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BOTANICAL LIBRARY OF 


ANNIE MORRILL SMITH 


BROOKLYN, NEW YORK 


: ee 


THE AMERICAN 


MONTHLY 


MICcROSCOPICAL JOURNAL: 
PONT TRIBUTIONS TO BIOLOGY 


VOLUME XVII. 


1896. 


FOUNDED IN 1880, BY ROMYN HITCHCOCK, F.R. M.S. 
PUBLISHED SINCE 1887, BY CHAS. W. SMILEY, 
WASHINGTON, D. C. 


ABICAL 
KeEee 
ea ft DOR ‘e\s 
bed LIBRARY }- 


DR. WM. C. KRAUSS. 


THE AMERICAN 


MONTHLY 


MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 


Vor. XVII. JANUARY, 18096. Notix. 


Dr. William C. Krauss. 


WITH FRONTISPIECE. 


The maxim that a prophet is not without honor save in 
his own country has been often quoted to represent men 
of various professions, but will not apply in the case of 
the representative whose portrait appears above, for 
where he spent his childhood and youth and received his 
education in the arts and sciences preparatory toa higher 
plane of active life ameliorating the sufferings of hu- 
manity, he is highly honored by his former associates 
and citizens of his native town. William Christopher 
Krauss was born in Attica, N. Y., October 15th, 1863, 
and is the son of Andrew and Magdalena Krauss. He 
entered the Attica Union School in 1870 and graduated as 
valedictorian of his class in 1880. He entered Cornell 
University, Ithaca, N. Y., in the ensuing autumn, taking 
a scientific course and received the Horace K. White 
prize in veterinary science in 1883; he graduated in 
1884, receiving the degree ‘“‘ Bachelor of Science” and a 
two years’ certificate for extra work done in the Medical 
Preparatory Course, special final honors in anatomy and 
the publication of his graduating thesis “ On the nervous 
system of the head of the larva of Corydalus cornutus, 
Linn.,” by the faculty—in “Psyche,” a well known entomo- 
logical journal. Young Krauss then entered the Bellevue 
Hospital Medical College in New York City that fall and 
eraduated as Doctor in Medicine in 1886, standing second 


pile THE AMERICAN MONTHLY . (Jan. 


in the honor class. He then acted as interne inthe Belle- 
vue Hospital until autumn when he sailed for Germany 
and entered the University of Munich in the winter of 
1886-7, and was assistant physician in the Royal Wo- 
men’s hospital during the following summer. It was at 
Munich, celebrated in song, that Dr. Krauss’ parents 
visited him and together they traveled about Germany, 
visiting all the important cities of the ‘“ Fatherland.” In 
the fall of ’87, he entered the noted University at Berlin, 
where he devoted himself particularly to the study of the 
nervous diseases, and while here contributed several ar- 
ticles on his ‘ specialty,” to the leading medical journals 
of Germany and acted as special correspondent to the 
Buffalo Medical and Surgical Journal. Dr. Krauss grad- 
nated from the University of Berlin in the summer of 
1888, with the degree Doctor of Medicine, receiving the 
standing “ Magna Cum Laude,”’ at the head of his class. 
He then entered the University of Paris inthe autumn of 
’88, and visited London Medical Schools in the spring of 
°89. Having thus acquired a medical knowledge in its 
various relations which but few have attained at his age, 
he sailed from Hamburg the latter part of May, 1889, to 
meet again, after a few eventful years, his friends at the 
home of his earlier years. He soon located at 382 Vir- 
ginia street, Buffalo, N. Y., where he has established a 
good practice—popular in his profession, yet not forget- 
ting his parents in Attica, to whom he devotes his Sab- 
baths, and enjoys social relations under the parental 
roof. In Buffalo Dr. Krauss is associated with the Nia- 
eara University Medical College, lecturer on Pathology, 
and was recently appointed non resident lecturer at Cor- 
nell University, his special field being the nervous system. 
Dr. K. enjoys the distinction of being the second Cornell 
eraduate in the department of Natural History who has 
acted in this capacity. Asa journalist he is associate 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 3 


editor of the Buffalo Medical and Surgical Journal, of the 
Neurologisches Central Blatt published at Berlin, Ger- 
many, of the Journal of Nervous Mental Diseases pub- 
lished at New York, of the Revue Internationale de Bibli- 
ographie Medicale, of Paris, France ; and of ‘‘Modern Med- 
icine,” of Battle Creek, Mich. He is Pathologist to the 
Hospital of the Sisters of Charity, Buffalo, and was 
recently elected amember of the American Neurological 
Association at its meeting in Philadelphia. He has pub- 
lished 55 scientific papers, many of which have been 
translated in French and German and some in the Italian, 
Spanish and Russian languages. 

He is President of the Attica Union School Alumni As- 
sociation, an honor justly deserved for conduct and 
scholarship when a student in the school. Dr. Krauss, 
as a gentleman and scholar as well as a first class profes- 
sional, has won high social relations, not only in Attica 
and Buffalo, but also in foreign countries where he has 
had an opportunity of forming an acquaintance. 

Dr. Krauss is associated with the Niagara University 
Medical College, formerly as Professor of Pathology, now 
as Professor of Nervous Diseases. He was non-resident 
lecturer at Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y., in 1890; 
and a contributor to the Wilder Quarter-Century book. 

Societies.Fellow of the Royal Microscopical Society of 
London; member of the American Microscopical Society 
since 1890. He has contributed to its proceedings each 
year since his election and was awarded the prize for the 
best series of mounted slides in 1893, and for the best 
series of Photomicrographs in 1894; Member of the Buf- 
falo Microscopial Club and its President 1892-93; Fel- 
low of the American Neurological Association ; member 
of the New York State Medical Society, of the Medical 
Association of Central New York and editor of its pro- 
ceedings 1894 and 1895, which were first brought out 
_ though his activity ; Honorary member of the Lake Erie 


a THE AMERICAN MONTHLY (Jan. 


Medical Society ; member of the Erie County Medical 
Society; one of the founders and. first secretary of the 
Buffalo Academy of Medicine 1892-94; Secretary of the 
Buffalo Obstetrical Society 1890-92; member of the 
Buffalo Medical Club, also of the Buffalo Liberal and Uni- 
versity Clubs, Hospital Associations, Neurologist of the 
Erie County Hospital, Buffalo Hospital of the Sisters of 
Charity ; Asylum and hospital of the Sisters of St. 
Francis, and Lexington Heights Hospital. Pathologist 
to the Charity Eye, Har and Throat Dispensary and of 
the Grove Eye and Ear Hospital. 


Comparative Morphology of the Brain of the Soft-shelled 
Turtle and the English Sparrow. 
By SUSANNA PHELPS GAGE, 
ITHACA, N. Y. 

The points touched upon in this paper are: 

1. The importance of comparing through all stages of 
development widely different forms of brains in order to 
gain from exaggerated form and specialized function more 
light upon the truths of morphology and evolution. 

2. The overlapping and crowding of parts of the brain 
in these, which are, in comparison with others of the same 
eroups, highly specialized forms. 

3. A degenerate condition of the olfactory lobes resul- 
ting in union due to crowding, not to a crossing of fibers 
from one lobe to the other. Itis a feature incident to 
other specializations. 

4, Although the parts connected with vision in the spar- 
row are highly developed, the union of the gemina across 
the meson by a relatively small commissure would in- 
dicate an independence of action of the two sides in con- 
trast with the condition in the turtle and other forms 
where the connection between the two sides is far more 
intimate. 


1896. ] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 5 


5. The tip of the snout is a more important tactile organ 
in the turtle than in the sparrow, as indicated by the 
large branch of the fifth nerve distributed to it in the 
former. 

6. The eighth nerve has reached a higher development 
in the sparrow then in the turtle as indicated by its in- 
timate connection with its opposite across the meson and 
its apparent connection through the auditory eminence 
with the column-like peduncles of the cerebellum, which 
in their turn form a large commissural connection in the 
cerebellum. These complicated and extensive structural 
developments and relations of these parts are probably 
associated with higher and more complex functions than 
the simpler conditions in the turtle. 

7. The fioceulus of the sparrow is probably homologous 
with the organ of the same name in man, and has a proton 
in the turtle and alligator. The pit in the skull for the 
reception of the flocculus is formed before the flocculus 
has grown sufficiently to enter it. 

8. Twenty-six nidi and more than thirty fiber tracts 
with their commissural connections were found in the 
turtle and many apparent homologues were recognized in 
the sparrow. Especially in the turtle there is not the 
continuity of nerve tracts which one is led to believe oc- 
curs in mammals, but there is rather a more or less inde- 
pendent, overlapping series of tracts. 

9. The pons is not present. 

10. In the sparrow a large fiber tract from the mesal 
wall of the cerebrum strongly suggests the fornicolumn of 
mammals, but it has more extensive relations. 

11. The conclusion is adopted that the so called cal- 
losum of birds and reptiles is the rudiment of a forni- 
commissure with a few fibers which may be truly callosal. 

12. A metapore was not demonstrated in either the 
sparrow or soft-shelled turtle, although the tels is very 


6 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Jan. 


much attenuated in the position usually assigned to the 
metapore. 

13. The metaplexus is apparently formed by crowding 
a v-shaped membrane between two nearly parallel edges 
of the cerebellum and the oblongata. 

14. The roof of the epiccele is at firsta membrane. The 
union of the lateral halves of the cerebellum across the 
meson is secondary, the connecting membrane being re- 
placed by a mesal lophius. 

15. The widely divaricated condition of the gemina in 
birds is not due to crowding by the cerebrum and cere- 
bellum but to their intrinsic growth begun before any 
crowding could occur. 

16. There is suggested the possible identity of the 
double sulcus ventrad of the postcommissure with the 
pair of lateral outgrowths occurring caudad of the epi- 
physis, discovered by Locy. 

17. The diaplexus of the turtle consists, in large part, 
of foldings of the membrane at either side of the meson. 
In this respect it has a closer relationship with the mam- 
malian type than the mesal plexus of either the bird or 
the Amphibia. 

18. In both turtle and sparrow, the paratela; occupy- 
ing the rima or interval between the fimbria and the 
tenial edge of the striatum, it is morphologically a part 
of the roof of the prosocele. 

19. Various pockets of endyma were found upon the 
meson which have great significance for morphology, but 
are physiologically of shght importance. Among these 
pockets is the paraphysis found in the adult Amyda and 
in the embryo sparrow. 

20. In Amphibia, turtle and sparrow, a transection of 
the hemicerebrum shows essentially a delta form. Caudad 
of the rima the three limbs are: (1.) The ventral or 
striatal ; (2) the lateral or pallial; (3) the mesal. The 


1896. ] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 7 


first two form segments extending from the caudal tip to 
the olfactory lobes. The rima divides the mesal segment 
into two parts, the dorsal or hippocampal and the ventral 
or tenial. At the porta the tenial unites with the thalamus. 
Cephalad of the porta, the hippocampal, unites with an 
outgrowth of the terma, the termatic segment; so that in 
the cephalic part of the brain the same complete delta 
form is re-established. 

21. Sulci which enter the porta indicate that the hip- 
pocampal, termatic, striatal and tenial segments of the 
cerebrum have a representative in the mesa] wall of the 
aula cephalic part of the third ventricle). 

22. In both the sparrow and the turtle the striatal limb 
of the delta has a secondary thickening which is compar- 
able with the caudatum of mammals. 

23. The porta of the embryo sparrow is bifurcated by 
the intrusion of the caudatum into the aula. In the adult 
this intrusion is crowded into insignificance by surround- 
ing parts. The two sulci of the aula which enter these 
parts of the porta can be traced upon the wall of the 
paraccele, one extending cephalad and the other caudad. 
On the aulic surface these sulci pass ventrad with no ap- 
pearance of turning caudad to form the aulix or sulcus 
of Monro as the theory of his would seem to demand. 
Comparable sulci entering the porta were found in the 
turtle although the caudatum does not intrude into the 
aula. 

24. The significance of other sulci was considered. (1) 
Those which indicate the boundary of a primal mesal 
membrane; as in cerebellum, and at the crista ; (2) those 
occurring at the edge of solid parietes as in the formation 
of parts of the oblongata as shown by His or of the cortex 
of the cerebellum as shown by Herrick ; (3) those occur- 
ring in more solid parts and whose walls finally coalesce 
. to form a cell nidus. 


8 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY {Jan. 


A New Tube for the Culture of Anaerobiotic Micro-organisms. 


Read Before La Societe D’Hygiene by Ferdinand Jean, director of the 
Society Laboratory. 

The apparatus which I have the honor of presenting 
consists of a test tube 15 millimetres in diameter and 12 
or 13 centimetres in length and having the mouth nar- 
rowed and closed with a ground glass stopper. A small 


glass tube, the end of which has been drawn out and 
closed, in a Bunsen burner, is attached about half way 
down the principal tube so as to form an angle of 25°. 
The uncorked tube, being held vertically, is filled to 
depth of two centimetres above the lateral tube with 
the liquified nutritive gelatine. There it is heated ina 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 9 


solution of sea salt and water until the whole apparatus 
is sterilized. 

After some minutes boiling and while the steam is 
passing off abundantly, close the tube with a cork which 
has been previously coated with vaseline and sterilized 
by a vapor bath. Then take it quickly from the salt 
water. 

Now place the tube upon a little support in an in- 
clined position with the mouth down and solidify the gel- 
atine with cold water. 

When ready to fertilize the tube, attach the small tube, 
by means of arubber piping, thoroughly sterilized, to 
the tube of a bell glass filled with hydrogen; then with 
the pincers break off the closed end. The tube being 
filled with hydrogen, pinch the rubber tube, detach the 
bell glass, and quickly close the rubber tube with a glass 
stopper which has been carefully sterilized. 

To fertilize the gelatine, remove carefully the ground 
glass, cork and introduce the culture by picking with a 
platinum wire, being careful not to penetrate below the 
upper film of gelatine, and then close the tube with the 
stopper. , 


Suggestions Regarding Microscopical Societies. 
BY V. A. LATHAM, 


CHICAGO, ILL. 


Regarding membership in Societies, 1 am of opinion 
many people join for the sake of the name and care noth- 
ing for the work. At the present time the vital question is: 
how shall we make our Society a successful one? That 
something ovght to be done is certain—but how ? Speak- 
ing generally of scientific societies in all parts and in all 
branches, I would state that they require a thorough 
turning out and a new start. The meetings are not such 


10 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Jan. 


that a busy worker cares at the end of a hard day’s work 
to go to them. 

(1.) Because often they are inconveniently situated. 

(2.) Members come or meetings begin after time. 

(3.) Arranged so late that suburbanites have to leave in 
the midst of a discussion or miss the last train. 

(4.) Business is not so well conducted as it might be 
and speakers brought to time. 

(5.) Papers are often not particularly adapted for the 
Society or only of slight interest to the majority. 

(6.) That the subject has to be discussed off-hand and 
few people are ready to do that quickly and well. 

(7.) That free discussion in some instances has to be 
limited on account of length of paper or business. 

(8.) Lack of practical work in societies. 

(9.) Danger of “clerkism.”’ 

(10.) The lack of a good microscopical loan and ref- 
erence library and cabinet. 

The exact way to secure a better attendance and more 
interest is first to offer some advantage, the next to secure 
working people for the society and exclude those who 
will not work or contribute and avoid such members. 

The old saying is true—we cannot please all but we can 
a few and that few will help and do it willingly. A few 
suggestions I would offer for society work in general. 

If the essayist be chosen long enough, let him or 
one of the programme committee secure debates on the 
question. All papers when possible should be illus- 
trated by photographs, preparations, and if possible 
methods should be shown and eriticism offered. 

Once a year an annual Soiree should be held and a well 
known but excellent popular lecturer secured to give a 
short address, illustrating with the lantern and speci- 
mens. After the lecture a social looking over of speci- 
mens, discussing what was seen, modes of staining and 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 11 


preparation. An opening meeting should take the 
form of an Exhibition and Conversazione and ladies and 
friends be invited. 

Material for mounting might be distributed amongst 
the members by those who can prepare it and in this 
way a very nice cabinet of reference specimens could be 
made by each member, instead of buying poor specimens. 
A library should be formed and books issued, for many - 
members are not rich enough to secure all journals and 
books necessary. A slide cabinet from which specimens 
might be drawn to study and compare with. This is es- 
pecially useful in adulterations of food, in Foraminifera, 
Embryology, Wood Sections, ete., ete. 

Exchanges from societies and gifts from publishers and 
editors can be obtained without much difficulty. A 
mounting section should be attached, to which the older 
children could be associate members and gain help in 
preparing their Biological High School work. Many are 
also able to make nice collections of Micro-fungi, 
Mosses, Pond life, etc., etc., The course may be arranged 
to cover the three kingdoms. 

1. Lecture and lesson, say Histologic Demonstration. 
The structure, chemistry and physics of the vegetableand 
animal cell and mounting specimens, testing with vari- 
ous reagents. 

2. Demonstrations in illumination of objects with the 
various Substage Condensers. 

3. Lllustrated with the Oxy-Hydrogen lantern and 
experiments, composition of blood, its physical and chem- 
ical properties. 

5. Lesson on staining, fixing and counting blood by Ehr- 
lich, Biondi, Plehn, logwood, eosin, etc. 

6. Various mounting media as C. Balsam, C. B. in sol- 
vents, Farrant, Dama, glycerine, acetate potassium, sol. 
of sodium, fluo-silicate, glycerine jelly, and their advan- 
tages. 


12 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Jan. 


7. Dry and opaque mounting. 

8. The lantern Microscope Projection. 

9. Dissection of fresh water mussel. 

10. Cutting material in paraffin. Single and serial 
sections. 

11. Celloidon,—Freezing. 

12. Selections of foraminifera. 

13. Selections of diatoms. 

14. Cutting vegetable sections. 

15. Mounting in fluids. 

16. Cell making. 

17. Ringing. 

18. Mechanism of the Microscope. 

19. Use of high power and their illumination. 

20. Mounting in Balsam, with or without pressure— 
Insect. 

21. Injecting. 

22: Camera Lucida and Drawing. 

23. Analysis Spectrum. 

During the summer afternoons—especially Saturday 
half-days—members should meet and take train for good 
fielding and hunting ground chosen by experts in the 
vicinity and show how to hunt for pond life, diatoms, 
algae, mosses, micro-fungi, botanical, etc., and then 
take supper and havea social evening and then take 


train home. 
The publication of the meetings. Some of the work 


should be printed in some one of the papers and notice 
of excursions printed there. In this way friends are 
made, health gained, Science becomes a pleasure and 
a gain. Hours of winter or rainy day amusements. 
Teachers’ work lightened because some know a good 
field for Amcebae, another for Volvox, another for Hyd- 
rae and yet another for Micro-Fungi and from the 
young mounters, we get our expert workers developed 
and who become the machine and pillars of the Society 


1896.] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 13 


I would suggest a subject say as an example and 
then have criticism. 

Mode of using Kosin and its results be given in His- 
tology and Pathology. 

A. Chemistry and varieties. 

B. Solubilities in ale. H,0. 

C. Staining with H?O. Sol. 

Washing mount. 


D. St.c. Ale. Sol. Mode of after treatment. 
EK. Results in Vegtable . 

F. ee « Pathology {rises 

G. « « §6Histology 

H. Results for Blood of H, O. Sol. 

I. Results for Blood of Alc. Sol. 

J. Literature. 

K. Discussion. 


A Modern Microscopic Objective. 
By HENRY ORFORD. 


The objective has been evera source of discussion for 
microscopists, and also the most difficult part of the in- 
strument with which the optician has to deal. Years 
back, when the instrument was known only to a few sci- 
entists, the question of the construction of the objective 
was taken up, and many related untenable theories were 
advanced. Such is the diffraction theory. If this is cor- 
rect, as some prominent microscopists still believe, all 
the previous impressions of the older optical principles 
must be disregarded, also all the writings of the optical 
physicist, before the diffraction theory became floated, 
must be put down as useless. 

Dr. Goring pointed out that a larger lens, meaning 
one with more aperture, would separate the minute 
markings of scales on a test slide, and that he could get 
better results with an unachromatized objective of larger 


14 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Jan. 


aperture than he could with the achromatic systems of 
small aperture of that day. And since that time there 
has been an ever-increasing desire to enlarge the aper- 
ture of objectives. It was soon found out, however, 
that with every degree of enlarged aperture attempted, 
the delicacy of the aberrations to be corrected were also 
enormously increased. So that the computation of a 
modern objective is truly a gigantic undertaking. 

Some years later a fluid was suggested to be used be- 
tween the anterior lens and the cover glass, to prevent 
the great loss of light due to refraction. And I believe 
Mr. Tolles constructed lenses with which he used balsam 
as the immersing medium. Before this, however, Powell 
and Lealand had constructed very fine water immersion 
lenses. Since Dr. Abbe’s adoption of cedar oil this has 
generally come into use, and other immersion fluids, 
some of which possibly have special uses, have been grad- 
ually discontinued. Cedar oil was adopted by Dr. Abbe 
only after exhaustive experiment, and it stands without 
a rival in dispersive suitability. | 

For the purpose of vision an image must be formed on 
the retina of the eye, and the purpose of the compound 
microscope is to form an enlarged image of minute 
structures that are indistinguishable by the unaided eye. 
Images are formed by rays, and every single ray has 
the power of forming an image. If such were not the 
ease the lens would have no image-forming power itself. . 

To show this make the pinhole experiment. Light a 
candle-in a dark room. Arrange a sheet of cardboard 
two feet distant, and between the two puta blackened 
card punctured with a pinhole. We see then an inverted 
image of the flame on the white card. If we make the 
hole in the card larger, we get a brighter but no longer 
asharp image, because now it is really a number of 
images, formed by rays that cross at different points of 


1896. ] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL 15 


the larger hole. These rays of light, each having an 
image-forming power when passing through a lens, are 
all converged together to a focus, and the image formed 
will, of course, be many times brighter than that of the 
single ray which passed through the blackened card. 
The lens then determines the place where the cones of 
diverging rays from an object shall begin to converge, 
audits position marks the place where refraction occurs, 
aud also marks the point where the rays cross and invert 
the image. So the objective only converges and com- 
bines masscs of rays, each one of which has the power 
of forming an image. It it thus obvious that the in- 
creased aperture of a lens means greater illumination. As 
stated before, Dr. Goring found better resolution with 
an unachromatized combination of large aperture than 
with an achromatic system of small aperture. 

The relation between aperture and resolution was 
shown by a simple experiment of Lord Raleigh. Each 
person was furnished with the apparatus required. It 
consisted of a piece of fine wire gauze, and a black card 
with two pinholes, one very small, and the other made 
with a thick pin. Holding the gauze to the light and 
looking at it through the small pinhole, gradually mov- 
ing it further off, at a certain distance the meshes would 
become invisible. Moving the card along till the larger 
pinhole was in front and close to the eye, instantly the 
meshes would become visible again. It will be seen at 
once that the greater aperture allowed to the eye brought 
them into view. 

That it was not merely more light that brought the 
image of the meshes distinctly to the eye can instantly 
be proved by another simple experiment. Get a piece of 
blackened glass, and make two scratches on it about 1-16 
of an inch long, one vertical and the other horizontal. 
Hold the gauze so that the wires are horizontal and ver- 


16 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Jan. 


tical to the scratches on the glass, and, when the proper 
distance is found, it will be seen the vertical scratch will 
not show the vertical wires, but will clearly show the 
horizontel ones, whilst the horizontal scratch will only 
show the vertical wires. The amount of light that passes 
through each scratch is exactly the same. So it will be 
seen it is the aperture diameter, which crosses the wires, 
that determines the distance at which they can be re- 
solved. We then see that the rays form the image, and 
the aperture determines the resolution. Thisis the same 
whether applied to a deep microscope objective, resolv- 
ing a fine diatom, or toa telescope dividing a double 
star. And whether the diffraction theory does or does 
not apply to either of these cases, the very same numer- 
ical law of relation between aperture and _ resolution 
apples to all. 

Every microscopist knows the Abbe diffraction theory, 
and how it took the microscopical world by storm; and 
also how the theory has been successively modified, as 
error after error has been demonstrated. Abbe main- 
tained that the image was not dioptically formed, but 
was an interference image. This he demonstrated with 
a fine diatom of about 93,000 striations to the inch, using 
a lens of 1.26 N. A., and very oblique illumination, till 
the narrow pencil he used appeared on the margin of the 
back of the lens. On the opposite side of the lens ap- 
peared a blue light, and when this was covered up every 
vestige of markings disappeared, and only the shell of 
the diatom was seen. By his excessive oblique light he 
had increased the aperture of his lens, but directly his 
narrow cone was interfered with all benefit was lost 
again. Not so witha wide cone. I have many times 
put a ring around the back of a lens, and allowing the 
central and most marginal rays only to enter the micros- 
cope, even when half of the few marginial rays were ob- 
structed, the markings of the image yet remained. 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 17 


One thing the diffraction theory did, it settled forever 
striving after useless magnifying power in objectives; 
such as 1-40 and 1-50 of very small aperture, and led 
opticans to construct lower powers 1-8 and 1-12, of large 
aperture, from which more could be gained. 

That the true resolution of an object is affected by a 
wide cone instead of a narow one is now beyond question, 
consequently the laws of optics are justin the same place 
as when demonstrated by the old writers. But having 
this extreme oblique: illumination and resolving of the 
strie is a true image formed, such as can be obtained 
with a dioptric or wide cone? It will be found both by 
observation and measurement that the diffraction image 
is utterly false. The striations are seen as considerably 
finer than the true structure, also markings are shown of 
an elongated form. The diffraction spectra can only be 
shown by very narrow pencils of hight. And the nar- 
rower the pencil the sharper the so-called image. But 
to get a true image we must employ a large cone. We 
saw with the pinhole that a ray formed an image; but 
that image had no focus. When we puta lens in its 
place there is a definite focus, because, at one point only, 
a diverging cone of rays froma point in the object is 
converged into another cone, whose apex is as small and 
sharp an image of the point as the aperture and correc- 
tion permit. . 

Any such image, formed by rays first diverging from 
a point, and then converged by the corrected refraction 
of a lens to the image point, is a dioptric image, and 
every real microscope image is dioptric. What we want 
is an objective that will give a true dioptric image coupled 
with a good condenser having an aplanatic cone. With 
these the narrow cone theory is intolerable. Given ob- 
jectives and condensers good enough, the best results in 
definition and resolution of fine structure have been with 
wide cones. 


18 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY (Jan. 


As a manufacturer of lenses of some years standing, 
as well as a worker with a microscope, I have had ample 
opportunities to carry out many experiments, which are 
almost impossible for the ordinary microscopist to imag- 
ine, and I have also had free access to almost any lens of — 
other makers which I desired to examine. A microscope 
objective then should have larger aperture, but that ap- 
erture is worse than useless unless it is properly corrected. 

Some time since I carried out a series of experiments 
with the aperture of lenses relating to corrections. I 
constructed a lens of 1.30 N. A., and at the back fitted 
an iris diaphragm, which could cut out all the marginal 
rays. Trying it on a test diatom I found no difference 
appeared when I cut the aperture down to 1.1 N. A. 
Below that the minute markings disappeared. The ob- 
jective showed the markings just as well with the aper- 
ture of 1.1 N. A., as with 1.30 N. A., so. of ,course’ it 
proved that the marginal rays were not sufficiently cor- 
rected. I may say that this could only be observed 
when using a condenser with an aplanatic cone. When 
used with an Abbe condenser, with its enormous aberra- 
tion, these facts were indistinguishable. Correcting the 
lens yet farther, and using a perfectly achromatized con- 
denser, the image was remarkable. 


The fact was soon impressed on me that for very fine 
resolution aperture is useless unless it is corrected in all 
its zones. Otherwise it had better be cut away. For as 
cones are enlarged, faults of objectives are revealed, and 
as the objective is more perfectly corrected faults in the 
cone stand out more clearly. Consequently for high res- 
olution the solid cone will no longer suffice. 

With increased and perfectly corrected aperture, the 
flatness of field should be as important to the maker. 
But this is very difficult to correct, and it has always 
been taken for granted that definition and flatness were 
incompatible. A glance at my objectives will be a proof 
to the contrary.—Journal N. Y, Bic. Society. 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 19 


Classification of the Radiolaria: Key to the Species of 


Barbadoes. 
By REV. FRED’K B. CARTER. 
MONTCLAIR, N. J. 
Continued from p. 213, July, 1895, and Concluded. 
154.. SETHOCYRTIS. 


Shell bottle-shaped, smooth ; mouth nearly as broad as thorax __.._. cancrina 
Shell pear-shaped, thorny ; mouth 4 as broad as thorax 22. diomedis 
Shell pear-shaped, spiny ; mouth 4 as broad as thorax oo... menelai 


155. SETHOCORYS. 
Shell slenderly ovate, smooth, cephalis ovate ; mouth } as broad as thorax 


armadillo 
156. LOPHOPH ANA. 
Horns not connected, bristle-shaped, about as long as radius of cephalis 


galea 

Horns not connected, stout, conical ; about as long as diameter of cephalis 
radians 
Horns connected, conical, about as long as diameter of cephalis.. circumtexta 


157. DICTYOCEPHALUS. 


Length of the two joints 5-12, cephalis campanulate urceolus 
Length of the 2 joints 5-10, cephalis ovate-concical 00. excellens 
Length of the 2 joints 4-6, cephalis ovate oo... crassiceps 
158. SETHOCAPSA. 
Shell smooth ; cephalis with small conical horn of } the length. lagena 
Shell smooth ; cephalis with large pyramidal horn of twice the length 
nidus 
Shell smooth; cephalis with internal septum of 2 crossed beams 
staurocephala 
Shell spiny ; cephalis with conical horn of the same length... bulla 
159. DICOLOCAPSA. 
Shell papillate, think walled ; cephalis flat, hemispherical platycephala 


160. PTEROCORYS. 
Cephalis with one horn twice the length ; thorax with angular wings of 


Sa Diesen v-Ghi satin. ame be ie EM un Lee OU teed nt. barbadeusis 
Cephalis with one horn three times the length ; thorax with conical 

wings twice the length. ediocailt kc sincte Oni Rrt das Modell eee and apis 
Cedhalis with one horn twice the andes hota with conical wings 4 

the length of shell.. ake nts suetesec mene MOLIGbA 
Cephalis with one horn see same leneeke “enone ith Vana wings as 

long as the cephalis...... BSISCIGD DC DEISGCaSICDO SOC Aer bace da GH Bec a aoe ace ri nai .turgida 


Cephalis with several horns, thorax with short conical wings............ zittelii 


20 - THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Jan. 


161. THEOPODIUM. 
Shell 3-sided pyramidal, rough, without external strictures...... - pyramidale 


162. PTEROCANIUM. 
Thorax and abdomen with small circular pores, densely crowded to- . 


POCHYT 25 AoLiis Saba tas vnd desc da ehBeeh ok SPREE ow woe na Seip seh ol bane vO En 
163. PTEROCODON. 
Shell campanulate, mouth with corona of 12-15 feet......... 06. seeeeee campana 
164. PODOCYRTIS. 
Feet cylindrical, as long as the abdomen, little divergent ............ .attenuata 
Feet conical, about as long as the thorax, divergent .......... .ccsseeee sence conica 
Feet pyramidal, divergent, as long as the cephallis. ..........,.... s.e00 -conulus 
Feet triangular, short, pores 3 times as broad in abdomen as in thorax 
brevipes 
Feet slightly divergent, short, pores 4-6 times as broad in abdomen as 
TOA HAVOTEZD- ees eagy nb esGiCvege00U dcabiodac hoodss Redeonosn/oddead edener coGsacboria: collaris 
Feet nearly parallel, pores 5 times as eros in abdomen as in thorax 
schomburgkil 
Feet triangular, stout, divergent, pores 4-6 times as broad in abdomen 
AS} Wik WOO) 2 5-< eae aeced ondoedces Codota CoGocORe:, Souoculcqnecdcod Beeiponsne 230obe . ventricosa 
Feet triangular, short, cephalis with cylindrical horn nearly as long as 
the'shell... 72.2.1... vic catde ut RUPE ale irik em By Slay. RR Te - euceros 
Feet s-shaped, cephalis with stout comical Horn.............cceecees eens centriscus 
Feet s-shaped, cephalis with cylindrical horu longer than the shell 
princeps 
Feet short, thick, bent outwards, abdomen urn-shaped.......... sess urceolata 
Feet conical, slender, divergent, abdomen nearly cylindrical ...... ehrenbergii 
Feet spindle-shaped, slender, divergent, abdomen inflated ............ argulus 
Feet shovel-shaped, triangular, convergent, length of joints 1-3-1...... papalis 
Feet shove]-shaped, semicircular, convergent, length of joints 2-9-4 
mitrella 
Feet shovel-shaped, slightly divergent, length of joints 1-2-3............... mitra 
Feet shovel-shaped, triangular, nearly vertical, length of joints 1-3-4 
argus 
Feet shovel-shaped, nearly vertical, length of joints 1-2-6 ............. eulophos 
Feet shovel-shaped, convergent, length of joints 1-2-4.....................SINU0Sa 
Feet shovel-shaped, convergent, length of joints 2-3-6............ 2.06. floribunda 
Feet shovel-shaped, convergent, very small, Jength of joints 1-4-5 ...... ampla 
Feet shovel-shaped, convergent, very small, length of joints 1-3-3......... nana 
Feet shovel-shaped, convergent, short and broad, length of joints 2-5-8 
lyza 
Feet shovel-shaped, nearly vertical, short, length of joints 2-5-5 ....... bromia 
Feet conical, slightly convergent, small, length of joints 1-2-4 ........... tripus 
Feet sub-cylindrical, curved, thin, length of joints 1-2-4............ . tracantha 


165. THYRSOCYRTIS. 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 21 


Shelitconical, feet divergembs:.\. :: <0: ccsedeecdeessslscdanee wi sveckater stsaecesece rhizodon 
Shell pear-shaped, feet cylindrical, parallel ...............csssecese coosseece rhizopus 
Shell campanulate-conical, feet cylindrical, s-shaped......................radicata 


166. DICTYOPODIUM. 
Feet fenestrated throughout, diverging, pores in thorax and abdomen 


Rare O eg is ceccics Coho e cd CH ERE BRRE ORNERIE HDS a Hab so s.cca sa ROE NBA BE RGAS ee nEER eurylophos 
Feet fenestrated throughout, Aigereings pores in thorax and abdomen 
IBWEES soconsos oodboardcencecd anodas Hosgonded Echos bo4ds4 uséte onkin SceanmoodoeS oxylophos 
Feet fenestrated at end, nearly vertical, s-shaped .................. scothurnatum 
167. LITHORNITHIUM. 
Thorax with 3 broad triangular wings of 4 the length .............. foveolatum 
168. THEOPERA. 

Shell 3-sided pyramidal, wings broad and long.............06 seceesees secon pyramis 
Shell slenderly ovate, wings prolonged into slender spines.............+. luscinia 
169. RHOPALOCANIUM 
Shell nearly spindle-shaped, abdomen inversely conical.................. ornatum 

Shell nearly ovate, abdomen inversely campanulate prolonged into tube 
pythia 
170. LITHOCHYTRIS. 
Feet solid, abdomen without prominent edges..............060. seeeee eee . tripodium 
Feet fenestrated, abdomen with sharp prominent edges..................-..pileata 
Feet fenestrated, abdomen with rounded edges ............ 2.2.22 0000 pyramidalis 
Feet fenestrated, abdomen without prominent edges. ................. vespertilio 


171. PHORMOCYRTIS. 
Shell smooth, cephalis with pyramidal horn of the same length...... embolum 
Shell rough, cephalis with cylindrical horn about as long as the shell 


longicornis 
172. ALACORYS. 

Peristome with four feet ......... .ccccesee veces Sesutebcect ete ea pets: .tetracantha 
Beristomev with) five feet ys iwesveceses ssccevees escostorses eodesccea'veteres -pentacantha . 
Reristomie swith Six <f€Sbi teen corerseccecsloswasesterceseccsccorcsvcclenee! eateetces hexapleura 
Peristome with eight feet......... PM Fiiseae vest bce ade ceMesteatawe eeeeaseaitcele aculeata 
Heristonre twathy NINE TEE, cise ieclessssccecieccnas ccisre cence cveeticees cose ausmecenctcas gigas 
Reristome with: twelve fectis.nis catcccssicstscsean stesecives seve stecet cwsees .dodecantha 
Peristome with eighteen feet, shell rough ...............00. ses ceeeeeeee seeeee carcinus 
Peristome with 18-24 feet, shell SMOOth.............00 ceceee cocees cossoveee eves OLNAtA 


173. CYCLADOPHORA. 
Abdomen with 6 ribs, shell lantern shaped, with 2 sharp strictures 


hexapleura 
Abdomen with 6 ribs, shell pyramidal, with 2 slight strictures... pyramidalis 
Abdomen with 6 ribs, shell spiny, with 2 deep strictures.............,.0.. spinosa 
PAD AOMEMEWAUNEOMTIDS) c. seccucsceasa retticosivades sees selccccccsarceeistacsdecsvacets -nonagona 


Abdomen dilated, with 15-20 divergent ribs..............ceeseseees soeees campanula 


22 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Jan. 


Abdomen truncate, conical, with 16-24 divergent ribs........-...061seeaee spatiosa 
Abdomen cylindrical, with 12 parallel ribs ................0.-s0s00 ceseewees .Stiligera 
174. CALOCYLAS. 

Peristome with 15-20 feet about as long as the abdomen......... ....0660) «+ turris 
Peristome with 12-15 feet half as long as the abdomen......... ......46 erinaceus 
Peristome with 20-30 feet about half as long as the cephalis................ gigas 
175. CLATHROCYCLAS. 

Peristome with 12-15 slender curved feet...............scsscsees ceoeee sees fimbriata 
Peristome with 15-20 triangular feet. oo. c ce tece ace oe vecsar escocetus corocaces puella 
Penistome with! 9-12 triancular tection se wsneeties..ccescicvecencecceabeoseecssens domina 
176. THEOCALYPTRA. 

Length of joints 1-2-2, abdomen with 3 circles of large pores......... discoides 


177. THEOCONUS. 
Shell thorny, cephalis with horn 13-2 times as long as the shell...longicorni 


Shell thorny, cephalis with horn of same length. ......... ...... 2.260 ampullaceus 
Shell conical, smooth, cephalis with horn as long as the thorax.......amplus 
Shell smooth, cephalis with denticulate horn 2-3 times the length 
dionysius 
Shell pear-shaped, smooth, cephalis very small with horn 3 times the 
HONG oes ccee acca chemenes mons cdecclae tare nctyac cesaicne tes sseis ares dassieaceneecemteeas fiscus 
178. LOPHOCONUS. 
Cephalis with 8-12 divergent, conical horms............ 0 .cseeceeees venues apiculatus 
° 179. THEOCYRTIS. 
Pores quincuncially disposed, about as broad as the bars, shell smooth 
barbadensis 
Pores quincuncially disposed, twice as broad as the bars...............¢ylindrica 
Pores in transverse rows, 3 in thorax, 6 8 in abdomen ............ ....00008 elegans 
Pores in transverse rows, 1-2 in thorax, 3-5 in abdomen......... .......+. paupera 
Pores qnincuncially disposed, shell a little rough ......... ..........+. . microtheca 
Pores in transverse rows, 5-6 in thorax, 8-10 in abdomen............ macroceros 
Pores quincuncially disposed in the thorax, shell thorny ................ aspera 
Pores quincuncially disposed in thorax, abdomen with coronal of 9 
large pores and 2-4 transverse rows of smaller pores............ cenophila 
180. THEOSYRINGIUM. 
Abdomen prolonged into a slender, cylindrical tube .......... 0.00. «200 tubulus 
181. LOPHOCYRTIS. 
Shell with one deep stricture, cephalis with 3-9 spines............ stephanophora 
Shell with two deep strictures, cephalis with 4-8 spines.................. coronata 
Shell with two distinct strictures, cephalis with 2 curved horns ...... biaurita 
182. TRICOLOCAM PE. 
Pores sub-regular, regularly disposed in transverse TOWS........... «+ polyzona 


Pores irregular, irregularly disposed .......... te beneeeeee se eees tneeneees seeee: panthera 


1896. ] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 23 


iRotes\disposed: insODligmerro ws) ./:) sss ceeesececes cascade. sacwosasveccces-cacets doliolum 
Pores in thorax in oblique, in abdomen in transverse rows ............ cingulata 
183. THEOCORYS. 
Cephalis with slightly curved horn, half as long as the shell............ scolopax 
Cephalis with cylindrical horn, half as long as the shell ............ bachabunda 
Cephalis with short oblique, comical horn ..............2.001 sseces coesesses attenuata 
Cephalis with oblique pyramidal horn of same length............ 0.2... obliqua 
Cephalis with conical horn 3 times the length......... .........00. 00002 se... dlauda 
Cephalis with conical] horn of same length ......... ... cescssee seececone spheerophila 
Cephalis with cylindrical horn twice the length ............-.. 00008 oo tuberculata 
184.. LOPHOCORYS 
Cephalis with 1 pyramidal and 3 small horns ......... ......000 0+: acanthocephala 
Cephalis with 2 pyramidal horns ..................008 nib PEG ees bicornis 
185. THEOCAMPE. 
Pores in thorax in alternating, in abdomen in 5-6 transverse rows ...... pirum 
Pores in transverse rows, 3 in cephalis, 6 in thorax, 3 in abdomen...... nucula 
Pores in cephalis and thorax in oblique, in abdomen in 10-12 transverse 
ROW Sirecetactocsfictiecemscian an cieciacscteos. sovelssecesiemaccscaecaarciestslorecsiaserecers ovulum 
Pores quincuncially disposed, in abdomen 3 times as broad as in thorax 
versipellis 
Pores oblique in cephalis and thorax, abdomen with longitudinal ribs 
gemmata 
Pores quincuncial, cephalis half hidden in thorax.................. cry ptocephaka 
186. THEOCAPSA. 

Shell conical, cephalis with horn 3 times the length............... ...0e0.. rathkei 
Shell pear-shaped, cephalis with horn of same length ............ ...s...000 sarsii 
187. TRICOLOCAPSA. 

Thorax smaller than abdomen, shell with 2 indistinct strictures. ...... brownii 
188. STICHOPILIUM. 

Shell with 6 joints, thorax with 3 long wings or spines............ macropterum 

189. PTEROPILIUM. 

Third joints with 3 ribs prolonged into latticed wings ...... ........ se0e- sphinx 
Second joint with 3 ribs prolonged into wings with few pores .......... bombus 
199. ARTOPERA. 

Second and third joints with 3 wings, fourth with pyramidal spine...... loxia 
191. ARTOPHORMIS. 

Nine Tbs prolonged In6O 9) feb. 2 ives cnaacarcsdnwccevdasotce vevcnnvar eetdes barbadensis 
192. LITHOSTROBUS. 

Shell smooth, with 6-8 slight strictures .............cccceececees cecece seceee tenes picus 
Shell thorny, with 5-7 slight strictures. ...........c.0. cesses cceees ceeeeceee seers AT QUS 
Shell smooth, with 4-6 deep strictures ...........ce00 secees seeceesee soees acuminatus 


Shell smooth, with 3-4 deep strictures........... IRSECE ED cicococe Ceabcoc ee cad microporus 


24 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Jan. 


193. DICTYOMITRA. 
Shell with 6-8 deep strictures, joints nearly equal in length. ........ articulata 


194. ARTOSTROBUS. 
Shell with 8-10 internal annular septa, abdomen with 6-8 joints. ......elegans 


195. LITHOMITRA. 


Shell slightly dilated, on each joint a single row of pores ..........pachyderma 
Shell nearly cylindrical, on each joint a single row of pores, joints 
broader and shorter than in the preceding..... ............seseseees acephala 
Shell sub-cylindrical, thorax with 2-3 rows Of pOTes..........2.0. seseseees lineata 
Shell diminishing slightly toward both ends, on each joint a single row 
of pores descending Obliqueliypete merase teens n- cs cee sh)sceasclscseasienecce eruca 


196. EUCYRTIDIUM. 
Shell with 4 joints, cephalis with club-shaped, spinulate or branched 


OLD siicdcoates Sec eta cuscsntuca aes nats amen ese wee Steck noeiescidcine ee anthophorum 

Shell with 5 joints, dephalta with conical horn ......... .... Jo Moaw suites techetes eruca 

Shell with 6 joints, cephalis hyaline, with conical horn ............ montiparum 
197. EUSYRINGIUM. 

Shell thick-walled, cephalis with conical horn ........... ......ssececees coveceeee sipho 


Shell thin-walled, cephalis with pyramidal horn................ .....fistuligerum 
198. SIPHOCAMPE. 


Abdomen with spirally convoluted ribs . ...... 0.006 cui cesses seceee weveeenes spiralis 
199. LITHOCAMPE. 

Shell spindle-shaped, with 6 joints equal in length ...... 0.0.2... eeceeees radicula 
Shell club-shaped or ovate, with 6 joints of different lengths........ ...... clava 
200. STICHOCAPSA. 

Shell pear-shaped with 3 internal septal rings .................. ceeceeeee pyriformis 
Shell pear-shaped with 5 internal septal rings...... 12... ..cecee seceee ees hexacola 
Shell pear-shaped with 8 internal septal rings................0cc: ceseeeees compacta 
Shell spindle-shaped with 4-5 slight strictures. ......... .ececeee teeeen cee eee radicula 
201. ARTOCAPSA. 

Shell spindle-shaped, smooth, with 3 sharp strictures............. quadricamera 

ERRATA. 


In July Number, 1895. 


Page 206. 
In genera 79 and 84, for ‘‘butschlu’’ read ‘‘butschlii.’’ 


Page 207. 
In genus 94, for ‘‘didicerus’’ read ‘‘didiceros.”’ 
In genus 98, for ‘‘Deudrosphyris’’ read ‘‘Dendrospyris,’’ for ‘‘dirrhiga’’ read 
‘‘dirrhiza.’’ ‘ 
In genus 100, for ‘‘articulate’’ read ‘‘articulata.’’ 
In genus 102, for ‘‘atenchus’’ read ‘‘ateuchus.”’ 


1896.] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 25 


Page 208. 
In genus 103, for ‘‘Clatharospyris’’ read ‘‘Clathrospyris.”’ 
In genus 108, for ‘‘enpetala’’ read ‘‘eupetala.”’ 
Page 209. 
In family 17, for ‘‘Cortin’’ read ‘‘Cortina.’’ 
Page 212. 
In genus 149, for “trangular’’ read “‘triangular.”’ 


Radiolaria: A New Species from Barbadoes. 
| REV. FRED’K. B. CARTER. 
MONTCLAIR, N. J. 
Pentinastrum peutacephaleun, U.Sp. 
All five arms equal, club shaped, at their egg-shaped 
distal end twice as broad as at their base, and armed with 


a strong conical spine. Several smaller spines on the 
border of the patagium which is complete, not quite fill- 


ing up the interbrachial spaces. Resembles very closely 
Pentinastrum goniaster, Haeckel, from which it differs 
mainly in not forming such a regular pentagium and 
having spines on the patagium. 

Dimensions.—Radius of each arm 0.19; basal breadth, 
0.03; distal breadth, 0.006; radius of the central disk, 
0.025. 


26 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Jan. 


Hatbitat.—Fossil on the rocks of Barbadoes. 

This form was found by Mr. H. J. Sutton of Philadel- 
phia, Pa., who took the photograph from which the draw- 
ing accompanying this description was made. 


Infusoria for Identification. 


Last Spring I caught a small mud turtle about two or 
three inches in diameter. Around the edge of its shell 
was a white fringe. Upon examination, this fringe turned 
out to be animals. I kept the turtle, and in a short time 
these animals covered his entire body, except his upper 


and lower shells ; they covered his neck and head, feet 
and legs and even his tail. 

They were colorless and were on a straight stem, cilia 
were only around the mouth. They seemed to increase 
by binary subdivision, there being usually 2, 4 or 8 ani- 
mals on a stem. 

I think that they attached themselves to the turtle so 
as to be carried from place to place in order to get food. 
Can anyone tell me from this slight description what the 
name of this Infusoria is ? 


1896.] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 27 


EDITORIAL. 


Microscopical Journalism.—We have been favored with 
an announcement from one of the leading microscope makers 
of the United States, that its house will proceed very soon to 
establish a monthly periodical and that it will spare neither 
pains nor expense to procure the highest quality of contri- 
butions. 

The object in view is not entirely to supply a public want but 
to enable the house to advertise its own goods. The primary 
object is advertising, but the advertisements of rival concerns 
will be excluded of course. The house has approached us 
with a proposition that we exchange advertisements. 

Under this plan we are to advertise not simply their 
periodical but necessarily their business without pay. They 
are to advertise our periodicals without pay. To usit can only 
mean the securing of a few new subscribers, since we already 
have a large part of the microscopical subscribers on our list. To 
them it means securing access to all of our subscribers, and ad- 
vertising their goods free of cost—the saving of the money 
which they have heretofore paid us. If our subscribers would 
generally go over to the new periodical of course we should 
find ourselves ina bad predicament. There are some people 
who go rushing from periodical to periodical and our record of 
their exploits is amusing. After an absence of one or two years 
during which they have taken a 25-cent or 50-cent microscop- 
ical “magazine,” they come back inquiring whether they can 
get our back numbers with which to complete their files. 

The history of such periodicals has been of much _ interest. 
The 50-cent magazine started almost two years ago has col- 
lapsed and been merged with botany, ornithology, herpetology , 
conchology, etc,, etc. 

The 25-cent magazine has lived many years and in spite of a 
tremendous amount of advertising which a Philadelphia optical 
house has done by means of it, the house has been compelled 
to suspend payments and make a piteous appeal to all its cred- 
itors—throughout the world—to grant an extension and to 
accept instalment payments at six-month intervals. That 
house had the assurance years ago to ask us to grant them an 


28 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Jan. 


exchange advertisement. We declined and have never regretted 
doing so. 

The pound rate law under which we secure a very low rate of 
postage on our periodicals, was framed to benefit the people 
and to aid legitimate journalism. 

When a house selling microscopes comes forward to publish 
a periodical, ostensibly to benefit the people but really to 
scatter its own advertisements at pound rates it does a dishonest 
thing and disaster is sure to come—as sure as night to follow 
day. 

People in other lines of business understand these principles. 
Thousands of houses contract for advertising by the wholesale. 
The money they spend would support several class. journals. 
Why do they not establish such journals and drive to the wall 
their competitors since they have such superior conditions for 
so doing? The money spent annually by Charles Marchand, 
whose advertisement appears on our cover, amounts to more 
than $50,000 and is distributed to nearly all of the 200 medical 
periodicals of the United States. He could afford to publish a 
medical journal that would exceed all others in its literary 
merits, for the sake of covering page after page with his own 
advertisements, but he has sense enough to scent the disaster 
sure to overtake dishonesty. He will do nothing of the sort. 
The great success that his remedies are meeting proves his wis- 
dom in patronizing legitimate journalism and in refraining from 
setting up a competing periodical and then asking medical jour- 
nals to give him free advertising under the misnomer of “ex- 
change.” 

Had the Philadelphia house alluded to pursued a similar 
policy and refrained from putting out insignificant twenty-five 
cent collections of clippings to float advertisements ; and had it 
been as conscientious in all other respects, it would never have 
found itself in the humiliating scrape from which it has strug- 
-gled for two years to extricate itself by cutting prices and under- 
selling other people. 

Curiously, one of the concerns that has been injured some- 
what by said price-cutting but that has not been as yet com- 
pelled to assign is tempted to imitate those Philadelphia 
people by setting up a class magazine, primarily to advertise 


1896. ] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 29 


and secondarily to publish articles. In due time, though 
perhaps not till it has wrought considerable injury, misfortunes 
will overtake them, coming from sources unconnected with 
with those whom they have wronged, and they will either won- 
der why they suffer atall or will be entirely content to explain 
it as due to “tariff legislation,’ or to the poor condition of 
business throughout the country. 


Not American.—On page 402 of our December issue we 
published a letter from Miss V. A. Latham. We had asked her 
as well as all the other officers of the American Microscopical 
Society to contribute her views regarding any ways in which 
we might advance the interests of the Society. 

In reply she took occasion to say: “I do not approve of the 
Journals over here at all. The Microscop® as edited by Manton 
was one of the most valuable periodicals going but now there is 
not a decent one existing.” 

In a footnote we thought best to remind the reader of a pos- 
sible reason why American periodicals are so poor, by saying: 

“It will be borne in mind that Miss Latham is one of the 
editors of an English microsopical periodical and that she, an 
American, sends most of her contributions abroad to be 
published.” 

We are consequently in receipt of the following request, with 
which we are pleased to comply. 

“Will you kindly make an early correction in your Journal 
and oblige. In the footnote on page 402 you make the state- 
ment Iam an American. That is far from being a disgrace and 
I feel honored by the same, but in the first place every one has a 
right to contribute wheresover he will, and again I beg to state 
that I am NOT an American but distinctly English, that is ifa. 
wandering person like myself can claim any residence.” 

We therefore ask the members of the American Microscopical 
Society who at their Ithaca meeting elected Miss Latham as 
one of their officers and to whom we have appealed for co-oper- 
ation in advancing the interests of the American Society, to 
please note that Miss Latham quite emphatically wishes it 
~ understood that she is NOT an American.” 

If there are any more officers of the American Society who 
are not Americans we will afford them space in which to say so 
n case they desire it to be known. 


30 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [ Jan. 


MICROSCOPICAL MANIPULATION. 


A New Method of Staining Flagella.—Loeffler’s method 
of staining flagella is probably the one most commonly and gen- 
erally employed. This consists in treating the bacteria to he 
stained with a mordant made up of tannic acid and ferrous sul- 
phate, and then staining the bacteria with a solution of an ani- 
lin color in water. 

I have devised a method whieh is simple, and in my hands, 
much more reliable and easier of execution. It is as simple as 
the staining of bacteria with ordinary carbol-fuchsin, and I 
have stained over fi'ty preparations of flagellated micro-organ- 
isms, each time demonstrating the flagella most. satisfactorily. 

The method consists in the use of but a single solution, which 
is at once mordant and stain. The solution should be made in 
two parts, which are filtered and mixed. 


A. 

Saturated aqueous solution of alum ‘ , E 10 c.cm. 
Saturated alcoholic solution of gentian-violet 5 . 1 ccm. 
B. 

Tannic acid 5 : 4 : : 1 gm. 
Distilled water : ; 3 10 ¢.cm. 


The solution should be made with cold water, and immedi- 
ately after mixing the stain is ready for use. 

The cover-slip is to be carefully cleaned, the grease being 
burned off in a flame, and after it has cooled the bacteria are 
spread upon it, well diluted in water, care being taken to ex- 
clude culture medium. After the preparation has been 
throughly dried in the air it should be held over the flame with 
the fingers, as Loeffler has directed. Afterward the stain is grad- 
ually poured on the slip and heated gently, bringing the fluid 
almost to a boil; the slip covered with the hot stain should 
then be laid aside for one minute, then washed in water and 
mounted. 

Upon examination, the bacteria, both isolated and in clumps, 
will, if motile, be found to have the flagella clearly ahd deli- ' 
cately defined. In the middle of the cover-slip, as well as 
around the edges, the bacteria will be found equally well 


1896] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 31 


stained; the clumps being surrounded by a zone of deli- 
cate fringing flagella, each being well stained and distinctly 
outlined from its fellows. 

If a clean preparation is desired, the stain, after mixing, may 
be filtered, but I have found that the most reliable method is 
to use the unfiltered stain. In the case of the former a clear 
field is produced without the detritus, etc., precipitated on the 
glass around the micro-organisms; and all the flagella are 
stained, but not so distinctly as with the unfiltered solution. 

If the filtered stain is used, a second stain of anilin water con- 
taining gentian-violet had better be used, which should be ap- 
plied but a moment and then washed off, thus leaving a clean 
field, showing only the bacteria lightly stained, with their flag- 
ella still more lightly colored. 

In examining the different bacteria, I have found that the 
baciilus of typhoid fever, the colon-bacillus, the cholera-bacil- 
lus, and the bacillus of hog-cholera, each stained well by this 
method, and without the addition of any acid or alkali to the 
mordant, such as Loeffler uses. 

The bacillus of typhoid fever showed the flagella most beau- 
tifully, and there seemed one flagellum to each cell that stained 
more deeply than the others and appeared larger and stronger. 

As to the keeping qualities of the stain I have not fully as- 
certained, but persumably it should be mixed daily to yield 
the best results.—R. I. Pirrrretp, M. D., in The Medical News. 


Borax Carmine as a Staining Fluid.—P. W. Squire, in 
the “Pharmaceutical Journal,” says: The use of aqueous 
borax carmine, followed by washings with alcohol, is generally 
accompanied by the precipitation of the coloring matter in 
the cavity of the cell, and whilst recommending an alcoholic 
solution of borax carmine, he states that with the formula in 
use for animal histology, the desired result is only obtained 
with extreme slowness. His solution, which is stated to give 
good results in favorable cases in aminimum of ten minutes, is 
made as follows: Powdered carmine, 2 grammes; borate of so- 
dium, 8 grammes; alcohol (70°), 200 grammes. The ingred- 
ients are heated together in a flask for twenty minutes, using an 
upright condenser to prevent loss of alcohol. The use of al- 
coholic borax carmine for staining vegetable tissues is not new; 


32 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Jan. 


the application of Grenacher’s solution for this purpose is pub- 
lished in ‘Methods and Formule’ (Squire), 1892, and sections 
stained as there described were exhibited by me at the Pharma- 
ceutical Society’s evening meeting in February, 1893. I have 
recently made comparative trials by staining different kinds of 
vegetable tissues with the solution recommended by M. 
Radais alongside of Grenacher’s solution, and another to be 
described later. The Radais solution was certainly not quicker 
in action, and the staining was not so good as with the other 
two. His formula given above yields a turbid liquid, which on 
standing fora short time deposits a considerable quantity of 
sediment and after filtration the solution is comparatively pale 
in color. The borax is less soluble in that strength of alcohol, 
and therefore cannot form with carmine such a deeply colored 
solution as with a weaker spirit. 

To test the quantity of dissolvel matter, 10c. c. of each so- 
lution in turn was placed ina platinum basin and evaporated 
on a water bath until the residue ceased to lose weight. The 
precentage of alcohol is given by volume for comparison with 
Radais formula, Grenacher’s solution, containing 40 per cent. 
(by volume) alcohol, yielded .171 gramme. Another solution 
(see below), containing 50 per cent. (by volume) alcohol, 
yielded .147 gramme. Radais’ solution,containing 70 per cent, 
(by volume) alcohol, yielded .052 gramme. Borax and carmine 
dissolve readily in the water, but when a large porportion of 
strong alcohol is added precipitation occurs, and this takes 
place to a considerable extent after the alcohol exceeds about 
50 per cent. (by volume) of the whole. 

This has also a bearing on the alcohol washing after the car- 
mine bath. If sections be placed in aqueous borax carmine, 
or even Grenacher’s solution, and after staining be trans- 
ferred direct to 70 per cent or stronger alcohol, there is 
danger of carmine deposits in or upon the tissues, but if excess 
of stain be removed by just rinsing the sections in distilled 
water previous to their removal into alcohol, the danger is re- 
moved. It is always much safer to take this precaution, but 
the tissues must not remain more than a few seconds in the 
water, else the stain may be removed. 

The more strongly alcoholic solution than that known as 


1896. ] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 33 


Grenacher’s, and which I have alluded to above, is made as 
follows:—Carmine 3 grammes; borax, 4 grammes; distilled 
water, 85 c.c.; rectified spirit, 115 c.c. Dissolve the borax in 
the water, add the carmine, and heat ina flask until the mix- 
ture just boils. Cool the solution, and add gradually the recti- 
. fied spirit ; after twenty-four hours, filter. This method obvi- 
ates any necessity for an upright condenser. At first sight the 
borax would appear to be in excess, but the proportions given 
are necessary to dissolve the carmine. The solution stains well, 
and issufficiently alcoholic for most purposes. 

I have gone into this matter somewhat fully, for although 
there are many far better nuclear stains, notably hematoxylin 
and some aniline dyes, there is none as good as borax carmine 
for staining cellulose. 


Note ona Spirit-Proof Micro-Cement.—KEvery one here 
will know the great importance of a thoroughly reliable cement 
for fluid mounts. All cements which become quite dry and 
hard in time are then also slightly porous, and allow the fluid to 
evaporate slowly through the pores. Asphalt, on this account, 
is quite useless for fluid mounts, and even Miller’s caoutchouc 
cement can only be depended upon foratime. After a few 
years it becomes quite dry, and sooner or later an air bubble 
appears in the mount. 

It is my pleasure this evening to announce the discovery of a 
cement which is not only reliable for objects in watery fluids, 
but which will also keep in permanently strong and even abso- 
lute alcohol. I do not mean to imply, however, that I have my- 
self discovered the cement in question. 1 have only discovered 
its existence, which seems almost as great a merit, for it has been 
used by some for the last fifteen or sixteen years, and yet the 
fact of its existence has not penetrated to our Microscopical 
Societies in London. Dr. Dallinger’s ‘* Carpenter ” recommends 
the periodical addition of a layer of cement to prevent its becom- 
ing quite dry, and only knows Lovett’s,a very troublesome 
cement for spirit mounts. Mr. Bolles Lee, in his latest (1893) 
edition of the “ Microtomist’s Vade Mecum,” says, in speaking 
of alcohol as a preservative fluid: ‘‘ Not very recommendable 
for mounting, as if taken weak it is not a very efficient preserv- 
ative, and if taken strong it attacks the cement of the mount 8.” 


34 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Jan. 


The cement which I wish to bring before you is called Clarke’s 
Cement, and has been used by Mr. Thos. Clarke, of Birmingham, 
for the last sixteen years for mounting objects in methylated 
spirit, and his slides are quite good and sound now. I have here 
a slide of Leptodorahyalina mounted in alcohol by this gentleman 
in 1887, or eight years ago, and it is perfect at present. This is 
sufficient proof that the cement is reliable for spirit mounts, 
and, of course, also for all watery fluids. It is black, and used 
like asphalt. The diluting fluid is turpentine or benzole, both ~ 
of which dissolve it very readily. It sets quickly, but takes 
two or three weeks to get sufficiently dry for handling the slides. 
It is very tenacious and never becomes quite hard and brittle, 
T usually fix the cover glass of fluid-cells with thickened Miller’s 
cement, and when dry make a ring of Clarke’s cement over that. 
Of course with alcohol mounts Miller’s cement cannot be used, 
and the cell can be made, and must be closed with Clarke’s 
cementalone. 1t is best to use the smallest oil-color sable brush, 
putting on the cement very gradually and little ata time. The 
brush can be washed out from time to time in some benzole kept 
for the purpose in a separate little bottle. 

The composition of the cement is quite unknown to me and 
is a trade secret. he cement its«lf can be obtained from Mr. 
Thos. Bolton, 25 Balsall Heath Road, Birmingham.—Cuas. F. 
RovussELET, F.R.M.S.,in “Journal of the Queckett Micros. 
Club.” 


Technique for the Examination of Skin Bacteria.—The 
important work done by Unna inthe development of measures 
for the study of the bacteria of the skin in pathological condi- 
tions, has thrown great light upon the etiology of various der- 
mal affections, the causes of which were formerly very obscure. 
Previous to the improvements made by Unna, iodine and vari- 
ous decolorizing solutions wereemployed. The method recom- 
mended by Unna is termed by him the “para rose-aniline-iodine 
method.” The difficulty formerly experienced was in remoy- 
ing the iodine coloring matter without decolorizing the microbe. 
An advantage was found in using a mixture of aniline oil with 
acid pigments, instead of aniline oil alone. Unna prefers orange 
eocene and picric acid. By the aid of this method it is possi- 
ble to obtain and decolorize masses of dermal structures and 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL 35 


crusts without decolorizing the micro-organisms which they 
contain, so that is possible to demonstrate the organisms in 
situ, thus showing their mode of growth, and thus to study the 
natural cultures of these germs. This method of investigation 
is particularly adapted to such diseases as eczema, psoriasis, 
pityriasis, versicola, eryphema, impetigo, etc. 

The details of the method are as follows: Place a piece of 
zine plaster upon the portion of the skin to be examined, press- 
ing gently with the hand for a few minutes. When the plaster 
is removed, a portion of the diseased product will be found ad- 
hering to it, and with the various structures remaining in their 
normal relations to each other. A bit of plaster with the speci- 
men adhering to it may be dried and laid aside for future ex- 
amination, or may be examined at once, being first placed in a 
bath of benzine, by which the specimen is separated from the 
plaster, and, as is floats away, may be easily removed with a 
few particles of zinc adhering. These are removed by immers- 
ing the specimen in absolute alcohol acidulated with hydro- 
chloric acid. When the particles of zinc have been wholly dis- 
solved, the specimen is transferred to water, in whichit swells 
up and becomes capable of absorbing the coloring matters. 

Placing the specimen upon an object carrier, the particles are 
first covered with a solution of gentian violet dropped upon it 
with a glass rod. The geutian violet is made by adding to 
twenty minims of alcoholic solution of gentian violet ten min- 
ims of ammoniated lime water. In fifteen or twenty minutes 
the staining is completed,. when the excess of fluid is removed 
by means of blotting-paper, and the specimen is dried. 

Next apply a few drops of a solution consisting of equal parts 
of a five per cent solution of iodine of potash and peroxide of 
hydrogen for two or three minutes. Dry the section with blot- 
ting-paper, cover with an aniline mixture,—either picro-aniline 
or eocene-aniline, and watch the decolorizing process as it 
slowly progresses. At least two hours will be required to com- 
plete the decolorization ; a longer time does no harm. If but 
asmall quantity of the acid is added to the aniline mixture, the 
specimen may with advantage be left in the solution over night. 
Clear specimens are obtained in this way. Unna recommends 
the following formule :— 


36 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY > [Jan. 


Aniline oil, 10.0 
Picro-aniline solution, 0.001 
Aniline oil, 10.0 
Eocene-aniline solution, 0.201 


If any part of the preparation acquires too strong a yellow or 
red color, this may be removed by immersion for half an hour 
in pure aniline. 

A completely decolorized background facilitates an examina- 
tion of the micro-organism. Ifit is desirable to examinea 
specimen of leucocytes, the staining should be preceded by im- 
mersion in carmine or hematoxylin solution. If a diffuse 
counterstain is desired, the specimen should, first of all, be im- 
mersed in an aqua solution of eocene. The eocene coloration 
disappears during the violet staining process, but reappears 
after treatment with picro-aniline or eocene-aniline solution. 

This stain does not work well in crusts thicker than a visit- 
ing card. Masses thicker than this should be cut in flat sec- 
tions. Sections are made by placing the air-dried crusts in a 
block of wood and covering with dilute celloidine. A ‘ter fifteen 
minutes the whole is immersed in six per cent alcohol for 
fifteen minutes, and is then ready for cutting. The staining is 
then done without dissolving the celloidine. 

Ifa leucocyte nucleus stain is first employed, the sections 
should be immersed for five minutes in Grubler’s picro-coch- 
ineal solution, and then thoroughly rinsed in water to remove 
the excess of picric acid before employing the bacteria stain. 
Sections of hair, comedones, warts, hypertrophied skin, and all 
horny tissues may be examined for micro-organisms by this 
same method.—Modern Medicine. 


Micro-photographic Drawings.—Unna, the eminent der- 
matologist of Hamburg, suggested in 1892 a method of making 
reproductions of micro-organisms which is much superior to 
the ordinary methods of either drawing or photography, com- 
bining the accuracy of the latter with the clearness and com- 
prehensiveness of the former. The method is as follows : 

From properly stained specimens negatives are made. From 
these negatives light prints are made in soft paper, upon which 
it is possible to either draw or paint without further prepara- 
tion. The photographs thus obtained give only the outlines of 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL 37 


the object or a skeleton of the picture which it is intended to 
produce. By the aid of the micrometer screen of the micros- 
cope, the appearance presented in the several strata of the spec- 
imen may be easily sketched in by an artist. A more com- 
plete picture may be reproduced by the half-tone process, and 
thus better results obtained than are possible by either drawing 
or photography alone.—Modern Medicine. 


BIOLOGICAL NOTES. 


An Atlas of Nerve Cells, By M. Allen Starr, M. D., Ph.D., is 
in press. It is the object of this atlas to present to students 
and teachers of histology a series of photographs showing the 
appearance of the cells which form the central nervous system, 
as seen under the microscope. These photographs have been 
made possible by the use of the method of staining invented by 
Professor Camillo Goigi of Turin. This method has revealed 
many facts hitherto unknown, and has given a conception of 
the structure and connections of the nerve cells both novel and 
important. In the light of these facts, it has been necessary to 
discard many of the views previously taught by anatomists, 
and to revise some of the physiological and pathological data 
supposed to be fundamental. 

The nervous system is now known to be composed of a vast 
number of independent units, called newrons, which consists of 
a cell body with two varieties of branches, called dendrites and 
neuraxons. The cell bodies vary in size, shape, and appearance ; 
their dendrites, formerly known as protoplasmic processes, pre- 
sent great differences in fourm, length, and manner of subdivis- 
ion; their neuraxons, formerly called axis cylinder processes, 
and believed to have no branches, are now known to give off 
many little collateral offshoots as important as the main trunk. 

The arrangements of these neurons varies greatly in different 
parts of the nervous system. In the spinal cord they are col- 
lected into groups arranged in a long cylindrical column. In 
the cerebral axis they are scattered among the various nerve 
tracts as well as collected into separate groups. In the basal 
ganglia they are gathered into large masses separable into divis- 


38 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Jan. 


ions. In the cortex of the cerebrum and cerebellum they are 
spread out into thin but very extensive layers containing a 
great variety of cells. The inter-relations of these neurons is 
also a subject of importance which recent researches have dem- 
onstrated satisfactorily for the first time. The old theory that 
the processes of adjacent cells join together, forming everywhere 
a fine network of nerve fibres within the gray matter, has been 
discarded. For the method of Golgi has shown that each celi 
is an independent entity, its branches and sub-branches of both 
varieties preserving their identity from origin to ending, inter- 
lacing, it may be, with those of other cells, as the branches of 
trees in a forest may interlace, but as really distinct and sepa- 
rable from each other as are those trees with their twigs and 
leaves. 


Examination of ‘‘ Foul’’ Sea Water.—Stroke and deep 
inoculations were made in agar and gelatine tubes, and kept at 
19-20° C., at which temperature all the following observations 
were made. The growths were all erobic, being visible along 
the stroke in 24 hours faintly. The organisms were found to 
be mixed, and plate cultivations on gelatine for purposes of 
isolation were made in the usual way. After several transfers 
from plates to tubes, and from tubes to plates, isolation was 
effected. ‘Two kinds were occasional, and probably adventitious. 
Three kinds were persistent. 

The two occasional kinds were :— 

1. A straight rod, motile during the first day, rapidly liquefy- 
ing gelatine; soon becoming motionless, and breaking up into 
spores, with a putrid smell. 

2. Small round organisms, motile to some extent, with a move- 
ment like Brownian movement, breaking up into spores, and 
liquefying gelatine rapidly, with a putrid smell. 

These were not observed further. 

The three persistent kinds were all rounded bodies, of which 
tube cultivations on agar are produced. They all liquefy gela- 
tine slowly. The tubes are marked respectively “Star,” “White,” 
and ‘* Yellow.” 

No. 1, “Star,” cultivated on a plate at 19-20°. 

In 24 hours showed no visible growth. In 36 hours there ap- 
peared numerous whitish spots, plainly visible under a 1 in. 


1896. ] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL 39 


glass. In two-and-a-half days the spots were visible to the nak- 
ed eye, and in three days these had developed into star-shaped 
colonies; whitish, and so far without perceptibly liquefying the 
medium. 

The colonies at first grow from one or two round organisms, 
which increase irregularly by budding. They are about 1-7000 
in. in diameter, some as large as 1-5000. Assoon as these are 
numerous enough to form a crowded cluster of perhaps 20 to 30, 
the colony throws out numerous arms of hyaline matter rad- 
ially, and these keep on increasing in length. Along thearms 
appear many (say a dozen or two) nuclear spots, not at regular 
intervals or in regular lines, but here and there, sometimes two 
or more side by side, and distributed in the direction of the 
length of the arm. These nuclei grow into round bodies like 
the parent, and of the same size, then arrange themselves grad- 
ually in the direction ofthe length of the arm or ray, and finally, 
as the medium liquefies, after about five or six days, or less, 
separate. 

Neither in the resulting nor any other liquid medium have I 
seen the star-shaped colony. In liquid the organisms divide ir- 
regularly by fission or external budding, and in a few hours 
break up into masses of minute spores. This organism is at no 
time motile, and except in the case of the radial processes above 
described, retains, as an individual, its rounded form. 

No. 2“ White”) These are not visible on the plate for about 

No. 3 “Yellow” } 36 hours. The colonies then appear as white 
or yellow rounded (sometimes kidney-shaped) spots, which 
gradually increase in size. In some of them the edge is definitely 
marked by a surrounding ring of organisms, packed closely 
and regularly. In others the edge shows no such bounding 
ring, and isfissured. These do not break up, are not confluent, 
and consist of masses of extremely minute rounded bodies. On 
being placed in a liquid medium they multiply rapidly and ir- 
regularly. 

These two kinds are so similar, except in color, and the dif- 
ference in color is so slight in the earlier stages of growth, that 
it is not easy, especially by artificial light, to distinguish them. 
They are non-motile, zrobic, and liquefy gelatine but slowly. 

A temporary absence during the growth on the plates when I 


40 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Jan. 


had at last got them separated prevented my being ready with 
more than the above very incomplete observations as to these 
last two kinds. They are now, as will be seen, well differenti- 
ated in the tubes shown, and are ready for further investigation. 

The hanging drop cultures, one of each of the three kinds 
shown herewith, are taken from the respective tubes, and are 
about 24 hours old. ‘ 

The media have all been slightly alkaline. Trials were made 
on agar and gelatine media, in which fish was used instead of 
meat, but without any difference in the result—WALTER P. 
SHADBOLT in “ Journal of the Queckett Micros. Club.” 


BACTERIOLOGY. 


Staining Bacillus Tuberculosis in Milk.—While milk is 
one of the most common sources of infection in typhoid and 
tuberculosis, from its composition, unfortunately, it is very dif- 
ficult to demonstrate the presence of these micro-organisms in 
any given sample. May’s process of precipitation of the casein 
is very unsatisfactory, and in lieu thereof a writer in the Moni- 
tore de Farmacisti suggests saponification of the fat globules by 
the following process: A drop of milk is placed on a glass slip 
and two or three times its volume of a 1-per-cent solution of 
sodium carbonate is added, and the fluids mixed with the aid 
of a plantinum wire. The slip is then cautiously held over the 
flame of an alcohol lamp and the liquid slowly evaporated to 
dryness. During the evaporation the butter particles are sap- 
onified, leaving a thin layer of dessicated soap on the slip. 
The subsequent treatment is identical with the-usual process 
(staining with fuchsin, etc.). Rapid coloration with intense so- 
lutions is preferable to the slower methods. 


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A, CLIFFORD MERCER. 


THE AMERICAN 


MONTHLY 


MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 


Vou. XVII FEBRUARY, 1896. No. 2. 


Professor Alfred Clifford Mercer, M. D., F. R. M. S. 
PRESIDENT OF THE AMERICAN MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY. 


WITH FRONTISPIECE. 

It is a source of congratulation that the JOURNAL is 
able to present its readers with the portrait and a 
biographical sketch of the President of the American 
Microscopical Society, Professor Alfred Clifford Mercer, 
M. D., F. R. M. 8. He was born in Syracuse, N. Y., 
July 5,1855. His father, Dr. Alfred Mercer, was, so 
far as is known, the first physician to use the microscope 
professionally in central New York. The old Spencer 
stand with its beautiful and well preserved objectives, 
made about 1863, still serves its owner for the office study 
of pathological fluids. Thus surrounded by the micro- 
scopical influences of his father’s office,enjoying the 
acquaintance of the famous optican, Charles A. Spencer, 
and Spencer’s Syracuse friend, Willard Twitchell, it was 
only natural that very early there was awakened in the 
boy the keenest interest in the microscope and its revel- 
ations. In the Syracuse high school in 1874 and 1875 an 
added interest in this and in photography developed 
under the practical] teaching of Dr. Walter A. Brownell. 
From this period may be dated Dr. Mercer’s career in 
photo-micrography, the first apparatus being constructed 
by Chas. A. Spencer after Mercer’s drawings. His inter- 
est in photo-micrography has never flagged and many 


42 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY (Feb. 


members of the American Microscopical Society feel un- 
der deep obligation to him for help and suggestion. He 
has not only used this beautiful art for scientific purposes 
but has made excellent use of it in demonstrating the 
truth of his conclusions in courts of justice. 

After receiving the degree of M. D. from the Syracuse 
University in 1878, he spent abont two and one-half 
years in St. Thomas Hospital and Medical School in Lon- 
don, England, where he was a pupil in pathology of Dr. 
W. S. Greenfield, now professor of pathology in the 
University of Edinburgh. After becoming assistant to 
Dr. Greenfield in the Brown Institution, Dr. Mercer cut 
and mounted the first sections of tuberculous joints 
studied in England and furnished the material described 
by Mr. John Croft in Vol. xxxii (1881) of the transac- 
tions of the Pathological Society of London. 

While in London he ‘became acquainted with Dr. 
Lionel S. Beale, and revised for him “Part V., On 
taking Photographs of Microscopic Objects” of his well 
known book, “How to work with the Microscope.” On 
Dr. Beale’s nomination he was made a fellow of the 
Royal Microscopical Society. He found a warm personal 
friend in the late Dr. John Matthews, editor of the second 
edition of the “Preparation and Mounting of Microscopi- 
cal Objects,” by Thomas Davis, and always recalls with 
gratitude the demonstration Mr. John EK. Ingpen gave 
him of the Abbe diffraction theory of microscopic vision. 
This was before the theory had become generally known 
to the microscopical world. 

During this period anda subsequent visit to London 
for professional study, Dr. Mercer had the good fortune 
to be brought in friendly relations with Dr. R. L. Maddox, 
Mr. E. M. Nelson and Mr. Andrew Pringle, England’s 
most skillful photo-micrographers. With a mind _pre- 
pared and open as was Dr. Mercer’s the association with 


1896.] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 43 


these masters of the photo-micrographic art could only 
be productive of good, and our own country has been the 
gainer thereby, for Dr. Mercer is most generous in freely 
giving. To Dr. Maddox, the discoverer of the present dry 
plate process in photography, he is indebted fora share 
of the suggestive, helpful and generous correspondence 
with which that Nestor of photomicrography has, for 
many years, favored his fellow workers on both sides of 
the Atlantic—with its warmth of friendship and stimulus 
to progressive work. . 

On returning to Syracuse in 1880, Dr. Mercer became 
instructor in histology and curator in the college of 
medicine of the Syracuse University; in 1884 he became 
lecturer in pathological histology and in 1886 he was 
appointed professoreof pathology. Several years later he 
resigned this professorship, but in 1894 accepted the 
chair of “Clinical Pediatrics’ which position he now 
holds, together with that of treasurer of the college 
and several appointments in the hospitals of Syracuse. 
He was health officer in his native.city for three years — 
(1883-1885) and edited the first three annual reports of 
the local board of health. He has been active in the 
practice of his profession and has prepared papers which 
find an honored place in the medical literature of the 
country. He has served in various positions of honor and 
trust in medical societies thus showing that he possesses 
the esteem and confidence of his professional brethren. 
While he fills an honored place in the medical profession 
and his main energy and work lie in that direction his 
interests are very broad, and he has a keen appreciation 
of the ultimate gain to medicine of the pursuit of pure 
science, although the connection may seem remote to 
those who cannot see the invisible threads that bind all 
truth into a harmonious whole. Hehas also a keen love 
of nature for her own sake, and while studyjng for his 


44 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Feb. 


degree in medicine took up the microscopical study of the 
mosses as a part of the work of the Syracuse Botanical 
Club, and later was elected an honorary member of that 
club. During the years 1882-84 he was president of the 
Microscopical Club of Central New York. He is a cor- 
responding member of the Rochester Academy of Sci- 
ences and is an active member of the Syracuse Camera 
Club. He became a member of the American Micros- 
copical Society under its earlier name (American Society 
of Microscopists) in 1882. Hehas attended the majority 
of the annual meetings since then, often as the writer 
well knows at considerable inconvenience. He has fur- 
nished articles to the Journal of the Royal Microscopi- 
cal Society and to photographic journals, and in nearly 
every volume of the proceedings of the society of which 
he is now president may be found one or more articles 
from his pen. The article in the proceedings for 1886 
‘‘Photo-micrograph versus Micro-photograph,” furnished 
the information on which the definitions of the words in 
the Century Dictionary and in Dr. G. M. Gould’s Illus- 
trated Dictionary of Medicine are founded. The Syra- 
cuse solid watch glass for microscopical purposes de- 
signed by him finally solved the problem of a watch 
glass for the microscopist and there is hardly a histolog- 
ical or microscopical laboratory in the country that does 
not count these watch glasses as an indispensable part of 
its equipment. 

From the above it is seen that the President of the 
American Microscopical Society has the esteem and con- 
fidence of the great Medical Profession, that his sympa- 
thies are broad, that he has been a friend and active 
member of the society for many years, and in entrusting 
him with its highest official position the society con- 
gratulates itself upon having a wise and earnest leader, 
a leader whose enthusiasm and willingness to work for 


1896. ] MICROS®OCPICAL JOURNAL 45 


the Society will guarantee that there shall be no decline, 
but that with the efficient aid of his fellow officers and 
the loyal support of the members, the Society will take 
another upward stride this year and more fully become 
than ever before what it was originally designed to be— 
a source of help and encouragement to both beginners 
and advanced workers with the microscope.—_S. H. G. 


Cicada Septendecim its Mouth Parts and Terminal Armor. 
J. D. HYATT. 
NEW ROCHELLE, N. vY. 


Member of the American Microscopical Society. 


The long subterranean life, and regular periodic ap- 
pearance of this insect, at intervals of exactly seventeen. 
years, are characteristics in themselves so remarkable in in- 
sect life, as to render the appearance of the so-called 
seventeen year locust a matter of special interest, and a 
careful microscopical: examination of the mechanism of 
some parts of its anatomy will reveal several features no 
less curious and interesting. 

The fact that it has been generally known as a locust 
has connected it in the popular mind with the destructive 
insect of that name, and upon the advent of the harmless 
Cicada, its appearance in such immense multitudes, is 
sure to create in the minds of the farming people apprehen- 
sions for the safety of their crops, and fruit-trees, and 
some of the newspapers, whose editors and reporters are 
more desirous of creating a sensation than of spreading a 
correct knowledge of entomology, contribute not a little 
toward increasing the alarm by publishing hearsay, or 
purely fictitious, accounts of ravages done. 

During the visit of the brood of 1894 some of the New 
York papers added a new sensation to the currént re- 
ports, respecting its alleged depredations upon fruit and 


46 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Feb. 


forest trees, by publishing circumstantial accounts of per- 
sons “fatally poisoned by the bite and sting of the seven- 
teen year locust.” 

Some eighteen years ago I became greatly interested 
in a study of the sting of the Honey Bee, the results of 
which were published in the Quarterly M1IckROSCOPICAL 
JOURNAL, and seeing these newspaper reports, I was 
naturally interested in making an examination of the 


armor by means of which the Cicada accomplished such 
alleged fatal effects. 

Cicada septendecim belongs to the natural order of in- 
sects called Hemiptera, which is not at all related to the 
destructive family of locusts, or grasshoppers, and its 
mouth parts are, in a general way, typical of the order to 
which it belongs, being drawn out into a long and ex- 
tremely slender stylet or sucking tube, enclosed nearly 
to its point in the broad labium. 


1896] . MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 47 


Figure 1 is a greatly enlarged view of the end of this 
labium or lip, with the projecting sete which constitute 
the sucking tube, and this as may be seen consists of four 
pieces, the two outer ones being curved nearly to the 
form of hooks, while the two intermediate pieces are 
straight and terminate in extremely sharp points. 

The two exterior pieces serve as hooks, or anchors 
which being inserted into the bark or leaf of a tree fur- 
nish a leverage for forcing in the two interior lancets, 
which together form a sucking tube through which the 
juices of plants, on which these insects are said to live 
may be drawn. 

Figure 2 represents a transverse section through the 
abium, as at the dotted line d, in fig. 1, and shows in 
what curious manner the four sete, which are grooved 
on the inner side, form a tube when held together by the 
Imuscular labium, which is wrapped closely around them. 
Sections of these four pieces as they appear when separ- 
ated, are shown below in the same figure. Hach of these 
has a minute tube through it, which would hardly seem 
to be of much use, considering the size of the insect, and 
its food requirements, for the main tube in the center is 
scarcely more than the one-thousandth of an inch in 
diameter, while the outer diameter of the whole four 
pieces constituting the stylet is exactly one-three- 
hundredth of aninch, or about the same as that of a rather 
fine human hair. 

How much injury might possibly be done by these in- 
sects during their short lives, by sucking the juices of 
plants through such minute tubes is, notwithstanding 
their great numbers, a question, but I have never been 


able to discover one in the act of feeding, although I 
watched great numbers of them, on cherry, pear and 


other trees, and was equally unable to discover any in- 
jury to the fruit or foliage of such trees later in the sea- 


48 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Feb. 


son. In fact I think they take very little, if any, food after 
reaching the winged state. 

The ovipositor is an instrument used by the female for 
making incisions in the twigs of trees in which to deposit 
her eggs. It is about three-tenths of an inch in length 
and is attached to the hinder extremity of the under side 
of the abdomen, and protected by lying in a longitudinal 
groove into which it fits like a surgical instrument in its 
case. It consists of three parts; two blades, furnished 
with saws at their extremity, where they are consider- 
ably enlarged and a central piece, called by some a sheath, 
but which is nearly enclosed by the two exterior saw- 
blades. The extremity of all three is shown in figure 3, 
which represents them as seen from the under, (outer) 
side, each saw blade carries on its inner side a tube, 
(oviduct), which opens on the inner side near the extrem- 
ity of the saw (0,0, figure 3) by a kind of flap through 
which the eggs are extruded. These saws are a micros- 
copical study, for while figure 3 fairly represents the ap- 
pearance on the under side, in which view the saw-teeth 
are seen to consist inwardly of a row of hooks pointing in a 
direction opposite the extremity, and laterally of rounded 
teeth with extremely sharp edges directed backward, or 
toward the end of the saw. If examined from the oppo- 
site side, the teeth resemble those of a file, arranged 
obliquely and spirally from a line along the center out- 
ward over the sides. When one of the ovipositors is 
detached, and a lateral view is taken, the same spiral ar- 
rangement of teeth is seen, with a set of sharp hooks on 
the outer side pointing in an opposite direction to the 
knife-edged teeth seen ‘in figure 3. 

In cutting a channel for her eggs the insect closes her 
legs around the twig and forcing the ovipositor saws be- 
neath the bark and into the soft sap wood, works them 
backwards and forwards, cutting loose but not removing 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 49 


the wood fiber. In doing this the broad end of the cen- 
tral piece which lies between the saws causes them to 
spread as they are extended, so that two grooves are cut 
at once, lying in a v shaped direction from the entrance, 
and leaving a ridge of solid wood between the two. After 
finishing the cut, which is about three-tenths of an 
inch in length, she withdraws the ovipositor, and again 
forcing it in at the first entrance proceeds to deposit her 
eggs, which are placed very symmetrically in a direction 
oblique to the middle partition, a little cavity being cut 
for each egg, into which it exactly fits. The eggs are 
about fifteen in number in each groove, and about fifteen 
minutes is occupied in the whole operation. 

When one set of grooves has been stocked with eggs, 
she moves forward about half an inch, and begins another 
and so continues until her whole stock of eggs is dis- 
posed of. | 

I have before me a branch containing twenty-one con- 
secutive cuts, evidently made by the same insect, and 
holding probably, more than 600 eggs. 

The extremely curious mechanism by means of which 
these processes are accomplished will be easily understood 
by inspecting figure 4, which is a transverse section of 
the three parts constituting the ovipositor, cut at the 
dotted line e. 

The central piece, &,a, would seem to bea pair of tubes 
somewhat triangular in shape, and firmly cemented to- 
gether in the middle. These cannot be separated, and 
the tubes have no outlet at the extremity, where the cen- 
tral piece ends in two, extremely hard, sharp and solid 
points, as seen in the figure, which no doubt serve an im- 
portant purpose in cutting the channels for the eggs. 

On each side are seen sections of the two ovipositors 
b,b, which are bounded on their exterior sides by a hard 
chitinous frame, extending for a short space up the in- 


50 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [ Feb. 


terior where it then thins out into a semi-transparent, 
muscular or contractile tissue, to its connection with the 
opposite side of the ovipositor, thus forming a tube 
through which the eggs are extruded. . 

Along each side of the middle piece extends a “T”’ 
shaped rail, better shown in figure 5, r; this figure being 
the same as 4 with the parts separated. 

While the insect is engaged in the act of sawing, the 
ovipositors slide backward and forward on these T shaped 
rails, being held in place and guided by the central piece 
or so-called sheath, which as shown in section is trussed 
in such a manner, that it might serve as a model of rigid- 
ity combined with lightness and strength. 

But the most unique feature of this beautiful piece of 
mechanism is shown in the pair of hooks seen in the upper 
part of figure 4,or more distinctly in figure 5,h, k, where 
they are separated. (This drawing is the same as part 
of figure 4 but in separating the parts on the slide they 
were turned over and thus reversed). 

In viewing these sections there is seen an outer branch 
h, figure 5, resembling a thumb which closes over the op- 
posing hook thus enabling it to maintain a firm hold. 

These hooks, as seen in section, are of course folds 
along the whole length of the ovipositors which enable 
the insect to hold these two margins together, or at will 
to separate them, as it must necessarily do in cutting the 
two diverging grooves. 

The figures here given were traced under the camera 
lucida, and shaded from their appearance under the mi- 
croscope. 

Should any amateur microscopist desire to test his 
skill at section-cutting, I would recommend him to try 
the mouth parts of a dry Cicada, and make a section that 
will leave all the parts in their natural position. 

From what I observed during the visit of the 1894 brood 


1896. } MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 51 


I suspect that there is a difference of habit in broods that 
appear in different years, or in different places. 

Harris states that the female, after depositing her eggs, 
goes back on the branch and saws it partly off, so that 
the leaves die and the end of the branch breaks off and 
soon drops to the ground, and I have in former years 
seen the same thing myself, but during this visit, although 
the woods near this place were swarming with them, and 
hardly a branch of any kind of deciduous tree could be 
found that was not filled with eggs, no dead leaves were 
to be seen except upon the beech the outer branches of 
which were so small that the numerous cuts nearly girdled 
them. There were certainly no cuts made across the 
branches below the eggs. 

Another curious circumstance connected with the ap- 
pearance of these insects of which I have not seen men- 
tion made, is the most remarkable unanimity with 
which they came forth from their underground residences. 

Is it possible that such an innumerable multitude, scat- 
tered over several square miles in extent, as in this vicin- 
ity, and living under varying conditions of food, tempera- 
ture, moisture, &c., for seventeen years, should reach the 
mature state and undergo their last metamorphosis on 
almost exactly thesame day, or do they have some system 
of uuderground telegraphy, or psychologic mind-reading 
by which there is a general understanding that all shall 
leave their subterranean abodes at once. Certain itis that 
in this neighborhood, on the 24th day of May, nobody 
had noticed their appearance, but on the 25th everybody 
knew they were here and the woods resounded with the 
music of their drums. 


Remember the meeting of the American Microscopical 
Society at Pittsburg. 


« 


52 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Feb. 


Fossil Marine Bacillariaceze on Long Island, N. Y. 
By ARTHUR M. EDWARDS, M. D. 
NEWARK, N. J. 


The occurrence of fossil marine Bacillariacew on Dong 
Island, N. Y., was looked for by Diatomists for a long time. 
Ever since they were found at Atlantic City, N. J., by 
L. Woolman they have been sought for on Staten Island, 
N. Y., and on Martha’s Vineyard, Mass., and at Coney 
Island, Long Island, N. Y., in vain. Three years ago I 
searched the sands of Coney Island and although an open- 
ing had been made to dig for the railroad, a soil was 
turned up which looked like the promised thing, but it 
was not Bacillarian. I kept a sharp lookout and when- 
ever I could went down there from where I resided, but 
openings were not made through the white siliceous sand 
of the islands and promentories of Long Island. I visited 
Staten Island several times always in search for the ‘“ In- 
fusorial earth.” It is true that at a place known as 
Folley’s on South Beach, Staten Island, N. Y., they were 
digging a dyke through the marsh. It was over two feet 
deep and I got the clay from the bottom and searched it 
by means of the microscope. It was Bacillarian but 
the forms in it were not marine enough to satisfy me. 
It was a grey mud and although it seemed lower than 
the Newark meadows, which I thought was raised coast, 
it did resemble the Infusorial earth I was in search of at 
New Haven. The blue clay from the bottom of the 
hollows was more promising but I placed it in the lower 
raised coast period, the Champlain (with a query). At 
Pamrapo, New York harbor, the mud was grey clay and 
seemed to be the same. Until this summer I have not 
found the fossil marine Bacillariacesx, the ‘“ Infusorial 
earth,” any farther North than Atlantic City, N. J. 
When building the tunnel that it is intended to counect 
Hoboken, N. J., with New York they came upon a grey 


1896.] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 53 


clay at thirty feet down. This was also marine but I 
put it in the Champlain, also. On Sunday the 11th of 
August, 1895, I went for wn outing down to Rockaway 
Beach, Long Island, N. Y. I had several things in view 
when doing so. Of course I wanted to get away from 
the heat of the city and visit the sea beach. The wild 
rush of water on the beach had a marked reason to draw 
me. But more powerful than any other, the desire to 
search for natural phenomena was uppermost in my mind. 
I knew we would go by rail through the country to the 
beach, through the marine of the ice period and perhaps 
we would search the soil beneath the sand for “Infusorial 
earth.” We sped along seeing a kettle-hole by the 
Lutheran cemetery that contained Bacillariacee but we 
did not stop then to gather the clay there. As we ap- 
proached the station known as Brooklyn Hills we cut 
through high hills which I saw then and afterwards 
made up of moraine, steep, mostly gravel with a white 
clay of about three feet thickness on top. This clay I 
recognized as belonging to the iceberg period the same as 
we had in New Jersey and on Manhattan Island and which 
makes the bottom of the glacial clay, Lacustrine sedimen- 
tary deposits of Diatomaceex. In this moraine I after- 
wards gotasmall, distinctly striated, boulder and near the 
bottom of the hill. About twelve feet from the bottom 
was a grey clay with Hematite nodules in it, Cretaceous 
clay no doubt. Then the country became flat without 
a hill at all, and sloping gradually down to the salt water 
which came into the station known as Aqueduct. ' Cre- 
taceous clay uuderlies the country here doubtless, but 
covered up by glacial moraine. At Aqueduct the railroad 
runs out on tressels to Rockaway, which is a sandy 
promentory pointing to the South and makes one of the 
islands or promentories which line the coast from Cape 
Cod, Mass., to Florida. They are known in Florida as 


54 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY (Feb. 


