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ft ARCHIVES
This book u ^ oe kept out
TWO WEEKS
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CENTS a day thereafter. It will be due on
the day indicated below.
X
State Agricultural Hall,
Albany, April 16th, 1845.
At a meeting of the Executive Committee of the New York State
Agricultural Society, a work entitled " The American Shepherd," by
L. A. Morrell, of Lake Ridge, Tompkins county, New York, was pre-
sented, and the manuscript examined. The Committee have great
pleasure in recommending the work to the attention of wool-growers
and others interested in the Breeding and Management of Sheep, as one
containing a large amount of Practical and Scientific inforaiation on the
most important branch of American Agriculture.
Mr. Morrell has a high reputation as a skilful and successful farmer
in everything appertaining to the breeding and improvement of Sheep.
The work before us embodies the results of long experience, aided by a
thorough research into the practice of the best breeders of Sheep and
Wool-growers in Great Britain and the Continent. The work contains
letters from some of the most distinguished Wool-growers and Breeders
in America, which add much to the value of the work.
B. P. JOHNSON, President
LUTHER TUCKER, Rec. Secretary.
THE
AMERICAI SHE
HISTORY OF THE SHEEP,
WITH THEIR
BREEDS, MANAGEMENT, AND DISEASES.
ILLUSTRATED WITH
PORTRAITS OF DIFFERENT BREEDS,
SHEEP BARNS, SHEDS, &,c.
Y/ITH AN A.PPENDIZ,
E3IBRACING UPWARDS OF TWENTY LETTERS FROM EMINENT WOOL-
GROWERS AND SHEEP-FATTENERS OF DIFFERENT STATES, DE-
TAILLXG THEIR RESPECTIVE MODES OF MANAGEMENT.
BY L. A. MORRELL.
NEW YORK:
HARPER & BROTHERS, 82 CLIFF STREET.
1845.
fi 4 .3
Entered, according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1845,
BY HARPER & BROTHERS,
In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States
for the Southern District of New York.
PREFACE.
That a work embracing perhaps all the topics of the
present treatise, has long been demanded by American
Wool-growers, cannot be denied. The English, and
other foreign works on the important subject of Sheep
Husbandry, notwithstanding the ability with which they
are written, are unadapted to our wants, chiefly because
the breeds of sheep and modes of management are, in the
main, so essentially different in our own country and
Great Britain. Something American, therefore, is need-
ed— a work which w^ould tend to correct the many errors
and abuses of management, and enter into such minute
details connected therewith, as would teach the merest
novice his duties.
With many others, I have long been waiting with the
hope that some one having the necessary 2^^^ctical
knoidedge, and in other respects eminently quahfied,
would undertake the difficult task of supplying us with
such a treatise ; but no one having come forward, after
due consultation with some friends, on whose judgment I
could safely rely, I determined to attempt what, under
other circumstances, I could not have summoned the res-
olution, and I may add, temerity, to do. It is, therefore,
with no ordinary degree of apprehension that I appear be-
fore the public in the character of an author, and the
more especially of a work of this kind, having been obli-
ged, in a measure, to carve out my own Avay, and act the
" lone pioneer."
It was my original intention to have limited the histor-
ical part to the prominent and most profitable breeds, but
so little is generally known of those pecuhar to Asia and
Africa, as well as remote portions of Europe, it appeared
PREFACE.
to me that a brief notice of these would be acceptable ;
and, in adelilioii, I have ii)troduccd all that the Scriptures
aflbrd us concerning the sheep, thereby bringing forward
everything of consequence to know from the most remote
antiquity to the present period. I have availed myself,
principally, of Mr. Youatt's standard and able work to
aid me in this department; and also to him and Mr.
Blacklock, both distinguished Veterinary Surgeons, for
much of what is ollered on the Diseases of Sheep ; and to
Mr. Spooner, the author of a recent English work, and
likewise a Veterinary Surgeon, for the interesting chapter
on the Structure, or Anatomy of the sheep. All this neces-
sity compelled me to do, owing to the paucity of works in
American libraries relative to the history of the species,
and the very little progress as yet made among us in
scientific classification and treatment of diseases. Mr.
Youatt is probably the first veterinary surgeon of the age,
and is at present the editor of a London periodical devo-
ted to that science ; therefore, that part of this work con-
cerning Diseases is, undoubtedly, entitled to much confi-
dence ; in addition, my own observations and experience,
together with all that I could gather from others, have
been added.
It is many years that I have been a practical manager
of sheep, a vocation to which I am enthusiastically at-
tached. I acknowledge an aflfection for the sheep, para-
mount to that for any other domestic animal, and have
studied its instincts and habits at all seasons, and under
all circumstances ; and now and always have shared with
my laborers in every department connected with manage-
ment. What, therefore, is offered on this subject, is the
result almost solely of what my own eyes have seen, and
hands handled — indeed, is nearly a transcript of my sys-
tem of practice. Being aware, however, of the tenacity
with which farmers cling to their particular modes of
management, right or wrong, I entered into an extensive
correspondence with distinguislied wool-growers, to aid me
in perfecting this department of the work, with a view to
confirm positions which are set fortli, and strike a more
effectual blow at errois. To my brother wool-growers, as
well as all others, who have so kindly aided me in my
PREFACE. Vii
undertaking, I acknowledg-e myself under deep obliga-
tions, and doubtless this will be the response of every
reader. The Appendix cannot be otherwise regarded
than as a valuable portion of this work.
The portraits of (he several breeds of sheep w^ere sub-
mitted to a number of competent judges, and pronounced
faithful representations. In reference to that of the Span-
ish Merino, it, Avith one other, was forwarded to the Hon.
Wm. Jarvis, of Vermont, who pronounced it " a fair like-
ness of a Merino in high order, and with a long fleece." It
will be apparent to every one, that an American Merino
portrait woukl be inappropriate in treating of Spanish
Merinos. All the cuts were drawn from life, and mostly
by the celebrated animal painter, Harvey, of London.
In conclusion, I have chosen very frequently to give
the very language of my authorities, rather than my own,
except when condensation became necessary. For any
one individual to write an original work of this charac-
ter, embracing such a variety of topics, of course is im-
practicable ; therefore the course adopted I believed to be
best, because it would be hkely to have more weight with
the reader. My object has been to bririg before the pub-
he a strong work — authentic, if possible, in every partic-
ular, and worthy to be trusted and appealed to upon any
question and point of importance ; and lastly, I have en-
deavored to convey everything in language simple and
unadorned, to suit the capacity of the humblest of my
brother wool-growers, for whose benefit chiefly this was
written. To these, and all others engaged in this honor-
able vocation, I appeal for a decision upon its merits,
which, if favorable, will afford me a degree of pleasure
not easily conceived, and terminating only with life.
CONTENTS.
INTRODUCTION.
The zoological character of the sheep — domesticated at a very early
period of the world — Abel the first recorded shepherd — the flesh of the
sheep not used for food before the flood — vegetables the only means of
sustenance permitted by the Divine law — after the flood this command
was abrogated — vegetable food only eaten by some of the pagan sects
of the East at the present day — the milk of the sheep used as an article
of sustenance — converted into cheese and butter — Homer's description
of milking the ewes — Mr. Burckhardt's description also — custom of
the ancients of removing their flocks from one locality to another —
Jabal lived 500 j'ears before the flood, and was the first Nomadic
shepherd — Arabian and Tartarian shepherds at the present day con-
form to that primitive custom — D'Arviex description of the same —
Parson's description of the peregrinations of the Arabs — flocks in an-
cient Palestine very numerous — number which Job possessed, &,c. —
these numerous flocks accounted for — the ewes supposed to have
lambed twice in the year — flocks very numerous at the present day in
Palestine — Dr. Shaw's statement of this — first recorded improvement
was in the color of the fleece — originally tawny or dingy-black —
tendency of the sheep in modern times to return to the original hue —
instance the South Down, Norfolk, Black-faced sheep of Scotland,
and Asiatic and Jtt'ri'calif breeds — Jacob the original improver of the
color — his scheme for accomplishing it — in process of time the fleece
became wholly white — the Scriptures silent as to the form of the an-
cient sheep, except that the ram was horned — the fat-rumped breed
abounding so numerously at the East induced Mr. Youatt to suppose
these to be the primitive breed instead of the Argali — his remarks
and those of Mr. Price on the subject — the question will always remain
unsettled — the horned ram more particularly mentioned — the polled
sheep an accidental variety — reasons for cultivating them — humanity
a prominent characteristic of the primitive shepherds — Arab shepherds
the same — Buckingham's remarks — quotation from Dyer's Fleece —
music of the ancient shepherds a means to control their flocks — re-
marks— Goldsmith's description of the Alpine shepherds — evidence
from the Bible that the primitive shepherds washed their flocks before
they were shorn — Solomon's comparison of the teeth of his mistress to
a flock just come up from the washing — in early times the fleece was
detached from the pelt by pulling — humanity dictated another course,
and accordingly the shears, in process of time, were invented and
extensively used — the shearing time an occasion for feasting and re-
joicing— quotations in corroboration of this — remarks of Burder on the
subject — the system of cotting practised by the Israelites— remarks of
CONTEKIS.
a writer on this point — custom alro in Greece and Tarentum — art of
weaving understood in the primitive ages — Scripture testimony — dyeing
also — quotation from Virgil — the Egyptians the probahie inventors of
the weaving of flax — discussion of the subject by a writer — description
of the rude mode of weaving of the Arabs^ — conclusion ... 13
CHAPTER I.
PROPERTIES OF WOOL.
Introductory remarks — structure of the skin of the sheep — nsed for book-
binding, and for the inscription of valuable documents — anatomy of
woolly fibre — the weight of testimony in favor of the theory that it is
tubular in conformation — its vascularity — remarks of Dr. Good on the
vascularity of the hair — its structure by small filaments ranged side
by side — remarks of Bakewell — chemical composition of wool, horns,
hoofs, &.C. — yolk or gum — its chemical properties — its value — pronjotes
the growth of the wool — mats it as a defence against cold and wet —
abounds much in the Merino fleece — temperature and condition of the
sheep influence its production — not found so much in the Saxon breed
— considerable quantity in some of the English sheep — its substitute
in Scotland by smearing the sheep in autumn — additional value im-
parted to cloth by yolk — description of the form of thelibre of wool by
Youatt — its semi-transparency, &-c. — the wool of half-starved sheep
hrenchy, &,c. — importance of good condition to counteract it — elas-
ticity of the fibre — pliability also — dependent on the spiral curves —
causes the beautiful pile or nap of cloths — spiral curve — conspicuous
in the Saxon and Merino varieties — not so much in the Leicester and
other breeds — the number of spiral curves in a given space in proportion
to the fineness of the fibre — German experiment to determine this
point — this principle should govern much in breeding — softness — im-
portance of this quality in wool — much dependent on the proper sup-
ply of yolk — experiment in cloth manufacture from harsh and soft
wool of the same fineness — superiority of that from the latter — fine-
ness a comparative term when applied to wool — varies much in dif-
ferent individuals of the same breed — difference in the diameter of the
fibre between its extremes — diameter of the fibre — the Merino has
four qualities in its fleece — grade sheep many more — cut representing
where the different qualities of wool grow on the Merino — length of
the staple — preference given by the manufacturer to a long staple —
less dead end than short — long staple fine wool needed for fine worst-
ed fabrics — the question stated, whether a compact fleece with a long
staple can be produced on the same sheep — compact fleeces necessary
in a northern climate — color — first recorded improvement in sheep —
manufacturers prefer fleeces entirely white — reasons — flock-masters
should never breed tVom black or smutty sheep — trueness — constituted
by equality of the fibre from root to point — inequalities caused by un-
equal feeding and exposure of sheep — common in some degree to every
breed — Saxon and Alerino ewes should be turned off when eight or
nine years old — influence of temperature — inequalities of temperature
cause an unequal growth of the fibre — necessity of sheltering sheep
during winter to counteract it — remarks of Mr. Hunter on the influ-
CONTENTS, XI
ence of climate on hair and wool — Mr. Youatt's remarks — M. Las-
teyrie's statement — the cultivation of the Merino and Saxon breeds in
the Southern States alluded to — causes of the degeneracy of the Me-
rinos in South America — felting — this long remained a mystery-
speculations in former limes on the subject — the cause of felting of
wool surmised by M. Monge — the true theory, but did not demon-
strate it — the first successful effort to demonstrate Monge's theory by
Mr. Youatt — his description of the scene and results — the number of
serrations within an inch of Merino wool — cuts representing micro-
scopic views of Merino and South Down fibres — conclusion of the
chapter with remarks by Mr. Youatt 27
CHAPTER IL
HISTORY OF SHEEP.
ARGALI, MUSMON, ASIATIC, AND AFRICAN SHEEP.
History of the Argali — its comparative size and horns — color and tex-
ture of its coat — inhabits the mountains and elevated plains of Asia —
found in small flocks — rams fight furiously in the rutting season —
killed in autumn for their flesh and skins — difficult to domesticate un-
less taken young. American Argali. — Supposed to be a variety of
the Asiatic — remarks of Abbe Lan)bert — Washington Irving's de-
scription of the animal on the Rocky Mountains — called ahsata or big
horn — is found nowhere else in America — dimensions of a male —
remarks of Major Smith. The Mouflon or Musmon — considered as
identical with the Argali by BufTon and Wilson — inhabits the moun-
tains of Sardinia and Corsica — described by Wilson — from fifty to an
hundred herd together — difficult to domesticate.
Asiatic Breeds. Fat-rumped breed — abounds where the primitive
shepherds roamed — Dr. Anderson's description of the animal — often
weigh 200 lbs. — fat on the rump weighs from 20 to 40 lbs. Fat-tailed
breed — more numerous than the fat-rumped — is found extensively in
Africa — Dr. Russel's account of the breed — tails often weigh 15 lbs.
— whole live weight about 150 lbs. — supposed to be a variety only of
the fat-rumped.
Persian Sheep. Fat-tailed predominate — Fraser's account of a Persian
caravan — a variety of sheep in the province of Kerman produce very
fine wool — much of it manufactured into shawls.
Tibet Shefp. Are very numerous — a small variety of the fat-rumped
with black heads and necks — wool soft and long — converted into lone
shawls.
East India Sheep. Consist of the fat-rumped and fat-tailed varieties.
Chinese Sheep. Breeds differ much from each other — a breed with
extraordinary long legs — a breed resembling some of the European
varieties — antiquity of Chinese manufactures alluded to.
African Breeds. Egyptian, Ethiopian, and Abyssinian — both varieties
of the fat-tailed found in EgjT)t — fat-tailed and fat-rumped prevail in
Ethiopia — also in Abyssinia — the many-horned sheep.
Madagascar Sheep. Dr. Anderson's description of the same.
Cape of Good Hope Sheep. Native sheep of the broad-tailed breed —
every variety of color — experiment with the Merinos by the Dutch —
Xll CONTENTS.
its failure, and causes — renewed attempt by the English — is success-
ful— wool exported from the colony — number of its sheep.
Angola Sheep. Description of a very singular variety.
Guinea Sheep. Two varieties found on the slave coast — one resembling
some of the European breeds — sheep very hairy, and men very woolly.
Morocco Sheep. Breeds superior to other African — distinguished for
excellence in the time of Columella — ewe of this breed owned by
Chancellor Livingston—description of it 48
CHAPTER III.
EUROPEAN SHEEP.
Italian Sheep. Were very superior in the time of the Romans — fleece
cultivated with extraordinary care — reasons for the same — celebrity of
the sheep of Apulia and Tarentum — generally supposed to be the pro-
genitors of the famed Merinos — description of the management of the
Tarentine sheep.
Spanish Sheep — Merinos, &:c. Spain possessed of valuable breeds at
an early period — superiority of the fleece of Boetica — of the Tarentine
variety — introduced by Columella — also African rams to improve the
Chunah breed — origin of the name of Merino — the Tarentine sheep
amalgamated to some extent with the black sheep of Spain — evidence
of this — portion of Spain conquered by the Moors — they established
extensively woollen manufactures — Seville contained 16,000 looms —
Moors expelled by the Spaniards — manufactures ceased — fruitless at-
tempts of the Spanish to revive them — the excellence of the Merino
continued through centuries of political strife — Chunah sheep — abounds
throughout the kingdom — owned by the peasants — supposed to have
been iinproved by the English Costswold breed — Spanish Merinos
classed in two grand divisions — Estantes and Transhumantes — the
latter composed of the Leonese and Sorians — their location in winter
— places where summered — cause of their peregrinations — the Trans-
humantes fell into the hands of the king, courtiers, and clerg}' — tribu-
nal of Consejo de la fiesta — its tyrannical laws — incidents of these
journeys — under a Mayoral — numerous under-shepherds with dogs —
day's travel length of the journey — injury to the crops by the sheep
on the way — vigilance necessary on their arrival at their place of des-
tination— construction of pens for folding at night — large quantities of
salt given to the sheep — half the lambs destroyed after yeaning — Span-
ish notion on this point — exportation of the skins of the slaughtered
Iambs — few male lambs castrated — marking of the lambs — number of
men employed as shepherds — a singular race of men — buildings for
shearing, called esquilos — sweating and shearing — number shorn in a
day — number of shearers employed — remarks of a writer concerning the
management of the Tarentum sheep — corresponded with Spanish man-
agement— Arthur Young's account of theCatalonian and Pyrenean Me-
rinos— his description of their fleeces, &c. — number of the estantes or
stationary Merinos — ditto of the transhumantes or travelling — number
of the Chunah breed — superiority of the transhumantes — Mr. Youatt's
description of the qualities of the Merino — weight of fleeces, &c.
CONTENTS. Xlll
HWTORY OF THE INTRODUCTION OF THE MERINOS INTO THE UNITED
STATES.
First ram imported by M. Delessert from the Rambouillet flock — Seth
Adams's importation — his account of the same — Hon. William Jar-
vis's importations — his account of the same — also Chancellor Living-
ston's— also Gen. Humphreys' — number of Merinos purchased by Mr.
Jarvis — the kinds — what ports of the United States they were landed,
and the number at each port — his description of the qualities of the
Paular variety of Merinos — the Nigrettis — the Aqueirres — the Es-
curials — the Montarcos — the Gaudaloupes — number of each he put
on his farm in Weathersfield, Vermont — manner of breeding them —
allusion to an importation of Rambouillet Merinos by a citizen of Con-
necticut— weight of American Merino fleeces — enterprising feeling for
wool improvement — public attention directed to the Merinos — com-
mended.
French Sheep. The breeds varied as the face of the country — remarks
—the most valuable wooled sheep in the south part of the kingdom —
sheep of Aries — number — migratory — summered on the Alps — sheep
led by goats — singular sagacity of these animals — M. Daubenton's ex-
periments with Merinos — his success induced the French government
to import nearly 300 from Spain — w^ere placed at Rambouillet, near
Paris — not prosperous at first — the prices ewes and rams sold at from
time to time — also their fleeces — experiments in crossing with native
sheep — publication on their management by M. Gilbert — school es-
tablished for the education of shepherds — slow increase of Merinos in
France — reasons assigned — prices of Rambouillet Merinos in 1834 —
Mr. Trimmer's description of the flock — extract from M. Gilbert's
Report concerning them — importation from the flock by D. C. Collins
— number imported — his motives for so doing — description of his sheep
from the American Agriculturist.
Swiss Sheep. Consist of two kinds — valley and mountain — the former
conform to the English long-wooled breeds — the mountain the most
valuable — have been improved by the Merino cross .... 59
CHAPTER IV.
Saxon Sheep. Introduction of Merinos into Saxony in 1765 — the late
Mr. H. D. Grove's account of the same — cause of the high prices of
Saxon sheep — prices of rams — breeding in and in a cause of the fine-
ness of their fleeces — remarks of Mr. Grove on German management
— remarks of Mr. Carr — also Dr. Bright — sheep driven into the yards
daily in winter — great care in selecting breeders — mode of examina-
tion— descrij)tion of the native breeds of Saxony — remarks on the In-
fantado Merinos of Germany — mode of washing them — description of
the form of the Saxon Merino — average weight of their fleeces — great
care in washing and shearing — wool carried to Leipsic for a market —
manner of packing wool — large amount exported to England and
France — superiority of German woollen fabrics — history of the intro-
duction of the Saxons into the United States by H. D. Grove — many
miserable specimens of the breed imported — many American flocks
which rival the best German in fineness — American Saxons more
2
XIV CONTENTS.
hardy than the German Saxons — obstacles In the way of American
breeders — will be cultivated with equal profit with Merinos — average
weight of xVinerican 8axon fleeces.
Prlssia.n tSnEEP. Exertions of M. Fink to improve the fleece of Prus-
sia— his experiments with Merinos crowned with success — importation
of Merinos by the government in 1786 — failure to do well — second
attempt through M. Fink — resulted in success — agricultural school
established to teach the best modes of managing Merinos — M.
Fink's system in winter — Prussian fleeces now rival the best Saxon.
SiLEsiA.N Sheep. Native sheep better than those of Prussia and Hun-
gary— the introduction of the Merinos effected great improvement —
JSilesian wools now equal to Saxon.
HuNGARiA.N Sheep. Native sheep of Hungary very inferior — ]\Ierino3
introduced by the Empress Maria Theresa — agricultural school es-
tablished to instruct in their management — rapid progress of wool im-
provement in Hungary — fleeces compete successfully with Saxon —
number of sheep in the Territory — flock of Prince Esterhazy.
Swedish Sheep. The first Merinos carried from Spain taken to Sweden
in 1723 — introduced by Mr. Alstroemer — he triumphed over all diffi-
culties— agricultural school established — premiums awarded for the
best wool — mode of management in Sweden — the native sheep very
inferior.
Danish Sheep. Native sheep conform to those of Sweden — Merinos
imported in 1797 under government patronage — crossed with native
breed — good effects — wool exported.
Iceland Sheep. The native breed very hardy — carry from two to six
horns — wool worthless for manufacturing.
Russian Sheep. More attention to breeding of sheep than cattle —
wandering tribes possess many — great variety of breeds — cloth man-
ufacture— extensive flocks owned by the rich Tartars — Merinos in-
troduced— great improvement followed — wool exported from Odessa —
description of the character of Russian Merino wool.
Australian Sheep. Character of the climate and herbage of Austra-
lia— subject to severe drought — no sheep indigenous to the country —
Bengal sheep introduced — their inferiority — South Downs and Leices-
ters exported from England — favorable cross with the Bengal sheep
— Merinos taken there — afterwards the Saxons by Captain McArthur
— description of Australian wool — its microscopic scrutiny by Mr.
Youatt — used much for the better combing purposes — quantity of
wool exported in 184.3 — mode of management of sheep in the colony
— sheep subject to foot-rot — manner of washing — average weight of
the Australian fleeces 81
CHAPTER V.
BRITISH BREEDS.
South Down. Classification of the British breeds — middle-wooled
breeds — superiority of the South Down — their location — Mr. John
Ellman — description of the old South Down — means of Mr. Ellman
to improve them — description of improved South Downs — a perfect
South Down described — endure short keep — their mutton — adapted
CONTENTS. XV
for a low country — former weight of fleece — present weight of tho
same — weight of quarters — serrations of the fibre — its diameter — wool
harsh — changed character — South Downs healthy — prices of Mr.
Elhnan's flock.
Ryeland Sheep. Origin of name — their locaHty — weight of quarters
— fine fleeces — weight of the same — diameter of fibre — ^form of the
Ryeland.
Dorset Sheep. Description of pure breed — fecundity of Dorset ewes
— failure of cross with Leicester — successful with South Downs —
their value near cities.
Black-faced Sheep. Their locality — origin in dispute — description of
the old, and improved — quality of mutton — weight of quarters — their
hardiness of constitution.
Cheviot Sheep. Remarks — locality of Cheviot breed — description of
pure breed — hardihood — when fit for the butcher — weight of quarters
— qualities of wool — its adaptation — Sir John Sinclair's description of
the ancient Cheviot — crossed with Leicester — result — extension of
the breed — Highland snow-storms.
Shetland Island Sheep. Their situation — origin of the breed —
weight of quarters — weight of fleece — quality of the wool — price for-
merly— remarks by Youatt.
Irish Sheep. Adaptation of Ireland for sheep — soil, climate, and her-
bage— character of native breeds — description of the same by Cully
— successful cross with New Leicesters — weight and character of
fleece — its uses 102
CHAPTER VI.
BRITISH BREEDS.
New Leicester or Bakeavell. Origin of the long-wooled sheep in
doubt — remarks — Old Leicester sheep — description of an improved
Leicester — time when Bakewell commenced their improvement —
means employed — his selections — extensive spread of improved Leices-
ters— propensity to fatten — early maturity — weight of quarters —
quality of mutton — not a favorite with the butcher — faults of the New
Leicester — quality and weight of the fleece — extensive cross with'
other breeds — cross with the Cheviot — Sir John Sinclair's opinion — in-
troduction of the breed into America.
Teeswater Sheep. Origin of the name — description of the Old Tees-
water — very prolific — instance by Mr. Cully — weight of the fleece —
great success in crossing with the improved Leicester.
RoMNEY Marsh Sheep. Locality of Romney Marsh — characteristics
of the old breed — weight of the fleece — the breed improved by cross
with Leicesters.
Lincoln Sheep. Character of tlie pure Lincolns — were bred for the
fleece — general remarks — contest between the Leicesters and Lin-
colns— cross with the Leicester — the result — weight of the quarters
— weight of the fleece — character of the wool, and uses — diameter
of the fibre.
Bampton Sheep. Where found and origin of name — description of the
XVI CONTENTS.
breed — weight ot quarters — weight of fleece of a ram — cross with
Leicester — result.
CoTswoLD Sheep. Antiquity of the breed — origin of the name — dis-
pute among writers of the ancient Cotswolds — characteristics of the
Cotswold breed — cross with Leicester — result — weight of quarters —
cross with Hampshire Downs — its success — quality of mutton.
Welsh Sheep. Primitive breeds — their character by Ellis — weight of
the quarters — quality of the mutton — cross of the valley sheep with
Leicester and Cotswold — result.
Merino Sheep in England. Litroduced by George IIL — a second im-
portation by that monarch — success which attended it — experiments
in crossing with English breeds — that of Mr. Coke and its result —
Sir Joseph Banks and Lord Somerville — prices of Merinos in Eng-
land— Merino Society instituted — the result thereof — downfall of the
Merinos — reasons by several therefor — remarks on the climate.
Table of Prices for Wools. Spanish Merino — Portuguese — German,
Saxon, and Silesiau — Austrian, Bohemian, and Hungarian — Austra-
han — Van Dieman's Land — British wools 115
CHAPTER VII.
SHEEP OF THE UNITED STATES.
Woolly Sheep of Rocky Mountains. Captain Bonneville's descrip-
tion of them — ^general character of the native sheep.
Otter Breed. Their origin — description of the breed.
Arlington Long-wooled Sheep. Cultivated by Mr. Custis — descrip-
tion of the breed by Chancellor Livingston.
Smith's Island Sheep. Their locality and characteristics — general re-
marks on the progress of wool improvement in the United States —
character of the wool in several States — Prairie management by
George Flower — remarks on the same — sheep culture in the Southern
Slates 131
CHAPTER VIII.
SUMMER MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP.
Sudden Change from Dry to Green Food improper. Reasons there-
for— course recommended — separation of the weak from the strong —
manner of doing it. Tagging of sheep — slovenly mode of perform-
ing it by many farmers — reasons for doing it well — when it should be
done — mode of doing it with male and female — humanity recom-
mended— where the tag wool should be placed — its manufacture.
Cutting horns and hoofs — how it should be done — reasons for doing
it Drafting sheep for sale — should be turned to good keep. Par-
turition OR LAMBING — period of gestation — proper period for lambing
—care of the ewes before the event — reasons for the same — smooth
fields recommended — danger of ewes being cast — consequences — ne-
cessity for watchfulness — duties of the shepherd during parturition —
means he should employ — ewes should not be interfered with too
soon after their labors commence — influence of the weather — mode
of assisting the ewe to lamb — fright of the ewe after mechanical aid
CONTENTS. Xvii
• is employed— means to induce her to suckle— lambs of fine-wooled
sheep sensitive to cold and wet when they drop — storms should be an-
ticipated— ewes should be got under cover — course when the lambs
are brought to the fire to overcome numbness — means adopted with
twins — death of the lamb causing sometimes garget — pasture of the
ewes before and after parturition — number should herd together af-
fection of the ewe for her offspring — an instance related by the Et-
trick Shepherd, James Hogg. Salting- no longer a mooted question
—philosophy of salting— an instance in France— care to be observed
m the spring— quantity necessary at a salting— salting in troughs not
recommended— time of day when the writer salts his flocks— benefit
of salting late in the fall— very essential in winter— salting of hay
recommended.
Washing. Careless mode of doing it by many— the most suitable time
dependmg on the weather— water and weather should always be com-
paratively warm— consequences of violating it— the day should be
one of sunshine— flock-master should be present— should be done on
temperance principles— running stream of pure water recommended
—use of vats— process described— the " clean thing" should be aimed
at and not missed — quotation from Samuel Lawrence on the subject
— soap for buck fleeces — necessity for turning the sheep on a green
sward after washing— driving the sheep along a dusty road should be
avoided— Spanish custom of washing— English and German also—
loss by scouring Spanish, German, Australian, and American Merino
and Saxon wools— also South American— reform called for in Ameri-
can mode of washing wool.
Castration and Docking. Time when it should be done— cool weather
recommended— reasons therefor— lambs should be brought from the
field without bustle and confined in a small pound— mode of castra-
tion—docking the tail— should be cut short— reasons assigned—
consequences of a long dock— ointment used— the ingredients and
preparation— application of it— means to employ after the process is
through with _ ^ 2^g
CHAPTER IX.
SUMMER MANAGEMENT CONTINUED.
Shearing. Harvest of the shepherd— remarks of censure on American
shearing— fault lies more at the door of the flock-master than shearer
—bad policy of hiring men to shear by the job— consequences— the
practice should cease— number a good shearer can perform in a day
—what constitutes a good shearer— instructions for a novice in shear-
ing—whole process described— bad policy of fretting at a new begin-
ner—kindness recommended— good effects of so doing— mode of
taking off" the fleece in England — recommended.
Interim between Washing and Shearing, &c. Length of time
should depend on the state of the weather— time stated— bad conse-
quences of shearing in cold weather— effects of storms on sheep just
shorn— their suffering very great if exposed— duty of the flock-mas-
ter under such circumstances— horns and hoofs should be cut if not
already done — indications of scab.
2*
XVlll CONTENTS.
Sorting, &c. Duty of the master — quality of the fleece better judged
of than at any other time — jjood or bad points of form readily seen —
retaining the best for breeders — bad consequences of neglecting to sort
sheep at this time — cieissification of the flock — ewes and lambs only
should run together — those selected for sale should be turned to good
keep.
Marking, Sec. Painting the initial letters of the owners name on the
sides of the sheep — the ludicrous style it is usually done — an iron
formed to represent a triangle or diamond recommended — where the
mark should be put — materials for marking.
Rolling the Fleeces. Fleeces should be carefully taken from the
floor — indifferent locks put in a basket — the process of rolling and
tying described — consequences of slovenly rolling.
Arrangement of Wool for Sale. The flock-master should keep be-
fore him the motto of shopmen — applicable to ever^^thing the farmer
sells — rough and tumble style of arranging wool for sale — a good
light important — a bad light aggravates the appearance of wool if in-
ditFerently washed — best mode of arranging wool described — good con-
sequences— cheating practices of wool-growers exposed — reprobated
— size of twine stated.
SiiEARiNG-HOUSE AND APPENDAGES. Inconvcniences without them —
the expense reimbursed in a few years — construction of pounds — wool
loft should be well lighted — a north light preferable — trap door.
Baleixg Wool. Burlap used for sacks — the proper width, and quantity
required for each sack — truss hoop necessary — its adjustment — pro-
cess of packing described — too much haste generally in packing
wool.
SiiEEP-TicK. The class of sheep they most infest — consequences of per-
mitting them to live — modus operandi of eradicating them — quantity
of tobacco for 100 lambs — time when necessary to go through the
operation — good condition an immunity against ticks — tobacco decoc-
tion good for cutaneous irruptions.
Maggot Flv. Several varieties — named and described — their habits —
means employed for destroying maggots on the sheep, and warding off"
flies — great vigilance necessary on the part of the flock-master du-
ring the summer.
Noxious Weeds. Laurel, burdoc, and tory-wced — burs injurious to
wool — lessens its value — method of destroying burdocks . . 177
CHAPTER X.
SUMMER MANAGEMENT CONTINUED.
Localities for Sheep. Fit localities of British breeds — commended.
Soil. The sheep an upland animal — loves the short herbage of moun-
tain-sides, if the soil is not poachy from an excess of moisture — its re-
pugnance to water — seeks dry situations for rest — its instincts in this
regard — chalky soil of England — its effect on the fleece of the Down
sheep — effects of hard water — calcareous soil — a sandy soil objec-
tionable— reasons for the same — a soil should have a due admixture
of clay — uniform supply of pasture very necessary.
Herbage. Important to the flock-master — influence of herbage on the
CONTENTS. XIX
carcase aud fleece— remarks by Youatt — changed character of Eng-
lish wools since the introduction of the turnip system — Dr. Parry's
remarks — deductions from the premises — variety of herbage necessa-
ry to the welfare of sheep — experiments by Linnseus in otfering plants
to the horse, ox, and sheep — instinct of sheep on this point — philoso-
phy of variety of herbage — remarks in review — change from old to
new pastures recommended — reasons for changing the pasture often
— small fields recom.mended — incidental duties — remarks growing out
of localities of British sheep.
Grasses. Degree of nutriment they possess — Vernal — Meadow Foxtail
— Blue Meadow — Rough-stalked — Sheep's Fescue — Round-headed
Cock's Foot — Welsh Fescue — Narrow-leaved Meadow — Meadow
Fescue— Rye-grass— Fertile Meadow— Cat's-tail or Timothy— Tre-
foil Clover — White Clover — remarks.
Shade Trees. Not appreciated by the American husbandman as they
should be — grateful to sheep during the summer — will thrive better
if provided for them — kinds of trees for shade mentioned.
Water. Not so necessary for sheep as other animals — they need it
in August — breeding ewes should have access to it at all times.
Weaning Lambs. The time dependent on the breed and other circum-
stances— the usual time of suckling four months — when the ewes and
lambs are separated, they should be put far apart — reasons — lambs
should not be put on too high keep immediately — consequences of so
doing — salting them to avoid the danger from gorging themselves —
tame sheep put with the lambs — ewes for a week or more should be
put on low keep — danger of doing otherwise — after which their feed
must be good — reasons.
Ear-marking. Lambs should be marked when they are weaned —
cropping the ears should be avoided.
Wheat Stubbles. Danger of turning sheep upon them — reasons there-
for— swine should always precede sheep — other grain stubbles not
dangerous to sheep — young sheep should be turned on them.
Overstocking. Opinions of a foreigner — overstocking too common with
American farmers — consequences of overstocking — 35 acres required
for supporting 100 sheep of the Merino and Saxon varieties — example
cited of a New York flock-master,
Fall Pasturing. Sheep should not be kept on pasture exclusively, late
in the fall — reasons assigned.
Sorting for Winter. Necessity for classifying sheep — particulars
mentioned — early preparation for winter important — reasons . . 192
CHAPTER XL
WINTER MANAGEMENT.
Introductory Remarks — Observations on Climate. Sheep dispersed
over a large portion of the world — accounted for — the sheep, if long
accustomed to a temperate climate, it is difficult to model at will —
circumstances which influence — geographical positions where the sheep
does not attain perfection — extremes of temperature unfavorable — if
left to its instincts will avoid extremes — remarks of Blacklock — favor-
able climate of Australia for sheep— the sheep does best in the coun-
XX CONTENTS.
tries of the vine — southern hemispliere better suited to its habits than
the northern — western parts of continents also more congenial than
the eastern — southern and northern temperature of the Alps — de-
ductions.
Protection. Its importance — large losses accrue from its neglect-
practised in Germany and elsewhere — Mr. Youatt recommends pro-
tection, and every other sheep historian — quotation from the Mountain
Shepherd's Manual — false notions of many on the subject — the au-
thor's experience detailed — lost many sheep before he sheltered his
sheep^per centage of loss since they were protected — a prevention of
disease — improves the properties of wool and increases the weight of
the fleece — particulars stated on this point — protection a means of in-
creasing the number of lambs — accounted for — also a saving of prov-
ender— the cause why — also a means of making additional manure-
manure the farmer's mine or capital stock — protection urged by hu-
manity.
Production of Animal Heat. Principle of caloric — its free or sensible
form, and latent or uncombined form — evolved by the union of sulphu-
ric acid and water — how carbonic acid is produced — combustion pro-
duced by the union of carbon and oxygen — the former the fuel and
the latter the fire — carbon furnished by the food — in cold climates
fatty substances necessary, abounding more with carbon — reversed in
warm climates, the inhabitants preferring a vegetable diet — application
of these principles to the several positions under the head of pro-
tection 210
CHAPTER XIL
WINTER MANAGEMENT CONTINUED.
Feeding. A knowledge of fundamental principles necessary to correct
practice — it is a law of nature that nothing is lost or annihilated — the
tree derives its nourishment from the atmosphere and the soil — animals
from the food taken into the body — food a two-fold purpose to per-
form, one to nourish the body, and the other to support animal heat
by means of respiration — in carnivorous animals the whole of their
food is converted to flesh — in the herbivorous species only a part —
analyses of flesh and fat — proportions of constituents nearly the same
— no food destitute of nitrogen can nourish the body — analysis of
mutton fat — sugar, starch, gum, oil, or butter, produce fat, but not
flesh — analysis of hay — nutritious portions of the blood are fibrine and
albumen — in proportion as albumen abounds in food is its nutrient
properties — analysis of albumen — young animals not disposed to take
on fat like adults — cause stated — analyses of cow and asses' milk-*
cassem the only nitrogenized substance in milk — various tables show-
ing the relative proportions of nutriment of the different kinds of food
consumed by sheep — items connected therewith — Petri's table of va«
nations of fodder for sheep — relative proportions of a slaughtered sheep
— Thaer's remarks on food — Veit's table showing that sheep consume
of food in proportion to their live weight — Mr. Spooner's estimate^*
Veit's remarks on the different kinds of straw.
Fattening. Introductory remarks by Spooner^uietude and warmth
CONTENTS. XXI
contribute greatly to the fattening process — cold robs the system of
animal heat — warmth a substitute for food — experiment of Lord Ducie
to prove this — experiment by the same to prove that quietude is neces-
sary'— regularity in measure of food and time o{ feeding important —
the stables should be well supplied with litter — water — times of day
for feeding — sheep when fattening should have a variety of food — the
shorter the process of fattening the more profit will result — kinds of
food best adapted for fattening — caution against waste . . . 220
CHAPTER XIII.
WINTER MANAGEMENT CONTINUED.
Recapitulation of analyses of flesh, fat, «&:-c. — what food will produce
the most wool — the question briefly considered — De Raumer's table
of experiments — conclusions.
Observations ox German Management. Their practical and scientific
knowledge relative to agriculture — their economy in feeding — varia-
tions of fodder — effect of variety of food on the fleece — natural wool
— bad policy to over-feed for the sake of making heavy fleeces — prac-
tice of the Germans — fodder shoidd be proportioned to the live weight
of the sheep — Petri, Thaer, and Veit on this point — the result of their
experiments — quantity of hay alone necessary for 100 sheep for 150
days — the quantity required according to English estimate — quality of
the hay should be considered — old meadows furnish the best hay for
sheep — top dressing them — an equal amount of food necessary to pro-
duce a pound of flesh or a pound of wool without regard to the breed
— example of the South Down and Leicester — quantity of food re-
quired by each — example of Saxon and Merino — quantity of food they
respectively consume — heavy fleeces produced at a proportional cost
— remarks.
Importance of Green Food. Feeding of green food an essential point
of good management — dry food produces the stretches — remarks —
green food improves the properties of wool.
Water. Should have water during the winter season — reasons fully
Management of Lambs. Remarks on the importance of providing well
for young stock of all kinds — early graining very important — modus
operandi — quantity to begin with, tfcc. — meal should be sprinkled on
potatoes — quality of their hay — treatment of two-year olds — treatment
of breeding ewes — treatment of wethers — treatment of bucks — treat-
ment of hospital sheep — modes of foddering — racks — description of
several — troughs — their construction — fodder pens — regularity of fod-
dering— its necessity — barns and shelters — plans of sheep-barns, 238
CHAPTER XIV.
BREEDING AND CROSSING.
Introductory remarks— qualities of a good mutton sheep — qualities of
pure British breeds — the Leicester — South Down — Cheviot — Lincoln
— Cotswold — remarks urging a more extensive cultivation of these
breeds — reasons assigned.
XXU CONTENTS.
In-and-in Brkedinq. Quotations from Blacklock, Spooner, and other
writers for and against the system — the author's conclusions on the
question.
Crossing. Recommended — observations as to the course it is best to
practice.
Breeding Register. Mode of marking the ears in Germany — form of
a Breeding Register kept by tlie late H. D. Grove — interesting re-
marks of his own breeding.
Influence of Sex. Examples — good points of a Merino and Saxon-
tupping season, and the duties devolving on the flock-master, . 2 62
CHAPTER XV.
STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP.
General view of the structure of the sheep — skeleton — bones of the
head — bones of the body — bones of the fore extremities — the foot —
biflex canal — the hind extremities — muscles or flesh — brain and nerves
— organs of digestion — the urinary and generative organs — contents
of the chest — circulation of the blood — respiration and its effects. 292
CHAPTER XVI.
Introductory observations. Diseases of the brain are sturdy or dizzy —
hydrocephalus — trembling — apoplexy. Diseases of the air-passages—
worms in the head, caused by the cEstris ovis or gad-fly — coryza or
colds. Diseases of the stomach and intestines, are hoove — braxy—
stretches — diarrhoea or scours — acute dropsy, or red water — dysentery
— poison. The lungs — anatomy of the liver — rot — inflammation of the
lungs — dropsy. Diseases of parturition, are abortion — inversion of
the uterus — garget. Integument or skin. Diseases of the skin, are
scab or itch — erysipelas — Johnswort — scab. Pelt-rot — sore mouth.
Maggots. Foot-rot — fouls 349
CHAPTER XVII.
SURGICAL OBSERVATIONS,
Wounds — to stop bleeding — removal of extraneous matter — closure of
the wound — bandaging — clean cuts — punctured wounds — bruises and
sprains — wounds of joints — fractures — blood-letting 382
APPENDIX 389
INTRODUCTION.
The sheep, according to Cuvier, belongs to the Order
RuMiNANTiA ; having teeth in the lower jaw only, opposed
to a callous substance in the upper jaw ; six molar teeth on
either side, and the joint of the lower jaw adapted for a grind-
ing motion ; four stomachs, and these, with the oesophagus,
so constructed that the food is returned for the purpose of
rumination ; long intestines not cellated : — the Tribe Ca-
PRiD.E ; the horns, where they are found, being permanent;
placed on a vascular bony basis or process ; the horny sheath
receiving its increase by annual ringlets at the base, forming
deep sulci around the horn, with others as deep running
longitudinally, and dividing the surface of the horn into a
succession of irregularities or knots. The general structure
light, and adapted for springing or swiftness : the ears usually
erect and funnel-shaped ; the pupils of the eye oblong, and
there not being any canine teeth in the mouth : — the Genus
Ovis ; wdth or without horns, and these, where present,
taking more or less a spiral direction ; the forehead or out-
line of the face convex ; no lachrymal or respiratory open-
ing under the eye ; the nostrils lengthened, and terminating
without a muzzle ; no beard ; the body covered with short,
close hair, with a downy wool beneath, and, in a domestic
state, the wool prevailing over the hair, or quite superseding
it ; the legs slender, yet firm.
Of these there are three varieties : the Ovis Amnon, or
Argali ; the Ovis Musmon ; and the Ovis Aries, or Do-
mestic Sheep. The first two will be described in a future
chapter, and the last will form the subject of this work.*
From the earliest period of the world the sheep has been
domesticated by man, and appropriated to his wants. " Cain
* Animal Kingdom — Spiopsis.
2
14 INTRODL'CnOX.
brought of the first fruit of the ground an offering to the Lord ;
and Abel, he also brought of the firstlings of his flock, and
of the fat thereof."
After the expulsion of the 4)rogenitors of the human race
from the garden of Eden, a division of labor was assigned to
Cain and Abel, the latter as a " keeper of sheep, and Cain a
tiller of the ground."
During the antediluvian age there is no authority for sup-
posing that the flesh of the sheep was used for food, vegeta-
bles and bread being the only materials of human sustenance.
The sentence of Adam is — " Cursed is the ground for thy
sake. In sorrow shalt thou eat of it all the days of thy life,
and thou shalt eat of the herh of the field ; in the sweat of
thy face shalt thou eat bread''
The language to Noah after the deluge is very difl'erent :
— " The fear of you and the dread of you shall be upon every
beast of the earth and upon every fowl of the air, upon all
that moveth upon the earth, and upon all the fishes ; into
your hand are they delivered; every moving thing that
liveth shall he meat for you. Even as the green herb (which
■was formerly appointed to be your food) have I now given
you all things.""
But many centuries elapsed, notwithstanding this Divine
permission, before the flesh of animals generally was used.
It was first partaken at the periodical sacrifices ofl'ered to
the jMost High, subsequently as a luxury, and an indulgence
not to be justified except on some particular occasions. The
primitive custom of subsisting on vegetables alone is retained
by fragments of the population of the East, and is enjoined
in their code of religious obligations. This usage, however,
prevails only in a limited degree with some of the pagan
sects.
Although the flesh of the sheep was so long excluded as
an article of sustenance, the milk of the ewe was appropri-
ated to that purpose by the antediluvians, as it has since
been in various parts of the world, and especially even to
the present day by the wandering tribes of the East. A
learned author thus remarks on this subject : — " Ewe's milk
was used in the manufacture of cheese many centuries before
there is any record of this article of human sustenance being
derived from the milk of the cow. Ewe-milk cheese was
often made in the early times on a large scale, and was a very
material and valued article of food. Butter is frequently
INTRODUCTION. 15
spoken of in the sacred Scriptures, but it is the opinion of
the best commentators that, during the first period of the
Jewish history, the word so translated means the caseous
and not the oleaginous product of milk. In one passage,
where the mechanism described is too plain to be mistaken,
the proper translation is given, and that in the most ancient
book in the world : — ' Hast thou not poured me out like
milk, and curdled me like cheese .?'* There is much reason
to believe that this w^as the product of the sheep, for such
was the cheese spoken of by other writers of a remote age ;
and the ' butter of kine,' mentioned in a later period of
Jewish record, would seem to be a delicacy of rare occur-
rence, promised as the ' reward of obedience."
Homer flourished about 900 years before the Christian era,
and in his Odyssey alludes to the subject under consideration :
" He next betakes him to his evening cares,
And, sitting down, to milk liis ewes prepares :
Of half their udders eases first the dams,
Then to the mother's teats submits the Iambs.
Half the white stream to hardening cheese he pressed,
And high in wicker baskets heaped : the rest,
Resented in bowls, supplied the mighty feast." t
Mr. Burckhardt gives the following account of the manu-
facture of butter from ewes' and goats' milk by the Syrian
Arabs : — " The sheep and goats are milked during the three
spring months, morning and evening. They are sent out to
pasture before sunrise, while the lambs or kids remain in or
near the camp. About ten o'clock the herd returns, and the
lambs are allowed to satiate themselves, after which the
ewes belonging to each tent are tied to a long cord, and
milked one after another. When a ewe is feeble in health
her milk is left wholly for the lamb. The same process oc-
curs at sunset. From a hundred ewes or goats (the milk
of Avhich is always mixed together) the Arabs expect, in
common years, about eight lbs. of butter per day, or about
seven cwt. in the three spring months."
In the primitive ages, after the flocks became too numer-
ous to be supported permanently in one locality, it was the
custom to remove them to a contiguous one, which originated
the race of men called wandering shepherds. Jabal was
"the father of such as dwell in tents and have cattle." He
* Job X. 10. t Pope's translation.
16 LN'TIIODUCTION.
lived about 500 years before the flood, and was the first no-
madic shepherd. The example of the original shepherds af-
fords a correct picture of the present mode of life of the Ara-
bian and Tartarian shepherds. Abraham and Lot lived in
tents. " These Arabs," says D'Arvieux, " have no other
lodging but their tents, which they call their houses ; they are
all black, of goat's-hair canvass, and are stretched out in such
a manner that the rain easily runs off without ever going
through them. Their whole famihes, and all that they have
in the world, even to the stables, are there, particularly in
the winter. The tent of the Emir is of the same stufl', and
differs only from those of his subjects in bigness."
Abram pitched his tent on a mountain. The same author
says that " the Arabs commonly encamp on the top of some
little hills, where there are no trees to hinder them from dis-
covering a great way off all that come and go, that they may
not be surprised, having nothing else to fear."
Abram, it is recorded, often changed his place of resi-
dence. D'Arvieux continues, " The Arabs set themselves
down wherever they find springs of water, or rivulets in the
valleys, and pasture for the subsistence of their cattle, and
then decamp, as soon as that is gone, and go and post them-
selves in another place every fortnight, or at most every
month. They live all the summer upon these hills, always
advancing towards the north : and when winter begins to
come in, they go by degrees towards the south, as far as
Caesarea of Palestine, and on the outside of the mountains of
Carmel."
Parsons, the traveller, refers to the peregrinations of the
Arabs. " It was entertaining enough to see the horde of
Arabs decamp. First went the sheep and goats in regular
divisions, then followed the camels and asses, loaded with
the tents, furniture, and kitchen utensils. These were fol-
lowed by the old men and the women, and the boys and girls
on foot. The children that could not walk were carried on
the backs of the young women, and the boys and girls : and
the smallest of the lambs and kids were carried under the
arms of the children. The procession was closed by the
chief of the tribe mounted on the very best horse." The
foregoing manifests the tenacity with which the Arabs ad-
here to the customs of their forefathers established thousands
of years ago.
On the authority of the Scriptures, the flocks which abound-
INTRODUCTION. 17
ed in Palestine were very numerous. Job had 14,000 sheep,
besides oxen and camels. When the 12,000 Israelites
made an incursion into Midian, they brought away 675,000
sheep. When the tribes of Reuben and Gad made war
with the Hagarites, their spoils amounted to 250,000 sheep.
The King of Moab rendered a yearly tribute of 200,000
sheep ; and Solomon offered 120,000 at the dedication of
the Temple.
There are several circumstances which will readily ac-
count for these numerous flocks. They constituted almost
the only riches of the people ; comparatively few were
slaughtered, for, as has already been observed, their flesh
was rarely eaten, except on solemn sacrifices or occasions
of peculiar rejoicing, and there is reason for believing that
the ewes had lambs twice in the year. An author remarks
— " The Jewish writers frequently speak of the first and
second yeanings, referring the former to the month Nisan,
corresponding to the March of the modern calendar ; and
the other to the month Tissi, answering to September." It
appears, from the concurrent testimony of several travellers,
that these numerous flocks were not confined to ancient
times. Sir John Chardin saw flocks in the neighborhood of
Aleppo of immense numbers. Dr. Shaw states that " several
Arabian tribes who can bring no more than 300 or 400
horses into the field, are possessed of more than as many
thousand camels and oxen, and treble the number of sheep
and goats."
The first, and, indeed, only improvement in sheep breed-
ing which the Sacred Book informs us, is relative to the fleece,
the color of which, it is generally believed, was originally
tawny, or dingy-black. Although the fleece is now so gen-
erally white, yet instances are not uncommon in some of the
best-bred flocks, which indicates the tendency to return to
the original color. This is perceptible in the legs and fa-
ces of the distinguished South Down (but from no inter-
mixture of blood has become a permanent characteristic of
that breed), more so in the Norfolks and black-faced sheep
of the Scottish Highlands, and especially so in the African
and Asiatic breeds.
The motive which prompted Jacob to attempt a change of
the color, originated in a bargain between himself and Laban,
that the former should have in future the speckled or ring-
streaked sheep and goats, as a compensation for his services.
2*
1 8 INTRODUCTION.
These could hitherto have been very few — and were of
course accidentals — or the selfish and avaricious father-in-
law would not have consented to the proposal. It was clear-
ly Jacob's wish to increase the number which would fall to
his share, by art, and the principle upon which he acted was
drawn from the experience of the female of the human spe-
cies as exhibited in instances where the imagination of the
mother caused deformities, or peculiar external marks on her
offspring, before its birth. The ingenious device he adopted
is set forth in Genesis, 30th chapter, and 37 and 38 verses.
Jacob's scheme was crowned with success, which probably
induced others to follow his shrewd example ; and subse-
quently, by selections in breeding from male and female of
such as possessed the largest proportion of white in the fleece,
in process of time, it became wholly so. In David's time,
he likens it to snow ; and Solomon speaks of the teeth of his
mistress, as resembling a flock of sheep just come up from
the washing.
Jacob's policy inculcates a lesson to breeders of all kinds
of domestic animals which should not be neglected. It es-
tablishes the supremacy of art, and the ease with which both
the form and coat can be moulded to the will of man.
The Scriptures are silent relative to any peculiarities of the
form of the ancient sheep — saving that the ram was horned —
and we have no information of any attempts having been under-
taken for its improvement. From the fact — as will more
fully appear from the following pages — the fat-rumped and
fat-tailed sheep abounding in those countries which were oc-
cupied by the primitive shepherds, Mr. Yonatt arrived at the
conclusion, that the peculiar adipose substance collected on
the rumps and tails, was common to the sheep both before
and after the deluge, and sustains his opinion on the follow-
ing passage of Sacred writ : And Moses " took the fat, and the
rump^ and all the fat that was upon the inwards," and *' burnt
them on the altar upon the burnt-offering." Accordingly he
rejects the commonly received opinion that the Argali is
the original breed ; and the following observations of Mr.
Price, an English writer of distinction on sheep, will throw
a doubt over the subject, and leaves the question unsettled,
where, with man at least, it will probably forever remain.
The question whether the different varieties of the same
species of animal have been produced by accidental devia-
tions from one original parent breed, or whether there may
INTRODUCTION. 19
not have been, from the beginning, several varieties of the
same species, endowed with different qualities, and instincts,
and propensities, adapting them to the situation in which
they are found, is one of considerable interest to the zoolo-
gist, but with which the breeder of any species of animal
has little to do. It is also a question difficult to solve —
it is one that does not admit of demonstrative proof either
the one way or the other, and on which it does not become
the candid inquirer to speak positively and with arrogance.
These observations are induced by the careless and pre-
sumptuous way in which almost every natural historian at
once settles the matter. He does not seem to admit of any
doubt respecting the affair, but at once assumes it as a cer-
tainty that every species of animal was derived from one
original parent, and sets himself to work to inquire which
was the parent breed, and, worse than all, derives many fan-
ciful, nay, even some practical conclusions from that which
rests at best only on probability. Thus there is scarcely a
writer on sheep who does not take the question at once for
granted, and describe the Argali, or the Musmon, or some
creature of his own imagination, as the common origin of all.
There is no doubt that one variety of domesticated ani-
mals, if prevented from mixing with any other, will in gene-
ral propagate the same kind without any material change.
It is also acknowledged that if, from some unknown or ac-
cidental cause, an individual is produced, possessing some un-
usual peculiarities, his progeny, to a certain degree, will
probably possess the same peculiarities ; and if a male and
a female are selected with these peculiarities, and care is af-
terwards taken to exclude all who have them not, a new and
permanent breed may be established. It is likewise suffi-
ciently clear, that climate, soil, and pasture will gradually
effect a considerable change in the form and the quality both
of the wool and the flesh of every breed. These changes,
however, have their limits ; they go no farther than producing
modifications of the former breed : the essential and distin-
guishing character may yet be recognised, or, if it should
be rendered somewhat obscure, it will burst forth again
when the animal regains his native soil and climate.
The question is, when there are varieties of a species es-
sentially and altogether different from each other ; when the
act of man has and could have little to do in effecting such a
difference ; when there was nothing to prevent that inter-
20 INTRODUCTION.
course which would soon wear down and efface every acci-
dental variety, and restore the primitive character — the
question then is, whether these variations are not best ex-
plained on the supposition of an original adaptation of each
to the situation in which it was placed, and the functions it
was to perform. — See Price on Sheep, p. 14.
The fact has been incidentally stated that the rams, at
least, of the primitive sheep were horned. When Abraham,
in obedience to the Divine command, was about to sacrifice
his son Isaac, his arm was arrested by a voice from heaven,
" and he lifted up his eyes and looked, and behold, behind
him a ram caught in a thicket hy his horns'^ The trum-
pets used in war were made of rams' horns.
The polled sheep were probably an accidental variety ;
and when first occurring, cultivated partly for their singular-
ity, and more for their utility, whether with reference to the
additional closeness of folding of w^hich they were capable,
or the fewer accidents that were likely to occur, or, most of
all, from the superior docility and quietness of those to whom
nature had not given these weapons of offence, and of the
use of w^hich all animals soon become too conscious.
A prominent characteristic of the ancient shepherds, was
their humanity and extreme watchfulness of their flocks.
This was proverbial, which induced the prophet thus to
speak of the Messiah : " He shall feed his flock like a shep-
herd ; he shall gather the lambs with his arm, and shall car-
ry them in his bosom, and shall gently lead those that are
with young." So true are the Arabs to the customs of their
ancestors, that they evince a similar care and humanity,
which should put to the blush very many modem shepherds.
" Some beasts of burden, guided by the young men, bear lit-
tle ones just dropped, and not able to travel. The little
children, just able to toddle along themselves, are employed
in driving, at their own slow pace, the lambs a little older."*
" In flowery spring-time, when the new- dropped lamb,
Tottering with weakness by its mother's side,
Feels the fresh world about him, and each thorn,
Hillock, or furrow, trips his feeble feet, —
Oh, guard him carefully." — Dyer's Fleece.
Music, in olden times, was one of the means adopted to
control sheep. So universal was the practice, that the an-
* Buckingham's Palestine.
INTHODUCTION. 21
cient poets associated the music of the shepherds with their
chief amusement and pleasure. The pastures on which the
sheep fed, consisted of immense plains, or occasionally of
abrupt alternations of hill and vale, with many a tangled copse
and forest, so that the sheep, or a portion of them, were of-
ten out of the sight of the keeper, and occasionally beyond
the reach of his voice ; he therefore had a horn, or pipe,
by means of which he could be heard at a greater distance,
and the well-known sounds of which the leaders of the flock
would immediately obey. To while away the time, he would,
perhaps, occasionally endeavor to draw other and more
pleasing sounds from this instrument necessary to his vo-
cation, and thus he would naturally, or almost necessarily,
become, to a greater or less degree, a musician ; therefore the
interesting stories of the poets are not all fictions ; and it can
easily be imagined that the shepherd would often be found play-
ing on his pipe in the midst of his flock, and they apparently
attentive to, and pleased with, the strain, for they would
have suflicient intelligence to associate with it a sense of the
kindness and protection they experienced from the player.
Goldsmith, in his ' Animated Nature,' alludes to the
subject : — " Before I had seen them trained in this manner,
I had no conception of those descriptions in the old pastoral
poets, of the shepherd leading his flock from one country to
another. As I had been used to see these harmless crea-
tures driven before their keepers, I supposed that all the rest
was pure invention ; but in many parts of the Alps, and even
some provinces of France, the shepherd and his pipe are
still continued with true antique simplicity. The flock is
regularly penned every evening, to preserve them from the
wolf, and the shepherd returns homeward at sunset with his
sheep following him, and seemingly pleased with the sound
of his pipe, which is blown with a reed, and resembles the
chanter of a bagpipe."
The Bible aflbrds undoubted evidence of the fact that it
was customary with the ancient shepherds to cleanse or
wash their sheep before they were shorn.
Solomon, as has been already observed, compared the
teeth of his mistress to a jiock of sheep just come up from
the washing. These early records, however, do not speak
of the manner in which the operation was performed ; but
the inference is, that inasmuch as sheep constituted the
chief riches of the people, and were objects of so much
22 INTRODUCTION.
care, suitable and convenient places were erected, by many,
for this purpose. Jehu " slew the brethren of Ahaziah at
the pit of the shearing-house." The ' pit' here spoken of,
it is rational to suppose, was the pool in which the sheep
were washed previous to the shearing. From the scarcity
of water in parts of the land which the patriarchal shep-
herds occupied, it is doubtful whether the practice of cleans-
ing the wool upon the back was very general.
In what particular period of the world the periodical sep-
aration of the wool from the pelt, by means of shearing, took
place, we have no accurate information. In earlier times it
was the practice to detach the fleece by pulling, which was
probably not a very difficult task, as the wool, when ma-
tured, at each revolving year dropped from the sheep, as is
the case with the coarser-wooled varieties at the present
day. But the fleece would not separate over the whole an-
imal alike easy, and portions Avould not yield without inflict-
ing pain. Therefore, prompted by that humanity which so
distinguished the management of the primitive shepherds,
the shears, in process of time, were invented, and intro-
duced into general use.
