No one of the twenty-two species of the Rich-
mond locality has been recognized in the Wellington. On the
other hand, two of Seudder’s species, Htoblattina maladicta
and £. benedicta (regarded by the writer as a single species
and referred to Spiloblattina), have been obtained from the
Leroy (Coal Measure ) shales of Kansas.t It should be added,
however, that Handlirscht does not agree with the writer either
in uniting these two species, or in identifying them with the
specimens from the Leroy shales. Aside from the question of
discrimination of species, about which there may be differences
of opinion, the essential fact remains that a closely similar
type of wing development is seen in species from the two
localities. This type of wing venation is referred to by Scud-
der as the “remarkable openness of the neuration in the middle
of the tegmina.§ Handlirsch assigns to the cockroaches of this
*P. E. Raymond, Science, xxvi, p. 835, 1907.
+ This Journal, vol. xviii, p. 214-216, 1904.
¢ Die Fossilen Insekten, p. 240, 1906.
§ Bulletin U.S. Geol Survey No. 124, p. 12, 1895.
172 LE. H. Sellards—Types of Permian Insects.
type, family rank, the Spiloblattinide. The family as thus de- .
limited predominates at the Steubenville and Richmond local-
ities, and is known as high as the Cassville plant shales at the
base of the Dunkard series of West Virginia. It is abundant in
the Leroy shales of the Kansas Coal Measures, but has not
been recognized in the Wellington shales at the top of the Kan-
sas section. In Europe this group is reported from both
Upper Carboniferous and Lower Permian. The type genus,
Sprloblattina, was described from Fairplay, Colorado.
The Fairplay locality was placed by Scudder in the Trias.
Lesquereux maintained, however, that from the plant evidence
the formatien could not be later than Permian. With regard
to the plant material, Mr. David White states:* “The plant
and insect beds at Fairplay, referred by Doctor Scudder to the
Trias, and by Lesquereux to the Permian, can, on the evidence
of the plants, not be regarded as later than Permian, if indeed
they are above the highest Coal Measures.” The insect remains
as now interpreted are not in conflict with the plant evidence,
and certainly do not require the reference of the formation to
the Triassic.
Of the two remaining genera occurring at the Ohio locality
Etoblattina is a Coal Measure-Permian genus. Porobdlattina
is found at Fairplay, Colorado, and in the upper Carboniferous
and Lower Permian of Europe. The insect remains thus far
obtained do not therefore permit a close correlation of the
Birmingham shales with the Kansas section. It seems prob-
able, however, that that formation is of somewhat later age
than the Leroy shales of the Kansas Coal Measures.
A number of insects have been obtained, principally by
Mr. R. D. LaCoe from the Cassville plant shales at Cassville,
West Virginia. This horizon hes at the base of the Dunkard
series variously regarded as Permian or as Permo-Carbon-
iferous, and occurs, according to I. C. White, some six hun-
dred feet in the stratigraphic column above the Birmingham
shales. In the collections from the Cassville locality, Scudder
recognized fifty-six species referable to five genera all of which
are cockroaches. I have been unable to recognize in the Wel-
lington shales the presence of any one of the fifty-six species
occurring at the Cassville locality, and only one genus Etoblat-
tina is common to the two horizons. The predominance of
the cockroach fauna together with the absence of such advanced
types as true ephemerids, leads to the view that the Cassville
locality, although possibly Permian, is much older than the
Wellington shales of the Kansas section.
Among the few insects obtained fr om the Permian for-
mation of Russia, Handlirsch recognizes, as previously stated,
*U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. xxix, pp. 667, 1906.
E. H. Sellards— Types of Permian Insects. 173
the occurrence of true ephemerids. The Russian deposits have
also yielded forms regarded as representing Paleohemiptera
and Mantoide.* These last two groups have not been recog-
nized in the Kansas Permian. The presence of the ephemerids,
however, forms a strong tie in common between the insects of
the Russian and the Kansas Permian.
The insects of the Wellington are on the average of small
size as compared with Coal Measure insects. This is particu-
larly noticeable among the cockroaches, all of which are small.
This dwarfing of the fauna is of interest as probably indicat-
ing unfavorable climatic conditions.
The Geological Relations of the Associated Plants.
Plants, as previously stated, are associated with the insects
at the Banner City locality. A paper describing the plants
from this horizon is being published by the Kansas Geo-
logical Survey. In the writer’s opinion, the plant fossils
indicate unequivocally the Permian age of the formation from
which they come. The evidence as to the age of the Wel-
lington shales, derived from the flora, is thus summarized in
the report referred to; “More than two-thirds of the Welling-
ton species are either identical with or most closely related to
species or genera characteristic of the European Permian.
The points which seem to have: the most importance as
bearing on correlation of the Wellington are the following:
(1) The complete absence from the Wellington of species in
any way confined to or distinctive. of the Coal Measures.
(2) The comparatively small number of species originating as
early as Upper Coal Measure time. (3) The presence of a
few species common to and characteristic of the Permian of
Europe. (4) The close relation of the new forms to species
characteristic of the European Permian. (5) The distinctly
Permian facies of the flora as a whole and its marked advance
over the flora of the Upper Coal Measures.
The advance in the flora consists in the number of species
and in the abundance of individuals of callipterid and teeniop-
terid ferns, and of the new fern genus, Glenopteris, which
appears to be related, on the one hand, to callipterid ferns of
Permian types, and, on the other, to the Triassic genera
Cycadopteris and Lomatopteris. |
The evidence derived from the fossil plants as a whole
seems to assure the reference of the Wellington to the true
Permian in the European sense.”
This conclusion drawn from the plant fossils is now fully
confirmed by the evidence derived from the insects.
* Die Fossilen Insekten, 348, 1906.
174 G. Hdgar
Lodometric Estimation of Vanadic Acid.
Arr. X.—Zhe Lodometric Estimation of Vanadie Acid,
Chromic Acid and Iron in the Presence of One Another ;
by Granam Enear.
[Contributions from the Kent Chemical Laboratory of Yale Univ.—exciv. |
In a previous paper from this laboratory* it has been shown
that vanadic and chromic acids may be estimated in the presence —
of one another by a process based upon the differential reducing
action of hydrobromic and hydriodic acids. The present paper
will show that the use of processes of differential reduction
may be extended to the estimation of three constituents; in the
present case, vanadie acid, chromic acid and iron. —
A preliminary investigation was made in order to determine
whether vanadic¢ acid and iron might be estimated iodometrically
by distillation, first with hydrobromic acid and last with hydri-
odie acid, the liberated halogen being absorbed in potassium
iodide and determined after each distillation. In the first dis-
tillation the vanadic acid should be reduced to the tetroxide,
according to the equation,
VO, + 2HBr = V,O, + H,O + Br,.
In the second distillation, the vanadium tetroxide should be
reduced to trioxide and the ferric salt to ferrous salt, according
to the equation,
V,O, + Fe,O, + 4HI = V,O, + 2FeO + 2H,O + 2I,.
It is evident that both constituents may be calculated from
the amount of halogen liberated in the two reductions.
Experiments upon solutions of sodium vanadate and ferric
chloride, carried out in the manner to be described later, gave
the results shown in Table (1). |
If this process be carried out in the presence of chromic
acid the reduction by hydrobromice acid should proceed accord-
ing to the equation,
V,O, + 2CrO, + 8HBr = V,O, + Cr,O, + 4H,O + 4Br,,
while the reduction by hydriodic acid should proceed as before,
according to the equation,
V,O, + Fe,O, + 4HI = V,0O,+2FeO + 2H,0 +92I,.
If the halogen liberated in the two reductions be separately ©
determined, we have two equations, the first giving the sum of
the vanadic and chromic acids, and the second giving the sum
of the vanadic acid and the iron; the halogen liberated by the
vanadium being the same in each case. If then either the
vanadium, iron or chromium be estimated separately, we obtain
a third equation, from which, with the aid of the first two, all
three constituents may be calculated.
In this investigation an attempt was made to estimate the
vanadium in a separate portion of the solution by reduction
* Edgar, this Journal, xxvi, p. 333, 1908. -
G. Edgar—lodometrice Estimation of Vanadie Acid. 175
with sulphur dioxide, boiling out the excess of reagent, adding
barium chloride to precipitate the sulphuric acid formed, and
then subjecting the solution to distillation with hydriodic
acid. The chromic acid and the iron being already reduced
by the sulphur dioxide, it is evident that the iodine liberated
in the distillation should correspond to a reduction of vanadium-
tetroxide to trioxide. This process, however, yielded faulty
results, due, as was ascertained, to the formation of some dithi-
onic acid during the treatment with sulphur dioxide. —
Another attempt was made to treat the residue after distil-
lation with hydriodic acid with an excess of standard iodine
solution and make alkaline with sodium bicarbonate, the excess
of iodine to be afterwards determined with standard arsenious
acid. In this process the vanadium trioxide should be oxidized
to pentoxide and the ferrous salt to ferric salt, thus yielding
the necessary data for the third equation. This method
was found to be unavailable, owing to the fact that in the
presence of the bulky precipitate of chromic and ferric hydrox-
ides the vanadium is reoxidized very slowly by iodine.
The method which finally proved successful was the esti-
mation of the chromic acid in a separate portion by a modifi-
cation of Browning’s method of reduction with standard arseni-
ous acid.*
The experiments to be described were made upon mixtures
in varying proportions of solutions of sodium vanadate, potas-
sium bichromate and ferric chloride; the entire process in
detail being the following : |
(1). The solution, of about fifty cubic centimeters volume,
was divided into two equal parts, one of which was placed in a
distillation flask. To this, one to two grams of potassium
bromide were added, together with twenty-five cubic centi-
meters of concentrated hydrochloric acid, and the mixture was
distilled until a volume of about twenty-five cubic centimeters
was reached, the reduction having always been found to be
complete in that time. The bromine liberated was absorbed in
alkaline potassium iodide, and, after cooling and acidifying, the
iodine liberated was estimated by titration with approximately
tenth normal sodium thiosulphate. The results are given in
(I), Table (II). .
(II). The absorption apparatus was replaced, and after the
addition to the solution in the distillation flask of one gram of
potassium iodide, ten cubic centimeters of concentrated hydro-
chloric acid and three to five cubic centimeters of syrupy phos-
phorie acid, distillation was again carried on until a volume
of ten cubic centimeters had been reached; the iodine thus
liberated being estimated as before. The results are given
under (II), Table (II).
* This Journal, vol. i, p. 35, 1896.
176 G. Edgar—TLodometric Estimation of Vanadie Acid.
(III). In the second halt of the original solution the chromic
acid was estimated by adding sulphuric acid to slight acidity,
three cubic centimeters of syrupy phosphoric acid and an
amount of standard arsenious acid in excess of that required to
effect the reduction of the chromic acid. After standing for
fifteen to twenty minutes the solution was made alkaline with
sodium bicarbonate, and an excess of standard iodine solution —
was added. This was allowed to stand in astoppered flask for
from one half hour to an hour, the excess of iodine being then
removed with arsenious acid and the solution titrated to color
with iodine after the addition of starch.
The use of phosphoric acid causes the iron to be precipitated
as phosphate, and thus the difficulty mentioned by Browning*
in observing the end-point, due to the reddish-brown ferric
hydroxide, is in large measure obviated, the blue of the starch
iodide being quite clear against the pale green chromic hydrox-
ide. The results are given in (III), Table (II).
The first step in the calculation is the reduction to terms of
tenth normal solution of the figures under (L), (IL) and (IID).
It is evident that the subtraction of (III) from (1) gives the
number of cubic centimeters corresponding to reduction of the
vanadium pentoxide to tetroxide, while the subtraction of this
result from (II) gives the number equivalent to the reduction
of the ferric salt. By multiplying these figures by the solutions’
equivalents of vanadie acid, chromic acid and ferric oxide, the
necessary data are obtained. An example will make this
clearer :
em? N/10 factor em?
(No. 1) (I) 31°15 x 1:100 = 34:26 (N/10) = V,O, + CrO,
(II) 23:4 x 1:100 = 25°74 (N/10) = V,O, + Fe,O,
IIL 30:00 — 8°74 (N/10) = 21°26 (N/10) = CrO,
(1)—(IIL) (34:26 — 21°26) = 13°00 em, == VeO)
(1I)-13°00 (25°74 — 13-00) = 12-74cem* = FeO,
21°26 X 0°003334 (factor for CrO,) = 0:0709 grm. CrO, found.
13°00 X 0:00912 (factor for V,O,) = 0:1185 grm. V,O, found.
12°74 X 0:00799 (factor for Fe,O,) = 0°1018 grm. Fe,O, found.
The distillation flask used im this work will be briefly de-
scribed. It consisted of a 100°™* pipette modified as shown in
fig. (1), the inlet tube being bent upwards and having a separ-
atory funnel sealed to its end, while the outlet tube was bent
upwards and then down to enter the absorption flask ; a small
bulb being blown in it to prevent mechanical loss during distil-
lation. In carrying out the process a slow current of hydro- |
gen from a Kipp generator was kept up through the apparatus,
and this entering near the bottom of the flask enabled distil-
lation to be carried to very small volume without danger of
* Loc. cit.
G. Hagar —Todometric Estimation of Vanadie Acid. 177
“bumping.” The flask is similar in design to that used by
Professor Gooch for the determination of boric acid and has
been convenient and serviceable not only for this but for
other processes involving distillation; it being very simple
and doing away with the necessity of ground glass connections.
Summary.
It has been shown that vanadic acid, chromic acid and iron
may be accurately estimated in the presence of one another by
an lodometric process based upon the differential reducing
action of hydrobromic and hydriodic acids, upon the substances
in question; one constituent, the chromium, being estimated
in a separate portion by reduction with arsenious acid.
TABLE (1).
(1) (ID)
N/10x N/10~x
Taken Found Error Taken Found Error -9968 *Y968
V.0; ¥,0; Vs50; Fe.0; Fe,03 Fe.,0O; Na.S.03 Na.S.03
grm. grm. germ. germ. erm. erm. em?, cm?.
071532 0°1532 +0°0000 0°1515 0°1515 +0°:0000 16°85 35°88
0°15382 0°1532 +0°0000 0°1515 0:1518 +0-°0003 16°85 35°91
Giae2 0-153) ~-—0-0001 0:1515 0-15 18. ; 40-0003 16°84 35°90
071532 071531 —0-0001 01515 0°1516 +0:0001 16°84 35°88
071532 0°1535 +0°0004 0°1010 0'1001 —0:0009 16°89 29°46
0°1532 0°1533 +0°0001 0°1010 0°1007 —0°0003 16°86 29°50
0°0511 0°0509 —0°0002 071515 0°1516 +0°0001 5°60 24°64
00511 070511 +0°0000 0°1515 0°1515 +0°0000 5°62 24°65
0°2042 0°2045 +0°0003 0°0505 0°0502 —0-0003 22°50 28°80
0°2042 0°2042 +0°0000 0°0505 0:°0505 +0:0000 29°47 28°82
°
@
178 G. Edgar—lLodometric Estimation of Vanadie Ac
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Bradley— Composition of the Mineral Warwickite. 179
Arr. XI.—On the Analysis and Chemical Composition of
the Mineral Warwickite; by W. M. Bravery.
Historical. The mineral warwickite was first described by
Shepard* in 1838 and again more fully in 1839; in the latter
article he describes his method of analysis. Shepard named
the new species warwickite, after the original locality, War-
wick, Orange Co., N. Y. The mineral was found in limited
quantity as small, slender crystals, imbedded in a highly erys-
talline white limestone. It had earlier been called hypersthene
on account of the brilliant copper-red reflections afforded by
its cleavage surfaces. At a second occurrence found by Young
and Horton in the vicinity of the first, pieces about half an
inch in diameter were obtained. These latter crystals lacked
the copper-red luster characteristic of those from the first-
mentioned locality, and were in a more or less decomposed
condition.
From a qualitative analysis Shepard concluded that war-
wickite was a fluo-titanate of iron and manganese with a small
percentage of yttrium. His results, however, were shown
later (cf. Smith, noted below) to be erroneous and need not be
discussed here.
In 1846, Huntt published an article on a supposed new spe-
cies from Warwick, N. Y., which he called enceladite. The
material analyzed (1, below) was the impure altered warwickite
examined by Shepard, as Hunt himself recognized later. His —
second analysis (II, below) was made on a purer specimen but
showed a loss of nearly 20 per cent, which he attributed to
an accident. Hunt’s analyses are as follows:
I IE
Bist 28 - 18°50 ey
BOL Fe 28°20 31°50
MeO a 32s) 2 10°59 Heese: seth eee 8°10
BESO) on Set | 22°20 43°50
rs a. 13°84 ae
DG Sees 1°30 eee
| 5G Weep aieete 7°35 Tenitions 2222 2°00
101°98
After the completion of Hunt’s analyses several years
elapsed before further work was done on this mineral. About
1853, Brush and Smith, then engaged in the re-examination
* This Journal (1), xxxiv, 313, 1838, xxxvi, 85, 1839.
+ This Journal (2), ii, 30, 1846. ¢{ Ibid., xi, 852, 1851.
180 Lradley— Composition of the Mineral Warwickite.
of American minerals, pointed out that warwickite possessed
a peculiar composition altogether different from what had
been supposed, and that the pure mineral had not yet been
analyzed. When the mineral had been subjected by the
gentlemen named to a careful qualitative analysis, it was
found to their great surprise to contain a large amount of borie
acid, hitherto overlooked, so that it was to be considered as a
boro-titanate of magnesia and iron. The quantitative analysis
undertaken by Smith was made with difficulty because of the
small amount of material available and from the fact that
minute crystals of spinel penetrated those of warwickite.
Smith, however, was finally satisfied that the results obtained
expressed the true composition. The specific gravity obtained
(Brush) was 3°362, and Smith’s analysis is as follows:
Oxygen Ratio
BOL Reith Sees ae 27°80 19°06 9
ATOR E> age. soy 23°82 10°37 5)
NT Oe oes eae 36°80 14°46 6
MeO given ee 7:02 2°10 1
SILOM G fala bee eae 1-00
PO Rp ee eee 2°21
98°65
Smith regarded. the silica and alumina as impurities, the
latter arising from the spinel that it had been impossible to
separate ; this, with a little of the magnesia, he deducted in
making out the oxygen ratio from which he derived the
formula:
6MgO .1FeO. 2Ti0, . 3B,0,,.
Method of Analysis.—The material used for the present
analysis was obtained from the Brush collection and came from
Amity, N. Y., where this mineral is found as a characteristic
associate of the granite contacts of the region. The warwick-
ite occurs in minute slender crystals showing the copper-red
reflections of the cleavage surfaces which is so characteris-
tic of the pure mineral. It is found in a coarsely crystalline
white limestone, intimately associated with a greenish blue
spinel, black spinel, magnetite, serpentine, chondrodite and
occasional scales of graphite. The limestone rock containing
the minute crystals of warwickite was crushed to small frag-
ments and these small pieces, which contained some of the
mineral, were carefully selected by means of a glass. This
material was again crushed and prepared for treatment with
heavy solutions. Potassium mercuric iodide solution, having
when concentrated a specific gravity of 3°15, was first used to
separate the greater part of the calcite and. serpentine. The
Bradley— Composition of the Mineral Warwickite. 181
- final separation was made by means of barium mercuric lodide
with a specific gravity of 3°55.
Considerable difficulty was caused by the presence of a
greenish blue glassy spinel which in the solution closely
resembled the grains of warwickite, but by repeated treat-
ment with the heavy solution the latter was obtained in a quite
pure condition. The material was further purified by the action
of an electromagnet which helped to remove some of the
- remaining foreign material. Finally by means of a very power-
ful glass the few remaining grains of the associated minerals
were as far as possible removed. The final sample obtained
amounted to a little over two grams and was quite uniform in
character.
The specific gravity, determined by means of the barium
mercuric iodide solution and a Westphal balance, was found
to be 3°342; this is practically the same as that given by
Brush, viz.: 3°351 for small fragments.
Owing to the limited amount of material available for
analysis it was desirable to determine the main constituents,
B,O,, TiO,, MgO and total iron in one portion. After
repeated fusions of the mineral with sodium carbonate the
resulting cake was soaked out and the liquid decanted through
a filter, the residue being thoroughly boiled with 25° of
sodium carbonate solution and transferred to the filter and
finally washed with dilute sodium carbonate solution. The
filtrate containing the boron was transferred to a distilling
bulb and the determination of boron made by distilling with
methyl alcohol, the distillate being collected in ammonium
hydroxide and finally evaporated over calcium oxide. The
residue left in the bulb after distillation contained a trace of
titanium which was recovered and added to the main solution
previous to the precipitation of the titanium. The residue
from the sodium carbonate fusion was brought into solution
by prolonged fusion with acid potassium sulphate, and the
resulting cake dissolved in cold water to which had been
added strong SO, water. The solution was then largely
diluted and rather strongly acidified with acetic acid; the
titanium precipitation being made in the presence of sodium
acetate and brought about by boiling the solution from three
to five minutes, strong SO, water being added before the boil-
ing point was reached. The precipitate was then filtered and
washed with dilute acetic acid and finally weighed as TiO,,.
-Some of the details of the above briefly outlined method are
those recommended by Warren.*
The filtrate from the precipitation of titanium was concen-
trated and a very small precipitate was collected and added to
* This Journal (4), xxv, 23, 1908.
Am. Jour. Sci.—Fourtn Series, Vou. XXVII, No. 158.—Frpruary, 1909.
18
182 Bradley—-Composition of the Mineral Warwickite.
the main precipitate before igniting. A trace of iron was also
precipitated at this point, and this together with a mere trace
retained by the main titanium precipitate was recovered by
fusing the TiO, with acid potassium sulphate and a volumetrie
determination for iron was made in the usual way with
KMnO,. The filtrate from the titanium precipitation con-
taining the iron in the ferrous state was treated with nitric
acid to oxidize the iron, and hydrochloric acid added to form
enough ammonium chloride to keep the magnesium in solution,
when ammonium hydroxide was added to precipitate the iron,
etc. Double precipitations of the hydroxides were made and
the weight of the mixed oxides obtained. The oxides were
then fused with acid potassium sulphate, and the total iron
determined as usual by titration with KMnO,. Traces of
titanium retained by the precipitate of ferric hydroxide were
determined where present by the colorimetric method and
corrections for both iron and titanium were made. ‘The
amount of the alumina present was as usual arrived at by
difference. The filtrate from the ammonium hydroxide pre-
cipitation served for the determination of magnesium, which
was precipitated as ammonium magnesium phosphate. This
was then dissolved, reprecipitated ‘and filtered on a Gooch
erucible and finally weighed as magnesium pyrophosphate.
The determination of ferrous iron was made by dissolving the
mineral in a mixture of hydrofluoric and sulphuric acids, and
finally titrating with KMnO,, the modifications of Pratt*
being used throughout the above operation.
The results of the analysis follow :—
I II Average Ratios
BiOe re oe ey 21°36 21-29 "304 "304
MiOe 2 25206 24°66 24°86 310 eee
SIOet) os ee Nl lp 1°32 1:39 0228
MrO> 2 85e4 36°01 Siem ‘84 eee
MéOy so. 22 28k 9:20 9°15 127 pa
We OL Aen 4°76 4°76 0297
AOR S295 2°87 2°91 0284
99°96 100°18 10007
The amounts of sesquioxides found are comparatively small
and the ratios obtained from them have no rational relation to
those obtained from the percentages of the other constituents.
Disregarding the Fe,O, and A1,O, for the present, it will be »
seen that the other constituents yield,
50... Ti0.2(Meg, Ke)O= 11-0042 2325.
* This Journal (3), xlviii, 149, 1894.
Bradley— Composition of the Mineral Warwickite. 183
This would point to B,O, . TiO, . 3(Mg, Fe)O as the formula
for the mineral. Since, however, a glassy green spinel is so
intimately associated with the warwickite and its separation
from it, both on account of its closely similar specitic gravity,
and because under the microscope it assumes an almost metallic
appearance, it is thought reasonable to assign the 2°91 per cent
of Al,O, found to its presence in the material analyzed. This
assumption would necessitate the subtraction of an equivalent
amount of MgO as required by the formula MgO. A],O,.
Qualitative and quantitative tests on this spinel have proven it
to correspond essentially to the variety known as chlorospinel,
in which a little of the Al,O, is replaced by Fe,O,. In this
particular spinel there was found 8°92 per cent of Fe,O,, and
corrections for this isomorphous Fe,O, introduced into the
-warwickite analysis by means of this spinel have been accord-
ingly made.
The presence of magnetite associated with the warwickite
was proven by testing the impure material by the ordinary
magnet. If, as is possible, it was intimately mingled with the
warwickite it would be difficult to entirely separate it, as the
warwickite itself is attracted easily by the electro-magnet. It
seems reasonable therefore to assume that the greater part of
the Fe,O, found was contained in magnetite, and that an
equivalent amount of FeO to correspond to FeO . Fe,O, should
be deducted from the analysis. Treating the analysis in this
way we have the following results:
Calculated
Average Spinel Magnetite IIL to 100 Ratio
B,O, 21°29 22 eo Sue ew OAL! mk
TiO, 24°86 24°86 27°87 — °347 1090
SiO, 1°39 ° 1°39 Oem O25
MgO 35°71 —— 26 34°48 38°63 =*957 3-134
FeO 9°15 aloe) 7°20 SO ealel 2 t
Fe,O, 4°76 — 42 —4°34
Al,O, 2°91 —2-9 1
100°07 89°19 100°00
The ratios from the corrected analysis yield B,O, . TiO, .
3( Mg, Fe)O as before, but with sharper agreement between the
theoretical and derived numbers. The formula for warwickite
can then be written,
(Mg, Fe). TiB,O,
which could be developed into a symmetrical structural for-
mula as follows :—
184. Bradley— Composition of the Mineral Warwickite.
The theoretical composition corresponding to this formula
would be
BO)? 25 9725-84
TiOs y= 20 54
3MgO = 44-65
100-00
In conelusion, the author here wishes to thank Professor
W. E. Ford for his kind advice and assistance.
Mineralogical Laboratory of the
Sheffield Scientific School of Yale University,
New Haven, Conn., June, 1908.
Chemistry and Physics. 185
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
I. CHEmistRyY AND Puysics.
1. The Question of Change in Total Weight of Chemically
Reacting Substances.—H. Lanpour has devoted many years of
the most painstaking work in investigating the weights of sub-
stances in closed glass vessels before and after they were mixed
to produce chemical reactions. In 1893 he published his first
paper on the subject, in which he described work with reactions
between silver sulphate and ferrous sulphate, iodic acid and
hydriodic acid, iodine and sodium sulphite, and chloral hydrate
and alkali. As a result of these researches he was unable to
establish with certainty any change in the total weight, but it
appeared that the separation of silver and of iodine were accom-
panied by a slight loss in weight, so that the work was continued.
In 1896 results were described, obtained with a balance of great
precision, and with the use of much care, in which it was found
that a loss was indicated, where silver or iodine were set free, in
42 out of 54 separate experiments. The changes in weight
resulting from the use of 60 to 120 g. of reacting mass varied
usually between ‘003 and -050 mg., and were often less than the
estimated maximum error of ‘(03 mg. At this time it appeared
to Landolt that these losses in weight, although small, were real,
and he suggested the view, which was supported by the doctrine
of the decomposition of radio-active atoms, that the violent shock
which the atoms receive in chemical reactions might possibly
cause the splitting off of minute particles of matter in the case of
elements not belonging to the radio-active class, and that these
might possess the property of penetrating the walls of glass ves-
sels. Landolt has now published the results of additional, very
elaborate, work on the same subject. He has explained fully
the cause of former losses in weight in the fact that glass vessels
which have been slightly heated by the chemical reaction within
often do not return to their proper weight until after the lapse of
a week or more, and he reaches the conclusion that in all of the
15 chemical reactions studied by him, no change in the total
weight of the reacting substances has been established. This
conclusion is of much importance in deciding the question,
whether or not the atomic weights are of constant magnitude, for
there appears to be no doubt that the force of gravity acts upon
an atom to the same extent in any state of combination.—
Zeitschr. physikal. Chem., \xiv, 581. ED, 1.) We
2. The Volume of Radium Emanation.—Professor RutTHEr-
FORD has recently made some measurements of the volume of the
gaseous emanation produced by radium. For this work the
Royal Academy of Science in Vienna put at his disposal a prepa-
ration containing about 250 mg. of pure radium. Much difti-
186 Scientific Intelligence.
culty was encountered in purifying the gas, and the results
varied to a considerable extent. The following table gives
examples of the amounts of emanation in equilibrium with 1 g,
of radium :
At the beginning At the end
of the experiment of the experiment
1°32°¢ mm 0°80° mm
OFsOr* Moe
O07" s 066) “
T:O0dae" 0°58
These results, considering the difficulties encountered, agree
fairly well with the volume, 0°57°™™, which Rutherford has eal-
culated theoretically, and the lowest result is only one-ninth of
the volume, 7°:07°™™, found by Ramsay and Cameron some time
ago. The gas underwent remarkable changes in volume after it
was collected. In some instances it contracted to less than half
its volume in the course of several hours, and then showed little
change in the course of a week. In other cases an increase in
volume was shown to double that of the original gas, and then a
slow contraction followed. :These changes in volume, in many
cases, bear no relation to the changes in volume of the emanation
itself, for the true volume of the emanation was often only 20
per cent of the total gas volume. The author finds no satisfac-
tory explanation: for these remarkable changes in volume.-—
Monatshefte, xxix, 995. Hy Eee We
3. A New Method for Separating Tungstic and Silicie Oxides—
Derracgz treats the mixed acids in a boat at a red heat with a
current of hydrogen until the tungsten is completely reduced to
a lower oxide or to the metal. Then the boat is heated in a tube,
so arranged as to collect the volatile products, in a current of
perfectly dry chlorine gas. If air is absent the whole of the
tungsten is volatilized as hexachloride and oxychloride. The
volatile products are collected by means of ammonliacal water
and the tungsten is determined by one of the usual methods. The
silica in the boat is weighed after heating it in hydrogen again to
make sure, by the absence of any blackening, that the separation
is complete. — Bulletin, TV, iii, 892. H, L. W.
4, A Silicide of Uranium. ” Duracaz has prepared the com-
pound 8i,U by the aluminothermic method, using finely divided
aluminium, flowers of sulphur, silica, and uranium oxide in proper
proportions. The silicide forms a brilliant crystalline powder
with metallic luster. It is interesting to notice that the author
has prepared in the same way analogous silicides of molybdenum
and tungsten, Si,Mo and Si, W, and that these silicides all corre-
spond in type to the silicides of the iron group of metals having
the general formula Si,M.— Comptes Rendus, cxlvii, 1050.
H, L. W.
5. A New Periodic Function of the Atomic Weight.—ViKkToR
Poscut takes the percentage composition of the earth’s crust as
Chemistry and Physics. 187
calculated by F. W. Clarke, and by using these percentages
as ordinates and the corresponding atomic weights as abscissas,
shows that there is evidence of periodicity in the abundance of
the elements. The curve which is carried only as far as nickel
shows four maxima at oxygen, silicon, calcium and iron, and is
regular enough to be very suggestive and interesting.—Zeitschr.
physikal. Chem., \xiv, 707. H. L. W.
6. Velocity of Réntgen Rays; also their Influence on the
Brush Discharge.—Ericu Marx has previously measured the
velocity of these rays (Ann. der Phys., xx, p. 677, 1906) by a
null method, and in order to justify his use of the method he
employed follows with another paper which is devoted to the
theory of the method. He discusses various phenomena of the
rays which come into prominence in his method, and naturally
treats also of ionization.—Ann. der Physik, No. 1, 1909, pp. 37-
56, 153-174. Jena
7. Radiation of Uranium X.—Uranium X was obtained by
the Moore-Schlundt and Becquerel method. HEtNricu WiLLy
SCHMIDT gives with many details the results of his investigation
of the radiation of this substance.
(1) The hard B-rays gave
V=2 76102 em. secre
e /m=0°67'10" E.M.E.
(2) The soft rays are absorbed by aluminium according to an
exponential law, and are deviated in a magnetic field in the
manner of negative particles.
(3) The curves of absorption, in different substances, varies
much with the distribution of the radiation.
(4) An under limit is given for the absolute value of the
reflection of the B-rays for very thick plates. The absolute
value of the reflected radiation is greater for the hard B-rays
than for the soft rays.—Physikal. Zeitschrift, Jan. 1, 1909, pp.
6-16. : Vo dle
8. Infiuence of Self Induction on Spark Spectra.—G. BERNDT
contends that the criticisms of Néculcéa and Hemsalech on
his investigation of the influence of self induction on spark
spectra (Diss. Halle, 1901) do not consider the factor of time
of exposure of the photographic plate, for the introduction
of self induction greatly weakens the intensity of the spark.—
Physikal. Zeitschrift, Jan. 1, 1909, pp. 28-29. Jeers
9. Lonization of Gases, by Spark and Arc.—lIt is known that
gases subjected to high temperatures in the neighborhood of
electric sparks or the electric arc preserve their increased con-
ductibility much longer than gases subjected to ultra-violet light,
X-rays, or a- and B-rays. Hetnrica Ravscn, in a preliminary
paper, investigates this property with a number of gases, among
which were ordinary lighting gas, acetylene, hydrogen, carbu-
retted hydrogen. He found a very long persistence of conducti-
bility in lighting gas and acetylene.— Physikal. Zeitschrift, Oct.
25, 1908. Te
188 Scventific Intelligence.
10. Investigations in Radiation.—The recently issued number
of the Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards (vol. v, No. 2) con-
tains two articles on radiation to which attention should be called
here. The first, by W. W. Cosientz, gives the result of experi-
ments on the selective radiation from various solids. This is
practically an examination of the emission spectra of electrical
insulators, or transparent media, as they are called; a line in
which, thus far, almost no work has been done. ‘The substances
used were either in the form of solid rods, made in an oxy-hydro-
gen flame, or of thick layers of the substance spread as a paste
upon the heater of a Nernst lamp. The rods were heated by an
electric current from the secondary of a 2000-volt 300-watt trans-
former. The substances examined included a series of oxides,
as those of zirconium, cerium, thorium, uranium, ete. ; also the
minerals oligoclase, albite, orthoclase, beryl, rutile, apatite, cal-
cite. All of these showed prominent emission bands at certain
points; thus the oxides have a characteristic band at 2°8 to 3
and a second group of bands at 4°5 to 54, which may be due to
the common element oxygen. The silicates have also a sharp
emission band at 2°94 characteristic of SiO,. In the case of oligo-
clase it is noted that the general emission, in distinction from the
bands of selective emission, is less intense than in the other
silicates studied. Further, the isochromatics of oligoclase are
peculiar in that for it the emissivity is proportional to the energy
consumed.
A second article, by P. G. Nurrine, is an important discus-
sion of the luminous equivalent of radiation, from the standpoint
of both objective and subjective light and with especial reference
to the establishment of a more precise relation between hght and
its radiation, by which it can be alone measured.
Il. Grotoey.
1. United States Geological Survey, Twenty-ninth Annual
Report, 1907-1908, of the Director, GrorcE Otis SuitH. Pp.
v, 99, with two plates.—This report contains a statement of the
work done by the various divisions of the Survey during the fis-
cal year ending June 30, 1908. The freedom from political
influence, the efficiency, and the high scientific esprit de corps
which have marked the Geological Survey since its origin have
caused it to be intrusted with various added branches of work
which after a period of development have been organized as sepa-
rate bureaus, This is the history of the Forest Service and the
Reclamation Service. The technologic branch has had a more
recent inception and the question is now under consideration by
Congress as to the advisability of its development into a separate
bureau of mining technology. Such a bureau would supplement,
along purely technologic lines, the geologic work of the Survey,
and the two bureaus could codperate in investigations carried on
Geology. 189
in behalf of the mining industry. A new branch of the Survey’s
activity which has taken form during the past year is the classifi-
cation of Government coal lands, 22,700 square miles being
classified and valued. This work is a result of the movement for
conservation of National resources; a movement which in turn
has been able to take intelligent form, as well as popularity,
largely as a result of the more purely scientific labors of the Sur-
vey since its organization. The work of the Survey is thus seen
to fall into two main divisions, work of a broad scope along
fundamental lines, whose great value and utility may only
become widely evident after the passage of decades, and work of
immediate utility to meet the demands of the people and of
Congress. The Survey is to be congratulated on having per-
sistently followed work of both divisions.
During the year the geologic branch published 9 geologic
folios, 1 monograph, 2 professional papers, 18 bulletins and the
annual volume on Mineral Resources. Mention of the important
results cannot here be made. The topographic branch mapped
25,658 square miles, making the total area surveyed to date in
the United States 1,051,126 square miles, or about 35 per cent.
In Alaska 6,626 square miles were mapped, mostly on the scale
of 1:250,000. Important work by the water-resources branch
was done in the lines of stream-flow and ground-water investiga-
tions, and investigations regarding the quality and pollutions of
waters.
The entire appropriation for the Survey was $1,445,020, of
which $300,000 was expended for topographic surveys and
$200,000 for geologic surveys. J. B.
2. Geological Survey of New Jersey: Henry B. Kummet,
State Geologist, Franklin Furnace Folio.—There has recently
been issued by the Geological Survey of New Jersey in coéperation
with the United States Geological Survey, a geologic folio of the
Franklin Furnace region in Sussex County. This locality is one
of the richest mineral regions in the world, alike important
economically for its enormous zinc deposits at Mine Hill and
Sterling Hill, and no less scientifically for the number and variety
of its mineral species. In addition to the zine minerals, over
ninety well defined species are known from this locality, and
eleven of these have not been found elsewhere. The region
contains also extremely valuable deposits of white crystalline
limestone and magnetic iron-ores.
In the descriptive text of this folio, the geography, geology and
geologic history of this region are fully described. Complete
information is given regarding the mineral deposits, and maps
and cross sections show the location and shape of the valuable
ore bodies. ‘he folio may be obtained from the State Geologist,
Trenton, N. J., price 25 cents, postage 15. cents additional.
3. A Sketch of the Geography and Geology of the Himalaya
Mountains and Tibet ; by Colonel 8S. G. Burrarp, R.E., F.RS.,
Superintendent, Trigonometrical Surveys, and H. H. Haypesn,
190 Scientific Intelligence.
B.A., F.G.S., Superintendent, Geological Survey of India. Pp.
230, pls. 37. Calcutta, 1907.—The three parts of this valuable
monograph which have thus far been issued deal comprehen-
sively with the geography of the Himalayas and to a less extent
with the geography of all the great mountains of central Asia.
Part I, on “The High Peaks of Asia” (46 pp., 8 pls.), by Col.
Burrard, gives abundant statistics as to the height and distribu-
tion of the 75 known peaks which exceed 24,000 feet in height.
From an interesting chapter upon errors in observations of
altitude it appears that even in the case of the most accurately
measured peaks the figures usually given are liable to an error of
from 100 to 300 feet. In part II, on “The Principal Mountain
Ranges of Asia,” pp. 47-117, pls. 9-22, Col. Burrard describes in
detail the various ranges, and shows how they originate in broad
uplifts along axes which are generally parallel, but which often
bifurcate or coalesce, and less frequently meet at right angles.
A noteworthy chapter discusses observations with the plumb-line
and pendulum which indicate that a concealed mass of excep-
tionally heavy material lies beneath the plains of India far
from, but parallel to, the Himalayas and their fast-growing
subsidiary range, the Siwaliks. In part III, on “The Rivers of
Himalaya and Tibet” (pp. 118-230, pls. 23-37), the main
streams are classified according to both location and size. ‘They
are described with the same clearness and care which are given to
the description of the peaks and ranges. Attention is frequently
called to the marked disagreement between divides and mountain
ranges, It is the exception for a main divide to correspond with
a main range. ‘The Indus river zigzags back and forth three
times across the great Ladakh range. In the Hindu Kush region
part of the streams flow northward across the main range ; while
others cross it in the opposite direction flowing south ward.
Numerous other evidences indicate the young stage of the
mountains and plateaus and the lack of adjustment of drainage to
geologic structure. Chapters on glaciers and on recent desicca-
tion as indicated by Tibetan lakes, complete the discussion of
drainage.
The monograph as a whole is not only written in a very clear and
interesting style, but is most accurate in detail, and most care-
fully arranged to facilitate reference. Theoretical discussions
are not avoided, but they play a minor part and are clearly
distinguished from accepted facts and conclusions. A valuable
feature of the monograph is its clear statement, not only of our
knowledge but of the limits of our knowledge of the great
mountains of Asia. E. H.
4. The Gases in Rocks; by KR. T. Cuamprriin. Carnegie
Institution, Washington, 1908, 8°, 80 pp.—This paper embodies
the results arrived at by a critical study of the gases evolved by
heating 112 specimens of rocks in a vacuum. ‘The list includes
all of the more important kinds of intrusive igneous rocks, lavas,
stratified and metamorphic rocks and a few minerals. The
Botany and Zoology. 191
methods appear to have been well selected and carefully carried
out. The results show that carbon dioxide and hydrogen are in
general the gases most largely evolved, while minute amounts of
carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulphide, methane and nitrogen are
apt to accompany them. The author recognizes, of course, that
a considerable, or even the larger, part of these gases were not
contained in the rocks as such but were evolved from carbonates,
sulphides and hydrates, and he discusses their possible origin from
these substances and from others not known to be present in
rocks, such as carbides and nitrides, but which might conceiv-
ably be present in the igneous ones. Rocks, however, are such com-
plicated bodies and the possible reactions and interactions which
may take place at high temperatures so many and so involved
when a large number of factors .are concerned, as brought about
by the possible presence of sulphides, metallic oxides of a lower
state of oxidation, carbon and even metallic particles such as
copper and iron, that it appears possible that all of these gases
except the nitrogen may have been produced from original solids,
sulphides, carbonates and hydrates. While some of the gases
such as CO, and water vapor are undoubtedly contained in rocks
as such, it thus becomes a matter of doubt as to how much of
the gases evolved are to be considered original and how much
ascribed to secondary alteration of the original minerals. In this
connection the reviewer regrets that the work was not accom-
panied by a microscopical examination in thin section of the
actual specimens studied, since this would have thrown much
light upon the presence or absence of such secondary products.
In conclusion the author discusses the bearing of the results
obtained upon general problems of geology and with reference
to the early condition and origin of the earth. While no essen-
tiaily new or startling facts have been brought to light by this
undertaking, it is none the less a very useful piece of work of
a laborious nature which has been carefully carried out and
which will prove of service in the future in aiding to solve
problems of chemical geology. Many investigations of just this
character are needed before speculation upon the early history
and character of the earth’s crust can rest upon secure founda-
tions. Bowen,
III. Borany anp Zoo.oey.
1. The Forest Flora of New South Wales; by J. H.
Maipen, Government Botanist, and Director of the Botanic
Garden, Sydney.—This useful treatise has now begun its fourth
volume. ‘The training of the author for this important contribu-
tion to science has been of a peculiar character. After having
familiarized himself with the most approved Museum methods in
England, he took charge of the great economic Museum in
Sydney, where, under many discouragements, he built up a vast
192 Scientific Intelligence.
establishment, which has proved of immense use to the Colony
and its sister Colonies. Early in this work of organization he
prepared a useful treatise on the Useful Plants of Australia,
which embodied a whole treasury of technological information.
During this term of service he was in constant correspondence
with all parts of Australasia, accumulating materials from all
quarters. After the death of Baron von Mueller, Mr. Maiden
became the Government Botanist, and he was appointed also |
Director of the Botanic Garden in Sydney, a post which the Baron
did not occupy in his last years.
Kquipped with an unusual amount of technological information,
Mr. Maiden has undertaken to make his Flora, as far as possible,
practical. In this he has succeeded admirably, so that the forest
flora is available as a hand-book even to those who are far removed
from the southern hemisphere. The illustrations and text are of
a high order throughout. G. L. G.
2. Jaarboek van het Department van Langbouw in Nieder-
landsch-Indie, 1907.—The report on the Agriculture of the Dutch
East Indies has just come to hand. It contains a full account of
the efficient stations in the districts, in which the more important
technical plants and their products are studied with reference to
improvement. The Garden at Buitenzorg and the experiment
stations are well illustrated and described. It is no wonder that
the Dutch have been able to maintain their place in the fierce
competition for supremacy in the export of tropical products.
The authorities have spared no expense or labor in applying the
most modern methods of cultivation throughout Java and the out-
lying islands. : G. L. G.
3. The Origin of Vertebrates ; by WattTER Hotsrook GaAs-
KELL. ‘Pp.ix + 537. London and New York, 1908 (Longmans,
Green & Co.).—This book forms an important contribution to the
speculation as to which particular group of existing invertebrates,
if any, has given rise to the vertebrate animals by a process of
evolution. For twenty years the author has held the view that
the nervous system of the vertebrate is in part a modification of
the alimentary canal of some invertebrate ancestor. He believes
that the great factor in evolution has been the growth of the
central nervous system, and that with this factor it is possible to
trace the evolution of the mammal from the reptile, thence back to
the amphibian and the fish ; the latter arose from the arthropod,
and this from the annelid. The vertebrate is therefore the natural
evolution of a primitive crustacean ancestor. This view, of
which the author has been one of the leading exponents for many
years, is thought to be sustained by a critical comparison of
each organ system of the vertebrate with that of its supposed
crustacean prototype. With all the possible evidence thus ably
presented, it will be of interest to learn whether further enthusi-
asm will be aroused for a theory which has thus far found few
supporters. WwW. R. C.
_—
oe ee re ae a lla
Botany and Zoology. 193
4. Ticks: a Monograph of the Ixodoidea ; by Grorce H. F.
Norrati, Ceci, Warpurton, W. F. Cooprr, and L. E. Rosrnson.
Part I, Argaside. Pp. x + 104, with a bibliography of 35 addi-
tional pages. Cambridge, 1908 (University Press).—The discov-
ery that ticks play a most important part in the transmission of
certain diseases of man and domestic animals, has led to a renewed
interest in this group of parasites. The present work will contain,
when completed, a description of all known species of the group,
with a discussion of their structure, life history, and economic
importance. References are made to all the important literature
on the subject, the bibliography being printed on one side of
thin paper, so that the titles can be cut out, if desired, and
gummed on index cards. The work is well illustrated by half-
tone plates and numerous text figures. We i.
5. Animal Romances ; by GraHamM RensHaw. Pp. 206.
London, 1908 (Sherratt & Hughes).—A series of vivid word
pictures of animal scenes in various portions of the world. A
Caucasian autumn scene with its background of mountain forest,
' into which the characteristic birds, mammals, and other animals
are projected with kaleidoscopic effect, is followed by a glimpse
of the Malay jungle at midnight ; while the latter picture grad-
ually dissolves into the noon-day glitter, to be in turn lost in the
dusk of evening; a continuous procession of living creatures
passes before the eye, each one acting its part in the full seclu-
sion of its native haunts. Other chapters reveal the life of the
African wilderness, the Antarctic seas, the Andean mountains,
the Australian bush, the Pacific coral reef and other regions of
the globe. Most of these scenes apparently have been drawn
directly from the personal impressions of the writer, and portray
vividly and accurately the living creature in its natural activities
and customary environment. The illustrations are all taken from
photographs by the author. 7 W. R. C.
6. Hssays on Evolution, 1889-1907; by Epwarp Baanate
Povutton. Pp. xlviii+ 479. Oxford, 1908 (Clarendon Press).—
This volume consists mainly of ten essays on the subject of
evolution, delivered as addresses on various occasions since the
year 1889. ‘The text of the original essay has been altered
_ whenever necessary to represent the views of the author at the
present time, and the last and longest essay on “‘ The Place of
Mimicry in a Scheme of Defensive Coloration” has been entirely
rewritten and emphasis laid on the advance in the knowledge of
the subject in recent years. The new discoveries supporting the
doctrines of Mendelism and of Mutation are discussed in an
introductory chapter, and with some of the expounders of these
doctrines the author has little patience, because of their qyite
unnecessary depreciation of other subjects and other workers.
On the whole, the book forms a most interesting and important
exposition of some of the most vital topics of Darwinian evolu-
tion by a well known authority on the subject. W. RB. C.
194 Screntifie Intelligence.
7. Parasitology: a supplement to the Journal of Hygiene ;
edited by Grorce H. I. Nuraur and A. E. SurpLrey.—A newly
established journal devoted to the publication of original contri-
butions on the biology of the animal parasites of man and
animals.
IV. MIScELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
1. A New Goniometer Lamp; by Frep. Evegense Wricut.
(Communicated from the Geophysical Laboratory.)—The gonio-
metric measurement of minute crystal faces requires a source of
illumination of such intensity that for the past five years the |
writer has employed an electric arc goniometer lamp (Proc. Amer.
Philosophical Soc., xlii, 237-238, 1903) for the purpose. Certain
Fig. 1.
features of the are light, however, are not favorable for its con-
stant use, and although, on occasion, it is the best light procura-
ble, other sources of illumination have been found better adapted
for general work.—The Nernst light is an excellent source, and
were it not for the present unreliability of the filaments, would
serve every purpose.—The acetylene light, however, has been
found by experience to be the most serviceable, and the following
goniometer lamp has been constructed for its use. This lamp is
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 195
modeled in principle after the Welsbach goniometer lamp of
Goldschmidt (Zeitschr. Kryst. xxili, 149-151, 1894), and consists
essentially ofa tee with side outlet (fig. 1, A, 1°5-in. diameter) with
iron pipe fittings, B and C, of proper length, together with a
base plate, D. This device fits over the acetylene burner L, and
can be removed at any time and the aeetylene burner used for
other purposes. The mirror, F’, serves to reflect the hght from
the burner to the verniers of the goniometer, and, like the Gold-
schmidt lamp mirror, furnishes all ight requisite for goniometric
work. By means of the brass shield plate at EK, the side outlet of
A can be opened and closed at will, and with it the light from
the burner to the mirror. The materials of which this lamp is
made are all on the market and can be readily procured from any
pipe-fitting establishment and assembled at moderate cost by a
mechanic. ‘The acetylene burner is of the usual one-half foot
type and the generator No. 102 of the firm of J. B. Colt, New
York.
2. A Containing Device for Salts Used as Sources for Mono-
chromatic Light ; by FrRep. KucENE Wricut. (Communicated
from the Geophysical Laboratory.)—For many years sodium,
. lithium and thallium compounds have been employed to produce
fairly monochromatic light,—yellow, red and green respectively-—
and a number of different devices for holding such salts in the
Bunsen flame have been suggested which answer the purpose
more or less satisfactorily. The following simple arrangement
(fig. 1), which is apparently novel, has been found useful and
effective by the writer in this connection and merits a brief word
of description. The salt is placed in a small thin-walled platinum
crucible about 1°5 to 2° long and 10™™ in diameter (P of fig. 1) ;
a bundle of fine platinum wires (fig. 1, D, 4-5°™ in length serves
as a wick and is held in proper place by pinching together one
side of the platinum crucible, as indicated in the figure. The
crucible is supported by a thick platinum wire L, which in turn
is attached to the tube B of the Bunsen burner by the clamp A.
The platinum crucible is purposely inclined at an angle as indi-
cated in the figure, in order that its side may be reached by the
flame and heated so hot that the salt it contains melts and is
gradually fed into the flame by the wick of platinum wires. A
single charge of sodium carbonate thus introduced has, been
196 Scientifie Intelligence.
used for weeks at a time. By having on hand three such
devices, one for sodium, the second for lithium and the third for
thallium salt, the observer can at any instant change from the
one to the other and proceed with his measurements for hours if
necessary without further care for the flame. By this process of
melting down the salts, the flow of fresh material is continuous
and the flame is constant and remains practically unchanged for
a long period of time.
3. Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution for
the year ending June 30, 1908. Pp. 84. Washington, 1908.—The
annual report of Dr. Charles D. Walcott, Secretary of the Smith-
sonian Institution, has recently been issued. It gives the usual
interesting account of the workings of the Institution in its varied
functions, prominent among which are the National Museum, the
Bureau of American Ethnology, the International Exchanges, the
National Zoological Park, and the Astrophysical Observatory.
The work of the Institution is now so well organized that it goes
forward in a manner most satisfactory to all the interests involved.
In regard to the new building for the National Museum, it is
stated that the walls are completed and the construction of the
roof well under way. ‘There remains, however, the fitting up to
the interior, including some ten acres of floor space. ‘The most
interesting part of the work of the Bureau of Ethnology has been
the excavation and repair of the Casa Grandé ruins in Arizona,
under the charge of Dr. Fewkes. Although the work has not
been completed it has progressed far enough to present a typical
ruin, given the general character of the ancient Pueblo remains
of that region. This most interesting subject, and others related,
are described in detail in an Appendix to the present Report,
prepared by the Chief of the Bureau, W. H. Holmes. Other
appendixes are given by the gentlemen in charge of the different
departments, among which must be mentioned that by C. G.
Abbot on the work of the Astrophysical Observatory. A number
of special investigations are enumerated which are now being
carried on by grants from the funds of the Institution.
The Annual Report of the Board of Regents for the year end-
ing June 30, 1907, has also been issued. This contains the Report
of the Secretary, issued in advance about a year since (see vol.
xxiv, p. 160). ‘There is also the usual Appendix, pp. 95-709, con-
taining selected articles of general scientific interest on a wide
range of topics. As most of these are not easily accessible in the
original, their republication here should be of great pelt to the
intelligent reading public.
OBITUARY.
GrorcE W. Hoven, Professor of Astronomy at Northwestern
University and Director of the Dearborn Observatory, died at
his home in Evanston on January 1 in his seventy-third year.
—
New Circulars.
84: Ejighth Mineral List: A descriptive list of new arrivals,
rare and showy minerals.
85: Minerals for Sale by Weight: Price list of minerals for
blowpipe and laboratory work.
86: Minerals and Rocks for Working Collections: List of
common minerals and rocks for study specimens; prices
from 1% cents up.
Catalogue 26: Biological Supplies: New illustrated price list
of material for dissection; study and display specimens;
special dissections; models, etc. Svxth edition.
Any or all of the above lists will be sent free on request. We aré
constantly acquiring new material and publishing new lists. It pays to
be on our mailing list.
Ward’s Natural Seience Establishment
76-104 Cotrege AvE., Rocuester, N. Y.
Warns Natura Science EstaBlisHMent
A Supply-House for Scientific Material.
Founded 1862. Incorporated 1890.
DEPARTMENTS:
- Geology, including Phenomenal and Physiographic.
Mineralogy, including also Rocks, Meteorites, etc.
Palaeontology. . Archaeology and Ethnology.
Invertebrates, including Biology, Conchology, etc.
- Zoology, including Osteology and Taxidermy.
Human Anatomy, including Craniology, Odontology, etc.
Models, Plaster Casts and Wall-Charts in all departments.
Circulars in any department free on request; address
Ward's Natural Science Establishment,
76-104 College Ave., Rochester, New York, U. S. A.
CONTENTS.
Page
Art. VII —Revision of the Protostegide ; by G. R. WieLanp.
(With Platessl-VyV). | 3 oe ee eee 101
VIII.—Submarine Eruptions of 1831 and 1891 near Pantel-
*Jeria’; by“EhS. WASHINGTON: 2-0 o2ge ae ee i3l
1X.—Types of Permian Insects; by E. H. Szeruarps._-- ._- Weule
X.—Iodometric Estimation of Vanadic Acid, Chromic Acid
and Iron in the Presence of One Another ; by G. EpGar 174
XI.—Analysis and Chemical Composition of the Mineral
Warwickite; by W. Mi Drapiny 2). 2 ee 179
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
Chemistry and Physics—Question of Change in Total Weight of Chemically
Reacting Substances, H. Lanpout: Volume of Radium Emanation,
RUTHERFORD, 180.—New Method for Separating Tungstic and Silicic
Oxides, Deracgz: Silicide of Uranium, Deracgz: New Periodic Fune-
tion of the Atomic Weight, V. PoOscHi, 186.—Velocity of Rontgen Rays ;
also their Influence on the Brush Discharge, HE. Marx: Radiation of
Uranium X, H. W. Scumipr: Influence of Self Induction on Spark
Spectra, G. Bernpt: Ionization of Gases by Spark and Are, H. Rauscn,
187.—Investigations in Radiation, W. W. Copientz and P. G. Nourrine,
188.
Geology—Twenty-ninth Annual Report United States Geological Survey,
G. O. SmitTH, 188.—Geological Survey of New Jersey, H. B. KuMMEL :
Sketch of the Geography and Geolog gy of the Himalaya Mountains and
Tibet, S. G. Burrarp and H.: H. Havypen, 189.—Gases in Rocks, R. i”
CHAMBERLIN, 190.
Botany and Zoology—Forest Flora of New South Wales, J. H. MAipEn,
191 —Jaarboek van het Department van Langbouw in Niederlandsch-
Indie, 1907: Origin of Vertebrates, W. H. GasKELu, 192.—Ticks: a
Monograph of the Ixodoidea, G. H. F. Nutratu, C. WaRBuRTON, W.
F. Cooper, and L. H. Ropinson: Animal Romances, G. RENSHaw: Hssays
on Evolution, EK. B. Povuuton, 198. —Parasitology, G. H. F. NuTALL and
A. E. SHIPLEY, 194.
Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence— New Goniometer Lamp, F. E. WricuHt,
194.—Containing Device for Salts Used as Sources for Monochromatic
Light, F. EH. Wricur, 195.—Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian
Institution for the year ending June 30, 1908, 196
Obituary—G. W. Hoven, 196.
ei yr. Cyrus Adler, / ; a me SS z=
Librarian U. S. Nat. Museum. © ii
VOL. XXVII. MARCH, 1909.
Established by BENJAMIN SILLIMAN in 1818.
AMERICAN
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.
Epiron: EDWARD S. DANA.
ASSOCIATE EDITORS
Proressors GEORGE L. GOODALE, JOHN TROWBRIDGE,
W. G. FARLOW anp WM. M. DAVIS, oF CamBrwpcz,
Proressorss ADDISON E. VERRILL, HORACE L. WELLS,
L. V. PIRSSON anp H. E. GREGORY, or New Haven,
Proressor GEORGE F. BARKER, or PHILADELPHIA,
Proressor HENRY S. WILLIAMS, or ItuHaca,
Proressor JOSEPH S. AMES, or Battimore,
Me. J. S. DILLER, or WaAsuHINGTON.
FOURTH SERIES
No. 159—MAROCH, 1909.
VOL. XXVII-[WHOLE NUMBER, CLXXVII]
ae oak
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Grande, Cal.; Kunzite, small and large, Pala, Cal.; Sphene, Binnenthal ;
Titantite, Tilly Foster, N. Y.; Tetrahedrite, Utah and Hungary; Realgar,
Hungary ; Opal, Caribou River, Queensland ; Torbenite, Eng.; Bismuth,
native, Cobalt, Ont.; Emerald, loose and in matrix, Ural; Zircon erystals,
loose, Ural; Green and Cinnamon Garnets, Minot, Maine; Vesuvianite,
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AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
[FOURTH SERIES.]
o>
Art. XII.—Recent Observations in Atmospheric Electric-
toe. “yee. DikE,
Iv is somewhat difficult to give a satisfactory résumé of recent
work in Atmospheric Electricity which can claim to be complete
and at the same time strictly up to date, since aside from the
four or five centers from which emanate most of the contribu-
tions to the advance of the subject, work is podmensly coming
to light from unexpected sources.
We have been in the habit of looking to Elster and Geitel,
Gerdien, Ebert, and a few others in Germany, to the Caven-
dish Laboratory in England, and to Rutherford and his fol-
lowers at McGill University, Canada, for most of the work in
Atmospheric Electricity, but of late other experimenters have
begun to enter the field.
Not very much has been done as yet in this country along
these lines, and what has been done has been scattering and
desultory for the most part, consisting of the work of an indi-
vidual here and there. There has been no such extended and
persistent study of the subject, and such careful experimenta-
tion as has been going on in England and Germany for some
years, and which has yielded so many important and interest-
ing results. For this reason most of the work referred to will
necessarily have been done in foreign laboratories. The field
of research in Atmospheric Electricity is a broad one and pre-
sents numerous complications of a most troublesome sort,
which offer to the observer abundant opportunity for the
exercise of his ingenuity.
The earliest known and most thoroughly studied of all the
phenomena included under the head of Atmospheric Electricity
* Presented before the Philosophical Society of Washington, October 24,
1908.
Am. Jour. Sci.—FourtH Series, Vou. X XVII, No. 159.—Marcnr, 1909.
14
198 Dike—Recent Observations in Atmospheric Electricity.
is the potential gradient—the existence of an electric field about
the earth, resulting in a difference of potential between the
earth and any point in the air above it. The existence of such
a potential is readily shown by the use of a suitable electro-
scope or electrometer connected to a collector, such as a flame,
a water dropper or a radio-active body. Potential gradients
exceeding 100 volts/meter are ordinary, and during times of
electrical disturbance, even with a clear sky, this may inerease
to 1000 volts or more. The mean value at Kew, England, has
for eight years exceeded 159 volts per meter, while on January
1, 1908, during a fog it exceeded 730 continuously for 84 hours.
Its fluctuations are abrupt and of great range, sometimes passing
suddenly from large positive to negative values. At Kew, at
Potsdam, and at various other observatories, continuous records
have been kept of this most erratic phenomenon by means of
self-recording instruments for years, in an attempt to establish
some relationship between it and other meteorological elements,
but so far without very definite results, except for a possible
connection with the barometrie¢ pressure ; and this relationship,
according to Chree, seems to point to change of potential
gradient as a cause, and change of pressure as a result. It
would seem to be almost impossible to correlate such a phenome-
non with local weather conditions except in so far as electri-
cal storms are concerned, when it is considered that as a charged
body we have the earth, whose electrical condition is depend-
ent on conditions prevailing over its whole surface rather than
on local phenomena.
By recent observers the study of this element of the problem
has been made subsidiary to other investigations in which it is
involved as a factor, principally in the computation of the
earth-air currents.
An interesting series of investigations with a practical end
in view has been made by Creighton of the General Electric
Company bearing upon the subject of electrical storms with
especial reference to lightning discharges and the operation of
lightning arresters on transmission lines. Laboratory experi-
ments were supplemented by observations at two power plants
in Colorado where electric storms are of daily occurrence in
summer. By means of a rotating film or a moving sensitive
tape the duration of a discharge on a transmission line was
measured by means of projecting the light from a spark gap
connected with the line upon the film. <A range of duration
of from 0-04 sec. to 0:0001 sec. was found in 36 discharges, the
greater number being of very short duration and only two
exceeding 0°01 sec. As many as seven discharges in a second
were observed. The discharge is oscillatory, showing 3000
cycles per second, corresponding to the line frequency, and
Dike— Recent Observations in Atmospheric Hlectricity. 199
may be further analyzed into higher frequencies of the order
of 1,000,000 cycles per second by coil resonators arranged to
affect strips of sensitive paper by their brush discharge when
excited by frequencies of the proper pitch. The potentials were
approximately measured by graduated needle gaps, a number of
which were arranged in parallel rows, with fuses and high
resistance in series, . the potential falling between the minimum
sparking pressure of the longest gap crossed and that of the
next higher. The measurement of the lightning current was
difficult, as it depends on the capacity, inductance and resist-
ance of the lines and the frequency of discharge. The
quantity of the discharge over the line was estimated by not-
ing the size of fuse that it would just burn out, several fuse
wires of different sizes being placed in series, the are holding
in the vapor of the first fuses blown till the larger ones were
melted. Using the data from one ot these tests, the quantity
of discharge was estimated at 0°003 of a coulomb, and if this
quantity of electricity was spread out over a mile of wire
having a capacity between line and se of 0-01 micro-farad
the initially impressed voltage would be about 600,000 volts.
The development of the theory of the ionization of gases
opened up a new field of investigation in Atmospheric Elec-
tricity, since it afforded an explanation of the previously
observed fact, that a charged body exposed to the air lost its
charge at a more rapid rate than could be explamed by leak-
age over the insulating supports. Elster and Geitel were pion-
eers in this field, and though the instruments devised by them
for observing the “dispersion” gave erroneous results through
the establishment of saturation currents, that is, currents inde-
pendent ot the potential difference, once a certain minimum
potential is passed, they accumulated much information of a
relative nature. It is to J. J. Thomson and his school that
we are indebted for a better understanding of the conductivity
of gases, leading to the construction of apparatus on more
correct principles; results are now being obtained which may
probably pretend to some degree of accuracy. The experimen-
ter in these lines must be satisfied with somewhat approximate
results, since it is obviously impossible to measure a con-
ductivity to one or two per cent when its value is varying dur-
ing the time of measurement by perhaps fifty per cent. The
order of magnitude can be arrived at, but the conductivity of
a gas is quite a different matter to that of a metal where the
number of ions seems to be infinite, and atmospheric air is even
more unstable in its properties than a confined sample of gas.
The establishment of saturation currents in the apparatus for
determining the conductivity of the air may be prevented in
two ways, either by the removal of all other conductors to such
200 Dike—Lecent Observations in Atmospheric Electricity.
a distance from the charged body, whose loss of charge is to be
measured, that at the potential to be used the currents shall be
unsaturated, or by setting up a current of air about the charged
body of such velocity that the same result is reached.
The latter, first applied in its fullest extent by Gerdien, has
proved to be of great use for field work, while the former
seems more suitable for observatory use, where continuous
records are desired. The Gerdien conductivity apparatus,
briefly described, consists of a cylindrical condenser, the outer
eyliider of which is 16° in diameter and 35 long, while the
inner cylinder is 1-4 in diameter and 24°™ long, and is con-
nected with an electroscope by means of which the potential
of a charge put upon the cylinder can be observed. <A current
of air, of sufficient velocity to prevent the establishment of
saturation currents, is drawn through the condenser with the
aid of a fan, thus using the second of the two methods of avoid-
ing saturation. This instrument has been used by various
observers on land, in balloons and at sea, with very consistent
results, and it has proved very satisfactory for field work.
Gerdien has made use of it at Gottingen in conjunction with
a self-recording instrument giving the course of the potential
gradient for determining the value of the earth-air current.
The potential gradient and the conductivity being known,
the current per square centimeter of the earth’s surface is
readily computed.
G Ov
yy = oh (A, ate rx)
A series of observations carried out during about two and
a half weeks in April, 1906, gave as a mean from 49 measure-
ments 80 X 107" electrostatic units per square cm. for the
value of the vertical current, or 2°7x10-“ amperes. The con-
ductivity was found to be A,=1:155 x 10~ and A,=1°120 x
10~* electrostatic units.
I have made use of the same type of instrument at sea, on
board the Galilee during the cruise recently completed, begin-
ning at Sitka and ending at San Francisco, obtaining observa-
tions, mostly in fair weather conditions, in latitudes ranging
from 55° 41’ North to 45° 07’ South, crossing the tropics twice,
thus securing a wide range of climatic conditions. Unfortu-
nately on board ship I was unable to measure the normal
potential gradient in an undisturbed tield, and the disturbances
were so great and so variable that it seemed impossible to avoid
or to correct for them. Hence my observations give only the
conductivity and the potential gradient can only be surmised.
A few observations made in a skiff at sea in very calm weather
Dike—Recent Observations in Atmospheric Electricity. 201
gave values about the same as on land, and I see no reason for
supposing that the potential gradient ‘should be less over the
sea than over the land. The conductivities obtained varied
considerably but not more so than at a fixed land _ station,
apparently exhibiting some tendency to decrease as the baro-
metric pressure increases.
The mean conductivities for the voyage were:
rA»=1°603 X 10~ electrostatic units
d, =1:-433 X 10-' «“ “
This would make the vertical current somewhat greater
than what Gerdien found, assuming the same potential gradient.
The observations for a day usually extended over an hour or
more and were made up of alternate readings of the conduc-
tivity for positive and for negative electricity, A charge of
about 150 to 200 volts was put on the inner cylinder by means
of a dry pile and the divergence of the electroscope leaves.
read. This reading was the most difficult part of the observa-
tion at sea since the rolling of the ship gave the leaves a pen-
dular motion, while the rise and fall of the ship as it rode over
the waves gave them a flapping motion, so that they alter-
nately spread farther apart as the ship sank into the trough of
the waves and fell together as it rose to the crest. The pen-
dular motion was avoided to some extent by mounting the
instrument on a gimbal stand and steadying it with the hands
to keep it horizontal, but the flappmg was unavoidable and
hmited the observations to moderately smooth seas. Only one
leaf at a time could be watched through the eye-piece, so that
the estimation of the mean position of the leaves was difficult.
However, the consistency of the results shows that some degree
of accuracy was obtained.
Immediately after reading the divergence of the leaves, the
fan was rotated at a uniform rate for five minutes. At the
end of that time a second reading of the divergence was made
and the charge was removed by earthing the inner cylinder,
which was then char ged negatively. After a wait of about one
minute to allow any oS the former charge which might have
been absorbed by the insulation to be neutralized, a reading of
the divergence of the leaves for the negative char ge was made,
in time to begin the rotation of the fan two minutes after the
end of the rotation for the positive charge. Closing both ends
of the cylinder to exclude air currents, a leakage test to deter-
mine the normal rate of leak over the insulation was made,
usually extending over fifteen to twenty minutes.
The electroscope had to be calibrated of course, and this
was done at long intervals, as laboratories for testing electrical
instruments are not numerous in the Pacific. An apparatus
202 Dike—LRecent Observations in Atmospheric Electricity.
was carried designed to give a rough calibration on board ship,
but its results, after a test at Sitka, and another, an unsuccessful
one, at Honolulu, were judged too rough to be relied upon.
It was possible to obtain a good calibration at Christchurch,
New Zealand, in the electrical laboratory of Canterbury College
in January of 1908, but there was no further opportunity
until the return of the instruments to this city in July, when
a calibration was carried out at the Bureau of Standards, agree-
ing remarkably closely with the curve obtained at Christchurch,
showing that at least during the last half of the voyage the
values had remained practically constant, that is within three
per cent, which is well within the accuracy of reading at sea.
A comparison of these values with those obtained at Sitka
indicates a gradual inerease in sensitiveness, which goes on —
at a diminished rate between Christchurch and Washington.
Through unexpected good fortune I was able to use the same
pair of leaves throughout the voyage uninjured, though the
electroscope had to be opened to clean the insulation, thus
exposing the leaves to air currents and other dangers of damage,
nearly every time the instrument was used.
An electroscope is far from being a satisfactory instrument
for use at sea, but it is the only form of electrometer now avail-
able that would work at all, unless some form of the “string
electrometer”? may be found satisfactory. :
C. T. R. Wilson of the Cavendish Laboratory has made some
interesting observations of the earth-air current with a very
different instrument, designed by himself, by means of which
be is able to measure the current from a test plate which is
kept at zero potential, that is, at the potential of the surface, of
the earth, thus approximating closely to the actual conditions.
The case of a gold-leaf electrometer is kept at a constant
potential by means of a quartz Leyden jar, while the gold leaf
is attached to the rod bearing the test plate, a blackened brass
disk 7™ -in diameter surrounded by an_ earth-connected
guard ring. A cylindrical cover rests upon the guard ring
and shields the test plate except when it is to be exposed
to the influence of the earth’s electrical field. During exposure
the test plate and gold leaf are maintained at zero potential by
means of a compensator consisting of a cylindrical condenser
of which the inner conductor is a metal rod connected to the
gold-leaf system, the outer condenser being a brass tube main-
tained during any series of observations at a constant negative
potential by means of a quartz Leyden jar and capable of sliding
parallel to its length to give a variable capacity. <A scale is
attached to give the position of the outer cylinder relative to
the inner and this scale is calibrated to determine the change
of capacity corresponding to one scale division. ‘Thus the
Dike—Recent Observations in Atmospheric Electricity. 208
change of charge, that is the loss or dispersion of electricity
from the exposed test plate, can be measured by reading the
- scale before and after exposure, the gold leaf being kept con-
stantly at its zero position by means of a gradual motion of ©
the compensator.
The test plate being covered, the gold-leaf system is earthed
and the position of the compensator is read. The earth con-
nection is then broken and the cover removed. The observer
then keeps the gold leaf at its zero position, that is, keeps the
_ test plate at zero potential by means of the compensator till a
measured interval of time has elapsed, when the position of
the compensator is again read. From the difference of the
two readings the loss of charge can be computed and thus the
current per square cm. of the test plate determined. Alternate
measurements were made with the bare test plate and with a
piece of turf covering the plate to represent a section taken
from the surface of the earth. The dissipation factor is
expressed as the percentage of the charge on an earth-connected,
exposed body which is neutralized per minute. The dissi-
pation factor for the plate alone was found to be practically
the same as for the turf, though the charge on the turf was
about three times as great and the distribution of charge very
different. The agreement is sufficiently good to warrant assum-
ing a definite dissipation factor depending on the condition of
the atmosphere. In order to get a closer approximation to
actual conditions at the surface of the ground, instead of at the
elevated test plate, a large wooden test plate and guard ring
with their surface very little above the surface of the ground
were constructed and connected with the test plate of the appar-
atus. Alternate determinations were made with the small and
the large test plates, precautions being taken that the tield
should not be disturbed by the observer. From those observa-
tions it was found that the mean density of electrification upon
the exposed test plate when at zero potential was nearly 4°2
times that upon the surface of the ground. Using this reduc-
tion tactor, observations extending over a year give a mean
value for the current per square cm. of ground 2°2<10-" am-
peres, agreeing with Gerdien’s value 2°7 x 10~-"* amperes deduced
from measurements of conductivity and potential gradient.
The dissipation factor was least for cloudless, calm days, great-
est for days with cumulus and clear atmosphere, and inter-
mediate for overcast days. The agreement between the two
widely different methods is doubtless partly accidental, but is
none the less gratifying as indicating that definite results are
being obtained which can be duplicated by different observers
using different methods.
204 Dike— Recent Observations in Atmospheric Electricity.
Schering at Gottingen has worked on the problem of a self-
recording apparatus for the measurement of specific conduc-
tivity, avoiding saturation currents by removing the charged
body from the neighborhood of any earthed conductor. A
suspended sphere of 5™ radius connected by a fine wire 50™
long to an electroscope was found to answer this requirement
and to give results following Ohm’s law and independent of
air currents. This form of apparatus is not convenient for
field work but may be made useful for observatory work by
using a long thin wire in place of the sphere. This must be
carefully screened from the earth’s field by surrounding it with
a cylinder of wire netting. A sort of arbor of wire netting
20" long was constructed at the Gottingen Geophysical Insti-
tute in the open and a wire 0°14"" in diameter was stretched
inside this so as to be at least 0-5" from the netting, and sup-
ported by specially constructed insulators to make possible its
continuous use out of doors. One end was connected with an
electrometer indoors. Comparisons between the sphere disper-
sion apparatus inside the screen and Gerdien’s conducting
apparatus outside gave the same difference as with both instru-
ments outside. The capacity of the wire was found to be 104™
and with the normal conductivity of the air with a potential
of 100 volts on the wire the current should be 1x10 ” amperes.
This being too small to measure with a galvanometer, a
uranium cell was used asa high resistance to adapt the arrange-
ment to continuous registration by electrometer methods. The
uranium cell gave a saturation current, hence a constant cur-
rent, from 50 to 300 volts and was arranged so as to be adjust-
able to give different currents by screening some of the uraninm
deposit. If the inner electrode of the uranium cell is connected
with the dispersion wire and the outer electrode with a poten-
tial of some hundred volts, the inner electrode and wire will be
charged to the potential at which the current from the wire into
the air is equal to the current in the uranium cell. If V is
this potential and Z the capacity of the effective portion of
the wire and the current in the uranium cell is z, the specific
a
An VZ
The value of 2 being constant, it is only necessary to record
V to follow the course of the conductivity. This was done
photographically by means of the electrometer, the wire being
connected with the needle and the quadrants charged by means
of a storage battery of 20 elements. In the registration
various difficulties were encountered , mainly in failure of insula-
tion of the wire through moisture or spider webs.
The apparatus charges slowly through the uranium cell after
being discharged, so that it is only suitable for slow registra-
unipolar conductivity of the air 1s A=
Dike—Recent Observations in Atmospheric Electricity. 205
tion and not for recording rapid changes in the conductivity.
For the latter purpose the same wire was used later with an
electrometer with a sensitiveness of 0°82™ per volt and the
zero so chosen that with a charge of 88 volts the spot of light
fell on the paper. A clock was arranged so that at minute
intervals the wire was charged to 88 volts and then insulated.
It then discharged itself for a minute to a certain point, the
electrometer tracing an oblique line on the paper, the lower
end of which gave the fall im potential in one minute. The
trace of these points gives the conductivity curve. The curves
given show large and rapid variations of the conductivity,
apparently indicating that the air is not uniformly conducting
but varies rapidly from place to place so that the wind brings
air of different conductivities in contact with the wire. The
second method of registration is recommended for eclipse work
since it gives the mean values for shorter intervals than the
usual apparatus.
Another subject of great interest to students of atmospheric
electricity is that of the radio-active emanation in the air, first
observed there by Elster and Geitel. Closely related to this is
the radic-activity of soils and rocks, sea water, etc., as the prob-
able source of the emanation. It cannot be said that it has
been proved conclusively what the source of this emanation is,
though it seems to be associated with land and to be almost
entirely absent over the sea, making it seem probable that its
source is in the soil and rocks of the land areas since sea water |
is only ;z/g55 aS radio-active as the average sedimentary rock.
Several observers have been at work on the problem of the
determination of the quantity of the emanation per cubic meter
of the air, or what amounts to the same thing, the determina-
tion of the radium equivalent per cubic meter, that is the
amount of radium required to maintain in equilibrium the
quantity of emanation found in the air. The electrical method
by which the emanation was first collected is not adapted to
these measurements, since some of the carriers of the emanation
are very slow moving and are almost sure to get past the nega-
tively charged collector. Also some of the emanation appears
to be attached to negatively charged particles and would thus be
repelled from the collector, while there are also neutral carriers
resulting from the union of a positive and negative particle.
However, there are at least two other methods of collecting
the emanation which seem to be quite efficient. One is by
means of cooling a current of air in a condenser surrounded
with liquid air, the emanation being condensed and remaining
behind. The other is by the use of pulverized cocoanut char-
coal, which, on allowing a current of air to pass through it,
absorbs the emanation contained in it and gives it up on being
206 Dike—Lecent Observations in Atmospheric EHlectricity.
heated to redness. Both methods were tested by Satterly at
the Cavendish Laboratory and careful series of observations
were made. Using the absorption method, the pulverized char-
coal was packed in porcelain tubes between asbestos plugs and
the air drawn through at a constant, measured velocity by
means of a filter pump, being freed from dust and dried by
means of calcium chloride before reaching the charcoal. The
air current was measured by a pressure gauge. After the air
had passed through for a known interval of time (the volume
per minute being “known) the tube was placed in a furnace and
heated to redness. Air freed from emanation was passed
through the tube while hot, sweeping out the released emana-
tion, and was collected in aspirators over water, where it was
stored till ready for the test. The testing vessel was in the
meantime tested for air and insulation leaks, the air being
pumped out of the vessel and fresh air allowed to enter several
times. The air was finally exhausted from the testing vessel
and communication made with the aspirator containing the air
loaded with emanation, which then’ passed into the testing
vessel. The leakage current was measured for 20. minutes,
not waiting for the 3-hour maximum.
In order to refer these results to radium as a standard, air
was bubbled through a solution containing a known amount
of radium, thus removing the emanation as it was given off.
This went on simultaneously with the collection of emanation
from the air, a similar charcoal tube being used for absorbing
the radium emanation. This was treated in the same way as
the other and a similar leakage test made. This second test
gave of course the radium emanation plus the emanation from
the air, but since the observations were simultaneous the air
effect could be allowed for. The comparison gives the ratio
o£ the emanation in a known volume of air to the emanation —
generated in the solution in a known time. The results must
be corrected for decay of the emanation if not measured for
some time after it was absorbed, as was sometimes the case, and
for the gradual accumulation of emanation in the charcoal.
The amount of emanation generated in a given time by the
solution must be calculated. The resulting mean from eight
measurements gives as the amount of radium required per
cubic meter of air to keep up the quantity of emanation to the
observed amount 88xX10-" grams with a range from 50x 10~”
to 160x10~", The comparison of day with night values seem
to indicate: more emanation during the day than at night.
For the liquid air condenser method, a special condenser was
devised with a large cooling surface and small resistance to the
air current, consisting of a brass tube packed as full as possible
with thin straight brass wires. This was immersed in liquid
Dike— Recent Observations in Atmospheric Electricity. 207
air and required 3/4 liter of liquid air for a three-hour run at
the rate of 1/2 liter of air per minute. The tests were very
similar to those in the absorption method, except that on
account of the large amount of liquid air required simultaneous
tests with the radium solution could not be made, so they had
to be alternated. A first series of seven measurements gave
140X10-" grams of radium as the equivalent, and a second
series of three gave 9)X10-" grams. A third series, using in
one case sulphuric acid and in another a freezing mixture as
dehydrators, gave 1380 10-” grams.
Parallel tests made with the two methods—condenser and
charcoal—show the condenser to be rather more efficient than
the charcoal. It does not seem hkely that the radium emana-
tion and its products in the air are responsible for anything
like all the natural ionization of the air. Eve, in Canada, has
used the charcoal absorption method of measuring the radium
equivalent per cubic meter and found as the mean of obser-
vations extending over a year 60X10-” grams. The ratio of
the maximum to the minimum values found is seven to one.
Summer and winter values are about the same. Deep cyclones
with heavy rain cause increase while anti-cyclones cause a
decrease in the value. Ashman, working at the University of
Chicago, used the liquid air method, comparing the rate of dis-
charge produced by the emanation from a known volume of air
with that produced by the radiation from a portion of a mineral
containing a known amount of uranium, assuming the amount
of radium associated with one gram of uranium to be 5°4x 107"
grams.
The result of four tests gave as the radium equivalent
97X10-" grams. Experiment showed that the coil condensed
all the emanation and that two similar coils in parallel gave
duplicate results. The highest value, 200X107" grams, was
obtained after a heavy rain and gener al thaw following several
weeks of freezing weather with the ground covered with snow.
The activity curve of the emanation showed it to be identical
with that of radium. The values found by all three observers
are thus seen to be of the same order, and in as good agree-
ment as could be expected considering the variability -of the
quantity to be measured.
Gerdien has made an elaborate study-of the velocities of
the carriers of the emanation in the atmosphere, using the
trajectories of the particles carried by a uniform current
of air and acted upon by an electrical field about a cylindrical
conductor whose axis is parallel to the direction of the air cur-
rent, as a basis of computation. The deposit on the cylinder
was collected, and according to its distribution over the electrode
and according to its rate of decay was differentiated into car-
208 Dike—Lecent Observations in Atmospheric Electricity.
riers of different velocities and different sources. The presence
of both radium and thorium emanations was shown, and the
specific velocities of the positive carriers of radium emanation
em, / “wolt
40,000 sec./ em.’
while that of thorium emanation lay in the region between 15
were found to be in region between 25 and
and 0-2 = 7 volt
/ . The negatively charged carriers could not
BeC/) Chie ¥
be collected in sufficient ¢ quantity t 0 give a quantitative measure-
ment. From the specific number of the carriers found in the
atmosphere the ionization caused by them was computed and
found to be only a small portion of the total ionization of the
atmosphere. Most of the authorities agree in concluding that
the radio-activity of the atmosphere can play only a minor role
in its ionization, and that the ionization must be referred to
other causes. My own experience at sea led me to the same
conclusion, for there no measurable amount of induced radio-
activity could be collected, while the ionization was as great
as on land if not greater. Eve, on the other hand, reports that
he has found the amount of emanation in the air over the
Atlantic Ocean to be as great as over the land. Freshly fallen
rain and snow on land ordinarily are very noticeably yadio- active,
but I could find no trace of radio- -activity in rain water collected
at sea. Observations on a mountain peak in South Germany
at a height ot 2954 meters at intervals throughout a year
showed no trace of radio- activity in the rain water collected there,
while it was present in tnat collected on the plains below, show-
ing that the rain must pick up its radio-activity in the lower
layers of the atmosphere. Observations in balloons have shown
that the ionization increases with the altitude, proving that the
ionization is not proportional to the emanation. It is a well-
known fact that the ultra violet rays, the Réntgen, cathode and
Becquerel rays are all capable of causing ionization, and it seems
very plausible that coming from the sun they may produce a
high degree of ionization in the upper regions of the atmos-
phere, and, to a less degree, in the lower regions, while in the
lower regions the radio-active substances may add a certain
portion to the ionization. In this connection the investigation
of the problem of the spontaneous ionization of air in closed
vessels may be cited. Campbell and Wood, at the Cavendish
Laboratory, have made a long study of the subject and found
that air enclosed in a vessel and left undisturbed is constantly
being ionized and that the rate of ionization undergoes a perl-
odie diurnal variation with pretty well-defined maxima and
minima. Screening the vessel with masses of lead reduces the
Dike—fRecent Observations in Atmospheric Electricity. 209
rate of ionization though it does not entirely stop it, the
inference being that the ionization is caused by a penetrating
radiation from without, which can be partially screened off by
the lead. W. W. Strong, working at the John Hopkins Physical
Laboratory, has investigated the same problem, and by screening
the vessel on all sides except the top and noting the rate of
ionization, arrived at the conclusion that part of the radiation
comes from above. Observations in a cave gave a lower rate
of ionization than in the open, a fact pointing in the same
direction.
There is a great field for investigation along all these lines
and, as I have said, one that is almost entirely neglected in this
country. <A well- equipped observatory with opportunity for
research work and the development of improved apparatus
could add largely to our knowledge of the electrical condition
of the atmosphere and aid in solving some of the puzzling
problems, while a single observer here and there can accom-
plish comparatively little. The need at present is for investi-
gation, and persistent sustained attacks on single problems
rather than extended field work, though this is of value when
the atmospheric conditions encountered are such as can not be
attained at the existing cbser vatories, as on mountain peaks, at
sea or in caves.
Department Terrestrial Magnetism,
Carnegie Institution of Washington.
210 Kraus and Cook—Lodyrite from Tonopah.
Arr. XIII.—Jodyrite from Tonopah, Nevada, and Broken
ITill, New South Wales ; by E. H. Kravs and ©. W. Coox.
Iy November last the Mineralogical Laboratory of the Uni-
versity of Michigan received a consignment of minerals from
the Foote Mineral Company of Philadelphia, Pa., which con-
tained ten selected crystals of iodyrite from Tonopah, Nevada,
anew locality for this mineral. Our attention was called to
this fact by Mr. W. M. Foote, manager of the company. On
examination, several of these erystals showed that they pos-
sess a pronounced hemimorphic development, and also several
forms which had not as yet been observed on iodyrite. We-
immediately informed Mr. Foote of these facts and he most
cordially placed a very liberal quantity of selected material at
our command. He subsequently sent us a specimen from
Broken Hill, New South Wales, which contained crystals of a
most interesting character.
Through the courtesy of Director H. C. Bumpus and
Curator L. P. Gratacap of the American Museum of Natural
History of New York City, we were able to examine speci-
mens 2609 and 2610 of their mineral collection. The first of
these is from Broken Hill, the second from Chile. —
The various contributions on iodyrite are rather fragment-
ary and also widely separated in time. It was, therefore,
deemed advisable to preface the results of our study with a
brief survey of the work already done on this mineral.
Historical.
In 1825 Vauquelin® pointed out that certain silver ores from
Mexico contained the element iodine, probably in the form of
the iodide. This was the first record of the occurrence of the
element iodine in the mineral kingdom, it having been previ-
ously observed only in plants and animal remains. Cantut
had, however, showed the presence of iodine in traces in cer-
tain mineral waters from Asti, Italy. That silver iodide occurs
in nature was first definitely pointed out by Domeyko,t who
in 1844 analyzed material from Chanarcillo, Chile. As to the
crystallographic development of this material the only state-
ment made by Domeyko is that rhombohedral-like forms were
occasionally observed and also that the structure was more or
less lamellar. Domeyko did not make a complete analysis but
showed conclusively that the amount of silver in the natural
* Annales de Chimie et de Physique, xxix, 99, 1825.
+ Annales des Mines (4), vi, 158, 1844.
{ Cited by Vauquelin, loc. cit.
Kraus and Cook—Lodyrite From Tonopah. 211
compound agreed very closely with that of the artificial prod-
wet. Crystals from this same locality, which were in the
mineral collections of the Ecole de Mines, Paris, were meas-
ured by Des Cloizeaux* in 1854. Des Cloizeaux assigned the
mineral to the hexagonal system and calculated the axial ratio
to be a:¢ =1:0°81488. The nine forms observed by him are
given in the tabulation on page 217. Although it is not clear
that Des Cloizeaux observed hemimorphism, “it is, neverthe-
less, of interest to note that he pointed out the very close simi-
larity of the angles of the natural iodide of silver and the
hemimorphic mineral greenockite.
In 1854 Dana} suggested the name codyrite for this mineral,
although Haidingert had previously (1845) called it zodvte.
The name iodyrite has become international in spite of the
fact that Leymerie$ introduced dodargyrite in 1859.
The next contribution to our knowledge of this compound
was made in 1879 by Zepharovich,| who carried out a rather
extensive examination of artificial crystals, which had been
prepared by Belohoubek. In all Zepharovich observed twelve
forms, seven of which had, however, been previously noted
by Des Cloizeaux on natural crystals; see the tabulation on
page 217. It is of some interest to indicate in this connection
that although the hexagonal prism of the first order is, accord-
ing to Des Cloizeaux, a common form on iodyrite, it was,
nevertheless, not observed by Zepharovich on artificial crystals.
Zepharovich established a new axial ratio which differed con-
siderably from the one obtained by Des Cloizeaux. Accord-
ing to Zepharovich the ratio is as follows: @:c=1: 0°8196.
These values have been generally adopted.€ The crystals
examined by Zepharovich possessed a pronounced hemimorphic
development.
In 1881 Seligmann** examined eerie of iodyrite from
Dernbach, Nassau, and observed seven forms; see page 217.