Keys the most southern of which is Key West. I wan- 
dered South on the promentory of Rockaway, but found 
nothing but white siliceous samd. They were not digging 
anywhere that I could find. I wandered North in the 
direction of Far Rockaway where the land became higher 
and was covered by the white “iceberg clay which evi- 
dently came from the Northwest. At Auverne they had 
been digging a ditch on the opposite side of the promen- 
tory to the Atlantic ocean, on Jamaica Bay. The digging 
was over six feet deep because I who am six feet tall, 
could not see over the top of the ditch. They had thrown 
out some iceberg clay and below that some greyish clay 
without any stones in it. I saw at once that it was dif- 
ferent in character from the soil in the marshes which I 
had learned belonged to the raised coast or Champlain 
period. I took some home and examined it and came to 
the conclusion it was perhaps Pliocene Tertiary belong- 
ing to the Neocene period. At last I had found what I 
wanted. We will find the Miocene if it exists there be- 
tween Auverne and Aqueduct and I mean to look for it. 
I cleaned some of the Pliocene clay and found the fol- 
lowing marine forms of Bacillariacee and Dictyocha, 
which are Radiolaria, in it. Some few forms escaped me 
but will be found hereafter. 
Achnanthes subsessilis, C. G. E. 
Actinocychus ehrenbergii, J. R. 
Actinoptychus undulatus, C. G. E. 
Auliscus celatus, J. W. B. 
ee pruinosus, J. W. B. 
s radiatus, J. W. B. 
Aulacodiscus germanicus, C. G. H. 
Amphora ovalis, F. T. K. 
Amphiprora elegans, W. S. 
cs navicularis, C. G. E. 
ee pulchra, J. W. B. 


1896.] | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL “53 


Biddulphia aurita, A. B. 
ae pulchella, G. 
-- rhombus, W.S. 
Cerataulus radiata, J. R. 
ib smithii, J. R. 
ss turgida, W. 8. 


Coscinodiscus asteromphalus, C. G. EH. 
a excentricus, C. G. E. 
ae subtilus, C. G. E. 
a lineatus, C. G. E. 
ae nodulorum, A. G. 
‘“ nitidus, W. G. 


Cocconeis scutellum, C. G. E. 
Cyclotella striata, F. T. K. 
Dicladia mitra, J. W. B. 
Doryphora amphiceros, F. J. K. 
Epithemia turgida, F. J. K. 

sé musculus, F. T. K. 
Eunotia monodon, C. G. E. 
Eunotiogramma amphioxys, C. G. E. 
Fragillaria pacifica, A. Z. G. 
Grammatophora marina, F. T. K. 
Hyalodiscus franklinii, C. G. E. 

i stelliger, J. W. B. 

Isthmia enervis, C. G. E. 
Melosira sulcata, C. G. E. 
Navicula clathrata, A. G. 

a didyma, C. G. E. 

ue elliptica, F. J. K. 

ee hennedii, W. 8. 

ae humerosa, A. B. 

s lacustris, W. S. 

u lata, A. B. 

ae peregrina, F. J. K. 

a permagna, J. W. B 

“6 viridis, C. G. E 


56 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Feb 


Nitzschia accuminata, W. S. 
¢ balanotis, A. G. 
as sigma, F. T. K. 
«* -tryblionella, H. 
Pleurosigma angulata, W. 8. 
a balticum, C. G. E. 
Pyxilla ? baltica, A. G. 
Pyxidicula compressa, J. W. B. 
Rhabdonema arcuatum, F. J. K. 
Roicosphenia curvata, F. T. K. 
Scoliopleura tumida, L. R. 
Schizonema foetida, J. E. S. 
Stauroneis aspera, C. G. E. 
es birostris,C. G. E. 
Stephanopyxis appendiculata, C. G. E. 
es turris, J. R. 
Surirella febigeri, F. W.-L. 
«* striatplay:B V; 
Synedra affinis, F. T. K. 
Terpsinoe americana, J. W. B. 
Triceratium alternans, J. W. B. 
ee favus, C. G. EH. 
ee maculatum, F. T. K. 
es punctatum, T. B. : 
These are all the Bacillariacex that I have detected up to 
this time. There are several forms of Dictyochaa genus 
of Radiolaria present also. And what I consider a new 
genus of Bacilliariacee which I have called Ancile radiata. 
It is free and found rarely in the salt water in Jamiaca 
Bay, Rockaway. But of this I shall speak hereafter. 
Mr. W. A. Terry says he has found broken fragments of 
a Brunia but this I myself have not seen, although com- 
mon in a deposit which I will also describe hereafter 
taken at fifteen feet from the surface at Hoboken, N. J. 
I, another day, visited Coney Island, N. Y., and searched 
for ‘‘Infusorial earth’? and this time was: fortunate 


1896. ] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 57 


enough to find it at Sheephead Bay which is a village 
just on the Long Island side of Coney Island Creek. It 
was a greyish colored clay one foot underneath the 
sand taken at low water about eight feet from the sur- 
face of the soil. 

At Canarsie Landing, which is on Jamaica Bay between 
Coney Island and Auverne, I did not find the “ Infusorial 
earth’ but I was there a very short time. I did find 
glacial phenomena and indication of the elevation of the 
coast but of those I shall not speak now as they are not 
microscopical. But the finding of the fossil marine 
Bacillariacew belonging to the Neocene period is a part. 
Perhaps they will be found inland on Long Island here- 
after. 


Radiolaria: A New Species from Barbados. 
REV. FRED’K. B. CARTER. 
MONTCLAIR, N. J. 


Amphirrhopalum bifidum, n. sp. 


Both arms equal, in the proximal part simple, in the 
distal part widely forked; distal end of each branch 
blunt (with terminal spine?.) Axis of the branches 
straight. 

Dimensions.—Radius of thearms 0.18; basal breadth 
0.11; breadth of the bifurcation 0.14. 


Habitat.—Fossil in the rocks of Barbadoes. 

This genus has not hitherto been discovered in Bar- 
bados, the definition of which is as follows: 

Porodiscida with two chambered arms, opposite in one 
axis, without a patagium; one arm or both forked at the 
distal end (Haeck.). The other known species, of which 
there are five, are from the Pacific and Indian Oceans. 

Thus far only one specimen of the new species has 


been observed and that, as shown in the drawing, is im- 


58 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Feb. 


perfect, a branch of one of the arms having been broken 
off. It is a question also whether the branches are 
armed with terminal spines, for two of the branches 
lack them, and while the third shows it in the drawing, 
in the original the end of the branch is covered by an- 
other radiolarian form which makes it difficult to decide 
whether what is seen isa spine on the end of the branch 


or a portion of the interior skeleton of the form which 
obscures it. Of all the species known this has the widest 
and by far the deepest fission of the two opposite arms. 
The finder of this form, who has thus added not only a 
new species to the genus but a new genus to the list of 
the genera from Barbabos, was Dr. O. H. Hubbard of 
Walpole, Mass. 


Radiolaria; a new Species from Barbados. 
HARRY J. SUTTON, 
PHILADELPHIA, PA. 
Pentinastrum irregulare, n. sp. 

Arms unequal; two slightly longer than the others, 
twice as long as broad, at their base two-fifths as broad 
as at their rounded distal end, which bears a terminal 
spine. | 

The diameter of the central disk is less than half the 
length of thearms. The angles between the arms are 


~ 


1896. ] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 59 


unequal and filled up by an incomplete patagium, with 
straight or slightly rounded edges, which extends to the 
middle of the broadest part of the distal ends. 


Dimensions.—Radius of longer arms (without termi- 


nal spine.) 0.15 m.m. 
Breadth at their base 0.03 ct 
Distal breadth 0.06292. 
Radius of central disk @:0ak5 4 


Habitat.—Fossil in the rocks of Barbados. 


Rhopalastrum(?) anomalum, n. sp. 


Distance between paired arms about nine-tenths (9-10) 
as large as their distance from the odd arm. All three 
arms wedge-shaped, gradually diminishing in breadth 
from base to the distal part; odd arm somewhat larger 
and broader at the base than the paired arms. In place 
of central disk, two parallel lobes surmounted by a sec- 


60 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Feb. 


ond globular joint which extends between the paired 
arms and bears a bristle-shaped spine. 


Dimensions :— 
Radius of the odd arm 0.17 m m. 
Radius of the paired arms 0.2 oes 
Basal breadth of the pairedarms 0.05 “< 
Distal breadth 0.03 “ 


Habitat:—Fossil in the rocks of Barbados. 


A duplicate of this form has been found by Rev. Fred. 
B. Carter and as his form is zdentical, it is hardly proba- 
ble that the second globular joint could be one of the 


Cyrtida accidentally embedded in the shell. The pres- 
ence of this appendage makes it doubtful if it belongs to 
the genus Rhopalastrum. If it does not belong to this 
eenus, not only is the species new, but the genus, is new 
to Barbados. 


1896.] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 61 


Radiolaria; a new Genus from Barbados. 
HARRY J. SUTTON. 
PHILADELPHIA, PA. 


Phacotriactis, n. gen. 


Definition.—Phacodiscida with double medullary shell, 
and with three radial spines on the margin of the disk, 
placed in the equatorial plain. 


Phacotriactis triangula, n. sp. 


Disk triangular with smooth surface and smooth margin 
about three times as broad as the outer medullary shell. 


Pores irregular, circular, 22 to 24 on the diameter of the 
disk. Three radial spines of equal size and equidistant. 
Spines conical, slightly furrowed and very short, being 


— 62 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Feb. 


prolongations of the corners of the shell, which form an 
equilateral triangle with slightly concave sides. 
Dimensions.—Diameter of disk (measured from base of 
spine to middle of opposite side) 0.21; of the outer 
medullary shell 0.06; of the inner 0.015; pores 0.005. 
Habitat.—Fossil in the rocks of Barbados. 


Radiolaria from Barbados: a Correction. 
REY. FREDERICK B. CARTER. 


MONTCLAIR, N. J. 


In the description of a new species of Pentinastrum in 
the January number of the JouRNAL there were several 
typographical errors. The name of the species should 
be Pentacephalum, not Putacephaleun, and U. SP. should 
be n. sp. (new species). Whereas the patagium is 
said to be “complete,” it should read ‘‘ incomplete.” 
And below, “regular pentagium”’ should be “ regular 
pentagon.” 

In the dimensions, the distal breadth should be 0.06, 
not 0.006. And the habitat should read, Fossil “ in,’ not 
“on,” the rocks of Barbados. 


Parrots Convey Pnuemonia.—Mention has been made of 
late regarding the spread in Paris of a mysterious disease which 
was supposed to have been communicated to human beings 
through some imported parrots. This disease has lately ap- 
peared at Versailles, and at Maisons Lafitte several deaths have 
occurred, not only among the purchasers of the contaminated 
birds, but among their neighbors who had been in contact with - 
them. M. Nocard has now made experiments with the wings 
of birds which died during the journey from Buenos Ayres to 
Havre; fragments of the humeral medulla were placed in a 
cultivation medium. The next day he detected the presence of 
a virulent microbe. Fowls, mice, guinea-pigs, and rabbits in- 
oculated with the microbe died in less than forty-eight hours. 
A parrot was infected and died from the contamination of wings 
placed in his cage.—Science Siftings. 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 63 


A New Method of Making and Finishing Wax-Cells. 


M. PFLAUM, 
PITTSBURGH, PA. 


Member of the American Microscopical Society. 


After several years’ testing, the following described 
method of making wax-cells has answered every demand, 
whether for fluid or dry mounting. 

So that the wax better adhere, a ring of asphalt (in 
benzole) cement, wider than the intended ring, is first 
drawn upon the slide. It is best to have such ringed 
slides in stock so that the asphalt has thoroughly set and 
seasoned. A mixture of wax and paraffin, in equal parts, 
is obtained by melting to a boil, and with it, upon the 
turn table, a cell drawn of whatever depth required, and 
immediately well covered with the asphalt cement, with 
special care to cover the inner and outer edges nearest 
the glass, so that the wax is enclosed on all sides by the 
cement. The paraffin hardening the wax, and the wax 
making the paraffin less brittle, make together a cell 
which will resist any change of temperature ; the asphalt 
is used as an additional precaution in that direction. 

Such cells, of various depths, should be kept on hand 
for thorough drying, the longer the better, to guard 
against any possible shrinkage; for which, however, there 
is in this cell very little danger. -For mounting, whether 
dry or fluid, the crest of the cell should be covered 
with a very thin ring of the same mixture of wax and 
paraffin, and the cover-glass firmly pressed down on it. 
Mounts in such cells, with glycerin as a medium, have 
proved of easy manipulation and in every respect satis- 
factory. 

After the cover-glass is in position, the following 
method of finishing the slide is recommended. 

As the wax-cell has been enclosed with a-~ benzole 
cement, the cover-glass should be fastened with a cement 


64 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Feb. 


having a different solvent. Shellac (in alcohol) serves this 
purpose best. This would finish the slide. If, however, 
it is desired to make the slide still more permanent, as 
an object of beauty, the following described process will 
well repay the additional labor. After the shellac has 
well dried, put on a ring of zine-white cement entirely 
enclosing the shellac, and, within a few minutes, before 
the zine has fully set, ring it with any color of King’s 
lacquer (I have tried no others) in any manner taste 
might direct. The lacquer unites with the zinc, and 
gives it the appearance of porcelain. Around the cover- 
glass, and around the cell on the slide, draw a ring of 
bronze paint. This will hide any defects in ringing and 
give the slide a very handsome appearance, with, after 
some practice, really little extra work. 


EDITORIAL. 


A Monument Proposed to Robert B. Tolles.—If we 
mistake not, an effort was made a few years ago by Mi- 
croscopists to collect some money for a monument but without 
much success. Much more recently amovement was started 
by Mr. Bohne in New Orleans but was shortly transferred to 
Boston as being amore suitable point from which to communi- 
cate with those interested. At the September meeting of the 
New England Association of Opticians, a committee which had 
been previously appointed, reported in favor of the project. After 
a discussion, the recommendations of the committee were 
adopted and in accordance therewith a permanent committee 
consisting of Messrs. A. G. Barber, A. G. McKenzie, B. V. Howe 
E. G. Worthley and W. J. Donovan was appointed to corres- 
pond with Opticians, Medical Practitioners, Microscopical Soci- 
ties and Optical Journals in the United States in the hope of 
receiving subscriptions. A small nnmber of subscriptions were 
taken at the same meeting. 

As expressing the sense of the association it was voted 
“That itis the sense of the New England Association of Opticians, 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 65 


that proper recognition ought to be made of the services of Rob- 
ert B. Tolles in the interest of optics and that a worthy monu- 
ment be erected to his memory by the Optical Fraternity not 
only of New England but throughout the country and that as 
an association and as individuals we pledge our assistance and 
support.” It was hoped that all opticians would join in this 
effort to erect a suitable monument over the grave in Mount 
Auburn Cemetery which is as yet unmarked by even a head- 
stone. 

Having received a subscription blank from the treasurer, Mr. 
B. V. Howe, of 106 Tremont street, Boston, we opened communi- 


cation with him and in reply he says: “I am very much 
pleased to learn that you take such interest in the matter. 
We are now considering the advisability of approaching the 
microscopists in a general way. Mr. Chas. X. Dalton who is 
the successor of Mr. Tolles in the optical business has issued 
circulars of appeal to many of his acquaintance in the Boston 
Microscopical Society.” 

Dr. Ephraim Cutter of New York has also distributed circu- 
lars among his acquaintances. He has offered to give a lecture 
in the town where Mr. Tolles was born in order to assist the 
project. He also is willing to lecture in Boston and exhibit 
the 1-75th objective. It is not supposed that money enough 


66 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Feb. 


to build the monument will be immediately forthcoming. The 
- committee think that their patience will last for several years 
if necessary. About 140 dollars are now in hand. 

We shall be pleased to hear from the microscopists regarding 
the matter and we sincerely trust that they will wish to partici- 
pate in the rhemorial. 


MICROSCOPICAL APPARATUS. 


W. Watson & Sons’ New ‘“‘ Parachromatic’’ Substage 
Condenser.—This condenser has a total aperture of 1.0 N. A. 
and has an extremely large Aplanatic Aperture, exceeding .90 
N. A. Its power is 2-7 in. and with the front lens removed 
4-10 in. It is mounted with Iris Diaphragm and Revolving 
Carrier for Stops for dark ground and oblique illumination. 
The Iris Diaphragm is divided so as to indicate the N. A. at 
which the condenser is employed. The diameter of the back 
lens is 5-8 in. Price complete $18.75. 


Aplanatic Magnifiers.—In addition to W. Watson & Sons’ 
well known regular series they are making Mr. E. M. Nelson’s 
new form, magnifying 15 diameters, which gives great working 
distance and large aperture. It is believed to be unequalled by 
any similar lens for working qualities. The price in German 
Silver mount pocket form is $3.87. For dissecting, in wooden 
box the price is $3.62. 


BIOLOGICAL NOTES. 


Objections to the Cell Theory.—Adam Sedgwick some 
time ago published a paper in the Quarterly Journal of Microscop- 
ical Science, in which he called attention to the apparent inade- 
quacy of the cell theory, and recent criticism of his position in 
the matter has induced him to state it more fully in the same 
publication. He holds with Sachs and others that the phenom- 
enon of cell formation is not of primary signifiance, but ‘merely 
one of the numerous expressions of the formative forces which 
reside in all matter.” ‘The cell theory asserts that the Metazoa 
are aggregations or colonies of individuals called cells, and de- 


1896.] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. OF 


rived from a single primitive individual—the ovum—by suc- 
cessive cell divisions ; that the meaning of this mode of origin 
is given by the evolution theory and that the development of 
the higher animals is a recapitulation of the development of the 
race. Mr. Sedgwick’s work, however, has led him to doubt the 
validity of this view of the Metazoon body, and he is inclined 
to attribute a number of errors in descriptions of embryonic 
processes to the dominating influence of the cell theory in its 
modern form. A theory which leads to obvious errors must, 
he thinks, be wrong, but he has not yet arrived at conclusions 
which enable him to formulate any satisfactory alternative 
hypothesis with regard to the meaning of the predominance of 
the structure called cellular. 

In reference to this matter it is pointed out in Natural Science 
that, in the older botanical text books, the plant unit is the 
“cell”—a cellulose chamber inclosing protoplasm and cell sap— 
an aggregation of such cells forming a tissue. According to 
modern ideas, however, the unit isa mass of protoplasm in 
which is embedded a nucleus. This unit or “energid” is the 
starting point of every plant. It may grow and divide repeat- 
edly without the separation of the resulting daughter units by 
partition walls, a large number of nuclei being embedded in a 
general mass of protoplasm contained within a common mem- 
brane, asin Vaucheria and Mucor. In Cladophora, again, incom- 
plete septation is illustrated, and where the completely septate 
form prevails, the protoplasmic units, though separated, are pro- 
bably not isolated by the cell walls. The cell has come to be 
regarded, then, as a mere inclosure of the protoplasm, necessi- 
tated by increase in size, differentiation and need for support. 
Modern attention is being more and more concentrated upon 
the necleus. Thus, whereas Weismann orginally spoke of “germ 
cells,” he now speaks of “germ plasma,” meaning by that nuc- 
lear matter ; and the continuation of the germ plasm means for 
him the continuity of nuclear matter, rather than the existence 
of a chain of cell division, of which the successive generations 
are pendants. Indeed, recent work generally seems to support 
Mr. Sedgwick “in attaching little importance to the frequent 
division of protoplasm into areas round nuclei, but increasing 
importance to the presence in so-called multi-cellular organisms 
of localized foci which multiply by division.”.—Am. Druggist. 


68 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Feb. 


The Microscopic Examination of Opium.—Dr. Mjoen 
(Ann. de Pharm. and B. and C.D.) has examined 60 samples 
of opium from the collections in the Pharmaceutical Institutes 
at Berne and Vienna. From a consideration of his results, he 
states that the microscope gives the means of determining 
the origin of the opium as far as Asia Minor, Persia or India are 
concerned. He gives the following characteristics of the various 
groups : 


1. Containing cellular debris Smyrna. 
of the epidermis of the peri- | Constantinople. 
carp of the fruit............... Salonica. 
No starch present............. | Cleremont. 
2. Complete absence of such 
epidermal debris ......... ..... | Pessia 
Much starch present ............. 


| Patna 
GeDRIS 5254s eens 
eeeeeeees Cees ee ee eese PERE EE ESE B 
No starch present.............++ eameuin [ 
Dietrich has examined 43 samples from the Institute at 


Vienna, seu the following results - 


- Absence of the epidermal { Malwa | 


‘suInIdG 
UvIpUy 


pecOoaEeS HeoOCO0dS 66000 9.0 ...13.0 per cent morphine. 

: Pvediosiecttone acces 4.0 .. 6.0 percent morphine. 

Bp el ease Rercnse sco: 0 AB...14,4 per cent morphine. 
BACTERIOLOGY. 


Ripening of Cheese.—Winkler has made some very care- 
ful studies of Duclaux’s species of Tyrothriz. He concludes that 
it is probable that peptonizing bacteria are the chief factors in 
the ripening of cheese, but in hard cheese lactic acid species are 
always more abundant. A probable explanation of this is that 
possibly peptonizing bacteria in cheese are changed from pep- 
tonizing to lactic acid, e. g., they have the power of developing 
lactic acid in a stronger degree. Some of the species of Tyro- 
thrix (7. tenwis) resemble potato bacillus. All are more or less 
peptonizing in milk. Butyric acid is only produced by a few. 
Milk sugar favors growth in most, but it appears to retard pep- 
tonizing. Duclaux’s specie of Tyrothrix are bacilli, often 
attaining considerable length, produce spores very readily and 
these can only be destroyed by heating for a short time between 
100-150° C. The paper is accompanied by two fine plates. 
(Centralblatt f. Bakt. u. Parasiten Runde, Zweite Abth. I. 618, 
657). 


1896. ] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 69 


Growth of Bacteria at Low Temperature.—It is a well 
known fact that many bacteria will retain their vitality at com- 
paratively low temperatures. Havemann however finds that a 
number_of micro-organisms are capable of growing at 7° C, 
Complete cessation of growth at this temperature occurs in 
Typhoid fever bacillus, Streptococcus Erysipelatis, and Spirillum 
cholera Asiaticae. A number of organisms in the soil are capa- 
ble of growing at 0° C (Centralblatt f. Bakt. u. Parasiten Runde, 
XVIII, 497.) 


Antitoxin Treatment.—Experiments with diptheria anti- 
toxins in both Europe and America continue to show favorable 
results. Dr. Paquin has “announced favorable results in treat- 
ing tuberculosis with antitoxin. Mr. Roger (Centralblatt f. 
Bakt. u. Parasiten Runde, XVIII, 637) has obtained most satis- 
factory results in treating patients suffering with puerperal 
fever and erysipelas by using streptococcus serum. Decided 
improvements occurred in patients a few hours after injection. 
Klemperer and Levy express themselves highly satisfied in the 
treatment of typhoid fever with a serum obtained from a dog, 
this animal showing a large amount of natural immunity. 
The dog received large amount of virulent culture and thus in- 
creased the potency of the serum. Experiments with guinea 
pigs and mice indicated favorable results. In doses of 5 ccm. 
one author’s showed no indications of poisoning. Five cases of 
typhoid fever were treated, the patients receiving 60 ccm. in- 
jected subcutaneously. All followed a mild course and _ re- 
covered. Treatment was made during the first week of the 
disease. (Centralblatt f. Bakt. u. Parasiten Runde, XVIII an, 
148.) 


MEDICAL MICROSCOPY. 


The Microscopic Diagnosis of Diphtheria by a New 
Staining-Method,—Dr. H. C. Crouch of Denver, Colo., says 
that diphtheria bacilli, as seen in preparations from cultures, 
vary in size, the larger ones particularly presenting character- 
istic features in the way of club-shaped ends and irregular stain- 
ing, but all forms showing a tendency to the alteration of deeply 
and lightly stained portions. In addition to this, and distinct 


70 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Feb. 


from it, are certain round or oyal bodies which may be made 
apparent by certain methods, the existence of which was 
brought to our attention by Babes, Neisser and Ernst. The 
method pursued by the last was to stain strongly with hot methy- 
lene blue, and follow with bismarck-brown. These bodies would 
be blue, the rest of the bacillus being brown. Dr. Crouch had 
been investigating the feasibility of employing this peculiarity 
of the diphtheria-bacillus to differentiate it from other bacilli 
found in the mouth, and witha degree of success beyond expec- 
tation. He had found, likewise, simpler methods of staining 
and peculiarities that he believed to have escaped attention 
hitherto. . 

If a fresh serum-cultureis stained momentarily with a one per 
cent solution of methyl-green, it is often possible to bring out 
these bodies without further treatment. Treated thus they pre- 
sent the appearance of reddish granules in a faintly green bacil- 
lus, usually one at each end. By staining with methyl-green 
more strongly and following with methylene-blue, bacillus with 
red dots resembling spores will be seen. These bodies have ap- 
parently a peculiar affinity for methyl-green, with which they 
enter into a chemical combination, resulting in change of 
color from green to red. Dr. Crouch had consequently em- 
ployed methyl-green for their detection. By adding other 
colors the penetration of the methyl-green may be increased, 
anda double stain obtained immediately. Dahlia had been 
found most useful, employed in the following proportions: 
One part of one per cent dahlia in water, five parts one per cent 
methyl-green, and four parts water. If either color predomin- 
ates in the stain too decidedly the other color is cautiously 
added until the desired result. as tested on the bacilli froma 
culture, is obtained. 

The stain works instantaneously, and if too deep the effect is 
not obtained. In such a case the cover-glass may be treated 
quickly with bismarck-brown, which replaces the dahlia in the 
body of the bacillus, leaving the bodies described standing out — 
in contrast. Dr. Crouch had tested this method in a large 
number of cases during the last six or eight months, and had 
never failed to find the result of the culture positive when he 
found these forms present in the cover-glass examination. In 
one case in which he had diagnosticated diphtheria the first cul- 


1896.] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 71 


~ ture was unsuccessful, but the second culture confirmed the diag- 
nosis, which fact seemed to indicate that the direct examination 
should always have its place in addition to the culture. 

These bodies are not considered to have any connection with 
spores, in spite of their superficial resemblance. They are 
found in the greatest numbers in young, freshly growing cultures 
and are much less abundant in older cultures. They may be 
readily detected in cultures only a few hours old, and thus made 
use of to confirm a diagnosis earlier than the full development of 
the culture. That they are not degenerative forms is evident 
from the same considerations. Dr. Crouch inclines to attribute 
a nuclear nature to them, and proposes the name _ nucleoid 
bodies. They are evidently connected with the active growth 
and are absent in the resting-forms, suggesting thus the resem- 
blance with indirect cell-division. Being particularly abundant 
during the earlier and more rapid growth, they are readily 
found in the earlier stages of the disease, and from the ease 
with which they may be brought out, they acquire a very great 
practical importance in the microscopic diagnosis of diph- 
theria.—American Druggist. 


MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETIES. 


Queckett Microscopical Club.—The 828th ordinary meet- 
ing of thisclub was held on Friday, Jan. 17th, at 20 Hanover- 
square, W., Mr. E. M. Nelson, F. R. M.8., president, in the 
chair. The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and 
confirmed, and other formal business gone through. The Sec- 
retary gave notice of a proposed revision of Rule 7, which 
would be submitted at the next annual general meeting. The 
list of nominations for president and officers for the ensuing 
year, as made by the committee, was read as follow:—President, 
Mr. J. G. Waller, F.S. A.; vice-presidents, Mr. Nelson, F. R. 
M.58., Dr. Dallinger, F. R.S., Mr. Michael, Pres. R. M.S., Mr. 
K. T. Newton, F. R.S. The other officers as before, and as 
auditors of accounts, Messrs. W. 1. Chapman and J. Mason 
Allen. To fill four vacancies on the committee, Messrs. Hem- 
bry, Ingpen, Western, and Scourfield were nominated by the 
members. 


72 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Feb. 


Mr. T. Charters White gave an exhibition with the lantern of 
a large number of photographic slides, taken by himself, and 
including a wide range of subjects. At its conclusion, a very 
cordial vote of thanks was passed to Mr. White for his display. _ 

The usual announcements were then made, and the proceed- 
ings terminated. The annual meeting for the elections, presi- 
dent’s address, and other business will be held on Friday, Feb. 
21st. 


LETTERS TO THE EDITOR. 


The Robert B. Tolles Monument.—The New England - 
Association of Opticians has appointed a committee with the 
view to having a petrous memorial erected to Robert B. Tolles. 
He lies buired at Mount Auburn, Cambridge, Mass., monument- 
less. The committee thinks that $500.00 will suffice. $150.00 
have been subscribed. Small donations of $1.00 are acceptable. 

In their opinion, a man who soe honored as optician, his pro- 
fession, his birth place, his country and his age, deserves a re- 
membrancer which shall serve as a stimulus to those who come 
after him, to go and do likewise. It is desired to respectfully 
call the attention of microscopists in their associated and indi- 
vidual capacities to co-operate in this worthy work. If thought 
advisable microscopical soirees might be held to collect funds 
for the Tolles monument. Knowledge which can be acquired 
in no other way can be imparted and made to yield an equiv- 
alent for this purpose. 

Increased interest can be excited in the instruments of pre- 
cision which are the delightful and inspiring means whereby 
human beings become more intimately acquainted with the 
surprisingly beautiful environments which the creator has 
placed around them. These efforts may do something to 
hasten the time when microscopes shall become as common 
as pianos and organs. The microscope is as much an instru- 
ment of eye music as pianos are of ear music. Such a soiree 
is now comtemplated to be held in Boston. 

I write by request of the Committee, whose treasurer is Mr. 
B. V. Howe, 106 Tremont street, Boston. Ephraim Cutter. 

120 Broadway, New York, Feb. 24th, 1896. 


Lier at 
oe Nate 


CSeRS0SE0CECC 
pasmocseaay a) 


WAG 


SYMBIOSIS; OR, PARTNERSHIPS IN PLANT LIFE. 


THE AMERICAN 


MONTHLY 


MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 


Vou. XVII. . MARCH, 1806. No. 3. 


Symbiosis: or, Partnerships in Plant-Life. 
BY PROFESSOR WEISS. 
WITH FRONTISPIECE. 


From Proceedings Manchester Microscopical Society. 


So much has been said and written about the keen com- 
petition of plants and animals in the great struggle for 
existence that we are apt to picture the organic world as 
a huge battlefield in which each individual is waging 
war against the rest of the organic world. There is no 
doubt some truth in such a view as this, still it repre- 
sents anything but the whole truth. The struggle for 
existence, we are told, grows more and more pronounced 
the closer allied the organisms are. In animals of the 
same species therefore, competition should be most pro- 
nounced; yet that is not always the case, for we find that 
many species are of gregarious habit, a habit which 
would be detrimental where struggle for existence is 


LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 


(1) Portion of stem of Cecropia showing (4) Root of a tree affected by a micorhiza, 


hollow stem which is imhabited by and thus curiously altered in shape. 
ants, and aperture (a) through which (5) Threads of micorhiza (m) making their 
they make their entrance, ( /) triangular way in between the epidermis cells (e) 
patch bearing the food bodies. of a root. 

(2) Section of a lichen showing the algal (6) Root of a leguminous plant with root 
cells (2) which are surrounded by the tubercules. 
threads of the fungus (/). (7) Bacteroids from a root-tubercle. 

(3) Fungal threads of a lichen (f) capturing (8) Bacterium vermiforme of the ginger- 
algal cells (a) for the formation of a beer plant. 
new lichen-cell. (9) Saccharomyces py1iformis of the ginger- 


(2and 3) After Sachs. beer plant. 


74 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Mar ch 


very keen. We know of instances in almost every group 
of animals, where some dominating instinct will keep 
animals together in thousands and even millions, although 
separately they would have much more chance of ob- 
taining their proper food supply. I need only remind 
you for a moment of the flights of locusts, the shoals of 
herrings and mackerels, and the armies of lemmings 
travelling enormous distances in search of food. 

Again, in others the instinct of preservation of the spe- 
cles seems to be stronger than the instinct of self-preser- 
vation, and we find communities organized, chiefly among 
the insects; here the life of the individual is sunk in 
favor of the life of the community, and, as in the case 
of the bees, the workers will toil and die in the service 
of their queen. But indeed in all gregarious animals the 
instinct of mutual aid is often developed out of the 
instinct of self-preservation, for they have learnt that 
united they stand while divided they fall, and so danger 
is often averted by a combined assault on the enemy. 

Such instincts, however, we cannot look for in the un- 
reasoning vegetable kingdom, or even in the lower clas- 
ses of the animals in which no central nervous system 
has as yet been evolved, and still some most remarkable 
instances of collective life are found in some of these 
eroups. What for instance are we to think of the ap- 
parent unity of impulse and life of such a compound 
Ascidian as Pyrosoma, or ofa polyzoon like Cristatella, 
and finally how are we to look upon a compound hydro- 
zoon like Physophora, in which each individual or person 
has a different function assigned to it? Must we look 
upon these as single individuals, or as a number associa- 
ted together as it were in partnership, sharing the profits 
made by the whole number? 

Partnerships they may be called, but the partnerships 
which I wish to speak about are of a different nature, for 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL 75 


they are partnerships formed, not between individuals of 
the same species as in the cases previously mentioned, 
but between organisms of the most diverse kinds associa- 
ted together for defensive or profit-sharing purposes. 

In the animal kingdom one of the most remarkable, 
and perhaps the best known example, is the association 
of a sea-anemone with a hermit-crab, a defensive alliance 
of as great an importance as the Triple Alliance itself. 

The hermit-crab (Pagurus striatus) carries generally 
on its back, or rather on the whelk-shell which it inhab- 
its, three or four large anemones (Adamsia rondeletii). 
It would seem at first a great kindness on the part of 
the crab to carry about these bulky and helpless individ- 
uals, but the soft-bodied hermit-crab is very glad of an 
additional protection to the old whelk-shell, and the 
anemones, though so soft-bodied and apparently de- 
fenceless, are provided with most formidable organs of 
defence, in the form of stinging-cells, with which they, 
like the jelly-fish, keep most foes at bay, and when located 
on the back of the hermit’s shell they serve to keep its 
enemies too at a distance. In return for this service the 
anemone receives a distinct benefit in being taken about 
to new feeding grounds, and, as it is exceedingly vora- 
cious, it is delighted to be carried in search of its prey. 
So both parties are pleased; the hermit-crab to so great 
an extent that, when it moves into a larger shell, it care- 
fully detaches, by gentle and persuasive pressure of its 
claws, the sea-anemone from the old shell and plants 
it on the new abode. 

Here then we have a partnership between two individ- 
uals of the animal world, a partnership which is of very 
common occurrence. It willseem perhaps strange to you 
to imagine such a defensive league formed between a 
plant and an animal, and yet a number of such asso- 
clations are known. 


76 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [March 


Take, for instance, the large group of myrmecophilous, 
that is, ant-loving plants. Here we find bushes and trees 
harboring armies of ants, which they not only feed with 
nectar secreted by various organs, but which they house 
in convenient cavities within their tissues. In the cu- 
rious trumpet-tree of the West Indies and tropical Amer- 
ica (Cecropia adenopus) each hollow node of the stem 
forms a chamber in which a number of these honey-lov- 
ing ants make their nest, a small aperture at the side of 
the tree giving them free access to this chamber. This 
aperture, however, is not formed by the plant, it is only 
indicated to the ants by a slight depression, a special 
thin portion of the wall, through which the ants eat their 
way into the hollow stem. Thus the plant is preserved 
from giving shelter to insects which might misuse the 
hospitality of the plant. The honey-loving ants alone 
are taught by some curious “instinct” that a chamber 
exists for their reception, and thence they make their 
way. (Fig. 1.) 

At the base of the leaf-stalk will be seen a curious tri- 
angular fleshy-looking patch, which is found to produce 
numberless small food-containing bodies, which are, in 
fact, the inducement held out to the ants to take up 
their residence in the hollows of the tree. At first sight 
it would seem as if all the advantages to be gained were 
on the side of the ants, and we are inclined to ask, what 
advantage can there be to the tree to entertain and 
feed these armies of insects? We look eagerly for some 
advantage, for we have been taught by all our observa- 
tions that in plants at least there is no spark of altruism, 
and that whatever they do they do with a view to bene- 
fiting themselves. It was the careful observations of 
Belt and Fritz Miiller on the living trees which led to 
the solution of this curious problem. It is well known 
that in tropical countries the leaf-eating ants are per- 


1 896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL 77 


haps the greatest scourge to vegetation, and an army of 
these will destroy in a single night the entire foliage of 
a tree. Now any such attack upon a trumpet-tree rouses, 
not only the anger of the honey-eating ants which are 
being fed at its expense, but calls forth their instinct of 
self-preservation, for upon the welfare of their host plant 
depends their own life. Hence they constitute them- 
selves a defending force, and in the fight between the 
,wo armies of ants which ensues, they are generally vic- 
torious, perhaps because they are fighting for house and 
home, while the intruders have only come for plunder. 
The mutual advantage then is clearly established by 
the observation of these spirited encounters, and we have 
here an explanation for many of those nectaries which 
are found, not inside the flowers, but on leaves and leaf- 
stalks, and have hence been termed extra-floral nectaries. 
But the trumpet-tree is not the only tree supplied 
with ants; many acacias allow ants to make their home 
in their hollow spines, which are found at the base of the 
leaf, and are indeed the transformed stipules of those 
leaves. Myrmecodia again has the lower portion of its 
stem curiously swollen up, and in this dilated portion run 
large and intricate galleries, which are peopled with 
ants, enticed into these chambers and fed by the plant. 
Then we have curious instances in which, for a time at 
least, plants will give protection and food to an animal 
for some benefit derived from it, not in the form of pro- 
tection from attacks, but usually by securing the fertili- 
sation of its ovules. Fertilisation of plants by the agency 
of insects takes place to a large extent; the pollen of one 
flower is carried by insects, such as bees and moths, to 
the stigma of another flower, which is then said to be 
pollinated, and further changes in the pollen-grain lead 
to the fertilisation of the ovules contained within the 
ovary. Itis for the purpose of attracting these insect- 


78 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY | March 


agents of fertilisation that the plants lay themselves out 
to produce conspicuously-brilliant or sweetly-smelling 
flowers indicative of the honey which the insects will find 
there. In some few cases, however, the plants do 
not merely attract the passing insects, but they will 
give them temporary lodging, allowing indeed the eggs 
to hatch and the lave to develop within their ovary. 
These instances we must look upon as temporary sym- 
biosis. 

This is the case in the barren fig (Caprificus), in which 
a species of wasp habitually lays its eggs in the ovaries 
of the female flowers, which are situated at the base of 
a flask-shaped receptacle. In these infected ovaries the 
eggs are hatched, and the larve feed on the developing 
ovules, which, however, are killed by them. When the 
insect is fully developed and has attained the wing- 
bearing stage, it leaves the flask-shaped receptacle, but 
not without carrying away some pollen from the male 
flowers, which are situated near the mouth of the flask, 
and with which they fertilise the flowers of the next. 
So for the sake of some ovaries bearing fruit the others 
are sacrificed, and the mutual benefit satisfies the part- 
ners. 

In the edible fig no such breeding of wasps can take 
place, as the ovaries are better protected, and resist 
the attacks of the mother wasp. How then are their 
flowers fertilized? They cannot fertilize themselves, 
for the male and female flowers ripen at different 
times. Formerly it was thought that some mysterious 
influence passed from the barren fig to the edible fig, and 
hence branches of the former were hung up on the ordin- 
ary fig trees, an act which was termed caprification. | 

Now, however, we know that this mysterious influence 
is none other than the passage of wasps from the barren 
fig carrying pollen to the edible fig with intent to lay 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL 79 


their eggs in its ovaries, which intention is frustrated by 
the resistance of the ovary wall. 

A more curious instance still is that of the fertilisation 
of the flower of the Yucca, a large liliaceous plant by a 
small moth Yuccasella. This moth first lays some two 
or three eggs in the ovary of a flower, and then, with a 
special pretensile organ carried under its proboscis, 
fetches some pollen from the anthers and plasters it on 
the sticky stigma. The result is that the ovules are fer- 
tilised and increase rapidly in size, serving as food for 
the young larve. About twenty or more such ovules 
will be devoured, but as about 200 will ripen in all it is 
obvious that the plant is not by any means a loser by 
this transaction, and that ensuring fertilisation with the 
loss of a few ovules is better than risking the chances of 
not being fertilised at all. 

Now let us turn fora moment from partnerships in 
which plants are the chief or sleeping partners and ani- 
mals are the working partners, to a few instances in 
which the animal is chief partner, or practically the em- 
ployer, giving to the plant protection, and perhaps also a 
small amount of wages for work done. 

Most of you will know the fresh-water sponge, Spon- 
gilla, or perhaps even more may have seen the fresh- 
water polyp (Hydra viridis). Now both the fresh water 
sponge and the fresh-water polyp are colored green, 
not the same animal green color you find in the parrot’s 
feathers for instance, but a color of the same nature as 
that which you find in trees and grass, and which has 
been called chlorophyll or leaf-green. Now there is no 
reason whatever why animals should not possess this 
color, which is so useful to plants and enables them to 
live, so to speak, on air, that is to assimilate the carbon 
contained in the air; butI will not here enter into a dis- 
cussion on this point, nor dispnte the right of Euglena, 


80 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [March 


Protoccocus, or Volvox being considered as animals, but L 
will maintain, and I take my stand on the observations 
of very eminent botanists, that both in Spongilla and 
Hydra the green color which is present, is due to the 
symbiosis of small green alge with the sponge and polyp 
in question. In these two animals the green color is con- 
tained in the form of round green corpuscles. These 
green bodies were formerly looked upon as equivalent to 
the chlorophyll corpuscles of the flowering plants ; but it 
has recently been shown that they are surrounded by a 
vegetable cell wall, and finally Beyerinck was able after 
overcoming many difficulties, to cultivate them independ- 
ently, and has thus proved that they are in fact small 
green alge (to which he has given the name of Zoochlor 
ella) living within the cells of the sponge or polyp. The 
advantage to the animal is obvious. The small alge are 
able to form starch and hence sugar from the carbonic acid 
dissolved in the water, and this we know can transfuse 
through the cell wall of the alga into the animal body. 

The only advantage that can apparently accrue to the 
alge is the fixity of abode, an advantage one would not 
have considered very important to so small a plant which 
has so many free living allies. We cannot, however, at 
present, fathom all the desires of these small unicellular 
plants. 


In the case of some Turbellarians, according to Han- 
stein, the Zoochlorelle have undergone a degeneration 


and have lost their cell wall, so that they are now quite 
dependent on the animal and cannot be cultivated inde- 
pendently. 

A perfectly similar case tothe occurrence of green algex 
in Spongilla and Hydra we find if we leave the animal 
kingdom out of consideration altogether, and this points 
to the fact that these small green alge lend themselves 
very readily to such partnerships, or are very willing to 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 81 


do assimilatory work if they can insure a comfortable 
and secure abode. 

You all, I am sure, know that group of plants to 
which the name of lichens is given. Many of them form 
flat growths of various colors, covering rocks and tree 
trunks, others hang in festoons from the dead branches 
of firs, or form coral or moss-like growths upon the 
ground. The so-called cup moss, for instance, has really 
no affinities at all with mosses, but is a true lichen. But 
what then is a true lichen? Well a lichen is really a 
firm or partnership consisting of the working partner in 
the form of a green alga and a sleeping partner, who 
protects the alga by surrounding it with innumerable 
threads or hyphe, and these hyphe tell us that this 
second portion is of the nature of a fungus. 

That, indeed, is the case, and in a section taken through 
a portion of a lichen you will see the green algal cells 
lying imbedded in a mass of threads cut through in all 
directions, and representing the filaments or hyphe as 
they are called of the fungus. (Fig. 2). A fungus, as 
you see, is devoid of the green color or chlorophyll— 
the chlorophyll which enables all green plants to take a 
large amount of their nourishment—all the carbon they 
need in fact, from the atmosphere, and to build up with 
its help starch, which forms the starting point of other 
organic substances. Fungi therefore are unable to do 
this, and hence they lead either a saprophytic life, living 
on decaying organic matter, or a parastic life, preying on 
living animals or plants. 

In the group of the lichens however the fungus can- 
not actually be said to have taken to either of these 
forms of life. Here though the fungus makes use of the 
starch and sugar formed by the green algal cells, it does 
not in any way damage or destroy the alga, but lives 
peaceably together with it, fostering it in fact, for its 


82 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [March 


own existence depends on the welfare of the alga. The 
alga is not so completely overgrown as to keep out the 
light, which would of course render it perfectly useless, 
but is kept well lighted and is allowed to grow and mul- 
tiply, so that the fungus too may increase in size. 

I have no doubt some of you will ridicule the idea of 
calling this arrangement a partnership, especially as it 
is known that many of the different forms of alge which 
are constituents of various lichens can perfectly well 
lead an independent existence, and the advantage from 
the protection of the fungus would therefore seem to be 
amyth. Many might prefer to look upon the fungus as 
a tyrannical employer of labor, crushing the independ- 
ence of the working alge, and binding them, not with 
protective filaments, but with despotic chains. 

When reproductive cells are produced by such a fun- 
gus they capture their working partners, or shall we 
call them their slaves, by throwing out filaments, which 
finally entirely enclose the algal cells. (Fig. 3.) This 
is the beginning of the symbiosis, but once started the 
fungus generally takes care that it shall continue. 
Thus when the lichen gives off its vegetative spores it 
practically surrounds a few algal cells with hyphe 
and rounds the whole off into a spherical mass called a 
soredium, the enormous quantities of which in some 
lichens cover the growth with a powdery-looking sub- 
stance. 

Let us now take another case of symbiosis between a 
green plant and fungus. If you were to examine the 
rootlets of almost any of our trees, such as the oak or 
the beech, you would find them clothed in many places 
with a mass of white or glistening hyphe, so thickly sur- 
rounded in fact that the hyphe form a dense felt-work 
completely covering the rootlets, which usually become 
short and thick and tend to branch considerably. (Fig. 


1896. ] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 83 


4.) To this mass of hyphe the name of mycorhiza was 
given, and it was looked upon first as a parasite and then 
as a symbiotic fungus. Let us now look carefully at the 
conditions of growth and we shall then see that we are 
dealing with a case very different from that of the 
lichens. We have, it is true, a fungus associated with a 
green plant, but here a large green flowering plant, 
which would not let itself be entirely overcome by a 
small fungus. The fungus too lives under different con- 
ditions. Itis not growing on arid rocks or trees, but 
usually in decaying vegetable matter, the fallen leaves of 
the tree, which would enableit, as it is ofa saprophitic 
nature, to live independently. The flowering plants, on 
the other hand, cannot, as a rule, make use of decaying 
vegetable matter. They feed on organic salts, which they 
take up, dissolved in water, by their thin root hairs. 

In the cases however in which the roots are infested 
with a mycorhiza, they are so completely covered in, 
even up to the tip, that they develop no root hairs at 
all. How then can they absorb nutriment? Well, asa 
matter of fact, they may be said to be fed by the my- 
corhiza. On the outside of the felting formed by the 
fungus, numbers of hyph can be seen making their way 
in all directions among the decaying leaf-mould, and 
fixing themselves just like the root hairs of the tree would 
do to particles of the soil. On the inside, where the 
mycorhiza touches the root, the hyphx will be seen mak- 
ing their way between the epidermal cells, which should 
have grown out into root hairs. (Fig. 5.) These epider- 
mal cellsno doubt absorb food matter from the fungus 
which the latter, saprophyte that it is, has been able to 
obtain from the decaying mass of leaves. That this is the 
case, and that the trees really derive much nourishment 
from the mycorhiza, has been proved by experiments such 
as germinating beeches in pure leaf-mould, when the 


84 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [March 


seedlings soon perish, whereas those provided with my- 
corhiza willall thrive. Similarly by other experiments it 
has been proved that it is from the leaf-mould that the 
mycorhiza gains its food, and that mycorhiza is not 
formed if the plants are grown in sand watered with the 
substances used for the growth of the seedling. 

Here then we have exactly the reverse of what took 
place in the case of the lichens. Here the advantage 
would seem to be chiefly on the side of the green plant 
and not on the side of the fungus, which can itself derive 
all its nutriment from the surrounding soil, while the 
green plant would not be able to get much nourishment 
from this decaying vegetable mould. Indeed the seed- 
lings of oaks and beeches when they germinate in their 
natural conditions in the forest would all die if it were 
not for the mycorhiza which, until their roots have pene- 
trated the layers upon layers of dead leaves and have 
reached the soil proper, supplies them with all the nour- 
ishment they need. 

The yellow Bird’s Nest orchis (Monotropa) grows 
under exactly these conditions too, and its curious inter- 
lacing root system, which has often the appearance of a 
bird’s nest, is also covered with a mycorhiza. This my- 
corhiza nourishes it so efficiently that the Monotropa has 
been able to dispense with its green leaves entirely, and 
its stock is only covered with a number of yellow scales. 
This of course points also to its long standing association 
with a mycorhiza, for such an essential characteristic as 
chlorophyll is not readily lost in the evolution of a plant- 

It was the absence of the green color which had led 
to the supposition that Monotropha was parasitic on the 
roots of trees, whereas if parasitic at all, it is parasitic on 
a fungus. Butasit isthe mycorhiza which seeks out the 
Bird’s Nest orchis, we must assume that the fungus too 
derives some benefit from this association, though at pres- 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 85 


ent we cannot point out any distinct advantage which 
might be gained by this partnership. 

A number of bog and heath-growing plants illustrate 
a very interesting form of symbiosis, if itis rightly 
called so. The roots of such plants as the heather (Erica) 
and the crowberry (Empetrum), for example, have asso- 
ciated with them, in fact within their cells, the hyphe of 
a fungus, which we here also call mycorhiza, though it is 
as yet unknown to what fungus the hyphx belong. They 
occur in quite young cells and from a dense convoluted 
mass, sending out one or more threads into the surround- 
ing soil, whence, no doubt, they derive some of their nour- 
ishment. That the plant makes use of this is beyond all 
doubt, for one after another these epidermal cells empty 
the fungal threads of all their contents, and in the older 
portions of the root nothing but the empty hyphe of the 
fungus will be seen. These roots seem, therefore, to en- 
tice the fungus in and then destroy it and live on its 
contents. 

Symbiosis this is called, but whether the fungus would 
give it that name I would not like to say. 

In some cases it is not the epidermal, but several cor- 
tical layers which take part in this exploitation of the 
micorhiza, That however some mutual benefit does prob- 
ably take place may be assumed from the fact that is has 
been impossible to grow the fungus independently of the 
devouring green plant. 

Another form of root symbiosis is that encountered in 
the group of the leguminose, or the pea-tribe. 

On the roots of these you will notice curious swellings, 
the nature of which was longa puzzle to botanists, but 
which, though irregularly placed, were of constant occur- 
ence. (ig. 6.) Their development was watched, and 
then it was observed that a fungal spore attached itself 
to one of the root-hairs, and gave rise to a hypha which 


86 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [March 


pierced the hair and grew down it into the tissues of the 
root. Where it came into contact with the cells these 
became curiously modified, the protoplasm becoming 
denser and more granular. At the same time the cells 
increased in size and divided rapidly, causing that por- 
tion of the root to swell up and form the root tubercles 
so characteristic of the leguminous plants. If older tub. 
ercles are examined they will be seen to contain in their 
cells large numbers of curiously-shaped micro-organ- 
isms, to which the name of bacteroids has been given. 
(Fig. 7.) These bacteriods contain the spores, which are 
liberated when the roots decay, and then the spore can 
again infect the root hair. 

Of what benefit now are these small bacteriods to the 
pea or bean which contains them in its roots? Well, it 
has been found by experiments made both in this country 
and abroad that the bacteriods are able to make use of 
the nitrogen contained in the air, and to build up with it 
nitrogenous compounds which become stored up in the 
tubercles, Ordinary plants cannot make use of any of 
the nitrogen of the atmosphere, but only of nitrates 
contained in the soil; hence farmers are constantly 
adding nitrates in the form of manure to their fields. 

Leguminous crops, however, can flourish in a soil de- 
void of nitrates, provided the bacteroids are present to 
absorb and transform the nitrogen of the air. Hence in 
the rotation of crops leguminous plants are exceedingly 
important, for not only will they flourish on soil impov- 
erished by former crops, but they enrich the soil they 
grow in, for when the roots decay the nitrogenous com- 
pounds contained in the tubercles are liberated, and serve 
as food for the crop which is to follow. These bacteriods 
are therefore useful in a high degree to the pea or bean, 
and indirectly to the farmer if he knows his business. 
The bacteriods, on the other hand, may not only find a 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 87 


secure place in the cells for their development and in- 
crease, but they probably make use of the products of 
assimilation of the green plant; make use of the organic 
substances which they, being devoid of chlorophyll, can- 
not form. 

I have now come to the last case of the symbiosis of 
plants with which I shall deal. It is one which is 
of interest, both from the fact that it is the most re- 
cently discovered case, and also because it it the only 
case so far on record in which we have a symbiosis of two 
small colorless organisms, both belonging to the group of 
fungi. 

Some of you may perhaps have heard of the ginger- 
beer plant. It is not a tree from which gingerbeer runs 
on making an incision, nor is that popular beverage de- 
rived from its fruits, but it is like the vinegar plant, a 
yeast-like growth which causes fermentation. The gin- 
gerbeer plant is said to have been introduced into Eng- 
land by soldiers returning from the Crimean war, but of 
that we have not sufficient evidence. This yeast-like 
plant has the appearance of small convoluted masses, 
and by making cultures of it anumber of constituents 
can be distinguished belonging both to the yeast-like 
fungi and to the group of bacteria. But of all these 
organisms two only are essential for the pure fermenta- 
tion, a yeast (Saccharomyces pyriformis) and a bacterium 
(B. vermiformis). This bacterium has received its name 
from its curious twisted growth, encased in a gelatinous 
coat, the whole resembling somewhat a wriggling worm. 
The yeast is a small unicellular fungus growing by 
methods of budding. (Figs. 7 and 8.) 

But these organisms are not so remarkable for their 
shape, as for the fact that neither flourishes in the ab- 
sence of the other. It seems probable that the fermen- 
tative action of the yeast liberates some waste product 


88 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [March 


which is inimical to the further growth of the yeast, 
a phenomenon which is of frequent occurrence. But 
the bacterium is able to make use of and hence remove 
this substance, thus stimulating the yeast to renewed 
activity. At all events some such action must, we 
presume, take place, and this curious double fermentative 
of the two organisms, each benfiting the other, has 
rightly been termed symbiotic fermentation. 

Thus we have not only in the animal kingdom, as be- 
tween animals and plants, associations of mutual benefit, 
but this interaction extends to the vegetable kingdom 
too; and here we find colorless plants, called fungi, 
forming a league with green self-supporting plants, 
and these often dependent on the intervention of the 
fungi, as in the case of the micorhize-bearing trees and 
shrubs. 

That we are not always able to point out all the advan- 
tages gained from such symbiosis is due to a lack of 
knowledge regarding the requirements of some of these 
lowly groups of plants, and should stimulate all of us to 
further research in this field. The facts, and the inter- 
pretation of these facts, which Ihave brought before you 
herein will, I hope, arouse in some of you an interest in 
these problems of vegetable economics and sociology, 
and lead you to take some part in this fascinating study 
of symbiosis. 


Bacteria of School-rooms.—Ruete and Enoch have made 
an investigation of germs found in school-rooms. A maximum 
number of over 3,000,000 living germs per ccm., a minimum 
number of 1500 per cem. and an average of 268,000 per ccm. 
of air were found of the 18 species described, but one was found 
pathogenic for mice, guinea pigs, and rabbits. The quantitative 
determinations were made by passing a measured amount of 
air through liquified gelatine (Centralblatt f Balkt. u Para- 
siten Runde, XVIII, 1 28). 


1896. ] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 89 


Bacteriologic Results From Mechanical Filtration. 
BY GARDNER T. SWARTS, M. D. 
Secretary of the State Board of Health. 


PROVIDENCE, R. I. 


At the last meeting of this association® at Montreal 
the statement was made in the report of the committee 
on water supplies that no data had been available to show 
that filtration by the so-called mechanical methods was 
successful in removing bacteria. The writer at that time 
referred to experiments which had been made in the city 
of Providence, R. I. in order to determine this question 
for the purpose of establishing a plant capable of filtering 
15,000,000 gallons daily if the experiments were success- 
ful. 

The figures showing these results were not at that time 
available, and as they never have been published and as 
no experiments of a similar character have been made, it 
seems desirable to place these facts before the Associa- 
tion, inasmuch as many municipalities are agitated over 
the advisability of introducing the so-called natural or 
sand-bed filtration or mechanical filtration. 

The mechanical form of filter used in the experiments 
was of the type in which quartz or sand is used as a sup- 
porting bed to a film of precipitated coagulant or fixative 
of organic matter, produced by the introduction into the 
water, before filtering, of some chemical such as iron or 
alum ; a filter which is also cleansed by means of a re- 
versed current of the water passed through the filter as- 
sisted by the use of a rake made to revolve in the bed of 
the quartz while the washing is being done. 

The filters used in this line of experiments were two of 
the natural sand-bed form imitating the usual filter bed. 


*The American Public Health Association, meeting held in 1895 at 
Denver, Colo. . 


90 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [March 


The mechanical form was represented by one of the New 
York Filter Company’s filters and one of the so-called 
Morrison filters. After the first seven months the sand 
filters were discontinued, it having been satisfactorily 
ascertained that the length of run was much less than the 
mechanical filter before the bed became clogged and the 
rate of flow in the natural bed was but 30,000,000 gallons 
per acre in twenty-four hours, while the mechanical filter 
was run at the rate of 125,000,000 gallons per acre in ~ 
twenty-four hours. The efficiency of removal of bacteria 
was not as high, and the results were variable, either as 
the result of cracks in the filter or from some unknown 
cause. Although both of these natural filtration beds were 
constructed exactly alike, the results from the second were 
much poorer than from the first. When the natural bed was 
transformed or assisted by the addition of alum, thus 
converting it into a mechanical filter, the removal of bac- 
teria was increased to nearly the same as on the Morrison 
filter, but the length of the run was correspondingly de- 
creased. 

The sand used in the natural beds was a natural river 
sand, not over sharp, while the sand used in the mechan- 
ical filter was crushed quartz having sharp edges. 

In the beginning of the experiments, the New York filter 
eave such varied and unreliable results that its use was 
abandoned, while the so-called Morrison filter was con- 
tinued in use during the whole series of experiments, 
which lasted for a period of about ten months, the work- 
ing of the mechanical parts of the filter being perfectly 
satisfactory and the results obtained being successful. 

The filter bed used in this mechanical filter was two 
feet and ten inches in depth, supported upon a base of iron 
with circular perforations of about 4 inches in size, which 
were covered with screens. The crushed quartz used was 
the “effective size” of 0.59 millimeters. The filter was 


1896.] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 91 


washed by a reverse current which caused the quartz to 
boil. The agitation and friction of the particles were in- 
creased by means ofa rake with long teeth which re- 
volved about a central column in the filter; the rake 
penetrating the bed bya screw motion from top to bottom. 

From the various kinds of coagulant or precipitant 
used, basic sulphate of alumina was selected as being the 
most satisfactory and effective and was used in all the ex- 
periments mentioned. The amount of alumina used was 
+ grain to the gallon of water filtered, a lesser quantity 
failing to satisfactorily remove the organisms. The 
amount of ~ or one grain per gallon did not increase the 
removal of the bacteria, while the efficiency of the filter 
was greatly decreased by reducing the amount of the 
flow through the filtered bed. 

The alumina was applied in a free flow at the beginning 
of a run by pouring into the filter, as the water entered, 
a pint of the coagulant containing about 911 grains of 
sulphate of alumina for an average flow of 128,000,000 
gallons per acre. The solution was made by adding one 
part of the alumina to six parts of water; as a result of 
this addition there forms a white flocculent precipitate 
over the surface of the grains of quartz and is the actual 
medium through which the filtration takes place, the 
quartz serving merely as a supporting bed or sieve. 
Itrequired about six minutes to form this layer. When 
applied at the rate of a drop at a time and not in a “free 
flow” it required about a half an hour before the filtering 
layer would be formed. As soon as the filtering layer 
was formed the alum solution was dropped in continously 
during the run from a regular stop at the rate of a drop 
a second. The effect of the presence of this layer was 
to reduce the head or pressure .28 of a foot for 128,000,- 
000 gallons per acre. The depth of the water above the 
bed af the commencement of the run was nine inches; the 
average length of the run was about eighteen hours, 


i 


92 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [March 


Under these conditions it was determined how long 
after the commencement of the run the filtering ability 
was ata maxmium and also the capacity of the filtering 
media to remove organisms and also the possibilty of re- 
moving organisms foreign to river water and simulating 
pathogenic bacteria in their hfe history. In this last 
experiment the Cruikshank bacillus and bacillus prodigi- 
osus were used, since from their pathogenic properties 
they could be readily distinguished from the water 
bacteria. 

For an understanding of the proportion of bacteria 
found in the applied water and the number to be found 
in the filter water, table No. 3 of the report is here ap- 
pended. 

Asaresult of the whole series of experiments the totals 
shown in table No. 9 will give an idea of the averages. 
In consideration of this table, it must be remembered 
that the introduction of only one result, which may be 
far below the average, will readily reduce what would 
otherwise be a most favorable average, to a lower point. | 
This one result might occur from a temporary contamin- 
ation of the effluent pipes at the time of collecting the 
sample, and which might not represent the exact results 
of filtration. 


During the application of the cultures of bacillus pro- 
digiosus in large quantities suspended in the nutrient 
media, the numbers of the common water bacteria mater- 
ially increased in the effluent, the particles of quartz be- 
coming covered with a slimy brownish deposit. Unsuc- 
cessful efforts were made to cleanse the quartz of ‘this 
growth by steaming and boiling the quartz for one hour. 
Finally on the application of a solution of one pint of 
caustic soda to twenty-four parts of water and steaming, 
the normal white color of the quartz returned. The effi- 
ciency of the filter was raised by this process of cleans- 


1896] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 93 


TABLE NO. 3—FILTRATION EXPERIMENTS.—MORRISON’S FILTER. 


Growth of about ninety hours, of water bacteria in the sample of applied and filtered water 
* which were taken at the same hour; which was one hour or more after the water commenced to 


flow from the filter. 


Bacteria per 


3 25 Cubic Centi- oe eg 
5 Eo} meter. = s as 
B a e a Average Percentage of oF be 
Date. Set 2 3 3 Hea De the Applied Bacteria ae 
a Ze = one Ais Removed. og 
x Bs 2 OOF ae 
oe 2 ak mo Os 0 ac 
aan tena | erste eee ga 
SE Sa a= | SE | ace os 
1893 
July 
20 122,000,000 2,000 11 99.5 0.75 
21 122,000,000 9,477 16 99,8 0.90 
Oct. 
3 125,000,000 905 6 99.3 0.60 
4 128,000,000 610 2 99.7 995 0.58 
5 131,000,000 4,002 25 99.4 (By totals, 99.6) 0.55 
ibe 125,000,000 6,175 26 99.6 0.57 
27 122,000,000 9,700 41 99 6 0.61 
30 128,000,000 1,700 7 99.6 0,56 
31 131,000,000 400 4) 97.8 0.59 
Nov 
1 132,000,000 15,112 19 99.9 0.61 
2 123,000,000 6,950 26 99.6 0.81 
3 122,000,000 9,400 50 99 5 0.84 
4 132,000,000 3,400 63 98.1 1.20 
9 125,000,000 2,200 26 98.8 99.2 0.60 
11 125,000,000 3,650 25 99.3 (By total, 99.5) 0.82 
COMMENCED TO USE THE BACILLUS PRODIGIOSUS. 
Nov. 
23 120,000,000 15,850 218 98.6 0.60 
24 132,000,000 7,600 364 95.2 0.59 
Dec. : 
2 128,000,000 4,900 190 96.1 0.75 
4 128,000,000 4,475 | 91 98.0 0.60 
1894 
Jan. 
2 132,000,000 2,150 94 95.6 0.85 
3 137,000,000 2,000 | 118 94.1 0.84 
4 134,000,000 2,275 44 98.1 0.85 
5 130,000,000 1,925 60 96.9 96.1 0.82 
8 130,000 000 2,375 | 184 92.3 (By totals, 96.9) 058 
CEASED TO USE BACCILLUS PRODIGIOSUS. 
Jan ; 
9 130,000,000 1,850 54 97.1 0.60 
10 134,000,000 800 28 96.5 0.84 
11 130,000,000 750 20 97.3 0,61 
12 132,000.000 350, 52 85.1 0,81 
13 132,000,000 600 | 36 940 0-72 
15 134,000,000 925 88 90.5 0.84 
16 184,000,000 375. 44 88.3 2 0.58 
17 130,000,000 2,150 64 97.0 0 82 
18 134,000,000 1,500 62 95.9 . 0.54 
19 136,000,000 1,450 80 94.5 0.83 
20 130,000,000 2,800 58 97.9 0.72 
22 132,000,000 3,350 62 98.1 94.6 0.85 
23 132,000,000 2,300 | 64 97.2 (By totals, 96.3) 0.80 
WASHED FILTER BED WITH CAUSTIC SODA. 
Jan 
24 128,000,000 2,100 6 99.7 0.60 
25 125,000,000 2,225 18 99.2 0.82 
26 128,000,000 4,650 64 98.8 0.58 
“ 27 128,000,000 4,875 72 98.5 0.58 
29 128,000,000 1,575 82 94.8 98.2 0.59 
30 130,000,000 1,400 28 98.0 (By totals, 98,5) 0.58 


SS ee ees 


94 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [March 


ing from 92.8 per cent. to 98.8 per cent. As to the 
mooted* dangers attending the use of alum in the appled 
water and which is held up as a warning by the oppo- 
nents of mechanical filtration, this much may be said in 
reference to this series of experiments: 

While it was necessary to add half a grain of sulphate 
of alumina per gallon of water filtered in order to obtain 
the most satisfactory results, yet upon comparison by the 
most careful chemical tests of the water applied to the 
filter and that of the effluent, there was found to be less 
alum in the filtered water than in the river water itself. 

Inquiry from numerous manufacturers using alum as 
precipitant in various quantities in excess of the amount 
used in the experiments, revealed in no instance any in- 
crustation or scaling in the boilers where such filtered 
water had been used. Communications with various 
boiler insurance companies elicited no report of scaling 
where such water was used. There is no recorded in- 
stance where alum-treated water as a drinking water has 
produced any ill effects upon the consumers. 

This work was done by order of the City Council of 
the city of Providence and under the direction of a com- 
mission consisting of the Superintendent of Health, the 
City Engineer and the Commissioner of Public Works. 
The immediate supervision of the operation was under 
the supervision of Dr. C. V. Chapin, the Superintendent 
of Health and a member of this Association, while the 
application of the varions tests was made under the direc- 
tion of Mr. Edmund B. Weston, C. E., from whose com- 
pilations and reports these abstracts have been taken. 
Most of the bacteriological work was done by the writer. 

Inasmuch as the writer, as well as every person con- 
nected with the experiments, commenced the investiga- 
tion with the firm belief that successful mechanical filtra- 
tion was not possible from a bhacteriologic view, it 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. -95 


must be stated now, after examination of these figures, 
that mechanical filtration under these conditions can be 
firmly indorsed. 


Cocaine in the Study of Pond-Life. 
H. N. CONSER. 
Member of American Microscopical Society. 


SUNBURY, PA. 


Hydrochlorate of cocaine asa narcotic for forms of 
aquatic life has a special value in the study of bryozoans 
and the encased rotifers. Quick-killing methods cannot 
pe used where the contractile organs are so well protected 
as in these forms, neither can the narcotics that kill, for 
they often allow disorganization of cilia and tentacles be- 
fore other parts of the organism are sufficiently benumbed. 

The method I have found most satisfactory and certain 
with the fresh water Bryozoa is as follows: Several 
colonies are placed ina sclid watch glass with 5 ce. of 
water, and as soon as the animals have expanded, one or 
two centigrams of cocaine is dropped on the edge of the 
waterat two or three distant points. In fifteen minutes 
the narcotic inflence is sufficient, as can be tested by 
touching the tentacles with aneedle. One per cent 
chromic acid is now poured in to fill the watch glass and 
left to act for. half an hour or more when it is nearly all 
withdrawn and water substituted. This process is re- 
peated in half an hour and alcohol to form about twenty- 
five per cent added to the water, the strength of alcohol 
is increased by the addition of ninety-five per cent until 
eighty per cent is reached. By this means the chromic 
acid is washed out and the hardening accomplished so 
gradually that no distortions occur. For staining, borax- 
_ carmine or alcoholic-cochineal is used. The clearing 
must be gradual and is best accomplished by adding oil 
of lavender to the ninety-five per cent alcohol in which 


96 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [March 


the animals are kept, and after an hour, bringing them 
into oil of lavender from which, after perfect clearing, 
they are mounted in balsam. 

The three swimming rotifers readily succumb to the in- 
fluence of cocaine, but the family Melicertade hold out a 
long time against it. A method for these is like that for 
the bryozoans with the exceptions that only sufficient 
water to cover the colony well need be used, the quan- 
tity of cocaine must be relatively large, and when all 
movements cease, killing may be done with twenty per 
cent formalin, for chromic acid precipitates cocaine, when 
present in any considerable quantity. An after treat- 
ment with chromic acid in one-half per cent seems to give 
better hardening than formalin alone. When a colony 
of the M elicertade are subjected for fifteen minutes to a 
half-per cent cocaine solution and then transferred to 
another watch glass with pond water, the individual roti- 
fers come out of the tubes and attach themselves hydra- 
like to the bottom of the glass in perfect condition for 
study, saving the trouble of freeing the animals from the 
tubes with needles. 


Radiolaria; a new Genus from Barbados. 
REY. FRED’K B. CARTER. 
MONTCLAIR, N. J. 
Staurococcura, 2. gen. 
Definition.—Coccodiscida with four chambered arms on 
the margin of the circular or quadrangular disk, crossed 
in two equatorial diameters, connected by a spongy pata- 
gium. Medullary shell double. 
Staurococcura quarternaria, n. sp. 
Phacoid shell quadrangular, twice as broad as the 
outer and six times as broad as the inner medullary shell, 
with seven pores on its radius. Arms club-shaped, two 


1896.) MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 97 


and a half times as long as the diameter of the phacoid 
shell, and in the outer part about two-thirds as broad as 
the latter, at the base about one-third as broad; their 
rounded distal end armed with a strong pyramidal termi- 
nal spine. Patagium incomplete, enveloping only the 


basal half of the arms, with five rectilinear parallel rows 
of chambers forming a square. 

Dimensions.—Diameter of the phacoid shell 0.09; of 
the outer medullary shell 0.045, of the inner 0.015 ; length 
of the arms 0.25; greatest breadth, 0.075. 

Habitat—Fossil in the rocks of Barbados. 


Starch-Grains.—To recognize starch-grains, the best way is 
to place a drop of dilute aqueous solution of iodine in iodide of 
potassium in the water on the slide; the starch is colored 
blue. Of course, the polariscope may be used instead, but the 
first process is very convenient, as it gives a blue color, and 
the polariscope can be used as a confirming test.—The Interna- 
tional Journal of Microscopy. 


98 | THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [March 


Radiolaria: A New Species. 
REV. FRED’K B. CARTER, 
MONTCLAIR, N. J. 
Astractura digitata, n. sp. 
Phacoid shell twice as broad as the medullary shell, 
with seven pores on its radius, without chambered ring. 
Arms finger-shaped, about as long as broad at the base, 


at the rounded distal end about three-fourths as broad. 
Dimensions.—Diameter of the phacoid shell 0.11, of 

the medullary shell 0.055; length of the arms 0.06, basal 

breadth 0.056, distal breadth 0.046. . 
Habitat.—Fossil in the rocks of Barbados. 


Appendicitis.—P. Blakiston, Son & Co., of Philadelphia, 
announce a book on “Appendicitis,” by John B. Deaver, M. D., 
Assistant Professor of applied Anatomy, University of Pennsy]- 
vania; Assistant Surgeon to the German Hospital, etc. The 
book will be arranged ina practical and systematic manner. 
The History, Etiology, Symptoms, Diagnosis, Operative Treat- 
ment, Prognosis, and Complications of this disease will be given 
in the order named. It will contain about forty illustrations 
of methods of procedure in operating, and typical pathological 
conditions of the Appendix, the latter being printed in colors. 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 99 


List of Microscopes and Exhibits. 


BY THE NEW BRITAIN SCIENTIFIC ASSOCIATION. 
November 19, 1895. 


1. With Zentmayer’s Army Hospital—(1) Leaf of Fuchsia, showing 
Raphides and Spiral Cells. (2) Seed of Paulonina imperialis. (3) Pollen, 
Cotton.—Rey. I. F. Stidham. 

2. With Zentmayer’s Histological—(1) Leaf of Nettle, showing Stinging 
Hairs. (2) Seed of Chickweed. (3.) PollenSunflower. Rev. I. F. Stidham. 

3. With Wales’ New Working—(1) Stellate Hairs on leaf of Deutzia 
scabra. (2) Fructification of fern. (3) Pollen, Japan Lily—Rev. I. F. 
Stidham. 

4. With Bausch & Lomb’s Student—(1) Louse from Pig. (2) Palate of 
Periwinkle. (3) Pigeon-post film—W. A. House. 

5. With Bausch & Lomb’s Library—(1) Louse from Human Head. (2) 
PaJate of Fulgar carica. (3%) Photographs of the Moon—T. E. Hall. 

6. With Bausch & Lomb’s Family—(1) Parasite from Fly. (2) Palate of 
common SJug. (3) Photograph, Niagara Falls—F. A: Pelton. 

7. With F. Leitz—(1) Type Slide, 50 Diatoms. (2) Foraminifera from 
Treland. (3) Fibres of Italian Flax—William R. Stone. 

8. With Bausch & Lomb’s Student—(1) Diatoms, Arachnoidiscus Ehr. 
in situ. (2) Polycistina from Barbados. (3) Fibres of Cotton—Wm. R. Stone. 

9. With Bausch & Lomb’s Investigator—(1) Fossil Diatoms, New Britain . 
deposit. (2) Globigerina Ooze from 1950 fathoms depth. (3) Fibres of Silk 
and Wool—William R. Stone. 

10. With Beck’s New National— Circulation of Blood in Foot of Frog— 
Miss Caroline T. Robbins. 2 

11. With F. Leitz—(1) Section of Scalp. (2) Section of Skin, showing 
Pores and Glands. (3) Section of Tooth—Miss Caroline T. Robbins. 

12. With Zentmayer’s Histological—(1) Wing of Butterfly. (2) Vase, 
and Bouquet made of Butterfly Scales and Diatoms. (3) Rosette 240 Diatoms 
etc.—Miss Mary E. Goodrich. : 

13.. With Bausch & Lomb’s Investigator—(1) Section of Spine of Ech- 
inus. (2) Section of Coal, showing Fossils. (3) Spiracle of Dytiscus—Prof. 
J. H. Peck. 

14. With French—(1) Skin of Holothurian. (2) Crystal bearing Mica. 
(3) Wihgs of Honey Bee—Prof. J. H. Peck. 

15. With Bausch & Lomb’s Family—(1) Type slide of Holothuride. 
(2) Section of Pitchstone (3) Gizzard of Cricket —C. W. Marshall. 

16. With Bausch & Lomb’s Model—(1) Spines of Starfish. (2) Gold Sand 
from California. (3) Fern Crystals of Silver.—Joseph Sayers. 

17. With Bausch & Lomb’s Library—(1) Section of Fossil coniferous Wood. 
(2) Longitudinal section of mahogany. (3) Longitudinal section of Pine— 
Joseph Sayers. 

18. With French—(1) Eye of Fly. (2) Proboscis of Butterfly. 3. Plant 
Louse— Walter L. Williams. 


100 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [March 


19. With Acme, No. 4—(1) Section of Cartilage. (2) Blood Corpuscles, 
Amphiuma. (3) Section showing structure of Muscle—Dr. G. J. Holmes. 

20. With Bausch & Lomb’s Harvard—(1) Section showing Ossification 
of Cartilage. (2) Blood Corpuscles, Allligator. | (3) Section showing struc- 
ture of Nerve—Dr. G. J. Holmes. 

21. With Bausch & Lomb’s Model—(1) Section of Bone. (2) Blood Cor- 
puscles, Human. (3) Section showing structure of Brain—Dr. G. J. Holmes. 

22. With Bausch & Lomb’s Universal—(1) Mineral section, Wayvellite, 
with Polarized Light. (2) Japanese Sketch, made of Butterfly Scales. (3) 
Skin of Sole—A. L. Wiard. 

23. With Zentmayer’s Army Hospital—(1) Mineral section, Porphyritic 
Basalt, with Polarized Light. (2) Section of Chalcedony, with Polarized 
Light. (3) Young Oysters—M. S. Wiard. 

24. With French--(1) Transverse section of stem of Lime. (2) Trans- 
verse section of Petiole of Pond Lilly. (3) Young Starfish—M. S. Wiard. 

25. With Wales’ New Working—Living objects in Water—A. N. 
Lewis. 


26. With Wales’ New Working—-Living objects in Water--C. M. 
Burgess. 


EDITORIAL. 

Proportion of Instruments in Use.—A soiree is a pretty 
good place at which to observe the kind of instruments in use 
by the local scientists. An illustration of this is just at hand 
in the case ofthe exhibits made by the New Britain Scientific 
Association, where we find the number of instruments credited 
to each maker was as follows: 

Bausch & Lomb, 12. 
Zentmayer, 4. 
Wales, 3. 

French, 3. 

F. Leitz, 2. 

Beck, 1. 

Acme, 1. 

It must be very gratifying to Bausch & Lomb to find that 
their instruments represent forty-six per cent of the total. 

The Philadelphia concern which is notorious for cut rates and 
clearance catalogues came very near not being represented at all. 

Watson & Sons of London, do not happen to be represented 
in the list. Wetrust our New Britain friends will not forget 
the high-grade of workmanship for which the Watsons are 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 101 


noted, and the fact that they are now sending instruments into 
this country every month. There ought to be at least one of 


them in New Britain. 


MICROSCOPICAL APPARATUS. 

An Effective Method of Improving Cheap Microscopes. 
—The purchase of a first-class microscope is not possible, unfor- 
tunately, to many persons with limited purses. Those who 
have spare time and hand-cunning may, however, overcome 


this initial difficulty toa great extent, and to help people of 
this class to help themselves this design is submitted. 

The instrument here dealt with is one of the class sold by the 
instrument makers as a “‘ Student’s Microscope,” and is suitable 
for beginners. In its original form it is in one piece with the 


102 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [March 


base, B, on which it stands vertically. It is sometimes fitted 

with lens powers of 8, 12, and 16 diameters, the latter of which 

is probably its limit for non-achromatic lenses. But, of courses’ 
the design is suitable for any similar body, however high class. 

It is quite free from vibration, and admits of the body being 

raised or lowered, and also swivelled in any direction; and the ~ 
game remarks apply to the mirror or condenser fitted beneath 
the stage. For those who could afterwards get a better instru- 
ment, this one need not be discarded, for it will always be found 
highly useful for viewing the general structure and beauty of 
small insects, the parts of plants, and for a host of other pur- 

poses. The smoker may test his tobacco for adulteration, and 
the housewife her flour, oatmeal, etc., for mites. 

A few glass cells should be built for properly viewing live 
insects. This may be done by cutting off short pieces of 3-16 in. 
glass tube, and, after carefully rubbing the ends down flat and 
parallel on sandstone with water, cementing them to slips of 
glass with Canada balsam; a loose slip of glass being used to 
confine the insect within the cell, where all its motions may be 
watched. For objects not requiring the light through them, a 
dead black slide should be used. In the outer corner of the. 
stage there is a 4-in. hole, to which may be fastened a simple 
swivel for a stage forceps. A small drawing-pen makes a very 
fair substitute for a stage forceps. 

But to return to the ‘“Student’s Microscope.” Cut off the 
mirror portion from the lens portion, and to the latter solder or 
sweat neatly a brass armpiece of the form shown, and having a 
hole in the centre of end through which the screwed pin is 
passed to clamp it in any position to the slotted upright of stand. 
The stand and upright may be made of brass or of wrought 
iron, the stand (which is square) having a groove formed in its 
upper surface into which the foot of upright is fitted and sol- 
dered, or, better still, brazed, if the means are available. On to 
the arm is fitted and soldered the stem, 1, which is a bit of brass 
tubing, and on stem, I, is fitted and soldered the stage, s, which 
is of 1-16 in. brass and fitted with steel or spring brass clips to 
hold the slides. 

The mirror portion should now be dealt with. Drill a small 
hole through the base ring, B, and rivet a short piece of thin 


18 96.] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 103 


brass tube, kK, to it, first interposing a stiffening piece of a suffi- 
cient thickness to bring the mirror’s centre line true to centre 
line of lenses. Then solder the whole together neatly, the rivet 
serving to hold in position. The piece kK is then sprung on to 
the stem, 1, where, if properly fitted, it will hold the mirror in 
whatever position placed. To ensure this, the piece should be 
cut from a tube a little smaller in diameter than the stem, 1, 
and put on a mandrel and well planished on the outside with a 
hammer-nose or planisher; then it will bold admirably, and 
may be slipped off or on at will. 

The slot, P, is also very handy for attaching the arm of a con- 
denser or acandle-holder for night work. AI] essential meas- 
surements may be taken from the scale. The under side of 
stage, and that portion of its upper surface beyond the glass 
slides, should be coated with a dull black, and if thestand, up- 
right, and arm are painted with a dark enamel paint, the whole 
thing will have a very neat appearance. 

Care must taken in staining the stand upright, etc., not to set 
up cross reflections that would confuse the light on the field, 
and care must also be exercised to get the field hole in stage 
coincident with axis of microscope. If the stand is made of 
brass, it should be cleaned up nicely and bronzed.— Work. 


MICROSCOPICAL MANIPULATION. 
Preparing the Ovaries of Scilla patula.—Miss Lily H. 
Huie finds that the best method for preparing the ovaries of S. 
patula, in order to demonstrate the protein crystalloids, is by 
first fixing in Mann’s Watery Corrosive Fluid. ‘To a boiling 
0.75 per cent. common solt solution, sublimate is added to satu- 
ration (12 grm. for 100cc.). The solution is then allowed to 
cool, when crystals of sublimate make their appearance. Pre- 
serve the solution without decanting.—M. Heidenhain. 
Martin Heidenhain’s corrosive sublimate 
solution : x ; 5 100 ce. 
Picric Acid : ‘ : : 1 grm. 
Tanaic Acid : , ; p 1 grm. 
“The tissues were carefully dehydrated and taken through 
chloroform into paraffin, and serial sections cut not thicker 


104 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [March 


than 2-8 Micron. . . The paraffin ections were spread out 
on warm water (40—45° C), after Gulland, and fixed to the 
slide by Mann’s albumen method, and then stained in Mann’s 
methylblau-eosin mixture as follows :— 

Requisites.—The staining fluid :— 


a.—1 per cent. methylblau in distilled water . 35ce. 
1 per cent. water-soluble eosin in dis- 

tilled water : 4 : 2 FOG: 

Distilled water : : OG-ce 


b.—1 per cent. caustic soda in absolute alcohol. 
The Methylwasserblau was obtained from Dr. Grubler, 
Leipzig. 
Method. 
1.—Stain for twenty-four hours. ° 
2.—Rinse the dark-blue sections in ordinary water. 
3.—Dehydrate thoroughly with absolute alcohol. 
4,—Transfer the slide to a vessel containing: Absolute alco- 
hol, 80 cc., and 1 per cent. caustic soda solution in abso- 
lute alcohol, 4 drops. Wait till sections are of a rust 
color. | 
5.—Remove all traces of caustic soda with absolute alcohol. 
6.—Rinse sections in ordinary water for one minute. Red 
clouds are given off and the sections become bluish. 
7.—Place slides for two minutes into water slightly acidified 
with acetic acid. This is done to deepen and fully re- 
store the blue color, and also to fix the eosin. 
8.—Dehydrate, clear with xylol (not clove oil), and mount in 
turpentine balsam.”—The International Journal of Micros- 


copy. 


BACTERIOLOGY. 


Bacteria of the Intestinal Canal.—Drs. Gilbert and Domi- 
nici recently reported to the Biological Society of Paris, the re- 
sults of an interesting experiment, the purpose of which was to 
determine the influence of purgatives in the elimination of mi- 
crobes from the alimentary canal. Half an ounce of sulphate 
of soda and an equal quantity of magnesium sulphate were ad- 
ministered to a healty adult in the morning before breakfast. 


1896. ] ~ MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 105 


The bowels were evacuated six times during the day, the total 
weight of the fecal matter passed being 1.5 kilograms (3.3 
pounds). The number of microbes contained in each milligram 
of fecal matter was found to be 272,253, and the total number 
evacuated during the day was 411,000,000,000. The number of 
microbes normally contained in the fecal matter of the person 
examined was found to be 67,000 per milligram, and the num- 
ber eliminated in twenty-four hours, 12,000,000,000. The pur- 
gation, therefore, resulted in the discharge of thirty-four times 
the usual number of germs. The day following, the microbes 
found in the fecal matter was about double the ordinary num- 
ber; and on the second day the fecal matter was normal in 
quantity, while the number of germs was only 1350 per milli- 
gram, or 580,500,000 in all,—less than one twentieth the normal 
amount, and one seven-hundredth the amount discharged on 
the day of purgation. 

A continuous milk diet was shown to havea decided action in 
reducing the number of microbesin the feces. This effect, how- 
ever, was not manifested until the end of the fifth day after be- 
ginning an exclusive milk diet. The action of purgatives in 
disinfecting the alimentary canal was prompt, but ephemeral. 
The only way in which intestinal asepsis can be maintained is 
by an aseptic dietary. The writer has found granose, zwieback, 
and other thoroughly sterilized farinaceous foods extremely 
valuable for this purpose, as they establish complete asepsis of 
the stomach. 

The subject of intestinal asepsis in one generally recognized 
as of great importance. In the opinion of the writer it is one 
of the most important questions in the domain of rational medi- 
cine. The observations of Bouchard, Dana, and various other 
investigators have clearly shown that ptomainesabsorbed from 
the alimentary canal are probably the chief cause of degenera- 
tions of the liver, kidneys, the central nervous system, and 
other portions of the body which have so long baffled medical 
skill. The renowned Dujardin-Beaumetz, during the last few 
years of his life, constantly called the attention of the profes- 
sion to the importance ofan aseptic or antiseptic dietary in the 
treatment of a large variety of chronic disorders, especially 
Bright’s disease, diabetes, and other maladies involving the 
eliminative organs. Glenard has likewise emphasized the ne- 


106 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [March 


cessity for a strict observance of asepsis in the dietary of persons 
suffering from dilatation of the stomach. 

A dietary of milk foods and farinaceous foods is unquestion- 
ably best suited for the establishment of asepsis in the alimen- 
tary tract. The most forcible objection which can be brought 
ogainst the use of flesh foods, fish, oysters,and cheese, is the 
readiness with which these substances undergo decomposition 
in the alimentary canal, and the excellent culture medium thus 
presented for the development of microbes and their character- 
istic ptomaines.— Modern Medicine. 


Bacterial Origin of Eclampsia.—Leusden ‘(in Virchow’s 
Archiv. Bd. exl, iii, H. 1), after examining the various organs of 
two cases in which eclampsia occurred, says: “I have found 
nothing which indicates the infectious (bacterial) origin of 
puerperal eclampsia. The probability is that a toxic substance 
circulating in the blood is the cause of the eclamptic attacks. 
The changes in the kidneys are the principal organic lesions. 
The embolism in the lungs of the placental giant cells is only 
an accidental coincidence. There are no emboli containing 
liver cells. The minute necrotic changes in the parenchyma of 
the liver in both cases could not be connected with the cause of 
eclampsia. The hyaline (fibrous) thrombi of the lung and liver 
capillaries are the result of secondary uremic changes, and are 
independent of the eclampsia.—Canada Medical Record. 


WEDICAL MICROSCOPY. 


Influence of Lecithin on the Growth of Organisms.— 
Experiments with dogs and other animals show that subcut- 
aneous injections of lecithin increase notably the number of red 
corpuscles in the blood. They rise to 800,000 or a million and 
more above the normal, and the hemoglobin is also increased. 
This improved condition of the blood comes immediately and 
lasts a long while. The scientists who have made a special 
study of this subject are Danilewsky, Selenski and Sostin, and 
their report to the Academie des Sciences is full of interest. Ex- 
periments on the egg and larvee of frogs showed that it produced 
an extraordinary growth in the tadpoles, and these tadpoles 


1896. ] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL 107 


showed much less pigment than the others. Lecithin does not 
act like a food. It is not an organo-plastic substance. It in- 
creases the assimilation of the food, and has adirect stimulat- 
ing influence of great importance on the processes of multipli- 
cation among the cellular elements. The improvement of the 
blood, we know, is the most important condition to stimulate 
the growth of the organism, that is, the multiplication of its 
morphologic elements and their development. And this leci- 
thin accomplished in these experiments.—Semaine Medicale. 


The Culture Tube in Diagnosis of Diphtheria.—We 
notice that some of our contemporaries are speaking contempt- 
uously of the culture tube asa method of diagnosis in diph- 
theria, and some of the more foolish are intimating that we will 
soon do away with microbes and go back to the good old style. 
It is true that some modifications have been made in the method 
by which bacteriological diagnosis of diphtheria is made, but 
the value of the method is none the less great. It is now, we 
believe, conceded that if the cultures obtained from the throats 
which are supposed to have diphtheria contain no bacillus 
either identical with or resembling that of the Kiebs-Loeffler 
bacillus, the case is not one of diphtheria. If, however, these 
organisms are found, it is not possible to make a diagnosis at 
once of diphtheria, without inoculations, for there is a non- 
virulent bacillus which in all respects resmbles morphologically 
the true bacillus. If, however, in connection with this bacillus 
there are clinical symptoms of diphtheria, then the diagnosis 
is practically certain. Thus, the bacteriological methods have 
both a positive and a negative value that is extremely great.— 
Medical Record. 


DIATOMS. 


—= 


Diatomology as an Aid to Geology.—By M. J. Tempere. 
Who would maintain at the present time that the study of 
Diatoms is of small importance, and not recognise that as much 
- and even more than any branch of Cryptogamia it has a right 
to be classed among those which can powerfully aid the re- 
searches into the secrets of Nature that are the most difficult of 
solution? 


108 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [March 


Diatomology exists. Itis a science which nevertheless has 
not received the unanimous sanction of learned men, for in the 
best treatises of Botany there is scarcely any mention of Diatoms 
and of their importance in Nature. 

The study of Algee in general, of Mosses, Fungi, and of Lich- 
ens, is honored everywhere. There is not a university, a 
faculty, or a largeschool, that does not reckon among its savants 
those who occupy themselves with the different branches of 
cryptogamic botany ; but of Diatoms, none!—at least in France, 
for among foreigners I could mention many, among whom are 
two of our collaborators. 

The reasons that I have heard given as an excuse for this 
neglect appears to me so ill-founded that they are hardly worth 
noticing ; some of them even appear to me to be only the ex- 
pression of one who will not discuss the question. 

In our last number I mentioned the observation made by 
Prof. P. T. Cleve, of Upsala, on the identity of the species found 
on the coast of Greenland and on the north of Asia, giving rise 
to the idea of a.current between the two opposite points, and 
thus aiding the solution of a hydrographical problem. 

To-day, by the reading of a brochure having the title, Pre- 
liminary Report on the Physical Geography of the Littorian 
Sea, by Henry Munthe (a work published in the Bulletin of the 
Geological Society of Upsala, No. 3, Vol. II., 1894), I have seen 
with pleasure that at length a geological savant, not content to 
borrow from Paleontology for proofs in aid of his deductions, 
relating to the successive changes to which the Baltic Sea has” 
been subjected, has appealed to Diatomology by requesting our 
colleague, Prof. P. T. Cleve, to study the species contained in 
those beds which present distinct characters of these transfor- 
mations, so that he may be able to add another proof to those 
which he has already obtained. 

Already for some time researches and comparative studies 
have been undertaken by a certain number of diatomists with 
this object in view, and I am certain that from these studies the 
importance of Diatomology will result, and that one day they 
will place it in the first rank. 

The recent labors of Dr. P. Miguel have evidently contri- 
buted much to this end, in offering to diatomists new methods 


1896.] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 109 


of study, which enable them to follow the different phases of 
the life of these organisms, their transformations, and to com- 
pare that which they can obtain in their laboratories with that 
which Nature presents.— The International Journal of Microscopy. 


MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETIES. 


Quekett Microscope Club. 


January 17.—Mr. Nelson exhibited a triplet magnifier, con- 
structed on a formula of his own by Messrs. Watson, giving an 
amplification of 141-2 with a working distance of 1-2 in. Mr. 
Karop said he had been given an opportunity of examining this 
lens, and for sharpness of definition it was certainly one of the 
very best he had seen. 

Mr. F. Orfeur exhibited and described a compound substage 
apparatus, which permitted of every modification of aperture, 
arangement of diaphragms and spots, besides colour and polar- 
ising effects. The apparatus was discussed by the president 


and others. 
A paper entitle ‘Notes on Some Floridee,” by Mr. T. H. 


Buffham, was, in the absence of the author, taken as read. 
The Microscopical Society of Utah. 


January 11th, 1895.—The Microscopical Society of Utah was 
organized with a membership of about twenty. Previous to 
this time much microscopical work had been done in Utah, 
but each microscopist had worked alone, and hence much of 
the good which comes from association was lost. 

The membership of the society comprises members of the 
faculty of the University of Utah, physicians residing in vari- 
ous parts of Utah, public school teachers and a few business 
men and women. 

At the time of organization the following officers were 
elected: James E. Talmage, President of the University of 
Utah, President; Dr. Chas. F. Wilcox of Salt Lake City, Vice- 
President; Miss Amelia E. Brotherhood, Instructor in Art, 
University of Utah, Secretary; and Prof. C. A. Whiting of the 
University of Utah, Treasurer and Curator. At the annual 


110 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [March 


meeting held October 11th, all of these officers were re-elected: 
The regular meetings are held monthly, and special working 
sessions are occasionally held at which practical instruction is 
given in the technique of the microscope, and in mounting sec- 
tions for examination. 

Since its organization many valuable papers relating to mi- 
croscopy have been presented. Among these may be named: 
“ Tyndale and the Germ Theory of Disease,” ‘‘ The Microscope 
in the Diagnosis of Disease,” ‘‘ The Microscopy of the Nerves,” 
The Microscope in Mineralogy and Lithology,” “The Tech- 
nique of Mounting Animal Tissue,” “A Stereopticon exhibition 
of Microscopical Preparations,” ‘Reptilian Blood,” and several 
other papers of similar trend. 

Through the kindness of the University authorities the Society 
is granted the use of ample rooms in the University of Utah 
and the use of many fine microscopes belonying to that institu- 
tion. 

The Society is continually increasing in membership, and 
ts career of usefulness in stimulating scientific investigation has 
only begun. 

If its present condition is an indication of its future course, 
The Microscopical Society of Utah will be an important factor 
in shaping the scientific thought of the new state of Utah. 

C. A. WHITING. 


Lincoln Microscopical Club. 