In olden time, as now in many parts, the sheep-shearing
was the season for feasting and rejoicing. It was the har-
vest of the shepherd, and when he had gathered it, a gene-
rous feeling prompted him to make glad the hearts, for a few
hours at least, of those who had participated in the work.
Nabal asks of the servants of David, " Shall I take my
bread and my water, and my flesh that I have killed for my
shearers, and give it unto men whom I know not whence
they be ?" At a later period another, but not pleasing,
account is given of the festivities of that season : " And it
came to pass that Absalom had sheep-shearers in Baalha-
zor, and Absalom invited all the king's sons, and Absalom
commanded all his servants, saying. When Amnon's heart
is merry with wine, then kill him." Burder, in his work
on Oriental Literature, says — " The close of harvest was a
season of rejoicing in most of the ancient nations, and sheep-
shearing was the harvest of the nomadic shepherd. This
periodical festival was even enacted by law. Cecrops, the
founder of the kingdom of Athens, about the time of Moses,
ordained that " the master of every family should after har-
vest make a feast for his servants, and eat with those who
had taken pains together with him in tilling his ground."
INTRODUCTION. 23
The system of cotting was known and adopted by the Is-
raelites. After repelling the invasion of Sennacherib, Hez-
ekiah applied a portion of the spoil to works of public utility ;
he built " storehouses, for the increase of corn, and wine,
and oil, and stalls for all manner of beasts, and cotes for
flocks^ But, a commentator remarks, — " This has refer-
ence more to the inhabitants of considerable towns or cit-
ies than to the wandering shepherds."
An intelligent writer in the English Annals of Agriculture
says, that " the ancients were so perfectly satisfied that a va-
riety of climate was absolutely necessary to the production
of fine wool, that those people whose situation admitted not
of any change, had recourse to art, — housing them from the
day to defend them from the too powerful rays of the sun,
and exposing them to the cold of night. This was prac-
tised by Hezekiah ; Columella informs us that the same
conveniences were adopted in Greece and Tarentum, and
there is a line in Milton's Lycidas confirming the custom
of their nocturnal exposure : —
* Battening our flocks with the fresh dews of night.' "
For a long period it has been customary to cott or shelter
sheep during the night, instead of the day, to protect them
from the ravages of wild beasts, from cold, and to preserve
their dung for manure.
The Scriptures abound with passages which demonstrate
the art of weaving to have been well understood in the
primitive ages. Job says, " My days are swifter than the
weaver's shuttle." Moses alludes to those whom " God
had filled with wisdom of art to work all manner of work of
the engraver, and of the cunning workman, and of the em-
broiderer in blue and purple, in scarlet and in fine linen,
and of the weaver, even of those that devise cunning work."
Some three hundred years before the escape of the Is-
raelites from Egypt, in the history of Joseph it is recorded
that he was decorated with a coat of many colors, being
not only proof that weaving was practised to a considerable
degree of perfection, but dyeing also. Solomon thus de-
scribes the good wife : — " She seeketh wool and flax, and
vvorketh willingly with her hands. Her household are
clothed with scarlet^ The foregoing, as well as following
passage, indicate also, that in every country where the
simplicity of manners and virtues of the female are uncon-
24 INTRODUCTION.
laminated, spinning and weaving are the ordinary and chosen
employments. " She maketh herself coverings of tapestry ;
her candle goeth not out by night. She layeth her hands
to the spindle, and her hands hold the distaff.''''
" Night was now sliding in her middle course :
The first repose was finished ; when the dame
Who, by her distaft^'s slender art subsists,
"Wakes tlie spread embers and the sleeping fire.
Night adding to her work, and calls her maids
To their long tasks by lighted tapers urged."*
A writer on ancient manufactures says — " Modern his-
torians have united in tracing the invention of weaving to
the Egyptians, — the weaving not of wool, however, but of
flax ; and the fabric of the linen cloths in which some of
the Eg}'ptian mummies were wrapped has scarcely been
excelled at the present day. Yet it may be questioned
whether the claims of the nomadic shepherds have been
fairly considered. The cultivation of the sheep was coeval
with the expulsion from Paradise ; the cultivation of flax
must have been an improvement in husbandry of far later
date. When the descendants of Noah were scattered, they
pursued their old avocation ; their flocks and their herds
accompanied them until they chanced to find some pecu-
liarly fertile and convenient tract, which they gradually made
their permanent abode ; and then, building cities for them-
selves, they by degrees changed their way of life, and ap-
plied the arts, which they already possessed, to other and
more extensive purposes.
The children of Mizraim, the offspring of Ham, found in
Egypt a soil not well fitted for the prosperous management
of the sheep. The Nile overflowed its banks twice in the
year ; and when its waters receded, a surface was left that
was soon covered with luxuriant vegetation, but which in-
fected and destroyed the sheep that fed upon it. Accident
or experiment, however, soon proved that it was favorable
•to the cultivation of flax, and that from the fibres of the flax
fine linen might be woven. Did the discovery of the flax
lead to the invention of weaving, or was an art, known and
practised for many a century before, directed to the man-
ufacture of this new material ? The latter is the more prob-
able supposition, especially if it is recollected, that during
* Virml.
INTRODUCTION. 25
the early period of the history of the Patriarchs, some as-
sociated tribes, that had previously inhabited the country to
the east of Egypt, invaded and conquered the districts bor-
dering on the Nile, and established a dynasty there under
the appellation of the Shepherd Kings. The Abimelech, with
whom Abraham had controversy, and who presented to him
sheep, oxen, and slaves, was one of those shepherd kings.
To Egypt, then, let the honor still be yielded of having
first woven the fibres of the flax into linen ; but the invention
of weaving, the conversion into cloth of the animal fibres that
grow on the back of the sheep, is a claim of yet more an-
cient date, and belongs either to those who wandered with
their flocks far from the plains of Ararat, or who carried the
customs and arts of their forefathers into the country which
they subjugated."*
Burckhardt thus describes the loom at present found among
the Arab shepherds : —
" The Arab women use a very simple loom ; it is called
nulon, and consists of two short sticks, which are stuck into
the ground at a certain distance according to the desired
breadth of the shauke, or piece to be worked. A third stick
is placed across over them, and over the two horizontal cross
sticks, the woof. To keep the upper and under woof at a
proper distance from each other, a flat stick is placed between
them. A piece of wood serves as the weaver's shuttle, and
a short gazelle's horn is used in beating back the thread of
the shuttle. The loom is placed before the maharrem, or
women's apartment, and worked by the mother and her
daughters. The distaflf is in general use among them. At
Palmyra I saw several men using the distaff"; and among
the Kilby Arabs all the shepherds manufacture wool."
The foregoing details are important as aiding to confirm,
by collateral testimony, the authenticity of the Scriptures as
shown in the customs of the wandering hordes of the East
at the present day, which are the identical customs of the prim-
itive shepherds : also, the humanity and watchfulness of their
flocks which characterized the latter, examples which should
have their due weight with every shepherd now, and in all
time to come.
* Farmer's Series.
3
THE AMERICAN SHEPHERD.
CHAPTER I.
PROPERTIES OF WOOL.
As frequent allusions will be made in various parts of tliis
work to the structure of the fibre, the distinctive peculiari-
ties of the various kinds of wool, and the uses to which
these wools are respectively applied, it is apparent that here
will be the proper place for a discussion of the subject ; and
the reader is invited, for reasons which will appear obvious,
to give it his careful attention.
STRUCTURE OF THE SKIN.
The skin of the sheep, and of animals generally, is com-
posed of three coats, or layers. The external one is called
the cuticle or scarf skin, which is exceedingly to' gh, devoid
of feeling, and pierced by innumerable small holes, for the
passage of the wool and insensible perspiration.
The next layer is termed the mucus coat, a soft structure,
its fibres having scarcely more consistence than mucilage,
and consequently separated with much difficulty from the
coat below it. From the fact that the pulpy substance of
this layer uniformly approximates the color of the hair, or
wool, it is supposed that here resides the coloring matter.
This is the seat also of sensation; the nerves, or rather
their terminations, ramifying minutely in its substance.
The third or lowermost layer is the cutis or true skin, a
dense, firm, elastic substance, in order to fit closely to the
parts beneath, to yield to the various motions of the body,
and the resistance of external injury. The true skin is
28 PROPERTIES OF WOOL.
composed almost entirely o^ gelatine, so that although it may
be dissolved by much boiling, it is insoluble in water at the
common temperature.
It is well known the skin of the sheep is seldom fully
tanned, but is prepared in a peculiar way, and used for the
common sort of binding for books, or is converted into parch-
ment, which, from its durable nature, is used for the inscrip-
tion of documents of more than ordinary value. Other uses
made of the pelts of lambs in foreign countries, mention will
be made hereafter.
ANATOMY OF WOOL. •
Although the fibre of wool has been submitted to severe
examinations of powerful microscopes, its internal structure
is not yet definitely settled — whether solid, or conisting of a
hard exterior tube with a pith within. The weight of testi-
mony, however, is much in favor of the supposition of the
latter. The fact may be adduced in support of this conclu-
sion, that the wool of the sheep, when in high condition, is
coarser than when in low flesh, the fibre being distended
apparently from no other cause than the superabundance of
the secretive matter designed for its growth. Could it be
otherwise were it not tubular in its conformation ? It may^
however, proceed from another cause, for it has been satis-
factorily ascertained that the fibre is vascular, being supplied
with vessels which convey nourishment from the pulp,
which seem to accompany it to a considerable distance
from the root, if not through its whole extent.
The learned Dr. Good says : — " The PUca polonica, a
disease whose existence is doubted by some, but of the oc-
casional occurrence of w^hich there is abundant testimony,
completely establishes the vascularity of the hair ; for it is
an enlargement of the individual hairs, so much so as, in
some cases, to permit the passage of red blood, for the hair
will bleed when divided by the scissors." Admitting it to
be true that the hair is vascular, it follows that the fibre of
wool is also ; and hence if a sheep is in more than ordinary
condition, the consequent repletion of the fluids would cause
an increased bulk of the fibre, without the necessity of a
tubular conformation. But leave is taken of the question,
with the repetition that the preponderance of testimony is
in favor of the theory that the fibre is hollow.
Each fibre of wool is composed of a number of filaments
ITS CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. 29
or smaller hairs, ranged side by side, which can be perceived
without difficulty, from the tendency it sometimes has to un-
ravel at the point. Mr. Bakewell has remarked on this as
follows : " Hair is frequently observed to split at its points
into distinct fibres — a division has also been seen in the hair
of wool. This seems to prove that they are formed of dis-
tinct long filaments uniting in one thread or hair. In large
hairs I have discovered a number of divisions from the root
to the point. In one hair I distinctly perceived fifteen of
these divisions of fibres lying parallel to each other, and ia
some of the fibres a further subdivision was distinguishable.
Probably these subdivisions v/ere each composed of others
still smaller, which the limited power of our instruments
may prevent us from discovering. If such be the structure
of the hair of some animals, it is at least probable that the
hair of all others may have a similar conformation, although
the fibres of which they are composed may be too minute,
or adhere too firmJy together to permit us to separate or dis-
tinguish them."
ITS CHEMICAL COMPOSITION.
The fact has long since been established that the chemi-
cal composition of nails, hoofs, horns, hair, wool, and even
feathers, is substantially the same. i\.ccording to Henry,
they are made up of an animal substance resembling coagu-
lated albumen ; and sulphur, silica, carbonate and phosphate
of lime, and oxides of iron and manganese. The similarity
of the odor of hoofs, horns and hair, perceptible when burned,
is within the experience of all. It is also well known that
the horns of cattle are made up of elongated fibres or hair,
which will be obvious to any one who will take the trouble
to examine with the aid of a microscope. Indeed, without
this instrument, the fact can be established as exemplified
in the horns of the deer, at certain stages of the growth, and
also those of the giraffe, on the surface of which hairs can
be distinctly traced. Other testimony may be found in the
circumstance, uniformly the same, that the horns conform
in the degree of their twist or curve to the hair or wool of
the animals on which they respectively grow. Thus, in
the Angora goat and wild sheep of the Rocky Mountains,
the horns are, like the hair and wool they produce, compara-
tively straight ; while the horns of the Saxon and Merino
resemble the beautiful spiral curve of their wool.
3*
30 PROPERTIES OF WOOL,
YOLK.
This peculiar substance is so called abroad, from its ad-
hesiveness and color ; but with us it is termed gum, an ap-
pellation derived from its glutinous properties, quite as
appropriate. It is apparent in the fleeces of fine-wool
sheep, especially the Merino, at all seasons of the year, but
very much so in the winter and spring ; and although ditfused
through the whole fleece, yet such is its profusion in the
Merino, that it is observable in detached concrete particles^
resembling ear wax. According to the chemical analysis
of Vauquelin, it consists principally of a soapy matter, with
a basis of potash ; a small quantity of carbonate of potash;
a small quantity of acetate of potash ; lirne in an unknown
state of combination ; and an atom o{ muriate of potash. Its
peculiar odor, well known to those familiar with the fleeces
of Saxon and Merino, is derived from the infusion of a small
quantity of animal oil, and is in every respect a true soap^
which would permit of the fleece being thoroughly cleansed
by the ordinary mode of washing, were it not for the exist-
ence of this uncombined fatty or oily matter, which remains
attached to the wool, and rendering it glutinous, until sub-
jected to the process of scouring by the manufacturer.
There are some, from ignorance, who imagine the yolk or
gum to be, if not absolutely a detriment to wool, at least a use-
less concomitant. This, however, is a decided mistake. It is
a peculiar secretion from the glands of the skin, acting as
one of the agents in promoting the growth of the wool, and
by its adhesiveness, matting it, and thereby forming a de-
fence from the inclemency of the weather. From accurate
observation, it has been ascertained, that a deficiency of
yolk will cause the fibre to be dry, harsh and weak, and the
whole fleece becomes thin and hairy ; on the contrary, when
there is a natural supply, the wool is soft, plentiful and
strong. The quantity is depending on equability of tem-
perature, the health of the sheep, and the proportion of
nutritive food it receives.
Although it is found in greater or less quantities in the
fleeces of almost every variety of sheep, such is its excess
in the Merino breed, that it causes dirt to collect on the sur-
face to such a degree as to form an indurated crust, with a
hue resembling the thunder cloud. This excess, although,
as already remarked, no way injurious to the fibre, yet in
YOLK. 3 1
one sense it is so to the manufacturer, from the uncertainty
as to the amount of loss sustained by cleansing. Hence it
is that the European manufacturer refuses to purchase
Spanish Merino wool, without being thoroughly washed
with soap, which is always performed after the fleece is
shorn, and even then the wool shrinks, by the manufacturer's
mode of cleansing, generally about 10 per cent.
It has been observed that temperature has an influence in
determining the quantity of yolk; hence, the equable and
mild climate of Spain is favorable to its production; and
although the Escurial Merino is for the most part the parent
stock of the Saxony sheep, yet, from the opposite character
of the climate to that of Germany, it is found in a greatly
diminished quantity in Saxon fleeces. The Saxon Merino,
however, when kept in fair condition, has the requisite sup-
ply to give additional softness, pliability, and strength to the
fibre.
On the authority of an English writer, the wools of several
breeds of sheep in the more southern part of the kingdom
abound in yolk in great abundance, so that a fleece, un-
washed on the back, will lose one-half of its weight by thor-
ough scouring. A deficiency of this substance is percepti-
ble as progress is made northward ; and in Northumberland
and Scotland, it is common for the farmers to supply its loss
by means of smearing the sheep, in autumn, with a mixture
of tar and oil, or butter, which will be more particularly no-
ticed hereafter. To confirm the propriety of this, as well
as afford additional testimony of the virtues of yolk, the fol-
lowing fact is quoted, recorded by Mr. Bakewell, the emi-
nent sheep breeder : —
" An intelligent manufacturer in my neighborhood, who
kept a small flock of good wooled sheep, informed me he
had adopted the practice of rubbing the sheep with a mixture
of butter and tar. He could speak decidedly to the improve-
ment the wool had received by it, having superintended the
whole process of the manufacture. The cloth was superior
to what ungreased wool could have made, if equally fine ; it
was remarkably soft to the touch, and had a ' good hand and
feel,' the appearance of the threads being nearly lost in a
firm, even textur^e, covered with a soft, full nap."
The additional value, then, the yolk imparts to the wool,
affords a useful lesson to the wool-grower, to take such care
of his sheep as will best supply the needful quantity. Equa
32 PROrEIlTIES OF WOOL.
bility of temperature being one requisite, he should protect
his flocks during the winter season ; and good condition
being another, wholesome and nutritious food should not be
spared.
FORM OF THE FIBRE.
The fibre of wool is circular, diflfering materially in diam-
eter in the various breeds, and also in different parts of the
same fleece. It is generally larger towards the point and
also near the root, and in some instances very considerably
so. Mr. Youatt's description cannot be simplified or im-
proved. " The fibres of white wool, when cleansed from
grease, are semi-transparent ; their surface in some places
is beautifully polished, in others curiously encrusted, and
they reflect the rays of light in a very pleasing manner.
When viewed by the aid of a powerful achromatic micro-
scope, the central part of the fibre has a singularly glittering
appearance. Very irregularly placed minuter filaments are
sometimes seen branching from the main trunk like boughs
from the principal stem. This exterior polish varies much
in diflerent wools, and in wools from the same breed of
sheep at diflerent times. When the animal is in good
condition and the fleece healthy, the appearance of the fibre
is really brilliant ; but when the sheep has been half starved,
the wool seems to have sympathized with the state of the
constitution, and either a wan, pale light, or sometimes
scarcely any, is reflected."
His closing paragraph is especially true. The wool of
half-starved sheep can be detected without any difliculty by
the wool stapler and experienced buyer, and its consequent
deterioration aflects the price. The fibre of such wool is
finer, it is true ; but the numberless breaches injure every
manufacture for which it is used. This is another illustra-
tion of the bad policy of farmers in neglecting to keep their
sheep in uniform good condition. Healthy sheep will pro-
duce healthy wool, both being always the most valuable, and
consequently paying the largest dividends.
ELASTICITY.
A writer observes — " There are two antagonistic princi-
ples continually at work in every part of the frame of every
animal ; and it is on the delicate adjustment and balance of
power between them, that all healthy and useful action de-
SPIRAL CURVE. 33
pends ; the disposition to give way, or submit to some alter-
ation of form when pressed upon, and an energy by means
of which the original form is resumed, as soon as the ex-
ternal force is removed." These two principles are beauti-
fully exemplified in the fibres of wool, obviously much
dependant on the numerous and minute spiral curves, so
manifest in the Saxon and Merino. Take, for instance, a
single fibre of wool of these varieties of sheep, if it be
stretched to its full length, and then suddenly set free at one
extremity, it will resume its ringlet form ; and hence upon
the union of pliahility with the elastic principle chiefly de-
pends the usefulness, and consequently value of wool.
The play of these powers is differently adjusted in differ-
ent wools. In the Saxon, calculated for our finest fabrics,
-the action of these opposing principles is beautifully bal-
anced. Hence it is the fabric is so easily shorn of its
superfluous nap, the facility with which it yields to pressure,
and covers the threads of the cloth with a dense, soft pile.
Notwithstanding the injury the elastic powers may receive
by the process of manufacture, yet by the aid of a micro-
scope, the nap presents innumerable minute curves closely
hugging the texture ; and to this much of the beauty of our
finest cloth is owing. To these opposing powers of the
fibre, the felting principle is not a little indebted, as will be
explained hereafter.
SPIRAL CURVE.
The spiral curve, or ringlet form of wool, has been referred
to. This is one of the distinguishing qualities between wool
and hair, the latter being comparatively straight. It is re-
markable in all short-wooled sheep, but in no other varieties
is it so conspicuous as the Saxon and Merino. It is ob-
servable in the Leicester and other long-wooled varieties,
but in a far less degree ; and with some species of the goat,
under the hair of which is found a perfect wool, having the
true felting property, and the fibre considerably curved.
There is an intimate connexion between the fineness of
the wool, and the number of the curves, or otherv/ise, in pro-
portion to the number of curves in a given span, is the diame-
ter of the fibre. It should be stated, however, that this is
more generally true of pure Saxon and Merino. It can be
easily demonstrated, if the experiment is fairly made with
(he micrometer, care being taken not to destroy the curves
34 moPERTiES OF Wool.
by extension, but the fibre placed in the instrument as H
naturally grows upon the sheep. From M. Lafoun's work
on German management of sheep, the following is extracted,
bearing on this point :
" Those breeding pure Saxons, inspect their flocks three
times in the year ; before winter, when the selection of
lambs is made, in the spring, and at shearing time. Eacb
sheep is placed in its turn on a kind of table, and examined
carefully as to the growth, the elasticity, the pliability, the
brilliancy, and the fineness of the wool. The latter is as-
certained by means of a micrometer. It being found that
there icas an evident connection hetioeen the jiiieness of the
fhre and the number of curves, this was more accurately
noted, and the following table was constructed. The fleece
was sorted in the manner usual in France. The fineness
of the Superelecta, or picklock, is represented by a span
corresponding with the number 7 on the instrument."
Curves in
Sort. Name.
an inch.
Diameter of filire.
1. Superelecta,
27 to 29
7 or 1 -840th of
an inch,
2. Electa,
24 to 28
8 or 1 -735th
3. Prima,
20 to 23
9 or 1 -660th
4. Secunda Prima,
19 to 19
10 or l-588th
5. Secunda,
16 to 17
11 or l-534th
6. Tertia,
14 to 15
111- or l-510th
The above will show the necessity of more care with
wool-growers in breeding from such sheep only whose woo)
approximates nearest to the principle laid down, as it is to
this curled form of wool its most valuable uses depend. It
is one agent, though not the principal, in producing the phe-
nomena of felting. " It materially contributes to that dispo-
sition of the fibres which enables them to attach and entwine
themselves together ; it multiplies the opportunities for this
interlacing, and it increases the difficulty of unravelling the
feh."
The numerous and minute curves being, as observed, emi-
nently characteristic of the pure Saxon and Merino, will
serve as a sure test, in all cases, of the purity of blood, and
therefore aflfords a certain and unerring guide in the selection
of breeding sheep. If it is rightly adhered to, the every day
attempts to dispose of grades for high-bred sheep will be
frustrated.
FINENESS. 35
SOFTNESS FINENESS.
It is not as generally known as it should be, that softness
is a quality of wool of much consequence. When the wool
buyer and stapler proceed to an examination of a parcel, their
judgment will be materially affected as to its value, whether
" soft in handle," or otherwise. This, however, generally
speaking, is the result of comparative fineness ; but by no
means always so, for wool of the same quality of fineness
has not the same degree of softness. There are several
causes to account for it, and among them is soil ; as, for
instance, the chalky districts of England affect the wool to
such an extent as to make it invariably brittle and harsh.
This, however, is only local. The general cause of a de-
ficiency of softness in wools of the same breed, may be re-
ferred directly to the condition of the sheep. It has already
been stated that when the animal was kept in uniform good
condition, the necessary quantity of yolk was supplied. Now
if there is but little of this substance, which will follow an
abuse in management, the wool will be less pliable and
" kind to feel." Therefore it may be set down as a univer-
sal rule, that wool owes much of its softness to the presence
of a su-fficiency of yolk.
As a testimony how much this quality of wool is appre-
ciated by the manufacturer, it is affirmed on the authority of
an English author, '• that two parcels of sorted wool being
taken, possessing the same degree of fineness, but the one
having the soft quality in an eminent degree, and the other
being harsh, the cloth prepared from the first, at the same
expense, will be worth more to the manufacturer than the
other, by full 20 per cent."
FINENESS.
This term, when applied to wool, is wholly comparative ;
various breeds of sheep producing wool essentially different
in quality, the same breeds varying much, and all breeds
exhibiting qualities of wool of unequal fineness in the same
fleece. It is also sometimes the fact that the extremity of
the fibre, as ascertained by the micrometer, is five times
greater in bulk than the centre and root.
The fibre may be considered coarse when it is more than
the five hundredth part of an inch in diameter, and very fine
when it does not exceed the nine hundredth part of an inch,
36
PROPERTIES OF WOOL.
as exhibited occasionally in choice samples of Saxon Merino
wool. It is said there are animals which have a wool un-
derneath a covering of hair, the fibre of which is less than
the twelve hundredth part of an inch.*
The following cut will show the points in the pure Merino
and Saxon where the different qualities of wool are to be
found. The divisions do not always accurately correspond,
but Lasteyrie and Chancellor Livingston, who were both
familiar with pure Spanish xMerinos, agree as to their general
truth, and the observations of the writer confirm their decision.
It is, then, a matter to be studied by the wool-grower who
is desirous of propagating sheep of the fine-wooled varieties ;
for grades will often exhibit seven and eight qualities in the
same fleece, whereas it will be seen that unalloyed breeds
show but four qualities. Individuals have occasionally been
found in original Saxon flocks whose fleeces would divide
into only two sorts ; but this is very rare.
m-mm':^ mm:-M^im^
^ ".-^^^ -:^>^^%s«f?rf
MERINO EWE.
* Luccock.
LENGTH OF THE STAPLE — COLOR. 37
The refina (fig. 1), or the picklock wool, begins at the
withers, and extends along the back to the setting on of
the tail. It reaches only a little way down at the quarters,
but, dipping down at the flanks, takes in all the superior part
of the chest, and the middle of the side of the neck to the
angle of the lower jaw. The jiiia (fig. 2), a valuable wool,
but not so deeply serrated, or possessing so many curves as
the refina, occupies the belly, and the quarters and thighs
down to the stifle joint. No. 3, or third quality, is found on
the head, the throat, the lower part of the neck, and the
shoulders, terminating at the elbow ; the wool yielded by
the legs, and reaching from the stifle to a little below the
hock, is procured from the tuft that grows on the forehead
and cheeks, from the tail, and from the legs below the hock.*
LENGTH OF THE STAPLE.
Formerly, wool of short staple only was thought by the
manufacturer indispensable to make a fine cloth with a close
pile or nap, but the improvements made in machinery within
a few years have superseded this consideration, and now
long-staple wool is most valued. This in part proceeds
from the fact that short wools have more " dead end," pro-
portionally, than long ; again, the new American enterprise
for manufacturing muslin de laines, calls for a long, tough,
fine staple. The Australian wools, which are of Merino
and Saxon blood, from the mildness of the climate of New
South Wales, are very much longer in staple than formerly,
and are much used for the above object. It is a query,
however, whether a fine and very compact fleece, possessing
a long fibre, can be produced on the same sheep. Very
close, fine fleeces, are always comparatively short in staple ;
and close fleeces are indispensable in our rigorous climate, to
protect the sheep from the eflects of cold and wet ; on the con-
trary, open fleeces are usually long in staple, but a poor defence
against a low temperature. It is, therefore, a question for
the wool-grower of the North to consider whether, in obliging
the manufacturer, he will not adopt a policy injurious to the
constitution of his sheep. In a more southern latitude, this
consideration is not so important.
COLOR.
The alteration of the color was the first recorded im-
* Livingston.
4
38 PROPERTIES OF WOOL.
provement of the sheep, and its purity, its perfect whiteness,
should never be lost sight of by the sheep-master of the
present day. It is, however, not so much considered as it
should be. Manufacturers desire none other fine wools
than those of the purest whiteness, for the reason that those
of a black or dun-colored hue, do not receive a perfect fancy
dye, and therefore can be converted only into black cloths ;
hence, they are valued accordingly. Flock-masters should
never breed from individuals that are otherwise than purely
white ; for, independent of the above consideration, black or
smutty sheep mar the appearance of a flock.
TRUENESS.
The quality of trueness of the staple especially enhances
the value of every grade of wool in which it is found. It
comprises an equality of the diameter of the fibre from the
root to the point, and uniformity of the fleece generally.
When the filament greatly lacks in this particular, it may be
ascribed to an irregular and unhealthy action of the secretion
of wool, which, in turn, must be attributed, in general, to abuses
in management of the sheep. For instance, if the animal has
fared kindly till the winter season, and then exposed to
storm, and cold, and withal ill fed, the growth of that part
of the fibre during this period will be considerably dimin-
ished in diameter, proportionally weak, and when examined
by the microscope, presents a withered appearance. On
being turned to pasture, the fare being better, and the secre-
tions again becoming healthy and abundant, an enlargement
of the fibre follows; but it is greatly destitute, from the
causes stated, of the quality of trueness, and therefore de-
bases the value of the whole fleece. The weak and with-
ered parts of the fibre are termed breaches, and injure mate-
rially every manufacture in which it is employed, the felting
property being deteriorated, and the cloth having less strength
and softness. The skilful stapler and wool-buyer will, on
critical examination, easily detect this serious fault, and prize
the wool accordingly. By pulling asunder a single fibre,
the break will uniformly be confined to the breachy or with-
ered point. This is termed unsound wool.
Although this description of wool is generally, as remarked,
the result of bad management of the flock, yet it is common
to all good sheep. With the Saxon and Merino, after the
ewes, particularly, pass the age of eight or nine years, the
INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE, 39
yolk lessens in quantity, which is followed by compara-
tively a hard, inelastic, unyielding character of the wool,
with the strength and weight greatly diminished. There-
fore, notwithstanding the singular longevity of these breeds,
it is better to pass them over to the butcher, when arrived
at the age mentioned.
Intimately connected with producing a sound and true sta-
ple, is the
INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE.
It cannot be doubted that equability of temperature is an
important agent in perfecting the several properties of wool.
The Spanish custom, continued for centuries, of driving the
sheep in the spring to the northern and mountainous parts
of the kingdom, which are there kept until the approach of
winter, originated in part from the conviction that this theory
was sound. Indeed, it is founded in the natural instinct of
the sheep. Every one knows it is impatient of heat. In
the midst of summer, in all latitudes where it is found, it
will seek the most elevated points for the sake of the cool-
ing breeze, and retire to shades to guard itself against the
burning rays of the sun. In winter it will flee to a place of
refuge from storms and cold. All this testifies strongly in
favor of the correctness of the premises. But the question
may be asked, what has the bodily comfort of the animal to
do with perfecting the several properties of the fleece ? The
answer is, every thing. If health and thrift are promoted
by equability of temperature, the cutaneous glands are alike
healthy, and a regular and even growth of the fibre naturally
follows.
But strictly speaking, equability of temperature is nowhere
to be found ; therefore, in our rigorous and changeable climate,
the fibre of w^ool must ever present a greater or less inequal-
ity of diameter between its extremes. It is remarkable that
the point has always the largest bulk. This is the product
of summer, after shearing time, when there is a repletion of
the secretions which produce the wool, and when the pores
of the skin are relaxed and open, and permit a larger fibre
to protrude. The portion near the root is the growth of the
spring, when the weather is getting warm ; and the inter-
mediate part is the offspring of Avinter, when, under the in-
fluence of the cold, the pores of the skin contract, and permit
only a finer fibe to escape.
40 PROPERTIES OF WOOL,
An author remarks, " The variations in the diameter of
the wool in the different parts of the fibre will also curiously
correspond with the degree of heat at the time the respective
portions were produced. The fibre of the wool, and the
record of the meteorologist, will singularly agree, if the va-
riations in temperature are sufliciently distant from each
other for any appreciable part of the fibre to grow."
In confirmation of the general fact as to the influence of
climate on wool and hair, the remarks of Mr. Hunter, an
English author of high authority, are quoted : " Sheep car-
ried from a cold to a warm climate soon undergo a remarka-
ble change in the appearance of their fleece. From being
very firm and thick, it becomes thin and coarse ; until at
length it degenerates into hair. Even if this change should
not take place to its full extent in the individual, it will in-
fallibly do so in the course of a greater or less number of
generations. The effect of heat is nearly the same on the
hairs of other animals. The same species that in Russia,
Siberia, and North America, produce the most beautiful and
valuable furs, have nothing in the warmer climates but a
coarse and thin covering of hair."
The above must be received with some limitation. Mr.
Youatt makes the following remarks : " Temperature and
pasture have an influence on the fineness of the fibre, and
one which the farmer should never disregard ; but he may
in a great measure, counteract this influence by careful
management and selection in breeding. The original ten-
dency to the production of a fleece of mixed materials exist-
ing, and the longer coarse hair covering and defending the
shorter and softer wool, nature may be gradually adapting
the animal to his new locality ; the hair may increase and
the wool may diminish, if man is idle all the while ; but a
little attention to breeding and management will limit the
extent of the evil, or prevent it altogether. A better illus-
tration of this cannot be found, than in the fact that the
Merino has been transplanted to every latitude on the tem-
perate zone, and to some beyond it — to Sweden in the
north, and Australia in the south, and has retained its ten-
dency to produce wool exclusively, and wool of nearly equal
fineness and value."
M. Lasteyrie, the unwearied advocate of the Merinos,
uses this remarkable language : — "The preservation of the
Merino race in its purity at the Cape of Good Hope, and
FELTING. 4f
under the rigorous climate of Sweden, furnish an additional
support of this, my unaherable opinion, fine-wooled sheep
may be kept wherever industrious men and intelligent breeders
exist."
Notwithstanding the above is so consolatory, and withal
so very encouraging to our brethren of the Southern States to
embark in sheep husbandry, yet it is undeniable that in
northern latitudes the finest wools are produced ; but this
has arisen much from superior skill in breeding, and great
assiduity in management in every regard. If sheep are
properly selected from high-bred Merino and Saxon flocks,
and taken to a latitude not south of 28 deg., if rightly man-
aged, will suffer little deterioration for many years, and will
produce wools of a like description of the Australian, soft,
of even and long filament, fit for felting, and also admirably
adapted for the finest and most beautiful of worsted fabrics.
An instance is known by the writer,* of an imported flock
of Saxons having been taken to Tennessee some twenty
years since, and judging from the samples of wool from it
now in his possession, the conclusion is inevitable, that
little or no deterioration has been produced by the climate.
If sheep are provided with suitable retreats for shade during
the heat of the summer months, there are many districts in
the Southern States unsurpassed for wool cultivation. If
there is a tendency to coarseness, it will be retarded or
wholly prevented by an occasional recurrence to northern
stock getters.
Many imagine that the climate of the Southern States is
wholly unsuitable for the production of a fine fleece, because
of the inferiority of the wools of South America. The de-
generacy of the Merinos taken there, has not arisen so much
from the climate, as because " industrious men and intelli-
gent breeders" were not present to manage them; further-
more, very many of the sheep transported there from Spain,
were of the Chunah breed, producing very coarse wool, and
these were promiscuously bred with the Merinos. The
conservative power over the fleece lies in good management
far more than climate.
FELTING.
The phenomena of felting long remained enshrouded in
* Mr. Mark H. Cockrill — see liis letter in Appendix.
4*
42 rnoPERTiEs of wool.
mystery. This gave rise to numerous speculations as to the
primary cause or causes, many of which, ahhough plausible
at the time of their publicity, now that the true cause has
been discovered, appear sufficiently ridiculous. But the
keen sagacity of man at length mastered the subject by sur-
mising the correct theory, without the means, however, to
demonstrate it, for want of microscopes of adequate power.
To M. Monge, the distinguished French chemist, are we
indebted for the first correct view of the structure of the
fibre, which, from its peculiarity, mainly depends the felting
principle. He asserted " that the surface of each fibre of
wool is formed of lamellae, or little plates which cover each
other from the root to the point, pretty much in the same
manner as the scales of a fish cover that animal from the
head to the tail, or like rows placed over one another, as is
observed in the structure of horns ;" and he accounts for the
felting process in the following way :
" In making a felt which is to constitute the body of a hat,
the workman presses the mass with his hands, moving them
backwards and forwards in various directions. This pres-
sure brings the hairs or fibres against each other, and multi-
plies their points of contact. The agitation gives to each
hair a progressive motion towards the root ; but the roots
are disposed in different directions — in every direction ; and
the lamellae of one hair will fix themselves on those of an-
other hair, which happens to be directed a contrary way,
and the hairs become twisted together, and the mass assumes
the compact form which it was the aim of the workman to
produce. If the wool is in cloth and subjected to the pro-
cess of fulling, the fibres which compose one of the threads,
whether of the warp or woof, assume a progressive move-
ment ; they introduce themselves among those of the threads
nearest to them, and thus by degrees all the threads become
felted together, the cloth is shortened in all its dimensions,
and partakes both of the nature of cloth and of felt." No
language can be employed which will convey a more cor-
rect and vivid impression of the process of felting, than the
foregoing.
Through the indomitable perseverance of Mr. Youatt, the
author of a valuable, though too diffuse, treatise on British
sheep-husbandry, Monge's theory was finally demonstrated,
although he was often frustrated, and almost yielded to de-
spair, from the imperfections of his instruments. The con-
FELTING. 43
struction at last of a superior achromatic microscope by Mr.
Powell, of London, enabled him to realize his ardent wishes ;
and his own description of the scene, and the conclusioQs
to which he arrived, are of too much interest to admit of
any abbreviation.
" On the evening of the 7th of Feb. 1835, Mr. Thomas
Flint, woollen manufacturer, resident at Leeds ; Mr. Sy-
monds, clothing agent, of London, Mr. F. Millington, sur-
geon, of London, Mr. Edward Brady, veterinary surgeon,
Mr. Powell, the maker of the microscope, and the author
himself, were assembled in his parlor. The instrument was,
in Mr. Powell's opinion, the best he had constructed. A
fibre was taken from a Merino fleece of three years' growth;
th« animal was bred by, and belonged to Lord Western. It
was taken without selection, and placed on the frame to be
examined as a transparent object. A power of 300 (linear)
was used, and the lamp was of the common flat-wicked kind.
The focus was readily found ; there was no trouble in the
adjustment of the microscope ; and after Mr. Powell, Mr.
Flint had the first perfect occular demonstration of the ir-
regularities in the surface of the wool, the palpable proof of
the cause of the most valuable of its properties — its disposi-
tion to felt.
" The fibre thus looked at, assumed a flattened riband-
like form. It w^as of a pearly grey color, darker towards
the centre, and with faint lines across it. The edges were
evidently hooked, or more properly serrated — they resembled
the teeth of a fine saw. These were somewhat irregular in
different parts of the field of view, both as to size and num-
ber. The area of the field was now ascertained ; it was
one-fortieth of an inch in diameter. By means of the mi-
crometer we divided this into four, and we then counted the
number of serrations in each division. Three of us counted
all four divisions, for there was a difference in some of them.
The number was set down privately, and it was found that
we had all estimated it at fifteen in each division. Having
multiplied this by four, to obtain the whole field, and that by
forty, the proportionate part of an inch of which the field
consisted, we obtained a result which could not be disputed,
that there were 2,400 serrations in the space of an inch, and
all of which projected in the same direction, viz. from the
root to the point. Then, before we quitted the examination
of the fibre as a transparent object, we endeavored to ascer-
44 PROPE!lTIES OF WOOL.
tain its actual character, and proved it to 1 -750th of an
inch.
" We next endeavored to explore the cause of this ser-
rated appearance, and the nature of the irregularities on the
surface, which might possibly account for the production of
these tooth-like projections ; we therefore took another fibre,
and mounted it as an opaque object. There was considera-
ble difficulty in throwing the light advantageously on the
fibre, so small a space only as l-30th of an inch intervening
between the lens and the object. At length Mr, Powell
perfectly succeeded ; and we were presented with a beauti-
ful glittering column, wdth lines of division across it, in num-
ber and distance seemingly corresponding with the serra-
tions that we had observed in the other fibre that had been
viewed as a transparent object. It was not at once that the
eye could adapt itself to the brilliancy of the object ; but by
degrees these divisions developed themselves, and could be
accurately traced. These were not so marked as the in-
verted cones which the bat's wool presented, but they were
distinct enough ; and the apex of the superior one, yet com-
paratively little diminished in bulk, was received into the
excavated base of the one immediately beneath, while the
edge of this base formed into a cup-like shape, projected,
and had a serrated, or indented edge, bearing no indistinct
resemblance to the ancient crown. All these projecting in-
dented edges pointed in a direction from root to point.
" Whether these, like the cones of the bat, are joints, or
at least points of comparative weakness, and thus accounting
for the pliancy and softness of the fibre, or regulating the de-
gree in which these qualities exist, may perhaps be better
determined by and by ; one thing, however, is sufficiently
plain, that these serrated edges in the transparent object
produced (when the fibre was resolved into its true form as
an opaque one) by the projecting edges of the cups or hol-
lowed bases of the inverted cones, affi^rd the most satisfac-
tory solution of the felting principle that can be given or
desired. The fibres can move readily in a direction from
root to point, the projections of the cups offering little or no
impediment, but when they have been once involved in a
mass, and a mass that has been pressed powerfully together,
as in some part of the manufactory of all felting wool, the
retraction of the fibre must be difficult, and in most cases
impossible."
FELTING.
45
The annexed cuts exhibit microscopic views of the fibres
of wool from picklock samples of Merino and South Down
fleeces. The relative difference of serrations cannot be
conveniently delineated in a plate : a marked difference,
however, will be observed in the construction of the lamellae.
No. 1, a fibre of Merino wool as a transparent object;
No. 2, the same, as opaque. No. 3, a fibre of South Down
wool, transparent : No. 4, the same, opaque.
MICROSCOPIC VIEW OF WOOL.
No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. No. 4.
The following observations by Mr. Youatt, whose inde-
fatigable zeal and dilig^ence in the investigation of many
particulars embraced in the present chapter, entitles him to
much honor, will conclude the subject : —
" There can no longer be a doubt with regard to the
general outline of the woolly fibre. It consists of a cen-
tral stem or stalk, probably hollow, or at least porous, and
possessing a semitransparency not found in the fibre of hair.
From this central stalk there springs at different distances, in
different breeds of sheep, a circlet of leave-shaped projec-
46 PROPERTIES OF WOOL.
tions. In the finer species of wool these circles seemed at
first to be composed of one indented, or serrated ring ; but
when the eye was accustomed to them, this ring was resolv-
able into leaves, or scales. In the larger kinds the ring was
at once resolvable into these scales, or leaves, varying in
number, shape, and size, and projecting at different angles
from the stalk, in the direction of the leaves of vegetables,
from the root to the point, or farther extremity. In the bat
there seemed to be a diminution in the bulk of the stalk,
immediately above the commencement of the sprouting of
the leaves, and presenting the appearance of the apex of an
inverted cone received in the hollowed cup-like base of an-
other immediately beneath. The diminution in the fibre of
the wool at these points could be only indistinctly perceived ;
but the projection of the leaves gave a somewhat similar
cone-like appearance. The extremities of the leaves in the
long Merino and the Saxon wool were evidently pointed,
with acute indentations or angles between them. They
were pointed likewise in the South Down, but not so much,
and the interposed vacuities were less deep and angular.
In the Leicester the leaves are round, with a diminutive
point or space. Of the actual substance and strength of
these leafy or scaly circles nothing can yet be affirmed ; but
they appear to be capable of different degrees of resistance,
or of entanglement with other fibres, in proportion as their
form is sharpened, and they project from the stalk, and in
proportion likewise as these circlets are multiplied. So far
as the examination has hitherto proceeded, they are sharper
and more numerous in the felting wools than in others, and
in proportion as the felting property exists. The conclusion
seems to be legitimate, and indeed inevitable, that they are
connected with, or, in fact, that they give to the wool the
power of felting, and regulate the degree in which that power
is possessed.
" If to this is added the curved form which the fibre of the
wool naturally assumes, and the well-known fact, that these
curves differ in the most striking degree in different breeds,
according to the fineness of the fibre, and, when multiplying
in a given space, increase both the means of entanglement
and the difficulty of disengagement, the whole mystery of
felting is unravelled. A cursory glance will discover the
proportionate number of curves, and the microscope has now
established a connexion between the closeness of the curves
FELTING. 47
and the number of the serrations. The Saxon wool is re-
markable for the close packing of its little curves ; the num-
ber of serrations are 2720 in an inch. The South Down
wool has numerous curves, but evidently more distant than
in the former sample ; the serrations are 2080. In the Lei-
cester the wavy curls are so far removed from each other,
that a great part of the fibre would be dissipated under the
operation of the card, and the serrations are 1860; and in
some of the wools which warm the animal, but were not in-
tended to clothe the human body, the curves are more dis-
tant, and the serrations are not more than 480. The wool-
grower, the stapler, and the manufacturer, can scarcely wish
for better guides.
" Yet there is no organic connexion between the curve and
the serration ; the serrations are not the cause of the curve,
nor do the curves produce the serrations ; the connexion is
founded on the grand principle that the works of nature are
perfect, that no beneficial power is bestowed without full
scope for its exercise. The curves of the smooth fibre
might entangle to a considerable degree, but some of the
points would be continually unravelling and threatening the
dissolution of the whole felt. The straight fibre, however
deeply serrated, its root being introduced into the mass,
would often pass on, and pass through the felt and be lost.
It is by the curved form of the jagged fibre that the object
can be accomplished certainly and perfectly.
" Future observers may possibly detect in wool the apparent
coned and jointed structure of the hair of the bat, and then a
third and powerful principle would be called into action, the
pliability of the fibre, the ease with which it is bent in every
different direction, and in each becomes more inexplicably
entangled. A great point, however, is gained by the knowl-
edge that in proportion as the auxiliaries in the felting pro-
cess are multiplied, the direct agents are also increased."
CHAPTER II.
HISTORY OF SHEEP.
ARGALI, MUSMON, ASIATIC, AND AFRICAN SHEEP.
ASIATIC ARGALI.
The following description of the Asiatic Argali is from
the pen of Professor Low: —
*' The Argali possessing the generic characters of the
sheep, is somewhat less than the size of a stag. He has enor-
mous horns, measuring more than a foot in circumference at
the base, and from three to four feet in length, triangularly
rising from the summit of the head so as nearly to touch at
the root, ascending, stretching out laterally, and bending for-
ward at the point. He has a fur of short hair, covering a
coat of soft white wool. The color of the fur externally is
brown, becoming brownish grey in the winter ; there is a
buff-colored streak along the back, and a large spot of a
lighter buff-color on the haunch, surrounding and including
the tail. The female differs from the male in being smaller,
in having the horns more slender and straight, and in the
absence of the disc on the haunch. In both sexes the tail
is very short, the eyelashes are whitish, and the hair
beneath the throat is longer than on any other parts of the
body.
" These creatures inhabit the mountains and elevated plains
of Asia, from the Caucasus northward and eastward, to
Kamschatka and the Ocean. They are agile and strong, but
very timid, shunning the least appearance of danger ; their
motion is zigzag, and they stop in their course to gaze upon
their pursuer, after the manner of the domestic sheep. They
are usually found in very small flocks, and at rutting season
the males fight desperately, using their horns and forehead
in the manner of the common ram. They are hunted by
THE AMERICAN ARGALI, 49
the people of the country for their flesh, which is esteemed
to be savory, and for their skins, which are made into
clothing. In autumn, after having pastured during the sum-
mer on the mountains and in the secluded valleys, they are
fat, and in high request ; but as winter advances, they are
forced to descend from the mountains in search of food ; they
then lose their plumpness, and are sought after only for their
skins. When taken young they are easily tamed, but the
old ones never resign their natural wildness."
THE AMERICAN ARGALI.
This supposed variety of the Asiatic Argali is well
known as the " big-horn of the Rocky Mountains."
The Abbe Lambert gives the following account of it : —
" Besides several sorts of animals known among us, there
are two sorts of fallow beasts unknown in Europe. They
call them sheep, because they have the figure of our sheep.
The first species is as large as a calf one or two years old.
Their head has a great resemblance to that of a stag, and
their horns to those of a ram. Their tail and hair, which
are speckled, are shorter than those of a stag ; their flesh is
very good and delicate."
The following account was rendered by Capt. Bonneville,
and published by Washington Irving in his work entitled
the " Rocky Mountains."
" Amidst this wild and striking scenery. Captain Bonne-
ville, for the first time, beheld flocks of ahsata, or big-horn,
an animal which frequents these cliffs in great numbers.
They accord with the nature of such scenery, and add
much to its romantic effect ; bounding like goats from crag
to crag, often trooping along the lofty shelves of the moun-
tains, under the guidance of some venerable patriarch, with
horns twisted lower than liis muzzle, and sometimes peering
over the edge of the precipice, so high that they appear
scarce bigger than crows ; indeed, it seems a pleasure to
them to seek the most rugged and frightful situations, doubt-
less from a feeling of security. It has short hair like a deer,
and resembles it in shape, but it has the head and horns of
a sheep, and its flesh is said to be delicious mutton. It
abounds in the Rocky Mountains, from the fiftieth degree
of north latitude, quite down to California ; generally in the
highest regions capable of vegetation ; sometimes it ventures
into the valleys, but on the least alarm, regains its favorite
5
50 HISTORY OF SHEEP.
cliffs and precipices, where it is perilous, if not impossible
for the hunter to follow. The dimensions of a male of this
species is, from the nose to the base of the tail, five feet ;
length of the tail, four inches ; girth of the body, four feet ;
height, three feet eight inches ; the horn, three feet six inches
long ; one foot three inches in circumference at the base."
In that valuable work entitled the " Animal Kingdom,"
Major Hamilton Smith remarks : — " If the American spe-
cies be the same as the Asiatic, which appears very proba-
ble, it can have reached the New World only over the ice
by Behring's Straits ; and the passage may be conjectured
as comparatively of a recent date, since the Argali has not
spread eastward beyond the Rocky Mountains, nor to the
south farther than California."
THE MOUFLON OR MUSMON.
Buffon and Wilson have considered this sheep as identi-
cal with the Argali ; others regard it as a variety only. It
inhabits the mountains of Corsica and Sardinia, and has
been found in some of the islands of the Grecian Archipel-
ago. It is asserted by Pliny as having abounded, at an
early period, in Spain.
Wilson, the distinguished naturalist, describes it thus : —
•' It is usually about two and a half feet in height, and three
feet and a half from the nose to the commencement of the
tail. The horns never exceed two feet in length ; they are
curved backwards, and the points turn inwards ; the roots
of the horns are very thick and wrinkled ; the ears are of a
middle size, straight and pointed ; the neck is thick ; the
body round ; the limbs muscular ; and the tail short. The
color is generally of a dull, or brownish-grey, with some
white on the fore part of the face and on the legs ; a tuft of
long hair beneath the throat ; a dark streak along the back ;
and the upper part of the face black, with black streaks
along the cheeks. The forehead of this sheep is particu-
larly arched. The females are generally without horns,
and where they do appear, they are considerably less than
those of the male."
The Musmons, like the Argali, love to roam on the high-
est mountain-tops, where they are seen congregated in herds
of from fifty to an hundred. It is covered by a fine hair of
no great length, having beneath it a thick, grey-colored wool,
fat-e.umpi:;d sheef.
51
short, but full of spirals, and the edges thickly serrated.
Cuvier says the Musmon is difficult to domesticate, rarely
exhibiting intelligence, confidence, affection, or docility.
ASIATIC BREEDS.
FAT-RUMPED-FAT-TAILED— PERSIAN-TIBET— EAST INDIA— CHINESE.
FAT-RUMPED SHEEP.
From the earliest times of which we have any authentic
accounts, the Fat-rumped sheep has inhabited the countries
over which the patriarchal shepherds roamed. It is but
little known in Africa, but prevails extensively in the north
and south of Asia ; is found in Palestine in greater numbers
than any other breed, and reaches far into the interior and
northern parts of Russia. It is purest in the deserts of
Great Tartary, no other variety being near to contaminate
its blood.
52 HISTORY OF SHEEP.
Dr. Anderson, the traveller, gives the following account
of this singularly-formed breed : " The flocks of all the Tar-
tar hordes resemble one another, by having a large yellow-
ish muzzle, the under jaw often projecting beyond the upper ;
by long hanging ears, and by the horns of the adult ram
being large, spiral, wrinkled, angular, or bent in a lunar
form. They have slender legs in proportion to their bodies,
a high chest, large hanging testicles, and tolerably fine wool
mixed with hair. The body of the ram, and sometimes of
the ewe, swells gradually with fat towards the posteriors,
where a solid mass of fat is formed on the rump, and falls
over the anus in place of a tail, divided into two hemispheres,
which take the form of the hips, with a little button of a
tail in the middle to be felt with the finger."
This breed often weigh 200 lbs., and may be considered
the largest of the unimproved sheep ; of which weight the
soft oily fat alone that forms on the rump amounts to from
20 to 40 lbs. In the neighborhood of Caucasus and Tauri-
da, the hind-quarters of the sheep are salted as hams, and
sent in great quantities to the northern provinces of Turkey.
In parts of Russia the fat-rumped sheep bears a somewhat
fine fleece, but generally speaking it is coarse, and is adapted
only for the purposes of inferior manufactures.
FAT-TAILED SHEEP.
This race of sheep is more extensively diffused than the
fat-rumped, since it is found throughout Asia, a great part
of Africa, as well as through the north-eastern parts of
Europe.
Dr. Russell, in his history of Aleppo, gives the follow-
ing account of it, as it appears in Syria : — " The dead weight
of one of these sheep will amount to 50 or 60 lbs., of which
the tail makes up 15 or 16 lbs. ; but some of the largest that
have been fattened with care weigh 150 lbs., the tail alone
composing one third of the whole weight. This broad, flat-
fish tail is mostly covered with long wool, and, becoming
very small at the extremity, turns up. It is entirely com-
posed of a substance between marrow and fat, serving very
often in the kitchen instead of butter, and cut into small
pieces, makes an ingredient in various dishes."
Dr. Russell further remarks — " Animals of this extraor-
dinary size (150 lbs.) are, however, very rare, and kept up
FAT-TAILED SHEEP.
53
in yards, so as to be in little danger of hurting their tails
from the bushes. The shepherds in several places in Syria
fix a thin piece of board to the under part, which is not,
like the rest, covered with wool, and to this board are some-
times added small wheels ; whence, with a little exaggera-
tion, we have the story of the Oriental sheep being under
the necessity of carts to carry their tails. But the necessity
of carriages for the tails of the African sheep, mentioned by
Herodotus, Rudolphus, and others, is real. The tail of that
animal when fat actually trails, not being tucked up like
those of the Syrian sheep."
THE FAT-TAILED SHEEP.
A distinguished writer on sheep supposes the broad or
fat-tailed sheep merely a variety of the fat-rumped ; " the
strange collection of adipose matter having only shifted its
situation from the posterior part of the haunch — the very
rump — to the superior part of the tail. This may have been
at first accidental, and perpetuated by accident or design."
5*
54 HISTORY OF SHEEP.
PERSIAX SHEEP.
In Persia the fat-tailed sheep predominate greatly over
the fat-rumped ; and although the chief sources of wealth to a
large class, no efforts are bestowed upon their improvement.
The shepherds still follow the wandering life of their ances-
tors. In Eraser's account of Persia, they are thus described :
" When the pastures are bare, they shift to some other
spot. The march of one of these parties is a striking specta-
cle. The main body is generally preceded by an advanced
guard of stout young men, well armed, as if to clear the
way ; then follow large flocks of all kinds of domestic ani-
mals, covering the country far and wide, and driven by the
lads of the community. The asses, which are numerous,
and the rough, stout yaboos (small horses), are loaded with
goods, tents, clothes, pots and boilers, and every sort of
utensil, bound confusedly together. On the top of some of
the burdens may be seen mounted the elder children, who
act the part of drivers, and the lesser urchins holding on
manfully with feet and hands. A third class of animals
bear the superannuated of the tribe, bent double with age,
and hardly distinguishable from the mass of rags that forms
their seats. The young men and women bustle about, pre-
venting, with the assistance of their huge dogs, the cattle
from straying too far. The mothers, carrying the younger
infants, patiently trudge on foot, watching the progress of
their domestic equipage. The men, with sober, thoughtful
demeanor, armed to the teeth, walk steadily on the flanks
and rear of the grotesque column, guarding and controlling
its slow and regular movement."
Much wool is grovv^n in those districts of Persia, where
the majority of the inhabitants lead a pastoral life ; the most
valuable is found in the province of Kerman. This is a very
moimtainous country, hot and dry in summer, and intensely
cold in winter. The wool of the sheep is fine in quality,
and that which grows at the roots of the hair of the goat is
nearly as fine. The latter is manufactured into various
fabrics, which almost equal the beautiful shawls of Cash-
mere. The fine felt carpets, for which Persia is so cele-
brated, are manufactured from the wool of the sheep, either
in Kerman or Koprasan. Although these districts are re-
motely situated from each other, the wool of the sheep near-
ly corresponds, and " is remarkable for being spirally-curled,
AND CHINESE SHEEP. 55
and of a grey, or mixed black and white color. The sheep
are below the ordinary size, the horns of the ram curved
back and spiral at the tip, the ears pendulous, and the tail
not very broad. The fine furs are from the lambs slaugh-
tered w^ith their dams a few days before yeaning."*
TIBET SHEEP.
The sheep of Tibet, which are very numerous, are chiefly
a small variety of the fat-rumped Persian and Abyssinian,
with black heads and necks. Some are hairy, with short wool
underneath, while others bear a long, soft, and fine wool. It
is from the latter that many of the costly Indian shawls are
made. Not a little of this peculiar wool finds its way to
British India, and is there manufactured. The mutton of
Tibet sheep is said to be peculiarly vv^ell flavored.
EAST INDIA SHEEP.
The sheep which abound in the provinces of British India,
consist for the most part of the fat-rumped and fat-tailed va-
rieties, and therefore no farther notice will be requisite.
CHINESE SHEEP.
In the immense Empire of China, as might naturally be
expected, breeds of sheep are found differing essentially from
each other. One of the most singular is the Long-legged
sheep, distinguished, as their name would imply, for the ex-
traordinary length of the legs. This breed have horns which
are of middle size, and curved ; the forehead is arched, the
neck short, with a collar of hair reaching from the nape of
it to the shoulders ; the head, legs, and mane are of a red-
brown color ; the tail is long, and the wool short and coarse.
The fat-rumped and fat-tailed extensively abound in the
more southern parts of China ; and in certain districts a
small breed is found resembling the form of the European
breeds, which produces a fine and very useful long wool.
The antiquity of Chinese manufactures is proverbial.
An old traveller says, that " when the Dutch presented the
Emperor of China with some scarlet and other cloths
made in Europe, he asked how, and what they were made
of? Being told, he replied that his subjects could make
ihem, and, therefore, there was no need to bring them so
far."
* Fraser's Travels.
HISTORY OF SHEEP.
AFRICAN BREEDS.
EGYPTIAX— ETHIOPIAN— ABYSSINIAN— MADAGASCAR— CAPE OF
GOOD HOPE— ANGOLA— GUINEA— MOROCCO.
EGYPTIAN, ETHIOPIAN, AND ABYSSINIAN SHEEP.
According to Dr. Anderson, the fat-tailed sheep prevail
in Egypt, and both varieties of them are found ; but those
with long tails, nearly or quite reaching to the ground, are
more numerous than the broad-tailed kind. They are of a
large size, mostly with black heads and necks, an external
coat of hair, and their flesh well flavored.
In Nether Ethiopia the sheep begin to be more numer-
ous ; they are large — some of them with tails from 18 to
25 lbs. in weight — with black heads and necks, and the re-
mainder of their bodies white ; others are quite white, with
tails reaching nearly to the ground, and curved at the ex-
tremity.* Here also appear the fat-rumped sheep, with
black heads and necks, but of smaller size than the Persian
breed.
Proceeding farther south, says Bruce, they are taller and
all black ; their heads large, and with ears remarkably short
and small. They also, like all the native sheep within the
tropics, have an external covering of hair. It is in this re-
gion (Abyssinia) that the many-horned sheep is found, many
bearing four, and some writers have asserted that individuals
have been seen with six horns.
MADAGASCAR SHEEP.
The island of Madagascar is situated on the eastern coast
of Africa, and mostly within the tropic of Capricorn.
The sheep have broad tails like those of Africa. Dr.
Anderson states the following : " A Danish East Indiaman
put into Leith roads on her return home. I went on board
to see what curiosities she had, and I there found a sheep,
which was closely covered with a close coat of thick, short
hair, very smooth and sleek, like the coat of a well-dressed
horse, but the hairs rather stiffer, and thicker set on the
skin, and the color a fine nut-brown. This sheep, I was
* Dapper's Africa.
CAPE OF GOOD HOPE AND ANGOLA SHEEP. 57
told, was brought from the island of Madagascar, and that
all the sheep found on the island were of the same sort."
CAPE OF GOOD HOPE SHEEP.
The British colony of the Cape of Good Hope occupies
the extreme verge of Southern Africa, between the 30th and
35th degrees of south latitude.
The native sheep are of the broad-tailed breed. Barrow*
says " they are of every variety of color, black, brown, bay,
but mostly spotted ; their necks are small, their ears long
and pendulous. They are covered with strong frizzled
hair, of which little use is made, except for cushions and
mattrasses."