The development of these crystals was such | as to point to
hemimorphism in that ¢{2021%, of1011}, and wi 401 f were
observed above the prism of the first order while 2/2021} was
noted below. Seligmann also examined crystals from Chile
and on these noted four forms which had not been observed
on either natural or artificial crystals of silver iodide; see page
* Annales de Chimie et de Physique, xl, 85, 1854.
+ System of Mineralogy, 4th edition, 95, 1854.
¢ Chester, A Dictionary of the N ames of Minerals, 1896, 154.
& Chester, loc. cit.
|| Zeitschr. Kryst., iv, 119, 1879.
*{] Dana, System of Mineralogy, 6th edition, 1892, 160; Groth, Tabella-
rische Uebersicht der Mineralien, 4th Auflage, 1898, 50; Naumann-Zirkel,
Elemente der Mineralogie, 14te Auflage, 1901, 505.
**® Zeitschr. Kryst. vi, 229, 1881.
212 Kraus and Cook—Lodyrite from Tonopah.
217. These crystals were apparently holohedral in their devel-
opment.
The work of Seligmann was followed in 1885 by a deserip-
tion of crystals of iodyrite from Lake Valley, New Mexico,
by Genth and vom Rath.* Only three forms were noted by
them, but they describe an interesting type of twin crystal,
the individuals of which possess a rhombohedral development.
A plane parallel to a face of ¢{8034;} acts as the twinning
plane. A twin of this character is reproduced by Dana.t
The only other work on iodyrite up to the present time,
which has come to our knowledge, is that by Spencert in 1901.
Spencer describes crystals from Broken Hill, New South
Wales. The simple crystals were tabular or short prismatic
and showed practically the same forms as observed by Selig-
mann on erystals from Chile; see page 217. Spencer, however,
noted extremely interesting twins possessing a pseudo-cubical
development. These twins are interpreted by him as being
composed of four individuals of a trigonal character. The
twinning law is the same as that observed by Genth and vom
Rath, namely, ¢{3034{. Repeated attempts were made by
Spencer to obtain etch figures but without success.
LTodyrite from Broken Hill, New South Wales.
The crystals examined from this locality occur on a speci-
men of limonite and psilomelane, which was placed at our dis-
posal by the Foote Mineral Company of
Philadelphia, Pa. The crystals are very
small, being from 1 to 2™™ in length and
in all cases show an apparently holohedral
development. The color is a rather bright
lemon yellow. The faces are not nearly
as brilliant as those possessed by the erys-
tals from Tonopah, Nevada, which will be
described later. Although it was necessary
in making our readings to rely almost
entirely upon the maximum shimmer or
luster, we, nevertheless, feel that consider-
able confidence may be placed in the
results thus obtained. The following forms, ;
c§0001}, c’§000T%, m§1010}, @§1120}, wi4041%, and w’{4041?,
were definitely determined. Another form of a pyramidal
character was also noted, but our readings in this case were
somewhat unreliable so that we do not feel warranted in mak-
ing a statement as to its probable indices. The crystals possess
* Zeitschr. Kryst., x, 475, 1885.
+ System of Mineralogy, 6th edition, 1892, 160.
{ Zeitschr. Kryst., xxxv, 460, 1901.
Kraus and Oook—Iodyrite from Tonopah. 213
) prismatic habit, @{1120}, being by far the predominating
form. The prism ‘m4 1010? occurs as very narrow faces trun-
cating the edges of a{1120}. This is the first time that the
simultaneous occurrence of the prisms of the two orders on
a single individual of either the artificial or natural compound
has been recorded. Furthermore, the prism, @{1120}, had not
previously been observed on natural crystals. The general
type of development, possessed by these crystals, is clearly
shown by figure 1.
The averages of several of the more important readings
used for the identification of the forms given above are as
follows:
Observed Calculated
€ = = (0001) : (4041) (55 Gal 152 13)
eit 7s = (O00): (1010) 90° 4’ 90° 00’
Re = ( L010) 2 (1120) B0p ot 30° 00‘
Through the courtesy of the American Museum of Natural
History of New York, we have been able to examine speci-
~ men 2609, which shows some excellently developed crystals.
Our examination of this interesting specimen was, however,
confined to the use of the hand lense, but it is evident that
the crystals are undoubtedly twinned according to the law
noted above. Not being able to carry out goniometric meas-
urements on any of the individuals on this specimen, we are
unable to state definitely what forms occur upon them.
Todyrite from Tonopah, Nevada.
The material examined from Tonopah, Nevada, consisted of
several thousand isolated crystals and two matrix specimens
furnished by the Foote Mineral Company. From a study of
the matrix specimens, composed almost entirely of quartz, on
which the iodyrite occurs as isolated crystals or in crystalline
crusts, it is clearly evident that the mineral is of secondary
origin.
The crystals vary considerably in color and size. Those
studied more closely varied from a bright lemon-yellow through
the darker shades of yellow to a yellow- -green. They measured
from 1 to5™™" in length. The crystals possess a greasy ada-
mantine luster and occur as simple crystals, parallel groupings,
twins, and rosette clusters. In all nine types of development
were ‘observed, four of which appear to be characteristic of
simple crystals. :
Type 1. Crystals of this type possess a pronounced hemi-
morphic development. They show the following forms:
e§0001}, m{1010}, 7§2021%, 2’§2091!, 4{7073}, w9092},
Am. JOUR. Bora overs SERIES, VOL. XX VII, No. 159.—Marcga, 1909.
3)
214 Kraus and Cook—ILodyrite from Tonopah.
w’{9092t, y{9091}, and y’{9091t. Of these forms m{1010} .
predominates. The lower pyramid, 2’}2021}, is also rather
large. The upper basal pinacoid, ¢}0001}, is usually next in
size. The other forms generally occur as rather narrow faces.
The relative sizes of the faces of the various forms are clearly
shown in figure 2. Of the forms observed on crystals of this
type, it is well to point out that ¢{7073i, w{9092}, w’{9092},
yi9091t, and v'{9091%, are all new. The close agreement
between the calculated and observed values for these new
forms makes us feel confident that they are to be considered
as established.
Type 2. A pyramidal habit is a striking characteristic of
crystals of this type. The following forms were noted on
them: c{0001}, c’{000Lt, m{1010}, 7§2021}, 2’{2021}, and
s'415.0.15.8:. Of these forms s’{15.0.15.8} was observed for
the first time. The general character of crystals of this type
is shown in figure 3, which consists of a combination of the
forms just enumerated. Hemimorphism is very pronounced
on these crystals. 3
In several instances on erystals of types 1 and 2 the
additional new forms were noted: 7}7074t, «{7071{, and
2}33.0.33.2'. These forms are usually to be observed as very
narrow faces, and as they do not occur often, we did not deem
it necessary to figure them. 3
Type 3. Crystals of this type of development are not
very common. They possess a tabular habit and are appar-
Kraus and Cook—Todyrite from Tonopah. 215
ently holohedral. The forms observed are ¢{0001}, ¢’{000L},
m{1010}, 7{2021}, and 2’{2021?. Figure 4 shows these forms
in combination.
Type 4. Due to the predominance of two parallel faces of
the prism, {1010}, crystals of this type are also tabular.
They are, however, hemimor phic, as is clearly shown in figure
5. ‘The figure shows a combination of the following forms :
e{0001}, m{1010?, ¢§7073?, 2§2021}, and 7 O07! These
crystals are Hy no means as common as those of types 1 and 2.
Type 5. Parallel grouping plays an important part in the
formation of crystals of this group. This is shown in figure 6.
These crystals are made up of several simple individuals which
possess, in general, a habit similar to that which is so charac-
teristic of crystals of type 2. Although they show hemimor-
phism, they are, nevertheless, more or less barrel-shaped,
resembling to a large extent the development so often observed
on crystals of corundum. The observed forms are ¢}0001%,
m{1010}, 2{2021, and 7’{2021}. These erystals are rather
common and are sometimes as much as 5™™ in length.
Type 6. Crystals belonging to this group are more or less
earrot- or top-shaped. This is illustrated by figure 7. As isshown
by the illustration, these crystals are made up of a number of
individuals possessing a tabular development similar to that of
type 3 (figure 4). The crystals show the upper base 6) 0001 §
rather large and are terminated below by the pyramid 2’{2021},
thus giving the groups a decided hemimorphic development.
In many cases these crystals show a skeletal development in
that they are more or less hollow. In figure 7 we show the
general character of these crystals and also indicate the skeletal
development by figuring a depression in the upper base. In
some cases this depression does not extend far into the crystal,
while in other instances it extends almost the entire length of
the same. The bottom of this depression, which is usually
irregular in outline, but sometimes may be hexagonal, is a
plane surface, which from the reflections obtained on the goni-
ometer we know to be parallel with base ¢{0001}. The sides
of the depression are usually characterized by parallel and
horizontal corrugations. These can be seen best in the crystal
fragments. The forms observed on crystals of this type are
c} ‘O00L}, m{1010%, 2{2021%, and @ {2021}.
Dype:/f. ~Here belong contact twins with the pyramid
e{3034} acting as the twinning plane. The two individuals
are about equally developed and possess a tabular habit, as
shown in figure 8. This tabular habit is due to the predomi-
nance of two parallel faces of the ren m{1010}. These twins
are rather common.
216 Kraus and Cook—lLodyrite from Tonopah.
Type 8. Figure 9 illustrates clearly the characteristic devel-
opment of twins belonging to this group. Here one of the
individuals is fully developed and generally somewhat tabular
in habit. Hemimorphism is pronounced. Attached to the
side of the fully developed crystal is the second smaller indi-
vidual and in the position demanded by the common twinning
law e {3034}. The second individual is also more or less tab-
ular. Twins of this character were not as frequently encoun-
tered as those of type 7.
Type 9. Quite a number of contact twins, the individuals of
which possess a rhombohedral development, were observed.
They resemble very closely the twins from Lake Valley, New
Mexico, which were described in 1885 by Genth and vom Rath.
The figure given by them is reproduced in Dana’s System of
Mineralogy.*
In the writings of the earlier contributors to our knowledge
of the crystallography of iodyrite much confusion exists as to
the occurrence of the pyramidal forms about the upper and
* 6th. edition, 1892, 160.
lower poles.
Kraus and Cook—Lodyrite from Tonopah. |
217
Especially Zepharovich, in reporting upon the
forms observed on artificial crystals with a decided hemimorphie
development, is not at all clear in his statements as to the oceur-
rence of certain pyramidal forms.
In the text these forms are
indicated as occurring only below, while in the table of angles
they are given as upper forms.
It is also rather common for
erystallographers, when describing the forms on hemimorphie
erystals, to designate the upper and lower forms possessing the
same indices by different letters.
but still confusing.
This is somewhat clearer
|
Natural
Artificial
‘ Chile ne a ae Broken Hill Tonopah
Qo ;
3 peeere me ce Seligmann a ea Spencer} Kraus and Cook
e | {0001} |{6001} |{0001?/{0001}/{0001!/{0001}|{0001}| {0001}
G ---- |{OOOL}*/{OOOT}|{OOOL}| ._-. |{O001!|{0001}| {cool}
m ee LOUD ONO || TOTOt) 22-24 VOLO}, MOTO!) {10104
eT TOO} S} se Pee eres reer IDOE, cout
bb Meese re HO etl eee haley ok) ee Ae ole gees Sek na
oh {1012} {1012/* Bea Se ee ee cae he he See
fae ON ee OTN 10TT)|) cee | 2 e- ee!
Gomer Ort} 2. Af a Rei aaa oe Ee cee apiece sy
é | {2021} |{2021} |{2021!){2021}){2021}/{2081 | ___- 2021}
a’ | {2081} |{2021}*|{2027}|{203T}/ __.. |3208T | .-- {2021}
y’ {2023} a as eee aie ae doh are Sec ae
if he die Dy (BORE As ab pee (020g eat oe
ay ai = See On estat hee ote «lle } ae
g ear Bera 3082 hee eee 8082), es
g eo Mee AG lee ee Pe en ects [ue es
ee ee ee ee Pees ni
wm) {4041} |{4041} | .... |{4041}] -... | --.. |{4041 a
28 is ae OI eee te ee AOL Lee
a) 3s AL Se eee cae dN Sees a Seed gente ee
B'\{9.9.18.20}) ..-- ee ll Ske a hae Ra a Pere | aan
r Bone ae apt 9 ene tere] MRSS Ca a ee eg a ae aca {7074}
t saree invex BU ok 44 pee ae Os gael Pee Rake yee rs {7073}
x Sent ae ee Na sifige ays | Sate vi A ae {7071}
y ea Ee! ENS Sag eaten fe ete IP ent a ut 19091}
y Bias Lee BR eS SA Me ge AS | eres {9091}
w oe steee ad eae. é pore deste 19092}
uw! ee see Be pee ech eee REO If 19092}
3 Sea oe See eee aera. 1 15,0,15.8}
aS agemane ieee Bee et hr eee eee do |138.0,33.2
* Inasmuch as Des Cloizeaux makes no definite statement as to the develop-
i :
ment of these crystals, we have considered them as being apparently holohedral.
218 Kraus and Cook—Ilodyrite from Tonopah.
In order to avoid all confusion we have divided the basal
pinacoid and the various bipyramids into upper and lower
forms, following the practice of the more recent texts on erystal-
lography. Certain letters are then assigned to the various
bipyramids and the basal pinacoid, which, when unprimed,
indicate upper forms, when primed, lower forms: thus, 031011},
upper; o {1011}, lower. We believe that this system of
nomenclature offers decided advantages over what has been —
heretofore in use for hemimorphie crystals, in that it does away
with all confusion.
In accordance with the plan. outlined in the preceding para-
graph we have prepared a general summary of all forms thus
far reported as occurring on either natural or artificial silver
iodide. e
As previously stated, p. 211, the axial ratio generally adopted
for iodyrite is the one which was established by Zepharovich*
for artificial crystals. Inasmuch as it is always highly desirable
to have ratios based upon reliable observations on the natural
compound, we have taken a very large number of readings
with the view of establishing a new axial ratio. The values
thus obtained differ but slightly from those given by Zepharo-
vich. In order to show the close agreement of the two deter-
minations we place them below and ‘at the same time also add
the values obtained by Des Cloizeaux} on natural crystals in
1854.
a 3 c
Des C@loiwzeax == ae ee 1 : 0°81438
Zepharovich: = 2242.3)" 22 = Oe 6e
Kraus andeC ook a) eee 1 : 0°82040.
In all fifteen crystals were measured. The observed and
calculated angles based upon the axial ratio, given by us, show
in nearly all cases very close agreement.
Observed Calculated
c i = + (000M) (2024) 62° 10! 30" 2 Sas
Mint 1 == (VOLO) ee a(OULO) Do 59) 60° 00’
Cita T=) (OOON) CON) atone oe 58950)
Ce: SS = (O00) (a0 158) no 0n 2) 60° 47’
c = OOON OTS)” 65° 33! 65° 39!
é 1b = * (0001). (9092) 76° 46’ 76° 48'
C Le COOOL) (10 caly) Bile, 81-5254
G P= (0001) (9 0910} 83° 13! 83° 19!
C 2 (0001) 2 (633033 2) som 20) 86° 21!
a C2 2021) (02210) 5 SO! 52° 99!
ee =e (LOMO) er (O22 63° 437 63° 45!
* Loc. cit. + Loc. cit.
Kraus and Cook—ILodyrite from Tonopah. 219
Etch Figures and Class of Symmetry
lodyrite is generally* placed in the class of symmetry which
is designated by Grotht as the dihexagonal pyramidal class.
This is based entirely upon the geometrical development of the
crystals, which, however, might allow of such interpretations
as to permit assigning the compound to at least three other
classes, since no faces of the most general form have as yet
been observed, Hence, it is necessary to rely upon etch figures
in order to determine with definiteness the symmetry of
lodyrite.
Spencer t indicates that repeated attempts were made to
obtain etch figures upon the crystals which he studied from
Hae 0:
(Q00/)
7/00,
(700 (070 (0/70) (70/0
ee NE hg
| V
Broken Hill, New South Wales. These attempts were unsuc-
cessful. Spencer, unfortunately, does not mention the solvents
which he employed.
A solution of potassium iodide is considered by Roscoe and
Schorlemmer§ as a good solvent for silver iodide. A solution
of N/2 potassium iodide was used by us for the production of
etch figures on carefully selected crystals of iodyrite from
Tonopah. Although the solution etches the crystals, we were
unable after repeated attempts to obtain figures possessing a-
definite outline.
According to Gmelin| silver lodide is soluble in a solution
of mercuric nitrate and in a concentrated solution of either
*See Dana and Naumann-Zirkel, loc. cit. ; also Bauer, Lehrbuch der Miner-
alogie, 2te Auflage, 1904, 439; Klockmann, Lehrbuch der Mineralogie, 4te
Aufiage, 1907, 403 - Groth, Tabellarische Uebersicht der Mineralien, Ate
Auflage, 1898, 50.
+ Physikalische Krystallographie, 4te Auflage, 1904, 496.
t Loe. cit.
$ Treatise on Chemistry, 1907, ii, 468.
|| Handbook of Chemistry, 1852, vi, 157.
220 Kraus and Cook—lodyrite from Tonopah.
potassium or sodium chloride. It was, therefore, decided to
use a cold concentrated solution of sodium chloride. Immersion
in such a solution for fifteen seconds produced excellent micro-
scopic etch figures of an hexagonal outline on the base and
located as shown in figure 10. Figures of the general form and
position, as illustrated in the diacram, were produced on the
prism faces after a treatment of about forty seconds. The posi-
tion and outline of these figures show conclusively that crystals
of iodyrite possess six vertical planes of symmetry and one polar
axis of hexagonal symmetry. These elements show that the
classification which has been followed, as indicated above, is
to be considered as the correct one.
Chemical Analysis.
For the chemical analyses somewhat over a gram of clear,
semi-transparent crystal fragments of a pale yellow color was
used. This material was from Tonopah, Nevada, and was
placed at our disposal by the Foote Mineral Company, to
whom we desire at this time to express our thanks for the cor-
dial manner in which assistance was rendered us during this
investigation.
As to the analysis only the method of decomposition need
be given in detail. This consists of placing a small sample
of the finely powdered homogeneous material in an evaporat-
ing dish and covering the same with water acidified with one
or two drops of concentrated sulphuric acid. A small piece
of chemically pure zinc is then suspended in the solution so as
to just come into contact with the powdered mineral. Decom-
position is generally complete after about twenty-four
hours. The hydriodic acid which is liberated passes into
solution, while the silver collects in the dish in the finely divided
metallic state. In this way any loss of hydriodie acid by vola-
tilization was avoided. For the sake of convenience the zine
was attached to a piece of platinum wire, so that after the decom-
position was complete, it could be readily removed and any
adhering silver washed off. In order to remove any traces of
silver which could not be washed off, the zine was immersed for
an instant in nitric acid. After filtration the metallic silver was
dissolved in nitric acid and then precipitated and weighed as
the chloride. Silver nitrate was added to the filtrate and the
iodine precipitated and weighed as the iodide.
Two analyses were made which show very close agreement
and indicate that the composition of iodyrite may be expressed
by the formula Agl.
In 1854 J. Lawrence Smith* made two analyses of iodyrite.
* Dana, System of Mineralogy, 4th edition, 1855, 506.
Kreus and Cook—Lodyrite from Tonopah. 2911
The localities from which the material was obtained are not
indicated by Smith. We give below the average results of
Smith’s analyses. Smith reports that aside from silver and
iodine, he found traces of copper and chlorine. Repeated
tests were made by us for bromine and chlorine, as also for the
metals lead and mercury, which would most likely replace the
silver. But in no case did we find the slightest trace of any of
them.
The results of the analyses are as follows :
Kraus and Cook Smith Theoretical
a I II Average
Ag Beier 45°87% 46°04% 45°95% 46°45% 45'97%
ee 53°92 54:09 54:01 53°02, ~ 54°08
Potal- 299-79 LOO UE 99-967 ae 99°47 100°00
We are indebted to Professor E. D. Campbell, Director of
the Chemical Laboratory of this University, for suggestions
relative to methods of decomposition and analysis. é
Specific Gravity.
Considerable variation exists in the values given for the
specific gravity of iodyrite or the artificial compound. This
variation is clearly shown by the following tabulation :
Todyrite.
Pe aAMeie eee ae eee rc 55. — 5:7
iDamaOunt io See 5°677
Lg eh ee ghee nla cane aR ee 56 — 5:7
Womey kos se ae ar ae 5°504
Kilockmann? <-220 3.22 75°707
Naumann —Zirkel® °).- _ 2 56 — 5°7
Nom beatles os ek ee ee 5°609
Artificial Silver Iodide.
Damour ee es B69
PP eyilicn Aaah eae 5°540
Since the material which we used for the chemical analysis
proved to be exceptionally pure, we feel that the values we
obtained for the specific gravity are very reliable. Two
determinations were made on material which differed slightly
in color. There is also a slight difference to be noted in the
* Loe. cit.
+ Rammelsberg, Handbuch der Krystallographisch-Physikalische Chemie,
I, 303, 1881.
222 Kraus and Cook—Lodyrite From Tonopah.
results. The determinations were made with the common
specific gravity flask at room temperature.
The results are:
Dark’ variety. (oes) eh one)
Light’ varietye ose oe 5°504
A VOTES EI ILI ae a Yes Eta eid ans HIST
These values are much lower than those given by Damour,
Dana, vom Rath, Klockmann, and Naumann-Zirkel, but agree
fairly well with the determinations of Domeyko on natural
crystals and with the value given by Deville for the artificial
compound. Our results also fall within the limits set by
Bauer.
Mineralogical Laboratory,
University of Michigan,
December 22, 1908.
H.. S§. Uhler—Deviation of Rays by Prisms. 223
Art. XIV.—On the Deviation of Rays by Prisms ; by
BS. -Unuar.
Waite making certain deductions from the formule for the
directions of rays passing obliquely through prisms, as given
in standard text-books,* the writer found that conclusions
which are at variance with physical facts were unavoidable.
An investigation of the source of this difficulty showed that
the primary error consisted in tacitly changing the definition
of deviation in passing from considerations which refer to
principal sections of prisms to cases where the rays traverse
the prisms outside of these sections. If it were never neces-
sary to combine the formule for rays in principal sections
with formule for rays not iu such planes, the error would
only amount to inconsistency of notation and hence it would
hardly deserve formal notice. As a matter of fact, how-
ever, it is sometimes necessary to combine formule for the
two cases and; when this is done, false results follow. There-
fore, it may not be superfinous to give a brief discussion of
the fundamental formula for rays not in principal sections in
such a manner as to retain the detinition of deviation in the
form which is_usually, if not universally, given to it when
principal sections alone are concerned.
This definition may be concisely stated as follows: The
deviation of a ray ts the angle through which the unlocalized
vector representing the initial direction of the ray must be
turned in order to make tt coincide in sense and direction
with the like vector which symbolizes the final direction of the
ray. ‘This sentence expresses precisely what is meant by the
deviation of light when making observations with an ordinary
spectrometer or even when considering the passage of plane
waves through a plane-parallel layer of some transparent me-
dium. - On the other hand, the above definition makes the angle
of deviation supplementary to the deviation involved in the
current formula for obliquely transmitted rays.
If D and D’ denote respectively the deviations, produced by
a single prism of greater index of refraction than the surround-
ing medium, of a ray not in a principal section: and of the
projection of the same ray on a principal section, and if 2,
symbolizes the angle which the incident (or emergent ) ray
makes with the plane of such a section, then the mutual
dependence of these quantities upon one another is given by
sin D=sin $ D’ cos 7, (1)
* Czapski, Heath, Kayser, Winkelmann, etc.
224 H. S. Uhler
Deviation of Rays by Prisms.
This formula may be obtained in two different ways. Either
the classic relation ‘“cos$D=cos$ D'cosz,” may be first
demonstrated in the customary manner and then D and D’-
may be replaced respectively by 7—D and 7—D’, or else an
independent proof may be given. The latter plan seems to be
preferable because it is more direct, and also since it does not
involve a knowledge of a formula of spherical trigonometry,
whereas the usual proof does. In other words, the direct
method is even more elementary than the indirect. Con-
sequently an independent proof of equation (1) will now be
presented.
IBKes, IL
Figure 1 may serve to define the positive directions of the
various angles as well as the symbols for the angles themselves.
The use or omission of accents on small letters shall serve to.
differentiate ‘respectively symbols which refer to angles in the
principal section from those which denote angles lying outside
of this plane. The path of the ray is AB/EF. The projection
of the ray on the principal section is A’B’O’F’. Further, let
D symbolize the deviation of the ray from its initial direction
AB’ to its final direction EF.
Move the directed lines AB’, A’B’, EF and C’F’, of figure 1,
parallel to themselves until they assume respectively the posi-
H. 8S. Uhler—Deviation of Rays by Prisms. 225
tions OB’, OB’, OF” and OF’, that is, all starting from any
meemmon point O.. Lay off OB’—OB'’—OF’-—OF SL.
mee OR! 7 7 RY ON 7007 BOK Po and: £7 BOF’ =D.
Since, from the general theory of prisms, 7,7, a triangle
B’'GE" may be constructed in a plane containing B” and I”
and perpendicular to OG. Join B’” to F’”.
Now in the triangle B’GF’, B’F’ —9GF"singD’ and,
the triangle B”OF’, B’F’=2Lsin$D. Also GF’=L cos i,,
hence
; sin 3D=sin $D'cosz..
Furthermore, when cos 2,<1, equation (1) shows that the devia-
tion of a ray not in a principal section is /ess than the devia-
tion of its projection on such a plane, whereas the’ text-books
agree in writing “ D> D’.”
We shall next consider what bearing formula (1) has on the
question of minimum deviation. The well-known, general
equations for refraction by prisms are
sin 7,=”n sin @, 0
sin 7,=7 sin @, ang 0, =,
cos 7, sin 8’, =n cos 7, sin f’,
COS Z, sin B, =7N COs i, sin B’,
eee n denotes the ratio of the absolute index of refraction
of the material of the prism to the absolute index of the sur-
rounding medium. In general, we shall assume n>1. By
using the equations of the above list together with the relation
cos B', cos 8’, =cos f’, cos B’,;
which is a necessary condition that D’ shall be either a maxi-
mum or minimum, when 2, is kept constant, we find 6’,=
8’ ,=+4a' and hence
cos 27, sin 3(D’,+a’)=(+ ,4/n’—sin*é,) sin ja’. (2)
D’, denotes the possible stationary value of D’.
Equation (2) is equivalent to the usual formula
“cos 7, sin $(D’,+a')=n cos @, sin 4a’,”
since 7 sin 7,=sin 7, and 7,%47. It should be observed that, in
obtaining equation (2), use has to be made of the relation
‘— PB’ + ’,—a’ and this shows that the various writers intend
to employ the same definition of deviation as the one given
above.
d’D’
dp? )
If we actually test under the specified conditions, we
226 LH. S. Uhler—Deviation of Rays by Prisms.
find that D’, isa true minimum, as would be expected from
our knowledge of the existence of a minimum when 7,—0,
that is, when the projection of the ray coincides with the ray
itself and the latter les in a principal section. Hence, we
can conclude from equation (1), since sines affect both D and
D’, not only that D has a stationary value simultaneously with
D’ but further that D attains a minimum value D, at the
sume time that D’ acquires its minimum D’,.
+/10?— sin7Z
COS 7,
>n. Hence equation (2) shows that when the deviation of
the projection of a ray not in a principal section assumes a
minimum value, this value is greater than the minimum of
deviation for rays ina principal section. Now equation (1)
gives D,< D’,, (4, = 0), and equation (2) implies D’, > A,, where
A, represents the minimum deviation for principal sections.
Consequently, on the face of it, nothing can be coneluded.
about the relative sizes of D, and A,. For example, how do
we know that the deficit of D, with respect to D’, may not be
numerically greater than the excess of D’, over A, so as to
make the minima of deviation for rays not in principal sec-
tions less than the minimum of deviation for rays in principal
planes? In other words, how can we logically deduce the
usual and correct theorem that: “The deviation of a ray by a
prism is least when the ray passes through the prism in a
principal plane and when the angles of incidence and emerg-
ence are equal” ?*
The usual argument is to say that D’, exceeds A, in value,
that the equation “cos 4D— cos 4D’cos 2,” shows D to be
greater than D’, that D passes through a mmmemum value
simultaneously with D’ and that therefore a fortvort D, > A,.
This assumes that D has a minimum, whereas both the D and
the D’ involved in the cosine formula pass through maxima
simultaneously and the general theorem does not follow.
Consequently we shall now outline the proof of a formula
for D, as a function of a’, 7, and m in order to see explicitly
what the properties of D, are. This formula may be obtained
as follows: First, expand sin $(D’,+a’) of equation (2) in
terms of sines and cosines of the angles $D’, and $a’. Next,
reduce all cosines to sines, except cos $a’, and, after proper
transposal of terms, square the members of the resulting
equation. A quadratic in sin $D’, results and this equation
is then solved for sin $D’,, care being taken to retain only the
*R. S. Heath, Geometrical Optics, p. 32, 1887; or Czapski, Kayser,
Winkelmann, etc.
Again, since by hypothesis » exceeds unity,
H. §. Uhler—Deviation of Rays by Prisms. 227
proper sign before the radical. In this manner we find, after
substituting in formula (1), that
sin $D,={[ + 4/(”’— sin’ z,) cos’ $a’]—
[+ 4/(2*— sin*z,) cos’ ga’ —(n* —1)]} sin $a’ (3)
Obviously, this equation could not have been obtained by
substituting in “cos $D,= cos $D’, cos z,”, and hence, if formula
(3) is correct, the cosine equation must be erroneous.
Again, formula (3) leads to
dD, sin 27, sin $a’ cos” ga’
; +
di, cos sD,
] i q
1 + /(n*—sin’ 7,) cos*$a'—(n?—1) — +.4/(n* —sin*7,)cos? 4a’ J (4)
Since D, cannot exceed 7, and since the first fraction within
the braces of equation (4) is larger than the second, it follows
that D, decreases when 7, diminishes in absolute value. There-
fore, the minima D, of D decrease as 2, approaches zero in
magnitude until, when 7,0, D,=A,. Thus we have shown
formally that, although D, is always less than D’,, D, is con-
stantly greater than A,. The general theorem of minima
quoted above from Heath is therefore established.
Equation (3) is interesting because the second radical indi-
cates limitations upon a’, z, and 7 in order that D, be real, that
is, in order that a minimum of deviation may exist. For
illustration, when a’ and nm are given
Z, < sin” [+ 4/1—(n*—1) tan* 3a’),
nr —2
2
whichin turn recuires cosa’ >
Furthermore, combining . with equation (2) the condition
that the second radical of formula (3) shall vanish, we find
sin 3(D’,+a’)=1, so that D’, and a’ are then supplementary
in value. Of course, the same restricting conditions can be
obtained directly from equation (2) by observing that
sin $(D’,+a’)e 1.
Returning from this digression, attention may be called to
the fact that when a’=0 or when n=1 formula (3), which is
implicitly formula (1), gives D,—0, whereas the relation
“cos $D,—= cos $D’, cos z,”, combined with the auxiliary equa-
tion (2), leads to D,==:7z, for both cases. For a plane-parallel
layer of relative index n, or for a prism of finite angle but
with the same refractive index as the surrounding medium,
228 LH. 8. Uhier—Deviation of Rays by Prisms.
it is obvious that D, cannot be a function of z,. Hence, the
cosine formula again leads to false conclusions.
In order to test the accuracy of the algebraic work which led
to equation (3) as well as to get a concrete idea of the varia-
tions of D, and D’, with 7,, the numbers in the following
table were worked out for the special case where a’= 60° and
n—=1'65. The data in the second column were obtained from
equation (2). The numbers in the third and fourth columns
were found by substituting the correspouding values of D’,
from the second column in equation (1) and in “cos 4D,—=
cos $D’, cos 2,” respectively. All the angles in the third
column were also worked out trom formula (3). The abso-
lute agreement of all the values of the true D, obtained by
these two independent modes of calculation verifies equation
(3). The last row of the table exhibits the superior limits of
the angles for minimum deviation. The first and fifth col-
umns taken together show the obliquity of the incident ray.
11 De Do pee Ci=tHD'0 4+’)
Oe 51° 10'' 37". Av; 51° 10' 377. 51 10 37 soe
+ 5° Hil SATs 51°'29' 19" 52° 98°40) 55 eee
+ 10° 5QO°-4 01547 51°58" 7" 56° VAG eae Oana
+ 15° ion ed bya ave 58° 0117" 62° 6 3757 Su
+ 20° 582 22/547 54°33" 21". 69°45" 867 e559 cae
+ 25° 63° 15’ 56” 56° 45/°45"° 79° 01197 "eters meee”
+ 30° TO 247 584 59° 54/29" — 89° 55! 13s Goee aoe
+ 35° GUS Ra aatO cae 64° 49’ 35” 103° 20°34’ 70r 40
SHAQ? AellOs 22355414 75° ANAS" < 194° 400 17s eo an eee
SAO AA 5! 21907" 0) 0" 82° 1.28" -1852 287191" 2902 eeGmae
The conclusion to be drawn from the preceding argument
is that either the formula “cos $D=cos $D’ cos 2,’ must be
replaced by sin $D= sin $D’ cos 2, or that the cosime formula
may be retained, but, when the latter alternative is followed,
the various writers should state explicitly, and lay special
stress upon, the fact that the D and the D’ of the cosine rela-
tion are the supplements of the corresponding deviations as
involved in the other equations of the subject. We think
that, for sake of consistency and to avoid contusion of symbols,
the formula sin 4D=— sin 4D’ cos 7, should be introduced in
the text-books in place of the cosine equation.
Sloane Physical Laboratory, Yale University,
New Haven, Conn.
W. G. Miater—Heat of Oxidation of Tin. 229
Art. XV.—The Heat of Oxidation of Tin, and second paper
on the Heat of Combination of Acidic Oxides with Sodium
Oxides ; by W. G. Mixter.
[Contributions from the Sheffield Chemical Laboratory of Yale University. ]
. Tin.
Tue heat of oxidation of tin obtained by different investi-
gators varies widely and the work was done before calorimetry
was perfected by Thomsen, Berthelot, and others. Moreover,
the constants of oxidations are required in calculating the heat
of formation of sodium stannate; hence it seemed desirable
to make new determinations. Depretz* found for the heat of
oxidation of the stannic oxide 170000°. Dulong,t in 1838,
determined the heat evolved by the union of one liter of oxygen
with tin and obtained 6411°, 6325° and 6790°; mean 6509*,
or for 32 grams of oxygen 145600°. Andrews,{ who first
invented a calorimetric bomb, made in 1848 good determina-
tions. He mixed tin with broken quartz in a copper bomb,
ignited the metal with a milligram of phosphorus and found
the gain in weight. His results for one gram of oxygen were
4235°, 4244° and 4210°; mean 4230°, or for 32 grams of oxygen
135360° at constant volume and 136000° at constant pressure.
Likewise for the combustion of stannous oxide he obtained
4353°, 4828° and 4364°; mean 4349°, or for 16 grams of oxygen
69584° at constant volume and 69900° at constant pressure.
The writer has used essentially Andrews’ method.
Experiments were first made with tin from a sodium alloy.
Dr. C. H. Mathewson, to whom the writer is indebted for
much good material for use in investigations, made a consider-
able quantity of an alloy having approximately the composition
Na,Sn. This was pulverized and dropped into absolute
alcohol. After the reaction had moderated, water was added
gradually and then the metal was subjected to boiling water
for several hours and washed thoroughly. The powder was
grey and when magnified appeared to be made up of minute
leaves. The stannic oxide from 1°616 grams of the metal
weighed 2-060 grams, equivalent to 1°623 of tin. It was found
to contain 0°12 per cent of sodium. This amount of impurity
affects the heat result but slightly. For the calorimetric
experiments the tin powder was placed in a weighed silver
foil tray which was supported in the middle of a 500° bomb
in order that, as the tray melted, the hot powder would fall
through the oxygen. The weight of oxygen taken up was
* Landoldt-Bornstein, Physicalisch-Chemische Tabellen, refer to Ann. Ch.
Phys., xxxvii, 180. This reference the writer has not been able to find.
+C. R., vii, 871. ¢ Phil. Mag. (8), xxxii, 321.
Am. Jour. Sci.—FourtH Series, Vou. X XVII, No. 159.—Marca, 1909.
1
230 W. G. Miater—Heat of Oxidation of Tin.
derived from the weight of tin taken, of oxides formed, and
of ferrous-ferric oxide from the iron used for ignition. The
experimental data are as follows:
1 2
A i es SS tenet gee ets 8:121 grams 11°070 grams
‘‘ equivalent to oxygen com-
bined!) 2 e Sei Se coe W122 oe 9°3640. 2"
Oxygen combined.) {ots 2. ONO; pris 255 dS ae
Water equivalent of system.__. 3631: rt oe GABE
Temperature interval {222 2)° 0 22 2°366° 3°239°
Heat observedeiin: Seer nee 8591° 12 os
* ofioxidation or irons 225 5- — 80° — 80°
8511° Lio ae
Hor d oramyoroxyoen Ss 4062) 2. 4456° 4444¢
The combustions were evidently incomplete as indicated by
the figures and by the fact that there was formed a considerable
amount of a black substance along with the white stannic
oxide. The results are 4 per cent higher than those obtained
with tin foil in experiments 3 and 4. It might be surmised
that tin separated from a sodium-tin alloy is an allotropic
form and it may be when the separation is made at a low
temperature, but the powder which had been heated to 100°
is the ordinary modification, for, as shown later, it gives the
same heat when burned with sodium peroxide as ordinary
crystalline tin. The high result is evidently due to the forma-
tion of a considerable amount of stannous oxide. but the
heat effect of Sn+O is less than that of SnO+0O, and hence it
appears probable that the two oxides formed in the com-
bustion had combined with evolutions of heat. Moreover,
the sesquioxide of tin is known and is dark colored.
The next experiments were made with tin foil, which a
qualitative analysis showed to be quite pure. It was also
tested as follows: 2°911 grams were treated with nitric acid,
the latter removed by evaporation, the residue digested with
dilute nitric acid and washed on a filter and finally heated
over a blast lamp until the weight was constant. The stannic
oxide obtained weighed 3°700 grams, equivalent to 2916
grams of tin. (Sn=119.) For the combustions the foil was
placed in loose rolls in the bomb, which was then filled with
dry oxygen at a pressure of 12 atmospheres. The conditions
were the same as in experiments 1 and 2 except that the foil
exposed a larger surface to the oxygen. The stannic oxide
resulting was in the form of a porous cake which was brown-
ish on the surface but white in the interior. The entire cake
W. G. Miater— Heat of Oxidation of Tin. 231
was a mass of elongated microscopic crystals. Professor W.
E. Ford of the Mineralogical Laboratory has kindly examined
the crystals and found them too small for measurement but
having the optical properties of cassiterite. It should be
stated that a small portion of the stannic oxide was deposited
on the upper surface of the bomb in the form of white
powder. After a combustion the oxide was transferred to a
platinum dish and the water used in washing out the last
portions was evaporated. The weight of the oxygen which
combined the tin was found as already described. ‘The follow-
ing are the experiments:
3 4
ire ee eee 1168 orams 3 14:055 granis
** equivalent to oxygen com-
SUI ae rie Reale 15°042 a 13°919 i
Weayeen combined. 962 22.2 A045 8 BI a
Water equivalent of system... 3548: ct 3058" e
Temperature interval .-._----- 4°893° 4-4 10°
Pieper Ouservied a0) a 17360° 16132°
Sa gOr Oxidation OL Iron ~- 2. 41° 40°
hislo% 16092°
Hert sram. of oxygen -___..- 4282° 4293°
The average of the results is 4288° for one gram of oxygen
combining with tin to form stannic oxide. For 32 grams it is
137200° at constant volume and 1387800° at constant pressure.
It will be observed that the tin in the form of foil was almost
completely oxidized. Andrews’ result was 136000° at constant
pressure. In his experiments there may have been formed
some amorphous stannic oxide which would lower the heat
effect. His result, however, agrees well with the writer’s.
Stannous Oxide.
A number of preparations of stannous oxide were made by
different methods but only two appeared to be good enough for
the purpose. The first used was made by adding an excess of
ammonia to a solution of stannous chloride and then heating the
mixture several days on a steam bath. The dark crystalline mass
was washed thoroughly and dried at 100° and then heated in a
current of dry carbon dioxide to about 400° as long as water
and ammonia came off. The product was almost black, showing
under the microscope minute crystals but no amorphous powder.
It contained considerable stannic oxide, a trace of ammonia, and
0°09 per cent of water. Three determinations of the heat of
oxidations gave respectively : 4668°, 4667° and 4632°, a mean of
232 W. G. Miater—Heat of Oxidation of Tin.
4656° for one gram of oxygen taken up or 74500° for sixteen
grams. The result was thought to be high and therefore
another lot of stannous chloride was prepared as follows:
about 400 grams of pure stannous chloride were dissolved in
four liters of hot water and a solution of pure sodium hydroxide
was added in sufficient quanity to dissolve part of the stannous
hydroxide formed. The mixture was kept hot until most of
the white particles had disappeared. The product was washed
by decantation in order to remove the smaller particles present.
The stannous oxide was in the form of minute dark erystals.
It was free from chlorine and sodium; dried at 100° it con-
tained 0°41 per cent of water, which was determined as follows :
a weighed portion was burned in dry oxygen in order to attain
a high temperature and the water was absorbed in a chloride
of calcium tube. The determination of stannous oxide was
made thus: 1°1193 grams of substance were heated in air and
oxygen. The stannic oxide formed weighed 1°2425 grams and
the observed gain in weight was 07123 gram. Adding to this
last number 0°0046 gram of water present before burning
we have 0:1276 gram of oxygen taken up, which is equivalent
to 96°2 per cent of SnO.
For the calorimetric work the stannous oxide, dried at 100°,
was placed on a silver foil tray which was supported at the top
of the lower silver cup or lining of a 500° bomb and then the
cup and contents were counterpoised ona balance. After a com-
bustion the cup and contents were heated to expel moisture, -
allowed to cool and then the increase in weight noted. At the
time of a combustion the tray melted and the oxide fell to the
bottom of the cup, where it was found in the form of a porous
white crystalline cake. The experiments were as follows:
8 9 10
Substance taken .__.--._- 30°06 30°89 30°58 grams
Amount + 0°962 = SnO_.. 28°92 29°72 29°49 © ef
SnO equivalent to oxygen
COnswumMed) 42. eae 28°74 29°74 294 pn
Increase in weight -._---- 3°340 S40 341 5e. ee
Water in substance taken - 07123 0°126 O12 eae
Fe,O, from iron___-.. toe (0-056 ~— 0-056. 0-055 ae
Oxygen consumed _--- -.--- 3°407 3°525 3484 «
Water equivalent of system 3422: 3430° 3476° nies
Temperature interval - _--- 4°422° 4°541° 4°469 9 |
Heat observed .----.----- 15133° 15576° 15534¢
“¢ of oxidation of iron_- — 64° —64° —64°
—— oe
15069° 15512° 15470°
W. G. Mixter— Heat of Oxidation of Tin. 233
For 1 gram of oxygen con-
sumed: 425 See 4493° 4401° 4443°
“ 1 gram of SnO in sub-
stance taken.___-_.- 521° pe 521°
The average is 4417° for one gram of oxygen and for 16 grams
it is 70672° at constant pressure and 71000° at constant volume.
The mean for one gram of SnO in the substance taken is
521°; for 135 grams 70335° at constant volume. Evidently
the stannous oxide was nearly all burned to stannic oxide.
Andrews’ result was 69000 at constant pressure.
Combustion of Tin with Sodium Peroxide.
The metal used in the next three experiments was from the
same lot taken for experiments 1 and 2 and prepared from the
sodium-tin alloy. Carbon was added to the mixture in experi-
ment 10 to ensure a high temperature, but it was not required,
as the other experiments prove. No metallic tin was found in
the residues of the following determinations :
iL 12 13
timers en OE os he ae 3°000 5:000 8°000 grams
SaROOMn ns. es 0°330 Ne pie ores a
Sodium peroxide .._-_---. 10° 10° 18°
Water equivalent of system 3060: 3012° 2987- :
Temperature interval _._-- 2°283° oils Be0 SG aa
Heat observed _._-.-._- Ee 6986° 5635° 9218°
“of oxidation of carbon —8663° ari eee
66 73 66 iron... = 30° 206 — 4°
“< “* oxygen set free or
paken Ups. 22 —+46° —4s8° + 82°
3339° 5617° 9260°
Homi eram of tin 2 22 1113° 1115° 1157°
As the tin from the sodium-tin alloy gave more heat when
burned with exygen than that known to be the common modi-
fication, tin turnings were made by fastening a cylinder of
tin in a lathe so that it rattled. Small chips came off which
were separated from the coarser process by sifting. The
following are the experimental data:
14 15
BBS oor ie ee re 8°241 grams 10°175 grams
Pee tOG. WUTNECG sion ee 5) ke OD 24g O.0G4
SS OMINCO p= sc piwe as 7°998 “ec TOPE
Bodinth. peroxide {2 li Pie e 25° a
Water equivalent of system... 3759: e 3816° ee
Temperature interval _______- 2-383." 3°020°
234 W. G. Miaxter— Heat of Oxidation of Tin.
Heatvobserved = os. ae 8957° 11525°
“ of oxidation ie ‘OMS, ee —64° oe
“ S oxygen takenwup) 2222 0 — 90°
8893° ear
Bor lL -eram Of tino 4 77s) eee Hie 1125°
The mean of the five results is 1124; the average for 119
grams of tin is 183756". Evidently the tin from the sodium-
tin alloy is the common modification.
Amorphous stannic oxide used in the next two experiments
was made by heating metastannic acid over a ring burner until
the weight was constant. Sulpbur was used to give the tem-
perature requisite and to reduce the sodium peroxide to oxide.
16 17
Stannic oxide, amorphous. - - -- 9°955 grams 7907 grams
i Uae ChAMmO eG. 2 aes 12045..." 05832 78
= ae Combined: spas SO a 132428
Water equivalent of system... 2987: yee 2987- e
Temperature interval._.._.--- 2°500° Pay ia
Heat‘observed 2s. yee eee 7467° 6961°
“of oxidation: ofirom 2 72- —48° — 48°
arts 5 “ sulphur. - Oil Oo ae
BE Ose yuan eri nee. + 75° ap ae
2223° LE
For 1 gram of stannic oxide- -- 255° 2306
The mean is 246° and for 151 grams of amorphous stannic
oxide it is 87100°.
Summary of results.
Sn + O, = SnO,(erystalline) +... 22222 is azoue
Sn (crystalline) + O =SnO(crystalline) + -.. 66200°
SnO(crystalline) + O = SnO, (crystalline)+-. _71000°
SnO, (amorphous) = SnO (crystalline) as eee 1700°
gNa.O, + Sn = Nain. Na OF ee 133800°
2Na, 0+20= 2Na, Oe ie 38800°
Na,O + Sn 4+20—Na sone sb. cas Ss Pe
Sn + O, = SnO (crystalline) sete te B33,210)0'°
Na,O + “SnO (crystalline) = Na,SnO, Se 35400°
Na,O + SnO,(amorphous) = Na,SnO, + ---- 37100°
Ford—Neptunite Crystals from San Benito Co., Cal. 235
Art. X VI.—WNeptunite Crystals from San Benito County,
California ; by W. E. Forp.
Mistorical.In July, 1907, a new mineral, called benitoite,
was described by Prof. G. D. Louderback in a bulletin of the
Department of Geology of the University of California.* In
the same article a short preliminary description of what was
then thought to be another new species was given and to
which the name carlosite was provisionally assigned. Mr.
Lazard Cahn, in the summer of 1907, first called the writer’s
attention to the fact that this mineral was identical with the
rare species neptunite found previously only in the Juliane-
haab district, Greenland. This identity of carlosite with nep-
tunite was announced by Prof. Louderback at the meeting of
the Geological Society at Albuquerque in December, 1907,
BirGeoe:
and a short note to the same effect was later published by W.
E. Blasdale in Science for August 21st, 1908. But beyond
this no description of the occurrence has so far been published.
Through the courtesy of Mr. Cahn and Mr. Milton G. Smith,
*Vol. v, No. 9, 149, 1907.
236 Ford—WNeptumte Crystals from San Benito Co., Cal.
the writer has been able to examine a large number of the
neptunite crystals from this locality and it was thought that a
brief description of them would be of interest.
Occurrence.—The neptunite crystals oceur associated with
those of benitoite, both minerals being embedded in a white
matrix of erystalline granular natrolite. The neptunite crys-
tals that are now in the Brush Collection vary in size from
slender prismatic crystals of only a few millimeters in length
to those of 25°" in length and as much as 7™™ in thickness. In
general the crystals are brilliant black in color, but wherever
they have been fractured they show
by internal reflections the red-brown
color which is characteristic of the
mineral when im thin section.
Crystallographic.—The crystals
from San Benito County are excep-
tionally uniform in their habit, the
following series of forms being found
on almost every crystal studied:
a(100), m(110), s(111), 4 (112), 0111),
g* (211), p(811). The crystals are
prismatic in habit, quite different
from those first described by Flink*
from Greenland, but more like a later
type described by him+ and resem-
bling still more a erystal figured by
Wallenstrém.{ The habit of devel-
opment of the California crystals is
represented in the figures which have
been drawn from specimens in the
Brush Collection. Figure 1 repre-
sents the commonest type in which the
forms present are: prism, m (110),
prominent, @(100) in narrow trun-
cations, the base, ¢ (001) very small,
as. also ¢ (111) and 2112), The
prominent terminal faces are the
. negative pyramids o (111), the new
form g(211) and p (811). Figure 2 shows a slight modification
in the development of these forms, and figure 4 shows the same
forms, with the exception of g which failed, but in an unsym-
metrical development. which is unusual on the crystals. This
figure was drawn by Mr. D. D. Irwin. Figure 4 is a doubly
terminated crystal, lke figure 2, half embedded in its matrix
of white natrolite. The faces of the crystals studied were, as
a rule, bright and gave excellent reflections on the goniometer
with the exception of the new form g(211). In every erystal
* Zeitschr. Kr., xxiii, 346, 1894. + Medd. om Gronl., xxiv, 120, 1902.
t Geol. For. Forh., xxvii, 149, 1905.
ine, a
Ford—Neptunite Crystals from San Benito Co., Cal. 287
observed this face was dull in luster and distinctly curved, and
only approximate measurements could be obtained from it.
Tts symbol was determined, however, by its zonal relations, for
it was found to lie at the intersection of the pyramid zone
a (100)—s (111) —0 G11)—p (811) —a@ (100) and the zone m (110)
—7(112)—m (110). This form g is new to the mineral, for
although Boggild in Mineralogia Groenlandica, page 506, lists
such a form as p (211) it is evidently a misprint, for in the
original article by Wallenstro6m* the form referred to is given
as p(311). The various forms were itpaunad by the follow-
ing angles:
Meas. Cale
a (100) A m(110) 49° 59" 49° 53°
a@(100) A e€ (001) 64° 224! 64° 29’
m(110) A s (111) B85 0! Si Oey
m(100) A © (001) 73° 49! ee TS AO
m(110) A @ (112) 78° 26' 78° 234!
m(110) A o (111) Soe Ay 54° 58!
m(1l0) A g (211) peel) One 40° 282"
a(100) A p (811): 39° 384’ oe Ol
Figure 5 shows in stereographic projection all the crystal
BiG. 3:
a (100)
forms of neptunite that have been listed. Those observed on
the Greenland crystals are indicated by solid dots, while the
* Loe. cit.
238 Ford—Neptunite Crystals from San Benito Co., Cal.
forms found on the specimens from California are indicated by
open circles. ,
Optical.—F or the optical study of the material a thin sec-
tion was first cut parallel to the symmetry plane (010). On
examination between crossed nicols it was found that one
extinction direction was inclined to the c-axis of about 24° in
the obtuse angle 8, while the second direction of extinction
very nearly coincided with the a-axis making an angle of 1° 38’
above it in front. The direction of greatest elasticity of the
section corresponds to the extinction direction which nearly
coincides with the a-axis. The section showed very strong
pleochroism, the ray vibrating parallel to the direction a being
colored yellow while the one vibrating parallel to c was a deep
brownish red. These relations are shown in figure 6. Two
other sections were cut, each being normal to one of the
Fie. 6. nivel 7s Fie. 8.
red. b
Ol1o
extinction directions of the section parallel to 6 (010). In the
section normal to the a-direction, or nearly normal to the a
crystallographic axis, it was noted that the extinction direction
which was parallel to the b-axis was the direction of greatest
elasticity in the section or the direction of intermediate elas-
ticity 6 of the mineral. This section showed in convergent
polarized light an interference figure with a large axial angle,
the optical axes lying in the symmetry plane of the crystal.
This section showed no marked pleochroism, rays vibrating
parallel to the two extinction directions being both colored a
dark red. These relations are expressed in figure 7. _
The third section was cut normal to the direction ¢ deter-
mined in the section parallel to 6(010) and in its orientation
was nearly parallel to c(001). This section showed an inter-
ference figure with the optical axes lyimg in the symmetry
fe ord —Neptunite Crystals from San Benito Co., Cal. 289
plane of the crystal. As the angle between them was small
it follows that the direction c, the normal to the section, is the
acute bisectrix and the mineral is positive. Rays vibrating
parallel to the 0 erystallographic axis were colored red, while
those vibrating in the symmetry plane were yellow. These
relations are shown in figure 8.
The above results differ from those given in the original
description in the position assigned to the axial plane. Flink
describes the optical orientation of the Greenland neptunite as
follows:* “The plane of the optical axes is perpendicular to
the symmetry plane and the acute bisectrix forms an angle of
18° with the vertical axis in the obtuse angle 6.” A critical
reading of his description would suggest that the discrepancy
noted above was probably brought about by an accidental turn-
ing of one of his sections so that the true orientation was
reversed. To translate further from his description: “In the
first section orientated parallel to the symmetry plane one extinc-
tion direction forms with the vertical axis an angle of 18° in
the obtuse angle 8. The rays vibrating in this direction show
the greatest absorption and the color is deep red brown.
The rays vibrating perpendicularly to this direction are less
absorbed and the color is yellow-red. The same section shows
_ also in convergent polarized light an axial figure with a large
angie between the optical axes.” With the exception of the
last statement the description agrees with that given above for
the California mineral. Flink describes the second section
which he cut as follows: ‘‘In the second section, orientated
perpendicular to the symmetry plane, and making an angle of
72° with the orthopmacoid and. 74° with the base, the rays
vibrating parallel to the symmetry axis are the least absorbed
and the color is yellow-red. The rays vibrating perpendicu-
larly to the symmetry axis and in the symmetry plane are more
strongly absorbed and the color is dark red. This section
shows in convergent polarized light an axial figure with a
-small angle between the optical axes.” It will be noted that
the elasticity direction which is common to the two sections,
namely the one lying in the symmetry plane and making a
small angle with the q@-axis, is said in the first case to show the
least absorption and to be colored yellow-red; and in the
second case the greatest absorption with a dark red color.
This discrepancy could be explained and the optical orienta-
tion of the Greenland mineral be brought into conformity with
that from California, if Flink’s second section was considered
to have been accidentally turned 90° from its true orientation.
The statement that an axial figure with large optical angle was
* Zeitschr. Kr., xxiii, 350, 1894.
240 Ford—Neptunite Crystals from San Benito Co., Cal.
obtained from the section parallel to (010) might be explained
by the fact that often in biaxial crystals what appears to be an
interference figure with a large axial angle can be obtained
from sections that are cut parallel to the axial plane.
Attempts were made to measure the indices of refraction of
the mineral, but on account of the dark color of the material
they failed. The average index of refraction was obtained in
the following manner: Small fragments were observed under
the microscope immersed in various mixtures of a monobrom-
napthalene and methylene iodide until one was obtained whicli
by use of the Becke method was found to be very closely of
the same index of refraction as the neptunite. The index of
refraction of the liquid was then determined by immersing in
it fragments of other minerals with known indices of refrac-
tion until the same result was obtained. In this way the
average index of refraction of the neptunite was found to be
close to 1°70.
An approximate measurement of the axial angle was made
by immersing the section cut perpendicular to the acute bisec-
trix in a monobrom-napthalene (7=1°6583) and using a small
axial angle goniometer placed on the stage of the microscope.
The measured angle (2H) was approximately 50°, which would
give 2E=90°. Assuming that @=1°7, this would give the ,
axial angle 2V =48° 40". Dispersion of the optical axes was
noted, v>p.
Chemical.—A qualitative examination of the Califounin
neptunite shows its substantial agreement with the analyses
given of the Greenland material. It is hoped shortly to be
able to make a quantitative analysis and to present its results
in a subsequent paper.
Mineralogical Laboratory of the Sheffield Scientific School of Yale Uni-
versity, New Haven, Conn., Jan. 29, 1909.
Gooch and Bosworth—Silver as the Chromate. 941
Arr. X VII.— The Gravimetric Determination of Silver as the
Chromate ; by F. A. Goocu and Rowxtanp 8. Bosworru.
[Contributions from the Kent Chemical Laboratory of Yale Univ.—cxcv. ]
Ir has been shown in a recent paper from this laboratory*
that the precipitation of silver chromate from the solution of
a soluble chromate made faintly acid with acetic acid may be
carried to completion by the addition of silver nitrate in con-
siderable excess; and that the exact determination of the chrom-
ium of a soluble chromate or dichromate may be effected by
treating with silver nitrate the solution of either salt, adding
ammonia to alkalinity and then acetic acid to faint acidity,
transferring the precipitate and washing it in the filtering
erucible with a dilute solution of silver nitrate until foreign
material other than that reagent has been removed, fnishing
the washing with a small amount of water applied judiciously
in portions, and weighing the dried or gently ignited residue
of silver chromate. The success of this process turns upon
keeping the chromium at the moment of precipitation essen-
tially in the form of chromate rather than dichromate and in
taking care that an excess of silver nitrate shall be present
nearly to the end of the washing. The present paper deals
with the conditions under which, in reversal of the process
just described, silver may be precipitated completely as the
chromate:
In the first experiments to be described, a solution of silver
dichromate was added gradually, either in slight excess or in
considerable excess, to a solution of silver nitrate maintained
at the boiling point; the mixture was cooled and treated with
ammonia until the precipitate first formed had been dissolved ;
acetic acid was added to faint acidity; and the precipitate
was settled for a half-hour, filtered off on asbestos in a perfor-
ated crucible, washed with a little water, dried and weighed.
In every case the weight of silver chromate found was defic-
ient and the testing of the filtrate with hydrochloric acid
showed the presence of a soluble salt of silver. The errors
amounted to several milligrams, varying with the conditions.
Dilution of the original solution and prolonged washing with
water increased the error. Admixture of alcohol was with-
out appreciable effect upon the solubility of the precipitate.
Evaporation to dryness and transfer by a dilute solution of
potassium dichromate, and a final washing with water used
judiciously in small portions, tended to diminish the amount of
soluble salt, but this treatment never reduced the error of loss
*Gooch and Weed : this Journal, xxvi, 85, 1908.
~
242 Gooch and Bosworth—Silver as the Chremate.
below two or three milligrams for volumes approximating a
hundred cubic centimeters. Solution of the first precipitate
in ammonia and reprecipitation by boiling to low volume to
remove the excess of ammonia failed to overcome entirely the
solubility of the silver salt, which appears to be due to a tend-
ency on the part of the ammonium chromate to pass to the
condition of dichromate with loss of ammonia from the boiling
solution. 3
In the next experiments, therefore, potassium chromate was
used as the precipitant. In Table I, A are given the details
of experiments in which an excess of potassium chromate was
added to silver nitrate, the solution boiled, the precipitate
transferred to the asbestos mae Mae perforated crucible
by means of a dilute solution of potassium chromate and
washed with small portions of water, and the residue after
drying with gentle heat weighed as silver chromate. In these
TaB_eE I.
Silver Error
taken as K.CrO, Age.CrO, Silver in terms
AgNO; used weighed found of silver
ais Sa Na), EO,
Volume Weight Volume
of solu- of of solu-
tion silver tion Weight
em?. erm. Cm erm, grm. erm. erm.
(eA
Precipitation by KeCrOx,.
15 0°1652 50 0°3 0°2536 0°1649 —0°'0003
10 O'1101 50 0°3 0°1693 O°1101 0°0000
25 01437 50 O8 0°2200 0°1436 —0:0001
25 0°1437 00 0'3 0°2210° 0°1437 0°0000
Bias
Precipitation by K20rO,., treatment with NH.OH and evaporation to dryness.
25 0°1348 00 0°3 0.2077 0°1351 + 0°00038
30 0°1618 10) 03 0°2500 0°1626 +0°0008
30 0°1618 30 0°3 0°2520 0°1639 +0°0021
C ate
Precipitation by K2CrO., treatment with BENG and boiling to a volume of
10-15",
25 0°1576 50 0°38 0:2422 OM difo —0'0001
25 0°1576 50 0°3 0°2414 0°1570 —0°0006
50 0°3152 50 0°3 0°4852 0°3155 + 0°0003
50 03152 50 0°3 0°4843 0°3149 —0°00038
50 0°3152 50 0°3 0°4847 0°3152 0°0000
D
Precipitation by K2CrO,, treatment with NH,OH and boiling to a volume of
10—15°"*® in presence of 1 grm. of sodium nitrate.
10 Ce eiG) i 50 0°38 0°1698 O°1101
15 0°1652 50 2073 0°2536 0°1649
0°0000
—0°0008
Gooch and Bosworth—Silver as the Chromate. 943
experiments no silver was found in the filtrate, but the pre-
cipitate was not so coarsely crystalline and easily washed as
when deposited by removal of ammonia from an ammonia-
eal solution. In the other experiments of Table I, therefore,
the first precipitate was dissolved in ammonia and reprecipi-
tated by boiling the solution: in those of B the evaporation
was carried to dryness, and in those of C the concentration
was stopped when a volume of 10-15°™* had been reached.
In all these experiments precipitation was complete, the fil-
trates giving no test with hydrochloric acid for a dissolved sil-
ver salt. ,
The high results obtained in the experiments of B are no
doubt due to the inclusion of foreign matter in the silver chro-
mate, which is left in caked condition by the process of complete
evaporation. The better results in the experiments of C are
apparently due to the fact that in them the evaporation was
not pushed too far. The experiments of D show that the pres-
ence of a gram of sodium nitrate has no appreciable effect
upon the solubility of the silver chromate. It is plain that-
the precipitation by potassium chromate in neutral solution is
practically complete and that accurate determinations may be
made by filtering at once, or by dissolving the precipitate in
ammonia, reprecipitating by boiling to a volume of 10-15,
and then filtering, drying, and weighing.
In many cases it is desirable to determine silver present -in
solutions containing free nitric acid. The effect of free nitric
acid upon the process was therefore next studied. A few
qualitative experiments showed that the solvent action of nitric
acid may be obviated by taking care to use the precipitant,
potassium chromate, in such amounts that an excess of it shall
be present after taking up the nitric acid to form potassium
dichromate. The details of a few of these experiments are
giving in the accompanying table.
Tasuxe IT.
K.CrO,
a SSS SSS SS
To form Theo-
Ag in To form K.Cr.0, retically Ag
AgNOs HNO; AgeCrO, with HNO; required Present in filtrate
erm. erm. erm. erm. erm. erm.
071376. . 0°063 0°1241 On 946; 023187" 220.3172. Kound
071376. .0°063 0°1241 O1946. 2: Olsa.0°3172- « Found
0°0550 0:063 0°0496 O19460"% 0-94490- 220-3179) None
0°0550 0°063 0°0496 01946 0°2442 0:°3172. None
01376 0°063 0°1241 0:1946 0°3187 0°3806 None
0°1376 0:063 0°1241 071946 0°3187 0°4758 None
01376 0:095 0°1241 0°2919 0:4160 0°4758 None
OI376 x 0-126 0°1241 0°3892 05133 06344 None
0°1376 07158 0°1241 0°4865 0°6106 0°7930 None
244 Gooch and Bosworth—Silver as the Chromate.
In Table III are given the results of quantitative experi-
ments in which precipitation was effected in presence of nitric
acid, with care to insure the necessary excess of potassium
chromate. In the experiments of A the precipitate was fil-
tered off at once, without solution by ammonia and reprecipita-
tion by boiling: in those of b the ammonia treatment was
made to convert the less crystalline precipitate to better form
for filtration and washing. | )
TasieE III.
Silver taken KeCrO.4
as AgNOs used
SSS SS (a SSS SS
Volume Volume HNO; _ Error
of solu- of solu- -———s — Ag.CrO., Silver in terms
tion Weight tion Weight Vol. Weight weighed found of silver
em. erm. CM: 2 6 orm. ce jeme: erm. erm. erm. grm.
A
Precipitation by K2CrOx, in presence of HNOs.
25 0°1355 50 0°9 10 07182 0°2091 0°1360 +0°0005
2 0°1355 50 0-9 10 0°182 0°2081 0°1353 —0-°0002
25 0°1358 50 0°9 10 0°182 0°2090 0°1360 +0°0005 |
25 0°1355 50 09 10 0°182 0:2075 0°1849 —0:0006
25 0°13855 50 0-9 10 0°182 0°2090 0°1860 +0:0005
B’
Precipitation by KeCrOz in presence of HNOs, treatment with NH,OH, and boil-
ing to a volume of 10-15 °™,
295 0°1348 50 0°6 10 + =0°063 0°2076 0°1350 -+0:0002
25 0°1348 50 0°6 10 0°063 0°2068 0:1844 —0-0004
25 01348 50 0°6 10 0:063 0:2072 01347 —0:0001
25 0°1348 50.2. 056 10 0°063 0:°2074 0°1348 0°0000
25 0°1348 50 6°6 10 0063 0:2070 0:°1346 —0:0002
So it appears that from solutions of silver nitrate, containing
free nitric acid, potassium chromate precipitates silver chromate
completely, provided enough potassium chromate is present to
take up the nitric acid with formation of potassium dichromate
as well as to form the silver salt. The precipitate, filtered at
once or brought to better crystalline condition by treatment
with ammonia and boiling of the solution to small volume,
may be transferred to the asbestos filter by dilute potassium
chromate and washed by small portions of water without
appreciable loss. The weight of the residue of silver chromate,
dried at gentle heat, may be taken asa very fair measure of
the silver originally present.
J. Trowbridge—Doppler liffect in Positive Rays. 245
Art. XVIII.— The Doppler Hffect in Positive Rays; by
JoHN TROWBRIDGE.
Tue discovery of canal rays by Goldstein, and that of the
Doppler effect in these rays, marks an epoch in the study of
the discharge of electricity through gases; for before these
discoveries the multitude of confusing effects which arise in
the space between the anode and the ee
eathode made it difficult to observe tase
any translation movement. The
space, however, behind the cathode
is comparatively free for the passage
of the positive ions.
We now recognize, in addition to
the positive rays behind the cathode—
the canal ray—retrograde positive rays
which are directed to the anode, or
rather away from the cathode in the
direction of the anode.* This later
discovery leads one to expect that the
Doppler effect should be found also
between the anode and the cathode. The result of my study
shows that the effect does exist in this region and indicates
a movement away from the cathode and toward the anode.
The form of tube I have employed is represented in fig. 1.
The slit of the Rowland grating was at X for the retrograde
rays and at Y for the canal rays; A being the anode and C
the cathode. The Rowland grating gave, in the order of spec-
trum I employed, six Angstrém units to nine-tenths of a milli-
meter. The effect was observed with respect to the hydrogen
line 4861°5 and the change in refrangibility was measured by
comparison with the solar spectrum, which was photographed
immediately beneath the gaseous line without changing the jaws
of the slit. The amount of the change in refrangibility was
sensibly the same as in the canal rays.
The difference of potential between the anode and the cathode
varied between five thousand and ten thousand volts; and the
current from ten to five milliamperes furnished by a storage
battery of ten thousand cells. A current of running water
provided a large and steady resistance.
The appearance of the discharge at the cathode has often
been described. The cathode appears to be the base of two
* Wehnelt, Wied. Ann., 1899, p. 421; Runge and Baschen, Wied. Ann.,
lxi, 1897, p. 644; Paschen, Wied. Ann., xxiii, p. 247; Villard, Comptes
Rendus, exliii, p. 678, 1906; Goldstein, Phil. Mag., March, 1906; Jacob
Kunz, Phil. Mag., July, 1908, p. 161; J. J. Thomson, Oct., 1908, p. 657.
Am. Jour. Sci1.—FourtTH SERIES, VoL. XX VII, No. 159.—Marcg, 1909.
ity
A
xX Y
C
246 JS. Trowbridge—Doppler Lffect in Positive Rays.
rose-colored cones of light, the apex of one directed to the
anode and the apex of the other toward the canal region. The
body of the luminous cone in the space between the anode and
the cathode is, so to speak, a solid, while that in the canal
region, or back of the cathode, is made up of a collection of
tubes which in a short region come together at the apex of the
cone, and in a more extended region spread out in a diffused
manner. When the cathode is unperforated the rosy glow,
which in the case of hydrogen characterizes the canal rays,
emanates from the central portion of the aluminium cathode;
it is no longer conical in form, or rather resembles a frustrum
of a cone, the base directed to the anode. It does not extend
as far toward the anode as the conical discharge from the per-
forated cathode and is not so bright. With the unperforated
cathode and the slit placed at X, no Doppler effect was seen.
When, however, the cathode was perforated the effect was very
1g, 2
evident and indicated a movement toward X which was equal in
amount to that observed in the canal region toward Y. More-
over, the photographs showed, when the light was observed at
X, a line on each side of the ordinary stationary hydrogen line ; —
my observations were confined to 4861°5. There was evidently
a movement toward the anode, and a movement away from it
at the cathode.
When the observations were conducted at Y, the same
phenomenon was observed: a stationary hydrogen line and a
diffuse line separated from the stationary line by a blank space
on each side of the stationary line—indicating a movement
toward the cathode and away from it. In fig. 2, a and 6 are
photographs, ¢ is a drawing which represents effects too feeble
to be strongly reproduced from the photographs—effects, how-
ever, which are very evident on the negatives @ and 6. The
J. Trowbridge—Doppler Liffect in Positive Rays. 247
slit was a broad one in order to show differences of illumi-
nation. The light was strongest at the orifices.
When the observations were conducted by placing the slit
of the spectroscope so that the light at the perforations did
not enter the slit—in other words, placing it obliquely to the
band of light—the companion of the stationary line which
indicated a movement away in each case, from the slit, was
not discernible. The effect took place at the orifices. The
positive particles jostling though these orifices and mutu-
ally repellent transmit moverients, like those resulting from
elastic particles in impact, in opposite directions and those
driven in the direction of the anode meet others coming
toward the cathode. There results a maximum of radiation
of greater refrangibility which is separated from the refrangi-
bility of the stationary hydrogen line by a less luminous space.
When glass tubes are inserted in the orifices through which
the canal rays pass and the back otf the cathode is protected
by glass connected to these tubes and to the wall of the dis-
charge tube, the canal rays are still obtained. This proves that
these rays are produced immediately in front of the cathode
that is on the side toward the anode, or in the orifices. I
incline to the belief, as 1 have stated, that the jostling in the
narrow orifices accounts for the change in refrangibility.
In all discharge tubes strize are seen opposite to the edge of
the cathode on the glass. These strize can be localized at a
definite point by bringing the edge of the dise of the cathode
near the wall of the tube; and we then have a source of positive
rays which is analogous to that formed by pushing a glass
tube surrounding the anode into the Crookes space.*
The heating and oxidizing effect from the positive particles
of these strize is very marked, especially when the canal region
is small, and is much greater than any effect produced by the
canal rays in a possible rebounding from the end of the canal
region. The photographs of cathode discs exhibit this effect
of the positive rays coming from the striz. In fig. 3, No. Lis
a photograph of the back of a cathode made of aluminium
formed from as pure clay as could be obtained. The disc was
‘75™™ thick and the hard surface formed by the iron rolls was
left upon it. The heat from the positive rays coming from
the strize caused the occluded gases of the aluminium to form
blisters on its surface. No. Il represents the back of a cathode
formed from the same quality of aluminium as in case [,
except that the plate of aluminium was treated with nitric acid to
remove any trace of iron coming from the rolls. The surface
thus lost its polish and hardness. A very black deposit formed
*K. Wiedemann, Wied. Ann., lxiii, p. 242, 1897.
248 J. Trowbridge—Doppler Lffect in Positive Rays.
under the effect of the positive rays of the strize, which was
probably carbon from the aluminium. In III the cathode was
formed from ordinary commercial aluminium 1°5™™ thick. It
represents the blackening which results from long running of
HiG. 3.
Hig. 45
the} discharge. At increased exhaustions and during this
long use of the tube the strize shift their position, and the back
of the cathode shows a general discoloration. No. IV repre-
J. Trowbridge—Doppler Kffect in Positive Rays. 249
sents the front of the cathode of fig. 3. The center is bright,
while the edges are discolored. Goldstein has noticed that
positive rays remove deposits.
Fig. 4 is a photograph of the canal rays which shows also
the luminosity on the back of the cathode produced mainly by
the striz.
The order of spectrum produced by the Rowland grating
gave an interval of ‘9 millimeter to six Angstrém units. The
approximate interval between the Doppler effect on both sides
of the stationary hydrogen line 4861°5 was three Angstrom
units; the difference of potential between the anode and the
cathode varied from 6000 volts to 10,000. The current ran
from 10 milliamperes to 5. A storage battery of 10,000 cells
was employed. The internal diameter of the discharge tubes
was 3°". The distance between X and ©, fig. 1, was 6. The
distance between OC and Y varied from 4°™ to 10.
Jefferson Physical Laboratory,
Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.
250 G. R. Wieland—Armored Saurian from the Niobrara.
Art. XIX.—A New Armored Saurian from the Nanna: :
by G. R. Wieianp.
Tue greatest American storehouse of fossil marine verte-
brates is doubtless in the Niobrara chalk of western Kansas.
But despite the fact that many of the diverse forms there rep-
resented must have lived near and frequented the shores of -
the Niobrara sea, very little evidence of even presumably true
land forms has thus far been obtained.
The best known form to be regarded as land, or at least
lacustrine or fluviatile, is the Hadrosaurus agilis of Marsh
from the Smoky Hill river. Though the type of this dino-
saur includes considerable portions of the skeleton, only a single
individual has ever been recovered. In fact, in the Univer sity
Geological Survey of Kansas, vol. iv, Professor Williston Says,
in speaking of the Dinosauria: “ But a single specimen (that
is Hadrosaurus agilis) has ever been found in the state, so far
as I am aware, though the animals must have lived here about
the shores of the Cretaceous seas in oreat abundance.”
And although collecting in the Niobrara has been especially
active during the past ten years, no further examples even
doubtfully referable to Dinosauria came within my knowledge —
until about two years ago. Then [ noted amongst turtle
material sent to the Yale Museum from the Hackberry Creek
region by Mr. Charles H. Sternberg, and referred to me for
study, the two paired and presumably caudal, or else cervical,
dermal elements shown in figure 7, 7a.
On the basis of such slender evidence it was of course not
possible to say whether a crocodilian was indicated, or even
some remote progenitor of such a turtle as J/zolania. Now,
however, we are enabled to present some clearer evidence for
the presence of a second Dinosaurian genus in the Niobrara.
This last season Mr. Sternberg secured, five miles south of
Castle Rock and three miles south of Hackberry Creek, six
dermal scutes of a form quite certainly dinosaurian. These
plates later came into my possession and have been donated to
the Yale Museum. The name /Hverosaurus Sternbergi is
assigned them in honor of their tollector. It is thought that
other fragmentary specimens have been observed, so that it is
probable that further material will yet be obtained.
In the excellent figures 1-7a of the present fossil scutes,
drawn by Mr. R. Weber, the principal characters may at once
be discerned.
The scutes are all shown one-third the natural size in the
figures 1-T7a. The bones shown in figures 1-8 are odd, that
of No. 3 being merely a tubercle with a fine right-angled stria-
tion on its lower surface. . Those shown in Nos. 4 and 5 are a
pair, but other elements must have intervened; while the two
fused elements shown in No. 6 form an isolated asymmetrical -
251
G. R. Wieland—Armored Saurian from the Niobrara.
IY
252 G. LR. Wreland—Armored Saurian from the Niobrara.
plate. In all the foregoing except the tubercle the thickness
is much as seen in the transverse section No. 2b. The more
or less median ridge is sharp and runs the entire length, being
of much the same height throughout its course, and terminat-
ing as a sharp backwardly projecting shghtly upturned spur.
The height of the ridge is from one to one and a half centi-
meters. Nos. 1-6 are all plate-like and of much the same
thickness as shown in the middle transverse section figure 20.
The two elements shown in figure 7, 7a are probably a
terminal pair that was seated on the proximal caudal or cervi-
cal region, as indicated by the broad flat front edge which
formed a contact and the free thinner posterior edge which
appears to end [if not begin] the series abruptly. But the ani-
mal to which these odd bones belonged may not even have
been of the same species as that to which the scales of figures
1-6 belong and form the type.
It is pretty clear that the form before us is allied to the
Stegosauridee and is possibly included in the Ankylosauridee of
Brown* represented by Dinosaurs with large shields and a
quite rigid turtle-like back from the Judith River beds near
Gilbert Creek, 120 miles north of Miles City, Montana.
The closest relationship within the family Ankylosauride so
far as the derinal armature affords comparison is afforded by
Polacanthus as restored by Nopesa and now on exhibition in
the British Museum at South Kensington. As there restored
there are first free plates and then a more or less perfectly
developed carapace only extended as such over the lumbar and
hip region.
From the fact that we see the large scales shown in figure 6
so completely fused a lumbar-hip carapace may be supposed
present in the Niobrara form. but in the latter there is plainly
indicated by heavy sulci the presence of a system of horn-
shields at least as large as the keeled plates. These characters
evidently form a sufficient generic distinction.
It thus seems probable that the Dinosaurs actually paralleled
the turtles in the development of keels of dermogene bones
enclosed by horny shields and coming near to the formation of
a true carapace with a clearly aligned bone and_hornshield
system primarily comparable to that of Dermochelys asit now
exists. Jt is not to be forgotten, however, that the unusual
structure of the Archelon carapace described in previous pages
makes it very likely that ere long a turtle may be found with
a neural, pleural and marginal series greatly reduced and
mainly replaced by rows of large shields not greatly unlike
those now described.
Yale University Museum, New Haven, Conn.
* The Ankylosauride, a new family of Armored Dinosaurs from the Upper
Cretaceous ; by Barnum Brown. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. xxiv,
Art. XII, pp. 187-201, New York, Feb. 13.1908. [Though I fail to see why
the Nodosauride of Marsh are ignored in this paper. |
Wolcott Gibbs. 9538
WOLCOTT GIBBS.
Wotcorr Gipps, for many years an associate editor of this
Journal, and during the last part of his scientific career the
most commanding figure in American chemistry, was born in
New York, February 21, 1822. “His father, Colonel George
Gibbs, was one of the earliest American mineralogists, and is
commemorated in the mineral Gibbsite. He was a friend of
the elder Silliman, and his fine collection, deposited in New
Haven in 1812 and purchased in 1825, became the foundation
of the mineral cabinet of Yale College. His mother, Laura
Wolcott Gibbs, was the daughter of Oliver Wolcott, Secretary
of the Treasury during part of the administrations of Wash-
ington and John Adams, and granddaughter of the signer of
the Declaration of Independence of the same name. The
child, who was the second son, was named Oliver Wolcott
Gibbs, but, as he disliked the name of Oliver, he dropped it
in early life, and is known to the scientific world as Wolcott
Gibbs.
The taste for science inherited from his father was not slow
in appearing, for, as he tells us, even in his early childhood,
which was passed mostly at his father’s large estate called
Sunswick on Long Island a few miles from New York, ‘“ he
was often occupied with making volcanoes with such materials
as he could obtain, and in searching the stone walls on the
estate for minerals and the gardens and fields for flowers.”
At the age of seven he went to live with William Ellery
Channing, the great Unitarian divine, who had married his
aunt, but he was under the special care of another aunt, Miss
Sarah Gibbs. The winters were passed in a fine house on Mt.
Vernon street, Boston, and the summers at Oakland, a beauti-
ful estate about five miles from Newport, R. I. The fame of
Dr. Channing brought many foreign visitors, especially in sum-
mer, and this stimulating mental atmosphere, to which the
boy was exposed for five years, had a marked effect on his
intellectual development.
In 1837 he entered Columbia College, and his first original
work dates from his junior year there. It consisted of a new
954 Wolcott Gibbs.
form of galvanic battery, in which carbon was used for the
first time as the inactive plate. Upon receiving his degree of
A.B. in 1841 he began his chemical education by taking a
place as assistant with Dr. Robert Hare, professor of chemis-
try in the Medical School of the University of Pennsylvania.
His long life, therefore, linked one of our earliest chemists
with those of the present generation. After some months in
this laboratory he entered the College of Physicians and Sur-
geons of New York with the intention of qualifying himself
to hold the chair of chemistry in a medical school. It is cer-
tainly remarkable that at this early day he should have been
able to work out so well-conceived a plan for chemical study ;
which he continued, after taking the degree of M.D. in 1845
and incidentally the A.M. in 1844, by going to Europe, where
he entered the laboratory of Rammelsberg at Berlin. Some
months here were followed by a year under Heinrich Rose,
also in Berlin, a semester in Giessen with Liebig, and courses
of lectures in Paris from Laurent Dumas and Regnault. Of
this brilliant constellation of teachers, Heinrich Rose had by
far the most influence on him, as is shown by his lifelong
devotion to inorganic and analytical chemistry in spite of the
fascinations of organic chemistry under Liebig and physical
chemistry under Regnault. He always spoke of Rose with
the greatest admiration and affection, and evidently regarded
him as his chemical father.
In 1848 he returned to New York, fae after giving a short
course of lectures at Delaware College, Newark, was elected in
1849 professor of chemistry and physics in the newly created
Free Academy now ealled the College of the City of New
York. For the next eight years there is little to record except
his marriage to Josephine Mauran in 1853, and the fact that
in 1851 he began a series of reports on chemical and physical
progress for this Journal as associate editor, continued till 1873,
which form 500 pages of suecinet but clear and comprehensive
abstracts of the most important papers of this period. He also
carried on a similar work for American chemistry as corre-
spondent of the German Chemical Society from 1869-1877.
Until 1857 his papers, few in number and of no great import-
ance, only show he was. finding his feet, but m that year
Wolcott Gibbs. 955
appeared the account of his great investigation of the ammonia-
cobalt compounds with F. A. Genth, which contained so full
and thorough a study of the principal series of these puzzling
bodies that very little in the way of experiment was left for
future work, the analytical and chemical work being supple-
mented in many cases by crystallographic determinations by
J. D. Dana. So exhaustive a research was a new thing in
American chemistry, and at once established his reputation on
a firm basis.
In 1861 appeared the first of three papers on new methods
of separating the platinum metals, an important research on a
most difficult subject, which was a worthy companion of his
great work on the ammonia-cobalt compounds. These investi-
gations led to his election in 1863 to the Rumford Professor-
ship of the Application of Science to the Useful Arts in
Harvard University, left vacant by the retirement of Professor
E. N. Horsford, and accordingly, after he had established
himself in Cambridge, he took charge of the chemical labora-
tory of the Lawrence Scientitie School. The number of his
students was smali, but more were not to be expected or
desired, as the object of the course was to educate professional
chemists, and the supply was somewhat greater than the
demand. His own work during this period is described in a
number of short papers principally on chemical analysis; the
most conspicuous of which, introducing the electrical deposi-
‘tion of the metals asa means of their quantitative determina-
tion, laid the foundation of what has since become a new
department of the science—electrical analysis. Another of
these papers on the sand or glass filter is interesting as a fore-
runner of the Gooch crucible, and his experimental method for
correcting the volumes of gases may also be mentioned.
In 1871 a reorganization of the Chemical Department con-
solidated the laboratory of the Lawrence Scientific School with
that of Harvard College, and relegated Dr. Gibbs to the
Department of Physics, where he taught a small advanced
class in Light and Heat. Some papers on optical subjects
inspired by the discovery of the spectroscope probably led to
this assignment, which was justified on the score of economy,
but its wisdom may be doubted, as it deprived the chemical
256 Wolcott Gibbs.
students of the university of the teaching of the best chemist
in the country, and diminished the volume of his original
work, since up to a certain point the amount of chemical pro-
duction is directly proportional to the number of hands at the
disposal of the master. Yet a study of his papers shows that,
when his time was occupied by the administration of a labora-—
tory and more elementary teaching, he did not produce those
extended researches on which his fame principally rests, as
these date from the earlier and later periods, when his whole
energy was concentrated on work of his own with, in the later
period, one skilled private assistant.
His two earlier investigations of this sort had to do with
subjects so abstruse and difficult that most chemists would have
shuddered at the idea of attacking them, but, as he once said,
he was a pioneer, and seemed to enjoy iothing more on
breaking a way through these tangled jungles on the frontier
of the science. Accordingly he next took up a field of work—
the complex acids of tungsten and molybdenum—even more
terrible, for here it takes courage merely to read his papers,
and follow his footsteps through the bewildering maze of
series after series of compounds. What then must it have
been to find the necessary clue to this labyrinth, and to estab-
lish the nature of these numerous compounds? Especially
since in doing this it was necessary for him to work out some
of the most difficult problems of analytical chemistry, as the
separation of many of the elements involved had never been
attempted before. In this great investigation over fifty new
series of compounds were discovered by him, and the old series
fully investigated and put on a solid foundation. The first
paper appeared in 1877, and the last in 1896, this being the
last paper published by him.
The invention of the ring burner, his most important con-
tribution to the apparatus of analytical chemistry, dates from
1873, just after his transfer to the Department of Physics; and
his porous diaphragms for heating precipitates in gases were
described in the same year. In 1877 appeared his excellent
method for preparing nitrogen.
In 1887 he became professor emeritus, and retired to New-
port, where he continued his work on the complex acids in a
Wolcott Gibbs. 957
laboratory which he built for the purpose; and also invaded
the only remaining department of inorganic chemistry, which
could be ranked for complexity and difficulty with the three
already occupied by him,—this was the cerium group, but
advancing years prevented him from making more than a pre-
liminary exploration in this field.
In these last years at Newport he also took up an extended
study of the effect of isomeric organic compounds on animals,
at first with Dr. H. A. Hare and later with Dr. E. T. Reichert.
In addition to this work in physiological chemistry he had in
his earlier papers made occasional excursions into theoretical
chemistry, organic chemistry, mineralogy, and physics, an
astonishingly broad field to be covered by one man. His fame,
however, rests on his work in inorganic and analytical chem-
istry, and it seems to me that his two qualities, which make
this préeminent, are thoroughness and accuracy. Next to
these I should place his wonderful suggestiveness. His ideas
flowed rather in a torrent than a stream, and occasionally bore
him away from some good subject, after he had little more
than broken the ground in it. Even old age did not check
this current, his paper on the cerium metals published at 72
containing five new and ingenious suggestions for their sepa-
ration. The criticism, which might be made on his work, is
that he was content to prepare the experimental foundations,
but left it to others to build the theoretical structures upon
them. The reason for this, I think, was that before all else
he was an experimentalist. His table was always covered with
a multitude of test tubes each with a label in its mouth setting
forth the substances reacting within, and it was beautiful to
watch the sharpness of insight with which he seized on the
favorable indications in these numerous experiments, and the
rare skill and robust energy with which he followed any line of
work that promised results of value.
As a teacher he had an especial faculty for imbuing his stu-
dents with the enthusiasm and spirit of original work; and
they felt the greatest admiration and affection for him. The
only instruction I received from him was a single voluntary
lecture in mysenior year. In this his ideas came hurrying out
with an impetuous speed, as if there were too many to be
258 Wolcott Gibbs.
forced into the narrow limits of an hour. The effect was
wonderfully inspiring, when, as in this case, one did not have
to take notes. As already stated, his teaching was confined to
a few students, and it isa matter of regret that more did not
have the opportunity of profiting by contact with this great
mind.
Of the various societies, to which he belonged, he was most
warmly attached to the National Academy of Sciences. He
was one of its founders in 1870, and at his death the last sur-
vivor of the original members. He served it as foreign secre-
tary, vice president, and from 1895 to 1901 president. He
was also a member of the American Academy of Arts and
Sciences and of the American Association for the Advance-
ment of Science, of which he was a vice president in 1866,
president in 1897. In addition to these his achievements
brought him honorary membership in the Philosophical Soci-
ety of Philadelphia, and the American, English, and German
Chemical Societies, and corresponding membership in the
British Association for the Advancement of Science, and the
Royal Prussian Academy. The most striking of these appre-
ciations of his merit was his election as honorary member of
the German Chemical Society, as he was the only American on
this list. Phe degree of LL.D: -was conferred on) hammay,
Columbia University, Harvard University, the University of
Pennsylvania am absentia as a special honor, and the Colum-
bian University of Washington.
During the Civil War he proved himself a public spirited,
patriotic citizen, devoting a large part of his time to service on
the executive committee of the Sanitary Commission. The
frequent meetings of this body suggested to him the idea of
“a elub which should be devoted to the social organization of
sentiments of loyalty to the Union.” <A meeting to consider
this plan was called at his house on January 30, 1863, and led
to the formation of the Union League Club of New York. In
later life, although he took no prominent part in public affairs,
he always held his knowledge at the service of the govern-
ment, as was shown by an extensive report on the instruments
for physical research, prepared when he was a commissioner
to the exposition at Vienna in 1873, another on the tariff as
applied to seeds, and others on various chemical subjects.
Wolcott Gibbs. 259
His most engrossing pursuit, next to chemistry, was garden-
ing, a taste inherited from his father, and he threw himself
into this with the enthusiasm, skill, thoroughness, and success,
which characterized his work in chemistry. It served as an
excellent relief from his arduous labors, and, when old age
brought these to an end, as a delightful occupation, until a
short time before his death, which took place at Newport,
December 9, 1908.