January 29th, 1896.—The Secretary was directed to renew 
subscriptions to the following periodicals: THe MIcRoscopE, 
Zeitschift fur Wissenschaftliche Mikroskope, Zeitschift fur 
Augewandte Mikoskopic, Journal of the Quekett Club. 

Officers were elected as follows: President, Dr. C. E. Bessey ; 
Vice-president, Prof. E. H. Barbour ; Treasurer, Mr. J. 8. Dalls ; 
Secretary, Mr. Ronersound ; Members of Executive Committee, 
Dr. Philbrick and Mr. F. E. Clements. 

Dr. Bessey exhibited a small microtome by Reichert and ex- 
plained its construction and working. 

Mr. Dalls showed further slides illustrating the Browaee 
movement. His slides showed that the movement was largely 
due to bacteria, there being no movement in slides where pre- 
cautions were taken in sterilizing. 


1896.] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 111 


Dr. Ward exhibited slides of Doliolww, one of the Tunicates. 
Mr. Clements showed a modification of the Schultze dehy- 
drating apparatus. RoscoE Pounp, 
Secretary. 


NEW PUBLICATIONS. 


Immunity protective inoculation in infectious diseases 
and serum-therapy.—325 pp. New York; Wm. Wood & Co, 
1895. ° 

Dr. Sternberg is well Enown as an author on bacteriological 
subjects. This new work bears out the reputation of the author 
-asa close student of literature and as an observer as to practical 
details. The volume is indeed timely for so much has been 
written on the subject of serum-therapy and antitoxins, so much 
of the literature is scattered, and much of it will not bear close 
scrutiny. Dr. Sternberg has done well in sifting the matter 
thoroughly and giving the practitioner reliable data, which he 
may use in practice. 

He considers first the subject of natural immunity, and all 
students will agree with him when he says “No questions in 
general biology are more interesting, or more important from 
a practical point of view than those which relate to the suscep- 
tibility of certain animals to the pathogenic action of certain 
species of bacteria, and the immunity, natural or acquired, from 
such pathogenic action which is possessed in other animals.” 
The following facts are set down, that young animals are more 
susceptible than older ones, race immunity—in the immune 
animal, multiplication does not occur, or is restricted to a 
local invasion of limited extent, and in which after a time the 
resource of nature suffice to destroy the parasitic invader. 

These “resources of nature” upon which natural immunity 
depends are available for the prevention of infection but they 
may be neutralized by various agencies. Naturally immune ani- 
mals may be infected by adding certain substances to pathogenic 
bacteria. Natural immunity may be explained—first Phago- 
cytosis ; second, action of blood serum and other organic liquids 
upon bacteria. Acquired immunity may depend on the develop- 
ment of antitoxins in the body of the immune animal. There 


112 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [March 


is also a tolerance which may be acquired when large doses of 
certain medicines are used orin the case of arsenic. In the 
second part of the book, special attention is given to protective 
inoculation and serum-therapy. The infectious diseases con- 
sidered are anthrax, chicken cholera, cholera, diptheria, foot- 
and mouth disease, glanders, hog cholera, hog erysipelas, hyd- 
rophobia, influenza, influenza of horses, pleuro-pneumonia of 
cattle, pneumonia, rinderpest, smallpox, swine’ plague, strepto- 
coccus infection, symtomatic anthrax, tetanus, tuberculosis, 
typhoid fever and yellow fever. 

Tables are given to show the value of antitoxin treatment of 
diptheria from various sources. The results are certainly 
highly gratifying. 


Dont’s for Consumptives, or the Scientific Manage- 
ment of Pulmonary Tuberculosis.—This is the title of a book 
which, under the authorship of Dr. Charles Wilson Ingraham, 
will soon (about Feb. 10th) be issued by the Medical Reporter 
Publishing Co. of Rochester, N. Y. The complete work of 35 
chapters 1s devoted to the general management of Pulmonary 
Invalids, no reference whatever being made to drug treatments. 
The object of the author is to supply the Physician with a prac- 
tical work, and at the same time, by eliminating technical 
terms, reduce the text within the easy comprehension of the 
intelligent patient. The author claims that ‘“‘a good under- 
standing of his condition is the best remedy for the Consump- 
tive.” With this book in the hands of his patient the physi- 
cian will be relieved of a multitude of details which attach to 
the successful management of such cases. Special atttention 
has been given those chapters pertaining to the destruction of 
tubercular infection. The book will be printed on 72-pound 
antique book paper, bound in cloth Gmitation morocco), with 
title in gold leaf. Price, $1.75. 


The Best Waters to Drink.—By Ephraim Cutter, M.D., 
12 pp., 1896. 

After giving many reasons why water is the best fluid for 
man to drink, it is claimed that: (1) Well-water free from con- 
tamination is good, (2) Spring-water away from man is better, 
and (3) Aerated distilled water is best. Reasons are given for 
this preference. 


\ 


TRANSVERSE SECTION OF SQUASH (CUCURBITA) VINE, 


x 65 DIAMETERS, 


THE AMERICAN 


MONTHLY 


MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 


APRIL, 1896. No. 4. 


Vou. XVIII. 


The Development of Photomicrographic Negatives. 
By Dr. W. C. BORDEN, U. S. ARMY. 
Fellow of the Royal Microscopical Society. 


[WITH FRONTISPIECE. ] 


The development of the exposed plate is one of the 
most important steps in the photomicrographic process. 
However well the illumination may be arranged and how- 
ever carefully the adjustments and exposure may have 
been made, the process will fail of successful or perfect 
result, by poor, or imperfect development of the latent 
image. 

In almost all photomicrographic work contrast has to 
be sought for and next after detail and sharpness, or 
rather in conjunction with them, contrast is necessary in 
the negative to give a print having the requisite clear- 
ness. 

To obtain detail a proper objective must be combined with 
suitable substage illumination. The ight must be accurate- 
ly focussed on the object by the substage condenser and the 
aperture of the latter must bear proper relation to the 
aperture of the objective. With detail obtained, sharp- 
ness is had by not extending the angle of light from the 
substage condenser beyond a degree necessary to show 
the detail and by accurately focussing the image on the 
camera screen. i 

In addition, a suitable plate must be used, and, if nec- 


114 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY (April 


essary, a light filter of a color complimentary to that of 
the object; provided the latter is colored, as are histolog- 
ical or pathological sections or stained bacteria. Ortho- 
chromatic plates only, are suitable for photomicrography. 
Of these I have obtained best results with the Cramer 
rapid “ Isochromatic.”” These plates when properly de- 
veloped give excellent contrast and gradation. 

Of the different reducing agents hydrochinone, either 
alone, or combined with eikonogen or metol, preferably 
the latter, is best for bringing out the latent image. 
Hydrochinone is slow in action but has the quality of 
producing clearness and contrast. Metol is more rapid 
and when used with hydrochinone starts the develop- 
ment and brings out the detail quickly—density being 
gained afterward by the combined action of it and the 
hydrochinone. <A most important element in a formula 
for photomicrographic development is potassium bromide. 
This salt has the quality of preventing chemical fog, of 
somewhat restraining development, and of causing the 
details to appear in the relative order in which they have 
been produced by light intensity. With no potassium 
bromide and with a developer reasonably strong in alkali, 
all parts of the image, even those least impressed by light, 
appear practically together. With bromide added, this 
action may be modified from slight to a great retardation 
of the less impressed parts according to the amount of 
the bromide introduced. Practically, about one-half 
grain to the ounce of mixed developer is sufficient to re- 
strain development, to cause the gradations to appear in 
proper order, and to prevent chemical fog even during. 
prolonged development. 

The complete formula is as follows: 


No. 1. Water, hot, distilled or boiled............ 250. ¢. ¢. 
Sodium sulphite .. pM cee Reba s en eee) grammes. 
Potassium bromide. PME er Bach accents : & 
iy Grochinone: . onayes.pesse- cape neweraeers oe 
VELOC eae ee ee eaoeen 1 LSet 


Cool before using. 


1896.] MICROSSOPICAL JOURNAL. 116 


No. 2. Sodium’ Carbonate... 6.2.5 .0.0c5.6 sccswnee 15 grammes. 
NEN io sads vce picid nebo Bacon peER CEPR EEE Sctanee 5 PHU 
Use equal parts of No. 1 and No. 2. 


Development should proceed slowly and gradually and 
should be continued until sufficient density is obtained. 
Frequently all the detail appears while the plate is still 
quite thin and the novice is apt to fear a flat plate and 
remove it from the developer before development is com- 
pleted. This is to be avoided, for density is necessary, 
and if after it is obtained the fixed plate has the parts 
clogged which should be clear, the exposure has been too 
long and another should be made. A thin plate, in pho- 
tomicrography, after prolonged development generally 
means under exposure even if all details are present. 

The image should not appear too quickly after the de- 
veloper has been applied. Frequently with objects of 
little contrast the exposure has to be shortened as much 
as possible in order that contrast may be obtained, and in 
such cases, the image may not appear for a minute or 
two and development may have to be prolonged for fif- 
teen or twenty minutes. A small box with a easily re- 
movable cover which will exclude all light should always 
be at hand on the developing table. In this the develop- 
ing tray may be placed and left for some time in case of 
slow development. This allows the operator to leave the 
developing room and proceed with other work, or make 
another exposure, while development is going on. A 
cardboard or other cover for the developing tray should 
be at hand to place over the tray during the development 
of orthochromatic plates for they are.somewhat sensitive 
to ruby light and should be guarded from it as much as 
possible during development. It is best to place them in 
the tray and flow the developer over them at some dis- 
tance from the light, then cover them and not examine 
or expose them to the light longer, or more frequently, 
then necessary. 


116 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [April 


For a dark room light, an artificial one is best as it is 
always of equal intensity and is available at all times, 
nightor day. The Carbutt “Multum in Parvo” lantern is 
excellent, as it furnishes abundant light and has two side 
doors, one opening directly to the lamp by which contact 
lantern slide exposures may be made, and another having 
an opal glass which is excellent for examining the fixed 
negatives. 

For a fixing solution, a plain solution of sodium hypo- 
sulphite in water answers well, but one having chrome 
alum as an ingredient is better. Carbutt’s formula is a 
most excellent one. It appears to have a slight clearing 
action, due probably to its removing staining if present ; 
and as it hardens the film, the negative is easier to 
handle, particularly during warm weather. Its compos- 
ition is as follows: 


Sal phunicrA Chae ss wescnecsecescieeene see) eeerene 2 ee. 
Sodium Hyposulphite................. 2.00. 240 grammes 
Sodium Sulphitee.............0.00i sceserees -<: 30 ‘ 
@hrome/AVoni s:.ccdsec bac cedes decease eter eS cy 
IWiGbON iy. chia ssceceoslcoceeousalisnceoes occonanncs 1000 e. ¢. 


This fixing bath keeps well and may be used repeatedly. 

After thorough fixing, washing, and drying, the pro- 
cess is completed so far as the negative is concerned, ex- 
cept in a few special cases where reduction or intensifi- 
cation is required. These processes should be avoided 
whenever possible and should only be necessary in the 
case of objects especially difficult to photograph. It is 
frequently the case that a first exposure does not give an 
entirely satisfactory negative. When this occurs, instead 
of attempting to better the poor negative by reduction or 
intensification, another exposure should be made of 
shorter or longer duration as indicated by the first nega- 
tive, and a better or perfect result can thus usually be 
obtained. With some difficult subjects, however, no at- 
tention to exposure or subsequent careful development 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 117 


will give a negative of proper contrast for printing pur- 
poses. Thisis the case with objects having but little con- 
trast between their different parts, or those colored objects 
in which the coloring is so faint that they fail to absorb 
a sufficient number of the impinging rays and conse- 
quently transmit so many that there is nearly as much 
effect produced on the plate by the rays that pass through 
them as by those which pass by them. 

To photograph such objects, it is necessary to make a 
short exposure and to stop the development as soon as the 
details appear and before any trace of a reduction of the 
silver compounds appear in those places which should ap- 
pear clear in the negative and, after fixing and washing, 
to intensify the negative so that sufficient contrast may 
be had for printing. Of the various intensifying methods 
that by bichloride of mercury and aqua ammonie is the 
best. The fixed and thoroughly washed plate is placed 
in an aqueous saturated solution of bichloride of mer- 
cury until sufficient. density is obtained, then thoroughly 
washed to remove every trace of bichloride, after which 
it is placed in dilute aquaammonie to blacken, and again 
thoroughly washed. 

While in the bichloride, density is best judged by view- 
ing the plate by transmitted light, remembering that the 
plates will be somewhat denser after passing through the 
ammonie solution. The strength of the ammonie solu- 
tion does not matter materially. Where the action of the 
bichloride has been prolonged, it is necessary to use very 
strong aqua ammonie to blacken the plate entirely. 

In some cases reduction of a too dense negative may 
be required, or it may be necessary to reduce a negative 
in order to clear it before intensification. This is best 
done by placing the plate in a solution of sodium hypo- 
sulphite of ordinary strength to which a few grains of 
potassium ferricyanide have been recently added. The 
rapidity of the reduction depends upon the amount of ferri- 


118 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [April 


cyanide and the plate must be carefully watched during 
the process that the reduction may not be carried too far. 
By reduction, or intensification, or by employing both 
one after the other, a negative may sometimes be obtained 
from an object so difficult that the simple process of ex- 
posure and development will not suffice. But these pro- 
cesses should only be resorted to when strictly indicated 
and after different lengths of exposure and careful adjust- 
ment of the substage illumination have failed to give the 
required result. 

In photomicrography, arrangement of the light and 
adjustment of the substage condensers are of primary 
importance and unless the details of their arrangement 
are mastered, no attention to development, or subsequent 
doctoring of the negatives, will give good results. But 
with these understood, the limit of their effectiveness will 
be known and when this is reached, the chemistry of the 
photographic process may be resorted to with profit. 


The Practical Results of Bacteriological Researches. 
BY GEORGE M. STERNBERG, M. D., LL. D., 


SURGEON GENERAL, U.S. A. 


Gentlemen: In selecting a subject for my presidential 
address I have thought it best to restrict myself to that 
branch of biological science with which I am most 
familiar; and, as a technical paper might prove uninter- 
esting to many of those who constitute my present 
audience, I have chosen a title for my address which will 
enable me to speak in a general way of the development 
of our knowledge relating to the low vegetable organ - 
isms known as bacteria, and the practical results which 
have been the outcome of researches commenced in the 
first instance solely on account of their scientific interest. 

Attention was first prominently called to the bacteria 


1896. ] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 119 


by the investigations relating to spontaneous generation. 
It was generally believed prior to the researches of 
Spallanzini, in 1776, that the development of micro- 
organisms in boiled organic fluids exposed to the air was 
by heterogenesis. Spallanzini showed by experiment 
that in some instances putrescible liquids when boiled 
and kept in hermetically sealed flasks could be preserved 
indefinitely without undergoing change. But he was 
not always successful in this experiment. Bastian, and 
other supporters of the theory of heterogenesis, at a 
later date, repeated these experiments with similar re- 
sults, and maintained that when a development of micro- 
organisms occurred in a boiled fluid contained in a her- 
metically sealed flask it would only be by spontaneous 
generation. But Pasteur, in 1860, gave the true 
explanation of the appearance of living bacteria under 
such conditions. He proved that when development 
occurs it is because the organic liquid has not been com- 
pletely sterilized, and that certain micro-organisms 
(spores of bacilli) withstand the boiling temperature, 
especially when they are suspended in a liquid having an 
alkaline reaction. At the present day this question is 
regarded as definitely settled, at least so far as known 
conditions are concerned; and we have an exact experi- 
imental knowledge of the thermal death-point of many 
micro-organisms of this class. 

The principal pathogenic bacteria are destroyed at 
temperatures much below the boiling point of water. 
Thus, in experiments made by the present speaker in 
1885 it was ascertained that the cholera spirillum is 
is destroyed by ten minutes’ exposure to a temperature 
of 52° C.; the typhoid bacillus by 56°; the micrococcus of 
pneumonia by 52°; the streptococcus of erysipelas (S pyog- 
enes) by 64°; ete. According to Loeffler, the bacillus of 
glanders is destroyed in ten minutes by a temperature of 


120 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [April 


55° C.; the bacillus of diphtheria by 60°. The experi- 

ments of Yersin show that the tubercle bacillus does not 

survive exposure for ten minutes to a temperature of 70° 

C. The practical value of such knowledge is apparent. 

Articles of clothing infected with many of the patho- 
genic bacteria mentioned would be speedily disinfected 

by immersion in water heated to 70° C. or above and 

water or milk recently heated to the same temperature 

would evidently be without danger so far as infection by 

these ‘‘disease germs” is concerned. The recommenda- 

tion of sanitarians that water or milk or food suspected 

of being contaminated by pathogenic bacteria should be 

exposed to a boiling temperature before it is used is based 

upon the experimental data referred to; and the know- 
ledge that organic liquids can be sterilized by heat con- 
stitutes the foundation upon which the bacteriology of 
the present day has been established. To obtain relia- 

ble information with reference to the biological charac-. 
ters of any particular micro-organism it is necessary to 

experiment with pure cultures, and this requires a 

sterile culture medium. 

It is hardly necessary to call attention to the fact that 
an immense industry in the preservation of food pro- 
ducts depends upon the sterilization of these products by 
heat, and their preservation in hermetically sealed re- 
ceptacles. 

When Pasteur demonstrated the fact that sterile or- 
ganic liquids, when protected by a sterilized cotton air 
filter, can be kept indefinitely without undergoing any 
putrefactive or fermentative change, he also proved that 
such changes are due to the presence of micro-organisms; 
and, extending his investigations, he found that certain 
definite kinds of change are due to particular species of 
low organisms. Thus the alcoholic fermentation of a 
saccharine liquid was found to be due to a torula (Torula 
cerevisi@), the acetic fermentation of an alcoholic liquid 


1896.] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 121 


to a bacterial ferment (Pasteur’s Mycoderma aceti), etc. 
Subsequent researches show that alcoholic fermentation 
may be induced by several species of torula, and even by 
certain bacteria; while the number of bacterial ferments 
now known to science is very considerable and is con- 
stantly being added to. Among the most important of 
these we may mention the Bacillus acidi lactici, which is 
the usual cause of the acid fermentation of milk; the 
various anaérobic bacilli which gives rise to the formation 
of butyric acid in solutions containing starch, dextrin 
sugar, or salts of lactic acid; the bacteria which cause the 
alkaline fermentation of urine; those which produce marsh 
gas by the fermentation of cellulose; those which effect 
the decomposition of albumen, with an evolution of hy- 
drosulphuric acid; those which give rise to the putrefac- 
tive decomposition of organic material, the number of 
which is very large; the bacteria in the soil which reduce 
nitrates with liberation of ammonia and free nitrogen, 
and those which oxidize ammonia. The study of these 
bacterial ferments is still being vigorously prosecuted, 
and practical] results of importance in agriculture and the 
arts have already been attained. In the future we may 
look for numerous additions to these practical applica- 
tions of our knowledge. The use of pure cultures for 
producing useful fermentations must give the best re- 
sult with the least liability to loss of material from the 
presence of undesirable species. It is known that the 
flavor of butter and of different kinds of cheese is due to 
various bacterial ferments, and there is good reason to 
suppose that a better product and greater uniformity 
would be attained by the use of pure cultures of the 
species upon which special flavors depend. I under- 
stand that in this country quite a number of dairies are 
now using pure cultures of a certain bacillus (Bacillus 41 
of Conn) for giving flavor to their product. It is prob- 


122 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [April 


able that similar methods will soon be introduced in the 
cheese-making industry. A recent English publication, 
which I have not yet seen, is entitled Bread, Bakehouses, 
and Bacteria. It will, no doubt, be found to contain 
information of practical value to those engaged in 
bread-making. 

Pasteur’s studies relating to the micro-organisms 
causing abnormal and injurious fermentations in wines, 
the results of which he published in 1886 (Htudes 
sur le Vin, ses Maladies, etc.), have resulted in an enor- 
mous saving to the wine-making industry in France and 
other countries where wine is produced upon a large 
scale; and his investigations relating to the cause and 
prevention of the infectious diseases of the silkworm, 
which threatened to destroy the silk industry in France, 
have resulted in even greater benefits to the material 
interests of his country and of the world (published in 
1870). 

Agricultural chemists predict that in the near future 
cultures of the nitrifying bacteria of the soil will be made 
on a large scale for the use of farmers, who will add 
them to manures for the purposes of fixing the am- 
monia, or perhaps will distribute them directly upon the 
soil. Should this prove to be a successful and economic 
procedure, the extent of the interests involved will make 
it a “practical result’’ of the first importance. Another 
application of our recently acquired knowledge which 
has already proved useful to farmers in certain parts of 
Europe relates to the destruction of field mice by distrib- 
uting in the grain fields bread moistened with a culture 
of a bacillus which causes a fatal infectious disease among 
these little animals. 

In Greece, in Hungary, and in other parts of Europe 
the quantity of grain consumed by field mice constitutes 
a very serious loss. Recent experiments made with cul- 
tures of two different bacilli (Bacillus typhi murium of 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 123 


Loffler and the bacillus of Lasar) show that it is practi- 
cable to destroy these pests, in the fields where their 
depredations are committed, in the manner indicated. 
Mice which consume the bread moistened with cultures of 
one of the pathogenic bacilli referred to die within a 
short time from general infection, and their bodies are 
consumed by other mice, which also become infected. 
Thus a veritable epidemic is induced by which their num- 
bers are very materially reduced. 

This leads us to the subject of the prevention of 
infectious diseases among domestic animals. We have 
now a precise knowledge of the specific infectious 
agents (“germs”) in the diseases of this class which have 
caused the greatest losses. The most important of these 
are anthrax, glanders, tuberculosis, infectious pleuro- 
pneumonia, swine plague, hog cholera, hog erysipelas, and 
fowl cholera. All of these have been proved to be due to 
bacterial parasites, the morphological and biological char- 
aeters of which are now well known. The infectious 
agent and usual mode of infection being known in any 
given disease, we have a scientific basis for measures of 
prophylaxis. These naturally include the destruction of 
the specific micro-organism to which the disease is due 
wherever it may be found. Au enormous amount of ex- 
perimental work has been done for the purpose of deter- 
mining the comparative value of disinfecting agents and 
the practical advantages of each, having in view ques- 
tions relating to cost, stability, solubility, odor, toxic 
properties, etc., also to the difference in resisting power 
of different pathogenic bacteria, the presence or absence 
of spores, the character of the material with which they 
are associated, etc. Asa result of this extensive labor- 
atory work our knowledge with reference to the efliciency 
and availability of agents of this class is very complete, 
and enables those who are familiar with the experimen- 
tal evidence to formulate rules for the destruction of the 


124 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [April 


various pathogenic bacteria wherever they may be 
found. The infected animal is itself a focus of infection 
which under certain circumstances had better be destroyed 
in toto, the individual being sacrificed and the body put 
out of the way of doing harm by means of cremation or 
burial. Under other circumstances it may be sufficient 
to isolate the infected animal and to disinfect all 
discharges containing the pathogenic germ and_ all 
objects contaminated by such discharges. By such 
measures the extension of epidemic diseases fatal to 
domestic animals may usually be arrested. But it may 
happen that the extent of the epidemic prevalence and 
the number of animals already exposed to infection make 
these measures inadequate or difficult of execution. In 
this case we have, for certain diseases, another method 
of prophylaxis which has been extensively employed 
with excellent results. I refer to the method of protect- 
ive inoculations, which we owe largely to the genius 
and patient researches of the distinguished French chem- 
ist Pasteur and his pupils. 

Toussaint, a pioneer in researches relating to protective 
inoculations, has a short paper in the Comptes-Rendus of 
the French Academy of Sciences of July 12, 1880, entitled 
Immunity from Anthrax (charbon) acquired as a Result 
of Protective Inoculations. 

In this paper he announces his discovery of the 
important fact that the anthrax bacillus does not form 
spores in the tissues or liquids of the body of an infected 
animal, but multiplies alone by binary division: “Sa 
multiplication se fait toujours par une aivision du my- 
celium.” 

In the same communication he reports his success in 
conferring immunity upon five sheep by means of pro- 
tective inoculations, and also upon four young dogs. We 
must therefore accord him the priority in the publication 


1896. ] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL 125 


of experimental data demonstrating the practicability of 
accomplishing this result. 

In a communication made to ihe French Academy 
of Sciences, September 27, 1880, Pasteur gave an account 


of an experiment made July 14, 1879, upon two cows, 
which in connection with a subsequent experiment 


made August 6, upon four cows, led him to the conclu- 
sion that a single attack of anthrax protects from subse- 
quent attacks. 

The next important steps in the line of experimental 
research leading to protective inoculations in the disease 
under consideration were reported by Pasteur in his com- 
munication to the French Academy made at the seance 
of February 28, 1881 (with the collaboration of chamber- 
land and Roux), entitled De l’ Attenwation des Virus et de 
leur Retour a la Virulence. In this connection Pasteur 
announces his discovery of the fact that when cultivated 
ata temperature of 42° to 43° C. the anthrax bacillus no 
longer forms spores and rapidly loses its virulence. 

In a later communication (March 21, 1881) Pasteur 
says that he has found by experiment that when atten- 
uated varieties of the anthrax bacillus form spores, these 
again reproduce the same pathogenic variety, so cultures 
of each degree of attenuation can be maintained indefi- 
nitely. 

On June 13, 1881, Pasteur communicated the results 
of his famous experiment at iu a near Melum. 
He says: 

“On the 5th of May, 1881, we inoculated, by means of 
a Pravaz syringe, twenty-four sheep, one goat, and six 
cows, each animals with five drops of an attenuated cul- 
ture of the anthrax bacillus. On the 17th of May we re- 
inoculated these animals with a second virus, also atten- 
uated, but more virulent than the first. 

“On the 31st of May we proceeded to make a very vir- 
ulent inoculation in order to test the efficacy of the pre- 


126 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [April 


ventive inoculations made on the 5th and 7th of May. For 
this experiment we inoculated the thirty vaccinated ani- 
mals, and also twenty-four sheep, one goat, and four cows 
which had not received any previous treatment. 

“The very virulent virus used on the 3lst of May was 
obtained from spores preserved in my laboratory since 
the 21st of March, 1877. 

‘In order to make the experiments more comparable, 
we inocculated alternately a vaccinated and a non-vac- 
cinated animal. When the operation was finished, all 
those present were invited to reasemble on June 2d—1i. 
e., forty-eight hours after the virulent inoculation was 
made. 

“Upon the arrival of the visitors on June 2d, all were 
astonished at the result. The twenty-four sheep, the 
goat, and the six cows which had received the attenuated 
virus all presented the appearance of health. On the 
contrary, twenty of the sheep and the goat which had . 
not been vaccinated were already dead of anthrax; two 
more of the non-vaccinated sheep died before the eyes of 
the spectators, and the last of the series expired before 
the end of the day. The non vacccinnated cows were not 
dead. We had previously proved that the cows are less 
subject than sheep to die of anthrax. But all had an ex- 
tensive edema at the point of inoculation, behind the 
shoulder. Certain of these cedematous swellings increasd 
during the following days to such dimensions that they 
contained several litres of liquid, deforming the animal. 
One of them even nearly touched the earth. The tem- 
perature of these cows was elevated 3° C. The vaccin- 
ated cows did not experience any -elevation of temper- 
ature, or tumefaction, or the slightest loss of appetite. 
The success, therefore, was as complete for the cows as 
for the sheep.” 

Subsequent experience has fully established the value 
of protective inoculations in this disease, and the method 


1896.]  MIOROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 127 


of Pasteur has been practiced on a large scale in France, 
Austria, Russia, and Switzerland. 

The results of anthrax inoculations made in France by 
Pasteur’s method during twelve years were summarized 
by Chamberland in 1894. The veterinarians who made 
the inoculations were each year called upon to answer 
the following questions: 1. Number of animals inocu- 
lated. 2. Number of deaths from first inoculation. 3. 
Number of animals dying within twelve days after the 
second inoculation. 4. Number of animals dying of an- 
thrax within a year after protective inoculations. 5. 
The yearly average loss before inocculations were prac- 
ticed. The total number of animals inoculated during 
the period to which this report refers was 1,788,677 sheep 
and 200,962 cattle. The average annual loss before these 
protective inoculations were practiced is said to have 
been about ten percent for sheep and five per cent for 
cattle. The total mortality from this disease among in- 
oculated animals, including that resulting from the inoc- 
ulations, was 0.94 per cent for sheep and 0.34 per cent 
for cattle. Chamberland estimates that the total saving 
as a result of the inoculations practiced has been five 
million francs for sheep and two million francs for cattle, 

Podmolinoff gives the following summary of results ob- 
tained in 1892 and 1893 in the government of Kherson 
(Russia): Number of sheep inoculated, 67,176; loss, 
294=0-43 per cent. Number of horses inoculated, 1,452; 
loss 8. Number of cattle inoculated, 3,652; loss 2. The 
conclusion is reached that Pasteur’s method of inocula- 
tion affords an immunity against infection with virulent 
anthrax bacilli in greater amounts than could ever occur 
under natural conditions. 

Another disease in which inocculations have been prac- 
ticed on a large scale is erysipelas of swine (Rouget of 
French authors), which prevails extensively in France and 


128 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [April 


other parts of Europe. Pasteur’s first studies relating to 
the etiology of rouget were made in collaboration with 
Chamberland, Roux, and Thuillier in 1882. Pasteur found 
that the virulence of his cultures was increased by pass- 
ing them through pigeons and diminished by passing 
them through rabbits. By a series of inoculations in 
rabbits he obtained an attenuated virus suitable for pro- 
tective inoculations in swine. In practice he recom- 
mended the use of a mild virus first, and after an inter- 
val of twelve days of a stronger virus. These inocula- 
tions have been extensively practiced in France, and the 
fact that immunity may be established in this way is 
well demonstrated. 

In a paper published in 1894 Chamberland states that 
in the preceeding seven years, during which time protec- 
tive inoculations had been practiced in France on a large 
scale, the mortality from rowget had been reduced to 1-45 
per cent, whereas before these inoeculations were prac- 
ticed the mortality from this disease was about twenty 
per cent. 

Hutyra has given the following statistics of inoccula- 
tions made in Hungary during the year 1889 with “vac- 
cines” obtained from the Pasteur laboratory in Vienna: 
48,637 pigs were inoculated on 117 different farms. Of 
these, 143 (0:29 per cent) died between the first and sec- 
ond inoculations. After the second inoculation 59 ani- 
mals died (0:1 one per cent). During the year following 
the inoculations 1,082 inoculated pigs died of Rothlauf. 
Before the inoculations the annual loss in the same loeal- 
ities is said to have been from ten to thirty per cent. 

In a communication (1894) to the Central Society of 
Veterinary Medicine (of France), Arloing claims that he 
has demonstrated the etiological relation of a bacillus 
first described by him in 1889 (Pneumobacillus liquefac- 
iens bovis) to the infectious disease of cattle known as 
pleuro-pneumonia. The demonstration was not complete 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL 129 


until recently, because of failure to reproduce the disease 
by inoculation with a pure culture of the bacillus. 

Although this demonstration is of such recent date, 
protective inoculations against this disease have long 
been successfully practiced. For this purpose serum ob- 
tained from the lungs of an animal recently dead has 
been employed this having been proved by experiment 
to be infectious material, although the exact nature of 
the infectious agent present in it was not determined. 

In the Bulletin of the Central Society of Veterinary 
Medicine of May 24, 1894, M. Robcis reports the results 
of inoculations made wit hcultures of Arloing’s Pnewmo- 
bacillus liquefaciens bovis, and with injections of pulmon- 
ury serum. His statistics with reference to the last- 
mentioned “legal” inoculations he has obtained from offi- 
cial documents relating to the Department of the Seine. 

The total number of infected localities in this depart- 
ment during the years 1885 to 1891 was 1,258; total 
number of contaminated animals, 18,356; total number 
inoculated, 18,359; total number of deaths prior to inocu- 
lation’ 1,753; total number of deaths after inoculation, 
2,741 ; total number of deaths due to the inoculation, 94; 
total percentage of mortality, 22-8 per cent. After dis- 
cussing these and other statistics Robcis arrives at the 
conclusion that Arloing’s method of preventive inocula- 
tions with cultures of the Pnewmobacillus liquefaciens 
bovis gives better results than the legal method with se_ 
rum from an infected animal, the total loss among ani- 
mals exposed to contagion not being over twelve to four- 
teen per cent. 

In the infectious disease of cattle known under the 
names of “black leg,” “quarter evil,” or symptomatic 
anthrax, protective inoculations have also been practiced 
with success. The disease prevails during the summer 
months in various parts of Hurope, and to some extent in 
the United States. It is characterized by the appearance 


130 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [April 


of irregular, emphysematous swellings of the subcutan- 
eous tissues and muscles, especially over the quarters. 
The muscles in the affected areas have a dark color and 
contain a bloody serum in which the bacillus is found to 
which the disease is due. This is an anaerobic bacillus 
which forms large oval spores. 

The etiology of the disease was first clearly established 
by the researches of Arloing. Cornevin, and Thomas (1880 
to 1883). 

Strebel, in 1885, published the reaults of protective 
inoculations made in Switzerland in 1884. The inocula- 
tions were made in the end of the tail with two ‘‘vac- 
cines,’ with an interval between the two of from 
nine to fourteen days. The vaccines were prepared by 
exposure to heat, as recommended by Arloing, Cornevin, 
and Thomas. The most favorable season for inoculations 
was found to be the spring, and the most favorable age 
of cattle for inoculation from five months to two years. 

In seven Swiss cantons 2,199 cattle were inoculated ; 
1,810 inoculations were made among animals which were 
exposed in dangerously infected pastures. Of these but 
two died, one two months and the other four months 
after the protective inoculations. Among 908 inoculated 
cattle, which were pastured with 1,650 others not inocu- 
lated, the mortality was 0:22 per cent, while the loss 
among the latter was 6:1 per cent. The following year 
(1885), according to Strebel, the number of inoculations, 
exclusive of those made in the canton of Bern, was 35,000. 
The losses among inoculated animals are reported as hav- 
ing been about five times less than among those not pro- 
tected in this way. 


Note.—We are indebted to the HKditor of Popular Science 
Monthly for permission to reproduce the above part of Dr. Stern- 
berg’s address, the balance of which will be found in the April 
number of the P. 8. M. 


1896. ] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 131 


Special Staining Methods in Microscopy, Relative to Animal 
Tissues and Cells. 


3. THE SPECIFIC STAINING OF SMOOTH-MUSLE FIBRES. By 
Dr. P.G. Unna, Hamburg. Translated from the Ger- 
man by Gro. W. Catz, M. D., F. R. M.S. (London), St. 
Louis. 

The smooth-muscle fibres are in general easily recog- 
nized in the skin without specific stain. The thickest 
series of layers, much longer, clearer, almost structure- 
less spindles with long, little staff-like nuclei to larger 
spindle or ribbon-formed, give the characteristic picture 
of the smooth-muscle as well in a longitudinal as in a 
cross section, which should not be confused with the be- 
fore mentioned longitudinal and cross sections of adjacent 
normal collagen bundles. Add to this, that the usual 
nuclear stains (hematoxylin, picro-carmine) show the . 
smooth-muscle plainly, even when markedly carried-out 
shading of the colors do not show sharply (gray-blue and 
yellow against bluish-white and red), so that up to this 
time there appeared no necessity for a sharper characteri- 
zation of skin muscles. 

But for all the more difficult problems another specific 
staining method must be sought for these parts of the 
skin. As such I will mention, for example, for the nor- 
mal anatomy of the skin, the questionable existence of 
the smooth-muscle fibres in the middle layer of the hair 
follicle, in the walls of the cutaneous vessels, and the 
demonstration of the musculature of the sweat coils, for 
the differentiation of the smooth-muscle and connective 
tissue fibres on the inside of the walls of hypertrophic 
and atrophic sub-cutaneous vessels, as well as myomata, 
certain neuromata (painful tubercles) and nevi. But when 
it is necessary to employ such methods for such disputed 
questions, there can be no reason why they should not be 
used in all instances, especially in such cases in which the 


132 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [April 


only question is in regard to smooth-muscle fibres. For 
they will not only show more exactly and more sharply 
the surroundings of the muscle fasciculi and their rela- 
tions with the neighboring tissue, but will also render 
easier the finding of displaced muscle fasciculi in the 
collagen tissues through the contrast staining. Finally, 
such stains are only applicable to such in which the pic- 
tures of the genesis and the regressive metamorphosis of 
the muscular spindles are to be given. 

In the article published before I have taken occasion 
to give two coloring methods by which the collagen and 
muscle fibres could be differentiated ; the methylin-blue- 
orcein method, and the acid fuchsin-picric method. By 
the first I have the muscle a weak bluish in contrast to 
the strong red collagen fibres, the better shown the longer 
one has previously stained with methylin-blue. We have 
also the methylin-blue which colors the collagen fibres 
and holds better than the decolorized neutral orcein solu- 
tion. Consequently it shows greater basophilic properties 
than the latter and remains more tenaceously in the pro- 
toplasm than in the collagen. We are forced to draw 
the same conclusions from the results of the acid fuchsin- 
picric method, though we are here concerned with only 
two acid stains, which are dissolved in the tissues. The 
differentiation depends upon the difference in intensity of 
the (acid) stains, and the weaker picric acid takes posses- 
sion of the basophilic substayces (protoplasm, muscle sub- 
stance) while the acidophylic parts (collagen, nuclei) take 
up with alacrity the strongeracid fuchsin. These methods 
also show here by means of the methyl-blue and orcein 
methods; muscle with portoplasm gives the same con- 
trast stain with collagen. 

In addition to these known methods I have found a 
way of developing the metylin-blue, which brings out 
sharply the muscle in collagen tissue in the simplest man- 
ner. The methyl-blue in the tissue is fixed by means of 


1896. ] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 133 


permanganate of potassium when the whole changes at 
once into a violet, but the protoplasm and muscle bundles 
are so strongly colored that it becomes necessary to de- 
colorize with acid-salt alcohol without decolorizing the 
last named tissue. This change may be utilized in order 
to decolorize the collagen tissues which are not so much 
affected by methyl-blue, and this shows a picture of the 
smooth muscles and protoplasm in deep violet on a color- 
less backgroud. This methyl-blue-potassium permanga- 
nate alcoholic treatment of the skin muscles is carried 
out in the following manner : 

The section is put for ten minutes in the polychrome 
methyl-blue solution, then washed in water, then put for 
10 minutes in al percent solution of permanganate of 
potassium, fixed, and lastly washed in water again and 
_ decolorized in acid alcohol (1 per cent HCl) until the 
collagen background shows itself white. Here follows a 
washing in absolute alcohol, then cleared in oil and 
mounted in balsam. 

A cell and cell-like substances show in such prepara- 
tions an equal violet color. The epidermis as well as the 
prickle cells are too deeply stained to permit this struc- 
ture to be well recognized ; but all delicate parts of this 
nature, the coil glands, the blood-vessels, capillaries, all 
connective tissue cells and lastly the muscles, are sharply 
defined against the unstained collagen, and at the same 
time permit their structure, especially the cell walls, 
such as the contours of the muscle spindles, to appear 
clearly. In addition to the deep staining of the cell nuclei 
and muscles, the method furnishes in this respect very 
useful general pictures. 

As important as the differentiation of collagen is that 
of elastin, on account of the exact functional relations 
between elastin and muscle substance: in all cases in 
which elastin is not specifically stained will it be seen in 
the color of the collagen and not in that of muscle sub- 


134 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [April 


stance, as it is ranged next to collagen in its acidophilous 
character, and chiefly it will not be distinguishable from 
collagen. On this account it will be found necessary in 
all cases, even in those in which unfortunately a strong 
separation of collagen from smooth-muscle is sought, to 
seriously stain in a permanent manner the elastin by 
means of the well-known quick staining in acid orcein 
solution. For the methods which have been given, the 
simple methyl-blue or orcein method are not available 
for this combination, as the muscles do not assume the 
blue color in double orcein applications. On the other 
hand tue methyl-blue-permanganate alcohol method and 
the acid fuchsin-picric method are especially applicable. 
In this latter combination it will be found advantageous 
to follow the elastin staining with a hematoxylin nucleus 
stain. Then, even if the nuclei appear red, after my sim- 
ple acid fuchsin-picric method, they suffer somewhat from 
a stronger picric treatment, aud a hematoxylin stain im- 
proves the sharpness of the picture materially. These 
two methods can be supplemented any desired manner. 
For whilst the last named four-color method is limited, 
as for example in hypertrophic changes of vessels through 
the sharp contrast between red, yellow and brown, very 
marked showing with low powers, the first named two- 
color method furnishes more transparent and better pic- 
tures for study with higher powers; and this the more 
so because the contours of the elementary parts appear 
more distinctly. 
I. DENONSTRATION oF SMOOTH-MUSCLE IN COLLAGEN. 

(a) Methylene-blue and Orcein Method. 

1. Polychrome methylene-blue solution, 4 hour or 
longer. 

2. Water. 

3. N.Spirituous orcein solution (1 per cent), 15 minutes. 

4. Absolute alcohol, oil, balsam. 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 135 


Collagen, orcein red; muscle, protoplasm, bluish ; 
keratin, nuclei, plasma cell, blue; prickle cells, methy-. 
lene red. 

(b) Acid Fuchsin-Picric Method. 

1. 2 per cent acid fuchsin solution, 5 minutes. 

2a s Water. 

3. Concentrated watery solution of picric acid, 1 min- 


4. Concentrated spiritous solution of picric acid, 1 
minute. 

5. Absolute alcohol, oil, balsam. 

Collagen, keratin, nuclei, red; muscle, protoplasm yel- 
low. 

(c) Methylene-Blue-Permanganate of Potassium, Mur- 
iatic Acid-Alcohol Method. 

1. Polychrome methylene-blue, 10 minutes. 
2. Water. 
3. 1 per cent solution of permanganate, 10 minutes. 
4. Water. 
5. Acid alcohol (1 per cent HCl), 10 minutes. 
6. Absolute alcohol, oil, balsam. 

Collagen, decolorized ; muscle, protoplasm, nuclei, vio- 
let. 
Il. CoMPaRISON OF SMOoTH MUSCLE WITH COLLAGEN AND 

; ELASTIN. 

(d) Acid Orcein-Hematin-Acid Fuchsin-Picric Method. 

1. Acid orcein solution, 10 minutes while being heated. 

2. Wash in diute spirits. 

3. Strong hematin solution, 10 minutes. 

4. Decolorization of the collagen in acid alcohol a few 
seconds. 

5. Water. 

6. 2 per cent acid fuchsin solution, 5 minutes. 

7. Concentrated watery solution of picric acid, 2 min- 
utes. 


136 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [April 


8. Concentrated spirituous solution of picric acid, 2 
minutes. 

9. Absolute alcohol, oil, balsam. 

Elastin, orcein, brown; collagen, acid-fuchsin, red: 
muscles, protoplasm, yellow; nuclei, grey-violet. 

(e) Acid Orcein-Methylene Blue-Permanganate of 
Potassium Acid-Alcohol Method. 

1. Acid orcein solution, 10 minutes while being heated. 


2. Wash in dilute spirits. ° 

3. Water. 

4. Polychrome methylene-blue solution, 10 minutes 
5. Water. 

6. 1 per cent solution of permanganate, 10 minutes. 
7. Water. 

8. Acid alcohol, 10 minutes. 

9. Water. 


10. Absolute alcohol, oil, balsam. 
Elastin, orcein, brown; collagen, decolorized ; muscle, 
protoplasm, nuclei, violet.—St. Louis Medical Journal. 


A New Way of Marking Objectives. + 


? 


WILETAN. C. KRAUSS,“M. D., FoR. M.S: 
Secretary of American Microscopical Society. 


BUFFALO, N. Y. 


That every microscopist in demonstrating to his classes 
in histology or pathology has been annoyed in determin- 
ing the focus of the various objectives when a nose-piece 
is used, no one will dare contradict. The small letters 
or figures, designating the focus, engraved on the body 
of the objective have often to be sought for with great 
vexation, necessitating at times the removal of the lens 
from the nose-piece, or in revolving the lens or nose- 
piece so that the number will be discernable. Sometimes 


1896.) MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 137 


the microscope must be upturned or the investigator is 
obliged to place his head on the level with the table, 
thereby upsetting re-agent bottles or provoking other 
mirth and mischief before he is enabled to focus his tube 
correctly and with safety on some valuable slide, This 
has been the writer’s experience, and now that he has 
finally and so simply solved this perplexing question, 
submits his discovery to the society, with considerable 
feeling of pride and gratification. 

On the diaphragm in the large part of the objective, 
or the end that is screwed to the nose-piece, the desig- 


nation of the lens may be engraved, so that when the 
nose-piece is revolved the designation of the various lens- 
es will be at once visible. The in vestigator with one eye 
at the ocular, need not change his position in bringing 
all the lenses under the body tube, but can with the other 
eye see the lens as it swings into place, and can focus 
with coarse and fine adjustment accordingly. The writer 
has been well pleased with the focal lengths of the Zeiss 
objectives, necessitating but one focusing for all the diff- 
erent lenses, especially of the dry system. Working with 


138 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [April 


these lenses, marked as I have indicated, on a triple or 
quadruple nose-piece, is not only a pleasure, but a great 
convenience. 

The accompanying illustration which is purely dia- 
grammatical, represents a triple nose-piece with the ob- 
jectives 3, $ and 1-5 attached removed from the body 
tube. The nose-piece is so revolved that all the upper 
surfaces of the lenses are visible, disclosing their desig- 
nation. 


Radiolaria: A New Genus from Barbados. 
HARRY J. SUTTON. 


PHILADELPHIA, PA. 


Astrococcura. n. gen. 


Definition.—Coccodiscida with four chambered arms on 
the margin of the circular or quadrangular disk, crossed 
in two equatorial diameters, without a connecting pat- 
agium. Medullary shell double. 

Astrococeura concinna, 2. sp. 

Phacoid shell twice as broad as the outer and four 


times as broad as the inner medullary shell, with ten 
pores on its radius, surrounded by one perfect chambered 
ring. Arms fingered-shaped, as long as broad at the 
base, at the rounded distal ends about three-fourths as 
broad. 


1896. ] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 139 


Dimensions.—Diameter of the phacoid shell 0.12, of 
the outer medullary shell 0.06, of the inner 0,03; length 
of the arms 0.09, basal breadth 6.09, distal breadth 


0.0675. 
Habitat.—Fossil in the rocks of Barbados. 


Notrr.—On pages 59 and 60 of the JOURNAL for February are described 
and illustrated two new species. Figure 1 is Rhopalastrum anomalum and 
Figure 2 shows Pentinastrum irregulare. From the position of the figures, 
one might infer the opposite to be the case. Hence attention is hereby 
called to it. 


On Distinguishing Minerals. 
BY MELVILLE ATWOOD. 


[Report of paper read before the San Francisco Microscopical Society.] - 


Many years ago he had found considerable difficulty 
in determining, with any degree of accuracy, the hard- 
ness of minerals, the scale of hardness then in use, and 
probably still at many colleges, being a small box con- 
taining samples of the different minerals and a penknife. 
The knife wasseldom hard enough to scratch wolfram, 
representing 5 in the scale. To the prospector or miner 
it is of the greatest importance to be able by some means 
to determine the degree of hardness. Many fragments 
of corundum and quartz have been sent long distances 
to have them determined, the sender thinking them dia- 
monds. 

Mr. Atwood had found, after many trials, the easiest 
mode of determining hardness was to have the minerals 
representing the various degrees mounted something 
like a writing diamond. For this purpose you break the 
corundum, topaz, etc., into small fragments, and after se- 
lecting those with fine, sharp points, proceed to mount 
them in the following manner: ‘Take a small rubber- 
tipped pencil and extract the rubber from it. Then with 


140 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [April 


a spirit lamp melt some lapidary’s cement into the vacant 
space; with a small pair of plyers take the fragaments of 
minerals, heat one end, and insert it into the cement. 
While the cement is warm, by wetting your finger, you 
can mold it into any shape you please and when cold, if 
properly done, it will harden and answer just as well as 
if set in metal, with the advantage that you can renew it 
at any time in a few moments. 

In the examination of rocks the specimen selected 
should have a good fresh surface of fracture, of a size 
about 3 by 5 inches, and 13 inches thick. With a trim- 
ming hammer prepare the narrow face or edge, so that 
by rubbing it on emery blocks you can get an even sur- 
face or polish on it. Then heat the specimen so you can 
hardly handle it. When in that condition rub Canada 
balsam on half the polished surface. When cold it will 
harden so that you can handle it without injury. By 
this method the different constituents of the rock are 
much better seen, and the inspection of the outer surface, 
viewed asan opaque object witha commen magnifier, say 
of three diameters, set in a spectacle frame, gives all the 
information ordinarily required by the mining engineer. 
The even surface not covered by the balsam can then 
have the hardness of the different crystalized minerals to 
be seen on it easily determined, and also tested with 
acids, applying the same with a pointed glass rod dipped 
in the acid. The action, if any, can be seen, and also 
the smallest scratch, when testing for hardness, will be 
made visible. 

The use of the lenses mounted in a spectacle frame Mr. 
Attwood strongly recommended to the miner or geologist 
in the field, as it is scarcely possible to examine the 
streaks of minerals, when they occur in very minute cry- 
tals and keep the lens in focus when holding it in one 
hand and working for the scale of hardness with the 
other. 


1896. } MICROSCOPICAL JOUKNAL. 14] 


Mr. Attwood had mounted for examination under the 

microscope a small fragment of what is called ‘carbon- 
ate,’ or diamond carbon. Bahia, Brazil, produced at 
one time large quantities of the carbonate. 
Its hardness is identical with the white diamond, and in 
structure it is porous, so much that is resembles pom- 
ice stone. The fragment he had mounted was taken from 
the Yellow Jacket diamond drill, at Virginia City, Nev- 
ada. The drill penetrated the rock below the gold and 
silver ores of the Comstock lode at a depth of over 4,000 
feet, when they met with hot water. 

Should the minerals forming the rock be too small 
to be seen with the common lens, a microscopic 
section will have to be cut. The process is a simple one; 
but requires patient and skillful treatment to produce a 
section thin enough for a full view of its structure. Mr. 
Attwood had two section thus prepared from the hang- 
ing wall of the Keystone mine, Amador county, at the 
thousand-foot level, one to show color and texture, the 
other to be examined by polarized light. 

Altogether the demonstration was a good one, and the 
paper was attentively listened to. 


EDITORIAL. 


Transactions of the American Microscopical Society for 
1895.—This volume, consisting of 376 pp. and numerous plates, 
reached us on February 15, 1896. It relates to the meeting of 
August 21 to 23, 1895. It has therefore taken about seven 
months to publish it. This is probably as prompt as it has 
ever been done, and reflects credit upon the Secretary, Dr. 
Wm. C. Krauss, who has had the matter in charge. Under 
the recent scheme of quarterly installments, the first part usually 
required six or seven months, the second part several more and 
the third or fourth parts ran down upon the following meeting. 
It will be seen that Dr. Krauss has issued the entire publica- 


142 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [April 


tion in one part consuming about the same time that the first 
‘Quarterly’? has heretofore required. 

The return to the original plan of publishing all the papers 
in one volume is of course wise. Every one must see that to. 
be so. ‘The following facts culled from the Treasurer’s report 
still further emphasis it. 

Of part 1, 1892, there are 185 copies left ou hand. 

Of part 3, 1892, there are 276 copies left on hand. 

Of part 1 and 2, 1893, there are but 53 copies left. 

Of part 4, 1893, there are 152 copies on hand. 

In all probability the excess of 91 odd copies (1892) and of 
99 odd copies (1893) will prove utterly useless and eventually 
go for waste paper. Such is the result of issuing the proceed- 
ings in parts and scattering them regardless of the need of 
matching up sets. It takes a good deal of carefulness to keep 
periodicals properly matched up and a society cannot get that 
care taken for it. Hence, the society finds itself now encum- 
bered with 236 copies of the 1887 volume but it has only 6 
copies of the volume for 1884. As the demand for back vol- 
umes will be mostly for sets the extra copies for 1887 are 
mostly deadwood. ‘They should however be presented to pub- 
lic libraries throughout the country, selecting such as have 
funds with which to do binding and cataloging. 

The list of names of members contained in this volume 
includes 278 persons. A proposition to print but 300 copies 


was lost and 500 ordered. ‘This will leave about 200 copies to 
go into storage. 


Although the list gives 278 names, the Treasurer’s report 
shows that but 203 paid dues for 1895. If only those who pay 
dues receive the publication there will be nearly 300 copies for 
storage. 

The volume for 1895 has been printed and distributed to 
from 203 to 278 members. The papers were studiously withheld 
from publication until the volume could be gotten out. Now 
that it is out, the monthlies are at liberty to copy such papers 
as they desire to send to their subscribers. It is difficult for 
us to know what todo. We have about a thousand readers 
who are not members of the society and who presumably 
would like to get the information, but here it comes t) us in a 


’ 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 143 


lump—nearly 400 pages. Probably we can reprint. the short 
papers one or two at a time and let the long ones be buried in 
the hands of the 203 to 278 members, most of whom will 
never find time to read them. 

Ought not all friends of microscopy to consider this con- 
dition of affairs and to advise with us and with the influential 
members of the society regarding the wise course to persue? 
If we could be furnished with the manuscripts as fast as they 
are ready commencing immediately after the meeting, we 
could lay the whole matter before our much larger constitu- 
ency sooner than the society can do it through the proceed- 
ings. But of course this would render the annual volume 
unneccessary. 

But to come to the volume itself. It is creditable in every 
way. It opens with the address of the president, 8. H. Gage, 
which we have already published. Over 60 pages are consumed 
with the secretary’s minutes of the meeting. These contain 
the comments of members upon the papers read as well as the 
discussions of business. When the society shall have relegated 
its business affairs to a council or governing board and thus 
eliminated talk about such things from its sessions it will have 
taken a long step in advance of its present attitude. There is 
always talk over items of business which is not worth publish- 
ing—so of the stereotyped addresses of welcome and of thanks. 
They must be spoken but not necessarily printed. 

Of the specific papers, we will speak later. 


MICROSCOPICAL APPARATUS. 


On A Novel Microscope and Mechanical Stage.—I am 
now reminded of my promise, made some weeks ago, to 
describe in the “‘ E.M.” a new form of microscope recently con- 
structed by myself. At present I am much pressed for time, 
and seldom come up to London, and therefore cannot conveni- 
ently exhibit the instrument. 

The original intention was to make up, entirely by means of 
lathe-work, a simple form of microscope for a child’s use; but, 
after commencing, certain alterations suggested themselves, 


144 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [April 


which are embodied in the instrument now shown in Fig. 1. 
The base is a heavy, circular ring turned in the lathe, both in- 
side and out. On the face of the periphery is cast a boss, hav. 
ing aslanting top. The pillar which carries the stage and arm 
has its end faced to a similar angle, so that when the pillar is 
vertical it stands at right angles to the base. A square-should- 
ered screw passes through the ring-base, and is tapped into the 
bottom of the pillar. Great care must be taken that the line of 
this screw is exactly sauare with the facets. A centre for drill- 
ing the pillar to can be found on the stage-plate; but for the 
ring-base it will be advisable to fix it on a sloping piece of 
wood, attached to the face-plate of the lathe at a suitable angle, 
and drill the hole through while running, using a countersink, 
or pin-drill, for the square head of the screw; or it may be 
worth while to turn a flat-end cylinder of boxwood, with a cen- 
tral hole to fit, and serve as a guide for a twist-drill, this guide 
to be clamped or cemented in place on the flat. This will insure 
the hole being drilled upright therewith. 

The microscope is shown in Fig. 1 in the vertical postion ; 
but if we turn the base round to the place shown by the dotted 
line, the pillar inclines backwards to an angle of about 50°, 
which is suitable for observation while the user is seated. The 
base coming behind affords a firm support against any over- 
hang. This movement is easier to make, and less cumbrous, 
than the usual cradle-joint. The pillar is drilled through its 
axis down near to the base, and finished with a rose or cylinder- 
bit, so as to get a true and smooth hole. Into this it fitted a 
round rod, carrying the arm at the top, so as to slide smoothly 
without any shake. The back of this rod is cut into a rack, 
raised and lowered as usual by a pinion with two milled heads. 
In the top of the pillar is fixed the arm carrying the body 
through the socket-guide. However well a coarse focussing ar- 
rangement, consisting of a side-racked tube or body sliding in a 
socket, may appear to act while highly-polished just as it leaves 
the optician’s hand, it will not continue to do so, for when it 
becomes tarnished the extra friction causes a nasty cross-strain 
damaging to rack and pinion. If the sliding-tube is moved by 
an equal force across the centre, the strain is equalised. This 
is effected inthis microscope by the arm at the top of the 
racked rod, which ends in a horseshoe form, embracing the two 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 145 


sides of the tubes, with pins projecting from the body through 
slits in the outer socket, and entering into spans in the arm 
ends. The outer socket is also slit through its length in front, 
to allow the fine movement bracket to pass through. We thus 
have a semicircular bearing behind for the body-tube with two 
elastic strips in front to keep it in place. 

This arangement brings the focussing milled heads and the 
two of the stage movements conveniently close together. At 


first there was no intention of adopting a fine motion, but the 
present one is simple and very effective. The bane of most fine 
movements is tight fitting, which is particularly necessary when 
the barbarous plan is adopted of raising the whole weight of the 
body and its atlachments to obtain this motion; also a fine 
motion is sometimes subject to derangement by the lever (if 
such is used). The present fine motion consists of an inner 
piece of tube carrying the object-glass, and fitted so loosely that 
jt easily drops out with its own weight ; its range is limited by 


146 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [April 


one screw at the back near the bottom, passing through a slot 
in the shell-tube. Surrounding this is a light wire spiral spring 
pressing on the screwhead and against a fixed stud above it. 
In front of the fine-motion tube is screwed an angle-piece pro- 
jecting out aud bearing on the point of the fine-motion screw. 
We have thus a down-pressure at the back of the tube and a 
bearing in front. All this tends to keep the fine-motion tube 
up to its bed at opposite places, front and back, so that no 
amount of wear can ever cause the arrangement to get slack. 

The steel screw of 80 threads to the inch is carried by a staple. 
It is tapped into the lower arm, but the upper blank end passes 
through the top. Its pointed end bears onto a hard steel flat 
let into the fine-motion arm. The milled head within the 
staple is merely screwed hard on to the fine thread. Where the 
inner tube bears it may be very slightly eased off at the middle 
to avoid the possibility of rocking sideways ; this does not occur. 
The motion is perfect, and sensitive to the slightest touch. 

I now reter to the stage. As this may be considered the most 
important feature, I append separate illustrations. However 
wel! some may say that they can minage to move an object- 
slide about with the fingers, to the majority of us this is a tan- 
talising and clumsy operation, and nearly everyone must ap- 
preciate the luxury of a mechanical stage with rectangular 
movements. In cheap microscopes this is prohibitive, on the 
score of expense. Some of the old stages, with their rectilinear 
slides, set-screws, and adjusting slips, are more appropriate for 
a lathe slide-rest than for a mere carrier for a weight of a frac- 
tion of an ounce. Fig. 2 is a plan of the stage half the size of 
the original. It consists merely of a plane rectangular base- 
plate, with the top perfectly flat, and perforated with two 
holes. One embraces the pillar; the other is ledged for carry- 
ing the diaphragm plate, or subtage illuminators, &c. The top 
or moving plate (shown shaded) has two horns extending back, 
allowing room between for sufficient range clear of the pillar. 
Close to the outer edge of these horns are screwed two pieces of 
fine rack, 18-8in. long. ‘he final screwing down of these must 
be deferred till the pinion is set in its bearings, in order to set 
the top plate in exact parallelism with the lower one. Having 
thus two racks spread some distance apart, each actuated by 
the same pinion, a perfectly straight movement is obtained fore 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 147 


and aft. The side movement is obtained as follows :—A suit- 
able length of pinion wire has a piece of brass tube pushed on 
tight midway. The ends of this are turned away so that it just 
fits between the inner sides of the two parallel racks. The ex- 
terior of the tube is turned and polished quits true. Now mark 
off the pinion wire to the outside of the racks, and turn all the 
teeth away right tothe ends. Make these blanks quite parallel 
and polish them nicely. All this is best done with a clock- 
maker’s hollow centre turn, worked with a bow, in a manner 
familiar to experts: these polished ends pass through suitable 
angle bearings, screwed up from beneath the stage, as shown in 
side view Fig. 3. What we now require is to keep the top plate 
down in contact with the bottom one, by a fine elastic pressure. 
The pinion is set in its bearings, and properly geared with the 
rack at a sufficient height to allow a thin hammered brass spring 
to be inserted beneath ;—this is bowed up so_as to bear up in 
the middle of the brass pinion-sheath ; the ends consequently 
press down on the two sides of the upper plate. To keep this 
spring’in place two blocks are fixed to the ends, rising a little 
above the centre of the pinion-sheath, and cut out so as to em- 
brace it as shown in planand side view, Fig. 4,in which the 
under curved black line shows the spring. No oil must be ap- 
plied to this stage, and the lower surface of the top plate must 
be quite flat with the under one. Turning with a good slide- 
rest will eff:ct this, and finish by stoning over. The surfaces 
may be smeared with blacklead. 

As to the two outside milled heads, they are simply driven 
on to the ends of the pinions, which are very slightly tapered, 
and held up by fine screws tapped therein. 

At first sight it might be inferred that the sliding transverse 
movement would not harmonise with the rack-and-pinion one ; 
but the first trial will prove that this is not the case. The 
erratic movements of an aquatic animalcule can be followed up 
at once with perfect ease ;—in fact it acts as easily (at least, in 
my hands) as any other rectilinear mechanical stage. The 
movement is too simple to be misunderstood; but I trust that 
I have been sufficiently explicit—F. H. Wenham, in English 
Mechanic. 


‘ 


148 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [April 


MICROSCOPICAL MANIPULATION. 


Determination of Falsifications of Ground Black Pep- 
per-—T'o demonstrate the presence of ground olive kernels, 
almond and other nutshells in black pepper, Martelli extols 
the method of Weisner for the micro-chemical demonstration of 
lignin by the aid of phloroglucin. He dissolves about 1 gm. of 
that substance in from 50 to 60 ccm. of hydrochloric acid of 1.10 
by digesting for twenty-four to forty-eight hours. Ina 
small, shallow porcelain dish about 50 cgm. of the suspected 
pepper is placed and moistened with the turbid phloroglucin 
solution and the dish is carefully heated over a spirit lamp un- 
til fumes of the acid are given off. Examination under the 
microscope will then show such falsifications, if they exist, 
colored in a strong cherry red, while the pepper is colored a 
yellow or a reddish brown. If much of the contaminating 
material be present, this differentiation will be plain to the un- 
aided eye. On levigation and decantation the foreign material 
may be isolated and will show as a red violet color.—National 
Druggist. 


BACTERIOLOGY. 


Importance of Chemistry in the Diagnosis of Bac- 
teria-—Dr. Fritz Kiessling calls attention to the importance of 
this subject. It is a well known fact that the differentiation 
of the colon bacillus from the typhoid fever germ offered, 
serious difficulties till Dr. Theobald Smith used the fermenta- 
tion-tube test in differential diagnosis. Dr. Kiessling -calls at- 
tention to such well-known physiological properties as pepton- 
izing of gelatin and blood serum. Such products of vital activ- 
ity as the coloring of the medium as is Bacillus pyocyaneus 
Attention is called to acid and alkaline curdling of milk. Species 
that have the power of reducing nitrates to nitrites, the pro- 
duction of indol. Phenol is another common product. The 
production of acids and alkaline substances, scatol, kreatine. 
Acid or alkaline condition of the medium is important. Kiess- 
ling mentions many other substances that must be taken into 
account for special organisms. (Pharmaceutische Rundschau, 
XIII, 266.) 


1896. ] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 149 


Bacillus ramosus.—Prof. H. Marshall Ward in the fourth 
report of the Royal Society’s research water committee gives an 
extended and full account of the life history of this water or- 
-ganism. The organism runs through its entire life-history from 
the germination of the-spore to spore formation in from thirty 
to sixty hours at ordinary temperature. Prof. Ward calls at- 
tention to the want of care used by bacteriologists in looking 
up the synonomy of species they study. Exposure to direct 
sunlight kills both spores and filaments. Spores are killed or 
retarded by the blue violet rays apart from any temperature 
effect. (Proc. Roy. Soc., lviil, pp. 265-468.) 


BIOLOGICAL NOTES. 


The Vegetations of Solutions.—M. Barnouvin has in the 
Repertoire de Pharmacie for December an interesting little 
memoire with the title Vegetations des Solutes on the subject of 
certain vegetable growths found in a saturated aqueous solution 
of quinine valerianate which had been standing for about a 
month. 

These vegetations presented the appearance of little greyish 
white flocculent masses dispersed thoughout the liquid. Ex- 
amined under the microscope with an amplification of 590 dia- 
meters, these flocculi presented the following appearance, cer- 
tain of which are of considerable interest : 

The structure consisted of numerous filaments, which were 
nearly colorless, some of them being nicely reticulated or 
cloisonated, while others were continuous, and the greater part 
of them containing spherical or ovoid spores of a blackish hue, 
with sharply defined contours and apparently homogeneous 
contents. Here and there the mycelium tubules bore sprouts, 
the latter terminating in spores of similar characteristics. Amid 
the filaments were numerous free spores, some solitary, while 
others were united two by two. They were, in fact, in the pro- 
cess of germination. 

This disposition of spores in the interior of filaments is a very 
remarkable phenomenon. The reproductive organs in this in- 
stance answer to the chlamydospores of the Mucorinx, to which 
family the vegetations of quinine valerianate belong. The 


150 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [April 


» 


greater part of the spores are, in fact, mycelian chlamydospores, 
but some of them are also analogous to aerian chlamydospores, 
both forms being presented by certain Mucorine. We must 
admit, therefore, with M. Van Tieghem, that the two species of 
asexual spores are of one and the same origin. 

The main importance of M. Barnouvin’s observations is that 
the chlamydic form is not usually found in hydrolates (dis- 
tilled watery solutions) and the question is—does it occur more 
frequently in a aqueous solutions (not formed by distillation)? 
It is probable that in all cases the poverty of aqueous distillates 
in the matter of nutritive elements is the obstacle to the develop- 
ment of these particular organs of reproduction.—National 
Druggist. 


WEDICAL MICROSCOPY. 


Simplification of the Examination for Tubercle Bacilli. 
—Professor Rindfleisch, of Wurzburg, says in the Deutsche 
Medizinische Wochenschrift that the bacilli are found in greatest 
numbers in the liquid and not in the masses of mucus of the 
sputum, and advises the following method for their demonstra- 
tion: Dip a camel’s hair pencil in water so as to moisten it well 
and press out surplus water. With this stir the sputum well 
and on withdrawing it, although nothing will apparently cling 
to it, it will be full of bacilli (if they are present in the sputum). 
With it stroke the cover glass lightly, so as to make an uniform 
coating over it Of course, a new pencil must be used for each 
operation, as it has been found practically impossible, without 
a disproportionate amount of labor, to free the pencil from 
traces of the bacilli, which might invalidate subsequent exami- 
nations.—WNational Druggist. 


Fluorescent Bacteria.-- Bacillus pyocyaneus, B. syncyaneum, B 
fluorrscens tenwis and several others, studied by K. Thumm ox1- 
dize grape sugar to acid which is neutralized by the ammonia 
formed later. (Jour. Roy. Mic. Soc., 1896, Pt. 6, 672.) 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 151 


MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETIES. 


Sheffield Microscopical Society. 


Mr. Chas. Hoole assisted by Mr. Harrow, the curator of the 
Sheffield Botanical Gardens, delivered a lecture to the members 
of the above Society on the “ History, Cultivation, and Micros- 
copic Structure of the Victoria regia.” Mr. A. H. Allen, F.I.C., 
F.C.S., President of the Society, occupied the chair. The lec- 
ture throughout was of the most attractive character. An in- 
teresting point brought out was that the under surface of the 
leaves of this royal plant were of a deep crimson color, and it 
has recently been proved that the effect of this is to change 
light rays into heat rays, and thus materially add to the main- 
tenance of the internal temperature, which is so essential to the 
plant. After the lecture, Mr. Hoole, by the aid of a number of 
microscopes, kindly lent by Mr. Newsholme, showed a large 
number of microscopical sections taken from all parts of the 
plant. The warmest thanks of the Society were subsequently 
conveyed to Mr. Hoole and Mr. Harrow.—Pharmaceutical Journal. 


Quekett Microscopical Club. 


The 309th ordinary meeting of this Club was held on Friday, 
Feb. 21st, at 20 Hanover-square, Mr. E. M. Nelson, F. R. M.S., 
president, in the chair. 

Mr. Karop said he was sure that every member present would 
hear with profound regret of the death of Mr. T. H. Buffham, 
intelligence of which had only just reached the committee, 
althought it occurred, he understood, on the 9th inst. Mr. Buff- 
ham was a most excellent and careful observer, and made par- 
ticular study of the Marine Algee; he had, as they knew, con- 
tributed many valuable papers on the reproductive organs of 
the Florideze and the conjugation of diatoms, and his loss to the 
Club would be severely felt. 

The usual annoucements were then made, and the special 
business of the annual general meeting proceeded with. 

The President appointed Messrs. Burton and Macer scruti- 
neers, and ballot was taken for president, officers, and four mem- 
bers of committee. Having received their report, the President 


152 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [April 


declared that the names on the printed list had been duly 
elected. 


The proposed amendment of Rule 7 of the Club’s by-laws, 
notice of which was read at the previous meeting, was put from 
the chair, and carried unanimously. 


The Secretary read the 30th annual report of the committee, 
and the Treasurer his annual statement of income and expendi- 
ture, signed by the auditors as correct. 


Dr. Measures moved that the report and balance sheet, as 
read, be adopted. This was seconded by Mr. Neville, put, and 
carried. : 

The President then delivered the customary address, dealing 
with the improvements in the microscope and its accessories 
during the past twelve months, and with the theory of the 
Herschelian doublet, the homogeneous immersion objective, 
and other optical matters. / 


At its conclusion, Mr. Michael moved a vote of thanks to the | 
President for his address and for his great services to the Club 
during the three years he had held office as chairman. This 
was seconded by Mr. Hardy, put, and carried with applause. 


Mr. Nelson, having expressed his acknowledgement of the 
vote just passed, handed over the chair to his successor, Mr. J. 
G. Waller, F.S.A., who briefly returned thanks for the honor 
they had done him in making him their president. - 


The usual vote of thanks to the auditors and scrutineers, 
committee, and officers were accorded, and the proceedings . 
terminated.— English Mechanic. 


Lincoln Microscope Club. 


February 20. Dr. Bessey delivered the President’s address 
on “The Use of the Microscope in Nebraska.” He stated that 
about 300 microscopes were in use in education in the state, 
and that of 47 high schools in the state, 23 have one or more 
microscopes. The highest number of microscopes owned by 
any high school in the state is eleven. Most of them own six. 
- The West is not behind the East in seizing upon the latest and 
best methods of instruction. 


THE ROOT, CROSS SECTION AND MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE 
OF TRIOSTEUM PERFOLIATUM. 


THE AMERICAN 


MONTHLY 


MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 


Vou. XVIII. MAY, 1895. No. 5 


A New Adulteration of Senega Root. 
By C. HARTWICH. 
[ WITH FRONTISPIECE. ] 

In the early part of 1894, Ad. Andree, in Hanover, 
drew attention to an interesting adulteration found in 
senega root imported from New York, the drug contain- 
ing nearly 25 percent of a foreign root which he referred 
to Richardsonia scabra. The structure of the drug, 
however, showed this identification to be incorrect; the 
starch in the two roots differed in character, and in the 
Richardsonia the oxalate of calcium assumed the form of 
raphides, whilst in the adulteration referred to it is pre- 
sent as cluster crystals. Hartwich believes the root to be 
that of Triostewm perfoliatum, L., Caprifoliacer, which 
has recently appeared as ipecacuanha. Externally the 
roots showed the greatest similarity, and the histological 
and chemical examination proved their identity. 

Triosteum perfoliatum is indigenous to the eastern and 
southeastern United States, and might therefore easily 
be collected with senega, although the two plants are 
very different in appearance. Triostewm is a scrub with 
a thick knotty rhizome, from which arise several stems 
reaching nearly three feet in height; it is known in 
America as tinker’s weed, bastard ipecac, etc., and is 
used somewhat extensively as an antipyretic, purgative 
and emetic. 

The drug consists of a yellowish-brown or dark-brown 
bent, knotty rhizome, to the sides and under surface of 


154 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [May 


which are attached numerous roots, generally not over % 


em. thick, and often much thinner; these are lighter in 
color than the root-stock, show here and there trans- 
verse fissures (Fig. 1), and resemble many varieties of 
false ipecacuanha, especially Richardsonia. In general 
appearance it is so like senega, that its presence seems 
to have been overlooked; it differs, however, in the ab- 
sence of a keel. 

The structure of the root is very characteristic. <A 
transverse section (Fig. 2) exhibits‘ radiate wood with- 
out pith and a cortex, in which a narrow pale outer por- 
tion can be easily distinguished from a darker inner part. 
Next to the cork is a layer of large compressed cells 
(primary bark), containing here and there a cluster crys- 
tal of calcium oxalate. Between this and the secondary 
bark is a layer of four or five rows of cork cells, the 
outer of which have undergone an unusual radial elong- 
ation (Figs. 4 and 5), in consequence of which the primary 
bark has become compressed, and is eventually thrown 
off. The cortex contains numerous cluster-crystals of 
calcium oxalate and starch in compound or simple grains 
reaching .015 mm. in length (Fig. 3). The wood is re- 
markable for the fact that the medullary rays are ligni- 
fied, whilst in the xylem rays only the middle lamella 
yields the lignin reaction. 

The Triostewm root contains an alkaloid which Andree 
considered identical with emetine. Hartwich, however, 
was unable to obtain the characteristic reaction with 
hydrochloric acid and chlorinated lime, and concludes, 
therefore, that the alkaloid is not emetine.—Abstract of 
a paper in the Archiv. d. Pharm. 


Anthrax in Fox.—Prof. Bujuid reports that a fox kept 
in a cage for some months and fed ona rabbit dead of an- 
thrax took the disease and died on the third day. Cultures 
made from the clotted blood and of the heart and other 
gave anthrax bacilli. (Centralblatt f. Bakt. u Parasitenk.) 


1896.] | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 155 


The Nature and Manufacture of Bacterial Products. 
By E. M. HOUGHTON, Ph. G., M. D. 


DETROIT, MICH. 


There is a growing demand among pharmacists for 
more information regarding the origin, properties and 
processes of manufacture of the various bacterial products 
that are creating so much interest among all classes of 
people, with special reference to those employed as thera- 
peutic agents. The purpose of this paper is to give in 
a general way the more important facts relating to the 
microscopical slides, culture media, toxins, antitoxins, and 
other products of this nature that are found on the 
market. 

The origin of all these preparations is those minute, 
unicellular, vegetable organisms we call bacteria, which 
ure species of fungi very closely related to yeast and 
molds. So inconceivably small are these forms of life 
that, according to the estimate of Bujwid, eight billions 
of pus-germs weigh but a single milligram. Had we an 
instrument capable of magnifying a man of average 
stature in the same proportion as we do bacteria to study 
their characteristics, he would appear about four times 
as large as Mount Washington. We might almost com- 
pare them in size to the chemist’s atoms ; indeed, untila 
few years since, we knew far more about atoms than we 
did about germs. Now, owing to improved methods of 
microscopical study, we are enabled to observe many 
phases in the cycle of life of these microscopic plants. 

Scientists have classified bacteria in various ways. 
The most important classification is based on form, and 
presents three great classes: micrococci, bacilli, and 
spirilli. 

The micrococci are spherical germs, which, according 
to grouping, are given more comprehensive names. 
When occurring singly or in irregular masses (Fig 1) we 


156 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [May 


call them staphylococci; an example of these is furnished 
by the ordinary pus-germs. When in groups of two, 
they are termed diplococci (Fig 2); perhaps the most im- 
portant illustration of this class is the germ of pneu- 
monia. When occurring in chains or threads containing 
many cells, the name streptococcus (Fig. 3) is given; as 
the streptococcus of erysipelas or tonsilitis. Then again, 
from division in three directions, we may gel little square 


£0  %0 


packages of germs: these are called sarcines (Fig. 4); 
many of our harmless water bacteria form groups in this 
way. The second class, called bacilli (the word bae- 
illus means ‘‘a small rod’’—see Fig. 5), may occur in 
dense masses orsingly, as with the tubercle bacilli, ty- 
phoid feverand many of the other common pathogenic bac- 
teria. Again, they may form long threads, as is noticed 
with anthrax germs, which, until Pasteur’s discoveries a 
few years ago, threatened to annihilate all the herds of 
Europe. Bacilli may be sbort or long, thick or slender, 


18 )6. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 157 


with rounded or with blunt ends. In fact, the structure 
may be varied in innumerable ways. 

The third class, but a few species of which have been 
studied, may occur as bent rods or comma-shaped organ- 
isms when found singly, or, when growing out into 
threads, may nave a spiral or corkscrew appearance (see 
Fig. 6) The most important germ of this class thus far 
studied is tle spirillum of Asiatic cholera. 

No hard and fast lines can be drawn, as all these 
classes gradually merge one into the other. Grouping 
and form of all kinds of bacteria are affected to greater 
or less extent by variations in food and environment. 
In old cultures, or where the conditions are unfavorable 
for development, we frequently have irregular n@n-typ- 
ical germs. These are spoken of as involution forms 
(Fig. 7). Some germs also develop spores (Fig. 8), cor- 
responding to the seeds of higher plants, which may give 
the germ an atypical appearance; a very :good illustra- 
tion is the bacillus of tetanus, or lockjaw, in which the 
spore occurs at one end of the rod, giving the appear- 
ance, in stained specimens, of short pins. 

One of the most important properties of bacteria, from 
the biologist’s point of view, is the facility with which 
their protoplasm combines with the basic anilin colors, 
thereby enabling the observer to study the form and size 
of the organism with ease and distinctness. In some 
eases, such as of tubercle bacilli, this reaction is very char- 
acteristic when some special stain is employed. 

Stained microscopical preparations of the most impor- 
tant disease-germs, by which to verify their own mounts, 
are being called for by that class of physicians who have 
not had the privilege of laboratory instruction, but are 
alive to the necessity of using all the means within their 
grasp of making as early and accurate diagnoses of their 
cases as possible. ? 

Notwithstanding the many and extensive researches 


158 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [May 


made, very little is known of the structure of bacteria, 
except that they have a cell-membrane, enclosing trans- 
parent and apparently structureless protoplasm. They 
probably, like other cells, contain a nucleus. Some forms, 
like the diplococcus of pneumonia, have outside the true 
cell-membrane a jelly-like substance that in stained speci- 
mens shows as an unstained halo. Onlya few of the 
micrococci have the power of spontaneous motion, while 
many of the bacilli and spirilli by means of one or more 
fiagella, or whips, are very active; the bacilliof typhoid 
fever is a good example and posesses several whips 
(Fig. 9). : 

Bacteria generally multiply by fission; that is, a con- 
striction occurs in the middle, transverse to the long di- 
ameter, which gradually grows deeper until division 
takes place at that point. If the division is incomplete, 
we have chains formed. Under favorable conditions 
division may take place as often as once in fifteen min- 
utes. <A simple calculation will show what an immense 
number of germs would thus be generated in a few hours. 
The progeny of each separate germ, when grown upon 
the surface of solid culture media, is called a colony; and 
usually appears when the colonies arescattered asa small 
circular speck. It may have a sharp or an irregular bor- 
der, as seen through a microscope. 

Bacteria can grow only in the presence of moisture 
at certain temperatures, and when supplied with proper 
food. As they do not contain chlorophyll, they cannot 
assimilate carbon dioxide, as do the higher plants, and 
light hinders their growth to a great extent—hence the 
prevalence of disease in dark, damp houses. Most ferms 
of bacteria require oxygen and obtain it from the air. 
Some species, such as the bacillus of tetanus or lockjaw, 
will not develop in the presence of air, but obtain the 
oxygen required for the elaboration of their products 
from the food material supplied them, in the same way as 


1896.] | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 159 


earbon and nitrogen are obtained. Most saprophytic 
bacteria, as the ordinary germs of putrefaction, grow best 
at 25° to 30° C., while the optimum temperature for the 
parasitic varieties is that of the animal body in which 
they are found. Hxtreme cold does not destroy bacteria, 
but all are destroyed by a temperature of 100 C. main- 
trained for some time. Some bacteria wil ldevelop read- 
ily ina slightly acid culture medium, while other forms 
will not grow if the least trace of acid be present. 

Germs causing disease in animals are called patho- 
genic, and almost invariably require neutral or slightly 
alkaline materials for food, In order to obtain satisfac- 
tory knowledge of the biological characteristics of bac- 
teria, they must be grown in various ways. <A _ great 
variety of substances have been used as food for bacteria, 
some are natural, others artificial Of the varieties of 
pabulum the most important is blood-serum, obtained 
under aseptic conditions from the blood of slaughtered 
animals. This serum may be coagulated by heat, when 
it is known as Koch’s blood-serum, or, if a small amount 
of beef bouillon is added, and then coagulated, it is called 
Loeffler’s blood-serum, which is used very extensively by 
health boards in many of our larger cities for growing 
diphtheria germs. Potatoes are frequently used, and are 
very useful for bringing out the biological characteristics 
of “surface growths,” of some forms of bacteria. Other 
tuberous roots, milk, cooked fish, etc.,may be used. Usu- 
ally, however, artificial materials are employed in the 
laboratory: beef bouillon, containing 1 tu 2 per cent pep- 
tone and 4 percent sodium chloride, is generally the basis. 
In the manufacturing laboratory, broth of this kind is 
used almost entirely for growing the various toxins used 
for immunizing the animals which produce the anitoxins. 
To the beer bouillon may be added from 10 to 26 per cent 
gelatin, which forms the plain or nutrient gelatin, used 
very extensively for making Stich or puncture cultures. 


2) 


160 ° THE AMERICAN MONTHLY | [May 


Various other substances may be added to the gelatin: of 
these glucose and litmus are the most important. For 
surface cultures 2 per cent agar (a dried sea-plant closely 
related to Irish moss, and found off the coast of East 
Asia) is added to the beef bouillon. The nearly transpar- 
ent jelly formed by this mixture remains solid at all tem- 
peratures required for bacterial growth; consequently it 
is used very largely in propagating pathogenic germs 
that require a high temperature for their development. 
Glucose, glycerin and many other substances may be 
added to the plain agar, as desired by the experimenter. 
The glycerin-agar is perhaps the most important, and it 
is used very extensively for growing the bacillus of tub- 
erculosis, 

One of the most important points to be determined in 
making up all kinds of culture media is the amount of 
alkali to be added. For ordinary work 1 ce. should re- 
quire about 0.18 ec. of N-20 sodium-hydrate solution to 
make it neutral when phenolphtalein is used as an indi- 
cator, and will be slightly alkaline when tested with litmus. 

All artificial and most natural culture media, after 
being filled into the sterilized test-tubes (which are then 
plugged with cotton), must undergo fractional steriliza-_ 
tion—that is, be heated for about thirty minutes on sev- 
eral successive days in live, flowing steam, which destroys 
all forms of life. If the media is to be used at once, the 
cotton plugs which prevent germs from passing into 
the tube will be sufficient protection, but if the tubes are 
to be kept for any time, or placed on the market, the pro- 
truding portion of the plug must be cut off, and the tubes 
capped with some preparation, as rubber, sealing-wax, 
etc., to prevent evaporation. In this work extreme care 
must be taken, else many of the tubes will be found in- 
fected within a few days. Even when the greatest pains 
have been taken, an occasional tube will show develop- 
ment. On on account should the tubes, after they have 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. ") Loe 


been sterilized, be opened until the consumer is ready to 
use them, as contamination will almost invariably take 
place. 

Some houses are listing as many as twenty different 
varieties of culture media, at a very low price, These 
are a great convenience to the investigator, relieving 
him of the trouble of preparing his own waterial.—Bulle- 
tin of Pharmacy. 


Radiolaria; Two new Species from Barbados. 
By HARRY J. SUTTON, 
PHILADELPHIA, PA. 
Staurococcura loculata, v. sp. 
Phacoid shell three times as broad as the outer and 
eight times as broad as the inner medullary shell, with 


spongy surface, pores indistinct. Arms paddle-shaped; 
one and one-half times as long as the phacoid shell and 


about four times as long as the phacoid shell and 
about four times as long as broad at the base, with 
pyramidal terminal spines at the distal ends, all spines 


162 THE AMERICAN MONTULY [May 


ot the same length. Patagium incomplete but enveloping 
three-fourths of the arms, with six rectilinear parallel 
rows of chambers. 

Dimensions: Diameter of phacoid shell 0.12, of the 
outer medullary shell 0.04, of the inner 0.015; length 
of the arms 0.18, basal breadth 0.06, distal breadth O 10. 

Habitat. Fossil in the rocks of Barbados. 


Staurococcura cuneata, n. sp. 


Phacoid shell about three times as broad as the outer, 
and eight times as broad as the inner medullary shell, 
with seven pores on the radius. Arms wedge shaped, 


aN 


somewhat longer than the phacoid shell, with strong 
pyramidal terminal spine at the distal end. Two of the 
spines in one axis longer than the other two, nearly 
equaling in length the radius of the arms, and one of 
them in line on one side with the side of the arm bearing 
it. Patagium ircomplete, enveloping only a small por- 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 163 


tion of the arms, with two rectilinear parallel rows of 
chambers. 

Dimensions: Diameter of phacoid shell 0.12, of the 
outer medullary shell 0.04; of the inner 0.015; length of 
the arms 0.165, basal breadth 0.045, distal breadth 0.09. 

Habitat. Fossil in the rocks of Barbados, 


Radiolaria; A new Genus and new Species. 
By REv. FRED’K B. CARTER, 
MONTCLAIR, N. J. 
Dicoccura, n. gen. 
Definition:—Coccodiscida with two opposite cham- 
bered arms on the margin of the circular disk, without 
a connecting patagium. Medullary shell double. 
Dicoccura brevibrachia, nu. sp. 


Phacoid shell two anda half times as broad as the outer 
and about seven times as broad as the inner medullary 
shell, with eight pores on its radius. Arms shorter than 
the diameter of the phacoid shell, slightly longer than 


broad at the broadest part, at the base half as broad as 
long, at the blunt distal end rounded. Both poles of the 
common axis of the arms bear a strong terminal spine. 

Dimensions:—Diameter of the phacoid shell 0.10, of 
the outer medullary shell 0.04, of the inner 0,014; length 
of the arms (without terminal spines) 0.08, basal breadth 
0.04, distal breadth 0.066. 

Habitat:—Fossil in the rocks of Barbados. 

Note:—The basal and distal breadths are only ap- 
proximate as the form was measured in side or three- 
quarter view. 


164 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [May 


Staurococcura clavigera, u. sp. 

Phacoid shell a little more than twice as broad as the 
outer and four times as broadas the inner medullary shell, 
with spongy surface, pores indistinct. Arms club-shaped, 
not quite as long as the diameter of the phacoid shell, 
with short pyramidal terminal spine at the distal end, 
all spines of same length, two of them in one axis being 
offthe middle of the ends of the arms on opposite sides. 


Patagium incomplete, enveloping only a small portion of 
the arms, with two rectilinear parallel rows of chambers. 
Dimensions:—Diameter of the placoid shell 0.135, of 
the outer medullary shell 0.06, of the inner 0.03; length 
of the arms 0.12, basal breadth 0.04, distal breadth 0.075. 

Habitat:—Fossil in the rocks of Barbados, 

Note:—The name ofthe species of Staurococcura de- 
scribed on p. 96 of the March number of the JOURNAL 
should read quaternaria not quarternaria as three 
printed. : 


Microscopic Fixing Solution.—Zenker recommends 
(Munch, med. Woch.) the following fixing material for 
vegetable tissue; it penetratesthe tissue readily without 
producing any shrinking: Distilled water, 100 parts; 
mercuric chloride, 5 parts; bichromate of potassium, 2.5 


parts; sulphate of sodium, 1 part;glacial acetic acid, 5 parts. 
—Druggist’s Circular. 3 


1896. ] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 165 


Diatoms Found in a Fresh-water Deposit from Jones- 
port, Maine. 
By A. B. AUBERT, 


ORONO, MAINE. 


The deposit is of a light brown color consisting of fine 
sand, silt and diatoms. It is entirely modern, being in 
process of formation at present and greatly resembles 
the deposits so abundant in New England. 

The list given below is by no means a complete one and 
only comprises those forms which are fairly abundant. 
I owe this specimen to the kindness of Mr. L. H. Merrill, 
of the Maine Experiment Station. 


RAPHIDIEA. 


Amphora ovalis, Kutz. 

ss affnis, W. Sm. 
Cymbella gasteroides, Kutz, 

By ehrenbergii, Kutz. 

as cuspidata, Kutz. 

és affinis, Kutz. 
gracilis, Kutz. 
cistula, Hemp. 

“ heteropleura, Kutz. 
Encyonema caespitosum, Kutz. 
Stauroneis phoenicenteron, Ehr. 

ag ee var Baileyii. 

as acuta, W. Sm. 
acuta, a very elongated variety. 
Z anceps, Ehr. 

we punctata, Kutz. 
Navicula brebissonii, Kutz, 
lata, Ehr. 
nobilis, Kutz, type and vars. 
major, Kutz. 
viridis, Kutz. 
divergens, W. Sm. 
semen, hr. 
amphigomphus, Ebr. 
elliptica, Kutz. 
iridis, var, Ehr. 
tenella, Breb. 
fs affinis, Ehr. 


THE AMERICAN MONTHLY 


Navicula amphirhynchus, Ehr. 

sf cuspidata, Kutz. 

: gibba, Kutz. 

$ polyonea, Breb. 

s¢ inflata, Grun. 

¥ mesolepta, Ehr. 
stauroneiformis, Lewis. 
gigas, Kutz. “ 
ae tumescens, Grun. 
- radiosa, Kutz. 
ws gracilis, Ehr, 
columnaris, Ehr. 


[May 


A Navicula very similar to figures of Navicula incomperta, Lewis, 
but somewhat more elongate, striation fine, probably a variety, is 


more or less abundantly found. 


Gomphonema capitatum, Ehr. 
ef olivaceum, Lyng. 
a 
us vibrio, Ehr. 
2b dichotomum, Kutz. 
Achnanthes exilis, Kutz. 
Ry subsessilis, Kutz. 
S lanceolata, Breb. 


PSEUDO-RAPHIDIE.. 


Eunotia praerupta, Ehr. 
oS - var, monodon. 
ch major, and vars. Rabb. 


Ke arcus, var. plicata, J. B and Fr. Heri. 


eS arcus, Khr. 
lp bidentula. 
ae tridentula. 


Himanthidium pectinale, Kutz. 
ef a var, minus. 
ing ce 
Synedra ulna, Ehr. 
a 20 Se Nee ans ists 
Meridion constrictum, Ralfs. 
Tabellaria fenestrata, Kutz. 
me flocculosa, Kutz. 
Surirella craticula, Ehr. 
Nitzschia brebissonii, Kutz. 
aU sigmoidea, Nitz. 
“ amphioxys, Ehr. 
f spectabilis, Ralfs. 


acuminatum, var. coronata, Ebr. 


robusta, var. diadema, Ehr. 


var. undulatum. 


1896.] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL 167 


Comparison of the Fleischl, the Gowers and the Specific 
Gravity Methods of Determining the Percentage of 
Haemoglobin in the Blood for Clinical Purposes. 

F. €; BUSCH, B. S.; A. Th SERRE, Jz., B. .S.. 

BUFFALO, N. Y. 
Members of the American Microscopical Society. 

Each year the importance of the clinical examination 
of the blood is becoming better recognized. In this ex- 
amination there are two points to be ascertained which 
are generally acknowledged. These are, the percentage 
of hemoglobin and the number and kind of red and 
white blood corpuscles. 

For determining the hemoglobin there are several 
methods. The hemometer of Fleischl, the hemoglobino- 
meter of Gowers and the spectroscopic method of Henoc- 
que, are fairly well known. None of the above methods 
employ the microscope, but a determination of the 
hemoglobin is so intimately connected with a microscop- 
ical examination of the corpuscles of the blood, that we 
feel justified in presenting this paper. 

It is recognized that there is a relation between the 
specific gravity of the blood and its percentage of 
hemoglobin. Hammerschlag has constructed a table 
giving the hemoglobin percentages corresponding to the 
different specific gravities of the blood. 

Under the direction of Dr. Williams, professor of 
‘pathology in the university of Buffalo, we have made ob- 
‘servations upon over 100 patients in the Buffalo General, 
the Erie County and the State hospitals. 

In these observations we have compared the specific 
gravity method of Hammerschlag with the hemoglobino- 
meter of Gowers and the hemometer of Fleischl. 

Fleischl’s hemometer consists of a colored wedge, with 
a graduated scale attached; a well with two compart- 
‘ments, one for pure water and the other for diluted blood; 


168 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [May 


anda capillary pipette for measuring the blood. The 
blood obtained, by puncturing the finger, is drawn by 
capillarity into the pipette, from which it is washed into 
one of the chambers of the well. 

Here it is thoroughly mixed with the water. Both 
compartments are then filled with water and the well is 
covered by a glass plate. The well is placed upon the 
stand so that the compartment filled with distilled water 
is over the colored wedge. This is moved by a screw 
until its color corresponds to that of the diluted blood in 
the other compartment. The percentage of hemoglobin 
is then read off from the attached scale. In using the 
Fleischl, artificial light is necessary, daylight being ex- 
cluded. 

The hemoglobinometer of Gowers is usually manufac- 
tured with but one colored tube, which is for use with 
davlight. There is another form in which there are two 
tubes, one for use with daylight and the other for artificial 
light. The one which we have used is of the former kind. 
It consists of a sealed tube filled with a glycerine-jelly 
solution of carmine and picro-carmine of the color 
of a one-per-ceut solution of normal blood; another 
tube of the same diameter to hold the blood to be 
tested; a pipette graduated to 20 cu. mm. and a stand 
to hold the two tubes, side by side. The blood measured 
in the pipette is mixed with a small quantity of water in 
the graduated tube; water is then added until the dilution 
corresponds in color to that of the standard, solution in 
the other tube. In making the comparison it is neces- 
sary to hold the instrument against a white back ground, 
opposite the source of light or directly between the eye 
and the window. 

The method which we have used for determining the 
specific gravity, and thus the hemoglobin of the blood, 
is not. so well known as the above and will therefore 
bear a more detailed description. It is one used by 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 169 


Hammerschlag and depends upon the well-known physi- 
cal principle that a body which will float indifferently in 
a liquid is of the same specific gravity as that liquid. 
For this purpose, two liquids are taken, one of a higher 
and the other of a lower specific gravity than that of the 
blood, with neither of which it will mix. The necessary 
apparatus consists of a hydrometer, hydrometer jar, 
chloroform and benzole. 