When the Cape was in possession of the Dutch, an ex-
periment was made with the Merinos, which, from the un-
favorable climate, prejudice and bad management, resulted
in utter failure. After its cession to the English, a more
extensive and fairer trial was made with Merinos, which
was attended with better success. Much good wool is now
sent over to the mother country, which amounted in 1833
to nearly 100,000 lbs. The number of sheep, of all kinds,
in the colony, exceeds two millions.
ANGOLA SHEEP.
Angola is situated on the south-western coast of Africa.
Here is to be found a very singular sheep, which is thus de-
scribed in the " Animal Kingdom." " It is called the Zenu.
Its legs are long and slender, but the arms and shanks are
muscular and strong. There is a slight elevation at the
withers, the chest is narrow and flat, and falling in between
the arms ; the false ribs project, and give to the carcass a
strong resemblance to that of the Zehu. The fat is most
singularly disposed. It is taken from the tail or rump, and
is distributed over three parts of the animal. A small por-
tion of it is spread over the posterior part of the loin and the
commencement of the haunch. A more decided accumula-
tion is found on the poll, and precisely of the semi-fluid
character which the fat assumes in the tail, or the rump of
other Eastern sheep. This mass commences from the base
of the ears, and extends backwards, in the form of a rounded
projection, half way down the neck. Under the jaw, ex-
* Barrow's Southern Africa.
58 HISTORY OF SHEEP.
tending downwards and covering the larynx, is a third col-
lection of soft fatty matter." This is certainly a very curious
variety of sheep, and is found in no other part of the world.
GUINEA SHEEP.
There are two kinds of sheep on the slave coast. One
is small, their forms resembling, in some particulars, the Eu-
ropean sheep. Says a Dutch traveller, — " They have no
wool, but the want is supplied with hair, so that here the
world seems inverted, for the sheep are hairy and the
men are woolly. The hair is like that of the goat, with a
sort of mane like a lion on the neck, and so on the rump,
and a bunch at the end of the tail."
The most numerous breed in Guinea is of a different
character. The male is horned, the horns generally form-
ing a semicircle, with the points forward ; the females are
hornless ; the ears are pendulous, and black spots are distrib-
uted on the sides of the head and neck, as well as body."*
A writer remarks, " The sheep in Guinea have so little re-
semblance, in general, to those in Europe, that a stranger,
unless he heard them bleat, could hardly tell what animals
they were, being covered with white and brown hairs like
a dog."
MOROCCO SHEEP.
Morocco is situated in the northern latitudes of Africa.
Its sheep are far superior to any other breeds of that region,
and the only ones worth cultivating. The form and fleece
were highly appreciated in the days of Columella, as was
proved by his selection of a ram to improve his Spanish
ewes, at the time of his residence near Cadiz. Chancellor
Livingston, in his " Essay on Sheep," says — " I have in my
flock a ewe that is descended from a Barbary ram. Her
fleece is long, straight, and fine." She was tupped by one
of his Merino rams, and the produce from the cross exhibited
a wool equal to seven-eighths Merino !
* Animal Kingdom.
CHAPTER III.
EUROPEAN SHEEP.
ITALIAN— SPANISH, MERINOS, &c.— FRENCH-SWISS.
ITALIAN SHEEP.
When the Roman Empire was at its height of power, the
sheep of Italy surpassed all others in the fineness of their
fleeces. " The best wool, of all others," says Pliny, " is
that of Apulia, which is of a very short staple, and especial-
ly in request for cloaks and mantles."
Ancient authors represent the Italian sheep and wool as
being cultivated with a degree of care, which, if true, out-
strips every thing in modern times. The reason of this is
obvious. The sumptuous Roman was clothed at one period
in woollen fabrics, and ambitious to appear in none other
than the finest, induced the extreme assiduity in perfecting
the material for its manufacture. At length the silk and
cotton fabrics of the East were introduced, which, on being-
found better adapted to the climate, caused the excessive
care of the sheep to relax, which were soon after cultivated
more for the carcass than the fleece. The celebrated breeds
of Apulia and Tarentum ultimately disappeared, and were
succeeded by a larger, coarser, but, under the altered cir-
cumstances, more profitable race.
The remarks of Mr. Youatt concerning the old Tarentine
or Tarentum breed, the admitted probable progenitors of
THE famed Merino, will be read with interest.
" Although the old Tarentine sheep produced a wool un-
equalled in early times, they were not without their defects,
and very serious ones too. They were called by the agri-
culturists of those days pellite, from the skins and other
clothing with which they were covered ; and also molles,
not only from the softness of their fleece, but from the deli-
cacy of their constitution, and the constant care that was re-
60
EUROrEAN SHEEP.
quired to preserve them from injurious vicissitudes of heat
and cold. The care bestowed upon the fleece was a work
of great labor. It was frequently uncovered, not only to as-
certain its condition, but for the refreshment of the animal ;
it was drawn out, and parted and combed, if it was begin-
ning to mat ; it was frequently moistened with the finest
oil, and even with wine ; it was well washed three or four
times in the year ; the sheep-houses were daily, and almost
hourly, washed, and cleaned, and fumigated."
._.. -'^V^s
■^^^^M^r'M
SPANISH SHEEP, MERINOS, ETC.
The history of the Spanish Merino sheep, the spread of
which in different countries has effected so complete a rev-
olution in the character of the fleece, cannot but be a mat-
ter of much interest to the American wool-grower ; therefore
the compiler has no apology to render for the extended no-
tice of this renowned breed, which is here presented.
At a very early period, it appears from the accounts of
several writers, Spain was possessed of several breeds, the
SPANISH SHEEP, MERINOS, ETC. 61
fleeces of which varied in color and quality. One of these
was black, and noted for its fine texture ; but the " red
fleece," as it was called, of Boetica, Granada, and Andalusia,
was superior in fineness to all others. The breed which bore
the latter, it is now generally believed, were originally from
Italy, and of the Tarentine variety, already described. They
were crossed with the more inferior kinds, while others of the
race were kept distinct; and from the congeniaUty of the
climate and herbage, retained their original superiority of
fleece.*
In the reign of the Emperor Claudius (A. D. 41), Colu-
mella, a distinguished lover of agriculture, introduced many
of the Tarentine breed into Spain, of which he was then a
resident; and also improved the inferior breeds, by convey-
ing into the colony some African rams of singular beauty,
which had been exhibited at Rome, and which will account
for the probable origin of the Chunah breed, to be presently
noticed.
Although the Tarentine sheep undoubtedly laid the foun-
dation of the excellence of the Merino race, yet the breed
betray an amalgamation to have taken place to some extent
with the black sheep, referred to, as individuals occasionally,
at the present day, have a dun-colored ear, and also spots of
that hue on one or more of the legs.
In the eighth century the Saracens or Moors conquered a
portion of Spain, and which, in the language of a writer,
" they found fruitful in corn and pleasant fruit, and glutted
with herds and flocks." This warlike and enterprising race
were distinguished for their luxurious customs, and a fine
and expensive wardrobe was regarded an object of essen-
tial importance. Hence, in the 13th century, Spain became
renowned for her woollen manufactures, then scarcely known
in the rest of Europe, and Seville alone contained no less
than 16,000 looms. The manufacture therefore of the finest
fabrics was the source of much national wealth, as large
quantities were exported to every part of Europe, as well as
Africa.
But after the expulsion of the Moors, manufactures be-
came almost extinct. Nearly a million of these enterprising
* The evidence of the foreign origin of the Merino is implied in the
name, of which " the Spanish orthography is Mareno, which signifies
from or beyond sea." — William Jarvis.
6
62 EUROPEAN SHEEP.
artisans were driven from the kingdom during the reigns of
Ferdinand Y. and Philip III. ; and the consequence was
that " the 1G,000 looms of Seville dwindled down to 60,
and the woollen manufacture almost ceased to have exist-
ence throughout Spain."*
The Spanish government saw too late its fatal error, as
the many fruitless attempts to restore the manufacture of the
beautiful fabrics of the Moors have fully proved. But during
all this while, however, the Merino, notwithstanding its
neglect, continued to produce its invaluable fleece, which,
instead of meeting with adequate skill at home for its man-
ufacture, was sent abroad to be worked by other more inge-
nious and industrious nations. "The perpetuation of the
JNIerino sheep in all its purity, amidst the convulsions which
changed the whole political existence of Spain, and destroyed
every other national improvement, is a fact which the philos-
opher may not be able fully to explain ; but which he will
contemplate with deep interest. In the mind of the agricul-
turist, it will beautifully illustrate the primary determining
power of blood or breeding, and also the agency of soil and
climate, a little too much underrated, perhaps, in modern
times."
Independent of the Merinos, there is another race, in
Spain, called Chunahs, which are larger and heavier than
the Merinos, and carry a fleece the staple of which is from
five to eight inches long, and coarse. This breed extends
throughout all Spain, and is the favorite of the peasant and
small proprietor. The Chunahs are supposed to have been
much improved by the English Cotswold breed, of which
there exists a record of the 15th century of a number having
been exported to Spain with a view to lengthen the staple
of the coarser and more inferior breeds of that country. The
sheep under consideration are stationary, or never move
from their homes for pasture ; and hence compose, in part,
one of the grand divisions of Spanish sheep denominated
Estantcs or stationary.
The Merinos are of two classes, one of which, like the
Chunahs, are of the Estantes or stationary character, which,
as the name implies, are never moved beyond the districts
in which they are owned, for pasture ; the other class or
* Wansey.
SPANISH SHEEP, MERINOS, ETC. 63
division is termed ti'anshumantes* or migratory, which are
annually driven to the north of the kingdom for pasturage
during the summer months.
The latter are composed of the Leonese, and the Soriaiis.
The former pass the winter on the north bank of the Gaudi-
ana, in Estremadura, and begin their march about the 15th
of April, in divisions of from two to three thousands. They
pass the Tagus at Almares, and direct their course towards
Trecasas, Alfaro, and L'Epinar, where they are shorn.
This operation having been performed, they recommence
their travel towards the kingdom of Leon. Some halt on
the Sierra (ridge of mountains) which separates Old from
New Castile, but others pursue their route to the pastures
of Cevera, near Aquilar del Campo. Here they graze until
the latter part of September, or early in the following
month, when they commence their return to Estremadura.
The Sorian sheep having passed the winter on the con-
fines of Estremadura, Andalusia, and New Castile, begin
their route about the same time. They pass the Tagus at
Talavera, and approach Madrid ; thence they proceed to So-
ria, where a portion of them are distributed over the neigh-
boring mountains, while the others cross the Ebro in order
to proceed to Navarre and the Pyrenees.
These periodical journeys are made necessary by the
severity of the drouth in Spanish Estremadura, from the
close of April till near the 1st of October, which parches
the plains to such a degree as to destroy almost entirely the
growth of the pasture. The rains commence falling about
the autumnal equinox, and continue, with intermissions of a
few days only, until the latter part of March. In a few
weeks from their beginning the plains assume a beautiful
verdure, and so continue till the approach of the dry season ;
and during this time the thermometer rarely falls below 40
deg.f The rains are of frequent occurrence in the summer
season on the sierras or mountains ; and thus these numer-
ous migratory flocks are supported the entire year on grass,
which the Spaniard at one time supposed was the cause of
some of the valuable properties of the Merino fleece. The
fallacy, however, of this has been fully proved.
* From trans and humus, expressive of their change of climate and
pasture.
t William Jarvls.
64 EUROPEAN SHEEP.
" The greater part of these travelling sheep, says Chan-
cellor Livingston, in process of time got into the hands of
the king, or into those of the principal courtiers and clergy ;
and from thence we must probably date the oppressive code
by which their march is regulated, and the origin of tha
great Council of the Royal Troop (Consejo de la Mesta) by
whom those laws are administered." This tyrannical tribu-
nal was established as early as the 14th century. It estab-
lished a right to graze on all open and common land that
lay in the way ; it claimed also a path ninety yards wide
through all the enclosed and cultivated country ; and it pro-
hibited all persons, even foot passengers, from travelling on
these roads while the sheep were in motion !
The following interesting narrative of incidents connected
with the annual peregrinations of these sheep is from Mr.
Youatt's work, by whom it was compiled chiefly from the
writings of M. Lasteyrie.
" They are divided into flocks, each of which is placed
under the care of a mayoral, or chief shepherd, who has a
sufficient number of others under his command, with their
dogs. He uniformly precedes the flock, and directs the
length and speed of the journey ; the others with the dogs
follow, and flank the cavalcade, collect the stragglers, and
keep off the wolves, who regularly follow at a distance and
migrate with the flock. A few asses or mules accompany
the procession, in order to carry the little clothing and other
necessaries of the shepherds, and the materials for the fold
at night. Several of the sheep, principally wethers, are
perfectly tamed, and taught to obey the signals of the shep-
herds. These follow the leading shepherd, having been
accustomed to be fed from his hand ; they lead the flock —
there is no driving — and the rest quietly follow.
" When passing through the enclosures, they sometimes
travel eighteen or twenty miles a day ; but when they reach
an open country, with good pasture, they proceed more
leisurely. Their whole journey is usually more than four
hundred miles, which they usually accomplish in six weeks,
and thus spend, in going and returning, nearly one quarter
of the year in this injurious manner.
" It may be readily supposed that much damage is done,
carelessly, or unintentionally, or wilfully, to the country over
which these immense flocks are passing ; and particularly
as the migrations take place at the times of the year when
65
the property of the agriculturist is most liable to injury. In
addition to this, the servants of the Mesta, like the servants
of Government elsewhere, have little common feeling with
the inhabitants of the country which they are traversing ;
they commit much serious and wanton injury, and they re-
fuse all redress.
" The shepherds and the sheep equally know when the
procession has arrived at the point of its destination. It is
necessary to exert great vigilance over the flock during the
last three or four days, for the animals are eager to start
away, and often great numbers of them make their escape.
If they are not destroyed by the wolves, there is no great
danger of losing them ; for they are found on their old pas-
ture, quietly waiting the arrival of their companions, and it
would be difficult to make any of them proceed a great way
beyond this spot. The shepherds are immediately employed
in constructing pens for the protection of the sheep during
the night, and which are composed of ropes made by twist-
ing certain rushes together, which grow plentifully there,
and attaching them to stakes driven into the ground. They
next build, with the branches of trees roughly hewn, rude
huts for themselves.
" When the sheep arrive at their summer pasture, which at
first is very luxuriant, the mayoral endeavors to guard against
the possible ill eflects of the change from the uncertain and
scanty pasturage found on the journey, by giving the flocks
a considerable quantity of salt. He places a great many flat
stones five or six feet from each other, and strews salt upon
them, Avhich is eagerly devoured. This is repeated on sev-
eral successive days ; and a case of general inflammation, or
hoove, seldom occurs.
" During the summer pasturage the labor is light of the
shepherd. The ewes are put to the rams early in August.
After their return at the close of autumn, and when yean-
ing time approaches, the barren ewes are separated from the
others and placed on the poorest pasture. The Merinos are
not good nurses, and nearly half of the lambs — or in bad
seasons, and when the pasture fails, full three-fourths — are
destroyed as soon as they are yeaned. The males are al-
ways sacrificed first; the others are usually suckled by two
ewes — for it is a common opinion in Spain that the mother
that fully suckles her lamb would yield less wool ; they are
afterwards placed on the best pasture, in order that they
6*
66 EUROPEAN SHEEP.
may acquire sufficient strength for their approaching journey.
The skins of the slaughtered lambs are sent into Portugal,
and thence find their way to England, where they are used
for the manufacture of gloves. The wool is soft and silky,
and is formed into little rings or curls.
" Few of the male lambs are castrated, because it is be-
lieved that the weight of the fleece is much increased on the
ram, without acquiring proportional coarseness. The shep-
herd, however, early in March, has four operations to per-
form on the lambs : he cuts off their tails five inches below
the rump, for the sake of cleanliness : he marks them on the
nose with a hot iron : he cuts off the tips of their horns that
they may not hurt each other in their frolicks, and he cas-
trates those which, from their superior strength, and superior
size, he has selected to become bell-wethers, and lead the
flock in their peregrinations.
" It is supposed that forty or fifty thousand men are em-
ployed in these peregrinations of the sheep. They are a
singular race of men, enthusiastically attached to their pro-
fession, rarely quitting it, even for a more lucrative one, and
rarely marrying. The number of dogs kept for the purpose
of guarding the sheep exceeds thirty thousand.
" The shearing does not delay the flock more than a day.
Buildings are erected at various places in the early portion
of their journey ; they are very simply constructed, and con-
sist only of two large rooms, each of which will contain
more than a thousand sheep : there is also a narrow, low,
long hut adjoining, termed the sweating house. The sheep
are all driven into one of these apartments, and in the even-
ing those intended to be shorn on the following day are
transferred into the low, long hut. As many are forced into
it as it will possibly hold, and there they are left during the
night. As some are liberated in the morning, the others
are urged towards the end of the hut, while more from the
apartment occupy their situation. In consequence of this
close confinement they are thrown into a state of great per-
spiration ; the yolk, which formed a somewhat hard crust on
the fleece, is melted, and thus the whole is rendered softer,
and is more easily cut. There is no previous washing, nor
any other preparation for the shearing. From 150 to 200
shearers are generally collected, and a flock of a thousand
sheep is disposed of in a day, although five rams or eight
ewes are reckoned a good day's work for a Spanish shearer !
SPANISH SHEEr, MERIXOS, ETC. 67
The sheep are turned back as they are shorn into the second
apartment, and on the following day continue their journey:
thus in the space of six days, as many flocks, each consist-
ing of a thousand sheep, pass through the esquilo (shearing
hut), and leave their fleeces behind them. The wool is
then cleansed with water and soap and sorted in the esquilo,
and is ready for sale."
A writer in the Encyclopedia Londonensis states the fol-
lowing : " The management of the Spanish flocks is pecu-
liarly Roman, and shows the Italian origin of these sheep.
The Merino mayoral corresponds exactly with the magister
jjecoris of Varro and Columella. The pra'^tice of destroy-
ing half the sheep at their birth, and of suckling each of the
survivors on two ewes ; of sweating the sheep before they
were shorn, in order to increase the softness of the fleece,
and of conducting them from their high winter to their sum-
mer stations, by long journeys through public sheep walks,
have been derived from Roman institutions."
Mr. Youatt condensed Arthur Young's account of the
Catalonian or Pyrenean breed, as here presented : —
" The journeys of these sheep are smaller, and performed
in a diff'erent manner. On the northern side of the Spanish
portion of the Pyrenees are two mountains, the sides of which
are covered with short, but plentiful herbage, and from one
to the other of which the sheep are continually travelling
during the summer. In the winter they are sent into the
lower part of Catalonia, a journey of twelve or thirteen days,
and when the snow begins to melt in the spring they are
conducted back again to the mountains ; thus they are kept
the whole year in motion : they are never housed or under
cover, and never taste of any food but what they find for
themselves.
" Mr. Young had the opportunity of examining a flock of
these Catalonian sheep, consisting of about 2000. They
were generally polled, but a few, both of the rams and ewes,
had horns. The legs were white or reddish — the faces,
some white, some red, and some speckled, and some with a
tuft of wool on their faces : the carcase was round, the back
straight : they were in good condition : would weigh, when
fat, from 15 to 18 pounds per quarter, and resembled, on the
whole, the South Down breeds.
" Mr. Young wished to examine them more closely, and in-
timated this to the shepherd, who immediately walked into
63 EUROrEAN SHEEP.
the flock, and singled out a ram, and bid it to follow him,
holding out his hand as if to give him something. The ani-
mal immediately came with the shepherd, and submitted it-
self to Mr. Young's inspection. He found that mellowness
of the skin which is the surest proof of a good fleece, and
of a good breed. The wool was beautifully soft and fine,
and weighed, as he imagined, about eight pounds : the
average weight of the fleece before washing was usually
about four or five pounds. Four shepherds, provided with
fire-arms, and four or five large Spanish dogs, had the care
of the flock. The sheep were collected together every
night on a particular spot, — the shepherd slept in a little hut
close by, and the dogs gave certain notice of the approach
of danger. During the day the head shepherd sat on the
mountain top, or on an elevated spot, whence he could see
everything around him, while the flock browsed on the de-
clivities."
The Estantes or stationary Merinos amounted at one time
to two millions, and the transhumantes to ten millions ; but
it is difficult to estimate correctly the number of each at the
present time. The Chunali breed. Chancellor Livingston
states in his essay, numbered about six millions.
The Leonesa, which compose a very large proportion of
the travelling sheep, are superior in fleece to all others in
the kingdom, and which will ahvays sell for considerably
more per pound than that of any other Spanish sheep. But
on the other hand, says Mr. Youatt, on the authority of
Burgoyne, " there are stationary flocks both in Leon and
Estremadura, which produce wool as good as that of the
transhumantes." It will appear, therefore, that these migra-
tions are not the exclusive cause of the superior fleeces of
the transhumantes, as the Spaniards are wont to suppose.
For reasons not necessary for the compiler to assign, he
quotes from Mr. Youatt the following accurate description
of the prominent characteristics of the true Spanish Merinos,
in which, it will be seen, he justly extols their excellencies,
and notes impartially their defects, which, however, are tri-
fling compared with the returns which their invaluable fleeces
afford.
" The first impression made by the Merino sheep on one
unacquainted with its value would be unfavorable. The
wool lying closer and thicker over the body than in most
other breeds of sheep, and being abundant in yolk, is covered
SPANISH SHEEP, MERINOS, ETC. 60
with a dirty crust, often full of crocks. The legs are rather
long, yet small in the bone ; the breast and the back are
narrow, and the sides somewhat flat ; the shoulders and
bosoms are heavy, and too much of their weight is carried
on the coarser parts. The horns of the male are compara-
tively large, curved, and with more or less of the spiral form ;
the head is large, but the forehead rather low. A few of
the females are horned, but generally speaking they are
without horns. Both male and female have a peculiar
coarse and unsightly growth of hair on the forehead and
cheeks, which the careful sheep-master cuts away before
the shearing time : the other part of the face has a pleasing
and characteristic velvet appearance. Under the throat
there is a singular looseness of skin, which gives them a
remarkable appearance of throatiness, or hollowness in the
neck.* The pile, when pressed upon, is hard and unyield-
ing ; it is so from the thickness with which it grows on the
pelt, and the abundance of yolk, detaining all the dirt and
gravel which falls upon it ; but when examined, the fibre
exceeds in fineness, and in the number of serrations and
curves, that which any other sheep in the world produces.
The average weight of the fleece (unwashed) in Spain is
eight pounds from the ram, and five from the ewe. The
staple differs in length in different provinces. When fatted,
these sheep will weigh from 12 to 16 pounds per quarter.
" The excellency of the Merinos consists in the unexampled
fineness and felting property of their wool, and in the weight
of it yielded by each individual sheep : the closeness of that
wool, and the luxuriance of the yolk, which enables them
to support extremes of cold and wet as well as any other
breed ; the easiness with which they adapt themselves to
every change of climate, and yet thrive and retain, with
common care, their fineness of wool : an appetite which
renders them apparently satisfied with the coarsest food ;
a quietness and patience into whatever pasture they are
turned, and a gentleness and tractableness not excelled by
any other breed.
* Lord Somerville has some obsen^ations on this point : — " The second
property to be noted in this sheep is a tendency to throatiness, a pen-
dulous skin under the tliroat, wliich is generally deemed a bad property
in this countr)', and the very reverse in 8pain, where it is much esteemed,
because it is supposed to denote a tendency both to wool and a heavy
fleece." — Somerville on Sheejj.
70 EUROPEAN SHEEP.
" Their defects, partly attributable to the breed, but more
to the improper mode of treatment to which they are
occasionally subjected, are, their unthrifty and unprofitable
form ; a voraciousness of appetite* which yields no adequate
return of condition ; a tendency to abortion and to barren-
ness ; a difficulty in yeaning ; a paucity of milk, and a too
frequent neglect of their young.f They are likewise said,
notwithstanding the fineness of their wool and the beautiful
red color of the skin when the fleece is parted, to be more
subject to cutaneous affections than most other breeds.
Man, however, has more to do with this than Nature."
HISTORY OF THE INTRODUCTION OF MERINOS INTO THE
UNITED STATES.
The first individual of the breed introduced into this coun-
try, was by Mr. Delessert, a French banker. He purchased
two pairs, in 1801, selected from the celebrated Rambouillet
flock, near Paris, which were shipped early of the same
year to the United States, but three of them perished on the
passage, and the survivor, a ram, was placed on his farm
near Kingston, New York.
It had become a matter of history, that the next importation
of Merinos was by Gen. David Humphreys, of Connecticut;
but very recently a competitor for that honor has appeared.
It is now of little moment, further than as a chronological
fact, although the individual in question, Mr. Seth Adams,
of Zanesville, Ohio, is worthy of praise as one of the pio-
neers to improve the fleece of his native country. Mr.
Adams' statement! was addressed to the editor of the Alba-
* This is unmerited, because it is not true. A fat sheep is the glory
of an Englishman, and in forming an estimate of the Merino, he is apt to
lose sight of a great physiological point, namely, no sheep can be the
bearer both of a superior fine fleece and much fat, because the assimila-
tion of food cannot act for both objects in an equal degree. We must bo
content with one great excellence, and not expect more from one animal.
— Compiler.
t Not so, after arriving at maturity, and properly provided for. — Com-
piler.
t " I imported in the brig Reward, Capt. Hooper, which left Diepe in
August, 1801, and arrived in Boston in October following, a Merino ram
and ewe. These, I believe, were the first pair of Merinos imported to the
United States. The Agricultural Society of Massachusetts having of-
fered a premium of .S^O for the importation of a pair of sheep of supe-
rior breed, General D. Humphreys imported a flock of Merinos, and sent
some of them to Massachusetts, and lie, or some one for him, applied to
INTRODUCTION OF MERINOS INTO THE UNITED STATES. 71
ny Cultivator (which is appended to the present page), in
which the priority of his importation to Gen. Humphreys' is
clearly shown, and a reference to the archives of the Mas-
sachusetts Agricultural Society will confirm it.
For particulars relative to further importations of the
Merinos, the compiler is indebted to the Hon. William
Jarvis, of Vermont, whose name, with that of David
Humphreys, will ever be associated, in the minds of Ameri-
cans, with the Merino, and cherished with gratitude as the
great founders of wool improvement in the United States.
The account was originally addressed to L. D. Gregory, of
Vermont, and which is invaluable from its authenticity, and
graphic details ; and the compiler thus publicly expresses
his grateful obligations to Mr. Jarvis for his kind permission
to insert it in the present work, and its readers will doubtless
feel likewise.
After many interesting details concerning the manage-
ment of Merino sheep in Spain, Mr. Jarvis proceeds thus :
" I shall now call your attention to the first introduction
of them into the United States. Soon after the accession of
Mr. Jefferson to the Presidency, Chancellor Livingston was
appointed Minister to France, and in 1802, he obtained from
that government three or four Merinos of the Rambouillet
flock, which he sent to New York and put on one of his
farms. This flock was obtained by the King of France
from the King of Spain, and were undoubtedly pure-blooded
sheep. A little before Gen. Humphreys left Spain,* he was
enabled to get two hundred sheep from Spain into Portugal,
and they were sent to Figueira, at the mouth of the Monde-
go, and thence shipped to the United States. From what
flock he obtained them, I never could learn, though I in-
quired a number of times ; but as Spanish Estremadura and
Leon border on Portugal, from 38 deg. of latitude to the
northern boundary of Portugal, and as no other than the
the society for the premium. Knowing from report, that his sheep did
not arrive before the spring season after mine, I applied at the same time
for the premium, and after having examined the sheep and wool, and
comparing with those of General H., the society awarded to me the pre-
mium, and awarded to General H. a gold medal for having imported a
larger number. My sheep were from the flock imported by Bonaparte,
and distributed through France to improve the flocks of that kingdom."
* For further particulars concerning General Humplireys' importation,
see Mr. Jarvis' letter in Appendix.
72 EUROPEAN SHEEP.
Leonesa Tranbliumantes are found in that part of Spain,
there can be but httle doubt that they belonged to that race.
"I attempted in 1806, also in 1807, to obtain some from
the most celebrated flocks, but the laws were so strict against
their exportation without royal license, that I failed of suc-
cess. After the French invasion in 1808, the law became
more relaxed, and in 1809, by special favor, I obtained two
hundred Escurials. At the second invasion of the French
under Joseph Bonaparte, the rapidity of the march of the
French troops hurried the Supreme Junta from Madrid, and
they retired to Badajos. Being without money, and being
afraid of disgusting the Estremadurans, by levying a tax
upon them, they were compelled to sell four of the first
flocks in Spain, which had been confiscated in consequence
of the proprietors joining the French. These were the
Paular, previously owned by the Prince of Peace ; the Ne-
gretti, previously owned by the Conde Del Campo de Alange ;
the Aqueirres, which had been owned by the Conde of the
same name, and the Montarco, owned by the Conde de Mon-
tarco, and were such sheep as could not have been got out
of Spain, had it not been for the invasion of the French and
the distracted state of the country growing out of that inva-
sion. When the Junta sold, it was upon the express con-
dition of their granting licenses to carry them out of the
kingdom. Four thousand of the Paular flock were sent to
England for the king ; and Col. Downie, a Scotch officer in
the British service, but who then held the rank of General
in the Spanish service, and I, purchased the remainder of
the flock, between three and four thousand more ; and of
this purchase, I took fourteen hundred, and he sent the rest
to Scotland with the exception of two or three hundred,
which he sold to come to this country. Sir Charles Stew-
art purchased the Negretti flock and sent them to England,
with the exception of about a hundred I got out of his flock
after they reached Lisbon.
" I purchased about seventeen hundred of the Aqueirres
flock of the Junta, and the remainder was sold and sent to
England. The Montarco flock was bought by a Spaniard and
a Portuguese, and about two thousand seven hundred were
shipped to this country. I shipped to the United States
the fourteen hundred Paulars, one thousand seven hundred
Aqueirres, two hundred Escurial, one hundred Negrettis, and
about two hundred Montarcos. Of this number, about one
INTRODUCTION OF MERINOS INTO THE UNITED STATES. 73
hundred were sent to Wiscasset and Portland, one thousand
one hundred to Boston and Newburyport, one thousand five
hundred to New York, three hundred and fifty to Philadel-
phia, two hundred and fifty to Baltimore, one hundred to
Alexandria, and two hundred to Norfolk and Richmond.
Besides those which I shipped to the United States on my
own account, there were about three hundred Gaudaloupes
purchased by others, and two to three hundred of the Paular
flock sold by Gen. Downie, shipped to Boston ; and of the
Montarco flock, shipped by others, about two thousand five
hundred were sent to Boston, Providence, New York, Phila-
delphia, Baltimore, and Savannah. The Gaudaloupes, Pau-
lars, and Montarcos, which were shipped to Boston by others,
were for the account of Gorham Parsons, Esq., Gen. Sum-
ner, D. Tichenor, and E. H. Derby, Esq. All these sheep
were shipped in the latter part of 1809, during 1810, and the
early part of 1811, and were the only Leonesa Transhumantes,
if we include Gen. Humphreys' and Chancellor Livingston's,
(which I have no doubt were of the same stock) that were
ever shipped to the United States. Badajos is but little over
one hundred miles from Lisbon, and all the sheep purchased
there and in that vicinity, were shipped from Lisbon. I was
then Consul there, and from my office was actually acquaint-
ed with all the shipments, as certificates of property from
me always accompanied them.
"I shall now, in compliance with your wishes, give you a
description of the sheep of the different flocks sent to this
country. The Paulars were undoubtedly one of the hand-
somest flocks in Spain. They were of middling height,
round-bodied, well spread, straight on the back, the neck of
the bucks rising in a moderate curve from the withers to the
setting on of the head, their head handsome, with aquiline
curve of the nose, with short, fine, glossy hair on the face,
and generally hair on the legs, the skin pretty smooth, that
is, not rolling up or doubling about the neck and body, as in
some other flocks, the crimp in the wool was not so short
as in many other flocks, the wool was somewhat longer, but
it was close and compact, and was soft and silky to the
touch, and the surface was not so much covered with gum.
This flock was originally owned by the Carthusian friars of
Paular, who were the best agriculturists in Spain, and was
sold by that order to the Prince of Peace when he came
into power. The Negretti flock were the tallest Merinos in
7
74 EUROPEAN SHEEP.
Spain, but were not handsomely formed, being rather flat-
sided, roach back, and the neck inclining to sink down from
the withers ; the wool was somewhat shorter that the Pau-
lar and more crimped, the skin was more loose and inclined
to double, and many of them were wooled on their faces and
legs down to their hoofs. All the loose-skinned sheep had
large dewlaps. The Aqueirres were short-legged, round,
broad-bodied, with loose skins, and were more wooled about
their faces and legs than any other flock I ever saw, the
wool was more crimped than the Paular, and less than the
Negretti, but was thick and soft. This flock formerly be-
longed to the Moors of Spain, and at their expulsion, was
bought by the family of Aqueirres. The wool in England
was known as the Muros flock, and was highly esteemed.
All the bucks of these three flocks had large horns. The
Escurials were about as tall as the Paulars, but not quite so
round and broad, being in general rather more slight in their
make ; their wool was crimped, but not quite so thick as
the Paular or Negretti, nor were their skins so loose as the
Negretti and Aqueirres, nor had they so much wool on the
face and legs. The Montarco bore a considerable resem-
blance to the Escurials. The Escurial flock had formerly
belonged to the crown, but when Philip the II. built the Es-
curial palace, he gave them to the friars, whom he placed in
a convent that was attached to the palace, as a source of
revenue. These four flocks were moderately gummed.
The Gaudaloupe flock was rather larger in the bone than
the two preceding, about the same height, but not quite so
handsomely formed, their wool was thick and crimped, their
skins loose and doubling, their faces and legs not materially
diflerent from the two latter flocks, but in general they were
more gummed than either of the other flocks. In point of fine-
ness there was very little diff'erence between these six flocks,
and as I have been told by well-informed persons, there is
very little diflerence in this respect among the Leonesa
Transhumantes in general. The Escurials, the Montarcos,
and the Gaudaloupes were not in general so heavy horned
as the other three flocks, and about one in six of the bucks
were without horns, or what is commonly called a polled
buck.
" I had selected by the Paular shepherds, who came with
that flock, three hundred sheep which I shipped to Newbu-
ryport. The half of these were Paulars, a fourth Aqueirres
INTRODUCTION OF MERINOS INTO THE UNITED STATES. (O
an eighth Escurials, and the other eighth Montarcos and Ne-
grettis. These I put on the farm in Weathersfield, Vt., that
I bought after my return to the United States, and also drove
up about a hundred, the remainder of those I had shipped to
Boston. In compliance with the invariable practice in Spain,
I bred the respective flocks separately, or what in farmer's
language is called in and in ; the custom in Spain having
existed from time immemorial, of breeding the bucks and
ewes of the same cabanna or flock together, or in and in ;
but in about 1816 or 1817, I mixed the different flocks to-
gether, and have so bred my Merinos ever since."
An importation of Rambouillet Merinos was made by an
enterprising citizen of Connecticut several years since,
which is properly noticed under the head of French Sheep.
The average weight of the Spanish Merino fleece has al-
ready been given ; that of the American Merino may be
safely, under good management, stated at 31 lbs. ; small
flocks, however, which are apt to receive better attentions
than large, will yield about 4 lbs. ; but recently, instances
have been recorded, where the flocks have been unusually
well selected, and fed, an average of 4|- to 5 lbs. has been
obtained. High feeding has much to do in increasing the
weight of the fleece, as will appear hereafter.
An enterprising feeling is abroad over large portions of
our country for wool improvement, and public attention has
latterly been directed to the Merinos to forward this im-
portant branch of agriculture. This is right. There exists
no hardier breed than the Merinos ; and for the small flock
proprietor, whose locality is cold and exposed, they are
especially well adapted. To the Merinos we must look for
the greatest general improvement of the fleece throughout
our widely-extended country.
FRENCH SHEEP.
With the exception of the celebrated Rambouillet Merino
flock, near Paris, there is little to interest the American
wool-grower relative to the sheep and sheep husbandry of
France.
The breeds are varied as the face of the country, and none,
except towards the more southern parts of the kingdom, that
yield a fleece possessing much intrinsic excellence either
for the purposes of combing or cloth. This appears some-
what singular, considering the aptitude of the French nation
76 EUROPEAN SHEEP,
for the art of manufacture, the general excellence of the
agriculture of the country, the adaptation of the climate for
perfecting the several properties of wool, and the super-
abundance and variety of the herbage. The conclusion is
natural, from the proximity to Spain, that France would
have availed herself of the superiority of the Merino wool,
and long since have become second to no country in the ex-
tent of its culture. The prize, however, which she could
so easily have possessed, through culpable neglect, has
passed to Germany and Austria, and now to these countries
is she indebted, like England, for the finest wool employed
in her manufactures. Justice, however, requires the state-
ment, that, before her bloody and exterminating Revolution,
measures were in progress to ameliorate the character of
the native sheep, by the introduction of the Merino as rapidly
as the government of Spain would sanction their exportation ;
but that terrible event overthrew this contemplated good to
the agriculture of the nation. The first, and only marked
successful effort, was the flock of Merinos, known since as
the Rambouillet's, which will presently be referred to.
As has already been remarked, the most valuable wooled
sheep are found in the southern parts of the kingdom ; and
none probably surpass, form and fleece combined, those of
Aries, which embraces the Districts of Crau, Camarque, and
Le Plain du Bourg. About 250,000 are kept in these dis-
tricts. All these sheep are migratory, being driven from the
plains of Aries in the spring of the year towards the Alps
which divide Provence and Dauphine from Italy, and are
driven back in November. These migrations have continued
from time immemorial ; and laws have been enacted limiting
the road for their passage to 36 feet in breadth. The flocks
vary in number from 10 to 40,000 ; and to every 1000 sheep
three shepherds are allowed, each of whom has his dog.
The sheep are led by goats which are trained for the pur-
pose, and have bells around their necks. The discipline
in which these animals are kept, and the intelligence which
they display, is very great. They halt or proceed at the
direction of the shepherd ; they come to the centre at the
close of each day's march, and there wait in the morning
for the proper order, when they repair to their station at the
head of the troop with the greatest regularity. If they come
to a stream they halt until the word of command is given ;
and then they plunge immediately into the water, and are
FRENCH SHEEP. 77
followed by the rest of the flock. The journey usually lasts
from twenty to thirty days. When they arrive at the moun-
tains each shepherd has his appointed boundary marked out ;
and the proprietors of the land are usually paid about twenty
sous per sheep for their pasture during the summer. The
shepherds sleep with their flock in the open air, and live
almost entirely on bread and goats' milk.*
The question of the influence of these peregrinations on
the fleece has been already considered under the head of
Spanish Sheep.
M. Daubenton having experimented a suflicient length of
time to test the eflfect of change of climate and habits of the
Merino, which resulted in their retaining every valuable
quality for which they are so celebrated, the French govern-
ment resolved in 1786 to make a trial, under its immediate
patronage, on a larger scale than any previously made.
" Accordingly 376 ewes and lambs were purchased in Spain,
and sent to Rambouillet, in the neighborhood of Paris,
where was an agricultural establishment expressly devoted
to the improvement of the domesticated animals. Sixty of
them died on their passage.
" The Rambouillet flock gradually increased, and a few were
given to those agriculturists who appeared, to be disposed to
bestow sufl^icient care on their cultivation. This was an ill-
advised measure. That which could be had as a gift was
deemed to possess little value ; and the new breed had not
justice done to it. It was then determined that an annual
sale of a portion of the flock should take place. The first
sale was made in 1796, ten years after their establishment at
Rambouillet. The average weight of the fleece in the yolk
was then 6 lbs. 9 oz. ; the average price of the fleece 5
francs! — the average price of the sheep, 107 francs for a
ram, and 71 francs for a ewe, and the highest price at
which a single sheep sold was 200 francs. Five years
afterwards the flock had so much improved in public estima-
tion, and in real value, that the average weight of the fleece
was 9 lbs. — its price 28 francs ; the average price of the
ram 412 francs, that of the ewes 236 francs, and the high-
est price of any of the sheep 630 francs.f
" The most rigorous examination was instituted ; and the
* Annales de I'Agric. France,
t A franc is about one fifth of a dollar.
7*
78 EUROPEAN SIIEEP.
superfine wools obtained in France from the pure breed,
were worked into cloths in every respect as good as those
from the rcfina or jyrima wool of the best breeds in Spain.
The wool produced from the mixed breed, after the fourth or
fifth cross, when made into cloth, was equal to that manu-
factured from superfine wool.
" In order to perfect the undertaking, a publication on the
treatment of sheep was drawn up by M. Gilbert, under the
patronage of government ; a practical school for shepherds
was instituted at Rambouillet, and two other depots for
Merino sheep were established, one at Pompadour, and
another at Perpignan, at the foot of the Pyrenees.
" These statements would seem to be highly encourag-
ing; but so systematically had the sheep been neglected in
France, and so inveterate were the prejudices of agriculturists
generally, that when an account was taken of the number of
sheep in France, in 1811, 25 years after the establishment
of the flock at Rambouillet, there were thirty millions of
the native breeds, and only two hundred thousand pure
Merinos.
"At the sale of Merinos at Rambouillet in 1834, the
average price of the ram was 328 francs, and the greatest
sum given for the best 510 francs. The average price of
the ewe had sunk to 108 francs, and the highest price of the
best was only 210 francs."*
Mr. Trimmer, an English writer, has stated the following
concerning the Rambouillet flock, which he visited in 1827 :
" The sheep in size are certainly the largest pure Merinos
T have ever seen. The wool is of various qualities, many
sheep carrying very fine fleeces, others middling, and some
rather indiff'erent ; but the whole is much improved from the
quality of the original Spanish Merinos. * * * * Individ-
uals are found in this flock with dewlaps down to the knees,
and folds of skin on the neck, like frills, covering nearly
the head. Several of these animals seem to possess pelts of
such looseness and size, that one skin would nearly hold the
carcases of two such sheep. The rams' fleeces were stated
at 14, and the ewes' 10 lbs. in the grease. By thorough
cleansing they would be reduced half, thus giving 7 and 5
lbs. each."
From the fact that an importation from this celebrated
* Youatt.
FRENCH SHEEP. 79
flock into the United States has recently taken place, and
others not unlikely to follow, it is proper that the public
should be fully enlightened as to the degree of its merit.
The following is a portion of a report concerning them,
drawn up by M. Gilbert, of the French National Institute,
and Avill be found inserted in Chancellor Livingston's
" Essay on Sheep." The eminent moral character of Mr.
Livingston forbids the suspicion that the account is exagger-
ated, as he had the opportunity personally to attest its truth.
M. Gilbert says — " The stock from which the flock of
Rambouiliet was derived, was composed of individuals beau-
tiful beyond any that had ever before been brought from
Spain : but having been chosen from a great number of flocks,
in diflerent parts of the kingdom, they were distinguished by
very striking local differences, which formed a medley dis-
agreeable to the eye, but immaterial as it affected their
quality ; these characteristic diff'erences have been melted
into each other, by their successive alliances, and from them
have resulted a race which perhaps resembles none of those
which compose the primitive stock, but which certainly does
not yield in any circumstance to the most beautiful in point
of size, form, and strength ; or in the fineness, length, soft-
ness, strength, and abundance of the fleece. The manufac-
turers and dealers in wool, who came in numbers to Ram-
bouiliet this year (1796) to purchase, unanimously agreed
to this fact, at the very time that they were combining to
keep down the price. All the wool of Spain that I have ex-
amined, not excepting the prime Leonese, the most esteem-
ed of any, appeared to me to contain much more of jar
(hair) than that of Rambouiliet."
An importation transpired, in 1840, of twenty ewes and
two rams, selected from this celebrated flock, by Mr. D. C.
Collins of Hartford, Conn., who is still their proprietor.
The motives which prompted this laudable enterprise, to-
gether with a minute description of these valuable sheep,
appear in the American Agriculturist, of July, 1843. The
following account was prepared by its editor, who had ex-
pended much time in examining them : —
" While Mr. Collins was travelling in Europe in the year
1839, having his eye occasionally upon its agriculture and
improved stocks, among other things, this gentleman was
struck with the marked superiority of the Spanish Merinos,
composing the celebrated royal flocks kept at Rambouiliet
80 EUROPEAN SHEEP.
in France, about 40 miles from Paris. He accordingly de-
termined to procure a small breeding flock, with a view of
raising bucks to restore the fine-wooled sheep of our coun-
try to their original character for strength of constitution
and weight of fleece, together with excellence of quality.
*******
" The result of our observations, and the information we
obtained, with respect to these Spanish Merinos from the
Royal flocks of Rambouillet, and the produce bred from them
in this country, is : —
" 1. They possess as good constitutions, and are as thrifty
and as hardy as any native or imported sheep whatever.
" 2. They attain a great age, having been known to reach
20 years, and may be depended on as good breeders till 12
or 14 years old.
" 3. They have large, loose skins, full of folds, especially
around the neck and below it, on the shoulders, and not un-
frequently over the whole body ; the wool thickly covering
its surface, the forehead, cheeks, and the legs, clear down to
the hoofs, giving the fleece, when shorn and spread out in its
ample dimensions, the appearance of having been taken from
the carcase of a huge buflalo, rather than so small an ani-
mal as the domestic sheep.
" 4. The fibre of the wool is very fine, quite equal to the
best Merino in Spain, and is the very antipodes of that of
which so much complaint is made by the manufacturer, of
being harsh, dry, crispy, and wiry. The fleece opens of a
brilliant creamy color within, on a skin of rich pink, and is
soft, glossy, wavy, and very even over the whole body ; is
exceedingly close and compact, and has a yolk free from
gum, and easily liberated when it comes to be washed, but
which protects the wool from the weather, and keeps it free
of the dead ends that are so objectionable. It becomes of
the purest white when scoured by the manufacturer, and
still retains its mellow, oily touch, so grateful to the hand-
ling of good judges. Its felting properties are beyond dis-
pute, making it a choice material for the manufacture of fine
cloths."
SWISS SHEEP.
There are several breeds of sheep in the several Cantons
of Switzerland. The valley sheep are not dissimilar to the
SAXON SHEEP.
81
long-wooled English breeds, and approximate more nearly
to the Lincoln variety.
The mountain breed are esteemed the most valuable,
having fine, short wool, which, latterly, has been much im-
proved in quality and weight by the Merino.
SAXON RAM.
SAXON SHEEP.
The following history of the introduction of the Merinos
into Saxony was written by the late Mr. Henry D. Grove,
of Hoosic, N. Y., whose decease will long be lamented by
those who knew his many private virtues, and by American
agriculturists, who will not cease to pay the homage of
gratitude to his memory, for the enthusiastic enterprise and
zeal he continued to manifest to his latest moments to im-
prove the fleece of his adopted country.
The following was addressed to Messrs. Benton & Barry,
at whose request it was written, and affixed to their useful
work on the Statistics of Sheep and Manufactures of the
United States, and published in 1837.
82 EUROPEAN SIIEEP.
"In the year 1764, the Elector of Saxony obtained, by
special negotiation through his ambassador, a grant from the
King of Spain, for the purchase of one hundred ewes and
one hundred rams, and a few surplus ones to keep that num-
ber good rn case any should die during the passage. Ac-
cordingly one hundred and nineteen ewes and one hundred
and ten rams were selected, principally from the Escurial
flocks, then the king's private property, under the care and
management of the monks belonging to the monastery of
that name, and which were considered the finest sheep in
the kingdom. They M^ere shipped at Cadiz, in the month
of May, 1765, accompanied by two Spaniards to take care
of them. Five rams and three ewes died on the passage ;
the remainder arrived safely at the Electors private domain
at Stolpen. The Spanish shepherds remained with, and
took care of the flock till the middle of the following year,
when they took their departure for Spain. During the time,
however, they remained in Saxony, they instructed Saxon
shepherds in the care and management of sheep.
" In order the better to make this valuable acquisition ben-
efit the country as much as possible, the Elector appointed a
commission, to superintend and direct the general concerns
of the sheep establishment, whose particular duty it was
made, to spread all the information they could obtain on the
care and management of sheep before the public, and who
were especially instructed to dispose of the young rams at
low prices, in order to induce the sheep-owners to improve
their flocks. The tenants of the government domains were
particularly favored, by giving them the preference in the
purchase (which is kept up till this day), while every possi-
ble care was taken to induce farmers generally to improve
their breed of sheep throughout the Electorate. It was fur-
ther required of the said commission to make a detailed re-
port to the government, annually, on the condition of the
sheep establishment, and at the same time to submit a list
of the persons who had received sheep from the national
flock.
" During the first years these valuable animals found many
opponents, and the improvement of the Spanish crop was
very slow, mainly on account of the common prejudice of
the farmers, which was heightened when the scab broke out
among them, but afterwards they became convinced of their
value, and the improvement was more rapid. But as most
SAXON SHEEP. 83
of the flocks in Spain are more or less aflected by the scab,
those transported to Saxony had to undergo the same ordeal.
This, of course, heightened the prejudice of many against
them, who pronounced them as entirely unfit for the coun-
try, their meat not eatable, or at best, of a miserable descrip-
tion ; a notion, however, which soon exploded. The scab,
however, caused great ravages among them before they were
entirely cured of this disease.
" When the commissioners had exercised their functions
ten years, the call for young rams was so great, — and in or-
der the more rapidly to improve the breed of the country, —
that they resolved to petition the government to make another
importation of ewes and rams from Spain, for which purpose
the Elector obtained another grant from the King of Spain
for three hundred rams and ewes. At the end of the year
1777, a gentleman by the name of Vaigt, manager of Count
Eiorsidel's farms, who was considered one of the best judges
of sheep at that day in Saxony, was provided with the ne-
cessary credentials and sent on that mission. But, for some
cause unknown, he selected only one hundred and ten two
year old rams and ewes, and returned home with them.
These were, however, of a very superior quality, selected from
the best flocks of Leon, Escurial, Cavagnon, Negretti, Mon-
tarco, and Sorian, and exceeded greatly in beauty of form
and quality of wool, the first importation. The cost of them
was about forty rix dollars per head.
" With this acquisition, the commissioners then planted the
Merino Tree on the fruitful soil of Lohmen and Renners-
dorf, from whence, in conjunction with Stolpen, many pure
blood flocks derive their origin. And I owe it to truth to
remark, that I have examined private flocks equal, if not su-
perior, to the national flocks.
" It would lead me too far here, to detail the introduction
of the Spanish and Saxony Merino into other parts of Ger-
many, Prussia, Austria, &c. Suffice it to say, that many
districts rival Saxony ; Prussia, especially, fosters her flocks,
not only by premiums, bestowed through her agricultural so-
cieties, but by that enlightened protection to domestic indus-
try, which so truly characterizes that government."
The invaluable properties of pure Saxon wool, and the
demand consequent for its manufacture into fabrics, the fine-
ness of which the world has never before produced, is the
cause of the high value of Saxon sheep, and their spread
84 EUROPEAN SHEEP.
over so large a portion of Europe, and remote parts of the
world. No other breeds are so highly prized on the Conti-
nent, and none which command such enormous prices. Mr.
Grove has stated, that, while grade Saxons sell for 3 to 15
dollars per head, individual rams of uncontaminated blood
often bring from 100 to 250 rix dollars; a flock was pur-
chased, destined for Russia, a few years since, for which
the average price paid exceeded 500 dollars ; and Mr. Spoon-
er states that, latterly, rams have been sold at the almost in-
credible prices of 100 to near 300 guineas per head. The
cause of these extravagant prices has been stated ; and so
long as there exist grades in society, and the highest of
these covet a wardrobe of the finest texture, the breed will
continue to be appreciated, and sedulously cultivated.
The means adopted to improve the wool of the Saxon
breed so much beyond the Merinos of Spain consisted for
the most part, originally, in the system of breeding in-and-in,
and a great degree of care in management, which is briefly,
but imperfectly, detailed by several writers, as follows : — the
first remarks are by Mr. Grove : — " The Germans keep their
sheep under comfortable shelter during the winter. By this
means they do not require, in the first place, so much prov-
ender ; secondly, the tip ends of the wool do not get weath-
er-beaten, which is an injury ; thirdly, a great quantity of
manure is saved. They hurdle their sheep during sum-
mer for the purpose of manuring the land, which makes it
more productive. They raise large quantities of roots, such
as ruta baga, potatoes, mangel wurtzel, carrots, round turnips,
&c., to feed out during winter. Combined with straw, it is
considered an economical mode of wintering sheep. They
enrich their land, moreover, by this course of management,
which enables them to keep still more sheep and cattle, and
raise more grain. Many farmers in that country keep their
sheep from nine to ten months of the year in the yard ; some
only part of their flock, and others their whole flock. For
this purpose they sow red and white clover, lucerne, and es-
parrette, which is mowed and fed to them in racks, three
times a day, and in wet weather a foddering of straw. It
follows, as a matter of course, that the stables and yards are
well littered with straw every day. It is considered that an
acre, thus managed, will maintain double the number of
sheep, or cattle, than it would to turn them out to pick for
themselves. By this course of management they are ena-
SAXON SHEEP. 85
bled to keep large numbers of sheep, without infringing
much on their grain growing, and enabled to come in com-
petition with the wool-growers of other countries. As there
are no fences in that country, the sheep are attended by
dogs. One shepherd with his dog will manage from five
hundred to eight hundred in the summer, all in one flock."
Mr. Carr, an English gentleman farmer, but now a resi-
dent of Germany, states the following in the Journal of the
Royal Agricultural Society of England. " These sheep
(Saxons) cannot thrive in a damp climate, and it is quite
necessary that they should have a wide range of dry and
hilly pasture, of short and not over-nutritious herbage. If
allowed to feed on swampy or marshy ground, even once or
twice, in autumn, they are sure to die of liver-complaint
(rot) in the following spring. They are always housed at
night, even in summer, except in the finest weather, when
they are sometimes folded in the distant fallows, but never
taken to pasture till the dew is off the grass. In the winter
they are kept within doors altogether, and are fed with a
small quantity of sound hay, and every variety of straw, and
which is varied at each feed. Abundance of good water to
drink, and rock salt in their cribs, are indispensables."
Baron Geisler has been many years one of the most suc-
cessful breeders of Saxon Merinos, and for a long time
(on the authority of Dr. Bright) " he has exercised un-
wearied assiduity by crossing and recrossing, so that by
keeping the most accurate registers of the pedigree of each
sheep, he has been enabled to proceed with a mathematical
precision in the regular and progressive improvement of the
whole stock. Out of seventeen thousand sheep, comprising
his flock, there is not one whose whole family he cannot
trace by reference to his books ; and he regulates his year-
ly sales by these registers. He considers the purity of
blood the jirst requisite towards perfection of the feece^ Dr.
Bright makes a few remarks on management.
" For fourteen days before the coupling-season the rams
should be daily fed with oats, and this food should be con-
tinued not only during that particular period, but for fourteen
days after ; and one ram will thus be in a condition to serve
60 ewes, if other proper attentions have been paid to him
previously.
" During the lambing period a shepherd should be con-
stantly day and night in the cote, in order that he may place
8
86 EUROPEAN SHEEP.
the lamb, as soon as it is cleaned, together with its mother,
in a separate pen, which has been before prepared. The
ewes which have lambed should, during a week, be driven
neither to water nor to pasture ; but low troughs of water
for this purpose are to be introduced into each partition, in
order that they may easily and at all times quench their
thirst.
" It is also very useful to put a small quantity of barley-
meal into the water, for by this means the quantity of ewes'
milk is much increased. When the lambs are so strong
that they can eat, they are to be separated by degrees from
their mothers, and fed with the best and finest oats, being
suffered at first to go to them only three times a day, early
in the morning, at mid-day, and in the evening, and so to
continue till they can travel to pasture, and fully satisfy
themselves."
Although rigid attention is bestowed on these sheep
during winter, yet they are not quite the hot-house objects
which, from the remarks of Mr. Carr, the reader would in-
fer. On the authority of Mr Youatt, although the sheep in
Saxony and Silesia are housed at the beginning of winter,
yet they are turned out and compelled to seek, perhaps un-
der the snow, a portion of their food whenever the weather
will permit; and the season must be unusually inclement
in which they are not driven into the yards at least two or
three hours during the middle of the day. The doors and
windows also are frequently opened, that the sheep-houses
may be sufficiently ventilated. This is the practice as far
north as Sweden.
Very great care is taken by the Saxon flock-master in
the selection of the lambs which are destined to be saved in
order to keep up the flock. " When the lambs are weaned,
each in his turn is placed upon a table, that his wool and
form may be minutely observed. The finest are selected
for breeding, and receive a first mark. When they are one
year old, and prior to shearing them, another close -exami-
nation of those previously marked takes place ; those in
which no defect can be found receive a second mark, and
the rest are condemned. A few months afterwards a third
and last scrutiny is made ; the prime rams and ewes receive
a third and final mark, but the slightest blemish, is sufficient
to cause the rejection of the animal. Each breeder of note
lias a seal or mark secured to the neck of the sheep, to de-
SAXON SHEEP. 87
tach or forge which is considered a high crime, and punish-
ed severely."*
Before the introduction of the Merinos into Saxony the
indigenous sheep consisted of two distinct varieties, one
bearing a wool of some value, and the other yielding a fleece
applicable only to the coarsest manufactures. Both of these
breeds have been most extensively crossed with the Saxon
Merinos, and very many mixed flocks now exhibit fleeces
litte inferior to the best and purest Escurial sheep.
According to Mr. Carr, the Infantado Merinos are also
cultivated in their purity, and are described by him as hav-
ing shorter legs, and heavier and rounder bodies than the
Escurial Saxons, with heads and necks comparatively short
and broad. The wool is often matted upon the neck, back,
and thighs, and grows upon the head to the eyes, and upon
the legs to the very feet. The grease in their fleeces is al-
most pitchy, so as to render the washing very difficult. He
describes the mode of washing as follows : — " A warm, mild
day, without harsh or drying wind, is indispensable. A
marl-pit with a depth of from 8 to 10 feet of clear water is a
favorite washing place. The sheep are thrown in from a
stage in the evening, and made to swim the whole length
of the pond (20 or 30 yards), between rails, with boards on
one side, from which women or boys assist them through
their bath, by placing wooden rakes or crooks under their
chins, and so passing them onwards. When the water has
dripped from the fleeces for an hour or two, the sheep are
put into a house for the night, as close together as possible,
in order to cause the greater evaporation, and the next day
they are swum three or four times through the pond, and
they are kept in the house (well supplied with clean straw)
on dry food, for three or four days, until the wool, by sweat-
ing as it is termed, has recovered its characteristic softness.
The fleece of this species is generally thick, closely grown,
and abundant. Ewes average 2 1-4 to 3 1-4 lbs. by careful
feeding [which, however, must never approach to feeding to he
fat, else the wool becomes wiry and hard), and rams and wed-
ders vary from 4 lbs. to even 6 lbs."
The Escurial Saxon breed have long, tapering necks,
small heads, with little wool upon them, round carcases,
with rather narrow yet deep chests, and when in good flesh,
* C. Howard.
88 EUROPEAN SHEEP.
generally well proportioned. Indeed, specimens may be se-
lected from the best flocks which rival in symmetry of form
any sheep in the world. Compared with other breeds, they
are small, and consequently their fleeces are proportionally
light ; but being comparatively free from gum, is one of the
prominent causes. The average weight of the ewe fleeces
is from 1 1-2 to 2 1-2 lbs., and full-grown wethers and rams
from 2 1-2 to 4 lbs. The finest and purest flocks yield
heavier fleeces than those engrafted on common stock.
Extraordinary care is observed in washing the sheep be-
fore shearing (another cause of the fleeces weighing light),
which is manifested by the little waste when subjected to
the manufacturer's process of cleansing.*
The shearing is conducted in the most skilful manner,
each shearer, generally, being limited as to the number
of fleeces he is to clip per day, in order to ensure a greater
degree of care in his work. Thus, the skins of the sheep
are not mangled as in our country, and otherwise presenting
a slovenly appearance, from unevenness of the clippings.
After the shearing season is past, the wool is bought of
the small proprietors by agents of wool merchants, and
transported to Hamburg, Breslau, and Leipsic, where it is
sorted, and resold for exportation and home manufacture.
The annual wool Fairs of Leipsic are wonders in their way,
millions of pounds often exchanging hands in a single day.
The large proprietors of pure flocks efl'ect their sales by
samples, subject to sorting, which is an art nowhere better
understood than in Germany. The fleeces of the same
quality are opened and spread flat against each other, when
packing, and each bale is made to contain from 400 to 500
lbs. The amount of German wools (which includes Prus-
sian, Saxon, and Austrian) annually exported is enormous,
England receiving annually from 20 to 30,000,000 lbs. ;
the amount taken by France is also many millions of
pounds.
Few Americans are aware of the superiority of German
woollen fabrics, as, from the great pains, and therefore ex-
pense involved, in their manufacture, few specimens com-
paratively reach our shores. The Germans make no haste
in doing anything, but all their performances are conducted
with skill, and with an eye to durability ; and thus German
* See Summer Management — article Washing.