I wish I could bring before the reader the pictures which I
like best to remember, when I think of him. The tall, hand-
some man brimming over with warm, cordial welcome as he
hastened to meet you on your arrival at his house, and later, on
the piazza overlooking the garden and the sea, the long inspir-
ing talks, which kept you in a high clear country far above
anything mean or questionable, and sent you back to your
work with renewed energy and enthusiasm; his vivid enjoy-
ment in the pursuit of his experiments in the laboratory ; or
best of all, to see him wandering from bed to bed in his sunny
garden, rejoicing in each rare and beautiful plant in his rich
collection.
C. L. Jackson.
260 Scientific Intelligence.
SCIENTIFIC INTELLI.GHN Cie
I. Curmistry AND Purysics.
1. New Method of Horming Liquid Alloys of Sodium and
Potassiwm.—It has been found by JausErRtT that when metallic
sodium acts upon potassium hydroxide, or when metallic potas-
sium acts upon sodium hydroxide, there are formed in both
cases, at a slightly elevated temperature, liquid alloys of the
two alkali metals containing up to nearly 80 per cent of
potassium. The very remarkable circumstance that both of
these reactions take place and both give practically the same
product appears to be due to the fact that these alkali metals
combine to form the compounds Nak and Nak, with the libera-
tion of a considerable amount of heat. The following equations
represent the reactions :
K, + NaOH = KOH + Nak,
Na, + 29KOH = 2NaOH + NaK,,
Na, + KOH = NaOH + Nak.
These reactions give almost quantitative yields, and they are
brought about by heating the reacting substances to from 225°
to 350° in the different cases. The operation may be carried
out either under paraffine or in an exhausted vessel. The
reaction corresponding to the second of the equations given
above is one by means of which an alloy rich in metallic potas-
sium is now being made cheaply on a commercial scale in
France, and the product promises to have important industrial
applications, since, as is well known, potassium in many cases
gives reactions entirely different from those of sodium, and it often
reacts where sodium is without action. In connection with
these results the author points out the falsity of the statement,
given in most works on chemistry, that the alkali metals react
with their hydroxides to form their oxides ; for example,
Na + NaOH = Na,O + H,
and that only the opposite reaction,
Na,O + H = NaOH + Na,
is possible, as has been shown by Becketofft.— Bulletin, IV, 111,
1126. H. L. W.
2. The Determination of Cerium and other Rare Karths in
Rocks.—It has been found by Dierricn that when oxalic acid
or ammonium oxalate is added to a cerium solution in the pres-
ence of ferrous sulphate, cerium oxalate is precipitated, but this
precipitate contains a considerable amount of iron when a large
quantity of this metal is present. Whena neutral solution of a
ferric salt is present no precipitate of cerium oxalate is produced
Chemistry and Physics. 261
until the iron has been converted into the green complex oxa-
late, and then when an excess of oxalic acid or ammonium
. oxalate has been added the cerium oxalate is gradually precipi-
tated in a pure white condition. Even when cerium oxalate has
actually been precipitated it dissolves upon the addition of ferric
chloride. The author advises, therefore, the use of a very much
larger amount of ammonium oxalate than is customary in analyt-
ical work when cerium is to be separated from iron. He prefers
to use ammonium oxalate rather than oxalic acid for this pur-
pose, as the latter makes the liquid too acid. When ammonium
oxalate is employed in this way, however, all the calcium present
is precipitated with the rare earth oxalates, but the latter may
be separated by igniting the precipitate, dissolving the residue in
acid and precipitating twice with ammonia.— Berichte, xh, 4373.
: H. L. W.
3. Solubility of Metallic Gold in Hydrochloric Acid in the
presence of Organic Substances.—But few solvents for metallic
gold have been known up to the present time. ‘These are chlor-
ine, bromine, iodine, cyanides, and selenic acid. AWERKIEW
has now observed that tinely divided metallic gold is soluble to
some extent in hydrochloric acid in the presence of many organic
substances. Among the organic compounds showing this pro-
perty to a notable extent are the following, which are arranged
according to diminishing effectiveness in this respect: methyl
alcohol, amy! alcohol, chloroform, ethyl alcohol, chloral hydrate,
phenol, cane sugar, glycerine, trioxymethylene, formaldehyde.
The action takes place very slowly at ordinary temperature, but
it is more rapid upon boiling, although the duration of the boil-
ing appears to have no essential influence. The gold must be
very finely divided to show such solubility, and large amounts
of solvent dissolve small amounts of gold. For instance, 1000°°
each of methyl alcohol and hydrochloric acid when boiled for
5 hours with ‘1154 g. of gold precipitated with ferrous sulphate
dissolved 0128 g. of it. The results indicate the existence of a
new class of gold compounds, which it is the author’s intention
to investigate.—Zeitschr. anorgan. Chem., 1xi, 13. EIS Wie
4. The Composition of Matter.—The following contribution
to theory has been put forth by E. Mutprer: The conception
that the atoms, which form the molecules, are compound has been
advanced many times. But as yet he has not observed the
hypothesis that these atoms of the second order are composed
of atoms of the third order, and so on to infinity, a view which
he advanced long ago. ‘The ether, a particular and hypothetical
form of the same matter (differing only in condensation), has,
according to this idea, an analogous constitution. In the case
of matter there are presented then, at the end of ends, infinitely
small atoms, a conception not easily grasped.
A theory such as this, which explains no known phenomena,
appears to be unprofitable. Many others besides Mulder have
doubtless indulged in just such a speculation, and it is easy to
Am. Jour. Sci.—Fourts Series, Vout. XX VII, No. 159.—Marcu, 1909.
18
262 Scventific Intelligence.
carry the idea upward as well as downward ; to assume that the
planets and fixed stars are atoms of the next higher order, that
there are many orders on eae so that at the end of ends there ©
would be infinitely large atoms, a conception which 1 is hkewise
not ee to grasp. — Recueil, XXV ii, £18. Hi. Lh. W:
. Introduction to the Rarer Elements, by Putrie E. Brown-
ING, 8vo, pp. 200. New York, 1908 (John Wiley & Sons).—
This is the second edition, thoroughly revised and considerably
enlarged, of a book which first appeared five years ago and is well
known to the chemical public. Among the additions found in
the new edition is a chapter by Dr. Boltwood, giving an excel-
lent and concise account of the Radio-Elements. H. L. W.
6. Keste Lésungen und Lsomorphismus, by GrusEPP1 Brunt.
12mo, pp. 127. Leipzig, 1908 (Akademische Verlagsgesell-
schaft).—The author of this book has taken an active part in the
development of modern views regarding solid solutions. . In this
volume, he gives an exceedingly clear account of the work that
has been done and the results that have been obtained. The first
part consists essentially of a lecture delivered at Breslau and this
is supplemented with an appendix containing additional notes
and references. B. Woake
7. Lhe Production of Helium from Uranium.—F. Soppy
refers to his previous work on the production of helium from
thorium and extends his work by a study of the production of
this gas from uranium. He concludes that this gas is produced
from uranium with an approximate velocity of 2°10~” (year)~.
That is, out of 1,000,000 kg. of uranium 2 mg. of helium are
produced per year. Preliminary results with sylvine give a
production velocity of 2°5 107" (year)'.—Physik. Zeitschrift,
Jan. 15, 1909, p. 41. J a
8. The Charge and Nature of the a-Particle—E. Rura-
ERFORD and H. GrieGER review the work upon this subject,
comparing the charge on the a-particle with that on the hydrogen
atom—finding it between 2e and 3¢. They compare various
methods of determining this charge and discuss the accuracy
of different methods of determination. It is maintained that
the quantity of helium formed from a gram of radium is
5:0 SZ 1Q97°cem
Physik. Zeitschrift, Jan. 15, 1909, pp. 42-46. eau,
9. Amount of Water in a Cloud formed by Expansion of
Moist Air.—In the celebrated experiments of C. T. R. Wilson and
Professor J. J. Thomson—on the determination of the number
of ions by means of condensation of vapor—it is assumed that
the air is cooled to the full extent by the adiabatic expansion
before the drops begin to form. Professor W. B. Morron has
investigated the conditions which would result if the expansion
and condensation kept pace with each other, the process being a
reversible one, and find that Thomson’s results and his own
differ only by six per cent. The assumption of complete adia-
batic cooling of the air does not introduce an error comparable
Geology and Natural History. 263
with other inaccuracies in the experiment.—PAdl. Mag., Jan.,
1909, pp. 190-192. J.T.
10. Permanent Magnetism of Copper.—J. G. GRay and A. D.
Ross have studied the behavior of pure copper in strong mag-
netic fields under various conditions of temperature varying from
bright red heat to that of liquid air. The traces of remanent
magnetism are recorded. Ordinary and electrotytic copper were
investigated together with the traces of iron. Te de | ae
schrift, Jan. 15, ~1909, pp. 59-61.
11. United States Magnetic Tables and Magnetic oie “fin
1905 ; by L. A. Bauer. Pp. 154, 1 figure, 7 charts. Washing-
ton, i908 (Department of Commerce and Labor, Coast and Geo-
detic Survey).—The latest results obtained for the magnetic
elements of the United States and the immediately adjacent
countries are presented together in this volume, which appears
independently instead of being attached as an appendix to the
reports of the Coast and Geodetic Survey. The author states
that he resigned his position in connection with the survey on
September 1, 1906, but that the matter was essentially complete
at that date except as regards the determination of the correc-
tions for secular variation. In order that these may be as accu-
rate as possible, the charts now issued are made out for January
1, 1905, instead of a subsequent date, as for 1910.* Recent
experience has shown that unexpected changes have taken place
in the variation and that they have not progressed in accordance
with the predictions from the empirical formule established
earlier, hence the necessity of great care to insure accuracy. The
number of stations in the country for which the magnetic ele-
ments are tabulated is 3311 (2869 C. and G. Survey Stations), or,
in other words, there is one magnetic station for about 973 square
miles. Furthermore, magnetic work at sea was begun on Coast
Survey vessels in 1903, so that the results obtained by them from
1903 to 1907, as well as by the Carnegie Institution along the
Pacific coast, have been available for this work. In addition to
the various tables, the report includes seven charts giving the
declination, inclination, horizontal intensity, vertical intensity,
total intensity, also the magnetic meridians, and, finally, the secu-
lar motion curves and horizontal intensity secular variation curves.
IJ. Gerotogy Ano Natura History.
1. Die Fossilen Insekten und die Phylogenie der Rezenten
Formen ; von Anton Hanptirscu. In nine parts, pp. 1430,
many plates and text-figures. Leipzig, 1906-08 (Wm. Engel-
mann).—This monumental work reviewing 7640 species of fossil
insects is now completed. (An earlier review appeared in April,
1907, of this Journal.) On pages 1142-1192 is given a summary of
the paleontologic results, a chapter of the greatest interest not only
* It is proposed that the magnetic charts of the Carnegie Institution, with
which Dr. Bauer is now connected, be also referred to the same period.
264 Seventific Intelligence.
to entomologists but as well to all paleontologists. The first
insects found fossil occur at the base of the Pennsylvanian. or
Lower Coal Measures. Of Paleozoic forms there are 884 species,
Mesozoic 965 and of Cenozoic 5802. Rather a small showing
when compared with the 380,000 known recent species, and yet a
number sufficiently large to give a clear insight into the chrono-
genesis of the winged insects.
In Chapter VII a review is given of the more important classi-
fications of recent insects beginning with that of Aristotle 300
years before Christ. In the eighth chapter the author establishes
a new Classification based on the principles of phylogeny and
chronogenesis. ‘There are two classes of insects, the winged or
Pterygogonea, and the wingless or Apterygogonea. The former
is here divided into 12 subclasses and 39 orders. The oldest sub-
class, restricted to the Pennsylvanian, is the radical stock Pale-
odictyoptera and out of it are derived 11 primary orders, all but
one of these being restricted to the Paleozoic. The exception is
Blattoidea, Either late in the Permian or in the Triassic origi-
nate 16 terminal orders, followed by 3 in the Jurassic, 7 in the
Cretaceous and 2 in the Cenozoic.
The phylogeny of the Arthropoda is discussed on pages 1293—
1318. The Trilobita is regarded as the radical from which most
of the Arthropoda phyle are directly derived. Finally, on pages
.1318-1344, the author presents his “ descendance conclusions. ”
A Nobel prize might well be the reward for the energy and
insight here displayed. c. 8.
2. Connecticut Geological and Natural History Survey. Third
Biennial Report ; Bulletin No. 12, 1907-1908. Wuziiam NortH
Rice, Director. 30 pages. Hartford.—The report of the Survey
shows an unusual amount of high grade work accomplished with
a very small annual appropriation. In-addition to the eleven
bulletins already published, the following have been accepted :
The Lithology of Connecticut ; the Flowering Plants and Pteri-
dophytes of Connecticut ; the Hymeniales of Connecticut ; the
Triassic Fishes of Connecticut ; the Insects of Connecticut. The
work in progress includes researches in glacial geology, study of
peat deposits, and the preparation of reports on tresh waters, pro-
tozoa and algae, echinodermata, and birds of Connecticut.
H. E. G.
3. Mississippi State Geological Survey. ALBERT EF. CRIDER,
Director. Bulletin No. 1, Cement and Portland Cement Mate-
rials of Mississippi. 70 pp., 6 pls. Bulletin No. 2, Clays of Mis-
sissippl, pt. 1, pp. 249, pls. 42, figs. 14. Bulletin No. 3, The
Lignite of Mississippi, pp. 66. Bulletin 4, Clays of Mississippi,
pt. ii, pp. 64, pls. 17.—The Mississippi survey is justifying its
existence from an economic standpoint by giving its first atten-
tion to the resources of the state, as shown by the above titles.
Bound with each bulletin is a copy of the new Geologic and |
Topographic Map, which “ represents the present knowledge of
geologic boundaries of Mississippi ”’—a publication which will be
welcomed by geological students. _ H. E. G.
Geology and Natural History. 265
4. The Interpretation of Topographic Maps ; by Roun D.
Sauispury and Watrtace W. Atwoov. U. 8. Geological Sur-
vey, Professional Paper No. 60. Pp. 78, pls. 170, figs. 34.
Washington, 1908.—The use of the topographic maps published
by the United States Geological Survey will doubtless be greatly
extended as the result of this publication. The interpretation of
156 maps is given and they are grouped, with reference to the
features they represent, under the following heads: The work of
wind ; stream erosion; alluviation ; topographic effects from
unequal hardness of rocks ; erosion ‘cycles ; stream piracy and
adjustment ; effects of ground water; glaciation ; coast lines ;
volcanism; faults; lakes of special types. From the standpoint
of the teacher, this paper is one of the most valuable ever issued
by the Geological Survey. Its value could have been increased,
however, by more complete explanations of the various topo-
graphic types. Hs BG:
5. The Zonal Belt Hypothesis, a New Explanation of the
Causes of the Ice Age; by Josrpa T. WHEELER. Pp. 401.
Philadelphia and London, 1908 (J. B. Lippincott Co.).—An
attempt is made, in this book, to account for the great changes
of climate through geological time, on the assumption that the
earth has been, until recent times, surrounded by belts of
“planetesimal or gaseous matter.” The author has apparently
read widely, in search of geological and meteorological pheno-
mena which might be explained by this hypothesis. On the
theory that the last zonal belt was in existence during the early
history of man, the myths of the various races, together with
Genesis and Plato, are called in as proofs of this phenomenon.
Although the book contains much interesting matter, it can
hardly be classed as a scientific treatise. ~ H. E. G.
6. Handbuch der Mineralogie ; von Cart Hintze. Erster
Band. Zwolfte Lieferung. Pp. 1761-1920; 43 text-figures.
Leipzig 1908 (Veit & Co.).—The twelfth part of the first
volume of Hintze’s great work on Mineralogy has recently been
issued. This is largely devoted to exhaustive descriptions of the
species hematite and ilmenite ; also of several of the protoxides,
including cuprite. This part is the twenty-fourth of the entire
work begun in 18893; a title page is issued with it to be used in
binding “the first part of Vol. I (pp. 1-1208), embracing the
elements and sulphides. H. E. G.
7. Chemische Krystallographie; von P. Groru. Zweiter
Teil. Die anorganischen Oxo- und Sulfosalze. Pp. 914, 522
text-figures. Leipzig, 1908 (W. Engelmann).—The scope of the
important work on Chemical Crystallography undertaken by
Prof. Groth was discussed in a notice of the first part published
in 1906 (volume xxii, p. 153). We have now the second
instalment of the work, a volume of more than 900 pages,
embracing the Inorganic Oxy- and Sulphosalts. This volume
will be of especial interest to mineralogists, as well as to chemists,
since it contains so large a part of the well-known mineral com-
266 Scientific Intelligence.
pounds, as well as the allied artificial salts. The descriptions are
liberally illustrated, and the statement of the crystallographic
data leaves nothing to be desired. The work, however, is much
more than a compilation of the crystallogr aphic and optical prop-
erties of chemical compounds, for the author’s breadth of view
and philosophical insight into the relations of these compounds
give great value to the introductory remarks with which each
division is introduced. The friends of the author will wonder
once more that he is able, in connection with so many, other
works of importance, to carry through so stupendous a labor as is
here represented. -T’wo more parts are in preparation, which will
embrace the organic compounds.
8. Notes of a Botanist on the Amazon and Andes, being
records of truvel on the Amazon and its tributaries ; as also to
the cataracts of the Orinoco, along the eastern side of the Andes
of Peru and KLeuador, and the shores of the Pacific, during the
years 1849-1864; by Ricuarp Sprucr, Ph.D. Edited and
condensed by ALFRED Russet Watuace, O.M., F.R.S., with a
biographical introduction, portrait, seventy-one illustrations, and
seven maps. In two volumes. London, 1908 (Macmillan & Co). —
This treatise is exceptional in many respects. It is the record of
botanical exploration about half a century ago, which is almost
as fresh and important as if it was made during the last year.
Furthermore, it is full of physiographical and ethnological
memoranda of extraordinary interest, edited by a thoroughly
sympathetic friend and fellow-naturalist. Hverybody knows the
range of the journeys made by Wallace in South America, and is
familiar with the hardships attending them. Spruce not only
passed over a great deal of territory which was practically like
that investigated by Wallace, but he was in the equatorial belt
at the very time when Wallace was there and knew of his serious
illness. |
Spruce is best known for his copious contributions to our
knowledge of the Bryophytes. Beginning their study during his
life in Yorkshire, he carried on explorations in the Pyrenees,
where he discovered mosses and liverworts in places which had
been thought to contain none, and afterwards he collected exten-
sively in South America. With scarcely any means, and with
only enfeebled health, he managed, by dint of an iron will, to
carry his work on. in a manner which has -always commanded
respect.
He has been most fortunate in his editor. No onefcould have
condensed the voluminous notes more skillfully, or connected
them with more instructive remarks than Mr. Wallace.
Our readers will enjoy in the perusal of this absorbingly inter-
esting volume the proofs of Spruce’s sagacity which led him to
interpret many structural features in the Tropics as indicative of
a certain drifting of specific characters, vaguely pointing towards
descent through variation. After Spruce’s return to England, he ~
became an ardent Darwinian, going so far as to state unequivo-
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 267
cally that “if we had all the forms now in existence, and that
have ever existed, of such genera as Rubus, Asplenium, Bryum,
and Plagiochila, we should be unable to define a single species—
the attempt to do so would only be trying to separate what Na-
ture never put asunder—but we should see distinctly how certain
peculiarities had originated and become temporarily fixed by
inheritance ; and we could trace the unbroken pedigree of every
form. ” G. L. G.
Ill. MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
1. Carnegie Institution of Washington. Year Book No. 7,
1908. Washington, 1909.—The following is an authorized state-
ment of the contents of the seventh Year Book of the Carnegie
- Institute of Washington, for 1908: It consists of reports of the
President and the Executive Committee, and of Directors of
Departments and other grantees who, with the assistance of the
Institution, have been carrying on investigations during the year.
The President’s report gives the following salient facts and
figures indicating the growth and extent of the work thus far
undertaken and accomplished by the Institution. Since its organ-
ization, in 1902, about 1,000 individuals have been engaged in
investigations under the auspices of the Institution and there are
at present nearly 500 so engaged. Ten independent departments,
each with its staff of investigators and assistants, have been
established. In addition to these larger departments of work, .
organized by the Institution itself, numerous special researches,
carried on by individuals, have been subsidized. Six laboratories,
for as many different fields of investigation, and in widely sep-
arated localities, have been constructed and equipped. Work in
almost every field of research, from archeology and astronomy
to thermodynamics and zoology, has been undertaken, and the
geographical range of this work has extended to more than thirty
different countries.
At the end of the fiscal year, October 31, 1908, 120 volumes of
researches in nineteen different fields of research, with an aggre-
gate of more than 30,000 pages, had been published, and 27
volumes of research were in press. In addition to these publica-
tions issued by the Institution, about 1,000 shorter papers have
been published in the current journals of the world by depart-
ment investigators, by associates, and by assistants. The tota]
amount of funds appropriated for expenditure to November 1
was $3,683,840.00, which included $293,928.37 reverted and
afterward reappropriated. The total amount expended was
$3,359,236.17.
During the past year the Nutrition Laboratory in Boston has
been equipped, and systematic investigations are already in
progress.
The construction of a building in Washington, D. C., at the
corner of Sixteenth and P streets, N. W., was begun a year ago.
This building is for administrative offices and the storage of
268 Scientific Intelligence.
records and publications, and when completed will cost about
$220,000. :
The plans and specifications for the construction of a specially
designed ship for ocean magnetic work have recently been com-
pleted. These plans call for a non-magnetic sailing vessel with
auxiliary propulsion, and the contract for her construction has
heen let to the Tebo Yacht Basin Company, of Brooklyn, N. Y.
She will be classified as a yacht, will be called the “Carnegie,”
and will, upon completion, proceed upon a magnetic survey of
the Atlantic Ocean under the direction of the Department of
Terrestrial Magnetism of the Institution.
A temporary observatory for supplementary measures of the
positions of the fixed stars of the southern hemisphere is now being
built at San Luis, Argentina, under the direction of Professor
Lewis Boss, head of the Department of Meridian Astrometry of the |
Institution. Professor R. H. Tucker will be resident astronomer in
charge of the work cf observing and computing in South Amer-
ica, which will require three to five vears for completion. The
meridian instrument of the Dudley Observatory, whose constants
have been thoroughly investigated, will be transferred to San
Luis and used in securing the desired measurements of the posi-
tions of stars in both hemispheres.
Work in the other departments of the Institution has pro-
gressed rapidly and successfully. The investigations of Dr. G.
EK. Hale, Director of the Solar Observatory on Mount Wilson,
California, are of great interest. During the year, with the aid
of his exceptional equipment, certain discoveries with regard to
sun-spots have been made which will probably prove of as great
importance to terrestrial and molecular physics as to solar physics.
The progress inaugurated may be confidently expected to lead
rapidly to definite and important results. Under the direction of
the Department of Historical Research, work upon manuseript
materials for American History has been pursued in Franee,
Italy and England, and next year will be extended to Germany.
Many remarkable experiments and investigations are in progress
under the Department of Botanical Research at the Desert Lab-
oratory at Tucson, Arizona.
In addition to the work carried on in the departments of the
Institution during the year, 31 grants were made to individuals
and organizations, in aid of researches conducted by them, and
many other researches begun in former years have been carried
forward. The publication of 20 volumes was authorized, and 27
volumes and an atlas have been published. These latter include
the report upon the California Earthquake of April 18, 1906, a
Handbook of Learned Societies and Institutions of North and
South America, and a reproduction of the “Old Yellow Book,”
the source of Browning's “The Ring and the Book.” These
volumes and others issued by the Institution are offered for sale
at the cost of printing and transportation to purchasers.
At the annual meeting of the Board of Trustees on December
8, 1908, Mr. Martin A. Ryerson, of Chicago, was elected a
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 269
Trustee, to fill a vacancy in the Board. At the same meeting
the sum of $636,300 was appropriated to carry on work of inves-
tigation, publication and administration during the year 1909.
2. Report of the Librarian of Congress and Report of the
Superintendent of the Library Buildings and Grounds for the
fiscal year ending June 30, 1908. Pp. 1438. Washington, 1908.
—The Library of Congress is so far a model in its work and
methods for the other large libraries in the country that the
annual report of the Librarian, Mr. Hersertr Putnam, possesses
particular interest. The total amount expended by the Library,
in 1908, was $615,000, while the appropriations for 1909 are
somewhat more than $100,000 greater than this sum. The
increase in number of books for the year is slightly over 100,006.
The important purchase of the year was that of the Huitfeldt-
Kaas collection of 5000 volumes of Scandinavian literature, made
by the state archivist of Norway, who died in 1905. A portrait
of Mr. A. R. Spofford, who was for 32 years Librarian in Chief,
and who died on August 11, forms the frontispiece of the volume.
3. Harvard College Observatory; Epwarp C. PickERING,
Director.—Recent publication are noted in the following lst
(continued from vol. xxvi, pp. 99):
Annats.—Vol. LIV. A Catalogue of Stars fainter than the
magnitude 6°50 observed with the +-inch Meridian Photometer ;
forming a supplement to the Revised Harvard Photometry.
Pp. 280.
Vol. LVI, No. IV. Classification of 1,477 Stars by means of
their Photographic Spectra; by ANNIE J. CanNon. Pp. 65-114.
Vol. LVIT, Part If, Comparison Stars for 252 Variables of
Long Period. Prepared for publication by Leon CampsBeEtt,
Assistant, under the direction of E>warp C. PickEertne, Director.
Pp. 213-288.
Vol. LIX, No. II. Photographic Photometry on a Uniform
Seale ; by Epwarp S. Kine. Pp. 33-62,°6 figures.
Vol. LX, No. IX. A Catalogue of Photographic Charts of
the Sky. Pp. 231-251.
Vol. LXIV, No. I. Observations with the Meridien Photo-
meter during the years 1902 to 1906. Pp. 32: No: Uf. ..The
Variable Star SS Cygni. 213843 ; by LzEon Campsetu. Pp. 33-53.
I Plate. No. HI. Schénfeld’s Comparison Stars for Variables.
Pp. 55-89.
CircuLars.—No. 137. 25 New Variable Stars in Harvard
Map, Nos. 31-43.
No. 138. 060547. The Variable Star, 31,1907. Pp. 6.
No. 139. 26°179. A New Variable of the Class of B Lyre.
No. 140. 16 New Variable Stars in Harvard Map, Nos. 4 and
No. 141. 29 New Variable Stars near Nova Sagittarii. Pp. 4.
28 New Variable Stars in Harvard Map, Nos. 30 and
270 Scrientyjte Intelligence.
4. Publications of the Allegheny Observatory of the Unt-
versity of Pittsburgh.—YVhe following have recently appeared :
Vol. I, No. 6. The determination of the orbit’ of a spectro-
scopic binary by the method of least squares ; by Franx Scurzs-
INGER. Pp. 33-44.
No. 7. The orbit of 6 Aguile; by Roserr H. Baker, Pp.
45-66.
No.9. A partly graphical method for predicting solar eclipses;
by FRaNK ScHLESINGER. Pp. 57-64.
5. Washburn Observatory of the University of Wisconsin,
GEORGE C. Comstock, Director.—The following volume has been
recently issued :
Vol. XII. Determinations of Proper Motion, 1902-1907.
Part I. Proper Motions of Faint Stars; by GrorcE 0. CoMSTOCK,
Director. Pp:*317.> Whe observations here given have been
made with the 40 cm. equatorial of the Washburn Observatory;
to a considerable extent they repeat, after a period of more than
fifty years, the measurements made by Struve at Pulkova, on stars
fainter than the ninth magnitude.
6. A Treatise on Spherical Astronomy, by Sir Ropert Bee
Cambridge, 1908 (The University Press)—The present trea tise
by Sir Robert Ball, the distinguished Lowndean -Professor of
Astronomy at Cambridge University, covers quite an amount of
ground not included in the classical works of Briinnow, Chauve-
net and later writers and thus seems a valuable addition to our
text-books. Thus it gives a glimpse into the theory of map
making and into the rudiments of theoretical astronomy besides
the usual applications of spherical trigonometry to celestial prob-
lems. An interesting feature are the numerous exercises, though
some of these seem more atest of algebraic ingenuity than of
astronomical insight. Among the novelties of the book may be
cited the nomenclature “nole” and “anti-nole” for the poles
of a great circle, corresponding to the North and South Poles ;
to us it hardly seems that there was a crying need for further
designations, also, perhaps, the similarity to “node” is unfor-
tunate.
The presentation, as is usual with Sir Robert Ball, combines
great lucidity and directness and we may again add our best
wishes for the adoption of the work for class and private study.
Wiles
7. Bulletin of the Mount Weather Observatory, Wittiam J.
Humpureys, Director.—Prepared under the direction of W1ILLIs
L. Moorz, Chief U. S. Weather Bureau. Vol. I. Part 4, pp.
207-77 ; 3 charts, 3 figures.—This number contains the following
articles: Pyrheliometer and polarimeter observations, by H. H.
Kimball ; recent auroral displays and magnetic disturbances, by
W.R. Gregg ; magnetic declination, by E. R. Miller ; upper air
temperatures for April, May and June, with charts of upper air
isotherms, by W. R. Blair.
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 271
8. National Antarctic Expedition, 1901-1904, Album of
Photographs and Sketches with a Portfolio of Panoramic Views.
Pp. 303, 4to; 165 plates and 2 maps. London, 1908. (Pub-
lished by the Royal Society and sold by Harrison & Sons, St.
Martin’s Lane, W. C., and Oliver & Boyd, Tweeddale Court,
Edinburgh.)—The two volumes giving the results of the meteor-
ological and physical observations made by the National
Antarctic Expedition were noticed in the December number
(p. 588). We have now an additional volume presenting in most
attractive form views of the life and scenery of the region visited.
The photographic work was in charge of Lt. Skelton, and most
of the admirable views here reproduced were taken by him; the
name of L. C. Bernacchi is also frequently associated with his.
The volume and accompanying portfolio contain 165 plates, of
which 128 are from photographs. The hfe of the southern ocean
is well shown in the interesting series of photographs of the
Adélie and Emperor penguins, also of the seals, whales and
albatross. The scenic views present a vivid impression of the
striking features of the land and ice of the Antarctic, particularly
of its capes and lofty mountains. Especial interest attaches to the
photographs of the Great Ice Barrier, the abrupt cliffs of which ex-
tend for many miles from King Edward VII Land to Ross island.
The height is as great as 280 feet at some points, and the surface
comes down at others to within 18 feet of the water level. This
Great Barrier sheet moves northward at the rate of 45 yards per
month, but in consequence of its recession by breaking up the
sea face is now some 10 to 15 miles farther south than sixty years
ago. A special portfolio contains an interesting series of sketches,
largely panoramic, due to the artistic work of the Junior Sur-
geon, Edward A. Wilson.
9. The Chemical Constitution of the Proteins; by R. H.
AvERS PuimuerR, D.Sc. In two parts. Part I, pp. xi+100;
Part Il, pp. xi+66. London and New York, 1908 (Longmans,
Green and Co.).—The development of biochemistry as a sepa-
rate department of study has been so rapid and fruitful that the
entire field is already too large for exhaustive treatment in a
single volume. The unique importance of the proteins has
always made them favorite subjects for investigation. In recent
years particularly, the literature on these compounds has increased
to an extent that makes timely an exhaustive compilation like
Dr. Plimmer’s. The monographs are concerned with the chem-
ical composition of the protein molecule and the chemical charac-
teristics of its component units, rather than with the behavior of
individual protein substances. The organic chemist as well as
the physiologist will have occasion to consult such a review, in
considering the historic development of the study of the amino-
acids as well as the interesting attempts at the synthesis of com-
plex protein-like compounds (with which Part IL especially
deals). In accord with the intent of this series of monographs,
an extensive bibliography is published in each part. Eo Bae
iw)
—I
Sccentafic Intelligence.
10. Standard Algebra ; by Witt1am J. Misia New York
State Normal College, Albany, N. Y. Half leather, 12mo, 464
pages. New York, 1908 (American Book Company). —This use-
ful text-book follows the method of the Inductive Algebra pub-
lished in 1881 by the same author. ‘The new ideas that have been
brought into the teaching of elementary algebra in the interval
are presented, such as the remainder theorem for purposes of
factoring, and the graph, which 1s used for illustration to a limited
degree. It is a handy volume, bound and trimmed to carry
in the pocket, and the exercises are numerous, fresh and va
chosen. Ww.
ll. Kraft, dkonomische, technische und ieicttubnckchee Tee
Studien tiber die Machtentfaliung der Staaten; von EK. Reyxr.
8°, pp. 880, many diagrams intext. Leipzig, 1908.—The work of
Professor Reyer, who is well known for his studies in theoretical
geology, has always been characterized by great originality, both
in his views and in his mode of presenting them. He has also
been widely interested in matters humanistic, and it is, there-
fore, not strange to find a volume coming from his pen which
relates to subjects outside of his especial field,
The volume before us is a conspectus of the economic develop-
ment of the chief nations in matters relating to their main indus-
tries, those upon which their material prosperity depends. Such
comprise iron and steel, coal, precious metals, manufactures,
commerce on land and sea, agriculture, and a great variety of
others in which power is an element of first importance. The
history of the growth of power, its various sources of supply, its
relation to the topics mentioned above, and its future are thought-
fully treated. The book is illustrated by many diagrams and,
written in a clear and well-poised manner, it presents an interest-
ing and popular exposition of a most important subject..
vee
12. International Congress of Applied Chemistry.—The seventh
International Congress of Applied Chemistry will be held
in London from May 27 to June 2. The Honorary Secretary is
William Macnab, address 10 Cromwell Crescent, S.W.
The Science Year Book, with Astronomical, Physical and Chemical
Tables ; Summary of Progress in Science, Directory, Biographies and Diary,
for 1909 (fifth year). Edited by Major B. F. S. Baden-Powell. Portrait of
Sir William Ramsay as frontispiece. Pp. 148+38655. London (King, Sell
& Olding, 27 Chancery Lane, W.C.)
OBITUARY.
Proressor Harry G. Seg ey, the well-known English geolo-
gist and vertebrate paleontologist, died on January 8, in his
seventieth year.
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CONTENTS.
Page
Art. XIL.—Recent Observations in Atmospheric Electricity;
by P.O. Dixee eee ee Se ee 197
XIII.—Iodyrite from Tonopah, Nevada, and Broken Hill,
New South Wales ; by E. H. Kraus and C. W. Coox_- 210
XIV.—Deviation of Rays by Prisms; by H. S. Unter.__-- 223
XV.—Heat of Oxidation of Tin, and second paper on the
‘Heat of Combination of Acidic Oxides with Sodium
Oxides; by W. G. Mixtep 2220 0 es ee 929
XVI.—Neptunite Crystals from San Benito County, Calli-
fornia; by W. Ei HORD. 22. 225s ee 235°
mate ; by F. A. Goocn and R. 8. BoswortH ._-.-_---- 241
XVIII.—Doppler Effect in Positive Rays; by J. TRowBripGE 245
XIX.—New Armored Saurian from the Niobrara; by G. R.
WELLAND <6 2 As a ce
W oLcorTrr GIBBS 22. 220 2 ee ee eee
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
Chemistry and Physics—New Method of Forming Liquid Alloys of Sodium
and Potassium, JAUBERT: Determination of Cerium and other Rare EKarths
in Rocks, Dierricu, 260.—Solubility of Metallic Gold in Hydrochlorie
Acid in the presence of Organic Substances, AWERKIEW: The Composi-
tion of Matter, E. MuLprER, 261.—Introduction to the Rarer Elements, P.
KE. Brownine: Feste Lésungen und Isomorphism, G. Bruni: Produc-
tion of Helium from Uranium, F. Soppy: Charge and Nature of the
a-Particle, E. RUTHERFORD and H. GEIGER: Amount of Water in a Cloud
formed by Expansion, W. B. Morton, 262.—Permanent Magnetism of
Copper, J. G. Gray and A. D. Ross: United States Magnetic Tables and
Magnetic Charts for 1905, L. A. BavEr, 263. i
Geology and Natural History—Fossilen Insekten und die Phylogenie der
Rezenten Formen, A. HANDLIRSCH, 263.—Connecticut Geological and
Natural History Survey, W. N. Rick: Mississippi State Geological Sur-
vey, A. F. Criprer, 264.—Interpretation of Topographic Maps, R. D.
SALISBURY and W. W. Atwoop: Zonal Belt Hypothesis, a New Explana-
tion of the Causes of the Ice Age, J. T. WHEELER: Handbuch der Min-
eralogie, C. Hintzzk: Chemische Krystallographie, P. GrotH, 265.—Notes
of a Botanist on the Amazon and Andes, R. Spruck, 266.
Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—Carnegie Institution of Washington.
Year Book No. 7, 1908, 267.—Report of the Librarian of Congress and
Report of the Superintendent of the Library Buildings and Grounds, H.
Putnam: Harvard College Observatory, E. C. Prckerine, 269.—Publica-
tions of the Allegheny Observatory of the University of Pittsburgh :
Washburn Observatory of the University of Wisconsin, G. C. COMSTOCK :
Treatise on Spherical Astronomy, R. Batu: Bulletin of the Mount
Weather Observatory, W. J. HumpHreys, 270.—National Antarctic Expe-
dition, 1901-1904: Chemical Constitution of the Proteins, R. H. ADERS
PurmMerR, 271.—Standard Algebra, W. J. Mitne: Kraft, dkonomische,
technische und kulturgeschichtliche Studien tiber die Machtentfaltung der
Staaten, E. Reyer: International Congress of Applied Chemistry : The
Science Year Book, 272.
Obituary—H. G. SEELEY, 272.
XVII.—Gravimetric Determination of Silver as the Chro-
r. Cyrus Adler, is fies a a OS" 9
Librarian U. S. Nat. Museum.
MOL XX VII. 2 APRIL, 1909.
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os
Art. XX.—On the Permeabilities and the Reluctivities, for
very Wide Ranges of Excitation, of Normal Specimens of
Compressed Steel, Bessemer Steel and Norway Iron Lods ;
by-B. Oseoop PErrcE.
Wuen a rod or a closed frame of iron becomes magnetized
under the action of a steady electric current in an exciting
coil of insulated wire wound about it, the flux of magnetic
induction (B) through. any cross section of the iron can be
easily determined with the aid of a small testing coil, but it is
often very difficult to tell just what the value of the exciting
magnetic field (7) is at any given point within the metal. In
a few familiar cases, however, the difficulty disappears.
If, for instance, a homogeneons round rod of soft iron the
length of which is, say, five hundred times the diameter, be
placed in a solenoid of narrow bore, somewhat longer than the
rod and uniformly wound with 2 turns of insulated wire per
centimeter of its length, and if a steady current (C’) be sent
through the solenoid, the demagnetizing effects of the ends of
the rod become inappreciable near the center, O, and we
may assume without sensible error that the value of # at every
point of a cross section in the neighborhood of O is equal to
the value (447 C/10) of H just without the rod at O.
In the case of a soft iron toroid, uniformly wound with V
turns (in all) of insulated wire, the value of // is, of course,
not the same at every point of a meridional section of the
metal, but if the material is perfectly homogeneous, there is
practically no leakage of induction into the air. Under
these circumstances, the magnetomotive force is the same
(427 V0/10) around all closed non-evanescible paths in the
iron, and the value of H is inversely proportional to the dis-
tance from the axis of revolution of the toroid. In practice,
Am. Jour. Sct.—Fourts SEeRies, Vou. XXVII, No. 160.—Aprin, 1909.
19
274 Peirce-—Permeabilities and Reluctivities for Steel.
such a toroid must be turned out of a solid piece of the metal,
for it is almost impossible to make a ring out of iron rod, bent
and welded together at the ends, which shall be sufficiently
homogeneous to prevent serious leakage of lines of induction,
and His often very different in such a ring at different points
of a circumference in the iron coaxial with the ring. If a closed
magnetic circuit be made by putting a piece of soft iron rod
lengthwise between the jaws of a massive yoke of any of the
common forms, there is usually such an amount of leakage
through the surface of the rod that the induction flux has very
different values at different sections of it. However carefully
the joints are made between the jaws and the specimen, it is
very difficult to compute, from previous determinations of the
magnetic properties of the rod and the yoke, what pertion of
the whole magnetomotive force of the circuit is used in the
rod; indeed the fraction is very different for different excita-
tions, and for the same soft yoke may depend very much upon
the hardness of the piece to be studied. For comparatively
low excitations up to say /7= 100, a slender yoke may be used
so that the cross section of the magnetic circuit is not very
different at different places, and the exciting coils can then be
so arranged on the yoke and the specimen, if the joints are
well made and the whole circuit is magnetically fairly homo-
geneous, that the induction flux is nearly the same throughout.
It is understood that this procedure* has been brought to
great perfection in the National Bureau of Standards at Wash-
ington. For excitations of /7 = 2000 or more, however, the
arrangement seems hard to manage.
A magnetic field in air near a magnet is both solenoidal and
lamellar, and if in any portion of such a field the lines are
sensibly straight and parallel, we may infer that in that region
the field is practically uniform. If within a piece of perfectly
soft iron the magnetization vector (J) has everywhere the
direction of the exciting magnetic force, //, and an intensity
expressible in terms of // alone, the induction in the metal is
a solenoidal vector which has the same lines as the lamellar
vector H. If throughout any region within such a piece of
iron the lines of force are straight and parallel, the magnetic
force and the induction are both uniform in that region. At
the surface of separation between iron and air, the tangential
components of the force are continuous, but the normal com-
ponent of the force is generally discontinous; if the lines of
force in air just outside the surface are parallel to it, the lines
of induction in the metal at this surface are parallel to the
surface. If, then, the magnetic field around a slender rod of
* Burrows, Proc. American Soc. for Testing Materials, viii, 1908.
Peirce—Permeabilities and Peluctivities for Steel. 275
iron magnetized lengthwise, has, near the surface of the rod,
lines parallel to the rod’s axis, we may inquire whether the
lines of force and of induction within the rod are not in this
neighborhood all parallel to the axis, so that the value of 7
throughout a cross section of the rod is the same as the value
just outside the iron.
The assumption that the value of # in the air just about a
slender neck of iron of proper form held between the jaws of
a highly excited electromagnet is the same as the value in the
neck itself, lies at the foundation of the “Isthmus Method ”
of determining permeabilities under very high excitations
introduced by Ewing and Low.* According “to my some
what extended experience the so called “ maximum value of
I” may be determined by the Isthmus Method to within 1
or 2 per cent of the truth if the poles and the test-piece are
of the proper shape and. are properly connected, and if the
jaws as well as the isthmus are fairly soft; but these conditions
are not always easy of attainment, and if one assumes them to
be satisfied without investigating “each case by itself, one may
be led into grievous error. The field about a hard steel
isthmus between soft jaws is usually far from uniform, and for
some specimens of hard steel which I have studied I have not
yet succeeded in obtaining by the Isthmus Method trustworthy
determinations of 7,,. In some instances the values of // in
the air were manifestly smaller or larger than in the isthmus,
and sometimes they were smaller for one excitation and larger,
for the same isthmus, for another excitation. Nevertheless
the method is, of course, a most valuable one.
This paper describes a long series of determinations of the
permeabilities of normal brands of compressed steel, Bessemer
steel, and Norway iron in the form of half-inch rods, over a
wide range of excitation, and it considers especially a method
of measurement in a massive yoke in the interesting region
from H = 400 to H = 2500 which lies above the limits of
most permeameter observations and below those of the Isthmus
Method. The work was undertaken in order to determine the
magnetic behavior, in the region just mentioned, of an impor-
tant specimen of soft iron of which only a single short piece
was available, and it was necessary to test the trustworthiness
of the method to be used by applying it to some soft metals
which could be obtained in large pieces and the permeabilities
of which could be otherwise found, at least approximately.
If the rod to be experimented upon can be kept coo! artifi-
cially, it is not very difficult to determine accurately in a very
* Ewing, Magnetic Induction in Iron and other Metals; Ewing and Low,
Philosophical Trans., clxxx, 1889.
276. Peirce—Permeabilities and Reluctivities for Steel.
long solenoid, the permeability of a soft, homogeneous rod four
or five hundred diameters long, for excitations up to H = 400.
Here the value of J is probably between 95 per cent and
97 per cent of the final value (Z,, ), which can be found by the
use of the Isthmus Method. If, then, any other method of
measuring permeability be used on the specimen between
H = 300 and // = 2000 and if this method yields the proper
values of / at both ends of the interval, it is comparatively easy
to judge, from a graphical representation of all the observa-
tions, whether the short interval corresponding to from 3
to 5 per cent of L,. is properly bridged. The principal
difficulty with this procedure is that several isthmus specimens
of a metal and several testing coils must be used before one can
be satisfied that the resulting value of /,, is correct to within
1 per cent; for, as Ewing has shown, the separate results of a
series of determinations of /,, by the Isthmus Method may
differ from the mean on either side by as much as 4 per cent.
As a matter of fact, in all the materials I have tested the final
» value of Z obtained by the Isthmus Method does not differ by so
much as 1 per cent from the final value as obtained by the other
method J have used. This second method, however, gives m
any case a series of determinations of 7, which do not as
rule range over so much as 1/3 per cent of the mean, ae
the Isthmus Method in my hands is much less satisfactory i in
this respect.
The Bessemer and the compressed steel were procured in
specially long pieces from which lengths of about 450 centi-
meters were cut, and these, under the severest test which I
could conveniently apply, seemed to be practically uniform
throughout. The Norway iron, on the contrary, was not every-
where of the same temper and ‘could not be used satisfactorily
until it had been carefully annealed by Mr. George W. Thomp-
son, the mechanician of the Jefferson Laboratory, who has
had much experience in work of this kmd. Upon each of these
rods at its center a test coil of fine wire was wound by Mr.
John Coulson, who has made all the test coils and has helped
me in every part of the work, and then the coil and its leads
were carefully covered by pieces of rubber and rubber tape to
make the whole waterproof. The rod thus prepared was
placed inside a horizontal solenoid nearly 500 centimeters long,
placed perpendicular to the meridian. This solenoid was
uniformly wound with 20,904 turns of well insulated wire and
a stream of tap water could be kept running through the bore
around the rod to prevent any appreciable rise of temperature.
The rod was demagnetized in situ by means of a long series
of currents in the solenoid, alternating in direction and grad-
ually decreasing in intensity, and then a curve of ascending
Peirce—Permeabilities and Reluctivities for Steel. 277
reversals was obtained in the usual manner. It is to be noticed
that the demagnetizing process does not succeed unless the
rod is pr actically homogeneous throughout its length.
The ballistic galyanometer employ ed in this work has been
already described* in a previous paper, and it is only necessary
to say here that its period was so long that no detectable error
was introduced into its indications by the fact that four or
five seconds were necessary to make the magnetic changes
corresponding to a reversal of current in the exciting coil of
the yoke. For the largest currents a battery of about 120 large
storage cells was used; a battery of 30 or 40 cells furnished the
weaker currents.
When it is necessary to create inside an iron rod a fairly
uniform magnetic field of intensity much greater than, say
500, some kind of yoket is almost indispensable, and many
kinds of yoke-permeameters are now .used successfully in
studying the magnetic properties of short rods at commercial
excitations. For very high excitations, at. which the air is
nearly as permeable as the metal, the leakage becomes very
troublesome and depends upon matters which cannot be easily
controlled. I hoped, notwithstanding this fact, to be able to
calibrate the yoke we had (figure 3) by means of standard
pieces and thus make it available for studying short pieces of
iron at excitations of about H=1000, but Mr. John Coulson
and I worked for a long time on this problem without finding
any satisfactory solution. We found it possible, however, to
determine the length of a half-inch rod of iron which, mounted
between the jaws of this particular yoke, would cause the mag-
netic field in the air just without the iron near the middle of the
specimen to be practically straight and parallel to the rod for
a considerable distance. A piece about 15 centimeters long,
accurately fitted for about 3°5 centimeters at each end into
the taper holes in the jaws and leaving 80 millimeters of the
rod free, satisfied the conditions, and this length might be
slightly varied, but a much shorter rod violated the conditions
in one direction (the determination of w being too large) and
* Peirce, Proc. American Academy Arts and Sciences, xliv, 1908.
+H. E. J. G. DuBois, Phil. Mag. 1890, The Magnetic Circuit in Theory
and Practice; Shuddemagen,: Proceedings American Acad. of Arts and
Sciences, xliii, 1907 ; J. Hopkinson, Philosophical Transactions, clxxvi, 1885;
Drysdale, Electrician, xxviii, 1901; Thornton, Electrician, xlix, 1902;
Ewing, Electrician, xxxvii, 1896; Schmidt, Ann. der Physik, liv, 1895;
Chattock, Electrician, xxxvii, 1896; Lamb and Walker, Electrician, xlvii,
1901; Baily, Electrician, xlviii, 1901; Kopsel and Robinson, Electrische
Zeitschrift, xv, 1894; Kath, Electrische Zeitschrift, xix, 1898; Kennelly,
Electrische Zeitschrift, xiv, 1893; Blondel, Comptes Rendus, exxvii, 1898 ;
Stoletow, Ann. der Physik, ecxlvi, 1872; Rowland. Phil. Mag., xlvi, 1878 ;
Ewing, Magnetic Induction, 1892; Behn-Eschenberg, Electrische Zeit-
schrift, xiv, 1893; Kapp, Electrical Engineer, xxiii, 1894.
278 Peirce—Permeabilities and Reluctivities for Steel.
a longer rod in the other. It, then, a testing coil (XK) of very
fine wire were wound in a single layer over a centimeter or
two of the middle of a rod of the standard length, and a second,
similar, coil (L) of radius about two millimeters greater than
that of K, upon an extremely thin non-magnetic spool slipped
ine, 1
over K, it was to be expected that a knowledge of the whole
amounts of the currents induced in K and L when the exciting
current of the yoke was reversed would determine, as in the
Isthmus Method, corresponding values of H and B. This
assumption was fully justified by experiment. The radii of
Fic. 2.
the coils and the diameter of the wire were measured with the
help of a Zeiss comparator (No. 3196). The coil L was
wound upon a very dry piece of boxwood, and was carefully
baked in shellac. Paraftine wax is inadmissible as an insulator
on the wire because of its magnetic properties, and for the
same reason a vulcanite spool cannot be used for L.
Peirce—Permeabilities and Reluctivities for Steel. 279
Fic. 3.
HTD
1, A
@)
o
The moment of inertia of the suspended coil of the long
period ballistic galvanometer used for the work was so great
that at low excitations the instrument was rather insensitive
when used to measure the difference of the fluxes through
280 Peirce—Permeabilities and Reluctivities for Steel.
K and L, and it became necessary to make the scale distance
nearly four meters. Under these circumstances it was prac-
tically impossible with a very large reading telescope of the
very best make (Clark’s) to get a bright image of the scale suf-
ficiently magnified to render ballistic determinations easy, so
we had recourse to the simple device* represented by
figures 1 and 2, and this has given great satisfaction. In front
hice
of the reasonably plane mirror (M) of the galvanometer,
instead of the usual cover glass, was placed a convex spectacle
lens (A) of about four meters focal length. At a distance in
front of A equal to its focal length was a horizontal scale (S$)
mounted in the usual manner on a thin strip of wood at least
twice as wide as the scale itself. Through the middle of this
strip above the scale was bored a round hole (H) rather more
than 20 millimeters in diameter, and just behind the scale a fine
vertical wire or silk fiber (W) was stretched across the opening
to serve as a cross hair. Behind H, and at a distance suited to
its focal length and to the eye of the observer, was placed
another spectacle lens (B) to serve as an eyepiece. This had a
focal length of about 20 centimeters. A peephole (P) on the
common axis of H, A, and B, so placed that B’s aperture
appeared wholly filled with a large clear uncolored image of
the scale with the crosswire running vertically across it, com-
pleted the arrangement. If different persons used the device
the position of B had to be changed to suit the eyes of the
* Peirce, Proc. American Academy Arts and Sciences, xlii, 1906.
Peirce—Permeabilities and Reluctivities for Steel. 281
observer, but the position of H was fixed. Im setting up
apparatus of this sort, one should remember that if the distance
between B and P is not properly chosen, only a small round
portion of the image of the scale will be visible, not nearly
large enough to fill the aperture of B.
The electromagnetic yoke used in the experiments described
here is represented in figure 3. The three exciting coils are
wound upon brass spools and these are mounted upon pieces
reo b:
a“
a
a
a
\U ne
\ Za
a ee
10
Fic. 5. Curve showing the reluctivity of the soft Bessemer steel rod for
values of H between 3 and 160
H
of soft steel shafting carefully turned to fit the holes in the
heavy castings which complete the frame. The coils have
together 2956 turns and the wire of which they are made is
large enough to carry a current of 50 amperes for a few
minutes at a time without undue heating. The whole yoke
weighs about 300 kilograms. The apparatus is supplied with
jaws of a number of different forms, but for the: results
recorded below conical jaws of the form shown in figure 4
with taper holes to receive the tapered ends of the specimen
to be tested were used. All the joints were made by Mr.
Thompson and seemed to be mechanically perfect. Before
each piece was tested the jaws were driven together with the
test-piece between, and then the whole was clamped.
For very low excitations the field about the test- piece did
not seem to be quite uniform, but this difficulty disappeared
when the exciting current became as str ong as one ampere.
The intensities of the exciting currents were measured with
the help of a set of five Weston amperemeters of different
282 Peerce—Permeabilities and Reluctivities for Steel.
ranges, all but one of which could be shunted at pleasure out
of the circuit. The currents passed through a rack of three
rheostats specially made for the purpose by the Simplex
Electric Company: these had a range of about 8000 ohms.
The ballistic galvanometer was calibrated at short intervals
by means of a coil (X) of 13°6 ohms resistance always in its
circuit. This coil, X, consisted of 534 turns of fine insulated wire
wound in a single layer upon a very accurately cylindrical
wooden core which was hung within a uniformly wound ver-
tical solenoid 176-2 centimeters long consisting of 5526 turns.
Fic. 6.
a
; a
7
O
Fic. 6. The ordinates of the upper curve show the values of the reluc-
tivity of the annealed Norway iron for values of H between 0 and 10. The
ordinates of the lower curve represent, on a scale one-tenth as large, the
reluctivities of this iron for excitations between H = 10 and H= 100.
H
The effective area of the turns of X was 22,720 square centi-
meters and a current of one ampere sent through the solenoid
caused a flux of 895,400 maxwells through X.
The remarkable solenoid, nearly five meters long, in which
the permeabilities were determined for values of Zf below 410,
was constructed by Mr. Thompson and his assistants in a lathe
the bed of which had been temporarily lengthened. The core
was a thick-walled solid-drawn brass tube of about one
Peirce—Permeabilities and Reluctivities for Steel. 283
inch inside diameter made by the American Tube Works.
The solenoid was mounted on a long oak truss which kept it
from buckling.
Every specimen was tested in the solenoid several times
over to make sure that the demagnetizing process was so
effective that at low excitations, where differences are often apt
to appear, the same results were obtained at every trial. Until
the Norway iron had been specially annealed, it was impossible
Eire. “7.
BL |
x
Zz
7
4
x
a
wa
(4
2000
Fie. 7. This curve shows the reluctivity of the annealed Norway iron for
values of H between 100 and 2200.
H
so to demagnetize the rod that for low currents the induction
should always be exactly the same. As Shuddemagen* has
shown, the “end correction” for a round straight rod is a
function of the absolute dimensions of the rod and not merely
of the ratio of the length to the diameter, but the correction
in the case of a half-inch rod of the length’ used in the work
here described, is very small.
No other explanations seem necessary to make the following
tables intelligible.
*Shuddemagen, Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sciences, xliii, 1907;
DuBois, The Magnetic Circuit, § 31.
284 Peirce—Permeabilities and Reluctivities for Steel.
Taste l._— Bessemer Half-Inch Rod in Long Solenoid.
H B H B
0 0
0°5 115 | 10°5 10650
1:0 280 11: 10890
1°5 465 15 12400
2°0 730 20° 13360
2°5 1180 30° 14480
3-0 1935 40° 15200
3°5 2800 50: 15720
4:0) 3760 60° 16120
4°5 4830 70: 16460
5:0 5700 80° 16750
5°5 6410 90: 17000
6:0 7060 100: 17220
6-5 7650 120° 17640
7-0 8130 160° 18240
75 8600 200° 18800
8-0 9040 940° 19200
8°5 9420 270: 19620
9-0 9760 300° 19800
9°5 10070 350° 20240
10:0 10390 400° 20660
TasiE I].—Half-Inch Bessemer Rod in Massive Yoke.
(Free length about 80™™)
H B i
400 20660 1613
500 21250 1652
600 21660 1676
707 21900 — 1686
800 22020 1688
1000 22930 1689
1208 22470 1692
1500 22770 1692
2090 23550 1692
2590 23860 1693
Numerous observations were made for values of 7 lying
between 350 and 1600 and these were used to draw a curve
from which some of the numbers given above were taken.
Above 1600, I had only two observations and the results of
these for 7=2090 and H=2590 appear at the end of the
table. The observations for 4=707 and H=1208 were the
only ones in these neighborhoods and are given as they stand.
The value of / for L=2590 happened to come out 1693, but
a study of the observations shows that this. number is really
uncertain by about two units in the last place, for B is not
determined in the fourth significant place.
Peirce—Permeabilities and Reluctivities for Steel. 285
An isthmus. cut from this rod gave for a long series of
observations for values of H up to 16300, the same final value
for /, within a fraction of 1 per cent, as the results tabulated
above.
In view of the importance of Fréhlich’s Law for magnetic
metals at commercial excitations, figure 5, which shows the
Fie. 8.
Oo 0
Fic. 8. This curve shows the reluctivity of the compressed steel between
3 and 7 = 100.
reluctivity of this specimen of soft Bessemer steel for values
of 3H up to 160, is of some interest.
Taste Il.—Half-Inch Rod of Norway Iron in Long Solenoid.
H B H B
0 0
1-0 1960 24: 16180
2-0 6950 28° 16320
3-0 9780 30° 16400
40 11380 40: 16650
5°0 12400 50° 16920
6-0 13080 60: 17180
7-0 13640 70° - 17400
8-0 14140 80: 17600
10: 14800 100° 17940
12°. 15200 120° 18220
14: 15460 160° 18800
16° 15620 200° 19100
18° 15780 240° 19840
20° 15960 280° 20200
At low excitations, the determinations of #& for this rod
were a little uncertain because of the difficulty of demagnetiz-
286 Peirce—Permeabilities and Reluctivities for Steel.
ing the specimen completely. Investigation showed that
there were very slight differences of temper at different parts
of the rod, and it seemed best to have the iron thoroughly
annealed. This process increased the permeability for almost
all excitations, very materially, as a comparison of Tables III
and IV will show.
TasLE 1V.—Annealed Half-Inch Norway Iron Rod in Long
Solenoid.
H B H B
9) 0
0°2 190 9°5 14800
0°5 395 10° 14940
0°8 1120 Lak 15100
1:0 2160 12 15360
i195) 4600 iLabs 15540
2°0 6600 16: 15700
D5) 8240 Ike 15900
3°0 9480 20° 16040
Ban 10460 25° 16320
4°0 . 11280 30° 16520
4°5 11980 eaoOs 16740
5:0 12560 40° 16920
5°5 13000 45° 17100
6:0 13400 DO 17220
6°5 13700 60: 17450
7:0 13900 TOP 17630.
ToD 14100 80° 17820
8°0 14300 90° 18020
8°5 14490 100° 18210
9:0 14660 105° 18300
Taste V.—Annealed Norway Iron Rod in Massive Yoke.
(Free length about 80"™)
H B i
295 21120 1657
350 21550 1687
400 ° 21850 1707
450 22100 1723
500 22220 1729
600 22480 ] 1741
700 22630 1745
800 22770 1748
900 22880 1749
1000 23000 1750
1500 23500 1751
1800 23810 1751
2000 24010 1751
2350 ‘24360 1751
Peirce—Permeabilities and Reluctivities for Steel. 287
Figures 6 and 7 show the reluctivity of this iron at differ-
ent excitations.
Two other half-inch specimens of very pure Norway iron
turned from two-inch bars obtained from different sources
gave as maximum values of the magnetization vector (/) 1732
and 1738. These were in the condition in which they were
bought and had not been specially annealed.
TasLe VI.—Half-Inch Rod of Compressed Shafting in Lon
Solenoid.
H B H B
0 0 13° 10400
0°5 70 14: 10590
1°0 15) Ge 10970
eo 290 PAV? 12300
20 490 yon 13260
2°5 800 30° 13950
3°0 1280 40° to150
oo 2010 50) 15850
4°0 2880 ; 60" 16480
3 3210 Fie 16950
5°O 4450 80° 17320
5:5 a1 20 90° 17640
6:0 5730 100 17900
6°5 6270 120 18200
7:0 6780 140 18560
Tbs 7200 160 18800
8°0 7610 180 19080
8°95 8020 | 200 19320
9-0 8380 240 19700
9°5 8690 | 280 20000
KO 9010 | 320 20360
EL: 9540 360 20600
2: 10100 400 20820
TasLE VII.—Short Piece of Half-Inch Compressed Shafting
Magnetized in Massive Yoke.
(Free length about 80™™)
H B i,
300 20220 1585
370 20630 1612
400 20820 1625
500 21200 1647
600 21500 1663
700 21670 1669
800 21810 1672
1000 22080 1678
1200 22340 1682
1600 22800 1687
1854 23080 1690
288 Petrce—Permeabilities and Reluctivities for Steel.
Figure 8 shows the reluctivity of this steel for excitations
below H=100. |
Table VIII gives the results of an interesting study made
by Mr. Coulson of the magnetic properties of a piece of
Kidd’s polished tool steel, for excitations between H=250
and A= 2500.
TasieE VIII.
H B u R I
300 17470 98°2 0:017 1364
350 17750 50°7 0°020 1385
400 17980 44°9 0:022 1399
500 18370 F027 0°027 1492
600 18710 312 0°032 1441
800 19240 24:0 0°042 1468
1000 19680 19°7 0°051 1487
1200 20050 TOR? 0°060 1500
1400 20440 14°6 0:068 1515
1600 20790 13°0 0:077 1527
2000 21400 HOw 0:094 1544
2500 22010 8'8 0:114 ' 1549
The line obtained by plotting the reluctivity (7?) against 1
has only a very gentle curvature between these limits for this
annealed tool steel.
I wish to express my obligations to the Trustees of the
Bache Fund of the National Academy of Sciences for the
loan of some of the apparatus used in making the measure-
ments recorded in this paper.
The Jefferson Physical Laboratory,
Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. -
suicsiel
W. J. Miller—Ice Movement and Erosion. 289
Art. XXI.—J/ce Movement and Erosion along the South-
western Adirondacks ;* by Wixtiam J. Mitier.
Introduction.
Waite engaged in field work along the southwestern border
of the Adirondacks during the past three summers, the writer
has had occasion to study some of the glacial features so well
Hage e
hLyons\Falls QO,
XS Wo
Fic. 1. Sketch map of the southwestern border of the Adirondacks.
Arrows indicate direction of ice movement.
shown in that region. The area here described extends from
Lowyille, Lewis Co., southwestwardly past Boonville, Oneida
Co., to Dolgeville, Herkimer Co., a distance of about 60 miles.
* Published by permission of the New York State Geologist.
Am. Jour. Sct.—FourtH SERIES, VoL. XX VII, No. 160.—Apriz, 1909.
2
290 W. J. Miller—Ice Movement and Erosion.
The width varies greatly but averages about 15 miles. The
following topographic maps of the & Geological Survey —
cover most of the region: Port Leyden (and northward and
eastward), Remsen, Little Falls, together with portions of the
Wilmurt, Boonville, and Utica quadrangles. (See sketch map.)
The chief topographic feature of the northern portion of the
area is the Black river valley through which Black river flows
ina northwesterly direction. This valley is from 10 to 15 miles
wide and shows a maximum depth of about 1300 feet. West
Canada creek, the principal tributary of the upper Mohawk
river, traverses the southern part of the area. This southern
part is very hilly and shows a general slope towards the Mohawk
river. The watershed separating Black river and West Canada
creek represents one of the principal divisions of drainage in this
part of the state. Leaving the Mohawk river at Utica (eleva-
tion 400 ft.), and passing northward along the R. W. & O. BR. R.,
there is a gradual ascent to the divide (elevation 1280 ft.)
south of Alder creek. From this point northward there is a
gradual descent along the railroad to near Lowville, where
Black river shows an elevation of 740 ft. The common range
of altitudes along both the eastern and western sides of the
district is between 1200 ft. and 2000 ft.
The Paleozoic-Precambrian boundary line passes lengthwise
through the region. The Precambrian rocks comprise chiefly the
highly metamorphosed Grenville sediments, the post-Grenville
syenite -oneiss, and large areas which are more or less intimate
mixtares of the Grenville and syenite. The Paleozoics overlap
on the Precambrians and exhibit an excellent section showing
the Pamelia sandy limestones, Lowville iimestones, Black
river shales and limestones, Trenton limestones, Utica shales,
Lorraine shales and sandstones and the Oswego sandstone.
The type localities of the Lowville, Black river and Trenton
are found here.
The full significance of the glaciology of this territory will
not be known until the contiguous areas have been carefully
studied. The discussion here presented is local in its charac-
ter, the purpose being to record observations and to offer some
conclusions which may aid in the solution of the broader prob-
lem. So far as the writer is aware, nothing has been published
regarding the northern portion oH the district, while Cham-
berlin, * Brigham,+ and Cushingt have each referred to the
southern portion. Brigham is now engaged in the study of
the Mohawk valley region.$
* Third Annual Rep. U.S. G. S., 1881-2, pp. 360-865.
+ Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., vol. ix, pp. 183-202, 1898.
tN. Y. State Museum, Bull. 77, pp. 73-81, 1905.
§ Since the above was written several papers bearing on the glacial history
of Central and Northern New York have been read by H. L. Fairchild before
the 1908 meeting of the Geological Society of America.
W. J. Miller—Ice Movement and Erosion. 291
DiIREcTION OF Icke MOVEMENT.
Chamberlin, in the report above referred to, makes the ten-
tative statement“ that massive ice currents having their ulterior
channels in the Champlain valley, on the one hand, and the
Saint Lawrence on the other, swept around the Adirondacks
and entered the Mohawk valley at either extremity, while a
feebler current, at the height of glaciation, probably passed
over the Adirondacks and gave to the whole a southerly trend.”
Observations by later investigators have tended to bear out this
view, and the evidences from the southwestern Adirondacks
herewith presented have an important bearing upon the propo-
sition.
The direction of flow is best shown by the glacial striz
which have been observed at a number of different places
through the district. The striz are best preserved upon the
hard Precambrian rocks, but these are mostly drift-covered ©
except along the chief stream courses. The limestones are
next most favorable, while upon the shales none have been
found. Striations are present only upon those surfaces from
which the drift has been recently removed, because even the
hardest rocks exposed during postglacial times have been
weathered enough to cause an obliteration of the glacial marks.
Strize pointing from south 25° to 40° east have been located
as follows: On Trenton limestone one mile south of Martins-
burg and also one-third of a mile east of Martinsburg (8. 25° E.) ;
on Precambrian near the mouth of Roaring brook; on Pre-
cambrian one and one-half miles northeast-north of Glenfield,
and also one-third of a mile southwest and three-fourths of a
mile southeast-south of the same village; on Precambrian one
mile northeast of Denley station, one-third of a mile north-
east of Hawkinsville, on Big Woodhull creek two miles north-
east of Forestport, and one mile north of Salisbury centre
(Cushing). Other stris, bearing nearly south, occur on Pre-
cambrian one mile east of Port Leyden and still others bearing
N. 80° E. on the Trenton limestone two and a half miles north
of Middleville (Cushing). Beside these the observations of
Chamberlin, in the Mohawk Valley near Little Falls, are
quoted: ‘On the western slope of the ridge that stands athwart
the valley of the Mohawk at Little Falls are two sets of strie.
The course of the main series is 8. 50° E. and of the minor
cross-set 8. 45° W. North of Little Falls, two-thirds of the
way up the slope of the valley the course of the striz is 8. 60°
E., the movement being apparently from the west. A little
farther up the slope, on an eastward inclined rock surface, the
main set runs 8. 50°-55° E. crossed by feebler and later ones
S. 70° W. Four miles north of Little Falls, a varying group
runs S. 18°-28° E. and about six miles north 8. 37° EK.”
292 W. S. Matler Ice Movement and Erosion.
The strize described above and plotted on the map (fig. 1)
indicate that in the northern part of the region here discussed
the southeasterly movement changed to the more nearly easterly
movement farther south, and this is just what would be
expected according to the statement of Chamberlin. It should
be noted that the Black river and upper Mohawk valleys,
which are the chief topographic features of the district, had
much to do with determining the direction of the flow of the
ice. Both of these valleys existed in preglacial times and the
close parallelism between the directions of the strize and the
directions of the valleys shows the inflnence of the latter in
determining the ice movement.
There is other evidence, derived from the distribution of the
drift, to show the general southeasterly ice movement in the
region. Thus, within the Remsen quadrangle north of Hinck-
ley, fragments of Utica shale and Lorraine sandstone may be
found at least five or six miles east of the nearest parent ledges.
This strongly suggests a southeasterly current of ice. Also
the presence of marginal morainic materials and delta deposits
extending many miles along the southwestern Adirondacks
show that a border ice mass existed there during the time of
melting. Along the northwestern border of the Adirondacks
the ice undoubtedly moved southwestwardly. The writer has
seen magnificent displays of glacial grooves and striz bearing
southwestwardly, especially near Clayton. Along the eastern
border of the Adirondacks, the general southerly movement
of the ice has been well established, as has also the westerly
movement up the Mohawk valley towards Little Falls. Thus
the statement of Chamberlin, regarding ice flow around the
Adirondacks, harmonizes almost perfectly with observed striee.
But the question still arises, what was the direction of the
current during the height of glaciation? We have abundant
evidence to prove that this main current was a southwesterly
one. The Long Lake quadrangle is located in the midst of
the Adirondacks and upon the geological map of that area
Prof. Cushing* has recorded a number of strize, all of which
point toward the southwest. Over the region south of the
Adirondacks and the Mohawk valley the numerous observa-
tions of both Brigham}t and Clhamberlint show that the ice
moved in a general southwesterly direction. Along the south-
western Adirondacks the writer has seen a number of good
examples of rochés moutonnées, all of which bear southwest-
wardly. Among these one forms a narrow ridge about two
miles long which crosses Moose river above Fowlersville (Port
*N. Y. State Museum, Bull. 115, p. 495, 1906.
+ This Journal, vol. xlix, p. 216, 1890. { Op. cit., p. 365.
OW. J. Miller—Ice Movement and Erosion. 293
Leyden sheet), while other good ones occur at an elevation of
1700 feet, two miles northwest of Reed’s Mill (Remsen sheet).
Another strong evidence favoring the southwesterly current is
the distribution of glacial bowlders over the region southwest
of the Adirondacks. Most of the common Adirondack rock
types are strewn over the region and they gradually diminish
in number as the distance from the mountains, becomes greater.
This subject has been discussed in a paper by Brigham.*
Thus, bearing in mind all the facts, the writer is strongly of
the opinion that when the ice in its movement (during the
last invasion) struck the Adirondacks, it was divided into two
currents flowing around the mountains and meeting in the
Mohawk valley ; that durmg the time of maximum glaciation
there was a strong general current, but that the border cur-
rents continued as under currents (more or less checked in
velocity); and that, after the disappearance of the ice sheet
from the central Adirondacks, border currents were main-
tained.
Icz ERosiIon.
It seems to be generally agreed upon by those who are
famihar with the region that the topography of northern New
York was not profoundly affected by ice erosion. Certainly
no valleys of any consequence have been formed by ice action.
Prof. Fairchild gave the testimony of Cushing, Smyth, and
Gilbert to this effect in a paper read before the Geological
Society in 1905. The writer isin agreement with this general
view, but he could not consent to the idea that the ice did
practically no work of erosion in northern New York.
1. Erosion of the Precambrian Rocks.
As the ice moved across the region discussed in this paper,
the preglacial rock surface was more or less scratched, polished,
and eroded. In the ease of the Precambrian rocks, it is doubt-
ful if the ice did any very deep cutting. The work of erosion
involved mostly the removal of joint blocks of the decayed and
weathered rock materials near the surface. The evidence is
conclusive that the weathered materials were rather thoroughly
scraped off the Precambrians, as shown by the remarkable
freshness of the rocks wherever exposed and by the smoothed
and rounded character of the outcrops. Wherever the streams
have cut through the mantle of drift and into the underlying
Precambrians the surfaces of the latter are very hard and fresh.
The highly jointed character of these rocks no doubt greatly
aided the ice in its work of erosion. In this connection men-
* This Journal, vol. xlix, pp. 218-228, 1895.
+ Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., vol. xvi, pp. 50-5, 19035.
294 W. J. Miller—Ice Movement and Erosion.
tion should be made of the great number of large, more or less
jointed, to somewhat rounded and fresh erratics of Precambrian
rock material strewn over much of the region; especially the
central portion of the Remsen quadrangle. It is very com-
mon to tind erratics ranging from five to twenty feet in diame-
ter, one at least measuring seventeen feet high and twenty-
seven feet across. The larger ones are mostly of the hard,
homogeneous syenite or oranite. Probably the greatest amount
of ice erosion of the Precambrians occurred along Black river
between Lyons Falls and Lowville; but this matter will be
referred to below.
2. Erosion of the Sedimentaries.
Turning our attention to the sedimentary rocks, we find that
ice erosion was much more effective upon them. In facet, the
writer believes that in the Black river valley we have one of
the best examples of ice erosion in northern New York. One
factor favoring the ice work here was the comparative softness
and the highly jointed character of the rocks, while another
factor was their gposition with reference to the ice current (see
below). The writer has found no sign of considerable ice ero-
sion in the southern part of the region here described.
Fig. 2.
sees] PLEISTOCENE DELTA CT] trenton
==] osweco E==E==] PAMELIA-LOWVILLE-BLACK R.
i SS LORRAINE E==3 pareozoic (CONCEALED)
TSS) ye [ZA] PREcAmaRic
Fic. 2. Section across the Port Leyden quadrangle two and one-half
miles north of Lyons Falls. Vertical scale 8°8 times the horizontal scale.
The accompanying figure shows the profile and the geologic
structure across the Black river valley two and one-half miles
north of Lyons Falls. One of the striking features is the ter-
raced character of the sedimentaries, particularly from Port
Leyden northward. (See topographic map.) Along the river
course there is a slight notch in the Precambrians and just west
of this, on the northern part of the Port Leyden sheet, there is
W. J. Miller—Ice Movement and Erosion. 995
a steep slope rising three hundred feet above the Precambrians.
The formations outcropping on this slope are shown in the sec-
tion. Resting upon the Precambrians are several feet of weak
sandstones which are followed by the sandy limestones of the
Pamelia; then come the hard Lowville and Black river lime-
stones, followed by weak lower Trenton shales and limestones ;
while the summit is capped by the hard, crystalline Trenton
limestones. The streams passing over this slope are character-
ized by gorges with waterfalls and rapids. From the summit
of this slope and extending for several miles westward is a well
defined terrace developed upon the limestone.
Rising from the western side of the above-named terrace
there is a second slope higher and much steeper than the first.
The rise is commonly about 450 feet within a third of a mile.
The soft Utica shales outcrop at the base of this slope and
they are followed by the Lorraine shales with an upward
increasing sandstone content. The summit of this terrace,
known as Tug Hill, is more irregular and _stream- dissected
than the limestone terrace below. All streams flowing across
the steep slope of this terrace have high gradients and have cut
deep narrow gorges locally called “gulfs.” A third terrace,
much less well-defined, is formed by the Oswego sandstone
capping. The much higher gradients of the eastward flowing
streams from Tug Hill and the much steeper slope and oreater
height of the eastern front of Tug Hill, as compared to other
parts of the district, all argue for a recent and considerable
cutting back (westward) of the Paleozoics here.
At first these terraces, in their present form, were thought
to have been due entirely to water action, but an examination
of the region shows that some other explanation must be
sought. The steep fronts of the terraces are certainly young
topographic features, which precludes the possibility of their
having been formed during the long preglacial period of
erosion in this ancient region. On the “other hand, Black river
has done very little work of erosion, between Lyon Falls and
Lowville, in postglacial times, as proved by the fact that the
stream has not yet cut its way through the alluvium and
reworked drift filling the valley bottom, and also because
glacial striz and kames near the river level have not been dis-
turbed. Thus also the slight trench cut into the Precambrians
along here could not have been postglacial in origin.
There is still the possibility that glacial waters might have
developed the terraces, but the writer has looked in vain for °
evidence of any such vigorous water action, especially along
the higher part of the limestone terrace where records would
surely be left. Even if a large stream had flowed along the
ice edge and under the steep front of Tug Hill, its gradient
296 W. J. Miller—Ice Movement and Erosion.
would have been too low to be compatible with much cutting
power. No doubt there was some movement of water along
the edge of the waning Black river ice lobe, but the only ecur-
rent of any importance was a northerly one between the
eastern edge of the limestone terrace and the ice margin.
The limestones here are somewhat water worn, but this
stream was about 200 feet below the top of the terrace and |
thus clearly could not have done the work of erosion over
the whole terrace. Also the presence of the glacial strize high
up on the terrace shows that no great amount “of water erosion
could have taken place there since the ice retreat.
The Black river valley certainly existed, in its broader ‘out-
line, in preglacial times. The Paleozoic- Precambrian bound-
ary line had for a long time been gradually moving westward,
by wearing away of the Paleozoics. It seems certain that the
lowermost Paleozoic layers must have extended farther east-
ward, by overlap on the Precambrians, immediately preceding
the glacial period. This means that Black river was some dis-
tance farther eastward and that the western tributaries, from
Tug Hill, entered it with lower gradients. As above shown,
the lowest sedimentary layers could not have been cut- back in
pre- or post-glacial times nor were they cut back by glacial waters.
Evidently they were cut back by the ice to develop the steep
slope now shown... This allowed Black river to shift westward to
its present position. Thus the slight trench of the Precambrians
here shown could not have been preglacial. As already stated,
it is clearly not post-glacial and apparently it was formed by ice
cutting. The concave character of this inner portion of the
valley is well shown in the figure and strongly suggests ice
work.
Also we should consider the fact that we are here dealing
with unaltered sedimentaries with slightly upturned edges
resting upon a rather smooth surface of igneous and metamor-
phic rocks, and that the lowest sediments are weak sandstones
and sandy limestones, which greatly favored the stripping off
power of the ice. Robert Bell* has noted the same thing in
Canada, and he says: ‘“‘ When unaltered strata lie at low angles
upon a nucleus of crystalline rocks, there is a marked differ-
ence in the effects produced by the action of the passing 1¢e-
sheet according as the latter moved from the overlapping
strata onto the solid nucleus or off the latter against the
upturned edges of the stratified rocks, ...in the latter (case),
great erosion has always taken place and valleys and basins are
formed whose width depends upon the angle of dip and the
softness of the strata which have been scooped out. ‘The strata
* Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., vol. i, p. 296, 1890.
W. SJ. Miller—Ice Movement and Erosion. 297
are presented in the most favorable attitude for abrasion. The
wearing down would go on until the resisting rock front had
attained a height and weight sufficient to counterbalance those
of the glacier.” In the Black river valley the ice moved from
the erystallines against the shghtly upturned edges of the sed-
iments.
In much the same way the soft shales were stripped off the
surface of the hard limestones to form the broad terrace
and the steep front of Tug Hill. Such a stripping off of the
shales occurred, but to a less extent, over the southern part of
the Port Leyden quadrangle (except at Locust Grove); over
the northwestern part of the Boonville quadrangle; and over
the western part of the Remsen quadrangle. This power of
erosion diminished southward. The maximum thickness of
shale thus removed was probably several hundred feet, but
not over a wide area. The total amount of shale removed
was not nearly as much as may at first sight be supposed.
Then, too, the shales were soft and highly jointed, even to a
considerable depth, as may now be seen in the Whetstone gulf
section.
It may be fairly asked, what became of the materials thus
removed? ‘The very resistant Precambrians ought to be pres-
ent in considerable force as erratics somewhere in the region
and this is the case especially in the townships of Boonville and
Remsen, where a vast number of such erratics may be seen
strewn over the country. Shale and limestone is also present
in great abundance in the till and other drift of the Remsen
quadrangle. However, much of the shale must have been
ground up and carried away by glacial waters.
Two other factors which greatly aided the work of the ice
in the Tug Hill region must not be overlooked. One of these
is the fact that the ice moved up hill as it advanced southward
along the valley and so had its cutting power increased. On
reaching the divide between Black river and West Canada creek
the cutting power was lessened and till and other drift mate-
rials were deposited in great quantities as the ice moved down
hill toward the Mohawk river. Another factor which the
writer regards as important in this connection is the angle at
which the ice current entered the Black river valley in its
sweep around the Adirondacks. The greatest’ amount of
erosion was along the eastern side of Tug Hill, and it was just
here where the ice current must have struck with greatest force
as it was crowded into the valley. In harmony with this idea
is the fact that the glacial striz near Martinsburg bear more
towards the south than does the steep front of Tus Hill.
It appears to the writer that, even under these favorable
circumstances, the ice did not show itself to be such a oreat
298 W. J. Miller—Ice Movement and Erosion.
erosive agent as claimed by some geologists. The conclusion
seems to be that the only considerable ice erosion was along
the eastern side of Tug Hill and the valley eastward, where the
ice caused channel-straightening accompanied by some deepen-
ing. The very soft shales were considerably cut away; the
harder limestones were less affected ; while the very hard Pre-
cambrians yielded least. Gilbert* in speaking of ice erosion in
western New York, near Lockport, says: “ The district exhibits
a marked contrast between the extent of erosion from a broad
mass of limestone on the one hand and a broad mass of shale on
the other, the ratio being, roughly, as 1 to 10 or 1 to 20”
Thus in the Black river valley we also have a good example
of differential ice erosion.
Hamilton College, Clinton, New York.
January, 1909.
* Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., vol. x, p. 180, 1899.
Edgar—Estimation of Vanadie and Arsenic Acids. 299
Arr. XXII.—The Estimation of Vanadic and Arsenic Acids
and of Vanadic and Antimonic Acids, in the Presence of
One Another ; by GranaAM EnpeGar.
{Contributions the Kent Chemical Laboratory of Yale Univ.—cxevi. |
Arsenic and Vanadium.
Tue almost constant association of arsenic and vanadium in
the mineral sources of both elements presents the frequent
problem of their separation and estimation and has led to the
development of numerous analytical processes to accomplish
the desired end. Carnot” precipitates all arsenic acid by boil-
ing with a salt of strontium in weakly ammoniacal solution in
the presence of ammonium salts. Guibbst precipitates the
arsenic as trisulphide from a solution previously reduced with
sulphur dioxide, the vanadium being determined in the filtrate
by titration with potassium permanganate. Schmitz-Du-
montt uses hydrogen sulphide under pressure to effect the
separation. Friedheim and Michaelis,$ after reducing with
sulphur dioxide the solution containing arsenic and vanadic
acids, separate the former by repeated distillation with m ethyl
alcohol and hydrochloric acid. Field and Smith| volatilize
the arsenic by heating the dry sulphides of arsenic and vana-
dium in a current of hydrochloric acid gas at a temperature
between 100° and 250° Centigrade. Friedheim, Decker and
Diem} recommend the volatilization of the arsenic by distilla-
tion with potassium iodide and hydrochorie acid, a current of
hydrogen being kept up through the apparatus during the
process. |
In the present investigation any separation of arsenic and
vanadium is avoided by the use of a process of differential
reduction to determine these elements in the presence of one
another.
If a solution containing arsenic and vanadiec acids is boiled
with tartaric or oxalic acids, the vanadie acid is reduced to
tetroxide and may be reoxidized in alkaline solution by iodine**
according to the equation
VEO ol EOS VO. ont
If a solution containing arsenic and vanadie acids is reduced
with sulphur dioxide under proper conditions, the arsenic acid
* Compt. Rend., civ, 1803. +Chem. Jour., vii, 280.
¢t Inaug. Diss., Berlin, 1891.
§ Berichte der Deutsch. Chem. Gesellsch., xxviii, 1414.
| Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc., xviii, 1051.
* Zeitschr. Anal. Chem., xliv, 648.
** Browning: Zeitschr. anorg. Chem., vii, 158; Browning and Goodman,
this Journal, ii, 355.
300 Edgar —Kstimation of Vanadic and Arsenic Acids.
is reduced to arsenious acid and the vanadic acid to tetroxide,
so that after boiling off the excess of reagent the reoxidation
by iodine in alkaline solution should proceed according to the
equation
As,O,+ V,O0,+31,+3H,0=As,0, + V,0,+6HI
and the iodine thus used should correspond to the sum of
the two oxides. If then aliquot parts of the same solution
are treated in the manner described above, it is evident that
the titration of the solution reduced by tartaric acid should
determine the vanadium present and that the titration of the
solution reduced by sulphur dioxide should determine the sum
of the arsenic and vanadium, the difference in the number of
eubic centimeters of iodine used in the two eases being the
amount required to oxidize the arsenic.
In Table (1) are given the results of experiments performed
upon solutions containing arsenic and vanadie acids in varying
proportions. The method of treatment in detail was as fol-
lows: The solutions were divided into two portions and one of
these was boiled with one to two grams of tartaric or oxalic acid
uutil the blue color of the vanadium tetroxide indicated complete
reduction. The solution was then cooled, nearly neutralized
with potassium bicarbonate and an excess of standard iodine
solution was added. Neutralization was then completed, an
excess of bicarbonate added, and the solution allowed to stand
for from fifteen minutes to one half hour. The excess of
iodine was then removed with standard arsenious acid and the
solution titrated to color after the addition of starch. The
results of this titration are given under (I), Table (1).
The second portion of the solution was placed in a small
pressure flask and slightly acidified with sulphuric acid.
Twenty-five cubic centimeters of a strong solution of sulphur-
ous acid was then added and the flask was closed and heated for
one hour on the steam bath.* After cooling, the flask was
opened and the solution transferred to an Erlenmeyer flask
and boiled to remove the excess of sulphur dioxide, a current
of carbon dioxide being passed into the liquid to facilitate the
removal of the last traces. The solution was then cooled,
nearly neutralized with potassium bicarbonate and an excess
of iodine added as before. After completing the neutralization,
adding an excess of bicarbonate and allowing to stand for one
half hour, the excess of iodine was determined by arsenious
acid as before. The results are given in (II), Table (1).
As before stated, the results in (1) determine the vanadium,
and these figures, subtracted from (II), determine the arsenic.
* McCay: Amer. Chem. Jour., vii, 273.
Edgar—Estimation of Vanadie and Arsenic Acids. 301
TABLE (I).
(1) (IT)
Taken Found Error Taken Found Error IN/LON N10
_V20s V2.0; V205 As20; As205 As20; Iodine Iodine
erm. erm. erm. erm. erm. erm. em’, em?.
Ottss 01181 —0-0002 0;0960 00961 +0:0001 12°95 29°65
wikes O-118s =5070000 0:0960 0°0962 .+0°0002. 12°97 29°70
071183 0-1182 —0O°000l1 0°0960 0:°0962 +0°0002 12°96 29°70
00591 0°0593 +0°0002 0°0480 0°0480 +0°0000 6°50 14°85
0°0591 0°:0594 +0°0003 0°0480 0°0482 +0°0002 6°52 14°90
0°0591 0°0589 —0:'0002 0°0480 0°0488 +0°0008 6°45 14°86
071774 01779 +0°0005 0°1440 0°1488 —0°0002 19°50 44°50
01774 O°1774 +0°0000 0°1440 0°1440 +0°0000 19°45 44°50
071774 O1776 +0°0002 0°1440 0°1442 +0°0002 19°47 44°45
0°2366 0°2371 +0°0005 0:°0480 0°0478 —0:°0002 26°00 34:31
0°2366 0°2366 +0°0000 0:0480 0°0480 +0°0000 25°95 34°30
0:0591 0°0593 +0°0002 0°1440 0°1439 —0°'0001 6°50 38°90
Antimony and Vanadium.
Since antimonic acid is reduced by sulphur dioxide on
heating in a pressure flask* there seemed no reason to suppose
that antimony and vanadium should not be determined in the
presence of each other by a process similar to the one used for
arsenic and vanadium. Accordingly a series of experiments
was made in which solutions containing vanadic acid and anti-
monic acid were treated in a manner exactly similar in detail
to the preceding. The results are given in Table (LI).
TABLE (II). (I) (II)
‘ N/10x N/10x
Taken Found — Error Taken Found Error 0°9575 .0°9375
V.0; V.0; V20; Sb20; Sb205 Sb20; Iodine Iodine
grm. erm. erm. erm. erm, erm. CMe semi.
01188 071185 +0°0002 0°0757 0°0759 +0°0002 13°85 23°69
071183 0°1186 +0°0008 0°0757 0°0764 +0°0007 13°87 24°05
Oilss, 0:71183 ~--0°0000 0:0757 O0-0760 -0°0008 13°83 ° 23°95
ane 0-777 24 0:0008 ) O 126) 0°1258° -—0-0003 © 220780) §3'7°55
Cade Oi) 4-0-0003 0:1261 9071258 ~—0-0003. 20°80 37°55
Ogi 81773 -—0:000! ~0:-1261. 071260’ . —0-0001. - 20°75 37°50
0-2366 0°2376 +0°0010 071261 0°1257 —0°0004 27°80 44:52
0°2366 0°2369 +0:0003 0°1261 0°1263 —0:0002 27°70 44:50
0°2366 0°2369 +0°0003 0°1261 0°1260 —0:0001 27°70 44°45
Summary.
In the preceding paper it has been shown that vanadic and
arsenic acids, or vanadic and antimonic acids, may be readily
determined in the presence of one another by a method based
upon the differential reducing action of tartaric or oxalic acid
and sulphur dioxide, the reoxidation being in each case effected
with iodine in alkaline solution under the conditions described
above.
* Von Knorre : Zeitschr. angewandte Chem. 1888, 155.