In using this method, the finger is pricked and the 
blood thus obtained is introduced into a mixture of chloro- 
form and benzole in the hydrometer jar. The drop of 
blood, since it will not mix with either chloroform or 
benzole, retains its spherical form. If the drop sinks the 
mixture is too light and must be made heavier by adding 
chloroform. If it rises the mixture is too heavy and 
must be made lighter by adding benzole. By carefully 
adding one or the other a point is reached where the 
- drop of blood will neither rise nor sink, but will float in- 
differently in the mixture. At this point the specific 
gravity of the blood is the same as that of the mixture. 
By means of the hydrometer we can obtain the specific 
gravity of the mixture and thus at the same time that of 
the blood. 

It is desirable to use a medium-sized drop of blood 
and it is better not to divide this into several. Care 
must be taken, however, to mix the liquids thoroughly by 
stirring with the glassrod. In order to facilitate mixing, 
it is well, when the liquid is too heavy, to add an excess 
of benzole and bring it back to the desired point by add- 
ing chloroform. The latter: being heavier, sinks and thus 
mixes more readily with the mixture. 

We have found it convenient to obtain the blood from 
the palmar surface of the middle finger of the left hand, 
and have used, for this pupose, an ordinary sharp-pointed 
steel pen with one nib broken off. eA new pen may be 
used for every test and should be sterilized by heat. The 


170 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [April 


finger also should be washed with some antiseptic, in 
order to take every precaution against infection. This 
method of obtaining the blood was used by us for the 
three instruments. 

For introducing the blood into the chloroform-benzole 
mixture, a pipette of fine calibre may be used. A suf- 
ficient quantity of blood is drawn into this and expelled 
in the middle of the mixture. Care should be taken that 
all of the blood is not blown out, but that some remains 
in the tip of the pipette. That which has been expelled 
will usually adhere to the pipette as a large drop and 
must be shaken loose. By thus holding back a small 
portion of blood, the liability of mixing air with the drop 
is avoided as much as possible. 

EK. Lloyd Jones, of Cambridge University, uses a modi- 
fication of the method of Prof. Roy. This, which depends 
upon the same principle as the preceeding, consists in 
the use of numerous solutions of glycerine and water, 
the specific gravities of which are known and which are 
successfully tried until one is obtained corresponding in 
specific gravity to that of the blood. 

His apparatus consists of twenty to twenty-five one- 
ounce glass bottles filled with standard solutions of gly- 
cerine and water, differing one from the other by .001 of 
specific gravity ; a number of fine glass pipettes drawn 
out toa point and bent at right angles near the tip; a 
cylindrical glass jar of about one dram capacity; and a 
number of clean, sharp suture needles. After puncturing 
the finger on the dorsal aspect near the root of the nail, 
the blood which exudes of itself or after the finger has 
been quickly squeezed, is drawn into one of the pipettes. 
This is introduced into one of the standard solutions and 
the blood gently blown out. The solution chosen is of 
high or low specific gravity according to the appearance 
of the patient. Th® bent point of the pipette prevents 


1396. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 171 


the blood from being given an impetus up or down when 
blown from the end. 

According to whether the specific gravity of the blood 
is equal to, greater, or less than that of the solution, it 
will pursue a horizontal course, sink or rise. By trying 
a number of solutions one may be found in which the blood 
neither rises nor sinks, or two are found in one of which 
it rises and in the other sinks. In the last case the 
specific gravity of the blood is between the two. 

In our experience with the Gowers’ instrument, we 
have found it very unsatisfactory. It is often quite im- 
possible to get the tint of the diluted blood to correspond 
to that of the standard one-per-cent solution. Even when 
this is attained, a difference in shade may be produced by 
looking at the instrument somewhat from the side instead 
of straight from in front; by holding the paper for re- 
flection farther away from or nearer to the instrument ; 
by holding the instrument between the eye and 
the window or by moving farther away from the 
window. In the last case, in several instances, the 
differences produced by moving twenty feet away from 
the source of light, was fifteen per cent, the blood 
requiring to be more diluted when farther from the 
window and thus giving a higher reading. These tests 
were made in a hospital ward on a day of average bright- 
ness. Therefore it may be seen that in addition to the 
other sources of error, the nature of the day, whether it 
be bright or cloudy, will make an appreciable difference. 

We have frequently disagreed in our readings of the 
same test in both Fleischl. and Gowers and others also 
have differed from us as to when the proper shade was 
attained. In using the Fleisch] instruments, in compari- 
sou in the same cases, we have generally found a differ- 
ence in reading between the two. In thirty per cent of 
these comparisons the difference wasas much as ten per 


172 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [May 


cent. We have also found that in one-fifth of our cases 
we disagree in our readings of the same instrument. 

We have found it a great inconvenience in making bed- 
side tests in a hospital ward, to run to some other part 
of the ward or building (to a dark room). In order to 
obviate this difficulty we have adopted the following 
device: This consists in our instrument bag fitted with 
a cardboard cover; at one end of this a hole is cut for the 
passage of a lamp chimney; at the other end a small hole 
for looking through the well of the instrument, and at 
one side of this a window with a flap for inserting the 
hand to move the wedge. 

Hammerschlag’s method has the advantage that there 
is no color test. Every one must agree as to whether 
the drop rises or sinks or stays where placed. It is also 
very inexpensive, all that is necessary being a hydrometer 
jar, chloroform and benzole. The method of Roy and 
Jones necessitates keeping on hand a large number of 
solutions which require careful standardization and must 
be re-standardized at frequent intervals. Although this 
method may be better where a large number of cases are 
to be examined in a short time, yet for the ordinary ob- 
server who uses a method of this kind less often and upon 
a small number of cases, the one which we have used 
seems preferable. 

In both methods, Hammerschlag and Jones have found 
that -there is no appreciable difference due to variations 
of temperature in the room. 

The results which we have obtained in making parallel 
tests with the above descriked methods, may be sum- 
marized as follows: 

The readings of the Fleisch] ran as a rule from ten to 
fifteen per cent lower than the percentage estimated 
from the specific gravity. The readings of the Gowers 
ran a few per cent lower than the specific. The Gowers’ 
instrument is liable to an error of at least fifteen per 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 173 


cent depending upon the intensity of the light. The 
Fleischl instrument is hable to an error of about ten per 
cent. In the specific-gravity method there is liability of 
error from two sources. The drop of blood may adhere 
to the sides of the jar, or some air may become mixed 
with it. These errors in the specific-gravity method are 
reduced to a minimum by careful manipulation. 

The greatest error in this last method may be due to 
the table, since of the cases from which Hammerschlag 
constructed his table, a great number were primary 
anemias and chloroses. For these his table would prob- 
ably be more accurate than for our cases, as all the 
anemias which we examined were secondary. Our cases 
were taken as ordinarily found in hospital wards, both 
medical and surgical, and covered a wide range of dis- 
eases. 

We are convinced from the experience of others and 
from our own observations that all of these methods are 
liable to considerable error. Osler says that the error in 
the Fleisch] instrument may not be more than two per 
cent in blood, which is nearly normal, but cites Neubert 
and Letzius as having shown that in a much impover- 
ished blood the error may be as much as twenty per 
cent. 

The specific-gravity method has the advantage of 
cheapness and convenience ; of taking but little blood, 
and of not being a color test. This last is of the most 
importance since the accuracy of the test does not depend 
so much upon the judgment of the individual, and makes 
it practical for observers who lack sufficient appreciation 
of colors and shades. 

In following up a case with a color test, an error of 
five per cent too low might be made at the first reading, 
and one of five per cent too high at the second and the pa- 
tient be supposed to have improved to that extent, when, 
in reality, his condition had remained unaltered. With 


174 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [May 


the specific-gravity method this error is less likely to 
occur, 

It has been found that while the specific gravity may 
vary at different times of the day, being influenced by 
sleep, food, drink, exercise, etc., the hemoglobin, under 
similar conditions, varies also. 

From the Laboratory of Pathology, 

University of Buffalo. 
August 21, 1895. 


On the Flagella of Motile Bacteria. 
BY VERANUS A. MOORE. 
WASHINGTON, D. ©. 
Members of the American Microscopical Society. 


During the past three years several new methods of 
demonstrating flagella have been announced. Up to the 
present, however, a perfectly satisfactory process has not 
been devised and the results obtained by different workers 
have been in many instances quite contradictory. The 
efforts to fix upon the flagella specific characters have also 
failed, although much advance has been made in that 
direction. 

THE NATURE OF THE FLAGELLA. 


Notwithstanding the somewhat definite results which 
have been obtained in reference to the structure of the 
flagella, it appears to be of the highest importance that 
their nature should be more fully determined before they 
are accepted as constant and integral parts in the mor- 
phology of individual bacteria. The examination ofa large 
number of preparations stained by the same method, and 
frequently a single specimen, will reveal quite different 
appearances. In some instances, and in my experience 
on a large majority of the bacilli, the flagella appear as 
appendages radiating from the body (nucleus according to 
Biitschli) of the organism. I have occasionally observed 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 175 


a narrow unstained or more feebly-tinted band separating 
the body of the organism from a deeply-stained ring of 
which the flagella appeared to be projections. This cap- 
sule-like appearance has been illustrated by several 
observers. Biitschli, Zettnow and others hold that the 
part of the bacilius which is easily brought out by the 
ordinary staining methods is the nucleus only, and that 
the additional portion of the organism demonstrated by 
Leefiler’s method is plasma which surrounds the nucleus. 
Heckle, on the other hand, states that they have no nu- 
clei. For this and other reasons he refers bacteria to the 
animal kingdom, placing them in the first class of Arche- 
ZOa, 

Farrier has recently published a series of interesting 
experiences in which he shows that flagella on a single 
species of bacteria—as determined by the study of sev- 
eral forms —are subject to variations according to the con- 
ditions under which the organism is cultivated. Thus he 
found that Bacillus coli communis, cultivated at the tem- 
perature of the body, possessed several flagella, but when 
grown at a much higher temperature (46°C. maximum 
temperature for this bacillus) flagella could not be de- 
tected. If grown at 44°C. a few of the individual bac- 
teria possessed these appendages. The age of the culture 
and the presence of a non-fatal quantity of an antiseptic 
in the culture media were likewise found to have apprec- 
iable effects. He states that this pleomorphism is due to 
their protoplasmic nature ; the hypothesis assumed being 
that when the bacteria are subjected to degenerative 
agencies, such as high temperatures or antiseptics, the 
plasma contracts in a ball-shaped mass (presumably about 
the organism), but when the bacillus is again brought un- 
der favorable conditions the plasma resumes its motile 
form. 

Accepting this explanation, it is difficult to understand 
why the motile bacteria possessed of capsules such as 


176 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [May 


Micrococcus lanceolatus are not, under certain conditions 
motile, or why the methods employed satisfactorily in 
staining the capsule will not act as well in bringing out 
the flagella. I have tried repeatedly to stain the flagella 
after these methods, but more particularly the one used 
by Prof. Welch in staining the capsule on Micrococcus 
lanceolatus, but invariably the results have been negative. 
Why there should be such a marked difference between 
the motile and non-motile forms in the reaction of the 
“capsular” plasma to staining fluid has not yet been ex- 
plained. 

I have sought for an explanation of the structure of the 
flagella-producing substance in the cilia or flagella of the 
zoospores found in certain of the fungi, but thus far my 
efforts have not been rewarded, although much assistance 
may be obtained from a study of those forms. Itis quite 
probable that certain observed phenomena, especially in 
reference to the free flagella and the formation of the 
rings and hooks frequently observed both on the distal 
ends of the flagella, and separated from them, may be ex- 
plained by the same theories as those ofzoospores. There 
are two views as to the disposition of the flagella of swarm 
spores. One is that they are cast off, and the other that 
they are absorbed into the body of the spore. Rothert 
shows, in a recent article, that both views are correct. 
«In the second swarm stage of saprolegnia and in the 
peronospore, the flagella are either cast off as soon as the 
spores come to rest, or soon after, or else they remain at- 
tached to the spore indefinitely even after germination. 

In the first swarm stage of saprolegnia, however, he 
found, to his surprise, that they are uniformly drawn back 
into the body of the protoplasm, the withdrawal being 
slow at first, and then quite rapid. The loops are formed 
either while the flagella are attached to the spores, or 
after they are cast off.” He suggests the possibility that 
the flagella are formed out of special cytoplasm existing 


1896. } MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 177 


only in small quantities. It is highly probable from cer- 
tain opinions and results herein cited, that there is a close 
resemblance between the flagella of bacteria and those of 
the swarm spores. 

The observations of Stocklin and Bunge that several 
bacilli are sometimes included within the same capsule 
from the periphery of which flagella radiate is exceedingly 
interesting, This phenomenon is explained in two ways, 
one that the surrounding plasma of two or more bacilli 
runs together, thus enclosing the bacilli in acommon cap- 
sule, and the other is that the variable number of bacilli 
included within the same capsule is due to the multipli- 
cation of the organism within the capsule. These obser- 
vations strengthen the hypothesis that bacteria have nu- 
clei and surrounding plasma. 


EDITORIAL. 


———— 


Passing Slides Through a Custom House.—I have today 
spent three half-hours at the Georgetown Custom House 
eetting a lot of slides which Mr. Hornell had sent me. If 
any private concern did business in the style in which Dor- 
sey Claggett, Collector for the District of Columbia, does 
business, that concern would go bankrupt ina very short 
time. ButI must say first that not an unpleasant word 
was uttered on either side, though I claim some virtue for 
not freeing my mind regarding some of the absurd things 
that transpired. 

My slides were invoiced at £2.10.0 and as ‘‘natural his- 
tory specimens.’’ I was politely offered a seat while a hunt 
was made for the box, which was not found till after some 
search. An employee cut openthe package and threw 
away the string and seal without saying to me ‘by your 
leave.’’ I think the law permits me to open the package 
for their inspection. 

“‘Oh! mounted slides,’ said the clerk who forthwith made 
out a bill for 


178 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [May 


DUTY ON $12.00 (@ 35 PER CENT $4.20 


and asked me to write my name in approval thereof. I 
declined, and appealed to the Collector, who presented him- 
self. This I did, notwithstanding my beliefthat a Collector 
knows absolutely nothing, whatever is knownin the C. H. 
being known by the subordinates. This was the signal for 
four or five clerks to rally tothe support of the figure-head 
whose only claim to office so far as I know is his knowledge 
of ward politics. 

To my emphatic statement that I knew these objects 
entitled to free entry and that scores of lots of such goods 
were entering free allover the country, one of the by- 
standing mouthpieces of the collector proposed that I pay 
the duty and go into an effort to get this great and glorious 
humbug of a Customs service to pay it backtome. Think 
of a collection agent on being told that his claim was base- 
less saying such rot even to women and children! And 
Dorsey Claggett did not correct his over zealous clerk. I 
did. I said that I supposed the Collector wished to ascer- 
tain his duty and perform it properly without complicat- 
ing matters in that way. He consented to be flattered in 
this manner. Thereupon the law was brought out and 
here is the clause under which the bill had been made out : 

SCHEDULE B., § 102.—GLAss AND GLASSWARE.—“ All 
stained or painted glass windows, or parts thereof, and all 
mirrors not exceeding in size 144 sq. inches with or with- 
out frames or cases, and all manufactures of glass, or of 
which glass is the component of chief value, not specifically 
provided forin this Act, thirty-five per centum ad valorem.”’ 

The glass in this lot of slides is not worth over one 
dollar. If they are to be taxed as ‘‘manufactures of glass 
or of which glass is the component of chief value,” then an 
honest collector would appraise the goods at their value as 
manufactured glass or at about one dollar ; but this incom- 
petent (1 will not say dishonest) man took the invoiced 
price of $11.71 as sZ#des and put the 35 per cent g/ass tax on 
it! Then he had the gall to ask me to pay it and try to see 
if I could get it back again. 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 179 


I then informed the crowd that I claimed free entry un- 
der Schedule A, §] 625, which declares free of duty.— 

“Specimens of natural history, botany, and mineralogy 
when imported for cabinets or as objects of science and 
not for sale.”’ 

But, said the oracle, these are microscopic slides and 
not specimens of natural history. asked Politician Clagg- 
ett if he doubted their being specimens of natural history 
and he said he doubted it. He said, however, that if I 
would come again in a few days they would meanwhile look 
into the matter and decide. I remarked on the inconven- 
ience they were putting me toon account not of mine but 
of their ignorance. A brilliant clerk then quoted this part 
of the law: 

‘‘Microscope slides with mounted specimens of anatomy 
as N. E. manufactured articles, twenty per centum ad 
valorem.”’ 

If I could not pay 35 per cent perhaps to get away from 
these quibbers I would pay 20 per cent? Oh! no. I was 
not claiming specimen of anatomy. 

Then decisions were sought for and one made in 1892, 
was read to me at full length by the Honorable Collector 
himself who mispronounced but one word inthe feat. The 
decision was to effect that an anatomical specimen could 
not be encased ina glass slide and that to claim slides as 
anatomical specimens would not hold. 

The Collector’s law clerk apologized by saying that there 
were later decisions but that ‘“‘they had not had time to get 
them together.” A new oracle next appeared and said in 


all the sincerity of ignorance: ‘These slides do not con- 
tain the real objects, but only prints or casts, as it were, of 
the natural history objects.’’ Hence, slides are not free 


under the clause cited. The Collector then looked at the 
transverse section of a stem under a microscope and de- 
clared it his opinion that it wasonlya print. Hethereupon 
moistened a rubber eraser with ink, made a print with it 
on paper and said that was the way he supposed what he 
had seen under the microscope was made. His oracle 


180 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY (May 


said that casts and prints were dutiable. I got warm 
enough to challenge them to find a single microscopist or 
microscopical slide to back up this absurdity and I told the 
oracle, who said that he had served under the previous 
administration, that he must pardon me for telling him he 
was grossly ignorant of the subject. 

The collector said he would inform himself in the next 
few days. Would I come again? I said he ought to take 
the trouble to send the goods to me when he had satisfied 
all his curiosities in the matter. ‘Thereupon a clerk ap- 
peared with the following decision: 

(Synopsis No. 15310—G. A. 2744). 
Specimens of Natural History on Microscope Slides, free. 


Before the U. S. General Apprisers at New York, August 21, 1894. 

In the matter of the protest, 23416 b—149, of Dr. Mathias Cook 
against the decision of the collector of Customs at Albany, N. Y., as to 
the rate and amount of duties chargeable on certain specimens of: 
natural history, imported per U. S. mail, June 20, 1894. 

OPINION BY WILKINSON, GENERAL APPRAISER. 

The articles are diatoms, spiculas. foraminiferas, and polycistines 
mounted on microscope slides. They were assessed for duty at 60% un- 
der 4] 108 N. T. and are claimed to be exempt from duty as specimens 
of natural history under {J 712. 

From inquiry at the American Museum of Natural History, we learn 
that the common, if not the only, way of preparing and preserving 
minute objects of this character is on microscope slides. 

We find that the goods are specimens of natural history imported as’ 
objects of science and sustain the protest. 

(Synopsis of the decisions of the Treasury Department, and Board of 
U. S. General Appraisers on the construction of the tariff, navigation 
and other laws for the year ending Dec. 31, 1894, p. 730). 


The clerk ‘‘guessed” that Collector Dorsey Claggett 
might admit my slides under that decision free of duty. 
The other clerks acquiesced. Claggett said not a word 
but went away. In due time I was presented with the fol- 
lowing bill: 


Storage, labor avd mrayae ere :ss= saci i604 .10 
SLUMS 6, choos a's cs oe ear eee Eee Ce tn came ne 15) 
Overtime of OMiCers, ose peetes cone ce sh nes cone cr ee .00 


1896. ] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 181 


I was much surprised that no charge was made for the 
time of four clerks an hour each. It certainly was over- 
time and excess of zeal. 

My impressions are that this was a deliberate attempt 
to impose a swindle upon me and that the law clerk knew 
from the beginning, of the decision he finally produced. A 
less careful person might have been blackmailed into pay- 
ing the $4.20. Had I shown any temper or impoliteness, 
especially to ‘his Honor,’’ they could have pestered me 
for weeks over the matter and until I had got the attention 
of the Secretary of the Treasury and his order to over rule 
their absurd decisions. It is perhaps impolitic for me to 
publish these facts. In case these people get another lot 
of goods for me they will have it in their power to annoy 
me very much. 

This is, however, my second experience with them. A 
year or more ago, Watson & Sons of London sent an elec- 
trotype which had cost them 87 cents. It was stopped in 
the mails and held by the Custom House. A great ado was 
made over it. Not one of the officials then present knew 
what to call it and one of them with it in his fingers asked 
me if it was notalithograph! Its value was in any event too 

small to be dutiable but I was put to quite a loss of time and 
- patience. The ignorance of these people seems stupendous 
and they appear to rely on customers to give themselves 
away and to furnish implements with which to persecute 
them. Thisis the worst governed country among the lead- 
ing nations of the earth say Andrew D. White and-others. 
My own observations at home and abroad confirm the view. 

Finally, if you import slides be very cautious or the Cus- 
toms people will worry the life outof you. Besuretohave 
the decision quoted above; plant yourself against all delays, 
concessions, and foolishness. Go and vote for the party 
that is out of power so that there may be a new set of fool- 
officials as soon as possible. When we decide to do as 
Great Britain does,—collect all our revenue off of tobacco, 
wine, perfumery and a few of the simplest objects of lux- 
ury we may be free from supporting in public office ignor- 
ant hoards of superfluous politicians and probably not till 
then.—C. W.S, 


182 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [May 


Second Pan-American Medical Congress.—The dates 
assigned for the meeting in the city of Mexico are Nov. 16 
—19, 1896. Those who desire full information regarding it 
should read the medical periodicals which are printing the 
Special Regulations or should address Dr. Chas. A. L. Reed, 
East Walnut Hills, Cincinnati, Ohio. 

Especially those who intend to present papers need to 
know the rules relating thereto. All papers must be pre- 
sented in writing and abstracts must be furnished to the 
~ secretary on August first. 


MICROSCOPICAL APPARATUS. 


Cover-Glass Forceps.—To those who are familiar with 
microscopic technique the following illustrations of a cover- 
glass forceps devised by me are self-explanatory. Clinical 
microscopy demands the simplest as well as the most rapid 
methods consistent with accuracy. None of the many 


= TT ean SS i TIT 
: eS MT 


i NE WY DUT _ 
EENES 
tl i i fT nn TM i mul) 


———— 


cover-glass forceps now in useare adapted to modern .mi- 
croscopic work. For staining sputum, pus, blood, etc., 
the complete process, from fixing to placing of cover-glass 
on slide, may be carried out while cover-glass is held in 
forceps. 

‘The following advantages are claimed for these forceps: 
1. ‘The cover-glass while on its flat side can be rapidly 
picked up from any surface whether glass, marble, wood or 


paper. 2. The cover-glass is held level, firmly and ana- 
tomically. 3. No possibility of cover-glass slipping out of 
or breaking while held in forceps. 4. Hands of operators 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 183 


are kept free from stains and acids. 5. The edge of only 
cover-glass being grasped and held by forceps, admits of 
the whole surface of the cover-glass being stained. 6. Cov- 
er-glass can be drained by placing forceps on the side. 

These cover-glass forceps are maufactured and sold by 
Chas. Truax, Green and Co.,”’ of Chicago. Every pair of 
forceps, if properly made, possesses the above mentioned 
advantages over the clumsy forceps formerly used.—Jour- 
nal of American Medical Association. 


MICROSCOPICAL MANIPULATION. 


New Method of Preparing Culture Media.—T he atten- 
tion of all bacteriologists is earnestly invited to the follow- 
ing method, which we sincerely recommend: 

Dr. J. Lorrain Smith points out the difficulty bacteriol- 
ogists have to contend with in the fact that the composi- 
tion of many of the media used for cultivations of patho- 
genic microbes differ so widely from that of the blood and 
other fluids found in the animal tissues. He describesa 
method by which media can be prepared directly from 
these fluids by a process which reduces the difficulties of 
manipulation to a minimum. 

Break up the white of a hen’s egg with an egg-beater till 
it loses its consistency; add 40 per cent of water and mix 
well; pass the mixture through muslin to remove any 
shreds of insoluble material;add 0.1 per cent of caustic 
soda, and solidify in the autoclave. With a little care in 
clearing it a jelly of egg-whitecan be obtained which closely 
resembles gelatin in consistency. Substances like glucose 
can be added if desired. 

A large variety of bacteria have been found to grow on 
this medium with readiness.—Langsdale’s Lancet. 


Simplifying the Examination for Tubercle Bacilli,— 
Prof. Rindfleisch states (Deutsche Med. Woch.) that tub- 
ercle bacilli are found in greatestnumber in theliquid, and 
‘not in masses of mucus of the sputum, and recommends 
the following method for their detection: Dip a camel’s 


184 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [May 


hair pencil in water so as to moisten it well, and press out 
the surplus water. With this stir the sputum thoroughly 
and on withdrawing it, although nothing will apparently 
cling to it, it will be full of bacilli, ifthey are present in the 
sputum. With it stroke the cover glass lightly, so as to 
make a uniform coating over it. Of course a new pencil 
must be used for each operation, as it has been found 
practically impossible to free the pencil from traces of - 
bacilli, which might invalidate subsequent examinations. 
—Drugegist’s Circular. 


BACTERIOLOGY. 


The Effect of the ‘‘X’’ Rays upon Micro-Organisms,— 
The assertion that the “XX”? rays may have some therap- 
eutic value, and may perhaps modify the course of disease 
when passed through the body, has been made by anumber 
of persons, and it is a claim which may easily be misused 
by the charlatan. Dr. T. G. Lyon of London recently 
made some experiments on the influence of these rays in 
cultivations of diphtheria bacilli. They were exposed in 
the incubators for twelve hours to the ‘X” rays. ‘The 
bacilli continued to grow and were not in the least modified 
by the conditions to which they were subjected.—Medical 
Record. : 


Bacteria in Milk.—Ata recent meeting of the Edinburgh 
Royal Society, a communication on bacteria in milkas sup- 
plied in Edinburgh, and the relative efficiency of different 
methods for their removal, by Dr. Hunter Stewart and 
Dr. J. Buchanan Young, was read by the former. Dr. 
Hunter Stewart said that in all civilised countries the 
Legislature had taken steps to prevent the watering of 
milk; but perhaps it was of greater importance that child- 
renas well as adults should be preserved from those 
diseases which were produced by the presence of micro- 
organisms in milk. Cowhouses in this country were not 
- kept with that careful and punctilious cleanliness with 
which they were kept in Holland and Denmark. The | 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 185 


animals were not groomed, the cowsheds were not flushed 
with water sooftenas they ought tobe; the hands and clothing 
of the milkers were not properly attended to, nor were the 
teats of the udder cleaned. In November, 1894, experi- 
ments were begun in Edinburgh, and continued until now. 
More than 300 samples of milk were examined from 50 
dairies, widely scattered over the city. It was found that 
at three hours after milking there were, on an average per 
cubic centimetre, in winter 24,700 bacteria, in spring and 
early summer 44,000, and in late summer and autumn 173,- 
000. It was found that in dairies supplied by milk from 
the country the average number of micro-organisms five 
hours after milking was 41,000 per cubic centimetre, while 
in dairies supplied by milk from town daries the average 
was 352,000 per cubic centimetre. This fact illustrated 
the importance of having cowsheds outside of the city. In 
discussing the various methods of sterilising milk, it was 
pointed out that the great objection to the use of sterilised 
milk was the change of its flavor and, according to many, 
its decreased digestibility. The conclusions were that 
milk kept for one hour at 212 degrees, in bottles hermet- 
ically sealed remained sterile for more than a month, and 
was quite sweet and palatable, though it had a boiled taste; 
that milk heated by means of Dr. Cathcart’s apparatus re- 
mained quite sterile for forty-eight hours, though the 
boiled taste was marked; that milk kept for thirty minutes 
at 158 degrees, Fahr., was quite sterileatthe end of twenty- 
four hours, aud contained very few microbes at the end of 
forty-eight hours. In all these three methods the micro- 
organisms of tubercle and diphtheria were certainly killed. 
Scalding at 176 degrees, Fahr., withevery precaution, kept 
the milk sterile for twenty-four hours; but in carrying out 
this process on alarge scale, there was considerable risk 
of post-scalding contamination, so that there was no guar- 
antee that the bacillus of tubercle and diphtheria, if pre- 
sent, was destroyed.—English Mechanic. 


The Fate of Micro-organisms in Inspired Air.—Thomp- 
son and Hewlett (British Medical Journal, Jan. 18, 1896) 


186 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [May 


gave a preliminary report on the fateof micro-organismsin 
inspired air. The following experiment shows that cer- 
tain bacteria deposited on the Schneiderian membrane are 
rapidly removed: Cultures were prepared from the vib- 
risse and mucous lining of the nose. No red growth 
developed, so the bacillus prodigiosus was absent. A 
looped needleful of a pure culture of the bacillus prodigi- 
osus was then deposited on a spot onthe septum, and cul- 
tures were made from this spot and its neighborhood at 
intervals up totwo hours. The cultures gave a gradually 
diminishing number of the bacilli, until after eighty 
minutes frequently no growth occurred, while after two 
hours no trace of the bacillus prodigiosus could be detected. 
The authors state that their recent experiments show that 
nearly all the organismsin inspired airare arrested before | 
reaching the naso-pharynx.— Medicine. 


Diphtheria Antitoxin in France.—Henri Monod states 
that during the first six months the diminution of death 
rate was 65.6 per cent in 108 cities in France, having a pop- 
ulation of over 20,000. Erom 1884-1894, the average num- 
ber of deaths was 2,627 (La France Medicale, 12-20-95.) 
Dr. P. Palet from his observations in diphtheritic wards in 
Lyons, also finds that it has notably lessened the number 
of deaths. Its action is more prompt when treatment is 
commenced at the beginning. As a prophylaxis it has 
been made in doses of from 1 to2 cc.; it causes no inconven- 
ience except the temporary eruption (1.c. 1-24-96.) 


Antifebrile Reaction of Tuberculin.—Dr. Lussen as a 
result of some tuberculin tests, thinks that this agent has 
an antifebrile action in cases where there is febrile condition 
without the presence of tuberculosis, and further a sed- 
ative action upon the lungs. The substance is perfectly 
harmless unless tuberculosis is present. (The Journal of 
Comparative Medicine and Veterinary Archives, XVI, 
299.) 

Micrococcus Lanceolatus.—Divers organisms are as- 
sociated with pus formation. This organism ranks third 
in the production of human inflammations, osteomylitis, pe- 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 187 


riostitis, labor pneumonia, broncho-pneumonia, arthritis, 
abscesses in parotid and thyroid glands, in the kidney and 
liver, Dr. J. H. Etheridge reports three cases of ovarian 
abscesses formed by it. (The American Journal of 
‘Medical Science, CXL, 377.) 


Black Death.—Ketasalo has ascertained that the ‘t black 
death’? amongst animals in Hong Kong is due toa bacillus 
which causes a septecaemia attacking the lymphatic sys- 
tem, the spleen, and it might therefore easily be mistaken 
with anthrax inanimals. ‘The bacillus is rounded at the 
ends, colors with the usual aniline dyes, more deeply 
stains at the end than in the middle. The organism may 
be found in the blood. The organism occurs in man, mice, 
rats, swine, and the spread of the disease in China is to be 
accounted for solely on the filthy habits of the Chinese. 
Clothes are not changed or washed for years. Chinese 
frequently herd together with their swine. ‘The disease 
may be contracted by eating diseased meat. (Veterinary 
Journal, XLII, 311.) 


Germ Content of Air.—Prof. H. L. Bolley in a paper on 
cleanliness in handling milk, says bacteriological considera- 
tions tell us thatgelatin plate 3% inches exposed to air one 
minute contained the following number of germs. 

Ordinary living room five minutes after sweeping 543 
germs, eight species. (Fargo.) 

In open meadow, when quiet, 6 germs, two species. 
(Madison, Wis.) 

Open meadow October, quiet, 8, three species. 

College cow stable between the cows after feeding time, 
October, 570, eleven species. (Madison, Wis.) 

University creamery and cheese factory, pasteurization 
room, after scrubbing, August 21, 5 germs, three species, 
(Madison. ) 

Refrigerator, store room temperature 40, F’. one species, 
(Madison, Wis.) (Bull, 21, N. Dakota, Agr. Exp. Sta.) 


Bacteria in Milk.—Prof. H. L. Bolley, finds the following 
number of germs per cc. in milk, July 16, at Madison, Wis, 


188 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [May 


Full mixed morning and evening milk 33 patrons, sepa- 
ated, sweet,8,999,801. July 17, same milk on ice one day 
after addition of formalin 1-500, sweet 1,439,820. Same as 
last but four days on ice, sweet, 15,339,040. Fargo, N. D., 
full mixed milk of 11 cans, cultures made immediately 85,-' 
254. (Bull. 21, N. D., Agr. Exp. Sta.) 


Schizomycetes—Dr. W. Migula treats the Schizomycetes 
in ‘die Naturlichen Pflauzenfamilien.’”? He notes that 
they are mostly colorless, some are slightly rose or green 
colored. Spores are of two kinds arthrospores and melo- 
spores in addition to the ordinary vegetative propagation. 
The chlamydobacteriacee produce gonidia as in Clado- 
thrix, Phragmidiothrix, Thiothrix and Streptothrix. The 
gonidia germinate soon after leaving the mother plant. 
He has made some changes in nomenclature. It is wrong 
to base genera on biological characters as Photobacterium, 
Nitrosomonas, etc. Bacteria are divided into five families: 
1 Coccaceex, 2 Bacteriacex, 3 Spirillacee; 4 Chlamydobac- 
teriacex, 5 Beggiatoaceae. 

Some of the old genera as Staphylococcus is no longer 
retained but the Staph pyogenes aureus becomes Micrococ- 
cus pyogenes aureus Parset et Rosenbach. In the second 
family three genera are distinguished, Bacterium, Bacillus, 
Pseudomonas. The genus Bacterium is without motion. 
Bacillus anthracis becomes Bacterium anthracis (Koch et 
Cohn) Migula, B. tuberculosis, Bact. tuberculosis (Koch) 
Migula. The cholera spirillum is called Microspira 
comma (R. Koch) Schroter.. The work is accompanied 
with excellent figures but our only wishis that it could 
have been more extended. 


Bacteria in Excrement of Bovines.—Dr. EK. Wuthrich 
and Dr. E. v. ‘Freudenreich who have studied the influence 
of feeds on the bacterial contents of excrement of bovines 
state that hay contains 7,500,000 germs per grain, one-fourth 
ofthese organism were Bacillus subtilis. Sour potatoes had 
5,000,000 germs per gram, 10,000 of these were Hay bacil- 
jus, (B. subtilis). Malt contained 375,000,000 germs per 
gram. In the latter, Bacillus lactis aerogenes was common 


1896. ] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 189 


In all of these feeds there was a notable increase in the 
number of organisms. ‘The animals fed with hay the num- 
ber of B. subtilis colonies found varied from 1,800,000 
to 7,200,000 per gram. The colon bacillus was always pres- 
ent. The number of organisms found in excreta when 
hay was fed varied from 20,675,000—375,000,000. Grass 
1,800,000—10,000,000. Sour potatoes 7,062,500—23,125,000. 
What appeared to be Bacillus lactis aerogenes in malt was 
destroyed in the digestive tract. (Centralblatt f. Bakt. u 
Parasitenk. II abth. 873.) 


MEDICAL MICROSCOPY. 


The Tuberculous Handkerchief.—Cornet it was who 
first, in an effective way, brought evidence of the great part- 
which the sputum of the consumptive plays in spreading 
lung-tuberculosis, when the sputum is permitted to dry and 
to become reduced to dust. He showedalso how the con- 
sumptive’s handkerchief reinfects the patient himself and 
endangers his associates. As Dr. Jaeger, of Stuttgart, 
says: 

‘And now what is the further fate of this suspicious 
article? As would be done with the clothing of typhoid or 
cholera patients, it is not put intoa solution of carbolic acid, 
but itis folded together and carefully kept until, after sev- 
eral or many days’ use, it becomes a cloacal miniature, a 
nidus, of the most dangerous of gems. Further, when it 
is to be retired for a while, it is not disinfected, but the 
careful housewife preserves the costly fabric, the precious 
piece of embroidered linen, until—she counts the wash for 
thelaundry. ‘The dried handkerchief is then torn open, a 
cloud of dust is whirled into the air, and with the dust the 
disease germs which bid defiance to drying.”’ 


The Microscope in Surgery.—Dr. Senn ina recent work 
on tumors states that the microscope is not so serviceable 
in diagnosing tumors as many suppose, and cites as an in- 
stance the late Emperor Frederick of Germany. Small 


190 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [May | 


pieces of tumor or scrapings of tissue should not be sent 
to the pathologist simply to see what the microscope will 
reveal or what the pathologist knows. The object is to 
obtain a correct diagnosis, and to this end as large a piece 
of tumor as possible should be sent for examination. It 
should be accompanied witha history of the case and all 
other points, such as site, character of growth, etc. In 
this way the microscope usually decides when the appear- 
ance to the naked eye throws doubt on the character of the 
tumor.—Medical Record. 


PHARMACEUTICAL. 


The Microscope as an Advertiser.—Druggist Stedem, 
of Philadelphia, contends that much advertising benefit can 
be derived from proper microscopical exhibitions in 
the pharmacy. He hesitated for a long time, fearing that 
meddlers would try to tinker with the apparatus, but fin- 
ally picked out a strong instrument—his next best micro- - 
scope—and placed it in the window, protected only by the 
sign, ‘‘Look, but please don’t touch.”? During the two 
months which followed, only one person of all the hundreds 
taking a peep, puta finger ontheadjustment. Mr.Stedem 
first took up the ordinary house-fly, and week by week 
showed legs, feet, head, wings and body. The display 
aroused much interest, especially among school children. 
He is now preparing slides of other insects, and purposes 
displaying them ina still more powerful instrument. 

Mr. Stedem’s idea is capital, and may be developed fur- 
ther. For example: so much is written nowadays about 
disease germs, what is to hinder the display of the diph- 
theria germ, the bacillus of typhoid fever, of tuberculosis, 
etc.? Many objects of popular interest may thus be exhib- 
ited under the microscope, and the advertising benefit 
ought to be considerable.—Bulletin of Pharmacy. 


1896.] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 191 


MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETIES. 


Quekett Microscopical Club. 


The 340th ordinary meeting of this club was held on 
Friday, March 20th, Mr. J.G. Waller, president in the 
chair. The minutes of the preceding meeting were read 
and confirmed, ballot for new members taken, the addi- 
tions to the library announced. Mr. Rousselet read a 
paper ‘“‘on Rattula collaris, and other Rotifers.”’ Mr. E. B. 
Green read a further ‘‘ Note on Root-Hairs,’? accompanied 
by some beautiful drawings, which he presented to the 
club. In answer to questions Mr. Green said all his obser- 
vations had been made on common plants; no greenhouse 
was required, and he had contrived a small case holding 
about 20 pots which would stand in any window, and by 
means of which his experiments could easily be repeated 
andextended. Mr. Karop gave an account of the life-his- 
-tory of the Mycetozoa, illustrating his remarks by colored 
diagrams and black-board drawings. After noting the lit- 
erature of this interesting subject, he recommended every 
intending observer to procure Mr. Lister’s ‘‘ Guide to the 
Brit. Mycetozoa,”’ published by the trustees of the British 
Museum, and to be had at South Kensington, or of the au- 
thorized booksellers, price 3d. It containeda list of all the 
known indigenous species, and was well illustrated. The 
secretary said that as the first Friday in April was Good 
Friday, the usual conversational meeting would, of course, 
not be held. The next ordinary meeting was on Friday, 
April17th, and on the 18th, an excursion to the Royal Bo- 
tanic Gardens. 


The 341st ordinary meeting of this club was held on Fri- 
day, Aprili7th. Mr. E.M. Nelson, exhibited and described 
anew doublet bull’s eye which Mr. Baker had made to his 
formula, giving a minimum of spherical aberration. By 
projecting the image of a lamp flame on a wall he showed 
that the usual ‘‘fluffy’’ margin was very materially reduced, 
and he thought where it was necessary to fill a large field 


192 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [May 


with light as free as possible from spherical aberration, as, 
for instance, in photography, this form would answer 
every requirement. Mr. R. TIT. Lewis read a note ona 
stridulating organ in aspecies of ant Streblognathus ethiopicus, 
from South Africa, accompanied by specimens, microscop- 
ical preparations, and some beautiful drawings. He said 
that although sound-producing organs were known to oc- 
cur in several kinds of ants, the present one differed ma- 
terially in structure, and so far appeared unique. When 
captured the insect gave an audible ‘‘squeak.”” It wasa 
formidable-looking creature, black, and nearly one in. in 
length, and itappeared to have a wide distribution in South 
Africa. 

On May 2nd, 16th, and 30th there will be excursions for 
collecting purposes to Esher, Totteridge, and Epping 
Forest on these dates respectively. 


NEW PUBLICATIONS. 


‘“Keil’s Medical, Pharmaceutical and Dental Direc- 
tory.’’—George Keil, Editor, Philadelphia, announces the 
early publication (fourth edition) of ‘‘Keil’s Medical, Phar- 
maceutical and Dental Register-Directory and Intelli- 
gencer,”’ for Pennsylvania, New York, New Jersey, Mary- 
land, Delaware and District of Columbia. Its list of Nat- 
ional colleges, State hospitals, homes, dispensaries, 
societies, and post-office addresses of physicians, druggists 
and dentists, school of* graduation and year, all the latest 
laws in these States, will be complete to date of issue, asa 
personal canvass will be made for data. It is the only Di- 
rectory published for above-named States, registering 
graduates of all schools, physicians, druggists and dentists, 
and imparting all information needed by the professions 
mentioned in their daily practice. No effort willbe spared 
to make the Directory complete, and the information ac- 
curate and reliable in the minutest detail belonging to the 
domain of medical, pharmaceutical and dental professions. 
An experience of thirty years is sufficient guarantee that 
all subjects will be properly treated in this Direcrory. 
The names in large cities, in addition to being in alphabeti- 
cal order, will be numerically arranged by streets, also an 
alphabetical list of names of the whole Directory, giving 
the page of each; these features will no doubt be apprec- 
lated. 


FIG. 1—-PHOTOMICROGRAPHIC APPARATUS ARRANGED 
FOR USE WITH OIL LIGHT. 


By courtesy of Medical Record. 


THE AMERICAN 


MONTHLY 


MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 


Vou. XVIII. JUNE, 1806. No. 6 


Practical Photomicrography. 
By W. C. BORDEN, M. D., F. R.M.S., 
CAPLrAIN, MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, U.S. ARMY. 


WITH FRONTISPIECE. 


With the extensive use of the microscope in medicine 
and scientific research the need has been felt of obtaining 
exact pictorial record of many of the objectsseen. Draw- 
ings, either free-hand or by aid of the camera lucida, are 
extensively used, but they are of necessity always more 
or less diagrammatic and often fail to give the necessary 
exactness, both from the impossibility of eliminating the 
personal equation of the draughtsman and from inability 
to reproduce the appearance of organic structure by line 
and stipple. Photographic processes, on the other hand 
give pictures which in detail of form and structure are 
second only to the objects themselves; and the value of 
_. good photomicrographs as aids in teaching and for com- 
parison, for future reference, and for publication, is gen- 
erally accepted as unequalled, and their use is becoming 
more and more common. 

But the extensive use of photomicrography has been 
prevented by several causes. These causes are com- 
plexity of apparatus, supposed difficulty of technique, 
difficulty of obtaining proper and always available light, 
and supposed large amount of time consumed. In view 
of these objections and of the value of the results ob- 
tained, all simplifications of technique and apparatus 


194 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [June 


are of value and for the practical and more general ap- 
plication of photomicrography, while the results must be 
of the best, the time consumed must be small, the man- 
ipulations must be simple, and the apparatus must be 
-one with which photographs can be taken at any time. 
In the early days of photography, when the wet plate 
only was available, sunlight was necessary to photo- 
graphic processes, and the traditions derived from its 
use cause many still to consider it essential to the pro- 
duction of high-class photomicrographs. With the in- 
troduction of the dry plate, artificial hght became avail- 
able, and in spite of its small actinic power, relative to 
that of the sun, certain advantages connected with its use 
have given it many advocates. It is not necessary to 
enter into an extensive comparison of the relative optical, 
visual, and actinic value of sun and artificial hight. Much 
has been written in favor of one and derogatory to the 
other. The fact remains that equally good work has been 
done with both. But for practical work artificial light 
has many advantages. Sunlight is uncertain; it varies in 
intensity from hour to hour of the day and with the time 
of year. It is apt to be obscured for days together or by 
passing clouds at critical moments, and, at most, is avail- 
able but for a few hours of the twenty-four. Also, the 
sun is constantly changing its position relative to the in- 
strument, and when used for all except the highest power 
of the microscope, its image when focused on the plane of 
the object covers too small a field, and the heat and un- 
desired colored rays have to be filtered out with light 
and heat filters. It is true that the latter disadvantages 
can be overcome by suitable but complicated apparatus, 
but the great objection of unavailability, except at un- 
certain times, still remains, and in consequence when 
sunlight is depended on, many valuable records are lost 
from inability to photograph objects at once after their 
observation. For these reasons sunlight is not available 


1896. ] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 195 


for practical work. Practical work requires a steady, 
always available light, and these requirements can only 
be met by some form of artificial light. 


Fig. 2.—Apparatus arranged for photomicrography with acetylene light. 
To show the acetylene burner it is placed outside the lantern. The 
camera is racked up so that the operator may arrange the object and 


substage. 
By courtesy of Medical Record. 


Artificial light being necessary, the question of kind 
arises. So far as results are concerned almost any form 
may be used, provided it is properly used. Most of the 


196 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [June 


objections made to artificial light have arisen from its im- 
proper employment. The main requirements in the light 
are simplicity and ease of manipulation. These com- 
bined with proper adjustment will give an effective light. 
The electric light, the oxyhydrogen light, the magnesium 
light, gas light, oil light, and, latest, acetylene light, have 
all been employed for photomicrographic purposes. The 
electric, oxyhydrogen, and magnesium lights all require 
rather complex apparatus, and they are all open to this 
objection, together with certain other objections pertain- 
ing toeach. Of the magnesium light it may be said that 
no practical apparatus for its production has been de- 
vised. Electric light necessitates connection with an 
electric plant. Itis expensive and the apparatus required 
is complicated. In the form of the are light it givesa 
very satisfactory and powerful light, and it is probably 
the best form of artificial light for large institutions 
when used in the manner hereafter described for oil and 
acetylene light and with heat filter added. Aside from 
its power, second only to sunlight, it possesses no advan- 
tage over cheaper and more easily handled lights. The 
oxyhydrogen hght is expensive and is troublesome to 
manage. It requires a complicated apparatus and does 
not give a light of sufficiently greater power over oil, gas, 
or acetylene to compensate for the trouble involved in its 
management, 

For practical work there remain, therefore, oil, gas, 
and acetylene light. These are all easy to manage, they 
are best used in a similar manner, with similar apparatus, 
and for advantages of cheapness, steadiness, and con- 
trollability are unsurpassed. They differ in illuminating 
and actinic power, oil light being lowest, and acetylene 
light highest. Oil and gas light areof very nearly equal 
power, but they have not generally been considered 
powerful enough except for low and medium powers. 


1896.] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 197 


This objection does not obtain when these lights are 
properly used or when used with orthochromatic plates 
The ordinary commercial dry plates are mainly sensitive 
only to the more actinic rays of the violet end of the 
spectrum, and oil and gas light being deficient in these 
rays, photography with such plates and yellow-rayed 
light necessitates long exposure and generally gives im- 


Fig. 3.—Gonococci in urethral pus. x 1,200 diameters, Exposed two min- 
utes to acetylene light with yellow-light filter, using Zeiss’ two milli- 
metre apochromatic objective, projection eyepiece No. 4, and with Abbe 
achromatic condenser in substage. The preparation was double stained 
with methyl-blue and eosin. The gonococci and cell nuclei being of a 
color complementary to that of the light filter are indistinct; the cell 
bodies being of a similar color to the screen, are indistinctly photographed. 


By courtesy of Medical Record. 
perfect results. As with sunlight, the difference between 
the visual and actinic focus enters as a disturbing factor, 
necessitating troublesome and uncertain adjustments or 
the employment of specially constructed objectives. Also 
the violet sensitive plate, owing to the like actinic color- 
ing of many stained objects, often fails in development to 
give sufficient contrast for printing purposes. The ortho- 


198 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [June 


chromatic plate does away with all these difficulties, 
arising as they do from complex conditions of differing 
visual and actinic focus, of working objectives not suit- 
able for photography, and of plates sensitive to the light 
rays of the wrong end of the spectrum. The orthochro- 
matic plate is sensitive to yellow light. In artificial 
light, oil and gas light especially, yellow rays predomi- 
nate, and when such light is used the projected image is 
mainly formed by yellow rays, and if the image is re- 
ceived on a plate sensitive to yellow, the visual and ac- 
tinic focus will coincide with any objective, whether it is 
specially corrected for photomicrography or not. Also 
the yellow sensitive plate is so actinically sensitive to the 
yellow light that proper molecular change is produced in 
its silver compounds, causing in development sufficient 
contrast with almost if not quite all stained objects and so 
greatly shortening the exposure that it compares favora- 
bly with those made by sunlight. For these reasons oil, gas, 
or acetylene light, properly used in combination with 
orthochromatic plates, gives the important necessity, an 
always available light, and one which isat the same time 
cheap, steady, easy to manage, and which can be used 
with ordinary working objectives with the certainty that 
if they give sharp visual definition they will give good 
definition photographically. 

The remaining desideratum is an apparatus which 
shall be so simple and easy to manage that it can be con- 
nected with the microscope and the projected image pho_ 
tographed with little trouble and with a minmium 
expenditure of time. 

The following is descriptive of an apparatus and 
method which have been adopted by the writer after 
much experience in photomicrography. The means and 
method are believed to be sufficiently simple and effec- 
tive to warrant the assumption that by them photomicro- 
graphy may be employed for practical work. 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 199 


The apparatus consists of a camera hung ina vertical 
_ position, of a microscope with substage attachments, ob- 
jectives and eyepieces, and a stereopticon, such as is used 
with oil light for projection purposes, in which is placed 
an oil lamp, or gas or acetylene burner. This apparatus 
is secured on a low strongly built table, and should either 
be in the laboratory or in a convenient adjoining room, 
This furthers its practical use, for when in working 
a field is found a photograph which is desired, the 


72 


Fee 
: - 
! 4! sS 
» 
amet te oN : 

“a4 hiss on 4 
‘ - ~~ ~ oo 
= eee .% ‘ 


Fig. 4.—Colony of staphylococcus pyogenes aureus floating on liquefied gela- 
tin. x 30 diameters. Exposed twenty seconds to oil light, using Beck 
one-inch objective; no eyepiece or substage condenser. 


By courtesy of Medical Record. 


microscope has only to be carried to the apparatus, placed 
in position, the light lighted, adjustments made, and the 
camera racked into position. Witha conveniently placed 
dark room, the whole photographic operation will take 
but a few minutes. The working microscope should al- 
ways be used for photography. By using the same 
microscope for both purposes the trouble and loss of time 


200 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [June 


incident to changing the slide from one stand to another 
and refindivg a given field is avoided. Every worker, 
especially in bacteriology, knows the difficulty and time 
spent in refinding a field once lost. The microscope 
stand may be of any well-constructed form. Any stand 
which can be depended upon for clinical or laboratory 
work can be used for photomicrography. For all-around 
photographic work it should have a substage ring and 
adapter for using objectives as substage condensers. <A 
mechanical stage is convenient but not necessary. The 
microscope is used in theupright position. This position 
rather than the horizontal is to be preferred for several 
reasons. The upright position is necessary when mova- 
ble objects, as colonies of bacteria floating on liquefied 
gelatin (Fig. 4), are to be photographed, or when, as in 
clinical photomicrography, photographs have to be made 
of urinary deposits. In bacteriological work, when 
bacteria are stained on the cover glass and examined or 
photographed before the balsam is dry, the cover is 
apt to slip if the microscope is used horizontally; but 
this does not occur with the microscope used vertically, © 

The horizontal position and long extension of camera 
is necessary for some classes of work, particularly when 
large pictures have to be taken and when it is desired to 
obtain high amplification by extension of camera rather 
than by high eyepiecing, or when test diatoms have tobe 
photographed with very high amplifications. For prac- 
tical work, however, up to amplifications of one thousand 
diameters, and for photographs for illustration or repro- 
duction, which are seldom required of over three and one- 
half or four inches in diameter, the upright position of 
microscope and camera is much to be preferred, on ac- 
count ofits ease of application and practical advantages. 

The vertical position of the microscope necessitates a 
similar position for the camera. To allow easy working 
distance the camera is hungon a rackwork attached to a 


1896. ] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL 201 


rigid upright, which is placed to the rightof the microscope 
so that it will be out of the way while working. Both the 
upper and lower ends of the camera are movable on the 
rackwork. The upper end which carries the screen and 
the plate holder is movable, in order that different am- 
plifications within limits may be obtained with the same 


Fig. 5.—Giant-cell sarcoma. x 275 diameters. Section stained with borax 
carmine. Exposed twenty seconds to acetylene light, using Beck ¢ 
inch objective, working eyepiece A, and Bausch & Lomb 3-inch ob- 
jective in substage. 


By conrtesy of Medical Record. 


objectives. The lower end is movable that it may be 
racked up out of the way and allow the operator to man- 
ipulate the microscope before attaching the camera (Fig. 
2). This is a great advantage, for the operator can seat 
himself at the instrument, adjust the object to the centre 


” 


202 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [ June 


of the field, focus and adjust the substage, and arrange 
the illumination easily and effectively. 

The camera bellows has an extension of two feet meas- 
ured from the eyepiece of the microscope to the ground 
glass. This with a continental-model stand, a two-milli- 
wetre objective and projection, or working eyepiece No. 
4, gives an amplification of one thousand diameters. 
With lower objectives and less extension of bellows am- 
plifications ranging down to five diameters may be ob- 
tained. In focusing the operator can, by standing on 
a low box, observe the image on the ground glass and 
manipulate the fine adjustments of the microscope with- 
out using a focusing rod, though a suitable rod with cord 
passing around the milled head of the fine-adjustment 
screw can be easily attached to the upright if desired. 

THE Liaut.—A good and efficient light may be ob- 
tained by using an oil lamp, or gas or acetylene burner, 
properly adjusted in the body of a projection stereopticon 
with the projection ocular removed. 

Of the three acetylene is much the best, and for illumi- 
nating and actinic power, combined with simplicity of 
apparatus and management, it is the best artificial light 
now obtainable for use in photomicrography. It can be 
easily and safely generated and stored ready for use, its 
making and use necessitating little if any more trouble 
than is connected with keeping an oil lamp in order. 
After experience with sunlight and various artificial 
lights I until recently settled down to the use of an oil 
lamp, believing it or gas to give when properly used the 
best light for practical purposes. Recently I have been 
using acetylene generated and burned in an apparatus 
furnished by a concern in Chicago, Ill., and find it 
unequalled for practical work. 

The gas is generated in a small generator and burned 
in a small burner placed in the lantern body (Fig. 2). If 
ordinary illuminating gas is used the burner is placed in 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 203 


the lantern in the same way, and when oil is employed a 
tri-wick lamp with only the middle wick lighted is used 
in the Jantern. The large double condensers of the lan- 
tern serve to concentrate the light, while the double 
lantern body prevents the radiation of heat to the micros- 
cope and shuts off all radiating light. These are great 
advantages, for not only is the illumination improved by 
the concentration of light but the microscope does not 


Fig. 6.—Klebs-Loeftler bacillus, grown on blood serum, stained with Loeffler’s 
methyl blue. x 1,000 diameters. Exposed two minutes to oil light 
with yellow-light filter, using Zeiss’ two-millimetre apochromatic ob- 
jective, projection ocular No. 4, and Abbe condenser in substage. 


By courtesy of Medical Record. 


become heated, and if the room can be darkened, as it 
should be, by adjustable window shades, the absence of 
extraneous light greatly facilitates focusing on the cam- 
era screen. This method of using oil or gas light renders 
them sufficiently powerful for practical purposes and with 
acetylene gives great illuminating and actinic power. 
With oil light used without a light filter, bacteria can be 
photographed with amplifications of one thousand diam- 


204 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [June 


eters with exposures of from one and one-half to three 
minutes. Oil and gas lights are themselves so yellow 
that with them light filters are only required when pho- 
tographing very difficult objects, such as methyl-blue 
stained gonococci or Klebs-Loeffler bacilli (Fig. 6). 
When a light filter is used, a light yellow one of an 
aqueous solution of bichromate of potash placed in a 
glass trough gives excellent results. With it, exposure 
is somewhat lengthened, being from three to five min- 
utes for amplifications of one thousand diameters. 

With acetylene light a light filter is more frequently 
required, This is due to the greater whiteness of the 
light and its consequent effect when transmitted through 
actinic-colored objects. Withit most stained sections of 
tissue photograph well without a filter, the exposure re- 
quired being very short, usually varying from five to 
thirty seconds. When a light filter is used the exposure 
is lengthened, but is short compared with that required 
with oil or gas light, being about two minutes for ampli- 
fications of one thousand diameters (Fig. 3). A good fil- 
ter for acetylene light is made by dissolving ten grams of 
potassium bichromate in two hundred cubic centimetres 
of water and using at a thickness of three centimeters in 
a parallel-sided glass trough. 

ADJUSTMENT OF THE APPARATUS.—The camera being 
hung on the rackwork, the microscope is placed beneath 
it and the lantern is fixed about twelve inches in front 
of the microscope, with its central long axis in a plane 
which extends through the centre of the microscope mir- 
ror, the substage condenser, the objective, ocular, and 
centre of camera. 

The light (oil, gas, or acetylene) being lighted and 
placed in the lantern, a stage micrometer is placed on the 
microscope stage and a medium-power objective and eye- 
piece are attached to the microscope. Light from the 
lantern is reflected on the micrometer by the mirror of 


1896.] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 205 


the microscope. The observer accurately centres the mi- 
crometer rulings, then removes the eyepiece and projects 
the image of the micrometer rulings on the camera 
screen. The microscope is then moved to such position 
that the centre of the projected micrometer image is 
exactly in the centre of the screen, This position of the 
microscope is marked once for all, and whenever after- 
ward the microscope is placed in the same position the 


Fig. 7.—Typhoid bacillus, grown on glycerin agar, stained with carbol fuch- 
sin. x 1000 diameters. Exposed two minutes to oil light, using Bausch 
& Lomb 1-12-inch oil-immersion objectives, amplifier in draw tube, 
and Bausch & Lomb 1-5-inch objective in substage. 


By courtesy of Medical Record. 
centre of the object will be projected on the centre of 
the screen. The position of the lantern directly in front 
of the microscope should also be marked. 

ADJUSTMENT OF THE LIGHT.—Proper adjustment of the 
light is very important in working with artificial light, 
for upon this its efficiency depends. It must be properly 
placed relative to the lantern condensers and the light 
from them must be properly concentrated upon the ob- 


206 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [June 


ject. In photographing with all but the lowest powers 
some form of substage condenser is necessary. This is 
due to the fact that the light must be focused on the ob- 
ject to give proper definition. In working with object- 
ives of from eight millimeters up to but not including 
oil-immersion objectives, it will be found advantageous 
to use objectives of lower power as substage condensers, 
for if so used in ordinary observations they greatly im- 
prove the definition of objects. In fact, it may be laid 
down as a general rule that whatever gives the best 
microscopic definition will give the sharpest photograpic 
image. Consequently in high-power work it will seldom 
be necessary to change the microscope attachments when 
a photograph is to be taken, for in bacteriological work 
the ordinary Abbe condenser which gives good 
definitions will, when properly adjusted, give good 
photographic definitions, statements tothe contrary not- 
withstanding. 

To adjust the light and substage condenser proceed as 
follows: With microscope and lantern in position and 
substage condenser centred, place the light to be used in- 
side the lantern body, place an opal or ground glass be- 
tween lamp and microscope, attach a low power objective, 
and, seated at the microscope, focus the objective accu- 
rately on the object. The opal glass is used to reduce - 
the light which otherwise might injure the observer’s 
eye. The ground glass is then removed, a fine wire 
screen placed close against the front of the lantern con- 
denser, and by means of the substage condenser an 
image of the screen is projected on the object. The 
screen is then removed and a white card held above the 
eyepiece of the microscope with one hand, while with the 
other the light is moved about inside the lantern body 
until the image of the light projected on the card appears 
oval in form and equally brilliant in all parts. If the 
light is placed too near the condensers, there will be dark 


1896.] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 207 


spaces on each side of the illuminated field; if too far 
away, the centre of the field only will be bright. If the 
light is a point or small dise the properly illuminated 
field will appear perfectly round; with the elongated oil 
or acetylene flame it will appear oval. The light once 
properly placed should be fixed for future work. 

With the hight fixed and position of microscope deter- 
mined, the operation of photographing is comparatively 
simple. When the observer finds a field which he desires 
to photograph, the microscope is carried from the work- 
ing-table to that of the apparatus, placed in the marked 
position, and the light lighted. The operator then seats 
himself at the microscope, attaches the proper objective 
and substage attachments, focuses the former on the ob- 
ject and the latter on the wire screen placed against the 
lantern condenser, removes the screen, substitutes the 
opal glass, and, if using an Abbe condenser, opens or 
closes the condenser until the sharpest visual definition 
of the object is obtained. The opal glass is then removed 
and if required a light filter is placed between the lantern 
and microscope. The working eyepiece is then removed, 
a projection eyepiece inserted or an amplifier placed in 
the draw tube, or, if it is desired to use the objective 
alone, a tube of black paper, to prevent reflection, is 
placed in the tube of the microscope.. The camera is then 
attached to the microscope and the projected image 
focused on the camera screen, preparatory to exposure. 

In regard to the method of projection of the image 
much has been written regarding the relative value of 
using the objectivealone, or with an amplifier in the draw 
tube, or with the ordinary working eyepieces or projec- 
tion eyepieces of Zeiss. Practically, for all except the 
highest-power diatom method, equally good results can 
be obtained by either method, though where much work 
is to be done there are some advantages in the use of the 
projection eyepieces. 


208 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [June 


For photographing the projected image orthochro- 
matic plates should be used. Of these I have used the 
Cramer rapid “isochromatic” exclusively, though proba- 
bly other makes of orthochromatic plates might be found 
to work equally well. Certainly the ‘‘isochromatic” 
work so well that there is no necessity for going through 
the trouble of orthochromatizing plates one’s self. 

In developing I have obtained best results with formu- 
las in which hydrochinone alone or with some other re- 
ducing agent is used. The following give clear negatives 
of sufficient contrast and graduation: 


No. 1 
DW beDee ai ae chs ek Re eS rnd OAS ER Cats a een 300 
Sodium Sul phite wis. sne sul seasewect won seem sjesss tena sve neice seseeee 25 
POtASSTUM WOME: i 2.cc.u tess ccccetineenes cote etmorssateercasue qecicmetees 0.5 
Ly ATOCIINONE- snic sc soccods! sek Oancesceceten cateEu laces couoeccestercedete mente 
Methol......... ......05 PS aR ptt An Anant MAR ECA Rea ah NE, 5 Aes 
No. 2 
WIGS PY gn Pe LSI aI SPER Bi cca Gad bn co oe olan ee 15 
Sodium Carbonate s.ccccs seiadenleceeadsodicswemace ssmase pecs cwceseneeeaae 300 


Use equal parts of No. 1. and No. 2. 


Development should proceed slowly and should be con- 
tinued until sufficient densily is obtained. Rapid 
development and removal from the developer before 
sufficiently density is obtained are to be particularly 
avoided in photomicrographic development. 

A few reproduced photomicrographs are given in 
illustration of the methods outlined. They have been 
selected as representing ordinary practical work with 
different objectives and lights and with different means 
of projection and substage attachments. 


Leprosy is said to be spreading in the Russian Baltic 
provinces with alarming virulence. Several hundred per- 
sons are said to be afflicted with the disease, and the Livo- 
nian Diet has just taken measures for isolating them at 
the cost of the State. 


1896.] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 209 


Influenza in Infants and Children. 
SOME DIAGNOSTIC AND THERAPEUTIC HINTS. 
By L. FISCHER, M. D. 


At various times, and chiefly when pneumonia and 
diphtheria and other infectous diseases predominate, we 
find a series of symptoms which frequently baffle the 
physician. Moreover, they simulate, by the pains in the 
limbs, muscular rheumatism; the catarrhal, gastric and 
enteric symptoms will simulate gastroenteritis, or the 
coryza and cough will remind the attendant of the onset 
of either measles or a severe form of bronchitis, possibly 
pneumonia. Itis very infectious, the period of incuba- 
tion very short, and, unlike most infectious diseases, one 
contact does not protect from subsequent epidemics; that 
is, relapses are common. 

The mortality is exceedingly high; the disease is ex- 
ceedingly contagious and is frequently transmitted from 
an adult to the children in the immediate neighborhood, 
sometimes on the same day or within two or three days 
after one member has been stricken. 

The disease is caused by a micro-organism which has 
been designated the “influenza bacillus,” and has been de- 
scribed by R. Pfeiffer in the Zeitschrift fur Hygiene und 
Infections-Krankheiten, No. 13, and can be cultivated on 
agar containing hemoglobin. The bacillus is found in 
the blood of infected children, also in the expectorations 
—chiefly, however, from the nose, throat and lungs. 

This germ was simultaneously discovered by Canon 
in 1892. It is asmall, specific organism, about the same 
diameter as the bacillus of mouse septicemia, but only 
about half as long. They are usually solitary, but may 
be united in chains of three or fourelements. They stain 
rather poorly, excepting with such concentrated pene- 
trating stains as carbol-fuchsin and alkaline methylene 


210 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY (June 
blue, and even with these the bacilli stain more deeply at 
the ends than in the middle, so that they appear some- 
thing like diplococci. 

For the demonstration of the bacilli in the blood, 
Canon recommends a rather complicated method. The 
blood is spread uponclean cover glasses in the usual way, 
thoroughly dried and then fixed by immersion in abso- 
lute alcohol for five minutes. The stain which seems best 
is Czenzynke. 

R Concentrated solution methylene blue ...... 40 parts. 


0.5 per cent solution eosine in 70 per cent 
alcohol ZO. 


The cover glasses are immersed in this solution and 
kept in the incubator from three to six hours, after which 
they are washed in water, dried and then mounted in 
Canada balsam. 

By this method the erythrocytes are stained red, the 
leucocytes blue, and the bacillus, which is also blue, ap- 
pears as a short rod, or even as a dumb-bell. The bacil- 
lus does not grow in gelatine or upon ordinary agar. 

We encounter quite a difficulty to describe a certain 
set of symptoms, for the type of the attack varies from 
time to time in different localities, so that we rely in the 
diagnosis of this disease on various factors, chiefly the 
one that influenza is epidemic at the time, and perhaps 
that other members of the household have suffered. The 
diagnosis must therefore be made by a process of exclus- 
ion in very young infants. 

We need not be surprised to find various types of this 
disease in infancy; as previously mentioned in this 
paper, namely, the form known as gastro-enteric type and 
the pulmonary type, for we find that the ordinary so- 
called pneumonia diplococcus can and frequently does 
cause at one time an otitis, at other times a meningitis. 

It is in this manner that the influenza bacillus some- 


[1896. MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 211 


time infects and affects the pulmonary regions, causing 
either a malignant form of so-called epidemic bronchitis 
or a pneumonia, and at other times it will affect the 
gastro-enteric system. 

The only pulmonary symptom is fever, the tempera- 
ture rising to 102° and even 105° F. The child is heavy 
and drowsy, and appears to have pain inthelimbs. This 
condition lasts in all a day or two, the temperature sinks, 
and the child is well again. 


This is in the simple form of influenza, but if we have 

a more protracted course the temperature may keep on 
rising in the evening, falling in the morning, for a week 
or two weeks at times before reaching normal. 

In the worst forms we may have an attack ushered in 
with a convulsion, with vomiting; severe meningeal 
symptons may manifest themselves, and finally the child 
recovers without leaving any trace of this infection, so 


212 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY (June 


that these cases are really very puzzling, especially those 
in which we have a rise and fall of temperature, with 
either mild pulmonary or moderate gastric-enteritic com- 
plications. 

Older children have attacks similar to those witnessed 
in adults, that is, the neuralgic pains are less marked, 
but there is headache, at times rigors. The attack is al- 
ways sudden, the temperature running up to 103° F or 
more, sore throat, headache, the conjunctive are injected 
sometimes there is an earache. Frequently the tonsils 
are enlarged and covered with small follicular points re- 
sembling diphtheria. At times the glands may be en- 
larged in the neck secondary to the tonsilitis. An in- 
teresting point is the fact that frequently an eruption 
similar to scarlet fever is present, and it is very hard 
to differentiate it unless we are positive of the existence 
of an epidemic of influenza, and furthermore that the 
rash disappears in a short time. Retro-pharyngeal ab- 
scess is a very frequent sequel to influenza. So also have. 
I seen several cases of empyema secondary to a severe 
attack of the grippe. 

Let me illustrate. A child, R. F., seven months old, 
was attended by Dr. A. Bienenstock on March 9, with a 
diarrhoea and an acute bronchial catarrh. Two days 
later he found the lower lobe of the left lung consolidated, 
the bronchi full of mucus. The treatment ordered did 
not relieve the engorgement of the lungs. The child did 
not improve, but had a coryza, cough, suffused eyes, tem- 
perature 101.6°; as Dr. Bienenstock told me, had all the 
appearances Of a child about to develop measles. But an 
additional symptom; wherever the child was touched it 
commenced to scream. 

I saw this case in consultation with Dr. Bienenstock, 
and found the entire left lobe consolidated, and diagnosed 
iufluenza of the pulmonary type. I ordered salicylate of 
soda 3.0 with essence of pepsin 60 0, a teaspoonful every 


1896. ] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL 213 


two hours. This child recovered ina few days, but an 
older child there developed similar symptoms of coryza, 
cough, pains, tenderness of being handled, anorexia, suf- 
fused eyes, and besides abdominal pains. 

The interesting fact about these two children would 
hardly be made clear but for the point that the mother 
had been suffering with headache, coryza, pains in the 
limbs and back, for about a week. It was self-evident 
from the influenza present that the mother had infected 
the child, and about two days later the older child was 
infected from either mother or its youngest sister. 

Such cases can be enumerated by the dozens. On 
March 4 I saw a case, in consultation with Dr. Samuel 
Friedman, which was characteristic of a most malignant 
type of influenza, complicated by a pneumonia and also 
by a typical meningitis ; child about two years old. 

Two days later, through the courtesy of Dr. L. Kohn, 
I saw in consultation a case of a mild type of a catarrh 
which extended from the nose and throat into the bron- 
chi, simulating a croupous bronchitis, really a malignant 
form of influenza. Such cases occur so frequently that we 
must differentiate carefully, and sometimes resort to the 
process of exclusion in making the diagnosis. 

The treatment of influenza is very simple, in fact really 
symptomatic. I invariably resort in all cases of influenza 
to the stimulating effect of a mustard foot-bath, by tak- 
jng about an ounce of the strongest mustard, immersing 
it in water of about 90° F., bathing the feet and constant- 
ly raising the temperature of the water by the addition 
of hotter water until the temperature reaches 110° F.; 
in all I bathe about five minutes. The bath should be 
followed by gentle friction of the extremities, and they 
must be carefully enveloped in hot towels or blankets. 
In addition to this, it isa good plan to aid diaphoresis 
by giving liquor ammonii acetatis, the ordinary spiritus 
mindereri, a teaspoonful every two or three hours for 


214 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [June 


children one to two years old; one-half the quantity for 
children below that age. The drug most favored by me 
is salicylate of soda. This I have given one grain for 
each year every two or three hours, depending on the 
urgency of the symptoms, so that a child five years old 
would receive five grains every two or three hours, and 
a child ten years old ten grains every two or three hours. 

The ordinary rules of therapeutics apply as well in in- 
fluenza as they do in all diseases. Thus, for example, 
the alimentary tract must be kept perfectly clean, and if 
there is not a good movement once in twenty-four hours 
the compound infusion of senna should be given to a 
child in doses of three or four teaspoonfuls in three or 
four hours, and if this is followed by copious stools, then 
an enema consisting of a half teacup of glycerine and 
one-half teacup of warm water should he administered 
quite high into the rectum. By placing the child on its 
side this can be easily accomplished. 

The diet should be very bland, and solid food excluded 
through the course of an attack of influenza. The best 
mode of feeding is to give concentrated soups, farinaceous 
food, soft eggs, oysters, milk, broths, koumyss, and if the 
vital powers are considerably reduced, then Rudisch’s 
sarco peptones or Valentine’s meat juice, given preferably 
in soups or milk, should be administered. 

For the severe pains in the limbs, I have found gentle 
massage beneficial, in some cases with vaseline, in others 
with alcohol, using the massage two or three times a day 
over the back, arms and legs. 

Whilst stimulation is not called for, it is a wise plan to 
administer alcohol occasionally. But if the pulse is 
feeble, then I have seen good results following the ad- 
ministration of one-half teaspoonful of whiskey in a 
teacupful of boiled milk, with the addition of the yolk 
of a raw egg in sugar. This milk punch, as it were, can 
be given in doses of two or three teaspoonfuls, ice-cold. 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 215 


In other cases Tokay wine may be required, and in in- 
fluenza more than in any other disease we find that it is 
necessary to individualize the treatment.—Clinical Re- 
corder. 


Twelfth Annual Exhibition of the Washington Microscop- 
ical Society, May 12, 18096. 


LIST OF EXHIBITS. 


Dr. G. G. Acker—Human muscle (voluntary). Injected Jung (human). 
Dr. W. W. Alleger—Bacteriological exhibit (motile and non-motile forms). 
Dr. E. A. Balloch—Fvetal blood. (Showing nucleated red corpuscles). 

Dr. F. V. Brooks—Merexide. 

Mr. H. H. Brown—Six slides illustrating human eye. Bacteria. Sec- 
tion of wood. Section of rock. 

Dr. C. T. Caldwell—Plated horse hair, onyx and quinine crystals; pig- 
ment cells in skin or frog. 

Mr. F. T. Chapman—Electric spark, representing 1-150th of a horse- 
power. 

Mr. P. C. Claflin—Pond life; life in stagnant water; diatoms. 

Dr. A. B. Coolidge—Transverse section of spinal cord (human). 

Mr. H. H. Doubleday—Circulation of blood in tail of fish; Brazilian chal- 
cedony (polarized); sori of ferns, showing development; seed of orchids. 

Mr. O. C. Fox—Roling sand (polarized). 

Dr. E A. Gibbs—(Studies in Marine zoology); Coelenterata (Sertularia 
pumila, Obelia geniculata); Molusca; (Creseis acicula); Crustacea, (larva of 
Seyllarus arctus); Vertebrata. (Amphioxus lanceolatus. ) 

Mr. John Grinstead—Vorticelle. 

Dr. H. H. Hawxhurst—Urinary casts (Bright’s disease). 

Dr. E. F. King—Leukzemic blood; human blood, normal (stained). 

Dr. D.S. Lamb— Human kidney (double stained). 

Dr. J. Melvin Lamb and Dr. Collins Marshall.—12 slides showing em- 
bryo, 52 days’ development. (56 mm. length, sections 1-1000 inch). 

Mr. J. E. Maulding—blood, necturus (double stained). 

Dr. F. E. Maxcy—Blood, amphiuma (double stained). 

Mr. S. W. Mellotte—Foot of human embryo (4 weeks). 

Mr. L. M. Mooers—Circulation of blood; microphotograph, ‘‘The creed.’’ 

Dr. V. A. Moore—Blood of pigeon, showing spindle-shaped bodies in 
white corpuscles. 

Dr. G. N. Perry—Transverse section of bone. 

Dr. Robert Reyburn—Heematozoon (malaria), in human red corpuscles; 
living eggs of water snail, 


216 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [June 


Dr. Henry A. Robbins—Intestine; injected and stained. 

Dr. Harry W. Rollings—Pneumonia; liver of frog; lung of frog; intestine 
of frog; kidney of rabbit; earof kitten. Injected and stained. 

Mr. W. Schneider—Stomach (human), stained. 

Dr. W. H. Seaman—Stem-sections of leanas. 

Dr. H. M. Smith—Trichinz in human muscles; anthracosis(carbon deposit 
in human lung). 

Dr. Louis P. Smith—Sarcoma of soft palate. 

Dr. J. T. Sothoron—Foraminifera. 

Mr. Jose M. Yznaga—Section of human skin (triple stain). 

The officers of the Society are: Dr. Collins Marshall, President. Hon. 
A. A. Adee, Vice-President. Mr. H. H. Doubleday, Corresponding Secre- 
tary. Mr. L. M. Mooers, Recording Secretary. Dr. E. A. Balloch, 
Treasurer. Dr. W. H. Seaman, Curator. 


EDITORIAL. 


«‘ Slide.’-—The French speaking microscopists have re- 
cently adopted the English word séde, M. C. Schlumberger, 
among others, using it in ‘‘Le Micrographe Preparateur”’ 
for May and June. Formerly they used the word forte 
objet which means object carrier. 


‘‘Urine.’’—If, upon a microscopic examination of a sac- 
charine urine, there be no casts, the case may be classed 
as one of the so-called harmlesscases of Diabetes, but even 
in this case no assurances of safety should be given. But 
if casts are abundant, the prognosis is very grave. 


Scientific Instruments and the Tariff.—The United 
States circuit court of appeals holds, in the case of United 
States v. Presbyterian Hospital, decided Jan. 16, 1896, 
that it does not follow that because articles are made for 
the use of physicians and surgeons in the practice of their 
profession that they are scientific instruments within the 
the meaning of the term as used inthe tariff law. The 
court says that the term ‘‘scientific instrument”? does not 
describe one appertaining to any particular vocation or 
profession. It suggests an instrument which is some- 
thing other than a mere mechanical tool or appliance, 
however peculiarly adapted to use it may be in scientific 


1896. ] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 217 


labors: one which, because it embodies some scientific con- 
ception, would attract the interest of learned minds; some- 
thing as distinct from the ordinary mechanical instru- 
ment as is the scientific toy from ordinary toys. What 
is or is not such an instrument, in cases arising under the 
statute, is to be determined as a question of fact, accord- 
ing to the nature of the thing itself, and not necessarily 
according to the nature of the use for which it is primarily 
designed or in which itis principally employed. Ordinary 
metal tubes, a wire mask covered with flannel, and glass 
tubes for holding wound catgut, imported for use in clinics 
and training schools the court does not consider attain to 
the dignity of “‘scientific instruments.” 


MICROSCOPICAL APPARATUS. 


A New Microscope.—The stand is made entirely of 
brass, highly finished, with graduated-draw tube, nickel- 
plated. The Base issolid brass (not filled), extra large and 


fy 
ry 


heavy thus rendering the instrument perfectly stable. 
The Stage is also extra large, 9.5 x 8.5 centimeters, of hard 
rubber, firmly vulcanized and bolted to heavy brass stage- 


218 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [June 


bed .5 millimeters thick. The action and arrangement of 
the sub-stage is clearly shown by the cut and is of the 
most improved pattern, fitted with an adjusting screw of 
fine pitch admitting of the most delicate adjustment, of 
condenser. ‘The mirror is two sided plane and concave, 
and adjustable in all directions. Condenser, of large size 
of the double lens system, fitted with Iris Diaphragm and 
capable of furnishing light of sufficient angle and intensity 
to bring out the full efficiency of the finest oil immersion lenses. 
A ring is provided below the iris diaphragm into which a 
blue or ground glass may be slipped when artificial light is 
used. Coarse adjustment by rack and pinion. ‘The rack 
is of the finest workmanship, with teeth cut at an angle. 
Adjusting screws are provided totake up and wear that 
may be caused by long continued use of the instrument. 
The fine adjustment is by micrometer screw. 

The eye pieces and objectives furnished with this stand 
are Reichert’s standard quality. For sale by Richards & 
Co.. limited. 


MICROSCOPICAL MANIPULATION. 


Gold and Bronze Paints.—The liquid employed with 
which to mix the bronze powders (which can be bought of 
all grades and shades of color) is, for ordinary indoor work 
dextrin (400 g.), containing potassium bichromate (1 g.) 
and sufficient water. Use 65 g. of bronze powder. For 
more permanent work dilute water-glass may be used. 
Borax-shellac solution, mixed with one-third alcohol, also 
is used, something like this: Bronze powder, 55 parts; 
alcohol, 10 parts; borax-shellac solution, 25 parts. Or dis- 
solve adammar in benzol and neutralize with solution of 
potassa by shaking together and allowing to separate. 


Aquarium Cement.—A good cement for fastening the 
glass sides into the frame for an aquarium may be made 
by melting togetherin an iron vessel 1 pound of gutta- 
percha and 2 pounds of common pitch. The Techno- 
Chemical Receipt Book gives the following: Mix 9 parts of 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 219 


litharge, 9 parts of fine white sand, 9 parts of plaster paris, 
and 1 part of linseed oil; then add some drying oil. This 
cement must stand several hours before using. It be- 
comes very hard, and serves both for sweet and salt water 
tanks, but is best for the latter.—W. Druggist. 


BACTERIOLOGY. 


Flies Carriers of Germs.—As far backas 1886, Hoffman 
demonstrated the presence of tubercule bacilli inthe bodies 
of flles captured ina room occupied by a consumptive. 
The droppings of the flies were full of the bacilli, which 
were shown by experiment to be fully virulent. 

Six years later Mr. A. Coppen-Jones, of Switzerland, by 
employing cultures of chromogenic bacteria, proved that 
infection can be, and actually is, carried, not only in the 
bodies of flies, but also by their feet. In one experiment, 
pieces ofa culture of the bacilli prodigiosus were mixed 
in a mortar with some highly tuberculous sputum, in such 
a way that stained preparations showed these two varieties 
of microbes to be present in about equal numbers. Flies 
were allowed to light on the sputum, and, after they had 
flown about for atime, were permitted to walk across the 
surface of sterilized potatoes. In forty-eight hours num- 
erous colonies of the bacillus prodigiosus made their ap- 
pearance. 

From this result we can reasonably conclude that flies 
are aconstant source of infection. More especially is this 
the case in those warm countries where germ growth and 
decomposition are favored, and where no means whatever 
are employed to exclude flies from living rooms.—Pacific 
Record. 


The Transmission of Microbian Disease through the 
Medium of Books.—M. du Cazal and M. Catrin recently 
published in the Annals de 1’ Institut Pasteur the result of a 
series of experiments for the purpose of determining to 
what extent microbian disease is transmitted by books, 


220 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [June 


He found positive evidence of the transmission of strep- 
tococcus, pneumococcus, and Loffler’s diphtheritic bacillus. 
It was found impossible to transmit tuberculosis to animals 
by means of paper heavily charged with Koch’s bacillus, 
—a curious fact, the explanation of which does not yet ap- 
pear. The observations were also negative as regards the 
typhoid bacillus. According to the Revue Internal de Med. 
et de Chir., the typhoid bacillus may be distinguished in the 
evacuations and secretions, and differentiated from the 
coli bacillus within twenty-four to forty-eight hours by the 
following method described by Elsner: A culture medium 
is prepared by means of gelatin boiled with a decoction of 
potato, to whichis added a solution of soda in sufficient 
quantity to produce a degree of acidity equal to that of 
Holtz’s medium. This solution is filtered and sterilized. 
The liquid is then poured into Eslen and Meyer’s tubes, 
and completed by the addition of iodide of potassium, in 
the proportion of one part toone hundred. ‘The culture is 
then inoculated, and poured out on plates. The bacillus 
coli and the typhoid bacillus are the only microbes which 
will grow in this medium. Within twenty-four hours 
colonies of bacilli coli appear in luxuriant brownish 
growths; twenty-four hours later the typhoid bacillus 
develops. This germ is easily distinguished as small, 
finely granulated, transparent points. 


Bacteriological Investigations into the Etiology of 
Keratitis and Conjunctivitis Eczematosa and Corneal 
Ulcers.—Bach (Arch. f. Ophthal., xli, 2), draws the follow- 
ing conclusions from his investigations (WV. Y. Med. Jour.): 

1. Eczematous inflammations ofthe eye are caused by 
pyogenic micro-organisms, especially the staphylo-coccus 
pyogenes aureus. 

2. In recent processes the particular microbe can gen- 
erally be demonstrated. 

3. By implantation of pyogenic bacteria typical artificial 
phlyctenules can be produced in the cornea and conjunc- 
tiva. 

4. The eczematous processes frequently coexisting in 
other parts of the body can be traced to the same cause, 


1896.] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 221 


5. Hence there isa direct connection between eczema of 
the eyes and of other parts of the body. 

6. With a similar etiology of corneal ulcers, those 
ulcers situated in the central parts of the cornea are much 
more unfavorable in prognosis than those elsewhere, as 
there is almost always inflammation of the iris and the 
ciliary body present. 


Micro-Organisms in the Blood of Scarlatina.—Dr. 
Crajkowski secured blood from scarlatina patients by a 
needle prick of the ear, and from it made cultures and 
cover-glass preparations (University Medical Magazine). 
The culture media used were glycerin agar, agar with 
hamatogen, blood serum, gelatin, bouillon, serous trans- 
udate from the peritoneum and from the tunica vaginalis 
testis. The cover-glass specimens were dried, fixed, and 
stained in Chencinski’s mixture. These specimens 
showed micro-organisms in the form of diplococci. They 
were found in relatively small numbers—one or two in a 
field of vission—and generally occurred singly, though 
sometimes in twos or short chains. They were never 
seen in the blood corpuscles. The shape of the individual 
was oval, though with ordinary magnification no difference 
between the diameters could be observed. ‘They were not 
stained by ordinary methods and decolorized readily when 
stained by Gram’s method. ‘The specimen from fresh 
blood had a surrounding capsule which was absent in the 
dried form. The growth of the organisms on culture 
media was carefully studied. Upon the solid culture media 
it was very slow. Uponall the solid media the colonies 
appear under the microsope as minute dewdrop-like points 
measuring one-half by one-half millimetreand not becom- 
ing confluent for months. The organisms continued vital 
upon the solid media for from three to four months if pro- 
tected from drying. In liquid culture media, especially in 
bouillon, the organisms formed a yellowish-white, finely 
granular, light precipitate at the bottom of the glass. The 
inoculation of the organisms beneath the skinand into the 
blood of rabbits was without result. Inoculated mice died 
in three days with the cocci distributed through the blood. 


222 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [June 


A Study of the Infectiousness of the Dust inthe Adiron- 
dack Cottage Sanitarium.—Irwin H Hance (Canadian 
Practitioner, January, 1896) gives a very interesting 7cswme 
of the literature bearing upon the infectious character of 
tuberculosis, and relates some instructive experiments 
uponthe subject. These were done at the request and 
under the supervision of Dr. Trudeau, at the Saranac 
Laboratory, and consisted of inoculations, into the subcut- 
aneous tissues of guinea-pigs, of suspension of dust from 
the various buildings and cottages of the Sanitarium. A 
total ofeighty-one inoculations was made, all but eight of 
which gave a negative result. Three of the animals died 
of rapid acute infections; the remaining five fatal cases 
were infected with tuberculosis. Theyall occured among 
the ten animals which were inoculated with dust from the 
“Red Cottage,’? which had been occupied by the sickest 
patients and by one who was notoriously careless as to 
spitting about the cottage. 

The author seems justifiedin concluding that the free- 
dom from infectious material of the dust from sixteen out 
of seventeen buildings tested is due to strict measures in 
disposingof sputum. ‘The patientsarecarefully instructed 
concerning the disposal of their sputum, and close super- 
vision of them is maintained. The pasteboard cuspidors 
are burned daily, as are the Japanese napkins as soon as 
possible after using. Paper napkins are used in the infir- 
mary in hemorrhage cases or where patients are too feeble 
to get up on their elbows so as to use a cuspidor. These 
are used but once, then placed ina pasteboard receptacle 
and soon after burned. In addition to these measures, 
the author insists upon general good hygiene, etc. These 
results show that buildings may be occupied by consump- 
tives for years and still be uncontaminated by infectious 
material if the discharge of bacilli from the patient be pro- 
perly cared for. 


Defective Sanitation in Italy.—According to Professor 
Bodio, of 8,254 communities in Italy, 1,454 have no supply 
of pure water, and 4,877 no regular sewage system. 


1896.] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 223 


BIOLOGICAL NOTES. 


Plant Lungs.—One of the prettiest microscopical 
studies is the examination ofthe lungs of a plant. Most 
people donot know a plant has lungs, but it has, and its 
lungs are in its leaves. Examined through a high power 
microscope, every leaf will show thousands uponthousands 
of openings, infinitely small, of course, but each provided 
with lips which, in many species, are continually opening 
and closing. 


WEDICAL MICROSCOPY. 


Coffee and Disease Germs.—A year ago, a Russian 
bacteriologist made some experiments for the purpose of 
determining the influence of coffee in destroying disease 
germs. ‘Theconclusion was that coffee is to some degree 
a disinfectant. The disinfectant properties of coffee de- 
pend, however, not upon theactive principle of coffee, or 
caffein, which it contains, but upon the substances devel- 
oped in the roasting of the coffee. It was found that the 
various substitutes for coffee are also germicides, and, 
like it, develop disinfectant properties during the roasting 
process. A watery infusion of either coffee or its substi- 
tutes was found to be capable of killing the germs of chol- 
era within a few hours, and of typhoid fever in a somewhat 
longer time. 

Theconclusion should not, however, be drawnfrom these 
statements that either coffee or its substitutes are to be 
considered of value on account of their slight antiseptic 
properties, as toolong a time is required for the destruc- 
tion of germs by them.—Modern Medicine. 


The Influence of Surrounding Micro-Organisms on the 
Cholera Vibrio.—Senarelli found cholera vibrios in the 
water supply of both Versailles and St. Cloud. The 
former place is practically immune from cholera, but the 
latter is notso tothe same degree. Seeking for an expla- 
nation of the difference between the two cities in this 


224 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [June 


respect, Metchnikoff obtained from some preserved 
choleric dejecta, coloniesidentical with those of the cholera 
vibrio, but differing in that they grow only at temperatures 
beneath 30 degrees C., give noindol reaction, and are not 
pathogenic to animals. 

‘These organisms were sown in gelatin plates but re- 
fused to grow. ‘The plates were then exposed to the air, 
and a number of other organisms fellon them. Most of 
these had no effect upon the cholera vibrios, but some 
sarcine, and especially some yeasts, influenced their 
growth very markedly, so that if Metchnikoff wished to 
revive a vibrio that would not grow, he inoculated along 
with it certain other micro-organisms, and obtained the 
desired result. A sarcina, atorula, and a non-liquefying 
bacillus were isolated, all of which favor the growth of 
the vibrio, while there are others which certainly hinder 
its development. 

One may conclude, therefore, that the cholera bacillus 
is considerably modified by the micro-organisms which 
surround it, and that immunity or susceptibility, in the 
case of cholera, depends largely uponthe other microbes 
in the intestinal canal.—Pacific Record. 


Small-Pox in New Orleans.—The Medical and Surgical 
Journal of New Orleans says that small-pox has been pre- 
valent in that city for the past two years, new cases occur- 
ing through the coming tothe city of unprotected blacks 
from the country parishes. ‘The board of health is hamp- 
ered in its efforts to stamp out the disease bya lack of 
funds, and the journal calls upon the profession of the State 
to advocate general vaccination of unprotected persons, so 
that the supply, which now keeps up the disease in New 
Orleans may be cut off. 


Diphtheria was the cause of over fourteen thousond 
deaths in Vienna during twenty five years from 1870 to 
1894 inclusive. \ 


Black Plague is said to have appeared in Yokohama. 
Three cases are reported by cable, in two of which the 
patients have died. They were both Chinamen. 


1896. ] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL 225 


MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETIES. 


Quekett Microscopical Club. 


Friday, May 15.—The 342nd ordinary meeting of this. 
club was held at 20 Hanover-square, Mr. J. G. Waller, 
F.S.A., President, in the chair. The minutes of the pre- 
ceding meeting were read and confirmed, ballot for new 
members taken, the additions to the library announced,’ 
and other formal business gone through. 

Mr. Miles exhibted specimens of Aulacodisci from 
Sendai, in Japan, one of which, A. giganteus, was in almost 
perfect condition, which is rarely the case. Mr. Enock 
read a note on two aquatic Hymenoptera—viz., Prestwichia 
aquatica and Caraphractus cinctus. The former was the 
first time of capture since 1862, by Sir J. Lubbock. Mr. 
Enock also gave his reasons for suppressing the name 
Polynema natans, as it had been clearly proved by the late 
Mr. F. Walker that it was identical with C. cinctus of 
Halliday. Mr. Nunney gave an account of certain disc- 
like bodies he had found on the stigmal vein of the wing of 
a Chalcid fly, and the matter was discussed by Mr. Ingpen 
and Mr. Michael. Mr. Nelson exhibited a portable micro- 
scope, designed, he believed, by Dr. Ross, and made by 
Mr. Baker. He also read a paper on “Correcting Errors 
in Camera Drawings.”? Mr. Karop read a note on ‘ Illumi- 
nating. Objects with Low Powers by Artificial Light.’ 
Votes of thanks were passed for these several communi- 
cations. Announcement of the meetings and excursions 
for the ensuing month was then made, and the proceed- 
ings terminated. The next ordinary meeting will be held 


on June. 19. 
Sheffield Microscopical Society. 


April 17.—The members of this Society held what is 
termed a practical night at the Rutland Institute, Fargate. 
Mr. Bernard H. Hoole gave a short demonstration on 
‘‘Dark Ground Illumination as applied to the Microscope,”’ 
and exhibited a number of views of marine zoophytes and 
diatoms. 


226 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [June 


PERSONALS. 


Geo. M. Lawrence of Warsaw, N. Y., is a dealer in 
microscopes, accessories, and microscopic objects. 


T.G. Lee, M. D., is professor of Histology and Embry- 
ology in the University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn. 


NEW PUBLICATIONS. . 


The Primary Factors of Organic Evolution.—E. H. 
Cope, Ph.D. Chicago: The Open Court Publishing Co. 
In publishing this neat octavo volume of over 500 pp., Dr. 
Cope has made quite a valuable addition to the literature 
pertaining to the problem of evolution of the animal king- 
dom. The book is divided into three parts, showing the 
nature of variation, causes of variation and ‘‘’The Inheri- 
tance of Variation.’’ The deductions made are carefully 
drawn and brought toa final conclusion with infinite ex- 
actness. Over 100 illustrations embellish the work. 


The Bacillus of Chancroid.—Colombini has been work- 
ing on this subject, and publishes his results in a pamph- 
let. He finds that the bacillus of Ducrey and the strepto- 
bacillus of Unna are one and the same organism, charac- 
terized by being found in chains, by staining chiefly at the 
ends and not in the centre, by being decorlorized by Gram’s 
or Kuhne’s method, by the difficulty of obtaining pure 
culture since a suitable nutritive medium could not be 
found, and by the rounded ends of the individual bacilli. 
‘The best staining agent was methelene blue. Inoculation 
into animals was uniformly negative. The bacillus is 
rarely found in bubonic pus. 


Defective Sanitation in Italy.—According to Professor 
Bodio, of 8,254 communities in Italy, 1,454 have no supply 
of pure water, and 4,877 no regular sewage system. 


ety 


A.M. EDWARDS, M. D. 