SAXON SHEEP. 89
cloths are unrivalled in strength, the brilliancy and perma-
nency of their dyes.
The following Report relative to the introduction of the
Saxon Merinos into the United States, was drawn by Mr.
Grove, and read before the annual meeting of the New York
State Agricultural Society, in 1838, and which will be found
in the 1st volume of Transactions of the Society : —
" The first importation of Saxony sheep into the United
States was made by Mr. Samuel Henshaw,* a merchant of
Boston, at the instance of Col. James Shepherd, of North-
hampton. They were but six or seven in number. In 1824,
Messrs. G. and T. Searle, of Boston, imported 77 Saxon
sheep. They were selected and purchased by a Mr. Kretch-
man, a correspondent of the above firm, residing in Leipsic,
and shipped at Bremen on board the American schooner
Velocity. I was engaged to take charge of the sheep on
the passage, and I also shipped six on my own account. I
am sorry to say, that as many as one-third of the sheep pur-
chased by Kretchman (who shared profit and loss in the un-
dertaking) were not pure-blooded sheep. The cargo were
sold at auction at Brookline, as ' pure-blooded Electoral
Saxons,' and thus unfortunately in the very outset the pure
and impure became irrevocably mixed. But I feel the great-
est certainty that the Messrs. Searle intended to import none
but the pure stock ; the fault lay with Kretchman. In the
fall of 1824, I entered into an arrangement with the Messrs.
Searle to return to Saxony, and purchase, in connection with
Kretchman, from 160 to 200 Electoral sheep. I was de-
tained at sea seven weeks, which gave rise to the belief that
I was shipwrecked and lost. When I finally arrived, the
sheep had been already bought by Kretchman. On being
informed of what the purchase consisted, I protested against
taking them to America, and insisted on a better selection,
but to no purpose.
"The number shipped was 167, 15 of which perished on
the passage. They were sold at Brighton, some of them
going as high as from 400 to 450 dollars. A portion of this
importation consisted of grade sheep, which sold as high as
the pure bloods, for the American purchaser could not know
the difference. It may be readily imagined what an induce-
ment the Brighton sale held out to speculation, both in this
» American Agriculturist ; the name was left blank in the Report.
8*
90 EUROPEAN SHEEP.
country and Saxony. The German newspapers teemed
with advertisements of sheep for sale, headed ' Good for
the American market ;' and these sheep in many instances
were actually bought up for the American market at five,
eight, and ten dollars a head, when the pure bloods could not
be purchased at from less than 30 to 40 dollars each. In
1826, Messrs. Searle imported three cargoes, amounting in
the aggregate to 513 sheep. They were of about the same
character with their prior importations, in the main good, but
mixed with some grade sheep. On the same year, a cargo
of 221 arrived, on German account, Emil Bach, of Leipsic,
supercargo. A few more good sheep, and of pure blood ;
but taken as a lot they were miserable. The owners sunk
about 3000 dollars. Next came a cargo of 210 on German
account ; Wasmuss &l Multer owners. The whole cost of
these was about 81,125, in Germany. With the excep-
tion of a small number, procured to make a flourish on, in
their advertisement of sale, they were sheep having no pre-
tensions to purity of blood. In 1827, the same individuals
brought out another cargo. These were selected exclusive-
ly from grade flocks of low character. On the same year
the Messrs. Searle made their last importation, consisting
of 182 sheep. Of these I know little. My friends in Ger-
many wrote me that they were, like their other importations,
a mixture of pure and impure blooded sheep. It is due,
however, to the Messrs. Searle to say, that as a whole, their
importations were much better than any other made into
Boston.
" I will now turn your attention to the importations made
into other ports. In 1825, 13 Saxons arrived in Portsmouth.
They were miserable creatures. In 1826, 191 sheep ar-
rived in New York, on German account. A portion of these
were well descended and valuable animals, the rest were
grade sheep. In June, the same year, the brig Louisa
brought out 173 on German account. Not more than one-
third of them had the least pretensions to purity of blood.
Next we find 158, shipped at Bremen, on German account.
Some were diseased before they left Bremen, and I am
happy to state that twenty-two died before their arrival in
New York. All I intend to say of them is, that they were
a most curious and motley mess of wretched animals. The
next cargo imported arrived in the brig Maria Elizabeth,
under my own care. They were 165 in number, belonging
SAXON SHEEP. 91
to myself and F. Gebhard, of New York. These sheep
cost me 65 dollars per head, when landed in New York.
They sold at an average of 50 dollars a head, thus sinking
about $2,400 ! I need not say that they were exclusively
of pure blood. A cargo of 81 arrived soon after, but I know
nothing of their quality. The next importation consisted of
184, on German account, per brig Warren. With a few ex-
ceptions they were pure-blooded and good sheep. We next
have an importation of 200 by the Bremen ship Louisa.
They were commonly called the 'stop sale sheep.' They
were of the most miserable character, some of them being
hardly half grade sheep. The ship Phebe Ann brought
120 sheep, of which I know little, and 60 were landed at
Philadelphia, with the character of which I am unacquainted.
Having determined to settle in America, I returned to Sax-
ony, and spent the winter of 1826-7 in visiting and exam-
ining many flocks. I selected 115 from the celebrated flock
of Macherns, embarked on board the ship Albion, and land-
ed in New York June 27th, 1827. In 1828, I received 80
more from the same flock, selected by a friend of mine, an
excellent judge of sheep. On their arrival they stood me
in 70 dollars a head, and the lambs half that sum."
Notwithstanding so many imperfect specimens of the Sax-
ons, as appears from the above, reached our shores, and
which have laid the foundation of much prejudice towards
the breed, yet there are many flocks in the states which
rival some of the best German in fineness, and superior to
the latter in average weight of the fleece. The delicacy of
constitution which characterizes the German Saxons does
not appear nearly to the same degree in the American, and
the reader will learn by reference to the Appendix many par-
ticulars from different sources to corroborate this statement.
The American breeders of this noted race have struggled
against a discouraging obstacle, from the injustice of manu-
facturers, by not paying the true difference of value between
their fleeces and more inferior grades. This, however, lat-
terly, has been somewhat rectified, and eventually, with in-
crease of competition, will be wholly so ; and therefore this
breed, with their meritorious progenitors, the Merinos, will
continue to be more and more extensively bred, and, by
proper management, with equal degrees of profit.
The average weight of American Saxon fleeces is from
2 1-4 to 3 lbs.
92 EUROPEAN SHEEP.
PRUSSIAN SHEEP.
Until the middle of the 1 8th century, no attempts had been
made either by individuals or the Prussian government to
ameliorate the quality of the native sheep, which are repre-
sented to have been of a very inferior character. The first
move towards their reformation was made by Mr. Fink, dis-
tinguished as an enterprising agriculturist, and his enthu-
siasm in sheep-husbandry. His first effort was to obtain
the Silesian native breed, which had long been celebrated
for the comparative fineness of their wool. Some improve-
ment was effected, but he was not satisfied, and became
seized with the mania-— then common in Germany — for
Merinos, and accordingly imported a number of superior
animals of this breed, direct from Spain. His success in
naturalizing them to the climate, and wonderful improve-
ment accomplished by them to his native flocks, attracted
the attention of the Prussian government. Frederick n.,in
1786, imported one hundred rams and two hundred ewes
from Spain ; but, says Mr. Youatt, " illustrative of the dif-
ference in result when an organized plan is conducted by
one acquainted with all its details, and whose heart is in the
affair, and when it is committed to those who know and care
little about it, the greater part of the sheep that were dis-
tributed in the neighborhood of Berlin perished by various
diseases ; those that were sent to distant farms in the coun-
try degenerated, and the advantage was far from commen-
surate with the expense."
The monarch, however, did not despair. Mr. Fink was
commissioned by the government to purchase a flock of one
thousand of the choicest Merinos ; and a school was estab-
lished to instruct in their management, at the head of which
he was wisely placed. As a proof of the extent to which
he improved his own flocks, it is stated on the authority of
Lasteyrie, who had an opportunity of examining them, "that
the sheep are less than the Merinos of Spain, but are by no
means inferior to them in perfections of fleece. Before the
improvements had taken place the native breeds produced
wool that sold from 5d. to 8c?. per lb., but now, improved
by the use of Spanish rams, it sells from 2s. to more than
3^. sterling per lb."
A brief sketch of his system of management may not be
unacceptable to the reader ; valuable, principally, as it illus-
PRUSSIAN SHEEP. 93
trates his knowledge of the fondness of sheep for variety of
food, which all experience confirms as contributing so much
to their welfare.
" He properly maintains, that occasional exposure to the
air is favorable to the quality of the wool, and therefore, al-
though the sheep are housed at the beginning of November,
yet whenever it freezes, and the ground is hard, even al-
though it may be covered with snow, the sheep are driven
to the wheat and rye fields, where they meet with a kind
of pasturage exceedingly wholesome, and while they feed
there they are likewise benefiting the crop. When the
weather will not permit their being taken out, they are fed
on hay, aftermath, and chopped straw of various kinds. The
kind of straw is changed as often as possible, and wheat,
barley, and oat-straw, and pease-haulm follow each other in
rapid succession. The oat-straw is sparingly given, and
the pease-haulm is preferred to the wheat and barley-straw.
Oil-cake, at the rate of six or seven pounds per hundred,
and dissolved in water, is also allowed when the flock cannot
be turned on the young wheat.
" Three or four weeks before lambing, an additional al-
lowance of hay and straw is given to the ewes ; and while
they are suckling, a little oat-meal is mixed with the solu-
tion of oil-cake. When the weather will permit the turning
out the ews, the lambs are still kept in the houses, and the
mothers brought back to them at noon and at night ; after
that the lambs are not permitted to graze with the ewes, but
are turned on the fallows or the clover of the preceding
year ; for it is supposed that they unnecessarily fatigue
themselves by running with their mothers, and almost inces-
santly trying to suck, and that on this account they refuse
the herbage on which they are placed and take less nourish-
ment than when quietly kept on separate pastures. A few
barren ewes, however, are placed with the lambs for the
purpose of guiding them, and perhaps teaching them to se-
lect the best and most wholesome food."*
Many of the Prussian flocks, at the present day, rival in
fineness the purest Saxon, and command an equal price for
their fleeces.
* Lasteyrie. ^
94 EUROPEAN SHEEP.
SILESIAN SHEEP.
As has already been said, a portion of the native sheep of
Silesia were comparatively finer than those of Prussia and
Hungary. Nevertheless, the breed was infinitely below the
Merino in the value of their wool, and it was not until the
introduction of the latter that Sile&ian fleeces took high rank.
At present the wools of that province, for the purposes of
the best manufactures, are almost equally valued with the
purest and finest Saxony.
HUNGARIAN SHEEP.
Hungary, a large territory within the Austrian domin-
ions, abounded with native sheep corresponding in inferi-
ority with other northern countries of Europe, which, with
bad management, rendered them comparatively worthless
for all purposes.
The celebrated Empress Maria Theresa, after witnessing
the success of the Merinos in Saxony, through that enter-
prise which shone so conspicuously in her character, to en-
gage in everything which would tend to promote the wel-
fare of her people, was induced to import in 1775 several
hundred of that breed. They were placed at Mereopail,
where an agricultural school was established ; but it was
long before her laudable exertions were attended with the
desired success. In process of time other importations of
Merinos were made ; and within the last thirty years no
sheep districts have surpassed Hungary in the rapid progress
of wool improvement. The Hungarian fleeces now com-
pete successfully with the best Saxon, as will be seen on
reference to the wool table of prices, in the London market,
in the following pages.
The number of sheep in the Territory of Hungary is
probably about eight millions, three millions of which are
the property of Prince Esterhazy !
SWEDISH SHEEP.
For many centuries the Merinos were confined to Spain,
and preserved with jealous care. Sweden appears to have
been the first country which succeeded in procuring them ;
and there are now about seven hundred thousand in this
country.*
* Spooner.
DANISH SHEEP. 95
They were introduced into that high latitude as early as
1723 by Mr. Alstroemer, an enterprising agriculturist, and
was deemed at the time a presumptuous, indeed, an almost
insane attempt. He triumphed over all difficulties, which
induced the Swedish government to yield its patronage, by
the formation of an agricultural school, which offered pre-
miums for the best Spanish Merinos, and on the sale of the
best wool.
A brief notice of the mode of management in this extreme
northern latitude may be acceptable.
" The system of migration is completely abandoned.
Both the native and imported sheep, after having been pas-
tured during the day, are usually housed at night at all sea-
sons, on account of the great number of wolves. The
peasantry and small farmers have these houses too confined
and crowded ; the better sheep-master has them large and
well ventilated. The native Swedish flocks are kept in
these buildings when the weather is unusually severe ;
the Merinos are housed during the six winter months ; but
scarcely any inclemency of weather will prevent the whole
flock being driven out daily, at least for a few minutes, in
order to breathe the fresh air while the sheep-house is clean-
ed. The Merino sheep are seldom used for breeding until
they are two and a half years old, and are fattened for the
butcher at seven."*
The native sheep of Sweden are an inferior race in all
respects, but the wool of which is strong, and valuable for
the clothing of the peasantry.
DANISH SHEEP.
The native sheep of Denmark correspond with those of
Sweden, Norway, and the more northern parts of Russia.
The head is long and thin, the neck arched, the eye small,
the countenance mild, the legs and tail without wool.
In 1797 the government was influenced, by the example
of Sweden, to patronize the Merinos. Accordingly 300
Leonese Transhumantes were procured and located in the
vicinity of Copenhagen. By careful and skilful manage-
ment the success in propagating them equalled expectation ;
and by crossing them with native sheep, a fair wool was
procured.
* Youatt.
96
EUROPEAN SHEEP.
Denmark now exports nearly a million of pounds of wool,
one half of wliich is represented to be of the finest quality
of Merino.
ICELAND SHEEP.
ICELAND SHEEP.
The sheep of Iceland are of two kinds : the first, termed
the native breed, is small, in color from dun to almost
black ; the second is larger, the fleece white, and supposed
to have originated from more southern regions. The fleece
of these breeds consists of hair externally, with a thick, close
layer of wool within, impervious to cold and wet ; it is
worthless for manufacturing, and is used for horse collars,
and more or less is exported and appropriated to this pur-
pose.
The principal peculiarity about the native sheep is the
number of their horns, many individuals having four and
five, and instances have been known of eight. These hardy
animals propagate without the care of man, and seek refuge
RUSSIAN SHEEP. 97
from storms among the caverns of the coast during the win-
ter season.
RUSSIAN SHEEP.
From the certainty that a large portion of the waste places
of the immense Empire of Russia is destined to be filled
with countless hordes of sheep, a brief notice of the progress
already made will doubtless be of some interest to the
American wool-grower.
The following account is supplied by Youatt :
" Far more attention continues to be made to the breeding
of sheep than that of cattle, through almost the whole of this
immense Empire. All the wandering tribes possess a great
number of sheep. Many of the inferior Boors and Cos-
sacks in Southern Russia have flocks consisting of many
hundreds.
" The characters of the sheep differ materially in the
various districts. Towards the north they are small, short-
tailed, and bear a coarse and harsh wool. About the river
Don, and still more towards the centre, and on the banks of
the Dneiper, and in some districts of the Ukraine, they yield
a better wool ; and thence the greater part of the material
for the inland cloth manufactories is supplied. In the neigh-
borhood of the Baltic a still superior breed is found, and the
Dago and Oesel islands, near the Gulf of Finland, are cele-
brated for their wool. The half-cloths that are manufac-
tured from it have often as fine and close a substance as
that which is imported from Great Britain. The finest of
the Russian wools are exported from Odessa, on the Black
Sea. It is the produce of all the neighboring provinces, but
prhicipally of the Crimea. There is no district in the em-
pire so fitted by nature for the pasturage of sheep.
" There are three kinds of sheep in the Crimea and in
Taurida. The common breed is white, or black, or grey,
with very coarse wool, and a long tail covered with fat.
They are kept in exceedingly large flocks. A rich Tartar
will frequently possess 50,000 sheep. The grey sheep
produce the grey lamb-skins, 30,000 of which are exported
every year. Fifty or sixty thousand black lamb-skins,
which are also much valued, are exported from the Crimea.
" The mountain sheep are smaller than those on the
plains. Their wool is beautifully fine, and, even before the
improvement which many of the flocks have undergone,
9
98 EUROPEAN SHEEP.
used to find its way to the French manufactories. The
Crimea was scarcely in the possession of Russia ere many
attempts were made to improve the sheep, naturally so valu-
able. The Merinos were in process of time introduced
here, as into every part of Europe. A few have been cul-
tivated as a pure flock ; more have been employed in im-
proving the native breeds, and the consequence is that the
wool exported from Odessa is increasing in quantity and
value every year. In 1828, 184,000 lbs. of wool were
shipped from this port; in 1831 that quantity had increased
to more than 1,260,000 lbs.*
" The staple from a sample of Odessa wool is from four
to six inches in length. The diameter of a fibre is the
1 -750th part of an inch, and 2080 serrations to an inch. The
wool is very soft, and possesses good felting properties : but
it is inferior to Merino, and most decidedly so to Saxony."
NEW SOUTH WALES, OR AUSTRALIAN SHEEP.
The island of New Holland, now better known as Austra-
lasia, or Australia, is situated in the Indian Ocean, between
(including the southernmost point of Van Dieman's Land)
the 11th and 41st degrees of south latitude. The climate
is temperate of that portion of the country devoted to sheep
husbandry, compared with the same latitude of the United
States, which may, in part, be ascribed to the proximity of
the settlement to the salubrious influence of the ocean. The
country is subject to severe droughts, though not of frequent
occurrence. " The great drought which commenced in
1826, did not terminate until 1829. Very little rain fell
during the whole of this period, and for more than six months
there was not a single shower."! The soil in general, though
exceedingly variable, being in many parts almost wholly
barren, is highly productiue of herbage well adapted to the
sheep.
There were no sheep indigenous to the country, therefore
the early colonists were compelled to provide themselves
with mutton and wool from the native Bengal sheep, which,
it is hardly necessary to say, were of the most inferior charac-
ter. According to Mr. Atkinson, these sheep resembled
goats more than anything else ; but the change of climate,
as well as of herbage, contributed in a short time to work a
* McCulloch's Dictionary. t McCuIloch's Com. Dictionary.
NEW SOUTH WALES, OR AUSTRALIAN SHEEP. 99
singular modification of the fleece, losing its hairiness, and
tolerable wool supplying its place.
Soon after importations were made to a considerable ex-
tent of South Down and Leicester sheep, which, being
crossed with the Bengalee variety, was productive of much
improvement over the latter, not only in the quality of the
mutton, but a similar benefit to the fleece.
At this period (1800) there were about six thousand sheep,
of all kinds, in the colony ; and comparing this insignificant
number with that of the present time, shows how remarkably
the animal is disposed, in temperate latitudes, to increase.
The number thirteen years afterwards was 65,000, in 1828
563,000.* The export of wool, of all kinds, in 1843, amount-
ed to 16,226,400 Ibs.f
The colonists, from the kind nature of the climate, were
induced to experiment with the Merino. Accordingly a few
were sent over from England, and it was observed that the
fifth and sixth cross produced a quality of wool little inferior
to the pure Merinos of Spain. This is stated by Mr. You-
att, on the authority of Mr. Collins, and must be received
with some doubt, considering the decided inferiority of the
sheep previously in the colony.
The success of the Merinos paved the way for still great-
er improvement, by the introduction of the Saxons, which
have since stamped the high character and value of Austra-
lian wools. The original importation was made by Captain
McArthur, then in government employ, and distinguished as
an enterprising and zealous agriculturist. Mr. Youatt says,
" It would not perhaps be truly said, that the quality of the
Saxon fleece was improved by the change of climate — per-
haps it was somewhat deteriorated — but it soon became evi-
dent that its properties were superior to any that the colony
had hitherto possessed."
The present prominent characteristics of Australian wool,
of the improved breeds, are, great length of staple, softness
in an unusual degree compared with other wools of the same
fineness, and "working kindly" in every manufacture in
which it is employed. But the climate unquestionably, al-
though comparatively so temperate, together with imperfect
management, have wrought deteriorating effects, compared
with the wool of the original Saxon stock on its first introduc-
* Wentworth's New South Wales. t Spooner.
100 EUROPEAN SHEEr.
tion into the colony. The testimony is conchisive of a deci-
dence in fineness, and also in the felting property. The diam-
eter of a fibre from a sample of picklock taken from a fleece
belonging to Captain McArthur, whose flock is esteemed the
purest and best in the colony, was the 1 -780th of an inch, about
the same as pure Merino, and the serrations 2400 in the span
of an inch less by 150 than Merino, and 320 less than a
fibre of picklock Saxon. This is the result of a microscopic
view made by Mr. Youatt, and he remarks as follows : —
" The serrations of this sample were very sharp, and in ap-
pearance almost barbed. But there is a marked diff'erence,
not only in the length but in the structure of the Saxon wool,
as obtained direct from Germany and imported from Austra-
lia. The fibre of the Australian is considerably longer, but
it is not so fine — the serrations are not so numerous — they
are of a different character, seemingly giving pliability and
softness to the one, and feltiness lo the other. In truth, the
manufacturer has properly classed them, although he knew
nothing of their microscopic appearance. He has appropri-
ated the true Saxon wool to the making of the finest cloth,
owing to its superior felting quality ; and he is using the
Australian wool for the better combing purposes, in which a
strong tough wool, soft and long in the staple, is useful."
Before proceeding to give an account of the mode of man-
aging sheep in Australia, taken from Cunningham's " Two
Years in South Wales," it is proper to state the fact, not
perhaps known to every reader, that it is to the colonies of
New South Wales and Van Dieman's Land England banish-
es her criminals, to expiate their crimes in menial servitude,
not a few of which are employed in the capacity of shep-
herds.
" When the country is destitute of timber, the sheep are
very easily managed, and so many as a thousand may be
trusted to a single shepherd ; but in general they are divided
into flocks of about three hundred breeding ewes, or four
hundred wethers. Every flock has a shepherd, who takes
his sheep out to graze before sunrise, and brings them in at
evening. He keeps always before the flock, to check the
forward among them from running onwards, and wearing
out the old, sick, and lame ; making all thus feed quietly, so
as to keep them in good condition. In summer he sees, too,
that they have water during the heat of the day ; and in
drawing up under a tree for shade, when it is too hot for
NEW SOUTH WALES, OR AUSTRALIAN SHEEP. 101
feeding, he passes occasionally gently among them, spreads
them out, and makes them take a fresh position in as small
groups as possible, under another tree, because, when they
remain too long together in one place, they are apt to become
broken-winded. It is a rule that sheep should never remain
in one spot so long as to paddle the ground much with their
feet ; and hence, in riding round your sheep stations, you
have something whereby to judge whether or not your in-
structions are attended to. The shepherd takes out his
victuals with him, and is required to be on the alert all day
long, to prevent the sheep from being lost in the woods, or
wild dogs from pouncing in among them.
" Three flocks are always penned together under the charge
of a watchman, who counts each regularly in at night, and
the shepherds again count them out in the morning ; so that
they form a regular check upon each other, and prevent loss-
es from carelessness or depredation. The watchman has a
small weather-proof watch-box to sleep in, and is assisted
by a watch-dog ; he keeps up a good fire, which generally
deters all native or wild dogs from approaching the fold.
The hurdles are made of light swamp oak, iron bark, or gum,
measuring seven feet long, with five bars, so close together
that a young lamb cannot creep through. They are shifted
to fresh ground daily, being sloped outward, and propped to-
gether by means of forked sticks, driving a stake through
between the bars here and there to keep the hurdles firm,
and prevent the wind from blowing them over. ***** Bells
are attached to the necks of the stoutest leaders, to keep the
flock together, and give warning of anything going wrong
within the fold."
Notwithstanding the equability and dryness of the climate,
the sheep are subject to the same maladies, though less fre-
quent, of those in Europe, and especially that lamentable
scourge, foot rot. This originates from the poachy nature
of the soil.
The manner of cleansing the fleece, is by conveying water
through spouts, where practicable ; and otherwise, by swim-
ming repeatedly the sheep across narrow streams, and after-
wards squeezing the wool with the hands. It is not unusual
for many of the fleeces to lose three fifths by thorough wash-
ing.
The average weight of the fleeces of the improved breeds
is from two to two and a half pounds.
9*
"i)
CHAPTER V.
BRITISH BREEDS.
SOUTHDOWN— RYELAND— DORSET— BLACK-FACED— CHEVIOT— SHET-
LAND ISLAND— IRISH SHEEP.
SOUTH DOWN.
The sheep of Great Britain for a long time have been
classed into middle-wooled, and long-wooled. The short
wools, properly speaking, now employed in English cloth
manufactures, are of foreign growth.
The middle-wooled breeds comprise the South Down,
Norfolk, Dorset, Cheviot, and some others, which are infe-
rior, however, to these.
Confessedly, on all hands, at the head of the middle-
wooled varieties, stands the South Down, and are destined,
doubtless, to occupy a large share of the attention of Ameri-
can breeders.
The original as well as present location of a large proportion
of this breed is on the South Downs (from whence the name
of the breed is derived), a long range of chalky hills, diverg-
ing from the great chalky stratum which intersects the king-
dom from Norfolk to Dorchester. " They may be considered
as occupying a space of more than sixty miles in length, and
about five or six in breadth, consisting of a succession of
open downs, with very few enclosures. On these downs a
certain breed of sheep has been cultivated for many centu-
ries, in greater perfection than elsewhere ; and hence have
sprung those successive colonies, which have found their
way to every part of the kingdom, and materially benefited
the breed of short-wooled sheep wherever they have gone."*
The perfection of carcase which the South Down at pres-
ent exhibits, is owing to the skill of that distinguished sheep-
* Luccock on Wool.
SOUTH DOWN bllEEP.
103
breeder, Mr. John Ellman. He says, " This breed was for-
merly of a small size, and far from possessing a good shape,
being long and thin in the neck, high on the shoulders, low
behind, high on the loins, down on the rumps, the tail set
on very low, perpendicular from the hip bones, sharp on the
back, the ribs flat, not bowing, narrow in the fore-quarters,
but good in the leg, although having big bone."
'ira^Ail/L^i / -~^ ^ V >''
SOUTH DOWN.
The improvement effected by Mr. Ellman, was not
from any admixture of foreign blood, " for even the cross
with the Leicester was a failure, and the promised advan-
tages to be derived from the Merinos were delusive."* It
resulted, mainly, from the practice of the true principles of
breeding ; a system of choice selection from male and fe-
male. The introduction of turnip husbandry was another
very important agent, which essentially promoted thrift and
size, and an early development of form. " They are now,"
* Youatt.
104 BRITISH BREEDS.
says Mr. EUman," much improved both in shape and consti-
tution. They are smaller in bone, equally hardy, with a
greater disposition to fatten, and much heavier in carcase
when fat. They used seldom to fatten until they were four
years old ; but it would now be a rare sight to see a pen of
South Down wethers at market more than two years old, and
many are killed before they reach that age."
The following description of a perfect South Down, from
the pen of Mr. Ellman, will be valuable to the American
breeder, as well as guard the ignorant from imposition : —
" The head small and hornless ; the face speckled or grey,
and neither too long nor too short. The lips thin, and the
space between the nose and the eyes narrow. The under-
jaw, or chap, fine and thin ; the ears tolerably wide, and the
forehead well covered with wool, and the whole space be-
tween the ears also.
" The eye full and bright, but not prominent. The orbits
of the eye, the eye-cap, or bone, not too projecting.
" The neck of a medium length, thin towards the head,
but enlarging towards the shoulders where it should be
broad and high, and straight in its whole course above and
below. The breast should be wide, deep, and projecting
forwards between the fore-legs, indicating a good constitu-
tion, and a disposition to thrive. Corresponding with this,
the shoulders should be on a level with the back, and not
too wide above ; they should bow outward from the top to
the breast, indicating a springing rib beneath, and leaving
room for it.
" The ribs coming out horizontally from the spine, and
extending far backward, and the last rib projecting more than
the others ; the back flat from the shoulders to the setting on
of the tail ; the loin broad and flat ; the rump long and
broad, and the tail set on high and nearly on a level with the
spine. The hips wide ; the space between them and the
last rib on either side as narrow as possible, and the ribs,
generally, presenting a circular form like a barrel.
" The belly as straight as the back.
" The legs neither too long nor too short. The fore-legs
straight from the breast to the foot ; not bending inward at
the knee, and standing far apart both before and behind ; the
hocks having a direction rather outward, and the twist, or
the meeting of the thighs behind, being particvflarly full ; the
SOUTH DOWN SHEEP. 105
bones fine, yet having no appearance of weakness, and of a
speckled or dark color.
" The belly well defended with wool, and the wool com-
ing down before and behind to the knee, and to the hock ;
the wool short, close, curled, and fine, and free from spiry
projecting fibres."
This breed will sustain themselves with occasional short
keep, and endure hard stocking equal to any other ; and
their early maturity is but liltle ir^ferior to the new Leices-
ters, the flesh finely grained, and of pecuharly good flavor.*
Blacklock says " it is unadapted for bleak situations, but
sufficiently hardy and active for a low ""country."
The average weight is from 15 to 18 lbs. a quarter ;t but
on the authority of Mr. Youatt, Mr. Grantham exhibited a
pen of three sheep at Smithfield in 1835, one of them weigh-
ing 283 lbs.; the second 286 lbs.; and the third 294 lbs.
The average weight of the fleece was, in 1800, 2 lbs., and
the staple at that time very short : it has now increased to
3 lbs. ; and the lowland South Down, from better keep,
shears from 3 J to 4 lbs. The staple has increased from li
to 2 inches in length to from 3 to 4 inches. A picklock
fibre is the 1 -600th part of an inch in diameter, and the serra-
tions 2080 to an inch. For a microscopic view of the fibre,
the reader is referred to the proper place.
A serious objection has always existed against English
South Down wools, from the brittleness of the fibre, origi-
nating in the chalky nature of the soil, on which a large pro-
portion of this breed are kept. Formerly much of this wool
was employed in the manufacture of army cloths ; but its
changed character, within a few years, has also changed its
uses, and it is now converted into flannels, baizes, and
worsted goods of almost all descriptions. The paucity of
serrations will prevent its uses beyond combing purposes,
for which it is now highly prized.
There are no sheep more healthy than the South Downs.
They seldom sufTer from the hydatid on the brain, nor are
they as much exposed to rot as the sheep in many other dis-
tricts. Their general health is supposed to be much con-
nected with, frequent change of food, and their daily journeys
to and from the fold.|
The South Downs have borne witness to a mania for their
* Baxter. t Blacklock. t Library of Ag. Knowledge.
106 BRITISH BREEDS.
possession, like the Merinos and Saxons of our own coun-
try. In 1800, two of Mr. Ellman's rams were sold to the
Emperor of Russia, in order to try the effect of a cross on
the Northern sheep, for one hundred and fifty guineas each.
When Mr. EUman retired from public life, in 1829, his flock
was sold by auction at the following rates : 770 ewes
^13 64 each; 320 lambs $7 92 each; 36 rams $112 50
each ; and his best ram for $292 50. This valuable breed
continue to sustain the high character they acquired through
Mr. Ellman's efforts, and amongst the purest and best flocks,
very high prices are demanded and obtained for breeders.
For a further notice of the qualities of the South Down,
the reader is referred to the chapter on Breeding and
Crossing.
RYELAND SHEEP.
In point of number, the most distinguished breed of
sheep in Herefordshire, is the Ryeland, so called from a
district in the southern part of the county, on which a
large quantity of rye used to be grown, and where many of
these sheep were bred. This breed are rather small, sel-
dom exceeding 16 lbs. to the quarter ; and the weight of the
fleece about 2 lbs., but surpassing in fineness any other Brit-
ish breed. The diameter of the fibre was formerly the same
as pure Merino, and the number of serrations 2420 to an inch.
The peculiar form of the Ryeland, in some respects re-
sembling the Merino, led to the suspicion that the breed
was of foreign extraction. The lightness of the fleece, and
its comparative inferiority as a mutton sheep, will cause it
eventually to be merged into other more profitable breeds,
and then the variety will become extinct.
DORSET SHEEP.
Dorsetshire possesses a valuable breed of sheep, peculiar
to itself. The pure breed are entirely white, the face long
and broad, with a tuft of wool on the forehead ; the shoul-
ders are low but broad, the back straight, the chest deep, the
loins broad, the legs rather beyond a moderate length, and
the bone small. They are a hardy and useful breed, and
the mutton is well flavored, averaging, when three years
old, from 16 to 20 lbs. a quarter.*
* Youatt.
BLACK-FACED SHEEP,
107
A principal characteristic of this breed is the ahnost sin-
gular fecundity of the ewe, often bearing lambs twice in the
year. " When on luxuriant food, they will often admit the
male ten or twelve days after yeaning, and continue to suckle
the first lamb after they are pregnant with a second."
Crosses with the new Leicester have been attempted, but
failed of success. The cross with the South Down has
been otherwise, and the breed resulting from it are esteemed
so valuable that it threatens to supersede both the Dorset and
South Down.
In the neighborhood of cities, where early lambs are in
request, the pure Dorset will always be properly appre-
ciated.
THE BLACK-FACED HEATH SHEEP.
BLACK-FACED SHEEP.
This noted breed abound in the mountainous parts of Lan-
cashire, Westmoreland, Cumberland, Northumberland, and
over the whole of Scotland.
108 BRITISH BREEDS.
By many it is supposed to be the aboriginal sheep of
Scotland ; but Mr. Cully, who is high authority, thinks the
dun-faced sheep, which is smaller and slower in arriving at
maturity, to be the true original Scottish sheep.
The belief is common in Scotland, that the black-faced
sheep are of foreign origin, and the forest of Ettrick was
their original locality.*
" They have mostly horns, more or less spirally formed,
but the females are frequently without horns. The faces
and legs are black, or at least mottled ; the eyes are wild
and fierce. They are covered with wool about the forehead
and lower jaw, and the wool generally is somewhat open
and long, coarse, and shaggy ; not so long, however, but
that the sheep may be properly classed among the middle-
wooled breeds."!
In consequence of greater attention to choice selections
of individuals for breeding, the form has changed, within a
few years, for the better ; the carcase has become so short,
round, firm, and handsome, as to acquire the name of short
sheep, in contradistinction to the Cheviot, or long sheep.
The mutton, especially since this improvement of form
was effected, is highly esteemed in the London market, re-
sembling, more than any other English breeds, the South
Down in the fineness of its grain and the delicacy of its
flavor. This is attributed in a measure to the nature and
variety of the herbage on which they are fed during sum-
mer. The weight of this breed, when fattened, is from 16
to 20 lbs. per quarter, and the weight of the fleece unwashed
is about 5 lbs.
No other breeds equal the black-faced sheep in hardiness
of constitution, and endurance of cold.
CHEVIOT SHEEP.
One of the most distinguished British breeds of sheep is
the Cheviot ; and from their comparative early maturity,
valuable mutton qualities, and, especially, hardiness of con-
stitution, which would adaptate them to the rigorous climate
of the northern portions of our own country, it can scarcely
be doubted that a trial, at least, ere long, will be made by
some of our enterprising countrymen, and their general
merits tested.
* Fanner's Magazine. t Youatt.
CHEVIOT SHEEP.
109
** The Cheviot Hills are a part of that extensive and ele-
vated range which extends from Galloway through Northum-
berland into Cumberland and Westmoreland, occupying a
space of from 150 to 200 square miles. The majority of
them are pointed like cones ; their sides are smooth and
steep, and their bases are nearly in contact with each other.
The soil, except on the very top, is fertile ; and from the
base to the summit of most of them there is an unbroken
and rich greensward.
Wi^M^"^^^^ ^^^^^f^
^^
THE CHEVIOT RAM.
" On the upper part of that hill in Northumberland, which
is properly termed the Cheviot, a peculiar and most valuable
breed of sheep is found. They have been there almost
from time immemorial. Tradition says that they came from
the border districts of Scotland ; but they are totally differ-
ent from the black-faced sheep, and bear no resemblance to
the original dun-faced Scottish sheep. How two breeds, so
totally different from each other, came to inhabit the neigh-
10
110 BRITISH BREEDS,
boring districts of Ettrick forest and the Cheviot Hills, nei-
ther history nor tradition has attempted to explain."*
They are described by Youatt, as hornless ; the face and
legs generally white ; the eye lively and prominent ; the
countenance open and pleasing ; the ear large ; the body
long, and hence they are called " long sheep," in distinction
from the black-faced breed. They are full behind the shoul-
der, a long, straight back, round in the rib, and well proper-
tioned in the quarters ; the legs are clean and small-boned, j
and the pelt thin, but thickly covered with a fine, short wool,
which extends over the w^hole of the body.
All authorities concur in stating that the Cheviot breed
possess considerable fattening properties, and can endure
much hardship both from starvation and cold. It is fit for
the butcher when three years old, and at two years when
crossed with the Leicester. The wethers average from 12
to 18 lbs. per quarter, but some have been exhibited at the
Highland cattle shows, weighing 30 and 32 lbs, per quarter.
. The wool is not quite so fine as the South Down, and
since the improvement of the carcase commenced, the wool
has been used mostly for combing purposes.
The following is Sir John Sinclair's description of the
original Cheviot, as it was in 1792 ; since which time it has
been extensively crossed with the new Leicester, with de-
cided success, so far as earlier maturity and fattening are
concerned, but with a corresponding reduction of hardiness.
" Perhaps there is no part of the whole island where, at
first sight, a fine-wooled breed of shee]) is less to be ex-
pected than among the Cheviot Hills. Many parts of the
sheep-walks consist of nothing but peat bogs and deep mo-
rasses. During winter the hills are covered with snow for
two, three, and sometimes four months, and they have an
ample proportion of bad weather during the other seasons of
the year, and yet a sheep is to be found that will thrive even
in the wildest part of it. Their shape is excellent, and their
fore-quarter, in particular, is distinguished by such justness
of proportion, as to be equal in weight to the hind one.
Their limbs are of a length to fit them for travelling, and
enable them to pass over bogs and snows, through which a
shorter-legged animal could not penetrate. They have a
closer fleece than the Tweeddale and Leicester breeds, which
* Farmer's Magazine.
CHEVIOT SHEEP. Ill
keeps them warmer in cold weather, and prevents either
snow or rain from incommoding them. They have never
any other food, except when they are fattened, than the grass
and natural hay produced on their own hills."
The Cheviot has pushed itself over nearly all Scotland,
and is everywhere contesting the ground inch by inch with
the black-faced sheep. With every improvement in agricul-
ture it advances. The fleece being more compact, it is found
to be a better endurer of cold, though not so patient of hunger.
On scanty pasture it does quite as well, and where there is
great abundance, it leaves its black-faced competitor far be-
hind ; and it is supposed that it will soon be the only breed
worthy of the Highlands of Scotland.
This may be considered a proper place to describe those
terrible storms in the Scottish Highlands, to which these
and the black-faced sheep are so often exposed. The sub-
joined accounts are from the " Shepherd's Calendar," by
the Ettrick shepherd, James Hogg. The first account is
termed the " thirteen drifty days."
" For thirteen days and nights the snowdrift never once
abated ; the ground was covered with frozen snow when it
commenced, and during all the time of its continuance, the
sheep never broke fast. The cold was intense to a degree
never before remembered, and about the fifth and sixth days
of the storm, the young sheep began to fall into a sleepy
and torpid state, and all that were so affected in the evening,
died in the night. About the ninth and tenth days the shep-
herds began to build up huge semicircular walls of their
dead, in order to afford some shelter to the remainder ; but
shelter availed little, for the want of food began to be felt so
severely, that they were frequently seen tearing one another's
wool.
" When the storm abated on the fourteenth day, there was
on many a high-lying farm not a living sheep to be seen.
Large misshapen walls of dead, surrounding a small pros-
trate flock, likewise all dead and frozen stiff in their layers,
were all that remained to the forlorn shepherd and his master.
In the extensive pastoral district of Eskdale-muir, which
previously contained more than 20,000 sheep, only forty
young wethers were left on one farm, and five old ewes on
another."
The sheep seem possessed of an instinctive foresight of
the approach of these storms, and will hurry to a place for
112 BRITISH BREEDS.
protection, when the shepherd himself sees not a cloud, and
" dreams not of the wind." " I had left," says one of these
mountain shepherds, " my sheep under their accustomed shel-
ter, and where I had never failed to find them safe and com-
fortable in the morning, and I was plodding my weary way
homeward ; but before distance and darkness closed them from
my sight for the night, I looked back to see if they had given
over work (digging for their food from under the snow), when
I was surprised to see them on their march down hill towards
a plantation which would afford securer shelter, and to which
I had been accustomed to drive them when I feared the
coming tempest. They had fallen into rows, pacing one
after another until they reached the plantation, and there was
nothing to suggest to my mind the return of a drift, but their
movement and their bleating. They passed through the
plantation, and took that side of it which would afford them
a safe shelter from the southwest hurricanes. It, however,
happened that, although their instinct had admonished them
that a tempest was impending, it had not taught them from
what quarter that tempest would come, and it soon began to
blow from the northeast, from which they had no defence.
When I came to them in the morning, the wreath was higher
than the dyke, and was leaning over upon the trees. Some
of the strongest sheep had kept treading down the snow as
it gathered around them, and were on the top of the wreath ;
but many of them further back were quite immersed in the
snow. However, by means of probing and digging, I got
them all out, except two that had been crushed by the weight
of the snow."
Instances are recorded showing an almost incredible te-
nacity of life, when covered with snowdrift. A sheep near
Kendal was, in the winter of 1800, buried in the snow thirty-
three days and nights, without the possibility of moving,
and yet surviv^ed. In the same winter, a sheep near Caldbeck,
in Cumberland, was buried thirty-eight days ; when found it
had completely eaten the wool olF both its sides, and was re-
duced to a skeleton.*
Within the last twenty years much attention has been paid
to smearing the sheep of the Highland districts with a com-
position of tar and whale oil, which mats the wool, and
shields the animal alike from cold and wet.
* Annual Register.
SHETLAND ISLAND SHEEP IRISH SHEEP. 113
SHETLAND ISLAND SHEEP.
The Shetland Islands are situated far to the north of
Scotland. The sheep which inhabit them have long been
celebrated for the remarkable fineness of their wool. They
are not, however, aboriginal, but derived many centuries since
from Denmark. They are small, seldom weighing more
than ten pounds to the quarter, and yield about two pounds
of wool, which has commanded as high as from three to four
shillings sterling per pound.
Mr. Youatt says — " There is, perhaps, no part of the
world in which the breed, or the few of it that are at present
found, have remained, century after century, precisely in the
same state. This admits of a ready explanation. The pure
Shetland sheep deserves not the name of a domestic animal.
He is scarcely seen more than once in the year, when he is
hunted home in order to be shorn. Often he is scarcely
seen at that period, for he left his coat among the bushes,
and is suffered to escape disregarded."
IRISH SHEEP.
The sheep has been an inhabitant of Ireland from time
immemorial, but history and tradition afford no accounts from
whence the animal sprung.
Few countries are belter adapted than Ireland for breeding
and perfecting the sheep. The climate is removed from
extremes of heat and cold, and the soil, even to the summits
of its highest mountains, prolific of pasture.
The primitive sheep were of two kinds, short and long
wooled; the former are confined to the mountains. In the
county of Wicklow the short-wooled breed abounds, perhaps,
at the present time, in the largest number. The fleece is
represented as wavy, weighing from 2 to 3 lbs., and the fibre
about two inches in length. The breed is valuable from the
fineness of its wool, hardiness, and endurance of hard stock-
ing. The cross of the South Down was attended with evi-
dent advantage, yet, from the prejudice and jealousy of
the Irish farmers, it was not carried to the extent its success
deserved. A cross was also attempted with the Merino, but
it failed principally because the Merino was not suited to the
humid and cold pastures of the mountains.
The native long- wooled breed, until about the beginning
of the present century, had been sadly neglected. They
10*
114 BRITISH BREEDS.
are described by Mr. Cully, thus : " I am sorry to say I
never saw such ugly sheep as these — the worst breeds we
have in England are by much superior. One would suppose
that the sheep-breeders in Ireland have taken as much pains
to breed awkward sheep, as many of the people in England
have to breed handsome ones. I know nothing to recom-
mend them except their size, which might please some old-
fashioned breeders who can get no kind of stock large enough.
These sheep are supported by very long, thick, crooked,
grey legs, their heads long and ugly, with large flagging ears,
grey faces, and eyes sunk ; necks long, and set on behind the
shoulders ; breast narrow and short ; hollow both before and
behind the shoulders ; flat-sided, with high, narrow, herring
backs ; hind quarters drooping and tail set low."*
Mr. Youatt follows up this description with the remark,
"that much must be set down to the score of prejudice."
Mr. Cully himself was at that time a successful breeder of
the New Leicester, and no doubt was anxious to extend his
favorite breed into Ireland. This by others was soon eff'ect-
ed, and the cross established a sheep admirably adapted to
the rich pastures characteristic of the country, and resulted
in large increase of profits to those who embarked earliest in
the enterprise. So much as 150 guineas were paid for the
hire of a single ram of the improved breed of Leicesters.
Mr. Youatt says — " The new breed struggled for a while
against prejudices and difficulties of every description, and
at length completely triumphed. They gradually spread
over the whole of Ireland ; and the Irish sheep that are now
brought so plentifully to the English market will scarcely
yield to the best improved Leicesters that any part of Great
Britain can produce." The improved fleece weighs from 5
to 7 lbs. ; the fibre is the 560th part of an inch in diameter,
and the serrations 1920 in the space of an inch. Irish wool
is used for stuffs, bombazines, and bombazetts.
* Cully on Live Stock.
CHAPTEE VL
BRITISH BREEDS
NEW LEICESTER, OR BAKEWELL— TEESWATER— ROMNEY MARSH-
LINCOLN— BAMPTON—COTSWOLD— WELSH SHEEP— MERINO SHEEP
IN ENGLAND.
NEW LEICESTER, OR BAKEWELL.
Some writers have contended that the valuable family of
long-wooled sheep, now so extensively spread over Great
Britain, was of foreign origin ; but thorough investigation
proves their assertions groundless.*
With the short- wooled variety, from time immemorial, each
was assigned a locality admirably adapted, from soil, herb-
age, and climate, to itself; and thus their respective peculi-
arities both of form and fleece, through many centuries,
remained distinct. Both varieties have been essentially
improved by the art of man, as has already been shown in
reference to the South Down ; and, if possible, a still greater
improvement has been effected of the long-wooled breeds,
especially as to profitableness of carcase, through the inde-
fatigable efforts of Mr. Bakewell, of Dishby, Leicestershire,
and Mr. Cully, his able coadjutor.
The compiler will offer no apology for introducing to the
reader nearly the whole of Mr. Youatt's faithful and inter-
esting history of this renowned breed, valuable to all as
showing the means adopted by Mr. Bakewell by which the
New Leicester was brought to its present perfection of car-
case, and extraordinary early maturity.
THE OLD LEICESTER SHEEP.
" This was a large, heavy, coarse-wooled breed, common
to most of the midland counties, and reaching from the south
of Yorkshire, and as far as Oxfordshire and Gloucestershire.
* Luccock.
116
BRITISH BREEDS.
It had a white face, no horns — it was long and thin in the
carcase, flat-sided, with large bones — thick, rough, and white
legs — and weighing, the ewe from 15 to 20 lbs., and the
wether from 20 to 30 lbs. the quarter. It was covered with
wool from 10 to 14 inches in length, coarse in quality, and
weighing from 8 to 13 lbs. The pelt and offal were thick
and coarse ; the animal was a slow feeder, and the flesh was
coarse-grained, and with little flavor."
NEW LEICESTER SHEEP.
The following description of the New Leicester will show
the reader in what respects Mr. Bakewell effected his im-
provement over the old breed.
NEW LEICESTER RAM.
The head should be hornless, long, small, tapering towards
the muzzle, and projecting horizontally forwards. The eyes
prominent, but with a quiet expression. The ears thin, rather
long, and directed backwards. The neck full and broad at
its base where it proceeds from the chest, but gradually ta-
NEW LEICESTER SHEEP. 117
pering towards the head, and being particularly fine at the
junction of the head and neck ; the neck seeming to project
straight from the chest, so that there is, with the sUghtest
possible deviation, one continued horizontal line from the
rump to the poll. The breast broad and full ; the shoulders
also broad and round, and no uneven or angular formation
where the shoulders join either the neck or the back, par-
ticularly no rising of the withers, or hollow behind the situ-
ation of these bones. The arm fleshy through its whole
extent, and even down to the knee. The bones of the leg
small, standing wide apart, no looseness of skin about them,
and comparatively bare of wool. The chest and barrel at
once deep and round ; the ribs forming a considerable arch
from the spine, so as in some cases, and especially when the
animal is in good condition, to make the apparent width of
the chest even greater than the depth. The barrel ribbed
well home, no irregularity of line on the back or the belly,
but, on the sides, the carcase very gradually diminishing in
width towards the rump. The quarters long and full, and,
as with the fore legs, the muscles extending down to the
hock ; the thighs also v/ide and full. The legs of moderate
length, the pelt also moderately full, but soft and elastic, and
covered with a good quantity of white wool, not so long as
in some breeds, but considerably finer.
" It was about the middle of the last century that Mr.
Bakewell first applied himself to the endeavor to improve
the then existing breed in Leicestershire. Up to this period
very little care had been bestowed upon the breeding of
sheep.
" Two objects alone appear to have engrossed the attention
of the breeders : first, to breed animals of the largest possible
size ; and, secondly, such as should produce the heaviest
fleeces. Aptitude to fatten, and symmetry of shape, that is,
such shape as should increase as much as possible the most
valuable parts of the animal, and diminish in the same pro-
portion the ofl"al, were entirely disregarded.
" Mr. Bakewell perceived that smaller animals increased
in weight more rapidly than very large ones ; and that they
consumed so much less food, that the same quantity of herb-
age applied to feeding a larger number of small sheep would
produce more meat than when applied to feeding the smaller
number of large sheep which alone it would support. He
also perceived that sheep carrying a heavy fleece of wool
118 BRITISH BREEDS.
possessed less propensity to fatten than those which carried
one of a more moderate weight.
" Acting upon these observations, he selected from the dif-
ferent flocks in his neighborhood, without regard to size, the
sheep which appeared to him to have the greatest propensity
to fatten, and whose shape possessed the peculiarities which
he considered would produce the largest proportion of valu-
able meat, and the smallest quantity of bone and oifal.
" In doing this, it is probable that he was led to prefer the
smaller sheep, still more than he had been by the considera-
tion above stated, because it is found that perfection of shape
more frequently accompanies a moderate-sized animal than
a very large one.
" He was also of the opinion that the first object to be
attended to in breeding sheep was the value of the carcase,
and that the fleece ought always to be a secondary consider-
ation. The reason of this is obvious : the addition of two
or three pounds of wool to the weight of a sheep's fleece is
a diflbrence of great amount ; but if to procure this increase
a sacrifice is made of the propensity to fatten, the farmer
may lose by it ten or twelve pounds of mutton.
" The sort of sheep, therefore, which Mr. Bake well select-
ed were those possessed of the most perfect symmetry, with
the greatest aptitude to fatten, and rather smaller in size than
the sheep then generally bred. Having formed his stock
from sheep so selected, he carefully attended to the peculi-
arities of the individuals from which he bred, and, it appears,
did not object to breeding from near relations, when by so
doing he put together animals likely to produce a progeny
possessing the characteristics that he wished to obtain.
" Mr. Bakewell has been supposed by some persons to
have formed the New Leicester variety by crossing diflerent
sorts of sheep ; but there does not appear to be any reason
for believing this ; and the circumstance of their varying in
their appearance and qualities so much as they do from the
other varieties of the long-wooled sheep, can by no means
be considered as proving that such was the system which he
adopted. Every one who has attended to the breeding of
domestic animals must have experienced that, hy careful se-
lection of those from which he breeds, and with a clear and
defined conception of the object he intends to effect, he may
procure a progeny in which that object will be accomplished.
NEW LEICESTER SHEEP. 119
" Such is the origin of the New Leicester breed of sheep,
which have within little more than half a century spread
themselves from their native county over every part of the
United Kingdom, and are now exported to the continents of
Europe and America. Such, indeed, have proved to be their
merits, that at the present day there are very few flocks of
long-wooled sheep existing in England, Scotland, or Ireland,
which are not in some degree descended from the flock of
Mr. Bakewell. A pure Lincoln or Teeswater flock is very
rarely to be found ; and although some flocks of the pure
Cotswold breed remain, in the greatest number of instances
it is probable that they have been crossed with the New
Leicester.
" No other sort of sheep possesses so great a propensity
to fatten — no other sort is fit for the butcher at so early an
age — and although they are not calculated for the poorest
soils, where the herbage is so scanty that the sheep must
walk over a great deal of ground for the purpose of procuring
its food, no other sort of sheep, in soils of a moderate or
superior quality, is so profitable to the breeder.
" They vary much in size, weighing at a year and a half
old, with ordinary keep, from 24 to 36 lbs. per quarter.* In
this respect, therefore, they are inferior to the Lincoln, the
Cotswold, and the Teeswater sheep. By crossing them
with either of these breeds, the size of the sheep may be
considerably increased ; and it is said that this may be
done without diminishing perceptibly either their inclination
to become fat, or the early maturity for which they have
always been remarkable.
'* The kind of meat which they yield is of a peculiar char-
acter. When the sheep are not over fattened, it is tender
and juicy, but, in the opinion of many persons, somewhat
insipid. **#*#*
" The Leicester sheep were never favorites with the
butcher, because they had little loose inside fat. It ought,
nevertheless, to have been recollected that the smallness of
the head, and the thinness of the pelt, would in some meas-
ure counterbalance the loss of tallow ; and that the diminu-
tion of oflial is advantageous to the grazier, for it shows a
* The heaviest pure Leicester, of which there is any authentic account,
belonged to Mr. Morgan, of Loughton ; its live weiglit was 368 lbs., and
the weight of the carcase, 248 lbs.
120 Br.ITISTI BREEDS,
disposition to form fat outwardly, and is uniformly accom-
panied by a tendency to quickness of improvement.
" The New Leicesters, however, are not without their
faults. They are not, even at the present day, so prolific as
most other breeds. This was too much overlooked in the
time of Bakewell and his immediate followers. Their ob-
ject was to produce a lamb that could be forced on so as to
be ready, at the earliest possible period, for the purposes of
breeding or of slaughter, and therefore the production of
twins was not only unsought after, but was regarded as an
evil. ##*#**
" It was likewise, and not without reason, objected to
them that their lambs were tender and weakly, and unable
to bear the occasional inclemency of the weather at the
lambing season. This also was a necessary consequence of
that delicacy of form, and delicacy of constitution too, which
were so sedulously cultivated in the Leicester sheep.
" The last objection to the New Leicester sheep was the
neglect and deficiency of the fleece. There is little cause,
however, for complaint at the present period. The wool has
considerably increased in length, and has improved both in
fineness and strength of fibre ; it averages from 6 to 7 lbs. the
fleece, and the fibre varies from five to more than twelve
inches in length. It is mostly used in the manufacture of
serges and carpets.
" The principal value of this breed consists in the improve-
ment which it has effected in almost every variety of sheep
that it has crossed ; but it has met with, especially in Wales,
a powerful antagonist in the Cotswold."
The introduction of additional evidence showing the ne-
cessity of providing luxuriant pasturage for the Leicester
breed, will be proper.
" I occupied a farm," says a Lammermine shepherd, " that
had been rented by our family for nearly half a century. On
entering it, the Cheviot stock was the object of our choice,
and so long as we continued in possession of this breed,
everything proceeded with considerable success ; but the
New Leicesters came into fashion, and we, influenced by
the general mania, cleared our farm of the Cheviots and pro-
cured the favorite stock. Our coarse bean pastures, however,
were unequal to the task of supporting such heavy-bodied
sheep ; and they gradually dwindled away into less and less
bulk ; each generation was inferior to the preceding one ;
TEESWATER SHEEP ROMNEY MARSH SHEEP. 121
and, when the spring was severe, seldom more than two thirds
of the lambs could sm-vive the ravages of the storm."
Sir John Sinclair has also recorded his opinion on this
point. " The Leicester breed is perhaps the best ever
reared for a rich arable district ; but the least tincture of this
blood is destructive of the mountain sheep, as it makes them
incapable of withstanding the least scarcity of food."
The New Leicester breed have been extensively intro-
duced into the North American British Provinces, and the
United States ; and when suitable localities have been
chosen, their cultivation has been attended with success.
TEESWATER SHEEP.
This breed derives its name from the river which sepa-
rates Durham from Yorkshire. It is supposed, from its simi-
larity of conformation to the old Lincolnshires, to have orig-
inated from that stock. " It was a tall, clumsy animal, poll-
ed, and with white face and legs : the bones small compared
with those of other large breeds, yet supporting a thicker,
firmer, and heavier body than their size would indicate ;
wide upon the back, somewhat round in the barrel, and yet
yielding a heavier carcase than any other sheep, but propor-
tionably longer in growing to perfection ; the meat, how^-
ever, was finer-grained than could be expected from such an
animal."
The old Teeswater was exceedingly prolific. Mr. Cully
records a singular instance of a ewe belonging to a Mr. Ed-
dison, which, at two years old, brought him four lambs,
three in the following year, two in the succeeding one, and
the extraordinary number of five, the next year. The fleece
weighed about nine pounds previous to any improvement of
the carcase by the cross of the New Leicester ; and the
wool was remarkably long, coarse, and thinly set on the
skin.
The improvement which followed the cross alluded to,
at length superseded entirely the old breed ; and the im-
proved Teeswater sheep now rivals the Leicester, in dis-
position to fatten, early maturity, as well as quality of
fleece.
ROMNEY MARSH SHEEP, OF KENT.
Romney Marsh Is an extensive tract of land recovered
from the sea in a very earlv period of English history.
11
122
BRITISH BREEDS.
A portion of the soil is poor and sandy, but very much of
the marsh affords a superabundance of rich and valuable
pasture for sheep. A long-wooled and highly profitable
breed of sheep has been kept on these reclaimed lands
from time immemorial, and which has undergone but partial
change, until within a few years.
^'^'
%
-""^f^vx
ROMNEY MARSH RAM.
" The pure Romney Marsh breed of sheep arc distin-
guished by thickness and length of head, a broad forehead
with a tuft of wool upon it, a long, thick neck and carcase.
They are flat-sided, have a sharp chine, and tolerably wide
on the loin, have the breast narrow and not deep, and fore-
quarter not heavy nor full. The thigh full and broad, the
belly large and tabby, the tail thick, long, and coarse ; the
legs thick, with large feet ; the wool long, and not fine ; they
have much internal fat, and are great favorites with the
butcher. They have much hardihood ; they bear their cold
LINCOLN SHEEP. 123
and exposed situation well, and they require no artificial
food during the hardest winter, except a little hay."*
The average weight of the fleece is from 6 to 7 lbs.
The breed has been successfully crossed with the Leices-
ter, and many of the bad points of the original stock rec-
tified.
LINCOLN SHEEP.
From the fact that the Lincoln sheep have been intro-
duced into this and other states, and are deservedly formida-
ble rivals of the Leicester and Cotswold, the author, from
motives of delicacy towards the respective breeders, prefers
to render the account of the Lincoln breed in the language
of Mr. Youat, which, on perusal, will appear an impartial
one.
After contradicting, on good grounds, the assertions that
the breed was originally foreign, he says — " The Lincoln
sheep, according to Ellis, who is the oldest agricultural wri-
ter in whom any description of them is given, were the
" longest legged and largest carcassed sheep of all others,
and carried more wool on them than any sheep whatsoever."
" It is true that a larger quantity of wool was clipped from
the Lincolnshire sheep than any other in the kingdom ; and
thence arose the error into which the Lincolnshire breeders
fell ; they bred for the fleece, and for the fleece alone.
Bakewell neglected the fleece — the Lincolnshire farmer the
carcase ; hence the opposite errors of each, and the reason-
ableness and advantage of the plan by which both the car-
case and fleece were at length brought to the highest degree
of perfection.
" If the Lincolnshire farmer too much neglected the car-
case, there were times when the sheep, or when nature,
would vindicate its claims. It is true that the form was
gaunt and somewhat unsightly, but the excellence of the
breed, as a grazing sheep, would occasionally appear. If
the Lincoln would consume more food than the Leicester, it
would increase in weight proportionably to the extra quan-
tity of food which it ate ; and this, together with the addi-
tional weight of wool, rendered it nearly or quite as profita-
ble to the farmer.
" There was a long and acrimonious contest between the
* Price on Shoep.
124 BRITISH BREEDS.
Leicesters and the Lincolns for the point of supremacy.