302 Gooch and Bosworth—lodometric Estimation of Silver.
Arr. XXIII.—A Method for the lodometric Estimation of
Silver Based upon the Use of Potassium Chromate as a
Preciprtant ; by F. A. Goocn and Rowranp 8. Bosworru.
[Contributions from the Kent Chemical Laboratory of Yale Univ.—excvii. |
Ir has been shown in a previous paper that with proper pre-
cautions silver may be precipitated and accurately estimated as
silver chromate. It was found that the addition of a sufficient
excess of potassium chromate to a solution of silver nitrate,
even in the presence of small amounts of nitric acid, brings
about a complete precipitation of the silver as silver chromate,
and that the precipitate thus obtained may be transferred to
the asbestos filter by means of a dilute solution of potassium.
chromate and washed with small amounts of water without
appreciable loss of silver chromate. Upon the basis of such
exact precipitation of silver chromate by potassium chromate
it should be possible to establish a method for the iodometrie
estimation of silver either by the estimation of the chromic
acid ion of the precipitated and washed silver chromate or by
the determination of the chromic acid ion of the potassium
chromate which remains after the precipitation of the silver
salt by a known amount of standard potassium chromate.
In studying the latter procedure a known amount of stand-
ard potassium chromate in excess of the amount needed to
precipitate the silver was added to the solution of silver nitrate.
The precipitate was dissolved in ammonia and reprecipi-
tation brought about by boiling to a volume of 10-15". The
second, crystalline precipitate was filtered upon asbestos and
washed with the least possible amount of water applied in small
TasieE I.
Silver taken.
Volume Error in
of solu- K.CrO, NaeS.03 Silver terms of
tion Weight used used found silver
em? erm. erm, cem?, erm. erm.
20 0°1261 0°3039 26°54 0°1262 +0:°0001
25 Olay 0°3039 22°61 Onatayis —0:°0001
15 0°:0946 0°32938 30°51 0:0946 0:0000
15 0°'0946 0°3293 30°60 0°0940 —0:°0006
15 0°0946 0°3293 BO 1 0°0941 —0°0005
aN) 0°0946 0:°3293 30°55 0 0945 — 0:°0008
19:98 0°1260 0°3293 IA) 0°1255 —0:0005
20 O-tZor 0°32938 32°09 0°1263 +0°'0002
20 0°1261 0°3293 a2 lO 0°1263 +0°0002
25 0'1576 0°3298 27°30 0°1576 0°0000
Gooch and Bosworth—TLodometric Estimation of Silver. 303
portions successively. The filtrate was treated with potassium
iodide and acidified with sulphuric acid. The iodine set free
was titrated with sodium thiosulphate. The difference be-
tween the silver value of the iodine thus found and that of the
potassium dichromate used was taken as the measure of the
silver present. In Table I are given the details of experiments
performed in accordance with this procedure.
In Table II are given the details of similar experiments in
which the precipitation was effected in the presence of sodium
nitrate.
eo iA
Silver taken.
Volume KeCrO. Error in
of solu- —- — —~ NaNO; NaeS.O0; Silver terms of
tion Weight Volume Weight present used found silver
em, erm. em, erm. erm. em’, orm. erm,
20:47* 0:1107 —0:0006
20°53 O-1103 -+0°0002
9:07 071097 —0-0004
11°02 0°1096 —0'0005
17:14* 0:0859 —0:00038
17°05 0°0865 +0°0008
MeO Ol* 237 02436"
FOS, OL TOT 37 0°2436
HOP O11 01 25 0°1647
EO. O7E101 ieee OLLTIS
15 00862 +30 01974*
15 ~=0°0862 30 8 0°1974
ty) 00862 30 860°1974 17°14 =0°0859 +=—0:0008
25 0°1437 002 =0:3294- . 1 28°53 = =60°1485 )3=09— 00002
* Approximately N/10. + Approximately N/20.
a te ON ee
Since, as has been shown in the paper previously referred
to, relatively large amounts of potassium chromate are neces-
sary to brmg about complete precipitation of the silver chro-
mate in the presence of nitric acid, the above procedure
seemed less adapted to the determination of silver in a solution
containing that acid than the method whereby the precipitated
and washed silver chromate is determined. The following is
an account of the results obtained in the study of this latter
procedure. ‘To the silver solution containing free nitric acid,
potassium chromate was added in excess of the amount necessary
to take up the nitric acid with formation of potassium dichrom -
ate. The precipitate was dissolved in ammonia and reprecipi-
tation effected by boiling toa volume of 10-15™* The second,
crystalline precipitate was transferred to an asbestos filter by
means of a dilute solution of potassium chromate, washed with
the least possible amount of water applied in small portions
successively, and dissolved in a few cm* of a strong solution of
potassium iodide. The solution in potassium iodide was diluted
and acidified with sulphuric acid. The iodine set free was
titrated with sodium thiosulphate and taken as the measure of
304 Gooch and Bosworth—lLodometric Estimation of Silver.
the silver present. In Table III are given the details of exper-
iments made in this manner.
TaseE III.
Silver taken.
Volume Error in
of solu- HNO; K2CrO, NaeSe20s3 Silver terms of
tion Weight present weight used found silver
em. erm. erm. erm. em?, erm. erm.
25 0°1348 0°0638 0°60 18°35 0°1342 —0-0006
20 0°1078 0°068 0°65 14°67 0:10738 —0:0005
15 0:0808 0°063 0°65 11°06 00809 +0°0001
15 0°0808 0°0638 0°65 10°96 0°0802 —0:0006
20 0°1078 0°063 0°65 14°67 0°1073 —0°0005
30 0°1618 0°068 0°75 22°02 01610 —0:0008.
20 0°1078 0063 0°65 14°71 0:1075 —0:0003
29d 0°1348 0:0638 0°65 18°41 0°1347 —0-0001
25 0°1348 0°063 0°65 18°41 0°1347 —0°0001
20 0°1078 0°063 0°65 14°74 0°1078 0°0000
The results obtained justify the conclusion that silver can be
accurately estimated by precipitating as silver chromate with
the use of a sufficient excess of potassium chromate, dissolving
the precipitate formed in ammonia, reprecipitating by boiling
to low volume, and determining iodometrically either the chro-
mate ion in combination with the silver or the chromate ion
of the potassium chromate remaining after precipitation of
the silver with a known amount of standard potassium
chromate.
Headden— Brown Artesian Waters of Costilla Co., Colo. 305
Arr. XXIV.—The Brown Artesian Waters of Costilla
County, Colo., their Relations to Certain Deposits of
Natron or Soda, and what they teach ; by Wu. P. Heavpex.
Tue San Luis Valley, in the southern part of this state,
presents several interesting questions, among them its drainage
and its artesian wells. The fact that there is an artesian basin
in this valley was discovered by accident in 1887. I have no
official figures at my command in regard to the number of such
wells in the valley, but I have heard it estimated at more than
3000. They are put down with such ease that it is difficult to
obtain accurate records, either in regard to their number or the
strata passed through by the borings. The strata consist of
alternate layers of clay and sand which scarcely attains to the
size of fine gravel. The depth at which flows are met with
varies exceedingly. South and west of La Jara, water is
struck at very shallow depths; a four-inch, cased well on the
place of Mr. Ormond is 77 feet deep, the water rises a few
inches above the casing and is very cold, 44° F. Even shal-
lower wells than this are recorded, which is no cause for sur-
prise as it is very probable that some of the springs in the
eastern and southern parts of the valley are due to the artesian
pressure in the valley and not to surface waters finding an
exit in the usual manner. The ground and. surface waters of
the valley are, so far as my knowledge goes, of bad quality,
whereas these springs and the artesian wells yield excellent
waters. Even wells of 1000 feet depth yield waters carrying
less than 16 grains to the imperial gallon and 45 per cent of
this mineral matter is silicic acid. The springs and wells
agree in the amount of total solids carried-in solution, ranging
from 5°8 to 20-7 grains to the gallon, and are characterized by
a high percentage of silicic acid, namely, from 26 to 46 per
cent of the total solids.
The percentage of flowing wells obtained is very large ; fail-
ures are very rare, but an occasional one is met with. Mr. W.
K. Hapney informs me that he put down a well, a few miles
west of Alamosa, to the depth of 1004 feet, without obtain-
ing a flow—at least the well was a failure. This is certainly
remarkable, for at Alamosa they have two of the strongest
flows in the valley. It is difficult to obtain full enough data
to justify one in venturing a suggestion in explanation of such
a failure. ‘There are no reasons for supposing that the strata
are not continuous throughout this section, nor have we any
reason, except perhaps this failure itself, for assuming that a
fold may exist at this place.
Am. Jour. Scit.—FourtH Serizes, Vou. X XVII, No. 160.—ApRIL, 1909.
21
306 Headden—Brown Artesian Waters of Costilla Co., Colo.
The supply of water is furnished by the streams descending
from the surrounding mountains. The artesian basin has a
length of about 75 miles and a width from 40 to 45 miles.
The Rio Grande del Norte enters the valley at a point about
the middle of its western side and then flows easterly and
southerly out of the valley by way of its canyon. All of the
streams which enter the valley north of the Rio Grande are
wholly lost in the sands of the valley, their waters do not at
any time join those of the Rio Grande by overground courses
and it is a question whether they do so, at least within the
limits of the valley, by underground circulation. So complete
is the disappearance of the waters of these northern streams
that it is only very rarely that the united waters of the
Saguache river and the San Luis creek have been known to_
reach so far south as the San Luis lake, 14 miles north and 7
miles east of the town of Alamosa. The Rio Grande loses
from 75 to 100 second feet of water on its entrance to the val-
ley. The streams to the south also lose large quantities of
water as they enter the valley or during their course through
it. These sources are probably quite sufficient to supply all.
the artesian waters of this basin.
In the eastern part of the northern half of this basin we
find a water wholly different from any of the springs or wells
previously mentioned. ‘The water heretofore described has
been a colorless, tasteless water, carrying but small amounts of
mineral matter in solution and the chief constituent of these
mineral matters is silica. In this area, which begins about eight
miles north of Alamosa, and extends almost to the town of
Moffat, a distance of 25 to 30 miles from north to south and
extending from 5 or 6 miles west of the town of Mosca
almost to the San Luis lake on the east, a distance of about
14 miles east and west, the water has a decidedly “red” or
brown color, generally smells of hydrogen sulphide, is often
accompanied by marsh gas, has an alkaline reaction and is rich
in sodium carbonate. The wells sunk in this area show these
characteristics throughout. The flows struck at about 200 feet
are slightly brown, taste of hydrogen sulphide, and contain
about 22-0 grains of solid matter per imperial gallon, which is
wholly sodium carbonate. The intensity of the color deepens
with the depth of the wells till at about 500 feet it attains its
maximum; from this point the color diminishes till at about 880
feet 1t has become somewhat fainter but still decidedly colored.
The mineral matter, in this case sodium carbonate, increases with
the depth ; at 200 feet it is 22-0 grains, at 500 feet 76-0 grains,
and at 800 feet 103+ grains in each imperial gallon. No
well sunk in this section has passed through this zone of red
or brown water and obtained white or colorless water beneath
Headden— Brown Artesian Waters of Costilla Co., Colo. 307
it. On the southeastern limit of this area there seems to be
one instance in which an area of colorless water is overlapped
by this area of brown water, but this is exceptional and while
easily explicable if true, needs confirmation.
The brown water area is surrounded by an area of colorless
water and the limits, at some points, are fairly well defined.
I observed two wells near the southern limit of the brown
water; one 500 feet deep yielding a brown water carrying
104-0 grains total solids per gallon; less than two miles to the
south of it another, 880 feet deep; here the water was scarcely
colored at all and carried only.38 grains per gallon; this well
emitted a considerable quantity of combustible gas, but was
free from hydrogen sulphide, and the water was nearly taste-
less. The wells which yield gas most freely seem to be at the
outer edge of the brown water area and have considerable
depth. I do not know of any well close to the San Luis lake
on the west side, but the nearest one that I now recall yields a
brown water and a fair quantity of gas; its depth is, according
to my information, upwards of 900 feet. At the northeast
corner of the lake and close to it there is a 500-foot? well,
which yields a white water, tasting shghtly of hydrogen sul-
phide but otherwise of good quality. A short distance south
of this, and directly east of the lake, is a well 300 feet deep,
which furnished a colorless water, but this well is no longer
flowing.
It is as good as impossible to obtain the logs of these wells,
for they have been sunk through clay and sand with such ease
and rapidity that it would be somewhat difficult for anyone to
make an accurate record, which may be more fully appreciated
when it is considered that wells as much as 400 feet deep have
been begun and finished in a day. Some fragmentary informa-
tion is furnished by the debris washed out of the drill holes
such as is shown by the presence of fish vertebree and, within
the brown water area, fragments of wood. The presence of
the wood suggests an explanation for the brown color of the
water, 1. e., that there is enough vegetable matter buried here
to give rise to a sufficient quantity of humus to color it.
One of the questions arising in connection with this valley
is, what becomes of the water flowing into it? This valley
receives the water from a large drainage area, but the visible
discharge of water from it amounts to only 540,006 acre feet
annually or about 75 second feet, which is less than the loss of
the Rio Grande as it enters the valley. I have not been able
to obtain even an approximate idea of the total amount of the
water entering the valley, but it is evidently very much in
excess of the visible outflow.
308 Headden—BLrown Artesian Waters of Costilla Co., Colo.
These conditions, stated imperfectly and in general terms,
raise the question of a general underground flow out of the
valley.
We have, in the case of these brown waters, an artesian
basin of approximately 420 square miles. The water, findin
its way into this area, must be brought into the valley by the
streams descending from the surrounding mountains which
carry only snow and rain water. In the other portions of the
valley the artesian waters are not only pure, but have the
characteristics of the water which we find in mountain streams;
in this area we find them characterized by a decided color, the
presence of hydrogen sulphide, accompanied in some cases by
marked quantities of combustible gases, probably marsh gas,
and containing sodium carbonate. Further, these waters are not_
confined to one or more horizons within this area, but all flows,
from the most shallow to the deepest, bear the same character-
istics, and the area itself has quite sharply defined limits. If
there be any general movement of these waters, it must be to
the southward, for the valley is completely enclosed by moun-
tains except on the south. The pressure shown by these wells
is in no case great. The Denver and Rio Grande R. R. had a
well put down at Alamosa to a depth of about 1,000 feet.
The flow is excellent, but the pressure is not sufficient to force
the water into the tank for supplying the engines, so it is prob- .
ably less than 25 feet. Such a pressure with a head of 360
feet, this being the approximate difference of level between
Alamosa and the western portion of the valley, is not incom-
patible with an outflow to the southward, perhaps a hundred
or more miles away.
As the characteristics of these brown waters may aid in the
solution of these general questions, I have paid some attention
to their study.
If these waters were to pass through strata very different
from those of the section in which’ they occur, the brown color
would in all probability be removed, but not so with the sodium
carbonate, for even clayey soils have but a limited power to
retain sodium carbonate, as is shown by the fact that it passes
quite freely into drain waters from soils which contain but
little of this salt.
The sanitary analysis of the brown water presented some
difficulty due to the organic matter present, but less than the
water from the San Luis lake. In the former case the
organic matter is probably humus, in the latter it is entirely
different, as it is without color and at most imparts a shght
milkiness to the water. The question of a possible connection
of the San Luis lake with the reservoir of artesian water is a
proximate one; indeed it is said that the water has been seen
it
Headden— Brown Artesian Waters of Costilla Co., Colo. 309
to well up in the middle of the lake, accompanied by a
gurgling sound. It is easy to conceive of such a connection,
especially if the springs in the eastern and southern parts of
the valley owe their origin to the artesian pressure in the basin
rather than to individual local causes. This view, on the other
hand, has but little plausibility when applied to the Head
lake, a small adjacent lake, for this lake becomes almost
entirely dry at times. These lakes fill up in the spring time,
oceasionally receiving water from the Saguache river and the |
San Luis creek, though this is of very rare occurrence, and
have no visible outlet. I do not know the rate of evaporation
from a quiet surface at this place, but it must be high,
because the sunshine is almost continuous and the temperature
in the summer season is high, and high winds are of frequent
occurrence.
I have observed differences of level in the waters of the San
Luis lake, varying to possibly 10 feet. The cause of this ts not
entirely clear; it seems too great a difference to attribute to
surface evaporation. If the water of this lake is supplied from
an underground source, it probably owes its origin to more
immediate surface drainage, rather than to artesian pressure.
This inference is drawn from the character of the mineral
matter held in solution rather than from knowledge of strati-
graphical relations. The analysis of this lake water gives the
following characteristics: First, it is comparatively rich in
mineral matter, 54°2 grains of fixed residue in each imperial
gallon. Second, it is exceptionally rich in potash salts,
potassium carbonate constituting one-fifth of the total, while the
corresponding soda salt constitutes one-fourth. Third, the
determination of saline and albuminoidal ammonia present
exceptional ditticulties.
While the amount of the total solids, 54:2 grains per
imperial gallon, seems high, a little consideration of the condi-
tions removes this impression. This lake has no visible outlet;
it is not known how long it has already existed here, and the
accumulation of salts, due to the concentration of pure moun-
tain or snow water, might account for all of the salts that we
find. Prof. L. G. Carpenter informs me that the evaporation
from the surface of this lake may reasonably be estimated at
sixty inches per annum, at which rate the water contained in
the lake at any one time would be wholly evaporated in about
three- years. This is allowing an average depth of about 15
feet, amuch greater depth than the lake possesses. Such con-
siderations lead to the conclusion that the mineral matter held
in solution is not sufficiently large to preclude their having
been wholly derived from surface waters. _The presence of so
large a percentage of potash salts is more consistent with a
310 Headden—Brown Artesian Waters of Costilla Co., Colo.
surface origin than a deep-seated one, for while the waters of
our mountain streams are not so rich, even relatively, in
potash salts as this lake water, they approach it much more
nearly than any others known tome. In cases where the
watersheds are composed of granites, gneisses and schists, in
which the predominant feldspar 1S orthoclase, we find the waters
- characterized by a low mineral content consisting of much
silicic acid and a relatively large amount of potash. These
two characteristics are present in this water, the former, how-
ever, not in a very marked degree, bnt the latter strongly so.
The question whether the silicic acid may have separated
from this water as a difficultly soluble silicate is one on which
the deportment of similar water under pressure, for instance
when used in steam boilers, may throw a little light. In sev-
eral cases which have come under my observation I have found |
the incrustation formed to consist very largely of silica. In
one case in which the boiler had been in service for four years
and had been fed with artesian water coming from two differ-
ent flows but of essentially the same character, the incrustation
formed on the boiler tubes was one quarter of an inch in
thickness and consisted of silicic acid and lime, 76 per cent of
the former and 24 per cent of the latter, including a small
amount of alkalies. Some such separation may have removed
a part of the silicic acid from the lake water, in which there is
at the present time only a small amount of lime, one grain per
gallon.
The ammonia determinations in the sanitary analysis of this
water presented peculiar and greater difficulties than I had
ever met with in a water. The water is colorless and not
strongly alkaline. There is no suggestion of the presence of
humus: -the slowness and persistency with which the ammonia
distilled over was the only suggestion of its presence. It has
been suggested that when successive, equal portions of the dis-
tillate show about one half as much ammonia as the preceding
one, the probable presence of humus is indicated. According
to this criterion the first three portions indicated the presence
of humus, but each of the next six portions contained equal
amounts of ammonia and no end of the reaction was obtained.
In the distillation of the albuminoidal ammonia distilled water
(ammonia free) was added, and 14 portions of 50° each were
distilled ever without obtaining an end to the reaction. ‘The
organic matter indicated by the slow and persistent evolution
of ammonia may have come from a variety of sources, for the
lake abounds in vegetation and, as I am eredibly infor med, in
other aquatic life, a small fish attaining a length of five or six
inches being especially abundant. As there is no outlet to this
lake, it is evident that oe water must become heavily charged
Headden— Brown Artesian Waters of Costilla Co., Colo. 311
with organic matter. These points in the composition and
deportment of this water distinguish it from the spring and
well waters.
The well waters to the east of the lake are, so far as I know,
white waters and of fairly good quality, but the wells to the
west of it but not close to it yield brown waters; those of the
lower flows are so rich in sodium carbonate that they are no
longer potable waters and but poorly adapted for boiler use
owing to the fact that they foam badly. I have previously
stated that these brown waters are characteristic of an area of
approximately 420 square miles, and that all of the flows
within this area have the same characteristics, namely, they are
all more or less colored and all carry sodium carbonate. The
flow met with at a depth of about 200 feet, in the town of
Mosea, is used for domestic purposes. This water is slightly
colored, tastes of hydrogen sulphide, and carries 22°4 grains of
sodium carbonate in each imperial gallon. There are no sul-
phates and only traces of chlorides present in this water. This
flow is not strong, and shows a diminution as the number of
wells tapping it is increased. The water from the town well,
which was originally something over 800 feet deep, but in
which the casing was subsequently puiled to the 500 or 600 foot
point, is strongly colored, has a decided alkaline reaction, and
contains 72°6 grains of fixed residue per gallon, of which over
90 per cent is sodium carbonate. This is probably the most
strongly colored water with which I have met. The mill well
in the same town is from 780 to 800 feet deep, cased to the
bottom ; the water from this well differs from the preceding
only in containing more sodium carbonate or total solids per_
gallon, 102°8 grains, and in not being nearly so deeply colored.
The sanitary analysis of these colored brown waters presented
difficulties of the same nature, but much less serious than those
presented by the San Luis lake water. They were so serious
in both cases that I resorted to defecation by means of milk of
lime, to which they were readily amenable.
These brown waters are wholly different in their properties
from the lake water, and also from other artesian water flowing
from wells in comparatively close proximity ; for instance, the
“soda well,” a brown water, carried 103-0 grains per gallon;
the “gas well,’ supposed to be on the southern limit of the
brown water area, carried 37-6 grains ; while the white water
wells, a few miles south or east, carry only 6 grains. These
brown waters also differ from the spring waters of the eastern
part of the valley, which as a rule correspond closely in their
character to the artesian waters of the basin. As an illustra-
tion of this statement we have the Washington Springs, which
carry 5°958 grains per gallon, and the nearest artesian well, of
whose water I have an analysis, carries 6°698 grains per gallon.
312 Headden—Brown Artesian Waters of Costilla Co., Colo.
The composition: of these total solids is remarkably similar,
especially in their high content of silicic acid. The residue
from the well water contained 28°25 per cent, and that from
the spring water 29°25 per cent of silicic acid. This similarity
between the spring and well waters is not always so striking as
in this case, but is, as a rule, very evident. The brown water
area also has its springs, which are located immediately east of
the San Luis lake, but the pressure is not sufficient to produce
freely discharging springs, but instead small lakes of intensely
alkaline water from which is deposited, both in winter and
summer, considerable quantities of sodium carbonate, natron
associated with a little trona.
I have given the characteristic differences between the lake
water and the brown artesian waters and shown that they are
distinct waters. The lake water is colorless, and contains nota-—
ble quantities of silicic acid and almost as much potash as soda
salts. The brown waters are distinguished from the other
artesian waters of the basin by the presence of humus, the
practical absence of silicic acid, and the presence of large quan-
tities of sodium carbonate, from 23 to 108 grains to the imperial
gallon. Further, these brown waters, or such as are rich in
sodinm carbonate, are confined to a quite sharply limited area,
while the colorless waters are general throughout the rest of
the artesian area.
The colorless artesian waters of the basin carry only a very
moderate amount of dissolved substances; even the water from
the deepest wells contains less than 16 grains of total solids to
the gallon, 46 per cent which is silicic acid. These facts lead
us to conclude that these brown waters are the source of the
natron found in these soda lakes, because neither the ordinary
artesian waters of the valley nor the lake water nor the spring
waters are either rich enough in soda or pure enough to, in
any easily explainable way, give rise to such deposits of natron,
while the brown waters might easily do so.
The facts already adduced seem sufficient to justify the
assumption that the natron found in these depressions owes its
origin to the brown waters, but there are also other facts which
support this view. I have submitted the water of the mill
well, also those of the town well at Mosea, and of the mill well
at Hooper, to examination with the purpose of comparing
them with the mother liquor, collected in the so called Soda
lake. Carefully made analyses of the residues from the three
wells show that they are identical, so that I am justified in
using a larger quantity of residue obtained from the mill well
at Hooper for the detection of iodine, bromine, lithia, titanic and
boric acids and in considering it as representative of the brown
waters in general. The substances named were found in both
the mother liquor from the natron and in the brown waters,
Headden— Brown Artesian Waters of Costilla Co., Colo. 318
but it was necessary to use as much as 20 grams of the residue to
establish the presence of lithiaand bromine. The iodine, titanic
and boric acids, on the other hand, were easily detected.
We have thus added to the fact that the brown waters are
the only ones in the valley which, to our knowledge, carry
sodium carbonate as the principal salt in solution, this further
consideration, 1. e., that the mother liquor from the crystals of
natron resemble the brown waters in that it contains small
quantities of iodine, lithia, titanic and boric acids. The potas-
sium salts in the mother liquor of the lake are no more abundant
than might be expected due to their concentration in this
liquor as the soda salts erystallize out; but there may be a
question as to whether the iodine, ete., show an increase corre-
sponding with the degree of concentration which has taken place.
Apropos to the extent of these soda deposits. J may state
that there are, to my knowledge, four depressions in which
erystallized sodium carbonate, natron, is found. Three of these
are quite small but the fourth is larger. When I last saw this
there was probably a third of an acre entirely covered with a
layer of natron, but it has at times been considerably larger
than this. Mr. W. H. Falke, the present owner, tells me that
he has measured the crystalline mass when it had a maximum
thickness of forty-eight inches. There would have been no
trouble in finding spots where the mass of crystals would have
measured thirty inches in thickness when I last visited the place.
There is a question which will certainly suggest itself to
everyone in any way familiar with our western conditions, 1. e.,
whether the surface waters of the section may have contributed
to the formation of these deposits. It is well known that
water percolating through our surface soils gives rise to
efflorescences and incrustations on evaporation. I have never
seen deposits owing their origin to this source, comparable to
this in extent or thickness; still it remains to show that these
salts—this carbonate of soda did not come from the surface
soil. I have analyzed the surface and also the ground waters
from a territory which I believed would be most likely to give
me results favorable to the assumption that such might be the
source of the carbonate. The surface waters contain principally
sulphates and chlorides with some carbonates; the ground waters
contain the same mixture, the sodium chloride being rather
more abundant. The efflorescences occurring in this section
are essentially sodium sulphate with subordinate quantities of
calcium and magnesium sulphates. The aqueous extract of the
soil contains large quantities of sulphates with only a little
carbonate. We have then in the surface waters, the ground
waters, the water-soluble portion of the soil, and in the efflor-
escent salts gathering on the soil an entirely different mixture
of salts and one which, were it to flow through or over the soil
314 Headden-—Brown Artesian Waters of Costilla Co., Colo.
into a basin and evaporate, would not give the pure enc: car-
bonate found in this deposit.
The natron was found in August, 1907, forming a mass of
crystals five inches thick covered by an inch or more of a yel-
lowish mother liquor. The upper part of the crystalline mass
showed a thin layer of bright needles or thin prismatic crystals’:
these did not ettloresce, yielded water in the closed tube and
consisted of sodium carbonate. It was not feasible to select
material pure enough for analysis. I took this layer as con-
sisting of the mineral trona.
The mass of crystals had effloresced so badly by the time I
was able to analyze it, that I dried the material thoroughly
before analyzing it. A water determination, however, was
made on some of the best material that I could, under the
circumstances, select and yielded 59-161 per cent of water.
Analysis of thoroughly dried
salt-mass from Soda Lake.
SiO er ee 0°128
SOM ON eas 0°184
Cl 27 ieee ee AO 3S
CORR wi eae 41:060
NavOueis peer aoe 57°875
KAO Rie pS eae 0:824
100-209
©) Gl pe eas ae "030
1007179
Analysis of the residue from
the mother liquor.*
SiO ee 0-405
SOY. Soe De ees
Clea ee Pept o4 ONG)
COxo: 52. ee 36°016
Na.OS 1 as 46°991
KOs 0s ae 12°347
100°403
O=Cl Si eo. b edt "543
99 860
*This residue contained traces of iodine and lithia, also of titanic and
boric acids.
The conditions obtaining in this artesian basin which
permit of the confinement of these waters to a somewhat
sharply limited area are certainly not clear. There are no
reasons for assuming the existence of a separate basin in
this section though its waters are very distinct in their proper-
ties. There is no evident source of the sodium carbonate, for
sranting, as we must, that vegetation may have at some time
been abundant in this section, which is indicated by the fossil
wood, the humus and the marsh gas, it does not suffice to
explain the presence of the sodium ‘carbonate, We might
assume that beds of carbonate exist somewhere in this terri-
tory, but we have no proof that this is a fact. No observations
indicating such deposits have been made in putting down the
numerous wells of this section. The small deposits mentioned
in this article are the only known ones and these are
confined to the surface, or within a few feet of it. I have
understood that borings have been made with the idea of
finding such deposits, but without success.
Headden— Brown Artesian Waters of Costillu Co., Colo. 315
Analyses of [Residues from Artesian Wells.
Mosca. Town well Mosca. Mill well Hooper Mill well
500-600 feet deep.* 780 feet deep. 750 feet deep.
Warpon 22... 0°365
Ss ier 5°537 4°82] 4°160
20. See 0°342 0°046 0-063
Ol ee eas 0°425 0°284 0°470
BO 0°247 0148 0°168
0 37-603 37°104 37°365
Ne Oe 53°077 53°665 54°045
(C05 aoe 0-982 1148 1433
WOR 2... + — 07413 0°651 0°282
iC) 07158 0°391 0-219
ene 0°086
hice. ae 0-031 0-039
0) 909 eae aig 0°086 0°054 0048
I 52 eee Bee oars Li, ete. plas Li, etc. plus
MOBO} 5 2< | Org. matter [1°721] Org. matter [1.814]
99°437 100°064 100°106
OR Clyro e ia 0:096 0 064 0°106
99°341 100°000 100°000
* This residue was heated till the organic matter was charred but not
wholly destroyed. The deficit of 0°6597 in the analysis is probably due to
organic matter.
If this water is characteristic of a subordinate basin inde-
pendent of the rest of the valley, as I at one time thought, it
is peculiar that we have no area surrounding it barren of
artesian water. Further, that they have not succeeded in
getting below the water carrying sodium carbonate in solution.
There is no indication, of which I have been able to learn, that
they have approached the downward limit of the sodium carbon-
ate. The deepest well in this section, whose waters I have
analyzed, was 880 feet deep and this water was the richest of
all I have examined in sodium carbonate. On the other hand,
if it forms a part of the general basin and there are no changes
in the inclination of the strata, it is hard to see how the lateral
limits of the sodium carbonate can be sosharply defined. There
can certainly be no general lateral movement of the waters
through the valley in which this water participates. Such a
movement is possible, but it must take place at a greater depth
than has yet been attained by the wells of this section. The
floor of this valley has not, to my knowledge, been reached by
any of the drill holes. The sheet of lava forming a portion of
the southern margin of the valley is of later origin than some
of the sedimentary strata and is evidently no part of the real
floor of the valley.
Fort Collins, Colorado.
316 Andrews and Farr— Determination of Arsenic.
Art. XXV.— The Volumetric Determination of Small
Amounts of Arsenic; by Launcetor W. AnpREws and
Henry V. Farr.
Tue problem of the analytical determination of small amounts
of arsenic, present as an impurity in products of the most varied
character, is a constantly recurring one. The comparison of
mirrors formed in the Marsh test in its several modifications
and a few colorimetric processes have solved the problem for
the special case in which the arsenic is present in traces only
and in which a merely approximate estimation of the amount
suffices. We have been led to seek a solution covering a wider
range of cases, in which, for example, the arsenic may be
present in any quantity from 0-1 mg., or possibly less, to 100 mg.
and in which the accuracy of an ordinary quantitative analysis
is required.
Often, but not always, the distillation of the arsenic, after
Fischer as arsenious chloride, furnishes satisfactory results
under these conditions as a method of separation, but it
always has the disadvantage of being rather time-consuming.
It is better adapted for the determination of larger than for
smaller amounts, since the distillate contains its arsenic in a
highly dilute state and much contaminated with foreign salts,*
or else in the form of arsenic acid,} which is not par ticularly
well suited to quantitative determination. A method, in order
to be perfectly satisfactory for the purpose in view, should
comprise: (A) a process for the direct separation of the arsenic
in a concentrated form, applicable to the greatest pessible
number of cases; (B) a simple, rapid procedure for determin-
ing the arsenic in the form in which it is furnished by step (A).
It is obvious that none of the existing methods can meet
these demands. The well-known Bettendorff test,{ in which
the arsenic is precipitated in the metallic state by a mixture of
hydrochloric acid and stannous chloride, appeared to us to pos-
sess possibilities of development for the process we were look-
ing for. This test has been used by E. 8. Peck§ for the
colorimetric determination of arsenic in metallic iron. Accord-
ing to Bettendorff (1. ¢.} the sensitiveness of the reaction is
such that it will show “ most definitely ” the presence, in one
cubic centimeter, of two millionths of a milligram of ammo-
nium-magnesium arsenate, that is, of less than a millionth
milligram of metal. Our own observations on this point con-
* Alkali chloride, if the distillate is received in alkali hydroxide solution.
+ When the distillate is received in nitric acid or other oxidizing agents.
+ Fres. Zeitschr., ix, 105, 1869.
§ Pharm. Jour. (4), xiii, 180, 1901.
Andrews and Farr—Determination of Arsenic. 317
firm the statement quoted, provided, naturally, that a layer of
sufficient thickness be examined and that the liquid is other-
wise absolutely colorless.
The arsenic as thrown down in the Bettendorff test,
although finely divided, settles in two or three hours and can
be filtered on’ the expiration of that time through an asbestos
filter without exhibiting any tendency to run through, and can
be washed with concentrated hydrochloric acid and with water,
without undergoing oxidation. As pointed out by Betten-
dorff, it contains more or less tin. Bettendorff found 95°86 to
98°56 per cent of arsenic. The amount of tin, present as basic
chlorides, varies, however, over a much wider range than these
figures would indicate, depending on the amount of oxidation
under gone by the stannous chloride, the temperature, etc. The
precipitate dissolves in decinormal, centinor mal, or millinormal
iodine solution, made slightly alkaline by addition of suitable
amounts of sodium bicarbonate or phosphate. The readiness
with which this solution occurs depends mainly on the amount
of stannic acid or of basic stannic chlorides carried down with
the precipitate. If the degree of this contamination is con-
siderable, the precipitate must be shaken for several hours with
the liquid in order to effect complete solution; but if the
amount be smaller or vanishing, solution takes place in less than
a minute. This observation led us to prevent co-precipitation
of basic tin compounds by adding tartaric acid to the reaction
mixture of hydrochloric acid, stannous chloride and arsenite.
There seems to be no inclination for the precipitate to entrain
stannous compounds.
Bettendorff found the reaction to be incomplete, even after
the lapse of a long time, with hydrochloric acid of 23 per cent
HCl, while with such of 25 per cent it was complete “after
some minutes.” This concentration represents the minimum.
It is better to operate with a concentration of nearly 30 per
cent, which presents no difficulties when the ordinary reagent
acid of 40 per cent is used. That is to say, 25° of the latter
acid should be employed as a minimum to each 10° of the
solution to be examined.* The most obvious cause of errors
lies in the possibility of loss by evaporation of the highly vol-
atile arsenious chloride during the reduction process. This we
guarded against in our earliest experiments by sealing up the
reaction mixture in glass tubes, an effective but inconvenient
* This rests of course on the assumption that the substance to be exam-
ined contains nothing to neutralize the hydrochloric acid. Otherwise a far
greater amount of acid may become necessary. Thus when tartar emetic is
to be examined for arsenic, the salt is dissolved directly in the 40 per cent
acid, and enough of the latter must be taken to furnish 25 to 30 per cent of
absolute acid, after that consumed in converting the potassium and the anti-
mony into chlorides has been duly allowed for.
318 Andrews and Karr—Determination of Arsenic.
expedient, wiich fortunately proved to be unnecessary, since
sufficient protection is afforded by closing the solution in a
bottle with a well-ground glass stopper, provided the temper-
ature is not raised higher than 35° or 40°. The latter should
not be lower than 25°, since the reaction then becomes unde-
sirably slow. |
In the absence of tartaric acid, the arsenic does not usually
visibly deposit on the glass walls, but when the precipitation —
of tin compounds is prevented, a small part of the arsenic
sometimes forms an extremely thin film, adherent to the glass.
The existence of such a film should be assumed, even when
none is visible. Experiment has demonstrated that a minute
truly, but titratable amount of arsenic may be present in this
way on the seemingly quite clean surface of the vessel in
which the reduction has taken place.
The process finally assumed the following form. The mate
rial to be examined, if in the form of a sojution more bulky
than 20°, is neutralized and boiled down to 10 or 20° and
transterred to a white bottle of 80 to 100° capacity, provided
with a very well-ground stopper. To the liquid is added two
and a half times its volume of the tin reagent, prepared by
dissolving twenty grams of stannous chloride erystals and
forty grams of tartaric acid in one liter of forty per cent hydro-
chloric acid.* The stopper is inserted and the flask set aside
to stand in a warm place till the precipitated arsenic has sub-
sided, leaving the supernatant quid water-white} and clear.
This usually takes about two or three hours, more or less, if
the temperature is nearly 40°. An asbestos filter is prepared
in the usual manner, either in a Gooch crucible or in a Neu-
man filter tube. The precipitated arsenic is transferred to the
filter with the aid of a small amount of concentrated hydro-
chloric acid, rigorously chlorine-free. The flask is rinsed
repeatedly with small amounts of water which are passed
through the filter, which is completely washed by aid of suc-
tion without allowing it to be exposed to the air more than
necessary, except at the last draining, a precaution which may
not be requisite, but which seems indicated. The proper
amount of centinormal or of decinormal iodine solution is now
measured into the flask by a pipette as indicated by the equa-
tion,
As+5I+7NaHCO, = Na,HAsO,+5Nal+7CO, +3H,0,
allowing for an excess of ten to one hundred per cent above
*This reagent will remain colorless if the constituents are arsenic-free.
It should be kept in bottles holding not more than 200° and closed in sucha
manner as to give assurance of protection of the contents against oxidation.
+ Of course this does not apply when nickel chloride or other colored salts
are present.
Andrews and Farr—Determination of Arsenic. 319
the theoretical.* The precipitate, with the asbestos filter, is
now transferred quantitatively to the flask and shaken with the
iodine solution.+ Enough of a five per cent solution of sodium
bicarbonate or of sodium phosphate should now be added to
maintain neutrality throughout the reaction, but not an unduly
large excess, and the shaking be continued till the asbestos is
thoroughly disseminated through the liquid and till it is cer-
tain that every particle of arsenic is dissolved. Fresh starch
paste is added and the excess of iodine is titrated back by
hundredth or thousandth normal arsenite solution.
For quantities of arsenic smaller than 0°5 mg., thousandth
normal solutions may be employed, but it must not be forgot-
ten that in such high dilutions a correction must be employed
for the amount of iodine required to produce the end-reaction,
if satisfactorily exact results are required. This correction
usually amounts to about 0°6°% of N/1000 for each 50° of solu-
tion, but it should be determined under the actual conditions
of the titration. A main factor influencing the sensitiveness
(aside from temperature) is the concentration of iodide in the
liquid. For larger quantities than 10 mg. of arsenic up to
100 mg. tenth normal iodine solution is preferably employed.
The degree of precision to be expected in the results
obtained by this method may be seen from the following test
analyses. A hundredth normal arsenic solution (containing
0°375 mg. As perce.) was made by dissolving 990-0 mg. of
As,O, in water to make two liters, and also a fifth normal
TABLE
Arsenic Volume _ Vol.
taken of of HCl Vol. of Vol. of Weight
Milli- solution used iodine sol. As sol. of As Error
grams ce. ce. added req. found mg.
1 3°79 10 25 50°02N/100 25°02N/100 B07 by 0:00
2 3°75 10 25 41°05 16°05 3°753 +0°003
3 3°15 10 50 30°03 5°23 3°72 —0°'03
- L5G -. 20 60 60°06 10°00 7510 —001
5 0°375 a 10 5°01 2°46 0°382 +0007
6 71°02 10 30 51°01N/L0 35° 2N/100 fA 2oue iO? }
iI 75°00 10 30 55°04N/10 49° 4N/100 PENG eed
t Note. In analyses Nos. 3 and 7, about 0°1 gram of crystallized copper
sulphate was added, without, as may be seen, influencing the results. In
another experiment, not recorded in the table, similar to No. 5 except that
the copper was omitted, a solution of titanous chloride was substituted for
the stannous chloride. In this case there was a negative error of 0°2 mg. in
the arsenic. Twenty hours was required for the reaction, which is slower
than when stannous chloride is used.
* One cubic centimeter of centinormal iodine solution =0°'15 mg. As.
+It is ordinarily easy to see when the reaction is complete. When the
amount of arsenic is less than 5 mg., it is practically instantaneous.
320 Andrews and Harr— Determination of Arsenic.
solution by dissolving 9°900 grams of the oxide in sodium
hydroxide solution, saturating with carbon dioxide and then
making up to one liter, The amounts of arsenic which appear
in column 1 of the table were obtained by measuring the
appropriate volume of one of these solutions.
All volumetric apparatus employed was, of course, carefully
standardized. The volumes of the standard solutions, as
given in columns 4 and 5, are corrected for temperature and |
titre.
A somewhat similar process to that described in the present
paper has been published by Engel and Bernard.* These
authors reduced the arsenic with a mixture of hypophosphor-
ous and hydrochloric acids and titrated the precipitated metal
in essentially the same manner as that adopted by us. Their
test -analyses are very good on larger amounts of arsenic.
They publish none for quantities less than 54 milligrams.
The reaction is very much slower than it is with stannous
chloride. This necessitates allowing the mixture to stand for
twelve hours and then boiling, a proceeding which may well
result in loss of arsenious chloride.
It is far less easy to obtain hypophosphorous acid free from
traces of arsenic than it is stannous chloride. The most
important advantage which the use of the tin salt presents is
probably to be found in the broad range of its applicability.
In almost all of the salts which one ordinarily desires to sub-
ject to an arsenic determination, no other operation is required.
Even compounds of lead, bismuth or antimony need no pre-
liminary separation. We have found that titanous chloride
(TiC],) may be substituted for the tin salt, but without advan-
tage so far as known. It is probable that the lower chlorides
of chromium, molybdenum, or vanadium would answer the
same purpose, but they hold out no promise of superiority.
It is extremely likely that for the determination of fainter
arsenical mirrors, obtained by the Marsh method, the iodo-
metric titration will be found useful. A mirror of 0-01 mg.
can scarcely be weighed satisfactorily, even with the best
balance, because the weight of the tube when subjected to the
action of the necessary reagents might change by an amount
considerably in excess of the weight of the mirror. But it
could be dissolved in millinormal iodine or starch iodidet and
the excess titrated back by arsenite or thiosulphate of the
same normality. For smaller mirrors than this, optical methods
of comparison will still have to be used.
Laboratories of the Mallinckrabt Chemical Works,
St. Louis, Jan. 23, 1909.
* Comptes rendus, cxxii, 390, 1896.
+ Compare Zeitschr. f. anorg. Chem., xxvi, 180, 1901.
F. A. Perret— Report on the Messina Karthquake. 321
Art. XX VIL.—Preliminary Report on the Messina Earth-
quake of December 28, 1908 ; by Frank A. Perret, K.LC.,
former Honorary Assistant at Royal Vesuvian Observatory.
As special representative of the American Consulate, the
writer sailed from Naples on Dec. 30, arriving at the Straits
at daybreak of the 3l1st.* He remained eight days and the
scientific observations and photographs were chiefly confined
to Messina and its environs, Reggio and Villa San Giovanni
having been inspected only from the sea during a visit of the
U.S.8. “Scorpion” to the Calabrian coast. The present
report must, therefore, be considered as preliminary in its
nature and limited by the extraordinary conditions incident to
life in destroyed cities under martial law, and in a state of
siege.
Before proceeding to a detailed account of the observations,
it may be well to present asummary of the principal facts:
For several weeks preceding the earthquake a number of
more or less severe shocks were felt in the neighborhood of
the Straits, the most important occurring on Nov. 5 and
Dec. 10. Exactly twenty-four hours before the great event,
i. e. at 5.20 a.m. of Dec. 27th, the seismograph at the Messina
Observatory registered an important earth movement.
Etna and Stromboli were unusually active on Dec. 25th,
but neither showed sympathetic action at the time of the earth-
quake nor immediately after.
The earthquake occurred at 5.20 a.m. of Dec. 28, 1908
(cf. fig. 1). The macroseismic duration was about 32 seconds.
The epicentrum was apparently at the northern entrance of
the Straits or a little to the E. and N. of this.
The intensity within the megaseismic area was between the
9th and 10th grade of the Mercalli scale, and fell off rapidly
with increasing distance from the epicentrum, indicating a
centrum at no great depth, possibly 15 kilometers or less.
The destructive area extends to and beyond Palmi on the
north and to Ali on the south, say twenty miles in either
direction.
The isoseismals will show an elliptical form with the major
axis lying N. and S. or, more precisely, from E. of N. to W.
of S.
Within the megaseismic area free surface waves were pro-
duced, and their forms, preserved in the stone pavement of the
Messina embankment, were photographed by the writer.
* The cost of this seismologic study is being paid from a fund generously
and promptly subscribed by friends of the Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology and by the Volcanic Research Society of Springfield, Mass.
Am. Jour. Sci.—FourtH SEeRiEs, Vout. X XVII, No. 160.—Apriz, 1909.
22
322 F. A. Perret—Report on the Messina Earthquake.
The event occurred on a steep barometric gradient, the mer-
eury rising 5"™ during the night to a maximum at 9.00 a. M.
of the 28th and then falling “10"" in the course of the day.
The moon was nearing its quadrature position of the 29th
and had just passed its perigee, these conditions producing the
neat
Fie. 1. Office of the Hotel Trinacria, clock stopped at 5.23.
‘Terrestrial Maximum” of Dec. 28th on the writer’s astro-
seismic curve for 1908.* This combination was preceded by
three very favorable luni-solar positions during the month of
December, and this fact had led the writer to expect some
* Science, Aug. 28, 1908.
FF. A. Perret—feport on the Messina Lurthquake. 323
important voleanic or seismic event betore the close of the
vear.
At the moment of the earthquake the moon was near the
nadir and the sun just below the eastern horizon.
The earth movement resulted in a sea wave which arrived
at. Messina two or three minutes after the shock and at Villa
San Giovanni several minutes later. It reached the point of
Schiso (Naxos) in 35 minutes and Malta in 115 minutes. It
was also registered by the mareograph at Ischia, the greatest
rise (22°) occurring at 2.30 p.m. and the intervals between
crests being 12 minutes. The height of the wave at Messina
rene:
Fic. 2. View along water-front, showing relative stability of low buildings.
seems not to have exceeded three meters; at Reggio it was
somewhat greater and reached its maximum on the coast below
Taormina. In all cases the wave was noteworthy only by its
development on reaching shallow water—a small, low free-
board ferry-boat with passengers aboard having been in the
Straits at the time and suffering no inconvenience beyond the
difficulty of landing at the damaged and submerged ferry-
slips. :
The earthquake is described as having been preceded for a
few seconds by a singing sound like a far-away wind storm
which rapidly drew nearer and became a rumble and a roar
when the earth movement began.
324 F. A. Perret—Report on the Messina Earthquake.
Nearly all the after-shocks observed by the writer were
accompanied by sound phenomena.
Observers at Taormina report having seen luminous effects
on the horizon in the direction of Messina immediately betore
the earthquake, but at Messina all was dark. The sea appeared
luminous, possibly because of having been converted into foam
by the vibrations. There is no doubt of luminous effects hav--
ing been observed immediately before and during other earth-
quakes i in this region—that of 1905 being accompanied by a
strong red glow upon the mountain tops.
ING,
Fic. 3. Collapse of the embankment.
The Messina seismograph recorded a part of the movement.
The loss of life and property was enormous owing to the
“rubble” construction of the buildings.
As has often been noted, those buildings which presented
their diagonal to the direction of the earth movement resisted
better than those whose faces paralleled or right angled the
notion, and those on loose or sloping ground suffered most.
In Messina the general direction or “throw” of the move-
ment was from N.E. to 8.W., and the same was the case at
Villa San Giovanni.
There seems to be no evidence of a geological sinking. The
sea has advanced in places as much as one hundred meters, but
F. A. Perret—Report on the Messina Karthquake. 3825
this is evidently due to the downslip of loose material into deep
water. The Messina embankment, built of lava blocks on
made ground, has collapsed under the influence of the earth
vibration and the sea wave, but the relative insignificance of
its fall is shown by the perfectly upright walls of houses not
twenty feet away.
Unless subsequent soundings shall demonstrate the contrary,
it does not seem that any great physical changes have taken
Hine. 4:
Fic. 4. Partial collapse of the embankment.
place upon the earth’s surface in consequence of the earth-
quake. That of 1783 resulted in considerable downfalls along
mountain ranges, the formation of lakes by the sinking of
plains and the production of crevasses. In the present case
these latter are limited to insignificant fissures.
The earthquake was lightly felt at Naples and more strongly
on the island of Capri.
326 FF. A. Perret—Leport on the Messina Harthquake.
Properly constructed houses in Calabria withstood the shock.
Entering the Straits at daybreak of the 31st, I observed
that the famous rock of Scylla, which, together with the light-
house (Faro di Messina) on the opposite point and several of
the Lipari Islands, was reported as having disappeared, stood
in its accustomed place. The lighthouse also was standing,
but the lantern at the top had been slightly displaced toward
the east. The first view of Messina from the sea did not give
lames, De
Fic. 5. Free surface wave-forms retained by curb stones of the embankment.
the impression of a complete disaster. A considerable portion
of the facades of the line of buildings along the quay—the
famous “ Palazzata”—remained standing as well as a num-
ber of one or two-storied houses, but a nearer view showed
that there was practically nothing back of the facades and that
these houses were damaged, although still standing (fig. 2).
On going ashore it was easily seen that the embankment had
collapsed from the sliding down into the deep harbor of its
insecure foundations (figs. 8, 4). All along the quay a eritical
eye could detect signs of the free surface wave, and in one spot
the curb had become detached from the sidewalk and retained
admirably the full wave form into which it had been thrown.
(See fig. 5.) The average distance from crest to crest of these
waves was two meters and the height from trough to crest
F.. A. Perret—Report on the Messina Earthquake. 327
(double amplitude) was 30™. In other places the wave was of
flatter form, i. e., height 16, crest to crest 6 M.
The “rubble” construction of the buildings was apparent all
along the quay, broken arches of the * Palazzata” revealing
the small round stones set in mortar of poor quality (figs. 6, 7).
Fic. 6.
Fic. 6. Showing rubble construction.
A conspicuous exception was seen in the building occupied by
the French Consulate, the walls of which were fairly thick
and built of tiling or thin brick, its chief defect being the
weakness of the floors and its height of four stories (fig. 8).
The relative stability of these walls was shown by a seven-foot
pier glass which was not even cracked. The American Con-
sulate building had collapsed to a compact heap of mortar and
stone.
328 FF. A. Perret—Report on the Messina Earthquake.
The general direction of the earth movement was well shown
by the wreck of the Maurolico monument in the Villa
Mazzini (fig. 9). This has fallen due S.W. and, having been
symmetrical and standing on a level plain, it gave as fair an
index as could be obtained. The same general direction was
Rie. 7
Fic. 7. Broken arch of the Palazzata showing rubble construction.
observed just outside the city, where the top of a tall stack had
been snapped off and fallen 8.8.W. (aig. 10). Two other single
column monuments on the hills west of the city had also fallen
S.W. At Villa San Giovanni a tall stack was tilted S.W.
Although in Japan it is generally found that such objects fall
inward or toward the epicentrum, this was not the case here,
the most probable explanation being that, owing to the slight
depth of the centrum and the nearness of the city to the epi-
FA. Perret— Report on the Messina harthquake. 329
centrum, there was a very pronounced vertical component at
the beginning of the earth movement which, in combination
with the horizontal motion, threw the objects in the direction
of the movement instead of tripping their bases and causing
them to fallinward. This will be more evident to the reader
Hie. 8.
Fie. 8. Ruin of French Consulate. Walls fairly thick and well built but
floors weak and house too high for this type of construction.
from an inspection of the photograph of the Maurolico monu-
ment, the dome of which has been thrown to a distance of five
meters from the center, which would scarcely have been the
case if it had fallen under the impact of horizontal motion.
The lantern of the Faro forms a case of displacement toward
the epicentrum. |
The principal after-shocks observed by the writer were the
following :
330 Ff. A. Perret— Report on the Messina Harthquake.
Jan. 2,— 8.14 a. m.—#4 sec., weak.
9.40 Pp. M.—% sec., strong, threw down walls.
11.42 Pp, Ma—two weak shocks 3 sec. apart.
Jan, 3,— 3.55 A. M.
4.56 A. M. > weak, brief duration.
7.24 A. M. :
Jan. 5,—12.10 noon— sec., strong ; several weak shocks two to
three minutes later.
5.05 P. M.
W510) IPs HVT
Jan. 6,— 9.00 aA. M.
10.00 A. M.
unimportant.
unimportant.
Fig. 9.
Fic. 9. The Maurolico Monument in the Villa Mazzini; this has fallen due S.W.
Jan. 7,— 5.00 a, M.—strong, brief duration.
6.28 Pp. M—5 sec., strong, threw down walls, followed by
a replica.
Several shocks during the night and the early
morning of Jan. 8th.
This should not be taken as a complete record of all shocks
occurring during the time nor can the relative intensity be
depended upon as accurate, the various observations having
been made on shore, on shipboard and in the ruins. The need
of a good, portable seismograph was never better illustrated
than by this event, as all the instruments in the neighbourhood
were destroyed. It would have been possible to take a portable
F. A. Perret—Report on the Messina Earthquake. 331
instrument down to Messina from Naples and to have thus
obtained a complete record of all after-shocks.
Of those indicated above three are deserving of special
mention. That of Jan. 2, at 9.40 P. m., occurred when the writer
was standing on the deck of a steamer moored to the embank-
ment. The impression was that of a submarine explosion—a
loud report and a sharp vertical movement. These, however,
Fie. 10.
Fie. 10. Tall stack ; top snapped off and fallen 8.S.W.
were partly due to the iron hull of the ship receiving the
impact from the water. In from three to five seconds was
heard the crash of falling walls within the city and smouldering
fires blazed up anew. ‘This shock is reported to have snapped
the anchor tips of the British cruiser “ Exmouth,’ which was
earried two miles to the southward by a twelve-knot current
through the Straits.
At ten minutes past noon of the 5th another strong shock
of the same general nature occurred, but this was felt on shore
332 FL. A. Perret—feport on the Messina Larthquake.
only as a horizontal wave motion. It was followed by several
weaker movements. |
At 6.28 p.m. of Jan. 7, a shock lasting fully five seconds
formed the most interesting of those observed. The duration
was such as to give ample time to study the phenomenon and
it was impossible to avoid the conviction that the originating
movement at the centrum had a duration not greatly inferior
to that of the observed effect. This is contrary to the accepted
ideas of the day regarding earthquake generation and a dis-
cussion of the subject may be reserved for a future paper, but
EerG lal
Fie. 11. Fronts fallen from houses, lying East and West.
the writer feels in duty bound to record the impression in the
belief that no honest observation is without value.
This shock was experienced when on board the U.S8.S.
“Scorpion” and the man on watch reported having “seen”
the earthquake pass through the city from N. toS. When
interrogated he could give no more definite information, but
it is evident that the earth waves had produced a visible
undulation of the buildings and walls along the water front.
Many walls fell and the shock was followed by another not as
strong. A number of shocks occurred during the night and
in the early morning of the 8th.
As to the cause of these Calabrian earthquakes, the writer
inclines to the opinion of Mercalli, viz.: that they are due to
the movements of deep-seated magma and belong, therefore,
I A. Perret—Report on the Messina Harthquake. 333
to the type which he denominates “inter-voleanic.” In their
nature they are, of course, tectonic, and I often permit myself
to ask if the primal cause of all tectonic earthquakes may not
yet be found in magmatic intrusion, the fact of their non-
occurrence in the immediate neighborhood of active volcanic
vents and of their prevalence in the steeply folded portions of
the earth’s surface constituting, in my opinion, an argument
for, and not against, the hypothesis.
TEN ee 1)
Fie. 12. North end of Quay.
At all events, this portion of the Italian peninsula lying, as
it does, between the Tyrrhenian and Ionian deeps and subject
to the upheaval revealed by the Quaternary terraces of the
Aspromonte, must be considered as one of the most pro-
nouncedly seismie¢ areas of the globe. ‘This being the case, it is
idle and harmful to encourage the hope that this region will not
be subject in the future, as it has been in the past, to frequent
and severe earthquakes. Rather should it be impressed upon
both government and people that, sooner or later, these are
certain to occur and that the proper ‘construction of houses to
withstand their effects is an absolute necessity. Only thus,
with the active prosecution of the study of prediction, may we
834 4H. A. Perret——Report on the Messina Harthquake.
hope to avoid future repetitions of the recent great disaster,
and ample means should, therefore, be provided for putting
earth-science on a world-wide basis and bringing it thus to at
Fie. 13.
Wie. 13. Wreck of a tall, poorly constructed building.
least a par with astronomy. A glance at a list of the voleanic
and seismic catastrophes of the last eighteen years will suttice
to show that few other lines of scientific investigation ean vie
with this in importance to the human race.
Vomero, Naples, Italy.
Maury— Connecting Link in the Genesis of Fulqur. 335
Art. XXVII.—A Wew Connecting Link wm the Genesis of
flulgur ; by Cartorra J: Maury.
Amone a quantity of fossils lately collected by Professor
G. D. Harris at Montgomery, Louisiana, from the Jackson
horizon of the Eocene is a very interesting species which forms
a perfect connecting link between Levifusus and Fulgur. A
dozen specimens were found.
The relationship of the two genera was pointed out some
years ago by Dr. Dali and Professor Harris. Dr. Dall in 1890
stated that Mudgur, which took its rise in the Eocene, was
descended from such forms as Levifusus Blakes and tr abeutus.
Professor Harris later noted the tendency shown by many
Levifusi to revert to an ancestral Plewrotoma-like form and
traced the derivation of Mulgur from
Pleurotoma through Sureula, Levifusus
(pagoda-like forms), Levifusus (suteri-
like forms), Levifusus (trabeatus-like
forms), Levifusus Branneri to Pulqur
echinatum.
But Levifusus Branneri Harris in addi-
tion to shoulder spines is ornamented by
a row of twelve nodules on the center of
the body whorl. The Montgomery shell
is without the shghtest trace of this row,
and, as shown in the accompanying figure,
presents such a striking resemblance to
Fulgur that it might almost be taken as
Levifusus fulguriparens
one of the many varietal forms of TONGUT 3 (oneitude 25")
spiniger. The spire, however, is almost
exactly that of Levifusus Brannert. To emphasize the fact
that it is the most direct ancestor of Hulgur known, the name
Julguriparens has been given to the Montgomery shell.
Hastings-on-Hudson, N. Y.
336 Scventific Intelligence.
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
I. CnyeEmistry AND Puysics.
1. A Method for Calculating the Boiling-points of Metals.—
The view was advanced by F. Krarrr about four years ago that
the essential process of boiling in a vacuum consists in overcom-
ing gravity, and that this, on the surface of the earth, is equiva-
lent to the atmospheric pressure. As a proof of this fact he
showed that the elements mercury, cadmium, zinc, potassium,
sodium, bismuth and silver require just the same addition of heat
to bring them from the point of the commencement of volatiliza-
tion in a vacuum to the point of boiling in a vacuum, as is
required to bring them from the latter point to the point of boil-.
ing under atmospheric pressure. In order to obtain further
data in regard to this interesting relation, Krarrr and KnocksE
have determined the data under consideration for arsenic, and
have found :
Commencement of evaporation, 0™™_ 2-2 522-2 - 2 9Ge
Siblimes tat 0 ese ee 325°
Sublimes:at76000 222 oe ee ee
Ditlerence in eachscasey 52 3-2 ee 229°
They found with thallium :
Commencement of evaporation, 0™™ __.__--.-.--- 174°
Boiling-pomb at ON yes ee ae ee Se ee tee
Since the difference here is 644°, the calculated boiling point at
760™™ is 1462°. In this manner, from data furnished by Krafft
and his co-workers, Moissan calculated the approximate boiling
point of copper as 2240° and of gold as 2530°, and he found by
distilling in an electric furnace an alloy consisting of equal parts
of copper and gold, that the copper boiled off faster than the
gold, thus showing a lower boiling point of the copper, as indi-
cated by the caleulation.— Berichte, xlii, 202. He awe
2. Some Properties of the Radiun. Emanation.—About two
years ago RutuERForp observed that the emanations of radium,
actinium, and thorium were completely absorbed by cocoanut
charcoal at ordinary temperatures. He has recently repeated.
this experiment with the radium emanation, using much larger
quantities, and has found that the actual volume of this emanation
capable of absorption at room temperatures is very small. For
example, several grams of the charcoal are required to absorb
completely the emanation from 200 mg. of radium at ordinary
temperature, although the volume of the gas is only one-tenth of
a cubic millimeter. As was to be expected, the absorptive
power of the charcoal increases rapidly with the lowering of the
temperature. It was found that 0°8g. of charcoal from which
Chemistry and Physties. 337
air had been removed by heating absorbed the emanation from
83 mg. of radium (about 0:05 cubic mm.) at —150°C. As the
temperature was slowly raised, less than one-tenth of the
absorbed emanation could be pumped out at —50° C., as was
shown by measurement by the y-ray method. Above —40° C.
the emanation commenced to escape rapidly, and half had been
pumped off at 10°C. About 10 per cent remained at 100° C., but
practically all was released at the temperature of the softening
of glass. The results show that at 10° C. the charcoal absorbs
about 0:03 cubic mm, per gram, and at —40° C. about 0:06 cubic
mm per gram.— Chem. News, xcix, 76. PBee ties We
3. Method for Preparing Hydrogen Phosphide.—MatiaNon
and Trannoy have devised a simplified method for the prepara-
tion of the gas PH,. They mix powdered calcium phosphate
which has been previously calcined, in order to remove every
trace of moisture with powdered aluminium, in the proportions
required by the equation
3Ca,(PO,),+8Al, = 3Ca,P,+8Al,0,
put the mixture in a crucible, heat it to dull redness, and ignite
it with an ignition mixture according to the Goldschmidt method.
The products of the reduction do not separate, but form a brownish
mixture, which after being broken up is suitable for the produc-
tion of hydrogen phosphide. by the action of water, followed by
hydrochloric acid towards the end of the operation. The result-
ing gas was found to contain 2 or 3 per cent. of hydrogen, but
otherwise it appeared to be perfectly pure.— Comptes Rendus,
exlvilil, 167. Ex We
4. The Theory of Valency, by J. NEwton FrRienp. 12mo,
pp. 180. London, 1909 (Longmans, Green and Co.).—This work
is one of a series of text-books of Physical Chemistry, edited
by Sir William Ramsay. Nine of these monographs have
already appeared, and five more are announced as in the course of
preparation. The book under consideration gives a concise
account of the more important theories of chemical combinations
which have exercised the minds of scientific men down to the
present day. It appears that heretofore there has been no
treatise in the English language upon the important subject of
valency, while in German there is only one, a not very exhaustive
work which was published several years ago. The book will be
useful to students of chemical theory, since it covers the ground
very thoroughly and gives a’ very full list of references to the
literature. Eye We
5. Recent Advances in Organic Chemistry, by A. W.
STEWART. 8vo, pp. xv, 296. London, 1908 (Longmans, Green
and Co.).—The author has endeavored to give an idea of some of
the most recent researches in organic chemistry which have been
carried out within the last ten years. The subject has been con-
sidered from a synthetic point of view and the work has some
commendable features, but is too condensed to be of much value
Am. Jour. Sct.—FourtH Series, Vout. X XVII, No. 160.—Aprit, 1909.
23
338 Scientific Intelligence.
to one who is familiar with the advances made in recent years.
While many important researches unfortunately have not been
considered, nevertheless the subject has been treated in such a -
manner that the book will tend to stimulate the enthusiasm of
students of organic chemistry. TB ads
6. Michelsonw’s Ether Research.—Emit Kout, after a close
scrutiny of Michelson’s celebrated experiment, concludes that a
careful study of the formation of the interference lines which are
the essential feature of this experiment is necessary before a con-
clusion can be reached in regard to the negative results. He calls
attention to the importance of the factor of the distance; and
discusses the questions which arise if ordinary light is employed
instead of monochromatic, and recommends that the experiments
should be repeated with attention to these points.—Ann. der
Physik, No. 2, 1909, pp. 259-307. Jy
7. Influence of Pressure upon Thermoelectric Horce.—Hxin-
ricH HoOrie employed a pressure of 1400 kg/cm” and found
that the thermoelectric force of a platinum mercury combination,
which before pressure at At = 150°, gave an electromotive force
of 10~-° volt per degree increase of temperature. When this
thermo-element was submitted under the same conditions of tem-
perature to a pressure—it gave for kg/cm~ a change per degree
Aé of 2°18:10-” volt. The current direction of this pressure
effect was opposed to tbe original thermoelectric effect, and up to
a pressure of 1400 kg /em~™ no deviation from proportionality
with the pressure was observed. Similar results were obtained
with a eutectic KNa alloy.—<dAnn. der Physik, No. 2, 1909, pp.
371-412. Te 0
8. Aluminum Cell as a Condenser.—The use of this property
of aluminum is attracting much attention in view of its possible
practical use with alternating currents. J. DE MopzELEewsK1
carried out experiments with a cell having aluminum anodes and
Ni cathode in a six per cent ammonium bicarbonate solution and
found that slow and gradual increase of voltage was necessary
for a high degree of formation. The capacity of the condenser
was about 15 mfd. The author indicates the need of prelimi-
nary forming at a low voltage. It is said that temperature plays
an important part in-the formation. The author does not refer
to this fact.— Lumiere Electr., Aug. 8, 1908, pp. 187-188. J.T.
9. Changes in the Spectra of Gases submitted to the Magnetic
Field.—A. Durour has studied the Zeeman effect in a number
of rarified gases, and gives photographs of the normal and abnor-
mal effects observed. He believes that the results obtained con-
firm the theory of the presence of negative and positive electrons.
—Physik. Zeitschrift, Jan. 15, 1909, pp. 124-138. OPER
10. Die elektrischen Higenschaften und die Bedeutung des
Selens fiir die Elektrotechnik ; von. Cur. Ries. Pp. 938, 52
figures. Berlin, 1908 (Administration “ Der Mechaniker” ).—
This volume of nearly 500 pages gives an interesting account of
the properties of selenium, particularly as regards the connection
Geology and Natural History. 339
between the temperature and light and its electrical conductivity.
This is a snbject to which much attention has been given in the
last decade, and numerous applications in the arts have been
found, the most important of which are the light telephone and
electrical tele-photography. These technical uses of selenium are
well described and illustrated.
ll. Physics for Secondary Schools ; by Cuartes F. ADAMS.
~Pp. 490. New York, 1908 (American Book Co.). Hlements of
Physics ; by Grorce A. Hoapitey. Pp. 464. New York, 1908
(American Book Co.).—The above are new text-books, alike in
their design to meet the requirements of College Entrance Boards
and the various State and Association reports. They are interest-
ingly written, are well illustrated and contain a large number of
problems. Each contains an Appendix: that of the former
including a discussion of variation and proportion, a table of
natural sines and tangents and a table of constants for copper
wire ; that of the latter, answers to problems and a summary of
the fundamental formule. 1D Ae TKS
Il. Gerotogy anp Naturawt History.
1. Lowa Geological Survey, Annual Report for 1907 ;
SAMUEL CaLvIN, State Geologist. Vol. xviil, pp. 386, 16 plates,
41 figures. Des Moines, 1908.—The Iowa Survey is continuing
its researches in the coal resources of the state and has undertaken
investigations of the location, extent, and character of the peat
deposits. Arrangements have also been made with the U. S.
Geological Survey for codperation in securing a topographic map
for the entire state. In addition to the statistics of mineral
production, the report for this year contains an important paper
by Charles R. Eastman, on the Devonian Fishes of Iowa, treated
under the following heads: Relations of Paleoichthyology to
Biology ; Stratigraphy of the Devonian Fish-bearing Beds of
Iowa; Evolutionary History of Fishes; Systematic account of
Devonian Agnatha and Pisces including the subclasses Elasmo-
branchii, Holocephali, Dipneusti, Teleostomi; Faunal lists.
Three maps by Professor Schuchert showing the Devonian
paleogeography are included in the illustrations. Ey io.
2. Oklahoma Geological Survey ; Cuas. N. Goutp, Director.
Bulletin No. 1, Preliminary Report on the Mineral Resources of
Oklahoma; by Cuas. N. Gouup, L. L. Hurcuison and GayLorp
Neson. 80 pp., 11 figs. Norman, 1908.—The recently founded
Oklahoma Survey is justifying its existence by a timely study of
the economic resources of the state. Among other papers, the
first volume includes preliminary reports on coal, oil and gas,
asphalt, gypsum, salt, lead and zinc, glass sand, and building
stones, including clay and Portland cement. H. E. G.
340 Serentifie Intelligence.
8. Glaciation of the Uinta and Wasatch Mountains ; by
WattacE W. Atwoop. U.S. Geological-Survey, Professional
Paper No. 61. Pp. 93, 15 plates, 24 figures. Washington, 1909.—
‘“«Kvery large canyon that heads near the crest of the range (Uinta)
has been glaciated,” and evidence of at least two epochs of glacia-
tion appears. During the first epoch the lower limits of the ice
were 8,000 feet on the north side of the range and 7,000 feet on
the south; for the later epoch the corresponding figures are
8,400 and 8,000 feet. The maximum extent of glaciation in an
east-west direction was 82 miles, in a north-south direction 42
miles and within this area were one hundred and four glaciers over
a mile in length, eight of which were over 20 miles long, the
longest extending 274 miles.
In the Wasatch range there were 50 Pleistocene glaciers exceed-
inga mile in length, extending on the east side of the range to an.
altitude as low as 6,000 to 7,000 feet; on the west side 14 glaciers
reached an altitude of less than 6,000 feet and 7 of the 50 larger
glaciers reached the shores of Bonneville and parts of their
moraines are buried by lake deposits. A very interesting feature
of the work is the proof of at least two distinct glacial epochs
in the Wasatch, corresponding with the periods of humidity in
old Lake Bonneville.
Mr. Atwood’s paper is an important contribution to glacial
geology and has given a definite quantitative form to the theories
and surmises of the 40th Parallel Survey. H. E. G.
4. Glacial Waters in Central New York; by Hieae
Farrenitp. New York State Museum, Bull. 127, 1909. Pp. 61,
42 plates. Albany.—Previous papers by Professor Fairchild
have dealt in great detail with the Pleistocene history of central
New York. The present paper deals with the ice-border drain-
age, particularly with reference to its connection with the present
water bodies of this district. The tracing of the ice work in this
region necessarily involves detailed descriptions of local phe-
nomena, which serve as types of similar occurrences elsewhere.
The glacial lake succession in New York state is well brought
out by a series of maps which trace the water bodies through the
following stages: Local glacial lakes, Lake Newberry, Lake Hall,
Lake Vanuxem, free drainage, Lake Warren, Lake Dana, Lake
Dawson, Lake Iroquois. The maps and illustrations are up to the
high standard set by the New York Survey. H. E. G.
5. Ground Waters of the Indio Region, California; by
Water C. Menpennaty. U.S. Geological Survey, Professional
Paper 225. Pp. 53, 12 plates, 5 figures. Washington, 1909.—
Included in this report on the water resources of part of the
desert region of southern California is a geographic and geologic
sketch of the Colorado desert, a region made known by the
explorations of William P. Blake in 1853, since which time it
has been scarcely at all studied by geologists. Mr. Mendenhall
shows that the desert lowland, including the Gulf of Mexico, is
due to faulting,—part of it since the Tertiary beds were depos-
Geology and Natural History. 341
ited,—and that Santa Rosa ridge has the topographic character-
istics of a faulted block. The structure of the valley floor has
been determined and a study made of the origin and character
of the delta silts, consolidated Tertiary beds, sand dunes and
saline deposits. H. E. G.
6. Die Alpen im SHiszeitalter ; von Dr. ALBRECHT PENCK
und Dr. Epuarp BrtcKner. In three vols., 1176 pp., 37 plates,
136 figures, 19 maps. Leipzig (Tauchnitz),— With the publication
of parts 9, 10, and 11, including the continuation of the study of
the glaciation of the southern and eastern Alps, this great. work is
brought to its close. The concluding parts on Glacial Physiog-
raphy (pp. 1141-1152) and the chronology of the Ice Age (pp.
1153-1156) by Professor Penck present the prominent results of
glaciation in a clear manner and make it possible to compare the
glacial history of the Alps with that of other regions.
The first instalment of this work was issued in December, 1901,
and the concluding chapter bears the date of December, 1908.
While much of the field work on which it is based had been
previously done, new observations and development of new
theories have made it necessary to enlarge the original scope and
to delay, accordingly, the final completion of the work. As it
stands, it is probably the most important work on glacial geology
ever issued, not only for the detailed description and explanation
of this classic region for glacial study, but also for its contribu-
tions to the general science of glaciology. H. E. G.
7. Geological Survey of Western Australia; A. GIBB
Mairianpb, Government Geologist, 1908. Perth.—Two bulletins
have recently been issued by this organization, viz. : Bulletin 31,
Part I.—The Bonnievale and Kunanalling Districts, Coolgardie
Goldfield ; by Cuas. G. Gipson, Assistant Geologist. Pp. 56
with 6 plates, 2 figures, 3 maps. Part I], The Black Range
District, East Murchison Goldfield. Pp. 65-116, 3 plates, 3 maps.
Bulletin No. 34,—Report upon the Auriferous Deposits of
Barrambie and Errolls (Cue District) and Gum Creek (Nannine
District) in the Murchison Goldfield; also Wiluna (Lawlers
District) in the Kast Murchison Goldfield ; by Cuas. G. Gipson.
Pp. 40, 3 plates, 3 maps, 6 photographs.
8. Die Geologischen Grundlagen der Abstammungslehre; von
GUSTAV STEINMANN. Pp. vill, 284. Leipzig, 1908 (W. Engelmann).
—The author is in the main reactionary and out of harmony with
the methods and explanation usually given as to the causes for
organic change. Lamarck and Goethe are his standard-bearers.
The book is dedicated to Lamarck and from his work he selects
as his text ‘ All living families subsist in spite of their variation.”
The historical method or the appearance of organisms in sequence
of time plus Steinmann are his main principles. Darwin’s book,
he states, should not have been called “ Origin of Species” but
““Changeability of Organisms.” Through paleontology alone is
it possible to understand the changes that have taken place in the
organic world. ‘To ask the object of an organ or an organization
342 Scientific Intelligence.
and to attempt to explain the degree of their usefulness is unsci-
entific. wi
The problems in the development of life are : (1) Disappear-
ance of extensive groups of plants and animals; (2) sudden and
extensive development of new groups ; (3) absence of connecting
forms between great groups of plants and animals, and (4) lack
of understanding of the entire development of life. The first
problem seemingly has its explanation in the inter-changing of
sea and land and the resulting climatic variations ; paleontologic
biota, on the other hand, are but fragments of former progressive
and repressive assemblages. 2. Imperfection of the local and
regional paleontologic records 1s more apparent than real ; present
known record not only a fragmentary but very much scattered
one ; new invading biota indicate lost records, elsewhere recover-
able, therefore no actual sudden appearance of new groups. 3. |
Phylogenetic material as yet insufficient and too greatly scattered
in museums; of small groups there is much connecting material
but none between classes, orders, etc. 4. Present methods of
explanation not scientific and according to nature but philosophic.
Steinmann’s phylogenetic-historic methods are peculiarly his
own. He complains (wrongfully) about systematists basing their
classification on single characters, thereby displacing the true
relationships of forms. He would take the entire organism into
consideration and group them historically. We will test his
results along a single line, namely the Brachiopoda. The family
Orthidae is said to be extinct since the Permian, but Steinmann
would have us believe that descendants of this stock in Dalma-
nella still live in Megerlea and Kruaussina. His progressive
series are the orthid Dalmanella, the rhynchonellid ARhynchonel-
lina, the terebratulids Megerlea and Kraussina, because all are
said to have the same general external expression (homomorphic)
while the arm supports are progressive from crura to loops.
Testing this sequence in the light of chronology, we see that Dal-
manella disappears with the Devonian while Rhynchonella does
not appear until, and is restricted to, the Jurassic, and the other
genera do not appear until the Tertiary. No attention is paid to
the fact that LAynchonellina is impunctate, while the punctate
shell structure of Megerlea and Kraussina is very different from
Dalmanella. Then too no orthid has deltidial plates while the
development of the loop both ontogenetically and chronogeneti-
cally in Megerlea and Kraussina indicates beyond a doubt that
these genera never arose in Rhynchonellina and not at all in
Dalmanelia.
The cemented bivalves Rudistidae are said to have the same
general organization as the ascidians and the slight differences
that exist are thought to be due to reduction in the latter, caused
by prolonged (geological) sessility. Since Cretaceous times the
Rudistid descendants have lost their shells and are now the
ascidians. On the other hand, Salpa are shell-less brachiopods
Geology and Natural History. 343
that have originated in Productus through Richthofenia, a highly
modified sessile productid.
Does progress lie along the path blazed by Steinmann ?
Cc. S.
9. Mineralien-Sammlungen. Hin Hand- und Hilfsbuch fir
Anlage und Instandhaltung Mineralogischer Sammlungen,; von
Wotreanc Prenpuer. I Teil. Pp. viii, 220, with 314 figures.
Leipzig, 1908 (W. Engelmann).— This is the first part of a work
which is planned to aid those who are concerned with the instal-
lation of mineral collections. It gives, in connection with some
practical instructions in regard to the collection of minerals, a
clear and coucise summary of the crystallographic and physical
characters of crystals. A novel feature is the discussion of the
arrangement of the collections, as regards cases, methods of
arrangement, labeling, etc., which gives many useful hints not
often found in print.
10. Jadeite from Upper Burma.—Dr. A. W. G. Biexck has
recently made a careful study of the occurrence of jadeite in the
Kachin Hills of Upper Burma, and has presented some important
points in regard to the origin of this much discussed mineral.
It is found at three places, viz.: Tawmaw, Hwéka and Mamon,
of which the first named is the most important and interesting.
The jadeite there occurs in a dike of igneous origin which is
intrusive in serpentine, the predominant rock of the plateau.
Besides the discussion of the properties of the mineral itself, and
the species associated with it, the conclusions of the author are
presented as follows in regard to the question of its origin: ‘“‘He
concludes that the jadeite is the result of the metamorphism of
an albite-nepheline rock originally forming the dike, both
minerals being found together with the jadeite at Tawmaw.
The change would be represented chemically as follows :
NaAlISiO, (Nepheline) + NaAlS8i,O, (Albite) =
2NaAl]8i,O, (2 Jadeite).
‘Under certain conditions of crystallization nepheline-albite
rock might form, while, under conditions of high pressure during
consolidation or after, jadeite, which has a much lower molecular
volume, would be produced, the residual molecule forming albite
or nepheline according to which molecule was in excess in the
original magma. in the neighborhood of Tawmaw occur various
crystalline schists which are intruded into by granite. ‘The
granite is traversed by veins of aplite and pegmatite (products
probably of the same great eruption) and masses of crystalline
limestone are found associated with the granite rocks, containing
various minerals characteristic of contact-metamorphism. The
relations of the granite to the crystalline limestone in this region
are similar to those of Mandalay Hill, Sagyin, and Mogok in the
Ruby Mines district, where similar contact minerals, including
the different varieties of corundum, are found in the metamor-
phosed limestone. The crystalline schists include chloritic schists °
344 Scientific Intelligence.
with well-formed crystals of magnetite, actinolite schists and
glaucophane schists. ‘These are all regarded by Dr. Bleeck as
the metamorphic products of basic igneous rocks affected by the
adjoining granite intrusions. The serpentines form a long nar-
row ridge, flanked on one or both sides by saussuritic-gabbros,
saussuritic glaucophane-schists and chloritic schists. These rocks
are traversed by granite and veins of quartz; all the rocks are
regarded as genetically related, and as the results of the differen-
tiation of the same magma, which gave rise successively to the
peridotites, gabbros, nepheline-albite (jadeite) rock and the
siliceous end-products of granite and quartz.”
“Dr. Bleeck finds that the eruptives, including the jadeite, are
prominently represented among the bowlders in the Tertiary ~
conglomerate, and thus must have become weathered to con-
tribute to the Tertiary sediments.”— Records Geol. Surv. india, ~
XXXVl, pp. 254-285, with five plates ; also xxxvii, 16, 1908.
11. Rubies from Upper Burma.—Dr. A. W. G. BLexcK has
examined the ruby deposits of Naniazeik, Myitkyina district,
Upper Burma, which resemble these of Mogok described by
J. W. Judd and C. Barrington Brown. The results are stated
as follows: ‘‘ Rubies are found in the soil and alluvial aceumula-
tions around the village of Namniazeik as well as in the river-
gravels on the eastern slopes of the mountain ranges between
Naniazeik and Manwe. This mountain range is composed mainly
of granite and crystalline limestone, the latter having obtained
its crystalline characters probably as stated before, through the
intrusion of the granite. The limestone contains various
minerals as the result of contact-metamorphism—garnet, spinel,
chondrodite, graphite, forsterite, and other accessories, besides
the valuable rubies and sapphires. The contact of granite and
marble, exposed on the road from Sikaw to Naniazeik, shows the
granite to assume a pressure structure near the margin, and to
contain large quantities of phlogopite, which is a prominent
mineral also on the marble side of the contact. The marbles,
when freshly broken, have the characteristic evil smell of many
limestones charged with nitrogenous organic matter. The marble
is thus probably the result of the metamorphism of an ordinary
sedimentary limestone of chemico-organic origin, but no data are
obtainable to determine its age.”—Records Geol. Surv. India,
MARV Obs Oy xO DL Oeil eden
12. New Group of Manganates.—L. Leigu Frermor, follow-
ing Laspeyres, concludes, from a study of psilomelane and related
compounds, that there is a special family of manganates, corre-
sponding to the acid H,MnO,. This includes psilomelane, the
lead manganate coronadite of Lindgren and Hillebrand and the
barium-iron maganate hollandite, from Kajlidongri and else-
where in Central India.— Records Geol. Surv. India, xxxvi, 295,
KRAVE wali:
13. Die Blitenpflanzen Afrikas: eine Anlettung zum Bestim-
men der Gattungen der afrikanischen Siphonogamen ; by FRANZ
THonner. Pp. xvi, 672, with 150 plates and a map of Africa,
Geology and Natural History. 345
showing the floral regions according to Engler. Berlin, 1908 (R.
Friedlander & Sohn).—Although the flora of Africa has received
a great deal of attention from systematic botanists, especially in
Europe, there has been lacking a comprehensive work dealing
with the plants of the entire continent. The present volume sup-
plies this want, and is intended more particularly for the use of
travelers and colonists, giving them the means whereby they may
ascertain the names and relationships of the plants they meet
with. For this reason it includes not only indigenous plants but
also many that have been introduced, especially those that have
become naturalized or are cultivated on a large scale. The work
first gives a series of keys for the determination of the natural
families. This is followed by a full characterization of the fami-
lies, under which further keys are given leading to the determina-
tion of the genera. ‘The families are arranged according to the
widely adopted Engler-Prantl system, and under each family the
number of genera and species: represented in Africa is noted.
Although many of the generic characters are indicated in the
keys, the genera themselves are not formally described, and no
attempt is made to enumerate the peculiarities of the species. It
is only in the case of economic plants, in fact, that the names of
the species are given. In the numerous plates at the close of the
volume a characteristic species from each of the more important
families is represented. In an interesting summary the author
estimates the number of phanerogams for the whole world at
136,000, of which no fewer than 39,000 are accredited to Africa.
Ae Wie oH
14. Schwendeners Vorlesungen tiber mechanische Probleme der
Botanik, gehalten an der Universitat Berlin; by Dr. Caru
HottrermMann. Pp. vi, 134, with portrait of Schwendener and 90
text figures. Leipzig, 1909 (W. Engelmann).—Professor Schwen-
dener’s lectures on the mechanical problems of botany give in a
condensed form the results of his important investigations in a
field of botanical science which he has made peculiarly his own.
These lectures have been edited by his former pupil, Professor
Holtermann, and are now made accessible to a wider circle of
botanists through the publication of the present work. Among
the topics treated, the following are perhaps the most important :—
the mechanical system (skeleton) of plants, the theory of leaf
arrangement, the upward flow of sap, the stomata, the twining
of plants. Wherever possible the mechanical properties of the
structures discussed are expressed by mathematical formulas.
A. W. E.
15. Plant Study, with Directions for Laboratory and Field
Work ; by W. H. D. Meter, Superintendent City Schools,
Havana, Illinois. Boston, 1909 (Ginn & Company).—A series
of loose sheets, held together in a binder ; 36 of the sheets give
directions for laboratory exercises, abundant space being left for
notes. The exercises are apparently designed to prepare the stu-
dent for the analysis of plants, the last part of the series includ-
ing a number of blanks for plant descriptions, spaces being left
for the specimens themselves. | A. W. E.
346 Scientific Intelligence.
Ill. MiscELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
1. The Carnegie Loundation for the Advancement of
Teaching. Third Annual Report of the President, Henry S.
PritcuerT, and Treasurer, Thomas M. Carnucts. Pp. 211.
New York City, 1908.—The totai capital of the Carnegie
Foundation at the end of the year closing on September 30, 1908,
was nearly $11,000,000, a million dollars having been added by
successive accumulations since the original gift. The income of
the year amounted to $530,300, of which $287,000 were expended,
leaving the balance of $243,200 to be added to the capital. Of
the amount paid for retiring allowances, $246,600, some two-thirds,
went to professors, officers and widows in accepted institutions,
and one-third was paid to those in institutions not on the regular
list. Seven institutions have been added during the past year, —
making the total now sixty-two. A discussion of the cost of
maintaining this retiring allowance system brings out the fact
that the sum now paid is 5 per cent. of the active pay of all the
professors in service in the sixty-two institutions; it is suggested
that this amount is likely to increase somewhat in the future, but
even in that case it seems small in view of the importance
of the results obtained. The most important change intro-
duced during the past year has been the admission of state
universities, colleges and technical schools to the Foundation,
Mr. Carnegie having added a sum of $5,000,000 to the original |
gift. There are some eighty-three institutions included in the
list given of tax-supported institutions in this country and
Canada. It is to be noted, however, that in order that an institu-
tion should get the benefit of the endowment it must be of the
requisite academic grade and, further, it is necessary that the
application made should be approved by the Governor and by a
special vote of the legislature of the state. _
An interesting work undertaken in connection with the Foun-
dation is the exchange of teachers between Prussia and the
United States. This plan involves the sending of a number of
college or high school teachers from this country to Prussia, and
the coming of a hke number of gymnasium teachers to the
United States. The instruction is intended to be supplementary
to that ordinarily given, including the informal teaching of the
Janguage of the country from which the teacher comes, as also of
its ideals and customs, school regulations, etc. The teacher him-
self is expected to gain much in experience and breadth of view
from his life in the foreign country. The amount of money
involved is small: for example, Prussian teachers receive leave of
absence from their government, with pay and traveling expenses,
receiving, also, from the college or high school in America where
they are stationed, some $200 or $400, according as the length of
service is a half year or an entire year. A list of seven Prussian
teachers 1s given, who have already been assigned to different
American schools, and of eight American teachers who have been
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 347
accredited to Prussian schools. The next assignment of teachers
to Prussia will be made in June 1909, for the semester beginning
with October 1. ;
In addition to the interesting detailed statements in regard to
the special work of administering the Carnegie Foundation, Dr.
Pritchett contributes also a series of chapters on various univer-
sity and college questions, which are most suggestive,.and which
should be carefully considered by those engaged in such work.
Some of the topics discussed are the following : Progress toward
unity in college requirements for admission ; the admission of
conditioned and of special students; class room and laboratory
instruction by teachers; the support and organization of higher
education; the standards of professional education in the United
States. An account is also given of the various denominational
boards engaged in regulating education.
Great as is the value of the work accomplished by the Carnegie
Foundation for our higher educational institutions in granting
retiring allowances to teachers, it is obvious that, under Dr.
Pritchett’s wise and enlightened administration, its usefulness is
extending out into a much broader sphere, and will bring about
higher standards and more uniformity in ideals and methods.
2. Carnegie Institution of Washington.—Recent publications
of the Carnegie Institution are given in the following list (con-
tinued from vol. xxvi, pp. 519).
Year Book No. 7, 1908. Pp. vi, 240, with twelve plates. Feb-
ruary, 1909.—Noticed on p. 267.
No. 85. Index of Economic Material in Documents of the
United States, California, 1849-1904. Prepared for the Depart-
ment of Economics and Sociology of the Carnegie Institution of
Washington; by ApeLAIDE R. Hasse. Pp. 316, 4to.
No. 90. Guide to the Manuscript Materials for the History of
the United States to 1783, in the British Museum, in minor
London Archives and in the Libraries of Oxford and Cambridge ;
by Cuartes M. ANDREWS and FRances G. Davenport. Pp.
Xiv, 499.
No. 93. The Rotation Period of the Sun, as determined from
the motions of the Calcium Flocculi; by Grorce HK. Hae and
Puiie Fox. Pp. 54, with 2 plates, 4 figures.—The investiga-
tion of calcium flocculi bas led to the conclusion that the rota-
tion periods for different latitudes show the existence of an
equatorial acceleration similar to that previously observed in the
case of sun-spots, facule and the reversing layer. This accelera-
tion, approximately stated, varies uniformly with the latitude.