THE AMERICAN 


MONTHLY 


MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 


VoL. XVIII. JULY, 1896. No. 7 


Sketch of the Life of Arthur Mead Edwards, M. D. 
BY C. W. SMILEY. 
[WITH FRONTISPIECE. ] 


Professor Edwards was born in 1836 and is consequently 
in his sixty-first year. His father, Charles Edwards, was 
an English lawyer,—his mother a descendant of Sir James 
Edward Smith, the first president and founder of the 
Linnean Society. 

Dr. Edwards was early interested in chemistry and 
became professor of Chemistry and Microscopy in the 
Women’s Medical College, New York, and in the College 
of Pharmacy in New York, He lectured inchemistry at 
Dartmouth College. 

He studied geology under Professor Agassiz, botany 
under Professors Gray and Torrey at Harvard and Colum- 
bia. He became assistant to the latter in the College 
of Physicians and Surgeons, New York. He also 
studied geology under Professor Newberry, after which 
‘he was assistant in chemistry to Professors St. John, Le- 
Conte and Doremus. 

He was attached to the Northwest Boundary Survey as 
assistant in microscopy to Mr. George Gibbs. Latter he 
assisted Prof. J. D. Whitney in the State Geological 
Survey of California and he aided Professor OC. H. 
Hitchcock in the Geological Sutvey of New Hamp- 
shire. 

Dr. Edwards founded the American Microscopical 


228 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [July 


Society in New York long before ‘the present national 
society by that name had commenced operations and he 
was its first president. 

He went to California in 1877 to study diatoms col- 
lected by the State Geological Survey and by the North- 
west Boundary Survey, but was prevented from complet- 
ing the work. Helived at Berkeley, Cal., two years, fell 
sick, came Kast, leaving specimens and books to the San 
Francisco Microscopical Society. 

He has since lived in Newark, N. J. His publications, 
largely microscopical, are to be found in the Transactions 
of the Lyceum of Natural History of New York, in the 
transactions of the San Francisco Microscopical Society; 
in the Journal of the Quekett Club, in the proceedings of 
the Boston Society of Natural History, in nature in the 
Quarterly Journal of Microscopy, in the Microscope, and 
in this JouRNAL. He has also published “The Natural 
History of the Diatomacee.” 


A New Form of Analytical Procedure Applicable to the 
Study of Diatomaceous and Other Clayey Deposits. 
BY K. M. CUNNINGHAM, 
MOBILE, ALA. 


Towards the completion of the second decade of my 
career in studying that branch of microscopy, whose use- 
ful results are recorded as belonging to the department 
of Micro-Geology, I have been accustomed to avail my- 
self of certain useful expedients which were gradually 
devised and evolved by myself. They are a necessary 
sequence of attempts to obtain the best results from dif- 
ficult diatom or other. fossil organic-bearing material. 
As the outcome of the line of experimentation followed 
and fully mastered, I have been enabled to reduce my 
acquired experiences to a set of rules, or process methods. 
They may be communicable to anyone who may not have 


1896. } MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 229 


had sufficient previous experience or who may be on the 
verge of entering into this class of investigation so that 
they may readily overcome the difficulties ordinarily 
offering in such cases. 

-In the first decade of my study the numerous samples 
or specimens of diatom-bearinge clays which passed 
through my hands were treated, and acceptable results 
were obtained, by the universally known methods of 
washing in water and treatment in acids, concentration, 
ete. In my later experience I have struck deposits of 
such a character that it was impracticable, or even im- 
possible to reduce or eliminate the clay matrices so as to 
get a rich concentration ofthe contained fossil organisms 
by any acid form of treatment. I then devised the 
method of clay elimination by the trituration or rubbing 
method, which gives unvarying results so far as relates 
tothe fossil contents of any clays thus far examined. In 
an attempt to outline the method, it will be necessary at 
the outset to mention a few requisites essential to the 
process. The first requisite is to provide a piece of 
rather stiff rubber belting, having the dimensions of 
from six to nine inches in length, by some five or six 
inches in width. Eventually all samples of clay to be 
treated are laid thereon as a support. 

The preliminary step in the cleaning is begun by tak- 
ing a small piece of the material, of about a half cubic 
inch in bulk or smaller, wetting, softening and breaking 
it down in asmall quantity of water to a pasty condition, 
which will partially liberate the heavier sediments and 
retain in suspension the clayey or lighter portions. The 
vessel in which this is done (say a common china soap 
bowl) is then filled up with water and the lighter portion 
gradually poured off, retaining the heavier sediment; 
the initial pressures used in breaking down the clay are 
in the thumb and finger-tips of the hand and afterwards 
the ball of the thumb is used in triturating the clay on 


230 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [July 


the bottom and sides of the soap-bowl. After each filling 
up and pouring off of the water, the trituration must be 
renewed to remove another increment of clay at each 
pouring off, which will be liberated from the heavier 
sediment at each filling up with water. Ifat this stage 
a small test should be made, the presence of unreduced 
particles of clay would still mask the fossil contents, and 
for this reason it would then be necessary to pour off as 
much water as possible, at the same time collecting the 
sediment into the smallest compass in the bowl, held 
slanting; at which point the further precaution should be 
taken of removing a few more drops of water from the 
mass. The next step is to have at hand apiece of com- 
mon blotting or bibulous paper upon which the sediment 
is decanted; the blotting paper will at once absorb the 
remainder of the water, leaving a little cake or pellet on 
the paper, freed from any excess of water. This pellet 
is then removed by slipping a knife blade under it and 
depositing the same on the middle of the rubber strip, 
next with a rubbing and spreading pressure exerted by 
the ball of the thumb, the pellet of clay is continuously 
triturated by straight strokes over the major part of the 
surface of the rubber pad or square. When this rubbing 
gathering together) and re-rubbing has been kept up 
for a sufficient time, it will be noted that the material 
has again apparently returned to a liquid condition 
and the minute lumpy particles have been dissipated. 

The material is again transferred to the soapbowl to 
which at first a rather small quantity of water is added, 
so that the pasty mass may be distributed evenly in the 
water by the finger. The bowl is then filled with water 
and the decantation or pouring off resumed, and it will 
then be noted that the remaining sediment is distinetly 
visible through the small quantity of water retained and 
an absence of further milkiness on anadditional agitation 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 231 


of the bowl. A stage will then have been reached 
where no further pouring in or off of water will be re- 
quired. The results up to this point have eliminated all 
of the undesired clay or aluminous products and left be- 
hind the desired organic fossils, largely mixed with sand 
grains, Since this last condition is somewhat objection- 
able, it then becomes necessary by some concentration 
process to remove the desired fossils from the sand as 
fully as possible. This need then causes one to resort to 
the concentration method customary in removing the 
diatoms from recent fresh water and marine muds or 
clays. This procedure is familiar to everyone who has 
givenany attention tothe cleaning of diatoms. To con- 
duct thisconcentration successfully it is usually necessary 
to have relatively shallow dishlike vessels of glass or 
porcelain, of either square or round contours. Square is 
preferable, as the concentrated particles may be directed 
to a corner and drawn off by tip of index finger contact, 
or with a pippette. When this is successfully done the 
objectionable sand is left towards the rear of the 
diatoms, spicule, etc., and may be rejected as practically 
barren of forms. 

The manipulation properly conducted, should be that 
form of motion, comprised in a continuous twirling 
motion of the contents of the glass, while holding the 
glass slightly slanting, and giving it an occasional jerk 
backwards, so as to project the discoidal and other forms 
forward. This method used with the marine clays 
drives millions of the diatoms forward and out of the 
sandy sediment, but also carries with it all of the 
vegetable debris usually burned out or carbonized during 
acid treatment. 

At this point it may not be inappropriate to introduce, 
by way of diversion, an important expedient in the cen- 
centration of diatoms as devised and utilized by myself, 
useful in more general cases and of more frequent utility. 


232 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [July 


Assuming that a concentration of a recent marine diatom- 
bearing material had been made: say, of a gulf or marsh 
deposit, by the process cited above. In this case, 
nearly all of the vegetable debris, including carbonized 
lignitic matter, would come over or out, along with the 
diatoms. There would occur a difficulty in reducing all 
of the carbonized material in the boiling acids, and the 
effort should be made in advance to eliminate this form 
of debris. 

The following method will obviate this source of 
trouble: For the purpose it is necessary tu have avail- 
able for use, one or more of the small thin, well known, 
wooden butter-holders or a hemispherical rubber cup. 
These vessels have round bottoms and usually when 
partially filled with a liquid, sit level. The diatomaceous 
material as roughly concentrated or freed from most of 
the sand is transferred to the wooden bowl. The bowl 
is supported ona small plate of window glass to enable 
it to turn readily aud the bowl is then given a smart flip 
with the tip of the index finger, when it will spin 
rapidly around a few times. The contained hquid will 
rise or flare up centrifugally, and spread around the 
sides, and the heavier sand and vegetable debris will 
settle back at once, leaving a cloud of diatoms floating, 
or insuspension. The bowl is then quickly tilted so as 
to throw the cloud of diatoms towards the edge of the 
bowl, when several pippetes full of liquid may be quickly 
removed; this spinning around of the bowl is repeated 
until it is judged that the diatoms have been separated 
by gravity gradations from the heavier sediments. 

If the desirable material thus separated is allowed to 
settle in a suitable holder, and the excess of water then ~ 
removed, and the diatoms deposited as a drop on a piece 
of good blotting paper, a ball of diatom material will be 
thus at once secured; and may be dried immediately 
over an argand lamp, and when the ball is dried and 


1896. ] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 233 


deposited on a simple glass slide and touched with the 
finger, it will fall to dust. If this dust is distributed 
over the slip by gentle tapping, and the surplus of diatom 
powder is removed by tilting the slip, a thin, uniform; 
evenly distributed layer of the largest and smallest in the 
material will be found studding the slide in extreme 
profusion. If this slide is then covered with a thin cover 
glass, to whicha drop of balsam has been applied, a slide 
for study is thus perfected containing every form char- 
acteristic of the deposit. I have found this to be a 
direct and satisfactory process dispensing with the use of 
acid treatment. One can prove the utility of the method 
of separation or concentration by this modified form of 
mechanical whirling at the same time getting rid of the 
heavier sand and vegetable matter, otherwise difficult to 
eliminate by acid treatment. When the whirling 
principle is fully mastered, as outlined above, the secret 
of successful concentration is within one’s grasp. All 
other accessory steps in diatom preparation present no 
special difficulties of manipulation that cannot be readily 
overcome. 7 

In order to illustrate the working advantages of the 
analytical methods herein outlined, a reference to some 
very recent study results conducted by employing the 
_ processes already given in detail, I might recite that on 
the occasion of the proposed Southern States Exposition 
to be held at Chicago, but which has since been postponed 
indefinitely, it had been the intention, to have the 
varied mineral resourses of the State of Alabama fully 
represented. In accordance with this plan, I was en- 
trusted with the duty of collecting such minerals as were 
peculiar to south-western Alabama and south-eastern 
Mississippi. The exhibits were to be made jointly by 
the geological department of the state and the Mobile 
and Ohio Railroad land department. While on this 
mission in the field, I had opportunity to visit and study 


234 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY _ [July 


a considerable area of the tertiary sedimentary forma- 
tions, all of which are of special interest to students of 
micro-geology or to the general microscopist. There is 
a strip of territory occupying fully one-third of the 
Southern portion of the states of Alabama and Mississippi 
and extending to the shores of the Gulf of Mexico, which 
is now known to furnish inexhaustible fields of strata 
made up in greater or less degrees of richness of micro- 
zoan remains. There are foraminifera, radiolarians, 
sponge spicules; diatoms of marine origin, spines and 
tests of micro-echinodermata, corallines and lignitic 
strata containing the resinous spores characteristic of the 
fern vegetation. There are also mineral grain inclusions 
of various kinds, the result of the decomposition of the 
archaic or primary formations as silex, mica, alumina, 
tourmaline, zircon, magnetite, greensand, pyrite, selenite 
and fossil resinous granules, phosphatized bones 
of various extinct fossil vertebrates, sharks’ teeth of minute 
size, ete. 

While investigating the formations for a few days at 
Enterprise, Miss., I very promptly determined three 
characteristic stratified deposits of microscopic interest; 
the first being at the level of the water in the Chickasaw- 
hay River, ata point a little south ofa uew steam saw mill 
in process of erection and which will remain a permanent 
land mark from which to locate the deposit. At this 
point a particularly tough and close grained bluish clay 
shelves into the water abruptly. This material when 
tested right on the spot by the trituration method, show- 
ed that it was a deposit of marine fossil diatows corres- 
ponding to the recent existing species found in the clays 
of the bays bordering the Gulf. ‘There were large and 
small species of coscinodiscus, actinoptychus, actinocy- 
clus, melosira and _ triceratium with a sprinkling of 
radiolarian forms, This clay breaks up into cubical 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 235 


blocks and when dry is quite indurated, but it yields to 
the trituration treatment, giving the discoidal diatoms 
as clear and as transparent as glass, with the specific 
reticulation quite distinct. At another point two miles 
north of Enterprise at the Okatibbee Creek iron railroad 
bridge in the south bank of the creek, ‘and in its bed 
samples of a clay that falls to peices on wetting yielded 
an abundance of radiolarian forms comprised under a 
few genera and species having their spines intact. These 
forms might be removed pure by millions by a simple 
washing process, the clay being of that texture as not to 
require trituration for reduction of the aluminous matrix. 
The diatoms in this deposit were not abundant but were 
associated in small numbers with the other organ- 
isms. 

But at another point at the base of the bridge pier an 
outcrop of sandy stratified clay reduced very easily in 
water gave a characteristic showing of marine discoidal 
diatoms with few radiolarians. 

In addition to the diatomaceous and radiolarian beds, 
there were deposits of calcareous marls at many points 
in the vicinage of Enterprise, which deposits are usually 
void of any silicious micro-organisms but furnish green- 
sand casts of interest in their peculiar structure, and 
also of foraminiferal shells. The marl deposits are 
rathec coarse in texture and on their weathered surfaces 
thousands of discoidal echinoderms are scattered which 
show microscopic ornamentation on their white sur- 
faces. 

In a previous articie in the JOURNAL in relation to the 
radiolarian deposits of Ala. and Miss., I alluded to an 
extensive formation a few miles north of Enterprise, as 
being a typical illustration of the Radiolarian formation 
(Bulrstone; Hocene). During the month of May, of this 
year, I was enabled to examine this point, which is 
locally known as “White Bluff” or the flag station known 


236 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [July 


‘as Basic City. The bluffis not an adjunct to a river 
bank, but more particularly the result of a side hill 
cutting to make track room for two parallel railroad tracks 
passing that point. The bluff-like aspect is preserved 
for about a mile. Along the face of this cutting at a 
height of about ten feet above the level of the road-bed 
a soft stratum of finely laminated clay proved to be very 
rich in diatomaceous and radiolarian forms as well as 
foraminifera, the most interesting peculiarity of the 
stratum being in the richness of a single specie of tri- 
ceratium, hundreds of them showing up in a small clean- 
ing by the trituration method of treatment. The other 
forms were mostly species of coscinodiscus fully preserv- 
ing their sculptural markings. The contents of the 
strata above and below this soft thialy laminated stratum 
were more of radiolarian forms than diatoms. During 
the superficial examination of the various alternating 
layers of the formation but one single large specimen 
of a nautilus was found, ina fine state of preservation, 
and this one, found by the mere chance of a slab of the 
radiolarian chalk splitting open while lifting it up. For 
economic purposes as a source of silicious clays, the 
strata are of unlimited extent, being above fifty feet 
in height and of indefinite extension. This marine de- 
posit of silicious and aluminous clays rests conformably 
upon a thick stratum of coarse greens and marl, By the 
trituration process an unlimited quantity of radiolarian, 
diatomaceous forms and sponge spicules may be removed 
for appropriate study. 

At Boyce, a few miles south of Enterprise, an extensive 
formation of acretaceous rock is found which is locally 
quarried by the aid of cross cut saws and is found to be 
universally used for the construction of very durable 
chimneys and fire places within the whole area occupied 
by the white limestone formation, Any piece of this 
chalklike chimney rock may be softened by soaking in 


1896.] MIGROSCOPICAL JOURNAL 237 


water and be crushed to a powder by the pressure of 
the hand and when further reduced by the trituration 
process yields millions of beautiful foraminifera of many 
species, all of microscopic size. 

On a former occasion I had the pleasure of communi- 
eating to this JouRNAL the results of some micro-studies 
of the marl beds of this same vicinity in which I called 
attention to the occurrence of minute ornate calcareous 
glassy plates, anchors and wheels, such as are now de- 
rived from the cuticle or epidermis of the holothurians 
of existing seas, but Ihave found it practically a hope- 
less task to find in such calcareous marls any traces of 
silicious fossil remains. 

What has already preceded would cover all of inter- 
est tothe microscopist as noted in this area; traversed 
by the Mobile and Ohio Railroad. On my return from 
this trip I next visited the territory northwards of Mobile 
on the line of the Mobile and Birmingham Railroad for 
a further collecting of mineral specimens. This oppor- 
tunity enabled me to study a somewhat similar series of 
deposits as were found in Mississippi. In the vicinity of 
Jackson, Clarke Co., Alabama, outcrops of the white 
chalky limestone, locally known as “Chimney Rock” and 
the marl deposits were duly studied. I secured samples 
of an indurated clay from the lowest stratum of the out- 
crops in a deep ravine; as the descent from the adjacent 
hills led down for about a hundred or more feet. After- 
wards in submitting the materia] found here to the 
trituration process, I determined that here was a horizon 
where silicious and calcareous micro-organisms had 
simultaneously flourished and had left their so-far 
indestructible remains in evidence of their former 
life. 

In this silicious marl stratum, I found associated fora- 
minifera of many species, diatoms of the discoidal and tri- 
angular forms, radiolaria and microscopic echinus spines 


238 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [July 


and spicules of sponges, richly intermixed and by the 
manipulatory process recounted herein, the diatomace- 
ous forms were removed in sufficient quantities for study 
purposes. The phenomena of metamorphisation are well 
shown in this deposit, as in the tritnration process among 
the larger coscinodiscus forms that come through, a few 
interlacing natural crystal plates embrace and hold to- 
gether across the central portion of the disc, leaving in- 
terspaces between the plates. While many of the discs 
have the metallic or coppery aspect of mineral pyrite; 
others have embedded in their texture minute spherules of 
pyrite, which appear as black spots by transmitted light 
but golden by condensed surface ligit. The foraminiferal 
shells have also undergone the change from carbonate of 
lime to a mineral no longer soluble in acids, and tend- 
ing more to a silicified product. In cases the crystalliza- 
tion has obliterated the reticular marking of the discs, 
while others have preserved the hexagonal areolation 
enabling the species to be readily recognized. 

At St. Stephens, Ala., on the Tombigbee River, I 
secured large blocks of the coraline white friable lime- 
stone already celebrated in geology asa locality where 
the chalky strata are made up of the large and conspicu- 
ous foraminifera. Orbitoides mantellii imbedded in a 
matrix of microscopic corals, the foramninifera in this 
deposit yielding silicious casts or molds of the internal 
chambers of the shells, after dissolving away the shell of 
lime carbonate. In a more northerly direction, a further 
extension of this chimney rock exists around the town of 
Sugesville, also in Clarke Co., where I was enabled to 
observe quantities of fossilized nodules known as copro- 
lites, which weather out of the soft rock, and when 
found in economic quantites are valuable on account of 
their phosphatic nature. From these nodules thin trans- 
parent sections may be made, showing the coprolites to 
be an aggregation of forminiferal bodies ranging down 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 239 


to the smallest of sizes. Trituration of the lignitic clays 
or shales of this same locality yield the spores of vegeta- 
tion similar to that of the shales of the carboniferous 
formation and coal strata. All of the various kinds of 
chalky strata in this area yield by the same treatment 
the forminiferal bodies in illimitable numbers. At 
Safford, a station still higher up on the railroad and on 
the southern limits of the cretaceous horizon, fine speci- 
mens were secured of true chalk, being the north 
American equivalent of the British chalk, and this also 
by trituration yields foraminifera in a different state 
of aggregation from that of the chimney rock area, 

The matrix in which the foraminifera are embedded is 
a mass of the minute amphidiscs or coccodises first 
studied and referred to by Dr. Ehrenberg as character- 
istic of the European chalk area or of the chaik of the 
cliffs of Dover and Brighton in England. The analytical 
methods which have been outlined herein are with equal 
facility applied to clays or soft mineral deposits, as 
some clearly defined mineral sediment of one kind or 
another will be with certainty demonstrated. The 
writer has had satisfactory returns through the method 
on such diverse materials as the coal shales of the car- 
boniferous period; the silicious sinter, or dust strata 
derived from voleanic action in past time, the burned 
shales of bituminous or anthracite coals, and in the lig- 
nite clays, kaolin clays, common plastic clays, the phos- 
phatie diatomaceous marine fossil clays of Florida, and 
the fresh water lacustrine fossil deposits, and marine 
deposits. If one character of contents is destroyed, 
something else of interest is unmasked, or made per- 
ceptible in its stead. The area in Alabama and. Miss- 
issippi of which I have made allusion to herein had 
already received the attention of distinguished geologists, 
partly directly on the ground, or partly by correspon- 


240 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [July 


dence. Harper's Geology of Mississippi in the notes 
therein, refers to the labors of D’Orbigny and Dr. 
Ehrenberg in relation to some of the characters of the 
cretaceous formations that he was occupied with, while it 
is also known that Charles Lyell, afterwards known as 
Sir Charles, Alexander Winchell and Toumey had per- 
sonally visited this territory in antebellum days, while 
the distinctively micro-geological character of what is 
known about the Tertiary sedimentary deposits was in- 
augurated by myself with the encouragement and 
approval of the present State Geologist of Alabama, Dr. 
Eugene A. Smith, and in the Alabama Gulf coastal plain 
Geological Report for the year 1894 appears for the 
first time a discussion of the microscopical characters of 
the formations in Southern Alabama, which also covers 
the distribution of the chalk in the central portion of the 
state. The relatively limited record therein made lays 
a foundation stratum upon which others can build an 
extension, when the science of the microscope shall be 
applied to geological problems as modern civilization 
may advance and scientific culture shall expand beyond 
its present bounds. After having on these two trips 
found such treasures of microzoan fossils in such variety, 
I conceived the idea of securing for free distribution at 
tie proposed exposition, previously referred to, to all 
microscopists, students ofgeclogy or mineral collectors; 
as well as cement or ceramic manufacturers, liberal 
specimens of these various mineral deposits, so as to 
enable them to become familiar with these southern de- 
posits of both scientific and economic interest, but un- 
fortunately the failure to hold the exposition frustrated 
the intention as well as the idea. 


Typhoid Fever caused thirty-six per cent of the deaths 
among the British troops in India during the year 1894. 


[1896. MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 241 


Radiolaria, a New Species. 
REY. FRED’K B. CARTER, 
MONTCLAIR, N. J. 


Stauralastrum trispinosum, N. Sp. 


Arms four times as long as broad at their base, at their 
distal end triangular in shape, two and a half times as 
broad as at their base ; their distal breadth two and a 
half times as large as the diameter of the central disk, 
which exhibits two to three rings. Arms enlarged at 


both basal and distal ends. On the end of each arm three 
strong conical spines, one in the middle and one on either 
side, the latter two so placed that if their edges were pro- 
duced the resulting form would be a triangle. 
Dimensions.—Radius of each arm (without terminal 


242 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [July 


spine) 0.24, basal breadth (at beginning of enlargement) 
0.06, terminal breadth (including side spines) 0.15. 
Habitat. —Fossil in the rocks of Barbados. 


Bifurcated Double-ended Crystal From Asthmatic Sputum 
EPHRAIM CUTTER, M. D.,.LL. D. 
NEW YORK CITY. 


Twelve years ago or more, in studying the kinship of 
asthma and hay fever I encountered this crystal in the ex- 
pectoration of the late Col. W. T. Holt of Denver Colo. It. 
differs from any Ihave met with. The artist has given 
merely the outlines. The double terminals were round like 
needles. The angles at the center were beautiful right 
angles as accurately shown in fig 1. Thickness of crystal 
about the distance between the angles. Color white 
witha tinge of cream tint. Chemical nature unknown. 
The ends remind us of uric acid but in a 43 years acquain- 
tance I never saw uric acid with a re-entrant angle, go- 
ing ahead of cholesterine. 

To the clinician, the technical nature of this crystal is 
not absolutely neccesary though desirable. The surgeon 


cutting for stone is most concerned in the removal—the 
analysis comes later. 

For more than. 30 years the morphology of sputum 
has been studied in America. ‘The number and variety 
of sputum gravelly matters found is surprising. It 
seems as if every gravel-stone or crystal found in human 
urine and dung was also found in the sputum. Crystals 
of oxalate of lime, phosphate of lime, triple phosphate 
and cystine uric acid, ete., are met with in perfection. 


1896.] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 243 


Often the abundance is so great and the deposition so 
quick that the lung gravels are found in fine granules. 
Sometimes in broken massive crystals. Sometimes so 
large as when voided they have been mistaken for a 
necrosed rib! The granular forms are taken in by the 
mucous corpuscles which thereby are distended into 
giant cells, and thus more readily are expectorated than 
the unencysted granules which catch in the walls of the 
respiratory tract. This shows nature’s beneficence to aid 
the expulsion of lung gravels. These gravels throw light 
on the DIAGNOSIS OF ASTHMA. If the physical im- 
pinging of acambric needle on the back of one’s hand 
twenty times a minute for days, weeks, months and 
years would be deemed sufficient for oversensitive nerves 
(hyperesthesia), with spasm and irritabilty of muscles 
near point of contact, why should not the sputal acicular 
crystals, whose points are sharper than the finest cambric 
needle as the latter is sharper than a crow bar—imping- 
ing at every breath on the circular muscular fibers of 
the bronchial tubes, cause spasms and contraction, im- 
peding the breath as is the case in asthma? For one I 
can reply, that I have had a case of asthma of 26 years 
standing, cured when these gravels were removed and 
not before. 

2. Hay fever sputashow the same gravels and is an 
estival form of asthma (Salisbury). 

3. The fallacy of asthma cures by change of climate. 

The man whence the crystal in Fig. 1. came, was an 
old patient of mine who went to Colorado to live on ae- 
count of asthma. While there he had no asthma. Re- 
turning to New York his asthma returned. In other 
words something in Colorado enabled him to bear his 
load of gravel without an explosion. Or to use another 
simile, he was loaded like a gun, ready to go off, but in 
Colorado the trigger was not pulled! It is wonderful 
how the system tolerates foreign bodies. But there is 


244 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [July 


no real cure for asthma, unless the lungs are unloaded of 
their gravel and stay so. The microscope alone can tell 
the riddance. 

Coughs are relieved by removing gravel from the 
lungs, when not enough to cause asthma. The point is 
that some coughs are caused by the irritation of the 
lung gravel and nature’s trying to get rid of it. I have 
seen such cases cured by removing the gravel on the 
same principle as surgeons treat foreign bodies. Coughs 
seem more common in England than here. I think the 
climate is less to blame than the gravel. Distilled water 
makes the best cough drops in such cases by dissolving 
the gravel. 

If anyone will take the pains to look at the beautiful 
cuts of sputum, drawn thirty years ago, in “Alimentation 
and Disease,’ J. H. Vail & Co., New York, they will see 
that Dr. Salisbury is the pioneer as to these lung 
gravels. 

New York, May 4, 1896. 


Meteoric Paper. 
By ARTHUR M. EDWARDS, M. D., 


NEWARK, N. J. 

Whilst investigating the trap rocks on the Wahchu- 
ing or Orange Mountain, N. J., I lately came across the 
dry bed of a stream that had flowed down the rocks in 
a break in them and left by its drying a mass of whitish 
paper-like material on the stones. It was not the first 
time I had met with the substance. About thirty years 
back I had first seen it on the shores of New England 
and subsequently covering the meadows back of Hoboken, 
N. J. But this was fresh water and I determined to ~ 
gather it and when at home view it by means of the mi- 
croscope. For I hold it to be the duty of the observer of 
nature to turn his microscope to account on all occasions, 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 245 


In places where the bed was soil, Lobelia cardinallis, L, 
and Chelone gladra, L. were in blossom. The cardinal 
flower was in abundance and the bright red blessoms 
seemed to pick it out from a distance and show it to be 
one of the most beautiful even more so than the culti- 
vated flowers of our gardens. I thought how the bee 
and other insects that pick it out for fertilizing could 
see it from a great distance, especially .when contrasted 
with the green of the leaves surrounding it and be 
guided to it by its brilliant flowers. The chelone is 
white, purple and can not be distinguished for afar. 
Still it can be found by insects and its closed flower be 
opened by the bee. The meteoric paper, so called, is 
described by Ehrenberg:in a paper read before the Ackad- 
emie of Berlin, in 1839, entitled Ueber das, 1686, in Cur- 
land vom Himmel gefall, Meteorpapier und seine Zusam- 
mensetzung aus conferren u. Infusorien (Diatomee und 
Desmidieen. ) 

An interesting vegetable production, having a decep- 
tive appearance and resembling white glove leather and 
was found on a meadow that had evidently been over- 
flowed by a brook near a wire factory at Schwartzen- 
burg, in the Erzgebirge in Germany. A green strong 
substance grew where the sun shone in the meadow; 
which the water being slowly let off, deposited itself on 
the grass and when dried became colorless. It might be 
removed in large pieces. On the inner side, which was 
in contact with the water, it has a lively green color and 
green leaves are distinguishable which have formed the 
leather-like substance. The outside of this natural produc- 
tion resembles soft dressed glove leather, or fine paper, 
the printing kind; and is shining, smooth to the touch, 
and of the toughness of common wrapping paper. Eh- 
renberg submitted this meadow leather to a microscopic 
examination, and found it to consist of conferve, form- 


246 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [July 


ing together a compact felt, bleached by the sun on the 
upper surface. It included some fallen tree leaves and 
some blades of glass. Among the conferve lie scattered 
a number of the siliceous infusoria, he calls them, but we 
know them to be Bacilliaria or Diatomacez. There were 
sixteen different sorts or species, belonging to six genera. 
There were also three sorts of infusoria with membran- 
ous shields, and dried specimens of another kind. The 
bacillaria and infusoria were not completely dry and 
could be revived. Some years ago, Ehrenberg submitted 
to the Academy of Sciences in Berlin, a piece of natural 
wadding or flannela foot and a half square which con- 
sisted of bacillariacez, called them infusoria and con- 
ferre, which were found to the extent of several hundred 
square feet, near Sabor, in Siberia, which formed after 
an inundation. This substance was analagous to the 
which I have already alluded to, but 
it is far more surprising from its occurrence in such an 
immense mass. The flannel in this case, like the former, 


>) 


‘¢meadow leather’ 


was chiefly composed of unramified branches of a con- 
ferva which he called conferva rivularis, interwoven with 
fifteen species of bacillariacee. 

On January 31, 1637, a great mass of paper-like black 
substance was said to fall with a violent snow storm from 
the atmosphere, near the village of Randen in Courland. 
This meteoric substance was described and figured in 
1636-1638 and was considered by M. Von Grotthus, who 
after a chemical analysis decided it to be a meteoric 
mass. M. Von Bergelius also analyized it and could not 
discover the nickel said to be contained init. Then Von 
Grotthus revoked his opinion and said he was mistaken 
as to the nickel. Nickel made it meteoric of course. It 
is mentioned in Chladni’s work on meteors and appears 
as an aerophyte in Nees Von Hsenbeek’s valuable appen- 
pix to R. Brown’s “ Botan Schriften.” Ehrenberg has 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 247 


examined this substance, some of which is contained in 
the Berlin Museum (also in Chaldni’s collection) micros- 
copically. He found the whole to consist evidently of a 
compact smoothed mass of conferve and about twenty 
nine well preserved forms of the called infusoria. There 
were eight kinds of siliceous shells, or bacillariacer, the 
others having those which are soft or membranous. 
These infusoria have now been preserved nearly two 
hundred years. The mass may have been raised by a 
storm from Courland and was not meteoric, and was 
merely carried away, but may have also come from a far 
distant district. The original locality of the substance 
neither the atmosphere nor America ; but most probably 
either East Russia or Courland. The forms are cosmo- 
politan. 

In the Orange specimen I found of course conferve 
with the usual fresh water bacillariaceex. 


EDITORIAL. 


By the kindness of Mr. Bryce Scott of New Brunswick, 
we havea supply of Barbadoes earth containing radiol- 
aria for distribution. Send stamped envelope. 


The Missouri Botanical Garden.—The seventh annual 
report of the Missouri Botanical Garden, recently issued, 
contains many scientific papers and the administrative re- 
ports for 1895. It is stated that about one-third more peo- 
ple visited the garden than during the previous year, on 
one day over 30,000 persons having been counted. The 
herbarium has been increased by the incorporation of ten 
thousand sheets of specimens and now comprises 242,000 
specimens, besides over 4,000 slides, wood specimens, etc. 
The library has been increased by 3,036 books and pamph- 
lets during the year, so that it consists now of 10,030 
pamphlets and 9,619 volumes. 


248 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [July 


Women in Science.—In the Latin nations, women never 
have obtained celebrity in the studies of applied sciences, 
where the laboratory is of constant use; but in England 
the names of women from time to time appear on the first 
page of very valuable books or at the end of very techni- 
cal articles published in the best scientific papers. Itisa 
typical manifestation of the difference of races. 


Epithelium in Urine.—Under the microscope this is 
seen as irregularly shaped bodies. 


Blood in Urine.—May be suspected if the urine has a 
smoky or reddish -brown appearance, and may usually be 
detected in a satisfactory manner by the microscope show- 
ing blood corpuscles (these often do not show their char- 
acteristic biconcave appearance). 


Bulletin de la Societe Belge de Geologie de Paleonto-— 
logie et d’Hydrologie (Brussells.)—We have just re- 
ceived the volume of proceedings for 1894 of the above 
named society. It is invaluable for the student, as the 
scientific communications were all made by the best Belg- 
ian authorities. The book is illustrated with a number of 
plates and maps. 


Watson & Son informs us that the medical men and 
hospitals in England are taking up the Rontgen Ray 
process with great avidity and it has shed light on many 
obscure bone disease cases. 

They will send particulars of the apparatus necessary, 
instructions for working, and price list in case it may be 
of interest toany one. Write them a postal card. 


Field Flowers.—This is the title given to a beautiful 
book containing some of the most popular poems of Hugene 
Field. Thirty artists, the leading illustrators of America 
have very kindly donated their services in illustrating the 
work throughout. The book is published for the purpose 
of creating a fund, the proceeds of which will be equally 
divided between the family of the poet and the fund for the 
erection of a monument to hismemory. Price $1.00; ten 
cents additional for postage. Address Eugene Field Mon- 
ument Souvenir Fund, 180 Monroe street, Chicago. 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 249 


Practical Photomicrography, a Correction.—W. C. Bor- 
den asks us to correct an error whichappeared in hisarticle 
“Practical Photomicrography”’ published in the JourRNAL 
for June, 1896. The description of fig. 4, page 199, and 
fig. 7, page 205, should be transposed. Fig. 4 isa pho- 
tomicrograph of Typhoid bacillus x 1000 diameters and 
fig. 7, one of acolony of Staphylococcus pyogenes aurens x 
30 diameters. Also under Fig. 3 it should be stated that 
the gonococci and cell nuclei are distinct, not indistinct. 


MICROSCOPICAL MANIPULATION. 


For Clearing Vegetable Sections.—We have found 
purified oil of turpentine far superior to clove oilas a 
cleanser of vegetable sections. In looking over a lot of 
several hundred old slides recently, the superior beauty of 
those prepared with turpentine oil was apparent at a 
glance.— Wat. Drug gist. 


Good Liquid Cement.—The following: is said to make 
an excellent liquid cement :—To a solution of chloral hyd- 
rate in water dissolve gelatine to the required consistency. 
The cement thus made is said to have great adhesiveness 
and to remain indefinitely unchanged. Ordinary glue may 
be used instead of the more expensive gelatine; it is 
equally strong. 

Mounting Specimens.—While using Dr. Dudgeon’s 
pocket Sphygmograph, I was greatly struck by the 
good background produced by holding enamelled paper 
over the flame of burning camphor until it became coated 
with soot. 

The tracings of the needle were also very white and well 
defined. This led meto think that it might be applicable 
for opaque mounting, and peculiarly suited for mounting 
many species in numbered spaces on our slide. I tried it 
and found it towork very well. The following is the pro- 
cess I have found most successful:—The paper is first 
gummed toa slip of thin card, and after it is dry held over 


250 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [July 


the flame of burning camphor until the surface is evenly 
coated. 

I found it tedious to rule each line separately, so Lhit on 
a plan which has proved very successful. Itook a paper 
of pins, andafter selecting an even row Igummed it to a 
glass slip, and fixeda handle to the other side of the slip. 
By this meansI could rule all the parallel lines at one 
stroke, and by another stroke all the linesat right angles 
to these, thus dividing the slide into equal spaces. 

The spaces can then be numbered with a mounted 
needle. A weak solution of shellac in spirit should then be 
poured over the blackened surface and allowed to dry, 
when it will be found quite fast. The specimens may then 
be stuck on in the ordinary way with gum. 

The gum I useis a mixture of equal parts of gum arabic 
and tragacanth dissolved in cold water with a little glycer- 
ine, and the whole evaporated in a small ointment-pot and 
kept dry. A drop of water placed on the surface of the 
gum will dissolve enough for a slide in a few seconds, 
This combination neither breaks the specimens nor lets 
them get loose.—Postal Journal. 


Batrachospermum,. To Mount.—I have found no diffi- 
culty in perserving Batrachospermum in glycerine by 
Hautzsch’s method. Hautzsch’s fluid consists of a mix- 
ture of alcohol, 3 parts; distilled water, 2 parts; and gly- 
cerine, 1 part. This is nearly of the same specific gravity 
as water. ‘The specimen is floated in a cell filled with 
this fluid, and set by, lightly covered to keep out dust. 
The spirit and water gradually evaporate and leave the 
glycerine behind. In this way the water in the texture of 
the plant is gradually replaced by glycerine, and we avoid 
that shrinking from exosmosis which takes place when the 
specimen is suddenly transferred from water toa dense 
fluid like glycerine.— Postal Journal. 


Oxalic Acid For Preserving The Color of Dried 
Plants.—The importance of a well-selected herbarium is 
known to every botanist of the present day. It presents 
to him the most important specimens of the flora so far as 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 251 


known, and the better the specimens are preserved, the 
more valuable the collection. A very important, if not the 
most important, question is, how to preserve the natural 
color of the foliage as well as the color of the petals. 

No doubt, the rapidity with which the plant is dried 
ereatly influences the preservation of the natural color; 
but in the course of time the great majority will fade, 
while others acquire different shades, some turn black, 
some brown and various other colors. ‘This last change 
of color frequently takes place while the plant is being 
dried, and more rarely later on. 

Not only the leaves, but the petals of most flowers change 
in the same way, thus lowering the value of the specimen 
to a considerable extent. 

Nienhaus published in the Schweizerische Wochenschrift 
fur Chemie und Pharmacie his experience with oxalic acid 
as a preserving agent of the color of petals of dried plants. 
His theory was that ammonia in the air caused the fading 
of the color, and that it would be neutralized by this acid; 
therefore, he recommended that the plant be dried 
between filter-paper, which had previously been saturated 
in al-per-cent solution of the chemical and then dried. 
Nienhaus experimented with the petals of papaver rhoeas, 
and was very successful. According to some American 
writers, who have repeated his experiments, the results 
were entirely negative. 

Since then Ihave had occasion to study the value of Nien- 
haus’ process, and have found that not only the petals are 
well preserved, but that a 3-per-cent solution will also 
preserve the color of the leaves. In the hope that the 
results may be of interest to collectors of plants, I think 
it proper to bring it to their notice. 

Several specimens, which had been dried by the aid of 
1-per-cent. oxalic acid, did not give meas good results asI 
had hoped to obtain, and I then determined to study the 
value of different strengths of the solution, and find out 
which would be most suitable to be employed in average 
cases. For this purpose I saturated some gray felt paper 


252 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY (July 


with solution of oxalic acid, varying in strengths from 1 to 
5 per cent, and dried. 

Leaves of different texture were selected, dried be- 
tween the thus prepared paper at ordinary temperature, 
changing paper once in twenty-four hour. 

Leaves of a thin texture were well preserved with a 
2-per cent solution; not so well with that of1 per cent. 
Those dried between 3 to5 per cent paper did not differ 
materially in appearance from those dried with that of 2- 
per cent strength. 

Leaves of a thick texture were best preserved with 3 per 
cent of the acid, although the 4 and 5 per cent solutions 
showed no disadvantage. 

The leaves of aquatic plants were best preserved with 
2 or 3 per cent ofacid; the 1-per cent specimens turned 
dark, and with 4 or 5 per cent they were almost black in 
one case, while in other aquatics I could observe no differ- 
ence between any of the specimens; they all had kept 
well. 

These results suggested to me that paper saturated 
with a 3-per-cent solution of oxalic acid might be used 
with more advantage for the majority of plants than a 1- 
per-cent solution, as recommended by Nienhaus. It is not 
unlikely that the kind of drying-paper used influences the 
results to some extent. Nienhaus recommended filter- 
paper to be employed; in fact, the heavy felt paper mostly 
employed in this country is not often used in Germany for 
drying purposes; the botanists there prefer a very much 
thinner gray paper. 

In almost all cases where a 3-per-cent solution of oxalic 
acid was employed, I have obtained satisfactory and en- 
couraging results, except with some members of the um- 
bellifera, which turned dark when thus treated. I had not 
the opportunity of making further experiments with them, 
and do not know their behavior when dried in paper with- 
out the aid of oxalic acid. The leavesof phytolacca decan- 
dra, under ordinary circumstances, turned toa very dark 
color; when dried by the aid of a 3-per-cent solution of 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL 253 


oxalic acid they remain green. The leaves of geranium 
maculatum commonly turn reddish-brown; when pre- 
served with 3-per-cent ofthe acid they remain green. The 
leaves and petals of baptisia tinctoria almost invariably 
turn black when dried inthe ordinary way; when preserved 
with 3-per-cent oxalic acid, the change is much less pro- 
nounced and the petals remain yellow. In all specimens 
the colors of the petals was unchanged. 

The results which I have obtained by this process lead 
me to the conclusion that it may be employed with decided 
advantage in almost all cases, and I will briefly state the, 
method I have employed: 

Heavy gray felt paper was thoroughly saturated witha 
3-per-cent solution of oxalic acid, and dried. This, when 
done at ordinary summer temperature, required about 
twelve hours. Directly between the thus prepared paper 
I placed the plant; in case the petals were very delicate, 
they were protected by a veay thin piece of paper to pre- 
vent imprints from the rough felt paper. ‘The latter was 
changed once in twenty-four or thirty-six hours, until the 
plant was thoroughly dried, and it was then mounted in the 
ordinary way. If possible, the plants should be placed in 
the press at the time of collection, or carried in an air-tight 
box and moistened before pressing. 

Up to the present date I have not had the opportunity of 
studying by experiments to what extent plant colors are 
really injured by ammonia, but I hope to be able to report 
upon this question at a subsequent date.—American Journal 
of Pharmacy . 


BACTERIOLOGY. 


Marsh Fever.—M. A. Laveran presented a paper at 
the Academy of Science, Paris, in which he stated that 
although the presence of amoeba in the blood during 
marsh fever is now well established, there is hardly any 
ground for the assumption of a distinct species peculiar to 
each variety of the disease, one for tertiary ague, another 
for quaternary ague, and a third giving rise toan irregu- 


254 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [July 


lar fever. This statement is supported from microscopi- 
cal as well as clinical observation. 


Avian Tuberculosis.—According to the Revue Veterin- 
aire, MM. Cadiot, Gilbert, and Rogers conclude from 
their researches that the bacillus of avian tuberculosis and 
that of mammals are two varieties of the same species. It 
is possible to transform one into the other. Avian tuber- 
_culosis is easily inoculated into the rabbit, but not so 
readily into the guinea pig. After having been grown in 
mammals, it may become very active for the guinea pig, at 
the same time loseing some of its pathogenic powers for 
the birds. 


Products of Pneumobacillus of Friedlander.—The pro- 
ducts of this organism according to Grimbert are ethyl- 
alcohol, acetic acid, laevolactic acid, and succinic acid. In 
glucose, galactose, arabinose, mannite, and glycerine this 
organism produces laveolactic acid, while saccharose, lac- 
tose, and maltose give both succinic acid and laevolactic 
acid. In dulcite, dextrin and potato it produces only suc- 
cinic acid.—Ann. Institute Pasteur. 


Bacteriology of Air Passages.—In an article read before 
the Academy of Medicine, April 7th, by Dr. W. H. Thom- 
son, he quotes from Dr. St. Clair Thomson and Dr. R. T. 
Hewlett, of the Bacteriology Department of the British In- 
stitute of Preventive Medicine, to the section on pathology 
at the last annual meeting of the British Medical Associa- 
tion, which led to special research as to the fate of micro- 
organisms in inspired air. They calculate that the lowest 
estimate of organisms inhaled every hour would be fifteen 
hundred, but in London atmosphere it must be common 
for fourteen thousand organisms to pass into the nasal cav- 
ities during one hour’s tranquil breathing. Beginning 
with the trachea, they found that the mucus derived from 
the trachea of all animals recently killed in the laboratory 
was always sterile. The mucus membrane ofa healthy 
nose only exceptionally shows any micro-organisms what- 
ever. ‘The interior of the great majority of normal nasal 
cavities is perfectly aseptic. The vestibule of the nares, 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 255 


the vibrissx lining them, and all crusts forming there are 
generally swarming with bacteria. The vibrisse seem to 
act as a filter, and alarge number of microbes meet their 
fate in the moist meshes of the hair which fringes the ves- 
tibule. This arrangement not only arrests the ingress of 
germs; but by the action of cilated:epithelium those which 
have penetrated into the nose are rapidly ejected.—Medical 
Record. 


Microbe of Scurvy.—Teste and Beri (Gaz. degli Osped.) 
have isolated from a fragment of tissue taken from the 
gum of a scorbutic patient, a micro-organism which they 
believe to be the cause of scurvy. ‘The microbe is round, 
stains in all the aniline dyes, but resists Gram’s stain. Its 
cultures liquefy gelatin, and give rise toa sawdust-like 
deposit. Guinea-pigs and rabbits inoculated with these 
cultures have arise of temperature, and the microscopy 
shows hemorrhagic stains in various parts of the body, and 
nedules of connective tissue, new formation. The above 
results were obtained in three out of four experiments. In 
the fourth, the authors attribute the negative results tothe 
fact that the patient had improved considerably under 
treatment. 


Microbic Origin of Rickets.—Microli (Gaz. Med. di 
Torino) believes that this disease is caused by the effect of 
ordinary pyogenic organisms upon the osseous and ner- 
vous system. Clinically he finds support for this theory 
in the fact that rickets develops independently of social 
conditions. It frequently begins with eczema, boils, or 
intestinal catarrh; occasionally occurs epidermically, and 
is accompanied with fever, polyarthritic and bone pains, 
hydrocephalus, marasmus, and paresis of lower extremi- 
ties. Pyogenic organisms have been found in the bones 
and central nervous system of rickety children. Experi- 
mental injections of pyogens into the bones and epiphysical 
cartilages of young rabbits produced in some cases com- 
mon osteomyelitis, but in other cases an osteomyelitis 


without traces of suppuration, with hypertrophy of cartil- 
ages analogous tothat of rickets and marasmus. 


256 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [July 


Germs in Mother’s Milk.—Cohen and Neumann found 
germs in healthy breast-milk, even after taking every 
antiseptic precaution in relation to the nipples. Honig- 
mann, Knochenstein, and Palleske have observed pus-pro- 
ducing germs in the milk of a large proportion of nursing 
women.—Modern Medicine. 


MEDICAL MICROSCOPY. 


Heredity of Acquired Immunity.—Vaillard concludes 
from his work on immunity that the mother only is in a 
position to communicate immunity to her progeny; the 
father never transmits immunity to his progeny; the im- 
munity received from the parent is always of brief dura- 
tion; it is retained only during the first months of life. 
—Ann. Institute Pasteur. 


A New Serum For The Treatment of Infectious Dis- 
eases.—REKOWSKI (quoted by the /ournal of Cutaneous and 
Genito- Urinary Diseases, March, 1896) states that antitoxin 
contained in the blood-serum of an animal into which bac- 
terial toxins of diphtheria or tetanus have been injected is 
the product ofa special irritation of the cell molecules by 
the toxins. But this special irritation can be brought 
about, not only by toxins, but also by some chemical sub- 
stances, and in that supposition lies the explanation of the 
well known clinical properties of mercury, salicylate of 
sodium, and quinine, in syphilis, acute rheumatism, and 
malaria. Acting upon this theory, the author injected into 
a horse oncea week and afterward twice a week thirty 
centigrammes of the following emulsion of mercury: 

Hydrarg. salicyl., 1 Gm.; 
Vaselin. liquidi, 10 Ce. 
M. et ft. emulsio. 
In the blood-serum of the animal very slight traces of 
mercury could be found. 

He injected ten cubic centimeters of the blood-serum 
every three days inthe glutei of patients affected with 
secondary and tertiary symptoms. ‘The gummata disap- 
peared and open sores healed after three or four injections, 


[1896. ~ MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 257 


The same results were obtained by Drs. Hizyn and 
Wreden (Kiew). 

The author gave a horse thirty centigrammes of arsenic 
per day (forty-five grammes inall). Inthe blood, hardly 
noticeable traces of arsenic could be discovered. He 
injected ten cubic centimeters of the blood-serum of that 
horse twice a week into two patients afflicted with cancer 
of the face, and after six weeks noticed a remarkable im- 
provement. 


Serum Treatment of Diphtheria in Cracow.—Dr. Stapa 
has presented to the Cracow Medical Society a report of 
the results obtained by the serum treatment of diphtheria 
in the Children’s Hospital of that city. During the year 
1895 the number of children subjected to it was 258. Of 
these the mortality was 22 per cent. This compares very 
favorably with the mortality inthe ten previous years, 
which was as high as 56.3 per cent., there being 709 deaths 
out of a total of 1,354 patients who were treated by other 
methods. Laryngeal croup occurred in 160 cases, anda 
rash having the appearance of scarlet fever and lasting 
from two to sixteen days in fifty-eight cases. It was noticed 
that certain samples always produced rash. No effect on 
the occurrence of albuminaria by the serum could be 
shown.-—Medical Journal. 


RECENT PUBLICATIONS, 


Modern Microscopy.—Bailliere, Tindall & Cox, London, 
have put on the marketa second edition of ‘‘Modern 
Microscopy,” a handbook for beginners, combining: (1). 
The Microscope, and instructions for its use, by M. J. 
Cross; (2) Microscopic objects: How prepared and 
mounted, by Martin J. Cole. The subject-matter has 
been thoroughly revised and additional information on 
methods of manipulation has been introduced. This new 
edition will be found very useful to the beginner. 


The Crambide of North America.—The Massachusetts 
<gricultural College published, January, 1896, avery inter- 


258 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [July 


esting work on ‘‘The Crambide of North America,” by C. 
H. Fernald, A. M., Ph. D. It is a ninety-three page pamph- 
let where the family Crambidae, its distribution, its nat- 
ural enemies, its history, the enemies of these insects, 
etc., are perfectly described. ‘The book is made addition- 
ally valuable by the addition of six plates in colors and 
three in black and white. 


Microscopial Studies in Botany.—This is the name of 
anew periodical published in Jersey, by James Hornell, di- 
rector of Jersey Biological Station. The price is 3s. 6d. post 
free. The annual subscription (post free) si 8s; or inclu- 
sive of 50 illustrative nicroscopical preparations, 21s, post 
free. This magazine is made interesting on account of 
original photomicrographs accompanying the subjects 
described. Thus vol. 1, part 2, for March, 1896, contains 
ten of these beautiful photos. 


Asiatic Cholera in India.—Mr. EK. H. Hankin is the au- 
thor of a book on ‘‘Cholera in India Cantonments, and how 
to deal with it.””, The work consists chiefly in giving di- 
rections for preventing the disease. The author has had 
an excellent opportunity for study during the various re- 
cent outbreaks in India. The properties of the cholera 
microbes as given by Mr. Hankin are as follows: first, 
organism when outside of the human body, only lives and 
reproduces in water; second, it is so small that it cannot 
be removed by filtration through ordinary domestic filters; 
third, it is easily destroyed by boiling; fourth, it is easily 
killed by dessication; fifth, itis very sensitive to acids; 
sixth, it varies in virulence; seventh, its growth is 
favored by the presence of small amounts of common salts 
and nitrates. 


Books May Carry Contagion.—It is generally admitted 
that books may carry contagion. Drs. DuCazal and Cat- 
rin obtained positive results with Streptococcus, Pneu- 
mococcus and Bacillus diptheria. Negative results were 
obtained with Bacillus tuberculosis and Bacillus typhosus. 
—Ann. Institute Pasteur. 


CHAS. W. SMILEY. 


THE AMERICAN 


MONTHLY 


MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 


Vor, XVIII. AUGUST, 1806. No. 8 


Professor Charles Wesley Smiley. 
BY RENE SAMSON. 
(WITH FRONTISPIECE. ) 

For some time this JouRNAL has been publishing the 
portraits and autobiographies of prominent writers 
whose articles appear from time to time in these pages. 
- We take advantage of Mr. Smiley’s four months’ absence 
in Europe to add a sketch of his life to the list. 

Professor Charles Wesley Smiley was born September 
10, 1846, at Fitchburg, Mass. He attended Fitchburg 
High School, Wilbraham Academy, Vermont Conference 
Academy, Montpelier, Vt., Fort Edward Collegiate In- 
stitute. In 1874 he graduated from the Wesleyan Uni- 
versity with all the honors. 

He afterwards taught in Centenary Collegiate Insti- 
tute, Hackettstown, N. J., in Drew Seminary and Female 
College, Carmel, N. Y. 

In 1877, leaving teaching for literary work and Psi 
Upsilon fraternity work, he remained at Madison, N. J. 
During two years there he published “Songs of the Psi 
Upsilon Fraternity,” Record of the Forty-fourth Annual 
Convention of the Psi Upsilon Fraternity,” “The Oration 
and Poem of the Forty-fourth Convention,” ‘‘Record of 
the Forty-fifth Annual Convention” of the same, and 
also of the Forty-sixth and the Forty-seventh, and 
“Catalogue of the Psi Upsilon Fraternity.”’ 

These two years of editorial work brought him into 


260 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Aug. 


prominence and he was called to Washington as chief 
clerk of the Fishery Investigation of the Tenth Census; 
then raised to the position of Chief of the Division of 
Records and Publications of the United States Fish 
Commission, and editor of the Annual Reports and Bull- 
etins, For the Eleventh Census his services were again 
called for and he was named Special Agent in charge of 
the Fishing Industry and Chief of Division of the United 
States Census office. The most important writings of 
Professor Smiley published during those years are: 
“The Spanish Mackerel and its Artificial Propagation,” 
“Changes in the Fisheries of the Great Lakes,” ‘“Re- 
moval of Bass from Indiana to North Carolina by the 
United States Fish Commission,” “Results of Planting 
Shad in the Muskingum River,” ‘‘The proposed use of 
Steamers in the Mackerel Fishery,” “Descriptive List of 
the Publications of the United States Fish Commission,” 

I find Professor Smiley’s name as editor on the ‘‘Berean 
Bible Lessons” and the “Berean Tract” from 1875 to 1878 
and on the “Diamond” in 1880. He is also the author 
of the pamphlet “Altruism Considered Economically.” 

Since 1887 Prof. Smiley has been the editor and pro- 
prietor of this Journal and since 1891 of the Microscope. 

He is a member of many scientific societies, among 
them, the American Association for the Advancement of 
Science, the American Fish Cultural Association, the 
Philosophical Society of Washington, D. C., the Biolog- 
ical Society and the Anthropological Society, also of 
Washington, 

Professor Smiley of late years spends each summer 
abroad; in 1891 he travelled in England and France; in 
1892 he visited Scotland, London and Paris; in 1895 he 
spent the summer in Switzerland with a brief stay in 
Holland, Belgium and the Rhine Valley. This year he 
went to Switzerland, passing through Belgium and going 
up the Rhine. 


1896. ] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 261 


Studies in Elementary Biology. 
By HENRV L, OSBORN, 


HAMLINE UNIVERSITY, SAINT PAUL, MINNESOTA. 


These studies are intended to point the way upon 
easily accessible material to some of the fundamental 
facts about the cell. A much larger range of subjects 
and more detailed and exhaustive studies on each one 
would undoubtedly add much to the intelligent grasp of 
the student, but with a clear and distinct knowledge of 
the points made in this article it will be found that the 
difficult subject of the cell will receive considerable 
illumination. The article is not designed to supply 
general information about the cell, but to suggest 
and direct convenient topics for investigation in the 
laboratory. It is expected that such laboratory work 
will be accompanied by the study of some such text 
as Parker’s Elementary Biology, in which the cor- 
related general information can be found. In view of 
the fact that there are already a great many similar 
manuals in existence I can only urge as an excuse for 
sending out stili another that I find that many cases 
have come under my instruction which call for a shorter 
course than any of which I at present know. 


Part I. 


1, THe Potato TUBER.—Examine a whole potato and 
determine whether there is any law shown in the loca- 
tion of the buds or eyes, and whether you can recognize 
opposite ends. If there are scars on the surface, deter- 
mine whether they too are definitely located. Compare 
a number of different specimens of the potato, to decide 
whether the law prevails in all as to the location of the 
buds. Draw a spiral line around the specimen pass- 
ing through all the buds, noting that they occur at 
equal angles; number them in order, beginning at the 


262 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Aug. 


base of the series and then note that the buds in line 
over each other are in similar numerical series. Does dif- 
ference in shape or size of specimens affect the law of 
position of the buds ? Compare the potato with twigs 
of shrubs or trees, and with convenient herbaceous 
stems, and notice: that all have a definite law rul- 
ing the location of the leaf or flower buds, the law 
differs with different kinds, the buds are closer as 
you approach the apex of the stem. The potato is 
thus comparable with other stems; it is in fact a modi- 
fied stem growing beneath the ground, and used in the 
economy of the plant for the storage of starch.—The 
definiteness of location of the parts of a living being is 
in general called symmetry, a review of animals and 
plants will convince you that it is a very general law 
and that only slight departures from symmetry are 
commonly if ever met with. Draw views showing as 
many as possible of these points. 


2. TISSUES OF THE PoTato.—Cut as thin a slice as 
possible completely across the specimen in the level of 
one of the buds, examine this carefully, using the hand 
lens and recognize that it is composed of three different 
kinds of material, tisswes, viz. :—~(1) the bark, a thin brown 
outer Jayer commonly called the skin; (2)athin layer 
everywhere parallel with the bark except at the level 
of the bud, where it runs to the bud and enters it, the 
fibro-vascular tissue; and (8) the parenchyma, filling in 
all of the remainder of the specimen.—Cross-sections of 
herbaceous stems, e. g., that of the geranium, will show 
the same layers, the parenchyma or pith is however re- 
latively much less extensive. Draw a general view of 
the section. 


3. CELLS OF THE PoTatTo.—Cut a thin section of a 
small part of the potato, passing through all of the dif- 
ferent tissues, the slice must be thin enough to see 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 263 


through with the microscope, it can be cut with a razor 
or very sharp scapel, the blade well flooded with water. 
Cut a number of sections to get practice, aud float them 
as cut into a watch-glass, taking to care that you are 
able to recognize the exact location of the parts of the 
section in the potato. Select the thinnest and transfer 
it to the center of a slide, examine it uncovered ]. p. to 
recognize its parts and draw, then cover it with strong 
iodine solution and let it stand for several minutes. Now 
wash out all the iodine that will come away, add a drop 
of water and cover and examine with the low power. 
You will now find that the parenchyma is all stained 
blue, while bark and the fibro-vascular tissue are colored 
brown. TIodine stains starch blue, while it stains cellu- 
lose and protoplasm brown, thus you learn that the 
parenchyma is largely starch. Examine the different 
parts of the section with the higher power, noting that. 
starch is in oval grains and embraced by a net-work of 
cell-walls, which stains with the iodine with difficulty, 
they are composed of the substance cellulose; (where 
the starch grains are not inside of cells, it is because 
they have escaped in the process of making the section.) 
Examine the cells in the level of the bark and see that 
some of them are deeply stained brown, note their shape 
and position, distance from the surface and from the 
parenchyma, note in some the more densely stained, round 
nucleus, and search forsome in which a few grains of starch 
can be seen in process of formation, determine their 
exact location in the cell and draw them. Examine also 
the fibro-vascular tissue and distinguish certain spiral 
structures; they are cells which have thickened walls 
used for support. 

If it is desired to do so you can preserve the section 
temporarily by draining off as much as much as possible of 
the water and replacing it with glycerine; or a more per- 


264 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY __[Aug. 


manent mount can be made with glycerine jelly, the latter 
is melted and then applied in the same way as glycerine. 
All preserved specimens should be labeled so as to re- 
cord their history as fully as possible. 


4, EPIDERMIS OF THE ONION is an easy object on which 
to demonstrate protoplasm in the cell. Protoplasm is 
a semi-fluid finely-granular material contained inallliving 
cells; the practical biologist must learn as early as possible 
to recognize it, and distinguish it from the uther cell con- 
tents if thereareany. To seeit,takear onionand carefully 
remove a small bit of the skin on the glistening snrface 
of one of the inner leaves and mount it in water. In 
contrast with the potato the onion is a very short stem 
whose leaves are close together and modified for the 
storage of starch. Care must be taken to get only the 
outer layer of skin. Study the piece and note the forms of 
the cells, select one for careful study and carefully lo- 
cate the granular matter, protoplasm, on its surface; and 
the round granular nuclews; note also the thickness of its 
wall; does the centre of the cell contain protoplasm ? 
Remove the cover glass and stain well with iodine, wash 
out and cover and then re-examine, the protoplasm and 
nucleus ought, if successful, to be stained; do you find any 
evidence of the presence of starch? Make another mount 
and in this case apply 10 per cent nitric acid to the cells, 
wash, cover and examine and you will see that now the 
centre of the cell is occupied with granular material and 
the surface is clear, the water that before occupied the 
centre has been drawn out and the protoplasm has 
shrunken away from the wall into the centre of the 
cell. Record this and all your observations by careful 
drawings, in which each cell is accurately represented, 
and fully index. 

5. MAMMALIAN Liver.*—We bave now seen that plants 


*If sections of the liver are not available, other animal tissues will serve. 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 265 


are composed of cells, and studied some of them, animal or- 
gans are likewise so madeup. The cells of animal tissues 
are so small and their walls are so delicate that it is not 
possible to demonstrate them directly from fresh material 
as in the case of plants, but the tissue must first be care- 
fully preserved and then sections must be prepared from it. 
Study the whole section with the low power and demon- 
strate a general type of hepaticstrict liver tissueandbesides 
certain other slices of ducts, vessels, etc.; whichlatter may 
beignored. Hxamine the liver cells and determine their 
form and mutual relation. Do they come in contact 
with their kind on all sldes? Are they all of exactly 
the same shape and size? Can you recognize a distinct 
wall, and is it thick, or thin? How does the wall com- 
pare with that of the onion cell or of cells in the potato? 
Is the cell filled with granular stainable protoplasm ? 
Is there a nucleus? Do you find a definite wall bound- 
ing the nucleus? Has it a definite content? Does the 
content appear to be of a protoplasmic nature? Can you 
recognize distinct parts nucleoli in the nucleus ? Find 
a place in the section which adequately illustrates the 
these points and make an exact drawing of it. 


6. SUMMARY OF Part I.—Review ali the studies thus 
far made and test the following statements, using them as 
evidence: The cell is a minute object, composed of pro- 
toplasm, it has a definitely shaped nucleus, and is en- 
closed by a wall which may be either thick, in plant cells, 
or thin and flexible, in animal cells. Cells are massed 
in great numbers and thus compose the tissues of living 
objects, the grouping of which gives the object as it 
is known to us through our ordinary senses. In scien- 
tific language a part composed of tissues of an animal 
or a plant is an “organ.” The arrangement of the tis- 
sues and organs of living things always obeys a certain 
law peculiar to each being or group, called its ‘‘sym- 
metry,” beings may vary inside of narrow limits, and in 


266 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Aug. | 


fact no two are exactly alike, but still the law of sym- 
metry plainly dominates their structures. Cite eviden- 
ces of this law of symmetry from animals or plants at 
large.—Can you find anything comparable with it in 
minerals ? 


PART II.—UNI-CELLULAR ANIMALS. 


7, AMOEBA.—The properties of protoplasm and of the 
cell can be best studied by taking up first the uni-cellu- 
lar and simplest beings, though in many of them there 
are specializations which must be excluded from our 
general notion of either protoplasm or the cell. Amoeba 
is found on the scum on the leaves of water plants, it 
can often be found in water containing dying and de- 
composing Spirogyra or other Algae, it must be exam- 
ined with the high power. It is translucent, irregular 
and changing in outline and faintly granular. A speci- 
men should be kept under continuous observation for at 
least an hour, the slide being moved to compensate for 
its progression. First observe its changing outline, the 
thrusting out of pseudopodia which are motile and some 
of which increase while others diminish, the creature 
flowing out into them. Make a series of drawings to 
show the form at successive equal intervals of time. 
Study and determine that the substance presents a 
thinner clearer ecéoplasm on the outside, and an inner 
endoplasm, the latter being occupied by variously shaped 
objects, food vacuoles, some of which can perhaps be re- 
‘cognized as microscopic plants which have been swal- 
lowed to serve as food. You should also be able to dis- 
tinguish in the endoplasm minute brightly shining fat 
droplets. Locate also the contractile vacuole, a clear 
spherical space in the endoplasm, and watch to see that 
it contracts and reappears in the same place at regular 
intervals; determine the rythm. There is a nuelews in 
the centre of the body, but it is not generally visible in | 


1396. ] MICROSSOPICAL JOURNAL. 267 


a live specimen. There are a number of different 
species of Amoeba, if you can find more than one, com- 
pare and draw them all. 


8. PHYSIOLOGY OF AMOEBA.—It is not easy to demon- 
strate all of the functions of the cell upon Amoeba, but 
a summary of them may be conveniently made here 
and as many of them should be observed as possible. 
It is often impossible to find specimens that illustrate 
desired points at a given time, but they are often met 
incidentally while in the pursuit of other items, and can 
then be watched. The most conspicuous function of 
Amoeba is motion. This takes several forms, such as 
(1) cyclosis, or the circulation of the protoplasm ; 
(2) contraction of the vacuole; and (3) locomotion— 
by means of the pseudopodia. A careful study of the 
latter will show that it is in the ectoplasm that the mo- 
tion takes place first, the endoplasm flowing into it as 
the pseudopodium enlarges. Occasionly you can catch 
a specimen in the act of engulphing his food ; this takes 
place by the formation of a pocket in the ectoplasm 
which gradually encloses the food and finally shuts it in- 
to the endoplasm. After a time the indigestible residue 
of the food is rejected by the inverse process. There is 
no definite part used in either of these processes. — It is 
the general belief of biologists that Amoeba has powers 
- ofsensation, but the illustration of this can be bettermade 
on Paramaecium and Vorticella. Occasionally specimens 
of Amoeba are found that appear to have aline crossing 
them in the middle. These ought to be kept in 
sight and after a brief interval you will find that the 
line deepens till it cuts the animal in two; it is by this 
process of fission, a mode of the general function of 
reproduction, that Amoeba multiplies. The two small 
Amoebae feed and grow to the size of the original and 
then the process repeats itself. It should be remem- 


268 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY fAug. 


bered that Amoeba acquires additional interest from the 
fact that the white-corpuscles of the blood are similar 
to it in form and mode of locomotion, as well as many 
other cells in the bodies of various higher animals. 


9. CELL-WALL AND NUCLEUS OF AMOEBA.—Irrigate a 
mount with Amoeba in the centre of the field of view 
with iodine. If successful in keeping the specimen from 
being washed away you will see that it stains with the 
iodine and thus your belief in its protoplasmic nature is 
corroborated, and the nwcleus will now become visible. 
Can you recognize any definite cell wall? Mount a fresh 
slide, find and centre another specimen, and irrigate 
with a dilute 1 per cent. acetic acid ; watch the specimen 
as it feels the reagent; it will shrink; and then the cell 
protoplasm, cytoplasm, will become transparent while the 
nucleoplasm will become denser. 


10. PARAMAECIUM.—The “slipper animalcule” can 
nearly always be found in water in which organic ma- 
terial has been macerating for a few days. Mount a 
drop of such water and search for a specimen; it is best 
if possible to find one which is entangled in fibres which 
will embarrass its movement. Keep a specimen under 
observation for a long time; as you get accustomed to it 
the quick motions will be less bothersome. Determine 
the following anatomical points: the shape is definite, 
and, if the animal for a moment loses it, it at once re- 
turns to that shape; locate on one side a funne)-shaped 
passage leading into the body, the gzwllet; locate the 
general covering of cilia with which the animal is 
clothed. Can you see any in the gullet? Can you de- 
cide that there is a particular direction of movement 
preferred by the specimen, is this general for all you can 
find? Make a drawing and indicate the direction of 
motion. Examine the interior, and recognize the num- 
erous food vacuoles; are they found in all parts of the 


1896.] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL 269 


animal? Locate two contractile vacuoles; what is their 
rythm? Do both contract at once? (There isa cen- 
tral rod-shaped nucleus not easily seen in living ani- 
mals.) In looking through large numbers of P. you are 
sure to find some in the act of fission; such should be 
carefully drawn and followed through the process. 

11. ACTION OF REAGENTS ON PARAMAECIUM.—Irrigate 
a mount of Paramaecium with iodine, it will kill the ani- 
mal, at once arresting the cilia and showing them clearly. 
By its action on the body it will demonstrate its proto- 
plasmic nature. It may also demonstrate the nucleus, 
but not if the specimen is too thick. Irrigate another 
mount with 5 per cent acetic acid: this may enable you to 
see the nucleus. 


12. PoTENcy oF Drua@s As TESTED ON PARAMAECIUM. 
—Examine Paramaecium in a watch glass, l. p ,* watch 
the motions and try to decide whether they seem to in- 
dicate control on the part of the animal, automatism. 
Add a drop of a known strength of corrosive sublimate 
to a known amount of fluid containing Paramaecium and 
ascertain whether it is fatal to Paramaecium. If it |is, 
repeat the experiment, using a weaker solution of the 
corrosive. Keep this up till you determine the per-cent- 
age of corrosive in water which is just barely fatal to 
Paramaecium. Determine the same percentage for acet- 
ic acid, also for alcohol. Can you infer that drugs have 
varying power to affect cells ? 


13. VorvTICELLA.—Search on the threads of fresh-water 
alge for Vorticella, study the colony /. p. and then study 
individuals, h. p., distinguish the long slender contractile 
stem attached below and bearing on its summit the bell- 
shaped body; locate the peristome or rim of the bell, and 
determine that it is ciliated; do you find cilia in any 
other part of the body ? Note the epistome closing the 


* |. p. andh. p. indicate low and high powers respectively. 


270 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY Aug. 


end of the body, and at one point in it and above the 
peristome the funnel-shaped gullet running down into 
the body and closed below. Locate inside the body the 
numerous food-vacuoles, and a single contractile vacuole. 
Study the end of the gullet and note the gathering par- 
ticles there of food, keep watch and aftera time you 
will see them constricted off and become one of the food- 
vacuoles. The nucleus is a curved rod on the side of 
the body opposite the mouth, it can best be seen after 
treatment with reagents. Study the stem carefully to 
locate the spiral thread inside it, it is this which by its 
contraction coils the stem; how does this benefit Vorti- 
cella ? 


14. PHYSIOLOGY OF VoRTICELLA.—Cyclosis or the cir- 
culation in the protoplasm of Vorticella can often be seen 
by the motion among the vacuoles; the constant action 
of the cilia is another form of motion; the contraction 
and expansion of the stem and body are also of this 
class of functions ; a careful series of drawings should 
be made to show the steps in the process of contraction 
and expansion. Jar the slide and you will see that the 
animal responds by a complete responsive shrinkage of 
the stem and body. This is the function of zrritibility, 
avd the jar would be called a stimulus. Can you deter- 
mine that VorticelJa is sensitive to all changes in its sur- 
roundings? A current of very weak acid will cause it to 
contract and strong acid will always kill it im the con- 
tracted condition. The form of stimulus that most com- 
monly affects V. is contact with other motile animals in 
its vicinity. Mission takes place in Vorticella, it may 
take place in either a longitudinal or a transverse plane, 
different stages of it or the entire process should if pos- 
sible be observed. In some cases after fission one of the 
parts unites with another Vorticella and the two fuse to 
form a single body, conjugation. It seems that this pro- 


1896. ] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 271 


cess of conjugation restores the waning power of fis- 
sion. 

15. STenTor.—The “trumpet animalcule” should be 
examined if obtainable, and compared with Paramaecium 
and Vorticella. It stands in an intermediate position, 
having a stem functioning like that of Vorticella but not 
differentiated from the rest of the body. There is a 
spiral row of large cilia at the broad end leading to the 
gullet. Specimevs can sometimes be found undergoing 
transverse fission. 


16. SUMMARY oF THE UNICELLULAR ANIMALS.—The 
study of the Protozoa, the branch of the animal kingdom 
in which these forms are placed, furnishes some data for 
a general notion of the animal cell. They are all 
minute masses of protoplasm, having a nucleus, but not 
having a rigid cell-wall; they all have powers similar in 
kind to those of animals at large, which may be stated 
as: (1) power of feeding and nourishing the body; (2) power 
of motion and sensation ; (3) power of reproduction. All of 
these powers are automatic, i. e., they are under the con- 
trol of theanimal. All these animals live in water contain- 
ing living beings, principally plants, and they have no 
power to thrive in clear water, that is to say they have no 
power to make complex chemical compounds such as com- 
pose the protoplasm of which they are composed, from the 
simple carbon-dioxyd and ammonia that are to be found 
in rain-water. 

PART IIIl.—SIMPLE CHLOROPHYLL-CONTAINING PLANTS. 

17. Prorococcus is a green growth found on bark of 
trees and fence-boards in half shaded places. A small 
particle of it should be mounted in water; gently tapp- 
ing the cover glass will disperse a number of minute 
green masses, colonies of P.; large single cells should also 
be studied, Stain a mount with iodine to test for pro- 
toplasm; how does the green colored material stain? The 


272 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Aug. 


green color is due to chlorophyll; itis the same substance 
as that found in the leaves of higher plants, and has im- 
portant relations to the chemical changes in plants. 
Can you recognize a nucleus in the large cells? Test to see 
if it stains deeply with iodine. Can you prove the 
presence of a definite and strong cell-wall? It is com- 
posed of cellulose (to prove this, stain with iodine and 
then with strong sulphuric acid; it becomes blue). Study 
different cvolonies, noting exactly the size and position of 
the component cells, and attempting to decide the way in 
which they have been formed. Do division lines fall in 
several different planes? What sort of a form would 
result from the continued division of the cells if they did 
not become separated? Treat some Protococcus with 
strong alcohol, noting the green color which is imparted 
‘to the latter, then examine to note that the chlorophyll 
has been dissolved now stain and show that protoplasm 
is left, filling the cell. If possible study the motile stage 
of Protococcus and recognize the flagella (see Parker for 
details.) 


18. SprroG@yRA.—Mount pieces of the filaments of 
spirogyra in water and study single filaments. Decide 
whether they branch; locate the cells; are all of the same 
shape and size? Do you find any indication of the for- 
mation of cells by fission? Hxaminea single cell; locate 
its side and end walls, and determine their thickness ; 
locate the chlorophyll band; isit aspiral? Isitin thecentre 
or on the wall of the cell? Followits winding by focus- 
ing. How many spiral bands do you find? Is the num- 
ber the same in all the cells of the same filament? Does 
it vary in different filaments. Do they pass from one 
cell to the next? Note the crenated margin of the band, 
and the numerous denser green globules, pyrenoids. | 
Locate the pyrenoids carefully in an exact drawing of one 
cell. Search through the cell for protoplasm, locate the 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 273 


nucleus in the centre of the celland the strands of proto- 
plasm running from it to the protoplasm on the wall.— 
Watch the strands for Cyclosis. 

Irrigate a water mount with 10 percent. nitric acid and 
watch a cell; you will see the protoplasm including the 
bands shrink away and occupy the centre of the cell. Stain 
another water mount with iodine and by its help locate 
the protoplasm of the cell. Mount a portion of Spirogyra 
which has been preserved in alcohol during the act of 
conjugation, locate first ordinary cells, their contents 
shrunken by the action of the alcohol. Then find fila- 
ments in which the cells are connected and study all the 
different stages in the process of conjugation from the 
first appearance of the lateral growth to the fusion of 
these and the transfer of the cell contents from one cell 
to the other, the formation of the zygo-spore. Find cases 
of parthenogenesis. Can you find zygospores formed 
between cells of the same filament ? Record all your 
observation by means of fully indexed drawings. 


18b. CycLosis. The cyclosis in the protoplasm of a 
cell can be seen best in the hairs of the stamens of Trades- 
cantia, but they are visible in similar hairs of other 
plants, and show well in the leaves of the water-plant 
Eledone, where the chlorophyll grains are carried in the 
circulation. _ A cell should be selected for study and the 
process watched long enough to enable you to determine 
the courses of the currents in the various parts of the 
cell; drawings should be made indicating the direction 
of the currents by means of arrows. 


19. OscrLLAR1IA.—If this alga is at hand, mount and 
study its filaments, locating the shapes and positions of 
its cells; but especially studying them to see the move- 
ments of the filaments. These are both motions of oscil- 
lation or a lateral swaying, whence its name, and motions 
in the long axis of the filament. 


274. THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Aug. 


20. BRancuina ALG#.—Mount and examine pieces of 
a branching alga in water, study it to distinguish the 
cells, then study them in turn and attempt to decide by 
what steps of cell division the aggregate has been built 
up. Do all cells branch? Do branches arise at any par- 
ticular part of the branching cells ? Does more than one 
branch arise from the same cell? Are all the cells alike, 
or can you findcells that are forming spores? If so, where 
are they located? Can you find any of the spores in the 
act of developing ? How does a spore differ from an 
ordinary cell? 


21. NUTRITION IN THE CHLOROPHYLLOGENOUS PLANTS,— 
All of the plants just mentioned can and generally do 
grow in clear rain water. There is no evidence that any 
of them require organic food to sustain their life. 
Though they are constantly building up protoplasm and 
growing they do not get this from ready-made supplies 
but form it from carbon-dioxyd, ammonia and water, 
which abound where they live. They require sunlight 
and chlorophyll, to enable them to carry on their chem- 
ical operations. How does this compare with nutrition in 
animals as shown by the Protozoa? Read on the fune- 
tion of chlorophyll. 


PART IV. NON-CHLOROPHYLLOGENOUS PLANTS. 


22. YEast.—Mount a small particle taken from a cake 
of ‘‘compressed yeast,’ add water and thin it cofsider- 
ably, and examine uncovered. You will find a multitude 
of exceedingly minute oval objects and fewer larger oval 
ones. Add a drop of iodine and examine, you will now 
be able to recognize the large ovals as grains of starch, 
the small ones by their brown stain as yeast cells. 

Mount a drop of yeast from a vessel containing 
Pasteur’s solution, in which yeast has been actively grow- 
ing, thin with water and cover, examine, h. p., and find 


1896. ] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL 275 


colonies consisting of varying numbers of yeast cells; 
take care not to confuse single cells merely in mechanical 
contact with cells that are really in vital relation, Study 
different colonies and note the exact size and position of 
its different members. Do the colonies furnish any evi- 
dence by which to decide on the mode of reproduction of 
thecell? This mode differs how from fission ? It is called 
gemmation or budding. Do you find any symmetry in 
yeast? Do the new cells tend to arise at definite points 
on their progenitors? Note that both gemmation and 
fission take place without the intervention of other cells. 
It is called the asexual mode of reproduction. What 
other mode of asexual reproduction have you noticed ? 
How do they differ from conjugation. Examine for com- 
parison yeast which has been standing an equal time 
in pure water; do you find any indication of growth? 

Stain a colony with iodine, and study the cells with the 
strongest magnifying power at your command. Examine 
the oldest cell of a colony and locate in it a clear space— 
the vacuole surrounded by protoplasm. Examine cells of 
different ages, and determine whether a vacuole is found 
in all. Why does the vacuole change from light to 
dark in different focal levels? In some cells you will find 
minute droplets of fat. Do you find any chlorophyll ? 
Can you find a nucleus? How do you know that the 
vacuole is not a nucleus? Is the vacuole exactly com- 
parable with anything found in previous studies? Can 
you recognize a cell-wall? Is it thick or thin, and is it 
rigid or flexible? Mount and examine some dead yeast, 
the cell contents have disappeared, leaving an empty 
cell, the wall can now be seen. Sometimes you can burst 
yeast cells by pressure and get views of the fractured 
wall and escaping protoplasm. This can be facilitated by 
staining. 


23. PENICILLIUM.— Examine a series of vessels contain- 


276 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY (Aug. 


ing Pasteur’s fluid in which the conidia of Penicillium have 
been sown at different times. Compare them with a ves- 
sel in which conidia have been sown merely in water. 
Note the white spots, colonies, which appear on the sur- 
face of Pasteur’s fluid, their daily increase in diameter, 
the appearance of a greenish spot in the centre of each 
and its increase in size; the fusion of the colonies as 
they reach each other to form a mat, mycelium, gradually 
growing denser and completely covering the culture fluid; 
the formation on older mycelia of a greenish dust, coni- 
dia, which van easily be blown into air. Note that the 
color is.a bluish green, not identical with the color of 
chlorophyll. 

Mount a very small colony, or a piece cut out of a lar- 
ger one and examine first uncovered, lJ. p., you can recog- 
nize the fine branching fibers, hyphae, of which it is com- 
posed; some of these stand upright and carry a broom- 
shaped portion bearing the greenish powdery conidia. 
With needles tease the fibres apart, replace the water 
with 50 per cent alcohol, cover and examine, h. p., search 
for single fibres and study them. Make an iodine stained 
mount, and study that in connection, using it for compari- 
son with the other. Determine first the shapes and posi- 
tions of the cells. Do you find cross walls? Do the cells 
branch? At what part of the cell does the branch arise ¢ 
Is the cell filled with protoplasm, or are there vacuoles ? 
Do you find fat droplets? Can you find any nucleus ? 
Is there any indication of the presence of chlorophyll ? 
Is there any indication of a cell-wall? Study the termin- 
ation of hyphae and compare them with the older por- 
tions of the same? What similarities and differences can 
you find ? 

Find the broom-shaped growth at the tips of some of 
the hyphae, it is the part devoted to the production of 
conidia. Locate the string of conidia. How many are 
there ina row? Are all of the same size? Do the rows 


4£& 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 277 


branch ? Can you recognize a connection between the 
conidia? Which conidia do you think are the youngest, 
aud why? Determine the relation between the row of 
conidia and the hyphae, are there several to each hyp- 
hae? Recognize the branching cells which connect with 
the hyphae, and the slender tips, sterigmata, which bear 
the conidia. 

Sow a few conidia in a nutrient medium on a slide, set 
aside for a few hours in a warm moist place and then — 
examine; you will find the conidia germinating, hyphae 
of various lengths being sent out from the spherical spore 
or conidium, 


24. GENERAL SUMMARY.—-What evidence can you cite 
from the facts thus far learned bearing on the following 
points: 

(1) Cells not supphed with chlorophyll] and not exposed 
to the action of sun-light require to be supplied with pre- 
pared nutriment, and cannot thrive in rain-water, while 
chlorophyll containing cells in the sunlight can make 
food from the simple compounds found in rain water. 


(2) Motion and sensation, while not absolutely confined 
to animal cells, are decidedly characteristic of them and 
commonly nearly or quite wanting in plants. 


(8) Cell growth and reproduction are characteristic of 
all cells, both animal and plant, and in either may take 
place by budding or fission. 


(4) Reproduction may produce either solitary cells, 
which may be either simple or complex, or it may pro- 
duce groups of cells in which the cells may be either 
all similar, or with some differentiation, or with consid- 
erable differentiation. That is, single cells may retain 
their individuality or they may become subordinate 
members of larger organizations. 


278 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY (Aug. 


PART V. NUCLEAR DIVISION.* 


25. KARYOKINESIS.{[—After the forms and functions of 
the cell have to some extent been enquired into, the biolo- 
gist should attempt to become acquainted with the 
structure and activities which have become known in re- 
gard to tbe nucleus itself. Of late years a very great 
amount of attention has been directed to the study of the 
nucleus, and a great deal has been found out that was 
entirely unknown even so recently as ten years ago. 
This has been the result of improved technique, and of 
the improved objectives. 

At first the section as a whole should be studied so as 
to locate the cells, then the nuclei should be closely 
examined with the highest magnifying power you can 
command till they can be clearly distinguished into two 
sorts: (a) the resting nucleus (b) the active nucleus. The 
resting nuclei are likely to be in the majority, they re- 
semble the nuclei of ordinary fully differentiated cells. 
In them recognize: (1) the nuclear membrane, a fine un- 
bounding line; (2) the chromatine, deeply stained grains 
scattered through the interior of the nucleus; (3) the 
achromatine, the non-stained remainder of the content of 
the nucleus. Make an indexed drawing of several rest- 
ing nuclei. 

The dividing nuclei will be seen in various stages of 
the act, and various drawings should be made ina series 
to show the different steps of the process according to 
your idea of them. In the most favorable cases where 
the act is well advanced you will recognize a great un- 


*Favorable material is furnished for nuclear study from almost any 
developing tissue, either animal or plant, the growing tips of union 
roots, the spermary of the Cray-Fish, developing eggs of fish and other 
animals are among the suitable objects for this work. The material 
must be very carefully fixed with Flemming’s fluid, then stained, and 
very thin sections cut from material imbedded in paraffine. 


+See Wilson, Atlas of Fertilization. Macmillan, 1896. 


1896.] MICROSCOPICAL JOUKNAL. 279 


likeness to the resting nucleus. The chromatine is now 
in the form of loops, of which there are two sets at op- 
posite ends of the cell; the number of loops in each set 
should be counted and their location shown; the nuclear 
membrane has disappeared; there are fibres running 
through the chromatine and converging beyond ata 
point, nuclear spindle, at which in favorable cases a min- 
ute particle, the centrosome, can be seen. Lines can be 
seen to radiate from the centrosome into the cytoplasm 
as well as into the nucleus proper. After these points 
have been seen, you should examine other stages, you 
will if successful be able to determine (1) that the nuc- 
lear spindle forms very early, before the nucleus has 
changed, (2) that the chromatine takes the form of loops 
of a certain number, (3) that these are later separated into 
the two sets already mentioned which form the founda- 
tion of the new nuclei that are in process of formation, (4) 
and pull more or more widely apart. Still later than 
this, the spindle disappears anda nuclear membrane 
again distinctly surrounds the two new nuclei, each of 
which now contains an equal portion of the original 
chromatine. A large number of different dividing nuclei 
should be examined and drawn and their relation in 
point of time be carefully determined. (Besides this 
“indirect’’ mode of nuclear division, the nuclei of certain - 
cells divide ‘directly,’ that is, there are no spindle or 
chromatine loops, but the nuclear membrane simply con- 
stricts in the middle and thus two are formed from one, 
as in typical cell division.) 


PART VI, CONDITIONS OF CELL-LIFE, (YEAST.) 


The cell being a living object reacts directly to its surroundings. By 
studying this reaction the effects of various conditions upon cell life 
can be inferred. Yeast appears on the whole to furnish advantages 
for experimentation, since it is always easy to get a supply through the 
commercial use of the fresh yeast cake. The test of its activity is the num- 
ber of generations of buds produced ina given time, it being assumed 


280 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Ang. 


that most of the cells in the yeast cake are in a similar condition at the 
outset. It is of course necessary in examining different cultures of 
yeast to make sure that there is no mixing of different lots, and that 
enough different slides are examined to eliminate exceptional cases. 
It is important that all cultures be made under conditions that are uni- 
form except as tothe one condition which is being investigated, and in 
every case a standard control culture under the most favorable condi- 
tions should be made and examined as the basis of comparison. 

26. Foop OF yEASt.—Cultivate at 32 C. for 12 hours 
equal amounts of yeastin: (a) distilled or hydrant water; 
(b) Pasteur’s solution without sugar; (c) sugar without the 
rest of Pasteur’s solution ; (d) Pasteur’s solution.* Make 
careful examinations of all four and determine by means 
of the growth of the colonies which is the best food. 
Carefully study the composition of Pasteur’s solution 
and consider the inference that can be drawn from 
this experiment with reference to the nutrition of a non- 
chlorophyll-containing cell. Could Amoeba thrive in 


Pasteur’s solution ? 


26 b. Gas PRODUCED BY GROWTH or YuAsT.—-Culti- 
vate yeast in closed flask and collect the gases from it in 
a jar of water—test the gas thus obtained: first by low- 
ering alighted match or candle in it, noting that it will 
not support combustion; and then prove by means of 
baryta water that the gas is carbon-dioxyd. 


27. TEMPERATURE.—Cultivate for eight hours in Pas- 
teur’s solution equal amounts of yeast, at the following 
different temperatures, viz.: (a) 18 C.; (b) 32 C.; (c) 40 
C.; compare these and determine which is_ the 
most favorable temperature; (d) place a portion of 
yeast in Pasteur’s solution and heat slowly to boiling, 
then cool to 32 and keep at that temperature for eight 
hours and then examine to determine the effect, by 
comparison, with the best of the three preceding ; (e) 


*For the formula for making Pasteur’s solution, See Parker’s Ele- 
mentary Biology. 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 281 


freeze a sample of yeast in Pasteur’s solution, then thaw 
out gently and slowly raise to 32 C. and cultivate it for 
eight hours, after which determine the effects of freezing, 
first whether fatal, second whether harmful at all. 


28. LigHt vs, DARKNESS.—Cultivate at 32° C. in Pas- 
teur’s solution, two lots of yeast, one ina closed oven from 
access to the light, the other in the light ; after cultiva- 
tion of 8-12 hours, study and determine whether light 
plays any perceptible part in the cell life of the yeast cell. 


29. EFFECTS OF DRUGS 
to determine whether the presence of minute traces of 
various drugs affect cell life, and whether some drugs 
are more powerful than others. The method is to add 
to an optimal culture varied amounts of these drugs and | 
then after several hours of cultivation to study their ef- 
fects. A control culture must in each case be made for 
comparison, in which none of the drug is placed. Any. 
or all of the following are suggested: 

(a) CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE in distilled water. Yeast in 
Pasteur’s solution in following ratios, viz.:—(1) 1: 5000; 
(2) 1: 10000; (3) 1: 15000; (4) 1: 20000; (5) 1: 50000. 
Determine whether yeast is able to live in any of these, 
also whether it is killed instantly or after initial steps of 
growth have taken place. 

(b) CARBOLIC ACID in Pasteur’s solution with yeast, 
determine effects of following ratios, viz.: (1) 1: 5000; (2) 
1: 2000; (3) 1: 1000; (4) 1: 500. 

(c) ALconoL—(1) 1: 100; (2) 5: 100; (3) 10: 100; (4) 
20: 100. 

(d) PRoBiEms. Determine the ratio of different drugs 
and compare with the above, testing to find the amount 
the presence of which will arrest the growth or activity 
of the cell. Some or all of the following can be used, 
Prussic acip; ARSENIC; OIL OF CLOVES. 

30. ViTaLity.—Cultivate under optimal conditions a 


This study has for its object 


282 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY (Aug 


lot of yeast which is known to have been dried for several 
months or even years. Determine whether it is still 
alive, and note, if it is shown to be so, that this proves 
that dryness is not fatal to yeast cells, also that life may 
be suspended for an interval of time and then its activi- 
ties may be resumed. Can you think of parallel cases 
among plants: e. g., seeds and animals ? 


APPENDIX.—SIMPLE MrTHopsFOR MOUNTINGIN CANADA 
BALSAM.—(a@) Hntire Objects.—Small objects or organs of 
large objects such as hydroids, polyzoa, small crustacea, 
small plants, can be mounted in balsam if desired ; a sim- 
ple method is as follows: (1) If there be any cellular 
material present the specimen must first be preserved, a 
convenient general method being as follows. (1) Im- 
merse in ten times the objects bulk of saturated aque- 
ous solution of corrosive sublimate 4 hour; (2) Wash 
in running water % hour; (3) Transfer to 30 per cent 
alcohol 20 minutes ; (4) Thence to 50 per cent alcohol 20 
minutes; (5) Thence to 70 per cent alcohol 24 
hours. This method is suitable for small objects in 
which it is not desired to bring out the finer nuclear 
figures. The perserved specimen should be stained as 
follows: (1) Immerse in borax carmine (or any other 
good stain) for 24 hours; (2) Transfer to a clearing 
fluid made by adding 2 parts of hydrochloric acid to 98 
parts of 50 per cent alcohol and change so long as the 
clearing fluid extracts any color from the specimens. 
After staining the object must be completely de-hy- 
-drated—This is done by passing it through 70, 95 and ab- 
solute alcohol, leaving it in each from 10 to 80 minutes 
or even longer according to size. While in absolute al- 
cohol it must be carefully stoppered, especially when 
the atmosphere is very moist. After the water is 
thoroughly removed the specimen can be placed in oil 
of cloves or turpentine, till it becomes thoroughly trans- 


1896. ] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 283 


lucent, when it can be mounted on a slide, enclosed ina 
cell, if thick, or sourrounded by bits of glass, the sup- 
erfluous oil removed as far as possible with a bit of 
blotting paper and replaced with Canada balsam which 
has been dried and dissolved in benzole or chloroform. 


b. Sections.—Sections are made from objects which 
have first been preserved according to the method given 
above or some kindred method. The tissues to be sec- 
tionized may be held in the hand or in pith, in which 
case the very sharp razor blade is well flooded with alco- 
hol and as thin a slice as possible is cut and floated off 
into a glass disk. It is then put through the course 
given above. 

A finer method for section cutting, giving the finest 
sections, but only possible after considerable experience, 
is that of embedding the object in paraffine. The steps 
in this process are as follows, the object already ade- 
quately preserved and stained as described above and 
thoroughly dehydrated by passing through absolute ab- 
solute alcohol is: (1) Soaked in chioroform (or turpen- 
tine or cedar oil) till the alcohol is thoroughly removed 
(6 to 12 hours), then transferred to a solution of paraffine 
in the same kind of oil for an equal time ; removed thence 
and soaked in pure paraffine melted in a bath over steam 

The heat in this bath must not reach 60° C, Should be 
only sufficient to barely meet the paraffine. When the 
last traces of chloroform (or other oil) are completely. 
driven off by heat the specimen is placed in a mould and 
surrounded by melted paraffine which cools and hardens 
around it. Sections cut from this are run through tur- 
pentine to dissolve the paraffiae and mounted in Canada 
balsam. 


Whooping Cough Bacillus.—Kourlov has been invest- 
igating the saliva of whooping cough patients, and has 
found in every case and in them alone, a certain special, 
spore-forming, ciliated amzba, which he suggests may be 
the cause of the disease.—Bulletin Medical. 


284 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [ Aug. 


EDITORIAL. 


General Index.—This General Index is received with 
very much pleasure by the subscribers. Dr. R. H. W. 
says: ‘“Itis excellent, and evidently cost youa great deal 


of labor, it adds greatly to the value of the set of 
books.”’ 