The contmuance, however, of the contest, and the doubt
which even now exists in the minds of some, with regard to
the relative value of the respective breeds, show that the old
Lincolnshire should not have been spoken of in a disparag-
ing way. Before they were allied to the Leicesters, and
ill-formed and rough as they were, they had attained no small
degree of excellence both in the carcase and the wool.
" At length a union was established between them. The
Lincoln ewe was put to the Leicester ram, and the progeny
certainly displayed, and to a very great and profitable extent,
the excellencies of the male parent ; the wether attained its
maturity a full year sooner than it was accustomed to do, and
with less comparative expense of food even in that time ;
and when the ewe was drafted, she too was sooner ready to
be sent to the market, and weighed considerably more than
she was wont to do, and was in higher repute and more rea-
dily sold.
" Mr. Clark, of Can wick, in 1827, exhibited two wether
sheep in Lincoln Market, the fleeces of which had yielded,
each, 12 lbs. of wool. They were slaughtered — the carcase
of the larger one weighed 261 lbs.: the fore-quarters were,
each of them, 73 lbs., and the hind quarters 57 1-2 lbs. ! On
the top of the rib the solid fat measured nine inches in
thickness !
" The average weight of the fleeces of the Lincoln breed
is from 8 to 10 lbs. It has since become finer and the co-
lor is improved, but it is shorter, a material objection in some
fabrics, and it has lost some of that toughness which is an
indispensable quality in the best combing wool. The light
and tender kind of wool is valuable in the manufacture of
the rougher woollen articles, but it is not suited to the finer
worsted fabrics.
" The fibre is the 480th part of an inch in diameter, and
the serrations 1280 in the space of an inch."
BAMPTON SHEEP.
This breed is found extensively spread over the north of
Devonshire, and also in Somersetshire. The name is derived
from a village on the borders of the two counties, where they
are supposed to have been first bred.
In the Annals of Agriculture, a writer thus describes them :
" They are the best breed in Devonshire, and have existed
COTSWOLD SHEEP, 125
in the neighborhood of Bampton for centuries. A fat ewe
of that breed rises to 20 lbs. a quarter on an average, and
wethers to 30 lbs. or 35 lbs. a quarter at two years old.
They are white-faced ; the best breed living, more like the
Leicesters than any other, but larger boned, longer in the
legs and body, though not so broad-backed. Eighteen lbs.
of wool have been shorn from a ram of this breed that was
supposed to be 40 lbs. the quarter.
They have been crossed with the Leicester with evident
advantage it is considered by some, while others contend to
the contrary, the wool being lessened in weight, length, and
toughness, and the lambs more tender and difficult to rear.
^^
r^M
'MX^^^^^A
*" '^'^'cf^,
COTSWOLD EWE.
COTSWOLD SHEEP.
The following account of this breed is by Mr. Spooner : —
" This is an ancient and celebrated breed, its wool being
spoken of very favorably by many old writers. Cotswold
signifies a sheep-fold and a naked hill. The Cotswold hills,
the native tract of the breed, are of moderate elevation, pos-
11*
126 BRITISH BREEDS.
sess a sweet herbage, and thougli formerly consisting mostly
of bleak wastes, have been latterly much improved. Cam-
den speaks of the breed as having fine and soft wool. Dray-
ton writes of its fleeces as more abundant than those of Sa-
rum and Leominster. Speed, writing 200 years ago, speaks
of the wool as similar to the Ryeland, and rivalling that of
Spain. Indeed, some imagine it was the origin of the Me-
rino sheep, as in 1464 Edward IV. permitted a number to
be exported to Spain, where they greatly increased and
spread. Spain, however, before this, was celebrated for the
fineness of its wool. Markham, in the time of Queen Eliz-
abeth, speaks of the Cotswold as having long wool, and Mr.
Marshall and other writers consider that they have always
been a long-wooled breed. It is difficult to reconcile these
difl'erences of opinion ; for my own part, I am disposed to
think that the present are the descendants of the old race ;
be this as it may, we have no evidence, either oral, written,
or traditional, of the change having been made.
The Cotswold is a large breed of sheep, with a long and
abundant fleece, and the ewes are very prolific and good
nurses. Formerly these bred only on the hills, and fatted in
the valleys of the Severn and the Thames ; but with the
enclosure of the Cotswold hills, and the improvement of
their cultivation, they have been reared and fattened in the
same district. They have been extensively crossed with
the Leicester sheep, by which their size and fleece have
been somewhat diminished, but their carcases considerably
improved, and their maturity rendered earlier. The wethers
are now sometimes fattened at fourteen months, when they
weigh from 15 lbs. to 24 lbs. per quarter, and at two years
old increase to 20 lbs. or 30 lbs. The wool is strong, mel-
low, and of good color, though rather coarse, six to eight
inches in length, and from 7 to 8 lbs. the fleece. The supe-
rior hardihood of the improved Cotswold over the Leicester,
and their adaptation to common treatment, together with the
prolific nature of the ewes and their abundance of milk,
have rendered them in many places rivals of the new Lei-
cester, and have obtained for them of late years more atten-
tion to their selection and general treatment, under which
management still further improvement appears very probable.
They have also been used in crossing other breeds, and have
been mixed with the Hampshire Downs. It is, indeed, the
improved Cotswold that, under the term New or Improved
WELSH SHEEP. MERINO SHEEP IN ENGLAND. 127
Oxfordshire Sheep, are so frequently the successful candi-
dates for prizes offered for the best long-wooled sheep at
some of the principal agricultural meetings or shows in the
kingdom. The quality of the mutton is considered superior
to that of the Leicester, the tallow being less abundant, with
a larger development of muscle or flesh. We may, there-
fore, regard this breed as one of established reputation, and
extending itself throughout every district of the kingdom."
WELSH SHEEP.
Little can be said of the welsh sheep to interest the
American wool-grower. The primitive breeds are of two
kinds — mountain and valley sheep ; the former producing a
short fine wool, and the latter a coarse fleece with medium
length of staple.
Ellis, the ancient author of the " Shepherd's Sure Guide,"
says — " I am now come to write on the hardiest sheep there
are for living in a cold country, and any where else, on that
short bite of grass where a large sheep would pine and
starve ; but they are not the choice of many, because they
are apt to straggle and run away. They are a small, short,
knotty sheep, that come from the poorest living, and thrive
and fatten quickly for the butcher, and become the sweetest
of mutton, particularly for a private family's uses, who de-
light to eat the best and finest sorts." The ewes of this
breed average about 8 lbs. to the quarter, and the wethers
10 lbs, when at three years old. The mutton is particularly
well-flavored, and in the months of October and November,
commands a much higher price than that of other breeds of
larger size. A considerable quantity of Welsh mutton finds
its way to the London market.
Since the introduction of turnip husbandry, the cross of
the Leicester has been tested, and in many parts of the val-
ley regions more productive of herbage than others, it has
succeeded ; but the Cotswold, from greater natural hardihood,
has contested the ground with the Leicester, and with mark-
ed superiority over its formidable competitor.
MERINO SHEEP IN ENGLAND.
George the IIL was distinguished as an ardent promoter
of agriculture, and determined in 1787, to make a fair trial
of this renowned breed ; and accordingly a few were ordered
and placed on his farm at Kew. They were selected in Es-
128
BRITISH BREEDS.
tremadiira, on the borders of Portugal ; and this, at that
time, was a sort of smuggling transaction, as no Merinos
could be sent from any Spanish port without a license from
the king ; therefore they were obliged to be shipped from
Lisbon, The sheep were hastily chosen from different
flocks and various districts, and consequently exhibited but
little uniformity, and not fully the true character of the breed ;
the king, therefore, soon disposed of them to others.
Subsequently, it was determined to make a direct applica-
tion to the Spanish monarch for ])ermission to make a selec-
tion from some of the best flocks. This was promptly
gTanted ; and a small number was taken from the Negrette
variety, then deemed the most valuable of the migratory
sheep. This flock arrived in 1791, and was immediately
placed on the king's farm.
From ignorance, they were at first badly managed. Hav-
ing been placed on a moist and luxuriant soil, many soon
became affected with foot rot, and others died from attacks
of liver rot. This calamity was a triumph to the prejudiced,
but a change to dryer pasture proved a remedy, which soon
led to a change of opinion in their favor. In a short time it
appeared that they were no more subject to diseases than
British sheep.
Crosses took place with several varieties of the native
breeds, with various success. Doctor Parry crossed with
the Ryeland, the most superior short-wooled sheep in Eng-
land, and the fourth cross produced a wool equal to pure
Merino.
Mr. Coke, the renowned English agriculturist, also expe-
rimented on both the Ryelands and South Downs, and af-
firmed that the cross with the latter was superior to that of
the former. It was but a few years afterwards, that he ex-
pressed the following opinion, in an address before the Me-
rino Society, at Holkham : — " I feel it my duty," said he,
to state my latest opinion of the effects of the cross of a part
of my South Down flock with Merino tups, and I wish it
could be more favorable. From the further trial which I
have made, (this, the fourth year), I must candidly confess
that I have reason to believe that, however one cross may
answer, afarther progress will not prove advantageous to the
breeder," This opinion of Mr. Coke should be duly consi-
dered by every American breeder.
But, sometime antecedent to this decision of Mr. Coke,
MERINO SHEEP IN ENGLAND. 129
very many who had entertained apparently insurmountable
prejudices were bold to acknowledge the merits of the Me-
rinos, and became fully satisfied that neither the climate or
herbage of their new home were incompatible with perfect
success. Sir Joseph Banks and Lord Somerville were
amongst their staunchest and zealous advocates, and the lat-
ter duly tested the sincerity of his opinions, by importing a
considerable flock of them.
Thirteen years after the king's importation of the Negrette
flock, a public sale by auction was made of Merinos. The
rams averaged about fifty dollars per head, and the ewes thir-
ty. In 1808, four years after, the prices averaged 130 dol-
lars for rams, and 100 dollars for ewes. In 1810 the Me-
rinos arrived at the climax of public favor. In this year, at
another public auction sale, rams commanded nearly 300
dollars per head. " One full-mouthed Negrette was sold for
over 800 dollars, and another for nearly 700."
A Merino Society was instituted in the following year, at
the head of which was placed Sir Joseph Banks, with fifty-
four Vice Presidents, and local committees were established
in every county in England, Scotland, Ireland, and Wales.
Mr. Youalt observes — " No more striking instance can be
produced of the fallacy of human expectations and judgment,
than the establishment of this society. From this period is
to be dated the rapid decay of the Merinos in public estima-
tion." After a passing tribute of just praise to the breed, he
proceeds to say, " In Great Britain, nevertheless, where
the system of artificial feeding is carried to so great a de-
gree of perfection — where the sheep is so early and so pro-
fitably brought to the market — that breed, however it may ulti-
mately increase the value of the wool, can never be adopted,
which is deficient, as the Merinos undeniably are, in the prin-
ciple of early maturity, and general propensity to fatten."
Other reasons for the abandonment of the Merinos are
given by Mr. Flint, a distinguished agriculturist. He says
— " I always thought the speculation of cultivating the Me-
rinos a decidedly foolish and unprofitable one. We can con-
sume all the coarse wool we grow, and more if we could get
it ; and taking carcase and weight of wool together, the long-
wooled sheep is more profitable by far than the Merino. Be-
sides, if the English breeds were to any considerable extent
superseded by the Merinos, the price of that wool would
fall, and long wools would rise ; and the advantage of grow-
130 BRITISH BREEDS.
ing fine wool, on account of its high price, would slip through
the fingers of the agriculturist. If we could grow more of
both kinds, well and good ; but in present circumstances, a
profit by foreign wool is as good as a profit by fine wool, and
we can only have one ; and it is the part of wisdom to take
that which is easiest got."
The above are the substantial reasons for the downfall of
the Merinos in Great Britain, and not altogether, as many
have supposed, from the humidity of the climate. Long after
their introduction, the wool of the Merinos was carefully
compared with the best samples of pure Spanish, and no
deterioration was perceptible. A dry climate is best suited
to the Merino, but many years would elapse before a humid
one, without other causes, would produce any essential
change in the properties of its fleece. High feeding is al-
together a more potent cause of deterioration.
The Table will indicate to the reader the comparative va-
lue of the wools imported into Great Britain. The prices
were current in 1834, in London.
$ cts.
Spanish Merino, per lb. . . . 60
Portugal ditto 44
Lamb's wool ditto .... 36
German, Saxon, and Silesian : —
1st and 2d' Electoral . . . . 1 05
Prima 88
Secunda 66
Tertia 48
Austrian, Bohemian, and Hungarian : —
1st Electoral 88
Prima 77
Secunda 55
Tertia 44
Australian: —
Best fleeces 77
Seconds 61
Inferior flocks 50
Van Dieman's Land: —
Superior fleeces 55
Middling 42
Inferior ....... 22
British Fleeces : —
North and South Down ... 44
Leicester fleeces .... 33
Romney Marsh, Lincoln, and Cotswold 40
Anglo Merino in yolk ... 22
^ cts.
to
77
a
62
((
41
a
1 15
a
1 10
((
77
u
55
u
1 20
a
1 00
(C
78
u
67
((
I 00
((
88
u
62
((
65
((
46
((
34
a
48
u
44
a
44
((
30
CHAPTER VII.
SHEEP OF THE UNITED STATES AND
SOUTH AMERICA.
WOOLLY SHEEP OF ROCKY MOUNTAINS— OTTER SHEEP— ARLING-
TON LONG WOOLED SHEEP— SMITH'S ISLAND SHEEP— REMARKS
ON MERINOS AND SAXONS— PRAIRIE MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP-
OBSERVATIONS ON WOOL CULTURE IN THE SOUTH, AND SOUTH-
WESTERN STATES— CENSUS STATISTICS— SOUTH AMERICAN SHEEP
—ALPACA, OR PERUVIAN SHEEP— WOOL CULTURE ON THE PAM-
PAS.
SHEEP OF THE UNITED STATES.
Neither North or South America can boast of any abo-
riginal or primitive domestic breeds of sheep : those which
have received the name of " native" having been brought
over at various periods from Europe by the colonists.
Before proceeding to notice several of these breeds, it will
be proper to refer to an animal found among the Rocky
Mountains, which is confounded with the Argali, and known
as the " woolly sheep." Captain Bonneville says, " This
animal is found about the country of the Flathead Indians.
It inhabits cliffs in summer, but descends into the valleys in
the winter. It has white wool, like a sheep, mingled with
a thin growth of long hair ; but it has short legs, a deep
belly, and a beard like a goat. Its horns are about five inches
long, slightly curved backwards, black as jet, and beautifully
polished. Its hoofs are of the same colour. This animal
is by no means so active as the big horn ; it does not bound
much, but sits a good deal upon its haunches. It is not so
plentiful either ; rarely more than two or three are seen at
a time. Its wool alone gives it a resemblance to the sheep ;
it is more properly of the goat genus. The fleece is said to
have a musty flavor ; some have thought the flesh might be
valuable, as it is said to be as fine as that of the goat of
Cashmere, but it is not to be procured in sufiicient quantities."
132 SHEEP OF THE UNITED STATES AND SOUTH AMERICA.
The colonists, coming as they did from various districts of
their native countries, it is presumed brought with them
breeds of sheep pecuUar to those districts ; and having been
promiscuously bred, at the period of the introduction of the
xMerinos, few of them conformed to any of the varieties of
the more distinguished British breeds.
They were long legged, narrow chested, comparatively
slow in arriving at maturity, yielding a coarse white wool
of medium length of staple, and the fleeces averaged from
3 to 4 lbs. The principal recommendation consisted in being
prolific breeders and good nurses ; but their defects greatly
predominated, being untractable, impatient of restraint, scaling
high fences, and committing often serious depredations on
the crops of the farmer. Happily this ungainly and unprofit-
able tribe has disappeared, except in portions of the southern
States, and their place has been supplied with more profit-
able sheep, effected by crossing them with ]\Ierinos, Saxons,
and the improved English breeds.
For the gratification of the curious, rather than for utility,
the compiler will notice a singular breed of sheep known as
THE OTTER SHEEP.
This unique breed have derived no little fame, not so much
however, from their peculiarity of conformation, as from their
fortuitous origin ; this being the fact, as the sire and dame
of the first individual of the breed were distinguished by the
usual characteristics of the natives, long legs, &c. This
accidental origin, therefore, is valuable to the philosopher as
accounting in part for the numerous varieties of the genus
Ovis, now spread over almost every inhabitable part of the
globe. Climate and herbage are also prominent causes of
difierences in conformation, but accident has undoubtedly
had more to do in producing these differences, than is gen-
erally conceded.
The precise point where the Otter breed originated seems
unsettled ; Chancellor Livingston states that it was on an
island opposite the New England coast ; another writer says
it was in Massachusetts, and in a flock which belonged to
Seth Wright, and occurred in 1791. It is however, of little
moment, as the breed have been abandoned, and become
extinct.
A ewe gave birth to twins, one of which v/as a male, with
legs so short, and being turned outward, that, as Chancellor
ARLINGTON SHEEP. SMlTil's ISLAND SHEEP. 133
Livingston observes, " they appeared as if they had been
broken and set by an awkvi^ard surgeon." When running,
its gait was of a hobbling or rickety character, and painful
to the beholder. The body was long and round, and the
animal presented no other evidence of mal-formation. Cu-
riosity induced, at first, breeding from it, and the progeny
presented a striking resemblance to the sire. They were
prized for no other reason than because nature had deprived
them of the power to scale fences and commit depredations
on the farmers' crops, which was so characteristic of their
progenitors. This is probably the only instance where man
has availed himself of a defect in the animal kingdom, and
turned it to his advantage.
ARLINGTON LONG WOOLED SHEEP.
Chancellor Livingston thus notices this breed : " From
the Otter breed I turn with pleasure to the Arlington long
wooled sheep. These, Mr. Custis, who was the original
breeder of them, informs me were derived from the stock of
that distinguished farmer, soldier, statesman, and patriot,
Washington ; who had collected at Mount Vernon whatever
he believed useful to the agriculture of his country ; and,
among other animals a Persian ram, which Mr. Custis de-
scribes as being very large and well formed, carrying wool
of great length, but of a coarse staple. This stock, inter-
mixed with the Bakewell, are the source from which the
fine Arlington sheep are derived ; some of which, he says,
carry wool fourteen inches in length, and are formed upon
the Bakewell model. * * * * ^pj^g sample of wool
which Mr. Custis sent me from this stock possessed every
ingredient which is esteemed in combing wool. It was fine
for the sort, soft, silky, and beautifully white."
This breed is still held in high estimation among some
farmers in Virginia and Maryland, but are now very much
inferior to their ancestors, and the improved long wooled
British breeds, both for mutton and value of fleece.
There is yet another breed of sheep to notice, which have
been somewhat famous, and were doubtless abundantly su-
perior to the average of other sheep of the day. They
were called the
smith's ISLAND SHEEP.
The island is on the coast of Virginia, and it, together
134 SHEEP OF THE UNITED STATES AND SOUTH AMERICA.
with the sheep, were the property of Mr. Custis, who stated
the breed to be pecuUar to that part of the country.
The climate being temperate, and the soil producing a
succulent and varied herbage, all being so well suited to
sheep, the carcase and wool in process of time became
greatly improved ; and hence the deservedly high estimation
of the breed by Mr. Custis and others. The wool was very
white, and comparatively fine ; the staple from 8 to 10 inches
in length, and the fleeces averaged about 8 lbs. The de-
scendants of the flocks, though greatly degenerated, are dif-
fused over a wide section of country in Virginia, and further
south.
From the foregoing brief description of the qualities of
the native sheep, it will readily be conceived that they were
susceptible of great improvement. Their amelioration com-
menced on the arrival of the Merinos introduced by Chan-
cellor Livingston and Gen. Humphrey, but until the embargo
of 1807, there was little stimulus to aid this laudable enter-
prise. After that event and during the war with Great Brit-
ain, which soon after followed, the nation was thrown upon
its industrial means for the supplies of the staple necessaries
of life ; and wool culture received such an impetus, and such
consequently was the competition for the possession of the
Merinos, that individuals of the breed sold for the enormous
prices of from 500 to 1400 dollars per head. Manufactures
had been commenced, and notwithstanding the little skill
employed in them at that early day, they prospered ; but on
the declaration of Peace in 1815, commerce brought to our
shores the cheaper fabrics of Europe, and the Merinos and
our infant manufactories were prostrated together. Remu-
nerating prices could no longer be obtained for wool of any
description, and this unfortunate state of things continued
without intermission for many years. Notwithstanding this,
however, the wool growers of the north were too sagacious
not to appreciate the Merino fleece, and to see in the vista of
the future a period when its culture would again be a source
of profit. Hence the Merinos spread gradually over all the
northern States ; and in all instances where the principles
of breeding were properly understood and practiced, their
fleeces suffered no deterioration.
The policy of our National Government in 1824 being
more in unison with the agricultural interests of the country,
revived the spirit for extending the culture and improvement
PRAIRIE MANAGEMENT. 135
of the fleece, which had been so many years prostrate and
dormant. Accordingly the Saxons were soon after intro-
duced; and notwithstanding the gross frauds which were
practised by bringing with them so many worthless speci-
mens of the race, and the untoward circumstances which
since then wool-growers have been obliged to contend
against, the exertions to perfect the fleece have been crown-
ed with much success, though by no means commensurate
with its importance.
The New England States, from the unkindness of the soil
peculiar to large portions of them for the cultivation of crops,
at an early day became distinguished for the growing of
wool, and yet maintain their high rank, not only for the ex-
tent of its production, but the fineness of its texture. There
are Saxon flocks in Connecticut and New Hampshire which
rival some of the best German ; and Merinos also in nearly
all of these States, whose fleeces surpass in weight and fine-
ness those of Spain at the present day, and equal the far-
famed Rambouillets of France.
The State of New York has within her borders more than
one quarter of all the sheep in the Union ; and in the aggre-
gate, the wool of her flocks is unsurpassed in quality by that
of any other State.
The State of Pennsylvania, although she has fewer sheep
by far than her soil is capable of supporting, yet on her west-
ern borders, especially in the county of Washington, she has
flocks that are rarely equalled.
Ohio too is far advanced in wool culture, and the flocks
descended from the celebrated sheep of Messrs. Wells and
Dickinson, formerly of Steubenville, are of very superior
quality, the wool of which is distinguished for length and
silkiness of staple.
From Pennsylvania and Ohio have sprung, principally, the
colonies of sheep which are now present on the western
prairies, and which leads to the subject of wool culture on
those immense plains.
The following extracts are from a pamphlet on the subject
of Prairie Management, written by Mr. George Flower, and
published in 1841. Mr. Flower has been a resident of Ed-
wards County, Illinois, since 1817, and during the wholo
of this period, a manager and proprietor of fine-wooled sheep.
" A glance must now be taken at the difficulties and risks
to which flocks are exposed in new countries, and which
136 SHEEP OF THE UNITED STATES AND SOUTH AMERICA.
have hitherto prevented their rapid increase upon any large
scale.
" The loolf is a great drawback on the pleasure and profit
of sheep-keeping. It is not only what the beast destroys,
but the expense incurred in watching against his attacks.
But the greatest loss sustained is being obliged to pen the
sheep every night, for safe keeping. * * * * Deaths,
from unknown causes, have swept away whole flocks, newly
brought into the State, which tends to dampen similar enter-
prises. Many sheep are often purchased from drovers, which
have been over-driven, and which has laid the foundation of
disease. From whatever cause it may arise, if the sheep are
poor in the fall of the year, great loss will accrue to the
owner. The dry, mild weather in autumn is often accompa-
nied with scanty herbage, and sheep rapidly decline unob-
served, the growth of wool concealing their poverty from an
unpractised eye, and a mortal stroke is inflicted before the
owner suspects it. It is a great point to procure sheep from
healthy flocks, if possible. When they are brought from a
distance, care should be taken that they are not over-driven.
Twelve or fifteen miles a day is far enough, and should never
be urged beyond their naturally slow pace. It behooves the
farmer to see that he has an abundance of nutritious food on
their arrival at their journey's end. Keeping sheep of all
ages in a flock, in a pasture barely sufficient for them, de-
stroys the young and the old. The strong, robust sheep eat
up all the food. In winter feeding, not allowing sufficient
trough and rack room for all the sheep to feed at once, with-
out crowding each other, starves the weakest. These are
some of the known causes of failure of success, and lest
there should be others of a local nature, I would advise
every new beginner to be moderate in the number of his
flock the first year ; two or three hundred is enough for the
ewe flock.
" The Prairie grass is green, succulent, and nourishing,
until the first part of July ; Irom that time onward it becomes
less and less acceptable. If a flock is kept upon it, in the
latter part of summer it requires a large range and fresh pas-
turage. But a method is known to the frontier settlers, of
retaining spring herbage, until the approach of winter. Se-
lect a patch of prairie (some five or ten thousand acres) that
has not been burned the preceding year. The mass of old
dry grass, in the middle of Juno, is sufliciently combustible to
PRAIRIE MANAGEMENT. 137
allow fire to consume it with the growing crop of green grass.
Burn a patch in June, and the young grass will immediately
spring up, which, in July, will afford a rich pasture of young,
tender, juicy grass, about eight inches high. Burn another
patch in July, which will afford another pasture in August ; and
a third on the first day of August, which will remain green and
tender till killed by winter frosts. In this way juicy pasture
may be secured from early spring until the succeeding win-
ter. But some forecast is necessary to secure this. In the
previous autumn these spots should be selected and made
secure by burning round, as the hunters know how ; other-
wise they might be consumed in the general conflagration,
which often sweeps hundreds of miles of prairie grass in the
fall of the year. Supposing no cultivated grasses are pre-
pared, sheaf oats, or hay and corn, should be given at night ;
the flock going out to pick what they can through all the fine
days of autumn and winter.
" In the summer the shepherd must have a cabin near his
pasture ground, and a sheep-3'ard with a loolf -proof fence.
The flock must be out at the first dawn of day, and graze
late in the evening. During all the heat of the day they will
shade in some neighboring grove. The shepherd must have
his horn and rifle, and a pair of good hunting dogs, to chase
away the wolf and fox. The size of the flock may be limited
only to the size of the pasture. For a summer establish-
ment I should select an eminence on some of our extensive
prairies, and build four cabins, for the families of four shep-
herds— all under the eye of an experienced man. These
four shepherds should each diverge • with their respective
flocks to the four points of the compass, and all return at
night.
" Where there are no cultivated grasses, there should be
large fields of early sown rye, for winter and early spring
food. Also oats, sown, perhaps, in the same field where
oats grew before, by ploughing the field immediately after
the crop is off, and sowing about a bushel to the acre. If
no cultivated grasses are provided for sheep to feed on in
autumn, it is difficult to keep up their condition in the latter
part of the year. But the greatest advantage is to be derived
from blue grass, which, if shut up in June, will keep green
all winter ; and, if a succession of pastures is provided,
the sheep will do well upon them all the winter, and will
only need feeding when the snow is frozen on the ground."
12*
138 SHEEP OF THE UNITED STATES AND SOUTH AMERICA.
Mr. Flower states, that the diseases to which sheep are
subjected on the prairies of Southern Illinois, are liver-rot
and foot-rot ; the former caused by " suffering sheep to pas-
ture on land that is overflowed with water ; even a crop of
green oats, early in the fall before a frost comes, has been
known to rot young sheep." He observes, that sheep fed
exclusively on pasture are more liable to foot-rot than others.
The following communication, written at the request of
the writer, by J. Ambrose Wight, associate editor of the
Prairie Farmer, sets forth the extent to which Northern Illi-
nois is adapted to sheep culture ; and, in the main, his re-
marks are doubtless applicable to the prairies of all the North-
western States and Territories. There is manifestly so much
ignorance prevalent on this subject, no apology is necessary
for the minuteness with which Mr. Wight has treated it.
" It is but a little while since wool-growing was com-
menced in Northern Illinois. Small flocks, of from ten to a
hundred, have been kept here since the first settlement of the
country, consisting generally of hardy, coarse-wooled ani-
mals ; and though the success of the business, when con-
ducted in this manner, might be proof of the adaptation of
the country to the keeping of sheep, to a certain extent, it
would not be entirely satisfactory to one who should ask the
question, whether the country were adapted to growing fine
wool on a large scale. It is now about four years since a
commencement was made of driving in large flocks for this
latter purpose ; since which time the increase has been about
one hundred per cent, yearly, until last season, when the in-
crease was so much larger, that no accurate estimate can yet
be made of it.
" In order to answer your inquiries the more satisfactorily,
I will take them up in their order.
" First — ' I would be glad to know whether the pasture of the
prairies dries so much in summer as to compel the removal of
sheep from them to other localities V
" If the question relates, as I suppose it does, to summer
drought, I answer no ; the upland prairies — a term which I
suppose embraces nineteen twentieths, if not more, of the
prairie lands of Northern Illinois — sustain drought better by
far than any lands I have ever known. A large component
of all these lands — and the remark applies as well to what
are here called ' barrens ' — is black sand ; though the color
varies much in diflferent localities. The ashes made by the
PRAIRIE MANAGEMENT. 139
annual fires are also no inconsiderable component, and aid in
giving character to the soil. Most of the subsoil is a sort
of hard-pan, made of clay or loam cementing together peb-
bles and gravel, and is found from one to three or four feet
below the surface, and is so tenacious as to require a pick to
break through it.
" In the lowlands, both of prairies and barrens, the subsoil
is sometimes clay, and the soil more or less argillaceous.
The timber growing on the barrens will very nearly deter-
mine the character of the soil and subsoil. If the Burr Oak
is plenty, the former will be sandy, and the latter hard-pan ;
if black or white oak abounds, clay will be more likely to be
found. Besides the resistance to drought, offered in the
character of the soil, the roots of the wild grass run to an
extraordinary depth ; many of them reaching entirely through
the soil, however deep it may be. The grass grows in
stools, at distances of from three to twelve inches apart,
there being, in fact, where the wild grasses only are found,
no such thing as a surface turf, such as is formed by red-top
and kindred grasses. It will be seen that it requires a very
dry summer indeed to affect such pasture, on such a soil.
In the autumn of 1837, there was, in this latitude, for the
five months succeeding the 5th of August, not rain enough to
wet the ground perhaps an inch in depth ; and yet potatoes
and corn turned out well, and the prairies continued in ver-
dure about as well as usual.
" If, however, the question is asked, — Does not the pasture
on the prairies fail early in autumn, so as to compel the re-
moval of sheep to other pasture before it is time to go into
winter quarters ? I answer, yes — long before. In many
sections the prairies afford no adequate pasture for dairy
purposes after the first of September. In other localities
such pasture will continue in some vigor till as late as the
first or even middle of October ; this is the case with lands
lying within thirty miles of Chicago ; but such lands will be
proportionably late in the spring. The wild grasses are ex-
tremely vigorous while they last, hut are all, without an ex-
ception, short-lived. This may be a habit or condition,
induced by the annual fires, which kill out all but those with
long roots ; and a prevention of fires and cultivation might,
after a time, change the character of some of them in this
respect ; but it never will. They are disappearing, a little
140 SHEEP OF THE UNITED STATES AND SOUTH AMERICA.
more slowly, but as surely as the Indians, before the plough-
share and march of cultivation.
" ' Does the Prairie grass conform in habit to any of the
English grasses V
" This question has been already pretty well answered.
There are a large number of wild grasses here. The dif-
ferent plants which go to make up the foliage of the prairies,
in any township of land, are very numerous. I have heard
them estimated by those who had paid attention to the sub-
ject, at tw^o or three hundred. Of these, though but an infe-
rior proportion are, strictly speaking, grasses ; yet they all,
or nearly all, aflbrd herbage fit to be eaten by animals. An
individual has but to cross any prairie, which has not been
fed or mown, in a tolerably wet season, and note the endless
prospect of blossoms, mingled with green, which wave un-
der the wind like the surges of a sea of flowers ; observe
the ever-changing colors of the swells, as they come and
go, to be sensible that there is variety enough. These flow-
ers change throughout the season, a dozen or two varieties
being in bloom at once, and continue in the fall long after
the prairies are fit for pasture, the rear being brought up by
blue and yellow weeds. These flowering plants diminish
in number at once from feeding or mowing, and soon almost
entirely, with the exception of the coarser ones, disappear.
" ' What length of time is foddering necessary in Northern
Illinois V
" The seasons have been extremely variable since my resi-
dence here — now nearly nine years. The winter of 1842
and '43 was the severest one since the settlement of the
State, and the foddering season lasted from the middle of
October to the middle of April. The winter of 1843 and
'44 and the present one would require foddering for a less
time, by full two months. This is on the supposition, how-
ever, that good artificial pasturage is provided. If the wild
prairies alone are relied on for pasture and hay, full two
months must be added to the foddering season ; and stock
would barely get through at that ; and I think that sheep, in
multitudes of instances, would perish. In this latitude,
with timothy, red-top, and clover pastures, the average time
would be from four and a half to five months. If a good
blue grass pasture were provided, in such winters as the
last and the present, it might be reduced to two months ;
and I am told, that some so provided for, one hundred miles
PRAIRIE MANAGEMENT. 141
south of here, have, the present winter, scarcely foddered at
all. I apprehend, however, that our winters here will
always be variable, and that it will be far more difficult to
predict their length and intensity than in New England. In
relation to the value of blue grass for fall and spring pasture,
Thomas N. Welles, of Peoria, in a communication to the
Prairie Farmer, remarks as follows : — ' My .sheep have had
no feed of any kind, since the first day of April, except pas-
turage, (blue grass,) and they are now (May 10th) fat.
They were put upon it as soon as the snow would let their
noses to the ground. Last fall my stock were kept upon the
grass till the 12th of November, when the herbage was cov-
ered with snow. Had the climate been open, the sheep
would have required little else than the grass. The tame
grasses, and especially blue grass, even if fed through the
summer and fall, will afford good feed about six weeks later
in autumn, and six weeks earlier in spring, than the prairie
grass. If shut up all the summer and fall, the blue grass
affords the best feed all winter, when the snow does not
cover it.' The winter adverted to was the severe one
already mentioned.
" ' What are sheep chiefly fed on?''
" It is doubtful if any fixed mode of feeding has been adopt-
ed except in particular instances. Every sort of feeding, ac-
cording to circumstances, is practised. Some feed almost en-
tirely on the wild grass and hay of the prairies, which, when
cut on uplands and well cured, is believed by sheep-keepers
to be as good as any other, though more of it in weight will
be required than of good English hay. Some feed this hay
with a proportion of oats in sheaf, and roots twice a week,
and this is undoubtedly, with salt, good treatment. It is
found to be decidedly better to keep sheep up in small
flocks, with very little ground to run over, while kept on hay,
than to let them run out a part of the time, and get such
grass as they can pick, while there is not enough to sustain
them. They eat much dirt in such cases, are liable to be
poisoned, and lose their appetite for hay. A settled course
of feed of one character, embracing proper variety, is found
here, as at the East, decidedly preferable. The old rule, to
keep them at grass, while they can be with profit, and then
to put them to hay and keep them at it, works as well here
as anywhere.
" ' /i is reported that sheep removed from the old States be-
1 42 SHEEP OF TlIE UNITED STATES AND SOUTH AMERICA.
come very fat the first season 07i the prairies ; is this condi-
tion kept up many years after V
" The first part of this question is true of persons, and is
undoubtedly true of stock, and in part may be attributed to a
change of climate. The change from an atmosphere which
is surcharged with oxygen and which stimulates the lungs
like that of the East, to one surcharged with carbon, and
which stimulates the liver like that of the West, is at first
generally attended with obesity. From other causes too,
stock turned upon the clear prairies, become fat, and keep
so till the feed fails. Some of the reasons are, that the
grass, while it is highly nutritious, is somewhat astringent,
and does not scour cattle when turned upon it in the spring,
like the eastern grasses. Oxen can be put to hard work
with no other feed, as soon as it is started in the spring, and
will keep in good heart and become fleshy. Again, the air
of the prairies is the freshest and purest on earth ; and stock
are less annoyed by insects while fanned by it, than any-
where else. Sheep or other stock, but more particularly
the former, put upon a given piece of wild prairie, and con-
fined to it, unless the range be very large, would not con-
tinue to keep fat one season after another, though they would
the first ; but if allowed a new range each season, they
would always keep fat. The reason is this : — sheep in such
cases will go over their range and select such food as they
prefer, and will keep at it till it is gone. Hence the wild
bean and pea vine, and a few other kinds of plants, will ob-
tain their constant attentions, and will be kept so short that
they will, on a given piece of land, die out the first year.
Therefore if turned out upon the same grounds another sea-
son, the best food will be gone, and the poorer, with which
they must then take up, and which itself gets continually
poorer, will not sustain them in their first condition. A
small flock of sheep will thus run over a large extent of
ground.
" Hence the utter hollowness of a supposition which ap-
pears to be common at the East, that large flocks of sheep
can be sustained on the wild grass of the prairies alone.
There are many places, it is true, where a farmer might
keep a large flock on the wild prairies during the summer
months with profit, provided he had not two many neighbors
in the same business. But such flocks would continually
lessen their own range, at the same time that it is lessening
PRAIRIE MANAGEMENT, 143
by immigration, settlement, and extended culture. I have
been in the country about nine years, having gone at the
first into an entirely unsettled region, and have paid much
attention to the matter ; and it is my belief, that the wild
prairies are desirable for wool growing to a very limited de-
gree ; but that the cultivated prairies are desirable for this pur-
pose to an almost limitless extent. When the cultivated
grasses are fully introduced, and people get at the business
in a proper manner, the prairies will supply wool of all
qualities in inconceivable quantities. Hence I have con-
stantly urged this view of the subject, and maintained the
necessity of entering upon the cultivation of grasses at once.
" ' Is there any deterioration of the wool of jine jiocks V
" In a letter from George Flower, of Edwards Co., in this
State, published in the Prairie Farmer, I find the following :
— ' When I emigrated to this country in 1817 I brought
with me six of the finest animals of the wool-growing spe-
cies ever imported into this country. This is the origin of
my flock. They have been kept on the same farm where
I now reside ever since. No deterioration in wool has taken
place ; on the contrary, the wool fibre of them is somewhat
finer.' If the above is true of Southern Illinois, it is doubt-
less equally so of the northern part of the State ; since that
is nearly 400 miles south of this, and consequently much
warmer. Very gross keep is supposed to render wool
somewhat coarse. Even, healthy keep, not too high, is
generally considered best for a good staple oi fine wool.
" ' Are shepherds and dogs indispensable when sheep are not
enclosed.''
" On the open prairie, it would undoubtedly be unsafe to
trust large flocks, without oversight. Many have kept small
flocks, for years, without, by merely folding them at night.
In small flocks, where feed is plenty, there is little dispo-
sition to ramble. Sheep soon get accustomed to their
homes ; but in large flocks the temptation is increased with
the dangers of it. If the pasture is near the house, and a
good dog is kept, any further care is generally dispensed
with. The prairie wolf is a term beneath which animals
of considerable difference in size and fleetness are ranged.
Now and then a black or brown one is found, and some of
the grey ones equal them in ferocity. They are very sly
animals ; and I have known one, protected by a hazel bush,
to enter a flock, while the keeper was with it, and kill quite
144 SHEEP OF THE UNITED STATES AND SOUTH AMERICA.
a number of sheep before he could be got out. The flock
frequently does not seem to apprehend the wolf, or flee from
him ; and he will do his work without causing any commo-
tion among them. Still the destruction by wolves is very
limited, and they are easily exterminated. Settlement, and
the common modes of war, would soon drive them out ; but
there is a far more potent means of being rid of them.
Strychnine, an extract of mix vomica, introduced into small
pieces of meat, is a most insidious and deadly mode of ex-
termination. A correspondent of the Prairie Farmer thus
describes his mode of using it : — ' Take a carcase of any
kind, or in want of that, the offals of beef or pork, and lay
them in a place likely to be frequented by wolves, as a bait
or decoy. Then take a piece of fresh lean meat or liver,
about the size of a small cracker, and cut, with a penknife,
into the edge of it, to the centre, or a little beyond ; then put
in the strychnine, in bulk about the size of a kernel of wheat,
or the l-8th part of a grain. Be careful that none gets on
the outside, and lay it within a few feet of the bait.' The
strychnine in crystals is best ; and a wolf will frequently fall
dead on the spot where he eats it. Thousands have been
killed by this means the present season, and if persevered
in, the country will soon be rid of them.
'■'''' Is foot-rot common, and is not liver-rot a formidable dis-
ease to which sheep are subject there V
" The foot-rot, known as such in New England, has never,
as far as I can learn, been discovered here. Sheep have
sometimes had a disease of the hoofs, {the fouls], which has
in all cases been cured by paring, with perhaps a little wash-
ing in water.
" The liver-rot has never, I think, made its appearance in
Northern Illinois. I have never known but one instance of it
in the West, and that was in another State, and far south of
this. Frequent examinations have been made for it, this
season, among sheep lately driven in ; and though many
have been found with diseased lungs, caused by over-driving,
no diseased livers have, that I can learn, been found. I
presume this question was prompted by the impression that
many of our prairie lands are wet ; but from the description
of our soil already given, it can readily be seen that the
liver-rot can never prevail to any extent here. Our lands
are too dry and warm for that disease, unless under some
new and unexpected development. The most common dis-
PRAIRIE MANAGEMENT. 145
eases known among us, are what is called ' the drying of
the many-folds,' and a sore face.*
" ' What sections of your State are best suited to sheep V
" It is impossible to say, for though the State extends in
length about 400 miles by about half that distance in breadth,
there is such a similarity in its general pastures, that the
description of any three counties together would be a gen-
eral description of the whole. There are particular differ-
ences, it is true, but these are balanced more or less against
each other. Those parts of which I can speak from obser-
vation are the Fox, Rock, and Illinois river valleys, though
the term valley has no particular applicability to the coun-
ties lying near these rivers, unless a valley may consist
of high, dry, warm, rolling land. The central counties of
Sangamon, Cass, Morgan, Scott, and the adjacent ones, are
likewise well adapted to wool growing ; nor have I seen any
section of the State, unless the region lying within ten miles
of this city, (Chicago) which is an exception.
" There are in every county some wet lands, which are not
suitable, but these form a very inconsiderable portion. The
flocks of sheep which have been driven in, have gone to
every part of this, as well as to neighboring States and Ter-
ritories ; and though some losses have been experienced the
past winter, from want of care and skill, and from the nature
of the season last summer, when they were driven, they will
doubtless continue to come in, as long as there is a market
for wool.
" It will be seen that the same general rules apply to sheep-
keeping here as are applicable elsewhere. We have a good
climate, can produce plenty of feed, have warm, dry soils, all of
which are necessary for the business. Skill, enterprise, care,
and attention will ensure success in it. But any launching
out into wild experiments, predicated on ideas of the all-suffi-
ciency of green savannas and South American pampas, will
end in disappointment and disgust."
Mr. Wight's concluding paragraph is very significant, and,
in connection with his preceding remarks, at once dissipates
the notion which has so generally prevailed at the East, that
* The former of these diseases is doubtless caused by the astringent prop-
erties of the prairie hay, and the absence perhaps of water. Green food
occasionally, and frequent salting, with daily access to drink, will act as
a prevention. The sore face can easily be cured by the external ap-^
plication of warm tar mixed with sulphur. — Author Am. Shepherd.
13
146 SHEEP OF THE UNITED STATES AND SOUTH AMERICA.
the prairie grass was at all seasons of the year abundant,
and consequently, that sheep could be sustained with very
little fodder, and generally managed at little cost and trouble.
This, however, is fallacious ; and those who have embarked
largely in the business, without previously having made the
provision of cultivated herbage, have learned that that be-
nignant decree of Providence—" by the sweat of thy brow
shalt thou eat bread" — cannot be evaded ; or in other lan-
guage, that neither wool nor any of the necessaries of life
can be procured u-ithout labor. The fulness with which
Messrs. Flower and Wight have treated the subject, super-
sedes further remarks.
We will now advert briefly to some of the Southern States
where there are large ranges admirably adapted by nature
for wool culture.
The western part of Virginia can already boast of pos-
sessing some of the finest wooled sheep in the Union ; and
from the nature of the climate, soil, and herbage of portions
of that section of the State, it cannot be doubted that they
are destined to greatly multiply. It is true, the climate does
not permit of any considerable reduction of the time for
foddering, compared with Pennsylvania and portions of New
York, yet the mountain lands are cheap, and productive of
herbage of a varied character, so well suited to sheep. If
the natural grasses are not abundant enough, the deficiency
can be supplied by sowing from time to time the seed of the
cultivated kinds. This course may be necessary in all the
mountain ranges of the South, when appropriated to sheep
husbandry. Sheep pastured on such elevations, and trans-
ported to the warmer atmosphere of the valleys during win-
er, cannot but be a source of profit ; and if our Southern
riends do not choose to avail themselves of such natural
advantages, they may rest assured, that, ere long, they will
be wrested from them by the hardy and enterprising sons of
the North.
In large districts of the mountainous portions of North
Carolina, sheep can be reared at perhaps as little expense as
any section of the United States. The grass peculiar to
them, it is stated by some, is not agreeable to sheep ; but this
can be remedied in a very brief time by adopting the course
above recommended.
The following extract of a letter from the Hon. T. L.
Clingman, of North Carolina, addressed to Mr. J. S. Skin
WOOL CULTURE IN THE SOUTH AND SOUTHWEST. 147
ner, designates some of the districts of that State best adapted
to wool-growing, which are embraced in the counties of
Yancey, Haywood, &c.
Mr. C. says the elevation of Burns ville, the county seat
of Yancey, is about 2900 feet above the level of the ocean,
and that the general level of the county is much higher.
The climate is represented as being delightfully cool in sum-
mer, the mercury seldom rising higher than 70 or 80 deg.
Very little of the county is said to be too rough for cultiva-
tion ; a large portion, it is said, is a sort of elevated table-
land ; undulating, but not too broken ; " even," says Mr. C,
" as one ascends the higher mountains, he will find occasion-
ally on their sides, flats of level land containing several hun-
dred acres of land in a body. The top of the Roan (the
highest mountain in the county except the Black) is cov-
ered by a prairie for ten miles, which affords a rich pasture
during the greater part of the year. The ascent to it is so
gradual that persons ride to the top on horseback from almost
any direction. The same may be said of many of the other
mountains. The soil of the county generally is uncommonly
fertile, producing, with tolerable cultivation, abundant crops.
What seems extraordinary to a stranger, is the fact that the
soil becomes richer as he ascends the mountains. The sides
of the Roan, the Black, the Bald, and others, at an elevation
even of five or six thousand feet above the sea, are covered
with a deep rich vegetable mould, so soft that a horse in dry
weather often sinks to the fetlock. The fact that the soil is
frequently more fertile as one ascends is, I presume, attribu-
table to the circumstance that the higher portions are more
commonly covered with clouds, and the vegetable matter be-
ing thus kept in a cool, moist state while decaying, is incor-
porated to a greater degree with the surface of the earth,
just as it is usually found that the north side of a hill is
richer than the portion most exposed to the action of the
sun's rays. The sides of the mountains, the timber being
generally large, with little undergrowth and brushwood, are
peculiarly fitted for pasture grounds, and the vegetation is in
many places as luxuriant as it is in the rich savanna of the
low country."
The following extract of a letter received from the Hon.
John A. Jones, of Paulding County, Georgia, shows the ease
with which sheep, in process of time, can be maintained in
that portion of the State. The wolf, formerly so destructive
1 48 SHEEP OF THE UNITED STATES AND SOUTH AMERICA.
at the North, will gradually disappear with the increasing
settlement of the country. — " I believe the pine forest in the
middle and southwestern region of the State best adapted
to the raising of sheep. The climate is so mild that they
need no shelter during the winter ; the wild herbage is va-
ried, luxuriant, and succulent through the summer, and will
keep them in high flesh ; the hardy plants that stand the
winter sustain them in healthy store order. I think, how-
ever, there are still wolves in that region, which makes it
necessary the sheep should be guarded ; indeed, I am con-
vinced of this, from one or two years' experience with a
flock of five hundred, kept on the ' Lookout' mountains (in
the northwest corner of the State), that it cannot be safely
done in a wooded country. If the range of the sheep is
limited they become poor and sickly ; if permitted to roam
at pleasure, they scatter, and are lost and killed. In this re-
gion we are obliged to afford them grain pastures, or feed
them on corn or hay three months of winter. If we dared
to turn them in the forest, one month's foddering would suf-
fice ; but this the wolves will not permit us to do."
It is deemed superfluous to particularize further the vari-
ous sections of the Southern States in which the culture of
wool can be profitably carried on. Suffice it to say, that
wherever the herbage is varied and suitable for the sheep,
in summer and winter, the soil dry, and industrious men to
manage, there can wool be grown, and probably with more
profit than the great staple, cotton. The influence of climate
upon the fleece has already been considered ; and the reader
will find fully discussed, under the head of " Summer Man-
agement," everything appertaining to localities and herbage
for sheep, thereby enabling each one to form an opinion as
to the suitability of his situation for sheep husbandry.
The following extracts from a communication, recently
published in the American Agriculturist, by Judge Beatty, of
Kentucky, conveys some valuable information for the benefit
of those engaged in wool-growing in the South and South-
western States, as well as sets forth the great facilities for
that branch of husbandry in Kentucky, which, doubtless, is
equally applicable to large sections of Tennessee.
" For some years after I commenced raising sheep (my
cleared land and pastures being then very limited), I housed
them during the winter months, and fed them with hay,
sheaf oats, and occasionally with corn. But when my clear-
WOOL CULTURE IN THE SOUTH AND SOUTHWEST. 149
ed land and pastures became more extensive, I found that I
could winter my sheep to better advantage by suffering them
to run on blue grass pastures, kept in reserve for them, haul-
ing out and scattering on the turf corn fodder, when the
grass became too short, or was covered with snow. This
mode of feeding required less labor, and was less expensive,
than housing them ; and experience soon taught me that my
sheep passed through the winter in better condition than
when housed, and fed on hay and grain.
" I have now about 300 acres of cleared land ; nearly one of
half of which is in meadow, clover, and blue grass — j^oa pra-
tensis ; and the other half reserved for cultivation in corn,
wheat, hemp, &c. ; and 150 acres in woodland, the greater
part well cleared up and sown in blue grass. I have been
taught by experience, recently, that sheep will do remarka-
bly well on the rankest clover, which will enable me in fu-
ture to keep more of my blue grass pastures in reserve for
winter feeding. During the last fall (the season being fa-
vorable), my clover fields furnished my flock, of somewhat
less than 400, sufficient pasturage till the month of January ;
and they have been since kept on my blue grass pastures,
without the necessity of feeding, except some four or five
days when the ground was covered with snow ; and there is
still grass enough to carry them through the residue of the
winter.
" The low price of hemp, and agricultural products generally,
has induced me to sow down much of my cleared land in
clover, which will enable me to keep double the number of
sheep I now have, without interfering with my farming ope-
rations ; and when I get the whole of my woodland cleared
up and set in blue grass, I expect to extend my flock to 1000
sheep. Thus you see we are neither under the necessity of
incurring the expense of erecting buildings to shelter our
sheep, nor of raising grain or hay for their food ; nor even
to employ laborers to feed them, except during the short time
it may become necessary to haul out fodder for them, when
the ground is covered with snow. And in a single day
enough maybe hauled out on sleds to last them a week or more.
" It is argued by some that our rich lands are too valuable
to be appropriated advantageously to sheep husbandry. There
would be nmch force in this objection if they were entirely
appropriated to that purpose. But not so when sheep hus-
bandry is combined with large hemp and corn crops. Hemp
13*
150 SHEEP OF THE UNITED STATES AND SOUTH AMERICA,
has hitherto been a profitable crop, though now it is too low
to justify its extensive culture ; and Targe corn crops are ne-
cessary with a view of raising horses, mules, cattle, and hogs.
There is no system of husbandry so well calculated to pre-
pare our lands for large products of corn and hemp, as feeding
sheep on our clover lands. I had supposed, till I made the
experiment, that sheep would not do well on rank clover.
To satisfy myself on this point, I put about 150 wethers on
a clover field, when in flower, early in May. The clover
was at the time nearly as high as the sheep's backs (Merinos).
I kept them on this during the whole summer, and in the fall
they were fat enough for the butcher. It is true they trod down
much of the clover ; but, as I had an abundance of pasture,
this was an advantage, as it left a thick mat of grass on the
ground, intermingled with the droppings of the sheep, dis-
tributed with much regularity. This thick covering prevent-
ed a loss of manure by washing rains, and rapidly brought
on a second growth of clover, which furnished my whole
flock with an abundance of pasture till the early part of Jan-
uary. The season was, however, unusually favorable, and
hence the clover pastures lasted two or three weeks later
than usual. In future I intend to keep my sheep entirely on
my clover fields from the time they are in flower, and thus I
shall be able to keep in reserve a greater supply of blue grass
for winter feeding.
" But it is not upon our high-priced rich lands alone that we
can carry on sheep husbandry to advantage. Kentucky has
a belt of hill and mountain country, bordering on the Vir-
ginia line, on the east, and on the rich lands of the State on
the west, averaging about 75 miles in width, extending from
the Ohio river and Big Sandy, latitude 38 degrees, 40 min-
utes, to the Tennessee line, 35 degrees 30 minutes north.
The whole of this region is admirably adapted to sheep hus-
bandry. The most northern part but a few minutes north of
my residence, and extending about two degrees farther south.
The lands are very cheap, the State price of those not yet
appropriated only five cents per acre, and those purchased
second-handed, more or less improved, may be had from 25
to 50 cents per acre, and still less when unimproved. This
country, in a state of nature, furnishes, during the spring,
summer, and fall months, a fine range for sheep, and is sus-
ceptible of great improvement by clearing up and sowing the
cultivated grasses for winter feeding. This whole country
WOOL CULTURE IN THE SOUTH AND SOUTHWEST. 151
is finely adapted to the Spanish mode of sheep husbandry.
Very large flocks might be driven to the mountain region,
some thirty to sixty miles from the rich lands, immediately
after shearing time, grazed till late in the fall, and then brought
back to be sustained, during the winter, on the luxuriant blue
grass pastures of the rich lands of the interior.
" A very intelligent friend, residing in the southern part of
the above district of country, speaks of it in the following
terms : ' One of the strongest proofs of this region of coun-
try being favorable to the growing of sheep stock is, that we
are situated in the same degree of north latitude with the
sheep-raising parts of Spain — Leon, Estremadura, Old Cas-
tile, &c. — only that our mountains are more richly and abun-
dantly clad with luxuriant wild grasses and fern, pea-vine
and shrubbery, than the mountain regions of Spain, where they
raise such abundant stocks of sheep. Wayne county, with a
few adjoining counties, affords more fine water power than
any country of the same extent that I have ever known ; and
for health and fine pure drinking water, no country excels it
on the face of the globe. Now is the time to commence the
business of sheep husbandry, whilst land can be got almost
for nothing. It is worthy of remark that our sheep which
are suffered to roam and graze in the mountains altogether,
produce about one fourth more wool at a shearing than the
sheep that are raised and grazed altogether on our farms, and
of a MUCH BETTER QUALITY !' In another part of his letter
he says, ' The tops of the mountains of Spain are sterile,
without verdure, producing no food for sheep or other ani-
mals to graze on ; our mountains are quite different ; they
are thickly clad from bottom to top, and all over the top,
with fine rich wild grasses and shrubbery of every variety
for stock to graze on. In the midst of our mountains are to
be found a great abundance of salt water, and stone coal of
the finest quality, together with a great variety of mineral
waters and pure springs.'
" Another friend, residing in Knox county, writes to me,
' My sheep upon my farm, adjoining Barboursville, do not
thrive, even with pasture and winter food, like the sheep in
the extremities of the county, which have neither pastures
nor winter food, except what they get in the woods. Without
cultivated grasses of any description, sheep will live and do
well all the winter, subsisting on the spontaneous growth of
the country.''
152 SHEEP OF THE UNITED STATES AND SOUTH AMERICA.
" Another friend, residing in the northern portion of the
above described mountain reg^ion, writes that 'the counties
of Carter and Lawrence, and the eastern portion of the State,
are admirably adapted to sheep husbandry. There are sev-
eral tlocks of sheep in tliis neighborhood that thrive and in-
crease wonderfully, runimig at large, at little cost or trouble
to the owners. Many flocks have no other reliance, during
the winter, but what they get in the looods. The great ad-
vantages of this country for sheep husbandry is, the cheap-
ness of the land, its adaptation to grasses, grain, and roots,
its healthfulness — sheep delight in mountain or hilly land —
the natural evergreens and shrubbery upon which sheep can
feed and subsist in winter, though it is not safe to rely alto-
gether upon these.' "
The following conclusions of Judge Beatty are sound, and
coincide with the views of many others :
" A few remarks as to the probable future market for wool
will conclude my letter, already, I fear, too long. The re-
turns of the late census show that the number of sheep in the
United States in 1840 was a fraction less than 20,000,000.
Twice this number would probably not furnish more avooI
than would be needed by a population of 17,000,000, if we
were to manufacture all our own blankets, carpets, and every
other description of woollen fabrics. The period is not very
distant when this will be done, with the exception of some
very fine goods. We shall then need about 100,000,000
pounds of wool for a population of 17,000,000, and in that
proportion forborne consumption, even supposing none should
be exported. Now as our population increases, as past ex-
perience demonstrates, at a compound ratio of three per cent,
per annum, \ve shall have a population of 34,000,000 in the
year 1864; 51,000,000 in 1878; and 60,000,000 in 1888.
We shall need at these respective periods, two, three, and
four hundred millions of pounds of wool. If we estimate
sheep, upon an average, to produce 2~ lbs. of wool per
head, we shall require in the year 1888, a little more than
forty years hence, 160,000,000 of sheep. This view of the
subject, without looking to a foreign market, holds out a strong
inducement to engage in sheep husbandry."
ALPACA OR PERUVIAN &HEEP.
153
UNITED STATES CENSUS STATISTICS OF LIVE STOCK
AND WOOL FOR 1839.
LIVK STOCK. 1
1
States, i
Pounds of
"• Wool.
Horses &
Mules.
Neat
Cattle.
Sheep.
Swine.
Maine, . .
. , , 1.465,551
59,208
327,255
649,264
117,386
o
New Harapshi
re, . . 1,260,517
43,892
275,562
617,390
121,671
3
Massachusetts
. . 941,906
61,484
282,574
378,226
143,221
4
Rhode Island,
. . 183,830
8,024
36,891
90,146
30,659
5
Connecticut,
. . . 889,870
34,650
238,650
403,462
131,961
6
Vermont,
. , . 3,699,235
62,402
384,341
1,681,819
203,800
7
New York, .
. . . 9,845,295
474,543
1,911,244
5,118,777
1,900,065
8
New Jersey,
. . . 397,207
70,502
220,202
219,285
261,443
9
Pennsylvania,
. . . 3,048,564
365,129
1,172,665
1,767,620
1,503,964
10
Delaware, .
. . . 64,404
14,421
53,883
39,247
74,228
11
Maryland, .
. . . 488,201
92,220
225,714
357,922
416,943
12
Virginia, . .
. . . 2,538,374
326,433
1,024,148
1,293,772
1,992,155
13
North Carolina
. . 625,044
166,608
617,371
538,279
1,649,716
14
South Carolina
, . . 299,170
129,921
572,608
232,981
878,532
15
Georgia, . .
. . 371,303
157,540
884,414
267,107
1,457,755
16
Alabama, .
. . 220,353
143,147
668,018
163,243
1,423,873
17
Mississippi, :
: : 175,196
109,227
623,197
128,367
1,001.209
18
Louisiana, :
: : 49,283
99,883
381,248
98,072
323,220
19
Tennessee, :
: : 1,060,332
341,409
822,851
741,593
2,926.607
20
Kentucky, :
: : 1,786,847
395.853
787,098
1,008,^0
2,310,533
21
Ohio, : : :
: : 3,685,315
430,527
1,217,874
2,028,401
2,099,746
22
Indiana, : :
: : 1,237,919
^1,036
619,980
675,982
1,623,008
23
Illinois, : :
: : 650,007
199,235
626,274
395,672
1.495,254
24
Missouri, :
: : 562.265
196,032
433,875
348,018
1,271,161
25
Arkansas, :
: : 64.943
51,472
188,786
42,151
393.058
26
Michigan, :
: : 153,375
30,144
185,190
99,618
295,890
27
Florida Ter.
: : 7.285
12,043
118,08]
7,198
92,680
28
Wisconsin Ter
. : 6,777
5,735
30,269
3,462
51.383
29
Iowa Ter. ':
: : 23,039
10,794
38,049
15,354
104.899
30
Dist. Columbia
: : 707
2,145
3,274
700
4,673
35,802,114
4,335,669
14,971,586
19,311,374
26,301,293
SOUTH AMERICAN SHEEP.
As has already been observed, no sheep are found in
South America of an indigenous character. The Argali is
not there, and the only native animal whose covering is ap-
propriated to manufactures, is the Lama of Chili and Peru.