No definite conclusions can be drawn as to the relative velocities
of the different phenomena named.
No. 96. Condensation of Vapor as induced by Nuclei and
Ions. Third Report ; by Cart Barus. Pp. vi, 189. With 49
text figures.
No. 97. Supplementary Investigations of Infra-red Spectra :
Part V, Infra-red Reflection Spectra; Part VI, Infra-red Trans-
348 Scientific Intelligence.
mission Spectra; Part VII, Infra-red Emission Spectra; by
Wiuram W. Costentz. Pp. 183, with 107 figures.
No. 98. The Topography of the Chlorophyll Apparatus in
Desert Plants; by Wititam Avustin Cannon. Pp. 42, 15 figures
and 5 plates. "The Induction, Development, and Heritability of
Fasciations; by ALics AprLaiE Kyox. Pp. 20, 1 figure and
5 plates.
Nos. 102, 103. Papers from the Tortugas Labor atory, Depart-
ment of Marine Biology of the Carnegie Institution of Washing- |
ton, ALFRED G. Mayer, Director. In two volumes, Vol. I, pp.
190 ; Vol. II, pp. 325.—These volumes contain nineteen papers by
H. E. Jordan, W. K. Brooks, A. G. Mayer and others.
No. 106. The Gases in Rocks; by Rotuin THomas CHAMBER-
LIN. Pp. 80, with 2 text figures. Noticed on p. 190.
3. Report of the Superintendent of the Coast and Geodetic
Survey, O. H. Tirrmann, showing the Progress of the Work from
July 1, 1907, to June 30, 1908. Pp. 169, 4to, with 9 illustrations
in pocket. Washington, 1908.—This Report gives a summary of
the work of the Survey during the last year. The most important
feature of this is the completion of the reconnaissance for the
extension of the primary triangulation from the 98th meridian in
Central Texas across Mexico and California, to the triangulation
of the same class which extends along the Pacific coast across
California, Oregon and Washington. This reconnaissance ex-
tends along the are of the parallel for a distance of about 1200
miles. The completion of the triangulation along the 98th
meridian is also an interesting completion of the year’s work
extending across the country from Canada to Mexico ; this are
has been also extended into Mexico. It is further stated that
Canada has begun a geodetic survey, so that the work of the
International Geodetic Association for the study of the earth and
other related problems is being steadily pushed forward. Much
progress has also been made during the year on the boundary line
between the United States and Canada, and on the Alaska-Can-
ada boundary. Appendix 3 (pp. 69-165), by R. L. Faris, gives
the results of the magnetic observations of the year.
4, Principal Facts of the Earth’s Magnetism and Methods of
Determining the true Meridian and the Magnetic Declination.
Pp. 96 with 28 figures. Washington, 1908.—The edition of the
paper issued by the U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey on the
Declination Tables for 1902 having been exhausted, the publica-
tion has now been issued in revised form with such corrections
as were necessary. The scope of the work makes it of great
general interest, since it is, in fact, a full and readable presenta-
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digest of the subject, with many illustrations, from the earliest
historic times: It is not surprising that so interesting asummary
of this important subject should have found many readers.
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CON TEN TS..
Page
Art. XX.—Permeabiities and the Reluctivities, for very
Wide Ranges of Excitation, of Normal Specimens of
Compressed Steel, Bessemer Steel and Nor way Iron
Rods ; by B. O. PEIRCE ese one sete be ees
XXI.—Ice Movement and Erosion along the Southwestern
Adirondacks 3: by W. JO OLLERG A223 2s 289
XXII.—Estimation of Vanadic and Arsenic Acids and of
Vanadic and Antimonic Acids, in the Presence of One
Another ;;by:G. KpGar. OX oo ee ee 299
XXIII.—Method for the Iodometric Estimation of Silver
Based upon the Use of Potassium Chromate as a Pre-
cipitant; by F. A. Goocu and R. S. Bosworru -__-_-.-_- 302
XXIV.—Brown Artesian Waters of Costilla County, Colo.,
their relations to Certain Deposits of Natron or Soda,
and what they teach; by W. P. Hmappmen .__-___._.2: 305
XXV.—Volumetric Determination of Small Amounts of
Arsenic ; by L. W. AnpREews and H. V. Farr..-_-.-.- 316
XX VI.—Preliminary Report on the Messina Earthquake of
December 28, 1908; by F. A. Pueper 2 eee 321
XXVII.—New Connecting Link in the Genesis of Fulgur ;
by C. Js Maury se ee ee ee 335
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
Chemistry and Physics—Method for Calculating the Boiling-points of
Metals, F. Krarrt and KNnocke: Some Properties of the Radium Emana-
tion, RuTHERFORD, 336.—Method for Preparing Hydrogen Phosphide,
Matignon and Trannoy: The Theory of Valency, J. N. Frienp: Recent
Advances in Organic Chemistry, A. W. StEwarRt, 337.—Michelson’s Ether
Research, E. Kounxt: Influence of Pressure upon Thermoelectric Force, H.
Horie: Aluminum Cell as a Condenser, J. DE MoDZELEWsKI: Changes in
the Spectra of Gases submitted to the Magnetic Field, A. Durour: Die
elektrischen Higenschaften und die Bedeutung des Selens ftir die Hlektro-
technik, C. Rims, 338.—Physics for Secondary Schools, C. F. ADAMS:
Elements of Physics, G. A. HoapLey, 389.
Geology and Natural History—Iowa Geological Survey Report for 1907, S.
Catvin: Oklahoma Geological Survey, C. N. Gounp, L. L. Hurcnison
and G. Netson, 339.—Glaciation of Uinta and Wasatch Mountains, W. W.
ATwoop: Glacial Waters in Central New York, H. L. Fatrcuttp: Ground
Waters of Indio Region, California, W. C. MzenpENHALL, 340.—-Die Alpen im
Hiszeitalter, A. PencK und EK. Brickner: Geological Survey of Western
Australia, A. G. Maituanp: Die Geologischen Grundlagen der Abstam-
mungslehre, G. STEINMANN, 341.—Mineralien-Sammlungen, W. PRENDLER:
Jadeite from Upper Burma, A. W. G. BLEErck, 343.—Rubies from Upper
Burma, A. W. G. BLEEcK: New Group of Manganates, L. L. FERMor:
Die Bliitenflanzen Afrikas, F. THonner, 344.—Schwendeners Vorlesungen
iiber mechanische Probleme der Botanik, HotterMaNnn : Plant Study with
Directions for Laboratory and Field Work, MetrErR, 345.
Miscellaneous Scientific In telligence—Carnegie Foundation for the Advance-
ment of Teaching; Report of the President, H. S. PrircHetrt, and Treas-
urer, T. M. CARNEGIE, 346.—Carnegie Institution of Washington, 347,.—
Report of the Superintendent of the Coast and Geodetic Survey, O. H.
TITTMANN: Principal Facts of the Earth’s Magnetism, 348.
Dr. Cyrus Adler, Da eee ‘headttes Soy
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Art. XX VIII.— Weathering and Erosion as Time Measures ;*
by Frank LEVERETT.
THE writer presented a paper, under the above title, at the
Baltimore meeting of the Geological Society of America,
which set forth the advantages of estimates of weathering and
erosion in making correlations between the drift sheets of
Europe and America. Since the correlation of European
with American drifts is to be presented as a special paper in
the international glacial magazine, Zeitschrift fiir Gletscher-
kunde, the present paper will aim only to set forth the value
of weathering and erosion in making correlations, and will be
restricted mainly to our Anerican deposits. The topographic
sheets now published embrace each of the drift formations to
a sufficient extent to enable the student to use them in com-
paring glacial formations of different age. They will thus
serve a valuable purpose in the class room. The present
paper will fulfill its mission if it helps to a proper understand-
ing of topographic sheets illustrating each of the glacial drifts.
There are certain situations m which the student is able to
determine, by erosion alone, the relative ages of the different
drift sheets. This can be done where the surface of the drift
was left in a flat or featureless condition so that the present
reliefs are almost wholly the result of stream action, and it is
especially valuable where the streams have been working
under sufficiently high gradient toadmit of the cutting of well-
defined channels. There are places where stream gradients
are so low that little or no deepening of the drainage lines has
occurred. In such situations and in situations where the drift
topography is of a ridged or complicated character, weathering
naturally is made a leading criterion for judging of relative
* Published by permission of Director U. S. Geological Survey.
Am. Jour. Seo eee SERIES, VoL, XXVII, No. 161.—May, 1909.
350 Leverett— Weathering and Erosion as Time Measures.
ages of the drift sheets under comparison. The rapidity of
weathering is especially great in fragmental formations, such
as the glacial and fluvial deposits, since a multitude of faces
are exposed for attack. It is thus possible to distinguish
lesser differences in age than would be detectible in the solid
formations. Weathering of glacial material or of fluvial mate-
rial will reach depths to be measured in feet and meters, while
that in rock formations may reach only a few inches or centi-
meters.
There are certain complications in these studies resulting from
differences in climatic conditions and differences in the consti-
tution of the drift which have to be properly considered in
forming the estimates. Leaching goes on so much more
rapidly under humid conditions than under semi-arid that one
may easily be misled if he depends entirely upon the depth to’
which the leaching extends. In the same way erosion studies
are hable to be misleading if one does not take into account
differences of rainfall, in stream gradient, and in the texture
of the deposits. It is necessary also, in glaciated regions, to
ascertain the work accomplished by the dr ainage from the ice
sheet, in order to properly compare the work done by the
present streams on drift sheets of different age.
In the glaciated portions of North America there are, fortu-
nately, extensive plains of Kansan, Illinoian, and Wisconsin
drift and of glacial lake beds, whose conditions of rainfall,
stream gradient and texture of deposits, are sufficiently alike to
afford excellent subjects for time estimates based on weathering
and erosion. It is not claimed that these studies will give time
measures definitely expressible in thousands of years, at least
not in the present state of our knowledge; but it is thought
that a sufficiently reliable measure of relative age is afforded to
form a basis for wide correlations, such as those between the
American and European drift sheets.
The table here presented gives the names seo. to the
several members of the glacial series in each prominent field
of Pleistocene glaciation. Some of the lesser fields, west of
the Rocky Mountains, may have a similar complexity, but this
has not been so fully established. The Skandinavian field
has had a great variety of interpretations and stills awaits
a satisfactory nomenclature. It will, perhaps, serve our pur-
pose best to make use of the terms employed by the German
geologists, though here it must be understood that the earlier
literature is not fully in harmony with the later. The order
of arrangement in the table is from younger to older in each
field.
Leverett— Weathering and Erosion as Time Measures. 351
Table of drift sheets.
Keewatin Labrador Skandinavian Alpine
Wisconsin Wisconsin Upper Diluvium Wiirm
Towan ?
Illinoian ? Ilinoian Middle Diluvium Riss
Kansan Kansan ? Lower Diluvium Mindel
Pre-Kansan* Jerseyan Gunz
Wisconsin Drift.
In the first attempts by Chamberlin and others to show the
complexity of the glacial deposits but two drift sheets were
recognized, the earlier and the later, and of these the later
embraces what is now known as Wisconsin drift. Its aspect
is everywhere much fresher or younger than that of the outly-
ing and underlying drift sheets, so that it can easily be distin-
guished from them. With the progress of the study it became
evident that considerable complexity of ice movement was
involved in producing the many moraines of this later drift.
The moraines do not form throughout a concentric series, such
as one would expect to find had the ice made a simple retreat
from its field, with halts at places where moraines occur.
Instead, there are groups of concentric moraines which have a
trend out of harmony with other groups, resulting in a partial
overriding of the earlier by the later. From this it is inferred
that the ice made shiftings in its directions of movement,
such as call perhaps for some change in its center of accumn-
lation. .
The earliest group of these moraines of later drift has been
termed the Earlier Wisconsin, while the remainder of the
moraines are thrown together under the name Later Wiscon-
sin. The principal exposure of the Earlier Wisconsin is in
Illinois, but it has a shght extent beyond the Later Wisconsin
in Indiana and Ohio and possibly also in Wisconsin. Whether
it is exposed in states farther west has not been determined.
The amount of weathering and erosion which the Earlier
Wisconsin has undergone differs so little from that experi-
enced by the Later Wisconsin that we may feel sure that
no interval of great length separates them. The knolls
and basins along the moraines of the Earlier Wisconsin are
toned down by erosion and filling so that only the larger ones
are well-defined, whereas in the Later Wisconsin the small
hummocks and basins still preserve their sharpness of contour.
But in the Earlier Wisconsin as in the Later there are wide
areas not yet invaded by drainage lines, as may be seen by
reference to the Danville, the Urbana, and the Mahomet,
* The Pre-Kansan is sometimes termed Sub-Aftonian.
302 Leverett— Weathering and Erosion as Time Measures.
Illinois, topographic maps. If one should place these maps
besides those of quadrangles inside the Later Wisconsin, as for
example the Marion, Sycamore, Upper Sandusky and Arling-
ton sheets in northwestern Ohio, it would be difficult to dis-
cover any difference in the character of drainage. The amount
of weathering, however, is perceptibly greater in the Earlier
Fie. 1.
aa L S60)A - ee igh es FRIES ee
Chains r \ \
» Livonia I} “Ss
i | SS, | =
A te
ys | SoC
é ws G !
a pag a i )
= PR RSMeanies bes) |Pae s Rl ai eee NGI Se SF
‘ SS 9 : 638 sed tens Selon sees LSU 2
{ | |
} | | } IB
( DETROIT AND Elm GRAND RAPIDS apeH Ve
1 ° i
ie SPAS 636 ARE [eee ele een) ew har aN
Bide ioral Else erate Pere ie ie
Fig. 1. Part of the Wayne, Michigan, topographic sheet, illustrating the
slight amount of erosion characterizing the beds of the great glacial lakes.
Seale, 1: 90000. Contour interval, 20 feet.
than in the, Later Wisconsin, it being rare to find unleached
till on the plains of the Earlier Wisconsin at a depth of less
than a meter, whereas on the Later Wisconsin it is frequently
found at 4 meter or less, and the average depth of leaching in
the Later Wisconsin scarcely reaches a meter. It is, therefore,
chiefly by the weathering and by toning down of the slight
inequalities that the Earlier Wisconsin is distinguished from
the Later. |
Leverett— Weathering and Erosion as Time Measures. 353
The erosion of the Later Wisconsin drift, compared with
that of the beds of the large glacial lakes which occupied
its surface during the recession of the ice from the St. Lawrence
basin, is sufficiently more advanced to be perceptible on many
of the topographic maps. The sections of the two maps here
introduced serve to bring out this difference (see figs. 1
Fig. 2.
Fic. 2. Part of London, Ohio, topographic sheet, illustrating the amount
of erosion ordinarily found on a plain of Wisconsin drift where the slope
is sufficient to favor a somewhat rapid development of drainage lines. The
incipient stage of development testifies to the recency of the Wisconsin
glaciation. Scale, 1: 938700. Contour intervai, 20 feet.
and 2). Fig. 1, which represents a portion of the lake plain
in southeastern Michigan, shows the drainage lines to have
developed very few tributaries as well as to have cut only
insignificant valleys. Fig. 2, which represents the Wisconsin
drift in the western portion of Scioto basin in Ohio, shows a
slightly deeper valley cutting and the beginning of numerous
354 Leverett— Weathering and Erosion as Time Measures.
tributary valleys. The tributaries, however, are in a very
incipient state of development. This map near West Jefferson,
Ohio, serves to indicate that fully nine-tenths of the drift plain
still stands at its original level, and this is true over a large
part of the surface of the Wisconsin drift. In fact there are
considerable areas in which less than one-tenth of the surface
has been lowered or reduced in any way by drainage lines.
Areas in which the topography of the Wisconsin drift and the
Post-Wisconsin erosion may be studied without much compli-
cation with rock topography have already been mapped in
nearly every state from Massachusetts to North Dakota.
Thus a considerable part of southeastern Massachusetts, includ-
ing the islands of Marthas Vineyard and Nantucket, much of
Long Island in New York, as well as the greater part of the
plain east and south of Lake Ontario, nearly all the northwest
one-fourth of Ohio, the quadrangles mapped in southeastern
Michigan, northeastern Illinois and southeastern Wisconsin
(except the Broadhead, Janesville and Shoppiere sheets in
Wisconsin), the area around Minneapolis and St. Paul, Minne-
sota, the area north and west of Des Moines, Iowa, certain
sheets in the James River valley in South Dakota, and those
in the eastern part of North Dakota, may be drawn upon for
illustrations. It will be observed that the morainic areas of
southeastern Michigan, southeastern Wisconsin, and in the
vicinity of St. Paul, Minnesota, embrace much poorly drained
land represented as swamp, whereas such swamp areas are of
small extent in northwestern Ohio, northeastern Illinois, and
in the region bordering Lake Ontario. This should not be
interpreted to indicate that the less swampy areas owe their
condition to greater age. It results instead from a more favor-
able original condition for shedding the water or from a differ-
ent ground-water condition.
There are extensive areas in New England, as also in New
York and in Ohio, where rock ridges are prominent, in which
the Wisconsin glaciation has served to PEDUTCS what has been
termed by Salisbury superimposed youth.* In these areas the
drainage lines are often as poorly developed as in areas of the
Wisconsin drift, where the rock irregularities are completely
buried, and they indicate to the physiographer a similar youth-
fulness. Such areas, however, are not so satisfactory as the
smooth areas of heavy drift for determining the relative age of
the different drift sheets.
The character of the glacial drainage of the Earlier Wis-
consin appears to have been different from that of the Later
Wisconsin, there being no extensive outwash gravel plains
associated with the Earlier Wisconsin moraines such as charac-
* Journal of Geology, vol. xii, pp. 711-713, 1904.
Leverett— Weathering and Erosion as Time Measures. 355
terize portions of the Later Wisconsin moraines of the same
general region. This fact, and the fact that the outer portion
of the Earlier Wisconsin drift in Illinois carries a thin coating
of loess, is thought to indicate that a certain degree of aridity
prevailed during the culmination and the withdrawal of the
ice of this early part of the Wisconsin stage of glaciation.
The relatively arid conditions may account to some degree for
the poor development of drainage lines, which otherwise seem
rather inconsistent with the amount of toning down of knolls
and filling of basins which took place on the Earlier Wisconsin
moraines. The filling of basins would be accomplished rap-
idly under conditions of aridity, as is exemplified in our arid
western region. It is well, therefore, to keep this climatic
factor in mind when making a comparison of the amount of
erosion of the Earlier Wisconsin drift with the somewhat
younger Later Wisconsin drift.
As may be seen from the above table (p. 351), the Wisconsin
drift is the only one of the series named in the Labrador and
Keewatin fields which is correlated with certainty. There is
a continuous belt of moraines connecting the Labrador and
Keewatin fields, but these moraines are of Later Wisconsin
age, and it yet remains to be determined whether the Earlier
Wisconsin drift is exposed outside the Later Wisconsin in the
Keewatin field.
Probable European Correlatives of the Wisconsin Drift.
In the European fields, Skandinavian and Alpine, and also
in Great Britain, there is a drift sheet which corresponds
closely in the amount of weathering with our Later Wisconsin
drift, while certain of the outer moraines of the north Ger-
man lowland and of Great Britain seem to correspond with
our Earlier Wisconsin. The complexity of the last stage ot
glaciation seems, therefore, about as great im northwestern
Europe asin North America. In the Alps the Wirm drift
has a freshness of contour very similar to that of the Later
Wisconsin moraines, while the “ Verwaschene Wiirm,”’ which
lies ontside the Wiirm proper at a few points in northern
Switzerland, and also at a few points on the southern side of the
Alps, has a similar toning down to that displayed by our
Earlier Wisconsin moraines, of which it may prove to be the
correlative.
The Upper Dilnvium of the North German Lowland is much
more extensive than the limits assigned by Geikie to the fourth
or Mecklenburgian drift. The great Baltic ridge seems, as
has been interpreted by several German geologists, to he well
within the limits of the last glaciation, though it certainly
356 Leverett— Weathering and Erosion as Time Measures.
marks a very important position of the ice border, whether a
mere halt or a readvance is not yet clear. The results of my
own studies are in full accord with those of the German stu-
dents in placing the limits of the last glaciation far enough
south to embrace the prominent moraines along the south
border of the region characterized by lakes.
LIllinoian Drift.
The [linoian drift of the Labrador icefield is exposed out-
side the limits of the Wisconsin drift in Illinois, Indiana, and
Ohio, and at its farthest extent reached slightly into lowa.*
The entire outlying portion of this drift is covered by loess
except a small district in northwestern Illinois and southern
Wisconsin, where the loess is of rather patchy distribution. ~
Beneath the loess there are widespread occurrences of a black
soil and muck known as the Sangamon soil, which rests upon
the leached surface of the Illinoian drift. It thus appears
that the Post-Illinoian history is somewhat complex. The
occurrence of the black soil and muck is suggestive of cool,
damp conditions, while the overlying loess suggests conditions
of aridity. The loess is found to pass beneath the outermost
moraines of the Earlier Wisconsin drift and hence antedates
the Wisconsin ice invasion.t
The leaching which the Lllinoian drift has experienced
appears to have been largely accomplished prior to the deposi-
tion of the loess, for the loess is sufficiently thick over much
of the Illinoian area to preserve an unleached basal portion.
Yet in spite of this cessation of the leaching at the time of
the loess deposition it had reached a depth, and weathering
had gone to.a degree, far in advance of the leaching and
weathering thus far experienced by the Wisconsin drift. The
removal of calcareous constituents, pebbles as weli as fine
material, was nearly complete to a depth of 4 to 6 feet, while
weathering often extended to two or three times these depths.
Indeed pipes and weathered seams extend far down into the
unleached portion, as is not found to be the case in the Wis-
consin drift. One cannot well escape the conclusion that the
time involved in this leaching was at least two or three times
as great as that of the Wisconsin, and it may considerably
exceed this amount. In addition to the weathering and leach-
ing there is a general induration of the entire deposit, pro-
duced probably by a partial cementation, a feature which is
very sparingly exhibited by the Wisconsin drift.
Turning now to the amount of erosion which the Ilinoian
* See The Illinois Glacial Lobe, Monograph xxxviii, U. S. Geological
Survey, 1899, pp. 24-130. Also Monograph xli, 1902, pp. 253-294.
+ See Monograph xxxviii, pp. 128-129 and plate xi.
Leverett— Weathering and Erosion as Time Measures. 357
drift displays, we find that where drainage gradients are good
it far exceeds that displayed by the Wisconsin drift. An
excellent topographic sheet for comparing the erosion of the
Illinoian with the Earlier Wisconsin is that of the Peoria,
Illinois, quadrangle, the western portion of which shows Post-
Illinoian erosion, while the eastern portion shows Post-Wiscon-
sin erosion. In studying this sheet, however, it should be
borne in mind that the Wisconsin drift area is morainic and
more elevated than the Illinoian, and thus has a great advan-
tage in the rapidity of shedding its water; but in spite of this
advantage the extent of the erosion is far less than in the
Ilinoian drift.
Topographic sheets that le entirely within the Illinoian
drift area are the Springfield, Eldorado and Belleville, [linois,
sheets. The Belleville topographic sheet is of especial inter-
est since it exhibits the contrast in the work of streams under
different gradients. The western portion, a section of which
is here reproduced in fig. 3, illustrates the appearance of the
drainage when under a good gradient, while fig. 4, taken from
the southeast part of the same quadrangle, illustrates drainage
under a low gradient. It will be observed that Silver Creek
(in fig. 4) has a broad valley in which abandoned courses of
the streain testify to the sluggishness of the drainage and sug-
gest that aggradation rather than channeling is now in progress.
The entire Eldorado topographic sheet is in a region of low
drainage gradient, while the Springfield sheet represents a
region of more rapid drainage gradient. The series is, there-
fore, very instructive in setting forth the amount of variation
that may be found on a drift formation of a given age.
To properly compare the Illinoian erosion with the Wiscon-
sin one must select areas in which drainage conditions are
similar, and also where no inequalities of drift surface, such as
moraines, etc., come in to give complexity. Figs. 2 and 3
represent fairly well the development of drainage under sim-
ilar conditions of slope. The conditions are perhaps more
favorable in the area represented by fig. 2 for the rapid devel-
opment of drainage than in fig. 3, yet the stage of drainage
development in fig. 3 is advanced far beyond that in fig. 2.
The writer has estimated that in the portion of the [linoian
drift in western Illinois and southeastern Iowa, where the con-
ditions for development of drainage are the best, that approxi-
mately one-half the surface has been reduced below the origi-
nal level as a result of the drainage, while in the Wiszonsin
drift, as already indicated, scarcely one-tenth of the surface has
been thus reduced. It is evident that the time required for
developing the drainage found on the Illinoian is much greater
than that on the Wisconsin on the assumption that the climatic
358 Leverett— Weathering and Erosion as Time Measures.
conditions have been uniform and similar to the present con-
ditions. It is probable, however, that a period of aridity came
in at the time of the loess deposition, and this would lengthen
materially the time required for the development of the drain-
age lines in the [llinoian drift.
The presence of a drift sheet of Illinoian age in the Kee-
watin field is still open to question. The only deposits sus-
Fie. 3.
WW ALS Me bEort 76 |
a ier me yy.
A VN \\ \. ie a J SON
i | OAS Sees
: i Se
ge Bee WE Bo Hulesy \ it BSF
4) ; IRidgd Prairie 545] J
4 F ; i ‘
:
ata, +| ; H
IST LOUIS” |i __Q'FALLON WO ..BEBANON
= Poriccareet, 567
ial aa hes
Fic. 3. Part of the Belleville, Illinois, quadrangle, showing Post-Illinoian
drainage under a fair stream gradient. Scale, 1: 93700. Contour interval,
20 feet. ;
pected to be of Illimoian age, so far as yet noted, are found in
southeastern Minnesota and neighboring parts of Wisconsin,
“just outside the limits of the Wisconsin drift, and these have
not as yet been given sufficiently close study to clear up their
relations to the broad sheet of Illinoian drift of the Labrador
field.
Leverett— Weathering and EHrosion as Time Measures. 359
European Correlatives ? of the Illinoian Drift.
From their position in the series one would naturally expect
to find correlatives of the [llinoian drift in the Middle Dilu-
vium of north German lowland and the Riss drift of the
Alpine region. But neither the Riss nor the Middle Diluvium
was found to bear a close resemblance to our Llinoian drift.
These European drifts are commonly weathered to a depth of
Fie. 4.
Fic. 4. Part of the Belleville, Illinois, quadrangle, showing Post-Illinoian
drainage under a very low stream gradient. Compare the small amount of
dissection of the drift plain with that in fig. 3. Scale, 1:98700. Contour
interval, 20 feet. :
only 3 or 4 feet and there is a very abrupt change to fresh-
looking drift at the base of the weathered portion. Were the
upper part to the depth of a meter stripped off from these
drifts one would find difticulty in distinguishing the Riss from
the Wiirm, or the Middle Diluvium from the Upper Diluvium.
The induration of the deeper portion, so generally found in
360 Leverett— Weathering and Erosion as Time Measures.
the Illinoian, is not seen in the Riss and the Middle Diluvium,
nor is there the deep penetration of weathered pipes and seams
into the unweathered portion. The Riss moraines have not
the sharp hummocks that characterize the Wiirm moraines, but
the contrast is not much more striking than is found between
our Earlier and Later Wisconsin moraines. The impression one
obtains is that the Riss and the Middle Diluvium have reached
a condition of weathering intermediate between our Earlier
Wisconsin and our Illinoian drifts. Further study into cli-
matic conditions in the several fields and into the constitution
of the drift deposits may serve to remove some of the difficulties
of correlation. Portions of the area of the Middle Diluvium
lying east of the Harz Mountains have at present a very light
rainfall, which seems to produce less leaching than is accom,
plished in more humid districts to the west. Possibly long
continued aridity will account for the lack of deep penetration
of weathered pipes and seams. At present waters charged
with calcareous constituents rise into the soil by capillary
action and tend to keep it well supplied with calcareous mate-
rial. Prof. Keilhack reports that the calcareous material is in
the form of a coating on the grains of silica, feldspar, ete., and
not in the form of grains or coarse particles of limestone. In
other words, the present caleareous content is secondary.
So far as inferences can be drawn from relative amounts of
erosion these European drifts differ but little from the I[li-
nolan in the places where erosion conditions are similar as to
gradient and texture of deposit. The erosion of the high ter-
races (Hochterrassen), which connect with the Riss moraines -
of the Alpine region, seems to be about as great as the ordli-
nary erosion of the Illinoian drift under good stream gradients.
The erosion of the Middle Diluvium has been sufficient to
remove nearly all traces of the deposit along the borders of
the main drainage lines, which compares favorably with the
amount of erosion in our L[llinoian drift.
Kansan Drift.
The Kansan drift, which is the most extensive sheet of
the Keewatin field, is widely exposed in northern Missouri,
southern and western Iowa, and neighboring parts of Kansas
and Nebraska. Its northern portion is concealed by the Wis-
consin drift. The greater part of this drift, like the Illinoian,
is covered by loess. Some of this deposit may be older than
the Illinoian drift, at least loess has been found between the
Kansan and the I[llinoian in the district along the Mississippi
where the [llinoian overlaps the Kansan drift. A large part
of the loess, however, seems to be of the same age as that which
Levereti— Weathering and Erosion as Time Measures. 361
covers the Illinoian drift, and seems to have been deposited
after the Kansan drift had been very greatly: eroded, for it
covers the valley terraces and valley slopes as well as the
uplands, and appears deep down in the valleys in positions that
can scareely have been reached by a secondary deposition or
by a creep of the deposit. Beneath the loess on the remnants
of the old drift plain, preserved between the valleys, one finds
a black soil and muck similar to that at the junction of the
loess and the I[llinoian drift. The region seems, therefore, to
have had alternations of wet and dry climates which will compli-
cate to some extent the estimates of erosion. So far as the
time element-is concerned the periods of aridity will render
the length of the Post-Kansan time greater than that required
for the mere cutting of the valleys under present conditions of
precipitation. The presence of two sheets of loess would seem
to call for two periods of aridity.
The topographic maps of northeastern Missouri, from which
figs. 5 and 6 are taken, represent a region where the erosion
is almost entirely in glacial deposits, the rock surface being
deeply buried. It will be observed that a large part of the
original Kansan drift plain has been destroyed, the plain being
preserved only in narrow tabular divides, such as that on
which the towns of Atlanta and Memphis stand. The valley
slopes as well as valley bottoms are very broad. The slopes
are so toned down as to be generally below an angle of 5° and
not uncommonly are reduced to 3° or even less. By reference
to figs. 5 and 6 it will be seen that the 20-foot contours are
generally broadly spaced, so that four contours, or 80 feet
elevation, occupy a breadth of one-fourth to one-half mile on
a valley slope. On streams of comparatively small drainage
area the valley bottoms frequently exceed a mile in breadth.
In the region covered by these maps and in much of northern
Missouri and southern Iowa narrow tabular remnants of the
original drift surface are preserved. But as one passes from
the tributaries of the Mississippi westward to the tribntaries
of the Missouri these tabular remnants gradually dwindle and
in the vicinity of the Missouri valley entirely disappear. The
tributaries of the Missouri have some advantage in directness
of drainage, which probably partially accounts for the more
advanced state of drainage erosion. There may also have been
a flatter surface in the vicinity of the Mississippi, since the
underlying limestone there was left with broad tabular surfaces
at the oncoming of glaciation, while the sandstone areas to the
west were broken up into ridges and hills. The tabular divides
in the drift surface, however, do not coincide with preglacial
divides in the limestone surface, nor are they restricted to the
limestone area, but extend westward some distance into the
362 Leverett— Weathering and Erosion as Time Measures.
sandstone area. The average amount of removal of drift in
Post-Kansan time is estimated to be somewhat more than
50 feet, at least it would take more than that amount to bring
the valleys up to a level with the tabular divides. This is
apparent from the sections of maps here presented, and was
carefully worked out in the field in a neighboring county of
Iowa by Dr. C. H. Gordon, while connected with the lowa
Fig. 5.
Fie. 5. Part of the Atlanta, Missouri, topographic sheet showing Post-
Kansan drainage. Scale, 1: 86500. Contour interval, 20 feet.
Geological Survey. To the question whether the streams
may have begun their work in depressions somewhat below the
level of the tabular divides, it is remarked that the lack of
correspondence between the tabular drift divides and the
preglacial rock divides, together with the consistent fitting in
of each tabular divide with its neighbors to form a plain slop-
ing in the direction of drainage, as well as the evidence to be
gathered from the lateral drainage, gives a strong presump-
tion that the surface was brought up very nearly to a plain of
the kind preserved in the tabular remnants.
Leverett— Weathering and Erosion as Time Measures. 368
The Kansan drift, in places where erosion has been at a
minimum, as on the tabular divides, has a weathering to a
depth of several meters. There is more or less complete
removal of limestone pebbles as well as of finer calcareous
material to an average depth of 14 to 2 meters. Apparently
the deposit originally was as calcareous at its surface as in its
unleached portion. It lies in a region where limestone forma-
tions have extensive outcrops and there are numerous calcareous
Fic. 6.
RL e)p ft Xs GELS
=I
Fic. 6. Part of Edina, Missouri, topographic sheet showing Post-Kansan
erosion. Scale, 1: 173000. Contour interval, 20 feet. The map on this
scale is introduced for purposes af comparison with that of the so-called
Iowan, fig. 7, which has the same scale.
nodules at the base of the leached part testifying to a contribu-
tion of lime from it. The uppermost half meter of the leached
portion is often of a decidedly red tinge, below which is a
transition through brown to yellow and finally to gray or blue
in a space of 4 to 6 meters or more. The statements just made
represent conditions in the humid Mississippi valley where
there is an average rainfall of about 40 inches. But as one
passes westward into the semi-arid districts along and west of
the Missouri River, the amount of leaching in this drift sheet
is found to become markedly less, and that too where erosion
has been fully as great as in the Mississippi valley.
364 Leverett— Weathering and Erosion as Time Measures.
The best sheets to illustrate the Post-Kansan erosion are the
Atlanta, Edina, and Kahoka, Missouri, quadrangles, not only
because the drift there is sufficiently thick to dominate the
topography but also because the maps are better executed than
older contour maps of eastern [owa and eastern Nebraska.
The DesMoines, lowa, and Waukee, Iowa, topographic sheets
are, however, recent and of a high standard, and they serve to
exhibit the contrast between the erosion of the Kansan and
the Wisconsin, the southern edges of the maps being within
the limits of the Kansan drift, while the remaining, much less
eroded portion is in the Wisconsin drift.
As to the length of the Post-Kansan period of weathering
and erosion compared with that of the Post-Wisconsin, only a
rough approximation is likely to be reached by measurements
of the changes effected in. the two drifts. Dr. H. F. Bain ~
has made a computation of the relative size of valleys in the
Kansan and in the Wisconsin drift in the vicinity of Des
Moines, Iowa, and ascertained the capacity of the Post-Kansan
valleys to be about seventeen times that of the Post-Wisconsin.*
While a considerable time must necessarily be allowed for a
drainage system to get well started and thus correspondingly
lengthen the Post-Wisconsin time and reduce the difference in
the age of the Wisconsin and the Kansan drift, the periods of
aridity through which the Kansan drift has passed prior to the
Wisconsin stage of glaciation may fully offset. this lengthening
of the Post-Wisconsin time.
The question of a correlative of the Kansan drift in the
Labrador field is considered below in connection with the dis-
cussion of the Pre-Kansan drift.
European Equivalents of the Kansas Drift.
-In each of the glaciated districts of Europe a drift sheet is
found in which the weathering is strikingly similar to that of
the Kansan drift. In the Alpine region the apparent correla-
tive is the Mindel drift; in north Germany it is the Lower
Diluvium, the drift formed at the maximum extent of the
Skandinavian ice field, when it reached the recesses of the
mountainous districts of Silesia and Saxony ; in Great Britain
it is the chalky bowlder clay of the southeastern counties. Not
only is there a similar depth of leaching but also a similar
degree of oxidation, and a deep penetration of weathered pipes
and seams. In the Cromer sections on the east coast of Eng-
land the weathered seams are conspicuous to depths of 10 to 15
meters, and the leaching of the chalky bowlder clay is generally
thorough to a depth of about 2 meters. The reddish tinge of
the upper part of the weathered drift in these supposed Euro-
* Geology of Polk County, Iowa Geological Survey, vol. vi.
Leverett— Weathering and Erosion as Tvme Measures. 365
pean correlatives is also as conspicuous as in our Kansan. If
we consider that since the time when the Kansan drift and its
correlatives were deposited there have been repeated climatic
changes from cold to warm and probably also from humid to
arid, it may seem remarkable that weathering should have been
so similar in amount in these widely separated glaciated dis-
tricts. It is at least suggestive of worldwide influences in the
control of the climatic conditions that produced glaciation.
Pre-Kansan Drift.
The Pre-Kansan drift of the Keewatin field, so far as yet
known, les entirely within the limits of the Kansan drift and
has exposures only beneath the Kansan. It is from these
exposures alone that one may learn the degree of weathering,
and they are inadequate to throw much light upon its erosion.
Recent studies in western lowa, under the lowa Geological
Survey, indicate that herbivorous animals had taken possession
of that region in the interval of ice recession between the Pre-
Kansan and the Kansan, so it is inferred that there was plant
growth such as comes only with a genial climate. Data bear-
ing directly upon the amount of leaching of the gravelly sur-
face portion of this drift were obtained by my assistant, R. T.
Chamberlin, in 1907, at exposures near Afton Junction, Lowa,
the type locality of the interglacial Aftonian exposures. Four
classifications of pebbles from near the surface of the deposit
show percentages of limestone pebbles ranging from 14 to 20
per cent, while two classifications of pebbles from underlying
till, not affected by leaching, show 88 and 52 per cent of
limestone pebbles. In other respects the pebbles of the gravel
and of the underlying till are strikingly similar. It thus
appears probable that the limestone content of the gravel was
originally about the same as that of the till, and that nearly
two-thirds of the limestone had been removed from the surface
portion of the Pre-Kansan drift before it was buried under the
Kansan. ‘The limestone pebbles remaining in this surface por-
tion are in an etched and deeply weathered condition, so that
had there been but a moderate extension of the interglacial
stage the limestone might have been completely removed. In
places gravelly portions of the Pre-Kansan drift had become
firmly cemented in this interglacial stage, so that masses were
gathered up by the ice of the Kansan stage and incorporated
as bowlders in the Kansan till. The change which the Pre-
Kansan drift experienced probably approaches if it does not
equal that which the [limoian has experienced, and appears to
be greater than that which has affected the Wisconsin drift.
It may therefore properly be referred to a distinct glacial stage.
Am. Jour. Sci.—Fourta Series, Vou. XXVII, No. 161.—May, 1909.
25
366 Levereti— Weathering and Erosion as Time Measures.
Equivalents of Kansan or Pre-Kansan in the Labrador Field.
The writer has never had opportunity to study, or even to
travel across, the area in New Jersey and northeastern Pemn-
sylvania occupied by the sheet of old drift of the Labrador
field to which Chamberlin and Salisbury have applied the term
Jerseyan. The patchy distribution and weathered appearance
HiGy we
Im we.
NBAE
oe
LO IES
oe
5 ans Ce re fe
ae as CZ
= CF
| eee UAC : A Z oe Ko
ee :
sarees ean
: = ees
Fie. 7. Part of Oelwein, Iowa, topographic sheet showing topography of a
so-called Iowan drift plain. The amount of erosion here displayed should
be compared with that in the Ilinoian, figs. 3 and 4, and Kansan drift, figs.
5 and 6. Scale, 1: 1738000. Contour interval, 20 feet.
reported by those who have studied it, seem to indicate an age
as great as that of any drift sheet in the Keewatin field. It 1s,
therefore, considered by these students a probable correlative
of the Pre-Kansan or Sub-Aftonian drift of the Keewatin field.
The old drift of northwestern Pennsylvania, which has been
examined by the present writer, is thonght from the weather-
Leverett— Weathering and Erosion as Time Measures. 367
ing and erosion to be at least as old as the Kansan drift, and
possibly the correlative of the Pre-Kansan drift. Its aspect
is decidedly older than the Illinoian drift exposed in the west-
ern part of the field covered by the Labrador ice sheet. The
topography of the quadrangles within the limits of the Jer-
seyan drift and of the old drift of northwestern Pennsylvania
is controlled to so slight an extent by glacial deposits that the
topographic sheets are not likely to have much value in setting
forth the amount of Post-Jerseyan erosion, and hence are not
drawn upon for illustrations.
European Equivalents of the Pre-Kansan.
Upon turning to the European fields conditions somewhat
similar to that of the Kansan and Pre-Kansan have been
brought to notice. Thus in the Alpine region the oldest drift,
known as the Gunz, is almost completely overridden by another
old drift, the Mindel. In that region, as in the American,
just discussed, it is difficult to determine the difference in age
because of the meager exposure of the Gunz drift. The
studies of Penck and Brickner, however, have shown that
there was an advanced state of weathering of the surface of
the Gunz drift before the Mindel glaciation buried it. The
Mindel and Gunz drifts are thought by Penck to be separated
by a shorter interval than that between the Riss and Mindel.*
In the Skandinavian field observations by Nathorst and others
indicate that in southern Sweden a set of striz out of harmony
with the ice movement which carried the lower bowlder clay of
Germany is likely to have preceded that movement. While
the earlier movement may not have been suthciently distinct
from the later to constitute a separate stage of glaciation,
Geikie has suggested applying to it a distinct name, Scanian,
from the district in Sweden where it was brought to light.
Towan drift ?
Since it is through a study of weathering and erosion that
the presence of the so-called Iowan drift has come to be
questioned, it seems fitting that this discussion should include
a brief statement concerning the leading features in the region
that drift has been supposed to cover. The region lies in
northeastern lowa immediately east of the area covered by the
Des Moines lobe of Wisconsin drift. The topographic maps
which lie wholly or partly within its limits are the Decorah,
Oelwei, Elkader, Winthrop, Farley, Stanwood and Rock
Island. Fig. 7, which represents part of the Oelwein quad-
* Die Alpen im Wiszeitalter, p. 1168.
368 Leverett— Weathering and Erosion as Time Measures.
rangle, illustrates well the topography of the part of this
region where the valleys are excavated entirely in the drift.
Farther east the drift becomes so thin that rock ridges dominate
the topography. It will be observed.that the surface presents
broad slopes, as in the Kansan drift, but the valley bottoms
are less well defined, the slopes on either side extending nearly
to the streams. Tabular divides are also wanting and con-
siderable inequality is found along the lines of water parting.
This region differs also from neighboring parts of the Kansan
in being nearly free from loess.
The inspection of such a map as that given in fig. 7 naturally
raises the question whether the departures which it exhibits
from the typical Post-Kansan erosion, shown in figs. 5 and 6,
may be interpreted as a superimposed youth, such as might -
result from a fresh invasion of the ice into a much eroded
region of older drift. A study in the field would naturally
be directed to the solution of the question of the existence of
a drift sheet too fresh to be consistent with the interpretation
that the valleys were entirely formed after its deposition, and
a special search should be made to discover whether a fresh
drift is so situated in the vallevs as to indicate clearly that it
was deposited after the valleys were excavated. Upon visit-
ing the field in 1906 and again in 1907, and spending about
two months in careful examination of the exposures on uplands,
slopes, and valley bottoms, the writer was unable to discover
any trace of fresh drift. The valleys were found to be filled
with a concentrate of the more resistant constituents of the
drift, the soluble constituents having apparently been removed
just as in the weathered portion of the Kansan drift. The
valleys .are shallower than in the Kansan drift of southern
Iowa and northeastern Missouri, and run out at their heads in
so-called sloughs. But so far as discovered this shallowness is
not occasioned by the deposition of a fresh sheet of drift, but
rather seems due to a filling by slope wash. The ramification
of the valleys into the uplands is not strikingly different from
that found in the Kansan drift and seems to call for a maturity
of stream work of a similar rank. In view of the fact that
my own studies have not been exhaustive and that the lowan
invasion is still held by the Director of the lowa Geological
Survey, who has had a longer acquaintance with the region, I
still consider the question of an Iowan invasion an open one.
Ann Arbor, Michigan, February 22, 1909.
C. H. Gordon—Chalk Formations of Northeast Texas. 369
Art. XXIX.—The Chalk Formations of Northeast Texas ;*
by C. H. Gorpon.
Ir has long been known that deposits of chalk occur in .
northeast Texas, but writers are not in accord as to the relations
of these formations. Ina paper read before the Geological
Society of America by Mr. R. T. Hill in 1893,+ which was
the successor to a number of papers on the Cretaceous of the
Arkansas-Texas region by this author during the preceding
six or seven years, mention was made of the occurrence of
chalk in the southern part of Lamar county, and its identity
with the chalk of the White Cliffs of Arkansas was asserted.
This chalk, which Mr. Hill states is ‘‘ called the Anonat chalk
in Texas,” is regarded by him as distinct from the Austin chalk
of central Texas and as belonging to a higher horizon. He says:
* Tt is not known what has become of the Austin chalk in this
section, but my hypothesis, backed by some evidence, is that to
the southward it has been faulted down. The Anona (White
Clitfs) chalk is an entirely distinct and higher bed, for it is
underlain by the Taylor (Exogyra ponderosa) marls which
overlie the Austin chalk.” It is stated that the Austin chalk
reappears in its normal position to the eastward, at Rocky
Comfort mm Little River county, Arkansas, on the north side
of the Red River.
Ina paper on the chalks of southwestern Arkansas, published
in the 22d Annual Report of the U. 8. Geological Survey
(p. 698), Mr. J. C. Taff refers to the Texas deposits and says:
“The white chalk is exposed from Austin northward to Sher-
man, Texas, through a distance of nearly 250 miles, without
appreciable change in its thickness of nearly 600 feet, and with
very slight variation in texture, color, and nature of material.
* * * Jn the vicinity of Sherman, a few miles south of Red
River, the chalk formation turns eastward and continues down
the south side of the valley through Grayson, Fannin, Lamar,
and Red River counties, and into the northwestern part of Bowie
county. From the last locality the chalk passes beneath the
bottom Jand of the Red River to Rocky Comfort, Arkansas.
Farther east it comes to the surface at White Cliffs, on Little
* Read before the Geological Society of America at the Baltimore meeting,
1908. Published by permission of the Director of the United States Geo-
logical Survey, During a part of the time devoted to field study in north-
ae Texas, the author was assisted by Mr. L. F. Russ of the University of
exas.
+ Bulletin Geological Society of America, vol. v, pp. 297-338, 1893.
¢ Hill’s spelling of ‘‘ Anona” was corrected by Veatch to Annona. See
Professional Paper No. 46, U. S. Geological Survey, p. 25 (footnote).
370 C. H. Gordon—Chalk Formations of Northeast Texas.
River, and Saline Landing on the West Saline River. In the
Arkansas region, it is known as the White Cliffs formation.”
In a recent paper* Veatch follows Hill in assigning the
Annona chalk to a higher horizon than the Austin. The
statement is madet that the Austin is not found east of Paris,
Texas. In his table of correlations, the upper part of the |
Bingen sand is regarded as the equivalent of the Austin chalk.
He says: “The Bingen, which is the lithological counterpart
of the Woodbine, apparently contains littoral equivalents of
the Austin and Eagle Ford.”
The formations underlying northeast Texas consist chiefly of
Upper Cretaceous and lower Tertiary rocks. The Woodbine
sands, which constitute the base of the Upper Cretaceous,
appear along the south side of Red River, in the northern part
of Lamar county. The strata have a general dip of about 50 —
to 60 feet per mile toward the south by southeast. Asa result
of this, in passing from north to south, higher formations
appear in successive belts except where interrupted by cover-
ings of more recent deposits. The classification of the Upper
Cretaceous of northeast Texas as adopted in a forthcoming
report on the underground waters of the region is as follows:
Navarro and Taylor.
6. Dark laminated clays and blue sandy shales ; limited expo-
sures in the north part of Hopkins county.
5. Glauconitic sands in the south part of Delta county.
4, Sandy marls and clays with lime concretions filled with
fossils. Underlies most of Delta county.
3. Impure sandy chalk forty to fifty feet thick grading into marls
above and the sandy beds below. Exposed in the north part of
Delta county near Enloe and extends in a narrow belt southwest-
ward somewhat to the south of Ladonia and between Fairlie
and Wolf City in Hunt county.
2. Fine yellow glauconitic sand with thin lenses of fossilifer-
ous limestone. Grades upward into the chalk and downward
into clay. ‘Thickness about 40 to 60 feet.
1. Blue clay marls forming a deep black soil similar to that of
the marls above. One hundred to one hundred and fifty feet.
Austin Formation.
Annona Chalk.—Bluish and creamy-white chalk. Thickness
fifty to one hundred feet.
Brownstown Marls.—Blue marly clay, slightly glauconitic. Four
hundred to five hundred feet thick.
* Professional Paper, No. 46, U. S. Geological Survey, 1906.
+ Ibid, p. 19. See also p. 24.
C. H. Gordon— Chalk Formations of Northeast Texas. 371
Eagle Ford formation.
Blossoin -Sands.—Glauconitic sands interlaminated ‘with and
grading into clay. Sands appear decidedly brown and red at
the surface from oxidation of the contained iron. Eighty
to one hundred feet thick. Constitute a narrow sandy belt
extending from east to west through Red River and Lamar
counties. Named from the village of Blossom in the eastern
part of Lamar county, which is located upon their outcrop.
Dark blue and black laminated clays with thinly bedded
clay limestone and nodular septaria of blue limestone.
These septaria are highly fossiliferous and often weather |
out in bowlders of various sizes. These clays grade down-
ward into the Woodbine sands and upward into the Blos-
som sands. Their thickness is from five hundred to six
hundred feet.
Woodbine Formation.
Ferruginous and argillaceous sands, in places glauconitic and
lignitiferous. ‘Thickness estimated to be five hundred to eight
hundred feet.
STRATIGRAPHIC RELATIONS OF THE ANNONA CHALK.
The chalk to which Hill gave the name Annona makes its
appearance on the south side of Red River in the northern
part of Red River county and extends in a belt 2 to 4 miles
wide to the south of west across Red River and Lamar coun-
ties, and westward. Owing to the hardness and greater resist-
ance to erosion, this belt appears usually as a low ridge,
covered to a slight depth only by soil through which the
white chalk frequently appears, and in which ribbons of white
mark the courses of wet-weather streams. The chalk con-
tains a varying proportion of sand.
In composition, the chalk corresponds closely with that of
the Austin, as shown by the following analyses :
1 2 3 4.
Calcium carbonate____-___- 84°14 82°51 84°48 TO;
Silica and ansolubles_.2..... 10°14 LAs 9°77 DBD
Ferric oxide and alumina. _- 4°04 3°61 1°15 1°50
Magnesia (and H,O)_-_ -_-- 1°68 1-19 trace 0°58
1. Annona chalk, 7 miles south of Paris, Texas. Analysis fur-
nished by Mr. J. A. Porter, Paris, Texas.
2. Texas chalk, locality unknown. 21st Annual Report, U.S.
Geological Survey, Pt. VIL, 1899-1900, p. 329.
3. Rocky Comfort, Arkansas, Ibid.
4, Average rock from quarry, Texas Portland Cement Works, 3
miles west of Dallas, Texas, Ibid., p. 737.
372 O. H. Gordon—Chatk Formations of Northeast Texas.
Upon the outerop of the chalk are located the towns of
Clarksville, Atlas, Roxton, Honey Grove, ete. Annona, the
town in Red River county from which the formation received ©
its name, lies several miles south of the outerop of the beds.
About three miles west of Clarksville, the exposures of
chalk and accompanying marls are interrupted by a covering
of Quaternary deposits, partly filling a broad shallow valley
excavated in the formation now occupied by the headwater
branches of Cuthand Creek.
At Clarksville several wells have been extended through
chalk and underlying marls to the Blossom sands. No distine-
tion is made in the well records between the marl and the
chalk, both being included under ‘ white rock,” which is said
to be about 600 feet thick. |
The outcrop of the blue chalk marls, called the Brownstown —
marls, which underlie the Annona chalk, constitutes a belt of
black land, several miles wide, along the north side of the
chalk and bounded on the north by a strip of sands (Blossom
sands) representing the top of the Eagleford formation. The
thickness of the Brownstown in Red River and Lamar coun-
ties is estimated at 400 to 500 feet. It thins toward the west,
with a corresponding diminution in the width of outcrop, as
shown in Fannin county. Accompanying this change in the
thickness of the marls, there is an increase in thickness of the
chalks, the north boundary of which passes to the northward
of Honey Grove and thence to Sherman.
The chalk beds occurring in the vicinity of Sherman have
generally been recognized as Austin. It is evident therefore
that the Annona chalk and the underlying Brownstown marls
are stratigraphically the equivalents of the Austin chalk.
The meager collections of fossils thus far obtained from these
formations in northeastern Texas offer little in the way of
faunal evidence bearing on the classification of these beds.
The collections thus far made indicate a wide range of the
species represented and no satisfactory conclusion can be
drawn from them.
One hundred to two hundred feet above the Annona chalk
is another bed of chalk having a thickness of fifty to one
hundred feet. This chalk outcrops along the south side of
North Fork in the northern part of Delta county from the
vicinity of Enloe to the western boundary of the county.
The position of this chalk suggests its correlation with the
Saratoga chalk in Arkansas, which occupies a similar position
with respect to the Annona (White Cliffs) in that region.
There are no intervening exposures of chalk, however, and
the data from well borings seems to indicate that these upper
C. H. Gordon—Chalk Formations of Northeast Texas. 373
chalk formations occur in lenses rather than as_ persistent
formations. |
Conclusions.
1. The stratigraphic relations of the Annona chalk shows
conclusively that it is the equivalent of the upper part of the
Austin chalk formation of central Texas.
2. That the Brownstown marl, which underlies the Annona
in northeast Texas and western Arkansas, is the stratigraphical
equivalent of the lower portion of the Austin.
3. That the term Austin should be used for the formation
as a whole, while the names Annona and Brownstown may be
used to designate the chalk and marl members respectively.
4. For the sands at the top of the Eagle Ford formation,
which are of importance in certain areas as a source of water,
the name Blossom is here proposed. The Clarksville wells
draw their supply of water from these beds, in view of which,
in the absence of knowledge of the outcrop of the formation,
Veatch called them the Sub-Clarksville Sands.
Knoxville, Tenn.
374 D. K. Greger—Devonian of Central Missouri.
Arr. XXX.—The Devonian of Central Missouri; by
Daruine K. GreGeEr.
Tue Devonian of central Missouri is a two-fold formation of
somewhat variable thickness and in the region of its greatest
development it consists of more or less heavy-bedded, blue,
gray and reddish-brown limestones, and of coarse, blue and oray
shales and shaly limestones, the latter weathering to a lght
yellow, highly siliceous clay.
The occurrence of Devonian strata in the central Mics
region was known to Owen (1) in the early fifties, and he out-
lined its area with some degree of accuracy as follows: “In
Missouri this formation (Devonian) was traced, reappearing ~
for a very limited space in the valley of the "Auxvasses in
Calloway county; skirting for a short distance one of the south-
ern promontories of the ‘Towa and Missouri coal-field, in close
proximity to the great uplift of magnesian limestone, of Silu-
rian date, in the same vicinity. It has, probably, a consider-
ably greater range in this locality than here ascertained and
laid down by me.”
Numerous exposures of the strata here considered occur in
Warren, Montgomery, Callaway, Boone, Cole, Moniteau and
Cooper ‘counties, with their maximum development i in central
Callaway county. While the Devonian of this region is readily
separable into two divisions upon both faunal and lithologic
grounds, the lower member only bears a distinctive name, and
this even is ill-defined as it appears in the literature.
OC. R. Keyes (2), in a discussion of the geological formations
of Missouri, defines the Callaway limestone or lower member
in the following manner: ‘In southeastern Missouri, rocks
containing the typical fauna of the Western Hamilton are
sparingly represented in Perry and Cape Girardeau counties,
in connection with the limestones above mentioned (Grand
Tower limestone). In this region the limestones belonging to
this group are dark colored shaly rocks, quite different from
the associated strata.
“North of the Ozark uplift the Devonian rocks referred to
the Hamilton extend westward along the Missouri river as far
as Jefferson City, having their most typical development in
Callaway county. In several places abundant fossils of this
formation have been obtained from strata having lithological
characters not very unlike the beds of the eastern Ozark region
referred to the same age.”
The two paragraphs above quoted are somewhat misleading,
since if the writer means to apply the name Callaway lime-
D. K. Greger—Devonian of Central Missouri. 875
stone to the str ata “having their most typical development in
Callaway county” he would likewise include beds in Perry and
Cape Girardeau counties, which to our knowledge contain an
entirely distinct assemblage of fossils, a fauna in fact intimately
related to the southern Illincis Devonian, which has been
shown by Weller (3), Schuchert (4), and Savage (5), to belong
to the eastern or Mississippian Province.
While we regret that the name Callaway limestone has
assumed a place in our literature through a somewhat illegiti-
mate course, its retention should be insisted upon since the
formation has its greatest development both 1 in area and thick-
ness in Callaway county.
To the upper member of the central Missouri Devonian we
would apply the name Craghead Creek shale since the typical
exposure of this division is found on Craghead Creek (6), a
small tributary of Middle River, south of Fulton about six
miles, on the old Snyder farm. At this place about 35 feet of
shale is exposed and the contact with the Mississippian above
and the Callaway limestone below are both visible. The
discovery of these shales dates back to 1858 and it is quite
possible that Dr. S. S. Laws, then president of Westminster
College, was the first collector to visit the locality, since it was
through him that Prof. Swallow became acquainted with its
rich fauna.
A number of small outcrops of the Craghead Creek shale
occur in Callaway county, but it is nowhere so fully exposed as
on the Snyder farm, where within a distance of one mile the
following section is exhibited: Lower Coal-measures, Upper
Burlington, Lower Burlington, Kinderhook, Craghead Creek
shale, Callaway limestone, first Magnesian limestone, Sacchar-
oidal sandstone.
Structurally the Craghead Creek shale is readily divisible
into three members: the lower portion made up of dark blue
and drab shale, with interbedded bands of shaly limestone,
highly fossiliferous; the middle member consisting of a hght
drab, argillaceous limestone with few fossils, mostly remains
of Crinoidea; the upper member consisting of a light gray,
siliceous shale, this like the lower member being highly
fossiliferous.
With the exception of the Brachiopoda and Crinoidea the
fossils of the Craghead Creek shale have received only a
cursory study, hence the following notes on the fauna are almost
exclusively confined to these forms.
The faunal lists here presented are based on collections made
in the following localities. Callaway limestone: Bellama
Springs, southeast of Fulton, Auxvasse Church, east of
McCredie, and Sampsceu’s Ford, east of Fulton. The Craghead
376 = —-«D. BK. Greger—Devonian of Central Missouri.
Creek shale list is that of the type locality. The names
preceded by an asterisk are species common to the Lime
Creek shale or the Cedar Valley limestone of Iowa.
(A) = abundant, (C) = common, (R) = rare and (VR) = very
rare.
FAUNA OF THE CRAGHEAD CREEK SHALE.
ANTHOZOA.
* Acervularia profunda Hall. (R)
* Aulopora sp.? (C)
* Aulopora sp.?
Heliophyllum? sp.? (C)
BRYOZOA.
* Leioclema occidens White and Whitfield. (A)
CRINOIDEA.
Aristocrinus concavus Rowley. (VR)
Melocrinus gregeri Rowley. (R)
Melocrinus lyliit Rowley. (R)
Melocrinus tersus Rowley. (R)
The four species of Crinoidea described by Prof. Rowley
seem to be confined to the limestone constituting the middle
member of the shale and have not been found outside of
Callaway county.
BRACHIOPODA.
Athyris minima Swallow. (C)
Atrypa gregert Rowley. (C)
* Atrypa hystriz occidentalis Hall. (R)
* Atrypa reticularis. Linnseus. (A)
“Camarotoechia sp.nov. (BR)
Cranaena morsii Greger. (R)
* Cyrtina triquetra Hall. (C)
* Dielasma calvini Hall and Whitfield. (C)
Dielasma sp. nov. (Ry)
*Gypidula comis Owen. (R)
Hypothyris sp. nov. (R)
Leiorhynchus sp. nov. (KR)
* Philhedra famelica Hall and Whitfield. (C)
Phithedra crenistria Hall. (RB)
Productella callawayensis Swallow. (C)
Productella marquesst Rowley. (C)
* Pugnasx altus Calvin. (R)
* Schizophoria towensis Hall. (C)
D. K. Greger—Devonian of Central Missouri. — 317
Schizophoria macfarlant Meek. (A)
Schuchertella pandora Billings. (R)
Spirifer amarus Swallow. (A)
*Spirifer asper Hall. (R)
*Spirifer euryteines Owen. (R)
Stropheodonta sp.? (A)t
Strophonella crassa Rowley. (VR)
PELECYPODA.
Six species of this class are recognized in the fauna, but all
are preserved only as casts of the interior and their relationship
has not been determined.
GASTROPODA.
The Gastropods, like the Pelecypods, are poorly eee
_ casts and their affinities are unknown.
CEPHALOPODA.
Nautilus lawsi Swallow. (R)
Orthoceras sp.? (C)
FauNA OF THE CALLAWAY LIMESTONE.
PORIFERA.
*Stromotopora sp.? (A)
ANTHOZOA.
*Acervularia davidsoni Edwards and Haime. (A)
Aulopora sp.? (R)
* Fuvosites alpenensis Winchell. (A)
* Pachyphyllum woodmani White. (R)
Zaphrentis, two indet. sp. (A)
CRINOIDEA.
Megistocrinus cf. latus Hall. (R)
Melocrinus cf. nodosus Hall. (R)
BRACHIOPODA.
*Athyris fultonensis Swallow. (A)
ae reticularis Linnaeus. (A)
* Cranaena iowensis Calvin. (C)
+ Prof. Swallow in 1860 described in the St. Louis Academy of Science
Transactions ten species of Stropheodonta from the Callaway limestone and
Craghead Creek shale, without illustrations. The types were lost at the
time the State University burned and from the descriptions specific identi-
fication is impossible.
Devonian of Central Missouri.
378 D. K. Greger
Cyrtia occidentalis Swallow. (R)
Cyrtina missouriensis Swallow. (A)
Hypothyris sp. nov. (IR)
* Pentamerella dubia Hall. (R) :
* Philhedra famelica Hall and Whitfield. (R)
Spirifer annae Swallow. (A)
*Spirifer towaensis Owen. (R)
* Stropheodonta costata Owen. (C)
Stropheodonta sp. indet. (A)
PELECYPODA.
Conocardium sp. nov. (A)
GASTROPODA.
Callonema? sp.? (R)
Huomphalus sp.? (A)
Loxonema?sp.? (C)
Pleurotomaria providensis Broadhead. (R)
REFERENCES.
(1) Owen D. D., Geological Survey of Wisconsin, Iowa and Minnesota,
1852, page 81.
(2) Keyes, C. R., Geological Survey of Missouri, 1894, vol. iv, page 45.
(3) Weller, S., Jour. Geol., vol. v, no. 6, 1897.
(4) Schuchert, Charles, Amer. Geol., vol. xxxii, 1903.
(5) Savage, T. E., this Journal, vol. xxv, 1908.
(6) U. S. Top. Atlas, Fulton Sheet, edition of 1890.
Fulton, Missouri.
Browning and Palmer—Kstimation of Thallium. 379
Arr. XXXI.—The Volumetric and Gravimetric Estumation
of Thallium in Alkaline Solution by Means of Potassiwm
Ferricyanide; by Puitre E. Browntye and Howarp E.
PALMER.
[Contributions from the Kent Chemical Laboratory of Yale Univ.—excviii. |
In a former paper from this laboratory* it was shown that
reactions involving oxidation by ferricyanide in aikaline solu-
tion and reoxidation by permanganate of the resulting ferro-
eyanide in acid solution might be applied to the determination
of cerium in the presence of the other rare earth compounds.
In the work to be described the same reactions were applied
to the volumetric estimation of thallium. A solution of thal-
lium nitrate was made up by dissolving 10 grms. of pure
thallous nitrate in water and making up to a liter. This soln-
tion was standardized by precipitating definite portions with
potassium bichromate in alkaline solution, filtering, and weigh-
ing the thallous chromate,t and also by evaporating measured
portions of the solution with an excess of sulphuric acid and
weighing as the neutral sulphate ;{ the mean of closely agreeing
results by both methods was taken as the standard.
Volumetric.—The procedure was as follows: Measured
portions of the solution of thallous nitrate were drawn from a
burette, water was added to about 100°" a sufficient quantity of
a solution of potassium ferricyanide to give an excess, and potas-
sium hydroxide to complete .precipitation of the brown thallic
hydroxide. The precipitate was filtered off on asbestos, gener-
ally without settling, and washed thoroughly. The filtrate was
acidified with sulphuric acid and titrated with standard perman-
ganate. From the following equations, representing the reac-
tions, the amount of thallium present may be readily calculated:
T],0+4K,FeO,N,+4KOH == T1,0,+4K,FeO,N,+2H,O
5K,FeC,.N,+KMn0O,+4H,SO, =
5K,FeC,N,+3K,SO, + MnSO, + 4H,O
It was found necessary to apply a correction for the amount of
permanganate used to give the first tinge of pink color to the
amounts of ferricyanide used in the determinations. This
seldom exceeded ‘1 of 1° of the permanganate.
The following table shows the results obtained with different
amounts of the thallium salt:
* Browning and Palmer, this Journal (4), xxvi, 83.
+ This Journal (4), viii, 460. t+ This Journal (4), ix, 137.
380 Browning and Palmer—Estimation of Thallium.
T1,0 taken T1,0 Error
as the found
nitrate
grm. grm. germ.
(1) 0:0809 0°0809 +0:°0000
(2) 0°0809 0°0808 —0°0001
(3) 0:0809 0:0809 + 0°:0000
(4) 0°1213 0°1212 —0:0001
(5) 0°1213 0°1216 +0:0003
(6) 0°12138 0°1218 +0:0005
(7) 0°1213 0°1218 +0:0005
(8) 0°1213 0°1212 —0:0001
(9) 0°12138 0°1207 —0:0006
(10) 0°1618 0°1614 —0'0004
(11) 0°1618 0°1613 —0°0005
(12 0°1618 0°1616 —0°0002
Gravimetric.—The satisfactory character of the precipitate
of thallic hydroxide obtained by this process suggested the
possibility of applying it to a gravimetric estimation of thal-
lium. Several precipitations were made according to the
method described and the precipitate contained in a perforated
platinum crucible upon an asbestos felt was dried over a
low flame at about 200° C. to constant weight. The results
follow in the table:
T1,03 T1,03 Error
taken found
as the
nitrate
erm. erm. germ.
(1) 0°1305 0:1309 0°:0004 +
(2) 0°1305 0°1314 =. 10;0009 =.
(3) 0°13805 0°1308 0°0003 +
(4) 0°0870 0°0872 0°0002 +
(5) 0°1740 0°1741 0°0001 +
(6) 0°1740 0°1739 0:0001—
(7) 0°1740 0°1742 0°0002 +
(8) 0°1305 OST 0:0002 +
(9) 0°1305 0°1309 0°0004 +
(10) 0°1305 0°13808 0°00038 +
(11) 0:0870 0:0872 0°0002 +
(12) 0°0870 0'0874 0°0004 +
In experiments (5) to (12) the precipitated thallic hydroxide
was washed with hot water, a procedure to be recommended
when large amounts are present.
T. D. A. Cockerell— Descriptions of Tertiary Insects. 381
Arr. XX XII.—Descriptions of Tertiary Insects, V1; by
AA Cocke RElE:
A Peculiar Neuropteroid Insect from Colorado.
Homerope gen. nov. (Meropide.)
RatHER stout-bodied, with the end of the abdomen formed
somewhat as in ittacus, or nearer, perhaps, to the type of
certain Trichoptera; legs with many very strong spines ; wings
shaped much as in Werope, but more elongate, and at the same
time with the costal region more strongly arched, and includ-
ing (between the costa and subcosta) four longitudinal series
of cells.
Homerope tortricifornis sp. n.
é. General aspect that of a tortricid moth; length 138" ;
head small; width of thorax about 4™", of abdomen about 34,
both no doubt somewhat widened by crushing ; color of body,
as preserved, pale ferruginous, the apex of the abdomen darker,
and a dark chitinous plate (? ventral) in the region of the basal
half of the first abdominal segment (fig. 3); end of abdomen
not elongated, but bearing a pair of thumb-shaped obtuse
harpes, directed obliquely upwards (fig. 2); the uncus or corre-
sponding structure short and apparently obtuse, without an
upturned point ; legs with short femora (hind femur about 3™™),
but rather long and slender tibize and tarsi; (hind tibia about
5™™), the tibie (at least) with delicate appressed hair, and
numerous very large spines (fig. 1) which are finely striated
longitudinally (fig. 1a). The structure of the tarsi, the antenne,
mouth-parts, etc., cannot be seen.
Wings as preserved pale reddish, nearly the color of the
shale, faintly striated by the slightly darker veins but without
spots or bands; anterior wing 153™™” long, and about 4 broad
(the exact breadth difficult to determine), with the basal part of
the costa strongly arched, but the apical two-thirds nearly
straight (the costal outlme much as in Apochrysa); apex
rounded. Hind wings about 13™" long and 3 broad, more
slender than the anterior.
Venation of anterior wings.—Subcosta remote from the
costal margin, leaving a large space in which there are for a
considerable distance four longitudinal rows of cells. The first
upward branch bounds basally two large cells only, but the
second branch curves forward and runs parallel with the main
stem of the subcosta, and between it and the costal margin are
three rows of cells, the second and third of the middle row
being hexagonal (this is shown, better than it can be described,
in fig. 5); toward the apex of the wing the symmetry is some-
Am. Jour. Sct.—FourtH Series, Vou. X XVII, No. 161.—May, 1909.
26
382 ZT. D. A. Cockerell—-Descriptions of Tertiary Insects.
what lost and the cells become reduced, as shown in fig. 7.
The cells of the second row from costa, after the third, be-
come longer and lose their hexagonal form, having the lower
side straight; after the eighth cell the middle row is lost,
there being two large cells in place of three, but there is a
Fics. 1—95.
Eomerope tortriciformis Ckll.
Fie. 1. Part of anterior tibia, showing the fine hairs and large spines.
la. part of spine magnified, showing the finely striated surface.
Fic. 2. Apex of abdomen.
Fie. 3. Chitinous plate in region of first abdominal segment.
Fic. 4. Venation of anterior wing, showing relationship of radius,
media, etc.
Fic. 0. Venation of costal region of anterior wing near base.
small middle cell immediately after, as shown in fig. 7. The
area between the subcosta and its upper brauch (they ulti-
mately unite again as shown in fig. 7) is divided into three
very long cells, the cross-veins being opposite the fourth of the
second series of cells (shown in fig. 5) and the basal part of the
seventh of the same series. From the subecosta to the radius
are four cross-veins, placed at wide intervals, the fourth being
shown in fig. 7 (Panorpa has usually two such cross-veins).
The radius and media at first run side by side, so that upon
superficial examination they look like one very stout vein ; at
the point where the radius branches the media bends down-
wards, as shown in fig. 4 (this differs from Panorpa in the
earlier branching of the radius). The radial sector forks, and
the lower branch forks again ; the upper branch of the latter
fork again branches, and its upper branch is connected by a
cross-vein with the upper main branch of the sector, so that
there is enclosed an elongated cell, very acute basally, obliquely
T. D. A. Cockerell— Descriptions of Tertiary Insects. 383
truncate apically, and with its lower side divided into three
sections. The media and cubitusappear to be formed much as in
Panorpa, and are connected by cross-veins, as shown in fig. 4.
Their distal parts are obscured. There are two very strong
but short curved anal veins, running downwards to the lower
margin (much as in Aerope, but shorter and more curved).
Fies. 6—7.
Eomerope tortriciformis Ckll.
Fic. 6. Venation of hind wing, showing branches of radia. sector.
Fie. 7. Venation of costal region of anterior wing toward apex.
Venation of hind wings.—This cannot be wholly made out,
but fig. 6 shows the discal region. The branches of the radial
sector enclose a long cell much as in the anterior wing.
Hab.—Miocene shales of Florissant, 1907; doubtless from
Station 14, but the specimen is not marked with any number
or collector’s initial. Holotype in Yale University Museum.
This is one of the most puzzling fossil insects I have had
occasion to describe, but I believe it is correctly assigned to
the Mecaptera. The form of the wing, with the strongly con-
vex costa and numerous costal cells, is very different from that
of Panorpa, Bittacus, ete., but the isolated and peculiar
Merope, of the eastern United States, shows an approach to
this condition, the costal area being broad, and some of the
cells divided into two. On the other hand, the apical struc-
tures of the abdomen in Homerope do not resemble those of
Merope, but are even more simple than Avttacus, showing
resemblance to the doubtless more primitive condition found
in the Trichoptera. There is no particular resemblance to the
Mesozoic Orthophlebide.
Handlirsch divides the modern Mecaptera or Panorpatee into
four families: Bittacuside, Panorpide, Meropide, Boreide.
B84 ZT. D. A. Cockerell—Descriptions of Tertiary Insects.
If this is admitted, apparently Meropidee may be divided into
Meropine, for Mer ope, and Eomeropinee, n. subf., for Home-
rope, the latter being separated on the structure of the abdomen
and the venation of the anterior wings. It may be supposed
that these insects represent an American type, once prevalent,
but now reduced to a single genus and species, J/erope tuber,
Newman.
A New Type of Mecaptera, approaching the Nemopteride.
Kobanksia bittaciformis gen. et sp. nov.
Wings long and narrow, hyaline, with the apical half of the
costa fuscous; anterior wing about 16"™ long and 3 wide; hind
wing about 1Q"™ long and 2 wide.
mie. @ Anterior wing. — Costal .
margin of basal half of wing
heavy, faintly arched, with
several straight or very
slightly oblique cross-nery-
ures to subcosta. On the
apical half of the wing the
narrow area between the ra-
cous, and no cells are visible.
Subcosta straight, running
parallel with and close to the
radius, its exact termination
not visible on aecount of the
darkening. Radius perfectly
Fre. 8. Eobanksia bittaciformis straight, even toward the
CkIL base of the wing only half
a millimeter from costal mar-
gin, and terminating on costa a short distance before the
obtuse apex of wing. Radial sector leaving radius about 6™™
from base of wing, and branching after a course of about 3™™,
running practically as in Lettacus ; the lower branch simple ;
the upper running near the radius, and forked after a course
of 4™™ ; in another specimen the lower branch of this fork is
again forked. Media appressed to radius at base, and after 3™™
leaving it at a very acute angle, and having a straight un-
branched course, practically parallel with the stem and lower
branch of the radial sector. Cubitus small and weak, running
close to lower margin, and bending abruptly downwards to end
upon it, after about 4™°. Cross-nervures irregular and vari-
able, but more numerous than the Sttacus, especially in the
basal half of the wing. No anal visible, nor indeed is there
room for one.
Posterior wing.—Narrow, with two strong parallel closely
adjacent straight veins running its entire length, about two-
dius and costa is wholly fus-
we
T. D. A. Cockerell— Descriptions of Tertiary Insects. 385
fths of the wing above, and three-fifths below them; media
represented by a straight rather weak vein in the lower field ;
cross-nervures oblique, their more distal ends on the margin.
The type consists of a pair of wings; another specimen
(Station 13 B, Miss Gertrude Darling) shows the thorax and
Pie. oY).
Fic. 9. Eobanksia bittaciformis Ckll.
A. Diagram of wing of type.
B. Branching of radial sector in another specimen.
abdomen ; the head is missing. The thorax is about 6™™ long,
the abdomen about 13, the latter curved, and apparently formed
exactly as in Azttacus, although no details can be seen. When
the wings are folded backwards, the costa is downward.
fTab.—Miocene shales of Florissant, Colorado. A cotype in
Yale Museum. This remarkable insect seems to form a new
family (Eobanksiide) of Mecaptera. The anterior wing is
very like that of the Panorpids in many respects; the hind
wing closely resembles that of the Nemopteride, though not
so elongated, and without an apical expansion. (Some Nemop-
teridee have no expansion.) Mr. N. Banks, to whom I sent a
sketch of the venation, agrees that there is a distinct approxi-
mation to Vemoptera. Formerly it used to be maintained that
the Panorpids (Mecaptera) and Nemopterids were allied ; the
insect now described appears to lend support to this opinion.
The genus is dedicated to Mr. N. Banks, in recognition of his
labors on the Neuroptera.
Trichoptera from Florissant.
Phenacopsyche vexans gen. et upp: nov.
Anterior wing. 4 visible, the base
hidden), outer margin about 10"™, lower marein about 14.
Costa with basal half straight, apical shghtly arched; apex
obtuse, outer margin reoularl ly convex. Wing brownish, from
a rather dense scaling or pubescence, the apical part of the
costal region and the broad (8™™) outer margin darker than the
rest (possibly less denuded); veins dark brown.
3886 TL. D. A. Cockerell—Descriptions of Tertiary Insects.
The wing has an extraordinarily Lepidopterous appearance,
being very “much as in the broader- winged Noctuids, and even
more like some of the Hesperiids, especially j in the distinct anal _
angle. Regarding it as Lepidopterous, the visible portion of
the venation nearly agrees with that of Adoneta, except for the
Hires: 110; Iniiets Abi,
Fies. 10 and 11. Phedacopsyche vexans Ckll.
insuperable difficulty of two extra veins between the supposed
media and cubitus., Treated as Trichopterous, this difficulty
disappears, the supposed median cell being the discoidal, in the
forks of the radial sector.
The generic characters ascertained are as follows :—
Discoidal cell present, elongate triangular ; no median cell ;
radius (R,) jomed to first branch of radial sector (R,) Py
a cross-nervure, about 1™™ (on R,) beyond discoidal cell:
this cross-nervure (which is regularly present in Poe
and also occurs in various Trichoptera, as Mhyacophila,
Odontocerum, and Namamyza) the radius is bent a little
upwards, as shown in the figure. The five branches of the
radius, and four of the media, are all present, and consequently
the apical cellules 1 to 7, none being either absent or stalked.
ht, and R, leave the discoidal cell close together near its apex,
and KR, leaves its lower corner, being in a line with its lower
side. M, and M, are stronger than M, and M,, and appear to
form the prineipal branches of the media, M, and M, leaving
from an evanescent vein passing up from the media to the
radius. r. N. Banks, to whom I sent a sketch of the vena-
tion, ee on the apparent absence of the anterior main
branch of the media, which should go to M, and M,. I have
carefully examined the specimen, and although the main stem
of the media is strong and dark, I find no sign of this branch.
It seems as if it had migrated forwards, to form the vein leay-
ing M, for the bases of M, and M,, the latter being connected
at the base also (by a cross-vein) with the radial sector.
T. D. A. Cockerell—Descriptions of Tertiary Insects. 387
Apparently the genus must be referred to the Odontoceride,
but Mr. Banks intimates that this is hardly a natural family,
but “a sort of waste-basket” for things hardly fitting into Seri-
Fie. 12.
¢ stal margin
peas ar
Fig. 12. Phenacopsyche vexans Ckll. Diagram of venation.
costomatidee, and without the necessary characters of Leptoce-
ride, Rhyacophilide, or Hydropsychide.
Hab.—Miocene shales of Florissant, 1908 (Station 13 B,
Geo. NV. Rohwer).
Hydropsyche scudderi sp. nov.
Larva in general similar to that of Hydropsyche sp., figured
in Bull. 47, New York State Museum (1901), plate 15, f.3, but
much longer (length about 31™™"), though not broader (width
of thorax about 3™™), and with the thoracic plates much more
nearly equal in size, being, in lateral view, about as deep as long.
Head and thoracic plates strongly chitimized, of the nsual
rather dark reddish brown color; head 3™™ long and 2 deep,
apparently quite normal; abdomen visible only as a faintly
darker shade, of about the same width as the thorax, having
slight indications of dark transverse and longitudinal markings.
On one specimen indications of the branched gills, yellowish
in color, can be seen on the first three segments. The caudal
end is slender and produced, the caudal legs provided with the
usual spreading bunches of hair. No indication of any case.
There are two good specimens before me, one showing the
dorsal, the other the lateral aspect. Many others have been
found ; those in which the abdomen cannot be clearly seen are
curiously similar to Seudder’s Planocephalus aselloides.
fTab.—Miocene shales of Florissant.
Scudder is no doubt correct in assuming that the Hydropsy-
chidee of Lake Florissant did not breed in the lake, but in the
small streams running into it. During the volcanic eruptions
these streams may have been so heated that the larvee were
killed and then washed into the lake.
University of Colorado, Dec. 2, 1908.
388 BR. EF. Griggs—Divided Lakes in Western Minnesota.
Art. XXXIII.—Divided Lakes in Western Minnesota ; by
Rogert F. Grices.
No feature of the physiography of western Minnesota is
more notable to the casual observer than the large number of
twin lakes. Throughout Becker and Ottertail counties and
presumably over a much larger area a very large proportion of
the lakes are partially or completely divided by narrow necks
stretched across from shore to shore. This feature is very
striking to the traveler in the region, because these narrow
ridges cutting the lakes in two are almost always traversed by
the main roads, which thus connect the country lying on oppo-
site sides of the lake, the importance of the road depending on»
the size of the lake and the consequent amount of country
benefited by the short cut. These dividing ridges are ice-
pushed ramparts, features which, on lake margins, are well
known and have been fully described by others. But no one,
so far as the writer has found, has shown the possibilities of ice-
shove in building new shore lines and cutting up the lakes in
which it works.
The mechanism of ice action and its effects in building ram-
parts of sand and bowlders along the shore have been most fully
described by Bulkley (00) and Gilbert (90, ’08). Briefly it
is this: If the ice covering a lake is subjected to further
declines in temperature after freezing, it contracts and is broken
up by cracks running in every direction ; water from below now
seeps Into these cracks and freezes. Thus the shrinkage in
volume is taken up by new ice, so that when the temperature
rises and the ice expands the whole sheet must enlarge. This
enlargement causes the ice, carrying with it whatever bowlders
or other material it may grip, to shove up onto the shore if it
be low, or if it be a resistant cliff, to pile up against it, or if the
lake be long and narrow, to buckle up in the open water where
the major cracks due to lateral friction and other causes create
zones of weakness. The shove may be very slight in the begin-
ning but as it is repeated with every change of the weather
until the ice is broken up, its cumulative effects are so great as
to push up large ramparts of bowlders or to cause considerable
destruction along the shore.
A typical example of an arm of a lake cut off from the main
body by an ice-pushed rampart occurs near the northeastern
angle of Lake Pelican (fig. 1), where a small pond is separated
from the lake by such a barrier. This rampart, though very
narrow, stands quite high above the water and supports a row
ram)
of trees. Its back side slopes somewhat gently into the swampy
LR. FF. Griggs—Divided Lakes in Western Minnesota. 389
bottom of the pond. But its front slope (fig. 2) exhibits the
typical features of an ice rampart. It is built of gravel with
occasional! bowlders of large size. It is very steep and in places
the ice has shoved up over the bowlder front and cut into the
turf of the top.
Detroit Lake on the line of the Northern Pacific Railway is
- the most accessible example of a large lake with such barriers.
In this case the process of division is not complete and the
two ramparts form a pair of slender points stretching out from
the opposite shores. A view of the southern point is shown in
PiiGeaie
Fic. 1. A dividing rampart, Lake Pelican.
fioure 3. It is remarkable in its extreme narrowness. Though
nearly a mile long, it is hardly more than one hundred feet
wide at the widest point and the tip is so sharp that the
2xtremity is hardly wide enough for the feet of the observer.
The opposite point reaching out from the northern shore is
very similar but is not so long. The two are connected by a
submerged bar over which the water is so shallow that boats
can cross only in 4 narrow passage in the center. But there is
no channel across and the passage is simply the lowest point in
the continuous ridge. In character this point is very different
from such ramparts as that shown in figure 1. It is built of
sand and gravel from which bowlders are almost absent. It is
nowhere high or steep-sided like the bowlder rampart, but rises
scarcely three feet above water level.
In many respects this point resembles sand spits formed by
water work. The fine materials of which it is built and its
390 RR. FE. Griggs—Divided Lares in Western Minnesota.
extremely sharp point both resemble such spits. Its structure
and position show plainly, however, that water can have had
practically no part in its construction. There is nothing of the
V-shaped ridging characteristic of cusps built out directly from
the shoreline, nor are there any hooks such as are often built
by long shore currents. Moreover this lake has no currents or
waves competent to build such a spit. Its longest diameter is
less than three miles and there are no currents along its shores
except those due to local winds. Such waves as are raised by
the prevailing westerly winds are directly opposed to the
Fic. 2. Front slope of rampart shown in fig. 1.
building up of such north and south spits and, especially at
their extremities, tend to destroy them and scatter the materials
of the sharp ridge.
That water currents can have no part in the formation of
these spits is shown very clearly by another small lake some
miles west of Detroit. This lake (fig. 4) is completely divided
by one barrier while two others project from its shores. It is
so small that water work of any magnitude is impossible.
Indeed it is so small as to raise the question whether ice-push
could become sufficiently great to heap up the ramparts
observed. Such action is undoubtedly greatly favored in this
lake by the very slight depth which would enable the ice to
seize abundant materials for its work. It is known that ice-
shove is entirely absent from deep lakes, but to just what degree
extreme shallowness would favor the contraction and expansion
needs to be determined by careful field studies.
R.F. Griggs—Divided Lakes in Western Minnesota. 391
Even a superficial examination is sufficient to show that ice
is the only agent now at work in the formation of these divid-
ing barriers. It is easy to see that the effects of ice action on
such submerged ridges as that described in Lake Detroit would
accentuate the ridge and pile up the rampart till it emerged
from the water and formed a complete barrier across the lake.
It is not ditticult to see how such a ridge would be formed on
any shoal which the ice could reach and grapple, especially if
it happened to be located, as is very often the case, along lines
Gao
Fic. 8. Partially completed dividing rampart. Lake Detroit.
of the major cracks in the ice which tend to run from head-
land to headland because of the strains set up by the independ-
ent expansion and contraction of the separate bays of the lake.
But it is difficult to understand how ramparts could be built
out from the shore even along the major cracks where the ice
buckles up and forms high ice ridges, unless there were a shal-
low place in the beginning. But though these lakes are shallow
as lakes go, areas shallow enough to be reached even by the very
thick ice of the Minnesota winter are by no means abundant.
Though it be demonstrated that ice is responsible for accentuat-
ing and extending these ridges after they reach a certain point
in their history, it is a question how much of their formation
may be assigned to thisagency and how much must be attributed
to the original irregularities of the lakes, such as lines of moraine
crossing them. This question can only be answered by extended
field study in the region conducted during the winter, when the
ice may be seen at work and its actual effects determined.
But while it may be difficult to explain the division of large
lakes completely by ice action, it is evident that the cutting off
of small ponds and swamps from the main body of the lake is
392 R. FE. Griggs—Divided Lakes in Western Minnesota.
entirely explicable on this basis. Though such cases are less
striking than the larger ramparts such as that in Lake Detroit,
they are very much more numerous. Almost every large lake
in the region has several sloughs cut off by ice ramparts.
The effect of the formation of ice barriers across the bays
of a lake is very marked on the later history of the lake. The
primary effect is to dredge out the shallows to clean out the
Ines, ab
Fic. 4. Small lake with three ramparts.
advancing marsh vegetation and to pile up steep banks, thus
enlarging the lake and counteracting the most potent agencies
tending to fill it up. But when the barriers are thrown across
so as to divide the lake into small parts, secondary effects
appear which reverse the primary. As the reaches of water
over which the wind sweeps are reduced, the consequent erosive
action of waves on the shores is lessened and transportation
by long shore currents is checked. This greatly accelerates
the filling up of the lake by favoring the growth of vegetation
in its shallow water. This is so marked that it is difficult to
find such a bay which is not already far along toward extine-
tion. Most of them are so choked with vegetation that though
their character is plainly evident on inspection it cannot be
made to appear in a photograph such as figure 1. It is obvious
that in regions where its action is well developed ice-shove is
to be reckoned as an indirect aggradational factor of first impor-
tance. .
Literature cited.
Bulkley, E. R., Ice Ramparts. Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci., Arts and Letters,
xii, pp. 141-157, 1900.
Gilbert, G. K., Lake Bonneville. U.S. G.S. Monogr. 1, p. 57, 1890.
, Lake Ramparts. Bull. Sierra Club, vi, pp. 225-284, 1908.
Columbus, Ohio, Feb., 1909.
Mixter—FHleat of Formation of Titanium Dioxide. 398
Arr. XXXIV.—The Heat of Formation of Titanium
Dioxide, and third paper on the Heat of Combination of
Acidic Oxides with Sodium Oxide ; by W. G. Mrxrer.
[Contributions from the Sheffield Chemical Laboratory of Yale University]
Tue thermochemistry of titanium is limited to that of the
reaction TiCl,+Aq—57,870° (Thomsen). As the heat of for-
mation of the tetrachloride is not known, that of the oxide or
acid can not be calculated. Good results might be obtained
by burning titanium in oxygen if it could be ground to a fine
powder. A coarse powder burns well in sodium peroxide, and
hence this method was used.*
The metal used in the investigation was made by Dr. M. A.
Hunter in the laboratory of the General Electric Company.
The specimen was in irregular nuggets, was malleable when
hot and brittle when cold. The density of a bright piece of
the metal was found to be 451 and that of the pulverized
portion 4°49 at 18°. Moissant+ states that the density of tita-
nium is 4°87. But the purest he made in the electric furnace
contained two per cent of carbon.