Walter White Objects.—Prof. L. W. C. writes: ‘‘Will 
you please send meas full a list as you have in stock of 
the Walter White objects. Afriend of mine has been re- 
cently mounting some of them in my laboratory and I like 
them so well that I want to secure all that I can get.”’ 


The A. E. T. A.—The Sixth Annual Meeting of The 
American Electro-Therapeutic Association will be held 
on Tuesday and Wednesday, September 29th and 30th, and 
Thursday, October Ist, 1896, in Allston Hall, The Studio 
Building, on Clarendon Street, near St. James Avenue, 
Boston, Mass. 

Prof. A. E. Dolbear, Tuft’s College, Mass., is the 
Chairman of the Committee of Arrangements. 

Dr. W. H. White, 222 MarlboroughStreet, Boston, Mass., 
is the Vice-Chairman of the Committee of Arrangements. 

Dr. Frederick H. Morse, Melrose, Mass., is the Chair- 
man of the Committee on Exhibitions. 

The next annual meeting promises to bea greater suc- 
cess than any former one. Great interest is shown in all 
quarters; alarge attendance is promised. Many candi- 
dates of national reputation are proposed for membership, 
so that the amendment to increase the limit of members 
becomesa necessity. The best talent has already an- 
nounced papers, a larger number than ever before, at this 
early date; material almost sufficient to make a _ pro- 
gramme for the session of unusual interest. There will 
be two discussions of importance in electro-therapeutics, 
interesting reports of all standing committees, several 
scientific lectures on the first evening, with demonstra- 
tions and stereoscopic views (including the Roentgen X 


1896. ] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 285 


Rays, and electric principles in the treatment of diseases), 
given by well known scientists. 

The Committee of Arrangements has surprises in store 
for the social element in the way of receptions and ex- 
cursions. 

The exhibition promises to bea good feature and of 
more than usual interest. 


Pasteur’s Nonsense.—Such is the title of a short article 
published in the Medical Age, August 10th. The author, 
Dr. J. J. Lawrence, thinks that Pasteur was the most co- 
lossal humbug of this age. He (Pasteur) fathered a 
theory which switched the medical profession off the 
broad avenue of therapeutic, along which it was making 
such gratifying progress, onthe blind siding of bacteriol- 
ogy. Thedoctor saysthat: ‘‘Pasteur was not a great 
man, nor evena learned man, but he was gifted with great 
shrewdness and that he obtained all his success by being 
backed up by governmental endorsement.”’ Dr. J. J. Law- 
rence cannot find any good in Pasteur’s works. 

Well, we shall advise him to take up the study of bacter- 
iology and to follow the way opened by Pasteur.and in 
which so many men have acquired world-wide reputation. 

Also, we would like to tell himthat the words of the poet 
are of very little use to the student of technical science. 


The Laryngoscope.—We have just received No. 1, vol. 
1, of the Laryngoscope, a journal devoted entirely to the 
consideration of diseases of the nose, throat and ear. 
It is a monthly and it is published in St. Louis, Mo.—Sczen- 
tific American. 


The 50th anniversary number of the Scientific Ameri- 
can, just out, is a handsome and valuable publica- 
tion of 72 pp. It reviews the progress of the past 
50 years in the various sciences and industrial arts; and 
the various articles by the best scientific writers of the 
day are racily reviewedand richly illustrated. The editors 
have accomplished the difficult task of presenting a com- 
pendium of information that shall be at once historical, 
technical and popular. The story of the half century’s 


286 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [| Aug. 


growth is in itself a veritable compendium of valuable sci- 
entific information for future reference. Price 10 cents 
per copy. 

International Bacteriologic ‘‘Concours.’’—As a memor- 
ial to Pasteur, the Circulo Medico Argentino of- Buenos 
Aires, offers prizes of $400 and $200 for the best original 
and unpublished bacteriologic investigations or studies re- 
ported to the President, Senor Gregorio Aroaz Alfaro, be- 
fore May 31, 1897... The reports to be in Spanish yon 
French. For further particulars see the Cronico Medica 
of Lima, April 15. 


MICROSCOPICAL MANIPULATION. 


Rapid Method for Microscopical Preparations.— 
Thelwall Thomas tells (Lancet) of the rapid preparation 
of specimens for the microscope by the use of formal- 
dehyde in 4 per cent solutions, which harden ina few hours 
any piece of tumor or tissue placed in them. This solu- 
tion freezes on an ether-microtome, and the sections, after 
immersion in methylated spirit, can be readily stained 
with hematoxylin. During the past twelve months he has 
cut sections (over one hundred) of every tumor or tissue 
the day after its removal by the surgeon. 


Note onthe Permanent Staining of Ringworm Fungus. 
—H.G. Adamson (Brit. Jour. Dermat.), for the staining 
of the ringworm fungus, combines the caustic potash solu- 
tion with the ordinary staining method. Dr. Adamson 
claims that the keratin nature of the horny tissues is lost 
by the use of the caustic potash, and that decolorization 
takes place as in non-horny epithelial tissues (Am. Med.- 
Surg. Bull.) The detailsare as follows: 1.5-per cent.-10- 
per cent. solution of caustic potash on the slide for ten to 
thirty minutes. 2. Wash 15 per cent. alcohol in water. 3. 
Dry the slide, and, inthe case of scales, fix by passing 
through the flame. 5. Stain in gentian-anilin-violet (made 
in the usual way by the addition of a few drops of satu- 
rated alcoholic solution of gentian-violet to anilin-water), 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 287 


fifteen to sixty minutes. 5. In Gram’s iodine solution one 
to five minutes. 6. Decolorize in anilin-oil two or three 
hours or longer. 7. Remove anilin-oil by blotting-paper, 
mount in Canada balsam.— St, Louts Med. and Surgical Jour. 


-A New Method for Estimating Filicic Acid.— Dr. Kraft 
has devised the following method of determining the quan- 
tity of filicic acid present in extract of male fern: Five 
em. of the extract are shaken with a solution of 2 gm. of 
potassium carbonate and 40 gm. of water and 60 gm. of 
95 per cent. alcohol for one-quarter of an hour. Eighty- 
three gm. of the mixture are filtered off immediately into 
a separatory funnel, and to this 9 gm. of diluted hydroch- 
loric acid, 50 gm. of ether and 35 gm. of water are added 
and the whole shaken. The aqueo-alcoholic layer is drawn 
off, the etheral solution is again washed with 35 gm. of 
water, the water evaporated and the etheral solution dis- 
tilled off ina tarred 100ccm. Erlenmeyer flask, and finally 
evaporated down to at least 2 gm. by means of a hand bel- 
lows. ‘The residue is dissolved in 1.5 gm. of hot anyl ac- 
cohol, 5 gm. of methyl alcohol added and the whole then 
slowly precipitated by the gradual addition of 25 gm. of 
methyl alcohol. The whole is then kept over night in a 
closed receptacle in a cellar, filtered through a tarred filter, 
the precipitate washed with 10 ccm. of methyl alcohol at 
60 to 70 per cent. until the residue shows no loss on heat- 
ing. The filicic acid thus obtained amounts to about 4 per 
cent. of the extract.—American Druggist. 


BACTERIOLOGY. 


Typhoid Bacilliin Pus.—Sudeck. (Munchener Med. 
Wochenschrift, No. 21, May 26, 1896.) In an ovarian cyst 
containing thick pus and occuring ina woman who had 
had typhoid fever seven weeks previously, Sudeck was 
able to demonstrate the typhoid bacillus both in stained 
specimen and through culture. In the pyogenic mem- 
brane, however, diplococci were found and therefore the 
author rightly infers that the typhoid bacilli may stand in 
no etiologic relation to the abscess, but are there concomi- 


288 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Aug. 


tantly without action. ‘The pyogenic properties of the 
typhoid bacillus are not established by finding the germ 
in pus. 

- Do Flies Spread Tuberculosis >—Dr. W. R. Aylett, 
(Virginia Med. Semi-monthly, June 26, 1896) gives details 
of investigation: ‘‘I smeared a cover-glass with sputum 
from awell advanced case of tuberculosis and placed it upon 
clean sheet of paper, placing around it seven or eight clean 
covers. ‘The paper and covers were then placed where 
flies could have ready access and soon quite a number were 
feeding on the sputum. An inverted tumbler was lowered 
over them, making them prisoners without their knowl- 
edge. One ofthe prisoners soon deposited a ‘speck’ on 
one of the clean covers. To prevent this becoming con- 
taminated by their feet, I removed it at once. Within an 
hour or two all of my covers were specked. ‘The covers 
were then put through the regular cover-slip preparation, 
carbo-fuchsin being used for the bacilli, with methylene 
blue as a contrast stain. On microscopic examination, the 
specks were found to contain from one to three thousand 
bacilli tuberculosis each. I have not yet tested the viru- 
lence of bacilli so obtained, but they show no signs of dis- 
integration, seem as perfectand stain as readily as those 
from pure cultures.” 


MEDICAL MICROSCOPY. 


Non-excretion of Pathogenic microbes with the Per- 
spiration.—Krikliwy describes in Wratsch, Nos. 8 to 10, 
his experience with cats inoculated with anthrax bacilli 
and then injected with pilocarpin. Microscopic examina- 
tion of the profuse sweat induced was entirely negative in 
‘any discovery of the bacilli, although they were found in 
the blood and tissues. 


Antidiphtheritic Serum Administered by Rectal Injec- 
tion.—Dr. Chantemesse, of the Pasteur Institute of Paris, 
has advised the exhibition of diphtherical antitoxin by 
rectalinjection instead of subcutaneously. He has used 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 289 


this method in twenty cases, and believes that the fluid is 
easily and quickly absorbed. The bowel is first washed 
out by a simple enema, and then by means of an ordinary 
enema syringe and a gum-elastic catheter of medium size 
and about twenty centimeters long, the serum is intro- 
duced into the rectum. ‘The method causes neither pain 
nor any unpleasant effects. The curative effect seems to 
be as certain as when the antitoxin is given by hypodermic 
injection. ‘There is no need, so far as Dr. Chantemesse’s 
experience goes, for any increase of dose when the serum 
is administered by the rectum. In severe cases of erysip- 
elas he has injected into the rectum 200 to 300 cubic centi- 
meters of the Marmorek serum. This quaintity wasreadily 
absorbed and caused no ill effects. In applying this serum 
locally he adds five parts of lanolin to one part of the serum; 
pain, swelling and redness are thereby greatly reduced.— 
Ex. 

Suppurative Nephritis.—V. Wunschheim (Ztschr. fur 
Heilk., bd. xv, pp. 287-401), from a study of cases of. sup- 
purative nephritis, concludes as follows: 

1. Suppurative pyelonephritis is caused in the great ma- 
jority of cases by the bacillus coli communis, and ina mi- 
nority of cases by the proteus vulgaris or by the common 
pyogenic cocci. 2. In cases caused by the common pyo- 
genic cocci, pyemiaalmost invariably supervenes. 3. The 
pyelonephritis caused by the staphylocci and strep- 
tococci differs not only in the subsequent pyemia, but also 
in a greater destruction of tissue and an absence of local 
proliferation. 4. It is not probable that typical ascending 
pyelonephritis can also become descending. 


MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETIES. 


American Postal Microscopical Club. 


During the season now closing, the circuits have re- 
ceived about the usual number of boxes, including those 
now in transit; and, notwithstanding the great and partly 
unavoidable difficulties of the case, this service at- 


290 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY (Aug. 


tained, owing to the considerate and often generous ex- 
ertions of members, and to the efficient supervision and 
assistance of the secretary, Dr. Shanks, at least an aver- 
age success. After the boxes have completed their pres- 
ent circuits, there will be the usual rest until fall. 

Owing to the amount of time demanded by other and 
more urgent details of club administration, the publica- 
tion of the report has been necessarily deferred until 
after vacation. 

San Diego Microscopical Society. 

At one of the last meetings of that society, held at 
the residence of Dr. B. F. Gamber, a permanent organ- 
ization was effected, and the following officers elected 
to serve for the ensuing year; President, Dr. B. F. 
Gamber; vice-president, D. Cleveland; recording sec- 
retary, Will H. Holcomb; corresponding secretary, Dr. 
Joseph Rodes; treasurer, Philip Morse. 

A specimen of a beautiful species of alga, found in the 
fresh waters of the San Diego Flume was made the sub- 
ject of investigation and study by the society. A finely 
prepared and mounted specimen of cyclops, a minute fresh 
water copepod of the genus cyclopidae, taken from the 
Flume water, was exhibited by Dr. Gamber. This cu- 
rious form of life, as observed through the splendid instru- 
ment at the rooms of the society, does not fail to command 
the attention of all present at the meetings of the society. 
Its kite-shaped body and tail, cumbersome antennae, and 
one eye, makes it as formidable an object in micros- 
copical life as were the one-eyed giants to the races of 
men described in the Homeric legend. A cyclops is said 
to produce four and one half billion offspring annually. 


Micrometallography, as its name implies, deals with the 
microscopic examination of sections of metals. It prom- 
ises to be of great practical use to the metal worker, for by 
its means those mysterious fractures in steel, with which 
every engineer is familiar, are explained. Under the mic- 
roscope the steel used by engineers can be thoroughly and 
carefully examined, and the steel ‘“‘cells” tested. Flaws 
in the interior of metals can be detected by the micro- 
scope, and thus many accidents can be prevented. 


<A BERND AMES A I 


DEVELOPMENT OF A FREE SWIMMING MEDUSA. 


THE AMERICAN 


MONTHLY 


MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 


SEPTEMBER, 1896. No. 9 


VoL. XVIII. 


The Development of the Free-Swimming Meduse of Obelia 
Commissuralis. 
By GEORGE W. NORTON, 


MIDDLETOWN, CONN. 


The development of the bell-shaped meduse has been 
quite completely worked out, while that of the saucer- 
shaped medusa, such asis found among the Campanu- 
larian hydroids, has been studied but comparatively 
little. The development, however, of the Campanularian 
jelly fish, forms a no less interesting and instructive line 
of study than that of their bell-shaped relatives, and 
especially is this true if we make a comparative study 
of the development of the two and note wherein they 
agree and differ intheir mode of development. 


EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES 


Fig. 1. Abranch of a hydromedusarium. mal layers which break through and form the 


(a) the reproductive calycle. opening to the sub-umbrella cavity. (e) the 
Fig. 2. The reproductive calycle highly sub-umbrella cavity. 

magnified. (a) the medusa. (b) the calycle. Fig. 9. The medusa ready to break loose 

(c) a young bud. from the manubrium of the calycle. (a) the 


Fig. 3. Asection through a medusa bed in mouth. (b) the tentacle. (c) the circular 
an early stage. (a) the ectoderm. (b) the canal. (d) the stomach. 


endoderm. (c) thickening of the ectoderm. Fig. 10. A cross section of the bud in fig. 
Fig.4. A section through a bud more ad- 8 as indicated by a. (a) the radial canals. 

vanced, (a, b, c) the same as in fig 3. (b, c, d) ectodermal layers. (e) the mouth or 
Fig. 5. A later stage of the bud shown in cesophagus. (f) the sub-umbrella cavity. 

fig.4. (a) the cells forming from the ecto- g, h, i) the endodermal layers. 

derm. (b) the same as in fig. 3. Fig. 11. A fresh tentacle highly magnified 
Fig. 6. A later stage of the bud shown in (a) the thread cells. 

fig.5. (a) ectodermal cells arranged in two Fig. 12. A medusa at time of birth. The 

layers. (b) thesame as in fig. 3, tentacles are here represented to be much 
Fig. 7. A more advanced stage of the bud shorter than they shonld be to be in propor- 

shown in fig. 6. (a) the sub-umbrella cavity. tion with the rest of the body. (a) a tentacle. 

(b) the proboscis. (c) the stomach. (d, e) (b) a radial canal. (c) the circular canal, (d) 

the endoderm. the mouth. (e) the proboscis. (f) an octocyst. 


Fig. 8, A further development of the same (g) the sub-umbrella cavity. 
bud. (b) the proboscis. (c, d) the ectoder- 


232 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Sept. 


The object of this paper is simply to show the develop- 
ment of one of the free-swimming Campanularian medusz 
—that of Obelia commissuralis, while no attempt is made 
to describe the sexual method by which the meduse give 
rise to the hydroidal forms. 

This particular specie is found growing along the rocky 
shores of the Atlantic Ocean, from Nova Scotia to Charles- 
town, South Carolina, attached to stones or sea-weeds of 
various sorts. The material for this work was found 
growing on the ropes attached to lobster pots which were 
set near the Biological Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, 
Long Island. On these ropes the hydroids were found 
growing luxuriantly, even toa considerable depth below 
the surface of the water. The material having been 
collected, four different fixing solutions were made use of 
in preserving it, Corrosive Sublimate, Perenye’s Fluid, 
Fleming’s Solution, and Picro-sulphuric Acid. The 
latter proved the most satisfactory, preserving the tissues 
so as to show the cellular structure very distinctly. 
The material having been treated with these various 
fixing solutions, was than preserved in alcohol, and later 
the development was made out by staining and cutting 
sections according to the usual method. 

The reproductive organ of Obelia consists of a repro- 
ductive calycle (fig. 1,a) which occupies the forks of 
branches and is composed of a horny sheath (fig. 2, b) 
which surrounds a central portion, the manubrium, The 
manubrium, in accordance with the general structure of 
the Coelenterates, is composed of two cellular layers, the 
ectoderm and the endoderm and on this manubrium the 
the meduse are developed by a process of budding. The 
first step to be noticed in the development is a slight thick- 
ening of the ectodermal layer of cells (fig. 3, ¢) on one 
side of the manubrium of the calycle. Soon, however, both 
ectoderm and endoderm push out from the axis of the man- 


HN Pi 


1896. ] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 293 


ubrium at the place of ectodermal thickening and form a 
bud (fig. 5) whileat the same time the ectodermal thicken- 
ning is still further increased by the formation of new cells 
(a)—these cells being formed from the ectoderm alone. 
The bud continues its growth till itbecomes decidedly pear 
shaped (fig.6) and the mass of ectodermal cells has become 
arranged in two layers (a) which have almost entirely 
separated from the ectoderm. The endoderm has also 


grown out into the bud, forming asort of cup. At the 
next step (fig. 7), we find several marked changes. The 
shape of the bud has changed from its pear-shape to 
nearly spherical. The two cell layers of ectodermal ori- 
gin have become separated,’ forming a cavity (a) which 
subsequently becomes what corresponds to the bell-shaped 
cavity in the bell-shaped meduse of the Tubularian 


294 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Sept. 


hydroid. The endoderm (d, e) has now grown out around 
the edge of the bud, forming a deep cup, and has also 
made an evagination (b) which is the beginning of the 
proboscis. The two endodermal layers (d,e) forming 
the cup, remain, for a time, entirely separate. Subse- 
quently these two layers grow together with the excep- 
tion, first, of the large four-cornered cavity (¢) which be- 
comes the stomach, secondly, of the four radial canals 
(fig. 10, a), and thirdly the circular canal (fig. 9, ¢) which 
is connected with the stomach by the radial canals. 
The bud now changes from a nearly spherical shape to a 
broadly discoid form (fig. 8)and here seems to be the be- 
ginning of an important step, which is the gradual 
broadening of the developing bud to form the Campanu- 
larian medusa, instead of retaining its spherical form and 
developing into the Tubularian medusa. The proboscis 
(b) has now become much more prominent; while at the 
same time, the two ectodermal layers (c, d) have become 
thinner over the proboscis and subsequently break 
through, forming the opening to what corresponds to the 
bell-cavity of the Tubularian Medusa, or the sub-umbrella 
cavity. We now have the sub-umbrella cavity lined with 
a layer of cells of ectodermal origin. This layer unites with 
the ectoderm of the outside of the bud, thereby forming the 
edge of the disk which surrounds the sub-umbrella 
cavity. We thus have one continuous layer of ectod- 
ermal cells covering the outside of the bud and lining the 
sub-umbrella cavity. The tentacles make their appear- 
ance as buds (fig. 9, b) on the edge of the disk. These 
buds are outgrowths of both ectoderm and endoderm, so 
that the tentacles contain both the ectodermal and endo- 
dermal cell layers. As the tentacles grow they curl in- 
wardly upon themselves, so that, until the time of birth, 
they appear as broad crenulations (fig. 2, a). The mouth 
also makes its appearance by virtue of a separation of 
the cells (a) at the end of the proboscis. 


1896] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL 295 


The bud is now ready to begin its free existence as a 
medusa; and by a few vigorous contractions, breaks its 
connection with the manubrium and passes out at the 
end of the calycle. In the very act of extrusion, its 
disk expands and the tentacles unroll, so that, by the 
time the medusa is free from the calycle, it is fully ex- 
panded and begins at once the act of swimming. At birth 
the medusa, has sixteen tentacles (fig. 12, a) of which 
one is opposite each of the four radial canals and three 
others arearranged at equal distances in each space be- 
tween any two of these four. There is the sub-umbrella 
cavity (g) in the centre of which is the proboscis (e) and 
in the centre of this we find the mouth (d) which opens 
into the stomach—a four-sided digestive cavity, from 
each corner of which a radial canal (b) extends outward. 
These canals extend nearly to the edge of the disk, where 
they connect with the circular canal (c) which passes 
through the entire circuit of the margin. Through these 
canals a constant circulation of water is kept up by 
meaus of large vibratile cilia. There are also eight 
otocysts (f) at the bases of the eight tentacles which 
stand one on each side of the four radial canals. They 
are circular in outline and contain in their centre a highly 
refractive body. As to the development of these I was 
able to make out practically nothing. 

The development of the Campanularian medusa resem- 
bles in many respects that of the Tubularian medusa. 
This is evident from a comparison of these figures with 
those by Korschelt and Heider in their Text Book of 
Embryology, fig. 16. The sub-umbrella cavity of the one 
is formed in almost identically the same way as the 
bell-cavity of the other. The same is also true of the 
radial canals, the circular canal, the proboscis, and the 
stomach. The important difference in the development 
of the twois the gradual change in the form of the 


296 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Sept. 


Campanularian bud from nearly spherical to a broadly 
discoid form, which results in the flat, saucer-shaped 
Campanularian medusa, instead of the bell-shaped Tubu- 
larian medusa. 


CYSTIN. 
By E. CUTTER, M. D., 
NEW YORK. 

Cystin is not so rare as thought. It is of clinical im- 
portance. <A variety of rheumatism is called ‘“cystinic” 
because cystin predominates in the blood,and rheumatism 
is a ‘gravel of blood” (Salisbury). 

Cystin is also found in urine and sputum. It is C6 H12 
N2 S82 04, and is to be regarded asa sulphur carbohydrate 
with N. Itis probably a normal body if kept in solution 
in the blood by plenty of water being supplied to the sys- 
tem. It isto be eliminated in the urine, feces, sweat, 
and expectoration in solution. When, from absence of 
sufficient water or other reasons, it is concentrated and 
crystalized into flat hexagons with a thickness of about 
one-eight of its diameter, sometimes with slightly irreg- 
ular or anfractuous outlines, sometimes with a hilus, 
sometimes with section cut out as a piece of pie is cut. 
Color, white. Sometimes found alone, but oftener associ- 
ated with other blood, urinal, sweat, or sputal crystals, 
with hyaline, blue, bronze, emerald-green, ruby-red, pig- 
mental matters, which are to be expected when enough 
water is not drank or when waters loaded with salts are 
imbibed. But cases where cystin is found oftenest are 
those in which sulphur has largely entered as food, 1. e., 
yolks of eggs. Or, to put ittheother way, when patients 
have eaten the yolks of eggs they present cystin in their 
blood or urine. 

Recently I found cystin in the blood of a tuberculous 
lady to whom yolks had been forbidden, Asked if she 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 297 


had not eaten yolks in the whites of eggs ordered, she 
said ‘‘yes.”” The same day a lady treated for the pres- 
tages of fatty degeneration showed cystin in her blood. 
She confessed to eating yolks. 

Lately alsomy son, Dr. J. A. Cutter, had a case of 
cystinic rheumatism traced to eating yolks of eggs largely, 


’ 


against orders to the contrary. But yolks of eggs must 
not be judged to have a monopoly of cystinic formations. 
Some years ago a middle-aged man applied for relief 
from sciatica. His blood showed cystin as seen in Fig. 1. 
I forgot about the urine. But yolks were not food fac- 


ES 2 
@:.%' @ 


fi s Oe Qe S 
10 


tors. He was puton hot water and plenty of lemon 
juice. The next day the cystin was gone from his blood 
and the sciatica with it. The physical characters of eystin 
reasonably explain the pains, swelling and tenderuess of 
the parts affected. 

PRINCIPLES OF FORMATION. 


From the above they may be inferred as 
1. Lack of menstruum in food. 
2. Sulphur in excess in food, 
3. Lack of elmination. 
4. Retention. 
TREATMENT. 


1. Supply menstruum in abundance. Distilled water 


298 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Sept. 


is the best, as it has no saline bodies to directly diminish 
its solvest powers. 

2. Lemon juice. 

3. Remove sulphur foods as far as possible. This is 
stopping causes and shows the close relation of dietetics 
to the practice of medicine as curative or detective. 

4. Elimination, as indicated, is secured by the plenti- 
ful use of hot water, one pint one hour before meals and 
on going to bed, by hot, dry or vapor baths and by keep- 
ing the cystin in solution so that it will exosmose into the 
‘‘primae viae” for expulsion. Solid bodies must gener- 
ally be liquefied before elimination. If we can judge 
from experience, lemon juice is the best solvent of cystin. 
Saline etiminants are not desirable, because there are too 
many salts in crystal already, and saline eliminants only 
add to the load already too burdensome to be borne. 


On the Application of a Recently Isolated Abrasive Substance 


to the Study of Hard Mineral Substances and Metals. 
By K. M. CUNNINGHAM, 
MOBILE, ALA. 


As an introduction to the subject matter of the above 
title, it may be appropriate to refer to the fascinative 
power associated with the hope of an artificial synthesis, 
or production of the diamond in the modern laboratory, as 
contradistinguished from its past production in nature’s 
laboratory. And amongall who have been allured by 
the alchemy of this hope, many have eagerly sought its 
solution, by operating on the various forms of natural 
or artificial carbonaceous matter; but apparently in vain. 
But if electrolytic chemistry has thus far failed to pro- 
duce pure crystallized carbon, it has nevertheless, in the 
fruitless search, given to science and the arts,many use- 
ful substances; more and more approaching to the char- 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 299 


acters of the coveted diamond; and even at the present 
time we are apprised that M. Henri Moissan of Paris, 
has produced by the electrolytic union of boracie acid 
and carbon, a mineral substance, which proves to be the 
hardest known substance in nature, as it readily wears 
away the diamond heretofore known as at the head 
of the list of minerals in hardness, and that the 
new mineral substance may be produced in commercial 
quantities; but as it is likely to remain for a considerable 
period or lapse of time a mineral curiosity, not readily 
accessible to the working world, we can at least congratu- 
late M. Moissan on his success in its production as a min- 
eralogical novelty. Previous to the announcement of M. 
Moissan’s various electro)ytical furnace products, a new 
abrasive substance had already been heralded, far and 
wide, as the discovery of an American citizen. This sub- 
stance became known under the trade name of carborun- 
dum, and was promptly introduced among the trades 
heretofore using emery and corundum as being in some 
cases superior in its cutting or abrading qualities. This 
material proved to be aresultof an electrolytical union 
of Silex, Alumina and Carbon; and presenting itself in 
the shape of very small crystals of a distinct crystallo- 
graphic system, of bluish and greenish hues, The dis- 
coverer of this new substance protected his process by a 
patent, and thus put it on a commercial basis. After the 
new substance had been announced as a candidate for 
public favor, | became very much interested in it, and 
finally became aware of its character and properties, as 
adapted to dental tools, and of its remarkable efficiency 
in cutting away the enamel of teeth. For several years 
previous to the announcement of the production of Car- 
borundun, I had at intervals studied the products re- 
sulting from the electric combustion of carbon rods, in 
the hope of detecting some interesting microscopic char- 


300 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Sept. 


acters, if any such there might have been; but most. of 
these studies were ineffectual until, about the month of 
July of the past year, Itook the matter up again and 
finally succeeded in solving the mystery that had evaded 
my previous attempts. The cue by which I unlocked the 
secret, came aboutin this wise. It occurred to me to 
trim down on a glass slip the burned end ofa carbon 
point, and over this dust rapidly stroking the back edge 
of a pocket knife blade, during the experiment I noted a 
peculiar frictional effect arise in driving the blade through 
the carbon powder, and on submitting the slide thus 
traversed by the strokes to the microscope I saw that 
many fine lines were traced in the body of the glass as if 
cut with a diamond splinter. Further expanding this idea, 
I also remembered that a black carbon dust was period- 
ically brushed out of the globes by the lamp trimmers on 
their daily rounds, so I thought that I would also examine 
this dust material under the microscope. With this in view 
I engaged a lamp trimmer to secure for me a sample of 
the carbon dust, brushed away daily as of no value, in 
return for which service a small gratuity was given. I 
thus secured several pounds of the dust, and was thus 
enabled to study it from numerous points of view. I, 
found the material to be made up of minute coke debris, 
and myriads of minute glassy spherules, black, opaque 
limpidly transparent. 

I found that the glass-like spherules if rolled be- 
tween glass slips under good pressure, were seen to be 
plowed up as if by a snow plow, a ridge of snowy white 
glass powder being left in the wake of the rolling 
spherule under pressure. 1 then conceived the idea of 
testing the powder’s abrading action on hard flint-like 
minerals. For this purpose I made use of a small fragment 
of an emery wheel heretofore used when preparing sur- 
faces on the fossiliferous limestone or soft rock material. 


1 896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 301 


I poured a quantity of the carbon dust on the emery 
plate and added some water and selected a piece of 
granite to test its cutting qualities, finding that the gran- 
ite was quickly abraded. 

I next tested it with a specimen of flint, and found 
that the results were as remarkable as with the granite. 
I next ascertained that the same dust would also give a 
finished mirrored polish to the flint and granite speci- 
mens. After having ascertained the feasibility of the 
material, | immediately secured specimens of all of the 
various kinds of hard minerals, such as are brought into 
any maritime port, as ballast from other distant ports, 
and testing them rapidly in succession, I found that all 
known accessible rock specimens were tractable to this 
treatment, and asa result of these experimental tests 
and trials I was enabled to study several varieties of the 
granitic rocks, serpentine, copper, iron and nickel slags; 
glass, flints, agates, basalt, porphry, carborundum wheels; 
trachytes, cherts, the silicified fossiliferous pebbles, and 
silicified woods peculiar to the sub-carboniferous forma- 
tions of Alabama; the hematite ores, silicified vertebral 
bones, phosphatic flints of Florida; the various metals as 
iron and steel, etc., so that I then realized that this 
simple analytical method might be practically applied 
to the study of all minerals and metals with the possible 
exception of the diamond itself. During a part of these 
initial experiences I used as a grinding or polishing sup- 
port one of the squared, tempered steel plates used in 
the chalk engraving process, and found that the polishing 
power of the material had turned the steel plates into a 
perfectly reflecting face mirror. In the internal struc- 
ture of flints as polished by the means noted herein, one 
may note the large variety of organic remains, as for- 
aminifera, radiolarian like forms, sponge spicules, retic- 
ulated spongy structures, Zanthidian and other bodies. 


302 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Sept. 


In the caleedonized flints, there can be observed the 
peculiar lobulated concretionary strial or parallel wavy 
bands and capsular bodies. In the flint-like phosphatized 
pebbles of the Florida phosphate area, we can discern an 
aggregation of foraminiferal remains, ranging in size to 
the most minute and in the Jasperized gravels of North 
Alabama, the polished surfaces permit the sponge spicules 
and radiolarian like spherules to be readily seen. In 
the opalized radiolarian clays of Mississippi and Ala~ 
bama, we can also find the evidence of radiolarians, 
foraminifera and sponge spicules. Polished faceson the 
silicio-caleareous cement stones of Sendai, Japan; and of 
Jutland enables various phases of diatom structure to be 
seen therein. . 

In my earlier efforts to obtain some knowledge of rock 
structure with the aid of the microscope I confined my 
efforts to the strata of fossiliferous origin, such as the 
chalks, and crystalline limestones; oolitic strata, and 
other easily reduced rocks, and during the pursuit of this 
research, I made unlimited studies from every available 
source, overlooking the harder series of rocks of igneous 
and metamorphosed origin, chiefly on account of the ap- 
parent difficulties to be overcome in their preparation, 
as for example, the necessity of having diamond treated 
saws to slit the harder rocks into thinnish plates, and the 
labor of reducing the slips to the requisite thinness, and 
giving the required polish to both faces, and for these 
reasons I gave very little experimental attention to the 
subject, but contented myself with securing and examin- 
ing the commercial preparations, the product of the lapi- 
dary’s art; so that nearly every variety of mineral of a 
fossiliferous nature that came into my possession was 
subjected to study whenever the simpler expedients were 
applicable, and matters were allowed to stand at this 
stage until I worked out the properties of the spherule 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 303 


dust of silicic carbide, as produced by the electrical des- 
truction of artificially prepared carbon rods, and when 
by its application, I became enabled to dominate every 
hard substance in nature, with the exception of the dia- 
mond itself, I deemed my experiences as of such a novel 
character and of sufficient general interest to communicate 
them, for the benefit of all who are interested in the mic- 
roscopic study of Mineralogy. 

During a collateral study of a pseudo-meteoriciron. I 
was enabled to make some interesting studies of both 
black and white diamond, by fracturing, and by polariz- 
ation, andotherwise, the results of which study present 
much of microscopic interest, not hitherto published ‘in 
our Journals devoted to microscopic science; and in con- 
nection with the subject of rock study, I might relate 
that while in Amsterdam, Holland, in the summer of 
1887, I paida flurin for ahalf carat of diamond dust, while 
visiting the largest diamond cutting house in that city. 
The proprietor also brought me a 62 carat diamond just 
finished by them and laughingly remarked that he would 
sell it to Mr. Gould of the U. 8., when I pleasantly re- 
torted, that we called him “Jay Gould.” I carried the 
sample of diamond dust in my pocket book for five years 
expecting to be able to use it at some future time and 
finally, when I became actively engaged in the study of 
the structure of the real diamond, the long preserved 
diamond dust could not be found, but with ‘‘Silicon Car- 
bide” available everywhere, diamond dust will not possess 
the same interest as itformerly did for abrading or cut- 
ting purposes. 

In conclusion, the requisites for the analytical adapta- 
tion of the facts already enlarged upon herein, are rela- 
tively few and inexpensive, as a fragment of a common 
half inch thick emery wheel, having a surface allowing 
an oval sweep of five or six inches, a few pieces of com- 


304 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Sept. 


mon ground glass, some of the “Carbon dust” to be 
secured direct from any trimmers of globe are lights in 
any town where the arc system is used, The minerals to 
be studied are surfaced downon the emery slab, with the 
aid of water and the “Carbon dust,” the coarse scratches 
to be removed by gentle rubbing on the same slab, and 
the polish to be given by transferring a little of the pasty 
liquid from the emery slab, to the ground surface of the 
piece of glass; the specimen must then be rubbed with a 
circular or straight motion until the polish comes up on 
the specimen, which takes but afew moments to do. 

Another way to give the finishing polish, is to proceed 
as follows: secure a piece of window glass eight inches 
by ten and pour a considerable quantity of the carbon 
dust on the glass. Spread the same all over the glass; 
next let all of the powder slide off of the glass, and tap 
the glass to detach all that will fall off, it will then be 
observed that there remains an exceedingly fine layer of 
the dust on the glass, which dust must be brushed to- 
gether by a small rollof cloth; this dust when deposited 
on a piece of ground grass or a thin piece of smooth 
sheet iron, is moistened with a drop of water and the - 
mineral to receive the polish is rubbed with circular or 
straight motions until a sufficient polish is attained. 

A point is usually reached in polishing where a sort of 
suction contact is noted, and the moisture disappears, 
when the polishing force is acting best. Should the polish- 
ing film become dry while polishing, breathe once or 
twice on the dry film and the polishing force is revived, 
asa very little moisture seems to be necessary all the time. 
Any person who will make the simplest effort to follow 
the above instructions will have success after an hour’s 
trial and will then have a key to an indefinite amount 
of intellectual and scientific pleasure awaiting him in the 
field of Micro-Mineralogy. 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 305 


From five to ten minutes’ labor will suffice to prepare 
almost any specimen of mineral or metal for inspection 
under any microscope that will admit of a beam of con- 
densed direct light being used between the lens and the 
polished surface, where the specimens are too thick for 
permitting the use of transmitted light. 


A New Species of Tenia. 


Dr. H. B. Ward, University of Nebraska, reports a new 
species of human tape-worm ( Western Medical Review) 
to which he gives:the name Tenia confusa. His descrip- 
tion of the parasite is asfollows: Thus far only two spe- 
cimens of this species have been seen, and both were taken | 
from residents of Lincoln. One of them has been almost 
entirely destroyed in making slides and sections, but the 
other is still nearly entire, and from it were taken the 
general measurements which are given in the following: 
The total length of this specimen must have been about 
500 cm. The terminal proglottids, just ready to be sep- 
arated, are from 5 to 3.5 mm.in width. They are, as 
represented in Fig. 1, of nearly uniform breadth through- 
out their entire length, save that close to the end a prom- 
inent widening is found, to which the subsequent proglot- 
tid is attached. The sexual pores is easily seen, though 
it does not project markedly beyond the margin of the 
segment. One meter anterior to the end of the specimen 
the proglottids measure 15 mm. long and 7.5 mm. wide, 
and a meter further anterior they are just about 9 mm. 
square. In the anterior third of the worm the segments 
are 4.5 mm. long by 3.5mm. wide, and near the anterior 
end 1 to 1.2 mm. long by 0.8 tol mm, wide. In general 
then, it may be said to be much slenderer than Tuenia 
saginata, never attaining the broad form which is so 
striking near the middle of the chain in specimens of this 
latter species. Cross sections show that the new form is 


306 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Sept.. 


much less muscular, and in fact more like Taenia soliwm, 
from which it differs, however, in many evident respects, 
A positive diagnosis of the species may be made from 
these terminal segments alone, by the size and shape, 
which, as the table appended to the article shows, are 
sufficiently unlike corresponding parts in the two famil- 
iar forms of Taenia to be distinguished without great dif- 
ficulty. 

The most striking peculiarity of the new species, how- 
ever, is the head. Unfortunately, this was present only 
in one specimen. The long, very slender neck has no 
region which fails to show the boundary lines of the pro- 


Fic. 1.—Two segments from end of chain. Taenia confusa n. p. Nine-tenths natural size 
(Original.) 

Fie. 2.—Head of Tenia confusa n.sp. Highly magnified, x about 125. 
camera. Leitz Oc. 2, Obj. 5. (Original.) 
glottids. It is crowned by a small head (Fig. 2), which 
measures only 0.3 mm. in diameter. The four suckers 
are distinct, but not prominent, and produce no apparent 
break in the outline of the head. Most striking, however 
even under a lcw power, is the rostellum, which lies 
drawn into a pit at the anterior apex of the head. It is 
thimble-shaped and measures 0.05 mm. wide by 0.07 mm. 


Drawn with Abbe 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 307 


long; it is covered by six or seven rows of minute hooks 
which decrease in size from the apex of the structure to- 
ward the base. Owing to the thickness of the muscular 
mass about the hooks and to their diminutive size, it was 
not possible in the single specimen to determine exactly 
their size and shape. One recognizes, however, without 
difficulty, the clear, highly refractive appearance charac- 
teristic of such chitinous structures. The diminutive size 
of the head led me at first to suspect that it was alto- 
gether lacking in this specimen. It is probable that the 
rostellum, with its mass of hooks, gives a firm hold on 
the intestinal wall of the host, and the parasite may be 
evacuated only with great difficulty. Accurate diagnosis 
and records of methods employed in removing the worm 
are necessary to determine the effect of the ordinary 
remedies on this new species. It is by no means certain 
that it will yield to the same treatment as the well 
known species. 

A table of measurements for the three species of Taenia 
which are found as adults in the human alimentary canal, 
is appended for convenience in diagnosis. The measure- 
ments for the familiar species are taken from Leuckart. 
The specific name confusa is proposed for this new form: 

: T. con- T. sagi- T. so. 


fusa. nata. lium. 
Length of entire specimen... 5m. 4-8m. 2-3 m. 

mm. mm. mm. 
Length of terminal proglottids,.._..... 27-35 18-20 10-12 
Width of terminal proglottids... _... 5-3.5 
Greatest width of chain... 8-9ee WO=13) 7 7-8 
Diameter ot head __..............-...-. ----- see 083 1.5-2 1 
Diameter of suckers... 0.12-0.15 


Typhoid Germs in Ice.—The military officers at Rennes 
(Medical Press and Circular) have recently suffered from 
a typhoid epidemic, which has been traced to the ice which 
was used to cool the champagne at a banquet. The ice 
had been taken from a neighboring river at a point where 
the town sewers empty. 


308 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Sept. 


The Insolubility of Cocaine in Vaseline and Lard. 
By C. EDWARD SAGE, F. ¢. S. 


Being requested to make a 5 per cent. solution of co- 
caine in adepsine oil recently, it was found that the alka- 
loid was scarcely soluble in that liquid except at the 
temperature of a water bath, and even then it took some 
time to dissolve, and on cooling the alkaloid crystallised 
out again. 

The ‘ Extra Pharmacopeeia’ states that cocaine is soluble 
1 in 20 of vaseline, and I have many times prepared such 
an ointment, but the fact that the alkaloid crystallised 
out from adepsine oil when dissolved in it in the same 
proportion suggested the microscopical examination of 
some ‘ vaseline-cocaine”’ 1 in 20, with the result that it 
was found to consist of a mass of minute crystals inter- 
spersed with vaseline. 

The accompanying drawing shows the appearance of a 


thin layer when examined by means of a ¢ in. objective. 


— 
Crystals from ‘‘ Vaseline-Cocaine,” 1 in 20. (1 inch objective.) 

The vaseline used for preparing the ointment showed 
no crystals when examined in the same manner, and a 
chemical examination of the cocaine used showed it to be 
pure. 

An ointment was made of the same strength with lard, 


and directly it was set it was examined microscopically, 
-and showed no signs of any crystals of cocaine, but after 


1896. ] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 309 


standing two hours the alkaloid began to crystallise out 
in well defined crystals. 

A solution in olive oil and one in castor oil was also 
made, and these were found to be perfectly stable. 

From these results it seems that neither vaseline or 
lard is a suitable solvent for the preparation of an oint- 
ment of cocaine, and that the idea that such a preparation 
was better than one containing the hydrochlorate dis- 
solved in a little water and rubbed up with the fat is 
fallacious. —Pharmaceutical Journal. 


EDITORIAL. 


Correspondence with Editors.—Many people wonder 
why editors do not always answer promptly every com- 
munication sent them. Hardly any one but an editor can 
understand why. Itis this. An editor’s mail consists of 
literally thousands of items, all of which are suggestive 
and he would like to respond in almost every instance. 
The only reason he does not is the physical impossibility 
to do so. Many an editor burns midnight oil without even 
then catching up. The piles grow bigger as days go by 
and something gets buried deeper and deeper. If he does 
not know without inquiry what to answer, that constitutes 
an added cause of “‘neglect.”? Few periodicals can afford 
the necessary clerical help for doing up every day’s mail 
as soon as received. 

There are some things which correspondents could do 
to make replies surer. A self-addressed postal card, with 
the question written on it is very likely to get returned at 
once. Enclosing a self-addressed envelope works well if 
what is to be returned in it is printed matter, but if a let- 
ter must be written, that is not so sure because the thing 
to say may be uncertain, when letter and envelope will go 
aside to wait future opportunity to look it up. 

Don’t be sensitive about the business or lack of concil- 
iatory phrases in an editor’s reply. Don’t suspect him of 


310 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Sept. 


concealments or imagine that he feels unkindly. He sim- 
ply lacks time to express to youall these things. 


A Monument to Pasteur.—It has been decided to erect, 
in one of the principal squares in Paris, a monument to 
the memory of Pasteur, and that this shall be done by 
voluntary subscriptions obtained in all civilized nations. 

The Paris committee has therefore authorized the or- 
ganization of a committee for the United States in order to 
give the people an opportunity to assist in erecting this 
tribute of appreciation. This committee for the United’ 
States is as follows: 

Dr. D. E. Salmon, Chairman, Chief of the Bureau of 
Animal Industry. 

Dr. E. A. Schweinitz, Secretary, President of and rep- 
resenting the Chemical Society of Washington, Chief 
Chemist Biochemic Laboratory. 

Dr. G. Brown Goode, Treasurer, Assistant Secretary of 
the Smithsonian Institution, Dr. George M. Sternberg. 
Surgeon General, U.S. Army. 

Dr. J. Rufus Tryon, Surgeon General U.S. Navy. 

Dr. J. Walter Wyman, Surgeon General, U.S. Marine 
Hospital Service. : 

Prof. S. F. Emmons, U. 8. Geological Survey, represent- 
ing the Geological Society. 

Prof. Lester F. Ward, President of and representing 
the Anthropological Society of Washington. 

Dr. William B. French, Representing the Medical So- 
ciety of the District of Columbia. 

Hon. Gardiner G. Hubbard, President of and repre- 
senting the National Geographic Society. 

Mr.C. L. Marlatt, Assistant Entmologist, U. S. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, representing the Entomological 
Society. 

Dr. Ch. Wardell Stiles, Zoologist, U.S. Bureau of Ani- 
mal Industry, representing the Biological Society of Wash- 
ington. 

The members of this committee will be glad to receive 
and transmit any funds that may beraised. They supply 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 311 


subscription blanks, which when filled will be forwarded 
to Paris for preservation. 

Slide Cabinet.—The readers of the JournAL will be glad 
to know that a new slide cabnet has been put on the mar- 
ket by Wagenfuehr & Hillig, 506 Olive Street, St. Louis, 
Mo. We have just received one sample from the makers 
and we find it clean, light and strong and we recommend it, 
for itis cheap. This cabinet containing twenty trays of 
six slides each is sent on receipt of eighty cents, to any 
part of the country. 

American Microscopical Society.—The nineteenth an- 
nual meeting of the American Microscopical Society was 
held at Pittsburg, on August 18, 19, 20, 1896, under the 
presidency of A. C. Mercer, of Syracuse. Anaddress of 
welcome was delivered by Dr. W. J. Holland, chancellor 
of the Western University. Among the papers read were 
the following: ‘‘Comparative Histology,’”’ by Prof. Edith 
J. Claypole; “Courses in Histology and Methods of Con- 
ducting Them,” by Prof. S. H. Gage, of Ithaca: ‘“‘Photo- 
micrography by the Use of an Ordinary Objective Prac- 
tically Considered, with Specimens of Work,’ by Thomas 
J. Bray, of Warren, O. ‘‘On Astronomical Pholographs, 
with Photomicrographic Apparatus,’? showing pictures 
of a partial eclipse of the sun taken cn an eight-inch focus, 
by President Mereer: ‘The Antivivisection Bill,’ by 
Pierre A. Fish, of Chicago; ‘““The Acetylene Lights as Ap- 
plied to Photomicroscopy,” by William H. Walmsley, of 
Chicago: ‘‘What is the Best Method of Teaching Micro- 
Science in Medical Schools? by Dr. Vida A. Latham, of 
Chicago; ‘“The Structure of the Teeth and Spines of Some 
Fossil Fishes, Mazada and Ctena Canthus,”’ by Prof. E. 
W. Claypole, of Akron, O.; ‘“The Development of the 
Brain in Soft-Shell Turtles,”? by Susanna Phelps Gage, of 
Ithaca, N. Y.; ‘The Rotifera in Sandusky Bay,’’ by Prof. 
E. W. Claypole, of Akron, and D. S. Kellicott, of Colum- 
bus, O.; “On the Public Water Supply for Small Towns,”’ 
by Dr. M. A. Veeder, of Lyons, N. Y.; ‘“The Requisites 


of a Pure Water Supply,” by Dr. William C. Krauss, of 
Buffalo, N. Y. 


312 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Sept. 


MICROSCOPICAL MANIPULATION. 


On the use of Turpentine in Microscopic Work.—Hay- 
ing lost several carefully prepared specimens of insects 
by using as a final clearing agent the ordinary turpentine 
of the shops, I was led to inquire into the matter, when I 
found that the trade article is notthe turpentine referred 
to in Davis’ ‘‘Practical Microscopy,” p. 415, and Carpen- 
ter’s ‘“The Microscope,”’ pp. 441 and 442 (1891 edition). 
It is the natural balsam which flows from the trees that is 
referred to, and not the distilled extract sold as eae 
or oil of tunpentine. 

The following definition is taken from Cooley’s ‘‘Cyclo- 
pedia of Practical Receipts” (1892 edition), p. 1720 :— 
“Turpentine, Turpentin, Terebinthina—an  oleo-resin 
flowing from the trunk (the bark being removed) of Pinus 
palustris, P. taeda, P. sylvesteris, and various species of 
Pinus and Abies. It is viscid, of the consistence of honey, 
and transparent. By distillation it is resolved into oil of 
turpentine, which passes over into the receiver, and into 
resin, which remains in the still. Bordeaux, or French, 
turpentine is from P. maritima. Chian turpentine is from 
P. terebinthus. It is pale, aromatic, fragrant, and has a 
warm taste devoid of bitterness. It is much adulterated, 
and a fictitious article is very generally sold forit. Venice 
turpentine is the liquid resinous exudation from the Abies 
larix. It is sweeterand less resinous tasted than common 
turpentine, but is now scarcely ever met with in trade. 
That of the shops is wholly a fictitious article.” 

In Carpenter, p. 442 (1891 edition), it is stated that the 
natural balsam has a peculiar power of rendering the chit- 
inous textures of insects transparent.— Victorian Naturalist. 


Counting Blood-Corpuscles.—Dr. Judson Daland, of 
Philadelphia, has invented an instrument for counting 
blood-corpuscles, which works on the centrifugal-force 
principle, and accomplishes the measurement by means of 
comparative bulks. A quantity of blood is placed in a 
finely graduated tube and the latter revolved at a speed of 


1396. ] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 313 


about 1,000 revolutionsa minute. The corpuscles divide 
by force of gravity, and form on the sides of the tube in 
easily traceable divisions of red corpuscles, white corpus- 
cles and serum. ‘The new method permits of larger, and, 
consequently, more representative quantitive examinations 
being used in experimenting, besides doing away with 
actual microscopic counting.—(Physician and Surgeon.) 


BACTERIOLOGY. 


Bacteria of the Vagina.—Dr. Chas. Jewett has been 
studying the bacteria of the vagina in the newly born, and 
summarizes his conclusions as follows :— 

1. The vagina remains sterile for at least two hours 
after birth. From this time until the third day micro- 
organisms may or may not be detected; the number of 
cases where bacteria are found, gradually increases as 
time goes on, and the bacteria-free secretions diminish. 
After the third day micro-organisms are always present 
in the secretion of the vagina. 

2. Pathogenic organisms are relatively frequent; sta- 
phylococcus pyogenes albus and aureus are observed in 
four per cent. of the cases; streptococci, in 14.6 per cent. 
of the cases.—Modern Medicine. 


Antitoxic Serum in Small-pox.—M. and A. Beclere re- 
cently communicated to the Academy of Medicine, Paris, 
the result of observations made by them, which indicate the 
probability that they have discovered a means of treating 
small-pox by anantitoxic serum with the same degree of 
success that has attended the treatment of diphtheria. 
The serum is obtained from the blood of vaccinated ani- 
mals, and is used in the same manner as the antitoxic se- 
rum which is employed in the treatment of diphtheria. 


Bacteriological Etiology of the Different Forms of 
Acute Conjunctivitis.—This exhaustive article is of in- 
terest as giving a fair indication of our present knowl- 
of the subject. 


314 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Sept. 


Taking the various forms of conjunctivitis seriatim, 
they start as follows: 

1. Acute contagious conjunctivitisof the catarrhal type 
—A very small specific bacillus has been found, which was 
discovered by Koch in Egypt and Weeks of America. 

This disease is quite distinct from the simple catarrhal 
non-infectious conjunctivitis. 

2. Gonorrhoeic form—The presence of the gonococcus 
is the characteristic. 

3. Diphtheritic form—True diphtheria bacillus pres- 
ent, and its presence is main diagnostic point to distin- 
guish it from the pseudo membranous form of conjunctiv- 
its. Again it is only inthe true form that the anti-diph- 
theritic serum acts. 

3. Paralysis of the superior oblique, following aural 
suppuration has been reported by Moos. 

4. Gelle reports unilateral pupillary disturbance from 
irritation in the outer and middle ear. Mydriasis (temp- 
orary), following operation on ear, aural inflammation, and 
also from rarefaction or condensation of air in an ear with 
intact membrana tympani. 


Hereditary Tuberculosis.—Bolognesi (These de Doct., 
Paris) has examined for tubercle bacilli the placentae 
from thirteen tubercular women, and in several cases 
the organs of the fetus. Once tubercle bacilli were found 
inthe blood of the mother. In eight cases where the 
fetus was born dead, or died ina short time, the organs 
were examined histologically and by inoculation of ani- 
mals for tubercle bacilli. One hundred and nineteen 
gvuinea-pigs were inoculated with the various materials, 
and also eleven rabbits. Of these, two guinea-pigs inocu- 
lated with a placenta from one case died. From these re- 
sults, together with the experience of former workers, 
the author concludes that the inheritance of tuberculosis 
from the side of the mother is usually a disposition (‘‘heredo- 
predisposition’), while the direct transfer of the bacilli 
(‘‘heredo-contagion”’?) occurs but rarely. This latter may 
take place (1) if there is miliary tuberculosis of the mother, 


1896. ] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 315 


with tubercle bacilli in the blood ; (2) if there is placental 
tuberculosis which has produced such lesions that the 
passage of the bacilli is no more prevented ; (3) if there is 
uterine tuberculosis which favors the occurence of placen- 
tal tuberculosis; (4) if the amniotic fluid contains bacilli 
and be swallowed by the fetus.—Medcine. 


Landry’s Paralysis.—Dr. Pierre Marie (La France 
Med.) communicated the observation of a young groom 
who died with typical symptoms of Landry’s acute ascend- 
ing paralysis. The autopsy revealed a hemorragic soften- 
ing of the gray substance in the anterior horns. ‘There- 
fore, the lesion was central, and not peripheral, as main- 
tained by certain authors. Microbes were found, and in 
the cervical and dorsal region they were present in almost 
pure cultures. Artificial cultures were not made, but, 
morphologically, the microbe resembled the bacillus an- 
thracis. | 


Diagnosing Typhoid Bacilli.—Lazarus has a made a 
clinical test of Elsner’s method of diagnosing typhoid 
bacilli. He adds one per cent. of potassium iodide to 
Holz’s acidulated potato-gelatin. Upon this medium the 
bacterium co# develops rapidly, forming at the end of forty- 
eight hours coarsely granular brown colonies. The typhoid 
bacillus, on the other hand, grows more slowly; the colo- 
nies at the end of forty-eight hours appearing like small, 
elistening drops of water with very minute granulations. 

The stools of five patients with typhoid gave positive 
results during the first, second and third weeks of the 
disease. After the subsidence of fever, bacilli were occa- 
sionally found, in one case as late as forty-one days after 
defervescence. Repeated examinations are necessary, as 
negative results were shown at times to be false by posi- 
tive findings at a second examination. In one case of 
typhoid, where remittent fever persisted, the bacilli were 
found in the stools even up to the ninth week, Negative 
results were always obtained in patients suffering from 
non-ty phoidal disease of the intestines.—Mediane. 


316 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Sept. 


MEDICAL MICROSCOPY. 


Examination of the Urine.—I know from personal ex- 
perience that fully ninety per cent. of the physicians in 
general practice with whom Iam acquainted either do not 
know how to examine urine or do not doso. Ihave been 
told by men old in the profession that they never looked 
through a microscope. For these there is the excuse of 
lack of educationin the useof the microscope, butthereis not 
the shadow of an excuse for the young man who once told 
me that he had graduated six years before and found it 
unnecessary to use his microscope in general practice.— 
University Medical Magazine. 


The Blood in General Paralysis.—Dr. Joseph A. Capps 
summarizes his researches as follows: In general paraly- 
sis, 1, the hemoglobin and red corpuscles are always di- 
minished: 2, the specific gravity falls slightly below the 
normal; 3, most cases show a slight leucocytosis, amount- 
ing on anaverage to about 22 per cent. above the normal. 
Early cases may have no leucocytosis whatever. 4,in the 
differential count a decrease is found in the lymphocytes 
along with a marked increase in the large mononuclear 
cells.. The eosinophiles ina few cases are very numer- 
ous. In convulsions and apoplectiform attacks, 1, The 
red corpuscles and hemoglobin are usually increased at 
the time of aconvulsion. During an apoplectic attack of 
long durationtheyare bothsomewhat diminished. 2, thespe- 
cific gravity is variable, sometimes increasing, sometimes 
diminishing at the time of an attack; 3, there is a leucocy- 
tosis after convulsion and apoplectic attacks, which is as 
sudden as it is usually pronounced. It certainly does not 
appear until within a very short time preceding the con- 
vulsion, probably not before it actually takes place; 4, the 
degree of leucocytosis and the period of its continuance, as 
a rule, vary directly with the length and severity of the 
attack; 5, in the production of the leucocytosis the large 
mononuclear cells are increased relatively more than any 
other variety; 6, the fact after convulsions and apoplectic 


1896. ] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL BI 


attacks in general paralysis there is not only an increase 
in the number of white cells but a change in their charac- 
ter, as shown by the differential count, and at times abnor- 
mal cells appear, is an argument against the theory that 
leucocytosis is merely a change inthe distribution of the 
white corpuscles.—The Am. Jour. of Medical Science. 


Filariae in the Blood.—At a meeting of the Practi- 
tioners’ Society, of New York, Dr. F. P. Henry, of Phila- 
delphia, related the case, which occurred in a female, aged 
twenty-nine, who in early life had lived in South Carolina 
and Florida and had never been outside the United States 
(Med. Rec.). It was, therefore, an indigenous case, the 
first one in Philadelphia; the infection had probably oc- 
curred about the age of twelve; the chyluria first mant- 
fested itself shortly after normal labor. ‘The filariz were 
present in the blood of the mother alone, not inthe milk, 
nor in the blood of the infant. They were not very num- 
erous, and were present at night only. The urine was re- 
peatedly examined, but only once contained filariz. These 
showed remarkable vitality under cold and heat, and one 
specimen under the cover glass showed movements after 
ten days. 

Regarding treatment, Dr. Henry said that thymol and 
quinine had no effect on the disease. The same was true 
of methylene blue, which has been reported of value in one 
case by Flint. In this regard his observation was in ac- 
cord with that of Lavaran. 

Dr. Henry referred to Manton’s writings, wherein it is 
stated that the embryo came from an adult parasite over 
an inch long, located perhaps in the thoracic duct; that 
the mosquito became infected and alighted on water, and 
that it was by drinking the infected water that man be- 
came infected. There were three forms—the diurnal, the 
nocturnal, and the persistent. 

Dr. Henry thought it possible for this affection to be- 
come indigenous to Philadelphia and other sections of our 
country, although the likelihood of so large a body of water 
as the Schuylkill containing a sufficient number of the par- 


318 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Sept. 


asites to infect many of those who drank of it was not 
great. Asa precaution the water could be filtered. The 
author thought it would be undesirable, if practicable, to 
kill the mother parasite in the patient’s system, as this 
would result in fatal abscess. 

Dr. Andrew H. Smith, of New York, mentioned a case 
in which the filariz were found in the blood both day and 
night, but they were always dead. 

Dr. Henry could offer no reason why the filariae should 
have been dead unless compressed under the cover glass. 


Plasmodia Malaria.—Plasmodium malarial was first 
discovered by Leveson, a French army surgeon, in 1880, 
and after him Morcheafava, Celli, Golgi, Guarnieri, and 
of America Councilman and Osler. They are most in uni- 
son in their belief that a peculiar micro-organism is in the 
blood in nearly all cases of malaria, and only peculiar to 
that disease. 

The writer made his first attempt less than two years 
ago to properly prepare a specimen for examination. I 
met with failure in the start, but was rewarded in the end 
by finding exactly what my superiors had intended to 
teach me, sol endeavor to furnish the readers with my 
method of procedure. 

According to my own experiments, and others, the 
proper time to obtain the blood is about one hour after 
temperature begins to rise. However, very beneficial 
forms may be obtained after about four hours, but it seems 
that the plasmodia are most plentiful when the tempera- 
ture begins to rise. 

After thoroughly cleaning the finger tip, the blood is with- 
drawn by a small lancet or, better still, a surgeon’s needle, 
which of course should be sterile. The first drop should 
be smeared with the needle over finger, which forms a se- 
rum coat and a very small drop is then brought in contact 
with the center of a slip which has been previously closed 
in strong sulphuric acid for two hours. Wash in flowing 
water one hour or more, then place the slips in glacial 
acetic acid for at least anhour. Washin water as before 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 319 


and place in 95 per cent of alcohol, after which they may 
be dried with a linen handkerchief which is well worn, but 
perfectly clean, or an old silk handkerchief answers the 
purpose well. Slides should be kept inadust proof recep- 
tacle and cover glasses should be treated the same as slips. 

Immediately after placing small drop of blood on slip, 
which is held in the left hand with your right hand, bring 
the edge of another slip in contact rather gently, but firm 
enough to spread the fresh blood thin enough so each indi- 
vidual capusle can be seen distinctly. Witha little prac- 
tice this can be very nicely done from the time of transfer 
of blood to slide, and spreading should be quite short, as 
evaporation rather interferes with the process. 

Fix the specimen with a solution composed of absolute 
alcohol one ounce; ether three ounces. Do not rinse, but 
stain with 1 per cent eosine in 60 per cent. alcohol for fifty 
seconds toone minute. Wash gently with clean water 
and dry with, or rather between, bibulous paper. If you 
care to counter-stain, Loeffler’s alkaline methyl blue will 
serve the purpose, or any of the aniline dyes will do, but 
not so clearly stain. The specimen should be now gently 
washed, dried and examined in water. If worthy of pre- 
servation dehydrate with alcohol, then dry as before and 
mount in balsam. 

The plasmodia will be stained blue if Loeffler’s alkaline 
methyl blue is used, and the pigment willappear as rather 
a brown, while the red blood corpuscle itself appears quite 
red. 

The only required apparatus is an ordinary microscope 
with a 1-12 immersion lens, or, in case you have a low- 
power objective, very satisfactory results may be obtained 
by usinga high eye piece. Iusea No. 3and 4 eye piece, 
with % inch objective and an Abbe condenser.—Langsdale’s 
Lancet. 

Serum Injection in Acute Rheumatism.—Weiss (Cen- 
tral. f. inn. Med.) observes that it has been proved that 
blood serum taken from individuals convalescent froma 
disease is able to protect animals against the infection in 


320 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY (Sept. 


question. ‘This principle has already been applied to in- 
fluence or cut short disease in man, ‘The author has thus 
treated 10 cases in Drasche’s clinic, the serum being ob- 
tained from patients who had just passed through an attack 
of rheumatic fever. Nospecific curative action could be 
proved to exist, although in some cases after two or three 
injections the disease ended inan unusually short time. 
In the 10 cases 22 injections were given, and on 9 occasions 
a favorable effect was noted both as regards swelling in 
the joints and pain. In 6 cases no result was visible, and 
in another 3 an apparent increase in the disease occurred. 
A fall of temperature through 1 to1™% degrees C. occurred 
with sweating in those cases influenced by the treatment, 
whereas, where no effect was visible, no fall of tempera- 
ture occurred. Sixto 10grammes of the serum were used 
on an average, 18 to 20 grammes being employed in 2 cases. 
In 1 case, in whichan exacerbation of the disease occurred 
after the injection, a subacute attack developed into an 
acute polyarthritis. With so few cases no conclusions 
can be drawn, but even in caseg wherea beneficial effect 
was obtained the inflammatory symptons reappeared later. 
In 2 cases the author injected albumoses, three injections 
of somatose being given in one case, and two in another, 
with positive results, but here again the effect was a pass- 
ing one. In these injections two results may be obtained: 

1. A specific one. 

2. A general action upon the whole individual. 

The author thinks that the latter occurred in his cases ; 
naturally, the joints being a place of least resistance were 
most affected. 


MICROSCOPICAL NOTES. 

French Method of Purifying Water.—The French 
Academy of Sciences appears to endorse the new method 
of purifying water by permanganate of lime and bioxide 
of manganese. According to this method the permanga- 
nate of lime, coming in contact with organic matter and 
micro-organisms, destroys them and decomposes itself in- 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. a21 


to oxygen, oxide of manganeseand lime. ‘Then, to carry 
off the surplus of permanganate and complete the purifi- 
cation, the water is poured over bioxide of manganese; 
oxygen in the nascent state isthus freed and it burns up 
any remaining germs. ‘There remains in the apparatus, 
then, inferior oxides of manganese, which hasten to reoxi- 
dize themselves and furnish again a certain quantity of 
bioxide of manganese ; the water, as thus finally purified, 
contains a little lime in the form of a bicarbonate and 
traces of oxygenated water. A very small quantity of 
permanganate of lime is used in this process, and, if prac- 
ticable ona large scale, is of great importance. Water 
having 100,000 colonies of microbes can thus be purified, 
it is stated, and ice placed in water with permanganate of 
lime is also quickly sterlized.—Sanitarian. 


Enzym in Malt.—Linter observed that dextrose was 
formed by the action of malt extract or precipitated dias- 
tase on starch. As Morris has denied the presence of glu- 
cose in malt, the author undertook an investigation to de- 
termine the presence of a dextrose-forming enzym in malt 
and the conditions under which it acts. The results were 
as follows: 

(1) Malt contains dextrose, sucrose, probably levulose, 
but no maltose. 

(2) The absolute and ralative amounts of dextrose and 
sucrose are very variable. 

(5) In malt extracts (prepared at 15 degrees and 55 de- 
grees) no ferment which inverts sucrose was found. 

(4) Malt contains a dextrose-forming ferment which 
seems to act most energetically at55 degrees. 

(5) Roasting changes the reducing sugars in malt to 
products having asmaller reducing power.— Experiment Sta- 
tion Record. 


On the Enzyma of Some Yeasts.—The bottom yeasts 
(type Frohberg and Saag) contain an enzym which breaks 
up melibiose while the surface yeasts of the same type 
have noappreciable action. As the latter contains consid- 
erable invertin, this result was a direct contradiction of 


322 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Sept. 


Scheibler and Nittelmaier’s statement that melibiose is 
completely split up by the continued action of invertin. 
The experiments were therefore repeated, and it was 
found that even large amounts of very active invertin had 
no action on melibiose.—Fxperiment Station Record. 


REGEN DP RUB LT CA TOiNast. 


The Primary Factors of Organic Evolution, By E. D. 
Cope, Ph. D.—The present book is an attempt to select 
from the mass of facts accumulated by biologists, those 
which, in the author’s opinion, throw a clear light on the 
problem of organic evolution, and especially that of the 
animal kingdom. As the actual lines of descent can be fin- 
ally demonstrated chiefly from paleontologic research he 
has drawn a large part of the evidence from this source. 
Of course, the restriction imposed by limited space has 
compelled the omission of a great many facts which have 
an important bearing on the problem. He has preferred 
the paleontologic evidence for another reason. Darwin 
and the writers of his immediate school have drawn most 
of their evidence from facts which are embraced in the 
science of cecology. Weismann and writers of his type 
draw most of their evidence from the science of embryol- - 
ogy. ‘The mass of facts recently brought to light in the 
field of paleontology, especially in the United States, re- 
mained to be presented, and the evidence they contain in- 
terwoven with that derived from the sources mentioned. 
If the present work has any merit, it is derived from the 
fact that the basis of the argument is the paleontologic 
record. 


An Illustrated Flora.—Chas. Scribner’s sons, New 
York, have just published the Illustrated Flora of the 
Northern States and Canada, westward to the 102d meri- 
dian, including Kansas and Nebraska, by Prof. N. L. Brit- 
ton of Columbia University, N. Y., and Hon. Addison 
Brown, with the assistance of specialists in various groups. 
Volume 1, neatly bound in cloth, containing 612 pages. 
Royal 8 Vo. illustrated with 1425 uncolored figured 
species is sold for $3.00. Vols II and III completing the 
work will appear during 1897. 


i ; Bis, 


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aie 


FIGURE 1. 


Mytilaspis pomorum or Oyster Shell Bark Louse: a, female scale from below showing eggs; b, 
same form above greatly enlarged; c, female scales; d, male scale-enlarged; e, male scales on 
twig—natural size. 


THE AMERICAN 


MONTHLY 


MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 


Voy. XVIII. 


OCTOBER, 1806. No. 10 
The San Jose Scale. 
By CHRYSANTHEMUM. 
WITH FRONTISPIECE. 


This scale, which is now being distributed over widely 
separated sections of the United States, was first noticed 
in San Jose in 1893 and named “ Aspidiotus pernicious.” 
Instead of being oblong, like most of our native scales it 
is in general appearance nearly round and flat, of a dirty 
gray color, with a black spot in the center. If the scales 
are lifted with a knife the insect itself, if alive, will be 
seen as a yellow speck, if dead it is usually brown. in 
color. It is about one-eighth inch in diameter and when 
numerous give the tree the appearance of having been 
washed with lime and soot. 

The hfe of this insect, with the exception of a few 
hours of active larval existence, and an equally brief 
winged existence in the mature male, is passed under the 
protection of a waxy scale and under this they spend the 
winter. Early in April the males emerge, and by the 
middle of May the over wintered females mature and be- 
gin to give birth to living young. In this respect they 
differ from most other scale insects. With the Oyster 
Shell Bark Louse, if oneof the scales be lifted, the shrive- 
led body of the mother will be found in the more pointed 
portion of the scale while the remainder will be filled with 
eggs (figs. 1 and 2). This is also the case with the Scurfy 
Bark Louse (figs. 3 aad 4), Notice also the difference in the 
shape of the scales in each insect. Ordinarily eggs 


324 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Oct. 


are deposited beneath the scale, which in time hatch, 
and the young larve make their escape and migrate 
to different parts of the plant. In tbe San Jose 
scale the eggs are fairly well formed, a few at a time, in 
the body of the mother (fig. 8). What takes the place of 
the egg shell consists of a very delicate and thin mem- 
brane—the amnion, which encloses the developing larve 
and which at the time of birth is cast off, and remains at- 


FIGURE 2. 


Mytilaspis pomorum: a,adult male ; b, foot of same; c, young larva; d, antenne of same ; e, 
adult female taken from scale ;—a, c,e, greatly eularged ; b, d, still more enlarged. 


tached to or partly within the oviduct. The amnion is 
probably pushed out by the next larvain turn. Hach fe- 
male gives birth to from 9 to 10 larve in twenty four 
hours and as this extends over a period of six weeks it 
leads to a very confusing intermingling of generations 
and renders it difficult to make observations, but by iso- 


1896.] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 325 


lating individuals the development has been most care- 
fully traced. 

After being expelled, the larva remains motionless for 
a little while, with antenne and legs folded beneath the 
_body. It soon hardens enough to run about, and fore- 
ing its way from the parent scale, it travels over the 
plant to find a suitable place to settle. The newly born 
larva (fig. 6.) is a microscopic creature of pale orange 
color with long oval body havingsix legs and two feel- 
ers. The long thread-like probosis with which it sucks 
the juices of plants is doubled on itself and lies in a cav- 
ity in the body, only a tip projecting. 

After crawling about for a few hours the larva settles 


FIGURE 3. 


Chionaspis furfurus or Scurfy Bark Louse: a, c, females ; b, d, males—a, b, natural size; c, d, 
enlarged. 


down and slowly works its long bristle-like sucking beak 
through the bark, folds its legs and antenne beneath its 
body and contracts toa nearly circular form. The se- 
cretion which forms the scale now begins to exude from 
all parts of the body in the form of very minute white 
fibrous waxy filaments (fig. 6) which rapidly become more 
numerous and dense. At first the orange color shows 
through this waxy covering, but within two days’ time 


326 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Oct. 


the insect is entirely concealed by the scale, which is 
now agrayish yeilow color and has a central nipple or 
tuft. The scale is formed by the slow melting together 
of the filaments of wax. As the scale grows older it 
turns darker, the central nipple remaining light until 
fully developed. 

The male and female scales are exactly alike in size, 


PST in 


Shy DD, 
= ON 


FIGURE 4. 


Chionaspis furfurus: Adult male from above; b, foot; h, tip of antenne of same; c, larva; d, 
antenne ; e, leg of same; f, pupa; g, adult female removed from scale—all enlarged ; b, d, ©, h, 
much more than the others. 


color and shape until after the first molt, which occur 
twelve days after the larva emerges. They now lose all 
resemblance to each other. The males are rather larger 
than the females, and have large purple eyes, while the 
females have lost their eyes entirely. The legsand an- 
tenne have disappeared in both sexes. The males are 
elongate and pyriform, while the females are almost cir- 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 397 


cular, amounting practically to a flattened sac with indis- 
tinct segmentation, and without organs, except a long 
sucking bristle springing from near the center beneath. 
The color of both sexesis light lemon vellow. The scales 
are at this time of a decidedly grayish tint, overcast some- 
what with yellow. 

Eighteen days from birth the males change to the first 
pupal condition, the scales becoming an elongate oval, 
the cast larval skin showing near the anterior end. The 
male pro-pupe are very pale yellow, with legs and an- 
tennex (which have reappeared) together with two of the 
terminal segments, colorless. The eyes are dark purple 


FIGURE 5. 


Aspidiotus pernicious: Development of male insect ; a, ventral view of larva after first malt; 
b, same, after second or pro-pupa stage ; c and d true pupa, ventral and dorsal views . 


and placed close together. The antenne are stout and 
bent closely along the side of the body as far as the first 
pair of legs where they curve inward. Prominent wing 
pads extend along the sides of the body, the terminal 
segment bears two short spines (fig. 5). 

The female undergoes a second molt about twenty 
days from the larva. She is still yellow in color, of cir- 
cular form, the greatest diameter being 0.56 mm. The 
sucking bristles are very prominent. The last segment 
at this stage has practically the characters of the mature 
female, as follows (fig. 8): There are two pairs of 
lobes, the terminal ones largest and nearly three times as 


328 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY (Oct. 


broad as the other lobes. Terminal lobes are rounded 
at the apex and are distinctly notched near the middle of 
the external edge. The second pair of lobes is smaller 
and narrower and is also notched externally. Between 
the first and second lobe on either side is a small spine 
and two or three such spines are just back of the second 
lobe, while back of these are three stout teeth, curving 
anteriorly (fig. 8,d.) Astillsmaller blunt tooth sometimes 
occurs near the middleof the lateral margin. The segmen- 
tation of the body at this stage is quite distinct. At each 


FIGURE 6. 


Aspidiotus pernicious or San Jose Scale: Young larva and developing scale a, ventral view of 
larva, showing sucking beak with seta separated, with enlarged tarsal claw at right; b, dorsal 
view of same, somewhat contracted, with the first waxy filaments appearing; c, dorsal and lat- 
eral views of the same, still more contracted, illustrating still further development of wax secre- 
tion; d, later stage of the same, dorsal and lateral views of the same, showing matting of wax 
secretions and first form of young scale—all greatly enlarged. 


molt the old skin splits around the edge of the body, the 
upper half adhering to the covering scale and the lower 
forming a sort of ventral scale next to the bark. This 
form of molting is common to scales of this kind. 

At this stage the male scales are more yellowish than 
the females. The effect of the sucking of the insects is 
now quite apparent on the young growth, causing the 
bark to assume a purplish hue for some distance around 


1896] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 329 


the central portion, contrasting strongly with the natural 
reddish green of the uninjured bark. With the second 
molt the females do not change materially. They retain 
their yellow color. The sucking bristles are extremely 
long, two or three times the length of the insect’s body. 

About twenty days from birth the male insect trans- 
forms to the true pupa (fig. 5, c.d.) The true pupa is pale 
yellow, sometimes purplish, darkest about the base of the 
abdomen. The head, antennex, legs, wing pads and style 
are well formed, but almost colorless. The antenne reach 
as far back asthe second pair of legs and are not curved 
under, as formerly, but lie close to the sides of the body 


FIGURE 7. 


Aspidiotus pernicious: Adult male. 


with the ends free. The first pair of legs are held for- 
ward, reaching slightly beyond the eyes, the middle fem- 
ora projecting somewhat beyond the margin of the abdo- 
men. The hind legs are inclined backward and reach to 
the end of the body. The style is rounded at tip, conical 
and about as long as the posterior tibie. 

At twenty-four to twenty-six days from birth, the male 
matures and backs out from the rear end of its scale. 
They issue chiefly at night. The mature male (fig. 7) 
appears as a delicate two-winged fly with long feelers and 
a single style projecting from the end of the body. The 


330 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Oct. 


head is darker than the rest of the body, the eyes are 
dark purple, and the antenna, legs, and style are smoky. 
The wings are irridescent with yellow and green. 

Thirty days from birth the females are full grown and 
the young may be seen within their bodies, (fig. 8) each en- 
closed inathinmembrane. At from thirty-three to forty 
days the young begin to make their appearance at Wash- 
ington, D. C., four full generations being developed in a 


"ll 


Nyy 


ML 


‘il 
My 


FIGURE 8. 


Aspidiotus pernicious. e, adult female removed from scale, showing embryonic young; d 
anal plate. 


single summer. It will be seen that they are very pro- 
lific, a female, it has been estimated, sometimes has as 
many as 3,216,080,400 descendants in a season, and a 
single female gives birth to from forty to five hundred 
and eighty-six in a life-time. We are indebted to the 
kindness of Mr. L. O. Howard, U. S. Department of Ag- 
riculture, Division of Entomology for facts contained in 


this article. 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 331 


The American Blood Test For Cattle Tuberculosis. 
By EPHRAIM CUTTER, M. D., LL. D., 
NEW YORK. : 
1. THE APPEARANCES OF BLOOD IN HEALTHY CATTLE. 


Oxford Co., Maine, is a dairy farm. The inhabitants 
are pure English blood, indeed purer English than those 
living in Great Britain. 

Intelligent care watches over the kine of Oxford Co., 
Me. Hence this locality was selected as giving the best 
standard of kine fed on natural, not artificially prepared 
foods, living in pastures well watered, with good herb- 
age. The following notes are submitted, of examinations 
of blood supposed healthy. 


SERIES I. 


Buckfield, Me., kine of Mr. Conant, 1895, July 31. 
Assistance of Dr. J. F. De Costa, now of Rumford Falls, 
Me., and Mr. Conant. 

1 Stall fed bull. (a) Crenated red corpuscles. (b) 
Serum in excess. (c) Crystals of the triple phosphate of 
ammonia, magnesia and soda. (d) No signs of tubercu- 
losis. 

a and 6 were due to the mode of collecting the blood, 
punctures not quite deep enough. The extraordinary 
thick fibrous structure of the bull’s skin, with a puncture 
entirely sufficient for the average human being, merely 
allowed the serum to filter through with a moiety of the 
red and white corpuscles. It is possible that kine have 
more sensitive skins than most are aware of, as I have 
noticed that some kine cringe when approached by un- 
known persons. In these studies I have sought to modify 
this bovine fear by having those herdsman, present whom 
the cattle know. 

2 One year old Jersey bull, grass fed. Healthy blood. 

3 Cow common breed, Twosamples examined. Mor- 


332 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Oct. 


phology of healthy blood save triple phosphate crystals 
in each sample. 
4 Cow. Healthy blood. 
5 Cow. 5 i 
6 Cow eight years old, normal, some free oil globules 
and crystals. 
7 Cow. Only serum could be had from first specimen. 
With deeper perforation the second specimen was normal. 
8 Cow eleven years old. Normal save crystals and 
emboli of massive fibrin filaments concreted. 
9 Full blood Jersey cow, six years old. Normal save 
crystals. 
10 Cow three years old, (common breed.) Normal. 
11 Cow seven years old. Normal. 
12 Cow ten years old. Normal save crystals. 
13 Cow two years old. Normal. 
14 Cow three years old. Normal. 
15 Cow seven years old. Full blood Jersey, normal. 


SERIES II. 


Mr. William Berry’s herd. Hebron, Me. 

1, 2,3, 4. Cows common breed. Normal. 

5 Cow nine years old. No tuberculosis, Crystals 
and huddling of red corpuscles. Rheumatism. 

6 Cow nine years old. After removing scarificator 
blood came in drops; unusual thing in kine. Thrombi, 
crystals, huddling of red corpuscles. Rheumatism, not 
tuberculous. 

7 Cow five years old. Normal. 

8 Cow four years old. Normal. 

9 Cow four years old. Blood has a tendency to huddle 
—non-tuberculous. 

10 Cow eight years old. Normal. 

11 Cow eight years old. Thrombus, crystals, huddling 
blood. Rheumatism. No tuberculosis. 

12 Cow four years old. Serum in excess. Normal. 


13896. |] MICROSSCPICAL JOURNAL. 300 


13 Cow six years old. Blood corpuscles huddle as in 
rheumatism. Non-tuberculous. 

14 Cow ten years old. Blood normal. 

15 Cow four years old. Blood normal save crystals. 

16 Aug. 7, 1895. Heifer two years old. Same vinegar 
yeast and crystals. Tuberculous. 

7 Cow. Free oil and crystals in blood, no tuberculosis. 
18 Cow. Normal blood. 

19 Cow. Normal blood. , 

20 Cow nine years old. Blood contains masses of fat 
resembling thrombi, otherwise normal. 

21 Cow nine years old. Blood normal. 

22 Cow eight years old. Blood normal. 

23 Cow eight years old. Blood normal. 

24 Cow nine years old. Blood normal. 

25 Cow nine years old. Blood normal. 

26 Cow nine years old. Blood normal. 


SERIES III. 


Herd of Mr. A. B. Parker, Green, Me., Aug. 5, 1895. 

1 One year old heifer. Blood normal save crystals. 

2 Cow nine years old. Triple phosphates, crystals, 
enlarged white blood corpuscles. Thrombi several. Non- 
tuberculous. Asthmatic three months ago. 

3 Cow four years old, thoroughbred Jersey; finely 
normal throughout. 

4 Cow five years old. Normal blood. 

5 Cow four years old. Normal blood. 

6 Bull two years old. Normal blood. 


SERIES IV. 


Hon. Solon Chase’s herd of milch kine. Chace’s Mills, 
Me., Aug. 14, 1895. 
2 ands pe 65. (, 0,9: All normal 
10 Normal save crystals and ridged huddled blood. No 
tubercle. 


334 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Oct, 


SERIES: V. 


Herd of Dana H. & Howard D. Fish, Keene’s Mills, 
Me., Aug. 16, 1895. 

be) 2;'5,°45-5, 6,7, 05, Normal kine, 

9 One single mycoderma aceti or vinegar yeast with 
massive fibrin filaments, red corpuscles normal. Tuber- 
culous. 

Aug. 17. Observation as to No. 9 confirmed. The 
Messrs. Fish said she had been sick and kept on bad 
fodder before they bought her. 

10 Cow. Rheumatic with triple phosphates, crystals 
and massive fibrin filaments, otherwise normal. : 

11 Cow. Normal save oil in blood. 

12 Cow twelve years old. Healthy. 

13 Cow. Healthy. 

14 Cow. Healthy, with some spore collects. 

15 Cow. No tubercles, but rheumatism with automo- 
bile copper colored spores like crypta syphilitica, common 
in man, but thus observed in kine for the first time. 

16S lO): 20h Ali healthy: 

SERIES VI. 

Hon, Z. A. Gilbert, Greene, Me., Aug. 20, 1895. 

Comes 12/203) 4. 56. 7.) Roeumatre. 

Cows 9, 10. Healthy as to tuberculosis. 

SERIES VII. 
Supt. J. H. Conant, Turner, Me., Aug. 20, 1895. 
1 Cow. Healthy blood. 

SERIES VIII. 


Prof. A. H. Bradford, Turner Center, Me., Aug. 22, 
1895. 

1 Cow. Blood normal. 

2 Cow. Probably tuberculous. 

3 Cow. Healthy. 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 335 


4 Cow. Healthy. 
5 Cow. Healthy. 
SERIES IX. 

Herd of F. A. Ricker, Turner Center, Me., Aug. 21, 1895. 

1 Cow examined was thought to be tuberculous, but on 
second examination next day did not appear to be. 
Spores and spore collects of mycoderma aceti were thought 
to be due to intestinal fermentation from constipation as 
in mankind some times. 


Doe a cose Oe te One .NOTIAl: 
SERIES X. 


Herd of Mr. Phillips, Turner Center, Me., Aug. 21,1895. 

1, 2, 3, 4, all normal save in 4, masses of blue and green 
pigment matter were found in the blood, as they are 
found in the blood of man in connection with fatty de- 
generation and rheumatism. They were exactly like 
what is found in the morphology of human blood. 


SERIES XI. 
Heifer owned and kept by Mr. E. B. Terrell, 165th 


street and Mott avenue, New York. [ed on hay, grass 
and grain. Blood proved to be normal. 1895. 


SERIES XII. 


Herd of F. Homer Foster, B. S., Andover, Mass., Jan. 
29, 1891. Morphological blood examination. Query, 
are they tuberculous ? 

No. 1 Cow Minnie. Supposed to have tuberculosis. 
Red corpuscles distinct, crenated, segregate, no nummu- 
lation. White corpuscles; not numerous, much enlarged ; 
nucleus in most. 

Serum. Fibrin filaments not marked. A few spores. 
Decision. Behaviour not tuberculous. 

Remarks. Nov. 7, 1895. This cow found not tuber- 
culous. : 


336 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Oct. 


No. 2. Heifer Felice. Same as No, 1. Considerable 
masses of stellurin. 

Remarks. Same as No, 1. 

No. 3. Cow. Nell of Vale. Same as No. 1 save the 
presence of large rheumatic fibrin filaments. 

Remarks. Same as No. 1. 

No. 4. Cow Princess. Same as No. 1 save that there 
were skeins of fibrin filaments. 

No.5 Cow Buttercup. Normal. 

No.5 Cow Bramble. Normal. 

No. 7 Cow Clover. Masses of vinegar yeast, myco- 
derma aceti. Behaviour of red corpuscles normal. 

Remarks. This cow proved tuberculous. 

No. 8 Bull Thesus. Same as No. 1 save the presence 
of fibrin filaments. 

No. 9 Heifer Kate. Normal except fibrin filaments 
and crystals. Rheumatism. 

No. 10 Heifer Melia. Normal. 

Summary. 116 Kine. 

Tuberculosis was found in four cases; rheumatism in 
twenty-six cases; thrombosis in four cases; signs of 
fatty degeneration, three cases ; blue and green pigments 
same as in fatty and fibroid degeneration in man, one 
case. The object of these examinations was to find out 
how the blood of so-called healthy kine appeared to one 
who had studied the morphology of human blood for 
thirty years. The presence of crystals of stellurine, 
triple phosphates of lime, magnesia and soda, etc., of 
rigid, ropy, sticky, red corpuscles ; of massive fibrin fila- 
ments which are found in thrombosis and embolism; of 
free oil and pigment; was an unexpected surprise. <A 
very interesting, important and practically useful field 
thus is opened for veterinary exploration and study. 
Cattle die suddenly of heart diseases, thrombosis, fatty 
heart, etc. 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 337 


II. THE APPEARANCES OF BLOOD IN TUBERCULOUS CATTLE 
AND TESTS. 

The appearances of blood in kine at Knacher’s yard, 
condemned to die on account of tuberculosis, by the New 
York state commission of Veterinary Surgeons. 

Present Dr. Austin Peters, Mass., Dr. Johnson, New 
York city, Dr. Curtis and by invitation E. Cutter, Green- 
bush, New York, Dec. 16, 1892. 

No. 1 Old bull. Capillary blood from smooth skin be- 
neath the tail, showed spores and spore collects of myco- 
derma aceti or vinegar yeast. Otherwise normal. Pro- 
nounced by me tuberculosis. 

Per Contra. The veterinary gentlemen noted the 
post-mortem appearances in all these cases, and to make 
no mistakes the written results were exchanged with 
mine some two weeks later. 

The following is the veterinary report: ‘No. 1 Bull. 
Tuberculosis of both lungs (extensive) and mediastinal 
lymphatic glands.” 

Remarks. This isa wonderful report; when it is known 
that the bull could not be felled by repeated blows of an 
ax,and with difficulty killed by revolver shots at ranges 
of about an arm’s length. The bull showed a marvelous 
vitality, which would have stood in good avail, had he 
been treated for cure. His difficult death should encour- 
age efforts to cure such cases. Had we such vital resis- 
tance in human cases we could make a better showing. 

-No. 2 Cow. Specimen not well collected, due to the 
thickness of skin, exposure to cold and raw atmosphere, 
shrinking from the fear of the kine in their unwonted 
environments. They acted as if they knew something 
was wrong. They tried to escape and run away. I have 
noticed this condition in other cases, the contractionacting 
like a sieve to restrain the red blood corpuscles and suffer 
the serum to flow only. Still there were found a few 
collections of mycoderma aceti and some masses of colloid. 


338 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [ Oct. 


I called the case pretubercular, i. e., where tuberculosis 
is in the pre-stage, before the lungs are broken down. 

“No. 2 Cow. Tuberculosis of both lungs and medias- 
tinal lymphatics, but not so badly diseased as No. 1.” 
Veterinarian report. 

“No.3 Cow. Only a few single spores of mycoderma 
aceti were found; not a very decisive case, but put down 
as pretuberculosis possibly.”,-—H. Cutter. 

‘““No. 3 Cow. Found only a pharyngeal abcess, pre- 
sumably tuberculous.’’— Veterinarian report. 

“No 4 Cow. A few spore collects. Some massive 
broken crystals indicating rheumatism.”—K. Cutter. 

“No. 4 Cow. A very old cow. Tuberculosis in both 
lungs. Well marked in the ue slight in the left.”— 
Veterinarian report 

“No.5 Cow. A few segregate individual spores of 
mycoderma aceti. White corpuscles enlarged. Doubt- 
ful. Specimen spoiled by heat of lamp accidentally.”—K. 
Cutter. 

“ No. 5 Cow you mark doubtful I think her trouble was 
only bronchitis of left lung.” 

“No. 6 Cow. A few discrete single spores. Two or 
three spore collects. Amyloid body(?); crystals. Mor- 
phology of blood otherwise normal. Suggests pretuber- 
culous.”—H. Cutter. | 

“No.6 Cow. Tuberculosis both lungs, but not very 
extensive.’— Veterinarian report. 

‘No. 7 Cow. A very few spore collects, not typical. 
Otherwise normal. May be pretuberculous.”—H. Cutter. 

“No. 7 Cow. Tuberculosis both lungs, also a little pus 
in left forequarter of udder.’’—Veterinarian report. 

‘‘No.8 Cow. Red corpuscles normal. White cor- 
puscles enlarged and show entophytal vegetation. Some 
few spore collects and single spores. Pretubercular I 
should think.’’—E. Cutter. 


—Veterinarian report. 


1896. ] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL 339 


“No. 8 Cow. A few tubercles in both lungs and also 
in mediastinal lymphatics.’’-—Veterinarian report. 

‘“No. 9 Cow. Red corpuscles attempt nummulation. 
One or two typical spore collects. No fibrin filaments. 
Enlarged white corpuscles. Some segregate spores. 
Not a typical case. Pretuberculous.’’—E. Cutter. 

“No. 9 Cow. Had only a very few tuberculous nodules 
in lungs, but quite large abscess in the udder.’’—Veteri- 
narian report. 

“No. 10 Cow. One typical spore collect. Enlarged 
white corpuscles. Abundant single and double spores, 
tuberculous. Fibrin filaments not seen. No crowding 
of red corpuscles. Indeed the behavior of the red cor- 
puscles in all these kine, differs from the behavior of the 
red corpuscles in man in tuberculosis. Also the fibrin 
filamentation differs. So far as these cases go, only the 
.spores and spore collects are visible and significant.’”’—K. 
Cutter. 

“No. 10 An old cow, was in life a doubtful case to me, 
yet on post mortem showed much more tuberculosis than 
I expected.’’— Veterinarian report. 

“At first study this may not appear so satisfactory to 
you as it is: All the cases you called ‘‘ pretubercular”’ 
had tuberculous deposits in the lungs, but the satisfactory 
part comes in when we compare your notes with the ex- 
tent to which the animals were diseased.” 

“Your No. 1. The bull you say was decidedly tuber- 
culous, and he was. 

‘“No, 2 Was worse than your notes*state. 

‘““No. 3 You say not decisive, and she had only a 
pharyngeal abscess. 

“No. 4 Was not a bad case though well marked. 

“No. 5 You call doubtful and so she proved to be on 
post mortem. 

‘No. 6 Was not a bad case although well marked. 


340 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Oct. 


‘Nos. 7 and 8. You call the same, and they were 
much alike even to roan color. 

‘No. 9. You say, ‘nota typical case ;’ it was not, there 
being only a very few small nodules in the lungs, buta 
Jarge abscess in the udder. . 

“No. 10 You call ‘tuberculous’ and she was worse 
than I expected. 

“ Your ‘pretubercular’ cases were not as bad as your 
tubercular. You are right on the doubtful ones. 

Yours truly, AUSTIN PETERS. 


CasE ir. Heifer pronounced to be badly tuberculous. 
I could find nothing abnormal, nor did the post mortem- 
ists. 

There were other cases all like the above. When the 
great difficulty of the physical exploration of the thoraces 
of the kine is kept in mind, it is a wonder that there were 
no more mistakes made. 

For example, one old cow who had wheezy breath, did 
not furnish any sign of tuberculosis by blood examina- 
tion, and after death her lesion was proved to be a con- 
tracted trachea from traumatism. 

The writer acknowledges his indebtedness to the 
kindness of the veterinary surgeons, and thanks them for 
their courtesy. 


III. COMPARISON WITH TUBERCULOUS BLOOD IN MANKIND. 


a. Morphology of the Blood in Health in Man. After 
Salisbury. 

Blood from Capillaries. Color; bright, fresh, clear, 
ruddy, strong. Clotting rapid and firm: Red corpuscles 
arrange themselves in nummulations, or are seattered 
evenly over the field. Normal in size. Non-adhesive. 
Central depression well marked on both sides ; periphery 
well rounded, clean cut. Hold coloring matter firmly. 
Pass readily to and fro through the. fibrin filaments. 


1896. ] M1CROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 341 


Appear fresh and fair, giving an appearance of health, 
like a rosy cheeked maiden full of ife. White corpusles 
normal in size. Not enlarged by internal collections of 
foreign bodies. Amceboid movements strong or not. 
Proportion one to three hundred of red corpuscles. 
Consistence good. Not sticky. Color a clean white. 
Freely moving at will. Serum clear and free at first 
sight from any form. After five minutes, most delicate 
semi-transparent fibrin filaments uppear, forming a very 
light network in the field, which offers no obstacle to the 
passage of the corpuscles. There should be no spores or 
vegetation in healthy serum, though they may be found 
by very minute examination, or by letting the blood 
stand for several days in closely stopped phials at a tem- 
perature of trom 60 to 75° Fahrenheit, This is not say- 
ing that spores and filaments cannot be found in blood of 
persons calling themselves healthy—for some diseases 
exist in a jatent condition, like rheumatism, syphilis, 
cystinemia and consumption. -I have met with people 
who, on finding vegetations in their blood, have decided 
not to accept the evidence because they deemed them- 
selves healthy. Again it is difficult to find a perfectly 
healthy person in the community; this was made public 
during the ‘‘late unpleasantness,” when drafts were 
made for soldiers. The blood evidences must be taken in 
connection with that of the other physical signs. The 
morphology of healthy blood is a most rigid test, and in 
delicacy and far reaching goes beyond any of the other 
physical sigas. 

b. Morphology of the Blood in Consumption of the 

Lungs. After Salisbury. 