ALPACA OR PERUVIAN SHEEP.
This animal, which, from its great resemblance to the
camel, was classed by Linnseus in the Camelide, is the
Lama of Peru and Chili. There are, according to Cuvier,
three species of the animal ; the Guanico, the Paco, and the
Vicuna. It is the Paco or Alpaca which is under notice,
and which, from the peculiar qualities of its long silky hair
or wool, has obtained the name of Peruvian sheep. ' The
following authentic description of this animal, and the uses
154 SHEEP OF THE UNITED STATES AND SOUTH AMERICA.
to which its fleece is applied, is from a late London Jour-
nal : —
" Nine-tenths of the wool of the alpaca is black, the re-
mainder being partly white, red, and grizzled. It is of a
very long staple, often reaching twelve inches, and resem-
bles soft glossy hair — which character is not lost in dying.
The Indians in the South American mountains manufacture
nearly all their clothing from this wool, and are enabled to
appear in black dresses, without the aid of a dyer. Both
the lama and alpaca are, perhaps, even of more value to the
natives as beasts of burden than wool-bearing animals, and
their obstinacy when irritated is well known. The impor-
tance of this animal has already been considered by the
English, in their hat, woollen, and stuff* trade, and an essay
on the subject has been publisbed by Dr. Hamilton, of Lon-
don, from which some of these details are collected.
" The wool is so remarkable, being a jet black, glossy,
silk-like hair, that it is fitted for the production of fabrics
diff'ering from all others, occupying a medium position be-
tween wool and silk.
" It is now mingled with other materials, in such a singu-
lar manner, that while a particular dye will aff'ect those, it
Avill leave the alpaca wool with its original black color, thus
giving rise to great diversity.
" The alpaca weighs, when full grown, from 160 to 200
lbs. It yields annually a fleece weighing from 10 to 14
lbs., or more. The flesh is said to be wholesome and nu-
tritious— the skin may be used for bookbinding and other
purposes.
" The alpaca is found in large herds on the Andes —
sometimes at an elevation of 10,000 or 11,000 feet above
the sea, where eternal snow rests on the mountain tops,
where frequent and violent storijis prevail, and where the
scanty herbage is of the coarsest kind. There they pros-
per, meeting with but slight attention on the part of the
shepherds. Disease is unknown among them ; they are at-
tached to their keepers, and never stray from their herds.
They brave the fiercest snowdrifts ; the strongest of the
herd advance first, bend down their heads to meet the com-
ing storm, and trample down or leap over the hillocks of
snow that obstruct their passage.
" Viewing the peculiar habits of this animal, the idea of
the author is, that it might, with but little trouble or expense.
ALPACA OR PERUVIAN SHEEP. 155
and with great advantage, be naturalized in those moun-
tainous districts of Scotland and Ireland, and on the bleak
and barren hills of England and Wales, which, from their
nature, can never be brought into cultivation, and which
now yield subsistence to no creatures fit for the use of
man. From long and extensive inquiries he is convinced
that the alpaca will live and flourish on the coarse mountain
grasses, where an English sheep would starve ; and he is
satisfied that thus a large addition might be made to our na-
tional wealth, as the alpaca would produce fleeces double
the weight of those taken from an English sheep, and of a
superior quality, while it would furnish a wholesome meat
for general consumption.
" The experiments which have hitherto been made for
naturalizing the alpaca in England have not, it must be own-
ed, turned out favorably ; but we must be careful not to con-
found accidental casualties with a natural incapacity of the
creature to flourish on our soil. The only trials yet made
have been on too limited a scale to furnish any decisive re-
sult. They have been kept in pairs, or groups of five or
six, and have rarely been judiciously treated. In some in-
stances they have received the seeds of disease during their
long voyage, from which they have never recovered, and in
others have been injured by being afforded rich pasturage,
instead of the coarse and scanty food to which they are ac-
customed. Yet, even under these unfavorable circum-
stances, the whole current of testimony of those who have
kept them is in favor of their prospering well on our high
lands, if the experiment were fairly tried.
" Mr. R. Bell, of Villa-house, in the county of Kerry,
procured a small herd of alpacas, and his account of them is
so curious and interesting that we extract a few of his sen-
tences :
" The alpacas on his farm are of various colors, some be-
ing brown, others black, and one perfectly white. They
have not been shorn since the month of June, 1841, and the
average length of their wool at this time is eleven inches,
and so firm to their bodies that the smallest lock cannot be
pulled oflf without great force ; therefore they never lose a
bit. It is exceedingly fine and silky ; indeed, very much
finer than any alpaca wool I have yet seen imported into
England ; and, during the two years they have been here,
there is a visible improvement in the texture of their coat,
156 8HEEP OF THE UNITED STATES AND SOUTH AMERICA.
and I think that the wool of the alpaca lamb here is superior
in fineness even to that of the vicuna. I have never, even
after a whole day's rain, found them wet to the skin ; for
their wool, on becoming wet on the outside or surface, mats
together, and becomes quite impervious to the heaviest
showers. I certainly do not exaggerate when I say that
each of the old alpacas here would clip at this time upward
of thirty pounds of wool.
" The alpacas are exceedingly playful, and, to see them
to full perfection, a dog should be taken into the field beside
them ; and as they run at play with the dog, their fine and
noble positions are displayed to most advantage. From
what I have observed of the nature and habits of the alpaca,
I do most heartily confirm your statement, ' That they would
live where a sheep would starve,' and would be most valua-
ble as a breeding stock in the United Kingdom. They are
peculiarly well adapted to mountainous districts, however
coarse the herbage, if the ground be dry ; although, at the
same time, I will say that the alpaca is as fond of a bite of
good sweet grass as any animal I know of."
There are at present about one hundred of these animals
in Great Britain, and efiforts are making by an association to
introduce more of them. In addition to the foregoing, it has
been stated by Mr. Walton, a member of this association,
" that the alpaca breed in the third year, the period of ges-
tation is seven months, have one at a birth, attain the height
of 3i or 4 feet, and usually live ten or twelve years. In
Peru, they are generally shorn every third year, about
April, when the wool is about eight inches long ; it usually
grows three inches in a year, but if shorn yearly grows six
or eight inches. A male alpaca shorn three years ago had
a coat from eighteen to twenty inches long ; and instances
are known of alpaca wool attaining the extraordinary length
of thirty inches."
Considerable quantities of alpaca wool are imported into
England, where much of it is spun, taken to France, and
made into the finest Cashmere shawls. If the ex])eriment is
successful of propagating the alpaca in England, it surely
can be done in the United States, as the climate is doubt-
less iTfore congenial to it, as well as the herbage. When
American enterprise calls for its covering, the trial will un-
questionably be made.
WOOL CULTIVATION ON THE PAMPAS. 157
WOOL CULTIVATION ON THE PAMPAS.
Almost the whole of the South American wool is the pro-
duction of Spanish sheep that have been taken over there,
and that have multiplied to a very great extent. Both the
sheep and the fleece have considerably degenerated, pro-
ceeding in part from unfavorableness of the climate, but
probably more from unskilful management. Large quanti-
ties of wool are exported to the United States, and also
Great Britain, but so decidedly bad in quality, that very little
of it, comparatively, can be used except for the most inferior
manufactures. The extraordinary facilities for w^ool culture
from climate and exuberance of herbage adapted to the sheep
in parts of South America, have induced many enterprising
foreigners to embark extensively in the business, and great
improvement in a few years may be expected to result in the
quality of the wool.
The following account of sheep management in Buenos
Ayres is by a correspondent of the Albany Cultivator : —
" The fertile ' Pampas ' in the interior of South America
have been long celebrated for the immense herds of cattle
and horses reared upon them. So abundant are they, and
so easily reared, that they are slaughtered in many places
for their skins and tallow alone. Sheep too of native breed,
with coarse hairy wool, have been so plentiful that their car-
cases were used for fuel in burning brick. The expense of
transportation and the absence of timber and salt for barrel-
ing alone prevents us from the competition of their meat in
our own parts. The attention of agriculturists there has been
of late years turned to improving their stocks of sheep by
large importations of Saxony from this country and from Eu-
rope. An English gentleman began the business with a
stock of 60 Saxons and 3000 ewes, and in the year 1835
he had increased the number to 45,000, and the grade was
nearly increased to full blood. In the year 1837 he
had 90,000, and intended to keep on until he numbered
200,000, which quantity he has doubtless attained before this
time ; others were copying his example, until the business
bids fairly to outstrip that of cattle, within a few years.
The prices at which grade wools have sold have been from
8 to 12 cents per pound in Buenos Ayres.
" The price of government lands there is ten cents per
acre. It is laid off in ' estancias^ a league square, con-
14
158 SHEEP OF THE UNITED STATES AND SOUTH AMERICA,
taining 5,760 acres English ; the face of the country almost
a dead level, no timber, but a luxuriant coat of grass.
" A cottage is erected in the centre of the farm for the
shepherd, and an ample yard enclosed by driving the trunks
of the common peach into the earth, and wattling the inter-
stices with the branches. An ' estancia' will support 3,000
sheep, which is about the size of their flocks. The only
care they require is to guard them at night and during a
storm. They will seldom wander beyond the landmarks
during the day ; at the approach of a storm they turn their
heads to leeward, and feed on until turned by their keeper
towards their place of security. An instance has been
known where 900 of a fine stock, and the best sheep in it,
were destroyed by being in a storm, pressed by the rear
ranks into a run of w^ater, until the chasm was filled with
dead bodies, and the remainder of the flock passed over.
The shepherd does not remain with the flock, but at the
cottage, having a horse already saddled and bridled (ready
for a sudden call) always at the door in the daytime.
" Thus far very little attention has been paid to cleaning
the wool for market. It is generally sold in the dirt."
12*
CHAPTER VIII.
MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP
SUMMER MANAGEMENT.
A SUDDEN CHANGE FROM DRY TO GREEN FOOD IMPROPER— SEP AE-
ATION OF THE WEAK FROM THE STRONG— TAGGING OF SHEEP—
CUTTLNG OF HORNS AND HOOFS— DRAFTING— PARTURITION— SALT-
ING—WASHING— CASTRATION AND DOCKING.
A SUDDEN CHANGE FROM DRY TO GREEN FOOD IMPROPER.
As a Starting point, let us imagine the time to have arrived
when the duties of the flock-master relative to foddering his
flocks are about to be suspended, by turning them to pasture.
This period, in the Northern States, is from the 1st to the
20th of April. It is a critical time with sheep, owing to
the rigor and vicissitudes of the climate, and their long con-
finement to dry food, especially so with the finer-wooled
varieties, and therefore claiming more than ordinary care.
But many of the duties involved require to be exercised a
month or more antecedent to the time under consideration,
and which will be found fully detailed under the head of
Winter Management.
If sheep have been confined wholly within yards, and
not permitted to taste the young grass until it is sufficiently
advanced to satisfy their hunger without the aid of other
food, there is great danger in turning them upon it too sud-
denly. This results from its flashy and stimulating proper-
ties, causing scours or purging, and unfortunately with that
portion of the flock least able to endure the attack, namely,
those in low flesh, and consequently feeble. In nearly all
such cases, death will often follow, unless a timely arrest of
the disease is made by a return in part to dry food.
But it is better to attend to the prevention, which is, to
allow the flock to graze an hour or two each day for at least
160 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP.
a week previous ; and during this time let the best of hay,
accompanied with grain, be provided. If sheep, however,
have been trained to eat roots, and have partaken of them
freely through the month of March, the danger accompany-
ing the too sudden transition from hay or other dry food, will
in a measure be avoided.
SEPARATION OF THE WEAK FROM THE STRONG,
Notwitstanding the duty of the shepherd may have been
faithfully discharged by taking out from time to time such as
are failing in flesh during the winter season, and putting
them to better keep, yet not a few in indifferent condition
will be found in large flocks at this period, which had better
be separated and treated accordingly. The two classes
needing this attention perhaps the most, are generally ewes
w^hich have already or are about to yean, and yearlings.
Whatever they are, let them be put upon the best pasture
the farm will furnish, and a few only together.
The separation will be quickest performed, by adopting
the following method :
Let the flock be stationed one or two hundred yards distant
from a gateway or bars, and then, if called by the shepherd,
moving on a run, the weaker sheep will soon fall to the rear,
and when these are about to pass the gateway, let them be
cut off* from the others by some one in the vicinity. This
mode is sure, and is preferable to pounding the flock, as
mistakes are unavoidably committed by so doing, especially
with yearlings, owing to the unusual length of wool in indi-
vidual cases, which frequently hides from the shepherd their
impoverished condition.
TAGGING OF SHEEP.*
At or about this time, is assigned the important and indis-
pensable duty of the flock-master of thoroughly tagging his
sheep. It is wholly neglected by many, and with the great
majority of wool-growers the slovenly and half-way manner
of performing it is extremely censurable. It is thus, because
the manufacturer expects from us that the wool from about
the dock and below it, as well as that between the thighs, all
* In England termed clatting.
SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 161
of which is generally of an inferior character, should be
separated from the fleece. This being the case, by neglect-
ing it, we commit a direct fraud upon him, which he does
not fully detect, until his purchases fall into the hands of his
sorters. '
Tagging should always be attended to before the sheep
are turned off" to pasture, for the reason that if any of them
only slightly scour, the wool about the dock and thighs is
rendered a mass of filth, and therefore is lost. In this situ-
ation, too, they are liable to be fly-blown, and without timely
discovery, the sheep is also lost. From these considerations
alone, it is clearly the interest of all to have this matter sea-
sonably and well performed.
The easiest mode, and that which the writer has adopted
for many years, is to place the sheep upon a table, resting
on its rump. The table should not be more than twenty
inches in height, and about four feet in breadth ; the length
must be accommodated to the wants of the flock-master, three
feet at least being required for each tagger. It should be as
capacious as this, with a view to spreading the wool as it is
cut off", which facilitates the separation of the good locks
from particles of dung and other stuff" wholly useless.* A
stool should stand upon the floor beside the table, for the
tagger to rest one foot upon ; this brings his thigh in such a
position as easily accommodates the back of the sheep
against it, and is thus placed in a posture to perform the task
without pain to himself.
If it is a male, the first operation is, to cut the wool one
or two inches from about the extremity of the sheath, for, if
it is neglected, the wool being constantly saturated with
urine, will cause soreness, and sometimes ulceration. After
this, let the wool be shorn from the scrotum or testicle
bag. Then the tagger with one hand presses upon the thigh
joint, which forces the leg to lay in a horizontal position, he
proceeds to shear from the inside of the thighs, and down
the leg to the fetlock ; the other being served in the same
way, he then grasps with one hand both legs near the hoofs
and draws them upwards and towards bim, which enables
him to cut all that is necessary from the dock and immedi-
ately below it.
With the ewe the process is the same, with the addition
* The table can also be used for rolling the fleeces when shorn.
14*
162 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP.
of shearing all the wool growing on the udder, as well, if it
is long, a little from around it, which permits the lamb, in
its first attempts to suck, to find the teats without difficulty.
This is very important, for if the lamb drops when the tem-
perature is low, the sooner it receives nourishment the better ;
but if delayed in finding the teats, from the cause stated, the
cold prostrates it, and it soon dies.
Ewes, if tagged at the period recommended, are generally,
in the Northern States at least, heavy with lamb, and there-
fore humanity demands that they should be handled with the
utmost care, or abortion may follow.
The tag wool should be placed in a dry situation until
ready for use, and if wet, which is very common, it should
be spread thinly over the floor, and at intervals of two or
three days, stirred with a fork.
There are many household purposes, such as flannels,
stockings, and carpeting, to which this description of wool
can be converted ; and the increased price the fleece wool
will command, aflbrds an ample compensation to the farmer
for the expense of tagging his sheep as directed. He will
find consolation, also, in having performed an honest part
towards the manufacturer.
CUTTING HORNS AND HOOFS.
After the individual has performed his task of tagging, let
him place the sheep upon its feet, and if the toes of the
hoof require cutting, let another be at hand with a sharp
chisel and mallet to do it. This will often be found neces-
sary with the Merino and Saxon breeds ; and the ground
being usually wet at this season, the hoofs will be softer and
more easily cut, than perhaps at any after period. The
paring of the feet also, adopted by many in localities where
foot-rot prevails, as a prevention of that disease, might now
be attended to.*
It is not unfrequently the case, that the horns of sheep
are turned inwards, and from this cause likely to grow into
the head or eyes, unless prevented. If neglected, a wound
in the flesh ensues, causing great irritation ; and if in the
warm season, life is endangered by attacks from maggots.
If the horn is large, a fine saw should be used ; if other-
wise, the chisel and mallet will perform it soonest, and in-
* See Foot-rot.
SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 163
flict the least pain. As to the use of a block on which to
rest the horn, or placing it against a post or studd of the
building, must be determined by its shape, and proximity to
the head where it may be necessary to sever it. If the
quick is touched, let it be anointed with tar.
DRAFTING.
Although drafting sheep for the drover and butcher is not
confined to any particular season with farmers of the North,
yet no period is preferable to the present, for selecting weth-
ers and such ewes as have been condemned for breeding,
for sale, after shearing. From the increased competition of
drovers at the present day, more discrimination is exercised
in their purchases than formerly, and consequently it will
pay well to have such as are drafted put at once into good
pasture. An increased price for the carcase, and some in-
crease of wool, will be the natural consequence of this treat-
ment.
PARTURITION, OR LAMBING.
The usual period of gestation with the ewe is five months,
or an average of 152 days.
The proper time for parturition must be determined by
circumstances, of which climate and locality are the most
prominent, and these the flock-master must steadily keep
in view. The month generally selected in the Northern
and Middle States is May, the vicissitudes of the climate
forbidding an earlier period, unless in instances where build-
ings are provided for shelter, the expense of which is
greater than the majority of farmers are willing to incur.
The ewes during pregnancy should be disturbed as little
as possible, and every attention paid to the quantity and
quality of their food. Ewes, however, should not be kept
fat at this stage ; indeed this state is injurious, as it predis-
poses them sometimes to abortion ; but what is usually
termed " good store condition" should be maintained through
the whole period of gestation. Neither should ewes be
exposed to storms and cold during the winter and early
spring months, but thoroughly protected from both. It can-
not be expected from any domestic animal a healthy off-
spring, in our rigorous climate, if the dam has been permit-
ted to suffer the hardships of cold and starvation ; therefore
it will be wise if the sheep husbandman will always hold
164 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP.
up to view the apothegm, " so the dam, so the offspring.*'
There must be good condition to sustain the mother in the
trying hour of lamb-birth ; and like good condition is equally
necessary to sustain the lamb subsequently, and impart to it
sound constitution, size, and thrift.
The field chosen for the ewes to fold should be dry, free
from stumps, open ditches, and possess as level a surface as
possible, as in little hollows ewes are liable to be cast, which
is caused by lazily stretching themselves in sunny weather,
when in a lying posture. In this situation they will often
be found flat on their backs, and violently kicking the air,
without the power of recovery, until aided ; and, if unseen
by the shepherd, death will follow sometimes in a few hours.
But perhaps no field affords that smoothness of surface to
prevent these too often fatal occurrences, and therefore the
duty devolves upon the shepherd of passing leisurely over
every part of the field, several times during the day, to guard
against them. But this duty must not be delayed until some
of the ewes have dropped their lambs ; he must commence his
career of watchfulness at least ten days before, for it is very
common with ewes that are in over good condition to be
found in this perilous situation some days before their time.
Other duties obligatory upon the shepherd are lucidly set
forth by Mr. Youatt, as follows :
'• The lamber should have with him his lamb-crook ; a bot-
tle of milk — ewes' milk if possible, and carried in his bosom
or in an inside pocket, that it may be kept warm ; some cords
to tie the legs of the ewes that he may have occasion to as-
sist or examine ; a little pot of grease or oil, to lubricate his
hand, if he should have occasion to introduce it into the womb
of any of the ewes ; a sharp knife, with a round or rather
curved extremity, should it be necessary to remove the lamb
piece-meal from the mother ; a piece of stout polished iron
rod, of the size of a goose quill, twelve inches in length,
and rounded at one end, somewhat like a button hook, in
order to remove from the womb a dead or divided fcetus ;
a small quantity of cordial, consisting of equal parts of bran-
dy and sweet spirit of nitre ; and a strong infusion of ergot
of rj-e.
" The period of lambing having commenced, the attention
of the lamber should be increased. He should carefully ob-
serve every ewe that appears to be in labor. While she
walks about and does not exhibit any extraordinary degree of
SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 165
suffering, he should not interfere ; nor should he do so if she
rises when he approaches, and walks away, unless her la-
bor has been protracted twenty hours or more. He should
not be in haste to render his assistance, although she should
be continually lying down and getting up again, and showing
more impatience or irritability than actual pain ; but if her
strength appears to be declining, his immediate aid is required.
If he has to drive her to the fold or pound, it should be as
gently as possible, or he should drive some others with her,
in order that she may not be frightened by being alone se-
lected. The early interference of the lamber is always prej-
udicial, and very frequently fatal. Nature, in the course of
twenty or twenty-four hours, will, in the great majority of
cases, accomplish that which carmot be hurried on by art
without extreme danger.
" The state of the weather will cause a very considerable
difference in the duration of the labor. When the weather
is cold and dry, and especially if the situation is somewhat
exposed, the progress of the labour will be slow — the throes
will be comparatively weak and ineffectual, and the ewe may
and should be left a considerable time before mechanical assist-
ance is rendered. When, however, the weather is warm, and
especially if, at the same time, it is moist, the throes will be vio-
lent, and the strength of the sufferer will be very rapidly
wasted ; there will be a dangerous tendency to inflammation,
and the aid of the lamber is speedily required. Except un-
der these circumstances, no motive of curiosity, no desire
to know how the affair is going on, should induce the lamber
to interfere while the throes are natural and the strength con-
tinues, unless it is evident, without handling the ewe, that a
false presentation, or some mechanical cause, prevents the
expulsion of the foetus. When the ewe is nearly exhausted
she will often suffer the lamber to kneel beside her and suc-
cessfully afford the requisite assistance. If there is a violent
struggle between the patient and the lamber, the foetus will
often be destroyed ; but his help, when she quietly submits
to him, will rarely fail to preserve the mother and her off-
spring. Let it be supposed that, from certain circumstances,
she is driven to the pound, or that she is lying quietly by the
lamber in the field. He should first endeavor to ascertain the
nature of the presentation. Is the lamb coming in the right way
with its muzzle first, and a fore-foot on each side of it ? If the
tongue is not protruding from the mouth and becoming almost
166 MANAGKMLNT OF SHEEP.
black, and her strength is not quite wasted, a table spoonful of
his cordial, with double this quantity of the infusion, will proba-
bly increase or recall the pains ; and the lamb will soon be born.
If this is not effected in a quarter of anliour, a second dose of
the infusion should be given ; and, that being followed by no
good result, he should try what mechanical assistance will
do. He should draw down first one leg and then the other,
endeavoring with his finger to solicit or coax the head on-
■ward at the same time. If he cannot readily get at the legs,
he should push the head of the lamb a little backwards and
downwards, when he will probably be able to grasp them.
If he does not now succeed, the cause of the obstruction will
be sufficiently plain, namely, the too great largeness of the
head, which cannot pass the arch of the pubis ; and, there-
fore, either tying the legs of the ewe, or an assistant keep-
ing her down on her right side, the lamber should grasp the
two fore-legs in one hand, and with one or two fingers of the
other, urge it forward with as much force as is consistent with
the safety of the lamb. The young one will rarely fail to be
extracted by these means, except the head very much ex-
ceeds the common size."
In addition to the above sound observations, when me-
chanical aid is employed, it is always accompanied with
considerable fright to the ewe, and if she is permitted to es-
cape immediately after the birth of her lamb, will often re-
fuse to own it; therefore, should it be alive, let it be placed
at once before her, and by its form and scent, she will, in
most cases, recognise it as her offspring. On the whole,
the surest way is, to secure the ewe in a small pound or
shed, and there leave her for the day ; for, if she has a sup-
ply of milk, rarely further trouble need be apprehended.
Should she, however, under these circumstances, or any
other, refuse to suckle, she must be held, and a teat placed
in the mouth of the lamb. This alternative seldom fails to
conquer all difficulty.
The lambs of fine-wooled sheep are extremely sensitive
to cold and wet when they drop, and to guard against expo-
sure, the sheep-master must endeavor to anticipate storms,
and place his flocks beforehand under shelters. These should
be capacious, as the ewe dislikes too much company at the
time of parturition, as will be noticed in her retiring often
quite distantly, if in a field, from the rest of her companions,
when the event is about to transpire. In such instances
SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 167
where no sheltering is provided, greater labor and vigilance
must be employed, the presence of the flock-tender being
constantly needed, with his bottle of warm milk, and putting
the more helpless in a large basket, lined with hay or straw,
and bringing them before the fire for an hour or more, until
animation is restored. When lambs are separated from
their dams under such circumstances, care should be ob-
served not to have them wrapped or touched with anything
that is offensive, as its scent, when very young, is the prin-
cipal source of recognition by the mother. A clean blanket
or woollen cloth will be best, if swaddling should be found
necessary.
It is proverbial that the Merino and Saxon varieties are
not as good nurses as the English breeds, and nature there-
fore rarely overtasks, by supplying them with twins. When
this occurs, however, if the ewe is in her prime, condition
good, udder large, and her keep good, it will be proper to let
both of the lambs run with the mother ; but if the reverse of
this, let one of them be brought up by hand, or, as is the
Spanish custom, be destroyed. A different course will
probably cause runts of both, and is one of the means by
which many flocks, in process of time, are sadly deterio-
rated.
When the ewe loses her offspring, it is followed by a
distension, and frequently an inflammation, of the udder.
But such cases will be found by the reader fully treated of,
in the chapter of diseases, under the head of garget.
During the period of lambing, continuing as it does for a
fortnight or more, the pasture for the ewes, if they are in fair
flesh, should not be luxuriant ; but when it is passed, then
they may be removed to better keep ; and in all cases the
situation should be dry, and free from too great exposure.
If the season has been unpropitious for early grass, and
consequently the keep during parturition too low, the flock
should have the run of two lots, which should adjoin, and
the communication between them at all times kept open.
The adoption of this course prevents the confusion incident
to changing the whole flock at once.
The number of ewes herding together at this important
period should not exceed one hundred, and a still less
number will result advantageously to both the flock and mas-
ter. He should at all seasons keep before him the fact, that
168 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP.
a few sheep kept together will do better than many, Avhich will
be more particularly enforced hereafter.
The affection of the ewe for her offspring is often ex-
ceedingly strong, as the following example will testify, al-
though rather an extraordinary instance, related by the Et-
trick Shepherd.
" One of the two years while I remained on the farm at
Willenslee a severe blast of snow came on by night, about
the latter end of April, which destroyed several scores of our
lambs, and as we had not enough of twins and odd lambs
for the mothers that had lost theirs, of course we select-
ed the best ewes and put lambs to them. As we were
making the distribution, 1 requested of the master to spare
me a lamb for a ewe which he knew, and which was stand-
ing over a dead lamb, about four miles from the house. He
would not let me do it, but bid me to let her stand over her
lamb for a day or two, and perhaps a twin would be forth-
coming. I did so, and faithfully did she stand to her charge.
I visited her every morning and evening for the first eight
days, and never found her above two or three yards from
the lamb ; and often as 1 went my rounds, she eyed me long
ere I came near her, and kept stamping with her foot, to
frighten away the dog.
" The weather grew fine and warm, and the dead lamb
soon decayed ; but still this affectionate and desolate crea-
ture kept hanging over the poor remains with an attachment
that seemed to be nourished by hopelessness. It often drew
tears from my eyes to see her hanging with such fondness
over a few bones, mixed with a small portion of wool. For
the first fortnight she never quitted the spot ; and for an-
other week she visited it every morning and evening, utter-
ing a few kindly and heart-piercing bleats ; till at length,
every remnant of her offspring vanished, mixing with the
soil, or wafted away by the winds."*
An Important duty devolves upon the flock-master to see
that his sheep are regularly and plentifully salted from the
time they are turned to pasture till the commencement of the
foddering season.
Fortunately the question, whether salt contributes to the
* Hogg's Shepherd's Calendar.
SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 169
health and thrift of sheep, is, at the present day, no longer
mooted, its salutary effects being universally admitted. It
operates to stimulate the appetite, and essentially aids the
digestive organs in extracting the nutriment of food ; and
within a few years it has been ascertained that its free use
to sheep has mitigated, if not wholly prevented in some lo-
calities that terrible scourge to British flocks, the liver-rot.
Its security against the attacks of other dangerous maladies,
further time and observation will doubtless demonstrate.
In Mr. Youatt's work will be found the following remarks
on the benefits of salting :
" Passing by the beautiful country of Montpelier and the
mouths of the Rhone, the traveller can study the fine sheep
and the sheep husbandry of Aries. The district of the
Crau, in length nearly eighteen miles, and about half as
much in breadth, extends from the mountains towards the
seacoast. It is one uniform gentle declivity : in no part of
it is there the slightest portion of stagnant water, and not a
tree or shrub is to be seen. The soil is dry and apparently
barren enough, but produces a varied herbage well adapted
to the sheep. Not less than one hundred and thirty thou-
sand sheep graze on this declivdty."
A writer in the Memoirs of the Royal Academy of Sci-
ences at Paris attributes the thriving of the sheep on such a
spot to the free use of salt, thereby enabling the digestive
organs to extract every particle of nutriment which the food
contains. He says, " On this spot, seemingly so sterile, by
the free use of salt, more numerous flocks of sheep are bred
and reared than upon any other common of equal extent
throughout the whole kingdom ; and, what is not less re-
markable, the sheep are healthier, hardier, and endure the
severity of the winter with less loss, though they have fewer
sheep cots for covering, than those fed and bred on more co-
pious pastures, and that have, besides, the advantage of more
convenient shelter."
For a short time after sheep have been turned to pasture,
precaution must be observed not to salt them too freely, as,
in conjunction with the stimulating nature of young grass,
scours or purging will follow ; and its effects upon ewes
shortly before parturition, if allowed access to it without
limit, will tend to abortion, as will be found more fully no-
ticed in another chapter.
If common fine salt (say Salina make) is used, two quarts
15
170 MANACEMElXT OF SHEEP.
to the hundred, given about once a week, is a prudent quan-
tity at that time, and may be increased to four quarts after
the lirst of May, for every fourth or tifih day, during the re-
mainder of the pasture season. If coarse saU (St. Ubes) is
used, a quarter to one third less than of fine will be proper,
it being of a much stronger quality.
Salting in troughs would be well enough, provided the
sheep could be stationary in one enclosure ; but the neces-
sity of their removal frequently for change of pasture, re-
quires the removal of the troughs also ; and the llock-master
with several hundred sheep will soon learn that that is quite
too troublesome. Again, troughs are thought by many indis-
pensable during the season when the Estris Ovis, or sheep
gad-fly, is winging its tormenting career, for the reception of
the tar (upon which salt is sprinkled) as a defence against
its attacks. But this does not supersede their removal, and
if time and their expense are considered, it will be found
cheaper to pound the flocks several times during the flight
of the fly, and with a common paint brush or swab, tarring
their noses can very quickly be performed, and far more
efiectually than it can be done by themselves in the troughs.*
The writer salts his sheep upon the ground, before the
dew evaporates, selecting a place which is clean, and the
grass short, and divides a handful into two or three parts, as
a large quantity thrown upon one spot will not scatter suffi-
ciently the quantity used for the flock, and thereby the sheep
are afforded a more equal chance. Salt is a fertihzer of the
soil, and should any be left uneaten, which is not very like-
ly, of course its effects will not be lost.
Many suppose that sheep, late in the fall, require little or
no salt. This is quite a mistake, it being the very period
when it will prove most useful to them, by contributing to
extract the little nutriment left in the decaying herbage, as
well as causing its better relish.
Salt is quite as necessary in the foddering season, if not
more so, than at any other time, for the reason that dry food
being harder of digestion than green, the stimulating proper-
ties of salt is requisite to aid the process. It is not impor-
tant that the hay, or whatever else may be fed, is salted, if
the sheep have access to it in troughs or mangers. But if
the hay is salted when it is secured, none else will be re-
* See chapter on diseases, Estris Ovis, for further remarks.
SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 171
quired. This is deemed by a large majority to be the bet-
ter way, and coincides with the writer's views and practice.
WASHING.
This is a branch of sheep economy which is wholly in-
dispensable.
The careless and slovenly manner with which it is per-
formed by the great majority of iVmerican wool-growers,
calls for severe reprehension ; the evil consequences result-
ing from it, however, are inflicted mostly upon themselves.
The most suitable time depends upon the latitude and sea-
son ; the latter causing sometimes, in the same locality, a
considerable variation. At all events, the flock-master must
be sure of one thing, namely, that the water and weather
are comparatively warm. The violation of this is very
common, which is exceedingly cruel and inhumane, and
often exposes sheep to disease.
The day^selected should be one of sunshine, if possible ;
and as this work in the Northern and Middle States is com-
monly attended to from the 10th to the 25th of May, it will
rarely be the case, at that season, that the water will be of
the right temperature before nine or ten o'clock in the morn-
ing ; and when only a few sheep are to be washed, it will
be better generally to delay it until the afternoon.
If the washing can be conducted immediately after a
warm rain it will be easier, the effect of it being to soften
and loosen the dirt ; in this event, the yearlings should be
selected first, as they are generally the filthiest.
The flock-master should always be present ; and if he
does not possess the physical ability or inclination to " bear
a hand," he should at least see that everything goes off
properly, and is conducted on " temperance principles," for
rum has done its full share of mischief on such occasions.
He should be provided with a pair of shears, and if any
dung locks are seen, they should be severed before the
sheep are put into the water.
Where there is a running stream of pure water, with a
gravelly or stony bottom, no better mode can be adopted
for wool cleansing, and none other is so economical.
For a number of years past the writer has used a vat,
made of two inch pine plank, and held together by three
inch oak gripes. It is about nine feet long, four and a half
172 MANAGEMENT OF SIIEEr.
wide, and three and a half in depth. It is placed at the bot-
tom of a gentle fall, upon top of which is laid the troughs
that conduct the water into the vat, the elevation of them be-
ing about eighteen inches above the level of the top of the
vat. The dimensions of this are much larger than is neces-
sary for the farmer with a small number of sheep, as it ad-
mits of the use of two sets of troughs, and therefore calcu-
lated for the Avashing of two sheep simultaneously. All
circumstances being right, five to six hundred can be well
washed in it per day.
On one side of the vat is a permanent platform made of
stone and floored with plank, the surface having a gentle in-
clination towards the vat, on which the sheep are held for a
minute or more, after being washed, that the water may
drain from the fleece. Beside the vat (not in it) and upon
the platform stands one of the washers, and a temporary
staging on the opposite side accommodates another. One
man is employed to bring the sheep from a small pound
close at hand, and put them into the vat, in which two are
held at a time by another at the lower end, for two or three
minutes, with a view to soften the dirt. The washers then
take them, and each holds one under the troughs or spouts,
turning them in every position to receive the full benefit
from the fall of the water, Avhich proceeds with such force
as to dislodge the dirt rapidly, and in a much briefer time
than it can be done by squeezing. When the supply of wa-
ter is full, no squeezing will be required, except, perhaps,
the belly and thigh wool. As soon as the sheep held by the
man for soaking pass from his hands to the washers, he is
immediately supplied with others ; and thus while two are
soaking, two others are being washed under the spouts.
One end of the vat being set a little below a level, the dirt
passes freely off, and consequently the water is compara-
tively pure, the good effects of which will be seen in the
almost cotton whiteness of the inner portion of the fleece.
As to eradicating all the dirt from the external surface of
wool when upon the sheep, it is not expected, for it is im-
possible to accomplish it ; and therefore it must necessarily
be left to the cleansing process of the manufacturer. But
that much more can be extracted than is usual, cannot admit
of a doubt ; and if a general trial will only be made, those
who undertake it will be sure to succeed, and rewarded not
only with the grateful thanks of manufacturers, but a hand-
SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 173
some advance upon the prices of their wool. In confirma-
tion of this, Mr. Samuel Lawrence, of Lowell, Mass., an
eminent woollen manufacturer, states the following : " These
cheating practices are short-sighted, inasmuch as the ' clean
thing' brings a price proportionate. We always fix the
price per lb. by the quantity of scoured wool it will yield.
In our purchases we frequently make a difference of five
cents per lb. in precisely similar qualities." This advance
will amply compensate for the longer time required in wash-
ing our sheep well, and if acted upon, with many of us, our
characters for honesty will be considerably amended.
Bucks, especially of the Merino breed, require an extra
time to wash them, and if a little soft soap should be used,
their fleeces will not lose anything in value in the estima-
tion of the manufacturer.
After the washing is completed, the sheep should be turned
upon a thick-covered sward, that no dirt may collect on the
fleeces, before they are shorn. Driving them along a dusty
road must be avoided, if possible, when returning from the
washing.
The Spanish custom is to cleanse the fleece with soap,
after it is shorn, the grease or yolk abounding to such a de-
gree, with its concomitant dirt, as to preclude the possibility
of cleansing it properly in the ordinary way.
In England, the breeds having less of gum than others,
washing is comparatively easy, and, where practicable, is
done by swimming the sheep to and fro in a pond or stream,
and gently squeezing the wool with the hands.
The washing of Saxony sheep in Germany and other parts
of the Continent, conforms to the better modes adopted in this
country, but is performed with far greater nicety and care.
On the authority of the manufacturer above named, Span-
ish wools, after being washed with soap, as already men-
tioned, lose 10 per cent, by the manufacturer's process of
cleansing ; German or Saxony wool 24 per cent., but i^ accom-
?nodated, that is, the skirts and head taken off', only 16 per
cent. ; the Australian or New South Wales wools about 30
per cent. ; American Saxony averages 36 per cent., and Amer-
ican pure blood Merino 42i per cent.* The waste from South
American wools is enormous, being from 70 to 80 per cent. ;
* It is proper to state that all manufacturers do not agree with Mr.
Lawrence in opinion, many of them estimating the waste of American,
Saxon, and Merino wool to be a little less than above stated.
15*
174 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP.
but it is exported " in the dirt," which will explain it. The
above statement proves conclusively the inditferent manner
with which wools grown in the United States are washed by
the growers, and calls loudly for a relbrm.
CASTRATION AND DOCKING,
This is an important and necessary operation to lambs,
but in very many instances is cruelly and unskilfully per-
formed.
The proper time depends much on the weather, the size of
the lamb, and varying from five to twenty days from its birth.
As the ewes about washing time are, or should be, through
parturition, two or three days after, a cool one may be select-
ed for this purpose, although with the great mass it is de-
ferred to the period of shearing. No matter, however, as to
this, provided it is done very early in the morning, as a warm,
moist temperature is very unpropitious, on account of the
danger attending it. This arises from the extraordinary ef-
fusion of blood in individual instances, which frequently re-
sults in the death of the lamb.
Let the lambs be brought from the field with as little
bustle and hurry as possible, and immediately confined in a
small pound, to prevent any exercise or running about when
catching them. This, and the observance of the following
rules, have been the practice of the writer many years : —
One catches a lamb and seats himself astride of a narrow
plank or scantling, which is placed at an inclination of about
30 degrees, pressing the back of the lamb firmly against his
belly, and with his hands grasps the hind legs, drawing them
upwards and towards him, so that the scrotum is fairly ex-
posed for the operation. The operator with a sharp knife
cuts off* about one half to two thirds of the testicle bag ; then
drops his knife, and draws out one of the testicles at a time,
till a portion of the connecting cord is seen, which he divides
by friction of his thumb nail. This mode of division la-
cerates the cord, and less bleeding will follow than if done
by a sharp instrument. It may, to some, appear unnecessary,
and therefore objectionable, to cut ofif so much of the scrotum
or bag ; but if dislodged of its contents it is certainly quite
an useless afl^air, the little wool growing upon it being almost
worthless, and a bother always to the tagger and shearer when
•-utting it ofif. No danger can arise either, if the ointment,
which will presently be spoken of, is used.
SUMMER BIANAGEMENT. 175
After the testicles are removed, the operator grasps the
tail of the lamb and severs it about one inch from the root.
Here the writer may be again condemned for cutting off ap-
parently too much of the tail, it being considered a necessary
appendage which the God of nature has provided the animal
to brush away annoying insects. But the evil consequences
of a moderate length of dock, or indeed any at all, he has
seen too often manifested, to induce him to swerve from his
practice ; humanity, indeed, sanctions it. The sheep which
carries a " natural tail," or only half a one, is very certain
not to take that care of it, in regard to cleanliness, which it
ought ; on the contrary, it is often seen with large accumu-
lations of dung attached to it, and presenting anything but
a tasteful aspect. But the sheep is not to be blamed for this,
for, unlike all other domestic animals, it can and does void
its excrement in a lying posture ; and a huge tail will not
be removed, on such occasions, without an extraordinary
effort. Hence it is, concretions of dung are formed, which
attract the maggot-fly, and unless a timely discovery is made
by the master, the sheep dies a horrible death. Thus the
life of the animal is often jeopardized, and therefore is it not
humane to deprive it of so perilous an appendage ? Again,
if the old calculation of the farmer be true, that it takes one
bushel of corn to fat a swine's tail, it is a problem to deter-
mine, how much feed is requisite to keep in " store order"
the undivided tail of a sheep.
At the conclusion of the castration and docking, use is
made of the ointment alluded to. It is composed of the
following ingredients : say one quart of tar, two lbs. of lard,
and after being warmed to a thin liquid, add a gill of spirits
of turpentine, and apply it by means of a soft swab to the
mutilations, and for one or two inches around them. This is
very healing in its effects, prevents inflammation from colds,
and, what is of most consequence, is an effectual guard
against the attacks of the maggot-fly. None will approach
it, so abhorrent is the effluvia of tar or turpentine to all winged
insects.
The lambs are put out of the pound as fast as each has
passed the operation, and are disposed to be very quiet,
which is quite right, as it checks the discharge of blood.
Let them remain about for an hour or more, if the pasture
to which they are to be turned is distant, and then they may
be moved off, but very slowly. Be careful, before this is
176 IMANAGEMENT OF SHEEP.
done, to look in the corners of fences, behind trees or what-
not, in the immediate vicinity, as some may be concealed,
and the stiffness consequent of their wounds will make them
unwilling to return with the flock, unless discovered and
aroused. Some work may be saved by this little piece of
vigilance, as they may get mixed with other flocks subse-
quently brought up.
CHAPTER IX.
SUMMER MANAGEMENT CONTINUED
SHEARING— INTERIM BETWEEN WASHING AND SHEARING— SORTING
—MARKING THE SHEEP— ROLLING THE FLEECES— ARRANGEMENT
OF WOOL FOR SALE— SHEARING-HOUSE— BALEING WOOL— SHEEP
TICK— MAGGOT-FLY— NOXIOUS WEEDS.
SHEARING.
This event, the harvest of the shepherd, as the reader has
been informed^ in the " olden time" was celebrated at its
conclusion with feastings and other demonstrations of rejoi-
cing. But this goodly custom has for long been discontin-
ued in this country, if we except the " ancients" of Nantucket,
who yet pertinaciously adhere annually to its observance.
It is very properly termed a harvest, for thus it is to the
faithful and humane flock-master ; but the reverse of this is
the case with that unprofitable servant, whose slothfulness
and negligence may be seen manifested in the emaciated and
partly denuded forms of his flock, at this interesting period.
The former reaps a bountiful reward, while the other gathers
little else than hurs and tag-lochs !
The remarks of censure prefixed to the notices on tagging,
washing, and castration, in reference to the heedless and
unskilful manner with which these matters are usually at-
tended to, by a large majority of wool-growers, will apply
with tenfold force to the subject now under consideration.
It will be proper to say, without ceremony or fear of contra-
diction, that the shearing of sheep, as generally conducted
in the United States, is utterly disgraceful. The passing
traveller, to be satisfied of the truth of this assertion, need
not confine his observation to the " poor man's flock" as seen
grazing by the roadside, but in the fields of those who sus-
tain the reputation of good farmers in their respective neigh-
borhoods, will often behold sheep whose appearance indicate
178 MANAGEMENT OF SIIEEr,
tliat their fleeces were gnawed off rather than shorn. But
with a view to repress indignation, the writer will not enter
into further description of such slovenly-looking objects, but
propose the question. Whose fault is this, and to whose door
is it to be laid 1 Is it the shearer, or is it the master ?
In the first place, the mass of wool-growers are themselves
ignorant of the details of this important art, very few having
ever learned it practically, and consequently are incompetent
to teach it. Therefore, \Vhen the shearer is proceeding with
his work, the master looks on, and, if faults are committed,
he is incapable of directing how they shall be avoided. He
may, it is true, vehemently denounce the unskilfulness and
cruelty of the shearer, but he has not himself the requisite
knowledge to take the shears and personally direct how they
should be held, and how far they should clip from the point,
or the position the sheep should lie, in order to prevent its
tearing the fleece with its feet. In addition to this, it is quite
probable that the shearer, with a view to save a shilling or
two, has been hired to perform the work by the lump, or so
much per head ; and under such circumstances he recklessly
" cuts in" and dashes ahead to accomplish it in the most
speedy time, regardless of the scolding of his employer, the
manner of his work, or humanity to the suffering animal.
There are shearers, but they are few, who can do their
work quickly and yet do it well ; but these have acquired
the art correctly at the beginning, and have wisely adhered
to its rules through a long experience. But the great ma-
jority have been spoiled when learning the rudiments, by
the very class of farmers alluded to. Thus even shearers
who have had the benefit of some correct teaching, are made
reckless performers by parsimonious notions on the part of
those who have employed them.
Bad habits are very easily acquired by a shearer, as the
writer has had frequent opportunities of observing in those
who have served him in this capacity for successive years ;
but it has been in the employ of these shear-by-the-head or
job flock-masters. Here is the root of the evil — urging
shearers to do more than they can do well, and thereby con-
firming the old but truthful adage, " haste makes waste."
The axe must be laid at the root of this evil at once, or good
workmen will continue to be, as now, few and far between.
The wool-grower must cease to entertain the false notion
that by hiring his shearing done by the head or job, he is
SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 179
the gainer, for the very reverse is the fact in nine tenths of
such instances, owing to the slovenly and half-way execu-
tion which follows, the sheep carrying away wool enough
to doubly pay the ordinary day wages. The fault, it will
have been seen, lies at the door of the master, and not
wholly to the shearer.
Of those who can sheaf a large number in a day, and per-
form it skilfully, there are very few ; but nothing precise can
be stated, as it depends entirely on the breed. If they are
Saxons or Merinos, or grades of these breeds, it will be
very safe to say, from twenty-five to forty, taking the aver-
age of a flock ; the grown sheep fewer than of yearlings.
In general terms, it may be said that he is a good workman
who will accomplish about the largest number, cuts the wool
with one clip of his shears, and not in twain, as one shear-
ing too fast is apt to do, shears even and close without cut-
ting the skin, and holds his sheep in those positions both
easy to it and himself.
The following instructions may be followed, intended for
the novice : —
Supposing that the floor of the shearing-house has previ-
ously been thoroughly cleaned, the pound containing the
flock littered with straw — the shearer proceeds to bring his
sheep upon the floor. This he must avoid doing after a
common method, which resembles, rather than an3nhing
else, the rough-and-tumble efforts of a dog dragging a wood-
chuck from his burrow — but after catching it, to throw his
right arm around the body, grasping the brisket with his
hand, then lift it, and v/ith his left hand remove dirt or straw,
if any adhere to the feet. If the sheep is filthy about the
tail, or perchance any burs are attached to the wool, at the
threshold of the door, let all be cut off by a suitable pair of
shears at hand for such purposes only. Then he may place
the sheep on that part of the floor assigned to him, resting
on its rump, and himself in a posture, ^vith one knee on a
cushion, and the back of the animal resting against his left
thigh. He grasps the shears about half-way from the point
to the bow, resting his thumb along the blade, which affords
him better command of the points. He may then commence
cutting the wool at the brisket, and, proceeding downwards,
all upon the sides of the belly to the extremity of the ribs,
the external sides of both thighs to the edges of the flanks ;
then back to the brisket, and thence upwards, shearing the
180 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP,
wool from the breast, front, and both sides of the neck — but
not yet the back of it — and also the poll or fore part, and
top of the head. Now the "jacket is opened" of the sheep,
and its position, and that of the shearer, is changed, by be-
ing turned flat upon its side, one knee of the shearer resting
on the cushion, and his other gently pressing the fore-quar-
ter of the animal, to prevent any 'struggling. He then re-
sumes cutting upon the flank and rump, and thence onwards
to the head. Thus one side is completed. The sheep is
then turned on to the other side, in doing which great care
is requisite to prevent the fleece from being torn, and the
shearer acts as upon the other, which finishes. He must
then take his sheep near to the door through which it is to
pass out, and neatly trim the legs, and leave not a solitary
lock anywhere as a harbor for ticks. It is absolutely neces-
sary for him to remove from his stand to trim, otherwise the
useless stuff from the legs becomes intermingled with the
fleece wool.
In the use of the shears, let the blades be laid as flat to
the skin as possible, not lower the points too much, nor cut
more than from one to two inches at a clip, frequently not
so much, depending on the part, and compactness of the
wool.
The above instructions being designed for a beginner, we
will suppose that this is his first and only attempt. Let his
employer, when he is about it, and it will be a good while,
have an eye on all his movements, kindly and carefully di-
recting them. After the pupil is through his maiden effort,
you will see him smoothing out the crinkles and aches from
his back and hips — for thus the poor fellow will feel — and if
the weather is warm — and of course it should be — wiping
the dripping sweat from his brow. But be easy ; let him
blow a while before he catches another sheep, for if you hur-
ry him, long before night you will hear murmured from his
lips, that " shearing is a back-breaking business — it's not
what it is cracked up to be," &c. &:c., indicating that he is
already disgusted with it, and if so, adieu to his ever arriving
at skilfulness. But if he has time afforded to straighten
himself, and is patted with kind compliments " upon his un-
expected well-doing — that he improves with each successive
sheep — and that he will be sure to make a first-rate shear-
er," you will bring him under the yoke without his knowing
its hardships. He will probably shear eight or ten the first
SUMMER, MANAGEMENT. 181
day, and possibly a few more the next ; at all events, guard
him all the while, and see that he hurries not, or slights his
work in any respect.
In this way, and none other, can we properly educate
shearers to do their work with tact, and increased profit to
the flock-master. This is but a transcript of the writer's
course ; and to show its good results, he has now in mind
an instance, among several, where he instructed a raw one,
and the following season his pupil sheared forty per day,
and performed his task admirably.
Again : if this plan could be generally adopted, good
shearers would be more plentiful, and wool-growers, aside
from other evils, would not be compelled to delay shearing
often beyond the proper time, for want of them.
There is yet another mode of taking off the fleece, not un-
common in this country, very generally adopted in England,
and in nowise objectionable, and which is here laid before
the reader. The following description of it is from the
Farmer's Series :
" A barn or shed into which plenty of light can be admit-
ted near the shearers should be selected, and a part of the
floor covered with a large canvass sheet, on which two
shearers can operate. The sheet should be nailed down,
and a little straw placed under it to soften it as a cushion.
The floor of the barn should be swept out quite clean, and a
light broom be at hand to sweep the sheet when necessary.
Everything being arranged, a shearer seizes a sheep, and
sets it on its rump, and keeps it in this position by resting
the back against his own legs. He removes all straws,
thorns, burs, &c., that may have adhered to the wool.
While thus held, the wool is removed from the head and
neck as far as the shoulders, and also from the belly, the
scrotum, and the edge of the thighs. The head of the ani-
mal is then bent down sideways, and the shearer, placing a
leg on each side of the neck of the sheep, pushes out the
opposite ribs by pressing his knees gently against the ribs
that are nearest to him. He next shears the wool from the
far side with his left hand, from the belly to the middle of
the back, and as far down as the loins. The sheep is now
turned, and the right hand is employed to shear the wool
from the near side. The sheep is then laid flat on its side,
and kept down by the shearer with his face towards the
rump of the sheep, resting his right knee on the ground in
16
182 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP.
front of the neck, and his right toe being brought to the
ground a httle behind and below the poll ; the head and
neck of the sheep are thus confined by his right leg, while
lie uses his right hand to shear the wool from the hind-quar-
ter. In this way the clips of the shears will appear in con-
centric rings round the body of the sheep. The dirty por-
tions of wool about the tail are then removed by the shears,
and kept by themselves ;* the outside of the fleece is folded
inwards, beginning at the sides, and narrowing the whole
fleece into a stripe about two feet wide. The stripe is then
rolled firmly up from the tail and towards the neck, the wool
of which is stretched out and twisted into a rope, and wound
round the fleece to give it a cylindrical shape."
IxVTERIM BETWEEN WASHING AXD SHEARING, ETC.
The interim between washing and shearing should depend
on the state of the weather ; if cool and cloudy, the yolk or
oil will not appear so readily, a substance, as the reader has
been informed in a previous part of the work, which is high-
ly necessary to confer softness and brilliancy to the wool.
If the weather has been sunny, from a week to ten days
from washing will be quite long enough ; and when the
work of shearing begins and is proceeding, the temperature,
in the Northern States at least, cannot be too warm. But
there are thousands who violate this, and thereby reap sad
consequences to themselves, by the death of many of their
sheep, which arises from the extreme sensitiveness of the
animal to cold immediately after its fleece has been shorn.
To guard against this evil as much as possible, it will not
be safe to begin shearing, in this latitude, before the 1st of
June, and will be yet safer, generally, to defer it a few days
longer. After waiting till the last moment, if a cold rain
storm should occur during the process, those which have
been shorn should be put under cover without a moment's
delay, as death to many of them will infallibly follow, if it is
neglected. The extreme sufl'ering of sheep under such cir-
cumstances is inconceivable, and no one, unless wholly de-
void of humanity, to say nothing of regard for his pockets,
will refrain to fly to their immediate relief. Veteran flock-
masters will duly appreciate these remarks, as there are few
* This is exceptionable ; it should be done before anything else. — Au-
thor Am. Shepherd.
SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 183
of US who have not in times past been losers, by inhumanly
neglecting this important duty.
If the cutting of the horns and hoofs has not already
been attended to at tagging time, as has been recommended,
it should be no longer delayed, but done now.
Although the indications of scab at any time are infallible
with the experienced flock-master, yet perchance a discov-
ery has not been made, after the fleece is removed it can no
longer escape- observation. Should any be found infected,
a resort to the proper remedy must not be delayed for a mo-
ment.*
SORTING, ETC.
To the breeders for mutton, and more particularly the cul-
tivators of wool, no other occasion than the present is more
favorable to institute thorough examinations of the forms and
fleeces of their flocks. It is thus, because the wool will
often conceal, when growing upon the sheep, minor imper-
fections of the carcase ; but after the fleece is shorn, they
become more obvious. If the sheep are of the mutton vari-
ety, those of the same age should be compared as to size,
and the individuals having the greatest, with most approved
proportions, should be marked, and retained for breeding
purposes. Although the fleece can be pretty accurately
judged by the experienced wool culturists for several months
antecedent, yet not so well as now ; and every one bearing
wool distinguished for those properties most desirable, as
well as possessing a symmetrical form, with indications of
thrift and easy keep, must also receive a lasting mark, for it
should not be parted with. Let the fleeces of the most ap-
proved be weighed, and every other particular noted. In
this way only can the wool culturist advance, whilst its neg-
lect will soon manifest itself in a deterioration both of fleece
and carcase.
Although it is quite common, and withal very necessary,
to classify sheep, by a division into flocks of the sexes, at
the beginning of the foddering season, yet if it has been neg-
lected, it should be now done. Nothing should be permit-
ted to run with the ewes and lambs, and their continuance
on the best pasture will be of the highest advantage. The
wethers and dry ewes selected for sale should also be turned
* See Chapter on Diseases.
184 MANAGEMENT OF SHEET.
to good keep ; and indeed so of all others of tlie flock, if
possible.
MARKING, ETC.
There is another incidental duty connected with shearing
time — namely, marking the sheep before they are finally
disposed of to the fields. It is usually done by the shearer
or with his aid. This does not refer to ear-marks, but paint-
ing the initial letter of the owner's name upon the body of
the sheep, which, however, is commonly performed in a very
uncouth and ludicrous style. This can be obviated by hav-
ing the letter cut in pasteboard, and thereby some degree of
taste and uniformity will result. If a letter is not indispen-
sable, it will be better to have an iron formed to represent a
ring, triangle, or diamond, with a handle attached ; then dip
the iron in the paint, which should be deposited in a shallow
vessel, and immediately apply it to the wethers on the right
shoulders, ewes on the left, or vice versa, and the bucks on
the rump. This is practicable, if others near by do not
adopt the same mark. Such marks of ownership are quite
necessary, with a view to distant or more obvious recogni-
tion, and more especially so if any of the flock are breachy
and disposed to stray. The manner in which it is done fre-
quently reflects the character of the flock-master. If it is
done neatly, the inference is that his other performances are
likewise.
The materials for marking should be lampblack and lin-
seed oil, or, as a substitute for the latter, hog's lard. Let the
lampblack be " killed," as painters term it, by using a very
little of spirits of turpentine, before the oil is mixed. It will
not rub oiF so easily if allowed to stand twenty-four hours
before applied. It is common to use tar ; but this is objec-
tionable with the manufacturer, it being difficult to separate
by the cleansing process.
As soon as the flock is pounded for shearing, the lambs
should be separated before anything else is done, lest the
wound occasioned by severing the dock should be irritated
by the squeezing and jostling of the old ones. An exam-
ination of the altered tups may be made to see if all is right.
If there are any worms (which is not very likely if the pre-
caution has been observed to anoint thoroughly as recom-
mended), let spirits of turpentine be applied, which the flock-
master should never be without.
SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 185
ROLLIx\G THE FLEECES.
After the shearer has performed his task, the fleeces must
be carefully taken from the floor, and put upon the rolling ta-
ble, the outside of it uppermost. The valuable loose locks
about the shearer's stand must all be picked up, and the use-
less stuff" from the legs, &c,,put into a corner, bag, or basket.
It should not be swept out of doors, as it possesses valuable
properties for manure.
The roller then proceeds to spread out the fleece, which
cannot be too carefully done, separates the ragged portions
from the skirts and head, and then makes it as compact as
possible by pushing from all sides towards the centre. The
loose wool is then thrown upon the fleece, which is followed
by turning over the sides and ends so as to form an oblong
stripe, say about two or three feet long, and one and a half w^ide,
which is moved to the front edge of the table. He then com-
mences to roll the long side of the stripe, aided by a boy at
the other end of it, who lay their arms flat from the elbow to
press the wool as the rolling proceeds, till the stripe is re-
duced to six or nine inches in width, depending on the size
of the fleece. The boy then mounts upon the table, and each
commences rolling from the ends of the stripe till the parts
meet, when the boy rolls his portion on top of his assistant's,
firmly pressing it till the twine is passed round both ways and
tied, which effectually secures the fleece, no matter how
roughly handled. After it receives a slight pressure, it pre-
sents somewhat the form of a cheese.
There are other modes of putting up fleeces, performed
without any aid ; but the writer has yet to see that individ-
ual who alone can roll a fleece as firm and solid as it should
be, at the same time giving it a symmetrical and attractive form.
If it is loosely rolled, the quantity of canvass used for pack-
ing is necessarily much increased ; and this item of extra
expense is more than equivalent to the services of a lad as an
assistant.
ARRANGEMENT OF WOOL FOR SALE, ETC.
The slovenly manner in which wool is rolled and after-
wards prepared for exhibition to the buyer, deserves a pass-
ing remark.
The wool-grower should keep before him the motto of
IG*
186 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP.
tlie shopmen, " goods tidily kept are half sold." This applies
with equal propriety to everything saleable by the farmer,
and to nothing with greater I'orce than his wool. They are
too prone to get along with this matter in a " rough and tumble"
style, doing up the fleeces untidily, and then depositing them
in dark and uninviting places for exhibition. If wool has
been well cleansed, it will not be ashamed of too much light;
if only half washed, a dark corner only aggravates its ap-
pearance. There is an art in disposing wool for sale, which
enables the flock-master to put his best foot out, and yet be
guiltless of artifice to deceive the buyer ; on the contrary,
increases his opportunity to judge acctirately of everything
appertaining to condition and quality.
The adoption of the following will carry out the writer's
views and practice : —
First, against one, or all sides — if necessary — of the wool-
loft, let four or five tiers of fleeces bo placed upon top of each
other, as nearly alike as to size as possible ; the next pile,
one tier of fleeces less, and so on diminishing the succeed-
ing piles one tier, till the last is reduced to a single one. In
this way, the fleeces represent piazza steps, or perhaps more
properly, the ascending seats of an amphitheatre. It will
readily be conceived, that if the fleeces have been neatly
rolled and adjusted, the whole is not only attractive, but saves
the buyer much time in overhauling it, which is unavoidable
if disposed of in a bin, or piled in any other form. This
constitutes one of those " inviting appearances" which the
world delight to gaze on, and which the world are some-
times disposed to pay a little beyond the intrinsic value for
the sake of possessing. Let the flock-master honestly tag
his sheep and cleanse his fleeces, and put nothing within
them but the " clean thing," and the inviting scene before the
buyer cannot mislead, or deceive him afterwards.