For use in the combustions the metal was pulverized in
diamond mortar and then ground in an agate one which it
did not scratch. It was impossible to grind it to a fine powder,
as some particles were flattened and others rounded. It was
assumed that the impurities adhering to the nuggets were
converted into dust by the grinding and also that the steel
from the mortar was dust. Accordingly the dust was floated
off in water and only the coarser portion retained. A yqualita-
tive analysis revealed no impurities in the metal. For a
determination of titanium 0°5662 gram was dissolved in molten
potassium pyrosulphate, the fusion was dissolved in cold water
and the titanic acid was precipitated by boiling. The titanium
dioxide obtained weighed 0:9453 gram, equivalent to 0°5676
gram of titanium or 100°2° per cent. The following are the -
thermal data:
1 2
Peat: ors eet es es 2°000 grams 2°001 grams
SSUCLEL il Sa eis ee eg ICO OR ps OOO.
podium peroxide _........22- 20 20 ee
Water equivalent of system-. 3,003 es 2,979 a
Temperature interval _-_-.-.-- 4°958° 4°958°
* The details of the sodium-peroxide method are given in the first paper,
on the Heat of Combination of Acidic Oxides with Sodium Oxide, in this
Journal, xxvi, 125.
He ty. CXX. 200;
394 Mixter—Heat of Formation of Titanium Dioxide.
Heateelfect, . 225 yrs a re taee 14,889° NOS
“* of oxidation of sulphur. —5,271° —5,271°
66 66 a3 6 ION 6—48° | 6—48°
<< * oxygen absorbed = — = —71° — 70°
9,499° 9,381¢
For 1 gram of titanium. .--- 4,749° 4,693°
The mean is 4,721° and for 48:1 grams of titanium it is
227,100°. The temperature of the fusion was above the melt-
ing point of silver and no metallic titanium remained. The
fusion, when treated with water, left a white residue which
dissolved on addition of an excess of hydrochloric acid and the
solution had the red color of pertitanic acid.
Titanic Oxide.
Titanic oxide was prepared as follows: The hydroxide,
purchased for the pure compound, was fused with potassium
pyrosulphate, the fusion was dissolved in cold water and the
titanic acid was precipitated by boiling. It was washed with hot
water, digested with hot ammonia and washed again and
finally heated to redness for an hour. It contained no iron,
alumina or zirconia. The following are the experimental data :
3 4 5)
‘Mitanie Oxide Mo Sie eee 3°302;er. 4-001 gr.” ) 2829 Ono
ce GT 3in RESIGN | 2. OOH & O74 OxiOs
cs Gr COM OUNEC ao | Swe Bong Sor
Su lp nur wees ae ere ies 1000" TOOO™ L:000;<
Sodium enoxade sss 16 ees 6 oO ieee
Water equivalent of system 3,081 “2,956 ceo O22 as
Temperature interval. ---- 2°417° 2°580° 2°536°
Heatietiectic.- 19.6 sarees 7,446° 7,626° 7,664°
“ of oxidation of sulph’r —5,271° —5,271° —5,277°
4 (3 66 66 1ron _. —48°¢ —4g°e == Ae
= oxy censevOlveda a= Bee: + 78° + 72°
2.127° 2,385° 2,417¢
For 1 gram of titanic oxide 655° 607° 625°
The mean is 629° and for 80 grams of titanic oxide it is
50,300°. The solutions of the fusions in hydrochloric acid had
the red color of pertitanic acid.
Since a pertitanate is formed when titanium or its dioxide is
fused with an excess of sodium peroxide, it is probable that the
Mixter— Heat of Formation of Titanium Dioxide. 395
same compound results in both cases. Moreover, it makes no
difference in the heat effect of Ti+2O derived whether we
assume the formation of Na,O,.TiO, obtained by Mellikoff
and Pessarjewsky* or Na,0.TiO,. Taking the latter com-
pound, the calculations are as follows:
aNa.Oy i= NaOMO. 7. oNa OF 422 22 2281 00°
Nene 3Oe=— 5 Na On fo oe See 58,200°
285,300°
Ne Or MOO: = Na ONO, 222... 69,700°
ite. 20 — MO u(amorphous) -- 2202 22. 2. = 215,600°
Neo iO = IN a OPNi@) Abs a ee 28 2) 50,8008
INDO} Ov NO On te eee ek ce 19,400°
Nase) iO -O = Na,OViOD 22252. - 69,700°
The large heat of formation of titanium dioxide was to be
expected because of the difficulty of reducing the oxide to the
metal. The heat of combination of TiO, or TiO, with Na,O
cannot be calculated from the experimental results, but it is
less than that of silicon dioxide.
Lead.
Lead, in a finely divided form for the work, was obtained by
scraping a revolving cylinder of the metal with a thin tool.
The experimental data were as follows:
CEO ls oe Os ox ticles memes ae eo es tem 290 grams
prea UMC eens 2, Rye eee ee a Oa
See UTM OMe ets oh et oils eens LO-OGie
Sal ibige oats Spee 1 oe
Podium, peroxides 6. 2 Pie es) 20 os
Water equivalent of system _..---- 3,982 oP
P®emperature interval... 22-2 2. 2- 28229
Peat mObsenvede moet lh Maye
‘¢ of oxidation of sulphur.-.-_-. Oy etl
66 79 66 66 iron eh, Soa ie eae a —48°
Sa OXY CCM ADSOr Meda w sya es — 62°
5,856°
Bor loram:Omtlead’ a2 522s he 307°
wa AN) ets FNS gee ee 63,500°
* Ber. d. deutsch. chem. Gesell., xxxi, 953.
396 Miaxter
Heat of Lormation of Titanium Dioxide.
The fusion was yellow and it yielded to hot water a little
sodium plumbate. The insoluble yellowish brown powder left
by the water liberated chlorine from hydrochloric acid—a
proof of the presence of peroxide.
The heat of Pb.O=50°3 is Thomsen’s. Tscheltzow* found
for PbO.O=12'1, hence Pb.2O=62°4, which is used in the
following calculation :
2Na,0.-+ Pb =.Na,PbO,+ Na,O 4+ 22 2 63;500:
2Na,O + 20 — 2Na,0,+ ...- nlc ene eee 38,800°
2Na, ‘O 20-2 seb = Na, PbO, + 222. --2 1023005
Pb i 90° RbO Se ea se eee 62,4008
9Na,O + PhO, = Na. PbO,+ .~..2.- 222 * 39g.
As the fusion in the foregoing experiment yielded a mixture:
of lead oxides, it seemed best to use lead dioxide in place of
the metal. For this purpose the dioxide was made by acting
on lead acetate with a hypochlorite and also by treating red
lead with nitric acid, but the products were not pure enough
for the purpose. Accordingly dioxide was prepared by elec-
trolyzing a saturated solution of lead nitrate in dilute nitric
acid. It was washed, dried, pulverized, and washed again to
remove adhering nitrate. Finally the lead dioxide was neated
to 280° until the weight was constant, and as it still retained
water the temperature was raised until some red lead formed on
the bottom of the beaker containing it. The composition of
the product was as follows: PbO,, 93:7; PbO, 6-0; H,O, 0°3 per
cent. The correction for lead oxide and water would be small
and was not made in the following experiments:
2 3
Headwdioxidex= => as saa ese 20 grams 20. grams
Sul phutic ss a es eres 2 is 1°5 a8
SOdium| peroxides.) = 2s: 25 a 15 =
Water equivalent of system_- 4,018 ss 4,090
Temperature interval ._-_---- 3°418° 2°658°
MeatcObsenVve dene =e 13,733° 10,871°
‘“‘ of oxidation of sulphur 16, 542° --7,906°
ce 66 ce (5 iron tie ” 48° == ASE
<<“ oxygen evolved =-:. + 151° + 260°
3,294° 3,177°
For 1 gram of lead dioxide.. 165° ee
The mean is 162° for 1 gram of lead dioxide and for 238-9
grams it is 38,700°, which agrees well with the result of experi-
a2 (On line (Oy Ala aye)
Mixter— Heat of Formation of Titanium Dioxide. 397
ment 1. The fusion of 2 when treated with hot water left
lead oxide and but little dioxide, while in 38, where less sodium
peroxide was used, considerable lead dioxide remained. These
facts indicate that the lead dioxide which separates on the
hydrolysis of sodium plumbate is reduced to oxide by sodium
peroxide in the presence of water. The following results
support this view: a mixture of the two oxides was placed in
cold water and the whole was heated. The solution contained
lead, but gave no chlorine after adding hydrochloric acid and
warming. A fusion of equal parts of lead and sodium per-
oxide left, after exhausting with water, lead dioxide, while when
two parts sodium peroxide were taken the insoluble residue
was brownish yellow and contained but little lead dioxide.
The heat of hydrolysis of sodium plumbate is derived as fol-
lows :
_ Na,O.PbO,+ Aq = 2(Na.0O.H.Aq) + PbO, — Na,.0.Pb0O,— H,.O
15,500° = 223,600 = 13900 ‘68,400
Since the PbO, is in the solid state before and after the
hydrolysis of the plumbate, it makes no difference in the ther-
mal result if it first combines with water and is finally dehy-
‘drated. The hydrolysis as given above is only complete ina
large volume of water, since sodium plumbate is soluble as
such in a concentrated solution of sodium hydroxide.
Zirconium Dioxide.
Two experiments were made with mixtures of zirconium
dioxide, sodium peroxide, and sulphur. The fusions were not
good, and the residues remaining after treatment with hot
water set free chlorine from hydrochloric acid, indicating the
presence of a peroxide. The results were 251° ‘and 268° for 1
gram of zirconium dioxide, mean 258° and for 122-7 grams
31,700°. If the dioxide was all oxidized to trioxide 19,400° are
to be added, giving 51,100°. The only interpretation to be given
to the result is that the heat of ZrO, or ZrO,+Na,O is small.
Ceric Oxide.
But one experiment was made with ceric oxide with the
result of 94.6° for 1 gram and 16,300° for 172 grams. The fusion
was placed in cold water and after gas ceased to come off the
solution was decanted. When the insoluble residue was treated
with hot water much gas was evolved—an indication of the
presence of a peroxide of cerium. If 2CeQ, is oxidized by
sodium peroxide to Ce,O, 9,700° are to be added for the heat of
the oxygen taken from sodium peroxide. The thermal result
does not indicate combination of sodium oxide with an oxide
of cerium.
Am. Jour Sct.—FourtTH SERIES, VOL. XXVIL, No. 161.—May, 1909.
27
398 C0. Palache—Note on Crystal Form of Benitoite.
Arr. XXXV.--Wote on Crystal Form of Benitoite; by C.
PALACHE.
Tuer symmetry class to which the erystals of the interesting
new mineral benitoite belong could not be definitely established
by the forms hitherto observed upon them. Rogers* assigns it
to one of two classes, the trigonal-bipyramidal (Class 19 of
Groth) or the ditrigonal-bipyramidal (Class 22 of Groth) with
probabilities favoring the latter. Neither of these classes has ©
hitherto had a representative among crystals.
Crystals of benitoite recently acquired by the Harvard
Mineral Cabinet present a new form which establishes the
correctness of Rogers’ assumption of its ditrigonal-bipyramidal
symmetry. The form is the second order pyramid (2241); it
occurs on all the crystals on the specimen with distinct but
small faces which uniformly present a dull luster in striking
contrast to that of the trigonal pyramids. The lateral edge
between these second order pyramid faces is in most cases
truncated by the second order prism with similarly dull faces.
These two forms, characteristic for class 22, would appear as
trigonal forms in class 195 the fact that when a face of either
occurs, others are present of like quality and with six-fold
repetition, seems to determine the type positively. Although
dull the new faces gave distinct reflections on the goniometer.
The average of six excellent readings, 0001 to 2241, was 71° 15’.
The average of ten excellent readings, 0001 to 1011, was
40° 12’, a value just half way between those obtained by Rogers
(40° 10’) and Landerbach (40° 14’). Calculated from this value
@:¢=1:0°7319 and p,='4879. Calculated from this axial
ratio the angle 0001 to 2241 is 71° 10’.. The list of forms for
benitoite is then as follows: | :
Prisms: m (1010), w (0110),
DAL20).
Pinacoid : ¢ (0001).
Trigonal pyramids: p(1011),
aw (0111), ¢ (0112). |
Second order pyramid: «
(2241),
The figure shows a typical
combination. :
Octahedrite, a mineral not before recorded from the benitoite
locality, was observed on part of the specimen from which
natrolite had been wholly removed by solution in hydrochloric
acid. It appears in groups of pale brown crystals, combinations
of unit pyramid and base; the crystals are smail and present
facetted and curved faces so that they could not be measured
but chemical tests showed the presence of titanic oxide alone.
Harvard Mineralogical Laboratory, March, 1909.
* Science, xxviii, 616, 1908.
C. Palache and H. Ek. Merwin—Alamosite. 399
Arr. XXX VI.—Alamosite, anew Lead Silicate from Mexico ;
by C. Paracss and H. E. Merwin.
Ix this paper is presented the description of a monoclinic
lead metasilicate showing in form, habit, and composition close
analogies with wollastonite, with which it is regarded as isomor-
phous. This mineral was sent to the Harvard Mineralogical
Laboratory for identification by the Foote Mineral Co. of
Philadelphia, who generously placed at our disposal their
whole supply of the material. According to their meager
data regarding its occurrence it is found in an undeveloped
gold and copper prospect situated near Alamos, Sonora, Mexico.
The minerals making up the ore in hand are, however, with
trifling exceptions all compounds of lead.
The gangne is in part massive white quartz, in part a com-
pact gray, brown or black material shown by analysis to con-
tain quartz, the new lead silicate and either lmonite or
hematite, in varying admixtures. Interspersed through this
massive material are occasional
vugs lined with quartz crystals
and irregular bunches of the lead
compounds. Of these the most
abundant is cerussite in snow-
white aggregates and rare erys-
tals. Minute flakes of pale green
leadhillite were identified by
cleavage, optical character and
chemical reactions. Wulfenite is
also found, partly in orange-col-
ored crystals, more abundantly as
a bright yellow stain in all the other minerals of the ore, par-
ticularly in the lead silicate.
The lead silicate is in radiated fibrous aggregates of more
or less pronounced spheroidal form, irregularly interspersed
among the minerals already mentioned. It is snow-white in
the mass, transparent and colorless in the rare cases where tiny
fibers had been free to develop smmgly in open spaces between
the spheroids. There is a perfect cleavage transverse to the
fibers yielding a curved concentric fracture surface of pearly
luster which extends almost uninterruptedly through all the
individuals of a spheroid. The few developed crystals that
could be secured for study were minute—not more than 0°5™™
in diameter—and the best of them were but poorly adapted
to measurement, several fibers being generally adherent in
subparallel groups so that it was difficult to secure readings
Brest
400 C. Palache and H. EF. Merwin—Alamosite.
from individual crystals. The high luster of the mineral,
however, made it possible to cbtain readings from the most
minute faces and fairly consistent measurements were finally
obtained from six crystals.
Alamosite is monoclinic, the fibers elongated parallel to the
axis of symmetry (crystallographic axis 6). This habit and
the minute size of the crystals made it necessary to mount
them on the two-cirele goniometer with 010 as pole and the
orthodome zone as prism; the measurements and calculated
angle§ of the table are, therefore, given for that position, but
the symbols and axial ratio are for the normal position. The
position was chosen so as to bring out as well as might be, the
relation in form to wollastonite.
The crystals are simple showing the forms c(001), a(100),
6(010), m(110), v(101), g(011) p21), and 7(121). The ae
shows a typical combination in which the forms named, except
m and 7, are represented in about their normal development.
The relations to wollastonite are shown by the following
angles :
Alamosite W ollastonite
: : Ca 20 ane Oh SO. ene
some. Inne 1375 : 1: 0°924 1:053:; 1: 0-967
Angle 001 to 100= B 84° 107 84°30’
001 to 101 32 02 40 03
e OO1 to O11 42 36 1S} HH
ce 100 to 110 53 50 46 21
Table of calculated and observed angles of alamosite, with
010 as pole and 100 as first meridian.
Elements for this position : P.=1088; 9,=0°7315 p= ee
Elements for normal position: p,=0°672; g,=0°919; w=84 10
Calculated Measured (mean) No. of faces
p p p p
BAO SEIKO BO Oe 84°10’ 90°00’ 8
a 100, 00700-7907 00 (DX OKO S10) (0X9) 6
56 010 00 00 00 00 00700 2-007 08 6
i NOY 20000236 a0 00 00 36 00 iL
UO 2 OCs 30400 Dod) se OmOG 3
Ga Otte S4 A One 2e 84 10 47 29 6
p A21—60 114 3h 57 —60' 12> 31758 9
7 NONE 52 203 eae 52 10 34 18 2
Physical Properties:—Cleavage perfect parallel to 010,
therefore across the fibers. Specific gravity 6-488 +003,
determined in the pyenometer on ‘6% of mineral (Merwin).
Hardness 4°5. Luster adamantine. Plane of the optic axes
O. Palache and H. E.. Merwin— Alamosite. 401
parallel to plane of symmetry. Refraction and double refrac-
tion high but not determined.
Chemical Composition :—A small amount of the mineral
was picked out under the microscope as free as possible from
adhering quartz and other substances contained in the ore.
The absence of cerussite was proved by lack of effervescence
in nitric acid. The mineral fuses at 3 to a greenish yellow
bead, colorless when cold ; it is easily reduced on charcoal to
a lead button and is soluble in nitric acid with strong gelatini-
zation.
The analysis by H. E. Merwin gave the following result:
Per cent
Per cent Mol. Ratio ~ for PbSiO;
SG) cee eee meen od = 15 "348 21°32
epee rer ee Sy B18 2335) 78°68
Oe at) eS trace aera Sheath
FeO . BPN 2h 2 hime 33! "09 Jao peice
Residue* from EPbO. 53 pec, agit
Inso]. residue, quartz 08 aes Lee
99°94 100°0C
* This residue was lost after weighing and was therefore not determined.
The molecular ratio of PbO to SiO, is almost exactly 1 : 1,
indicating for the mineral the formula PbSiO,.
There seems little doubt after considering its characteristics
that alamosite should be classified with wollastonite. That it
is to be regarded as isomorphous with that mineral is, however,
open to question. In favor of this interpretation are (1) sim-
ilarity of chemical type and behavior with acids; (2) identity
of crystal system and habit; (3) close approximation in the
values of the angle 6 and in the lengths of the c-axes; (4)
similarity of optical orientation. Opposed to the assumption
of isomorphism are (1) difference in lengths of the qa-axes ;
(2) difference of cleavage.
The case is analogous to the relation of anglesite and anhy-
drite where, however, isomorphism is less strongly indicated
than in the present pair of minerals.
Alamosite is very similar in appearance to barysilite but
may be readily distinguished from it by its optical characters.
Harvard University, March, 1909.
402. C. Barus—Absence of Polarization in Artificial Fogs.
Art. XX XVII.— Absence of Polarization in Artificial Fogs ;
by C. Barus.
Tue astonishing feature of Tyndall’s experiment, made in
the usual way with motes of mastic suspended in water, is the
completeness of the polarization of the hght reflected or seat-
tered at right angles to the impinging beam. This is particu-
larly well shown with the double image prism, in which, for
horizontal beams of hight with vertical and horizontal vibration
beams and line of sight horizontally at right angles to each other,
only one of the beams (that for which vibration is vertical) )is vis-
ible in the turbid water. The other is quite extinguished while
lying in a vertical plane either above or below the visible beam.
In making the same experiment with dense fogs, I was
surprised to find an almost entire absence of this discriminating ~
character. Both beains are always in view and about equally
intense. These fogs were produced in the fog chamber with
phosphorus nuclei and were intensely luminous, with several
millions of water particles per cubic centimeter of an average
size less than ‘0001. Even for fogs so dense and therefore
so fine that the hght penetrates scar ‘cely 30™, both beams were
about equally brilliant. On examining the two beams with a
Nicol, however, they are found to be almost completely
polarized at right angles to each other; whence it follows that
the vibration, which is horizontal outside, has been turned
about 90 degrees in a horizontal plane after entering. In
other words, whereas it vibrates in a horizontal plane normal
to the observer on the outside of the fog chamber, it vibrates
in a horizontal plane parallel to the observer in the inside of
the fog chamber; or, while the plane of the two vibrations is
normal to the primary beam on the outside, it is parallel to the
two beams on the inside of the fog chamber. The beam with
vertical vibrations naturally remains unchanged. Finally, if
coronas are produced from a polarized source, they are found
to be polarized throughout all their colors and quite extin-
guished between cr ossed Nicols.
As the motes do not produce coronas and will not subside,
it is difficult to specify their size. But the marked occurrence
of scattering is sufficient evidence for the absence of regular
reflection. “Virtually at least, the particles are very small.
With regard to the fogs, however, even in the case of the very
finest particles, the light is still regularly reflected and refracted,
and not scattered, as in the first instance, to an appreciable
Saryon, Lale nee, for a line of vision normal to the primary
beam, the direction of vibration may be turned 90 degrees
par allel to the plane of the beam and vision, and now v1 ibrates
normal to the line of vision, seeing that light is not completely
polarized on reflection from a surface of water.
Brown University, Providence, R. I.
Chemistry and Physics. 403
S ENV Peers Nae GE N-@'E .
J. CHEMISTRY AND Puysics.
1. Prussian Blue and Turnbull’s Blue.—Many investigators
have studied the well-known blue precipitates produced on the
one hand by mixing solutions of ferric salts with solutions of
ferrocyanides, and on the other hand by mixing solutions of fer-
rous salts with solutions of ferricyanides, but the compositions of
the precipitates thus produced under varying conditions have not
been perfectly established. MUxivter and Sraniscu have now
undertaken an investigation of this subject by the use of what
appears to be a more satisfactory method than has been previ-
ously employed. Instead of attempting to isolate and analyze
the precipitates themselves, they have determined their composi-
tions indirectly by mixing known volumes of solutions of known
strength, and after analyzing measured volumes of the clear
liquids standing above the precipitates, calculating the composi-
tion of the latter. All of the substances were determined volu-
metrically by means of permanganate solution—the ferrous iron
and the ferrocyanide directly, the ferric iron after reduction with
zinc, and the ferricyanide after reduction with a ferrous salt in
alkaline solution. Several series of experiments with systemati-
eally varying proportions of the reagents gave satisfactory and
concordant results leading to the following conclusions: The blue
precipitates are all ferrocyanides, whether produced from ferro-
cyanide or ferricyanide ; the precipitate Fe’, [Fe’(CN),], is pro-
duced by mixing solutions of ferric chloride and potassium
ferrocyanide in molecular proportions > 4:33; the precipitate
KFe’Fe'", [Fe"(CN),], is formed from ferrous ge and potas-
sium ferricyanide in molecular proportions > 4:33 the precipi-
tate KFe'’[Fe’( CN), + K,Fe*[ Fe"(CN),] is pr oduced from ferric
chloride and potassium ferrocyanide in molecular proportions
<_ 1:1; the precipitate KFe’’ [Fe’(CN),] is produced from solu-
tions of ferrous chloride and potassium ferricyanide in molecular
proportions <1:1. It is proposed to study in the fature such
proportions as have not been included here, and also to control
the results by the determination of potassium.—Jour. prakt.
Chem., 1xxix, 81. Hs (Wie
2. The Chemistry of the Radio-active Elements.—The chemi-
cal characters of most of the radio-active elements are only imper-
fectly known. It has been found that some of them accompany
certain well-known elements in precipitations, while others vola-
tilize at high temperatures. Whether the volatilized substances
are the uncombined elements, their oxides, or other compounds is
unknown, while in the case of precipitations the phenomenon of
adsorption may play an important part in such exceedingly low
concentrations as exist in these cases, so that conclusions in
404 Scientific Intelligence.
regard to chemical relations must be drawn with caution. In
view of these circumstances, STROMHOLM and SVEDBERG have
undertaken a study of the subject by the use of isomorphism.
As an example of the behavior of normal elements, the following
experiments were made: To equal portions of a warm saturated
solution of barium nitrate, equal amounts of dilute solutions of
silver, mercuric, lead and bismuth nitrates were added, and after
cooling it was found that the erystallized barium nitrate contained
neither silver, mercury nor bismuth, but it had taken up much
lead in solid solution. From a similar series of experiments with
potassium nitrate none of the above mentioned metals showed a
solubility in the solid phrase, while in the case of sodium nitrate
a considerable amount of silver and a little lead were found in
the crystals. The authors applied this method to a solution of
Rutherford’s thorium-X, and found that this element is iso-
morphous with barium and lead, that it follows barium in its pre- ©
cipitations, and therefore belongs to the alkali-earth group of
metals. Similar experiments with thorium nitrate solutions gave
less definite results on account of the numerous radio-active bodies
present in such solutions, but it is the purpose of the authors to
extend their studies by this method to other series of radio-active
elements.—Zeitschr. anorgan. Chem., 1xi, 338. H. L.. W,
3. Lhe Hydrogen Silicides.—LEBEAU, in a preliminary account
of his researches on the subject, shows that the hydrogen silicides,
produced by the action of hydrochloric acid upon magnesium
silicide, are more numerous than heretofore supposed. Besides
the two gaseous compounds SiH, and Si,H, already known, it is
evident that a liquid silicide exists, and probably also one which
is solid at ordinary temperatures. Lebeau condensed a large
volume of the silicides by means of liquid air, then by allowing
the solid thus produced to attain ordinary temperature a com-
paratively small amount of hydrogen silicide, SiH,, free from
hydrogen, was given off, while a colorless liquid remained behind.
Upon fractionating this hquid there was obtained practically
pare Si,H,, which was found to boil at about —7° C. The liquid
silicide was obtained only in small quantity and was not satisfac-
torily analyzed, but it appears to be silicoethylene, $i,H,. This
unsaturated compound is spontaneously inflammable with explo-
sive violence when exposed to the air, and it is probably the
vapor of this substance which gives spontaneous inflammability
to the two gaseous silicides when they are not perfectly pure.
The solid substance was observed as a small residue which
becomes brown upon exposure to the air and thus yields silicon.
— Bulletin, IV, v, 89. H. L. W.
4. Determination of Boron.—Coravux and Boirnav have
studied several methods for the determination of this element,
including the extraction of boracic acid by means of ether, its
volatilization by means of methyl alcohol and its volumetric
determination by acidimetry in the presence of glycerine. They
find the latter method very satisfactory and particularly well
Chemistry and Physics. 405
adapted to the analysis of borotungstates. Precise details of
the method of operation are given, together with numerous test-
analyses which show remarkably good results.— Bulletin, IV, v,
217. iveelies Wie
5. Canal Rays.—J. Stark and W. SrevsBine continue the
studies of J. Stark upon the Doppler effect in these rays, with
apparatus affording a large dispersion (a Rowland plane grating
with a ruled surface of 816°" and 15,000 lines to the inch).
The observations are given in full tables, which give the fall of
potential of the dark space and velocity of rays. The fall of
potential at the cathode varied from 390 volts to 9600 ; the veloc-
ity of the canal rays varied over this range from 1:299°10’ to
1:760°10’. Much space is given to the discussion of the cause
of the variation observed in the Doppler effect, especially the
maxima and minima. ‘The article closes with a discussion of the
observed reflected canal rays, which give a Doppler effect, with a
cathode fall of 2500 volts. The reflection of the positive charge
of the canal rays amounts to 50 per cent.— Ann. der Physik, No.
5, 1909, pp. 974-998. Jin
6. Zeeman Effect of Mercury Lines.—P. GMELIN has studied
this effect with the lines of rare lengths 5790, 5769, 4916, 4358,
and shows how the strength of a magnetic field can be measured
by a determination of the Zeeman effect. The article closes with
the following table :
Classen (cathode rays) “= 1-776X10"
1
Bacherer (Becquerel rays) “= 1-730 10"
. [e
Gmelin (Zeeman effect) == 1-771 X10".
p
—Ann. der Physik, No. 5, 1909. ue ae
7. Presence of Rays of High Penetrability in the Aimosphere.—
The extension of our knowledge of radio-activity has led to much
study of the presence of y-rays in the earth and in the earth’s
atmosphere. Tu. Wutr describes an improved and _ portable
electrometer which is well adapted for the study of radio-activity
and he applies it to a study of the y-rays in the atmosphere,
finding a winter type without the midday depression which char-
acterizes the summer type.— Physik. Zeitschrift, No. 5, March 1,
1909, pp. 152-157. Seats
8. Use of Radiometer for Observing Small Pressures.—J.
DEssaRr states that if the residual gas in a radiometer is helium,
pulverized carbon cooled by hydrogen is incapable of lowering
the pressure so that the vanes will not turn, when the light of the
voltaic are is concentrated upon them. On the contrary, when
the residual gas is hydrogen the absorption of the gas by the
carbon is sufficient to cause all movement to cease. He believes
that a radiometer filled with helium will prove a useful apparatus
for the study of radio-activity.— Proc. Roy. Soc., London, Series
Ie AVOW AXNZIX, 1904 goee:
406 Scientific Intelligence.
9. Wireless Telegraphy and Telephony Popularly Explained ;
by Wattrer W. Massie and Cuarves R. UNDERHILL. Pp. 76.
New York, 1908 (D. Van Nostrand Co.).—This book is intended.
to be a simple, elementary exposition of the inception and devel-
opment of wireless telegraphy and telephony. The space devoted
to the latter subject is less than four pages. ‘There are a number
of simple diagrams and some excellent half-tone plates showing
elaborate apparatus. The book closes with a highly speculative
“interview” by Nikola Testa, in which a few of the wonders to
be wrought within the near future by the application of wireless
transmission are briefly outlined. By Bie
10. An Introduction to the Science of Radio-activity ; by
Cuartes W. Rarrery. Pp. xii, 208. New York, 1909 (Long-
mans, Green & Co.).—The author has “endeavoured to give a
concise and popular account of the properties of the radio-active
elements and the theoretical conceptions which are introduced by”
the study of radio-active phenomena. This work, as its title
indicates, does not claim to be more than an introduction to the
subject, and no attempt has been made at an exhaustive treat-
ment.” ‘The attempt appears to have been distinctly successful,
however, and the book is in many respects superior to others of
the same class which have previously appeared. The method
in which the subject is treated follows very closely along the
lines originally laid down in Rutherford’s familiar treatise, and
is frequently suggestive of the author’s familiarity with collected
works of this sort rather than with the original papers in the
literature. A notable and unfortunate exception is to be found
in the somewhat detailed discussion of the very questionable
results recently obtained by Ramsay in experiments with the
radium emanation. Bae
II. Gronroagy ann Naturau History:
1. Publications of the U. S. Geological Survey, GEorcE OTIS
SmirnH, Director.—Recent publications of the U.S. Geological
Survey are noted in the following list (continued from p. 86) :
Topocrapuic Atias.—Thirty-seven sheets.
Fouios.—No. 160. Accident-Grantsville Folio, Maryland-Penn-
sylvania-West Virginia. Description of the Accident and
Grantsville Quadrangle ; by G. C. Marrin. Prepared under the
supervision of Wuiii1am Buttock CLARK, codperating geologist.
Pp. 14, with 8 maps, columnar sections. 3
No. 162. Philadelphia Folio. Norristown, Germantown,
Chester and Philadelphia Quadrangles, Pennsylvania-New
Jersey—Delaware ; by F. Bascom, W. B. Crank, N. H. Darron,
H. B. Ktmuet, R. D. SALISBURY, B. L. Mitter and G. N.
Knapp. Pp. 23; 2 topographic maps; 3 colored geologic maps;
columnar sections and 21 figures.
ge
\ A | Geology and Natural History. 407
. 163. Santa Cruz Folio, California. Description of the
. >ASanta Cruz Quadrangle; by J. C. Branner, J. F. Newsom and
L¥/ Rarpw Arnotp. Pp. 11; columnar sections, 3 maps, II plates.
PROFESSIONAL PAPERS. SIN os 58. The Guadalupian Fauna ;
UG GrorceE H. Girty. Pp. 651, 31 plates. See p. 413.
Sa No. 59. Contributions to the Tertiary Paleontology of the
Pacific Coast. JI. The Miocene of Astoria and Coos Bay, Oregon;
by Wittiam Hearry Datu. Pp. 278, 33 plates, 14 figures.
No. 60. The Interpretation of Topographic Maps ; by Roun
D. Satissury and Watitace W. Atwoop. Pp. 84, 170 plates,
34 figures. See p. 265.
’ No. 61. Glaciation of the Uinta and Wasatch Mountains ; by
Watiackt W. Atwoop. Pp. 96, 15 plates, 24 figures. See p.
340,
No. 63. Economic Geology of the Georgetown Quadrangle
(together with the Empire District), Colorado; by Josian E.
Srurr and Grorcre H. Garrey; with General Geology by
Sypney H. Batt. Pp. 422, Ixxxvii plates, 155 figures. See
p. 408.
BuLuetins,—No. 353. Geology of the Taylorsville Region,
California; by J. 8. Diruer. Pp. 128, 5 plates, 12 figures. See
p- 412.
/ No. 354. The chief Commercial Granites of Massachusetts,
: New Hampshire, and Rhode Island; by T. Nerson Daz. Pp.
228, 9 plates, 27 figures.
No. 356. Geology of the Great Falls Coal Field, Montana ;
by Cassius A. Fisoer. Pp. 85, 12 plates, 2 figures.
No. 358. Geology of the Seward Peninsula Tin Deposits,
Alaska; by ApoteH Knorr. Pp. 769, 20 plates, 7 figures.
No. 359. Magnetite Deposits of the Cornwall Type in Penn-
\ sylvania; by Arruur CO. Spencer. Pp. 102, 20 plates, 21 figures.
No. 361. Cenozoic Mammal Horizons of Western North
America; by Henry Farrrietp Osporn, with Faunal Lists
of the Tertiary Mammalia of the West; by Wittram DILLER
MarruEw. Pp. 138, 3 plates, 15 figures.
No. 363. Comparative Tests of Run-of-Mine and Briquetted
Coal on Locomotives, including Torpedo-Boat Tests and some
foreign specifications for briquetted fuel; by W. F. M. Goss.
Pp. 57, 4 plates, 35 figures.
No. 365. The Fractionation of Crude Petroleum by Capillary
Diffusion ; by J. Extiorr Gitpin and Marsuatr P. Cram, under
supervision of Davin T. Day. Pp. 33, 3 figures.
_ No. 366. Tests of Coal and Briguets as Fuel for House-
Heating Boilers ; by D. T. Ranpart. Pp. 44, 3 plates, 2 figures.
No. 367. The Significence of Drafts in Steam-Boiler Pr actice ;
by Water T. Ray and Henry Kreisincer. Pp. 60,26 figures.
No. 368. Washing and Coking Tests of Coal at the Fuel-
testing Plant, Denver, Colo., July 1, 1907, to June 30, 1908. By
A.W. BEtpen, G. RB. Deramarer and J. W. Groves. Eps 23,
2 plates, 3 fioures.
408 Scventific Intelligence.
No. 871. Reconnoisance of the Book Cliffs Coal Field between
Grand River, Colorado and Sunnyside, Utah; G. B. Ricnarpson.
Pp. 54, 10 plates, 1 figure. .
No. 372. Bibhography of North American Geology for 1906
and 1907, with Subject Index; by F. B. Wurxs and J. M.
Nick LES: pei:
No. 376. Peat Deposits of Maine ; by Epson S. Bastin and
CuarLes A. Davis. Prepared in codperation with the Maine
State Survey Commission. Pp. 127, 3 plates, 20 figures.
No. 378. Results of Purchasing Coal under Government
Specitications ; by JoHn SHoseR Burrows. With a paper on
burning the small sizes of anthracite for heat and power pur-
poses ; by Dwieur T. Ranpati. Pp. 44.
WaTER Supply Papers.—No. 221. Geology and Water Re-
sources of the Great Falls Region, Montana; by Cassrus A.
Fisuer. Pp. 89, 7 plates. f
No. 225. Ground Waters of the Indio Region, California, with
a sketch of the Colorado Desert ; by Watter C. MENDENHALL,
Pp. 56, 12 plates, 5 figures. |
No. 226. The Pollution of Streams by Sulphite Pulp Waste.
A Study of Possible Remedies; by Earte Bernarp PHELps.
Pp. 36.
Minera Resources of the United States : 1907. In two parts.
Part I. Metallic Products. Pp. 7438, 1 plate, 1 figure. Part IL.
Nonmetallic Products. Pp. 897, 1 plate, 6 figures. Washington,
1908. The several chapters of this important work have already
been issued, in advance, in separate forms.
2. Economic Geology of the Georgetown Quadrangle, Colo-
rado; by J. E..Spurr and G. H. Garrey; with General
Geology by 8. H. Batu. 4°, pp. 422, 87 pls., 155 figs. ; Prof.
Paper 63, U.S. Geol. Survey. Washington, 1908.—While this
important work contains an extremely complete study of all the
different phases of the geology of the area mentioned in the title,
and a very full account of the mineral veins, ores and mines for
which the district is noted, and thus presents a great mass of
material which it would be impossible to adequately review in a
brief notice, probably that feature of the work which is of most
importance and general interest concerns the conclusions regard-
ing the genesis of the ore bodies to which the authors have been
led as the result of their studies.
Besides the sedimentary formations in the area which have
been metamorphosed into gneisses and schists, the great bulk of
the rocks are of igneous origin, intrusive in occurrence and due
to successive upthrusts of different magmas mostly in pre-Cam-
brian, but some in Tertiary, times. ‘The older these rocks are
the more gneissoid is the structure which they exhibit. They
vary from granites through monzonites to diorites. They are
cut by aplites and pegmatites and by later dikes and masses of
porphyry, bostonite, syenite, etc. In general, later than the
intrusion of these porphyries, etc., occurred the formation of
veins by deposition along fault fissures, which were also later in
Geology and Natural History. 409
origin than the porphyries. The mineral veins lie in distinct
areas or belts. The greatest contrast in them is offered by those
which are chiefly silver-bearing as compared with those which
are predominantly gold-bearing.
As a result of the investigation of the gold, silver and lead
deposits of Colorado two chief natural groups appear, those
following injections of a monzonite magma including a large part
of the mineral zone with northeast trend across the state, and
those which followed isolated local outbursts of magma of an
alkalic character. Both periods of ore deposit are of Tertiary
age. The ores of the Georgetown district belong in the former
northeast belt of which they are a portion. The gold ores are
pyritic; the silver ores are galena-blende. Areas covered by
the veins coincide with those injected by porphyry dikes and the
ore formation is believed to have immediately followed the
intrusions. The gold ores depend definitely upon magmas pro-
ducing one family of igneous rocks, the silver ores upon a dis-
tinctly different magmatic family.
Further study of the deposits leads to the belief that the ores
have been formed in the case of the pyritiferous gold veins by
magmatic waters given off during the pneumatolytic stages of
consolidation of certain dikes, due to the intrusion of alkaline
magma, while the deposition of the silver-lead ores has followed
in a similar way from monzonitic magmas. Since the latter
deposits, however, are the older they have suffered much erosion,
and in their present status represent the action of a secondary
period of concentration and enrichment from descending surface
waters.
In connection with this the waters of certain hot-springs have
been studied and, from their composition and the mineral reac-
tions which they produce, it is concluded that they are of mag-
matic origin. Many of the minerals which they form are due to
reactions with the wall rocks with which they come in contact
and thus wall rocks of differing composition have produced dif-
ferent sets of minerals. The general conclusion is drawn from
the study that the greater portion of the gold, silver and lead
ores of Colorado are of magmatic origin and this mode of ore
formation, that is their being due to emanations from i igneous
magmas, is one of first importance, in comparison with which all
other modes of for mation, save in the case of the most common
metals, shrinks into insignificance. LV
3. Geology of the Gold Fields of British Guiana; by J. B.
HaRRIson. 8°, pp. 320, 33 pls. London, 1908 (Dulau & Co.).—
While this volume is ostensibly devoted to a description of the
occurrences of gold ores in the colony, it is for the most part made
up of areport on the results of reconnaissance work following
explorations along several important rivers ; it contains in addi-
tion a considerable amount of careful, thorough and excellent
petrographical research made upon the rock types collected.
Especially to be commended are the very complete and accurate
analyses which have been carried out on a considerable number
410 Scientific Intelligence.
of rock types. It would be impossible in a brief notice to give
any account of the large amount of information contained in this
volume, mostly of a detailed local character, but those interested
in petrography on the one hand, and those who are concerned
with the ecomonic features, such as the gold deposits, on the
other, will find init much that is of general importance. 1. v. P.
4. Essai sur la Constitution géologique de la Cuyane hollan-
daise (district occidental); par H. Van Cappriir. tude pétro-
graphique; par KE. H. M. BEEKMAN. 8°, pp.177 and map. Paris,
1907.—This work contains an account of geological observations
made during voyages of exploration along the south bank of the
Corantyn (Corentyne) River and along the Nickerie River and
one of its branches. ‘The observations are necessarily confined to
a narrow strip along the route traversed. Metamorphic rocks
consisting of various gueisses, quartzites and schists were observed,
frequently cut by igneous masses, granites, diorites and gabbros
being most prominent, although other types of rocks also occur.
The author discusses the alteration of these rocks and also the
character of the soil formed, especially that of laterite. He de-
scribes the distribution of gold and its relation to the rock forma-
tions. The petrographic study consists of a description of the
mineral composition of the large number of rock specimens
collected, as seen in thin section under the microscope. |
While the work was in the nature of a rapid reconnaissance, it
adds considerably to our knowledge of a little known region.
Lie Bs
5. The Eruption of Vesuvius in April, 1906; by H. J.
Jounston-Lavis, Sci. Trans. Roy. Dublin Soc., Vol IX, Pt. 8,
Jan. 1909. 4°, pp. 139-200, pls. 111-xxil1.—The author, who has
long been known for his studies of Italian voleanic phenomena and
especially of Vesuvius, gives in this paper a general account of
this eruption with special details upon certain phases. Outside
of these latter, which deal chiefly with a discussion of the petrog-
raphy of the products of the eruption and of certain views con-
cerning volcanic action which the author has developed as a
result of his studies, the memoir furnishes an excellent general
description of the eruption and its attendant phenomena; this is
made graphically interesting by a series of plates reproducing
excellent photographs. In addition two maps add greatly to its
value. Lioay aang
6. Zext-Book of Petrology; by F. H. Harcu. 12°; pp. 404;
5th ed., 1909. London (Sonnenschein & Co.).—This ie volume,
which contains a short account of the general principles of petro-
logy, has been rewritten and given a general redressing by the
author. Since such subjects as the rock minerals and their
characters under the microscope, the physical characters of rocks,
their modes of occurrence and classification, rock textures and a
variety of others are dealt with in the first 150 pages, these sub-
jects are necessarily handled in a very brief and elementary way.
The following 125 pages are devoted to a general description of
igneous rocks, these being divided into the plutonic, hypabyssal
Geology and Natural History. 411
and volcanic groups, and again subdivided according to the plan
whose outline is shown in the succeeding notice. The remainder
of the work is composed of a description of the distribution of
igneous rocks in the British Isles. While the volume is intended
especially for British students, who may desire to attain a knowl-
edge of the elements of petrography, there are doubtless many
teachers of the subject in this country who will desire to acquaint
themselves with the author’s methods and ideas of this subject.
Lovee:
7. Classification of the Plutonic Rocks; by F. H. Harca;
Science Progress No. 10, 1908, pp. 1-21, reprint.—The writer
believes that the physical differences between the abyssal granu-
lar rocks and the glassy or porphyritic ones is so great that any
scheme of classification which presumes to be of a natural, as
opposed to an artificial, character must recognize this. Assum-
ing then that the plutonic group is a natural one, he proposes a
subdivision of it on chemical grounds, according to the silica con-
tent, these groups being again subdivided according to the alkali
and cale-alkali contents. In this the “ultra basic” rocks (peri-
dotites, etc.), are not included. This gives rise to the following
grouping, which sufliciently illustrates the scheme proposed :
Alkali Series Monzonite Cale-
Series alkali
F | Seri
a Soda Potash es
: Series Series
Series
Soda- Potash
ae Granite| Granite Pen Pe ae
SiO. >66¢ SUNS yh eee Famil Famil
m se Family| Family a. uae
Ne SFT
GRANITE FamILy
Tes oa Nephelite | Soda- | ae |
eee 2.) Syenite Syenite| ye | MonzoNnITE DioRiTE
ate Group) ~‘ (Plauenite),
E ,| Sub- Sub- FAMILY FAMILY
$10,52-66% Famil Famil Sub-
oa y| Family
Near eet 22 | pore,
Sunes FAMILY
Basic Nephelite- Essexite Shonkinite Kentallenite) Gaxnsro
Group | & eee emo |) oul: Sub- FamLy
810,<522 | Family |Family} Family | Family |
whee
| ALKALI-GABBRO FAMILY
L. Vv. 124.
412 Scientefie Intelligence.
8. Hlements of Optical Mineralogy ; by N. H. and A. N.
WINCHELL. 8°, 502 pp., many figs. and col. plates. New York,
1909 (Van Nostrand Co.).—The authors state in the preface that
this work had its inception under the impulse of a conviction that
English students and independent workers in petrography needed
a clear and systematic description of the apparatus used and the
methods employed in this science. They feel that the principles,
methods and data of optical mineralogy have not yet been pre-
sented concisely and clearly in any single publication and it is
their aim to supply this deficiency.
In accordance with this view the first chapter is devoted to an
explanation of the nature of light and such of its phenomena as
are of importance in this connection ; the second deals with the
elements of crystallography ; the third describes the general
phenomena of optical mineralogy and the apparatus used in inves-
tigating them from the petrographic standpoint. ‘These three’
chapters contain 100 pages, and of necessity, since they cover so
wide a field, the material is greatly condensed. It is illustrated,
however, by many figures which serve to explain the text.
The remaining portion of the volume is devoted to a descrip-
tion of all minerals which are important as rock constituents, or
which are sufficiently transparent to have optical properties,
especial emphasis in all cases being laid upon the latter in the
description. Numerous figures in the text help to convey the
optical characters in succinct form.
Whether the teacher or student of petrography decides to use
this, or one of the several other excellent works we now have, as
his main reliance in gaining a mastery of the principles of this
subject, he will at all events find this volume a most serviceable
handbook of reference with respect to the optical properties of
minerals. As such it will prove a great convenience in the
library of every working mineralogist and petrographer. |
| 1s Vieees
9. Geology of the Taylorsville Region, California; by J.S.
DittER. United States Geological Survey. Bulletin 353. Pp.
121, with 5 plates and 12 figures. Washington, 1908.—Little has
been published regarding the district in California between
Honey Lake and Lassen Peak, a region which has much of geo-
logical interest. Dr. Diller’s report shows that the “‘ sedimentary
rocks of the Taylorsville region contain a more nearly complete
record of the geological history of the Sierra Nevada than has
yet been recorded in any portion of the range.” Eighteen sedi-
mentary formations are represented: Silurian 1, Devonian 1,
Carboniferous 4, Triassic 2, Jurassic 7, Tertiary 1, and Quater-
nary 2; the Carboniferous, Jurassic, and Triassic being the rich-
est in fossil remains. In place of the single fault bounding the
Sierra Nevada farther south, there are in this district at least
three more or less parallel fault zones. The easternmost one,—
the Honey Lake,—presents an escarpment 2,000 feet high, com-
posed of quartz diorite overlain by auriferous gravel and breccia.
; Geology and Natural History. 413
During Cretaceous time, a peneplain was developed by erosion of
the Jurassic mountain masses. Hers G.
10. Explorations in Turkestan. Prehistoric Civilizations of
Anau. Edited by Rarnart Pumpe ty, Director of the Expe-
dition. In two volumes, 494 pages, 97 plates, figures 548.
Carnegie Institution, Washington, 1908.—The results of the
expedition of 1904 fully justify the expense and the time required
for preparation of results; the two volumes, in fact, constitute
perhaps the most exhaustive study of deserts, desert. relations,
and the influence of arid environments ever published. In addi-
tion to the studies of the director of the expedition, contribu-
tions from the following authors are included : Hubert Schmidt ;
Homer H. Kidder; Ellsworth Huntington; F. A. Gooch; R.
Welles Pumpelly ; J. Ulrich Duerst ; G. Sergi; Th. Mollison ;
H. C. Schellenberg ; Langdon Warner. The more strictly physio-
graphic parts are the following: Ancient Anau and the Oasis-
World, pp. 3-80; Physiography of Central Asian Deserts and
Oases, pp. 243-337.
11. Glacial Bowlders in the Blaini Formation, India ; by
Sir T. H. Hottann. Records of the Geological Survey of india,
vol. xxxvil, part i, pp. 129-135. Calcutta, 1908.—The Blaini
group of the Punjab, described by Medlicott in 1864, was
assumed by Oldham (Records of the Geological Survey of India,
vol. xx) to be of glacial origin, although definite proof was not
forthcoming. Unmistakable glacial bowlders, recently found in
this formation, are described by T. H. Holland. In connection.
with the announcement of this discovery, Dr. Holland takes
occasion to discuss the age of these beds, which he no longer
considers to be Permian, since it is not necessary to correlate
them with the deposits of the Talchir (upper Carboniferous)
glaciation in. peninsular India. This conclusion clears up many
difficulties in Indian stratigraphy and makes it possible to group
the unfossiliferous systems of the outer Himalayas, and those of
pre-Talchir (pre-upper Paleozoic) and post-Dharwar (post-Huro-
nian) age in the peninsula of India. These formations, for which
the name Purana has been suggested, are considered wholly or
in part pre-Cambrian. H. E. G.
12. The Guadalupian Fauna; by Grorere H. Girry. Prof.
Paper 58, U.S. Geol. Surv. 1908 [Feb. 1909], pp. 651, pls. 31.—
This extensive and very valuable monograph of the Permian
or Guadalupian faunas of southeastern New Mexico and south-
-western Texas describes in great detail 326 species, of which
about 220 are specifically determined. Nearly all the species are
new and the various biota are strikingly different from any other
American late Paleozoic formations. In fact the author finds it
very difficult to compare the Guadalupian faunas with any other
because they maintain a highly individual facies. The only com-
parisons that can be made, and these but sparingly, are with the
Am. Jour. Sc1.—Fourts Series, Vou. XXVII, No. 161.—May, 1909.
28
414 Scientific Intelligence.
Fusulina limestone of Sicily and the Salt Range and Himalaya
of India. No comparison at all can be made with those of the
Mississippi Valley, for the oldest part of the Guadalupian is
younger than any part of the Kansas “ Permian.” ‘‘ Probably
the best correlation is that of the Guadalupian on one hand with
the Artinsk and Permian on the other” (p. 40). “It would be
unwise at present to correlate the Guadalupian series with any
definite stage of the Russian section” (p. 41).
The Guadalupian faunas consist essentially. of Protozoa (9),
Sponges (24), Bryozoa (44), Brachiopoda (128), Pelecypoda (45),
and Gasteropoda (42). The more characteristic elements are the
large and very abundant Fusulina elongata, of brachiopods
Geyerella (1 species), Richthofenia (1), Leptodus or Lyttonia
(2), Awlosteges (5), Productus (25), Pugnax (12), Spiriferina (9),
Dielasma (5), Dielasmina (2), Notothyris (3) and Heterelasma
(2). The Mesozoic bivalve genus Camptonectes seems also to be
present. : 2
The new genera are, of sponges Anthracosycon, Virgula,
Pseudovirgula, Siromatidium, Guadalupia, Polysiphon, Cysto-
thalamia ; a supposed cystid, Coenocystis ; of brachiopods, Heter-
elasma ; the pelecypod Protreie; the cephalopod Peritrochia
and the trilobite Anisopyge.
We have in this book a valuable contribution to Permian
faunas, but as the life is that of a distinct province harmonizing
best with those of subtropical waters, there is not much guidance
to be derived from it in ascertaining the exact time equivalent of
the “Permian” of the Mississippi Valley. €.285
13. Cambrian Geology and Paleontology. No. 5.—Cambrian
Sections of the Cordilleran Area; by Cuartes D. Watcorr.
Smithsonian Miscel. Coll., 53, 1908, pp. 167-230.—Here are
described in detail six extensive Cambrian sections ranging in
thickness from 5670 to over 13,000 feet. They are located in
California, Nevada, Utah, Montana and British Columbia.
Throughout the sections the fossils are listed and it is seen that
Olenellus has a range of at least 4900 feet. One of the interest-
ing facts is the recording in the Pacific province of the genus
Holmia, one that is usually regarded as diagnostic of the Atlantic
province. Billingsella coloradoensis ranges throughout the Middle
Cambrian into the Upper Cambrian. ‘The paper is illustrated by
many half-tones of these the finest Cambrian sections. C. 8.
14. Mount Stephen Rocks and Fossils ; by Cuaries D. Watx-
corr. Alpine Club of Canada, Calgary, Alberta, Sept. 1908, pp.
232-248, plates 8.—The author describes in this paper the great
Cambrian section, Mount Stephen, at Field on the line of the
Canadian Pacific railway. Any one collecting the fine Middle
Cambrian fossils first noted by Rominger will want this pam-
phlet as his guide to the locality and for the determination of his
fossils. | C58.
Geology and Natural Mistory. 415.
15. Devonian Fishes of Iowa; by Cuartes R. Eastman.
Annual Report, Iowa Geological Survey, Vol. XVIII, pp. 29-386,
pls. i-xvi and 41 text figures. 1907.—This is a very exhaustive
work on the Devonian Fishes, not only of Iowa but also of the
North American Devonian, while the fishes of Great Britain and
Kurope are of necessity treated for comparison. Chapter I is of
an introductory character, in which the author discusses the aim
and general outlook of paleontological inquiry, and the relations
of paleichthyology to biology. Chapter II is geological and in’
it is considered the stratigraphy of the Devonian fish-bearing
beds of Iowa, which form a belt averaging fifty miles in width,
stretching along the Cedar river from the Minnesota line to Mus-
catine County and thence eastward into Illinois.
The Devonian fauna of the state is peculiar in its undiversified
character, consisting almost exclusively of Chimzeroids, Arthro-
dires and Lung fishes ; there being a notable dearth of Selachians
and but one certainly recognized genus of Crossopterygians.
The fish-bearing stages are confined to the Middle and Upper
Deyonian, their greatest abundance being during the latter period.
In his discussion in Chapter III of the evolutionary history of
fishes, Dr. Eastman denies the possibility of the derivation of fishes
from the Arthropod phylum, but finds no theoretical objection
to looking upon some of the worm-like Enteropneusta as the pos-
sible ancestors of the vertebrate stem. Documentary evidence
of this will probably never be obtained, from the impossibility of
the preservation of such soft-bodied creatures in the rocks. <A
further discussion of the main evolutionary changes of the fishes
follows, showing remarkably sudden fundamental advances ; the
‘expression points ” of Cope: such as the acquisition (1) of paddle-
like paired fins ; (2) shortened fin-bases but persistent heterocer-
cal tail; (3) complete balancing fins and homocercal tail and (4) a
complete internal skeleton.
The discussion of the general classificatory scheme includes a
tabular view of the classification to suborders.
Chapter IV discusses the systematic account of Devonian fishes,
with special reference to those of Iowa and the adjoining states.
Herein are carefully described and compared many species included
in 32 well-known genera, and several more, the family position
of which is doubtful. Chapter, V embraces three admirable
faunal lists; one of the Lower Devonian localities in New Bruns-
wick, Nova Scotia, Quebec and Aroostook Co., Maine; and the
Middle and Upper Devonian, both of which are included in
Iowa. The excellent plates are from wash drawings and
photographs and include three of Professor Schuchert’s paleo-
geographical maps ; that of Middle Devonian at the close of the
Onondaga, at the close of the Hamilton, and during Upper
Devonian time.
The work is a masterful one, written in Dr. Kastman’s delight-
fully readable style, and will prove a great boon, not alone to the
systematic paleichthyologist, but tothe general student of paleon-
tology and evolution as well. Bese las
416 Scientific Intelligence.
16. Der Unterkiefer des Homo Heidelbergensis aus den Sanden
von Mauer bet Heidelberg. Hin Beitrag zur Paldontologie des
Menschen von Orro ScHortTEnsack. Mit 13 Tafeln, davon 10in
Lichtdruck. Leipzig, 1908 (Wilhelm Engelmann).—In this vol-
ume Dr. Schoetensack tells the story of a remarkable discovery
and interprets its meaning. The find was made the 21st of
October, 1907, in a sand-pit near the village of Mauer, ten kilo-
meters southeast of Heidelberg. Mauer lies in the valley of the
Elsenz, a tributary of the Neckar. The human lower jaw came
from the so-called Mauer sands at a depth of 24:10 meters from
the surface and ‘87 meters from the bottom of the deposit. The
‘first 10°92 meters at the top of the section are composed of loess
which is classed as upper Quaternary, while the rest of the section
is lower Quaternary. The horizon from which the human lower
jaw came has furnished cther fossil mammalian remains including
Felis spelwa, Ursus arvernensis, Cervus latifrons, Bison, Equus,
Rhinoceros etruscus and Elephas antiquus.
The lower jaw was intact, but the stroke of the workman’s
shovel caused the two halves to separate along the line of sym-
physis. The absence of chin first attracts one’s attention. The
symphysial region is somewhat gorilloid, while the ascending
ramus suggests rather the Gibbon. The teeth, however, are. dis-
tinctly human and are relatively small in comparison to the size
of the jaw. I have noted the same phenomenon in a collection
of recent crania from Gazelle Peninsula, New Britain.* The
dentition of Homo Heidelbergensis represents a youthful stage in
the dentition of the modern European. ‘That is to say, in the
ontogeny of the:latter, a stage representing adult dental char-
acters when the race was young is now reached at the age of from
nine to fourteen.
The ramus is characterized by its unusual breadth, 60™™, as
opposed to an average of 37 for recent examples. The processus
coronoideus is exceedingly blunt and the incisura mandibule
correspondingly shallow. The condyloid process has a large
articular surface due to an increased antero-posterior diameter,
since the transverse diameter is relatively short. In general
appearance the lower jaw from Mauer resembles the restoration
by Dubois of the lower jaw of Pithecanthropus erectus, except
in the dentition, to which Dubois gives a more anthropoid aspect.
The characters in the lower jaw of the Neandertal race, or
so-called Homo primigenius, are well known through discoveries
at La Naulette, Spy, Krapina, etc. That the latter race is inter-
mediate between recent man and Homo Heidelbergensis, a com-
parison of the specimens in question furnishes ample proof. The
lower jaw from Mauer is, therefore, pre-Neandertaloid. That it
also exhibits pre-anthropoid characters gives it a fundamental
position in the line of human evolution.
The remains of the Neandertal race are found in association
with a Mousterian industry. The latter occurs in deposits that
* Amer. Anthropol., N. S., iv, 474, 1902.
+ This Journal; p. 475, June, 1896.
Geology and Natural History. 417
mark the close of the middle Quaternary and also in cavern
deposits corresponding to the base of the upper Quaternary. It
belongs to the latter part of the Riss glacial period and is known
to extend well into the Riss-Wiirm interglacial, as at Wilkirchli
in the Alps. The industry of the lower Quaternary is eolithic,
the evolution of the Chellean type not taking place until the middle
Quaternary. The probabilities are therefore that should Schoeten-
sack find any artifacts in the horizon of Homo Heidelbergensis
they will be of the eolithic type. Such a discovery would”
establish not only the identity of the maker of Quaternary eoliths
but would also help immensely to solve.the riddle of Tertiary
eoliths. G. G. MacCurpy.
17. The Commercial Products of India ; by Sir GzorGsE W art.
London, 1908 (John Murray). —This is an abridgment of the
voluminous work well-known as the Dictionary of the Economic
Products of India, published in 1885 and continued up to 1894.
The many-volumed work has been out of print for some time.
The recent increase in economic activity in all the educational
centers as well as at the points where raw materials are inspected
and appraised, has seemed to render necessary a revised edition of
this standard treatise. It was, in its former shape, a very
unhandy work, but it was so well filled with carefully prepared
material, that the inconvenience of its clumsy volumes was always
forgotten. The present work is in a very attractive one-volume
edition, with a lavish use of marginal titles. Although this sys-
tem of employing headings in the margin is most advantageous
from every point of view, both in leisurely consultation and in
hasty reading, its cost in the printing office has restricted its use
in most of our scientific books. In this volume, practically every
paragraph has been fitted with its appropriate caption, so that
one can run down the page with great facility. To illustrate
this, we may glance at Tea, taking the pages entitled History and
Early Imports. Chinese Records; Vegetable Tea (1. e., Tea used
as a vegetable), Use as a beverage, Imperial duty, Silence of
Marco Polo, Tea-drinking in China and Japan, First mention of
Tea-drinking in India, Story of Black and Green Teas, Chinese
plant in India, Taxation of Tea. By this method of indicating
the nature of the paragraph, it has been possible to fill the page
itself in the most economical manner. By a further use of a
large page, and thin paper, the substance of the many volumes of
the older edition, necessary for the student, is here given ina
most accessible form. The book contains with its copious index,
1189 pages of rather small type.
The arrangement is alphabetical after a fashion, that is, the
generic names follow each other in regular order, in their Latin
form, but mingled with these are the common names, in English,
of groups, such as Gem-stones, Live-stock, etc. The whole trea-
tise has received careful attention at the hands of the revisers, and
the subjects have been brought down to a recent date. For
instance, such authorities as Winton’s edition of Hanausek are
quoted. The work has a wide range, and necessarily so, since it
418 Screntific Intelligence.
is meant to exploit all of the commercial products of the Indian
Empire. Minerals, animal-products, and all conceivable deriva-
tives from plants find here a place and a proper treatment, under
an exhaustive system of note-filing. The author and his assist-
ants have laid under contribution current journals and news-
papers in a discriminating manner, so that every source of
information which is at all reliable has been made to contribute.
When one uses this work in conjunction with J. C. Willis’s
admirable Flowering Plants and Ferns, with its enormous array
of facts in regard to the genera and orders of plants, the study
of eastern resources becomes a true pleasure. G. LG:
18. Zhe Forest Flora of New South Wales ; by J. H. Marpen.
—This valuable work is progressing regularly, and has now
reached the third part of the fourth volume. ‘The descriptions
are clear and concise. The accounts of the technical applications
and possible further extension of these uses must be of importance
in the development of the colonies. The illustrations, to which
we have before called attention, are of a high order of excellence.
G. L. G.
Ill. MiIscELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
1. National Academy of Sciences.—The annual Spring meet-
ing of the National Academy was held at Washington on April
20-22; upwards of forty members were in attendance.
The folowing new members were elected: Joseph 8S. Ames,
Johns Hopkins University; Maxime Bocher, Harvard University ;
Oskar Bolza, University of Chicago; F. W. Olarke, U. 8. Geolog-
ical Survey; John M. Clarke, State Geologist of New York; J. M.
Coulter, University of Chicago; Henry Crew, Northwestern
University; Waldemar Lindgren, U. 8: Geological Survey;
Thomas H. Morgan, Columbia University; Henry L. Wheeler,
Sheffield Scientific School.
The following were elected foreign associates: Albrecht Penck,
University of Berlin; Gustaf Retzius, University of Stockholm;
Wilhelm Waldeyer, University of Berlin; Wilhelm Wundt,
University of Leipzig.
The list of the papers presented at the meeting is as follows:
G. C. Comstock : The nature and possible origin of the Milky Way.
H. N. Russetu: Determination of stellar parallax from photographs
made by Arthur R. Hincks and the writer.
C. H. Merriam: Strange ceremonial costumes of California Indians.
Mythology of the Mewan Indians of California.
W.H. Hotmes: Archeological problems of the Titicacan plateau.
H. F. Osporn : Discovery of a complete skeleton of Tyrannosaurus in the
Upper Cretaceous. An Iguanodont Dinosaur (Trachodon) with the epidermis
preserved.
F. H. Knowtton: Stratigraphic relations and paleontology of the lower
member of the Fort Union formation.
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 419
J. Murray: The deep-sea bottom of the eastern tropical Pacific, from
observations on the Albatross expedition.
H. B. Brg—ELow: The Medusz of the eastern tropical Pacific, from observa-
tions on the Albatross expedition.
EK. F. NicHoxts and G. P. Pecram: The radiation from gases heated by
sudden compression.
E. F. SmirH: The electrolytic separation of the chlorides of barium and
radium.
T. Gruu: The orders of teleostomous fishes (Pisces).
A. H. CuarK; The distribution of the recent crinoids. ;
EK. L. Nicwous and E. Merritt: On the distribution of energy in the
spectrum of the light from fluorescent substances.
W.M. Davis: A geographical excursion in northern Italy.
2. Allgemeine Physiologie. Kin Grundriss der Lehre vom
Leben; von Max VeERworn. Fiinfte, vollstandig neu _ bear-
beitete Auflage. Pp. xvi+742, with 319 figures.—Jena, 1909
(Gustav Fischer).—The appearance of this thoroughly revised new
edition of a standard work will be welcomed by all biologists.
Since the first edition fourteen years ago this book has occupied
the first position among the general works dealing with vital
phenomena, and its translation into other languages attests the
favor it has received.
The book treats of the subject of physiology in its broadest
sense—the manifestations of organisms, both animals and plants—
a subject to which the term biology is often apphed. The ground
covered is the common property of anatomist and physiologist,
of zoologist and botanist, of embryologist and evolutionist. An
historical introduction is followed by an outline of the methods
of physiological investigation. ‘The physical and chemical struc-
ture of the living substance, the distinctions between living and
lifeless bodies, metabolism, the sources of energy, conditions
necessary for life, the origin of life, the significance of death,
the reactions of living substance and of organisms to stimuli, the
mechanism of life, the mechanics of the cell, and the nature of
cellular differentiation are some of the topics discussed.
While the earlier editions have received the highest praise in
all parts of the world, it must be admitted that this new edition,
which incorporates the results of the most recent investigations,
possesses such marked advantages as to be well-nigh indispens-
able to the professional biologist. The speedy translation of this
edition into the English language is greatly to be desired.
W. B. ¢,
3. Man in the Light of Evolution; by Joun M. Tyrter.
Pp. xiv+231. New York, 1908 (D. Appleton & Company).—A
popular account of the theory of Darwinian evolution as applied
to man’s history, progress, and life. With little reference to
anatomical structures, emphasis is laid on the physiological and
psychological aspects of the problem, with special attention to
man’s social and family life and to his moral and religious
powers. The book is pleasant reading, and so little fault can be
found with the strictly scientific data employed that it can be
unhesitatingly recommended to those who wish a clear and simple
presentation of the evolutionary doctrine. W. R. C.
42() Scientific Intelligence.
4. Harvard College Observatory ; Epwarp C, PickERING,
Director.—Recent publications from the Harvard College Observ-
atory are noted in the following list (continued from p. 269): -
Annats.—Vol. LVIIT, Part “LIL ‘Observations and Investiga-
tions made at the Blue Hill Meteorological Observatory, Massa-
chusetts, U. 8. A., in the year 1905 under the direction of A.
LAWRENCE Rotcu. Pp. 147-228, 2 plates.
Vol. LEX, No. HI. Lunar Photometry and Photographic Sen- |
sitiveness at Different Temperatures ; by Epwarp 8. Kine. Pp.
63-94. No. 1V. Photographic Magnitudes of Bright Stars ; by
Epwarp 8. Kine. Pp. 95-126.
Vol. LXI, Part Il. <A Search for a Planet beyond Neptune ;
by Wituiam H. PickEerine. Pp. 113-162.
Vol. LXVIII, Part I. Observations and Investigations made
at the Blue Hill Meteorological Observatory, Massachusetts,
U.S. A., under the direction of A. Lawrence Roren. Pp. 92,
xi plates.
Circutars—No. 143. Stars having Peculiar Spectra. 28 New
Variable Stars. Pp. 4.
No. 144. Ephemeris of Morehouse’s Comet (1908 c.), for 1909.
Pp. 8, 2 plates.
No. 145. A sixth Type of Stellar Spectra. Pp. 4, 2 plates.
No. 146. The Constellation Camelopardalis. Pp. 3.
No. 147. Distribution of the Stars. Pp. 4.
No. 148. Morehouse’s Comet, 1908¢. Pp. 3, 2 plates.
Sixty-third Annual Report of the Director of the Astronomical
Observatory of Harvard College for the year ending September
30, 1908; by Epwarp C. PickEeRiInG. Pp. 10.
5. Publications of the Allegheny Observatory of the Univer-
sity of Pittsburgh.—Recent publications from the Allegheny
Observatory are as follows (see also p. 270) :
Vol. I, No. 10. The Orbits of the Spectroscopic Components
of a Virginis: by Roperr H. Baker. Pp. 65-74.
No. 11. The Orbits of the Spectroscopic Components of w
Herculis: by Roperr H. Baker. Pp. 77-84.
No. 12. The Orbits of a Corone Borealis: by FRanxK C.
JORDAN. Pp. 85-91.
No. 13. The Orbits of the Spectroscopic Components of 2
Lacerte; by Roperr H. Baker.
No. 14. On the Errors in photographing Positions caused by
observing through glass; by FRANK SCHLESINGER.
6. The Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences.—The following
has b en recently issued : Cold Spring Harbor Monographs, VIL
The Fresh Water Cyclops of Long Island : by Estaer FE’. Byrnes.
Pp. 43 with 15 plates. Brooklyn, March, 1909.
OBITUARY.
Dr. Persiror Frazer of Philadelphia, author of papers on
chemistry, mineralogy and geology, died on neal 7 in his sixty-
fifth year.
New Circulars.
84: Eighth Mineral List: A descriptive list of new arrivals,
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~ common minerals and rocks for study specimens; prices
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CONTENTS.
Page |
Art. XX VIII.— Weathering and Erosion as Time Measures ;
by I’. Leyvererr ool ees Oe 349
XXIX.—Chalk Formations of Northeast Texas : ; by Co Es
GORDON \. SE Oe Sei Oe ee eS 369
XX X.—Devonian of Central Missouri; by D. K. Grecur.. 374
XXXI.—Volumetric and Gravimetric Estimation of Thal-
lium: in Alkaline Solution by Means of Potassium
Ferricyanide; by P. E. Brownine and H. EK. Patmur.. 379
XX XIT. — Descriptions of Tertiary Insects, VI; by T. D. A.
CoCKBRELY 2 lo 8 se he 2 381
X XIII.—Divided Lakes in Western Minnesota; by R. F
GRIGGS 2 on es oe ee 388
XXXIV.—Heat of Formation of Titaniam Dioxide, and —
third paper on the Heat of Combination of Acidic Oxides
with Sodium Oxide; by W. G, Mixrer<). 2022.3 393
XXX V.—Note on Crystal Form of Benitoite ; by C. PALAcHE 398
XX XVI.-- Alamosite, a new Lead Silicate from Mexico; by
C. Pa.acne and H: EH Merwin... 22212 2) ee
XXX VII.—Absence of Polarization in Artificial Fogs ; by
CO. BARBUS) 5 oe 2 ee eae rae eS: 402
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
Chemistry and Physics—Prussian Blue and Turnbull’s Blue, MULLER and
STaniscH: Chemistry of the Radio-active HKlements, STROMHOLM and
SVEDBERG, 403.—Hydrogen Silicides, LeBEavu : Determination of Boron,
Copaux and Borrrau, 404.—Canal Rays, J. Stark and W. STEUBING :
Zeeman Effect of Mercury Lines, P. Gmexin: Presence of Rays of High
Penetrability in the Atmosphere, T. WuLF: Use of Radiometer for Observ-
ing Small Pressures, J. Dessar, 405.— Wireless Telegraphy and Telephony
Popularly Explained, W. W. Massiz and C. R. UNDERHILL: Introduction
to the Science of Radio-activity, C. W. Rarrerty, 406.
Geology and Natural History—-Publications of the U.S. Geological Survey,
G. O. Smita, 406.—Economic Geology of the Georgetown Quadrangle,
Colorado, J. 'E. Spurr and G. H. GaRREY, 408.—Geology of the Gold
Fields of British Guiana, J. B. HARRISON, 409, Eruption of Vesuvius in
April, 1906, H. J. Joanston-Lavis: Essai sur la Constitution géologique
de la Cuyane hollandaise (district occidental), H. Van CAPELLE: Text-
Book of Petrology, F. H. Hatcn, 410. — Classification of the Plutonic
Rocks, F. H. Hatcn, 411. —Elements of Optical Mineralogy, W1INCHELL:
Geology of the Taylorsville Region, California, J. S. DILLER, ‘412, —Explo-
rations in Turkestan : Glacial Bowlders in the Blaini Formation, India, T.
H. Hotuanp: Guadalupian Fauna, G. H. Girry, 413. —Cambrian Sections
of the Cordilleran Area, OC. D. Watcorr: Mount Stephen Rocks and Fos-
sils, C. D. Watcortt: Devonian Fishes of Iowa, C. R. Eastman, 414,—
Unterkiefer des Homo Heidelbergensis aus den Sanden von Mauer bei
Heidelberg, O. ScHortensack, 415.—Commercial Products of India, G.
Watt, 417.—Forest Flora of New South Wales, J. H. Marpsn, 418.
Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—National Academy of Sciences, 418.—
Allgemeine Physiologie, M. VeRworn: Man in the Light of Evolution,
J. M. Tyxer, 419.—Harvard College Observatory, E. C. PICKERING : Pub-
lications of the Allegheny Observatory of the University of Pittsburgh :
Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences, 420.
Obituary—Dr. PeRsIroR FRAZER, 420.
VOL. XXVIL | | JUNE, 1909.
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Arr. XXXVIII.— Quartz as a Geologic Thermometer; by
Frep. Eugene Wricut and Esper S. LARSEN.
Tue term temperature has been defined as ‘the degree of
hotness of a body measured according to some arbitrarily
chosen scale.’* It is regarded as a.quality which can be
indicated in a thoroughly definite manner in terms of the
chosen scale. Heat, on the other hand, as something which
ean be added to or taken away from matter, is treated asa
quantity, and the addition or subtraction of heat gives rise to
observed changes in temperature of a body. It is a fact of
observation that certain physical constants of matter change
slightly with the temperature, and these in turn have been
used to indicate the degree of hotness or temperature of
a body. Such temperature-indicating devices are called
thermometers and vary in type and construction with the tem-
perature ranges to be covered and the accuracy desired. The
most accurate method of expressing temperature is in terms
of the expansion of a perfect gas, and the gas thermometer is
the ultimate instrument for defining temperature at all points
of the scale. The gas thermometer, however, is less convenient
for ordinary use than other devices, and certain fixed points,
as the melting and boiling points of water and other chemically
pure substances, are first “determined in terms of the gas ther-
mometer scale, and these in turn applied to other scales as
standard fixed points. In ordinary thermometers, the two
points of reference are the boiling and freezing points of pure
water under normal atmospheric pressure, and the interval
between them is divided into a definite number of equal spaces
depending on the scale adopted, whether centigrade, Fahren-
* Preston, Thomas, Theory of Heat (second edition), p. 13.
Am. Jour. Sol.—FourtsH SerRizes, Vou. XXVII, No. 162.—June, 1909.
29
422 Wright and Larsen—Quartz asa Geologic Thermometer.
heit or Réaumur. For higher temperatures melting points of
pure chemical elements, as gold, silver, copper, ete., serve as
the standard fixed points.
Similarly in the study of rocks and minerals and their tem-
peratures of formation, it is expedient to choose and to deter-
mine certain definite points of reference which serve to
establish limits within which observed reactions must have
been effected. Geologic phenomena take place at different
temperatures, but at present very little exact information on
the entire subject is available, and in many instances the tem-
peratures are merely guessed ‘at. Direct tem perature measure-
ments are seldom possible, and even then only rough approxima-
tions can be obtained because of the disturbing ‘factors enter-
ing into the problem. Experiment and laboratory tests must,
therefore, be largely relied upon for exact data bearing on
such problems. Geologic problems are often complex and
involved and require for satisfactory solution evidence from
all possible viewpoints, especially data on the geologic mode of
occurrence and on the physical and chemical relations of the
rocks. The present tendency to consider eruptive rocks as the
products of chemical systems and rock-making minerals as
components of such systems or magmas, and, therefore, sub-
servient to the laws of equilibrium governing physical chemical
systems, is the natural result of applying the exact methods of
physics and chemistry to geologic problems of a certain kind
which have thus far been investigated in many respects only
in a general qualitative or reconnaissance way. The geologic
mode of occurrence of a rock or mineral is an exceedingly
important fact to be carefully observed, since from it the:
original conditions of formation and consequent history may
be inferred ; but it is equally important to test such inferences
and to render them precise if possible by using, wherever
feasible, the exact methods of attack of physics and chemistry.
For this reason accurate data, relating to equilibrium condi-
tions and stability ranges of different minerals and aggregates
of minerals over different temperatures and pressures, are of
prime importance.
To illustrate: crystallized calcium metasilicate (wollastonite or
pseudo-wollastonite) fuses at 1512°,* but at 1190° passes trom
wollastonite to pseudo-wollastonite, which on cooling does not
revert in the solid state to wollastonite. The temperature of
inversion, 1190°, can, therefore, be used as a point on the
geologic thermometer scale, for the appearance of wollastonite
in a rock signifies at once that at the time of formation of the
wollastonite. the temperature of the magma or solution was
below 1190°, otherwise pseudo- wollastonite, the form stable
*This Journal, xxi, 101, 1906.
en ta
Wright and Larsen— Quartz as a Geologic Thermometer. 423
above 1190°, would have been precipitated. Since the specific
volumes of wollastonite and pseudo-wollastonite are practically
identical, it is probable that the effect of pressure on this
inversion point is very slight, and can, therefore, be neglected.
Melting points of minerals and of definite aggregates of
minerals (eutecties), melting regions of rocks, inversion tem-
peratures of minerals and stability ranges for different forms
of the same chemical compound, furnish the geologist with
fixed points on his geologic thermometer scale, just as the
freezing and boiling points of water are the two standard fixed
points on the ordinary thermometer scale.
In like manner, experimental data may furnish points of
reference for, a seolosic pressure gage, which is of equal
import to the ceologist.
Equipped with a satisfactory geologic thermometer scale and
geologic pressure gage expressed in terms of stability ranges
of different minerals and aggregates of minerals under dif.
ferent conditions, the ceologist | would be in a position to
attack many problems which, at the present time, defy all
solution, Exact data of this sort in turn tend to act asa gov-
ernor on geologic theory establishing limits of temperature
and pressure beyond or below which it is not sate to assume
certain conditions; and at the same time they strengthen
materially the foundation of fact on which geologic reasoning
is based.
For such geologic aeaibiatric purposes, quartz has been
found by experience to be well adapted. It is plentiful in
nature and occurs in many different kinds of rocks. SiO, in
the form of tridymite melts at about 1625°,* while between
that temperature and about 800° tridymite is the stable phase ;
below about 800° quartz is the stable phase. rom evidence
thus far gathered, it is probable that pressure has but slight
effect on raising or lowering such an inversion point, and that,
therefore, wherever quartz appears in nature, it was formed at
a temper ature below about 800°. ‘
(Juartz itself undergoes a reversible change at about 575°.
This was first observed by Le Chateliert in 1890, who noted
a sudden change in the expansion coetlicients and circular
polarization of quartz heated to and above 575°. At the same
time Mallard and Le Chatelier$ found noticeable changes in
the birefringence at about 575°, and recently O. Miigge| has
*The Lime-Silica Series of ees A. L. Day and E. 8S. Shepherd,
Optical Study by F. E. Wright, this Journal, xxii. 271-273, 1906.
+ Vogt has shown that for a pressure corresponding to a depth of 100 km.
this imversion point would probably be raised less than 135°.
¢Compt. Rend., cviii, 1046, 1889; cix, 339, 1890; Bull. Soc. Min., xiii,
#12, 1890 ; xiii, 119, 1890.
§ Compt. Rend., ex, 339, 1890 ; Bull. Soc. Min., xiii, 128, 1890.
| Neues Jahrb. Festband, 18]- 196, 1907.
494 Wright and Larsen— Quartz as a Geologic Thermometer.
207
900
891
863
856
856
845
TT
@-ێ
.00880
863
898
TaBueE Ia.
835 |
859 |
I II Ili
W-E W-E @W—-E
"00809
806 | -00805 | -00761
785 798
781
762
776
T7123 761
765
766
G2
| 762
774
764.
761
776
765
762
aids 167
174 |
763
769 762
778 |
764
768 765
769
776 767
768
768
782 |
786
| 773
773
1
786 |
788 |
(87 |
, 789 |
774
780
787
(87
788 |
794 -
798
802
799
805
810
805
8038
815
761
787
795
Wright and Larsen— Quartz as a Geologic Thermometer. 425
considered the problem in detail, and by means of etch figures
combined with crystallographic reasoning has been able to
show that while the low temperature form of quartz stable
below 575°, and called by him a-quartz, crystallizes in the
trapezohedral-tetartohedral division of the hexagonal system,
the high temperature S-form, stable above 575°, is also hex-
agonal but in all probability trapezohedral- hemihedral in its
symmetry, the axial ratios of the two forms being, however,
very nearly identical. Practically the only crystallographic
change which takes place on the inversion is a molecular
rearrangement, such that the common divalent axes of the
high temperature 8-form become polar in a-form, and this
fact involves certain consequences which can be used to dis-
tinguish quartz which has been formed above 575° from quartz
which has never reached that temperature. At ordinary tem-
peratures all quartz is a-quartz, but if at any time in its his-
tory a particular piece of quartz has passed the inversion point
and been heated above 575°, it bears ever afterward marks
potentially present which on proper treatment can be made to
appear just as an exposed photographic plate can be distin-
guished at once from an unexposed plate on immersion in a
proper developer, although before development both plates
may be identical in appearance.
To corroborate the data of Mallard and Le Chatelier, and at
the same time to locate the inversion point more accurately, if
possible, the birefringence and circular polarization of quartz
were remeasured by means of a specially constructed thermal
(electric resistance) microscope.* For the measurement of the
birefringence, polished plates of different thickness cut parallel
with the principal axis were used and readings with the Babinet
compensator taken, both in white light and im sodium: and
hthium lights. The results of these observations are contained
in tables Ia and Id below, and are expressed graphically by the
curves I, II, II] of fig. 1. In Table Ia@ the results of measure-
ments of the birefringence in white light at different tempera.
tures on four different plates are listed. In each column the
readings taken while heating the plate have been combined
with those obtained on cooling ; ; these readings in every instance
were practically identical and indicate a remarkably rapid and
complete change at the temperatures of inversion and rever-
sion. In Table Id, column I, the measurements of the bire-
* Described in this Journal, xxvii, 42-44, 1909.
Table la. Birefringence measurements with Babinet compensator on
four different quartz plates at different temperatures in white light. In
each column the readings taken while heating the plate have been combined
with those obtained on cooling ; these readings in all four cases were practi-
cally identical and indicate a remarkably rapid and complete change at the
temperatures of inversion and reversion.
426 Wright and Larsen— Quartz as a Geologic Thermometer.
TABLE IO.
I a dell ee aD IV Neal Il TI LV
AR WE W-E | W-E | W-E ‘it W-€ W-€ @=6 W@—€
17° :00910 | 00910 | 504° 06825
29 | 00910 | 7 | 00828
33 | 00902 8 00820
59 | 905 16 821
Ti | ee 904 20 818
84 | 901 [e283 817
94; 902 27 817 817
“lel Tea 890 || 28 815 “00807
I) SN) | 29 804
27 | 887 || 36 811
45 | 896 | 39 810
AQ | 894 | — 40 | | 799
58 | 892 | 42 807 | 799:
59 | 882) 47 810
Wiz | Io Ho OO 805 !
83 | | 890 |. 66 795 |
85 | 888 | Neto 801 802
202 884 | 60 801 noi
9 | | 879 65 | 797
16 882 | — 68 792 794
31 | 883 69 790 | 778
34 | 883 7 . | 77
45 | 872 2 787 |
55 | tsar Ho 783 783 766 749
622-878)! 870 | 74 | 760 760 748
65 [Sas eae ys 761 749
83. | 873 bone iho 762 | 760" egg
85 | 874 | Ge | | 749
304 872 | 864-78 761 Weeourael0)
LOM Se RSi2 ® | | 749
19 | 864 | 81 | |, anu 749
24 ~=—869 | 87 760 760 fe aD
26 | 868 | | 88 | | 1 RP6OH
Bo | 867 = 857 90 | 760 | :
A2 | 864 861 | 92 | mec)
61 860 98 || 760.
63 804) 99 | ye 49
65 861 611 | 750 |
i9 850 Laas 748
88 854 | 26 761
99 855 | hee) 750
404 | | , 845 || 57 762
D | | 8950 | Wee Gea 762 |
Lelia 850 | 66 | ; 750
20 | - 8d0 | i\- 8t | 752
Bye) 847 | He) 750
36 | | 837 97 764. |
Aq 844 | | 708 | | 752
52 | utes 40) Wee eee 765
08 | 8388) 30 | 709
63 | 824 || 47 767
66 | 837 | |} 49 | 754
69 835 | 53 704
ve | | 836 | 69 754
78 | 834 89 796
81 832 | | 807 770
91) 829i esa0 We ZO 757
98 | | | S1Os|/ a el 758
500 | | 827 | 827) Naan 760
SMe tc PaT 4 || 65 761
Wright and Larsen— Quartz asa Geologic Thermometer. 427
fringence of quartz at different temperatures in sodium light,
taken while heating a quartz plate, are included; in column
II, the measurements at different temperatures made while cool-
ing the same plate, are recorded; in column III the readings
of birefringence in sodium light, taken both during heating
and cooling a second plate, are given, while in column IV the
results of birefringence measurements in lithium light, both on
heating and cooling a quartz plate, are included.
The most satisfactory readings were made in sodium light
and there the inversion point is sharply marked. In the tables
the actual readings of birefringence have been corrected very
shghtly to allow for change in thickness due to expansion, the
coefiicients of expansion normal to the principal axis being
taken from the table of Le Chatelier.* As a matter of fact,
however, the differences between the recorded and corrected
values are very slight and might be disregarded without sensible
error. On one thick plate (2°89"") the measurements of the
birefringence with the Babinet compensator in white light
were not satisfactory because of the disappearance of the dark
band at high temperatures, due probably to such a relation of
the rates of decrease of birefringence for different wave lengths
that the cold quartz of the Babinet could not compensate all
waves of the heated plates in precisely the same proportions,
and that therefore perfectly correct compensation was not to
be obtained. On thin plates this effect, which even in thick
plates is shght, was not appreciable.
The curves of fig. 1 indicate that on heating, the birefrin-
gence of quartz decreases gradually but noticeably; at 575°
*Loc. cit. The figures in the following table of expansion express the
expansion in mm. of a quartz rod 100™™ long; in column I, the relative
expansion of quartz parallel to the principal axis c are listed and in column
Ii the observed expansion for a rod normal toc; the values of the second
table were used in correcting for the change in thickness of the plate.
Temp. I II
270° 0°20 0°42
480 0°54 0°84
570 0°93 1°38
660 0°97 1°59
790 0°95 1°59
910 0°89 1:57
990 0-86 1°58
1060 0°86 1°50
Table 1b. Birefringence measurements with Babinet compensator on
quartz plates at different temperatures in sodium and lithium lights. In
column I the measurements in sodium light taken while heating a quartz
plate are recorded : in column II, the readings taken while cooling the same
quartz plate are included ; in column III the birefringence measurements
made both during heating and cooling a second quartz plate are given ; while
in column IV the results of birefringence measurements in lithium light,
both on heating and cooling a quartz plate, are recorded.
428 Wright and Larsen— Quartz as a Geologie Thermometer.
Greate
i=)
+—- | —— Res
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fo)
om
| | . : EL
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O So
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i 1r 1
ES Rae se
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ileal to
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38
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0080
Fic. 1. Curve I of this figure indicates the change in birefringence of
quartz with increasing temperature. The results of a number of measure-
ments of the birefringence in white light with Babinet compensator and
thermal microscope are plotted and curve I represents average values for
the series. The change at the inversion point is clearly shown. Curve II
indicates the combined birefringence observations on two quartz plates in
sodium light. The curve is exceedingly well defined and sharply cut, not-
Wright and Larsen— Quartz as a Geologic Thermometer. 429
there is a sharp decrease, while above that temperature the
change is very slight, the ‘birefringence increasing gradually.
The birefri ingence >for Li light appears to be slightly lower than
that for Na light, but otherwise its rate of change 1s approxi-
mately the same thr oughout the scale.—A bove 1000° the hght
from the furnace itself increases rapidly in intensity, and the
light from the sodium or lithium flame becomes rapidly in-
sufficient in relative intensity for satisfactory determinations,
and intense white light (electric arc) should be employed.
In 1890 Mallard and Le Chatelier* measured the birefrin-
gence of quartz at different temperatures by means of interfer-
ence fringes after the method of Fizeau and Foucault, and
observed a sudden decrease in the birefringence at about 570°.
For yellow light the following measurements (Table I, column
I) are indicated on the curves of fig. 1 of Mallard’s article.
Tascie If.
I iE
Temperature Mallard Wright and Larsen Difference
15: = ‘00917 "00910 "00007
100° = "009045 "00902 "00003
220° = "008865 ‘00882 "00005
535° = °008145 00811 "00004
SiO” = "00804 ‘00797 "00007
590° = "007765 00760 "00016
655° = OOUTT 00762 ‘00015
1060° == “00800 00787 "000138
Table 2. Comparison of the measurements of birefringence of quartz at
different temperatures by E. Mallard after the method of interference
fringes of Fizeau and Foucault with those of Wright and Larsen using
Babinet compensator.
In column IJ, the results of the measurements at the same
temperatures in sodium light by the writers are included for
comparison ; while in column ITI the differences between I and
II are given and show the relatively close agreement between
the two sets of observations, Mallard’s readings being slightly
higher, especially for the S-quartz. In his paper Mallard
gives a formula representing the birefringence-temperature
curve below 575° and also a second formula representing the
curve above 575°. His equations are of the second degree and
parabolic in nature, and represent with a fair deor ee Oi
* Bull. Soc. Min., xiii, 123-129, 1890.
withstanding the relatively large scale. Curve III represents the observed
birefringence data of quartz in lithium light ; curve [V, which is not so
exact in its definition as II and-III, indicates the change in the angle of
rotation of a basal plate of quartz 1™™ thick, with rise in temperature. The
measurements of the angles of rotation were less satisfactory owing to thick-
ness of some of the plates used and also the difficulty of determining the
exact angle of rotation in each case.