Use. In diagnosis, exceeding in value auscultation 
and percussion, because it detects consumption of the 
lungs before there is any lesion of them, To show the 


342 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [ Oct. 


real progress of the case by the substitution of the mor- 
phology of health more or less, to show when the patients 
have lapsed in the treatment by eating forbidden food, 
and to show when there is a real cure. To. repeat, most 
valuable of all to make a diagnosis of consumption 
with as much certainty as it is possible in human 
affairs, and by removing the uncertainty, sometimes 
dreadful, of the diagnosis that accompanies the conven- 
tional first stages of consumption of the lungs. 

“This value is so great that it is more than a warrant 
for this publication to be made. It is hardly possible to 
overestimate the importance of this department of physi- 
cal exploration. 

‘Hirst or Incubative Stage. Red blood corpuscles are 
less in number, ropy and sticky, more or less, but not 
much changed otherwise. 

“Second Stage of Transmission. 1. Red Corpuscles, 
Color, pale, non-lustrous, not clear cut, not ruddy. 
Consistence, sticky, adhesive. Coating of neurine re- 
moved. ‘Not so numerous as in normal blood. Owing to 
the increased size and strength of the fibrin and the 
stickiness, they form in ridges, rows, but not so marked 
asinrheumatic blood. They accumulate in aggregations 
of confused masses, like droves of frightened sheep. 
They adhere to ezch other, and are rotten, as 1t were, ip 
texture. 2. White corpuscles. Enlarged and extended 
by the mycoderma aceti or spores of vinegar yeast, that 
are transmitted into the blood stream from the intestines. 
3. Serum. More or less filled with the spores of myco- 
derma aceti or vinegar yeast. These occur either singly 
or in masses of spores, which is the common form in 
which they sre found, wherever vinegar is produced. 
The fibrin filaments are larger, stronger, more massive 
than in health, and form under the microscope a thick 
network which is larger, stronger and more marked in 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOUKNAL. 343 


direct proportion to the severity of the disease or the 
amount of accumulation. Besides, the serum is apt to be 
of a dirty ash color. The sticky white corpuscles, the 
massive fibrin filaments in skeins, and the yeast spores 
alone or combined, form aggregations, masses, collects, 
thrombi, and emboli which block up the blood vessels of 
the lungs soonest, because exposed to cold air, the most 
of any viscus; the blood vessels contract, and thus arrest 
the thrombi and form a heterologous deposit, which is 
called tubercle. 

“The Third Stage, or Stage of Tubercular Deposit. 
These deposits increase so long as vitality subsists in the 
tubercle and surround:ngs. When the vitality ceases, 
the tubercle softens or breaks down. Sometimes if the 
provess is very slow, and life slightly inheres in it, the 
proximate tissues undergo fatty infiltration, which pre- 
serves it from readily breaking down. The morphology 
of the blood is the same for the second and third stages 
of consumption. . 

“Fourth Stage. Interstitial Death. Morphology of 
the blood in this stage is the same as in the second and 
third, save that it becomes more impoverished, The 
Red Corpuscles are thinner, paler, much lessened in 
number, increased in adhesiveness, stickiness and poverty. 
Devoid more or less of neurine. The white corpuscles 
are fewerin number, more enlarged; often ragged and 
rough. Distended with spores of mycoderma aceti, more 
adhesive and sticky. The serum. Fibrin filaments are 
- thickened, stronger, more massive and more skeins of 
them present. The collects of mycodermi aceti are very 
much larger and more numerous; in moribund cases, I 
have seen them so large as almost to fill the field of the 
microscope, They present anfractuous edges and ame- 
boid prolongations, giving them a weird, bizarre aspect 
which, under the circumstances have a portentous aspect, 


344 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Oct. 


for the larger and more numerous the spore collects of 
mycoderma aceti are, the more dangerous the case.” 


c. Comparison of Kine Blood and Human Blood. 


1. The morphology of normal blood of kine exactly 
corresponds with that of man as given above. 

2. The morphology of tuberculous blood in kine is not 
the same asin man so far as these observations go. Dif- 
ferences as follows: (a) Red corpuscles act normally. 
(b) Fibrin filaments are not massive and numerous. 

Similarities of kine tuberculous blood to that of man. 
(a) White corpuscles enlarged often more than in man. 
(b) The mycoderma aceti or vinegar yeast is present as in 
man. 

Indeed it was on this yeast that I made the diagnoses 
which were better than the average prognostications. 
As noted, it occurs as single, double and multiple spores ; 
in large snow-white masses of fusiform shape, sometimes 
in large abundance justasinman, Theyare unmistakable, 
positive. Have been found reliable evidence for many 
years. 


IV. ADVANTAGES OF THIS BLOOD MORPHOLOGICAL TEST 
OVER TUBERCULIN. 

1. It is simple, readily learned, easily applied. 

2. It introduces no diseased matter into the blood to 
set up efforts to expel diseased tissues (not to stop causes), 
which efforts of expulsion cause fever, 

3. It allows the diagnosis of the pretubercular stage 
and the cure of the cattle; tuberculin is of no value ex-. 
cept when there is actual disease and breaking down of - 
the lungs. 

4. It does not involve the loss of the kine. 

5. Itisalways good so long as pre-tuberculosis or tuber- 
culosis exists; and as in man, is of immense value in 
making negative diagnoses when neither tuberculosis nor 
pre-tuberculosis exist. 


1896. ] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 345 


WG: The amount of the yeast spores present is a sort of 
measure of the amount of the lesion; the more the dis- 
ease the more the yeast. 

6. It can be applied often and harmlessly. 

8. It is common sense in principle, as it treats of causes, 
while tuberculin treats only with results, influencing 
causes not one particle. 

9. Even if time shows that the writer has overestimated 
the value of this test, it is the best means of detecting 
tuberculosis and pre-tuberculosis in man and kine. 


V. IMPORTANCE OF SUBJECT. 


It is of importance to have healthy kine, but we do not 
believe all the sensational reports as to the communica- 
tion of tuberculosis to man from cows, for if true we 
should almost all be dead. The evidence is overwhelm- 
ing that tuberculosis comes from food, in excess and long 
continued, which either before or after ingestion under- 
goes the aceti acid fermentation. It is not the place here 
to enter into this, but it may suffice to say that food of 
kine or man undergoing the alcoholic and vinegary fer- 
mentation is most favorable fortubercle. The ordinary silo 
seems to be the most favorable method to obtain such food. 
The fact that tuberculosis in cows is most’ prevalent 
where ensilage, brewers’ grains and forced feeding’ are 
used ; the fact that bovine tuberculosis has only come into 
prominence since such feeds have been used; the facts 
that alcoholic and vinegar yeast are found in abundance 
in silo food, and are found in the blood of tuberculous 
kine; the fact that hogs kept on distillery swill contracted 
tuberculosis, all these show that the farmer must take 
other views than those that now obtain. The farmer to- 
day is like the man in Pilgrim’s Progress, pouring water 
on a fire that will not go out because some one behind 
him is pouring on oil; killing tuberculous cattle and 


feeding the newly bought kine with sour foods will not 


346 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Oct. 


extinguish tuberculosis from his herd. In conclusion, I 
wish to thank the veterinarians and all who have made 
these studies possible. 


A Growing Cell. 
By ARTHUR M. EDWARDS, M. D., 
NEWARK, N. J. 

Hamilton L. Smith is the name of a person that all the 
older microscopists were glad to have known and we who 
were intimate with him must regret that the Societies and 
Journals know him so seldom now. Diatoms were the 
source of unmixed pleasure then and his magnificent col- 
lection, containing that of de Brebisson also, often yielded 
treasures to the anxious seekers after knowledge. It is 
gone now into the hands of another who it is hoped will 
contribute some of its beauties to the world at large. Pro- 
fessor Smith is busy with electricity he tells me and neg- 
lects his microscope. Perhaps his growing slide has also 
grown dusty and is out of use. 

But I was working then at living diatoms and have 
been working at them till now for we are never too old to 
learn and the problems of life still remain uncompleted. 
I then made a growing slide of glass which I thought 
was just as good as Smith’s. At least it answered the 
purpose and as it never has been described I wish to 
describe it now. It was made for me by that ingenious 
mechanic George Wales, who is in New Jersey and mak- 
ing camera lenses. 

But what I have got to say is about the growing cell. 
The majority of microscopists at the time of which I am 
speaking, that is about thirty years ago, were Diatomists, 
that is to say they studied the shells of Bacillariacee to 
see if they could by the use of the lenses then made bring 
out the markings on Pleurosigma angulata, Amphipleura 
pellucida and other fine-lined diatoms. They also worked 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 347 


at the central rays of light on the Podura scale to bring 
them out. And microscope makers, or rather the makers 
of objectives, Charles Spencer, Robert B. Tolles and Will- 
iam Wales in this country; Powell, Lealand, Smith and 
Beck in Europe, were then prominent. Charles Spencer 
was the prince and was followed close after by Robert 
B. Tolles. 

We had diatoms onthe slides,as Pleurosigma angula- 
tum,and we had them living, but how to study them and 
keep them living was a problem. Prof. Smith made an 
ingenious contrivance for keeping them alive and study- 
ing them whilst so alive and it was known as a growing 
cell. Growing cells had been made in England, but none 
of them were trustworthy. Smith’s answered the pur- 
pose admirably, only there was one defect. It had to be 
made with too many joints, which soldered with a cement 
would leak and let the water out just at the time when 
it was wanted. So I propounded to George Wales what I 
wanted and this was the result. 

A piece of plate glass about a quarter of an inch thick 
was taken. Itwas three inches square. -In the centre by 
means of a lathe set with a brass cylinder and fed with 
water and emery, a hole was cut about two inches in 
diameter, The mode by which it is cut is known to those 
who use a lathe and is by soldering the plate glass on 
another plate of glass and holding it against the revolv- 
ing cylinders. In this manner the glass plate is bored 
with a hole through it. It is then taken off the plate it 
was fastened on and cleaned. This forms the box of the 
growing cell. A bottom is formed of plate glass, three 
inches square but only ordinary plate glass. It may be 
about one sixteenth of an inch thick. It is soldered to 
the bottom of the cell ordinarily. But sometimes I find 
it is not necessary to solder it. It keeps in place without 
so doing. The solder or cement is rubber cement or 


348 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Oct. 


something that is easily applied, as alcohol; benzine or 
turpentine is not used in thecell. Any cement will do. 
The cover is of ordinary plate glass but loose on the eell. 
It has a minute hole drilled in it near the bottom of the 
cell to form a communication for the water in the body 
of the cell to the cover of the object. This is an ordi- 
nary round cover placed upon the plate glass and with 
the water containing the Bacillariacee in it. 

To use the growing cellit is placed on the stage of the 
microscope, which is inclined at the ordinary angle, 
Then the object, as the Bacillaria, is viewed with the 
objective. As the water evaporates around the cover, a 
space of air accumulates in the upper part of the grow- 
ing cell and water must be added to make it up. This 
can be done by moving the upper plate glass having the 
object on it to one side. With this contrivance I have 
kept Bacillariacee under observation for a long time, a 
week or more. But I do not see why it cannot be kept 
in operation indefinitely. As the water evaporates of 
course it must be supplied, or it may have salt water 
added until it becomes salter and salter and at last it 
may become brine and Bacillariacee, or in fact any ob- 
ject may be observed growing in water from ordinary 
fresh water to brine. I have in this manner made some 
interesting experiments which I will detail hereafter. 

Lately I have been experimenting with the growing 
cell and wanting something that is better, or rather that 
does not require removal by sliding off the upper plate 
elass to introduce new water, as salt water. To obsetve 
the actions of the change of water from fresh to salt on 
' Bacillariacee, I have used the following contrivance. 
This I find better still than my growing cell, which has 
but two joints whilst Smith’s has six. I use a bottle of 
two or four drachms capacity. It has flat sides so that 
the upper plate glass is done away with anda small hole 
is bored in it to let the water communicate with the in- 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 349 


terior and the Bacillariacew. It has the lower side ce- 
mented by gum thus or balsam, though gum thus is best, 
to an ordinary slide which is placed on the stage of the 
microscope. The bottle is an ordinary one and can be 
gotten easily. It is also corked, with a rubber cork, and 
can thus have the water supplied. The small hole can 
be bored, by using a small rat-tail file wet with spirits 
of turpentine and one can with ease bore a hole smaller 
or larger as wanted. I now havean excellent growing 
slide that answers every purpose and can be employed 
for Bacillariacee or larger objects as desired. 


Special Staining Methods in Microscopy, Relative to Ani- 
mal Tissues and Cells. 


4. Tue Speciric Staining or Mast-Cgeutt Nvucuetr.* 


By Dr. P. G. Unna, Hamburg. Translated from the 
German by Geo. W. Cale, M. D., F. R. M. 8. (London), 
St. Louis. 

It may perhaps appear unnecessary, in our series of 
articles on staining technique, to make especial mention 
of the mast-cells. For, in spite of the increased interest 
of a negative sort which these have gained since the 
bacteriological era in our science, if one but looks to the 
histological text-books for references, it will be seen that 
the teachings of Ehrlich are always given as the only 
method of demonstrating the mast-cells. The latter still 
appears to sufilce for all that could be desired as a dif- 
ferential stain. Ehrlich, as is known, stains slowly in 
acetic acid, or in acetic acid and glycerine, together with 
a weakened solution of the basic dye, dahlia. While the 
bleaching reaches all the parts of the tissues—the proto- 
plasm, nuclei, intercellular substance—whereby the mast- 


* Mast-cells are cells filled with basophile granules, found in the connective 
tissue and in foci of chronic inflammation. 


350 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Oct. 


cell nuclei are themselves more intensely charged with 
the coloring matter, and the cells themselves contained 
therein, and they appear isolated therefrom by their 
weakly-colored surroundings, it is then proven that, as 
the mast-cell nuclei are stained a clear reddish color, 
just in this proportion will the surrounding parts retain 
their color. Certainly this contributes much to make the 
mast-cells quickly and easily recognized under difficult 
circumstances. It is therefore not to be wondered at 
that those colors have been preferred which tend to pro- 
duce metachromasia, especially methylene blue (red mast- 
cells) and saffronin (orange colored mast-cells.) 

Thus the staining of the mast-cell nuclei takes place 
gradually by means of a metachromatic stain. Our en- 
tire energies are bent, however, in the production of the 
most available staining mixtures which render possible a 
differential staining of the tissues; and these staining 
mixtures, which have been given us by nature, are those 
which have usually been considered as simple colors ; 
but those which; through the metachromasia of indi- 
vidual tissue elements show that they are actually color 
mixtures and contain valuable by-products, are mostly 
overlooked. Indeed it has appeared probable to me, 
through long use of the polychrome methylene blue so- 
lution, that this last contains by-products which produce 
the metachromasia (here methylene red). At the same 
time the colors more easily taken up bring forth the same 
elements, since their chief coloring matter (here methy- 
lene blue) is strengthened and are also necessary for the 
quantitative effect. If, for example, the cause of the 
stronger staining of the mast-cells with basic aniline 
coloring resided only in the attraction of the nuclei for 
basic stains, so would this necessarily appear in the de- 
colorization of over-stained sections with various simple 
solutions (alcohol, glycerine). But it is well known that 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 351 


only the decolorization with acids demonstrates the mast- 
cells with certainty and inan easy manner in over-stained 
sections. I therefore consider it more probable that the 
acids in the nuclei of the mast-cells fix an acid-coloring 
component (here methylene red) which, on its part, fixes 
the basic, chief coloring constituent (here methylene 
blue); and these acids, on this account, decolorize the re- 
maining color constituents because they have not at the 
same time attracted the (acid) coloring constituents, such 
as methylene red. 

While I have found the violet in methylene blue a 
valuable coloring material I have obtained as a by-pro- 
duct in some solutions, methylene red and my polychrome 
methylene blue solution (Griibler) present through this 
the most different varieties of protoplasm and, at the 
same time, the nuclei of mast-cells with a specific red 
color. This secondary effect of the polychrome methylene 
blue solution proves its value because it made the dif- 
terential diagnosis of mast-cells (red) and plasma-cells 
(blue) avery easy matter. Both kinds of cells are usually 
easy to distinguish by other characteristics ; but there 
are isolated ones in which the differential diagnosis can- 
not be easily made without this differential stain. 

Wherein then is the advantage of this differential 
staining of mast-cells over that of the metachromatic 
methods which have been used heretofore? In the 
purity and absorption of color, so that no one can doubt 
whether a given nucleus belongs to a mast-cell or not. 
Only in the staining have we saturated red alongside of 
a saturated blue, while by methods of metachromasia 
heretofore used they were seen only occasionally, and 
accordingly well pronounced the stronger the entire sec- 
tion was stained, We have here, in each individual case, 
an intense and clear stain of mast-cell nuclei (red) with 
just as deep a staining of all the remaining tissues (partly 


352 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [ Oct. 


blue and partly violet), There especially does not exist 
any transition from red to violet, but rather a marked 
contrast made by both colors; never can a strong-over- 
stained violet connective tissue cell be confounded with a 
red nucleated mast-cell. Above all there comes in here, 
in order to bring out this ideal staining of mast-cells, 
certain methods of bleaching which I will only indicate 
as I have thoroughly described them in my article on the 
staining of the protoplasm of connective tissue cells, 
namely: the decolorization by means of (1) glycerine- 
ether mixture and (2) neutral alcoholic orcein solution, 

These have the particular advantage over the methods 
heretofore used, in that they coinzide with the demonstra- 
tion of the protoplasm (1 and 2) and collagen (2) in the 
tissues. We therefore use no other staining solution or 
method of staining, for in this way we always get the 
mast-cells stained in a most beautiful and precise manner 
when the necessary staining is made in regard to proto- 
plasm and collagen. Naturally, these methods of de- 
colorizing are not the only ones which are practiced on 
such sections as have been over-stained by means of 
the polycrome methylene blue solution. All acids and 
most salts cause the mast-cells, after treatment with 
alcohol, to appear more or less red, and the number of 
such methods is legion. But whoever desires to save 
time, and material will prefer this method above all 
others, as it brings out so many valuable details 
and requires so little time. 

Yet, there are some cases in which a specific staining, 
according to the original method of Ehrlich, deserves the 
preference. There are certain cases in which we are 
concerned less with the examination of individual mast- 
cells than with the finding of all isolated mast-cell nuclei, 
whether it be that these, as in the different dermatoses 
(carcinoma, urticaria, pigmentosa) have entered into the 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 353 


covering epithelium or have overrun the collagen tissue 


of the muscles of the skin. In such cases the nuclei 
naturally appear just so much clearer the more the re- 
maining tissue is decolorized. 

Such a demonstration of mast-cell nuclei can be very 
easily combined with the methylene blue staining method. 
Hither color slowly in a weakened solution, or decolorize 
the over-stained sections in glycerine, ether solution or 
mineralacid. As a bleaching addition to the polychrome 
methylene blue solution alum has shown itself valuable. 
We put as much alum as can be held on the point of a 
knife in a saucer of staining solution and leave the 
sections therein for an hour or even over night. They 
are then. after a washing with water, put directly in abso- 
lute alcohol, oil and balsam. The nuclei themselves are 
very plain; the mast-cell nuclei are dark, cherry red, and 
the remaining tissue is pale blue. For demonstrating 
the isolated mast-cell nuclei in tissue there is no surer 
method than that by means of decolorizing with the 
above mentioned mixture of glycerine and ether. We 
allow the sectious to remain in the undiluted mixture 
until they are of a clear blue color; then wash them in 
water and put them in alcohol, oil and balsam. One is 
always sure by this method of decolorizing to extract all 
the blue from the nuclei without damaging the red color. 
In the second place, we can take into consideration 
the mineral acids, and we have found the best to be 
nitric and hydrochloric. The section is first putin a five- 
per-cent nitrate of potash solution for from twenty to 
thirty seconds in a saucer, and then from ten to twenty 
seconds in a saucer with a few drops of acid alcohol; 
then in absolute alcohol, etc. Simple acid decolor- 
ization generally leaves still a faint trace of blue in the 
nuclei. 

But at the same time that isolation of the mast-cell 


354 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [ Oct. 


nuclei by subsequent decolorization is accomplished all 
collagenous tissue and protoplasm are bleached, only the 
nuclei retain somewhat more of the blue than by the 
alum method. On the other hand, the red nuclei stand 
out so plainly that one cannot miss them even with a 
low power. 

In the following list I give the methods in use in my 
laboratory for staining with polychrome methylene blue: 
I. 

Metachromatic Staining of Mast-Cells, especially in 
connection with Plasma Cells and Protoplasm. 

(a) 1. Stain in polychrome methylene blue solution 
(Gruebler) from one-quarter hour to one night. 

2. Decolorize in a mixture of a few drops of glycerine- 
ether solution in a saucer of water. 

3. Thorough washing in water. 

4. Absolute alcohol, oil of bergamot, and balsam. 

(b) 1. Stain in polychrome methylene blue solution 
for from five to fifteen minutes, 

2. Wash in water. 

3. Decolorize and wash in one-quarter per cent of 
alcoholic neutral solution of orcein (Gruebler) about one- 
quarter hour. 

4. Absolute alcohol, oil, balsam. 

if, 

Isolated Metachromatic Staining of Mast-Cells in very 
Weakly-Stained Tissue. 

(a) 1. Staining in polychrome methylene blue solu- 
tion with a knife point of alum in a saucer of coloring 
solution three hours to one night. 

2. Wash in water. 

3. Decolorize in glycerine-ether solution for from five 
to ten minutes. 

4. Prolonged washing in water. 

5. Absolute alcohol, oil and balsam.—St. Louis Medi- 
cal and Surgical Journal. 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 355 


EDITORIAL. 


For Histology’s Sake.— We notice that our good friend, 
Dr. V. A. Moore said at the meeting of the American Mic- 
roscopical Society: ‘‘I believe in histology for histology’s 
sake and in bacteriology for bacteriology’s sake. Teach 
truth for truth’s sake.”’ 

The atmosphere of Washington is full of this kind of 
talk and the idea animates much of our government work. 
We regard it as grossly pernicious. It leads to misappro- 
priation of government funds and makes narrow minded 
specialists. 

We have here a Fish Commission which during the past 
twenty-five years has expended some money ina practical 
manner but also much for “‘pure science’’—they have 
studied fishes ‘“‘for ichthyology’s sake.’ The practical 
results attained could have been accomplished with a quar- 
ter of the money, and the Ichthyologists care little for the 
fishermen of the country. 

We have here botanists who love botany simply for 
what truth they can find by itsstudy and they never turn 
out practical results. We have astromoners who wish 
with government money to search comets and do such 
things as gratify insatiable curiosity but are of no con- 
sequence to the people at large. We have vivisectionists 
who cut up, after murdering, innocent animals in their 
pursuit of theories which they are pleased to call “pure 
science.’’ ‘They have no end in view except ‘‘anatomy’s 
sake” or ‘‘bacteriology’s sake.”’ 

The knowledge of many kinds of truth is today useless 
simply because there is no call for its practical application. 
Astromonicaltruths are of noaccount toDr. Moore because 
he is not in a profession to apply them to the happiness or 
mental:progress of mankind. If the pursuit for astron- 
omy’s sake is wise, it should make no difference to Dr. 
Moore whether he spends his time init or in histology. 
In one case as in the other he gratifies his doctrine; truth 
for truth’s sake. 


356 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Oct. 


There is a narrow line of research which he alludes to 
as the truth which has “use one can turn into dollars.” 
Of course he who seeks only such truth as his fancy tells 
him will coin into money for his personal benefit, lives a 
narrow and selfish life. But he who studies histology 

‘utterly regardless of practical application, i. e, ‘‘for histol- 
ogy’s sake’? has placed himself at the opposite extreme, 
and lost all wisdom which in our days as in former times 
lies at the golden mean. 

Were Dr. Moore to devote ten years to bacteriology 
solely for bacteriology’s sake, let him tell us on what 
principles he would choose his experiments. All value or 
use humanitarian being dismissed from consideration why 
do one thing rather than another? He can only reply: 
‘Do what bids fair to yield the largest increment to ab- 
stract knowledge.’? His time being thus absorbed in the 
abstract, humanity is suffering for the facts not covered 
by the scientist’s ambition. 

Such doings have caused the crusade by certain humani- 
tarians against vivisection. We hold that all vivisection 
that has humanity’s relief in view is proper and that only 
suchis proper. Vivisection for truth’s sake is simply 
barbarous. 

Last winter we were so unfortunate as to have an anti- 
vivisection bill reported favorably in the United States: 
Senate. It is likely to become alaw. We have noone on 
the face of the earth to thank for this unwise and whole- 
sale restriction except the people who like our friend want 
to vivisect for vivisection’s sake, who want to take animal 
life not in search of truth which one can turn into health 
or dollars, but who want unlimited chance to cut and slash 
simply and solely ‘‘for truth’s sake,’’ simply to add iso- 
lated facts to our abstract knowledge of anatomy, of the 
use of drugs, of biology, of bacteriology, or of some other 
“ology.” 

In place of Dr. Moore’s creed let him substitute this: 
“T believe in histology for humanity’s sake and in bacteri- 
ology for humanity’s sake, and in truth simply so far as it 
can contribute to the progress of the human race.’’ There 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 357 


is little research that he may properly wish to make that 
cannot be comprehended in this creed. There is 
truth the knowledge of which isa curse—not a blessing. 


MICROSCOPICAL MANIPULATION. 


Preparing Malarial Blood-Films.—T he following method 
of preparing films of malarial blood will be appreciated by 
those who have practical experience of the ordinary meth- 
ods of making cover-glass films. Besides ease and rapid- 
ity the method has other and obvious advantages. 

A nurse is instructed to cleanse with spirits of wine or 
ether as many microscope slips as are likely to be required, 
and to place them, arranged in one or more rows, on the 
table near the patient. Three or four oblong slips of very 
fine clean tissue paper, one and one-half by five-eights 
inch, are also prepared. ‘The patient’s finger is cleansed. 
and pricked in the usual way. A droplet of blood about 
one-sixteenth inch in diameter is then expressed from the 
puncture and taken up, by touching it with one of the pa- 
pers, the blood being supplied about one-half inch from 
the end of the paper. The charged surface of the paper 
is then placed upon a glass slip rather towards one end. 
In a second or two the blood will have run out ina thin 
film between paper and slip. When this has taken place— 
not before—the paper is drawn along the surface of the 
glass. Thesame paper, without recharging, is placed in 
a similar way on a second slip, on a third, on a fourth, and 
soon. When exhausted, the paper is recharged from the 
finger as many timesas may be found necessary. In this 
way fifty or one hundred exquisitely fine films may be pre- 
pared in five or six minutes. Labels are then attached, 
and the slides stored away to await convenience. Before 
proceeding to stain, the blood is fixed in a little absolute 
alcohol on the films. The slides are then dried, and stained 
by the borax (five per cent.) methylene blue (one-half per 
cent.),a few drops of the solution being applied for about 
halfa minute. After washing and drying, cover-glass 


358 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Oct. 


with xylol balsam are applied. The result is excellent. 
If one wishes to search for crescents, a good plan is to 
make the film fairly thick, to fix with alcohol, and then to 
wash out the hemoglobin with very weak acetic acid, two 
or three drops to the ounce of water. ‘The now colorless 
film is again washed, stained with methylene blue, and 
mounted in xylol balsam in the usual way. ‘The field not 
being obscured by blood-corpuscles, the large amount of 
blood which this method of preparation enables us to pass 
rapidly in review greatly favors the quick finding of any 
crescents that may be present. ‘The same method of pre- 
paring blood films is equally applicable for the demonstra- 
tion of other blood parasites.—British Medical Journal. 


Preservation of Microscopic Specimens.—Tores de- 
scribes a method, which he has tested for a year and a 
half, of preserving organs and tissues so that they retain 
the color they had when fresh. He finds that five to ten 
parts of a forty-per-cent. solution of formalin alone cause 
the organs after a time to assume a tint which differs very 
considerably from the natural color, but that if, instead of 
water for diluting the commercial formalin solution, a so- 
lution of one part common salt, two parts of magnesium 
sulphate, two parts sodium sulphate in one hundred parts 
of water be used, the color of the blood is well preserved. 
Further, material preserved in sucha solution is better 
adapted for subsequent microscopic examination, since 
the protoplasm of the cell is less altered and the nucleus 
stains better and more deeply. The method he adopts is 
as follows: ‘The material must be not too long washed in 
water, and should be left in the formalin solution for a 
period depending upon their size and thickness. A kid- 
ney or spleen requires two days immersion, and the solu- 
tion should be changed once or twice, or until the forma- 
lin solution no longer givesa dirty brownish-red color. 
Care must be taken to bring all portions of the object into 
contact with the solution, and the object must be given 
the shade which itis to retain permanently, since the 
formalin solution causes it to assume a consistency such 


1896 | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL 209 


that its shape cannot afterwards be modified. In the 
formalin solution the organs change color and become of a 
dirty bluish gray. On now placing them in ninety-five 
per cent. alcohol the normal color returns. Before per- 
manently placing the organ in alcohol it must be washed 
with alcohol until the latter no longer becomes cloudy. 

The material must not be washed with water; it is left 
in alcohol for varying time until the normal color has again 
fully returned; if left longer the alcohol removes the color. 
For a kidney or spleen twenty-four hours will be sufficient. 
The permanent preserving fluid is equal parts of glycerin 
aud water; the material floats at first, but sinks later; the 
color is now at its best ; after alittle time the fluid becomes 
yellowish and requires renewal. ‘Tissues so preserved 
have not undergone the slighest alteration in color during 
nine months. ‘The method is not applicable to the preser- 
vation of other color than that of blood; thus icteric liver 
is well shown.—Int. Med. Magazine. 


Microscopic Objects.—T hin sections of hard substances 
are made by cementing them to glass with Canada balsam, 
or on an oil-stone with water, then softening the cement 
with heat, and turning them over and treating the other 
side in the same way. ‘They are then polished, if desired, 
with putty-powder on silk, cloth, or leather.—nglsh Me- 
chanics 


Urinary Examinations.—Dr. Lichty (Medical News) 
holds that: 1. A continued low specitic gravity must be 
looked upon with grave suspicion, until it can be proved 
beyond a doubt that the kidneys are normal. 2. Inneph- 
ritis, especially of the chronic interstitial type, it may hap- 
pen that at times during the greater part of the disease 
the urine may contain no albumen that can be detected. 
3. Casts may be present in the urine when it is impossi- 
ble to detect any albumen by the usual tests. 4. Casts 
are very easily destroyed in the urine by bacteria during 
the process of fermentation, and unless the examination 
is made within an hour or two after the urine is passed, 
the failure to find casts does not prove the non-existence 


360 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Oct. 


of nephritis. The urine should be more frequently exam- 
ined, especially after sickness. 


BACTERIOLOGY. 


Black Death.—Kitasato has ascertained that the “black 
death” is due toa bacillus which causesa septicemia at- 
tacking the lymphatic system, the spleen, and might there- 
fore easily be confounded with anthrax. ‘The bacillus is 
rounded at the ends, colors with the usual aniline dyes, 
more deeply stains at the end than in the middle; may be 
found in the blood, occurs in man, mice, rats and swine, 
and may be contracted by eating the diseased flesh of such 
animals. 


Excretion of Micro-Organism.—Biedl and R. Kruas 
record their experiments into the excretion of micro-or- 
ganism by the glandular organs. Previously they have 
shown that micro organisms present in the blood are ex- 
creted by normal kidneys, the urine being free from al- 
bumen or blood. They thus conclude that micro-organ- 
isms can pass through healthy blood vessels. They have 
now investigated the functions of the liver and submax- 
illary gland in this respect, cultures of the staphylococcus 
being injected into the blood. Almost all authors agree 
that the liver can excrete micro-organisms, but no cer- 
tainty exists as to the manner of the excretion. In the 
first set of experiments the gall bladder was opened with 
the usual precautigns immediately after death. They 
found negative results in two out of four experiments, but 
this method is not adequate. In another series of experi- 
ments the bile was inocculated directly into the nutrient 
media, acannula having been placed in the bile passages. 
In the case of the submaxillary gland a cannual was placed 
in the duct, and the same method followed. In all of the 
three cases the staphylococcus was obtained from the bile, 
but the results were always negative in five cases where 
the submaxillary secretion was investigated. The micro- 
organisms were shown to be cautiously excreted in the bile 


1896. ] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 361 


during one and a half to two hours while the experiment 
lasted. The authors conclude that as in the case of the 
kidneys the excretion of micro-organisms is a formal func- 
tion of theliver. During one to two hours micro-organ- 
isms circulating in the blood were, however, not execreted 
by the submaxillary gland. Whether the difference thus 
present between the liver and the submaxillary gland. 
is due tothe difference in their structure is left an open 
question.—Medical Review. 


MEDICAL MICROSCOPY. 


Antitoxin Serum in Smallpox.—M. and A. Bechlere 
communicated to the Academy of Medicine, Paris, the re- 
sult of observations made by them, which indicate the 
probability that they have discovered a means of success- 
fully treating smallpox by an antitoxic serum. The se- 
rum is obtained from the blood of vaccinated animals, and 
is used in the same manner as the antitoxic serum which is 
employed in the treatment of diphtheria. 


The Action of Tricresol on some Pathogenic Microbes. 
—The Presse medicale for October 3d contains an abstract 
of an article by Dr. O. Bronstein, which was published in 
the Meditzinskoie Obozrenie, 1896, No.7. ‘The experimental 
researches of the author concerning the action of tricresol 
were carried out on the following bacterial varieties: The 
staphylococcus, the streptococcus, Eberth’s bacillus, the 
comma bacillus, the comma bacillus of cholera, and the 
bacillus of glanders. The result of his experiments 
showed that a solution of tricresol in the proportion of one 
jn a thousand, acting for twoor three days, had a bacterial 
action on allthese organisms exceptthe pyocyanic bacillus. 
In order to kill the streptococcus a solution of one in two 
thousand was sufficient, and to destroy the diphtheria 
bacillus, a solution of one in two thousand five hundred. 
A one-per-cent. solution killed the typhoid bacillus, the 
staphylococcus, and the streptococcus in five minutes; 
the bacillus of cholera, glanders, and of diphtheria in threo 


362 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [ Oct. 


minutes, and the pyocyanic bacillus in ten minutes. The 
non-bactericidal solutions, however, hindered the culture 
of bacteria. The author thinks that tricresol isa very 
powerful antiseptic, since a one-per-cent. solution is as en- 
ergetic as a three-per-cent. solution of carbolic acid. Itis 
at the same time relatively less dangerous, for according 
to Hammer], the toxicity of carbolic acid is four times as 
oereat as that of tricresol.—W. Y. Medical Journal. 


The Dirty Sponge.—Prefessor Lang, of Vienna, de- 
clares that sponges, owing tothe impossibility of destroy- 
ing germs in them, have long since been banished from 
the surgeon’s table, and should also be excluded from the 
bathroom and washstand. 


Possibilities of Contagion from Wenereal Diseases in 
Railway Cars.—Dr. Tomas Noriega, of the State of Chia- 
pas, Mexico, read a paper before the. American Pyblic 
Health Association, in which he cited the case of a married 
man, thirty years of age, who arose from his terthin a 
Pullman car and, as was his custom, wash his face in the 
lavatory. Twodays thereafter he felt the first symptoms 
of purulent ophthalmia, for which he consulted a physi- 
cian. ‘The patient was treated energetically, but in spite 
of all efforts the right eye was lost. Other similar cases 
were reported. 


Tuberculosis and Telephone.—It is said that Vienna 
physicians havetraced casesof tuberculosisand other conta- 
gious diseases to the use of public telephones, and the sug- 
eestion is made that a sponge witb a solution of carbolic 
acid be kept in every station for a daily cleaning of the ap- 
paratus. 


MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETIES. 


Microscopical Societies. 


Postal Club.—After the usual summer vacation, the cir- 
culation is now being resumed. Any changes of address, 
or other business concerning the membership or circuits, 
should be reported at once. 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 363 


Last season the work done by and for the members was 
of at least average amount and quality; and, with the care- 
ful and generous assistance of all, itis hoped to attain still 
better results. 

Owing to the retirement of many circuit boxes, which 
are nolonger available except for new circuits, a new set is 
needed for immediate use, and collecting boxes will be 
started at once. As the success of the present season will 
depend largely on the use of these contributions, members 
are kindly requested to have the slides selected, and their 
notes ready to copy into the Note-books on arrival, so that 
the boxes can go forward without delay. Slides without 
ideas in them, or accompanying notes, are of little use. 
Members not wholly familiar with the subject are re- 
quested to consult carefully all the suggestions in the cir- 
cular on Contribution of Slides on page 3 of the Report of 
the Club last published, in 1895. 

Members whose subscription is not fully: paid, will 
greatly oblige by remitting for present use, to the Presi- 
gents. A Ward, M. D:, 53 Fourth’St.,, Troy, N, Y. 


MICROSCOPICAL NOTES. 


French Congress of Medicine.—French Congress of 
Medicine will be held at Montpellier in 1898, during the 
Easter holidays, under the Presidency of Prof. Bernheim, 
of Nancy. The annual Congress of French Alienists and 
Neurologists will be held at Toulouse in 1897. 


Hayden Memorial Geological Fund.—Mrs. Emma W. 
Hayden has given to the Academy of Natural Sciences of 
Philadelphia, in trust, the sum of $2,500 to be known as the 
Hayden Memorial Geological Fund in commemoration of 
her husband, the late Prof. Ferdinand V. Hayden, M. D., 
L.L. D. According tothe terms of the trust, a bronze 
medal and the balance of the interest arising from the 
fund are to be awarded annually for the best publication, 
exploration, discovery or research in the sciences of geol- 
ogy and paleontology, or in such particular branches there- 


364 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Oct. 


of as may be designated. ‘The award and all matters con- 
nected therewith are to be determined by a committee to 
be selected in an appropriate manner by the Academy. 
The recognition is not confined to naturalists. 


Prof. Moissan.—Prof. Henri Moissan, the well-known 
chemist, who fills the chair of toxicology in the Paris 
school of Pharmacy, arrived in this country September 
20th. He comes torepresent the University of France at 
the celebration of the 150th anniversary of Princeton Col- 
lege, October 20th. 


PERSONALS. 


A building 25x97 feet for the Massachusetts General 
Hospital, Boston, at a cost of over $20,000, will soon be 
ready for use. It includes well fitted laboratories of chem- 
istry, bacteriology and histology. 

The next meeting of the American Association for the 
Advancement of Science will be held in Detroit (1897). Dr. 
Wolcott Gibbs of Newport, is the new president. 


The proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of 
Philadelphia, contains the biographical sketch of John 
Adam Ryder, by Harrison Allen, M. D., and the list of his 
published scientific papers by H. F’. Moore, Ph. D. 


The officers of Section G. of the A. A. A. S. for the next 
year are G. F. Atkinson, Vice-President; F. C. New- 
combe, Secretary. 

The officers of the Botanical Club for the next year are 
S. M. Tracy, President; L. R. Jones, Vice-President; E. 
S. Burgess, Secretary. 

Professor A. N. Prentiss, formerly professor of Botany 
at Cornell University died at his home in Ithaca, Aug. 14. 

A Post Graduate course of bacteriology has been estab- 
lished at the Sidney University, N. S. W. 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 365 


CORRESPONDENCE, 


Tue MicroscopicaL Pus. Co., Gentlemen:—All of our 
subscriptions were placed through a subscription agency, 
and we suppose yours was included among the others. 

The agency has recently failed and thrown our subscrip- 
tion account into considerable confusion. As soon as the 
affairs are straightened out I will see that your account is 
made right. Yours most cordially, C. B.T. 

We shall notcommentonthisletter, weshallsimply repeat 
our advice: Send your subscription directly to the Micros- 
copical Pub. Co., Washington, D.C. or if you choose to 
have an agent, take one of the old and reputable publishers. 


RECENT PUBLICATIONS. 


Ernst Mach’s Popular Scientific Lectures.—The Open 
Court Publishing Co., Chicago, have just issued in their 
Religion of Science Library a cheap edition of Professor . 
Mach’s Popular Scientific Lectures, which were remarka- 
bly well received on their first appearance. Professor 
Mach was formerly Professor of Physics in Prague, but 
has recently been called toa chair of philosophy in Vienna. 


The Keating Wheel Co., Holyoke, Mass., is just now 
sending out a beautiful art catologue containing a complete 
description of their bicycles. It will be sent free to any 
subscriber of this paper who shall senda postal card to 
the above address. 


Die Mikrotechnic der thierischen Morphologie. Eine kritische 
Darstellung der mikroskopischen Untersuchungsmetho- 
den. Von Dr. Med. SteEFAN Apatuy, Professor der Zoo- 
logie und vergleichenden Anatomie an der Universitat 
Kolozsvar. Erste Abtheilung. Mit 10 Abbildungen in 
Holzschmitt. Braunschweig: Harald Bruhn, 1896 (New 
York: Gustav E. Stechert). Pp. 322. 

AN exhaustive and critical review of this imporant work 


366 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Oct. 


is almost impossible within the limits of a journal. 
The work is so stupendous and opens up such a vast field 
of study and observation that a mere mention of its scope 
must suffice. 

The author gives, in the first place, a minute historical 
survey of every method intended for the microscopic 
study of animal tissues. This is followed by a discussion 
as to the purpose of each method and of its worthat the 
present day. An exact description of each procedure, 
with reference to the effect of the agents used upon the 
chemical and physical properties of the object to be ex- 
amined, is next brought to view. ‘This is followed in turn 
by a consideration of the changes produced in specimens 
by certain agents employed, with reference to an improve- 
ment or a possible improvement in the technics. 

The special part of the work is arranged under fourteen 
heads, and the entire process, from the securing of the 
specimen to its ultimate disposition, cut, stained, and 
mounted,is minutely described. Freecriticism of methods 
of technics abound, with suggestions for improvement. 
Volume I closes with a critical bibliography of the various 
methods now and formerly in vogue for the examination 
of microscopic specimens, arranged alphabetically and 
with marginal dates. 

This book is no text-book. It will if its author’s inten- 
tions do not miscarry, be the foundation of microscopic 
technics which shall be based ona thorough understand- 
ing of methods employed, their purpose, their history, 
and their real value. With the addition of the second vol- 
ume, which is promised within a year, we are certain ofa 
work that will be indispensable to the student, the biolo- 
gist, the histologist, and the worker with the microscope, 
whoever he may be. 


Typhoid Germs in Ice.—T he military officers at Rennes 
(Medical Press and Circular) have recently suffered from 
a typhoid epidemic, which has been traced to the ice which 
was used to cool the champagne at a banquet. The ice 
had been taken from a neighboring river at a point where 
the town sewers empty. 


PHOTO-MICROGRAPHIC APPARATUS. 


THE AMERICAN 


MONTHLY 


MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 


Vor <VIL. NOVEMBER, 1896. No. 11 


Camera for Producing Enlarged Images of Microscopic Ob- 
jects.* 
WITH FRONTISPIECE. 


Owing to the improvements in microscope objectives 
and in photography, it is practicable to produce magni- 
fied photographic images of microscopical objects which 
are not only interesting to the microscopist, but are also 
of importance to the pathologist and histologist in mak- 
ing a record. 

We illustrate photo-micrographic apparatus recently 
completed by Mr. O. G. Mason, microscopist of Bellevue 
Hospital, and for many years secretary of the American 
Microscopical Society. 

This apparatus will receive an objective of any power 
and produces images on a 34 by 44 plate. The apparatus 
is very compact, being only about two feet in length. 
It is all mounted on a single base board, so that it may 
be removed bodily if it becomes necessary to shift its 
position, 

The camera box is rigidly attached to the standard of 
a microscope of the usual form, so that the box can be 
placed horizontally or inclined at any desired angle. 
Adjustments are made which provide for any required 
distance between the objective and the sensitive plate, so 
that the desired amplification may be readily secured. 


Cut kindly loaned by Editors of Scientific American. 


368 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Nov. 


The mechanical stage is operated by the small chains 
which extend along the sides of the frame of the appa- 
ratus, and the rotation of the objective, polariscope, etc., 
and the focusing are effected by rods extended toward 
the rear of the camera box. With these adjustments the 
operator seated at the camera can manipulate the instru- 
ment for focusing or searching the field for any partic- 
ular object. | 

The instrument has been used for making negatives 
showing objects with a magnification of 15,000 times. 
All the parts are made adjustable for wear and atmos- 
pheric changes and for adaptation to various classes of 
work. 

This photomicrographic apparatus forms an important 
part of the equipment of the laboratory of microscopy 
of Bellevue Hospital. 


Address of Welcome to the American Microscopical Society 
Upon its Assembling in Carnegie Library Pittsburg, 
Pa., August 18, 18096. 
By Rev. W. J. HOLLAND. 
Chancellor of the Western University of Pa. 


PITTSBURG, PA. 


Itis a very great pleasure to me on behalf of the local 
scientific societies and the citizens of this town to extend 
to you on this occasion a most cordial welcome. Hospi- 
tality, as you all know, is an ancient grace and virtue, 
and I have heard it said by Pittsburgers that they excel 
in this virtue, and I, in fact, have heard others that have 
been in Pittsburg venture tointimate that the claimis just. 
There have been some historic interruptions to the hos- 
pitalities shown by Pittsburgers, notably when General 
Braddock kept the Indians onthe other side of the Mo- 
nongahela River during the French and Indian War. 


1896. ] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 369 


But away back in the days when Queen Aliquippa enter- 
tained George Washington, running down to the present 
time, there has beew courtesy shown to the strangers, 
save and except when Captain William Trent, about 1772, 
acted rudely to the Indians who were rude to the English- 
man,General Braddock. But these are all facts known to 
history, and the people of the present day may be relied 
on to accord to you in their homes and in all the relations 
you may meet them a hospitality that will be personal. 
I welcome you as representatives of the learned of the 
nineteenth century. It is saidofthe most famous of the 
ancient Hebrew kings, accounted the wisest of his day, 
that ‘‘he spoke of trees from the cedar which is in Leba- 
non to the hyssop which springeth from the wall; he 
spoke also of beasts, creeping things (reptiles) and 
fishes.”” From this you will observe that King Solomon’s 
knowledge was confined in botany to the phenogams 
and that his knowledge of histology extended no further 
than to the lower vertebrates. He knew nothing of 
spores and bacteria; all the wonders of mycetology and 
cryptogamic life were hidden from him. He knew noth- 
ing of the protozoa and the myriad forms of microscopic 
life with which you are familiar, representing the won- 
derful advancement of modern science achieved through 
the microscope. I welcome you as those who are wiser 
than Solomon, and who know more than the ancients, 
and trust from intercourse with you to add to the stores 
of knowledge. I welcome you as friends of humanity. 
People sometimes wonder why men should spend their 
time investigating mere minute organisms, spending 
months and hundreds of dollars. From the peculiarly 
economic standpoint, the investigator himself reaps very 
‘little return in fame or wealth, but the pathway is 
broadened and made plain to discoveries which enrich the 
world. You are a representatives of those who with the 
microscope have carried our knowledge downward into 


370 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Nov. 


the deep, while the astronomer gazing upward has made 
his way. Nature is most to be admired in things that are 
least known. | 

I welcome you to this ancient city, the city of industries 
in which you will find anything that you wish to see, 
from a beautiful spectroscope, perfect in all its adjust- 
ments, to the grosser parts of sucha mechanism as the 
man-of-war; where we make anything from a tack to a 
locomotive or an ocean steamer. I welcome you to a 
city in which we have something more than industries. 
Standing on the companionway of a steamer a few days 
ago, | overheard a young lady say, ‘“‘Where are those 
people from?” Her escort replied, “From Pittsburg.” 
She said, ‘‘Where they have nothing but smoke and 
money.” We havea great deal of smoke at times and 
there is a little money to be picked up in odd nooks and 
corners, Lam told by some. But we have other things. | 
This beautiful building, the gift of one of our citizens, the 
home ofart and science; the extensive park and conserv- 
atory. We have schools, colleges, hospitals and churches 
and learned societies and all those things that go to make 
the city a desirable place of residence in spite of its 
smoke. We have something better—a disposition to 
erow in knowledge and to make advancement in all 
lines open to us. 

In the name of my fellow-citizens and the Iron City 
Microscopical Society I extend to you all a most hearty 
welcome. 


Rhizopods, the Lowest Forms of Life. 
By ARTHUR M. EDWARDS, M. D. 
NEWARK, N. J. 


Dr. Carpenter says, “it is a tendency common to all 
observers, and not by any means peculiar to microscop- 
ists, to describe what they believe and infer rather than 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. oil 


what they actually witness.” That is tosay we see a 
thing, therefore, it is, without reasoning at allabout it. 
This is a common mode of stating a thing, but when we 
reason we know and what we know we state, with a 
query. 

Rhizopods are minute specks of protoplasm, rarely 
just visible to the eye, though some are invisible and it 
requires the highest power and the nicest manipulation 
to even see them at all. They are seen everywhere and 
at every season and in all the rocks. For they are and 
were the‘‘physical basis of life’? as Huxley tersely put it. 

I shall use for my text Dr. Joseph Leidy’s Fresh- 
water Rhizopods of North America, as that gives graphic 
and late researches on the minute and beautiful organ- 
isms which [am about to describe. Dr. Leidy quotes 
Dr, Carpenter’s remarks which Ihave given above. But 
as I have said this quality is common to every one. We 
think we see and therefore do not trouble ourselves to 
reason about things that are go:ng on around us. We 
are selfish. It is much easier to say what we think we 
see than what we do see. It is easy to repeat what is 
told us without taking the trouble to find things out for 
ourselves. From the first comes the general run of men, 
From the second comes the doubter and the agnostic, the 
enquirer, By far the minority. But asinall things, the 
minority rules and time shows what is the true way of 
viewing things. The simplest kinds of Rhizopods are 
unprovided with a protection to their soft part. They 
are in fact formless masses of Protoplasm. And this 
protoplasm is exactly the same in plants, protista, and 
animals. The motile jelly of the Rhizopod is thought to 
be of the nature of the elementary basis of organic bodies 
in general. Itis known as protoplasm, from the Greek 
signifying first and I mould: That is to say the primitive 
material from which organic bodies are moulded. Its 
resemblance in motile power to muscular tissue, or the 


372 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Nov. 


flesh of more complex animals, led the French naturalist, 
who was the first to indicate the true nature of the 
Rhizopods, to give it the name of sarcode, from the Greek 
signifying flesh and form, But I think it can not be 
too strongly impressed on the minds of the readers that 
the sarcode of the Rhizopods and the protoplasm of all 
living things not only look like but are the same thing. 
Dr. Carpenter says “if the views which I have expressed 
as to the nature and relations of their living substance 
be correct, that substance does not present such differ- 
entiation as is necessary to constitute what is commonly 
understood as organization” even of the lowest degree 
and simplest kind; so that the physiologist has here a 
case in which those vital operations which he is accus- 
tomed to see carried on by an elaborate apparatus, are 
performed without any special instruments whatever— 
a little particle of apparently homogeneous jelly changing 
itself into a greater variety of forms than the fabled 
Proteus, laying hold of its food without members, swal- 
lowing without a mouth, digesting it without a stom- 
ach, appropriating its nutritious material without 
absorbent vessels or a. circulating system moving from 
place to place without muscles, feeling (if it has any 
power to do so) without nerves, propagating itself with- 
out genital apparatus,—and not only this, but in many 
instances forming shelly coverings of a symmetry and 
complexity not surpassed by those of any testaceous 
animals.” 

The Rhizopod moves by protruding some of its proto- 
plasm about by means of portions which are known as 
pseudopods from the Greek synifying false feet, for they 
take the place of feet. These pseudopods are extremely 
delicate. They often branch and assume a more or less 
move-like appearance, whence Dujardin gave them the 
name of Rhizopods. As Dr. Leidy says “It appears from 
the researches, especially of British authorities, such as 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 373 


Carpenter, Williamson, Wallich, Brady, Parkerand Jones 
that the members of the class are infinitely variable, and 
that indeed no absolute distinctions of species and 
genera exist, such as appear more definitely to charac- 
terize the higher forms of animal life. My own investi- 
gations rather confirm this view, and, under the circum- 
stances, we can only regard the more conspicuous and 
prevaijing forms as somany nominal species, in likeness 
with the species of higher organic forms, more or less 
intimately related, and by intermediate forms or varities 
merging into one another. So that in them species do 
not exist—only forms, and so it is with the larger forms 
of animal and vegetable life. Species, as they are called, 
change and from what we know of ancient life on the 
earth it began with Rhizopods such as now existand grew 
up more and more complex until we have man. 


Bacteriology of the Normal Conjunctiva.* 
By CHARLES J. FOOTE, M. D. 
NEW HAVEN, CONN. 

The object of reporting the few bacteriological experi- 
ments which are recorded below will be better understood 
if they are taked in connection with and as supplementary 
to the paper of Dr. Wilson. 

Our purpose in making the experiments was, if possible, 
to throw some light on the causes of suppuration after 
cataract extraction. 

Our method of examination consisted in smearing over 
the surface of aslant tube of agar a particle of conjunctival 
secretion which had been removed witha sterilized cotton 
swab or aloop of platinum wire. 

Agar was used asa culture medium, because we desired 
to study only those bacteria which grow at 37° C. 


*Read before the section on ophthalmology of the New York. Acad- 
emy of Medicine, October 21, I895. 


374 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Nov. 


After sowing the agar tubes they were kept in the in- 
cubator for several days at a temperature of 37° C. 
According to this method ninety-two eyes were exam- 
ined, one tube culture being made from each eye. Of 
these ninety-two tubes, fifty-three showed one or more 
colonies of bacteria, while the rest of the tubes (thirty- 
nine) were sterile. By this I do notmean to imply that 
the conjunctive of the thirty-nine eyes were sterile, but 
only that such small portion of the secretion as was re- 
moved by the platinum loop was sterile. In the fifty- 
three tubes containing bacteria, some eight or ten differ- 
ent kinds of bacteria were found. In twenty-two cases 
the staphylococcus epidermidis albus was present; in five 
pyogenes citreus; in one case pyogenes aureus; in one 
case the bacillus subtilis; in eight cases a large bacillus 
growing with small delicate translucent colonies on agar, 
kind not identified; in one case streptococcus pyogenes. 
The sources from which these bacteria infected the con- 
junctive may perhaps be named as follows in the order 
of importance: 

1st. The edges of the lids and the mouths of the Mei- 
bomian glands. 

2d. Unclean hands. 

3d. The air. 

4th. Infected nasal fosse. 

In the case of the normal conjunctiva the last is prob- 
ably not an important source of infection, since the cur- 
rent of secretion is constantly downward into the nose. 
Bach, after injecting cultures of bacteria into the nasal 
fosse, was unable to find that they ever made their way 
into the conjunctival sac. 

On the many kinds of bacteria (twenty-six species) 
which have been found in the normal conjunctiva, only 
three have been proved to be pathogenic tou man, These 
are the staphylococcus pyogenes aureus, the staphylo- 
coccus albus, and the streptococcus pyogenes. It is 


1896. ] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 375 


obvious that the mere presence of even these in the nor- 
mal conjunctiva does no harm. A bouillon culture of 
the staphylococcus aureus has been dropped into the 
conjunctival sac of man without producing inflammation 
(Bach), and even in injured eyes these bacteria often 
seem to do no harm, as may be seen from some later ex- 
periments in which the staphylococcus aureus was found 
in considerable numbers in the dressings of eyes which 
had been operated on for cataract and yet no suppura- 
tion occurred after the operation. But in spite of these 
facts it is well to remember that a purulent infiltration 
of the corneaand panophthalmitis result when the staphy- 
lococcus aureus is inoculated upon the surface of the 
cornea of a rabbit with an instrument infected with the 
staphylococcus aureus, panophthalmitis develops in 
thirty hours. The same result occurs also at the end of 
seventy-two hours even with the staphylococcus albus. 
Moreever,in man the staphylococus aureus and albus 
seem to play an important partin many disastrous pro- 
cesses occurring in the eye. Thus,the aureus seems to be 
a very important if not the sole factor in many cases 
of panophthalmitis and phlyctenular conjunctivitis. 

These two series of facts illustrating the harmfulness 
and harmlessness of the staphylococcus aureus and albus 
can be harmonized only by referring them to a varying 
vitality of tissues in different patients or toa varying 
virulence of the bacteria. 

Next an attempt was made to determine whether age 
influenced the kind and number of bacteria in the con- 
junctiva. For this purpose the eyes of twenty old peo- 
ple, ten childern, and forty-six young adults were ex- 
amined. Thirty-three per centof the tubes from young 
adults were sterile; thirty per cent of the tubes from 
old people were sterile; fifty per cent of the tubes 
from childern were sterile. The percentage of sterile 
tubes from adults and old people was about the same 


376 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Nov. 


while there seemed to be somewhat less infection in child- 
ren’s eyes. 

Cultures were also made fromthe conjunctiva as soon 
as possible after rising in the morning and again at even- 
ing. The eyes of eighteen persons were examined in 
the morning soon after rising and the same eyes were ex- 
amiued again at night. In this way it was found that 
of the morning tubes only two were sterile, while of the 
night tubes nine were sterile. It would seem probable, 
then, that the natural cleansing of the eye by the lach- 
rymalsecretion is more efficient during waking hours. 
An attempt was then made to sterilize the eyes of six 
patients. The process of sterilization consisted merely in 
washing the eye, in three cases with boric acid (one 
drachm to one ounce) and in three other cases with bich- 
ioride of mercury, 1 to 5,000. 

After cleansing, the eyes were bandaged with steril- 
ized cotton for twenty-four hours. The bandages were 
then taken off and cultures made from the conjunctive, 

Of the three eyes washed with boric acid, all tubes 
showed colonies which were nearly all of the staphylo- 
coccus albus. Of the tubes obtained from those eyes 
washed with bichloride, one was sterile aud the other 
two infected. The colonies present in these cases were 
also of the staphylococcus albus. Thus, in an attempt 
to sterilize the conjunctive in six cases, only one case 
proved successful. 

Inasmuch as acertain proportion of tubes remain sterile 
after inoculation from the normal conjunctiva without 
sterilization, it seems doubtfull whether the attempted 
sterilization was of any value at all. Bach’s results were 
somewhat more favorable than mine, he rendering six- 
teen cases sterile out of forty-two attempts. Washing 
the conjunctiva cannot be depended on as a means of 
sterilization. A boric-acid washing probably has no 
more valuethan washing with sterilized salt solution. 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 377 


The process is merely a mechanical cleansing, and not 
a sterilization with a germicidal fluid. Inasmuch as the 
orifices of the Meibomian glands and the edges of the lids 
are fruitful sources of infection to the conjunctive, these 
especially should receive a cleansing eitner mechanical or 
germicidal before an operation. 

Dressings over the eye furnish the necessary heat and 
moisture for bacterial growth. To determine how far an 
aseptic dressing placed over the eye affords a good breed- 
ing-place for bacteria, twenty dressings were examined. 
Nine of these came from eyes that had been operated on 
and eleven from eyes that had not been operated on, but 
had been merely bandaged with sterilized dressings for 
twenty-four hours. All of these dressings contained 
large numbers of bacteria. Those inthe dressings from 
the operated eyes differed little in respect to the number 
and kind of bacteria from those in tbe non-operated eyes. 
The staphylococcus albus was present in thirteen dress- 
ings in large numbers, andin four of the dressings the 
the aureus was also found in considerable numbers, yet in 
none of the operated eyes was there any suppuration after 
the operation. The aureus was present in three of the 
bandages from operated eyes and in one of the bandages 
from non-operated eyes. 

Aseptic dressings should be applied only where the 
wound or area of application isaseptic. Antiseptic dress- 
ings would seem better to use over the eyes, as the dress- 
ings are applied to an infected area. 

Incidentally, while making these examinations, cultures 
were also made from six cases of phlyctenular conjunc- 
tivitis, three cases of catarrhal conjunctivitis, and four 
cases of ulcerative keratitis. Three tubes from the cases 
of phlyctenular conjunctivitis were sterile, possibly be- 
cause the cases were inthe later stages of the disease. 
The three remaining tubes gave pure cultures of the 
staphylococcus aureus. 


378 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [ Nov. 


Of the eases of catarrhal conjunctivitis, one showed a 
few bacilli of a kind not identified, one was sterile, and 
one gave aculture of Fraenkel’s diplococcus. 

Of the four cases of ulcerative keratitis, tubes from 
three were sterile. Cultures of the staphvlococcus albus 
developed in the remaining one.—Medzcal Record. 


Some Aqueous Media for Preserving Algae for Class 
Material. 
W. A. SETCHELL, AND W. J. V. OSTERHOUT, 


BERKELEY, CAL., AND PROVIDENCE, R. I. 


There are ordinarily two difficulties in the way of in- 
troducing acareful study of the various marine and fresh 
wateralge into a course in cryptogamic botany. The 
first of these is the obtaining of the material, and the 
second is preserving the material which may be obtained 
in such a fashion that it can be placed before the student 
ina condition to be readily examined and studied with 
nearly as satisfactory results as those afforded by the 
fresh material of the same forms. 

The first difficulty can be overcome more or less readily. 
Fresh water species are more or less abundant in our 
ponds, brooks and rivers, and the increasing facility of 
access to the sea brings the marine forms within the reach 
of many. Especially do the facilities offered by the 
marine laboratories, such as those at Cold Spring Har- 
bor, N. Y., at Woods Holl, Mass., and at Pacific Grove, 
Cal., afford an opportunity for the teacher of botany 
not only to become acquainted with the algal forms and 
their use in the class room, but also to obtain and pre- 
serve a good supply of desirable species in the very best 
condition possible. Under the auspices of the Marine 
Biological Laboratory at Woods Holl, a department of 
Laboratory Supply has been in successful operation for 
several years, and from it all necessary botanical mater- 


1896. ] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 379 


ial may be very satisfactorily and economically ob- 
tained. 

The old method of preserving in strong alcohol shriv- 
elled the specimens to such an extent that the use of 
strong swelling reagents (alkalies or acids) was necessary 
to show anything like the proper degree of detail of 
structure, and while these methods were good for the 
ordinary tougher species,and when applied by students 
of some experience, yet they were very unsatisfactory 
whenapplied to the more delicate forms or when used by 
the more inexperienced manipulators, 

The use of the weaker alcohol, 50-70 per cent accord 
ing to the particular specimen to be preserved, was better 
yet proved decidedly unsatisfactory for the more delicate 
forms. 

The ordinary English method of fixing in a saturated 
solution of picric acid and preserving in strong alcohol 
is a very good one, especially for specimens to be im- 
bedded in paraffin or for special work in connection with 
particular problems. Better still is fixing in some special 
solution such as a saturated solution of picric acid, 0.5-1 
per cent chromic acid, Perenyi’s fluid, Hermann’s mix- 
ture, etc., and transferring through the ordinary grades 
of alcohol, or by dialysis, up to 70 per cent strength and 
preserving in that. 

Such materialis in excellent condition for imbedding 
in paraffin or celloidin, but for the ordinary class work, 
for manipulation by the student himself, the specimens 
must generally be transferred again to water. 

But the preparation by these methods of material for 
a large class in often a considerable task. The more 
delicate forms too are seldom in a thoroughly satisfactory 
condition. 

It has been found to faciliate the class-work on all the 
cryptogams very much to use freezing mcthods in the 
preparation of sections for the class, and either to have 


380 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Nov. 


the sections cut by an assistant or by different members 
of the class at different times. A description of a con- 
venient freezing device and methods of imbeddiug in 
aqueous media will be published by one of us inthe next 
number of this journal. 

Freezing methods and the preservation of natural 
form and size of the different parts withas little changeas 
possible have rendered it very desirable that aqueous 
media be employed if possible for preserving fluids. 

A number of fluids have been subject to experiment by 
the writers for about three years, particularly upon the 
abundant materials of all groups of alge obtained at 
the Marine Biological Laboratory at Woods Holl, Mass. 
‘Itis thought by the writecs that these notes of their ex- 
perience, while containing nothing especially new, may 
serve as useful hints to those who have before them the 
problem of providing and preserving cryptogams for 
laboratory purposes. 

CHROME ALUM.—This substance was used by Guignard 
for fixing various Laminariacew for the purpose of inves- 
tigating the structure and development of the mucilage 
ducts. Later it has been tested at the Biological Station 
at Helgoland by Lotsy upon the red alge particularly 
as to the preservation of the cell-structure. 

The writers have used one per cent chorme alum in 
either distilled water or sea water carefully filtered 
through sand, according to the different habitat, for 
about four years. The alge, carefully selected and 
washed free from dirt anddebris, have been placed in it 
at once and preserved in it until needed for examination. 
The cell structure is well preserved in all cases. Very 
little washing is needed afterwards to allow staining by 
any of the ordinary staining reagents. Gelatinous inter- 
cellular substances, whether soft or more cartilaginous, 
are rendered firm but not especially opaque by treatment 
with it. Cyanophycex, Chlorophycee, and Rhodophy- 


1896. ] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL 381 


cee do very wellindeed. Pheophyceex, almost without 
exception, are rendered brittle in a short time, but while 
this renders them troublesome to manage, yet specimens 
prepared in this way and soaked out in water are excel- 
lent for study by crushing methods. It is the intercel- 
lular substance that is rendered brittle andsuch forms as 
species of Leathesia, Mesogloia, Laminaria, etc., when 
crushed, spread out and show the cell structure and cell 
arrangement ina very satisfactory fashion. The coloris 
not retained perfectly, but is ordinarily retained more 
than by any other of ‘the media we have tried. 

The Chlorophycee lose all of their green, or nearly 
all. The Cyanophycex and Rhodophycee often retain 
considerable (especially if kept away from the light), 
geverally at least enough to assist materially in the ex- 
amination of the chromatophores, while the Pheophvcee 
lose very littleof their intensity. Specimens preserved 
in chrome alum must be kept in glass-stoppered jars, 
carefully closed, as the solution is Hable to become in- 
vaded by various molds. A little finely divided camphor- 
gum at the top will prevent this, as will also a small 
quantity of formalin. Chrome alum solution has a cer- 
tain corrosive action upon metals; so that metal tops to 
the preserving jars should be avoided, and specimens to 
be sectioned free-hand or with the freezing microtome 
methods, should haveat leastthe greater part of the alum 
removed by washing. 

One per cent chrome alum is also an excellent preserv- 
ing fluid for use with fungi of the various groups, for 
the mosses, for ferns and for flowering plants, better in 
all cases than the strong alcohol commonly. used, but 
probably not superior to the various percentages of for- 
malin, except in the case of gelatinous forms. Spirogyra 
cells keep well in 1 percent chrome alum, the chroma- 
tophores, pyrenoids, nuclei and protoplasmic sac and 
threads showing very well indeed. Specimens kept in a 


382 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Nov. 


cork-stoppered bottle in chrome alum showed a very dis- 
tinct dark steel-blue stain affecting the nucleolus most, 
the nucleus and the chromatophores; and this remained 
after washing in water, dehydrating, and mounting in 
Canada balsam. 

With chrome alum, as well as all other preserving 
media, a fairly large proportion of fluid should be used. 

ForRMALIN,—Formalin, formalose, or 40 per cent for 
maldehyde, according to the trade name, has in the last 
two years become very popular with both zoologists and 
botanists. It is not necessary for us to go into the lit- 
erature, but we have found that the 1 to 2 per cent solu- 
tion of the formalin (1 to 2cc formalin in 99 to 98cce distilled 
water or sea water) makes a solution sufficiently powerful 
to kill, fix, and preserve any ordinary vegetable tissue. 
While the color fades more rapidly than with chrome 
alum, the cell contents are preserved equally well. For 
Phwophycex, a 2 per cent formalin solution is the very 
best fluid which we have tried. Cyanophycee preserve 
their structure but not the gelatinous matrix so well, since 
this is liable to shrink under the influence of formalin. 
Delicate Rhodophycew, such as Griffithsia, Callithamnion 
Dasya, etc., keep their full form better than in any other 
fluid. Chlorophycew do equally well. Formalin solu- 
tions containing organic materials become acid after a 
short time and this may tend to alter the cell-contents or 
the intercellular substance slightly, but in preparations 
kept for nearly two years this is not sufficiently marked 
to be especially noticeable. Formalin in the same per- 
centages works excellently for fungi and the higher 
plants. Toadstools are preserved in their natural shapes 
and in more or less of their natural colors avcording to 
the species. 

CAMPHOR WATER.—Camphor-gum is sparingly soluble in 
water, but the solution is very prejudicial to the life of 
micro-organisms. Camphorated water is very useful 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 383 


when considerable collections have been made and can- 
not be examined for several hours. In such cases small 
pieces of camphor-gum strewn in the water help to keep 
the »lge from putrefying until they can be studied or 
properly sorted and preserved. Formalin is useful also 
for this purpose, but the acidity produced changes the 
color quicker than is the case in camphorated water. 
For preserving Cyanophycer, campbor water keeps the 
cell structure well if present in large volume, propor- 
tional to the amount of material, but the coloring matter 
is soon disolved, Chlorophycee, Pheophycee and Rho- 
dophycee, if well sorted and cleaned, are well preserved 
in abundance of the fluid, even the finer details of cell 
structure being preserved perfectly. But perhaps the 
most important use of camphor water is to preserve speci- 
mens already fixed by other fluids. Specimens of the 
larger Rhodophycee, killed and fixed in concentrated 
aqueous solution of picric acid are preserved to especia) 
advantage in camphor water; as one of us has experienced 
in special work upon Rhabdonia tenera Ag. 

SUMMARY OF RESULTS.—Cyanophycee are best prepared 
wlth a solution containing 1 per cent chrome alum and 
one per cent formalin. This solution renders the gelat- 
inous sheath and matrices firm, keeps the cell contents 
in avery natural condition, and retains in most cases the 
colors in their ordinary tints. One to two per cent 
formalin solution preserves the cell contents very well in- 
deed, but does not keep the color well, or the softer gelat- 
inoussheathand matrices. Camphor water isnot very favor- 
able for many blue-greens. Many species must needs be 
preserved in mass, and are associated with many bacteria 
and the camphor solution is hardly strong enough to 
wrestle successfully with the latter. 

Chlorophycee are very satisfactorily preserved in any of 
these media. Chrome alum is to be preferred in most 
cases, but some species are rendered very brittle as, e.g., 


384 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Nov. 


membranaceous forms like Ulva lactena. Such forms 
are of course better if placed in simple formalin solu- 
tion, . 

Phacophycee do well when placed immediately in 1 per 
cent formalin in salt water. The larger forms are better 
fixed in 1 per cent chrome alum for a few hours (3-6) and 
then preserved in 2 per cent formalin solution of camphor 
water. But specimens for crushing may be allowed to 
remain indefinitely in the chrome alum solution. 

Rhodophycee. The coarser forms may be put into any 
one of the three solutions and be in very excellent con- 
dition; chrome alum preserves more color than formalin 
or camphor water, For the finer study, specimens are 
best left in a concentrated solution of picric acid in sea 
water for twenty-four hours, then washed, preferably in 
sea water, for about twenty-four hours more, and pre- 
served in camphorated sea water. Such genera as Nema- 
lion, Champia, Rhabdonia, Cystoclonium, etc., respond 
best to this treatment. Delicate species need very care- 
full consideration. Griffithsia bornetiana is a most 
delicate species and, preserved in almost any way, col- 
lects itself together into a shapeless mass; the cells lose 
their shape, and it becomes a very uninviting object for 
study. But place in 2 per cent formalin in sea water 
with plenty of fluid so as not to be crushed, the cells 
keep their shape and the whole plant presents a life-like 
appearance as far as form goes. The color of course 
departs. The same thing is true of various species of 
Callithamnion, such as C. baileyi, C. borreri, C. seiro- 
spermum, etc. Dasya elegans has a way of dropping its 
hairs on being preserved, and the more delicate species 
of Polysiphonia break up into short pieces, but either 
formalin or chrome alum will prevent this if the speci- 
mens are fairly fresh when put into the preserving solu- 
tion.— Botanical Gazette. 


1890] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL 385 


Special Staining Methods in Microscopy, Relative to Animal 
Tissues and Cells. 


5. THE MUCIN CONSTITUENTS OF NEUROFIBROMATA AND OF THE CEN- 
TRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM. By DR. P. G. Unna. Translated by A. 
Habermaas, M. D., St. Louis. 

The beautiful specific red stain, which all mucin con- 
stituents of the skin (mast-—cells, the mucin metamor- 
phosis of collagen and epithelium) assume when treated 
with the polychrome-methylene-blue and properly decol- 
orized, has led to some new discoveries which I shall 
briefly describe. 

Some time ago I was impressed with the number of 
mast-cells in the neurofibrous tissue of a neurofibroma of 
the skin. In distinction to the cutaneous tissue surround- 
ing it, which manifests the ordinary collagen, the tissue 
of the nodule,as the epoch-making work of Ruckling- 
housen has shown, consists of a very peculiar variety of 
collagen. The latter isnot only destitute of elastin, for 
this peculiarity it shares with other varieties of fibromata 
but is also peculiarly transparent and soft and manifests 
a remarkably regular structure, which corresponds to that 
of the epineurium, Unlike the surrounding cutis, when 
treated by the orcein-methylene-blue method, it presents 
an affinity forthe methylene-blue instead of the orcein 
and assumes so marked a stain that in a well-prepared 
intercellular stain it can be distinguished from the adja- 
cent tissue by the naked eye. It consists of a soft, 
rather amorphous, collagenous material, showing no fib- 
rillar bundles, and in which at regular intervals spindle- 
cells, meagre in protoplasm, with rod-like nucleus, as well 
as large mast-cells, of a remarkably round form, are im- 
bedded. If the neurofibrous tissue within the cutis were 
not differentiated from that of ordinary cutaneous fib- 
romata by the fact that it arises from a nerve, that it 
develops from the connective tissue of the epineurium, 
and by the peculiar variety of its collagen, the great 


386 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Nov. 


number, regular distribution and general round form of 
its mast-cells would distinguish it beyond doubt. 

The discovery referred to pertains to these peculiarly 
distributed and formed mast-cells of neurofibromata, 
In some recently prepared nodules of such a neurofibroma 
the mast-cells under the new stain (polychrome-methylene 
blue, glycerin-ether mixture) appear twice the usual size. 
This is due to the staining of a large round area, in 
whose center the mast-cell itself lies, consisting of a blue 
nucleus and an area of dark-red granules. Under higher 
power this area is foung to consist of a fine spongy 
reticulum, and is not granular, although it takes up the 
same red stain as the granules. We have here to deal 
with a spongioplasm peculiar to the mast-cells. A more 
minute examination of these cells shows that the area 
described does not surround the nucleus with its granular 
area equally on all sides, but only on one side, Most 
often the red spongioplasm, resembling an open shell, 
and in which the nucleus and its granules lie, is found 
more or less deeply situated. Sometimes processes of 
the spongioplasm surround the contained nucleus, meet- 
ing from both sides, so that the latter appears to be 
enveloped in a sloak, though not completely. In other 
instances the area is represented by an irregular plate, 
giving off thread-like processes in various directions and 
upon which the mast-cell (nucleus and granules) appears 
to lie These cellssomewhat resemble the ‘‘winged-cell” 
of tendons. 

Again, in this instance bell-shaped, spongy masses are 
observed, with broad, veil-like processes, in whose con- 
cavity the nucleus and its granules lie. 

That the area surrounding the mast-cell really belongs 
to the latter, andis not an independent structure surround- 
ing the cell, is proven by the many pictures in which 
the spot can be clearly distinguished where the cell com- 
municates with the mast-shell. At this point, the proto- 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 387 


plasm surrounding the granules, though usually unstained 
but by this method stained diffusely red. is seen to pass 
over into the protoplasm of theshell. The shell is a con- 
tinuation of the sponge protoplasm, not the granular area 
at a distance, coming in direct communication with it 
only atone point. For this reason in certain sections 
the granular area appears to be free, while the cell of red 
spongioplasm surrounds it at a distance, attaching itself 
to the wall of the lymph-space in which the mast-cell lies. 
Such pictures, examined alone, might lead to the mis- 
taken assumption that this shell were an independent 
membrance, lining the lymp-space, or a deposit of mucus 
on the wallsof the same. Itis only necessary toknow 


and it can always be demonstrated is a good collagen- 
stain—that in neurofibromata every mast-cell is sur- 
rounded by a rather regularly rounded lymph-space; 
lining this in a more or less flattened manner, like endo- 
thelium, lies the spongy shell, while the granular area 
lies within this, attached to it at about its midst. 

Since the other structures which exhibit the mast-cell 
reaction are not generally known, I shall add a few 
remarks concerning them. The original form of ordinary 
mast-cells, first recognized by Ehrlich, whieh arise by 
acid decolorization or neutralization (?) of basic dyes is 
that of aspherical, oval, spindle-shaped or irregularly 
twisted or branching group of granules, whose connect- 
ing protoplasm (spongioplasm) and nucleus are colorless 
and therefore invisible. The same forms are also ob- 
tained by neutral decolorization perferably polychrome- 
methylene-blue and decolorization with the glycerin-ether 
mixture, or a neutral orcein solution, with this differ- 
ence, that in the group of granules (red) the nucleus is 
also stained (blue); the surrounding protoplasm is also 
generally stained somewhat. 

Besides these generally well-known varieties, there are 
some which occur less frequently and may be unknown 


388 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY © [Nov. 


to some histologists. First, and this quite often, the 
mast-cell is surrounded by irregularly scattered granules 
which resemble the granules of mast-cells. These may 
be considered free mucin, which will be taken up by the 
mast-cells, or has been shed by them. I consider the 
latter opinion the correct one. Ina carcinoma I once 
found the connective tissue in parts thickly studded with 
mast-cell granules. 

The second variety requires neutral decolorization, and 
is therefore not so well known. In this variety individual 
mast-cells are surrounded by a homogeneous substance, 
which manifests the reaction of the mast-cell granules, but 
contains no granules. In these we are dealing with 
either a mucin meta-morphosis of the intercellular sub- 
stance, or withthe ‘“shell-plates” described above, though 
not easily identified as such. This variety I have found 
most often in fresh scar tissue. 

Thirdly, by neutral decolorization, in a variety of skin 
diseases, mast-cells can be demonstrated which present 
the usual form, but are peculiar in this respect, that they 
show the usual granulation only at one pole, or arranged 
laterally, instead of around the nucleus. The rest of the 
cell-body is constructed like that of an ordinary spindle- 
shaped connective tissue cell. I consider this variety to 
be mast-celisin process of development. 

Fourthly, by the same process of decolorization mast- 
cells can be demonstrated which present the usual form, 
but distinguished by the spongioplasm containing the 
granules, which assumes the same diffused red stain as 
the latter. The cells are to be considered either as mast- 
cells supersaturated with mucin, or as such in which the 
mast-cell granulation has become liquefied and dissolved. 

Of these four rarer forms, which are, however, often 
met with by proper staining methods the second and 
fourth, as is seen, bear some relation to the fifth variety 
herein described and known as the “mast-cell with shell- 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 389 


b] 


plate.’’ For in them we see an extra intracellular diffuse 
stain of thesame nature as that observed in the granules. 
From this we may conclude that the mast-cells with 
“shell-plate”’ are to be considered the most complete, 
richest in mucin, and, so to speak, hypertrophic variety 
of mast-cells. We are dealing with a _ far-advanced 
mucin metamorphosis of connective tissue cells, which 
thus far has only been observed in neurofibromata. 

After these investigations there can be no doubt but 
that the collagenous substance, which characterizes 
neurofibromata from other cutaneous fibromata, contains 
an amount of mucin peculiar to itself. The mast cells 
develop to a remarkable extent and here and there diffuse 
red stains, which do not belong to ordinary collagenous 
tissue, are observed, and which depend upon its mucin 
constituents. Do these constituents bear any relation to 
a development from nervous tissue? Is the greater 
abundance of methylene-red elements a characteristic of 
neurofibrous tissue in contradistinction to other varieties 
of fibrous tissue and of neurofibromata as opposed to 
other cutaneous fibromata? 

Perhaps a second discovery, made by the aid of the 
same staining methods, may throw some light upon this 
as yet unsettled question. In preparing sections of the 
spinal cord and medulla of man and rabbit I found that 
a large portion of a transverse section, especially of the 
white substance (anterior, posterior and lateral columns), 
was normally thickly studded with small bodies, which 
manifested a red mucin reaction similar to that of the 
mast-cells, These are of the most varied form and size, 
and partly fill in the interstices between the axis cylin- 
ders and veuroglia of the white substance. They are 
homogeneous in structure and, with the decolorization 
mentioned, they take up a complete red stain, merging 
into blue. The largest red bodies lie within the middle 
and inner zone of the white substance, Toward the 


390 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Nov. 


periphery they become ae smaller and gr adually dis- 
appear as they reach the margin. 

Similar small bodies, of the same reaction, are also 
found in the anterior and posterior horns of the gray sub- 
stance; likewise in the nerve trunks as they leave the 
spinal cord, where they rapidly diminish in number and 
size. Within the gray substance they follow the course 
of the nerve fibres which traverse it, but are distributed 
far more sparingly and irregularly than within the white 
columns. 

Referring to the distribution of the red masses thus 
far described, I mnst not fail to remark that among the 
many methods of demonstrating them, which I shall 
detail below, there are very few which show the entire 
distribution of these masses. The glycerin-ether mix- 
ture isthe means peculiarly adapted for the demonstra- 
tion of mucin bodies. By most other methods, the small 
and less markedly stained bodies are lost to view and only 
a limited number of them remain, varying in the different 
preparations. Ina complete demonstration, it can be 
shown thatthe mucin constituents make upa surprisingly 
large proportion of a transverse section of the cord, prob- — 
ably over one-third. It isa difficult matter to describe 
the form of these bodies; and to do so carefully would 
carry us beyond the scope of this article.. I think the 
reader can obtain an adequate idea of their appearance 
if he takes variously-shaped slips of red silk-paper and 
by irregularly folding and concentrically rolling them, 
shape them into small rods. Then let him cut them into 
pieces of varying size. Some of these pieces will remain 
compact, others will partly enroll and resemble shell- 
like, laminated structures, with irregular processes; still 
others will fall apart into very thin membranes, hollow 
rods and small flat shavings. All such forms are pres- 
ent in the greatest variety and abundance—rounded, 
large and small, apparently solid lumps; likewise hollow 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. ook 


rods, laminated, crushed and rolled membranes, shapes 
resembling slates, book-covers and shells, to the smallest 
forms which possess a certainresemblance to various forms 
of bacteria, 

The greater the number of bodies brought to view the 
greater variety of forms is observed, while the methods 
which stain only a limited portion of them select 
special forms. Thus we sometimes find only small flat 
or rod-like bodies, ur larger shell-like and hoilow cylin- 
drical bodies, which line the nerve channels in a narrow 
layer without coming in direct contact with the nervse 
at any point. If we stain a series of spinal-cord sections 
by various methods, it will be possible to bring out 
certain bodies in every section, differing in form and 
color, but similar in the four following respects, and 
therefore plainly related to one another: 1, in their par- 
aneural position; 2, in their affinity for methylene-blue; 
3, in their homogeneous structure; 4, in their form, trace- 
able to the fundamental plan of a shell-like structure. 

From these different pictures, brought out by different 
staining methods on similarly prepared alcoholic sections 
we must not conclude that we are dealing with artificial 
products, but with masses of different chemical composi- 
tion, whose individual constituents are made visible to a 
varied extent and degree by different staining methods. 
—St. Louis Medical and Surgical Journal. 


To be concluded next month. 


The Bath Waters. 


At a recent meeting of the Bath Microscopical Society, 
Mr. J. W. Morris, F. L. 8., read an extremely interest- 
ing paper on ‘“ Hazel Nuts and their Crystallised Con- 
tents found in the course of Excavations at the Roman 
Baths.” 

Mr, Morris explained that the subject which he had 


392 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Nov. 


to bring before them had come to light, if he might use 
such an expression, in rather an accidental way. There 
was nothing at all novel or strange in the fact of hazel 
nuts being found among the Roman remains, They had 
been found from time to time for centuries past, and 
there were a good many of them in the cases at the 
pump room. The odd thing was that through these 
long ages nobody ever thought of ‘inquiring within up- 
on everything,’ until the results were discovered which 
were being placed before them. The frequent occurrence 
of the nuts was noted by Stukeley, who in 1724 wrote as 
follows :—“ It is remarkable that at the cleansing of the 
springs, when they set down a new pump, they con- 
stantly found great quantities of hazel nuts as in many 
other places among subterraneous timber. These I 
doubt not to be the remains of the famous and univer- 
sal deluge, which the Hebrew historian tells us was in 
the autumn, Providence securing by that means the re- 
vival of the vegetable world.” 

A sufficiently curious comment, but still nothing like 
so curious as the fact that with the nuts to hand and the 
microscope at their elbow, no one had thought of looking to 
see what was inside them. On one occasion, in the ear- 
lier days of the excavation, a man came up with some of 
the nuts in his hand,and he (Mr. Morris) had no sooner 
taken them up then he noticed something gleam through 
a crack in one of them, This brought the pocket-lens 
outand then he saw that there was really something 
to investigate. The contents proved to be various kinds 
of crystals, which were not only interesting and beauti- 
ful, but were in many respects important, as bearing 
testimony on one or two points in connection with the 
Bath mineral waters. In some cases the kernel was 
found to have been converted into solid calcite ; in.others 
it had perished, and the shell or testa of the nut was 
lined with crystals. In some instances where the nuts 


1896. ] MICROSCCPICAL JOURNAL 393 


had been cracked, water had infiltrated through, the 
cracks. The water which came in poured with it the 
pulverized, smashed, and crushed atoms of broken crys- 
tals, and strewed over the projecting peaks and pin- 
nacles of the carbonate of lime, a perfect shower as if a 
snowstorm had descended upon the Alps. A curious 
thing was that in the clefts of these peaks he had found 
the sporangia and the scale of a fern. Some of the 
nuts were filled with quartz sand just like that pre- 
served at the Royal Baths, and on searching through 
this they found curious evidences of organic remains. 

The microscope showed him a spray of Selaginella 
absolutely to be identified, while close by were a number 
of the spines of Echini. ‘These must have been washed 
into the nut through cracks. Projecting from the sides, 
or lining the testa of the nuts, crystals of strontia were 
found, being readily recognizable by their blue tinge 
and their radiating fan-shaped distribution. There was 
also arragonite. Carbonate of lime, when mixed with a 
little strontia, would frequently yield arragonite, but 
the latter was very apt to fall from the surface on 
which it was formed, as it had in the case of one of his 
best specimens that evening on the way to the Institu- 
tion. They found in these crystals curious evidences of 
change of temperature. In many instances a change of 
temperature had caused the carbonate of lime to take 
the form of arragonite and in others the form of calcite. 
The strontia crystals, radiating and bundled like a 
closed fan, had a magnificent sheen upon them, and 
were remarkably beautiful. 

If they took the analysis of Bath waters, they would 
find it stated in some of them that traces of strontia 
were found; in other instances, it would be said that 
traces of strontia were suspected. Was it not an inter- 
esting thing, therefore, that what by chemical analysis 


of the water was ‘“suspected”’ or barely traced, they 


394 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Nov. 


could now by this natural process show as actual crys- 
tals ? 

The question naturally arose how far these crystals 
were due to the action of the Bath waters at different 
temperatures on these nuts, either by coming through 
cracks or absolutely finding their way through the pores 
of the shell, and how far they might be due to the 
properties of the hazel nut. He was at one time half 
disposed to think that he must credit the hazel with 
some share of the performance, but he was rather dis- 
posed to give that theory up, as one day he had acci- 
dentally discovered similar crystals in the skull ofa 
Romano-Brittonat the Pump Room. Another curious 
feature about these hazel nuts was that the spiral fibre 
was found to have remained, although the nuts them- 
selves had perished. It was sufficiently perfect for the 
instruction of a Botany class. The lecture also con- 
tained other points of interest, and Mr. Morris was 
heartily thanked for delivering it. The specimen _.- 
hibited by Mr. Morris were of great interest and beauty. 
—The International Journal of Microscopy and Natural 
Science. 


The Tsetse Fly Disease in Zululand. 


The tsetse fly disease, called ‘‘ magana”’ by the natives, 
occurs in the horse, donkey, ox, and dog, and varies in 
duration from a few days or weeks to many months. It 
is uniformly fata] to the horse, donkey and dog, but of 
the cattle affected with it few recover. It is character- 
ized by fever, more or less rapid destruction of the red 
blood corpuscles, extreme emaciation, and infiltration 
of voagulable lymph into the subcutaneous tissue of the 
neck, abdomen, or extremities, which consequently be- 
come swollen. Post-mortem examination shows the pres- 
ence of a yellow, gelatinous material in the subcutane- 
ous tissue and under the serous covering of the heart, 


~ poe 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 395 


ecchymoses in various regions, and congestion and fatty 
degeneration of many organs. The tsetse fly (Glossina 
morsitans, Westwood), is about 11 mm. or seven six- 
teenths of an inch in length, and has transparent wings 
about 10 mm. long. On the upper surface of the abdomen 
there is a longitudinal yellow line with four yellow lines 
erossing it at right angles. In 1894 Surgeon-Major 
David Bruce, A. M.S., discovered that the blood of ani- 
mals suffering from the tsetse fly disease invariably con- 
tained a hematozodn which had not been previously 
observed in Africa, but which he considers to be either 
identical with or closely resembling the Trypanosoma 
Evansi found in surra, a disease occurring in India and 
‘Burmah; surra, however, as known in India, does not 
affect cattle. In fresh blood these hematozoa are seen 
as actively moving transparent elongated bodies, in 
thickness about a quarter of the diameter of a red cor- 
puscle, and in length about two or three times the dia- 
meter of a corpuscle. One end is bluntly pointed and 
the other is prolonged into a very fine lash, which is in 
constant whiplike motion; the body is cylindrical and has 
a transparent, delicate, longitudinal membrane or fin, 
which is also in constant motion. Surgeon-Major Bruce 
believes that the fly acts only as a carrier of these mi- 
crobes from infected to susceptible animals, and does 
not cause the disease by means of any poison elaborated 
by itself. A limited number of flies may bite a sus- 
ceptible animal over and over again without producing 
any ill effect, but, when a horse is taken into the fly 
country for even a few hoars, or when numerous suc- 
cessive relays of flies freshly caught in the fly country 
and brought into a healthy district are made to settle 
on an animal there, the disease is almost inevitably set 
up. Five flies kept in a cage with muslin sides were 
allowed to bite the shaved abdomen of a small dog every 
two days from September 25th to November 28th, but 


396 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Nov. 


the animal remained quite healthy. On the other hand, 
flies which had fed for a short time ona dog affected 
with fly disease were allowed to bite another dog on> 
November 21st, 23rd, 25th and 29th, the effect being 
that on December 5th hematozoa were found in its blood. 
In order to show that neither food nor water is the 
channel by which the disease is conveyed, two healthy 
horses, provided with network nosebags, were taken into 
the fly country from about 10 A. M. to 4 P. M. on Sep- 
tember 19th, 24th, and 29th, but were not allowed to 
graze or drink. Many flies settled on them and they 
both contracted the disease, one on October 4th, and the 
other about October 28th. Another experiment was 
made by bringing to Ubombo tsetse flies caught in the: 
low country and allowing them to bite a healthy horse; 
129 flies were used in this way in ten days, from Nov- 
ember 22d to December 14th, the horse fell ill on Dec- 
ember 15th and the hematozoa were found in its blood. 
The source from which the fly obtains the hematozoa still 
remains to be discovered.—Lancet. ‘ 


The Charlotte Medical Journal.—In the August num- 
ber of this valuable paper, we find among seven original 
communications two articles of interest tothe bacteriolog- 
ist. Clinical observations upon the use of antitoxin in 
diphtheria, and a report of a personal investigation of this 
treatment in the principal fever hospitals of Europe 
during the summer of 1895, by Joseph E. Winters, M. D., 
New York—and Diphtheria treated with Antitoxin, by W, 
Ro oBitch, Mo D., Durham, N.C. 


Dr. Muller of Vienna has described certain particles 
found in the blood under the name of hemokonia (blood- 
dust). They resemble fat-glebules, and the largest are 
1-25000 of an inch in diameter. They are motile and are 
unaffected by osmic acid. 


1896] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 397 


EDITORIAL. 


Wisdom vs. Knowledge.—In the address of Rev. W. J. 
Holland, which we have thought worthy of a place on pages 
368-70 it will be noticed that he weclomed the Microscopists 
to Pittsburg as persons, ‘‘who are wiser then Solomon.” 
Being a clergyman as wellas a scientist he probably knows 
the difference between Wisdom and Knowledge and would 
readily admit that he used the word ‘‘wiser’’ improperly. 

No one can deny that our scientists have very much 
more knowledge of nature than Solomon possessed. Dr. 
Holland well illustrates this fact. But knowledge is not 
wisdom and many of the learned men of today are notor- 
iously lacking in wisdom. Many of the scientists deny 
the possibility of that element which distinguishes wisdom 
from knowledge. Hence their frequent use of the two 
words as synomymous—a most grievous fault. These 
are not the columns in which to describe the characters 
of wisdom. Suffice the protest and statement that there 
is a gulf between wisdom and knowledge. ‘The micro- 
scopists cannot be flattered properly with having a tenth 
of the wisdom of Solomon, but they have vast stores of 
knowledge which he did not possess. 


MICROSCOP{CAL MANIPULATION. 


Smegma Bacilli and Tubercle Bacilli.—Mendelsohn 
reports a case in which the patient’s urine contained much 
pus and granular detritus. The urine from the right 
ureter was clear, while cystoscopy demonstrated that the 
pus and detritus escaped from the left ureter. Tubercle 
bacilli were found in the urine. Nevertheless, the extir- 
pation revealed a stone in the diseased kidney and no 
evidence of tuberculosis. 

Von Leyden calls attention to the frequency with which 
the bacillustuberculosis has beenconfused with the smegma 
bacillus, especially as the two have certain morphological 
resemblances and their staining reactions are not dissimilar 


398 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Nov. 


They are differentiated as follows: 1. Smegma bacilli, 
stained by anilin dyes, lose their stain on two-minute treat- 
ment with acidulated alcohol, while tubercle bacilli do not 
thus destain. 2. Smegma bacilli lose their stain under 
Gram’s stain, while tubercle bacilli retain anilin-fuchsin 
staining. 3. A cover-glass preparation of tubercle bacilli 
carried through the flame ten times and stained with Ziehl’s 
solution, presents the bacillus ina somewhat granular form 
or as composed of a succession of spherules; the smegma 
bacillus remains asolid rod under the same treatment. 