This leads to an exposure of other " cheating practices"
of wool-growers, alluded to by Mr. Samuel Lawrence, under
the head of " washing." In a communication to the writer he
states the following : — " The practice of enclosing in the
fleece clippings, &c., is too common, and should be discour-
aged by manufacturers. I have known sin ounces of this
useless stuff taken from one fleece. There is another prac-
tice equally disgraceful — the use of five to twenty times as
much twine as is necessary. A short time since I took sixty-
six feet of large twine from one fleece."
SUMMER MANAGEMENT, 187
No further comment is necessary, than to say, that any
flock-master who will put tag or dung locks, clippings, &c.,
in the fleece, with a view to increase the weight, for such is
the motive, is committing a gross fraud, and in every instance
of discovery, his crime should be exposed to the public for
reprobation.
In addition to excessive quantity of twine, it is not unusual
for the size to be adapted almost as well for rope-traces, as
tying of fleeces. It should be about half the size of a pipe's
tail, as smooth as possible, otherwise, the fibres of flax, hemp,
or cotton are intermingled with the wool ; the carder cannot
dislodge them — they receive the dye imperfectly, and con-
sequently deface the surface of the cloth.
SHEARING-HOUSE AND APPENDAGES.
Flock-masters are subjected to many inconveniences for
want of an appropriate place for shearing, with the necessa-
ry appendages of pounds, &c. The expense of a shearing-
house is not large, and will amply reimburse the expense in
a few years, as it can be used for the reception of farm im-
plements, &c., when the shearing is over, and wool removed.
The fence for the pounds should be constructed of posts
and boards ; two are required, and the one contiguous to the
shearing-house need not be more than twenty feet square ;
the other may be much larger.
It is very important that the wool-loft should be well light-
ed. No matter how well the fleeces may have been cleansed,
yet if there is a deficiency of light, they present a dingy
aspect. One window of good size is all that is necessary
at the south end, and two will be required at the opposite
or north end, for the reason that from that quarter the light
is milder, and gives the wool, if fine, a softer and more silky
appearance. Wool sorters always give a " north light" the
preference.
The trap door for suspending the sacks when packing,
should be in a central part of the floor, which leads to the
subject of
BALEING WOOL.
The article commonly used for baleing is termed by the
merchant, burlaps, Avhich varies in width from 35 to 40 inch-
es ; the latter is preferable. The quantity necessary for a
188 MANAGEMENT OF SHEET.
sack is 3 yards . A truss hoop is used, around the rim of which
the mouth of the sack is twisted, and is then placed on a square
frame just large enough to permit the rim of the hoop to rest.
The elevation should be sufficient to clear the sack from the
lower floor, when suspended. Some half dozen fleeces are
then thrown in for a layer, followed by a man who carefully
adjusts and treads each successive layer, till full. Gener-
ally, there is quite too much haste in this matter, and conse-
quently the wool is too loosely packed, and an extra quantity
of canvass is made necessary. It will be well before the
packing commences, to stuff the bottom corners of the sacks
with wool clippings, and tie them, which aflbrd handles for
lifting the bales.
THE SHEEP TICK — {Acarus reduvius.)
This disgusting insect infests sheep of all ages, but none
others so much as yearlings. While they tend to impoverish
the animal, if collected in large numbers, they stain the
wool in such a manner as to make it difficult to cleanse.
But they are so easily and effectually eradicated, it is inhu-
mane in any flock-master to permit their torments to any
portion of his sheep. The following is the modus operandi
for destroying them :
For 100 lambs, use 5 lbs. of inferior plug tobacco, or 10
lbs. of stems ; the former should be chopped into small
pieces, that its strength by boiling may be more fully extract-
ed. This will require some hours to do, and the most ef-
fectual way will be to apply at first two pails of water, which
may boil for half an hour, and then take one pail of liquor
from the kettle, and at the same time add another of water,
and so on till 30 gallons of decoction is made, for which
the quantity of tobacco named will be adequate.
A half hogshead will be the best thing for the deposite of
the liquor, upon one side of the top of which should be fast-
ened a rack, to rest the lambs after their immersion, in order
that the liquor may drain from them. If this is not done,
much of it will be unnecessarily w^asted. About a w^eek
after shearing the ticks will have left the ewes and fastened
themselves upon the lambs, which will be the proper time
to have them got up for this purpose. The lambs must be
held by the head with both hands, and then dipped to the
ears, using great care that none of the decoction passes into
the eyes or mouth.
SUMMER MANAGEMENT, 189
There are some flock-masters who immerse all their
sheep, but if the Iambs are faithfully attended to every year,
at the period recommended, few, if any, of the remainder of
the flock will ever be infested. Good condition is one of
the best preventives for this nuisance.
The tobacco decoction will also be found excellent for slight
wounds of the skin, and cutaneous irritations from johns-
wort.
MAGGOT-FLY.
Sheep during the summer months are subjected to extreme
annoyance from flies — principally the Estris Ovis, or gad-
fly, and the several varieties of worm, or maggot flies.
Fine-wooled sheep, from the close texture of their coats, do
not suffer from the attacks of the latter, unless dirty from
scours or wounds ; but the English long-wooled varieties
are especially exposed. The following observations are
copied from Blacklock :
" The insects passing under the name of " Fly," though
most troublesome in August, attack the sheep from May to
September, inclusive, depositing their eggs among the wool,
in general about the tail, the roots of the horns, or any part
which aflbrds, from its filthy appearance, a prospect of suita-
ble provision for the maggot. When these eggs are hatched,
a process which is, in sultry weather, almost instantaneous,
the maggot erodes the skin, and speedily brings the adjacent
parts into a fit condition for the reception of succeeding mem-
bers of its species.
The backs of long-wooled sheep are, from their exposure,
more liable to be selected by the flies, as a receptacle for
their eggs, than the corresponding parts in such as are cov-
ered by a short, thick fleece.
No sooner has the maggot begun its operations, than the
sheep becomes uneasy and restless, rubbing itself on stones
and trees, and endeavoring, by every means in its power, to
free itself from the annoyance. Teased by the constant ir-
ritation, fever soon sets in, and, if the sheep be unrelieved
by the shepherd's aid, death will inevitably follow.
It is only lately that attention has been paid to the history
of the insect pests which originate the mischief, so little
damage do they appear to have occasioned in former periods.
In a valuable paper, containing the result of observations
made on this subject in the Highlands, and published in the
190 MANAGEMENT OP SHEEP.
second number of the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, they
are thus described :
" The fly which is so troublesome to sheep, as far as my
observations could extend, consist of four species, viz. — the
Muscar Ceasar, Cadavcrina, Vomitoria, and Carnaria, of
Linnaeus. ##*###
" M. Ceasar is of a shining green color.
" M. Cadaverma, the thorax shining bluish, the abdomen
green, like the Ceasar.
" M. Vomitoria, thorax black, or dark-blue grey, abdomen
dark glossy blue. This is the common Blue-bottle or Flesh-
fly-
" M. Carnaria, grey ; the thorax has three black longitu-
dinal markings on the upper surface ; the abdomen is chec-
quered, in some positions shining whitish.
" In all instances in which I observed them, the green
flies were the first to attack, and this is the common opinion
among the shepherds. After a time, when the larvae (mag-
gots) commenced gnawing the flesh, the putrid stench, which
was thereby occasioned, attracted other species. The Blae-
hottle was very common, more numerous than both the for-
mer species, and perhaps contributed most to accelerate the
death of the animal, after the others had commenced. * *
" In five days after the larvae are hatched they arrive at
full growth, provided they have plenty of food ; they then
cease to eat, and seek to assume the pupa state, crawling
under ground two or three inches. Here they remain about
fourteen days, when the shell cracks, and the imago, or fly,
appears."
The correctness of this description of their transformation
Blacklock attests, from having watched their habits during
his anatomical pursuits in the summer months.
To ward off" the attacks of flies, v'arious substances ob-
noxious to them have been recommended. Tar, with spirits
turpentine, may be applied about the ears, horns, and tail ;
while others prefer a little melted butter, thickened by flour
of sulphur, put also along the sheep's back, which is, on the
authority of Blacklock, an effectual preventive.
Flock-masters cannot be too vigilant during the summer
months, in watching closely every individual, and if any are
seen with scours, they should be got up, and tar and turpen-
tine applied. Rams should be still more closely observed,
especially the Saxon and Merino, whose pugnacious tempers
SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 191
incline them so frequently to battle, often inflicting wounds
around the base of the horns which are certain to call the
flies. Many valuable rams have been lost from this cause,
which watchfulness might have prevented.
NOXIOUS WEEDS.
Sheep, from their fondness of variety of herbage, are often
disposed to pluck weeds possessing poisonous qualities ;
and to guard against this evil entirely, the only remedy is,
for the flock-master to eradicate everything of the kind from
his sheep-walks. The low Laurel, Kalmia Angustifolia, is
always fatal to sheep, and Johnswort also, if partaken of too
freely ; but the reader is referred to the chapter on Diseases
for further observations relative to these.
The burs of the common Burdock and Tory-plant are both
injurious to the appearance of the fleece, and much vigilance
is requisite to destroy these weeds, as their most congenial
places of growth are in fence corners, and beside old stumps
and logs, and therefore not so easily seen. But it is an old
observation of wool-growers, " if you want to find a bur-
dock, put a sheep on the track," and the trophies of success
will soon be seen carried in its fleece. Burs in wool injure
materially its sale, and a reduction in price frequently fol-
lows. If a burdock is early severed near the root, and a
handful of salt applied, it will never again " rise and report
progress." The common thistle should also be kept down,
for which the washer, shearer, and especially the roller of
fleeces, will return their grateful thanks
CHAPTER X.
SUMMER MANAGEMENT CONTINUED.
LOCALITIES FOR SHEEP— SOIL — HERBAGE — DEDUCTIONS— VARIETY
OF HERBAGE— REVIEW OF PREMISES— FREQUENT CHANGE OF PAS
TURE— INCIDENTAL DUTIES— REMARKS ON THE LOCALITIES OF
ENGLISH SHEEP— GRASSES AND THEIR RELATIVE NUTRITIOUS
PROPERTIES— SHADE TREES— WATER— WEANING OF LAMBS— EAR
MARKING— WHEAT STUBBLE— OVERSTOCKING— PASTURING IN THE
FALL— SORTING SHEEP FOR WINTER QUARTERS.
LOCALITIES FOR SHEEP.
On right locality mainly depends the ultimate profits of
sheep culture, which, among other prominent circumstances,
embraces that of climate, which will be found fully consid-
ered in a subsequent chapter.
Until within the last hundred years no extraordinary at-
tention had been paid to sheep husbandry in Great Britain ;
but when the nation became aroused to its vast importance,
it was discovered that the prominent breeds, with their nume-
rous subdivisions, were placed on localities admirably adapted
by nature to each. The light-quartered, long-legged, restless
Welsh sheep were gambolling upon the mountains, and pick-
ing the uncultivated herbage, peculiar to them. The Down
sheep were upon the hill slopes feeding upon a soil afford-
ing adequate sustenance for a medium-sized breed ; the
heavy-quartered, long-wooled varieties were consuming the
fat pastures of the plains and valleys ; and the Cheviot and
iron-constitutioned black-faced sheep were sustaining them-
selves among the heather of the North mountains of Eng-
land, and Highlands of Scotland, where other breeds would
have perished from starvation and cold. The pliancy of
constitution of the sheep, unequalled by any other domes-
tic animal, which adaptates it to almost every transition of
climate and soil, will account for the difference of conform-
ation of the several breeds, as observsd in these varied lo-
SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 193
calities. But centuries were required to accomplish this, for
nature, when left to herself, is slow in effecting radical re-
sults. But thus the English husbandman found them at the
commencement of the era of improvement, and he under-
stood quite too well his interest to transfer the sheep, whose
accustomed walks for centuries were on the slopes and
mountain tops, to the abundant herbage of the valleys, or
exchange the rich keep of the larger varieties for poorer
and more scanty. He was content to improve the forms,
and increase the disposition to fatten and earlier maturity,
but to go no farther ; and long experience has attested his
practical wisdom. But this commendable example, from
various causes, is too often lost sight of by the American
breeder, and will presently be alluded to.
The first point appertaining to locality which will be con-
sidered, is
SOIL.
The soil most suitable for the sheep is a dry one. It is
emphatically an upland animal, and loves the short and
varied herbage of hill and mountain slopes, provided the soil
is not poachy from an excess of moisture. To no other do-
mestic quadruped is water more repugnant, unless when ne-
cessary to lave its thirst, as will be seen in its aversion to
crossing streams, and always selecting the driest points for
feeding and rest. Whether it is thus, because it is endowed
with the instinctive knowledge, that the presence of too
much moisture in a soil engenders diseases too fatal to it,
cannot conclusively be determined. But there is strong
presumptive evidence that it is so, from the fact that this in-
telligent principle abounds in all the brute creation to that
degree, when free from the restraints of man, which induces
the formation of such habits only as conduce for the most
part to their welfare and safety.
The chalky districts of England, on which so large a por-
tion of the Down sheep are fed, causes a harsh and inelas-
tic feeling of their wool, as has already been remarked in
a former part of the work. Blacklock says — " Soil, also,
has much influence on the pliability of the wool. Chalky
lands, which are so notorious for injuring the fleece, are
supposed to act in the manner of a corrosive, but the correct
explanation is, not that the chalky particles attack the fibre in
a direct way, but that they render it brittle, by absorbing the
17
194 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP.
oily moisture with which it is naturally imbued. More-
over, the plants growing in such situations cannot but be in-
jurious to sheep, owing to their impregnation, though a
slight one, with calcareous matter ; for grooms know well
how soon a horse's coat becomes disordered by the frequent
use of hard or well water, and prefer, therefore, the river for
their steeds."
His last remark is true, and is worthy of much consider-
ation with the wool-grower. By careful observation and
comparison, it will be found that where sheep are fed on
limestone soils, and, consequently, the water hard, the wool
from them does not possess that peculiar softness, as that
from sheep of the same stock kept on lands deprived of cal-
careous matter, and the water soft. Exceptions, however,
to this exist, if the herbage materially differs of the respec-
tive localities, as for instance, if in the latter it is very lux-
uriant, and coarse, and the former short, and abounding in
aromatic plants.
The presence of too much moisture in soils being a para-
mount objection, other than very chalky ones, none are
wholly exceptionable for the purposes of sheep culture but
those of the opposite extreme, viz. — too dry, from their po-
rosity. This is the case in nearly all sections where sand
greatly predominates ; and is thus, to a considerable extent,
south of the Middle States, in light loams, from exposure to
too much heat. That soil, to furnish a uniform supply of
pasture, should have a due admixture of clay, to cause such
a degree of adhesiveness as will prevent the herbage, du-
ring the summer months, from withering, by drought. Too
much sand in a soil is a fatal objection to sheep culture
■wherever it is found, and especially so in the South and
Southwestern States, as nothing contributes so much, not
only to perfect the several properties of wool, but early ma-
turity and perfection of carcase, as a uniform and plentiful
supply of food at all seasons ; and this a soil too porous can-
not be expected to furnish during the warm parts of the year,
scarcely in any section of the United States.
The next essential thing connected with locality, is
HERBAGE.
There is nothing beyond this in importance to the sheep-
breeder, as from the quality and quantity of the herbage
produced on his lands necessarily, in a measure, influences
SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 195
liis choice of breeds, and determines the number he ca»
keep.
The question has been conclusively settled, that food ex-
erts a more immediate and radical influence upon the car-
case, and especially so upon the fleece, than any other
known circumstance, which is confirmed by every sheep his-
torian. Mr. Youatt states the following : " Pasture has a
far greater influence than climate on the fineness of the
fleece. The staple of the wool, like every other part of the
sheep, must increase in length or in bulk when the animal
has a superabundance of nutriment ; and, on the other hand,
the secretion which forms the wool must decrease like every
other, when sufficient nourishment is not afforded.
" When little cold has been experienced in the winter,
and vegetation has been scarcely checked, the sheep yields
an abundant crop of wool, but the fleece is perceptibly
coarser, as well as heavier. When the frost has been severe,
and the ground long covered with snow — if the flock has been
fairly supplied with nutriment, although the fleece may have
lost a little in weight, it will have acquired a superior degree
of fineness, and a proportional increase of value. Should,
however, the sheep have been neglected and starved during
this prolongation of cold weather, the fleece as well as car-
case is thinner, and although it may have preserved its
smallness of filament, it has lost in weight, and strength,
and usefulness."
There can be no doubt that in Great Britain wool has
materially changed its character since the introduction of
artificial food, and the adoption of the forcing system. Mr.
Nottage states,* of the Western Down sheep, " that he used
to get one-eighth part of the finest English wool from each
fleece ; but that now the quantity is so small he does not
throw it out ; he does not set a basket for it at all." Mr.
Sutcliffe says, that — " Thirty years ago there was, in some
South Down flocks, nearly as good wool grown, as the fine
German that now comes into the country." Mr. Varley
adds, that " he used to throw his wool extremely high to the
sort — very good to the sort — but he found that the qualities
generally were getting so low, that if he continued that sort
of practice, he should have been looking into two of his best
bins without finding a bit of wool in them." Mr. Fison
* Testimony before a committee of Parliament.
196 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP.
States of the Norfolk sheep, that "in 1780, 420 lbs. of
clothing wool grown in Norfolk would produce 200 lbs.
prime — in 1828, it would produce only 14 lbs." These are
certainly convincing proofs of the effect of high keep.
Dr. Parry, an English writer on sheep, and distinguished
as a patron of the Merino, says — " The fineness of a sheep's
fleece of a gi^-en breed is, within certain limits, inversely as
its fatness, and perhaps also as the quickness with which it
grows fat. A sheep which is fat has usually comparatively
coarse wool, and one which is lean, either from the want of
food or disease, has the finest wool ; and the very same
sheep may at different times, according to these circum-
stances, have fleeces of all the intermediate qualities from
extreme fineness to comparative coarseness."*
The facts and deductions set forth in the foregoing ex-
tracts are applicable wherever sheep are kept, as may be
seen manifested in very many flocks which have been re-
moved from the old States, to the prairies of the West. A
large, and intelligent wool-growerf of Washington, Penn,,
who with others has kindly favored the writer with his
course of management, after alluding to the effect of climate
upon the fleece, says, " Much also, in my opinion, depends
on the soil ; high, poor lands will produce better wool than
rich low lands. I sent a flock a few years since to Warren
County, Illinois, of about our latitude, and after three years'
experience I scarcely knew my own wool ; the quantity of
fleece and size of the sheep have increased, but the wool
has not retained its fineness. This no doubt arises from
the pasturage ; they become very fat in summer, which in-
creases the harshness of the wool and destroys that delicate
texture it has in the more eastern and high lands."
But the eflect of rich keep is not peculiar to the prairies ;
and therefore forms no objection to them for wool culture,
simply because there is a decidence in fineness, since the
carcase is enlarged and with it the quantity of wool, the fil-
ament or fibre made stronger, as, also, the fabric from which
* Columella, whose sheep were cultivated principally for their fleece,
mentions the hungry lands about Parma and Modena, as feeding the most
valuable sheep ; and Virgil was perfectly aware of the influence of lux-
uriant pasture in giving coarseness to the fleece when he warns against
the '' pabula IcBta ;"
" Nor in too rank a pasture let them live."
t John H. Ewing, Esq.
SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 197
it is made. But it is not now the business of the writer to
discuss the policy of removing the finest breeds to the prai-
ries ; sufficient for him is it to make known the result from
ordinary" to high keep, and that the effect everywhere is
precisely the same where experiments have been made.
It may, however, be remarked, that the cheap uplands, not
easily made arable for general agricultural purposes, will
eventually be occupied for the cultivation of the finest wool,
simply because they are best suited to the object. It is on
these localities the Saxon and Merino can be maintained in
healthy store^ order, and beyond this nothing more is requi-
red. On the other hand, the rich valley lands will be in re-
quisition to fill our granaries, and large districts of the prai-
ries, unneeded for this purpose, will grow the medium and
coarser wools, of which, owing to the competition of the ex-
treme fine qualities of Germany and other large portions of
Europe, no redundancy can be produced, for very many
years at least, to over supply the wants of the American
manufacturer.*
No other domestic animal is known to manifest that fond-
ness for variety of herbage equal to the sheep.
Blacklock, after properly rebuking the English breeders
for not providing a greater allowance of straw or like mate-
rials to mix with their turnip feeding, proceeds to say — " We
find, from a perusal of the works of travellers, and from the
anatomical peculiarities of the sheep, that it is fitted for res-
idence in countries precipitous in surface, and scantily sup-
plied with herbage ; consequently, it must range over a vast
extent of ground for a subsistence, and its food must, owing
to the varied features of the country, consist, not of one or a
few plants, but of a most extensive mixture of herbage. Ex-
periment also points out that the deductions from these ob-
servations are correct. Sheep, in fact, consume a greater
number of plants than any other domestic animal. Linnaeus,
in examining into this subject, found, by offering fresh plants
to such animals, in the ordinary mode of feeding, that horses
ate 262 species, and refused 212 ; cattle ate 276 species,
and refused 218 ; while sheep took 387 species, and only
refused 141. We find, too, great difficulty in preventing
sheep from springing over the dykes and hedges that we
place as boundaries to their rambling habits, yet how seldom
* For further remarks, see Sheep of the United States.
17*
198 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP.
do we see tlie true cause of their determination to set tliem
at defiance. We may partly account for it by considering
their analogy to the goat, and their propensity to scale rug-
ged eminences ; but I think these movements rather indicate
an anxiety to change a pasture already exhausted of variety,
for fresh fields, and herbage abounding in that miscellaneous
provision which nature apparently reckons essential for them.
Shepherds own as much, and will tell you that frequent
change of pasture is the soul of sheep husbandry. ^^
In explanation of the philosophy of variety of food, an
English author* briefly remarks, — " It is also well worthy
of remark, that various herbaceous plants which spring up
among others that are esculent, yet are rejected by cattle
when off*ered alone, give a higher relish and even salubrity
to the fodder with which they are intermixed. As man
cannot live on tasteless, unmixed flour alone, so neither can
cattle in general be so thrifty by mere grass, without the ad-
dition of various plants in themselves too acid, bitter, salt, or
narcotic to be eaten alone. Spices and a portion of animal
food supply us with the requisite stimulus or additional nu-
triment, as the ranunculus tribes, and many others, seasoA
the pasturage and fodder of cattle."
In reviewing the premises set forth appertaining to local-
ities, with a view to further practical conclusions and com-
ments, it is manifest in the first place, that the sheep cultu-
rist must beware of soils too wet, and, consequently, poachy.
Lands of this character are found quite to as great an extent,
indeed more so, on mountain declivities as in valleys ; it
therefore is clearly to the interest of those in possession
of such, if they contemplate embarking in sheep hus-
bandry, to have them made as dry as possible, by drain-
age, before they are stocked. If the adoption of this
course does not succeed (as is often the case from being
'•' springy"), they should be abandoned for sheep culture, and
converted to dairy or other purposes. If persisted in, the
owner may expect those consequences which are inevitable,
namely, foot-rot and other diseases incidental to such local-
ities.!
It will also have been seen, that the short and yet nutri-
tious hebrage of uplands is best adapted to the Merino and
Saxon varieties, as being most conservative of those peculiar
* Sir J. E. Smith. t See Liver and Foot-rot.
SUMMER. MANAGEMENT. 199
properties of their wool which adaptates it to the manufacture
of the finest and softest fabrics ; but on the other hand, if
these breeds are removed to rich pastures, these vakiable
quahties of the fleece become in a measure deteriorated.
This is unquestionably true if the removal is permanent, but
will prove in nowise injurious if a change is made from up-
land to valley herbage at short and frequent intervals. In-
deed, this is highly proper, as that variety of food, so con-
ducive to the health and thrift of the animal, is thereby af-
forded.
From old or natural to the cultivated grasses, alternately
once a week or fortnight, the flock-master will learn, from
observation, suits well the inclinations of sheep. In keeping
with this, they should be allowed occasionally the range of
open wood-lands, to brouse upon forest shoots, the slight
acidity of which is much to their liking.
A further argument in favor of frequent change of pasture,
is the fact that if sheep are confined too long on one enclo-
sure, no matter how good the feed may be, it becomes taint-
ed by their constant wanderings over it ; and hence, from
their nice habits and extraordinary keenness of smell, will
neglect it. When the flock is seen nosing here and there
without eating contentedly, lose no time in removing them,
even if the pasture to which they are taken is shorter and
less abundant. It will be fresh and untainted, which is al-
ways reason enough for the change.
Connected with frequent shiftings of their pasture, is the
necessity of small enclosures. This is well understood to
be the right policy in England, and, where feasible, is rigidly
adhered to. " In an enclosed country sheep generally do
best when they are separated into small parcels ; they feed
more quietly, and they waste less. When as many sheep
are put upon a fair-sized pasture as it will properly keep,
they will be cleared off" for market considerably earlier than
if they were put in large numbers on extensive grounds.
Grass land, in small divisions, will keep and fatten many
more sheep than when they are of a greater extent."*
Some of the writer's fields are large, but mostly from ten to
fifteen acres — and he has learned the fact that 100 sheep
will do better on twenty-five acres if divided, than on thirty
acres with no division.
* Farmer's Series.
^00 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP.
There are several incidental duties to notice when chang-
ing sheep from one pasture to another, or removing them
for any purpose, namely — ^where gates are not provided, to
take out three or four of the lower bars. It is quite common
to drop only one end of them ; and if an hundred or more
sheep are to pass through, they lose their good manners and
patience, and rush with such impetuosity that the weaker ones
are frequently thrown down and injured, as, also, liable to
have their feet caught in the bars, and legs thereby broken.
This is of still more consequence, if the Hock consists of
ewes and young lambs.
Again : when flocks of this description are changed, the
master should go thoroughly around the field to see that all
the lambs are aroused, as, when quite young, they sleep
much in the daytime, and therefore are liable to be left.
The better course is, not to remove them beyond an adjoin-
ing lot if possible, and still better, until after shearing to leave
the communications open to change themselves at pleasure
As has been before observed, this obviates all confusion and
trouble.
Before proceeding to enumerate the various grasses, and
detail their relative proportion of nutritive properties, it will
perhaps be well to recall the introductory observations to the
present chapter, respecting the appropriate localities of the
dificrent breeds of sheep in Great Britain, intended as hints
to the American breeder.
It is always of paramount importance to adaptate the breed
to the quantity of feed the particular locality on which they
are placed is capable of furnishing. But, in this and other
States, this consideration hitherto, in very many instances,
has been lost sight of. The American farmer hears of the
amazing size, weight of carcase and fleece of some of the
English breeds, and makes undue haste to purchase, in some
instances without previously knowing whether their wool is
suitable for felting or combing purposes, and without duly
considering the fact that the relative quantity of food sheep
consume is in the ratio of their size. The herbage of his
farm is of the upland character, or their situation is too nmch
exposed to cold, or, on the principle that a " sheep is a
sheep," he stints them to the quantity of feed which is capa-
ble of supporting a similar number of the smaller breeds ;
and from one or more of these causes, his expectations are
disappointed, and he abandons them with execrations. This
SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 201
has arisen from placing them on too low keep — the locality-
was not adapted to them, because the soil was not capable
of furnishing that rich and abundant herbage requisite to
support and fatten such large animals. He was not aware
that the profits of the English breeds must be looked to from
the carcase and not so much from the fleece ; and therefore,
to bring around quick and remunerating returns, that they
required large and continuous supplies of succulent food
from the start. One of the grand improvements effected in
the English mutton sheep, is an earlier maturity, in order
that they may be cleared off to the butcher in the shortest
time ; but to accomplish this the English breeder takes spe-
cial care not to place the famed Leicester, Cotswold, or Lin-
coln breeds on the stinted feed of mountain sides, but in such
situations where ample provision is found for full feed and
quick fattening. In such localities as are near to a market
where fine fatted mutton is appreciated and paid for accord-
ingly, the heavy British breeds will be found profitable ; un-
der other circumstances, the Merino, Saxon, and grades of
these varieties will bring the largest returns of profit to the
American sheep culturist.
Connected with the general observations of the present
chapter, is the consideration of the various grasses, with the
amount of nutriment they respectively afford. The following
summary was compiled by Mr. Youatt from Sir Humphrey
Davy's distinguished work on Agricultural Chemistry. Their
times of flowering differ not essentially in this country and
England, and in this order they will be mentioned.
The SwEET-scENTAD Vernal Grass [Anthoxanthum
odoratuni) is found on almost every kind of soil, and is a
true, permanent pasture grass for general purposes, and for
early appearance ; but it is not liked by sheep, who will
scarcely touch it if there are any white clover or meadow
foxtail.
Meadow Foxtail Grass [Alopeciirus pratensis). This
flowers about May 20, and the seeds are ripened about June
24. On a clayey, loamy soil, at the time of flowering, will
yield about one and a half tons to the acre (in this country),
every half pound yielding 11-4 drachms of nutritive matter.
The aftermath affords 2 drachms of nutritive matter from
every half pound. Sheep are fond of this grass during May
and June.
Short Blue Meadow Grass {Poa CcBridea), common
202 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP.
in the drier parts of peaty meadows ; nutritious, but not
sufficiently productive for the purposes of hay. Sheep and
cattle are exceedingly fond of it.
Rough-stalked Meadow Grass {Poa trivalis). In
rich, moist soils, and sheltered situations, it is a highly valu-
able grass ; but on high and exposed ground its produce is
inconsiderable. It flowers about the middle of June, and
seed ripens July 10. It is highly nutritive, and sheep are
exceedingly fond of it. The nutritive matter is, at seed time,
5 1-2 drachms to the pound. Its superior value when fully
ripe is very striking, and should not be forgotten.
Kentucky Blue Grass, June Grass, Spear Grass, &c.
(Poa pratcnse), supposed to be indigenous to this country.
It is one of the most nutritive of grasses, either for pasture
or hay ; and on rich soils, particularly those of a calcareous
nature, is one of the most valuable that can be cultivated. It
is this variety which gives name to the far-famed '' blue grass**
pastures of Kentucky, and the fertile valleys of Ohio.
Sheep's Fescue [Festuca ovina). Flowers about June 25,
and the seeds ripen about July 10. The produce is com-
paratively small, and the proportion of nutriment is not more
than 3 drachms to the pound ; but sheep are exceedingly
fond of it. Linnaeus affirms that sheep have no relish for
hills and heaths that are destitute of this grass. Sheep are
so fond of it, they thrive wherever it is found.
Cock's Foot, or Orchard Grass {Dactylis glomerata).
This is an exceedingly productive and nutritive grass ; af-
fording in the flowering time 5, and when the seeds are ripe,
7 drachms to the pound of nutritive matter. The leaves
of the aftermath are very succulent. It is valuable for per-
manent pasture, and sheep eat it very readily.
Welsh Fescue {Festuca Ca?nbrica). The sheep are as
fond of it as of the common sheep's fescue, while it is more
productive and succulent. It is most valuable when the
seeds are ripe.
Narrow-leaved Meadow Grass [Poa angustifolia).
Flowers at the end of June ; and the seed perfect at the end
of July. On account of its early and rapid growth, it is very
valuable for permanent pasture, and sheep like it.
Hard Fescue [Festuca duriuscula). This grass is most
prevalent on light rich soils, but is always found in the best
natural pastures, where the soil is retentive. It is one of
the best of the finer or dwarf-growing grasses ; and is most
SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 203
valuable for the feeding of sheep. It flowers about the be-
ginning of July, and at this time it affords 7 drachms of nu-
tritive matter to the pound.
Meadow Fescue Grass [Festuca pratensis). It con-
stitutes a very considerable portion of the herbage of all rich
natural pastures, and makes excellent hay. It is much liked
by cattle, but sheep comparatively neglect it. At flowering
time it yields about 3-4 of a ton per acre, and affords 9
drachms to the pound of nutritive matter.
Rye Grass [Lolium perenne). Mr. Sinclair says of
this grass : " Sheep eat it when it is in the earliest stage of
its growth, in preference to most others ; but after the seed
approaches towards perfection, they leave it for almost any
other kind. A field in the park at Woburn was laid down
in two equal parts, one part with rye grass and white clover,
and the other part with cock's foot and red clover. From
the spring until midsummer the sheep kept almost constant-
ly on the rye grass, but after that they left it and adhered
with equal constancy to the cock's foot during the remainder
of the season." This grass is of almost equal value at the
flowering and seed season — the latter at the end of July.
It may, however, be objected to, as it exhausts the soil.
Fertile Meadow Grass [Poa fertilis). In early growth,
the proportion of nutritive matter, and the nutritive quality
of the latter math, this grass will yield to few. It continues
to send forth a succession of flowering culms until the frost
arrests their growth. It is therefore an excellent meadow
grass combined with others.
Meadow Cat's-tail, or Timothy Grass [Phleum pra-
tense). This is of much value, for permanent pasture, mixed
with other grasses, on account of its early herbage, its great
productiveness, and the superior proportion of nutritive mat-
ter which it contains. At a little before the seed is ripe,
when it should be cut, it affords no less than 11 1-2 drachms
of nutritive substance to the pound. It is most useful for
sheep in the form of hay.
Mr. Youatt proceeds no farther than the above, except the
mention of some of the artificial grasses, such as tares and
the several varieties of vetches ; but very many years must
elapse, before necessity will require their culture in this
country.
Of the Clovers, the most valuable variety for general pur-
poses is the common red clover [Trifolium pratense). Sheep,
204 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP.
however, eat it sparingly before the first flowering, if any of
the natural grasses abound in the same field. But the after-
math or rowen they eat greedily, and is exceedingly nutri-
tious to all domestic animals. Clover will be alluded to
again hereafter, and the comparative quantity of nutriment it
affords, mentioned.
White Clover {Trifolium repens). This grows spon-
taneously on dry uplands, after they have been manured with
gypsum or with bog marl. It is a very sweet grass for
pasture, but not productive. Sheep eat it readily when
mixed with other varieties, and proves salubrious to them.
But, of the various natural grasses common to the United
States, none appear to be so much relished by sheep, or
afford a greater degree of nutriment, than the blue or poa pre-
tense and timothy grasses. Unlike some of the others, sheep
consume these with avidity from the earliest to the latest
period of the pasturage season. A tolerably well-conducted
experiment, made several years since, satisfied the writer
that the sheep-grower must rely much on timothy, as being
for pasture and hay combined, unsurpassed by all others.
SHADE TREES.
For the purposes of adornment and utility, shade trees are
not sufficiently appreciated by the American husbandman.
To sheep, particularly just after shearing, they are pecu-
liarly grateful ; and, during the warm season, are indispensa-
bly necessary to promote thrift, inasmuch as they contribute
to greater quietness. If the axe has been ruthlessly laid to
the roots of those which have been natural tenants of the
farm, their places should be supplied by others. The com-
mon maple, linden, and sycamore will be found valuable for
this purpose. A few of the second shoots of forest clear-
ings, which grow with great rapidity, and consequently, in
a few years, afford an abundant shade, should be left, and
the most thrifty ones selected for this purpose. If the flock-
master is careful in his observations, he will learn that sheep
which have had the benefit of woods to retire to during the
heat of the day, will be in better condition in the fall, than
others deprived of such grateful retreats.
WATER.
AVater is not deemed so absolutely necessary for sheep as
other domestic animals, since their instincts lead them to
SUMMEPc MANAGEMENT. 205
graze early in the morning, before the dew evaporates, and
again for a while in the evening, when the temperature of
the season is warmest. In the hot month of August, how-
ever, when the feed is less succulent, they appear eager for
it, and should be gratified, if possible. But the lambs, when
suckling, will do better if the mothers have access to it at
all times. Therefore, since every pasture is not supplied
with water, the master should appropriate those which con-
tain it to his breed ewes. It should be considered, that the
milk secretions cannot be so abundant if the ewe suffers too
much from thirst, nor in any wise do as well.
WEANING LAMBS.
This period necessarily varies somewhat with locality,
the particular breed, the time of parturition, and the disposi-
tion afterwards to be made of the lambs.
The time usually allotted for the lamb to suckle is about
four months, and if the weaning lakes place about Septem-
ber 1st, which is about the common period in the Eastern
and Middle States, it supposes the birth to have been in the
early part of May. If the lambs are of the mutton breed, a
longer or shorter time is taken, depending on the condition
they are in for the butcher. But with sheep kept for wool
culture, in about this latitude, weaning should not be delay-
ed beyond August 25th, or at most a few days after. As
early as this is quite necessary, as the time is full short for
the ewes to recover their wonted order for renewed gesta-
tion, and pass with safety through the rigorous winters inci-
dent to our climate.
The first thing to be attended to, is to remove the lambs
and the ewes as far as possible from each other. There
Avill be plenty of confusion and unhappiness for a while, and
which would be prolonged until it was injurious both to the
mother and the offspring, if they were able to hear each '
other's bleating. The lambs should be placed on better pas-
ture than that to which they had been accustomed, in order
to compensate for the loss of the mother's milk. But it
must not be too luxuriant, otherwise, they overgorge them-
selves, and acute diseases in some form will follow. From
this cause flock-masters often complain of losing their lambs
soon after weaning, which might, however, have been pre-
vented, if they had previously been trained to eat salt,
18
206 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP.
Avhich, when given freely, operates much to counteract
hoove, and some other diseases of the digestive organs.
When lambs are first placed on clover rowen, let them have
all the salt they will eat. If this is done, the gases
evolved, instead of acting as in cases of hoove, will pass
naturally through the intestines. This is applicable to
every class of sheep, and the course recommended is found-
ed upon the writer's experience.
When the weaning takes place, let one or two tame sheep
be put with them, to subdue their wildness, learn them to
eat salt, and aid in conducting them through bars for change
of pasture.
A contrary course must be adopted with the ewes, in ref-
erence to their pasture, for a week or more after weaning.
It can scarcely be too poor ; otherwise, it is frequently fol-
lowed by great distension of their udders, and inflammation
or garget. Under any circumstances they should be watch-
ed, and if this is likely to occur with any of the flock, they
should be separated and milked for a day or two, and during
this time fed with hay or other dry food. After the lapse
of a week or more, the ewes should be placed on such pas-
ture as will hasten their return in the most speedy time to
good condition. Should there be a few, which is often the
case, much below the order of the majority of the flock, they
should be taken out, and put on better keep than the others.
The loss of valuable ewes from poverty during the winter,
may be traced frequently to a neglect of this. This admo-
nition is applicable also to the lambs.
EAR-MARKING.
The duty devolves on the flock-master, at the time of
weaning, to mark the ears of his lambs, and putting the ini-
tials of his name on their bodies, if deemed necessary.
One, or both, is quite indispensable, as, from their anxiety
to get to the mothers immediately after their separation, they
will creep through fences, in places, too, where it would not
be supposed possible, and stray. This is quite likely to
happen, if placed in enclosures adjoining the road in which
sheep are permitted to run. It is quite common to crop one
of the ears, which is not proper, as it gives the sheep an un-
natural and ungainly appearance. It requires no special in-
genuity to devise a mark w^hich will leave the length of the
ears entire.
SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 207
WHEAT STUBBLE.
Permitting sheep to run on ungleaned wheat stubble is
exceedingly dangerous, and should be avoided. This arises
from the inflammatory nature of wheat, if eaten in too large
quantities by herbivorous animals. Swine should always
precede sheep, unless the field is small, and the flock a large
one. Even under these circumstances it will conduce to
greater safety, if the sheep are full salted at the time, and light-
ly for one or two days following. There is no danger to be
apprehendedby allowing sheep to glean other stubble. The
lambs and least fleshy portions of the flock should have the
run of them.
OVERSTOCKING.
Said a foreigner to^the writer, " There are two impoTtaiit
errors committed by American agriculturists — they overdo,
and underdo ; the former consisting in cultivating too much
land, and overstocking, — and the latter in the slovenly per-
formance of their work, and heedless management of their an-
imals." There is no want of sagacity or truth in these as-
sertions, however unpalatable they may be. If overstocking
is an " overdoing," few of us can escape the charge, for it is
confessedly quite too common an error ; and to this cause,
perhaps, more than any other, the passing traveller may at-
tribute the emaciated carcases of sheep during the winter
which he sees around the dwellings of numerous farmers.
Too many of us imagine that sheep can be supported on little
or nothing ; while others suppose the larger the number they
can assemble on their premises, the greater, consequently, must
be the returns of profit, not being sensible of the fact that 100
sheep well fed and well managed are more lucrative than the
addition of one quarter more, if ill fed and otherwise indiffer-
ently provided. Charity should be extended to the inexperi-
enced under such circumstances, but withheld from those
who pertinaciously cling from year to year to this unprofita-
ble, and it may justly be added, inhumane policy. The well-
ordered husbandman will gather wisdom from seeing his er-
rors ; but the " overdoing" and " underdoing" not from his, un-
til gradual reduction to poverty make them too tangible lon-
ger to escape his observation.
The number of acres required for the annual support of
one hundred sheep of the Merino and Saxon varieties, or
208 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP.
high grades of these, it is scarcely necessary to say, depends
entirely on the quantity of feed the soil is capable of furnish-
ing, if the writer may judge from his own experience and
of the many with whom he has corresponded, the average
may be stated at thirty-live acres. One flock-master made
provision, last season, by the aid of some straw and chaff
fed through the winter for the above number, from off twenty-
five acres. But his locality is of the fertile region of West-
ern New York, and his example therefore will not be safe
generally to follow, without the hazard of incurring the charge
of " overdoing." In considering his success, the straw and
chafl" must be taken into view, which of course grew not on
the area of land stated.
BAD POLICY IN KEEPING SHEEP TOO LONG ON PASTURE
ALONE, LATE IN THE FALL.
It is the practice of a large majority of flock-masters to
allow their sheep to run upon the fields in the fall, as long
as the ground is uncovered with snow, without the aid of a
little hay or grain. This is bad management, and cannot be
too strongly condemned. The grass, it is well known, after
repeated freezing, loses much of its virtue to nourish, and
therefore fails to keep up good condition, unless accompanied
with a modicum of hay, or grain. The diminution of flesh
may not be very apparent, yet nothing is more certain than
that the sheep are losing their stamina. If some are expos-
tulated with on this subject, they reply, " We do offer hay,
but the sheep refuse to eat it ;" but on further investigation,
it proves to be the tops of their stacks, somethimg not worthy
the name of hay, and therefore no wonder the sheep rejected
it, preferring the decaying grass to such trash. It would
not have been thus, if it had been barn hay ; which is an
item proving the great utility of barns to the flock-master.
Many sheep are sent out of this " breathing world before their
time ;" and if their ghosts were permitted to return and un-
fold the cause, they would shake their woolly locks, and say,
" We did it," by starvation late in the fall. Let us reform in
this matter altogether.
SORTING, PREPARATORY TO \\XNTER.
This very obvious and essential duty is strangely unheed-
ed, yet nothing scarcely is more important. To put the
SUxMMER MANAGEMENT. 209
weak with the strong, spring lambs with adults, or wethers
with breeding ewes, should always be avoided.
The writer, about the lOtli of November, assembles his
lambs, and classifies them as to condition and size, and herds
them in flocks of about one hundred each.
The older sheep are already divided with respect to sex,
as he never permits wethers and ewes to run together, at
least not after their first shearing. Of these, 100 constitute a
flock.
The least fleshy are selected, and, from this time onward,
receive attentions accordingly.
Wethers, designed to be turned oflf the following summer,
are thrown out, and fed a little grain daily, as these are pro-
vided through the winter mostly with oat or wheat straw,
with an allowance of grain ; therefore, early graining is some-
what necessary.
The breeding ewes should be sorted with great care ; but
this duty will be found adverted to in the chapter on Breed-
ing.
An early preparation for winter, in this latitude, is quite
indispensable ; otherwise, from the vicissitudes of the cli-
mate, a premature depth of snow will find the flocks unsort-
ed and many little duties undischarged. After the 1st of
November, the master should be speedy in making all repairs
necessary about his barns, yards, &c., for the reception of
the flocks into their respective quarters. It is better to be a
few days too early, rather than even a few hours too late.
" Ever ready" is the motto of the thrifty and well-ordered
flock-master.
18*
CHAPTER XL
WINTER MANAGEMENT.
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS— OBSERVATIONS ON CLIMATE— PRO-
TECTION OF SHEEP— PRODUCTION OF ANIMAL HEAT.
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.
On reviewing the subject of Summer Management, it will
be perceived that the duties of the flock-master are far from
being few, and that uolhing short of unremitted care is re-
quired to ensure that degree of condition and health with
his sheep, to enable them to withstand the hardships of
Northern winters. If it has been thus, it will be well with
them, and the truthful adage, " well summered, half wintered,^''
will be verified. On the other hand, if they have not suffi-
ciently occupied his thoughts, and have been permitted to
" sherk" for themselves ; while the rest of his stock only
have eaten of the fat of the pasture, — it will not be so well
with them ; and consequently, it will be a vain expectation
that, at the proper time, they will make grateful returns for
attention and humane treatment which they have not re-
ceived.
But whatever may be the condition of the flock when
winter arrives, to carry it through with safety and profit,
greater skill and attention will be called in requisition than
during any other period of the year, as will be fully demon-
strated before the detail of duties involved is concluded.
OBSERVATIONS ON CLIMATE.
Although the influence of temperature upon the sheep has
been partially considered in the early part of the work, yet
a few additional remarks are deemed necessary, with a view
to establish certain premises, from which useful deductions
will be drawn, having an important bearing on the duties in-
terwoven with winter economy.
WrNTER. MANAGEMENT. 2U
The history of the breeds with their distinctive peculiari-
ties, found dispersed over so large a portion of the world,
exhibiting such diversified forms and coverings, naturally
excites our wonder, and staggers the belief of a common
origin. But this perplexity is easily unravelled. In con-
sideration, it would seem, of their great utility to man, na-
ture has endowed them with a pliancy of constitution, which
accommodates them to every variety of climate, becoming
impressed at each transition with some peculiarity suited to
their welfare. But Vv^here the climate is temperate and
equable, the sheep, if long accustomed to it, seems almost to
defy our efforts to model it at will ; but whatever the local-
ity, if a change is wrought in any important particular, na-
ture constantly battles to return to the original point, unless
the alteration attempted is in unison or compatible with the
temperature and other circumstances which surround it.
Thus, if any given breed, distinguished for its compactness
of fleece, is transported to a latitude materially warmer than
that to which it had been accustomed, nature flies to its aid
by relieving it of a portion of its superfluous coat, to prevent
the suffering consequent of an oppressive degree of heat.
To this may be referred the cause of the annual falling off
of the fleece, when unshorn, of the coarser breeds, in nearly
all parts of the world, at the approach of summer. There
is an exception to this, in the Merino variety, but its fleece
becomes thinned by removal into regions too warm, and
man's efforts are in vain to counteract it. And thus it is,
too, if the heavy British breeds are taken to a climate ma-
terially colder than its native, the carcase losing its rotun-
dity, unless precautionary measures are adopted to protect
them against the cold incident to their new locality ; the
fleece, also, is shortened in staple, but proportionally thick-
ens, to check the escape of warmth from the body, and
thereby guarding against a rapid waste of the system.
It will be deduced from the foregoing, that plants and ani-
mals are analogous, and that however pliant may be the con-
stitution of the sheep, there are geographical limits, out of
which it does not attain perfection. It is true, the animal
propagates in Iceland, and districts within the tropics ; al-
though there are certain localities in the last, in which
sheep have been taken to from temperate latitudes, and per-
ished from the excessive lieat of the climate. This was the
case in Batavia, as also on the plains of South America,
212 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP.
near the equator. Extremes of temperature, then, being un-
suited to the animal, the question arises, How does it happen
to have spread over so many parts of the world in spite of
such extremes ? Simply for the reason, that when under
the dominion of its instincts, and free from the restrictions
of man, it will not subject itself to the danger of an ex-
treme in anything, for it will not remove to remote points in
a single season, and thereby expose itself to sudden changes.
A writer happily remarks — " The natural dispersion of all
animals is gradual, so that their constitutions are enabled,
from the slowness of the transition, to accommodate them-
selves, by an alteration in covering and habit, to surrounding
circumstances, which M^ould, were the variations abrupt,
speedily destroy them. The reason why a race of animals
occasionally thrives so well in a country to which it may be
removed, appears to lie in its being suited, I may say, acci-
dentally, by peculiar conformation, to the temperature to
which it is transplanted. There are some happy climates,
where, introduce what animals you will, no matter how
stunted they are, or how different the degree of warmth
may be, the offspring will thrive, proving large and vigor-
ous, and every way worthy of being placed at the head of
the species. These are, however, cases where the transition
is from an extreme heat or cold to a temperate one." The
writer quotes in corroboration of these views the report of
Mr. Dawson, of the Australian Agricultural Company, as
follows : " Both the climate and the soil appear by nature
to produce fine wool, and fine animals tbo, eveii from the
icorst beginnings. The latter seems a paradox. The exten-
sive range afforded to every animal keeps it in good condi-
tion, and, perhaps, the natural grasses have more of good in
them than their appearance indicates. However this may
be, the climate clearly has a wonderfnl effect on the size of
all animals, even upon man, who is universally tall here,
though born of diminutive parents. From this I am led to
believe, that the climate governs chiefly, and thus every
breeding animal introduced here will attain a size not known
in Europe."
Notwithstanding sheep are forced to submit to extremes
of temperature, there is a happy medium of climate which
it delights in, and which greatly disposes it to yield the
largest profits, and this is found in the countries of the vine.
The western parts of continents also are more congenial to
WINTER MANAGEMENT. 213
its habits than the eastern ; and the Southern hemisphere
than the Northern, for the reason, that in the former situa-
tions the temperature is milder and more equable. Degrees
of latitude, in reference to temperature, correspond in the
ratio of elevation or declination on mountains ; and thus it
is that at an altitude on the Cordilleras, under the equator,
of from 3,500 to 7,000 feet, sheep propagate scarcely with-
out care during the entire year, while at the base, the heat
is so excessive they perish. On elevated points, the south-
ern side is very much warmer than the northern, as will be
seen on the Alps at identical degrees of height, the north
aspect presenting the Glacier, and the southern the vine-
yard yielding a perfect fruit.
From the foregoing premises, somewhat incoherently sta-
ted for the sake of brevity, as also in consideration of the
subject having been heretofore partially treated, the reader
will readily deduce, that the temperature of the Eastern and
Middle States is not so well suited to the nature of the sheep,
as in sections where the climate is more temperate. It will
therefore appear, in order to counteract the injurious effects
of exposure to the rigors of Northern winters, that shelters
are indispensably necessary ; which leads, without further
preliminary remarks, to th'e subject of
PROTECTION.
There is nothing appertaining to sheep economy, in the
Northern States, more generally neglected than the provision
of ample and warm accommodations for shelter, and from no
other cause does such large losses annually accrue. It is
rigidly practised in all climates corresponding to our own,
in Prussia, and throughout all Germany, as well as in Scot-
land and the northern parts of England ; and every sheep
historian earnestly recommends it. Mr. Youatt frequently
alludes to it as a very necessary point of good management,
and the Mountain Shepherd's Manual (a Scotch publication)
speaks thus : — " Shelter is the first thing to be attended to
in the management of sheep. While every good shepherd
is decidedly hostile to their being confined, or to their being
forced into shelter, whether they wish it or not, it cannot be
too strongly recommended to all sheep farmers, to put the
means of avoiding the severity of stormy weather within the
reach of their flocks at all times." The remarks of Mr.
214 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP.
Spooner on the subject, with the examples he adduces, will
be quoted hereafter.
The opponents of sheUcrs assert, without, however, ever
having made any experiments to decide positively, that they
tend to make sheep tender, induce disease, &c., which is
about as reasonable as it would be to contend that man phys-
ically degenerates by having a comfortable dwelling to protect
him from the cold inseparable from northern climates. But
before offering any philosophical reasons to sustain the ques-
tion of the necessity of shelters, the writer begs to obtrude
his own experience touching this matter, and if more space
is occupied than many think necessary, his apology must
be found in his belief that nothing is more conducive to the
health and thrift of sheep, and, consequently, profit to the
flock-master, and which he will endeavor to demonstrate.
Until within the last ten years, the writer's flocks, like
thousands of others at the present time in this and other
States, were denied the benefits of shelters ; and the loss,
in proportion to the severity of winters, varied from five to
ten per cent. The diseases caused by their exposure were
scab, pelt-rot, dysentery, and colds, which caused an exces-
sive discharge of mucus from the nostrils, while many died
from no other cause, apparently, than sheer poverty of con-
dition. Since, however, his sheep have been protected, the
deaths have not exceeded one and a half per cent, in regard
to number, and if comparative value w^ere the standard, it
would not be considered of any moment, as the loss has been
mostly among diminutive spring lambs — so from bad nursing,
and old ewes which, from superiority of fleece or carcase,
were retained thus long, to breed from. If this is contrasted
with the per centage of loss before the resort to protection,
it will readily dispel the delusion that shelters enervate the
constitution of sheep, or are in any wise an inducing cause
of disease ; for, since protected, no epidemic has prevailed
among them, and disease of any kind is rare indeed, and only
occurring in individual cases.
The next strong argument in favor of protection, is the
fact that it materially increases the weight of the fleece, as well
as improves its properties, which arises from the better con-
dition which it is the means of producing.
All farmers are aware that in fattening swine, or other
animals, mildness of temperature is of paramount importance
to hasten the process — and why ? The philosopliical reason
WINTER MANAGEMENT. 215
will be duly assigned hereafter ; but in common parlance,
the answer is, because the comfort of the animal is thereby
promoted ; and it will not be denied that this is equally ap-
plicable to the sheep. Hence, if the animal will better retain
its flesh, or be likely to receive accessions from being shel-
tered, because it conduces to greater comfort, it follows that
its fleece will be increased proportionally ; for the flesh se-
cretions and the wool fluids are derived from the same
source ; and any cause which will increase or diminish the
one will operate thus on the other. But the following facts
will supersede for the present further theorizing :
The clips of the writer's flock, (which is of the Saxon
Merino blood) before sheltering, varied from 2 lbs. 5 oz. to 2
lbs. 9 oz. per head, the latter, under the most favorable cir-
cumstances, being the maximum. But since then, notwith-
standing material advances have been made in fineness, it
has averaged 2 lbs. 12 oz., and the last season arose to 3 lbs.
2 oz. ; and thus the aggregate amount of increase, within
about nine years, exceeds 2000 pounds, which has amply re-
imbursed all expenses incident to the construction of barns,
shelters, and their appendages, to say nothing of other profits
derived from the same cause.
The additional softness of the fleece, and also cA^enness
and soundness of the fibre, may be traced to the same cause
which increases its weight ; for if the cutaneous glands are
full and healthy, which follows good condition, greater sup-
plies of yolk are imparted to the wool, conferring greater
pliability, elasticity, and brilliancy, and, at the same time,
promoting greater equality in the growth of the filament.
Hence it is that in Spain, Australia, and other countries cor-
responding in mildness and equability of climate, the wool
of the sheep possesses a degree of softness and imiformity
of growth unequalled by any other, which arises, for the
most part, from the evenness of the condition of the sheep
through the year, and consequently regular supply of yolk,
not being checked in its flow at any period by extreme cold.
From this cause, the true Spanish, Merino, and Austrahan,
to use the phraseology of manufacturers, " work more kindly"
than all other fine wools ; and less wastage follows in the
process of cloth making, occasioned by their soundness and
toughness.
Another material source of profit, induced by better con-
dition from sheltering, is the increased number of lambs.
216 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP.
Very many of the ewes, from their exposure, and in spite
of full feeding, were sadly impoverished at the time of yean-
ing, and consequently were unable in many instances to fold
without assistance. In all such cases, the character of the
offspring may easily be conceived ; for, if they lived, they were
puny and ill constitulioned, from the deficiency of nutriment
afforded by the mothers. It is needless to add, that when
winter came it made terrible havoc with these.
But an entire change came over the ewes after they had
experienced the benefits of protection. Rarely mechanical
aid is now needed at parturition, the lambs are alike healthy
with their dams, and receive a " good start" from the greater
amount of nutriment afforded them ; and thus the foundation
of all good animals, in all cases, is laid.
Another source of profit originating from protection, is the
saving of provender.
Facts, the result of thorough experiments, which will
hereafter be adduced, satisfactorily confirm this position, al-
though the writer regrets that he has none to offer deduced
from his own experience. But nevertheless, he is as well
persuaded of its truth, as though he had made hundreds of
experiments, for it is founded in the very nature of things,
and made conclusive by only ordinary observation. Every
practical farmer is well aware, that every description of
stock will consume more food in severe, or moderately cold
weather, than when it is otherwise. Now nature is always
exerting herself with everything, from man to the reptile, to
promote its physical welfare for the preservation of the prin-
ciple of life. Hence when any animal is exposed, or sub-
jected to extreme hardship, and our climate is the greatest
natural one, it is prompted to partake of greater quantities of
food in order to combat, or counteract it ; therefore, inasmuch
as sheep, from the severities of our winters, are subjected to
more hardship, without protection than with it, the inference
is legitimate that they will consume a larger amount of food
with a view to their welfare. But further reasoning here
will not be necessary, as this position will be again advert-
ed to.
Again, shelter for sheep is a means of making additional
manure, which is the mine to which the farmer must look as
the main source of his wealth. Indeed, this is his capital
stock, and whether it is to be increased or diminished, de-
pends wholly on his l)ad or good management. If the ma-
WINTER MANAGEMENT. 217
nure is protected from the weather, its virtues are not dissi-
pated by the winds ; and, being amassed at a single point,
can be distributed when and where it best suits the interest
of the husbandman. In Germany, England, and elsewhere
in Europe, this matter is deemed of such consequence, it is
customary to fold the sheep nightly in convenient places,
that their manure may be concentrated, and subsequently
deposited where it is most needed. Thus the American
wool-grower, if he chooses, can make his flocks efficient
auxiliaries to increase the productiveness of his lands, and
thereby reap greatly additional profits from his labors.
What has been advanced in support of the policy of pro-
tection, it is apparent, has been with entire reference to pe-
cuniary gain; but does not humanity urge us to its adoption?
If the sheep had not been tamed to man's submission, its in-
stincts would not have led it to regions like ours. No, the
God of nature would have protected it from the sufferings
inseparable from northern winters, by guiding its wandering
steps to warmer climes. Therefore, since man has ap-
propriated it to his use, does not the great Dispenser of
good require of us that we should deal kindly towards it ?
It is, indeed, a religious obligation thus to do, which it would
seem none but barbarians would violate. When the storm
howls, and bitter cold urges around the " blazing hearth,"
let us feel happy in the reflection that we have provided the
animal, which clothes and warms us, with the means of
making its situation alike comfortable with ourselves.
Before entering into further details of a mere mechanical
nature connected with management, it will be proper to il-
lustrate the foregoing results by some familiar reference to
the principles of chemistry, and which will serve also as a
fit prelude to observations on feeding QX\di fattening.
PRODUCTION OF ANIMAL HEAT.
Animal heat is produced by means of respiration, the
chemical process being carried on in the lungs.
An extremely subtle fluid pervades all nature denominated
caloric, the particles of which have a tendency to repel each
other and unite with other substances. This is apparent if
we touch a body the temperature of which is lower than that
of the hand, caloric passing rapidly from it to the substance,
and a sensation of cold is experienced; and, on the contrary,
19
218 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP.
if the temperature of the substance is higher, we feel a de-
gree of heat from the passage of caloric into the hand.
Fire or heat is the derivative of caloric. It is one of those
singular phenomena of nature, that caloric exists in two
different states, the one in a free or sensible form, the other
in a latent or combined form. Thus two bodies may have
apparently the same degree of temperature, yet one contains
a larger quantity of caloric than the other, but from its pecu-
liar combination with the body, it is not sensible to the touch.
For instance, if sulphuric acid and water be mixed, although
each fluid may be before cold, a high temperature will sud-
denly be effected, and caloric will be evolved.
In the process of fermentation of malt liquors, the temper-
ature is elevated, and carbonic acid is produced, the sub-
stance expired by the lungs ; indeed, whenever this is formed,
heat is evolved.
Now heat is produced and supported by the chemical
union of two substancces, oxygen and carbon, which cause
combustion of wood, coal, and our candles. Carbon is the
fuel, not only in ordinary combination, but also in the animal
economy ; while oxygen may be regarded ihefire. Carbon
is furnished by the food, whether in man or beast, and if a
sufficiency is not taken in to counteract the consuming ten-
dency of the oxygen, a gradual waste of the system follows,
and life eventually ceases. Now in cold climates the air is
dense, and in proportion to this is the amount of oxygen in-
spired by the lungs, and greater waste of the system would
take place were it not counteracted by an increase of appe-
tite, and consequently more food is required, especially that
■which contains within it the largest proportion of carbon.