430 Wright and Larsen— Quartz as a Geologic Thermometer.
TasBLeE III.
17° | 21-71 | 24-71 | 1-71 + 21-71 | B17 | On 71 |) Oa 71 one Reaa
49 21-80
84 21-97
109 22°13
31 | 22-26
46 | 23-10 | 22-00
af | 22°40
76 | 29-10 92°40
84 92-53
210 99-67 29-54
23 22°24
46 22-760
57 22-96 | 99-34 99-97 | 29-88
" 29-54 29°33
84 | 22-50 22:87
312 | 22:80 22-39 | 23°10
a) 22-80 22-90
52 22-86 99-54
60 29:96 | 22:92 93-13
70 22-67
88 | 23°37
409 | 23:07 93:12 | 23:00 | 22:98
23 92-94
29 93-27 . 93°40
49 23-68 | 23:48 23-28 23-20
AY 23°53 23:50 |
"3 93-50 | 23°20
91 23-80
502 93°75 93-89 | 23°67 | 23-80 | 93°15 | 23°73
18 93°61
28 23°88 24°10 | 23°38 | 24-08
37 23°80 93-60 | 24:20
50 23-90
51 94°34
60 94:20 | 24-41 24:03 | 24:01 93°76 | 24:45
67 94°59 | 24:20 | 24:11 | 24:20 | 24:17 | 24°55
15 24°31 24-72 | 24:40 | 24:16 94:00 | 24:57
80 95°20 | 24:00 | 25:40
81 24-50
84 DARE 24:22 | 25:10 | 24:60 | 25°40
86 25°41 |
89 25°20 |
97 25°00 | 25:17 | 24°70 | 25°55
607 25-07 |
29 95°17 | 24°73 24-80
29 25°33
39 | 95°12
40 | 25°54
57 | 25°41 | |
67 | 25°47
84. | | 25:20 | |
107 | 25-41 | 94°70 | 25°52
200i | 24:90 |
Biel 95°69 | |
Fis | 94-80 | 25°50
70 | 24:90 |
99 : 95°54
809 25°95 | 95°24
2) | 24-80
50 | | 24:80 25°84
Wright and Larsen— Quartz asa Geologic Thermometer. 431
accuracy the general course of the curves. Equations of
similar nature have also been written down by the writers and
the agreement of the calculated values with the observed data
is fairly close, but in no case could more than approximate
agreement over the entire range of the curve below 575° be
obtained. Many equations were solved with a view to adjust-
ment throughout the course of the curve, but every formula
adopted proved more or less unsatisfactory at certain points
along the curve. It can be stated, however. that the decrease
in birefringence of quartz from 0 to 575° can be represented
approximately by a parabolic curve, while above 575° the
birefringence increases gradually and almost as a linear func-
tion of the temperature. A more detailed discussion of the
different formulas obtained and comparison with Mallard’s
formula is interesting but of little direct value in the present
instance, and may therefore be omitted.
The anole of circular polarization for different temperatures
was also measured by the use of the thermal microscope. The
results, however, are less concordant owing to the difficulty of
determining accurately the exact position of total extinction,
and also the difficulty of passing light waves through the plate
exactly parallel with the principal axis. Basal plates of quartz
of different thickness were cut and polished and the measure-
ments carried on in sodium hight.
To increase the sensitiveness of the method, the bi-quartz
wedge-plate* was used. The results of these measurements
are listed in Table II and expressed graphically by curve IV of
fig. 1.¢ It will be noted that although the general agreement
of single determinations is here less satisfactory than in the
data on birefringence, the average value expressed by the
curve [V indicates a rise of the angle with increasing tempera-
ture up to 575°, where an abrupt increase is observed, while
above 575° the increase is shght.
The determinations by Joubert and Le Chatelier of the
angle of circular polarization in sodium lght for different tem-
* This Journal, xxvi, 349, 1908.
+ The observed values of Table II and fig. 1 have been recalculated for a
plate 1™™ thick. The increase in thickness due to expansion at different
temperatures has also been taken into account, although this latter factor is
of minor influence and practically negligible.
Table 5 contains the results of the measurements of the angle of rotation
of different basal plates of quartz, calculated to the cniform thickness of 1™™
at different temperatures in sodium light. The noticeable lack of agreement
between individual readings on plates at the same temperature is due in
part to the difficulty of locating the position of total extinction accurately,
and in part to the different size plates used where in large plates it is hardly
possibly to preserve uniform temperature throughout the plate in such a
small furnace. The difficulty of passing the light through the plate precisely
parallel with the principal axis is still a third difficulty which it is not easy
to eliminate under the conditions prescribed.
432 Wright and Larsen— Quartz as a Geologic Thermometer.
peratures are of interest for the sake of comparison and are
included under column [ of Table 4. In the second colamn
the average result of the measurements of the present writers.
for the different temperatures is given, and a comparison of
the two columns shows agreement as close as could be expected
and well within the limits of error. The measurement of the
angle of rotation of quartz is less accurate at all temperatures
than that of the birefringence, and such close agreement between
individual readings cannot be expected, especially if plates of
different thickness are used, as in the present series of
determinations.
Tape IV.
Angle of rotation Angle of rotation
Temperature (Joubert and LeChatelier) (Wright and Larsen) Difference
ik ne
20° Qe yey Daleiyalhs 0°01°
100 J* 21°98 21°96 0°02
280 22°68 22°58 0°10
360 J 23°04 22°90 0-14
415 23°40 23°15 0°25
448 J 23°46 23°30 OnGiees
560 24°30 24°10 0°20
600 25°26 LOPLY) 0°06
840 J 25°26 Bese) wae
900 25°32 ee ge
1500 J 25°42
the angle of rotation of basal plates of quartz 1™™ thick at different
temperatures in sodium light are compared with those of Wright and Larsen
for the same temperatures.
The actual poimt of change is still] further emphasized by the
behavior of the basal crystal plates themselves at the inversion
temperature. In passing through 575° the optic phenomena
become temporarily disturbed and there is no position of total
extinction. As soon as this temperature is passed, however,
the abnormal behavior subsides and accurate measurements
can again be made. This effect, which is most pronounced
on thick plates, may be due in part at least to unequal distriou-
tion of the heat and consequent lag in inversion of one part of
the plate after another, while the optical effect observed is
that from the whole plate.—To test this behavior still further,
a plate parallel to the principal axis was taken and observed in
parallel position between crossed nicols. In this imstance,
however, no hghting up of the field was observed at the inver-
sion temperature, thus indicating that the change which takes
place does not affect the vertical c-axis appreciably, it remain-
ing strictly parallel throughout the inversion.
* Measurement by Joubert, Comptes Rendus, lxxxvii, 497-499, 1878.
Wright and Larsen— Quartz asa Geologie Thermometer. 433
The abrupt change in expansion-coeflicient observed by Le
Chatelier at the inversion temperature causes thick plates of
quartz to shatter more or less completely, the planes of fracture
running parallel with the unit rhombohedral faces ordinarily.
This shattering is so characteristic that it is pre actically
impossible to bring a thick quartz plate through the inversion
temperature, either up or down, without some cracking, usually
sufficient to spoil the plate for further use. Thin plates, on
the other hand, bend noticeably. Miigge* observed the tem-
porary warping of a thin plate of quar cal Sey thick) through
an angle of 3° at the inversion temperatu Above and below
the inversion temperature, however, e te: appeared per-
fectly plane, thus indicating practical identity of the axial
ratios of the a and 8 torms.
The above determinations of the inversion temperature were
made with a direct reading Siemens and Halske millivoltmeter,
the scale divisions of which registered temperature intervals
of 10°, 0-1 division being equivalent to 1° and the absolute
accuracy perhaps + 5°. "To standardize these readings and at
the same time to test the sensitiveness of this inversion in
quartz (which is exceedingly inert in its change to tridymite
and also to the viscous amorphous state), a quartz plate about
-28"" in thickness and parallel with the principal axis was
selected and its birefringence bands in the Babinet compensator
observed, while the readings of the thermoelement on which
the plate rested were recorded ona potentiometer.+ This system
was sensitive to temperature differences of perhaps ‘02° and
its absolute accuracy was well within + 0°5°. The point of
change was indicated in the microscope by a sharp movement
of the dark interference band of the Babinet compensator, and
at this instant the reading on the potentiometer was recorded.
The inversion, both on heating and on cooling, was observed
a number of times and the temperature of inversion found to
be remarkably constant and sharply marked. The readings are
included in Table V, columns I-IV. The greatest difference
in the observed temperatures of the inversion during heating
is 2 microvolts, or about 0-2°, while that for cooling is some-
what greater. Although the thermoelement readings were
expressed in microvolts, the equivalent temperatures in degrees
are listed in Table V. It was found that notwithstanding
differences in rate of heating, the inversion point on heating
was practically constant, whereas the reversion point on cooling
* Loe. cit.
+ The methods here adopied for the testing and standardizing of the ther-
moelements used are due to Dr. A. L. Day, and to him the writers are fur-
ther indebted for all thermoelectric measurements recorded in the following
paragraphs.
434. Wright and Larsen—Quartz as a Geologic Thermometer.
TABLE V.
Thermoelement of Microscope.
Temperature of change.
Freshly drawn thermoelement from standard -
thermoelement wire.
Bea Plate I. Temperature of change. Temperature
Cade ests cei h Quartz- Plate II. of
mae. Swaine Creer 3 in furnace change.
ae reversed. Quartz- Plate wee
Rate of heating Rate of Seeitne | 5
vee 2 2 | 2 2 2
Fast Slow | Fast Slow |Rising & Falling ¢ Rising Falling ¢ Rising & eee
5768 | 576-7 | 5749 | 575-2 578-7 feo sl578-4 fib724 Ff lb764 Flavowess
576°8 | 576-7 | 575-0 | 575-3 1573-4 s |b72°7 s/573°6 fF 15728 slb763 flo. s
576°7 | 576-8 | 5748 | 575-3 '578-4. s (572°6 8573-5 Ff /572°8 5 5761 ws 0707 s
576°5 | 576°7 | 574-6 | 575-2 1578-4 ff (57276 s5734 f 5726 f 576-1 vs 9706 s
B760 7) | 516°6.510:04l ona 2) Ono 4 sjamole 2 a | S762 s 0704 s
576°7 rae | O729 ff, | O10
576-7 5749 | SY 6a | OMCs fs
576°8 | 574:9 | |
576°7 | 574-6 | | |
574-5 | |
576°7 | 576-7 | 574-8 | 575-2 5738-5 «(572-6 «= s7B-5~—s*72°6 «Ss 6S lowes
| | | |
ye USO Sy Sion
Table 5. In this table the results of the determination of the temper-
ature of inversion of quartz by means of the abrupt change in its birefring-
ence at this temperature are recorded. In the first four columns the read-
ings of the ordinary thermal microscope thermal element are given, while
in the remaining six the readings on a standard thermoelement of specially
thin wire are presented. The point of inversion was recorded both for
rising and falling temperatures and different rates of heating and cooling
the quartz plates.
varied slightly with the rate of loss of heat. To insure still
further the accuracy of the determination of the temperature
of inversion, a new and carefully calibrated thermoelement of
fine wire drawn down from one of the laboratory standard
thermoelements * was taken and the observations in the ther-
mal microscope repeated, the readings beimg taken as before
on the potentiometer. The results show again the extreme
sensitiveness of quartz to minute temperatnre differences at
the inversion point, and establish the temperature of inversion
at 575°8°+1-0° for the first specimen (Quartz plate 1), 573°0°
+ ()°5° for the second (Quartz plate 2), and 5753 2-04 aor
the third (Quartz plate 3), or in general for this constant, 575°.
+2°. The results of these observations are recorded in able
5 above. Plate 2 was -232"™ thick and covered an area of
* It was found necessary to take this precaution and to use wire *2™™ in dia-
meter, in place of the standard theromoelement wire 0°6™™ in diameter,
since the latter conducts away more heat in unit time than a smull furnace
can supply, and as a result the readings with it are uncertain and too low.
Wright and Larsen— Quartz as a Geologic Thermometer. 485
20°4 sq. mm.; plate 3 was -224"™ thick and covered an area of
6-8 sq. mm., or one-third that of plate 1. This difference in
size of the two plates might account, in part at least, for the
differences in inversion temperature recorded.
The temperature determinations in the thermal microscope
were furthermore checked by means of heating and cooling
eurves after the method of Frankenheim,* on a large mass of
pulverized pure quartz. Although the most sensitive experi-
mental conditions (temperature change of -01° visible) were
adopted, the thermal effect of the inversion was exceedingly
slight and was furthermore distributed over a temperature
interval of 20° or more. Nevertheless, on both the heating
and cooling curves a slight absorption and corresponding
release of heat could be observed in the inversion temperature
region. To designate any particular portion of these temper-
ature intervals for especial interpretation is little more than
arbitrary where the total energy involved is so small, but the
temperatures at which the rate of absorption (or release) was
ereatest are epprosinatcly as follows: On heating, 560°, 559°,
569°, 564°, average 563°; on cooling, 560°, 562°, average 561°.
It is not even safe to say that these numbers represent the
average inversion temperature for a great number of quartz
fragments, for finely pulverized quartz is such a poor con-
duetor for heat that the temperature of the charge cannot be
assumed to be uniform from surface to center during such a
measurement. The thermoelectric record accordingly lags
and the temperatures given are necessarily low. The deter-
mination by this means is therefore only approximate and the
method merely confirms in a general way an absorption and
release of a small quantity of energy in this region, but is not
competent to locate so small a quantity accurately.
Very recent and still incomplete measurements by Dr. W.
P. White, of the Geophysical Laboratory, on the specific and
latent heats of quartz indicate an abrupt change i in the thermal
capacity of quartz in the region of the inversion temperature.
At about 575° the specific heat measures -282-++--017, where
the (large) probable error (+017) includes the energy change
in passing the inversion point. The latent heat at 575° is 4:3
+1 calories. There are some uncertainties in both the latent
and specific heat values due to the fact that a sufficient number
ot observations has not yet been taken to determine, with
sufficient accuracy, the character of the function near the dis-
continuity.
The above measurements and data prove definitely that
quartz undergoes a small energy change at about 575° and
that the change is reversible or enantiotropic. The amount of
* Measurements by Dr. A. L. Day.
436 Wright and Larsen— Quartz as a Geologic Thermometer.
energy involved is, however, so small that thermal methods of
stndy are relatively unproductive compared with optical
methods. | .
It is of interest to note that in a substance like quartz, which
in some respects is exceedingly inert and sluggish, certain
changes of equilibrinm are extremely sensitive to “temperature
differences, a difference of one tenth of one degree being
sutticient to cause the shift from the one form to the other. It
is indeed difficult to form an adequate and satisfactory picture
of a mechanical system which shall satisfy the conditions of
such nice equilibrium and adjustment. In the case of quartz,
however, it is fortunate for the observer that certai physical
properties which can be determined with great accuracy at
different temperatures are extremely sensitive to the i inversion,
since the actnal change in energy content, or amount of heat
involved in the transformation, is extremely slight, and too
small, in fact, to be detected by ordinary methods for meas-
uring temperatures, Notwithstanding the comparatively i insig-
nificant amount of energy required in the transformation, it is
still sufficient to cause a readjustment of the crystallographic
forces, such that the low temperature a-quartz and the high
temper ature 6-quartz crystallize in all probability in different
subdivisions of the hexagonai system, and at the same time,
inineate twinning phenomena may be set up, the effects of
which are in general sufficient to enable the observer to distin-
euish a- quartz from $-quartz. The criteria which have been
developed for pesontpfelnities this distinction will now be con-
sidered briefly and these in turn applied to different quartzes
as they occur in nature.
In arecent paper, Miigge* has proved that 8-quartz crystallizes
in all probability in the trapezohedral-hemihedral division of
the hexagonal system, and that its axial ratios are practically
identical with those of a- quartz.—The chief crystallographic
change which takes place at the inversion point is a molecular
rearrangement such that the common divalent axes of the high
temperature ®-form become polar in the a-form stable at low
temperature, and a tendency to restore erystallographie equi-
librium in the a-form by twinning after the prism is therefore
active on the inversion from the high B-form. This twinning
phenomenon is best studied by means of etch figures (obtained
by immersing for 14 hours plates of quartz in cold commercial
hydrofluoric acid) on the basal pinacoid. Miugge found that
if a plate of untwinned quartz after (0001) be heated above the
inversion point and, after cooling, etched, it is no longer a
simple crystal, but an intricate complex of twins after (1010),
the twinning lines being asa rule irregular and without definite
* Neues Jahrb. Festband, 181-196, 1907.
Wright and Larsen— Quartz as a Geologic Thermometer. 437
arrangement. If, furthermore, a regularly twinned crystal of
quar iz be heated above 575° and then etched on the basal pina-
coid, the twinning lines are as a rule no longer straight and reg-
ular, but the field: appears divided by small patches of irregularly
twinned material. In passing from the tetartohedral a-form
to the hemihedral 6-form, the bivalent common axes lose their
polarity and the tendency in the latter form to form twins,
therefore, is much less strong than in the a-form. On revert.
ing later to the a-form, the common axes of the 8 form become
again polar and the tendency during the molecular rearrange-
ment is again to form twins, and, in this instance, twins with
irregular boundary lines, since the change takes place rapidly
and in the solid state.—The form and character of twinning
on basal sections of quartz can therefore be used as one of the
eriteria in determining whether or not quartz has been formed
above or below 575° C.
Still a second fact of observation can be used to advantage
in ascertaining the original temperature of formation of
quartz.* Quartz is circularly polarizing and may rotate the
incident plane polarized light waves either to the right or to
the left. Experiments on the erystallization of circularly
polarizing bodies have indicated that a slight change in the
mother solution is often sufficient to change the character of the
rotation of the crystal being precipitated. In quartzes formed
at low temperatures, vein “quartzes and the lke, one might
expect intergrowths of right- and left-handed crystals more
frequently than in magma quartzes where rapid changes in the
composition of the solutions are less likely to oceur.—In the
low temperature quartzes crystallizing out of quietly circulating
solutions, moreover, the conditions are less violent than in a
magma above 515° and the processes of precipitation might
well be considered to proceed with more regularity and uniform-
ity at the lower temperatures than above ‘the inversion point.
The tendency of intergrowths of right- and left-handed crystals
of the low temperature phase should accordingly be toward
regularity of outline of the intergrowths and toward hexagonal
symmetry.—The fact of intergrowths of left- and right-handed
quartz and the character of such intergrowths is a second factor
to be considered in the investigation of any particular quartz.
A third feature which is of service in this connection is the
shattering and cracking of quartz crystals on passing the inver-
sion temperature as a result of the abr upt change in the coefii-
cient of expansion. This occurs both on heating and on
cooling. It is safe to assume, therefore, that large clear quartz
plates ‘free from fractures have in all probability never reached
the inversion temperature. The fracture cracks in many small
* Miigge, O., loc. cit.
Am. Jour. Sci1.—FourtH Series, Vou. XXVII, No. 162.—June, 1909.
30
438 Wright and Larsen— Quartz as a Geologic Thermometer.
grains are present only potentially, and appear so distinctly on
etching that an apparently clear plate of quartz which has
been heated above 575° may ernmble down in the etching acid
and break up into a number of small grains, while the purely
a-quartz remains intact and is etched with much greater
uniformity.—The fact that thin plates of quartz may warp
and bend temporarily at the inversion temperature, thus find-
ing relief from the strains set up on the change, while thicker —
plates bend less easily and tend to fracture more readily, is a
factor which should be considered in any particular case.
Small grains, being thus less liable to- fracture, may not show
the phenomena of shattering as clearly as might be expected.
Crystallographically, the difference in crystal class between
the a-and #-forms finds expression in the crystal habit. In
the 8-form, the pyramid faces are equally developed; trigonal
trapezohedrons are absent, the habit of the crystals being
usually that of.the simple dihexahedrons observed in quartz
porphyries and allied rocks. Crystals of the low temperature
a-form, on the other hand, are usually prismatic in habit and
often show marked differences in the size and character of the
rhombohedral faces. ‘Trigonal trapezohedrons may occur and
stamp the crystal on which they do appear at once as a low
temperature form.
Briefly stated, the four criteria which can be used to distin-
guish, at ordinary temperatures, quartz which was formed
above 575° from quartz which has never been heated to that
temperature, are: (1) Crystal form, if crystals be available,
the presence of trigonal trapezohedrons and other evidence of
tetartohedrism, irregular development of the rhombs and the
like, being indicative of the a-form. (2) Character of twinning,
as shown by etch figures on the basal pmacoid. In the a-form,
which erystallized from solutions at comparatively low tempera-
tures, the twinning is usually regular and sharply marked,
while in quartz plates originally of the 6-form and now a by
virtue of inversion in the solid state, the lines are usually
irregular, and the twinning patches are small and bear no
relation to the outer form of the crystal. (3) Intergrowths of
right- and left-handed quartzes are more frequent and more
Tabie 6. In this table are assembled the results of the examination of 44
different quartzes occurring in nature. A number of basal plates of each of
these quartzes were cut and polished and etched for 75 minutes in cold
commercial hydrofluoric acid. The quartzes were examined particularly
with respect to: (1) the occurrence and character of intergrowths of right- and
left-handed individuals of quartz; (2) the frequency and character of the
twinning of the quartz plates as brought to light by means of the etch figures
obtained by immersion of the plates in hydrofluoric acid ; (8) the character
of the plates themselves, whether clear and comparatively free from cracks
or much shattered and often crumbling after immersion in hydrofluoric acid.
Wherever crystals were used these were examined still further for evidences
of tetartohedrism.
Wright and Larsen— Quartz as a Geologic Thermometer. 439
TABLE= Vi:
pus | Intergrowths | Twinning
i) a ——s
=| 2 z | oi
| 2 is a | Degree eres Ss | 3 aps &
52.85 of heen ete 2 Character S| Blos
A |S | W's Shattering. he 08 oS : of 2 B| 9 6S
Bea (pee a H intergrowth (4/4 Sie &
aad Puech a sees ee se 2 68
7, |< | Be ae =
| Soe RN | | | pages Saeed
1] 6 5 jWewccracks, clear) 6 | __ | -- pst eae ber Gulee™
221). 2 Ss ee Ge eS, 3 |Straight & regular 2 | 14 | ¢
all; 8 2 2 Z 8 Regular Doe eee
410 7 10 ee CERN x oligo pl Onc as ivteey
524 3 se 2 NSE IC See 14 | 10)\a
6112; 3 of 8 Set 4 |Straight & regular} 11 | 1/| a
waa 6 zh ae 11 ae nee Steller
8} 8} 95 = 5 2 1 Regular Qrcle bea eed
9116) 6G = 8 2, wee Benge 4;12}a
10/6} *.. 8 2 i cg eae iene Se eee area ee eee
#tpeal. 10 a 5 ne ae bad aie ep embed
12)11, 12 Te 1S erie OD rae pee Bee 2\. 9)a
13} 8 8 cs 4 1 OS aha Ma Fs Sag A Asal
14.8 10 ee a 8 Seat TT A Finch” ry 2 es 6 61a
1515 = =6 . is fees tedet Regular DA StOo a
1614 35 my 8 3 if oe 4} 9]a
1710; 3 . ar Bape elie at cok oe Dee Qetre
1815 5 | Some cracks 9 4 1 Regular oi) Maes ee) at
19| 7 7 ‘Fewcracks, clear] __ ce 7 il Selene A:
7 | | es 9 Pale e i Lae oe ee o| 4]/a
rl 8 Many cracks 1 11 Eps MO oa S21 Salsa ina
22112; 2 x 9 yond ae eee Be Late y
2313) 19) es 2 eee ete ores Scene Ole SON lacs
2411; 1 | Much fractured 3 8 hai ci eg a Ope por let
25/21; 2 ons 21 Scent RA ae Wes WEN a eC OL yh
26| 6| 2 a Ee Go ery ete ® oes Es ee
2711, 3 Some cracks 3 i) Sy epeee ney ee ae eae Aaa
2811; 2 : 4 4 3 Irregular Or line daltee
2913) 3 S 4 oe Ren Nhe Sa se Eh aon laa &
ao} 4¢ 2 | i 4 aa EME We aa tenets 2 Te ees a
3114 2 i U Sia@ ete eee ead SE ON A
a2, 4, 1 | Much fractured 2 2 EE | Moa ee EL oe a al ae
<7 (85) ees 1 eee he stamie Sones Se mlgies hepa
34,4 2 re Bot 2 VSO CN Macatee eee 7 ae
ao] 7} 2 . 2 TSR" | ia ey dS ie Se Ieee ye
36,10, 2 | os 4 Dee es wh, ae ae. OW hepa
S7| 3) 2 as 2 eS 2 Fairly regular mee see ef
asi10 2 < 5 4 ile ee he eee ea
ao) 2: 2 x, i ese Bae ie be 3
40} 6 3 i f Realty ese Set ee Aone
Atl 3 | “ay dy Bihar Seka k Sor Sh Py Reet Bb hes
42/16 2 | a if Sper ees Py es@ ae Aa eee ee
43/16 1 | 5 5 Cae ete See Bt Os kok
4445 1 ef 5 sei 2 US le) 3 ee ==" De lor
*In this column the letter @ signifies regular: 6, usually regular; c, often
irregular, tendency toward regularity ; d, rather irregular; e, small, rather irreg-
ular ; f, irregular and small.
440 Wright and Larsen— Quartz as a Geologic Thermometer.
bo
3.
10.
tial:
12.
13.
14.
Specimens used in Table VI.
White vein quartz. Auburn, Maine (U.S. Nat. Mus. Spee.
No. 75,530). Specimen of glassy quartz, transparent in spots
and comparatively free from fine cracks. Fracturing after
(1011) noticeable.
White milky vein quartz in limestone, associated with galena
and sphalerite. North Arm, Moira Sound, Prince of Wales
Island, Alaska. (Charles W. Wright, collector.)
Quartz crystals. Forms: (1010), (1011), (O111), (2120)
U.S. Nat. Mus. No. 45,205). Crystal Mt., near Hot Springs,
Arkansas. Clear, transparent crystal groups.
Large quartz crystal traversed by shearing planes almost at
right angles with principal axis. Parts of crystal clear and
transparent. Locality unknown.
White vein quartz near Canaan, Conn. Vein occurs in
metamorphosed Cambrian limestone directly overlying Ver-
mont quartzite. Quartz is associated with tremolite. (A.C.
Spencer, collector.)
Quartz vein in Cheshire quartzite, Ashley Falls, Mass.
White, transparent in spots. Occasional flakes of muscovite
occur in this quartz. (A. C. Spencer, collector.)
Quartz associated with magnetite and garnet. Lover’s Hole,
Barton Hill, N. Y. Quartz is fairly massive and clear in
spots. (A. C. Spencer, collector.)
Vein quartz. Group of crystals (1011), (O1i1), (1010.
Glacier Basin near Wrangell, Alaska. Zonal structure well
developed. Crystals massive. (Fred E. Wright, collector.)
Vein guartz in Precambrian schists. Sugar Loaf, Md.
Crystals bounded by (1010), (1011), (0111). Rhombohedral
development prominent. In general quartz is milky in color.
Small crystals are transparent. This group contains speci-
mens from three different veins a mile or more apart in the
schists. (EH. S. Larsen, collector.)
Quartz crystal. Herkimer County, N.Y. Doubly terminated
crystal (1010), (1011), (0111), occurring in metamorphosed
limestone.
Rose quartz. New Milford, Conn. (U. 8S. Nat. Mus.)
Massive and comparatively clear quartz.
Rose quartz from quarry P. H. Kinkle’s Sons, Bedford, N. Y.
Occurs in large pure masses in coarse pegmatite, associated
with large masses of pure feldspar, both minerals grading
into graphic intergrowths of feldspar and quartz. Spec. 753.
(E. 8S. Bastin, collector.)
Rose quartz. Paris, Maine. (U.S. Nat. Museum.) Massive
and clear rose-colored quartz.
Rose quartz. Maine. (U.S. Nat. Museum.) Massive and
pale rose-colored quartz.
Smoky quartz. Berry feldspar quarry, Poland, Maine.
Crystals project inward from walls of gem-bearing pockets
Wright and Larsen— Quartz as a Geologic Thermometer. 441
16.
iy
18.
19.
21.
22.
23.
24.
of large pegmatite dike. Massive and clear material. Spec.
539. (EH. 8. Bastin, collector.) .
White quartz. J. A. Fisher feldspar quarry, Topsham,
Maine. Large mass of pure quartz several feet across in
pegmatite dike. The masses of pure quartz and feldspar at
this quarry grade irregularly and without break into coarse
to fine graphic intergrowths of these two minerals. Spec.
699. (KE. S. Bastin, collector.)
White quartz from pegmatite dike one mile northwest of
Cumberland Mills, near Portland, Maine. Dike cuts mica
schist and granodiorite. Large quartz masses grade into
coarse granite pegmatite, either gradually or abruptly..
Large quartz masses appear to form end product of the
pegmatite crystallization. Spec.717. (EK. S. Bastin, collector.)
Quartz associated with rounded lepidolite and bladed albite.
Berry feldspar quarry, Poland, Maine. This specimen was
taken from the gem-bearing portion of the pegmatite dike
from which the Spec. No. 15 of smoky quartz was derived. —
The portion of the dike bearing lepidolite and albite is
marked by pockets containing crystal quartz and occasional
gem tourmaline, and appears to have been without doubt the
last to crystallize out. Spec. 402. (EK. 8S. Bastin, collector.)
Quartz from pocket in very coarse-grained pegmatite.
Major Willis feldspar quarry, Topsham, Maine. Spec. 371.
(E. S. Bastin, collector. )
Quartz from coarse-grained pegmatite. Old feldspar quarry,
Northwest side of Mt. Ararat, Topsham, Maine. Quartz
crystal with faces projecting into feldspar. Spec.361. (E.S.
Bastin, collector.)
Quartz from pegmatite in granodiorite two miles east of
Dress Pt., Hassler Island, Behm Canal, Alaska. Aplitic
pegmatite, coarse-grained and consisting essentially of quartz
and oligoclase with some muscovite and biotite. Spec. 5
F.W. 50. (Fred. E. Wright, collector.)
Quartz from small granite pegmatite dike. Railway cut
opposite Rumford Falls near Rumford Falls, Maine. Typical
pegmatite from southern part of Maine. Spec. 440. (E.S.
Bastin, collector.)
Quartz from graphic pegmatite. Andrews feldspar quarry,
Portland, Conn. Specimen fairly coarse-grained and consist-
ing essentially of quartz and feldspar. (E.S. Bastin, collec-
tor.)
Quartz from granodiorite pegmatite, West Entrance Point,
Bailey Bay, Behm Canal, Alaska. Aplitic pegmatite, coarse
grained and similar in composition to No. 19. Spec. 5 F.W.
40. (Fred. E. Wright, collector.)
Quartz from graphic pegmatite. J. A. Fisher feldspar
quarry, Topsham, Maine. This specimen was taken from
the same quarry as No. 16 and is interesting because it appears
to have been formed above 575°, while the large masses of
442 Wright and Larsen— Quartz as a Geologic Thermometer.
26.
| WO)
29.
30.
3].
oA,
30.
36.
~t
No. 16 appear to have formed below that temperature, thus
indicating a temperature of formation of the large part of
the pegmatite at about 550°-600°. Spec. 701. (KE. 5. Bastin,
collector.) |
Quartz from graphic pegmatite. Ilmen Mts., Miask District,
Urals, Russia. Coarse pegmatite consisting essentially of
microcline and quartz in characteristic graphic intergrowth.
(U. 8. Nat. Museum.)
Quartz from ore-bearing pegmatite vein in sodalite-syenite.
Bancroft, Ontario, Canada. Quartz is associated with
siderite, arsenopyrite and various sulphides. (A. C. Spencer,
collector.)
Quartz from irregular pegmatitic mass adjacent to magnetite
ore, in Precambrian gneiss. O’Neil Mine, Monroe County,
N. Y. Dark colored rock, coarse-grained and consisting essen-
tially of abundant hornblende, microperthite and quartz with
some biotite and secondary chlorite. (A. C. Spencer, col-
lector.)
Quartz from coarse pegmatite mass near magnetite ore body.
Stirling Mine, Lakeville, N. Y. Specimen consists of magne-
tite, hornblende (uralite?), biotite, quartz feldspar and some
secondary chlorite. Quartz occurs in small patches and
granules, scattered throughout specimen. (A. C@. Spencer,
collector. )
White quartz from pegmatite in gneiss. Great Barrington,
Mass. Specimen consists chiefly of quartz with occasional
prisms of brown transparent tourmaline. (A. C. Spencer,
collector.) |
Quartz from pegmatitic mass in gneiss on John Keleyl’s -
farm, northwest end of Mt. Eve, Orange County, N. Y.
Specimen consists chiefly of magnetite, quartz and some
feldspar. (A. C. Spencer, collector.) 7
Quartz from granite. Near Lake Bennett, B. C., Canada.
Medium-grained, pink biotite granite. Spec. 314. (KF. E.
Wright, collector.)
Quartz from granite gneiss one-half mile north of Carpenter
Knob, Cleveland County, N. C. Gneiss consisting of feld-
spar, quartz, biotite and muscovite. (Arthur Keith, collector.)
Quartz from altered granite, near Cambourne, Cornwall,
England. Specimen taken near tin ore deposits and. consist-
ing essentially of pink feldspar quartz and black tourmaline.
(F. E. Wright, collector.)
Quartz from altered granite near Cambourne, Cornwall,
England. Specimen from near tin ore deposits and intensely
altered. Much quartz and gray green altered feldspar,
muscovite and tourmaline. (F. E. Wright, collector.)
Quartz from granodiorite. Near Log Cabin, White Pass,
B. C., Canada. Essential components of specimen are quartz,
oligoclase, orthoclase, and biotite. Gray medium-grained
intrusive. Spec. 303. (EF. E. Wright, collector.)
Wright and Larsen— Quartz as a Geologic Thermometer. 448
,
37. Quartz from granite. East slope of El Sobranti, near Corona,
California. Gray medium-grained granite consisting essen-
tially of quartz, alkali and soda, calcic feldspars and biotite.
Spec. 10. (E. 8S. Larsen, collector.)
38. Quartz from granite. Near Pevey, Lake Bennett, B. C.,
Canada. Pale “pink medium-grained granite consisting essen-
tially ef quartz, orthoclase, oligoclase and biotite, and some
visible magnetite. Spec. 312, a EK. Wright, collector.)
39. Quartz from granite near Meissen, Saxony, ‘Germany. Pink,
fresh, medium- -grained granite consisting essentially of
quartz and feldspar with some biotite. (Charles W. Wright,
collector.)
40. Quartz from granite. Marble Falls, Burnett County, Texas.
Medium to coarse-grained pink granite, consisting essentially
of quartz, feldspar and biotite. Spec. 38,824, U. 8S. Nat.
Museum.
41. Quartz from miarolititic pegmatitic cavity in granite.
Railway cut near Glacier, Skagway, Alaska. Granite is
exceedingly variable in eranularity and consists essentially
of quartz and feldspar with some biotite. Spec. 282. (F. H.
Wright, collector.)
492. Quartz fant granite porphyry, Bassett Mine, Cambourne,
Cornwall, England. Granite porphyry with phenocrysts of ,
dibexahedral quartz, orthoclase and tourmaline. (F. E.
Wright, collector.)
43. Quartz Soar granite porphyry. Yankee Creek, Brooks, Mt.
Seward Peninsula, Alaska. Gray granite porphyry with
phenocrysts of quartz and orthoclase. (Adolf Knopf, col- |
lector.)
44. Quartz from quartz porphyry. Verdugo Protero, ten miles
south of Corona, California. Phenocrysts, quartz and feld-
spar. Fresh, gray dike rock in andesite. Spec. 190. (EH.S.
Larsen, collector. )
®
regular in boundary lines in the a- than in the @-form. (4)
Plates of originally S-quartz but now a-quartz by inversion
show the effect of the inversion by the shattering which should
be most evident on large plates.—Into all these criteria an
element of probability enters, and in testing quartz plates, with
this end in view, a number of plates should be examined to
strengthen the validity of the inferences drawn.
It was of interest to apply these criteria to actual occurrences
of quartz in nature, and for this purpose 44 specimens of quartz
and quartz-bear ing rocks from different localities were chosen,
10 specimens of quartz from veins and geodes, 21 from peg-
matites of different types and 13 of granites and granite por-
phyries. From each specimen from 3 to 25 plates after the
basal pinacoid were cut and polished on both sides.—Each
plate was then examined with reference to its circular poelariza-
tion and the character of its twinning. All plates were etched
444 Wright and Larsen— Quartz as a Geologic Thermometer.
uniformly in cold commercial hydrofluoric acid, the time of
exposure in every instance being 75 minutes. The etched
plates were examined at first both in reflected and transmitted
light, but experience soon indicated that the best results were
obtained by observing the etched surfaces and figures in
transmitted light, the rays being obliquely incident at such an
angle as to cast proper lights and shadows across the small etch
pits and hills. Even in the process of etching the difference
between the high and low forms was often evident. The
crystal plates of the a-form were as a rule clear and without
fractures, and although on etching all such cracks were promptly
discovered and emphasized by the acid, the general appearance
of the plates after etching was nevertheless uniform and con-
tinuous. Plates of original 8-form, on the other hand, even
though clear, before etching, developed after short exposure in
the acid numerous cracks, potentially present before, which
frequently caused the plate to crumble and break up into
smaller grains. As a rule etch figures on such plates were also
the least satisfactory.
The character of the circular polarization of the different
plates was ascertained in sodium light, the lenses of the con-
: densor system of the microscope having been removed and the
plates observed with a low-power objective. After etching
the plates were re-examined, the disturbing influence of reflec-
tions on the etched surfaces being eliminated temporarily by
immersing the plates in a liquid of refractive index 1°554,
equal to » of quartz.
A detailed discussion of the results assembled in Table 6
substantiates in a general way the theoretical inferences. Of
vein quartzes, 10 specimens were used, 125 basal plates cut
and polished and etched; of these 49 showed right-handed
circular polarization, 50 left-handed,.16 left- and right-handed
intergrowth of fairly regular outlines; 50 plates were not
twinned, while 63 were twinned, the outlines of the twinned
areas being in general regular and indicative of hexagonal
symmetry. Practically all of these plates were free from frac-
ture cracks of any importance. Twenty-one specimens of peg-
matite were examined and found to fall naturally mto two
groups. Nos. 11 to 20 were taken from large masses of quartz in
pegmatite dikes and masses and in certain cases were definitely
stated by the field relations to be the last portions of the
pegmatite to crystallize out. In behavior they resemble vein
quartz and have in all probability never been heated above the
inversion temperature. From these specimens 11 to 20, 102
basal plates were cut and polished and etched; of these 35
were right-handed in circular polarization, 35 left: handed, and
20 intergrowths of right- and left-handed individuals, the out-
lines of the different intergrowths being in general reoular and
Wright and Larsen— Quartz as a Geologic Thermometer. 445
hexagonal in character; 380 were not twinned, while 58 were
twinned and the outlines of the twinned areas were on the
whole regular and indicative of hexagonal symmetry. The
plates were as a rule-clear and free from fracture cracks.—
The remaining eleven specimens of pegmatite were from
pegmatites showing graphic intergrowths of quartz and feld-
spar or coarse-grained avoregates of these minerals. The
quartzes from these pegmatites accord in their behavior with
original §-quartz later inverted to a-quartz. Of these 128
basal plates were cut and polished and etched ; 37 of which
were of right-handed quartz, 81 of left- handed and 3 inter-
growths of right- and left-handed individuals, the outlines of
the intergrown areas being irregular; 31 plates were not
twinned while 53 were twinned, the twinned areas being small
and irregular in outline. The plates were in general much frac-
tured and shattered.—Thirteen specimens of granites, granite
gneisses and porphyries were examined and of these 89 plates
cut, polished and etched; 34 plates showed right-handed
rotatory polarization, 46 were left-handed while 3 were inter-
growths of right- and left-handed individuals, the outline of
the latter being on the whole fairly regular; 11 plates were
not twinned, while 53 were intricately twinned, the boundaries
of the twinned patches being small and irregular and without
reference, so far as could be observed, to hexagonal symmetry.
These plates were without exception small and traversed by
fracture cracks which rendered it difficult to obtain satisfac-
tory results from etching. The average diameter of the
surface of the plates of vein quartz was 5"; of the quartz
from the vein pegmatites, 7°"; of the quartz from the granite
pegmatites, 2"; of the granite quartzes, 2™™.
Summarizing these data still further, it may be stated that
the quartzes from veins and geodes and certain vein pegmatites
are in general clear and free from intricate fracture-cracks and
show frequent regular intergrowths of right- and left-handed
quartzes ; they are also frequently twinned after the unit prism
and the outline of the twinned areas is usually regular and
hexagonal in aspect. The quartzes from graphic and granite
pegmatites, granites and porphyries, on the other hand, are
smaller in size, frequently fractured and cracked in an intricate
manner ; they show rarely intergrowths of right- and left-
handed individuals and the outlines of such intergrowths may
or may not be regular. They are as a rule intricately twinned
and the twinned areas are usually small and irregular and bear
no appareut relation in outline to the hexagonal symmetry.—The
observed characteristics of the first group of quartzes are those
deduced theoretically for low temperature a-quartzes, while the
features recorded for the second group are essentially those
446 Wrightand Larsen— Quartz as a Geologic Thermometer.
deduced theoretically for 6-quartzes formed above 575°. This
places the temperature of final solidification of an intrusive
granite mass above 575°. With the quartzes examined in the
course of this investigation, a number of other minerals,
garnet, magnetite, albite, lepidolite, etc., were associated, and
in certain instances where, from the degree of idiomorphism
and similar criteria, the relative periods of precipitation of the
associated mineral can be ascertained, temperature limits of
formation of the latter can thus be established. By thus
determining stability ranges of certain minerals, points on the
geologic thermometer scale are gained which in turn serve te
fix limits for the temperatures of formation of other associated
minerals.
Summary.
In the foregoing pages, attention is directed to a geologic
thermometer scale the points for which are to be sought in the
stability ranges of the different phases of rock-making minerais
(their melting and inversion temperatures), and also in the
melting temperatures of certain mineral aggregates (eutectics).
(Quartz is well adapted to furnish at least one and possibly two
points for the geologic thermometer scale, since on heating at
575° it suffers an enantiotropic change to a second phase, called
8-quartz by Miigge, while above 800° it is no longer stable at
ordinary pressures, but passes into tridymite. Icllowing the
example of Le Chatelier and Mallard, the point of inversion
of a- and B-quartz was redetermined by observing the abrupt
change in the birefringence, circular polarization and expansion —
coefficient at that temperature. The most accurate optical
determinations place this inversion temperature at 575° + 2°.
Proofs that these represent an energy change were obtained by
the perceptible variation in heat capacity in this region by the
Frankenheim method of heating and cooling curves; and also
by direct determination of the specific and latent heats in this
region. Crystallographic proof of the change has been studied
in detail by O. Miigge, who finds the high temperature phase,
B-quartz, to be in all probability hexagonal and trapezohedral-
hemihedral, while the low temperature a-quartz is hexago-
nal and trapezohedrai-tetartohedral. This particular relation
between the two phases entails certain consequences which can
be used as eriteria to distinguish quartz which has been heated
above 575° from quartz which has never reached that tempera-
ture. These criteria were in large part indicated by O. Migge
and have been applied above to a number of natural quartzes
occurring in different kinds of rocks; the net result of the
investigation being that vein and ygeode quartzes and certain
large pegmatite quartz masses and pegmatite veins were formed
Wright and Larsen— Quartz as a Geologic Thermometer. +447
below 575°, while graphic and granite pegmatites and granites
and porphyry quartzes were in all probability formed above
575°. With the quartzes thus examined were associated other
minerals, the order of precipitation of which relative to that of
the quartz could be determined in certain instances and thus
temperature limits for the formation of these in turn ascer-
tained.
The writers desire to express their indebtedness to Dr. A. L.
Day for the precise thermoelectric measurements noted in the
foregoing pages; to Dr. W. P. White for data on the specific
and latent heats of quartz; and to Messrs. A. C. Spencer, E.S.
Bastin, Arthur Keith, A. Knopf, Charles W. Wright, of. the
U.S. Geological Survey, and Professor G. P. Merrill of the
National Museum, for specimens of quartz from the localities
cited in the descriptions above.
Geophysical Laboratory,
Carnegie Institution, -
Washington, D. C..
March 4, 1909.
448 Gooch and Ward—Copper Oxalate in Analysis.
Anne XR The Precipitation of Copper Oxalate in
Analysis ; by F. A. Gooca and H. L. Warp.
[Contributions from the Kent Chemical Laboratory of Yale Univ.—excix. ]
Iv has been shown by Peters, in a paper from this laboratory
on the volumetric estimation of copper as the oxalate,* that
copper oxalate may be precipitated by oxalic acid with practical
completeness from solutions of copper sulphate, provided the
volume of the liquid is not too great and that the amount of
copper present in solution exceeds a certain minimum value.
It was shown that when the amount of copper present falls
below a certain minimum either precipitation does not take
place or it is incomplete. It was noted that the minimum was
variable with the concentration of the precipitant, oxalic acid,
and to some extent dependent upon the condition of the pre-
cipitant, the minimum being smaller when the oxalic acid was
added in crystalline form rather than in solution to the liquid
containing the copper salt. Peters’ observations in respect to
the effect, concentration and condition of the oxalic acid in
solution of 50°™* are summarized in the following statement :
Minimum amount
of copper, taken as
the sulphate, which
must be present in
order that nearly Amount of oxalic
complete precipitation acid used. In Volume of
may take place Crystalline solution liquid
_grm. erm. erm. em?,
0°010 9) 5+ 50
0°025 2 3°95 50
0-040 1 Ee 50
0°050 0 Ee 50
+ Saturated solution poured upon the copper salt dissolved in the least
amount of water.
It was also noted that when a saturated solution of oxalic
acid, containing 0°1 erm. of oxalic acid to 1°™*, was slowly added
to a drop of the copper solution containing 0:0003 grm. of cop-
per the precipitated oxalate first formed dissolved completely
in a volume of 5°"* of the precipitant.
In the procedure for the quantitative determination of cop-
per by precipitation as the oxalate, Peters recommends a volume
of 50°™*, with 0°5 grm. to 2 grm. of crystallized oxalic acid as the
pr ecipitant for 0°15 germ. of copper. An increase of the oxalic
acid beyond this degree up to the point of saturation of the
solution is apparently without effect. In subsequent work
* This Journal, x, 359, 1900.
Gooch and Ward—Copper Oxalate in Analysis. 449
involving separations Peters used volumes as high as 85°", of
which concentrated nitric acid made up 5°, with 3 germ. of
oxalie acid.
With regard to the time required for completing the pre-
cipitation, Peters showed that when no added nitric acid is
present precipitates formed in the hot solutions at a volume of
50°" may be filtered, either at once or after cooling, without
loss ; but that when the nitric acid is added the mixture must
stand before filtration, best over night.
The fact that small amounts of precipitated copper oxalate
may be redissolved in a sufficient excess of the precipitant points
to an appreciable degree of solubility of the precipitate in the
solution of oxale acid. The observation that very considerable
amounts of copper oxalate fail to come down at all until a
certain minimum of the copper salt is present, while precipi-
tation is nearly complete when that minimum is reached,
indicates supersaturation of the precipitant by copper oxalate ;
while the capacity of the liquid for supersaturation is appar-
ently limited to some extent by increase in concentration of
the oxalic acid. The solubility coetiicient of the copper oxalate
under the conditions is made up, therefore, otf at least two
factors, of which one depends upon the normal solubility in the
solution of oxalic acid which constitutes the medium of pre-
cipitation, while the other depends upon the solubility due to
supersaturation. In order that small amounts of copper may
be precipitated it is necessary to find means of eliminating or
at least limiting the capacity of the medium for supersaturation ;
and in order that large amounts, as well as small amounts, of
copper may be determined with the highest degree of accuracy
it is necessary to reduce to the lowest point the normal solu-
bility of the oxalate under the conditions of precipitation.
The present paper is an account of the experimental study of
conditions under which small as well as large amounts of copper
may be determined by the oxalate method.
The Normal Solubility of Copper Oxalate.
It is to be noted in the first place that the character of pre-
cipitated copper oxalate depends upon the conditions of pre-
cipitation. When oxalic acid is added to a cold concentrated
solution of a salt of copper the copper oxalate precipitated is
of extreme fineness and tends to pass through the closest filters.
The precipitate formed in hot solution is, on the other hand,
crystalline and easily separated by filtration of this liquid.
The solubility of the precipitate, as well as the ease with which
it may be separated from the liquid, turns upon the conditions
of precipitation and treatment. In the experiments to be
described, attention is first called to the degree of insolubility to
450 Gooch and Ward—Copper Oxalate in Analysis.
be expected in the case of a precipitate formed by oxalic acid
in hot aqueous solutions of neutral copper sulphate or copper
nitrate and in amounts in excess of the precipitable minimum.
In the experiments of which details are given in Table I,
definite portions of a solution of the copper salt were diluted
with water to the volume stated, heated to boiling, and treated
with crystallized oxalic acid. After standing over night in
contact with the solution, the precipitate was collected upon
asbestos in a perforated crucible and washed carefully with
small amounts of water. The erucible with its contents was
placed in a beaker and covered with about 200%* of hot water
containing 25°" of dilute sulphuric acid (1:4), and approxi-
mately N/10 potassium permanganate of known standard was
added to coloration. Pure copper sulphate was used for the
experiments of A; and in those of B, copper nitrate, made by
dissolving pure electrolytic copper in nitrate acid, evaporating
off the excess of acid and dissolving in water, was used. The
solutions of these salts were standardized electrolytically by
the method of the rotating cathode.* The permanganate used
in these and in all succeeding experiments was standardized
against N/10 arsenious acid by acting with a measured volume
of it upon a known amount of the standard arsenious acid,
adding potassium iodide and titrating the excess of the arseni-
ous acid in presence of acid potassium carbonate, by iodine
also standardized against the arsenious acid, the difference
between the arsenious acid taken and the arsenious acid deter-
mined by the iodine being the measure of the value of the
permanganate.
Throughout the series of experiments, the error of the
determination increases with the dilution. That the errors
found in titration actually represent approximately losses in
copper, at least for the smaller volumes, is shown by the
difference, in two cases, between the result of titration and
the electrolytic determination of copper in the filtrates from
the precipitated oxalate. Fora volume of 10’, the average
error in the titration of the oxalate precipitated, either from
the solution of the sulphate or from a solution of the nitrate,
is 0°0002 grm.; for 50° it is 00011 grm.; for 100, 0:0053
grm.; for 200", 0:0203 grm. For similar concentrations of
the copper salt and of the oxalic acid the deficiency in the
copper indicated by titration of the precipitated oxalate in-
creases more rapidly than the dilution, a fact which suggests
some specific action of water, perhaps hydration affecting the
solubility or hydrolysis affecting the composition of the copper
oxalate. That time and temperature are not essential factors
* This Journal, xv, 320, 1903.
Gooch and Ward—Copper Oxalate in Analysis. 451
Tape I.
Effects of Concentration in Water Solution.
Volume
at Oxalic
Copper precipi- acid Copper Average
taken tation used found Error error
erm. cm’, erm. erm. erm. germ.
A
Experiments with copper sulphate.
0°0100 10 0°5 0:0097 —0:0003 |
0°0100 10 0°5 0°0098 —0:0002 $+ 0:0002
0°0502 10 0°5 0°0500 —0°'0002 |
0°0502 50 2°0 0°0491 —0'0011
0°0502 50 2°0 0°0491 —0-0011 $+ 0:0012
0°0504 50 2°0 0'0491 —0°0013* |
0°0504 100 40 0:0468 —0:0036+ |
0°0502 100 4°0 0°0448 —0°0054 |
0°0502 100 5°0 0°0449 —0°0053 r Oreo?
0°0502 100 5°O 0°0437 —0°0065 J
0°0506 200 10:0 0:0303 —0°0208 0°0203
B
Experiments with copper nitrate.
0°0455 10 0°5 0°0457 +0:0002 0°0002
0°0570 50 2°0 0°056 —0°0009 0°0009
0°0455 100° 50 0°0402 —0°0053 00056
0°0455 100 5°0 0°0395 —0°0060
* Copper determined electrolytically in filtrate = 0:0013 grm.
+ Copper determined electrolytically in filtrate = 0:0039 grm.
in the precipitation of the oxalate, at moderate dilution from
solutions of the neutral salt, was shown when Peters filtered,
without appreciable loss, precipitates from 50°™* of hot solu-
tion either at once and hot or as soon as the liquid had cooled.
The experiments of Table IL show in addition that the
precipitates, whether thrown down in hot solution or in cold
solution, possess after long standing the same degree of insolu-
bility.
Taste II.
Effects of Temperature at Precipitation and Titration after
Standing Over Night.
Copper | Oxalic Copper Precipi- Filtra-
taken Volume acid found Error tation tion
grm. em? grm. grm. germ.
0°0502 50 2°0 0°0491 0°0011 hot cold
0°0502 50 2°0 0°0492 0°0010 hot hot
0°0502 50 2°0 070490 0°0012 cold hot
0°0502 50 2°0 0°0491 0°0011 cold cold
452 Gooch and Ward—Copper Oxalate in Analysis.
If any part of the apparent loss of copper oxalate precipi-
tated from solutions of oxalic acid is due to hydrolysis of the
normal oxalate, and formation of a basic oxalate as the produet
of hydrolytic ‘action, it should be possible to obviate such
apparent loss by increasing the active acidity of the solution
and thus inhibiting hydrolysis, providing that the solubility of
the normal oxalate is not made greater thereby. The experi-
ment shows that beyond a reasonable degree of concentration —
the results are not affected by the use of oxalic acid up to the
point of saturation of the solution. It is worth while there-
fore to look somewhat more carefully into the effect of stronger
acids present at the time of precipitation. In Table III are
shown the details of experiments in which the active acidity
was increased by the addition of either free sulphuric acid or
free nitric acid to the solution of the copper salt before
precipitation was brought about by oxalic acid. These experi-
ments were made under conditions otherwise similar to those
of Table I. The copper sulphate was used in standard soln-
tions. The copper nitrate was prepared in solution for each
experiment by dissolving weighed electrolytic copper in nitric ©
acid, evaporating the solution to dryness, moistening the residue
with a few drops of nitric acid and dissolving in water.
A comparison of the results of Table III with the results of
corresponding experiments in Table I brings out the facts that
the apparent error is actually diminished by the presence of
even very small amounts of sulphuric acid or nitric acid in the
liquid, while, within reasonable limits, the addition of more
acid produces no further effect. At the higher dilutrong) the
effect of the active acid is marked. At a volume of 100% the
average error of deficiency shown in Table I is cut in two by
the addition of 071°" to 5™° of nitric acid) and ora ae
gm* of sulphuric acid. At smaller volume of 50°™* the effect
is not so marked, but it is still obvious. These results favor
strongly the hy pothesis that copper oxalate is increasingly
subject to hydrolysis as dilution increases, and that the
tendency to form a basic salt may be checked by the presence
of the stronger acids in suitable amounts. Even very large
amounts of nitric acid produce a surprisingly small increase in
the apparent solubility of the oxalate. :
pee due to solubility of copper oxalate may evidently be
kept at low limits by restricting the volume of the solution of
oxalic acid in which precipitation takes place; but too much
concentration is likely to introduce error due to mechanical
inclusion of oxalic acid in the precipitates. The natural
alternative to a close restriction of the volume of the aqueous
solution is the limitation of the solvent power of a larger
volume of liquid by partially substituting for water some other
Gooch and Ward—Copper Oxalate in Analysis. 458
Taste III.
The Effect of Active Acids.
Volume of
Volume Oxalic sulphuric
Copper of the acid acidorof Copper Average
taken liquid used nitric acid found Error error
erm. em’, erm. em?. erm. erm. germ.
A
Volume at precipitation approximates 100 cm’*.
H.S0,
070502 100 4°1) 0-1 0°0454 —0:0048 |
0°0502 100 4°0 0-5 00281 — 0-002) |
0°0502 100 4°0 1.) 0°0484 —0-0018 + —0:0024
0°0502 100 4°0 2°0 00474 —0-0028 |
0°0502 100 4°0 2°0 0:0481 —0-°0021 |
HNO;
0°0515 100 4°0 Ol 0°0499 —0°0016 }
0°0530 100 4° O-l 0°0505° —0:0025 |
0°0502 100 4°0 Oral 0°0471 —0:00381
0°0502 100 4°0 O'l 0°0472 —0-:0030
0°0502 100 5°0 5°0 00471 —0:0031 \ _0:0031
0°0502 100 2°0 5°0 0°0468 —0:0034
0°1500 100 2-0 Oot 071476 —0°0024
0°2377 100 4°0 O°l 0°2356 —0°'0021
0°2530 100 4°0 Ol 0°2497 —0°0033 |
0°2897 100 4°() Ovl 0°2880 —0-0067 |
B
Volume at precipitation 50 cm’.
0°1333 50 4°0 O'l 0°1327 -—0-0006 }
0°1366 50 2:0 Her DAUBSOO.. =O OG |
0°1445 50 2°0 O'l 0°1434 —0-0009 +
0°2388 50 2°0 Ol 0°2384 —0°0004 |
P0502 *.- - 50 2°0 4°0 0:0494 —0-0008 J
0°0504 50 4°) 2S OE SOU Mal)
0°0504 50 4:0 40:0 0°0487 —0°'0017
miscible liquid less capable of dissolving the precipitated
oxalate. The experiments of Table IV were made to test the
effect of alcohol as suggested by Gibbs.* The results given in
A show the effects of aleohol without nitric acid; those of B
show the effect of alcohol with nitric acid.
It is plain that the presence of aleohol improves the results
of the process as compared with the results obtained at similar
dilutions of the oxalic acid solution, either with or without
nitric acid; and, if the effect of nitric acid in the aqueous
* This Journal, xliv, 214, 1867.
Am. Jour. Sci.—FourtH SERIES, Vout. XX VII, No. 162.—Junz, 1909.
31
454 Gooch and Ward—Copper Oxalate in Analysis.
Tape LV.
The Lifect of Alcohol.
Per cent
of
Volume alcohol Oxalic Nitric
Copper of in acid acid Copper
taken liquid liquid used present found Error
erm. em, erm, em’, erm.
A
Precipitation in absence of nitric acid.
0.0502 100 20 1°0 ea 0°0492 —9°0010
0°0502 100 20 20 Ay ae 0°0491 —— OsGo ia
0°0502 100 40 2°0 pte 0°0491 —0°0011
0°0502 50 50 20 peneek 00499 —0°0008
0°0202 50 50 2°0 Dacron 0°0499 — 0°0008
B
Nitric acid present in the liquid.
0°0502 100 20 1:0 5 0°0493 —0:°0009
0°0502 100 20 2°0 9) 0:0491 —0°0011
0°0502 100 40 4°Q 3) 0°0497 —0°0005
0°0502 50 40 2°0 2 0°0497 — 0°0005
solution is to prevent the formation of a basic salt, it would
seem that the alcohol not only makes the precipitate more
insoluble but checks hydrolytic action as well. Ina volume
of 100™ containing 20 per cent of alcohol the error approxi-
mates—0:0010 grm.; and for a volume of 50° containing 50
per cent alcohol the error is still negative though reduced to
—0:0003. The effect of nitric acid accompanying the alcohol
is not marked.
In further experiments it was found that the addition of
acetic acid, as proposed by Classen,* is even more effective
than the use of aleohol, or of aleohol with nitric acid. In
Table V are given the details of experiments in which the
precipitation of copper oxalate was made in presence of con-
siderable amounts of acetic acid. When considerable amounts
of copper are present the precipitates formed in solutions con-
taining acetic acid are apt to be very finely divided and conse-
quently difficult to filter. A better condition of the precipitate
is obtained, however, if, with the acetic acid, there is also
present a moderate amount of nitric acid. The results of
experiments in which both acetic acid and nitric acid were
used are given in the table. The results of experiments in
which sulphuric acid was present with acetic acid are also
appended.
From these results it is apparent that acetic acid when present
to the amount of 25 per cent of the liquid produces in volumes
* Ber. Dtsch. Chem. Gesellsch., x. b, 1816.
Gooch and Ward
Copper Oxalate in Analysis. 455
Tasiy V.
The Liffect of Acetic Acid.
Per cent
Volume of Stronger Oxalic
Copper of acetic acid acid Copper
taken liquid acid used used found Krror
erm. em?. em’, em: erm. erm,
A
Precipitation in presence of acetic acid.
0°0511 100 25 Lae 20 = 010502 —0:0009
0°0511 100 33 ters 2°0 0°0504 —(0'0007
0°0511 100 50 ask 4°0 0°0510 —0°0001
0°1533 100 510) me es 4°0 6'°1530 —(0°0008
: B
Precipitation in presence of acetic acid and nitric acid.
0°0511 105 50 5) 4°0 0°0510 —0:0001
O-0511 110 50 Bas) ao) 4°0 0°0506 —0°0005
0°0511 100 50 10 4°0 0°0510 —0:0001
0°1530 100 50 10 4°0 Ow a29 ==) OUD!
0°1530 100 50 10 4°0 0°1530 —0°0000
C
Precipitation in presence of acetic acid and sulphuric acid.
0°0511 100 50 D 2°0 0°0508 —0°'0008
0'0511 100 50 10 2°0 0°0413 — 00098
0°0511 100 50 10 4°0 0°0512 +0:°0001
0°0511 100 50 10 4°0 0°0513 + 90°0002
of 100° about the same effect as alcohol, and when present to
the amount of 50 per cent it diminished still further the solvent
power of the medium for the oxalate. The presence of nitric
acid to 10 per cent of the entire volume does not materially
affect the solubility. Sulphuric acid to 10 per cent of the
volume of the liguid is without apparent effect upon the
solubility of copper oxalate, provided the oxalic acid is also
present in the proportion of 4 germ. to 100%* of the liquid.
Treatment by oxalic acid in a medium consisting of acetic acid
of half-strength, with or without nitric to the extent of 10 per
cent by volume, is plainly the best of the procedures studied
for the complete precipitation of copper oxalate in ideal condi
tion; provided, however, that the copper is present in amount
sufficient to break up the condition of supersaturation, let us
say to the amount of 0°0500 erm.
The Prevention of Supersaturation.
Various means have been tried in the effort to break up
supersaturation of the precipitating medium with small amounts
456 Gooch and Ward—Copper Oxalate in Analysis.
of copper oxalate. Of these details an account is given below,
in Table VI.
The supersaturated solution (A) was frozen and the mass
melted, following procedure which has been found to be success- |
fulin hastening the deposition of small amounts of ammonium
magnesium arsenate:* the supersaturated solution (B) was
evaporated to dryness, and the residue extracted with water:
alcohol was added (C) to the solution of the copper salt before
attempting precipitation by oxalic acid: acetic acid of 50 per
cent strength (D) was used asthe medium in which precipita-
tion was attempted by oxalic acid.
TABLE VI.
The Precipitation of Small Amounts of Copper.
Acetic Nitric
Volume Aleohol acid at acid at
Copper of Oxalic at pre- precipi- precipi- Copper
taken liquid acid cipitation tation “ tation found Error
erm. Gun, Cavin Chane, em?, em?. erm, erm.
A
The effect of freezing, melting and boiling.
ORCC) Kreme Onna ORME me TPR a 2 ON none ies
0°0020 50 1:0 ee ives eit as 0°0005 —0°0015
0:0030 50 ILO) Beem Ema eledos 0°0024 —0°0006
0:0040 30 1°0 tae en Rae dis 0°0030 —0°0010
0°0050 30 ive) Sele lu eel 0°0039 —0°0011
0°0100 50 1°0 Wed 2 Sy Sea rae a: 0°0088 —0°0012
6°0200 50 1G aa ho a pe en ve 0°0188 —0:0012
0°0502 50 He) es oH es aa es ESS 0:0490 —0°0012
B
The effect of evaporation to dryness and extraction of the residue with
50°™°. of water. —
0°0010 50 1°0 Beas areas Lots 0'0004 — 0°0006
0:°0020 10) 1:0 Se Ses ee 0:0018 —0°0002
0°0050 20 1:0 hs es Sie: Megat 0-00 2m —0°0008 ~
0:0040 50 1°0 eee age Saas 0:0036 — 0°0004
0°0100 50 10 ie LY Sines 0:0095 —0'0005
0°0200 50 1:0 apee ae cae 0°0196 —0°0004
0°0502 50 10 ces eae bee ehh 4 0°0499 —0°0005
C
The effect of precipitation in 50 per cent alcohol.
0°0010 50 2°0 45) Ee Sap ae none Ames
0°0020 50 2-0 745) Shubin ON none tat
0°00380 50 2°0 DS ene ee 0°0015 —0°0015
0°0040 50 2°() 29 pe a 0°0020 —0°0020
0'0050 50 2°0 25 ae 2 Set aes 0°0016 —0'0034
0°0100 50 2°0 25 Ne Se ak OLO 0 S9 —(0)°0015
0°0200 50 2°0 25 Sey ae 0°01 98 — 0°0002
0'0502 50 2-0) 25 Mbp Bane 0°0499 —0:00038
* Gooch and Phelps, this Journal, xxii, 488, 1906.
Gooch and Ward—Copper Oxalate in Analysis. 457
TaBLE VI (continued).
The Precipitation of Small Amounts of Copper.
Acetic Nitric
Volume Alecobol acid at acid at
. Copper of Oxalic at precip- precip- precip- Copper
taken liquid acid itation itation itation found Error
erm. cme. erm. em’, eme cnr. grm. erm.
D
The effect of precipitation in acetic acid.
Volume 50°" : 50 per cent acetic acid.
0°0010 50 2 ciate i 25 eer OcO0 10 0°0000
0°0020 50 2 eas 25 ee OnOO2 i +0:0001
0°0031 50 2 Soatce 25 ee OLOOI —0:0004*
00041 50 2 geet. 25 fee 00041 0:0000*
.. 0:0051 ae ne Se 2D eee 0049 —0:0002*
0°0102 50 2 Eph 25 Pee OOOO S —0:0004*
0°0204 50 2 ied Uh Gees OU EE — 0:0006*
0°0511 50 2 eae 25 Eyer ae hat ne
0°0010 50 2 fee 25 9) 0°0010 0°0000
0°0020 50 2 our 25 5) 0:0021 +0°0001
0:0031 50 2 se 25 5) 0°0033 + 0:0002
0°0041 50 2 zeta 25 5 0°0042 +0°0001
P0051 -50 2 tee 25 5 00043 —0°0002
0°0102 50 2 oe: 2X 25 5 0°0108 +0°0001
0°0204 50 Y Brahe? 25 5 0°0204 +0 '0000
0°0511 50 2 Eile 25 5) 0°0512 +0°0001
Volume 100°™? : 50 per cent acetic acid.
0°0010 100 = Seas 50 3 0°0010 0-0000f
0°0020 100 4 Feet 50 3 0:0021 + 0°0001f
| 9°0031 100 4 eRe 50 5 0:0031 0-0000
0°0041 100 4 ee 50 5 0°0041 0:0000
. 00051 100 4 See eo 0 eo =, Or00n h +0:0002
0°0102 100 + Lie a 50 5 0°0103 +0°0001
0°0204 #100 + a oa 50 5 0°0196 — 0:0008§
0°0511 100 ~ BE 50 5 0°0510 —0:'0001
: Volume 150 : two-thirds acetic acid.
0°0010 150 = Ey cke TO Om ese SOLO Oma: + 0:°0005
0°0010 150 + Eee 100 5 0°0012 +0:0002
* Filtration imperfect. + Filtration impossible.
t Precipitation formed slowly. _ § Filtration imperfect.
_ From these results it appears, first, that by precipitating at
a volume of 50™, freezing, melting, and boiling, the condition
of supersaturation may be broken up, the oxalate obtained
being soluble in the proportion of about 0-0011 grm. to 50°%™
of liquid ; secondly, that by precipitation at a volume of 50°™*,
evaporation to dryness, and extraction with the same volume
of water, the copper may be recovered to an amount within
458 Gooch and Ward—Copper Oxalate in Analysis.
about 0:0004 grm. of that taken; thirdly, that treatment by
oxalic acid in 50 per cent alcohol fails to precipitate about
0:0020 grm. of copper from amounts less than 0°0200 grm.,
while for amounts exceeding that limit the copper is nearly
all recovered ; and, fourthly, that in volumes of 50°” or 100°,
consisting of 50 per cent acetic acid, the copper oxalate is
thrown down completely, the presence of nitric acid to the
extent of 10 per cent making the filtration more effective with-
out influencing the solubility, while at a volume of 150° the
precipitation is complete provided the acetic acid makes up
two-thirds of the volume.
The best and most convenient procedure for the precipitation
of small amounts as well as large amounts of copper oxalate
ideal in composition consists, therefore, in adding 2 grm. or 4
erm. of oxalic acid to 50°™* or 100°", respectively, of the 50
per cent acetic acid solution of the copper salt containing 5
per cent to 10 per cent of nitricacid. The permanganate titra-
tion of the washed oxalate, in presence of sulphuric acid, gives
very accurate determinations of the copper.
E. Blackwelder— Yakutat Coastal Plain of Alaska. 459
Art. XL.—The Yakutat Coastal Plain of Alasku:* A
combined terrestrial and marine Formation; by Extor
BLACKWELDER.
Tue reconstruction of the climatic, physiographic and _ bio-
logic conditions of past ages has long been one of the chief
objects of geologic study. Many lines of search have been
pursued with various degrees of success. Some facts have
been deduced from the fossils, others from the constitution of
the atmosphere, and still others from the rocks themselves.
Like most other questions, these have been investigated now
with caution and a full realization of the complexity and
uncertainty of the factors, and now with easy confidence and
blindness to difficulties. Some interpretations of sedimentary
deposits made in an off-hand way have been little better than
guesses. An encouraging number of others, however, are
firmly based so far as they go, and, best of all, the facts and
inferences are duly separated.
In the interpretation of the older sedimentary rock forma-
tions we have to deal with what may be called fossil products
of aggradation. There are two ways in which one may
approach a given problem of this sort: (a) having studied
the many facts carefully, we may reason out, from our
knowledge of physiographic, climatic and biologic principles,
what conditions must have prevailed at that time and place; or
(b) we may compare the fossil deposit with various modern
deposits of known origin and decide to which of them it
corresponds. Both of these methods are used and often in
combination. In order to put the second into practice it is
necessary for us to know intimately the characteristics of
many modern deposits, and also all the conditions under the
influence of which those deposits are now being made.
The careful description of modern formations in many
parts of the world is, therefore, essential to progress in this
study, and this paper is presented as a small contribution to
the mass of information needed.
From near the mouth of the Alsek River to Controller
Bay, the southern coast of Alaska is fringed by a narrow
plain. From Yakutat Bay westward it is partly covered by
the Malaspina piedmont glacier. The part with which I am
familiar is that between Yakutat and the Alsek River. Ocean-
ward the plain dips beneath the water level, leaving a tolerably
regular shore line. On the north it is hemmed in by the Bra-
bazon range, the front of which rises abruptly 2000-4000 feet
without either foothills or fringing talus-slopes.
* Published by permission of the Director, U. S. Geological Survey.
460 F. Blackwelder— Yakutat Coastal Plain o Alaska.
The climate of the coast is humid and cool, with compara-
tively slight temperature changes. Winds roll in from the
Tien ahs
GRAVEL
ALSEK R,
sc)
=
ae
©
N >:
{ & 0
Ke) —
: [24
e g
ae A ale
ag) a
Sand —Zone
MARINE Sabie itis
a
ez
<<
Fic. 1. The coastal plain from Yakutat Bay east to the Alsek River.
Shows roughly the distribution of modern sediments. (Compiled from
maps and notes by Maddren, Brabazon, Netland and others.)
E. Blackwelder— Yakutat Coastal Plain of Aluska. 461
warm Pacific ocean and keep the mountains enveloped in
nimbus clouds for days at a time, with only occasional sunny
intervals. Showers and fogs are of frequent occurrence. The
climate in summer has, therefore, been aptly characterized as
“damp and chilly.” In winter the snowfall is heavy, but the
freezing of both soil and streams checks the operation of the
processes we have to consider.
Under the influence of this climate a dense growth of boreal
vegetation covers the plain. On tie flat undrained parts,
grassy marshes and willow swamps prevail. On moraines,
sandy ridges, and, in fact, wherever the soil is subject to drain-
age, there are dense spruce forests with a dank undergrowth of.
mosses, ferns and ‘“ devils-club.” Everything there is soggy,
even on the drier days.
Needless to say the rivers are permanent and brimming,
although subject to fluctuations according as the rains are
heavy or light. All but the Alsek are short streams, but some
even of these rise in the abundant glaciers which choke the
mountain valleys. The glacial rivers are swift, and are milky
with fine sediment; but the others, which draw their water
through many swamps and lakes, are clear. In the history of
the plain the glacial:streams are probably of far more import-
ance than the others. The rivers which cross the plain are
engaged in aggrading. They have no valleys, and their
immediate channels are sunk but a few feet beneath the plain.”
Having this picture of the district and its conditions, we
may now consider the structure and composition of the plain
itself. The foreland is composed entirely of unconsolidated
Quaternary sediments. Near Yakutat Bay, and subordinately
elsewhere, low glacial moraines make the surface The rest of
the material was deposited by water or wind, and is stratified.
The plain seems to have been built out into the ocean by
shifting aggrading rivers. These rivers are swiftest near the
mountains and become slack at tide-level. On this account
the sediments are graded in coarseness. Near the mountains,
coarse gravel predominates; but as one passes seaward he may
trace the gravel into sand and finally into silt. This zonal
arrangement of gravel, sand and silt probably persists roughly
with depth, for the conditions of gradient have doubtless been
similar through much of the history of the plain.
In com position the sediments have certain distinctive fea-
tures. The colors are limited to black and grays of various
intensities. Tinges of green are not uncommon but are faint.
When examined “closely the sediments are found to consist of
* The work of these streams as seen in front of the Malaspina glacier has
recently been described by Tarr, Zeitschrift fir Gletscherkunde, iii, 88-95.
462. Blackwelder— Yakutat Coastal Plain of Alaska.
particles of slate, greenstone, quartz, feldspar and ferromag-
nesian minerals, with a varying admixture of carbonaceous
material. A lack of the usual products of oxidation is the
striking characteristic of all the deposits.
In general the sediments do not show evidence of long con-
tinued attrition. Although the pebbles and sand grains are
inoderately round, many particles are angular or irregular in
Jey, Bi
Fic. 2. The delta of the Alsek River as seen from the Brabazon Range on
the north. A type of the constructing rivers of the foreland (photograph
by Netland, U. 8. Boundary Survey).
shape. The assortment and segregation of the particles, both
as to size and lithologie character, is also markedly imperfect.
The gravels are heterogeneous mixtures of bits of slate, gray-
wacke, granite and other rocks. The sands contain feldspar,
magnetite, hornblende and slate in addition to the usual quartz.
In the matter of size also the same lack of assortment pre-
vails, large pebbles and small being bound together by a matrix
of muddy sand; while the silty beds contain much sand and
mica. Heterogeneity is therefore another distinguishing prop-
erty of these sediments.
Upon the surface, the distribution of the various deposits
is determined by their origin. At the mouths of the largest
valleys there are glacial moraines. Along the more powerful
streams there are sheets of bare gravel and mixed sands. In
the swampy intervening areas peaty material is accumulating.
Along the ocean beach, exposed to the storm waves and high
winds, pure quartz-sands are being heaped into low dunes;
while in the tidal lagoons and estuaries just back of the shore,
E. Blackwelder— Yakutat Coastal Plain of Alaska. 463
sticky mud forms the bottom. Although we can not see what
is being deposited on the bed of the ocean, yet we need not
doubt that the ceaseless milling of the breakers and currents
is comminuting the sediment and distributing the different
kinds of detritus in belts varying with the depth of the water
and the exposure. This part of the formation should be well
assorted and the individual deposits of sand and mud _ tolerably
homogeneous in composition and texture.
For a picture of the gross structure of the beds we can not
rely upon actual observation, for there are no sections which
expose more than a few feet of the deposits. But from the
nature of the agents engaged in building the plain we may
infer with confidence that the structure is complex. The
MiGeeor
BRABAZONY
PAC/FIC OCEAN
i
——— i —
a a
ee ——_ + :
SS ————— ea a ee ww Fe et tw tees
Fic. 3. Ideal cross-section of the foreland, showing the relations of
the different kinds of sediments. Vertical scale exaggerated. (The
eross-lined pattern denotes moraines.)
glaciers have probably been subject to advance and retreat, as
all well-known glaciers are, and, if this is true, they have left
sheets of till between beds of gravel. The streams are bor-
dered by gravel wastes through which old stumps protrude,—
remnants of forests invaded by the rivers. These and other
facts show that the rivers are constantly changing their courses
so that river gravels are interlaminated with peaty layers made
in bogs and forests. It has been said that the larger rivers
are subject to marked fluctuations in volume. In time of
flood gravel is spread far out over the sands, and at low-water
stages such sheets of gravel are again covered by sandy beds.
As these changes recur frequently, the sediments must consist
of rapidly alternating coarse and fine beds. The coast line
itself must be subject to shifting ; for even if there have been
no changes of level the plain must have been built out into
the ocean. If, on the other hand, this is a region of tectonic
disturbance, as shown by Tarr and Martin,* then we should
expect to find yellow dune sands, gray estuarine clays and
*R.S. Tarr and Lawrence Martin, Recent changes of level in the Yakutat
Bay region, Alaska: Bnll. Geol. Soc. Amer., xvii, 29-64, 1906.
464 fF. Blackwelder— Yakutat Coastal Plas of Alaska.
mixed fluviatile deposits lying one upon the other and perhaps
alternating in successive wedge-shaped beds.
The stratification planes of the various classes of deposits
have peculiarities of importance, and these surface features are
in turn reflected in the minor structures seen in cross-section.
The aggrading streams are all filled with fan-shaped bars which
have gentle back slopes and steep outer slopes. The depo-
sition of sediment in this form produces prominent cross-
bedding. More intricate cross-bedding is caused by the alter-
nate cut and fill of the shifting rivers and by the migrating
sand dunes. Cross-bedding is also doubtless acommon feature
of the deposits now forming near the zone of breakers in the
ocean. On the whole, therefore, much of the deposits of the
foreland must be cross-bedded.
Ripple-marks, although absent in the deposits of the swamps
and quiet lagoons, are characteristic of the beach and river
sediments. On the ocean shore, regular ripple-marks of the
long parallel type are made by the water currents below tide-
mark and by the wind currents above that line. In the chan-
nels of the streams the ripple-marks are usually shorter and
of the spatulate type, with gentle back slopes and steep
fronts. They are even more numerous there than along
the littoral zone. Some which were observed by our
party near the head of the Alsek delta were exceedingly
large. These were composed of bowlders and coarse gravel
and had a relief of 4 to 6 feet with wave-lengths of scores of
feet. In fact they were so large that I did not recognize their
true character while clambering over them, but only when I
saw them in panorama from a considerable elevation. Ripple-
marks of such magnitude would of course express themselves
in cross-section as strong cross-bedding. They give some idea
of the power of the current in the Alsek River when it is in
full flood.
Sun-eracks, another feature of terrestrial and tide-water
sediments, appear to be uncommon here. I do not remember
having seen any. The explanation is doubtless to be sought
in the climate, which is so moist that muds rarely become dry
enough to crack. If the cracks occur anywhere, the tidal
sounds would furnish the most favorable conditions.
Organic remains are being preserved between some of the
layers to-day and they offer a further means of identification
of deposits of this general class. In the submarine zone of
the plain, shells of mollusks, echinoderms and other aquatic
animals lie upon the bottom; but as life is not very abundant
in this boreal sea, the shells preserved should be somewhat
scarce. In the terrestrial zone, driftwood is buried by the
dune sand, while forest trees are undermined by the rivers and
enveloped in deposits ef gravel or sand. In the finer sedi-
E.. Blackwelder— ¥ akutat Coastal Plain of Alaska. 465
ments of swamps and estuaries, leaves of ferns and other plants
find lodgment and are doubtless being preserved. Animal re-
-mains, on the other hand, arerarer. Bones of salmon are buried
in the river sediments in some quantity, for millions of them die
each year on the spawning grounds; but, since they frequent
chiefly the gravelly bottoms, their opportunities for preserva-
tion are not the best. Land mammals are too scarce on the
plain to leave many skeletons. It thus appears that fossils
must be tolerably rare in the entire series of beds. In the
marine portion plants would be deficient, while mollusks, crus-
taceans, worms and echinoderms would predominate. In the
terrestrial part, bits of wood and even leaves would be locally
abundant, but animal remains would be rare and coiprise
little but the fishes.
The characteristics of the sediments in the Yakutat plain
may be summarized as follows
1. Origin: partly terrestrial and partly marine, the phases either
interleaved near the contact or the one transgressing upon
ene7other.. °™
Types of sediments : till, gravel, sand, silt, mud, and peat.
3. Composition : heterogeneous.
4. Color: gray to black, due to the lack of oxidation products
and the abundance of carbonaceous matter.
5. Texture: subangular as well as round particles, alternately
finer and coarser.
6. Assortment : very imperfect except in the marine phase.
Fragments of many rocks of many sizes intermingled con-
fusedly
7. Stratification : complex and irregular in the terrestrial phases.
Cross-bedding, lense-structure and ripple-marks prevalent in
the sandy beds. Effects of contemporaneous erosion com-
mon. Sun-cracks rare.
8. Fossils: in the terrestrial portion leaves and wood common,
animals rare (chiefly fishes). In the marine portion shells
fairly common, plants rare.
ad
Although my subject is the modern sediments of the plain,
I may call attention here to the interesting fact that these sedi-
ments have analogs in the hard rocks of the mountains behind
them. The Brabazon range and the Puget peninsula are
composed largely of the Yakutat series,* which has been refer-
red to both the Carboniferous and the Jurassic systems. This
formation presents clearly many, although not all, of the charac-
teristics of the sediments in the plain just described. The
rocks are black slates, dark graywackes and conglomerates.
* The lithology of the beds is described in many papers, among them the
following: Harriman Alaska Exped. Report, iv, pp. 44-56; I. C. Russell, Nat.
Geogr. Mag. , lii, 166-170; U.S. Grant, U. S. Geol. Surv. Bull. 284, p.
79-80 (Orca series). —
466 F. Blackwelder— Yakutat Coastal Plain of Alaska.
They consist of many materials, usually poorly assorted, and
often imperfectly rounded. The minerals are not oxidized,
and carbonaceous material is abundant. Conglomerates are
interleaved with graywackes at any horizons. Ripple-marks
and eross-bedding are found in the coarser beds. Fossils are
very rare, and of those discovered the commonest may perhaps
be plant stems or worm trails. Only a single identifiable shell
has been found* and that not in this vicinity. There are even
beds suggestive of glacial action.t
I interpret this to mean that, at a much earlier time, this
part of the Alaskan coast had much the same cool, rainy climate
that it has to-day, that it was bordered by a growing foreland
covered with dense vegetation and was backed by rugged
highlands ;
Russellt describes a series of rocks, younger than the Yakutat
formation, which he found on the slopes of the St. Elias range
and named the Pinnacle series. This comprises 1800 feet of
dark gray sandstone and shale with beds of conglomerate.
Some of the beds contain marine shells ; others have coal seams.
Here again there is a lack of oxidation products and an alter-
nation of dark clastic sediments suggestive of the modern
coastal deposits.
In one of the coarse conglomerates of the Yakutat series
I observed a bowlder, itself composed of an older conglomerate,
and among the pebbles in the latter were hard quartzitic gray-
wackes of the same unoxidized carbonaceous character. That
this represents a still earlier epoch of similar conditions is at
least suggested.
Taken together, these facts seem to indicate that certain
climatic and physiographic conditions have recurred at widely
separated intervals in this single region. In each case the
record is purely sedimentary rather than paleontological.
University of Wisconsin, March 1, 1909.
* ©. O. Ulrich, Harriman Alaska Exped. Rep., iv, pp. 125-148.
+ Eliot Blackwelder, Jour. of Geol., xv, p. 11-14. The probable glacial
origin of certain folded slates in southern Alaska, 1907.
t Loe. cit. p. 170-178.
A. F. Rogers— Pyrite Crystals from Bingham, Utah. 467
Art. XLI.— Pyrite Crystals from Bingham, Utah; by
Austin F. Rogers.
Tue pyrite crystals described in this note were kindly pre-
sented to the writer by Dr. A. L. Inglesby of Bingham, Utah.
They were obtained by him from the Highland Boy mine in
Carr Fork, about a mile and a half above Bingham. The
erystals, which average about 5"" in diameter, are well
developed, have brilliant faces, and are often highly moditied.
The best groups of crystals.in Dr. Inglesby’s collection are
magnificent specimens, rivaling those from Leadville and from
Central City, Colorado, in attractiveness.
The observed forms are as follows : cube, a@}100;; pyrito-
hedrons, ¢{210}, @{430{, 6/610}; trapezohedrons, ni2ilt,
m {311}, 4) 411}; positive diploids, ${3821', 6{12°9-1t, p{10°7-1}:
negative diploids, {8-105} and O}3871}. Of these the last
four are new for the nanesd pyrite.
The habit is determined either by the cube or by the pyrito-
hedron {210}, often in about equal development. No tendency
toward an octahedral habit was noticed :—a@}100}{ varies from
a mere line face to the dominant form. It is often striated
parallel to its intersection-edge with j111{; ¢{210} is on most
of the crystals the dominant form. It is sometimes striated
parallel to its intersection edge with $111! and 3821} and only
rarely vertically striated, 0} 111} is present on all the crystals
and sometimes prominent. Its faces are bright and usually
marked by concentric triangles which represent oscillations in
the zone of trapezohedrons ; s/321{ is present on many of the
crystals ; ; ni211' occurs on every erga and is often rather
prominent; 7} B11} and w}411} are subordinate forms present
on about half the onsale m\311* is the more frequent of
the two and usually the larger; 6/610: and 6{480} are the
only pyritohedrons in addition to 210%. They are narrow and
unimportant forms.
Each of the new forms is present on several crystals and
they are well established by measurements. {12°9'1; is ina
vertical zone with {480!. p{10-7 1§ is near }12°9°1{ in position
but is sharply defined. T}8°10°5 is a negative diploid in the
vertical zone with [210: 211: 213] and hence only one measure-
ment was necessary for its identification. O{371} is present
on several crystals. Its faces are striated and apparently there
is a (570) face. Measurements in the cube and ae
zone give an image for the (370) position, but in the [371: 371]
zone there were multiple images but no definite one for (370).
This example, it is thought, shows an hdvantage of one-circle
measurements over two-circle measurements.
468 A. FE. Rogers—Pyrite Crystals from Bingham, Utah.
The. following is a list of combinations and habits, the forms
under each being arranged according to their prominence. The
list begins with dominant cubic habit and ends with dominant
pyritohedral habit.
Le OEAM 8. CHON MSY OO Ghmp (see fig. 1).
2. aeon 9, eaonms OO
3. aeonmsp O 10. eaons
4. GENSOMp 1l. eoan Om
od. GEON 12. eoansm
6. Geondp 13. eonm
7. eanosmpoppY 14. €on
Data for the identification of the new forms are given in
the following comparison of the measured with the calculated
angles :
Cryst. 7 Cryst. 8 Cryst. 11 Calculated
1128s 11os3 fe Tee 112305
44 LIke cree 17-42
AS ein Ua ee eee 3 49
ily Reet BEIT SOR Paes 147 58h 14 58
BA Feo clematis eagle naam 9 388
BD eM R CU Reta eens ae 33 334
Fig. 1 represents crystal No. 8.
This gives a general idea of the
average habit and shows three of
the four new forms. This figure is
simply a sketch inked in with a
straight edge and not the regulation
clinographic projection.
In addition to the forms charac-
teristic for this locality, the most
remarkable feature of these crystals
is the prominence of the zone [100:
411: 311: 211: 111]. This is shown not only by the presence
of the three trapezohedrons indicated but also by oscillatory
striations on the octahedron faces and occasionally on the cube
faces. The poverty of pyritohedrons is also striking, there
being but two pyritohedrons besides }210{. This is also sub-
stantiated by the fact that vertical striations rarely occur either
on the cube or on the pyritohedron } 210}.
Stanford University, Feb., 1909.
Maas 0:
G. P. Merrill—Composition of Stony Meteorites. 469
Arr. XLIL.—TZhe Composition of Stony Meteorites com-
pared with that of Terrestrial Lgneous Rocks, and con-
sidered with reference to their efficacy im World-Making ;
by Grorce P. Merritt.
[Read before the Geological Society of Washington, March 24, 1909, |
SPECULATION relative to subjects the actual proof of which
lies entirely beyond his reach, has ever been a favorite pursuit
of the thinking man. Nowhere is this more manifest than in
questions relating to the age and origin of the earth. Of all
the theories which have been evolved, and which have stood
the test of any considerable length of time, only that known as
the Kant-Laplacean, and the more recent hypotheses of
Professor Chamberlin of Chicago, need our present considera-
tion. Any and all of these call for the world-making materials,
whether gaseous or solid, from sources beyond our immediate
universe. It is but natural, therefore, that those substances
which reach our earth from space in a solid form, and which
give the only really tangible illustrations of what materials of
space may be, should be regarded as of value in aiding our
arrival at the desired conclusions. This fact was recognized
over one hundred years ago (179+) by Chladni, who regarded
meteorites as remnants of cosmic materials employed in the
formation of worlds, or, as he expressed it, as “Weltspine.”