Leyden records several mistakes made before the identi- 
fication of the smegma bacillus. Konig publishes a case 
of enlarged kidney, with tubercle bacilli (so-called) in the 
urineand unmistakable pulmonary phthisis. ‘The tubercle 
bacilli were, however, smegma bacilli, and the renal tumor 
Was Sarcoma. Senator has seen many cases of alleged 
tubercular cystitis recover, which he could explain only on 
the assumption that smegma bacilli contaminated the urine 
of a vulgar cystitis. This author has written on the dif- 
ferentiation between the two varieties of bacilli in his con- 
tribution to Nothnagel’s System of Special Pathology and 
Therapy, now issuing from the German press. 

Fraenkel avoided many mistakes by carefully cleansing 
the genitaliaand then catheterizing. He has used Ehrlich’s 
stain (gentian violet) for tubercle bacilli, which method, 
on destaining with nitric acid, leaves smegma micro-organ- 
isms without stain. The ‘‘caterpillar’’-like arrangement 
of the tubercle bacilli is not observed in the other genus.— 
Medicine. 


Microscopical Examination of Flour.—Lange gives the 
following method: Boilthe sample in a hard-glass test- 
tube with 20 ccm. concentrated sulphuric acid and 4 gm. 
copper sulphate (free from water) until the liquid becomes 
entirely clear, Dilute the liquid with 250 ccm. distilled 
water, usinga conical settling glass. Let stand fora few 
minutes and with a pipette withdraw the precipitate. The 
latter consists of the hairs and silicious cells of the grain, 
the nature of which latter may thus be determined.— 
National Druggtst. 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 399 


Methylen Blue.—A few points observed in the use of 
Erlich’s methylen blue method by the investigators in the 
Marine Biological Laboratory at Woods Holl, Mass., may 
be of general interest. 

The method has been successfully applied during the 
past summer to the study of the nervous system ina great 
variety of forms, including vertebrates, crustacea, annelids, 
echinoderms and tunicates. 

Ehrlich’s ¢ntra vitam methylen'blue, prepared by Grubler, 
was used for staining the nerve tissues. The stain was 
applied by injecting a 1-% per cent solution of the methy- 
len blue made in normal salt solution, into the blood ves- 
sels, body cavity or lymph spaces or by immersing small 
animals or excised pieces of nerve tissue in a weak solu- 
tion. 

The method of application and strength of the solution 
were determined by experiment for eachanimal and tissue. 
During the action of the stain, the animal or tissue was 
kept as nearly as possible inits normal condition. Every- 
thing seems to depend on keeping the tissue alive, and in 
bringing the stain in contact with it in a solution of a 
strength suitable for obtaining the best results. 

The abundant supply of oxygen to the staining tissue 
was of great importance in some cases, while in others it 
seemed to make little difference. 

It was found, as suggested by Dr. C. Huber, that animals 
which live in the dark, stain better in the darkthan in the 
light. 

The relaxation of the tissues by the use of chloroform 
or chloral hydrate seemed to be more favorable for the 
staining of some elements of the nervous systen, while 
others did not stain which stained in the unchloroformed 
animal. 

It was found that recently caught and perfectly normal 
animals stained more satisfactorily than those which had 
been kept in confinement for some time, unless under very 
favorable conditions. 

In the case of the dogtish, active animals were killed by 
decapitation. The stain was applied by injecting a 1-% 


400 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Nov. 


per cent solution of the methylen blue into the blood ves- 
sels for the central nervous system and by immersing 
small pieces of nerve tissue in a weak solution of the stain 
for the sense organs. 

The length of time required for the intra vitam staining 
varied widely, annelids requiring 4-5 hours, while dogfish 
only require 1—% hours, either by injection or by immers- 
ing the tissue in the stain. 

When small transparent pieces of tissue were to be 
examined, they were fixed ina saturated solution of picrate 
of ammonia in distilled water from 2-4 hours and were 
then mounted in a mixture of equal parts of pure glycerine 
and distilled water to which a small quantity of picrate of 
ammonia is added. When opaque or large pieces were 
fixed in this way they were sectioned by the freezing 
method. After fixing in the picrate of ammonia, the tissue 
was placed ina saturated solution of sugar for one hour 
and was then transferred to a piece of blotting paper to 
remove the syrup from its surface. It was then placed 
in a thick solution of gum arabic for fifteen minutes and 
then transferred to the plate of the freezing microtome, 
where it was frozen by means of liquid carbonic acid. The 
sections were mounted in dilute glycerine as in the other 
case. ‘The principal advantage of this method is its rapid- 
ity, but neither serial sections nor those of equal thickness 
can be obtained. 

In order to obtain serial sections by the paraffine method, 
the tissues were fixed in Berthe’s Fluid. 

FOR VERTEBRATES. 

Molybdate of ammonia, 1 gram. 
Distilled water, 10 c. c. 
Hydrochloric acid, 1 drop. 
Peroxide of Hydrogen, 1 c. c. 

FOR INVERTEBRATES. 
Molybdate of ammonia, 1 gram. 
Distilled water, 10 c. c. 
Peroxide of Hydrogen, % c. c. 


A different formula is used for tissues of invertebrates, 


1896. ] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL 401 


as less oxygen is required*than for vertebrates. The fix- 
ing fluid must be cooled on ice before placing the tissue 
init. After remaining in the cold fixing fluid for from 2-4 
hours the tissue is thoroughly washed with cold water, 
which generally takes about two hours although it has 
been continued for twelve hours without injury. 

It is necessary to removeall the molybdate of ammonia 
by thorough washing if permanent preparations are to be 
secured. 

The tissue is then passed rapidly, ten to fifteen minutes 
in each, through the ordinary grades of alcohol to absolute, 
all being kept cold with ice. The tissue should be left in 
the absolute alcohol for about two hours at a freezing tem- 
perature and the alcohol bechanged severaltimes. Thestain 
is dissolved by dilute alcohol at ordinary temperatures. 

Dr. Huber’s plan of placing the tissue directly in cold 
absolute alcohol on removing it from the water and chang- 
ing several times for a period of two hours, gave good re- 
sults. 

After thorough dehydration the tissue is placed in xylol 
for 12-24 hours and changed several times. It is then 1m- 
bedded in paraffine in the usual way. 

The most complete and in every way Satisfactory stain- 
ing of the sensory nervous system was obtained by two or 
three injections of a % per cent solution of Erlich’s methy- 
len blue at intervals of from 15:to 20 minutes, both with 
vertebrates and invertebrates, as suggested by Semi 
Meyer. 

()'The tissues relaxed after the first injection, sothat more 
fluid was introduced by the second and third injections 
than by the first. 

The use of chloroform was found to be wholly unneces- 
sary by this method. Meyer uses a very strong solution of 
B. X. methylen blue, 5 per cent to 6 per cent, in water. 

The paraffine sections should generally be quite thick 
(45-60 mm.)— Zhe American Naturatist. 


Blood Stains.—Blood stains may be removed from the 
hands by the use of tartaric acid. 


402 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Nov. 


BACTERIOLOGY. 


A Bacterial Disease of the Squash-bug.—Some squash- 
bugskept forexperimental purposes were found to bedying 
in considerable numbers, in an apparently healthful en- 
vironment. ‘The disease was readily passed on to other 
bugs. The distressed insects became sluggish, and very 
weak, and finally died, the body becoming a mass of gruel 
like fluid. Cultures were made from dead insects upon 
various nutrient media, agar-agar, bouillon, gelatin, milk, 
etc., giving colonies of a bacillus. Inoculation of this bac- 
illus produced the disease in healthy bugs. Infusions 
of different cultures were found to have characteristic 
toxic properties. Bugs placed in these infusions died 
with every symptom of distress. Preparations of the 
blood of diseased insects showed a short bacillus, single or 
in pairs. ‘The tissues of the insects break down under the 
erowth of these organisms, which probably enter insects 
through the spiracles.—4. M. Duggar before the Botanical 
Society of America at Buffalo. 


Professor Chantemesse bought at the Paris markets 
French, English, Belgian and Portuguese oysters and 
found in them the presence of numerous germs, and 
especially that of the coli bacillus. 


A recently published report of investigations of the 
effects of tobacco during the epidemic of cholera at Ham- 
burg states that there were no live microbes after twenty- 
four hours in the cigars made up with water containing 
1,500,000 cholera microbes to the cubic centimeter. 


A new laboratory of bacteriology has been established 
at the University of Pennsylvania to study all diseases 
connected with poultry and cattle. Dr. M. P. Ravenel has 
been made director and bacteriologist. 


Angers, France, has a bacteriological laboratory with an 
annual appropriation of about 2500 francs. 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 403 


BIOLOGICAL NOTES. 


At the Biological Society of Washington, Dr. Erwin F. 
Smith exhibited specimens of Leuconostoc mesenteroides 
from a sugar house in Louisiana. ‘These were in the 
shape of fist large gelatinous aggregates. If the vats are 
not sterilized at frequent intervals this organism multi- 
plies very rapidly in the sugar cane juice and causes much 
inconvenience and loss. 

Dr. Erwin F. Smith also described a bacterial disease of 
Potatoes, Tomatoes and Egg-plant, caused by a new micro- 
organism, Bacillus solanaceanum, which he believed to be 
the cause of a large part of the potato rot of the United 
States. 


At the New York Academy of Science meeting, October 
12, 1896, Prof. Bristol gave a brief account of the progress 
at the Marine Biological Laboratory at Wood’s Holl, Mass., 
during the past summer. 


In the recently organized department of biology in the 
graduate school of Georgetown University, Mr. M. B. 
Waite has been appointed professor of botany. 


WEDICAL MICROSCOPY. 


Bacteriology of Strangulated Hernia.—Brentano, in the 
Deutsche Zeitschrift fur Chirurgie, gives the results of the study 
of a number of strangulated hernias, with reference to the 
bacteriological contents of the hernial fluid, in the cases 
occurring in Koerte’s wards in Berlin. He concludes: 

1. That the water of strangulated human hernia contains 
micro-organisms much more frequently than we have been 
justified in supposing from previous publieations. 

2. That the bacteria of hernial water are frequently few 
in nuntber and exist iu a condition of diminished vitality, 
perhaps as the result of the bactericidal action of the water. 

3. That asa result of this action of hernial water upon 


“404 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Nov. 


the micro-organisms, proper investigation presupposes a 
cultivation upon a fluid nutrient medium. 

4. That the presence of the bacteria in hernial water 
appears to stand in close relation with all the factors 
which threaten the vitality of the strangulated parts ina 
special way. 


Dr. Ustler says: ‘‘Wherea bacteriological examination 
cannot be made, the practitioner must regard as suspicious 
all forms of throat affection in children and carry out 
measurs of isolation and disinfection. 


The mortality from the plague in China in 95 per cent of 
all cases, according toa letter tothe French Academy of 
Medicine. Dr. Yersin has discovered a new serum remedy 
for the plague, which reverses the figures, leading to about 
95 per cent of recoveries. 


A gentleman by the name of Oleta is reported to have 
arrived in Paris from Guiana, with a vaccine against ser- 
pent’s bites. "The remedy has been known:-by the native 
negroes, it would appear, for many years, but has only of 
late received scientific study. 


The Presse Medicale reports that from January 1st to 
July 30th there were four hundred and sixty-eight deaths 
from variola in the city of Marseilles. 


MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETIES. 


The Microscopical Society of Washington has elected 
the following officers for the ensuing year: President, J. 
M. Yznaga; vice-president, A. A. Adee; recording secretary 
L. M. Moers; corresponding secretary, H. H. Doubleday; 
treasurer, Dr. Robert Reyburn; curator, Dr. Wm. H. 
Seaman. 


A. M. S—The officers of the American Microscopical 
Society for 1896-7 are: President, Prof. E. W. Claypole, 
B. Sc., F. G. S., Akron, O.; Vice-Presidents, C. C. Mellor, 
Pittsburg, Pa.; A. M. Bleile, A. M., M. D., Columbus, O.; 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 405 


Secretary, William C. Krauss, M. D., F. R. M.S., Buffalo, 
N. Y.; Treasurer, Magnus Pflaum, Pittsburg, Pa., and 
the elective members of the executive committeeare A. A. 
Young, M.D: Newark, IN) Y., Mrs. (S. P.) Gace; Ithaca: 
N.Y 4.W>P. Manton, M; Di, Kak. MeS:,, Detrott..Mich: 


MICROSCOPICAL NOTES. 


Assistant Microscopist Wanted.—The United States 
civil service commission held an examination at the post 
offices in Boston, Mass., Indianapolis, Ind., and Chicago, 
Ill., on October 30 for the position of assistant microscopist. 
The salary of the position is $600 per annum, and only 
women above the age of twenty were admitted to the 
examination. The subjects of the examination were as fol- 
lows: Orthography, penmanship, copying, letter writing 
and arithmetic. It is desirable that applicants should 
have a knowledge of the use of the microscope. 


The Association of American Agricultural Colleges met 
in Washington, D. C., on November 10th, 11th and 12th. 


The University of the State of New York has decided 
that after January 1, 1897, no degrees B. A. or A. B. shall be 
conferred causa honoris. 


Diphtheria is prevailing to an unusual degree in London, 
the mortality fromthe disease during the first week in 
October having been greater than that of any week this 
year. 


A Statue to Pasteur has been unveiled at Alais, in the 
center of the French silkworm district. 


A journal of medicine is going to be started in Edin- 
burgh. This new monthly publication is to represent the 
Scottish medical profession. 


The great cyclone which passed over Paris, September 
10th, damaged tothe extent of 75,000 francs the Musee 
d’Histoire Naturelle. 


406 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Nov. 


Dr. Woodhead said before the British association at the 
Liverpool meeting that while continental laboratories were 
supported by the state, in England they received practic- 
ally no government support, and very little from the com- 
munity, usually depending on the generosity of single in- 
dividuals. 

An international exposition of hygiene, of alimentation, 


and of industrial arts will take place at Lille in March and 
April, 189% 


NEW PUBLICATIONS. 


Advantages of Chastity.—By Dr. M. L. Holbrook, New 
York, 12 mo., pp 120. 

In these days of nervous disorders which the members 
of the medical profession confess themselves powerless to 
cure, such a book as this is very timely. We especially 
recommend it to those scientists who find themselves get- 
ting nervous. Wealso recommend it to those married 
people who suppose that they can rightly seek pleasures 
which they deny to the unmarried. That the married 
may have children and the unmarried not, goes without 
saying. Buttouse the married relation, as a cloak for 
licentiousness and a cover for debauchery is not chaste, 
and the penalties are visited not only upon the people them- 
selves but to the third and fourth generations in inherited 
nervounsess. 


Pasteur.—A crypt to receive the remains of Pasteur is in 
course of preparation beneath the Institute of Paris. Itis 
most elaborate in its conception and execution, and is 
decorated with symbolical winged figures representing 
Faith, Hope, Charity and Science. ‘The body of the great 
scientist is to be removed thereto from Notre Dame on 
the 27th of December. 


Dr. B. Boccardi has been appointed associate professor 
of microscopical anatomy in the University of Naples. 


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PROF, E. W. CLAYPOLE, 


THE AMERICAN 


MONTHLY 


MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 


Vor. XX VIL. DECEMBER, 1806. No. 12 


Prof. E. W. Claypole, M. D. 
PRESIDENT OF THE AMERICAN MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY. 
WITH FRONTISPIECE. 

‘Dr. BE. W. Claypole is now professor of Naturat Science 
at Buchtel College, Akron, O., and he was elected presi- 
deut of the American Microscopical Society at the recent 
meeting at Pittsburg. He was born in Englandin 1835. 
His education was for the most part obtained at home and 
from his father who was a good classical scholar and well 
acquainted with the principles of mathematics. Leaving 
home at 18 years of age he began work as a teacher and 
was soemployed for some vears in schools of various 
kinds and in different parts of England but chiefly in the 
southwest. During the spare hours of a busy life his 
studies for graduation were carried on and he passed the 
Matriculation Examination at the University of London 
in 1854. Following on in the same course in later years 
he successively took the degree of B. A., B.Se., and D.S8c., 
in the same Institution. The University of London, it 
must be remembered, does not, as do most Universities, 
limit its degrees to those who have studied and resided 
at any of the colleges connected with it but its examina- 
tious are open to all comers on the sole condition of 
satisfying the examiners who are appointed in consequence 
of the high standing which they have obtained in their 
respective departments. Hence the list of graduates con- 
tains the names of men and women from different 


408 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY { Dec. 


countries and of different languages but of course mainly 
from Great Britian and the colonies. Mr. Claypole also 
as long as he had a residence in England and the state of 
his health permitted pursued a course of study and exaii- 
mation in connection with the same University. 

After several years spent in the general work of college 
‘teaching at Bristol, England, Prof. Claypole, in 1872, 
eame to the United States. He resided fur twelve 
months at Boston and then removed to Ohio where for 
eight years he held the chair of Natural Science at 
Antioch College, Yellow Springs, succeeding Prof. 
Edward Orton who resigned to become President of the 
new State University then just established at Columbus. 
‘On the suspension of the College in 1881, he was ap- 
pointed Palaeontologist-in-chief on the staff of the Second 
Geological Survey of Pennsylvania and during 1882 and 
1883 resided at New Bloomfield in that state conducting 
the survey both stratigraphical and palaeontologica) of 
Perry Co. His results are contained in numerous papers 
inthe American Naturalist, in the proceedings of the 
American Philusophical Society and in other periodicals 
but chiefly in the volume (F,) of the Reports of the 
Second Geological Survey of Pennsylvania, published at 
Harrisburg. 

On the termination ofhis engagement in December 1883 
Prof. Claypole received a call to the chair of Natural 
Science in the Institution named at the beginning of this 
notice. Here he has remained ever since engaged in 
teaching and investigation. 

His work has been chiefly on geology and palaeontology 
to which however Botany and Zoology have been only 
secondary, both being indispensable adjuncts to the 
former. Papers by him on microscopical subjects con- 
mected with his researches may be found in the proce 
angs of the American Microscopical Society. 

Dr. Claypole was with other naturalists one of the 


1896.} MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 409 


active agents in founding the Ohio Academy of Sceince 
in 1891 for the investigation of the natural history of the 
state. 

He was chosen as its first president. Four annual re- 
ports containing the results haveappeared. He was also 
one of the original twelve editors who established in 1889 
the American Geologist and have ever since maintained 
it. It is published at Minneapolis. Init will be found 
Dr. Claypole’s recent investigations of the Devonian 
Fossil Fishes of Ohio. He hastwo danghters who are 
both members of the Microscopial Society and contribute 
to its proceedings. 


Studies in the Elements of the Anatomy of the Lower 
Vertebrates. 
By HENRY LESLIE OSBORN. 
HAMLINE UNIVERSITY, SAINT PAUL, MINN. 

The descriptions here presented are based on practical 
class work with college juniors, and are planned primarily 
to serve es a guide to be used in connection with dis- 
section. Many good guides to vertebrate dissection are 
already published, but they are generally fuller in details 
than is absolutely necessary in a first survey of the 
animals. The constant effort has been madein this to 
indicate the facts which a person of little or no technical 
skill and equipped only with simple appliances can de- 
termine. This plan has been extended to a slight extent 
by means of brackets so as to include a synopsis of 
each topic, it being understood that this summarizes 
lectures or readings which accompany the students’ work, 
In each case it is intended that the student shall have a 
specimen before him and so far as possible ascertain his 
knowledge from it, In case rigid economy ix necessary 
the entire dissection could be made from a single speci- 
men; and in case several are used they should be kept 
through the whole dissection and compared. 


410 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY | Dec. 


The subject should be examined point by point, verl— 
fying ull statements and considering all questions that 
may be asked. The specimen should be kept moist all 
the time and all the internal anatomy and some of the 
external can be best made out under water, by using a pan 
with the bottom covered with paraffine, into which pins. 
The 
water must be changed as often as it becomes turbid. 


are to be thrust to hold the specimen in position. 


Unfinished dissections should as a rule be kept in alcohol, 
brine or formol and finished subsequently. Side reading 
in anatomy is of great importance especially for a morph- 
ologist and a constant practice of comparison is abso- 
Jutely indispensible as a fixed habit of mind. 
The types that have been selected as the basis for study 
are easily obtained in the City of Saint Paul. if they are 
not obtainable elsewhere related forms can be used; for 
while the descriptions are for the most part. based 
directly on the animals indicated, other allied forms are 
For 
general reference the student should have Wiedersheim’s 


sufficiently similar for dissection in a first course. 


Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrates; besides which are 
the admirable articles in the Encyclopaedia Brittanica, 
Parker’s Zootomy isa most excellent guide where a fuller 
course is desired. 
PAR 
THE TELEOSTEAN FISH. 


Osmerus mordax, The Eastern Smelt. 


CONTENTS. 
1. External Anatomy. 9. The Alimentary Viscera 
2. The Head. 6. The Heart and Blood-Vessels.. 
3. The Nose. 11. The Uro-Genital System. 
4. The Eyes. 12. The Muscular System. 
5. The Ear. 13. The Nervous System. 
6. The Mouth and Throat. 14.. The Skeleton of the Tran k.. + 
7. The Brain. 15. The Skull. 
8. Principal Parts of the Trunk 16. The Skin. 


and Post-Abdomen. 


1396. ] MICROSCCPICAL JOURNAL 411 


1. Exteryvat ANATOMY.—EHximine the smelt,* notic- 
ing its elongate and tapering shape; how does this 
offer advantage in swimming? There is no distinet neck 
joining the head to the body. The following body- 
revions can be recognized, viz:—the head: with eyes, mouth 
etc; the trunk. directly behind the head, itis marked by 
containing the thin-walled body-cavity, in which the var- 
ious alimentary organs lie, and limited posteriorly by the 
cloac or common opening for the viscera of the body, 
located in the middle line of the ventral surface; the post- 
abdomen, the remainder of the body behind the trunk, 
The body is covered generally with thin and delicate 
scales, located in definite lines; they are attached in front 
and free behind, and placed so as to overlap; a fuller 
study of them will come later. Examine the jins: as to 
position they can be distinguished as median, and paired. 
The dorsal fin is located in the middle of the back; the 
caudal isthe name of tie tail-fin (the term ‘tail’ properly 
applies to the entire post-abdomen); the anal fin is located 
in the ventral surface commencing at the cloaca; in addi- 
tion to these functional fins there is a fleshy structure in 
the dorsal line between the dorsal and caudal fins, it is 
the adipose fin, a rudiment of another dorsal fin. Besides 
these median fins, there are two paired fins: the pectoral- 
Jjins are closely related to the head at the very front end 
on the trunk region; the pelvic fins lie in the ventral sur- 
face just below the dorsal fin. Examine the fins care- 
fully and distinguish in them all a thin and delicate 
fleshy portion, supported by pieces of bone, the fin rays. 
The fin rays start together in the base of the fin but 
distally they spread out like the parts of a fan; the small 
bones that compose them can be seen with the naked eye, 
but better with a hand lens. The number of rays in a 


—_— 


*In case a smelt Caunot be had a trout or white fish is ueariy of kin 
and cau best be used. 


412 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Dec. 


fin is an important character for distinguishing different 
species of fish, Make a study of the distribution of 
color. and note that all the parts which would be visible 
from below are silvery white, while all those that would 
be seen from above are black; notice accurately the: 
boundaries of these two colors. Do you think of any ad- 
vantage from this distribution of the color? Is it true 
generally of animals? Cf “Protective Coloration.” Draw 
a side view of the smelt and show and index as many of 
these points as possible. Compare the smelt with other 
vertebrate animals (such as shark, skate, gar-pike, stur- 
geon, pike, bass, salamander, frog, lizard, snake, turtle, 
ostrich, eagle, duck, crane, sparrow, porpoise, seal, dog, 
horse, cow, bat, squirrel, elephant, mouse, ape and man, 
Can you make close comparisons instructure between the 
smelt and invertebrate animals such as clam, snail, angle- 
worm, cray-fish, butterfly? | 


2. Tue Heap.—In all the vertebrates (Craniota) 
the head presents two parts, the craniwm, which lodges 
the brain; and the face, which includes the nose and eyes 
above and the mouth and thrvat below.: In the smelt 
these parts are all present in the head, but the cranium 
is covered up by the face and lies in the upper and 
hinder portion of the head; the fave will be taken up for 
study first. 

3. THE NOSE,—as usual presents two chambers, open 
to the exterior by two small nostrils anterior nares easily 
seen. Cutaway the skin around one of these nostrils. 
and you will uncover a small olfactory pit lined with 
white colored olfactory mucous membrane. Search in the 
olfactory pit, alsoin the mouth chamber to determine 
whether there is a passage from the nostrils to the throat. 
posterior nares as in the other vertebrates. 


4. THE Eyves.—Examine one of the eyes in its orbit 
or socket in the side of the head. Are there any lids? 


18:6 | -MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 413 


Does the eye appear to be mobile? Locate the parts that 
show, viz: the pupil, the circular central opening; the tris 
encircling the pupil, silvery in color; the transparent 
cornea, covering the pupil and iris; beyoud the cornea 
enclosing the sides and back the white tough outer 
sclerotic coat of theeye. Seize the eye firmly in the for- 
ceps by the sclerotic coat and pull it out of the orbit, as 
you do this notice aud cut away the bands of muscle which 
attach it to the orbit, and at the back of the orbit notice 
and cut the white cord optic nerve. which runs through 
the sclerotic coat into the eye. Place the eye in clear 
water and with a sharp kuife or scissors split it in two 
halves in a plane passing through the optic nerve, this 
will disclose: the anterior chamber of the eye, between 
the cornea and the iris; the larger posterior chamber, be- 
hind the iris; and inside the posterior chamber the spher- 
ical lens. On the back of the eve inside the scleroti¢ 
coat, the black choroid coat, the vascular layer can be seen 
and inside this (in well preserved specimens) the white 
retina. Repeat this dissection on the other eye; in re- 
moving it from the orbit study the muscles that fasten 
the eye-ball to the orbit and note that they are made of 
fibers which by pulling roll the eye in its orbit, they are 
not here sub-divided (as in the skate) into the six muscles 
of the eye of the higher vertebrates. Draw a diagram- 
matic longitudinal section of the eye in place in the orbit 
and show all these points. 

[5. THE EAR,—is present in teleosts, but there is no 
external indication of its presence; it is located ina car- 
tilage and bone capsule, on the side of the brain case 
and at the hinder level of the head; it has three semi-cir- 
cular canals like the higher vertebrates, and there are 
large calcareous structures otolith, in an additional cham- 
ber, the vestibule; branches from the 8th cranial nerve 
(auditory) go to the ear on each side from the medulla 
oblongata. ] 


414 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [ Dec. 


6. THe Mourn,—externally is bounded by two jaws 
the free bone in the upper is the premazillary, the lower 
the dentary (a part of the mandible of higher vertebrates), 
Note that the lower jaw is longer than the upper. Do 
both jaw-bones bear teeth? What is the shape and 
position of the teeth? Do other bones of the mouth bear 
teeth? Examine the interior of the mouth, note thatits 
roof is entirely below the level of the nose, eyes and 
cranium. Study the sides and floor of the chamber, is 
there a fleshy tongue? Locate: the hyoid bone in the 
centre of the floor; and the pairs of bones running from 
it obliquely backward, then arching dorsally to run for- 
ward and attach to the roof of the mouth posteriorly, 
these are the branchial or gill arches; count them. Note 
the openings, gill-slits between them, leading to the out- 
side water; cut away the side of the mouth soas to enable 
you to examine the gill arches better; note in doiug so: 
the operculum, a flat thin bony flap on the side of the head 
and behind, which covers the gills; it is open posteriorly 
to let the water that passes over the gills escape. How 
do you imagine that the operculum benefits the smelt? 
Cut off one of the gill-arches and examine it in perfectly 
clear water; note on its front side the row of fine deli- 
cate bones, gill-rakers, which stand projecting into the 
mouth cavity in such a position as to strain the water and 
retain any particles of food, and on the hindside the masses 
of deep red gills. Separate the latter carefully and prove 
that they are made up of great numbers of delicate jila- 
ments all of them alike. Remove one of the filaments and 
see its central stem and numerous small side branches 
containing the capillaries in which the blood is aerated. 
The gill rakers and the filaments are carried on bones that 
support the arch and the chief blood vessels lie close to 
these bcnes and follow their course. 

The throat or hinder part of the mouth chamber of 
the fish is devoted to the function of respiration; in the 


1896. ] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL 415 


lung-breathing vertebrate this reyzion is relatively smaller 
and in the mammalia it is separated from the mouth by 
the soft palate and the muscular pillars of the fauces, 
asthe praryne. [nthe higher forms daring theiremdryo rie 
or larval life the throat and circulation are distinctly 
piscine. 

7. Tue Brain.—Cut away the mouth walls and floor 
and pin the upper part of the head down under water, 
dissect away the skin and muscles from the cranium and 
cut away the bones covering the brain, be very careful 
not to injure the soft white nervous tissues; beneath the 
bones you will find masses of cartilage surrounding the 
brain, pare these away as much as possible without dam- 
aging the brain. Explore the parts of the brain with a 
fine probe without dislocating them. The two largest 
rounded lobes of the brain are the optic lobes, directly — 
in front of them are two swaller rounded masses, the 
cerebral hemispheres; the olfactory lobes are partly separ- 
ate, lobed anterior portions of the cerebral hemispheres, 
in some cases they seem almost separate structures, The 
olfactory nerve can be seen running from the nose camber 
to the olfactory lobes on either side by the help of a 
little dissection. The optic nerve can also be traced to 
the optic lobes which they enter on their ventral aspect. 
Other cranial nerves may possibly be seen. The portion 
of the brain behind the optic lobes presents two chief 
parts: a dorsal median rounded cerebellum; and ventrally 
to this the medulla oblongata. These lie in the extreme 
posterior portion of the cranium. Follow the nervous 
tissue back into the trunk region, note thatit is enclosed 
ina passage, spinal canal, in the back-bone. Cut away 
bone enough to give you a view of the spinal cord and 
demonstrate its direct relation with the medulla oblongata. 
Draw a view of the brain in position in the head. Split 
the head in twoin the midlle line anllocate the braiu in 
relation to the head in the side view and draw. 


416 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY | Dec.. 


8. PRINCIPAL PARTSOFTHE TRUNK AND PosT- ABDOMEN.. 
—Split thesmelt in twoina vertical plane, passing a little 
to one side of the middle line. Cut across the ribs of one 
side and remove the lesser half entirely from the body. 
Notice that the post-abdomen is made up entirely of 
large masses of bluish grey muscular tissue, and that the 
same is true of the dorsal portion of the trunk region; 
but that in the trunk below the back-bone the muscular 
tissue is pushed aside, forming a thin layer in the wall 
of the body-cuvity (coelom), and that the space thus gained 
is occupied by the viscera (organs of digestion, ete. The 
viscera will be studied later). 

Locate the back-bone spinal-column, extending the 
lensth of the body fromthe brain casein front to the base 
of the caudal fin. Examine it and recognize the situa- 
tion of the successive pieces, centra, of which it is made; 
each centrum bears on the dorsal side a neural spine. 
which runs upward aud backward, the course of the neural 
spine is often indicated by blood vessels which run beside 
it. In the post-abdominal region a similar series of 
spines run ventrally, these are called haemal spines be- 
cause the dorsal aorta isrelated to them, In the trunk 
region there are no haemal spines; but the 77bs on each 
side in pairs articulate with the centra; the ribs pass in- 
sensibly into haemal spines. Follow the body-cavity for- 
wards and note that it runs between and beneath the 
gills, where yon will see the deep red heart. It extends 
posteriorly to the cloaca, It is everywhere lined with 
a delicate silvery lining layer, the peritoneum, Dissect 
away soine of the peritoneum and see that the wall is 
coinposed of muscular tissue, and that this is composed 
of short fibres which run from one rib to the next (seen 
better in a specimen which has been boiled, vid. par. 12). 
Note that there is no breast bone for articulation with 
the ribs at their distal extremities; also that the body 
cavity is not divided by a diaphragm into thorax and 


1896. ] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 417 


abdomen as in the higher vertebrates. Draw a view of 
this section of the smelt. 

9. THe ALIMENTARY VISCERA.—Cut away the side 
wall of the body cavity so as to display the contained 
viscera, pin the specimen down under water, which must 
be frequently renewed to keep it clear, explore the organs _ 
with a probe but do not at first tear any of them from 
their natural attachments, try to determine the shape, 
position and connections of each one. Note the per - 
toneum, the silvery lining of the cavity; the mesentery, a 
very thin film running between some of the organs and 
attaching them to the dorsal wall of the body cavity. 
Find an elongate thin-walled organ filled with gas, it es 
just beneath the vertebral column, it is the sewim-bladder. 
Trace it forward and seek there for a connection leading 
from the swim-bladder to the throat, prewmatic duct; can 
you determine whether it is a hollow or closed duct? 
Find the oesophagus or gullet and follow it back from the 
throat tothe point where it bends and begins to run for- 
ward. Here it passesinto the stomach (which may be 
small and empty or enlarged and full of partly digested 
food, and whose size and shape will vary accordingly). 

At the front end of the stomach the intestine arises, it 
bends back and ruus straight to the cloaca, without hav- 
ing any sub-divison into small and large intestine. The 
mesentery cau be clearly seen with some of the portal 
blood-vessels beside the intestine. The compact organ 
straddling the frontend of the stomach is the liver. The 
vessels from the intestine can be traced to it. It has a 
duct not readily demonstrated which leads to the intes- 
tine. There isno distinct pancreas but there are pocket- 
like enlargements at the beginning of the intestine which 
are said to be pancreatic in function. There is in the mes- 
entery dorsal to the stomach a distiuet compact rounded 
organ which is supposed to be a spleen. Salivary glands 
are not present. The large white or yellow organs addi- 


418 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY (Dee. 


tional to those mentioned occuping a large part of the 
‘body cavity are gonads, and do not belong to the alimen- 
tary system, Make a drawing to show these. points. 
Then cut off the oesophagus, also the intestine, and remove 
the alimentary tube, split open each organ and examine 
the wall, noting in each an outer muscular coat, and an 
inuer shining mucous coat. Ifthere are any remains of 
food in the stomach wash them well and examine if pos- 
sible the nature of the food on which the fish fed. The 
coats are easier seen if you soak a piece of the wall first 
for a time in 70 per cent alcohol. 

10. THE Heart anD BLooD-VEssets.—The heart has 
already been located among the organs of the body cavity. 
Examine it carefully in position, and determine its rela- 
tions to the adjoining organs and demonstrate as many of 
the following facts as possible: it lies immediately be- 
hind the bases of the gills; is ventral to the gullet; is sur- 
rounded by a very delicate membrane, the pericardium, 
‘which when removed enables you to see that the organ 
consists of three portions: the pear-shaped ‘“‘bulbus arter- 
-dosus,”’ which runs forward to the gills; the thicker walled 
“ventricle” directly behind the bulbus; and the thinner 
walled “auricle,” larger than the ventricle dorsal to it 
and overlapping it on both sides. (There are vessels 
which bring blood into the auricle from either side, ducts 
-of Cuvier, but they are not easily demonstrated on the 
-smelt and there is w vein coming from the liver, hepatic 
vein). Cut the heart away from its attachments and 
immerse it inclean water, cut open its different chambers 
to see that they are hollow, find if possible the openings 
by which the chambers connect; can you find any valves 
to guard these openings? 

[It is not possible to do very much with the dissection 
of the vascular system of a fish without injection, and 
especially with a small subject like the smelt which has 
been dead for severel days (or wecks). However the 


1896] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 419 


general plan cf the circulation is given here as a guide; 
the student should locate as many of the vessels as pos- 
sible from it. In the arterial system the blood is sent 
from the bulbus arteriosus directly forward into a series 
of pairs of aortic arches which follow the gill bones from 
below upwards. In the roof of the mouth the aortic 
arches unite, giving off carotid arteries to supply the 
head and then bending backwards to form the dorsal 
aorta which runs backward the length of the body di- 
rectly below the vertebral centra. At its anterior end 
the aotta gives rise toarteries coeliac axis and mesenteric 
to the alimentary viscera, spleen and gonads, and small 
arteries are given off throughout its length to the muscles 
of the trunk and post-abdomen and to the kidneys renal 
arteries, The venous blood from the head and all the mus- 
cular system and kidney is returned to the heart by 
means of four veins in pairs, viz: the anterior and pos- 
terior right and left cardinal veins; these empty into the 
single auricie. The blood from the alimentary tube, 
spleen and gonads does not go into this cardinal circula- 
tion but is collected by means of the portal vein which 
carries it to the liver whence it is taken to the heart by 
the hepatic veins, two in number, opening into the auricle 
independently of the cardinal veins. ] 


11. THE URO-GENITAL SystemM.—In addition to the 
alimentary organs the body-cavity contains usually a 
pair of large organs, that area part of the genital system. 
They are not the true germinal tissue, from which the 
eggs or sperm arise (gonads) but the greatly enlarged 
ducts leading from the gonads to the exterior, filled with 
the products that have been thrown off from the gonads. 
In the male they are very fine-grained and white, spermi- 
ducts; in the female they are coarse grained and yellow, 
oviducts. Examine an oviduct carefully, tracing it poster-- 
iorly till it passes to the exterior at the cloaca in common 


420 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Dee. 


with the intestine; trace it forwards and find its anterior 
end (in the body wall above the termination is located a ° 
small ovary). The general anatomy of the organs is the 
same in the male smelt. Cut out asmall portion of an 
oviduct and tease it (pull it to bits) in water, as you do 
so you will be able to recognize that it contains great 
numbers of small spherical yellow objects, ova. Crush 
one on aslide and examine it with the high power, you 
can now recognize the cell wall or vitelline membrane 
which invests the ovum and the grains of yolk (there is 
in addition a central nucleated mass of protoplasm which 
should be carefully studied in a prepared slide if possible), 
The coutents of the spermiduct should be studied in the 
same way, the spermatids ure visible under the higher 
power (if preserved) as elongata filamentous objects; the 
size of one of these is infinitesimal in comparison with 
the size of one of the ova. The kidneys are situated in 
the dorsal wall of the body cavity, close to the vertebral 
column, they are covered by the peritoneum and do not 
lie in the body cavity. They can be recognized by their 
dark red color (a duct wreter leads from tnem to join the 
gonadial duct as it passes to the cloaca). 

12, THE MuscULAR SysTEM.—Boil a fish thoroughly, 
then remove the skin so as to study the muscles, note 
first that throughout the trunk aud post-abdomen, the 
muscle masses are segmented, i. e., they are made of 
similar portions that are repeated the length of the body; 
called myotomes; the number of the myotomes is the same 
as that of the vertebrate; each myotome is composed of 
parallel fibres which run from one rib, or posteriorly from 
the level of one vertebra, to the next. Draw figures 
showing the myotomes in situ, and of one myotome sep- 
arated from the rest. Mount a few of the muscle fibres 
in water for microscopic examination, tease them into the 
finest possible masses, isulating single fibres if possible, 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 421 


cover and examine (high power) note the cross markings 
striations the whole length ofthe fibre; note also that the 


fibres in some cases tend to divide up into lesser slender 
Jibrillae in the length of the fibre. 


[13. THE NrERvous Syst—emM.—The general plan of the 
nervous system is that of the vertebrates at large, viz:— 
(1) central system consisting of: a brain; a spinal cord; 
and the sympathetic system; and (2) the peripherul system 
consisting of the serial cranial and spinal nerves and the 
nerve-fibres of the sympathetic system. The brain has 
already been dissected, the spinal cord can be seen by 
cutting away the neural arches (see section 14) of the 
vertebrae; the spinal nerves can be seen in the body wall 
beside the ribs in places; the sympathetic system can 
hardly be seen by a beginner, it consists of a chain of 
ganglia lying in the trunk region in the dorsal wall of 
the body cavity covered by the peritoneum; fibres from 
it communicate with the spinal cord and with the various 
viscera. The cerebro-spinal system in general is related 
to the sensations and voluntary motions of the animal 
while the sympathetic system is used in controlling the 
viscera (vegetative life). ] 


14, THE SKELETON OF THE TRUNK.—Using a fish that 
has been well boiled so as to loosen the muscular tissue 
from the bones, remove carefully as much as possible of 
the flesh, leaving the bones including the ribs in position 
as far as you can. Be especially careful not to detach 
the caudal fin. After you have removed all the flesh 
wash the skeleton and dry it. It is a help in keeping 
the bones together to have the back-bone lying on a piece 
of paper on which it is kept while being washed and 
dried. If it is later desired to separate particular bones 


for study they can easily be soaked with warm water and 
removed. 


422 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Dec. 


First study a single vertebra of some large fish; it 
presents the following parts: a centrum, which is bicon- 


cave and perforated in the centre. In life the space is 
occupied with the notochord, an embryonic cartilage which: 
underlies the entire spinal system. On its dorsal side: 


the centrum carries an arch of bone, the neural arch, and. 


this passes above into the neural spine. The sides of 
the arch both in front and behind carry small articulating” 
surfaces, the (pre-and post-) zygapophyses. It the verte- 
bra is one of the post-abdominal series there is below the 
centrum a corresponding haemal arch and haemal spine. 
Now examine the spinal column of the smelt and after 
locating the points just made, compare the vertebrae in 
different parts of the spinal column and ascertain whether 
they are all alike. In the trunk region study the ribs, 
remove one and note its head, a rounded surface for arti- 
culation with the centra, note also at what exact point the 
ribs articulate with the back-bone. Do you findany in- 
dication of a breast: bone. 

Examine the vertebrae at the line between the trunk 
and post-abdomen, and study the transition from the 
rib-bearing vertebrae to those having haemal arches. 
Examine the bones at the base of the caudal fin; the row 
of centra terminates in a long piece of hypwral bone slant- 
ing upward with flattened neural and haemal spines 
which are adapted to receive the fin-rays; cf. homocercal 
and heterocercal types of tail. (The pectoral fin presents 
the following bones, so small, however, that the limb 
should be studied from some fish of large size. There 
is a post-temporal reaching up into the hinder part of 
the skull, a row of bones leading down from it, the 
clavicles to the base of the fin; a small dorsal scapula and 
a larger ventral coracoid between the clavicles and the 
base of the fin; three bones beyond these are called re- 
spectively beginning with the most dorsal of the row, 


the pro- meso- and meta-pterygium; beyond these there is. 


1896.] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 423 


a row of basalia to which the jfin-rays are articulated. 
The pelvic amb, presents: two thin bones, the pelvic portion, 
and the fin-rays directly articulated to them. (In some 
of the teleosts, e. g., the perch, the pelvic limbs are located 
actually anterior to the pectoral limbs though they are 
homologous with the hind limbs of the higher verte- 
brates). 


[15. THE SKELETON oF THE SKULL,—is too difficult for 
a beginner who is limited as to time, the bones being so 
loosely articulated and so many of them incompletely 
ossified. One who attempts the problem should use a 
large skull well cooked; for detailed directions a fuller 
treatise must be consulted. The bones of the skull in the 
telosts generally are directly comparable with those in 
the head of all higher vertebrates, this might be expected, 
since the head in other respects is thus comparable. Be- 
ginning with the lower jaw we find the dentary in front 
and the articular behind articulating with the rest of the 
skull. In the upper jaw there are the pre-mawzillary in 
front and the maail/ary behind it. The hinder part of 
the face is formed by the operculum, which consists of 
four separate bones. Removing these and attacking the 
bones in the floor of the mouth we find in the centre the 
hyoid, which, running back, articulates with a central bast- 
branchial, from which the bones of the gill-arches pass, 
as follows: hypo-branchial, cerato-branchials, epi-branch- 
tials; these latter articulate in the roof of the mouth 
with the swperior pharyngeals. Inthe centre of the roof 
of the mouth underlying the cranium in the para-sphenoid: 
This articulates behind with a ring of bone (surrounding 
the foramen magnum) which in the higher vertebrates 
forms the single occipital bone, viz: the basi-occipital be- 
low, the swpra-occipital above and the ew-occipitals be- 
tween them. The roof of the skull is further covered in 
front with the parietal; this runs forward from the supra- 


494 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Dec. 


occipital to the frontal; which inits turn meets the mes- - 
ethmoid; which encloses the cranium in front. The nasal 
projects beyond this and over the nose. In the side of 
the cranium encasing the ear are located a number of 
bones collectively called the peri-otic bones, and in front 
of these a small bone, the ali-sphenoid, lies in. the side 
wall of the cranium. The orbit is bounded by a ring of 
small sazb-orbital bones, and a supra-orbital is located above 
and behind it. The lower jaw is articulated at the end 
of a row of bones which run up to the side of the hinder 
part of the skull, these are the guadrate at the articula- 
tion; the symplectic above it and the hyo-mandibular still 
above and articulating with the skull. The sides of the 
roof of the mouth articulate with this row of bones by 
means of the palatine in front and the pterygoid behind; 
the pterygoid being made of three separate parts: the 
pterygoid proper and above it the meso-plerygoid and _ be- 
hind these and in front of the symplectic the seta-ptery- 
gotd. | 

16. THE Skin.—Keeping the skin moist, examine it 
closely, using the point of a needle, notice: that it is 
covered generally with scales; that these are arranged in 
regular alternating series (the number of rows is defi- 
nite for each species of fish), that each scale is free from 
the skin behind but attached in front so as to offer no re- 
sistance to motion in that direction; that the scales near 
the middle of each side from the head tailwards, show a 
marking, /azera/ line, not present in the rest of the scales. 
Remove a single scale from the body surface anywhere 
not in the lateral line, keeping an exact idea of its posi- 
tion in the body as to outer and inner surface and anterior 
and posterior borders. Mount and examine the scale dry, 
noting its shape as to outline, the absence of notches on 
the margin and the presence of concentric markings, 
whose center is not the centre of the scale, (cf. cycloid 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL 425 


vs. clenord scale). Hxamine a scale from the lateral line, 
and determine that the line crossing it isa groove which 
runs obliquely through the scale from the front inner side 
to the hind outer side (this in life lodges the ending of a 
nervous organ). Illustrate these points. 

Examine the general skin with a hand lens and note 
that the black color is caused by minute black spots, which 
are closely set, but ventrally are located in rows crossing 
so as to form diamond-shaped areas; how do these areas 
compare with the location of the scales? Cut off care- 
fully taking as little as possible of the sub-jacent tissue 
a portion of the skin surrounding one of these areas, 
mount itin water and examine (low-power) now you will 
see that the spots are peculiar objects with irregular 
radiating processes, they are “pigment cells” and their 
growth is the cause of the color of the skin. They area 
variety of “connective tissue cel]” which has taken on the 
function of pigment secretion. 

Examine the same piece (high power) you will find 
that it is composed of parallel fibres, “dermis,” in two 
sets crossing each other, they are ‘‘white fibrous tissue” 
asecond variety of connective tissue; white fib. tiss. 
swells and become translucent when treated with acetic 
acid, irrigate the piece and note the reaction, the fibres 
becoming invisible after its action. Draw views to show 
the location of the pigment cells, their shape, and the 
crossing fibres of the “‘dermis.” 

(To be continued.) 


The Plague of Mice in Russia. 


The Consular Reports for April contain a long con- 
tribution on the above subject, collated from a number 
of Russian governmental sources. Southern Russia and 
Siberia have during the last three years been the scene 
of the rise and fall of a pest of mice. In some places 


ike 


426 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [D ec. 


the destruction of property by the rodents was a serious 
item in the sum total of the general misery of the peas- 
ant class. Regarding the bacteriologic work under- 
taken for the extermination of the animals, the reports 
from the laboratories are indicative of success, but not 
conclusive; at all events the closing up of the plague 
seems to have been chiefly due to the spread of infec- 
tious disease among the mice, but whether this was 
caused by the bacillus typhi murium or in some other 
way, no positive statement is made. The Governor of 
Cherson includes the following in his report: 

1. It was particularly noticed that field mice had mul- 
tiplied and that the number of house mice had largely 
increased. 

9. The warm winter had without doubt favored their 
propagation, but probably the main cause consisted in 
the large quantity of cereals which had remained all 
over the province, in the shape of thrashed grain as well 
as in stacks, 

3. It is also certain that the mice increased on the 
spot, but, according to the observations of some land- 
owners, the mice were noticed to move from east to 
west. This gives reason to believe that they immi- 
grated from neighboring provinces and occupied the 
territory of the entire province. 

4. The reports regarding the extraordinary increase of 
the mice date from the spring of 1894, but its commence- 
ment dates back to the autumn of 1893; of late, the 
mice perish from some disease which is not as yet de- 
fined, but to determine its nature certain measures have 
been taken by the Department of Agriculture. It is not 
possible to estimate the extent of damage caused by 
mice ; all the more so, because they are accompanied by 
rats which not only devour grain and other produce, 
but even destroy village buildings. 

' 5. Up to the present, the population have used various 


1896.] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 427 


domestic remedies for the extermination of the mice, 
besides which, with the assistance of the rural adminis- 
tration, it was determined to poison mice with Professor 
Loeffler’s cultivations of typhi murium, as prepared by 
the Odessa bacteriologic station and the Cherson bacteri- 
ologic laboratory. This cultivation of typhi murium 
shows its effect upon the numbers of mice not sooner 
than three to four weeks after its use. In June, 1894, 
the Department of Agriculture sent to the Province of 
Cherson, Dr. Merezhkovski, the assistant of the mana- 
ger of the bacteriologic laboratory of the department, 
to carry out experiments of exterminating the mice by 
means of the cultivation of the bacillus discovered by 
him. The experiments carried out by him in the agri- 
eultural school of the Cherson rural administration 
gave good results, and in October they were extended to 
the estate of G. L. Skadovski, a landowner, where they 
were superintended by a special committee ; on the sixth 
day, the mice began to perish of the cultivation of Dr. 
Merezhkovski, and on the ninth day this attained con- 
siderable dimensions and the mice were reduced to their 
normal number. In April, 1895, the department sent 
out bouillon with the cultivation of Dr. Merezhkovski, 
but there are no reports as yet to hand concerning the 
results. The United States Consul at Odessa adds that 
when the army of mice swarmed over houses and huts 
through the country, the dogs and cats refused to molest 
them, and says ‘‘ An incident which came under my own 
personal observation is not without interest. While I 
was waiting for a train at a small station on a branch 
line of the Southwestern Railway, a clergyman, with 
very long hair and beard, who was walking up and 
down the platform, stopped for a moment and raised the 
end of a canvas which served as a cover for a large 
quantity of wheat which was awaiting shipment. In an 
instant a mass of mice sprang at him and his beard, hair 


428 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Dec 


and cloak were literally alive with them. To brush them 
off was a matter of some time, and when my fellow trav- 
eler at length thought himself free, he was dismayed to 
find a mouse in each of his trouser pockets.” Doubtless, 
all bacteriologists are familiar with the experiments of 
Loefiler, Lazare and Merezhkovski; but it may not be 
amiss to mention that, besides certain morphologic dis- 
tinctions the differences between the bacillus typhi mu- 
rium of Loeffler and the bacillus derived from mice by 
Merezhkovski consist mainly in this, that the mice die 
sooner when infected with Merezhkovski’s bacillus than 
with that of Loeffler, Experiments with the infection 
of mice by means of Merezhkovski’s bacillus were car- 
ried out by himself in his laboratory. As regards the 
typhi murium of Loeffler, besides the experiments of 
exterminating mice in the fields carried out by Loeffler 
himself in Greece, similar experiments were made by 
several Russian laboratories, among others, by that of 
the Odessa bacteriologic station in the provinces of Cher- 
son and Podolha. These experiments were made in the 
fields and in the places where there was grain in stacks, 
and gave satisfactory results. These cultures of Loe- 
fler’s bacteria are customarily sent out in tubes of agar- 
agar, where they retain their vitality during the course 
of several months. The contagium of typhi murium pre- 
sents itself in the shape of a gray film on the slanting 
surface of the jelly in testing tubes. For the purpose 
of using it, the film must be mixed with water in which 
pieces of white bread are soaked ; the transparent remain- 
der of the contents of the tube must be distributed, to- 
gether with the pieces of bread, in the localities where the 
mice prevail. The details of this manipulation are as 
follows : 

1. A .5 per cent. solution of table salt in water (one 
teaspoonful of salt is taken for five glasses of water) is 


1896.] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 429 


prepared by boiling it for twenty minutes and subse- 
quent cooling. 

2. The testing tubes are filled with this water to one- 
half, the film is carefully scraped off by means of a little 
stick, and the liquid contents of the tube are poured out 
into the prepared solution; to five glasses of water, 
three testing tubes are taken. 

3. In the liquid thus obtained, pieces of bread are 
soaked and distributed over the places indicated. The 
mixed contagion must be used immediately. Before us-. 
ing the cultures, it is indispensible to test their viru- 
lence on mice. 


MICROSCOPICAL MANIPULATION. 


To Find Micro. Objects.—It may not be generally known 
to those who mount their own slides that much good ma- 
terial can be found during the winter by examining the 
stems of any dried plants in the hedgerows, as, e. ¢., Nettle, 
Cock’s-foot Grass, etc. In this manner various and often 
rare insects can be taken in fine condition. The most pro- 
ductive stems are those zof ina vertical position, as when 
standing at all upright the rain can enter, which makes it 
too uncomfortable for insects to take up their winter quar- 
ters there. It isa good plan, when the day is very cold, 
to take the stems home ina paper bag, and examine them 
over a Sheet of white paper. Moss collected in the woods 
will also yield good results, especially in the beetle tribes. 
C. J. Watkins.—International Journal of Microscopy and 
Natural Science. 


A New Method of Preparing Serum Agar-Agar.—Dr. 
A. A. Kanthack (Lancet) gives the following method of 
preparing serum agar-agar from ascitic, pleuritic, or hy- 
drocele fluids. To every 100 c. cm. of serous exudation add 
2c.cm.ofaten-per-cent solution of caustic potash; this 
converts the serum albumin into an alkali albumin, which 


430 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Dec. 


is not precipitated on boiling. To this add 1.5 to two per 

cent of agar-agar, previously soaked in acidulated water, 

and boil the mixture ina Koch’s steamer until the agar- 

agar is well dissolved. It must now be filtered througha 
hot water-funnel. ‘The filtrate should be perfectly clear. 

To the fittrate add four’ or five per cent “ot ely 
cerine. It may then be poured into test tubes and 

sterilized. Besides the glycerine, 0.5 totwo per cent of 
grape sugar may be added; this however generally renders 
the medium a little darker in color. 

Before adding the caustic potash tothe serous fluid, a 
small quantity of it should be boiled in atest tube. If it 
becomes practically solid, or contains large quantities of 
albumin, the fluid must be diluted with at least twice its 
bulk of distilled water ; and then to every 100c. cm. of the 
diluted fluid 2c. cm. of KOH and 1.5 totwo grams of agar- 
agar are to be added. The serous exudation, after the 
addition of the alkali, also forms a good liquid nutrient 
medium for bacteria. 

Storaxas a Mounting Medium.—Permanent prepara- 
tions can be mounted in storax, according to Dr. J. H. Pitf- 
ard (Medical Record, 1895, p, 547), if it be prepared as fol- 
lows:—The storax is liquified ona water bath, then fil- 
tered through two or three thicknesses of cheese cloth on 
a hot-water funnel, and when cold mixed with an equal 
weight of xylol. Shake well several timesthrough absorb- 
ent cotton or Swedish filter-paper, and evaporate at a gen- 
tle heat to the consistency of treacle. Finally, to each 
two parts of the fluid add three parts of naphthaline mono- 
bromide, and heat gently untila clear amber-colored fluid 
is obtained. Preferably, the refractive index of the 
medium should be brought to 1.625, by adding more of the 
ingredient that may be found deficient, and the product 
will then be found suitable for work with the highest 
powers. 

Brown Cement, suitable for Microscopic Work.—The 
Chemist and Druggist recommends either a thick solution 
of shellac in vegetable naptha, or of gutta-percha in chloro- 
form or bisulphide of carbon. 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 431 


Plants Growing Under the Microscope.—This is some- 
thing that we read of in most books on the microscope, 
and although it isnot by any means true plant growth, it is 
very curios and beautiful. Procure alittle Collomia seed, 
which may be had from seedsmen. ‘Take one of the seeds, 
and with a razor, or very sharp knife, cut off a very tiny 
slice. Lay this slice onaslipof glass (an ordinary slide), 
cover it with a tiny glass cover, and, the microscope being 
ina vertical position, lay it onthe stage. If you wish to 
incline the microscope, you must use a square glass cover, 
and not a round one, and hold the cover to its place by 
means of a very fine rubber ring. Now, bring the thin 
slice of seed into focus, and then apply a drop of water to 
the edge of the glass. The water will penetrate between 
the glasses and moisten the seed, which will at once throw 
out a very large number of spiral fibers, giving it the ap- 
pearance of veritable germination. Beginners will find it 
easier to perform this experiment if one will apply the 
water while the other looks through the instrument. A 
single drop is enough.—Meyer Brothers Druggist. 


BACTERIOLOGY. 

Bacteriuria as a Complication of Gonorrhea.—( Wrener 
Med., Revue Int, de Med. et de Chir.) Bacteriuria consists of 
the presence of numerous bacteria in the urine which has 
a nauseous and penetrating odor. The bacteria gain en- 
trance either by catheterization, by immigration from 
neighboring organs, by fistule, or by the lymphatic system. 
The presence of gonococci enfeeble the resistance of the 
mucous membrane, making it an excellent soil for the 
developement of these bacteria; the bacteria coli most 
often causes these attacks of bacteriuria; the same bac- 
terium isalso the cause of gonorrheal inflamation ‘of the 
prostate; in such cases the bacterium coli comes from the 
intestines. The bacterium coli can also produce a run- 
ning suppuration; irrigations of silver nitrate are the most 
effective means of treating these lesions of the prostate. 


432 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Dec. 


Bacteria in Noma.—X. has made bacteriological examina- 
tions in two cases of noma (occurring in two girls, respec- 
tively three and fourteen years of age). The cultures and 
preparations were made in both cases from the boundary 
between the necrosed and healthy tissue. In both cases 
cocci were found together with a bacillus which was poly- 
morphous and resembled the diphtheria bacillus. The 
cultures of this bacillus from the first case had no patho- 
genic effect upon animals. The author considers the ba- 
cillus found by him to be different from the one described 
by Shimmelbusch. 

These findings correspond to those obtained by Bishop 
(Transactions Chicago Pathological Society, vol. i, p. 252), 
who reports cases of noma from which a bacillus was 
isolated resembling very closely in its morphology the 
diphtheria bacillus, but with slight pathogenic effect upon 
animals.—Medicine. 


Bacteriological Diagnosis of Epidemic Meningitis by 
Lumbar Puncture.—W. Holdheim gives the results of the 
bacteriological examination of fluid obtained by lumbar 
puncture in four cases of epidemic meningitis. In all the 
cases the meningococcus intracellularis of Weichselbaum 
was found in the fluid. The fluid obtained by puncture 
was centrifugated, and from the sediment cover-glass 
preparations were made in the usual way and stained ac- 
cording to Loeffler. In all the preparations numerous leu- 
cocytes were found, in which were often seen three or four 
pairs of cocci. ‘The diplococci were very like gonococci in 
appearance, and lance-shaped diplococci were not found. 
Pure cultures of the meningococcus were obtained upon 
glycerin agar-agar in each case. 

The author holds that by this method a diagnosis can be 
easily made in epidemic meningitis by lumbar puncture, 
and a differential diagnosis during life between it and tub- 
ercular meningitis.— Medicine. 


Bacteriology of the Hair.—Dr. L. Brocq says that when 
the bacteriology of the hair is taken up various microbes 
are found init. Six are, however, discovered quite con- 


1896. ] MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 433 


stantly. These are: (1) a white fungus; (2) a yellow fun- 
gus; (3) a bacillus subtiliformis; (4) a bacillus in the form 
of a boat, staining with difficulty; (5) a special micrococ- 
cus, which Sabouraud designates provisionally under the 
name of micrococcus cutis communis; (6) the spore of 
Malassez, the flask bacillus of .Unna, which he calls the 
bacillus asciformis. These two microbes, which appear 
to be the most important, are found in seborrhoics who are 
not attacked with alopecia areata. No one of these mic- 
robes would have the importance of a causal agent in the 
disease.— Medical Record. 

Bacteria and Aerated Water.—Professor Frankland, 
in Nature, shows the fallaciousness of the prevalent idea 
that by drinking aerated water safety from infectious 
disease is insured. In experiments by Salter, the num- 
ber of bacteria varied from 200 per cubic centimeter with 
15 grams of carbon dioxide per liter, to 2,000 with 6 grams 
per liter. The spores of the anthrax bacilli have been 
found to survive 154 days in acerated water, but the chol- 
era bacilli cannot live longer than three hours. The ty- 
phoid bacillus requires a period of two weeks to insure its 
destruction. The author recommends storage fora cer- 
tain period, as time is thereby given for the destruction 
of the pathogenic bacilli by the innocuous forms.—Medical 
News. 


Bacteriology in Private Practice.—Jaques in a paper 
read before the Chicago Medical Society describes a con- 
venient way of using Loeffler’s blood serum mixture. It 
consists in the use of small metal boxes, the size of a quar- 
ter, and several times its thickness, in which the medium 
is placed and sterilized as if in tubes, and sealed with para- 
fin. ‘These can be carried about readily, present a con- 
siderable surface for inoculation, and can be incubated by 
carrying ina pocket near the surface of the body.—Chi- 
cago Medical Record. 


The municipality of Paris has changed the name of the 
Boulevard de Vaugirard to that of Boulevard Pasteur. 


434 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY ‘[Dec 


WEDICAL MICROSCOPY. 


Pleuritic Effusions and their Treatment.—A _ bacterio- 
logical examination should be made in all cases; both with 
cover-glasses, with culture media, and with injections of 
the effusion in animals. Distinguish between exudate and 
transudate by using theacetic acid chemical test, and by the 
same process eliminate mucine. Many cases of pleurisy 
are ofan uric acid diathesis. ‘These will yield readily by 
the treatment of the salicylates. I believe not more than 
15 per cent of pleuritic cases are rheumatic. The finding 
of pneumococci does not aggravate the conditions, and 
often gives no markedly distinct symptoms. Pleurisy in 
typhoid is not a mixed infection, but a distinct condition. 
Tubercle bacilli are often found in the pleuritic effusions. 
I believe it is not only possible, but likely that the tuber- 
cle bacilli do penetrate through the alveolar septi, and en- 
ter the pleura without producing infection in the lungs. 
Tuberculosis may be differentiated by the agar culture. 
Hyperesthesia of different parts is frequently present. 

I have washed out the cavity in 14 cases with an anti- 
septic solution of one-half to two per cent of clove oil, with 
most gratifying results in 12 of the cases. ‘The advantages 
of this method are: Many patients will allow such an oper- 
ation, who would object to an exsection of the rib; no 
bulky dressings are constantly interfering with the com- 
fort and convenience of both patient and physician; much 
shorter time is required.—Dunglison’s College and Clini- 
cal Record. 


Mixed Infection and Virulence of Diphtheria Bacilli.— 
Dr. W. H. Park, said before the New York Pathological 
Society that he had been deeply interested in the question 
of mixed infection, because of the important bearing of 
this subject on the anti-toxin treatment of diphtheria. He 
presented temperature charts of three children affected 
with laryngeal diphtheria. In the first case, between Feb- 
ruary 11th and 19th, the temperature had ranged between 
105 degrees and 105.5 degrees F. The glands had become 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 435 


swollen four days before death, and the pneumonia which 
had been present had become more marked. Theautopsy 
showed broncho-pneumonia; and lesions of the kidneys 
and other organs. The cultures from the lungs showed 
numerous streptococci, as well as Loeffler bacilli. The 
cultures from the blood of the various organs showed pure 
growths of streptococci. Cultures from the blood of the 
various organs showed pure growths of streptococci. 
When these streptococci were injected intoa rabbit, they 
were found to be of moderate virulence. His experience 
had been that after the streptococci were passed through 
a few rabbits they increased somewhat in virulence but 
then the virulence remained stationary. 

The second case was that of a child of one year, with 
laryngeal diphtheria and high temperature. It was given 
antitoxin. Twenty-four hours later it was intubated, but 
after three and one half hours the tube was removed. 
Thirty-six hours after admission the temperature was 106 
degrees F., and remained high until death. The child 
remained the larger part of the time in a position of opis- 
thotonos. The lung showed a late stage of broncho-pneu- 
monia. Cultures from the lungs and other organs gave 
streptococci. 

The third child had been sick only two days, but the 
chest was fullof rales. There was no membrane in the 
throat; some diphtheria bacilli were found in the throat. 
The temperature at the end of forty-eight hours reached 
107 degrees F., and the child died. The autopsy showed 
both lungs consolidated. Cultures from the lungs and 
from the blood showed the pneumococcus, and a few col- 
onies of diphtheria bacilli were found in the cultures from 
the lungs. 

Cultures from the blood of those dying early in diph- 
theria, without high temperature, were usually sterile; 
when there was a high temperature, sepitcemia was gen- 
erally found. When the lungs showed lesions, diphtheria 
bacilli were always present in the consolidated areas. 
Streptococci were also found. The diphtheria bacilli were 
found in fourteen cases. It had been suggested by Dr. H. 


436 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Dec. 


M. Biggs that the work done some time ago regarding the 
virulence of the diphtheria bacilli be again tested. In 
cases in which the clinical diagnosis was follicular tonsillitis 
or pseudo-diphtheria, the virulence of the cultures was 
tested and notes were made regarding the number of 
diphtheria bacilli and whether or not they were charac- 
teristic. In four months 71 such cases had been tested, 
and from 50 of these bacilli were obtained in pure culture 
and inoculated into guinea pigs. In 38 of the 50 the ba- 
cilli were characteristic and abundant; in 37 they were vir- 
ulent; in 1, non-virulent. In 2 the bacilli were atypical. 
Out of 48 characteristic cultures, the bacilli were virulent 
in 46 and non-virulent in 2. In two cultures of the pseudo- 
type they were virulent. Of those tested, in 26 the diag- 
nosis was not diphtheria; and of these, 22 were virulent 
and 4 non-virulent. In 24 doubtful cases the bacilli were 
virulent in 22, andin2 not virulent—in other words, in 
twelve per cent of the 50 cases they were non-virulent. 
In 2 cf these the bacilli would be called atypical. 

Dr. L. Waldstein asked Dr. Parkif he had noted any 
relation between the size of the individual links and the 
lengths of the chains and the virulence of the bacilli; also 
whether in making cultures of the streptococci the viru- 
lence was affected by the alkalinity or acidity of the 
medium. 

Dr. Park replied that he had examined swabs from slight 
pus cases, and in these the chains had been verylong. In 
some of the cultures from the severer cases the chains 
had been rather short. He had made no exact observa- 
tions as to the effect of the alkalinity of the medium on the 
virulence of the bacilli.—Medical Record. 


Antitoxin Treatment of Diphtheria in Austria.—Pro- 
fessor Paltauf has published statistics of 1,103 cases of 
diphtheria in which antitoxin was employed, with the re- 
sult of 970 recoveries and 133 deaths, equivalent to a mor- 
tality of 12.5 per cent. Helays much stress upon the early 
application of the serum, for in the case of injections made 
on the second day of the disease the mortality amounted 


1896. | MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 437 


to 6.7 per cent, whereas in those made on the third day it 
amounted to 19 per cent, in those on the fourth to 23 per 
cent inthose on the fifth to 31 per cent, and in those on 
and after the sixth to 33.3 per cent. Professor Paltauf 
makes mention of the epidemic of diphtheria in Ischl, 
where in December, 1895, all those children died who had 
not received the antitoxin treatment; whereas in January, 
1896, in the cases of 16 children attacked with the disease 
and treated with antitoxin the result was in every way suc- 
cessful.—The Lancet. 


A Newly Discovered Constituent of the Blood.—Dr. 
Muller of Vienna has described certain particles found in 
the biood under the name of haemokocia (blood dust). 
They resemble fat-globules, and the largest are 1~25000 of 
an inch in diameter. They are motile and are unaffected 
by osmic acid. 


The Serum Treatment of Cancer.—Ata recent meet- 
ing of the French Congress of Internal Medicine , M. Du- 
bois stated that he had introduced fragments of cancer 
taken from human subjects into the cellular tissue of ani- 
mals and had obtained several tumors, the largest of which 
weighed between seventeen and eighteen ounces. The 
serum of these inoculated animals was then employed in 
three cases of cancer. In the first case there was non- 
ulcerative cancer of the breast in which the treatment led 
to an almost complete recovery after a period of forty-five 
days. ‘The second case was one of epithelioma of the face, 
which subsided in thirty-nine days. 

In each case, from two to five cubic centimeters BE the 
serum had been injected in the region of the tumor every 
three days anda fewdrops of alcohol witha very small 
quantity of iodide had been injected around the tumor in 
the second case. The third case was one of relapsing 
epithelioma of the upper lip, which was very much _ ulcer- 
ated and highly inflamed, and after twenty-three days of 
treatment the progress of the tumor seemed to have been 
arrested, but it presented no tendency to complete recov- 
ery. From these facts, M. Dubois concludes that the se- 


438 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Dec. 


rum of animals inoculated with cancerous elements seemed 
to cure cancer by fibrous transformation. Its action was 
much more certain he said, when it was employed in the 
beginning of the disease. He thought its employment pre- 
sented no dangers, except in cases of extensive lesions.— 
INGO Meda soun: 


MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETIES. 


Calcutta Microscopical Society. 


At the April meeting Mr. W. J. Simmons described his 
method of making an observation of dust witha view of 
detecting in it air-borne spores which are said to cause 
molds to grow ina manner which the earlier observers be- 
lieved favored the doctrine of spontaneous generation. 
The method is simplicity itself, and consists in placing a 
drop of pure glycerine on the center of a slip of glass 
measuring three inches by oneinch. ‘The dropis smeared 
over the glass lightly so as to cover a surface of about 
three-quarters of an inch in diameter, and is then exposed 
to the air for two or three days. When the dust which 
settles on the smear is to be examined under the micro- 
scope, a circular cover glass is placed on it, and the deposit 
is now shown by the microscope to be composed of a most 
heterogeneous collection of objects. Fibers of all sorts, 
the scales from insects, wings, root, pollen, starch, down, 
fragments of epidermis, and of the cuticle of plants, hair, 
entire mites, numberless inorganic particles, charred 
straw, portions of insects, hairs from plants, and several 
spores of fungi are thus revealed. 

If a drop of glycerine, half an inch in diameter, arrests 
sO Many spores, how many do we inhale daily, and how 
many are deposited on our food in the course of a day? 
The study of dust is not one suited toa beginner in mic- 
roscopy, because it presupposes familiarity with the thous- 
and and one objects which are certain to be present on the 
glass slip; but it presents no insuperable difficulties, and 
does not demand any special or costly appliances. 


THE AMERICAN 
MONTHLY MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 


INDEX. 


Abrasive substance, 298 
Address of welcome, 368 
Adirondack sanitarium, 222 
Adulteration of senega root, 153 
Acid, filicic, 287 
Air, germ content of 185, 187 
Air-passages, bacteriology of, 254 
Algee, 274, 378 
American Electro-Therapeutic As- 
sociation, 284 
Microscopical Society, 41, 141, 
311, 368, 404 
Postal Microscopical Club, 289 
Ameeba, 266 
Amphirrhopalum bifidum, 57 
Anaerobiotic micro-organisms, 8 
Angers, France, 402 
Animal tissues, 131, 349, 385 
Antidiphtheric serum, 288 
Antifebrile reaction of tuberculin, 
186 
Anthrax in fox, 154 
Antitoxin, 69, 186 
serum in small-pox, 313, 361 
Aplanatic magnifiers, 66 é 
Appendicitis, 98 
Aquarium cement, 218 
Aqueous media for preserving alge, 
378 
Asthmatic sputum, 242 
Astractura digitata, 98 
Astrococurra, 138 
Atwood, Melville, 139 
Aubert, A. B. 165 
Bacillariaceae on Long Island, 52 
Bacilli ia pus, typhoid, 287 
smegma and tubercle, 397 
tubercle, 150 
typhoid, 315 
of chancroid, 226 
ramosus, 149 
tuberculosis in milk, 40 
whooping cough, 283 
Bacteria at low temperature, growth, 
69 


diagnosis of, 148 
fluorescent, 150 
in excrement of bovines, 188 


Bacteria in milk, 184, 187 
motile, 174 
of school rooms, 88 
of the intestinal canal, 104 
skin, 34 
of the vagina, 313 
Bacterial disease of squash-bug, 402 
origin of eclampsia, 106 
products, 155 
Bacteriologic Concours, 286 
Results from mechanical filtra- 
tion, 89 
Bacteriological, etiology of acute 
conjunctivitis, 313 
investigations, 220 
researches, 118 
Bacteriology, 40, 68, 104, 148, 184, 
219, 253, 287, 313, 402 
of air passages, 254 
of hernia, 403 
of the normal conjunctiva, 373 
Barbadoes, a new genus from, 61 
a new species from, 57, 58 
radiolaria, 19, 25, 96, 138, 161, 
Barnouvin, M. 149 
Batrachospermum, 250 
Biology, studies in, 261 
Biological notes, 37, 66, 149, 150, 
223, 403 
Bifurcated crystal from asthmatic 
sputum, 242 
Black plague, 224, 360 
Blood-corpuscles, counting, 212 
Blood, filariz in the, 317- 
hemoglobin in the, 167 
in general paralysis, 316 
in urine, 248 
of scarlatina, 221 
stains, 401 
test for tuberculosis, 331 
films, malarial, 357 
Boceardi, Dr. B.+406 
Bodio, Professor, 222 
Bolley, H. L, 187 
Books and microbian disease, 219, 
258 
Borax carmine, 31 
Borden, W. C. 113, 193, 249 


4838 


440 


Bovines, excrement of, 188 
Brain of turtle and sparrow, 4, 415 
Branching algae, 274 
Bristol, Prof. 403 
Britton, N. L. 322 
Bronze and gold paints, 218 
Bujuid, Prof. 154 
Busch, F. C. 167 
Cabinet, slide, 311 
Cale, Geo. W. 131, 349 
Camera to enlarge images, 368 
Canada balsam, 282 
Canal, bacteria of the intestinal, 104 
Carmine, borax, 31 
Carnegie Library, 368 
Cars, railway, 362 
Carter, F. B. 19, 25, 57, 62, 96, 98, 
168, 241 
Cattle tuberculosis, 331 
Cell, a growing, 346 
theory, objections to the, 66 
wall of amceba, 268 
Cells-animal tissues, 349, 385 
atlas of nerve, 37 
staining methods of, 131 
wax, 63 
Cement, aquarium 218 
liquid, 33, 249, 430 
Chancroid, bacillus of, 226 
Chantemesse, Prof., 402 
Cheese, ripening of, 68 
Chemistry of bacteria, 148 
Chlorophylogenous plants, 274 
Cholera microbes, 402 
vibrio, 223 
Cicada Septendecim, 45 
Clayey deposits, study of, 228 
Claypole, E. W., 407 
Cocaine, insolubility of, 308 
in the study of pond life, 95 
- Coffee and disease germs, 223 
Commissuralis, obelia, 291 
Comparative morphology of the brain 
4 


Concours, international, 286 
Condenser, parachromatic substage, 
66 


Congress of medicine, 363 
Conjunctiva, normal, 373 
Conjunctivitis, acute, 313 
Conjnnctivitis eczematosa, 220 
Conser, H. N. 95 
Contagion, 258, 362 

Cope, E. D. 322 

Corneal ulcers, 220 
Corpuscles, counting, 312 
Correspondence, 309, 365 
Cracow, diphtheria, 257 


THE AMERICAN MONTHLY 


[Dec. 


Crouch, Dr. H. C. 69 
Crystal from asthmatic sputum, 242 
Culture media, 183 
micro-organisms, 8 
tube in diagnosis, 107 
Cunningham, K. M. 228, 298 
Cutter, Ephraim, 72, 112, 242, 296, 
331 
Cyclosis, 273 
Cystin, 296 
Death, black. 360 
Deaver, John B. 98 
Development of negatives, 113 
Diagnosis of bacteria, 148, 315 
of diphtheria, 69 
Diatomaceous deposits, study of, 228 
Diatoms, 107, 165 
Dicoccura, 163 
Diphtheria, 69, 107, 186, 224, 257,434 
Dirty sponges, 362 
Disease germs and coffee, 223 
of squash-bug, 402 
tsetse fty, 394 
Diseases, venereal, 362 
Drawings, micro-photographic, 36 
Dried plants, 250 
Drugs, 269 
Duclaux, 68 
Dust in sanitarium, 222 
Eclampsia, origin of, 106 
Editorial, 27, 64, 100, 141, 177, 216, 
247, 284, 309, 355, 360, 397. 
Edwards, Arthur M. 52, 227, 346, 
370 
Elementary biology, 261 
Enzyma, of some yeasts 321 
Epidermis of the onion, 264 
Epithelium in urine, 248 
Etiology of acute conjunctivitis, 
313 
Examination of flour, 398 
of foul sea water, 38 
of opium, 68 
of skin, 34 
of urine, 316, 359 
of tubercle bacilli, 150 
Excrement of bovines, 188 
Excretion of micro-organism, 360 
of pathogenic microbes, 288 
Exhibiton of Washington Society, 
215 
Falsifications of pepper, 148 < 
Fever, 240, 253 
Fibres, smooth-muscle, 131 
Filariae in the blood, 317 
Filicice acid, 287 : 
Filtration, mechanical, 89 
Fischer, L. 209 


1896.] 


Fixing solution, 164 
Flagella, 30, 174 
Fleischl methods, 167 
Flour, examination of, 398 
Flies, 219, 288. 394 
Fluid, staining, 31 
Fluorescent bacteria, 150 
Foote, Charles J. 373 
Forceps, cover glass, 182 
Fox, anthrax in, 154 
Free-swimming medusae, 291 
French Congress of Medicine, 363 
method of purifying water, 320 
Fresh water deposit, 165 
Friedlander, pneumobacillus, 254 
Fungus, ringworm, 286 
Gage, Susanna Phelps, 4 
Gibbs, Wolcott, 364 
Geology, diatomology in, 107 
General Index, 284 
Germ content of air, 187 
Germs, coffee and disease, 223 
flies carriers of, 219 
in ice, typhoid, 307 
in mother’s milk, 256 
Gold and bronze paints, 218 
Gowers methods, 167 
Growing cell, 346 
Growth of organisms, 69, 106 
Habermaas, M. D., A. 385 
Hemoglobin in the blood, 167 
Hance; Irwin H. 222 
Handkerchief, 189 
Harwich, C. 153 
Havemann, 69 
Hayden Fund, 363 
Heredity of acquired immunity, 256 
Hereditary tuberculosis, 314 
Hernia, strangulated, 403 
Histology’s sake, 355 
Holland, W. J. 368 
Houghton, E. M., 155 
Huie, Miss Lily H. 103 
Hyatt, J. D. 45 
Ice, typhoid germs in, 307 
Identification of Infusoria, 26 
Infectious diseases, treatment of, 256 
Infectiousness of dust, 222 
Influenza in children, 209 
Injection in rheumatism, 319 
rectal, 288 
Immunity, 256 
Improving cheap microscope, 101 
Influence of lecithin, 106 
Infusoria for identification, 26 
Ingraham, Charles Wilson, 112 
Instruments in use, 100 
Intestinal bacteria, 104 


MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 


44] 


Investigations, bacteriological, 220 

Jean, Ferdinand, 8 

Karyokinesis, 278 

Keratitis, 220 

Kerr ins vAses G7 

Ketasalo, 187 

Key to Radiolaria, 19 

Kiessling, Dr. Fritz, 148 

Kitasato, 360 

Klemperer, 69 

Krauss, William C. 1, 136 

Lanceolatus, micrococeus, 186 

Landry’s paralysis, 315 

Lard and cocaine, 308 

Laryngoscope, the, 285 

Latham, V. A. 9, 29 

Lawrence, Geo. M. 226 

Lecithin, 106 

hee; DR Gen e226 

Leprosy in Russia, 208 

Letters to the Editor, 72 

Leuconostoc mesenteroides, 403 

Levy, 69 

Life, lowest forms of, 370 

study of, 73, 95 

Lille exposition of hygiene, 406 

Lincoln Club, 110, 152, 

Liquid cement, 249 

Liver, mammalian, 265 

Long Island, Bacillariacese of, 52 

Lungs of plants, 223 

Magnifiers, aplanatic, 66 

Malaria, plasmodia, 318 

Malarial blood-films, 357 

Malt, emzym in 321 

Mammalian liver, 264 

Manufacture of bacterial products, 
155 

Marine, fossil 352 

Marsh fever, 253 

Mast-cell nuclei, 34° 

Mason, O. G. 367 

Mass. General Hospital, 364 

Media, aqueous, 378, 430 

culture, 183 

Medical Microscopy, 69, 106, 150, 
189, 223, 256, 288, 316, 361, 
403, 434 

Meduse, free-swimming, 291 

Mechanical filtration, 89 

stage, 143 

Mercer, Alfred Clifford, 41 

Metals, study of, 298 

Meteoric paper, 244 

Method of staining, 30 

Methylen blue, 399 

Mice, 425 

Microbes, pathogenic, 255, 361 


442 


Microbian disease, 219, 255 
Micro-Cement, spirit-proof, 33 
Micrococcus lanceolatus, 186 
Micro-organism, excretion of, 360 
anacrobiotic, 8 
and the cholera vibrio, 223 
inspired air, 185 
in scarlatina, 221 
X rays on, 184 
Micrometallography, 290 
Micro-photographic drawings, 36 
Microscope, a new, 217 
as an advertiser, 190 
in surgery, 189 
novel, 143 
Microscopes and exhibits, list of, 99 
improving cheap, 101 
Microscopic diagnosis of diphtheria, 
69 
examination of opium, 68 
fixing solution, 164 
objective, modern, 13 
objects, 359 
objects and camera, 367 
specimens, 358 
Microscopical apparatus, 66, 
143, 182, 217 
examination of flour, 398 
manipulation, 30, 103, 148, 183, 
218, 249, 286, 312, 357, 397 
notes, 320, 363, 415 
preparations, 286 
societies, 9, 71, 109, 141, 151, 191 
225, 289, 362, 404 
Microscopist wanted, 405 
Migula, Dr. W. 188 
Milk, bacillus tuberculosis in, 40 
bacteria in 184, 187 
mother’s, 256 
Mineral substances, 298 
Minerals, distinguishing 139 
Missouri Botanical Garden, 247 
Mjoen, Dr. 68 
Modern microscopic objective, 13 _ 
Moissan, Prof. H. 364 
Monod, Henri 187 
Monument to Pasteur, 310 
to Robert B. Tolles, 64 
Moore, Veranus A. 174 
Morphology of the brain, 4 
Morris, J. W. 391 
Motile bacteria, 174 
Mounting specimens, 249, 282 
Muller, Dr. 396 
Muscle fibers, 131 
Musee d’ Histoire Naturelle, 405 
Nature of bacterial products, 155 
New Britain Scientitic Association, 99 


101, 


THE AMERICAN MONTHLY 


[Dec 


Nerve cells, atlas of, 37 
Negatives, Photomicrographic, 113 
Nepbritis, suppurative, 289 
New Publications, 111, 192, 226, 257, 
322, 365, 406 
Immunity protective inoculation, 
lil 
Don’ts for Cousumptives, 112 
The best waters to Drink, 112 
Keil’s Medical Directory, 192 
Primary Factors of Organic Evo- 
lution, 226 
Modern Microscopy, 257 
The Crambide of North America, 
257 
Microscopical Studies in Botany, 
9 


Asiatic Cholera in India, 258 
An illustrated Flora, 322 
Ernst Mach’s Scientific Lectures, 
365 
Mikrotechnic der thierischen mor- 
phologie 365 
Advantages of Chastity, 406 
New Orleans, smalli-pox in, 224 
Nocard, M. 62 
Norton, George W. 291 
Nuclei, mast-cell, 349 
Nucleus of amosba, 268 
N. Y. State University, 405 
Obelia commissuralis, 291 
Objective, a modern microscopic, 13 
Objectives, marking, 136 
Objects, microscopic, 359 
Onion, epidermis of, 264 
Opium, examination of, 68 
Orford, Henry. 13 
Organisms, growth of, 106 
Origin of eclampsia, bacterial, 106 
of rickets, microbic, 255 
Osborn, H. L., 261 
Oscillaria, 273 
Osterhout, W. J. V., 378 
Ovaries of Scilla patula, 103 
Oxalic acid, 250 
Oysters, 402 
Paints, gold and bronze, 218 
Pan-American Congress, 182 
Paguin, Dr., 69 
Paraehromati¢ condenser, 66 
Paralysis, Landry’s, 315 
blood in, 316 
Paramaecium, 268 
Parrots and pneumonia, 62 
Partnerships in plant life, 73 
Pasteur, 285, 406 
a monument to, 310 
Pathogenic microbes, 288, 361 


1896.] 


Penicillium, 275 

Pentinastrum, 25, 58 

Pepper, falsifications of, 148 

Personals, 226, 364, 406 

Perspiration and pathogenic microbes, 
288 


Pflaum, M. 63 
Phacotriactis, 61 
Pharmaceutical, 190 
Photographic drawings, 36 
Photomicrography, 113, 193, 249 
Physiology of amceba, 267 
of vorticella, 270 
Pittfield, R. I. 30 
Plague, black, 224 
Plant-life, 73, 225 
Plasmodia malaria, 318 
Pneumobacillus, 254 
Pneumonia, conveying, 62 
Pond-Life, study of, 95 
Postal Club, 362 
Potato, cells of, 262 
Prentiss, A. N. 364 
Preparations, rapid method, 286 
malaria] blood-films, 357 
Preservation of specimens, 358 
Preducts, bacterial, 155 
Protococcus, 271 
Purifying water, 320 
Pus, bacilli in, 287 
Queckett Club, 71, 109, 151, 191, 225 
Radiolaria, 57, 58, 61, 96, 98, 138, 
161, 163, 241 
a new species 25, 62 
classification of, 19 
Railway cars, 362 
Ramosus, bacillus, 149 
Ravenel, M. P. 402 
Reaction of tuberculin, 186 
Rectal injection of serum, 288 
Rheumatism, acute, 319 
Rhizopods, 370 
Rhopalastrum? anomalum, 59 
Rickets, 255 
Rindfleish, Professor, 150 
Ringworm fungus, 286 
Rogers, Mr., 69 
Root, senega, 153 
Rousselet, Charles F. 33 
Ryder, John Adam, 364 
Sage, C. Edward, 308 
Samson, Rene, 259 
San Diego Society, 290 
Sanitation in Italy, 222 
Scale, San Jose, 323 
Searlatina blood, 221 
Schizomycetes, 188 
Scientific Association, 99 


MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL. 


Scientific instruments, 216 
Scilla patula, ovaries of, 103 
Scott, Bryce, 247 
Scurvy, microbe of, 255 
Sections, vegetable, 249 
Sedgwick, Adam, 66 
Serum, antidiphtheric, 288 
for infections diseases, 256 
injection, 319 
in smallpox, 313, 361 
treatment, 257 
Senega root, 153 
Septendecim, Cicada 45 
Setchell, W. A. 378 
Shadbolt, Walter P. 38 
Sheffield society, 151, 225 
Sidney University, 364 
Skin bacteria, 34 
Slides, 177, 216 
Slide cabinet, 311 
Smallpox, 224, 361 
antitoxin, 313 
Smegma bacilli, 397 
Smiley, C. W. 227, 259 
Smith, Erwin F. 403 
Smooth-muscle fibers, 131 
Societe belge de Geologie, 248 
Societies, microscopical, 9 
Solution, fixing, 164 
Solutions, yegetations of, 149 
Sparrow, 4 
Specific gravity method, 167 
Specimens, microscopic, 358. 
mounting, 249 
Spirit-proof micro-cement, 33 
Spirogyra, 272 
Sponge, dirty, 362 
Sputum, asthmatic, 242 
Squash-bug, 402 
Squire, P. W. 31 
Stage, mechanical, 143 
Staining bacillus tuberculosis, 40 
flagella, 30 
fluid, 31 
methods, 69, 131, 349, 385 
of ringworm fungus, 286 
Stains, blood, 401 
Starch-grains, 97 
Starr, M. Allen, 37 
Staurococcura, 96 
clavigera, 164 
cuneata, 162 
loculata, 161 
Stauralastrum trispinosum, 241 
Stedem, Druggist, 190 
Stentor, 271 
Sternberg, George M. 111, 118 
Strangulated hernia, 403 


444 THE AMERICAN MONTHLY [Dec. 


Studies in elementary biology, 261 
Substage condenser, 66 
Sappurative nephritis, 289 
Surgery, microscope in, 189 
Sutton, Harry J. 58, 61, 138, 161 
Swarts, Gardner T. 89 
Symbiosis, 73 
Tariff on instruments, 216 
Telephone and tuberculosis, 562 
Tempere, M. J. 107 
Tenia, 305 
Test for tuberculosis, 331 
Tobacco and cholera microbes, 402 
Tolles, Robert B. 64 

monument, 72 
Transactions of the American Society, 

141 

Tricresol on Pathogenic Microbes, 361 
Tsetse fly, 394 
Tube, culture, 8, 107 
Tubercle bacilli, 150, 397 
Tuberculin, 186 
Tuberculosis and flies, 288 

and telephone, 362 

avian, 204 

cattle, 331 

hereditary, 314 

staining bacillus, 40 
Tuberculous handkerchief, 189 
Turpentine, 312 
Turtle, 4 
Typhoid bacilli, 315 

fever, 240 

germs in ice, 307 
Tyrothrix, 68 


Unicellular animals, 271 
Unna, P. G., 34, 36, 131, 349, 385 
Urinary examinations, 359° 
Urine, 216 
blood in, 248 
epithelium in, 248 
examination of, 316 
Utah Society, 109 
Vagina, bacteria of the, 313 
Vaseline, cocaine in, 308 
Vegetable sections, 249 B 
Vegetations of solutions, 149 
Venereal diseases, 362 
Vibrio, cholera, 223 
Vorticella, 269 
Waite, M. B. 403 
Ward, H. B., 305 
Ward, H. Marshall, 149 
Washington society, 215, 404 
Water, foul sea, 38 
purifying, 320 
Waters, bath, 391 
Watson & Sons, W. 66, 248 
Wax-cells, 63 
Weiss, Professor, 73 
Wenham, F. H. 143 
White’s objects, 284 
Whooping cough bacillus, 2&3 
Winkler, 68 
Wisdom vs. knowledge, 397 
Women in science, 248 
Woodhead, Dr. 406 
X rays on micro-organisms, 184 
Yeast, 274, 321 
Zululand, tsetse fly disease in, 394 


LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Portrait of Dr. Wm. C. Krauss (frontispiece) ..............266.- ME: 1 
New Tube tor the Culture of Anaerobiotic Meideos -organisms ml ‘femie) Pee, aes) 
Newaspecies: rom), Barbadoes: (idioure)  /. n(:.ecc) seede csc coe eeuiaea ols uctieseace ce. 25 
Infusonatonsdentincations (fh tonne 32. cele ca se scee wae ok estes conan 26 


Portrait of Prof. A. Clifford Mercer, M. D., F. R. M.S., (frontispiece)... 42 
Cicada Septeudecim its Mouth Parts and Terminal Armor (5 figures)... 46 


New Species from Barbadoes (3 figures) ......... cceceeee scereess veseeeees 08, 09, 60 
New, Genusitrombarbad oes: (dati gure), uncvssccaecs ccdensecelscewesnen sec omencs ones 61 
ROTbrAltOLRODERD DS sHBOUES \ de aa eeg ealjds-castche shes s soueee oeoaeiee ce neces tees 65 
Symbiosis, or, Partnerships in Plant-Life (frontispiece) ........ 00.06... eo 74 
New Genus from Barbadoes (1 figure)...... Pasihadies oi De vascnaeeePhataeseP eat alae 97 
NewiSpecies trom banvadoes (LUSUTC) a) os ei nes.s vacdsend de asus stoebena gece: devenece 98 
Method of improving Cheap Microscopes (1 figure)... ........cc cess eee LOL 
Tranverse Section of Squash (Cucurbita) Vine (frontispiece) ....... ...... 113 
New Way of Marking Objectives (1 figure)......... ER Cuore Moctimavence 137 
INewsGenus trom! Barbadoes: Cle moure) ie tieer.c.ces ents -schsic-sescns'sees, sae Nene . 138 
Novel Microscope and Mechanical Stage (4 figures) ......... 00.22. ccceee ceeees 145 
Senega root, Cross Sections and Structure of Triosteum perfoliatum 
(montis prEece iy ae ee wee eich J) muck rodent es es sacsere seer ceebsuaaetseeaincnes 1538 
Nature and Manufacture of Bacterial Products (3 figures),................. 156 
Two New Species from’ Bardadoes (2 figures). .......... ceececees coer ee vceees 161, 162 
New Genus from Barbadoes (1. figure) ......0 ...ccee seciee sete: cosecocee seveceees 163 
Newsopecies: inom Barbadoes: (1) tore) isis. .csscssnss conse epee oe Medesoteaen oes 164 
Cover Glass HOLceps! (2, HOULES)\ shar pobaedstssca ls. oecacncas eae seeeu Aes oor en 182 
Photomicrographic Apparatus Arranged for Use with Oil Light (frontis- 
Oey ree eae ee eee ac Ue eat ee taok meee tras pate h. stadaak shatyesis ibe ataatee sco deste ate 193 
Apparatus Arranged for Photomicrography with Acecylene Light(1 figure) 195 
(Fonecoeci anu rephrale ens) enre)s teen. ecceecoae)eschcenaceecsteceeecins woes 197 
Colony of Staphylococcus pyogenes aureus floating on liquified Gelatin 199 
(Gramt-cell sarcoma (tM OUne) atti. we hice ecdesiaee Mennveciee cats sa cue alot oaen sree alec 201 
Klebs-oefilercbactlims’s(Ihoure))iosic.5 meccsswuctesseues 1cvaenst su ctleasseeencs 203 
Typhoid bacillus (1 figure) .............. AROS aa OeN Rub aiaceesia deme aera 205 
Hindlivenzars baci lus lature) mene, tee oh aes aaken assed sac ake nctast eas te Ae 
Mew majeroscOpe (1 diane yee cn ad. tia Meee eee ae eel oo Gn ccs beeen ate BIg 
Portrait of Arthur Mead means M. D. ‘radtiapisce) a Pecceces vances een 
New? Species trom - Barbadoes} (iio mre) !iice ccs ccsceace atscauces scceoears ee cees 241 
Bifurcated Double-ended Crystal from Asthmatic Sputum (1 figure)...... 242 
Portrait of Prof. Charles Wesley Smiley (frontispiece) ...... 0.2.2.0... ceceee vee eee 259 
Development of a free Swimming Medusa Oe figures) one in text 291, 293 
Cystin (10 figures) ........... 4... Cue CUB Soooae SOOREL A AROEO HEE eRe PEERED Rais aace 297 
New: Spectesiol manta :(Q figures) secssevece. sees eects ences, deuSel beteteisueseoeetees 306 
Crystals from ‘‘ Vaseline-Cocaine ’’ (1 figure) .............ccess seseecees  eeseee 308 
SA MAOSewo Cale (fLOMGIS PLETE, ill MOURNE) sorcarsosms eres cen eeaces seercdersccseeenselseenes 324 
San Jose Scale (7 other figures) ................324, 325, 326, 327, 328, 329, 330 
Photo-micrographic Apparatus (frontispiece) ........... 6. cece ceesee eee eee 367 


Portrait of E. W. Claypole, M. D. (fLOMPISPIECE) so.pcey <a seve sake rionte poses seo 407 


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