The idea, with various more or less important modifications,
has been repeated by subsequent workers,* and is brought up
for consideration with renewed force by the recent papers of
Professor Chamberlin, which have been so clearly summarized —
under the heading of the “Origin of the Earth” in his work on
geology.t
It should be stated, however, that Professor Chamberlin is
not an advocate of the meteoric theory of the earth; in fact,
he states definitely that the origin of meteorites is but an
incidental result of stellar and planetary action, their genesis
being wholly a secondary matter, and furnishing no grounds
for regarding them as the parent material of great nebule or
of stellar systems. Chamberlin inclines rather to what he calls
the ‘“‘planetesimal hypothesis,’ which assumes that the solar
system was derived from a spiral nebula consisting of finely
divided solid or liquid materials, which revolve independently
about a common nucleus, and which are gathered into larger
aggregates through the crossing of the elliptical orbits of the
* See Lockyer’s Meteoric Hypothesis for discussion. Arrhenius’ Worlds
in Their Making is perhaps the latest work in which the matter is seriously
considered.
t Geology, vol. ii, Earth History, pp. 1-81.
Am. Jour. Sci.—FourtH SERIES, Vout. XX VII, No. 162.—Junz, 1909. :
32
470 G. P. Merrili— Composition of Stony Meteorites.
individual members. It is obvious, however, that whatever
theory is adopted,—the Laplacean, meteoric, or the planetesi-
mal—the kind of material, and presumably the ultimate origin
of all, remains the same. It is this thought which has led me
to enter upon the present discussion.
Meteorites as they come to our earth, as is well known, are
roughly grouped into three general classes ; first, those which
consist essentially of nickeliferous iron nearly or quite devoid
of silicate material; second, those which consist of a spongy
mass of iron, including elobular ageregates of silicates ; and
third, those which are nearly or quite all of silicate material,
with more or less sporadic iron. These forms, it is true, orade
into one another, but, nevertheless, the classification is much
easier than one would be at first led to suppose.
Researches into the composition of our earth have led us to
assume that it is composed of an outer zone of comparatively
rich silicate material, in which free silica is an important con-
stituent, and an inner zone of material which is essentially
metallic, with perhaps an intermediate zone showing a transi-
tion between the two extremes. Regarding meteorites as
world materials, as has been done by certain workers, we
might consider the purely metallic varieties as representing the
deep-seated, probably nucleal, material of some pre-existing
planetary body; the stony meteorites as representing the
crustal material; and the spongy irons with the mixed silicates
(pallasites) as representing the intermediate portion. The
fact, however, that a part, at least, of the iron of stony mete-
orites has been repeatedly shown to be of secondary origin—
to result from the reduction of some compound subsequent to
the consolidation of the silicates, is difficult to harmonize with
any such view.
Inasmuch as the nucleal material of fe earth is quite beyond
reach for purposes of investigation, and as the intermediate
zone, if such there be, is represented, if atall , only by extrusions
of deep- seated igneous rocks, I have for the time being limited
my considerations to a comparison of the stony meteorites
with the great group of igneous rocks as existing to-day upon
the earth’s surface. It will be seen at once that in doing this,
I have accepted for the purpose the most acid group of the
ultra-terrestrial rocks
There are many difficulties in the way of obtaining anything
like an accurate average of the composition of these materials.
This, for reasons which can be fully appreciated only by those
who have attempted their study, and more particularly, the
making of chemical analyses. One of the chief ditticnlties, it
may be said, les in the separation of the metallic from the
non-metallic portion, The method of statement of the results,
G. P. Merrill—Composition of Stony Meteorites. 471
and the proper interpretation to be put upon the same, add to
the difficulties. Several of the constituents, moreover, occur
in such extremely small quantities, or like the chloride of iron
(lawrencite), undergo such rapid deterioration, that their deter-
mination has been largely overlooked, particularly in the older
analyses. Or, again, if such determinations were made, the
results as given are at least open to doubt in the ight of more
recent investigations. In going over all of the hterature
available, | have found but ninety-nine analyses which were
made, as it seemed to me, with sufficient care, were sufficiently
complete, or stated in such a way as to render the results com-
parable with one another. Even in these ninety-nine, all of
the constituents were not determined, and in many instances,
where the presence or absence of a certain element was not
stated, one is left in doubt as to whether such was looked for,
or whether it was looked for and found lacking. Out of the
ninety-nine analyses, however, silica, alumina, iron, ferrous
oxide, hme, magnesia, potash and soda were found determined
in a sufficient number of cases to make the matter of an aver-
age a fairly safe approximation, the metallic iron affording the
most difficulty. Of the remaining constituents, as given in the
table below (No. 1), the manganese is an average of forty-one
determinations, the phosphorus of thirty-one, the chromic iron
of sixty-seven, the sulphur of ninety-two, and the nickel-cobalt
of ninety-three. The percentage amount of sulphur has, in
many cases, been arrived at by calculation, since the results
Average composition of stony meteorites as calculated from 99 analyses
for all constituents but P, which is from 31 determinations; MnO
from 41 determinations, Cr.0;+Fe.0; from 67 determinations ; Ni,Co
from 93 determinations; and § from 92 determinations.
I UI
Average of Recalculated on
Results as given basis of 100
SG es a ae 38°98 38°732
MOOD 2 pee SG 2°75 2°733
LING a ine eae EEG 11°536
15 Os zaiien eer mer 16°54 16°435
Ci@yats ee Lory 1°758
NR Oe 2808 22°884
INGOs oe 2 et ow SOLOS 0-945
We Oger ae O88 0°328
Cr,O,+Fe,O, --- 0°84 Av. of 67 dets. 0°835
i © oye tee 1°32 cae ned ayer 1°312
ie Re ee 1°85: Se Ow aide 1°839
| a Ee Otte Reine Okt Bo pecanle 0°109
NEA a 0°56 eo ee ANS NS 0°556
100°64 100°00
472 G. P. Merrill—Composition of Stony Meteorites.
were sometimes given as simply ferrous sulphide and some-
times as sulphur. Where such calculations were necessary,
the percentage of iron was added to the amount given in the
analyses as existing in the metallic state.*
The following list shows the highest and lowest percentages
of any given constituent in the analyses here aver aged.
Highest Lowest
BiGie tue as 61:15 26°05
Al.O, ths Ss neh le, 0°00
Wen eos ar ee 7 OO 0:00
HeO: 2 eas Ord 0°99
CAO Mine ores 7°03 0:00
MgO es News 9 ae 39°04 = 6°44
Na,O ROME AA tea aaa iene 3°94 0:00
K,O . Bh tslgs se Hila oat 4°31 + 0°00
Cr 2OF +Fe, ©. oOo e 0°00
NiCo be Mt ea eat sc 4°21 0:00
No eee es Pract oO TAT 0-00
+It would seem that this must be an error, since the stone (that of
Zsadany, Hungary) is described as consisting essentially of olivine and
pyroxene, and no reference made to feldspars.
For comparison of these results with terrestrial rocks, the
following are given:
Average composition of terrestrial igneous rocks as calculated by (III)
Clarke and (IV) Washington.}
Ii IV
DIO er See eee 60°91 58°239
RIO yeas oe = los 15-796
Hie G) een sist peai 2 63 3°334
ReO ene ae Se Ol6 ; 3°874
Mis Op oes so. 4 lis 3°843
CaO” taser ms 4°88 5:22]
INGOT SE Sephora: 3°45 3°912
KOM Sohn ae emeE oe 3°16]
1,0 ab VOO; se 041 0°363
“ above 100° 1:49 1428
iO. ene eae 0°73 1:039
FO- cep eee 0°26 0°373
10061 100°583
+ Bull. 380, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1908.
* The writer regards these results as only approximations, and suggestive.
The recalculation of many of the analyses‘s attended with so many uncertain-
ties, that it is even probable that slightly different results would be obtained
in going over the same ground a second time. So far as the main constitu-
ents—the silica, alumina, lime, magnesia, potash and soda—are concerned,
he believes the averages as good as can be obtained with available material.
en
G. P. Merrill — Composition of Stony Meteorites. 473
Tt may be well to add that the approximate weight, so far as
known, of all the stones represented by these ninety-nine
analyses, was 4,014 kilograms or about 4:4 metric tons. An
average of 77 determinations, as given, of specific gravities
gave 3°51, of which the lowest, that of the Orgueil, France,
carbonaceous stone was 2: 50, and the highest, that of Limerick,
Treland, 3°92.
It will at once be noted that there is a wide and striking
difference in composition between the meteorites and the ter-
restrial rocks,—a difference not merely in the relative propor-
tion of the various elements, but also, in one case at least, in
their method of combination. The most striking feature is,
for the meteorites (columns I and II), the low silica content,
and the high percentage of metallic iron, ferrous oxide, and
magnesia, with the corresponding low percentages of alumina,
lime, and the alkalies.* Compared with Washington’s averages
for terrestrial rocks, it will be noted that there is a difference
of nearly twenty per cent in the amount of silica in favor of
the latter, and of some thirteen per cent in the amount of
alumina. These differences are so striking that they cannot
be considered as due to errors of analyses, or of their inter-
pretation. They must be fundamental.
Should we disregard entirely the metallic iron of the meteor-
ites with its included nickel, cobalt, and phosphorus, and also
the iron disulphide (amounting all together to 14°79 per cent),
and recalculate Analyses II on the basis of 100, we get the
results shown in column V below. In column VI is given
the average of seven analyses of terrestrial peridotites+ which,
as will be at once apparent to the petrographer, afford the
closest approximation, in chemical as well as mineral composi-
tion, to meteorites. These, it should be stated, have been
recalculated on a water-free basis. It is scarcely necessary,
however, to call attention to the fact that the peridotites repre-
sent the most basic of known terrestrial rocks, while the mete-
oric analyses which I have given represent the most acid type
that have come to us from space. It is evident, therefore, that
* The composition as shown by these analyses does not, so far as sodium
is concerned, seem to harmonize with spectroscopic analyses, or Arrhenius’
statement*%o the effect that the nucleus of comets, like the meteorites fall-
ing upon our earth, consists essentially of silicates, and particularly of the
silicates of sodium. See Worlds in Their Making, pp. 104-105. For the
benefit of those not familiar with the subject, it may be well to state that the
principal mineral constituents of meteorites, aside from the metallic por-
tions, are the silicates. of magnesia and iron, olivine and enstatite, with less
commonly monoclinic pyroxenes and basic feldspars. Silicates of sodium
must be rare, as shown by a simple glance at the analyses given.
+The nnmbeér was limited, since nearly all reported analyses were of
altered and highly hydrated exampies, while for purposes of comparison
materials as nearly anhydrous as possible were needed.
474. G. P. Merrill—Composition of Stony Meteorites.
V VI
Sin Ahi peeks eye 43°59
Ale Ga Seki: heute neees 3:9) 5:30
HeOsy.w coh cma eae 19°29 840
Hes O nisin ke Mate cre 2°03
CaO wiser Co oe 2°06 4°11
MgO Se ae ay cay SRE Ee ee SS es 26°86 35°62
INO Pee ee oe ele 0°60
Keo ae a 0°38 0°36
MnO boiler 2) Wed he Wd We, 0°65 ae
Cr Oe Ones ae 0:98 PERE.
100:00 100°01
as world-making materials they are insufficient, and if we are
to regard our earth as an aggregate of cosmic matter, we must
assume that the materials were of a much more highly sili-
ceous type than any that have been reaching us from space
within historical periods. This is presumably ‘the proper inter-
pretation to be placed upon the results here shown.
It is impossible through any process of magmatic differentia-
tion to derive from such materials, in even approximate propor-
tions, a series of rocks as widely variant and, in extremes, as
highly siliceous, aluminous and alkaline, as are the igneous
rocks of the earth. In fact, it would seem that they (the
meteorites) themselves must ‘represent an extreme phase of
magmatic differentiation from a more acid magma.
Whether we consider the meteorites that have reached us
within this period as but the fragmental remains of comets, or
whatever their origin, it is certainly not going beyond ‘the
realm of legitimate “hypothesis to assume that the relative pro-
portions of the elements which go to make up the mineral
matter in these various bodies in remote space, may vary
widely; that the earth to-day, in its course, is but passing
through* and receiving from space a deposit of materials
representing one and the same original body, and that body
one of an exceedingly basic nature, not necessarily resembling,
in percentage composition, the materials which may have
reached us during past and earlier stages of earth history..
*<««Meteoriten und Planetoiden sind daher die voribergehenden Zeugen
einer voriibergegangenen Episode in der Geschichte unseres Planetensystems.”’
Ed. Suess, Ueber Einzelheiten in der Beschaffenheit einiger Himmelskor-
er, Sitz. kais. Akad. der Wiss., vol. exvi, 1907.
K. J. Bush—WNotes on the Family Pyramidellide. 45
Arr. XLIII.— Notes on the Family Pyramidellide ; by K. J.
| Busy, Pu.D.
[Brief Contributions to Zoology from the Museum of Yale Univ.—Ixix. |
Tuere has recently been published by the Boston Society
of Natural History an article on the very interesting family
of Pyramidellide, written by Mr. Paul Bartsch,* Assistant
Curator in the Department of Mollusks of the U. S. National
Museum at Washington City, D. C.
In his introduetion the author carefully reviews all of the
literature relating to this family from the northeast coast of
America, naming the species in each work, from Thomas Say,
m. £821, to Geor sew Tryon, in 1886: le states that his
paper is largely based on the U. 8. National Museum collec-
tions; that he had also for study the collection from the
Philadelphia Academy of Sciences and the large private collec-
tion of Rev. H. W. Winkley, ete. ete. Quoting, as regards
the synonymy: “In the present paper we have confined our-
selves to the specimens at hand and to citations of literature
necessary to a complete understanding of the nomenclature.”
A further review of the work on this family, undertaken since
1886, and overlooked by Mr. Bartsch, may prove of interest to
those studying this group.
The Pyramidellideet belonging to the fauna of the east
Atlantic have never been studied as a whole, but several stn-
dents of Malacology had described a compar atively few species,
those of special interest in this connection being from different
localities along the coast of New England, West Indies, and
Florida; in many instances without figures and, most unfortu
nately, if figures were attempted, they are at the present time
considered too poor for accuracy in determining the species.
About 1896 the entire, very large collection “of the Pyrami-
dellidze made by the U.S. Fish Commission during the years
from 1872 to 1887, from the Bay of Fundy and the Banks of
Newfoundland, south to Cape Hatteras, N. C., as well as
many collections made by others at Labrador, Florida, and
the Bermudas, in the Museum at Yale University were given
into my charge to prepare for publication. In this connection
acard catalogue of between 250 and 300 specific names referred
to about 75 genera or subgenera was made.
* Pyramidellide of New England and the adjacent region. Proceedings
Boston Society of Natural History, vol. xxxiv, pp. 67-1138, plates 11-14, 1909.
+ This group as given by Tryon (Manual of Concholog gy, vol. viii, parts 32
and 33, pp. 294 to. 413, pls. 72 to 79, 1886) is a compilation of all known
species with their descriptions and ‘fieures ; anew name is proposed where
a former one proves preoccupied.
476 K. J. Bush-—Notes on the Family Pyramidellide.
There were in existence at that time three or rather four
small collections of species belonging to the genera Z'wrbonilla
and Odostomia of special interest; one at the Museum at
Ainherst College; one at the State Museum at Albany, New
York; one at the Academy of Sciences of Philadelphia; and
the fourth in the National Museum at Washington. The first
contained the types of C. B. Adams ;* the second the speci-
mens used in W. G. Binney’s Gould s+ the third those who
by G. W. Tryon in his Manual of Conchology ; and the last
the species described by Dr. Dall} from Florida.
On visiting Amherst College I ‘found that the C. B. Adams’
vee had been misplaced, land for the time lost track of,
(I understand they were subsequently studied at the N ational
Museum). Professor John W. Clarke, then in charge of the
Albany Museum, failed to find the specimens belonging to
this group in the Gould collection. On request, those at Phila-
delphia were loaned me for study and proved of so great
interest that [ published a short report on them with one plate
in the Proceedings of the Philadelphia Academy, in 1899.§
Coty pes and other specimens were also sent me by Dr. Dall.
After several months of arduous work I had the collection
ready for the descriptions of the numerous new species, fine
figures of which had been prepared and arranged in plates.
This work was then laid aside for other of more importance on
different groups of mollusks; and most unfortunately has never
been completed and published; although an attempt was being
made to do so in the near future.
In 1900, jointly with Professor Verrill,| I published a
report on ‘the mollusks from the Bermudas, in which we
described some new species of Zurbonilla and Odostomia and
in several instances reéstablished some of the genera or sub-
genera described by A. Adams, restricting them to definite
types for the first time.4
* Descriptions of Supposed New Species of Watine Shells which Inhabit
Jamaica. Contributions to Conchology, No. 5, pp. 72-75, 1850.
+ Report on the Invertebrata of Massachusetts, pp. 324-538, text figures,
Boston, 1870.
t+ On a Collection of Shells sent from Florida by Mr. Henry Hemphill.
Proceedings U.S. National Museum, vol. vi, p. 382, Washington, D. C., 1888.
§ Descriptions of new species of Turbonilla of the western Atlantic Fauna,
with notes on those previously known. Proceedings Academy Natural Sei-
ences of Philadelphia, pp. 145-177, pl. viii, 1899.
|| Additions to the Marine Mollusca of the Bermudas. Transactions of the
Connecticut Academy of Sciences, vol. x, pp. 028-030, pls. lxiv-lxv. New
Haven, Conn., 1900.
*| Pyrgostelis Monterosato, 1884 ; type—P. rufa (Philippi). V. & B., 1900+
D. & B., 1904. Mumiola A. Adams, 1864; type—WM. spirata A. Adams,
1860. V. & B., 1900+ D. & B., 1904 (not Mumiola Monterosato, 1884= Odos-
tomiella B. D. & D., 1883). Mormula A. Adams, 1864; type—M. rissoina
A. Adams. V. & B., 1900+D. & B., 1904. Cyclodostomia Sacco, 1892 ;
K. J: Bush— Notes on the Family Pyramidellide. ATT
In 1902, I visited the National Museum and found that Dr.
Dall had given the species from the west coast of America,
belonging to this group, to his assistant, Mr. Bartsch, to work
up, as I had those of the east coast. In this connection rare
species and types, both fossil and recent, were loaned by
foreign museutins,* (especially the Berlin Museum, in which
were the collections of H. and A. Adams, Petel, Dunker, and
Hilgendorf ; and the British Museum, where are the collection
of D’Orbigny and many others having species: belonging to
this group; as well as the Museum at Copenhagen.) Figures
were being made so that in the future there could, or rather
would, be but small chance for errors in the identification of
species.
In 19038, an extensive report on fossils of California was
published by Mr. Arnold, in the California Academy of Sci-
ences. In this, Dr. Dall and Mr. Bartsch furnished the part
on mollusks, and the senior author credited the work on the
family Pyramidellide to Mr. Bartsch.
Also, in 1904, a “Synopsis of the Genera, Subgenera, and
Sections of the Family Pyramidellidee” was published by these
authors in the Bulletin of the Biological Society of Washing-
ton.t Quoting from the introductory remarks, ‘‘ The synonymy,
which is very involved, is reserved for another paper in which
the species of the west coast of America will be monographi-
cally treated. It was thought best to put on record the classi-
fication adopted, so that before the paper referred to appears
the authors may have the benefit of criticism from other
students.”
Since the publication of my article in 1899, collectors of
mollusks from California, Florida, and various places along the
coast of New England have sent or brought their specimens to
me for the identification of the species. This has been a
source of great pleasure, as well as profit, as it enabled me,
not only to become acquainted with rare species, as there was
often but one specimen of a kind, but in instances where there
were several, duplicates were given me, which were placed in
our museum collection. When new forms appeared from the
west coast they were referred to Mr. Bartsch; and those from
type—C. mutinensis Sacco. V. & B., 1900+D. & B., 1904. Hvalea A.
Adams, 1860; type—E£. elegans A. Adams. V.& B., 1900+D. & B., 1904.
Cingulina A. Adams, 1850; type—C. circinata A. Adams. V. & B., 1900+
D. & B., 1904. Miralda A. Adams, 1864; type—WM. diadema A. Adams.
V. & B., 1900+ D. & B., 1904. In three instances (Mumiola, Mermuila, and
Cingulina), although citing the same type, these authors differ in the inter-
pretation of the generic relations of these subgenera.
* Dall, in Dall and Bartsch. Notes on Japanese, Indopacific, and Ameri-
can Pyramidellide. Proceedings U. S. National Museum, vol. xxx, pp. 221-
269, pls. xvii-xxvi. Washington, 1906.
+ Vol. xvii, pp. 1-16.
478 A. SJ. Bush—Notes on the Family Pyramidellide.
Florida to Dr. Dall; those from the New England localities
were given an initial letter, as it was not considered advisable
to give out manuscript names. In one instance, as a report on
a collection from Coldspring Harbor, L. I., by Mr. Balch* of
Boston, these initial letters were published and full credit
given me.
Among the most frequent visitors at the Museum was Rey.
Henry W. Winkley, then of Branford, Connecticut, who is a
most enthusiastic student and collector of New England mol-
lusks; principally at Prince Edward Island, N. 8., Casco
Bay, Woods Holl, Mass. and Branford, Conn. His coliection
is unique in having numerous perfect specimens of the vari-
ous species, and was of inestimable value in enabling me to
decide many difticult questions of the correct identification in
this puzzling group. To Mr. Winkley I also refused to give
my new unpublished names, but used the same initial letters
as for Mr. Balch. There were in his collection representatives
of many of the new forms found in that of the U.S. F. C.
as well as a few unique ones, not among the U.S. F. CO.
specimens. 7
These specimens from Mr. Winkley’s collection are cited by
Mr. Bartsch (p. 475), but no mention whatever is made of the
fact that any student had seen the specimens or determined
them.
Among the thirty-eight (88) species cited and described in
his report, and in most cases figured, there are seven (7) which
he has never seen (/. wentricosa V. (not Forbes), 7. polita
V., T. equalis (Say) V., O. brunert V., O. morseana B. tor
O. sulcata V. (not A. Adams). O. dealbata (St.) Binney-
Gould, O. eburnea (Stimpson) V.); six (6) from Winkley’s
collection, as types, with two (2) (P. producta (C. B. Adams)
and 7. mighelsi B. for TZ. costulata V. (not Risso). Fifteen
(15) are represented in the Winkley collection, as well as in
that of the U. 8. F. C. in the National Museum ; and eight
(8) are from the U.S. F. C. collection alone. Of these, three
(3), Z. cascoensis, T. verriulli, and O. bushiana are described as
new. The new subspecies or varieties, 7. abysszcola, T. bran-
Fordensis, T. senilis, O. bedequensis, and O. ovilensis, are not
included in this enumeration.
The two specimens identitied as Hulimella ventricosa V er-
rill, 1880 (not Forbes, 1843), have proved to be two distinct
species. The worn one from Eastport, Me., is now considered
identical with Hulimella polita, Verrill, 1872, and the one
from Station 873 is an Aclis tenuis Verrill, 1882. Therefore
the name .Pyramidella (Hulimella) ventricosa Bartsch (p. 70)
is superfluous.
pppoe ass Boston Society of Natural History, vol. xxix, pp. 145-146,
899, :
K. J. Bush—WNotes on the Family Pyramidellide. 479
The referring in 1884, of the three species chariessa, nitida,
and ducida tothe genus Hulimella, instead of Hulima, was
probably an accidental error overlooked in reading the proof.
This correction, noted on p. 71, has long stood on our distribu-
tion sheets, but never having been published was a MS.
name. As duceida isatrue Hulima, the name does not now
conflict with Hulimella (Syrnola) lucida A. Adams, 1870;
but the name nztzda Verrill, 1884, is preoccupied by Aelania
nitida Philippi, 1844—. intermedia Cantraine, 1835, and
by Hulima nitidu A. Adams, 1866=F. netidula A. Adams,
1861; also by Letostraca nitida A. Adams, 1861=Hulima
Tryon, 1886, and will therefore take the new name, Hulima
verrilliana.*
There seems to be no reason for dropping the final z used in
the original spelling of smethz Verrill (p. 71), nor for placing
the species in the subgenus Syrnola, rather than in the sub-
genus Hulimella, used “by Verril in 1889. The use of Zu?-
bonilla for Syr nola tr yoni is a typographical error for Hudli-
mella.
The referring of fusca C. B. Adams from New Bedford,
Mass. (p. 73) to Pyramidella (Syrnola?) seems unnecessary.
The species, although brown in color, has the form of a typical
Odostomia, and should be reéstablished in that genus, as given
by Gould, 1840. Adams’ figure is poor and is like our disw-
turalis without sculpture. Gould’s two figures 1840 and 1870
are larger with more Hee whorls and more gradually
tapered | spire.
There is great variation in the relative stoutness among
the many specimens of Zurbonilla bushiana Verrill (p. 79),
as well as in the relative strength of the axial ribs; those
having well-developed ribs received the subspecitic name, abyssi-
cola suggested as a variety by Verril] and Bush in MS.
There are comparatively few specimens which differ from
both the typical and subspecitic forms, going to the opposite
extreme, in being entirely destitute of definite axial ribs, the
surface smooth and shining, often iridescent ; for these w e pro-
pose the new subspecific or varietal name znornata. All the
specimens which I have studied are destitute of spiral. lines,
_* Eulima distorta Verrill, 1881—Eulima perversa, new name. It is similar
to EF. arcuata C. B. Adams, 1850=new name?, not E. arcuata Sowerby,
1866=E. major Sowerby, 1834; Dall, 1889; not Odostomia arcuata A.
Adams, 1860.
Like E. distorta G. O. Sars, pl. 11, fig. 23, 1878, not E. distorta Deshayes
(Compared with typical specimens from. Monterosato). not Melania distorta
Philippi, 1886=£. incurva Renieri, 1804; not Melania distorta Defrance,
1824=—new name ?, not Leiostraca distorta Pease, 1860=Hulima, new name ?
Eulima intermedia Verrill, 1881=Eulima Sarsi, new name ; not E. inter-
media Cantraine, 1835 ; not Dunkeria intermedia Carpenter, 1857=Odosto-
mia (Dunkeria) ; not Odostomiu intermedia Brusina, 1869=Odostomia can-
aliculata Philippi, 1844.
480 K. J. Bush—WNotes on the Lamily Pyramidellide.
as the exceedingly fine microscopic strie, always discernible
under high power objectives, are not taken into consideration.
Therefore its relation to the subgenus Strzoturbonilla (p. 79)
seems imaginary. This subgenus is described by Sacco, “Testa
sicut in Zurbonilla (stricta sensu) sed transversin striole par-
villimee (sub lente vix visibiles),” ete., etc., and his figure of
S. apicina shows many very fine, distinct, incised spirais
between the ribs and on the base, similar to the seulpturing
found in the true 7. interrupta (p. 481). _
The Zurbonilla polita Verrill, 1882 (p. 75) does not con-
flict with Odostemia polita Bivona, 1832; nor Pease, 1867.
For discussion of the genus Zwurbonilla (p. 76) and type
see p. 483. The name nzvea is extensively used in this group,
but Zurbonilla nivea (Stimpson, 1851 and 1853) from 40 fms.
off Grand Menan, N. B., has priority. The shallow water
species described and figured as nzvea by Bartsch (p. 77) 1s not
like the typical specimen from U. 8. F.C. Station 871, off New-
port, R. [. in 115 fms., 1880, described by Verrill* in 1881, (the -
specimen cited from Station 949 is the true navea). The axial
ribs end just above the Geep suture; the intercostal spaces
showing a basal curve, thus leaving a very narrow, smooth,
sutural area. The whorls are less rounded than indicated in
the figure, p. 484, f. 1. The nea Bartsch is a typieal
T. stricta Verrill. Ina lot of over 20 specimens, from Vine-
yard Sound, there is great variation in the number and width
of the axial ribs. The largest specimen, having 10 post-
nuclear whorls, is hke Bartsch’s figure 9, Plate IL, but is not
the 7’. stricta Bartsch, figure 6, which is a typical 7. equalis
Say (p. 78). [See p. 484, f. 5, from Woods Holl, Mass., 1882. ]
The Zriptychus niveus Morch, 1875 (type and only species ~
of the genus) is described as having a few spiral lire; the
liree extending into the aperture forming three plications on
the columella. Aperture subemarginate anteriorly, somewhat
excavated below the lire. Nucleus reversed.
The nucleus is the only character showing any relation to
the Pyramidellide. The aperture would exclude it, as it
shows nearer affinity to the genus Cerithiopsis. Dr. Dall, 1889
(also Dall and Guppy, 1896), suggested its being synonymous
with Oscilla, which seems hardly possible ; indiscreta Guppy,
1896, is described and figured as Triptychus (Oscilla). The
Pyramidellida vincta Dall is placed as a synonym of TZ.
niveus Morch by Tryon, 1886. Although stating that “‘ The
shell is scarcely a Pyramidella—the sculpture and plications
are different,” Tryon uses 7riptychus as a section of the Pyra-
midellide, and Dall and Bartsch, 1904, p. 5. as a subgenus.
The Dunkeria falcifera Watson, 1885, from Bermuda may
prove to have affinity to this group.
* Proceedings U. S. National Museum, vol. iii, 1881, p. 379.
K. J. Bush—Notes on the Family Pyramidellide. 481
The genus Peristichia Dall, 1889 (type P. toreva Dall, 1889),
used as a subgenus of Turbonilia, 1904, p. 9, seems to have
more affinity to Rissoina than to any genus among the Pyra-
midellide.
The name Zwrbonilla areolata Verrill is not preoceupied by
Turriteila areolata St., 1851, nor Chemnitzia areotata Ray-
neval, 18—. which is equal to Turbonilla indistincta Montagu
(teste Jeffreys, 1884). This rare species, p. 484, f. 4 (type from
New Haven, Conn.), described by Verrill, 1874, has flattened
whorls, giving it an obelisk-like form. The axial ribs are nar-
row. with wide, shallow, intercostal spaces, crossed by five dis-
tinct, incised lines or series of pits. In some specimens the axial
ribs appear only as interruptions of the spiral sculpture. The
areolata of Bartsch (p. 86, pl. 12, figs. 19, 24) is another spe-
cies similar to Zurbonilla (Pyrgiscus) vinee Bartsch (p. 83).
TURBONILLA INTERRUPTA (Totten) Bush, 1899, pp. 148-151.
' Turritella interrupta Totten, 1835, p. 352, fig. 7. Type locality, —Newport
arbor, kh. F.
Not Chemnitzia interrupta A. Adams, 1853.
Not Turbonilla interrupta C. B. Adams in Amherst collection.
Not Turbonilla (Pyrgiscus) interrupta Bartsch, 1909.
Not Eulima interrupta Sowerby, 1834, = Niso Sowerby, 1854.
Not Eulima interrupta A. Adams, 1884, =Eulima secunda, new name.
An historical sketch of this species was given by me in 1899.
Figure 9, produced here for the first time, isfrom an U. 8. F.C.
specimen dredged in 1880, at station 770, Narragansett
Bay, in 8 fathoms. The specimen measures about 5™™ in
height and about 1-5" in breadth. Figure 10 is a piece of
the shell greatly enlarged to show the character of the micro-
scopic sculpture, especially the incised or impressed spiral lines.
These incised lines, varying in width, produce an alternating
series of apparently raised ones, often arranged indistinctly in
pairs, and agree well with the description given by Totten.
The specimen described (p. 87) and figured by Bartsch,
unfortunately does not agree with this, therefore I would dis-
tinguish it as Zurbonilla pseudoinierrupta, new name.
The shelis, as a rule, are of a lustrous white color, semitrans-
parent when fresh, often with one, sometimes two, delicate
median, or sutural and median bands of rufous; in some of
the most mature specimens this color entirely covers the whorls,
especially the upper ones.
Turbonilla (Pyrgiscus) buteonis Bartsch (p. 89) is the same
as sp. f’inour U.S. F. C. collection.
Turbonilla (Pyrgiscus) sumnert Bartsch (p. 92), type and
only specimen, is probably the young of a more common spe-
cies. The young often appear disproportionately stouter than
the adult forms.
482 A. SJ. Bush—Notes on the Family Pyramidellide.
Odostomia (Chryssalida) bushiana Bartsch (p. 99) is like
specimens in our U.S. F. C. collection from shallow water off
Cape Hatteras, N. C. There is also a small lot from Vine-
yard Sound, Mass. (Not Odostomia bushiana Jettreys, 1884.)
The Odostomia (Lolwa) henderson Bartsch (p. 101) is iden- :
tical with specimens trom Woods Holl, Mass., in our own col.
lection, identified as an immature Acie Rene Verrill, 1880.
Its generic affinity needs further study, as it is very doubtful
whether it can be related to the Pyramidellide. As Jolwa
(p. LO1) is deseribed as having spiral cords and axial riblets, this
species is erroneously referred to this subgenus, for it has but a
few very fine spiral incised lines.
Odostomia (Menestho) brunert Verrill, 1882 (p. 102). ie
and only specimen is lost.
Odostomia (Menestho) sulcata Verrill, 1880 and 1882 (p. 484,
f. 2, from Georges Bank, in 45 fms.), is O. sulcosa Mighels, 1843
(Phasianella Mighels and Péssoella Stimpson ; Binney-Gould,
1870). The name morseana Bartsch (p. 104) is, therefore, not
needed.
There is so great variation found among a large series of
specimens of Odostomia bisuturalis Say and O. trifida Totten
(pp. 104-108) that it seems desirable to unite the two forms
under dzsuturalis, with subspecies trzfida ; the exigua Couth-
ouy, 1838 (p. 106) also being a possible subspecies. The sub-
species ovilensis Bartsch (p. 107) is simply a very large form.
The subspecies bedequensis Bartsch (p. 106) is much more
nearly related to O. empressa Say (p. 103). In fourth line of
the description, axial is undoubtedly intended for “spiral.” In
a marginal note p. 328 in Binney-Gould, 1870, Prof. Verrill
has written : ‘‘ Have seen shell figured (597). It is a genuine
O. trifida.” Below, under O. trifida, he adds “ Pasithea sor-
dida Lea (this Journal, vol. xlii, p. 110, pl. i, fe6) toute
synonymy.
Odostomia (Odostomia) modesta Bartsch (p. 108, pl. 13,
fig. 50) is distinct from the O. modesta Verrill, from Eastport,
Me. (p. 484, f. 8), which has flattened whorls and a somewhat
angular body whorl, and much more prominent nucleus.
Therefore it requires the new name Odostomia gibbosa, not
preoceupied by the Chemnitzia gibbosa Carpenter, 1857, which
is a Turbonilla.
The Odostomia (Liostomia) eburnea (fissoa and fissoella
Stimpson), 1851 (p. 109) is not the same as that in binney-
Gould, 1870, p. 297. Specimen, p. 484, f. 7, is from Mt.
Desert, Me., collected by W. E. Cleaveland, 1862.
Odostomia (Odostomia) dealbata (Stimpson) (p. 108) is not
the same as fig. 595 given in Binney-Gould, p. 327. This, as
indicated ina marginal note, represents a “ much larger and dif-
ferent species”? which: may be called O. Gouldi, new name.
F. 6 is a typical form from Vineyard Sound, Mass., 1875.
K. J. Bush— Notes on the Family Pyramidellide. 483
Odostomia producta (C. B. Adams) Gould, 1840 (p. 72) from
Wood’s Holl, Mass., is shown on p. 484, f. 11.
_ TLurbonilla elegantula V errill (p. 84). The type is from Vine-
yard Sound, Mass., 1875 (f. 12, p. 484).
vf urbonilla costulata Verrill, 1874. The type from New
Haven, Conn. (p. 484, f. 3), is not the Zurbonilla (Pyrgiscus)
mighelsi (Bartsch), p. 88. Itisa very stout form of Zurbonilla
interrupta (Totten) and may be designated as variety obesa,
new name.
At the time of defining the genus Zurbonilla Risso, 1826,
(1899, p. 147), I had failed to notice that the genus had been
proposed for three fossil species, as stated by “Jeffreys in his
British Conchology, vol. iv, p. 108. “In 1862 [for 1826]
Risso (Hist. Nat. “PEm. Mer., lv, p. 224) formed the genus
Turbonilla, on the MS. authority of Leach, for three ‘fossil
species ;” etc., etc. Although I may have erred i in naming the
recent species, T. lactea(Linné) = 7. elegantissima (Montagu)
for the type species, I did not in any way interfere with the
correct interpretation of the genus.
I also divided and subdivided it (pp. 172-174), according as
the species had not, or had, spiral sculpture; the second
division according to the character of these markings. Clearly
detined these and designated them by initial letters, as I did not
feel competent to make use of the names which had been pro-
posed by Adams and others. In no case had Adams desig-
nated a type species, as such, and in many instances he had
grouped several dissimilar forms. The difficulty of correctly
interpretating these was greatly increased by the lack of good
figures. Lists of the species, which had been discussed in the
foregoing pages, were given under each division, so that it was
hardly possible for any one to misunderstand my meaning. In
1900, Professor Verrill and I did adopt some of Adams’ names,
restricting them to definite types for the first time, as well as
the names proposed by Monterosato, Sacco, and others (p. +76).
As no complete synonymy was given by Messrs. Dall and
Bartsch in 1903 and 1904, these facts were not mentioned, but
why Mr. Bartsch in 1909 should fail to note them, as they
seriously affect the correct authorities tor the combination of
names, does not appear.
There seems to be no reason for the new name 7. typica
Dall and Bartsch, 1903 and 1904 (Bartsch, 1909, p. 76) for 7°
plicatula Risso not Seacchi, for not only should my type of
1899 stand, having priority and also being the first one desig-
nated for the genus, but some authors, followed by Tryon,
1886, make plicatula Risso, elegantissuma Montagu, and
lactea Linne synonymous. Sacco, 1892 (p. 654) gives dactea as
his first species under Z’urbonilla, with sixteen (16) named
varieties; Chemnitzeva elegantissima (Montagu) as a synonym
of the first, var. Campanelle.
Zoological Department, Yale University Museum, May, 1909.
484. A. J. Bush—Notes on the Family Pyramidellida.
Fig. 1.—Turbonilla nivea (St.) V., x 10, p. 480.
Fig. 2.—Odostomia sulcosa (M.), x 10, p. 482.
Fig. 3.—Turbonilla interrupta (T.) var. obesa n. n., x 10, p. 483.
Fig. 4.—Turbonilla areolata V., x 10, p. 481. ae
Fig. 5.—Turbonilla equalis (Say) V., x 8, p. 480. .
Fig. 6.—Odostomia dealbata (St.) Gld., x 9, p. 483.
Fig. 7.—Odostomia eburnea (St.) Gld., x 18, p. 483.
Fig. 8.—Odostomia modesta St., x 9, p. 482.
Fig. 9.—Turbonilla interrupta (T.) Bush, x 12, p. 481.
Fig. 10.—The same. Sculpture, much enlarged.
Fig. 11.—Odostomia producta (C. B. Ad.) Gld., x 9, p. 483.
Fig. 12.—Turbonilla elegantula V., x 138, p. 488.
Chemistry and Physics. 485
So PEN PEE hey iIN Pe PL EG EN Che
I. CuHemistry AND Puysics.
1. Liquid and Solid Radium Emanation.—GRay and Ramsay —
have made some interesting observations upon the remarkable
gas which is spontaneously evolved from radium. Having col-
lected some of the emanation in a state of fair purity, they com-
pressed it in a capillary tube with the very fine bore of 0:08™™
diameter. When sufficiently small, there was seen at the conical
point of the tube a minute column of liquid, easily visible under
low microscopic power. By altering the volume more or less
liquid could be condensed, and by transmitted light all the phe-
nomena of condensing and evaporating a liquid could be observed.
By transmitted light the liquid appeared colorless like water, but
when the illumination from behind was extinguished the liquid
was visible by its own illumination as a greenish or bluish green
phosphorescent layer, not very luminous, but more so than the
gaseous layer. Its vapor pressure was measured at several tem-
peratures, but as the gas was not quite pure, an allowance had to
be made for this, so that the results given in the following table
are only approximate :
Pressure. Temperature.
OOr a 72S 10
200 —66'1
500 —53°6
760 —48°5
1000 — 43°]
2000 —31°0
5000 —12°8
10000 + 1°5
a
The density of the liquid was estimated with rough approxima-
tion as about 7, assuming the gaseous emanation to be 100 times
as dense as hydrogen, and the conclusion was reached that it is
considerably more dense than xenon, namely 3:52. While the
liquid was only feebly phosphorescent, when it was cooled by
touching the tube with liquid air it became brilliant, the color
changed to light steel-blue and blazed with light. Continued
application of the liquid air caused the color to change, first to
white, then to yellow, and finally to orange. ‘Through the micro-
scope it looked like a brilliant little arc light. On removing the
liquid air the reverse changes in color took place, and these
changes could be repeated again and again. ‘There was no doubt
that the brilliantly luminous substance was a solid.— Chem.
News, xcix, 165. Hey Det ws
2. The Gases Evolved by the Action of Cupric Chloride upon
Steels.—The usual method of determining carbon in steels consists
Am. Jour. Sct.—FourtH Series, VoL. XX VII, No. 162.—Junez, 1909.
Bi)
486 Scientific I ntelligen Ce.
in treating the metal with a strong, nearly neutral solution of
potassium and cupric chlorides in order to dissolve the iron, and
then making a combustion of the filtered residue. It has been
known for some time that this operation involves the loss of
small quantities of carbon, and recently Gourat has carefully
studied the matter. He has found that when steels are attacked
by very slightly acid solutions of potassium and cupric chloride
at a moderate temperature and in a current of nitrogen gas, there
is a loss of gaseous compounds of carbon amounting to from 0:01
to 0°05 per cent. He states that this loss may be diminished
nearly one-half by making the combustion of the carbonaceous
residue directly after draining it with the filter pump, and with-
out drying it in the oven, for under these circumstances the
carbon dioxide formed remains entirely condensed in the residual
carbon. He states further that the loss of carbon may be per-
haps entirely avoided by boiling the copper solution resulting
from the operation, passing the gas which comes off with an
excess of oxygen through a glass tube provided with a red-hot
platinum wire, and collecting the resulting carbon dioxide in
baryta water.— Comptes Rendus, cxlviii, 988. Hi Li Wa
3. The Radiation of Potassium Salts.—That potassium salts
show a faint amount of radio-activity was first observed by
Campbell and Wood, and the fact has been confirmed by others.
E. Henrior has now made a further study of this phenomenon,
and finds that while others have announced that the rays from
potassium are very heterogeneous, his own observations lead him
to the conclusion that they are practically homogeneous. He
studied the absorption of the radiation by tin-foil of varying
thickness, and since the radiation-activity of potassium is of the
order of ;gig7 of that of uranium, be used 1 ke. of salt spread
over a surface of 1300°™’. From the results of his experiments
he concludes that potassium emits B-rays only, that there is little
probability that the radiation is due to an already known radio-
active element, and that the activity is probably caused either
by potassium itself, or by an unknown body which is always
associated with it.— Comptes Rendus, exlviu, 910. Hi. LW
4. A Course of Qualitative Chemical Analysis of Inorganic
Substances ; by Otin FREEMAN TOWER. 8vo, pp. 83. Philadel-
phia 1909. (P. Blakiston’s Son & Co.)—The large number of
text-books on Qualitative Analysis which have appeared, and are
constantly appearing, is due to the fact that nearly every teacher
of the subject desires to present it to the student in a manner
somewhat different from that used by anyone else, either in regard
to the course of analysis followed, or in connection with the
theoretical and explanatory details.
The book under consideration gives a well-chosen course of
analysis, with abundant and excellent explanatory notes, and in
these respects the book appears to be an unusually good one.
The author has attempted to lead up to the facts by basing
them upon the theory of ions—a method of teaching which has
Chemistry and Physics. 487
become somewhat popular. Whether this course is the best one
or not is a matter of opinion, but it appears to the reviewer that
_ qualitative analysis should be presented in the attitude that it
teaches certain facts, for instance, the fact that acids, bases and
salts readily exchange their radicals in solution, thus leading to
the precipitation of insoluble compounds, and the removal of
volatile compounds by evaporation. When these facts have been
grasped it may be desirable to call attention to the ionic theory
as a method of explaining these facts; but to base facts upon a
theory is not the logical way, for the theory is actually derived
from such facts. EDC Dy Wi
5. A Suggested Method of Ascertaining the Existence of Chlo-
rophyll on Planets.—N. Umow suggests the application of the
following method: Paper discs covered with chlorophyll reflect
the light of a Nernst lamp into an optical apparatus consisting of
an objective, a cylindrical lens, a Savart polariscope with a tour-
maline plate; a direct vision spectroscope and finally a small
power telescope in a reversed position. The Savart striz run
horizontally through the spectrum and are modified in a striking
way by the presence of the chlorophyll. The author gives a
figure of the appearance: which is presented ; and since he has
not the proper facilities recommends the method to astronomers.
—Physik. Zeitschrift, April 15, 1909, pp. 259-260. Jel
6. Condensation of the Radium HEmanation.—RuTHERFORD
and Soppy showed in 1903 that the radium emanation condensed
from the gases with which it was mixed at a temperature of
about —150° C. Rutherford has now worked with larger quan-
tities of radium. He finds that the density of the liquid emana-
tion is not less than 5, and its atomic weight 222. The absence
of combining properties indicate that it is an inert gas, the
heaviest known having a density of 111 times that of hydrogen.
{C£. No. 1 on p. 485.) — Phil. Mag., May, 1909, pp. 723-729. 35.7.
7. Electric Origin of Molecular Attraction.— W 1LLIAM SUTHER-
LAND has previously brought forward evidence in support of the
view that molecular attraction varies as the fourth power. He
considers, in connection with this view, the attraction between
two small magnets, directed along a straight line which also
varies as the fourth power; and is led to consider a bipolar elec-
tric attraction of molecules, with reference to cohesion. He
alludes to papers by Fessenden and Reinganum, on the electrical
origin of cohesion which might arise from a bipolar condition of
molecules. Sutherland points out that there is no theoretical or
experimental justification of the literal truth of Fessenden’s
assumption for gases. Nevertheless, J. EH. Mills has discovered a
remarkable relation which seems to justify the assumption com-
pletely. Mills’ application of his law to gravitation was errone-
ous, but the law can be applied to electric attraction, and is
expressed as follows : The total potential energy of a number of
like molecules is the same as if each caused its own domain to be
uniformly electrized with an electric moment proportional to the
488 Scientific Intelligence.
linear dimension of the domain, the direction of electrization
being such that in general any molecule attracts its six immediate
neighbors. It is proposed to look upon atoms as electrized, just
as we speak of a magnet as being magnetized. In regard to
total energy, each molecule behaves as if it had an electric
moment proportional to the linear dimensions of its domain,
whereas in the matter of mutual energy each molecule has an
electric moment of amount E'S (E charge, S distance between
poles) which is investigated in connection with the laws of molec-
ular attraction.— Phil. Mag., May, 1909, pp. 657-670. sie
8. Physical Measurements ; by A. Witmer Durr and ArTuur
W. Ewer. Pp. 211. New Haven, 1908 (Dorman Lithographing
Co.).—This is an excellent laboratory manual containing ninety-
one experiments of considerable range of difficulty. The intro-
ductory discussions and the descriptions of experiments are
marked by a very commendable brevity and by a generality of
treatment which gives the essential principles of the matter with-
out going into the details of apparatus which vary from one
laboratory to another. References are given to standard text-
books in which details can be looked up if necessary. The experi-
ments are well chosen, and the whole atmosphere of the book is
that of sound and accurate work. A somewhat unusual feature
is the inclusion of a section on physical chemistry, in which are
grouped some experiments not often found in text-books on
physics, together with others which are ordinarily found scattered
among the various subdivisions of the subject (heat, electricity,
light), but of which the chief interest is physico-chemical. The
figures are simple line drawings of small size; they are usually
clear, but some of the more complicated diagrams would be
improved by being drawn to a larger scale. As a whole the
book should prove very useful to laboratory teachers. 4. A. B,
II. GroLtoGcy AND NaAturRAL HIsTory.
1. Monograph on the Higher Crustacea of the Carboniferous
Rocks of Scotland ; by B. N. Peacu. Mem. Geol. Surv. Great
Britain, Pal., 1908, pp. 82, pls. 12.—In this quarto work are
described in great detail 41 species and varieties of Schizopoda
based on more than 2000 specimens from the Carboniferous rocks
of Scotland, the accumulation since 1880. The excellent wash
drawings are by Dr. Peach and are reproduced by the Collotype
process. There are 34 named forms grouped under the genera
Tealliocaris, new (with 6 species), Pseudogalathea (3), Anthra-
palemon (1), Pygocephalus (1), Perimecturus, new (6), Palco-
caris (2), Palaemysis, new (3), Anthracophausia, new (2),
Crangopsis (10). All of these are grouped under existing fam-
ilies as defined by Sars, of the Mysid and Euphausiid groups of
Schizopoda, except Perimecturus. The individuals rarely attain
a length of 14 inches, but a species of the last-named genus has a
body length of 5 inches. €. 8.
Geology and Natural History. 489
/ 2. Fossils from the Silurian Formations of Tennessee, Indiana
and Illinois ; by Aue. F. Forrstz. Bull. Denison Univ., April,
1909, pp. 61-107, pls. i-iv.—Here are described 74 forms of Silu-
rian fossils, most of which are new. - Of these 40 derive their
specific names from localities or men. Seven new subgeneric
names are proposed not one of which is clearly established. Two
of these are coral subgenera, Craterophyllum aud Plaiyaxum ;
of brachiopods, Stegerhynchus, Cliftonia, Schizonema, and Platy-
merella, and the bivalve Newsomella. CuSs
3. Illinois State Geological Survey. Bulletin No.9. Paving
Brick and Paving Brick Clays of Illinois ; by C. W. Rorrs,
fee Lunpy, A. N: Tareor and: I: O. Baker; Pp. xin, 3163
3 plates and 33 figures. Urbana, 1908 (University of Illinois).—
This Bulletin is devoted to a detailed discussion of a subject of
much general economic importance. The geology of clays with
particular reference to their origin and their distribution in the
State is described in the opening chapters by C. W. Rolfe. The
chapters following, by R. C. Purdy and A. N. Talbot, present
the facts in regard to the properties of high-grade paving brick,
the tests used in determining them, and the qualities of the clay
demanded. The final chapter by I. O. Baker is devoted to a dis-
cussion of the proper construction and care of brick pavements.
4. Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey. EK.
A. Birex, Director, W. O. Horcuxiss, Economic Geologist.—
The Wisconsin Survey has recently issued six geological maps of
the Lead and Zine district, together with a leaflet, serving as a
Supplement to Bulletin XIV, by U.S. Grant (noticed in vol. xxi,
p. 470
| 5. foe Locality of Diamonds in Africa.—The discovery
of diamonds in German Southwest Africa in May, 1908, was
announced some months since in the public press. An account
is now given by H. Lorz of their method of occurrence, while
KE. Katser adds a description of the crystalline form. It appears
that the gems occur in a loose material consisting of from 70 to
80 per cent of reddish fine sand, and the remainder of fine
gravel ; associated with the last named are small finely striated
pebbles, chiefly of agate and jasper. ‘The principal locality is at
Liideritzbucht, but extends also along the coast to Angras Juntas,
half way to the mouth of the Orange River, a distance of 130
kilometers.
The author expresses the view that the diamond deposits are
old coast formations in part rearranged by the wind. They are
probably connected with the general flood region of the Orange
River, the stones offering many points of resemblance to those
obtained on the banks of the Orange and Vaal rivers in the
interior. The uniform size of the stones is a matter of interest;
the majority range from 4 Oey ; carat, the largest stone weighing
2 carats, while stones of 4 carat are comparatively frequent.
The quality i is unusually high. Lotz calculates, from the some-
what insufficient data thus far available, that a production of
490 Secentific Intelligence.
180,000 carats a year may be hoped for.— Centralblatt fiir Miner-
aloyie, etc., pp. 285, 251.
6. LInterferenzerscheinungen im polarisirten Licht. Photogra-
phisch auf genommen; von Dr. Hans Hauswatprt, Dritte Reihe.
Magdeburg, 1908.—The scope and value of this work, of which
the third series of plates has recently been published, has been
somewhat fully presented in the notice of the First Part (on p.
397 of volume xviii). This series consists of 72 plates which, in
beauty of execution, are fully equal to those which have preceded.
The phenomena illustrated are quite varied in character. Some
of the subjects covered are as follows: Phenomena in converg-
ing polarized hght with circular polarizer and analyzer ; various
combinations of quartz plates in converging polarized light ;
phenomena presented by highly absorptive media as andalusite,
also magnesium-platinum and yttrium-platinum ge
7. Complete Mineral Catalog ; compiled by W. M. Foote.
Twelfth edition. Pp. 320. Philadelphia, 1909 (Foote Mineral
Company).—tThis twelfth edition of the Foote Mineral Catalogue
appears in much enlarged form and is made attractive by its
excellent topography and the introduction of numerous well-
executed figures. It gives the names of all recognized mineral
species, including those recently described, which will be included
in the Second Appendix to Dana’s Mineralogy, now in press.
The composition of each species is given, and also the more
important physical characters.
8. Introduction to the Study of Rocks ; be L. FLEercuEr.
Brit. Mus. Nat. Hist., Guide to Mus. Coll. Fourth edition. 8°,
pp. 155, 1909.—This is a new edition of the guide book published
in 1895. Although considerable of the original material has been
retained, much new matter has been added to bring the work up
to date. The same general grouping of the rocks is retained,
but greatly expanded to include recently described kinds and so
altered as to make the primary divisions on the mineralogical
basis, the secondary ones those of texture. The numbers of the
exhibition cases in the Museum are added on the margin, so that
specimens illustrating the phenomena discussed may be readily
found. Although the work is intended for a definite local pur-
pose, at the same time petrographers will find much that is of
general interest in it, especially with respect to the author’s views
on classification. It is clearly and simply written, the subject
matter well chosen, and it will without doubt be of great service
in the field for which it was designed. ii Neues
9. Determination of Rock-forming Minerals ; by A. Jouann-
sEN. New York, 1909 (Wiley and Sons).—In a previous notice
of this work (this Journal, vol. xxv, p. 529, 1908), it was stated
that a method of cutting the edges of the pages was indicated, by
which an indexing was produced to facilitate the use of the
tables. In practice this proved cumbersome and may have hin-
dered the use of this very useful work. Since then the publishers
have devised an extremely neat and efficient method of doing this
Geology and Natural History. 491
themselves, and those who now obtain the book in this form will
find it very convenient for use. st Wee
10. Trees, A Handbook of Forest Botany for the Woodlands
and the Laboratory ; by the late H. Marsuatt Warp, Professor
of Botany in the University of Cambridge (England). Vol. V.
Form and Habit. Cambridge, 1909 (The University Press).—
The volumes of this series are perfect of their kind. They are
handy, well printed, well planned, and well up to the times. The
present volume has been prepared from the notes left by the
lamented and accomplished botanist, Dr. Ward, who had a
remarkable facility in presenting difficult subjects in an attractive
manner. Some of our readers will remember the charm which he
threw around the mysterious activities in the laboratory of green
leaves, imagining himself a guide conducting an inquiring person
into the leaf itself. Dr. Percy Groom has managed his task with
skill and success. He has not changed Dr. Ward’s text in any
manner, but he has selected, from abundant material at hand,
effective illustrations for every part of the subject. There is not
a botanist who cannot derive instruction from this modest and
rich treatise on Form. Furthermore the adaptations are clearly
described in a thoroughly scientific manner but without the use
of too many technical terms, so that it would be possible for any
intelligent person, unfamiliar with botany, to gain from these
pages a clear notion of the marvelous fitness of organisms to
their surroundings. Unquestionably Dr. Ward would have
expanded the chapter on Bark somewhat more, but Dr. Groom
has done wisely in leaving it about as it was. It will not lead
any one astray. ‘The convenient volume, although very small, is
provided with an excellent index, rendering it even more useful
to every reader. G. L. G.
11. Mendel’s Principles of Heredity ; by W. Batson, F.R.S.,
Professor of Biology in the University of Cambridge (England).
Cambridge, 1909 (The University Press); New York (G. P.
Putnam’s Sons).—Professor Bateson has rendered great service
by his clear account here given of Gregor Mendel’s interesting
and buried researches. Few incidents in the history of biological
science are more surprising than the utter ignoring of important
work by contemporaries who would have gladly acknowledged
their merit if they had been properly brought to general notice.
The comprehensive work by Sprengel in regard to the relations
of flowers to insects fell stillborn from the press, and was abso-
lutely neglected by all of his associates and soon was totally for-
gotten, until after fifty years it came into prominence as an
important factor in the literature of adaptation. Goethe’s treatise
on Metamorphosis was likewise neglected and did not receive any
recognition as a suggestive speculation until chance brought it to
the notice of two botanists who saw that it contained a solid
although small grain of truth. Mendel’s case is harder to
explain, for his treatise appeared to be in proper form for due
consideration by students in biology, but it was completely lost
492 Scientific Intelligence.
to the scientific world until the merest chance brought it to light.
In an extended notice which we hope to give in the next number
of the Journal, we shall call attention to the attractive manner
in which Professor Bateson has presented the Mendel essays and
illustrated them by confirmatory critical studies. We cannot too
strongly advise our readers to avail themselves of this convenient
annotated reprint. Glas
12. Catalogue of the Lepidoptera Phalene in the British
Museum. Vol. VII. Catalogue of the Noctuide; by Sir
GrorGE F. Hampson. Pp. xv, 709, with 184 figures; also plates
evili-cxxil. London, 1908.—The earlier volumes of this import-
ant catalogue of Moths have heen repeatedly noticed in this
Journal. The present volume is the seventh of the series and
contains the first part of the large sub-family Acronyctine. It
is characterized by the trifid neuration of the hind wing com-
bined with spineless tibiz and smooth eyes not surrounded by
bristle-like hairs. This sub-family comprises some 3000 species,
belonging to over 300 genera, and two additional volumes will
be required to embrace them all. The manuscript for these is
stated to be ready for the press and it is expected that they will
appear in 1909. The supplementary volume contains 15 plates
each with from 22 to 32 beautifully executed figures.
Ill. Miscetuanrous Screntiric INTELLIGENCE.
1. Bulletin of the Mount Weather Observatory: Prepared
under the direction of Wituis L. Moore, Chief U.S. Weather
Bureau. Vol. ii, Part I. Pp. 54, 6 charts. Washington, 1909.—
The Mount Weather Observatory is making very important con-
tributions to the investigation of the meteorological conditions of
the upper atmosphere, as determined by kite flights and balloon
ascensions. ‘These topics form the subject of an article in the
present number by W. J. Humphreys. It may not be generally
appreciated, although the facts have been presented from time to
time, that the observations of the past ten years, carried on by
balloons and by kites, equipped with suitable registering appara-
tus, have brought out a large number of important facts in
regard to the atmosphere. Three more or less distinct regions
are recognized: 1. That of terrestrial disturbance extending up
to an elevation of about 3,000 meters, in which the temperature-
gradient is usually irregular and often shows reversion, This
includes the principal region of clouds and precipitation. 2. A
region of uniform changes, lying between that just mentioned
and the 10,000 meter level in which the temperature-gradient is
nearly constant and approaches the adiabatic. This region is
comparatively free from condensation and precipitation, and
while at times the seat of vertical convections its normal condi-
tion is one of stability. 3. Above this is the region of perma-
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 493
nent inversion, or all the explaered portion of the atmosphere above
the 10,000 meter level. Here the temperature-gradient is small
and usually positive, so that vertical convection is impossible.
Various suggestions have been made to explain the inversion of
temperature in this upper region, but no one of these is entirely
satisfactory.
Another chapter gives the results of observation of upper air
temperatures at Mount Weather, Trapp and Audley by the Aerial
Section in charge of W. R. Blair. The charts show the upper
air isotherms for the period covered, in July, August and Sep-
. tember. A chapter by W. R. Gregg describes the auroral dis-
plays and magnetic disturbances of September, 1908, at Mount
Weather. The observations show a period of maximum of auro-
ras in 1908 corresponding to a long-time cycle of sixty or sixty- —
one years, the culminations being in 1728, 1787, 1847 and 1908.
As previously noted, these periods correspond also to times of
maximum sun-spot frequencies.
2. Field Columbian Museum, Chicago.—The following. are
recent publications : | :
No. 129. Geological Series. Vol. III, No. 7. Notes on Vari-
ous Minerals in the Museum Collection ; by Ottver Cummines
FarRincron, Curator, Department of Geology, and Epwin Warp
TitLoTson, JR. Pp. 131-163, 6 figures, plates xliv-liv. Among
the species described and figured the following may be noted:
Anglesite and olivenite from the Tintic District, Utah ; anglesite,
linarite and mimetite from Eureka, Nevada; bertrandite from
Albany, Me. ; orpiment and realgar from Mercur, Utah.
Publication 133. (Field Museum of Natural History.) Report
Series. Vol. III, No. 3. Annual Report of the Director, FREp-
ERIcK J. V. Sgirr, to the Board of Trustees for the year 1908.
Pp. 216-323, plates xxxili—xliii.
3. Hormeln und Hilfstafeln fir Geographische Ortsbestim-
mung; von Tu. Arprecut. Vierte Auflage. Pp. viii, 348.
Leipzig (Wm. Engelmann).— A complete exposition of the theory
and practice of Geodesy. This is the standard work on this sub-
ject, and is indispensable to computers. It is divided about
equally between the tables and the discussion of formule and
their development. W. B.
4. An Astronomers Wife; by her son, ANGELO Hatt. Pp.
129. Baltimore (Nunn and Co).—This is the biography of Angeline
Hall, wife of Asaph Hall, a woman of the pioneer stock of West-
ern New York, of lofty character, unusual mental power, and
the worthy helpmeet of a great scientist. WwW. B.
5. Comparison des Anciennes Meures; by Jean Mascart,
Astronomer in the Observatory of Paris. Pp. 5, from the Bulle-
tin of the Astronomical Society of France, August, 1808.—Vari-
ous tables of length, weight, etc., published originally in a
volume of 500 pages by Robustel and Charles Osmont. “ Ingé-
nieurs du Roi pour les instruments de mathématique,” Paris, 1725,
and here reprinted as of historical interest. WwW. B.
INDEX. TO: VOLUME | XX sie
A
Abstammungslehre, Steinmann, 341.
Academy, National, meeting at
Washington, 418.
Adams, C. F., Physics, 339.
Adirondacks, ice-movement in
Southwestern, Miller, 289.
Africa, diamonds in German South-
western, 489.
— Flora of, Thonner, 344.
Alaska, Yakutat, coastal plain of,
Blackwelder, 459.
Algebra, Milne, 272.
, Allegheny Observatory,
tions, 270, 420. .
Allen, E. T., diopside, calcium and
magnesium metasilicates, 1.
Alpen im Hiszeitalter, Penck
Brickner, 341.
Aluminum cell as a condenser, Mod-
zelewski, 338.
Andrews, L. W., determination of
arsenic, 316.
Animal Romances, Renshaw, 193.
Antarctic Expedition, National, 271.
Arkansas, Pleistocene bone deposit,
93
publica-
and
Ashman, G. C., radio-activity of
thorium, 65.
Association, American, meeting at
Baltimore, 100.
Astronomer’s Wife, Hall, 493.
Astronomy, Spherical, Ball, 270.
Atmospheric electricity, observa-
tions in, Dike, 197.
B
Babbitt, J. B., Physical History of
the Earth, 91.
Ball, R., Astronomy, 270.
Barus, C., coronas with mercury
light, 73; absence of polarization
in artificial fogs, 402.
Bateson, W., Mendel’s Principles of
Heredity, 491.
Bauer, L. A., Magnetic Tables and
Charts of the U. S., 263.
Bayliss, W. B., Nature of Enzyme
Action, 100.
Beyer, F. B., eiectrolytic estimation
of lead and manganese, 909.
* This Index contains the general heads.
Blackwelder, E., Yakutat coastal
plain of Alaska, 459.
Bosworth, R. S., determination of
silver as chromate, 241; iodomet-
ric estimation of silver, 302.
Botanical
Station, Harvard, in
Cuba, 94.
BOTANY and BOTANICAL
WORKS.
Agriculture of the Dutch East
Indies, 192.
Blitenpflanzen Afrikas, Thonner,
344,
Botanist on the Amazon and Andes,
Spruce and Wallace, 266.
Botany, mechanical problems, Sch-
wendener and Holtermann, 345.
Clearing and mounting agent, 96.
Flora, Forest, of New South Wales,
Maiden, 191, 418.
Flower Pollination, Knuth and
Davis, 96.
Plant Study, Meier, 345.
Trees, Ward, 491.
Bradley, W. M., composition
warwickite, 179.
British Guiana, Gold Fields of, Har-
rison, 409.
British Museum, Catalogue, 492.
Brooklyn Institute of Science, 420.
Browning, P. E., Rarer Elements,
262; estimation of thallium, 3879.
Briickner, E., die Alpen im Kis-
zeitalter, 341.
Bush, K. J., notes on the family
Pyramidellide, 475.
of
C.
California earthquake of 1906, Gil-
bert, 48.
Canada geol. survey, 87.
Canal rays, see Rays.
Carnegie Foundation, 3d Ann. Re-
port, Pritchett, 346.
Carnegie Institution of Washington,
publications, 267, 547.
Chemical Analysis, Qualitative,
Tower, 486.
BOTANY, CHEMISTRY (incl. chem. physics),
GEOLOGY, MINERALS, OBITUARY, ROCKS, ZOOLOGY, and under each the titles of Articles
referring thereto are mentioned.
INDEX.
CHEMISTRY.
Argon, compound of, Fischer and
Tliovici, 82.
Arsenic, determination,
and Farr, 316.
‘Atomic weight, new periodic func-
tion, Viktor, 186.
Boron, determination, Copaux and
Boiteau, 404.
Calcium and magnesium metasili-
cates, relations, Allen and White,
Cerium, determination,
260.
Copper oxalate in analysis, Gooch |
and Ward, 448.
Crystallization, explosive, Weston,
82
Cupric chloride, gases evolved by
action on steel, Goutal, 485.
Gold, solubility in hydrochloric
acid, Awerkiew, 261.
Helium, production from uranium,
Soddy, 262.
Hydrogen phosphide, Matignon and
Trannoy, 337.
— silicides, Lebeau, 404.
Lead, electrolytic estimation, Gooch |
and Beyer, 59.
Manganese. electrolytic estimation,
Gooch and Beyer, 99.
Metals, boiling-points, Krafft, 336.
Potassium salts, radiation, Henriot,
486.
Prussian blue, Miller and Stanisch,
403.
Radium, see Radium.
Selenium, electric properties, Ries,
338.
Silver, determination as chromate,
Gooch and Bosworth, 241.
—ijiodometric estimation, Gooch and |
Bosworth, 302.
Sodium and _ potassium,
alloys, Jaubert, 260.
Thallium, estimation, Browning and
Palmer, 379.
Thorium, radio-activity, Ashman,
69. .
Tin, heat of oxidation, Mixter, 229.
‘Tin infection,” von Hasslinger,
83.
Titanium oxide, heat of formaticn,
Mixter, 393.
Tungstic and silicic oxides, separa-
tion, Defacqz, 186.
Uraniam silicide, Defacqz, 186.
Uranium-X, Schmidt, 187.
Vanadic acid, iodometric
tion, Edgar, 174.
liquid
estima-
Andrews |
Dietrich, |
495
Vanadium and arsenic acids, esti-
mation, Edgar, 299.
Weight, change of, in reactions,
Landolt, 185.
Vtterbium, constituents, von Wels-
| bach, 83.
Chemistry, Organic, Stewart, 337.
Chlorophyll on planets, existence,
Umow, 487.
|Coal and coal-mining, geology,
Gibson, 91.
'Cockerell, T. D. A., Tertiary insects,
53, 381.
Connecticut geol. survey, 264.
Cook, C. W., iodyrite from Tono-
pah and Broken Hill, 210.
Coronas with mercury light, Barus,
73.
Cuba, Harvard Botanical Station, 94.
| D
Dahlgren, W., Animal Histology,
97.
Diamonds in Africa, 489.
Dike, P. H., observations in atmos-
pheric electricity, 197.
Diller, J. S., geology of Taylorsville
| region, Calif. Al
_ Diopside, relation to calcium and
| magnesium metasilicates, Wright
| and Larsen, 1.
‘Duff, A. W., Physics, 85; Physical
| Measurements, 488.
| Duncan, D., Life of Herbert Spencer,
99.
E
_Earth, Physical History, Babbitt, 91.
|Earthquake, California, 1906, Gil-
bert, 48.
— Messina, Perret, 321.
ma ras magnetism, principal facts,
348.
Eastman, C. R., Devonian Fishes of
| Towa, 415.
Edgar, G., iodometric estimation of
vanadic acid, 174; estimation of
_ vanadic and arsenic acids, 299.
|Electricity, atmospheric, recent ob-
servations in, Dike, 197.
Elements, Rarer, Browning, 262.
Enzyme action, Bayliss, 100.
Eruptions, submarine, near Pantel-
leria, Washington, 1381.
Evolution, Essays on, Poulton, 193.
— work on, Steinmann, 341.
Ewell, A. W., Physical Measure-
ments, 488.
496
F
Farr, H. V., determination of
arsenic, 316. |
Field Columbian Museum, publica-
tions, 493.
Fletcher, L., Study of Rocks, 490. |
Foote, W. M., Mineral Catalogue,
490.
Ford, W. E., neptunite crystals, |
California, 235.
Fossil, se GEOLOGY.
Franklin, W. S., Physics, 85.
Friend, J. N., Theory of Valency,
D071.
|
G
Gases in Rocks, Chamberlin, 190.
Gaskell, W. H., Origin of Verte-
brates, 192.
Geographical Tables, Albrecht, 493. |
GEOLOGICAL REPORTS.
Canada, publications, 87.
Connecticut, 264.
Illinois, 1907. 89; Bulletin No. 9,
489. :
Indiana, 32d Ann. Report, 88. |
Iowa, 339. |
Mississippi, 264.
New Jersey, 189. |
New Zealand, 89.
North Carolina, 87.
Oklahoma, 339. |
United States, list of publications, |
86, 406.
— 29th Ann. Report.
Vermont, 1907-8, 188.
Western Australia, 341.
Wisconsin, 489.
GEOLOGY. |
Cambrian geology, Walcott, 414.
Carboniferous Crustacea of Scot-
land, Peach, 488.
Cervide, osteology of American, |
Matthew, 93.
Chalicotheres, American, Peterson,
94.
Chalk formations of Texas, Gordon,
569.
Devonian of Central Missouri, Gre-
ger, 374.
— fishes of lowa, Eastman, 415.
Earth, Physical History, Babbitt,
91.
Earthquake, see Earthquake.
Erosion, study of, Leverett, 349.
Fauna, Guadalupian, Girty, 413.
Georgetown quadrangle,
Gibbs,
INDEX.
*, ‘
Fossil insects, Handlirsch, 268 ;
Cockerell, 53, 381 ; Sellards, 151.
Fossils from Silurian of Tennessee,
Foerste, 489.
Fulgur, genesis, Maury, 339.
Georgetown quadrangle, Colorado,
seo O8y, Spurr, Garrey and Ball,
Glacial bowlders in Blaini forma-
tion, India, Holland, 4138.
gy ae in New York, Fairchild,
Glaciation of the Uinta and Wa-
satch Mts., Atwood, 340.
Heidelberg man, 416.
Horses, fossil, No... Dakota and
Montana, Douglass, 94.
age and erosion, Miller,
Ichthyosauria, Triassic, Merriam,
Sie
Lakes, divided, in Western Minne-
sota, Griggs, 388.
Oligocene lizards, Douglass, 94.
Permian insects, Sellards, 101.
Pleistocene bene deposit, Arkansas,
Brown, 93. :
Protostegidz, revision, Wieland,
101.
Rhinoceros, fossil, from No. Dakota
and Montana, Douglass, 93.
Saurian, armored, from the Nio-
brara, Wieland, 250.
Silurian fossils, Tennessee,
Foerste, 489.
Taylorsville region, Calif., geology,
Diller, 412.
Tertiary insects, Cockerell, 53, 381.
Tetraceratops from Texas, Matthew,
93.
cte.,
Time measures, weathering and
erosion as, Leverett, 349.
Turtles, fossil, Wieland, 101.
Vertebrates, fossil, in the Amer.
Museum Natural History, Cata-
logue, Hussakof, 92.
Volcanoes of St. Vincent and Mar-
tinique, Anderson and Flett, 89 ;
Vesuvius, Johnston and Lavis,
410.
Yakutat coastal plain of Alaska,
Blackwelder, 459.
Zonal Belt Hypothesis, Wheeler,
260. ;
geology,
Spurr, Garrey and Ball, 408.
Wolcott, obituary notice,
Jackson, 2955.
Gilbert, G. K., California earthquake
of 1906, 48.
INDEX.
Girty, Guadalupian fauna, 413.
Glacial, Glaciation, see GEOLOGY.
Goniometer lamp, new, Wright, 194. |
Gooch, F.A., electrolytic estimation |
of lead and manganese, 59; deter-_
241 ; |
mination of silver as chromate,
iodometric estimation of silver, 302 ;
copper oxalate in analysis, 448.
Gordon, C. H.,
northeast Texas, 369.
Greger, D. K., Devonian of central
Missouri, 374.
Griggs, R. F., divided lakes in
western Minnesota, 388.
Groth, P., Chemische
graphie, 260.
Guadalupian Fauna, Girty, 418.
Guiana,
son, 409.
— Dutch, geology, Beekman, 410.
Krystallo-
H
Handlirsch, A., Fossil Insects, 263.
Harvard Botanical Station in Cuba,
94.
— College Observatory, 269, 420.
Hatch, F. H., Petrology, 410.
Hauswaldt, H., Interference phenom-
ena, 490.
Headden, W. P., brown artesian
waters of Costilla Co., Colo., 305.
Heredity, Mendel’s Principles, Bate-
son, 491.
Himalaya Mts. and Tibet, Burrard
and Hayden, 189.
Hintze, C., Mineralogie, 265.
Hoadley, G. A., Physics, 339.
Homo Heidelbergensis, Schoeten-
sack, 416.
I
Ice-movement and erosion, Miller,
289.
Idaho, geology and ore deposits,
Ransome and Calkins, 90.
Illinois geol. survey, 89, 489.
India, commercial products,
ALT.
Indiana geol. survey, 88.
Insects, fossil, Handlirsch, 263,
— Permian, Sellards, 151.
— Tertiary, Cockerell, 53, 381.
Interference phenomena, Hauswaldt,
492.
Ion, new Journal, 98.
Ionization of gases, Rausch, 187.
Iowa, Devonian fishes, Eastman, 415.
— geol. survey, 339.
Watt,
chalk formations of |
British, gold fields, Harri- |
497
J
_Jackson, C. L., obituary notice of
Wolcott Gibbs, 258.
Johannsen, A., Rock-forming Miner-
als, 490
K
Repel W. A., Animal Histology,
97.
Knuth, P., Bliiten-biologie, 96.
Kraft, Reyer, 272.
Kraus, E.H., iodyrite from Tonopah
and Broken Hill, 210.
| Krystallographie, Chemische, Groth,
| 260.
1b
| Lakes, divided, in western Minnesota,
Griggs, 388.
| Larsen, E. S., optical study of diop-
side, etc., 28; quartz as a geologic
thermometer, 421.
Leverett, F., weathering and erosion
as time measures, 349.
Library of Congress, Report, 269.
Light, for microscope, Wright, 98;
sources of monochromatic, Wright,
195.
Losungen, Feste, Bruni, 262.
M
Magnetic properties of steel, Pierce,
273.
— tables for United States,
Bauer, 268.
Magnetism, Earth’s, principal facts,
348.
— permanent, of copper,
Ross, 268.
Man in the Light of Evolution, Tyler,
419,
— Heidelberg, 416.
Martinique and St.
canic eruptions,
Flett, 89.
Matter, composition of, Mulder, 261.
Maury, C. J., genesis of Fulgur, 335.
Massie, W. W., Wireless Teleg-
raphy, 406.
Meier, W. H. D., Plant Study, 345:
Mendel’s Principles of Heredity,
Bateson, 49).
Merriam -).7C*
osauria, 91.
Merrill, G. P., composition of stony
meteorites, 469.
Merwin, H. E., alamosite from Mex-
ico, 399.
1905,
Gray and
Vincent, vol-
Anderson and
Triassic Ichthy-
498
Messina earthquake, Perret. 321.
Meteorites, stony, composition, Mer-
rill, 469.
Michelson’s ether research, Kohl,
308.
Microscope, artificial daylight for
use with, Wright, 98.
Miller, W. J., ice-movement and |
erosion in Adirondacks, 289.
Milne, W. J., Algebra, 272.
Mineral Catalogue, Foote, 490.
— Collections, Prendler, 343.
Mineralogie, Hintze, 265.
Mineralogy, Optical, N. H. and A.
N. Winchell, 412.
MINERALS.
Alamosite, Mexico, 399.
Benitoite, crystal form, 3598.
Diamonds in Africa, 489. Diopside,
ils
Hollandite, 344.
Todyrite, Nevada, 210; New South
Wales, 212.
Jadeite, Upper Burma, 343.
Neptunite crystals, Calif., 235.
Pyrite, crystals, Utah, 467.
Quartz, as geologic thermometer,
421. :
Rubies, Upper Burma, 344.
Warwickite, composition, 179.
Minerals, Rock-forming, Johannsen,
490).
Minnesota,
088.
Mississippi geol. survey, 264.
Missouri Devonian, Greger, 374.
divided lakes, Griggs,
Mixter, W.G., heat of oxidation of |
heat of formation of |
tin, 229;
titanium oxide, 393.
Molecular attraction, electric origin,
Sutherland, 487.
Mount Stephen rocks and fossils,
Walcott, 414.
Mount Weather Observatory, bul-
letin, 270, 492.
N
New Jersey geol. survey, 189.
New York, glacial waters in central,
Fairchild, 340.
New Zealand geol. survey, 89.
Nichols, E. L., Physics, 85.
North Carolina geol. survey, 87.
OBITUARY.
Ayrton, W. E., 100.
Frazer, P., 420.
Gibbs, W., 100, 258.
{
INDEX.
Hough, G. W., 196.
Seeley, H. R., 272.
Observatory, Allegheny, 270, 420. -
— Harvard College, publications,
269, 420.
— Mt. Weather, 492.
— Washburn, 270.
Oklahoma geol. survey, 389.
Osborn, H., Economic Zoology, 97.
P
Palache, C., benitoite, 398; alamo-
site from Mexico, 399.
Palmer, H. E., estimation of thal-
lium, 379.
Parasitology, 194.
ee A., die Alpen im Hiszeitalter,
41.
Perret, F. A., Messina earthquake,
321.
Petrology, Hatch, 410.
Physical measurements, Duff and
Ewell, 488.
Physics, Adams, 339 ; Hoadley, 339.
— Elements, Nichols and Franklin,
89.
— Text-Book, Duff, 85.
Physiologie, Allgemeine, Verworn,
419
Pierce, B. O., permeabilities and
reluctivities for steel, 273.
Plimmer, R. H. A., Chemical Con-
stitution of Proteins, 271.
Polarization, absence in artificial
fogs, Barus, 402.
Positive rays, Wien, 84.
Potential in dark cathode space,
Westphal, 84.
Poulton, E. B., Essays on Hvolution,
193. -
Prisms, deviation of rays by, Uhler,
9
Proteins, Chemical Constitution,
Plimmer, 271.
R
Radiation investigations, Coblentz,
188.
Radio-active elements, chemistry,
Strémholm and Svedberg, 404.
| Radio-activity, Raffety, 406.
— of thorium, Ashman, 65.
Radiometer for observing
pressures, Dessar, 405.
Radium, a particle from, Rutherford
and Geiger, 262.
— heat evolved by, von Schweidler
and Hess, 83.
— emanation, Rutherford, 185, 336 ;
condensation of, Rutherford, 487;
small
INDEX.
liquid and solid, Gray and Ramsay, |
485.
Raffety, C. W., Radio-activity, 406. |
-Rays, canal, Stark and Stenberg, 84,
405.
— of high penetrability, Wulf, 405.
— positive, Wien, 84; Doppler effect
in, Trowbridge, 245.
— Rontgen, velocity, Marx, 187.
Renshaw, G., Animal Romances, 193. |
Reyer, Kraft, 6konomische, etc. , 272
ROCKS.
- Composition of
with stony metorites,
469.
Dutch Guiana, petrography, Beek-
man, 410.
Gases in rocks, Chamberlin, 190.
Plutonic rocks,
Hatch, 411.
Study of, Fletcher, 490.
Rogers, A. F., pyrite crystals from
Utah, 467.
Rontgen rays, velocity, Marx, 187.
SS)
Scienza, Rivista di, 100.
Sellards, E. H., types of Permian
insects, 151.
Smithsonian Institution, report, 196.
Spark spectra, Berndt, 187.
Spencer, Herbert, Life and Letters,
Duncan, 99.
Steel, permeabilities and reluctivi-
ties, Pierce, 275.
Steinmann, G., Geol. Grundlagen der |
Abstammungslehre, 341
Stewart, A. W., Organic Chemistry, |
307.
E
Texas, chalk formation, Gordon, 369.
— Pelycosaurian from, Matthew, 93.
Thermoelectric force, influence of
pressure upon, Horig, 338.
Thermometer,
Wright and Larsen, 421.
Thorium, radio-activity, Ashman, 65.
Topographic Maps, Salisbury and
Atwood, 265.
Tower, O. F., Qualitative Chemical
Analysis, 486.
Trowbridge, J., Doppler effect in
positive rays, 245.
Turkestan, Exploration, Pumpelly,
4138.
ebyler;- J.
Evolution, 419.
‘7
wlan. |
classification, |
quartz as geologic, |
M., Man in the Light of |
499
U
|Uhler, H. S., deviation of rays by
prisms, 223.
Uinta Mts.,
340.
Underhill, C. R., Wireless Teleg-
raphy, 406.
| mee States Coast Survey, report,
— Geol. survey publications, 86, 406 ;
29th Annual Report, 188.
— magnetic tables, Bauer, 263.
glaciation, Atwood,
rocks compared |
Merrill,
V
Valency, Theory of, Friend, 337.
Vermont geol. survey, 88.
| Vertebrates, Origin of, Gaskell, 192.
_Verworn, M., Allgemeine Physio-
logie, 419.
| Vesuvius, eruption April 1906, John-
ston-Lavis, 410.
Volcanoes, see GEOLOGY.
W
Ward, H. L., copper oxalate in
analysis, 448.
Ward, H. M., Trees, 491.
Washburn Observatory, publica-
| tions, 270.
Washington, H. §S., submarine
eruptions near Pantelleria, 131.
Water, amount in cloud, 262.
Waters, artesian, of Costilla Co.,
Colorado, Headden, 305.
— ground, of the Indio region, Cali-
fornia, Mendenhall, 340.
|Watt, G., Commercial Products of
|. India, 417.
|Weathering and erosion as time-
measures. Leverett, 349.
Western Australia geol. survey, 341.
Wheeler, J. T., Zonal Belt Hypothe-
sis, 260.
| White, W. P., diopside,
calcium
and magnesium metasilicates, 1.
Wieland, G. R., revision of the Pro-
tostegidze, 101.
—armored saurian from the Nio-
brara, 290.
Winchell, N. H. and A. N., Optical
Mineralogy, 412.
Wireless Telegraphy,
Underhill, 406.
Wisconsin geol. survey, 489.
Wright, F. E., optical study of diop-
side, etc., 28; artificial light for
microscope, 98; new goniometer
Massie and
500 INDEX.
lamp, 194; sources for monochro- |
matic light, 195; quartz as a geo-
logic thermometer, 421.
Ze
Zeeman effect, Dufour, 338 ; Gmelin,
405.
ZOOLOGY.
Animal Histology, Dahlgren and
Kepner, 97.
Animal Romances, Renshaw, 198.
Economic Zoology, Osborn, 97.
Lepidoptera Phalene in the British
Museum, Hampson, 492. —
Pyramidellidz, notes on the family,
Bush, 475. o's
Ticks, monograph on, 193.
Vertebrates, Origin, ~Gaskell, 192.
Zellforschung, Archiv fiir, 97.
See also GEOLOGY.
Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XXVII, 1909. Plate I,
Photomicrographs.
a Artificial diopside. Etch pits on 110 produced by action of hot com-
mercial HF for 40 seconds. Magnification 200 diameters.
6 Artificial diopside. Etch pits on 110. Exposed to hot commercial HF
40) seconds. Magnification 250 diameters.
e Etch pits on 110 of crystal MgSiO; 50 per cent, CaSiO; 50 per cent.
Time of exposure 40 seconds in hot commercial HF. Magnification 220
diameters. :
d Etch pits on 110 of crystal MgSiO; 50 per cent, CaSiO; 45 per cent. Time
of exposure in hot commercial HF’, 40 seconds. Magnification 440 diameters.
e Etch pits on 110 Mg-pyroxene (6-MgSiO;). Exposed 50 seconds in hot
commercial HF. Magnification 1065 diameters.
f Etch pits on 110 of crystal MgSiO,; 75 per cent, CaSiO; 25 per cent.
Exposed 40 seconds in hot commercial HF. Magnification 230 diameters,
Arm.sour. oci., Vol. XXVIII, 1909. Plate II.
ES AS I
Archelon ischyros Wieland.—Photograph of dorsal view of the type as mounted in the Yale
University Museum. (Compare with text figure 7.—The right flipper was bitten away just
above the heel early in life by some predaceous enemy, either a shark, a fish or a mosasaur.)
Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XXVII, 1909. Plate Ill.
| ES WADE aria ahaha besSaibapesteiaieE
j
j
;
Archelon ischyros Wieland.—Photograph of ventral view of the type as now on exhibition in
the Yale University Museum, (Cf, text figure 8, and compare with the preceding plate.)
a
ar fo tp est
aie ie
Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XXVII, 1909. Plate IV.
Archelon ischyros Wieland.—Photograph of lateral view of the type as now
mounted in the Yale University Museum. [Plastron in approximate position. |
New Circulars.
84: Eighth Mineral List: A descriptive list of new arrivals,
rare and showy minerals.
85: Minerals for Sale by Weight: Price list of minerals for
blowpipe and laboratory work.
86: Minerals and Rocks for Working Collections: List of
common minerals and rocks for study specimens; prices
from 1% cents up.
Catalogue 26: Biological Supplies: New illustrated price list
of material for dissection; study and display specimens;
special dissections; models, etc: Szxth edition.
Any or all of the above lists will be sent free on request. We are
constantly acquiring new material and publishing new lists. It pays to
be on our mailing list.
Ward's Natural Science Establishment
76-104 Cotiece AVE., Rocuestrr, N. Y.
Warns Natura Science EstaBisHMeENt
A Supply-House for Scientific Material.
Founded 1862. Incorporated 1890.
DEPARTMENTS:
Geology, including Phenomenal and Physiographic.
Mineralogy, including also Rocks, Meteorites, etc.
Palaeontology. Archaeology and Ethnology.
Invertebrates, including Biology, Conchology, ete.
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Models, Plaster Casts and Wall-Charts in all departments.
Circulars in any department free on request; address
Ward's Natural Science Establishment,
76-104 College Ave., Rochester, New York, U.S, A.
CONTENTS.
Art. XXXVIII.—Quartz as a Geologic Thermometer ; by
F. EB. Weieut and.E. 8. Larsen. 2.2.2.1. 2 eae 421.
XXXIX.—Precipitation of Copper Oxalate in Analysis; by
K, A. Goocw and-H. L. Warp ____ 2.2.22) 2
XL.—Yakutat Coastal Plain of Alaska; A combined ter-
restrial and marine Formation ; by E. BhackWELDER _ 459
XLI.—Pyrite Crystals from Bingham, Utah; by A. F..
RoGurs 220i. 2 ee 467
XLII.—Composition of Stony Meteorites compared with
that of Terrestrial Igneous Rocks, and considered with
reference to their efficacy in World-Making; by G. P.
MBRRILL2o {202 he deeee a ee 469
XLIT.—Notes on the Family Pyramidellide; by K. J.
BusH, Pu.De oe oe eo. Ie AT5
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
Chemistry and Physies—Liquid and Solid Radium Emanation, Gray and
Ramsay: Gases Evolved by the Action of Cupric Chloride upon Steels,
GouTAL, 485.-—Radiation of Potassium Salts, E. Hmnriot: Course of
Qualitative Chemical Analysis of Inorganic Substances, O. F. Tower,
486.— Suggested Method of Ascertaining the Existence of Chlorophyll on
Planets, N. Umow: Condensation of the Radium Emanation, RUTHER-
FORD: Electric Origin of Molecular Attraction, W. SUTHERLAND, 487.—
Physical Measurements, A. W. Durr and A. W. Ewe tt, 488.
Geology and Natural History—Monograph on the Higher Crustacea of the
Carboniferous Rocks of Scotland, B. N. Pracu, 488.—Fossils from the
Silurian Formations of Tennessee, Indiana and Illinois, A. F. FOERSTE :
Illinois State Geological Survey, C. W. Routrs, R. C. Purpy, A. N. TaL-
Bot and I. O. BakER: Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey,
ii. A. BircE and W. O. Horcuxiss: A new Locality of Diamonds in Africa,
HK. Kaiser, 489.—Interferenzerscheinungen im polarisirten Licht, H.
HAvUswaLpT: Ccmplete Mineral Catalog, W. M. Foore: Introduction to
the Study of Rocks, L. FLtercHmr: Determination of Rock-forming Min-
erals, A. JOHANNSEN, 490.—_Trees, A Handbook of Forest Botany for the
Woodlands and the Laboratory, H. M. Warp: Mendel’s Principles of
Heredity, W. Batrson, 491.—Catalogue of the Lepidoptera Phalenz in
the British Museum, Vol. VII; Catalogue of the Noctuide, G. F. Hamp-
son, 492.
Miscelluneous Scientific Intelligence—Bulletin of the Mount Weather Obser-
vatory, 492.—Field Columbian Museum, Chicago: Geographical Tables,
AuBRecHT: An Astronomer’s Wife, A. Hatt: Anciennes Meures, Mas-
CART, 498.
InpEx, 494.
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