Thus in the icy regions the inhabitants consume largely of
oily or fatty substances which consist chiefly of carbon ;
while those living in hot climates prefer vegetable diet. So
we perceive the functions of the lungs and the stomach sin-
gularly agree. In cold weather large fires are necessary to
keep up the animal warmth ; otherwise the tissues of the
body would be rapidly wasted by the consuming properties
of the oxygen.
Without proceeding further, the above will afford a ready
solution of several of the positions under the head o( protec-
tion. It will be deduced that, if the equilibrium of the sys-
tem in reference to animal heat is deranged, unhealthy ac-
tion surely follows. If the sheep is permitted to breathe too
WINTER MANAGEMENT. 219
dense or cold an atmosphere, the excess of oxygen with
which it is surcharged, if the language may be used, be-
comes proportionally voracious for the carbon of which it
preys on ; and if it meets not with an adequate supply in the
food, it flies to the tissues of the body. In this case the
equilibrium is overcome — the carbon of the food is not a
match for the oxygen, and the consuming fire — for thus it is
aptly termed — gradually wastes the system, and life sooner
or later terminates in the last stages of exhaustion or impov-
erishment. To this may be ascribed what every farmer has
borne witness, namely, when extreme cold occurs for a few
days together, during its continuance, but more particularly
at its subsidence, his stock, if exposed, present a lank and
haggard appearance ; and hence the common saying, " Cold
impoverishes animals." Here is the reason at hand, fur-
nished by science, why all animals thrive better in temperate
latitudes ; as also, why it is proper, if transported to colder
ones, the means recommended should be adopted to guard
against the waste incident to exposure. If the effects of
low temperature can thus be avoided, it follows that the equi-
librium will be preserved — the general organization unim-
paired, and thus disease will be warded off. Here too is
the ready explanation, why the sheep yields a heavier fleece
— no larger quantity of carbon being abstracted from the
food than is needed for respiration, having portions adequate
for nourishing the frame ; and thus the lacteals or absorbents
carry through their fructifying channels ample provision to
expand and increase dimensions at every point. And thus
too we learn, why protection, by modifying the temperature
of the air inhaled, sheep will consume less provender, for
the reason that less oxygen is imbibed, and consequently a
smaller portion of food will supply the requisite quantity of
carbon it unites with to engender animal heat through the
act of respiration.
CHAPTER XII.
WINTER MANAGEMENT CONTINUED
FEEDING— SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES APPLIED— FATTENING.
FEEDING.
"VVe are now about to enter a department of winter econo-
my of the highest importance, and will require at the outset
a brief development of a few fundamental principles, a know-
ledge of which is indispensably necessary to correct prac-
tice.
It is a law of nature that nothing is lost or annihilated.
In the combustion of wood or straw, the elements which
compose them only change their form by assuming a gase-
ous character, and thereby become active agents in repro-
ducing other bodies of like nature. The majestic tree,
springing into existence from the tiny acorn or nut, in at-
taining its huge bulk, does not produce any new elements ;
its growth is derived from the power it possesses to assimi-
late that which floats in the atmosphere or exists in the soil.
These are the sources of nourishment to plants ; on the
other hand, animals derive their sustenance from the food
taken into the body, and through the process of digestion
converting the nutrient part of the food into flesh and blood.
The animal mass, with its various organs, is formed of the
constituents of the herbage upon which it feeds. The ex-
ercise of animals to obtain subsistence, and for other pur-
poses, requires a certain force, to produce which is attended
with loss or waste of the system — " the living parts become
dead parts, and are at length cast from the system." To
counteract this tendency to waste food is required, and when
the suppl}'- of food and the waste are equal, the weight of
the animal is unaltered.
Food has a twofold purpose to eflfect : one is to nourish the
system, the other affords the means by which animal heat is
WINTER MANAGEMENT. 221
supported. The temperature of the body is considerably
warmer than the surrounding atmosphere, and varies but lit-
tle throughout the whole year. The cause of this high tem-
perature has already been explained.
According to the theory of Liebeg, in carnivorous animals
the carbon required for the purposes of respiration and
warmth, is supplied by the waste of the tissues of the body,
which waste is materially greater than in herbivorous ani-
mals ; but in the latter the greater proportion is supplied by
the food itself. In the carnivora the whole of the food is
converted into flesh ; but in the herbivorous species a part
only is thus assimilated, other portions being required for
animal heat, and the formation of fat. But this will be bet-
ter understood by the following analysis of these several sub-
stances. Flesh and blood consist of the following elements,
subject to some variations, and to the water being removed.
To avoid decimals, we will suppose the substance to consist
of 10,000 parts.
Flesh. Blood.
- - 5195
- - 717
- - 1507
- - 2139
- - 442
Carbon
Hydrogen -
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Ashes
5182
757
1501
2137
423
10,000 10,000
By comparing the above, it will be perceived that the
relative proportions of constituents is very nearly the same,
especially those of carbon and nitrogen. These, then, are
properly the proportions in which these elements unite in
the tissues of the body, and hence nitrogen being a distin-
guished element of flesh and blood, no food destitute of ni-
trogen can nourish the body.
By the following analysis of mutton fat, it will be seen
that the principal difference between flesh and fat consists
in the absence wholly of nitrogen.
Carbon - - - 7,900
Hydrogen - - 1,170
Oxygen - - - 930
10,000
Thus it is that such articles of food as sugar, starch, gum,
19*
222 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP.
oil, or butter, will increase the development of fat, yet not
so the flesh ; consequently animals confined wholly to such
diet, will certainly die.
The analysis of hay is thus: 11 G2 parts being dried in
the air will contain 162 parts of water, which, being deduct-
ed, leaves 1000 parts, which are thus composed:
Carbon ... 458
Hydrogen - - - 50
Oxygen ... 387
Nitrogen ... 15
Ashes - - . 90
1000
A scientific writer comments on the analysis of blood and
hay as follows : — " It is evident that an animal, to make 10
lbs. of blood, must eat 100 lbs. of hay before he acquires
sufficient nitrogen to compose it. By consuming this 100
lbs. of hay, which we will suppose divided into 10,000
parts, he will take 4580 parts of carbon, whilst not more
than 520 parts are required by the blood, leaving 4060 por-
tions not required for nutrition ; there will also be 424 parts
of hydrogen unrequired, and 3656 of oxygen ; what then be-
comes of these superfluous elements ? Why, they are re-
quired principally for the purpose of sustaining the heat of
the body ; the hydrogen and oxygen form water, and the
carbon unites witli the oxygen taken by respiration, pro-
ducing heat by the combustion, and is given off by the lungs
in the form of carbonic gas. The nutritious portions of the
blood are jibrine and albumen, whose elements are almost ex-
actly the same, and correspond also with the fibrine and al-
bumen found in vegetables. Although nitrogen forms such
an essential part of nutritious food, yet it cannot, in any
way, enter the system or afford nourishment in a simple or
uncombined form, hut only in such comhitiation as we find in
albumen. It is evident, therefore, that to form blood food
must be taken which contains albumen, or substances analo-
gous to it, in order to be nutritious, aiid in proportion to the
amount of albu7nen it possesses will be its nutrient properties.
Modern chemists designate food which is thus capable of
nourishing as nitrogenized or azotized, from its containing
nitrogen ; whilst other varieties of food, such as starch,
gum, sugar, fat, wine, beer, and spirits, which contain no
nitrogen, are denominated carhoivizcd or unazotized.''^
WINTER MANAGEMENT. 223
Albumen is thus composed :
Carbon 550
Hydrogen - - - - 70
Nitrogen - - - - 159
Oxygen 221
1000
Fat, we have seen, contains no nitrogen ; it is clearly,
therefore, produced from the excess of the carbon of food
beyond that which is required for respiration. Starch, gum,
sugar, and other similar substances, are converted also into
fat by the abstraction of their oxygen.
Young animals are not disposed to take on fat like adults,
much of their food being assimilated into blood, for the de-
velopment of size. Another cause may be assigned, the
additional waste from their playful exercise, which is pecu-
liarly so with lambs. This arises from their breathing be-
ing increased, thereby consuming a larger amount of oxy-
gen, and more carbon consequently is expended. The milk
of sheep contains a much greater proportion of nitrogenized
matters, than the food partaken by the lamb after its wean-
ing.
The following shows its analytical composition :
Ewe. Ass.
19
13
63
905
1000 1000
Of the above, Cassein is the only nitrogenized substance,
and this with butter form cheese. Cassein resembles albu-
men, into which it can readily be converted in the system.
The butter and the sugar are the carbonized constituents for
respiration, and the ashes contain phosphate of lime and
common salt, for the formation of bone and the gastric juice.
The writer will now proceed to spread before the reader
a series of tables, exhibiting the relative proportions of nu-
triment of the various kinds of food consumed by sheep,
which were prepared by distinguished scientific men. The
Cassein
- 40
Butter
- 46
Sugar
- 38
Ashes
6
Water -
- 890
224
MANAGEI\IENT OF SHEEP.
first ^\
^ill show, that the
usual food of sheep
abounds very
considerably with the carbonized
constituents.
Water.
Organic matters.
Ashes.
100 lbs. of Hay contain -
- 16
- - 76^
-
- 7i
((
Turnips
- 89
- - 10
-
((
Swedes
- 85
- - 14
-
1
((
White Carrots
- 87
- - 12
-
1
((
Potatoes
- 72
- - 27
-
1
t(
Peas
- 16
- - 80|^
-
- 3^
((
Oats
- 18
- - 79
-
- 3
((
Oatmeal
- 9
- - 89
-
- 2
The organic matters thus separated are found to consist
of the following proportions : —
Albumen. Unazotized matters-
Hay ... 8 68|
Turnips -- 1 9
Carrots - - 2 10
Potatoes - - 2 24 1
Oats - - 10| 68
Peas - - 29 51^
The next table, showing the nutriment of a large num-
ber of articles of food, is translated from the French, by W.
Rham, of England, and is said to be " the result of the ex-
periments made by some of the most eminent agriculturists
of Europe in the actual feeding of cattle." Mr. Rham ac-
companies it with the following observations :
" Allowance must be made for the different qualities of
the same food on different soils and in different seasons. In
very dry summers the same weight of any green food will
be much more nourishing than in a dripping season. The
standard of comparison is the best upland meadow hay, cut
as the flower expands, and properly made and stacked, with-
out heating ; in short, hay of the best quality. With re-
spect to hay, such is the difference in value that if 100 lbs.
of the best is used, it will require 120 lbs. of a second qual-
ity to keep the same stock, as well as 140 lbs. of the third,
and so on till very coarse and hard hay, not well made, will
only be of half the value, and not so fit for cows or store
cattle, even when given in double the quantity. While good
hay alone will fatten cattle, inferior hay will not do so with-
out other food.
WINTER MANAGEMENT.
225
" I shall give the table as
which accompany it.
it stands, and add the notes
lbs. _
Good hay
100 is equal in nourishment tc
Lattermath hay
102
Clover hay
90 made when the blossom is
completely expanded.
Ditto -
88 before the blossom expands.
Clover, second crop
98
Lucerne hay -
98
Sainfoin hay -
89
Tare hay
91
Clover hay, after the
seed - - -
146
Green clover -
410
Vetches or tares, green
457
Shelter wheat straw
374
Rye straw
442
Oat straw
195
Pea straw
153
Bean straw
140
Mangoid-wurtzel
339
Turnips
504
Carrots
276
Swedish turnips
308
Wheat (cleaned)
45
Barley -
54
Oats
59
Vetches
50
Peas
45
Beans - - -
45
Wheat bran -
105
Wheat and oat chaff
167
" Lattermath hay is good for cows, not for horses. Raw
potatoes increase the milk of cows, but they must be given
with caution, and only a few at first, till the stomach is ac-
customed to them ; boiled, they fatten every kind of stock ;
mixed with cut chaff, they are excellent for horses ; 14 lbs.
of boiled potatoes will allow of a diminution of 8 lbs. of hay ;
hence their value in this way is calculated.
" Every kind of cattle eat turnips except horses. Turnips
will feed store pigs, but they will not fatten them. Carrots
and parsnips are excellent for horses, and, when boiled, will
226 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP.
fatten hogs. Riita-baga is liked by horses ; it makes their
coats line, but it must not be given in too great quantity, or it
will gripe them."
In the German Farmer's Encyclopedia, Petri, an hono-
rary and corresponding member of many societies for the
promotion of agriculture, contributed a valuable paper on " The
keeping, care, and breeding of Sheep," in which will be
found the following table of the comparative nutriment of vari-
ous kinds of food.
[matter.
100 lbs.
of aromatic meadow hay contains 50 lbs.
nutritious
100 "
Clover hay,
55^
ditto.
100 "
Tender vetch hay, -
55|
ditto.
100 "
Wheat straw, -
14
ditto.
100 "
Corn straw (stalks).
20
ditto.
100 "
Barley straw, -
27i
ditto.
100 "
Oat straw, - - -
25
ditto.
100 "
Pea straw.
25
ditto.
100 "
Vetch straw, -
25
ditto.
100 "
Millet straw, -
26,^
ditto.
100 "
Chaff, - - -
27^
ditto.
100 "
Potatoes, - - -
25
ditto.
100 "
Cabbage turnips,
25
ditto.
100 "
Yellow turnips,
25
ditto.
100 "
White turnips, -
12i
ditto.
100 "
Beets,
16^
ditto.
100 "
Corn, - - -
95
ditto.
100 "
Wheat, - - -
95
ditto.
100 "
Rye, - ^ -
90
ditto.
100 "
Barley, - - -
82
ditto.
100 "
Buckwheat,
78
ditto.
100 "
Oats, - - - -
70
ditto.
100 "
Peas, ... -
93
ditto.
100 "
Vetches, - - -
93
ditto.
100 "
Wheat bran.
48
ditto.
100 "
Rye bran, - - -
46
ditto.
Petri confirms what has already been said in relation to
the fondness of sheep for variety of food, by enumerating 252
plants which they eat with salutary effects, and 39 others they
partake, of an injurious tendency.
He gives the following as examples of average of fodder
for a ewe in the month of January, when the yeaning com-
mences in March :
WINTER MANAGEMENT.
227
1st day,-
-In the morning, |
noon, ^
2d day,
evening, f
morning, f
noon, 2
3d day,
evening, |
morning, 1
noon, 1
evening, 1
4th day,
morning, |
noon, f
5th day.
evening, |
morning, |
noon, 2
6th day.
evening, f
morning, f
noon, as in
evening, 1
lb. of good oat straw.
" of good hay or clover.
" of good barley straw.
" of millet straw.
" potatoes with 4 oz. chopped
straw, and 4 oz. of oats.
" barley straw.
" hay.
" hay.
" wheat, oat, barley or buck-
wheat straw.
" summer straw.
" chopped straw, with 3 oz. oats
and 3 oz. bran, moistened
with water.
" winter straw.
" of hay.
" of potatoes with ~ lb. chop-
ped straw.
" winter straw.
" of hay.
4th day.
" of straw.
He has likewise given the following table of variations of
Fodder, which may be successfully practised with sheep :
1
Loth,
Loth, 1
LoUi,
Day.
Lbs.
equal
i^oz.
Morning'.
Lbs.
equal
Noon.
Lbs.
'Zf
Evenins-.
1
21
hay
21
hay
2?
hay
2
1
1
rye straw
1
22
hay
1
1
ry-e straw
3
23
bean straw
26
vetch hay
23
bean "
4
1
wheat "
1
sainfoin
1
wheat straw
5
1
6
oat
21
hay
1
6
oat
6
1
6
artichoke stalk
I
19
red clover
1
6
artichoke stalk
7
1
8
turkey wheat
1
12
luzerne
1
8
turkey wh. str.
8
1
8
b'kwheat straw
1
16
hay
1
8
b'wheat straw
9
1
6
oat
7
horse beans
1
6
oat "
10
19
red clover
19
red clover
19
red clover
11
18
sainfoin
18
sainfoin
18
sainfoin
12
1
6
millet straw
1
6
millet straw
1
6
millet straw
13
30
lentil straw
21
hay
30
lentil "
14
30
pea straw
21
hay
30
pea
15
30
barley straw
1
artichoke stalk
30
barley "
16
1
10
horse bean str.
1
10
horse bean str.
1
10
horse bean str.
17
1
1
rye straw
1
11
oat straw
1
1
rye straw
18
1
3
wheat "
1
9
1
3
wheat "
19
1
6
rye
1
turkey wheat
1
3
" <'
20
1
6
oat "
1
a u
1
6
oat "
21
1
3
wheat "
22
artichoke stalk
1
6
" "
22
30
lentil "
1
30
vetch straw
30
lentU "
23
1
G
oat "
1
6
wheat "
1
6
oat "
228 MANAGII.UEM OF tfllEEP.
Petri allows on an average to a sheep, of hay, 3 to 3^ lbs.
per head, and says : " In the winter a full-grown sheep of
70 lbs. live weight, eats, in fattening-fodder, 3 lbs. of hay, or
with some hay 3 to 4 lbs. potatoes, or 14 to 18 lbs. of cab-
bage leaves, by which he weekly gains 1^ lbs. of flesh and
wool." The following example, of a slaughtered sheep weigh-
ing 116 lbs., gives the proportions of the parts :
Flesh and tallow, - - - - 54 lbs.
Fat taken from the entrails, - - 7^ "
Liver, lights, and milk, . - - 5 «
Blood, 3 «
Head, paunch, and other entrails, - 42^ *'
112
Leaving for blood and waste, 4
Total, 116
Thaer was a long time at the head of the distinguished
agricultural school of Mogelin, in Prussia, where many ex-
periments were conducted in sheep management under his
own eye. The late Judge Buel, in his Farmer's Companion,
speaks of him as one " who has not, perhaps, his superior in
the practical and scientific business of farming anywhere."
Thaer says, " The quantity of hay which is given to sheep
is very difTerent. In poor sheep-folds it is considered much
to allow 3,000 or 4,000 lbs. of hay to 100 sheep for a win-
tering. In better conducted ones 7,500 lbs. is considered
the minimum for 100 sheep : 3^ lbs. of dry fodder for a sheep
daily are necessary, and the greater proportion of this in nu-
tritious hay, compared with dry straw, the better. Where
hay is not plenty, it is usual to have recourse to grain-fodder ;
oats, rye, and barley are equally good ; where peas, beans,
and vetches are largely cultivated, these may be used. The
grains are given them either threshed or unthreshed ; more
frequently they have the rough grain mixed with chafl' some-
what moistened. It is customary also, especially with the ker-
nels of the leguminous fruits (peas, beans, &c.), to soak them ;
others prefer to fodder with the pods strewed on chopped,
straw, &c. Sheep which have daily 1^ lbs. of hay, and 1
lb. of potatoes, or 1 lb. of hay and 2 lbs. of potatoes, and some
straw, can be kept in a well-fed, wool and milk- producing
state."
Dailv.
Yearly.
Summer.
Winter.
lbs.'
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
2.50
912
532
380
2.20
803
473
330
1.87
682
402
280
1.55
566
334
232
1.65
602
355
247
WINTER MANAGEMENT. 229
Veit was Professor of Agriculture in the Royal institution
of Bavaria, and his work is full of experiments and calcula-
tions at that seat of agricultural science. He makes the
following observations : —
" The need of fodder is proportioned to the live weight of
the sheep, and two and a half pounds of the value of hay is
required daily for every 100 lbs. live weight, to keep the an-
imal in a profitable state. Hence the following amount of
fodder is required :" —
Live wt. c
lbs.
For a bug-wool German sheep, 100
Infantado Merino, 88
Electoral species, (grade Saxons,) 75
Escitrial electoral, (pure Saxon,) 62
One-eighth electoral, 66
In juxtaposition with the above the writer will place the
estimate given in Mr. Spooner's work on sheep.
" An ox requires 2 per cent, of his live weight in hay per
day; if he works, he requires 2 1-2 per cent. ; a milch cow,
3 per cent. ; a fatting ox, 5 per cent, at first ; 4 1-2 per cent,
when half fat ; and only 4 per cent, when fat ; or 4 1-2 on
the average. Sheep grown take up 3 1-3 per cent, of their
weight in hay per day, to keep in store condition." It must
be understood by the reader that, in this estimate as well as
all others, good hay is the standard of nutriment, and that if
any grain or other food is used as an equivalent, allowance
must be made for the quantity of hay accordingly.
The following remarks relative to the different kinds of
straw, by Veit, are worthy of attention by the feeders of
every kind of stock.
" 1 . The straw of the usual liguminous fruits, and espe-
cially of lentils, vetches, and peas, is more nutritious than
the straw of seed-clover. The greener the tips are, the less
it is lodged the better can it be dried and brought in, the
more nourishing it is. The fine stalk vetch straw is also
very nutritious, behind which stands somewhat the pea
straw, with its thicker stalk. All straw of liguminous fruit
is particularly a welcome fodder to sheep, on which account
therefore it is greatly prized by many sheep-owners, and
considered equal to hay.
" 2. Oat and barley straw is the straw for fodder of the
cereal fruits. Oat straw is most agreeable, and also most
nutritious, on account of its peculiar taste, for all species of
20
230 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP.
cattle, because on the tips of the panicles are usually found
unripe grains, and oats are cut before they are fully ripe.
Barley straw has, on account of its moisture, and short pe-
riod of vegetation, a high value as fodder, and other things
being equal, is as nutritious as oat straw, if it were not, as is the
case, fully ripe before reaping. Yet it is more liable to in-
jure than oat straw, because it imbibes more moisture from
the air and soil.
" 3. Straw of summer wheat, summer speltz, and summer
rye, for fodder, stands after oat and barley straw.
"4. The stalk of maize or Indian corn contains much sac-
charine matter, and therefore is very nutritious, used fine, and
agreeable to all kinds of cattle. The cobs, after the corn
has been taken off, ground up, are likewise a very nutritious
fodder, and the hard stalks may be chopped up for the pur-
pose. Taking all these things into view, it stands next to
the straw of summer rye in value as fodder.
" 5. Millet straw has a hard stalk, but contains at least as
much nutriment as the winter straws.
" 6. Buckwheat, on account of its quantity on a field of less
fertility, and if of fine stalk, in which its value as fodder
from its straw being rich with leaves, is enhanced, is as
good as the straw of winter grain.
" 7. Bea?i straw, in case its leaves have not fallen off or
decayed, and the ends of the stalk are green when it is cut,
as many experiments have shown, is more valuable than gen-
erally supposed."
Observations naturally suggested by a review of the tables
of feeding, as well as some comments on German manage-
ment of sheep in general will be found in the succeeding
chapter.
FATTENING.
As an introduction to the subject, the following interesting
observations by Mr. Spooner will be considered very appo-
site : —
" Though in many countries the principal value of sheep
is to be attributed to their woolly covering, yet in this coun-
try (Great Britain), for some years past, the flesh has been
the greatest source of profit, and the carcase, therefore, the
paramount consideration.
" This has naturally led the attention of breeders to the
consideration of what particular breed has the most aptitude
WINTER MANAGEMENT. 231
to make flesh and fat, how these qualities could be improved,
and what particular shape or form is connected with this
propensity to fatten ? But though the above has been per-
haps the principal consideration in view, there are other
subordinate ones springing out of it of scarcely inferior im-
portance— such as which breed, or individual sheep, will fat-
ten soonest on good pasture ? Which on indifferent or bad
pasture ? Which has the earliest maturity ? Which can
bear wet and dirt with the greatest impunity, or can best
endure exposure to the weather in a cold and severe lo-
cality ?
" These several points must all enter into the consideration
of the sheep-owner, vvho must of course pay the utmost at-
tention to the nature and quality of his land and its suitability
for particular sheep, being, after all, governed by the ultimate
calculation as to which brings in the greatest return of profit.
" The various points in the form of a sheep, connected
with the aptitude to fatten, have received the utmost atten-
tion from practical and sagacious breeders, although some of
these points are still matters of dispute. The superiority of
particular improved breeds is now generally acknowledged,
and may be considered to be established on certain principles,
though in arriving at these principles it must be confessed
that we are little indebted to science, but to the long and at-
tentive observation and correct reasoninor of sagacious and
practical men. It is, indeed, only very lately that anything
like a correct explanation could be offered for the various phe-
nomena that attend the fattening of animals, or why one
description of food should be more suitable for the purpose
than another. It had, indeed, been laid down as a fact, that
a large capacious chest and lungs were necessary for the
production of fat, and that its secretion depended in a great
degree on the quantity of air that could be respired ; whilst
the researches of modern chemists have shown that nothing
could be fmlher from the truth. And now that the fallacy
has been exposed by chemistry it can also be readily shown
by anatomy, for we find that whilst the horse and the camel
have eighteen ribs, the ox and the sheep have only thirteen.
The absence of these five pair of ribs must of course mate-
rially diminish the cavity of the chest, and its greater breadth
(necessary for another purpose) does not by any means com-
pensate for its diminished length. Animals of speed have
rarely a propensity to fatten, but in greyhounds, foxes, deer,
232 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP.
&c., we find the chest is long and deep, though not wide,
whilst in pigs, sheep, and oxen, we notice an opposite con-
formation. Tlie fact is, in proportion to the activity of the
animal is its respiration and demand for oxygen, and in pro-
portion to the consmnption of oxygen is the wear and tear
of the system and the consumption of the elements of the
food. If the exertions are therefore excessive, that portion
of the food that would have increased the weight of the body
is called for to support respiration.
" In animals having a propensity to fatten, we find the
chest of a circular form ; the ribs spring from the spine more
horizontally than in others, almost at right angles ; this is
observed in the ox, compared with the horse, and still more
so in the sheep. The effect of this conformation is certain-
ly in one respect to increase the width of the chest, but an-
other important effect is to increase very considerably the
size of the abdomen ; for in order to obtain the greatest pos-
sible nutriment from the food, it is essential that the organs of
digestion should be capacious, which cannot be the case un-
less the cavity in which they are situated is large. The
abdominal muscles and membrane which support the bowels
are attached to the cartilages of the ribs, and the short ribs
in some measure cover the abdomen. It must, therefore, be
evident that in proportion to the width between the posterior
ribs must, in a great measure, be the size of the abdomen ;
and this width must be in proportion to the horizontal direc-
tion in which the ribs are given off. The loins must cor-
respond with the ribs ; the transverse processes are long
and horizontal in proportion to the horizontal manner in
which the ribs spring from the spine ; for, in fact, they are
but a continuation of the same roof, and must possess the
same relative proportions. We must illustrate this point by
comparing it with an umbrella, which, when thoroughly open,
the whalebone ribs, so to speak, coming off at right angles,
may be compared with the broad circular animal, and, when
half extended, to the narrow-chested, flat-sided beast. In its
former state the umbrella forms the roof of a much larger
space of ground than it does in its latter state ; and, in the
same manner, the long transverse lumbar processes must
form the roof of a larger abdominal cavity than the short
transverse processes found with narrow loins. The same
form that extends the roof of the abdomen, also gives a
larger surface for the muscles of the back and loins to rest
WINTER ALAJ«IAGE]V1ENT. 233
on ; and thus we find in sheep of this description a very-
considerable development of the fiesh or muscles of the loins
— the primest part of the carcase. It is a common observa-
tion with judges of sheep, that one of the best points is a
channel between the shoulders and along the back. This is,
indeed, a desirable form, for it is connected with those ne-
cessary qualifications for producing flesh and fat. The
channel along the back is owing partly to the large develop-
ment of the muscles of the loins and back arising from the
form we have commended, and partly to the shortness of the
upright or spinous processes of the vertebrae of the back. Now
the use of these processes is to afford leverage to the mus-
cles, and their length, therefore, enhances the activity of the
animal. Sheep, however, do not possess nor require these
active powers, and they would, in fact, be very detrimental
to the principal object of the animal's existence ; it is a
quiet state and a quiet disposition that disposes an animal to
increase in flesh and fat. The shortness of these processes
is illustrated in the sheep as compared with the goat, and in
the improved breeds of the former as compared with those
of the mountain and the forest."
With a view rather to confirm principles already stated,
the following remarks by Mr. Spooner, and the examples in
illustration, are quoted. It will be proper to add, that in no
other country is the system of fattening better understood
than in England, established by numerous experiments of
her many enlightened and sagacious breeders.
" Quietude and icarmth greatly contribute to the fattening
process. This is a fact which has not only been developed
by science, but proved by actual practice. The manner in
which these agents operate is simple and easily explained :
— motion increases respiration, and the excess of oxygen
thus taken requires an increased quantity of carbon, which
would otherwise be expended in producing fat So like-
wise, cold robs the si/stem of animal heat, to supply which
more oxygen and more carbon must be employed in produ-
cing extra combustion, to restore the diminution of tempera-
ture. Nature enforces this restoration of warmth by causing
cold to produce both hunger and the disposition for motion,
supplying carbon by the gratificalion of the former, and ox-
ygen by the indulgence of the latter. The above facts are
illustrated by Lord Ducie : —
" One hundred sheep were placed in a shed, and ate 20
20*
234 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP,
lbs. of Swede turnips each per day, whilst another hundred,
in the open air, ate 25 lbs., and at the end of a certain period
the former animals weighed each 3 lbs. more than the latter,
plainly showing, that, to a certain extent, icarmth is a sub-
stitute for food. This was also proved by the same noble-
man in other experiments, which also illustrated the effect of
exercise : — No. 1. Five sheep were fed in the open air, be-
tween the 21st of November and the 1st of December ; they
consumed 90 lbs. of food per day, the temperature being about
44° ; at the end of this time they weighed 2 lbs. less than when
first exposed. No. 2. Five sheep were placed under shel-
ter, and allowed to run at a temperature of 49° ; they con-
sumed at first 82 lbs., then 70 lbs. per day, and increased in
weight 23 lbs. No. 3. Five sheep were placed in the same
shed, but not allowed any exercise ; they ate at first 64 lbs.,
then 58 lbs., and increased in weight 30 lbs. No. 4. Five
sheep were kept in the dark, quiet and covered ; they ate 35
lbs. per day, and increased in weight 8 lbs.
" A similar experiment was tried by ]\Ir. Childers, M. P.,
and is thus related by that gentleman in the Journal of the
Royal Agricultural Society of England for that year. He
says, ' I last winter enclosed a small yard with posts and
rails, and erected a low thatched shed, just large enough to
allow a score of sheep to lie down at once. The floor of
this shed was boarded with rough slabs, and was raised
eighteen inches above the surface of the ground, the boards
being placed three-eighths of an inch apart, in order to allow
the free passage of water and keep the boards dry, as my
great fear was that the sheep might get the foot-rot.
" ' I then proceeded, on the 1st of January, to draw forty
wethers out of my flock of Leiccsters, and divided them into
two lots, as equal in quality as I could get them. On
weighing each sheep separately, I found the weight of one
score to be 2565 lbs., and that of the other 2580 lbs. I put
the first lot into the yard, and placed the other lot on turnips.
The field was a dry sandy soil, well sheltered, and peculiar-
ly favorable and healthy for sheep. Each lot had exactly
the same quantity of food given them, which was as fol-
lows : —
" ' 1st. As many cut turnips as they could eat, which was
about 378 lbs. per day for each lot.
" ' 2d. Ten pounds of linseed cake, at the rate of half a
pound per sheep per day.
WINTER MANAGEMENT. 235
c< <
3d. Half a pint of barley per sheep per day.
4tli. A little hay, and a constant supply of salt.
For the first three weeks both lots consumed equal por-
tions of food ; but in the fourth week there was a falling off
in the consumption of the wethers in the shed of 52 lbs. of
turnips per day ; and in the ninth week there was also a
falling off of 28 lbs. more ; of linseed cake there was also a
falling off of 3 lbs. per day. The wethers in the field con-
sumed the same quantity of food from first to last. The re-
sult of the experiment was as follows :
20 Shed Wethers.
Increase.
20 Field Wethers.
Increase.
anuary 1, 2565 lbs.
2580 lbs.
February 1, 2870 "
305 lbs.
2794 "
214 lbs.
^larch 1, 3020 "
150 "
2914 "
120 "
^pril 1, 3355 "
335 "
3092 "
178 "
Total increase, 790 lbs. 512 lbs.
" ' Consequently the sheep in the shed, though they con-
sumed nearly one fifth less food, made above one third
greater progress. The circumstances of the experiment
were, if anything, unfavorable to the sheep in the shed.
The turnips, by being stored in a house for their use, be-
came drier than those consumed by the sheep in the field ;
and also in February the shed wethers were salved or rub-
bed with mercurial ointment, which is generally supposed to
give a check to feeding sheep. The floor of the shed was
kept clean by fresh straw litter after every rain.' "
Mr. Spooner adds the following : — " The result of these
important and valuable experiments is precisely what we
should expect from theoretical reasoning on the principles of
the subject. It shows the pecuniary advantage of attending
to the comforts of sheep and other animals, the expediency of
providing proper sheds, and affording shelter when the weather
is severe, and lessening, as much as possible, their exercise."
Quietness, as has been observed, is indispensable to rapid
fattening of sheep, or cattle, and to contribute as much as
possible to this object, regularity is requisite not only in the
quantity of the food, but the time which it is given. It is
not a little surprising how quick animals, especially when
fattening, will learn the stated hours when their food is to be
supplied ; and if it is transgressed, they become restless,
which greatly retards the process. The observance of this,
with full measure of feed, are of paramount importance.
236 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP.
Again : it is essential that the sheds or buildings in
which they are confined should often be supplied with fresh
litter, and plenty of it ; in short, everything must be done to
promote complete rest, ease, and contentment.
Sheep, when fattening, should not be fed oftener than
three times a day — namely, when day has fairly dawned, at
noon, and an hour before sunset. The interim between
feedings will enable them to fill themselves leisurely, and to
have time sufficient for that quiet digestion which is inter-
rupted by too frequent feeding. Water should be given
without limitation, and that immediately after their meals.
The sheep-fattener must not lose sight of that peculiar
habit of the animal exhibited in its fondness for variety of
food. Indeed, change is very essential, as otherwise it may
become cloyed on one species of diet. In fattening all ani-
mals, the shortest time in which it can be accomplished, the
most profit will result. To effect this, we will suppose that
it will take at first only of one kind of sustenance sufficient to
maintain good store order ; if it can be induced to eat one
quarter more of another sort, then it begins to acquire fat ;
but if in addition to this, its appetite can be stimulated to eat
yet another quarter of something else, it will readily appear
that the animal will fat all the sooner. A great point to
gain, is to induce it to eat as largely as possible of the most
nutritious food ; but we shall fail in this if the appetite of
the sheep is not courted and stimulated by variety. An au-
thor remarks — " Variety of food, with animals, operates like
cookery in the human subject, enabling more sustenance
to be taken."
When sheep are put up for fattening, care should be ob-
served at first not to feed in full quantities of grain or meal,
as, in so doing, acute diseases of the intestines will be
avoided. Again : those of the same age with similarity of
condition should be put together, as better calculations may
be made of the aggregate quantity of food they will require
daily. This is suggested for the reason that animals, when
growing, require longer time and additional feed to make
them fit for the butcher, as a portion of it nature appropri-
ates for the development of muscle or flesh. Hence the
great excellence of some of the improved English breeds,
whose early maturity allow of fattening when only eighteen
months old.
The following sound observations by Mr. Spooner will
WINTER MANAGEMENT. 237
conclude the subject : — " With respect to the most advanta-
geous food to be given, there is some difference of opinion,
some preferring oil-cake, some beans or peas, and others
oatmeal or barley-meal. It must, of course, depend, in some
measure, on the nature of the farm, as it must, to a certain
extent, be preferable to use the product of the farm. Sheep
certainly prefer beans to oats ; and where the former are
grown they can be undoubtedly used to advantage. They
abound in that principle in which turnips are most deficient,
and thus are adapted to counteract, in a measure, the too
weakening effect of the turnips ; and the latter, abounding
more in the elements of fat, prevent the beans from harden-
ing the flesh too much, which they are otherwise apt to do.
Oats and barley are more fattening than beans, both contain
less albumen ; and oil-cake nourishes but little, but possess-
es the principle of fat in a concentrated form. Perhaps the
best plan would be to begin with beans, gradually mixing
oil-cake, and finishing with that and turnips alone ; or it
may be prudent to mix other grain with the beans ; or, if
more convenient, substitute peas. Mr. Childers states that
sheep fed with the addition of half a pint of barley per sheep
per day, half a pound of linseed-cake, with hay, and a con-
stant supply of salt, become ready for the butcher in ten
weeks, and gain of flesh and tallow 33 lbs. to 40 lbs. per
head (one sheep gained 55 lbs. in twelve weeks) ; and that,
with artificial food, 30 tons of turnips will feed 60 sheep ;
while, on the usual plan of feeding on turnips alone, out of
doors, the average of the country is that 20 tons of turnips
will feed, in sixteen weeks, 10 sheep, with a gain of only
20 lbs. of flesh and tallow."
Although the ruta-baga turnip is the essential food for fat-
tening sheep in Great Britain, yet in localities in the United
States unadapted for its culture, the American breeders
have ample substitutes in potatoes, Indian corn, as well as
all other grains usually appropriated to this purpose abroad.
By reference to the tables of comparative nutritiousness of
the different kinds of food, and by weighing a few 5f the
sheep when put up for fattening, a ready calculation will be
made of the quantity required for feeding daily, which is
highly necessary to know, in order to prevent waste. Profit
being the ultimate object in keeping sheep of any kind, small
things must be kept steadily in view. Handfuls make
bushels, and ounces make pounds.
CHAPTER XIII.
WINTER MANAGEMENT CONTINUED
REVIEW OF THE TABLES OF ANALYSES— WHAT FOOD WILL PRO-
DUCE THE MOST WOOL— DE RAUMER'S TABLE OF EXPERIMENTS-
OBSERVATIONS ON GERMAN MANAGEMENT— VARIATIONS OF FOD-
DER—FODDER PROPORTIONED TO THE LIVE WEIGHT OF THE SHEEP
—IMPORTANCE OF GREEN FOOD— WATER NECESSARY— MANAGE-
MENT OF LAMBS— TWO-YEAR OLDS— BUCKS— HOSPITAL FLOCK-
MODES OF FODDERING-RACKS— TROUGHS— BARNS AND SHELTERS
—PLANS OF SHEEP BARNS.
If the reader will now pause, and recall that which has
been set forth in the two preceding chapters, but more par-
ticularly the last, he will perhaps concur with the writer,
that there is much matter for reflection, and much to form the
basis of .correct practice in winter economy. Let us take a
brief and familiar retrospect.
From the analyses of fat, flesh and blood, and of the vari-
ous kinds of food consumed by sheep, although very clear
conclusions may be drawn by the better educated, yet per-
haps it will be well, for the benefit of those whose informa-
tion is limited in the rudiments of science, to glance at
these things again.
It will have been seen, that there is quite a distinction in
difl'erent plants in regard to the relative proportions of the
nitrogenized and carbonized constituents they respectively
contain ; and that food destitute of the former can afford no
nutriment to the blood, and consequently none to the body ;
but those which furnish carbonized properties most abun-
dantly, make much fat. Hence all kinds of food which are
highly carbonized, to be which they must possess much of
sugar, starch, gum, (fee, in combination, are fitted for fatten-
in «• purposes. Therefore it will appear plain that wheat,
barley, corn, rye, oats, buckwheat, and ruta-baga, are better
for fattening, than the leguminous grains — such as peas,
WINTER MANAGEMENT. 239
beans, &c., simply for the reason that their chemical prop-
erties correspond more nearly with the elements of fat, and
the organs of the system therefore readily assimilate them
for its formation. The question now presents itself,
WHAT FOOD WILL PRODUCE THE MOST WOOL ?
Peas, beans, vetches, &c., are useful for the purpose of
enriching the blood, by furnishing it with large supplies of
albumen, which is its principal constituent. It will be re-
membered that in the analyses of flesh and blood the relative
proportions of their constituents are nearly identical ; con-
sequently, whatever food contains nitrogen, and the greatest
amount of albumen, is best adapted to the development of
flesh or muscle, and is therefore the most nutritious. Wheat,
rye, barley, and buckwheat, contain large quantities of albu-
men, especially the first two ; while oats, it will have been
seen, contains 10^ per cent, of its organic elements of albu-
men, and peas and leans no less than 29 per cent. What
conclusion, then, is to be drawn from this ? In Chapter I.
it is seen that the chemical composition of horns, hoofs,
hair, wool, and even feathers, is substantially the same ; their
organic elements are coagulated albumen and gelatin, and
their inorganic, silica, carbonate, and phosphate of lime,
and the oxides of iron and manganese. Hence it will read-
ily appear that that food given to the sheep which will sup-
ply the greatest proportion of albumen, in the same ratio
will increase the wool secretions, and consequently be pro-
ductive of the most wool, provided, however, they also hold
in suitable combination the inorganic substances of wool, with-
out which they assimilate mostly for the formation of flesh
or fat. This may be exemplified thus — a soil may be
highly productive of corn, as well as a few of the cereal
grains ; yet for the production of wheat it may lack the
proper proportion of the phosphate and carbonate of lime,
and consequently the berry will not only be deficient in
quantity, but quality.
The following table exhibits the results of the experiments
of the distinguished agriculturist De Raumer, on the efiects
produced by an equal quantity of several substances in in-
creasing the flesh, tallow, and wool of sheep :
240 MANAGEMENT OF SIIEEP.
m
1.
11
il
lbs.
lbs.
ite^
)00 lbs.
potatoes, raw, with salt,
46i
H
12i
do.
do. without salt,
44
H
iH
do.
mangel wurtzel, raw,
38i
H
6i
do.
wheat,
155
14
59i
do.
oats,
146
10
42i
do.
barley,
136
m
60
do.
peas.
134
14J
41
do.
rye, with salt,
133
14
35
do.
do. without salt,
90
I2i
43
do.
meal, wet.
129
13^
17^-
do.
buckwheat,
120
10
33
These results are said to agree with those of De Dombale,
and with those of a number of other agriculturists.
It will be perceived by the above table, that u-heat pro-
duces the greatest increase in the flesh of the sheep, though
but little greater than oats ; that peas, wheat, and rye, pro-
duce the greatest increase of wool ; and that barley and
wheat cause the greatest increase of tallow. That, as an
average, grain generally gives about three times the increase
in the flesh, that roots do when in equal weight ; that grain
produces about twice as much wool as is caused by an equal
weight of roots, and several times the amount of tallow.
The legitimate conclusion from the foregoing is, that the
flock-master, whose object is wool only, must rely on good
hay and some straw, whose constituents are admirably
adapted for the growth and perfection of wool, with a mod-
erate allowance daily of ground peas and oats, and some po-
tatoes as green food, for the greatest amount of wool ; and
those gross substances, oil-cake, corn-meal, and ruta-baga,
may be turned over to the producers of fat mutton. This
will presently be adverted to again.
OBSERVATIONS ON GERMAN MANAGEMENT.
The Germans are unrivalled in their scientific and practical
knowledge of every department in agriculture, and in no
one superior to that of sheep management. Economy is the
grand basis of every species of cultivation, and their profits
are rigidly determined by the expense of means employed
WINTER MANAGEMENT. 241
in production. A writer who is familiar with the subject
speaks thus : " The great distinction in German agricuhure,
compared with our own, is economy. The question is not,
whether a great crop can be produced, or a fine story can
be told, what large animals can be raised, &c. — but what is
the whole cost, the expenditure of labor, of land, of manure,
&c. For this reason computations have been made, and
the proportion of all the parts and processes has been fixed.
Economy compels them to weigh and measure their fodder.
The minutest details have been entered into, the most diffi-
cult points examined, and the results brought out."
The variations of fodder, daily, with the quantities of each
duly weighed and proportioned to the size of the animals to
be fed, as observed in the different tables, is not a solitary
experiment to determine a point only ; but having become
confirmed by thousands of experiments, is the basis of uni-
versal practice among her numerous wool-growers. The
late Mr. Henry D. Grove, in seasons of scarcity, was accus-
tomed to weigh daily the rations of his flock ; and thus per-
mitted nothing to waste, which exhibited the economical
practice of his native country. These remarks are deemed
essential, in order that the tables may be appreciated by
those whose information is limited relative to the perfection
to which sheep husbandry has attained in Germany.
The first thing which will strike the reader is the daily
VARIATIONS OF FODDER,
in which we see manifested the principle of economy prac-
tically carried out. The grain fields, and not almost wholly
meadows, as in this country, are made greatly the means of
maintenance of their flocks during winter ; thus not a pound
of straw nor a pound of anything valuable is permitted to be
wasted. Hence the cultivation of sheep and crops in a meas-
ure are mutually dependent on each other. The manure of
the flock augments the quantity of grain, and thus a larger
quantity of straw is provided for it in return. We also ob-
serve displayed, their knowledge of that habit of the sheep
as seen manifested in its eagerness for varieties of food, and
of its love of frequent change. In this habit of the ani-
mal we behold that wise economy of nature in endowing it
v.-ith instincts to promote its welfare to the greatest extent in
every point of view. Oae kind of food may develop flesh,
21
242 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP.
and another make fat ; but it seems to be aware that several
kinds are required to enable its digestive organs to effect such
chemical combinations as will not only nourish the wool,
but assimilate the inorganic substances which compose the
external parts of the filament. From thousands of experi-
ments made in Germany, it has been demonstrated that hay
alone will not produce as much wool, as when straw is mixed,
which cannot be philosophically explained on any other prin-
ciple than that which has been laid down. It must be re-
peated, that variety only icill furnish those perfect proportions
of organic and inorganic materials of which wool is composed.
If we give the animal too much food of a carbonized or fat-
tening character, the fibres of wool, being tubular in their
conformation, distend or become coarser, and the weight is
certainly increased ; but on the contrary, if fed several kinds,
and each abounds as largely as possible with albumen, the
fibre is materially increased in length, though not so much
in bulk, simply because the variations of food supply to a
greater extent the substances requisite to form the filament
This may be termed natural wool, the quantity or weight of
which will be as great as that produced by feeding grosser
food, which has the effect to increase the diameter of the fibre
at the expense of the length, and therefore is coarser, as well
as harsh and wiry. The Germans abhor feeding large quan-
tities of fattening food in growing Saxon wool, as it destroys
its delicate texture, and its value is lessened accordingly for
the manufacture of the finest and softest fabrics.
The American wool-grower need not overfeed simply with
a view to make heavy fleeces, as the wool of the sheep, when
fat, is comparatively coarse ; and the expense of the food used
in placing them in this condition, together with the reduction
in the vahie of their wool, will more than counterbalance the
gain from the increased weight. The wool of the Saxon and
Merino variety is never so beautiful and perfect in all respects,
as when it is natural ; and this follows only from keeping
the sheep in healthy store order, and nothing beyond that.
The feeding of grain by the Germans is simply as equiva-
lents, hay always being the standard, by which the quantity
of any kind of food, daily, is determined. Their aim is not
to increase the flesh and fat at the expense of the wool or
any of its valuable properties ; and if we ever expect to rival
them in the extensive production of the most beautiful wool
in the world, and at the least sacrifice, we must imitate their
WINTER MANAGEMENT. 243
economy in feeding, and unsurpassed mode of management
in all things.
The next point which will claim attention, from a review
of the tables, is, that the quantity of
FODDER SHOULD BE PROPOPcTIONED TO THE LIVE WEIGHT
OF THE SHEEP.
That animals, after arriving at maturity, consume of food
in the ratio of their size, is a fact which admits of no dispute.
Petri, it appears, estimated 3 lbs. of hay, or with some
hay 3 to 4 lbs. potatoes, or 14 to 18 lbs. of cabbage leaves to
be necessary for a sheep of 70 lbs. live weight, when fatten-
ing— and with this amount daily of food would gain 1^ lbs.
of flesh and wool weekly.
Thaer's estimate is 3^ lbs. of dry fodder for a sheep daily,
and " the greater proportion of this innutritious hay, compared
with dry straw, the better."
Veit, from numerous experiments, determined that 2^ lbs.
of the " value of hay" is required daily for every 100 lbs. live
weight, to "keep the animal in a profitable state."
Now we will suppose, taking Veit's estimate as the stand-
ard, that the average weight of a flock of sheep to be 80 lbs.
per head, and the foddering time 150 days ; this will give 2
lbs. daily to each, and for 150 days 300 lbs., and consequent-
ly for that period 100 will eat 30,000 lbs., or 15 tons.
This certainly seems a low estimate as to the quantity a
sheep requires daily, it being i^)ths less than the English
standard, as rendered by Mr. Spooner. But different breeds
and their subdivisions vary so materially in weight, that to
form a proper estimate, the sheep-master should weigh some
of each of different ages of his flock, and by classifying them
according to their relative size, he may feed with greater ac-
curacy. He must remember, however, that sheep when
growing, of any breed, require nearly as much food as when
ihey have arrived at maturity ; and sheep growing should
never be stinted.
Another very important consideration must not be lost sight
of, namely, the quality of the hay. If it is coarse, much of it
sheep will reject ; and consequently an allowance of from
10 to 25 per cent, must be made accordingly. It is for this
reason, old meadows produce a better quality of hay for sheep,
than new ; that of the former being finer, and more miscella-
244 manaCtE:\ient of sheep.
neous. Sheep love clover hay, and will increase more rap-
idly in flesh it' it is provided for them, than by any other de-
scription ; but the quantity in bulk, comparatively, they re-
quire of it, is enormous. If farmers will top-dress their
meadows with sheep manure, and occasionally harrow them,
and early in the fall sow a little of timothy and other grass
seed, the herbage will maintain a vigorous growth, and full
crops for successive years may be expected. The manure,
however, from the sheep-folds will, if hay has been used for
fodder, afford generally the required quantity of seed.
From the above premises we are enabled to deduce an ex-
ceedingly important fact, which, if always duly considered,
will be the means of avoiding the serious blunders hitherto
so frequently committed by American breeders, namely, that
it Requires an equal amount of food to produce a pound of fleshy
or a pound of wool, without regard to the size of the sheep, or
the breed. This is indeed a truism, and therefore self-evi-
dent. But by way of illustrating the point, let us select one
of each of the rival breeds of England — the South Down
and Leicester ; we will suppose the live weight of the former,
when in store condition, to be 100 lbs., and that of the Lei-
cester 150 lbs., which is probably, in general, the relative
disproportion. Now it is clear, taking the estimate of Mr.
Spooner, which is the standard of England, the Down sheep
will consume 3 1-3 lbs. of hay daily, while the Leicester
will need 5 lbs. Is the latter, however, more or less profit-
able than the Down ? Clearly there is no difference, for the
offal is relatively the same, and so is the proportion of the
valuable parts — the flesh and the wool. The expenditure
of food for the Leicester is greatly the largest, but only in
proportion to the difference of value derived from the addi-
tional size of its carcase. Thus it is seen, the pound of
everything in both animals costs alike, and all circumstances
being equal, the profits are the same.*
But we will go farther, and instance the Merino and Sax-
on, alike distinguished for wool-growing purposes. The
Saxon, it will be remembered, is of the same race, being
only a sub-variety of the former. Let a selection be made
of one of each, which combines to the greatest extent their
* Let it be understood by the reader that the point is wool dind flesh,
and not fat, which it will readily be conceded several breeds of animals
will gather more rapidly than others, arising either from improved con-
formation or more quietness of habit.
WINTER m.vnage:\ient. 245
perfections respectively. By taking the standard of Veit, as
shown in his table, of the live weight of a pure Merino, say
88 lbs., and that of a pure Saxon, say 62 lbs. (which is per-
haps the comparative weights of the breeds when pure), the
Merino, if fed at the rate of 2 1-2 lbs. of hay per 100 lbs. of
live weight, consumes 2 ro^jths lbs. daily, and the Saxon
1 Troths lbs., a difference, it will be noticed, of nearly 40
per cent, less than the Merino. Now, both being supplied
with this pro rata of ration daily, the Merino will produce
40 per cent, more of wool and flesh, at an expenditure, how-
ever, of 40 per cent, more of feed. Thus it is clear that the
pound of wool and flesh, in both cases, costs precisely the
same. Hence it may be laid down as a rule by which the
unwary may learn, that, after knowing the usual average
weight of carcase and fleece of a given breed, if he hears
of any very extraordinary individual instances of either,
generally it may be ascribed to extra feeding, and at a cost
accordingly.
Let not the reader, however, misapprehend the point in
question. The breeds of sheep vary much in the quanti-
ties of wool they respectively produce, and individuals of a
given breed will often outstrip their fellows, although fed in
the same fold, in the amount of wool they will yield. But
if two are selected of the same breed and of equal weight,
and fed precisely alike, and all other circumstances equal, if
one shears a heavier fleece than the other, it will be found,
on weighing, to lack an equal amount of flesh, which his
comrade has acquired at the expense of his covering. This
has arisen from the difference in the assimilation of the food
— in the one case, more for- the formation of wool than the
other.
IMPORTANCE OF GREEN FOOD.
The feeding of green food, such as potatoes, apples, hem-
lock or pine bows, &c., is strangely disregarded by a large
majority of American sheep-growers. This is a prominent
point of attention in German management ; indeed, it is thus
in every section of the Continent where fine-wooled sheep
are cultivated. The sheep, if placed in localities suitable
to its general habits, at no period of the year is it so perfectly
healthy and thrifty as during the season of pasturage ; and
from this the inference should be deduced, that succulent food
is the prominent inducing cause. Confinement wholly to dry
21*
246 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP.
food does not comport with that variety of condiment, which
has so frequently been urged ; and consequently, if a pro-
vision is not made of something else, it will be followed by
disorganized action of the. digestive functions^ producing
costiveness and constipation. The disease so frequent and
fatal in American flocks, called the " stretches," rewsults from
costiveness ; but this is scarcely known in England, which
arises from the large quantities of succulent food the sheep
are supplied with during the winter months. In addition to
this, further proof may be found in the fact that it is never
known to attack the animal during the grass season. The
writer speaks from personal observation, in stating that a
supply of green food is indispensably necessary as a pre-
ventive of this disease.
In addition to green food operating thus, it has a tendency
to increase the wool and yolk secretions, and thereby those
valuable properties of wool, such as elasticity, softness, and
soundness, are increased and perfected ; and withal, being
conducive to health, the condition is improved, and conse-
quently an augmented quantity of wool is a certain result.
WATER NECESSARY.
That water during the foddering season is of paramount
importance to the health and general well-doing of sheep, is
no longer a mooted point. It is true that the animal will
quench its thirst, as far as it is possible, by eating snow ; but
if tested by experiment, it will readily be seen which it
prefers. Some object to provide water, for the reason, that
when the weather is very cold, it drinks too much, and there-
by is robbed of much animal heat. This is somewhat true,
but if warm shelters are provided, as they should be, it is
counteracted. If the experiment is made with a given num-
ber, a portion being, permitted access daily to water, and the
others only the poor privilege of eating frozen snow to be
dissolved in the stomach, it will be discovered that the first
are more healthy, and will yield a greater crop of wool,
which will be distinguished for those properties named under
the preceding head. It cannot be expected that the wool
fluids will be abundant if the sheep is denied water, unless
roots form a good proportion daily of its consumption. In
this case they will rarely drink, provided they are not salted
too profusely. If the reader will refer to the chapter on the
Wli^JTER, MANAGEMENT. 247
« Siructiire of Sheep," he will discover that a large supply
of saliva is needed in the process of rumination, which must
be afforded, mostly, either by green food or water. In con-
clusion, humanity demands our practical attention to this
subject.
Having introduced sufficient to answer as a basis for what
the writer deems a correct system of practice in winter, he
will now proceed briefly to set forth some general instruc-
tions for the management of the different classes of a flock
— and first —
MANAGEMENT OF LAMBS.
The necessity for making ample provision of pasture for
lambs from their weaning until the approach of winter,
has already been urged. This, however, is not properly at-
tended to by many, and when winter is at hand, their condi-
tion is by no means what it should be. It may be set down
as a rule never to be transgressed with impunity, that all an-
imals when growing should be bountifully fed, as well as
receive all other proper attentions conducive to their welfare ;
otherwise, it will be in vain to expect, when at maturity,
they will exhibit the perfection of their species. The general
qualities of any domestic animal, however perfect nature may
have done her work, can always be further improved by art,
or otherwise, by judicious feeding, and strict attentions in
every other regard. It is very much from this cause, that
celebrated breeders have gained their renown for improve-
ments effected in breeds of cattle, as well as sheep. If we
would have perfect animals, we cannot commence too early
to lay the foundation of their excellence.
It is a custom with quite a large majority of sheep farmers
to delay graining their lambs until the approach of spring,
when they are sometimes far gone in poverty. Is this wise?
Would it have been thus if they had been grain-fed at the
beginning and through the early part of winter 1 Is it not
better to begin as soon as this, in order to furnish them with
the necessary stamina to withstand the severities of northern
winters, which is always greatest in the months of January
and February ? Put them early in a condition to pass
through those terrible months, and subsequently all will be
well. Truly the course of flock-masters, in this regard, is
like giving the patient his medicine when he is on the con-
fines of death ! Therefore, viewing the matter in this light,
248 MANAGEIMENT OP SHEEP.
the writer has no hesitation in saying that a single peck of
grain fed in December is worth the bushel fed in March.
As was remarked at the conchision of Summer Manage-
ment, the grass at the beginning of November loses much
of its nutrition from repeated freezing ; therefore at this pe-
riod the lambs should be assembled, and classed relative
to size and condition, divided into flocks of about 100 each,
and feeding them grain should forthwith commence. As it
is sometimes impracticable to call them into the sheep-folds
without considerable trouble, the feeding-troughs should be
removed to the field in which they are confined ; then the
flock-master may begin feeding them about four quarts of
oats, daily, which he should be careful to distribute the en-
tire length of the troughs. They will be very shy for a day
or two, but the example of approaching them by the tame
sheep which were placed among them at weaning time, will
be the means of soon overcoming it. After the lapse of a
week, the quantity of grain may be gradually increased to a
half a bushel, which should be the minimum quantity for the
residue of the season. When the major portion have par-
taken of the oats, the troughs may be removed back to the
sheep-yards, and the time fixed for feeding should be about
sundown, after which they can retire to the shelters, should
the weather require it. At this time, a little hay should also
be given early in the morning, which may be pursued until
circumstances demand a change wholly to fodder.
About the middle of December, or before, let the feed be
somewhat changed, by mixing with the oats a portion of
pea-meal or wheat shorts ; at all events, let it be meal of some
kind which they may fancy, for in order to induce them to
eat potatoes it will be necessary to cut them into delicate
pieces and sprinkle the meal well over them. If sheep are
wholly unaccustomed to potatoes their aversion to them will
not be overcome without the adoption of this course. Beets and
ruta-baga may be substituted for the potatoes ; but the reader
has been informed that they are better adapted to the purpose
of the sheep-fattener. If it is our wish to grow wool and not
fat mutton, it will be wise in us to use those means which
will afford the largest returns. Half a bushel of potatoes
given at intervals of twice a week will be the right quantity,
which it will be well to continue to sprinkle with meal, as
well as with a small quantity of salt. On other days the pea-
meal and oats may be fed.
WINTER MANAGEMENT. 249
The hay given them should be of fine stalk, and of the
choicest quality ; but in its place may be substituted once or
twice a week, for a single foddering, oat or barley straw.
If the lambs are thus provided through the winter, and have
the benefit of warm shelters, their size at shearing time will
equal the majority of two-year olds, whose treatment has
been only ordinary.
TWO-YEAR OLDS.
The class of sheep thus designated refers to those passing
into their second year ; therefore they require extra atten-
tions, on account of not having yet attained their maturity.
The quantity of food they need is quite as much as will suf-
fice for mature sheep, which proceeds from that law of na-
ture, when the animal is growing, the dead parts of the sys-
tem thrown off" are not in the ratio of increase of the living
parts, demanded for the development of size ; and to efi'ect
this, additional food is necessary. Here is the reason why
animals are stunted — the food given them was only equal to
the natural waste, whereas, an extra quantity was needed
not only for this, but an extension of the system and its va-
rious organs. When animals become matured, this exten-
sion or growth ceases, and the w'aste parts and the new for-
mations are equal, when adequately provided with food.
It will be proper, therefore, to make provision for this
class, and especially the ewes, approximating that of lambs.
The measure of grain, however, must be determined by cir-
cumstances ; if they have attained good size, and the season
has been favorable for the accumulation of flesh, a less
quantity will be required. Let them have pine or hemlock
brouse, which has a very salubrious tendency with sheep,
cut apples, or potatoes, and also pea, oat, barley, or wheat
straw once or twice a week. They should have a variety,
at all events.
BREEDING EWES.
This portion of the flock demand no especial attention
beyond a full measure of food, until the approach of spring.
The course of management then will depend on the time of
yeaning, which, if fixed for the month of April, they will re-
quire a large measure daily through March of potatoes, for the
assimilation of milk. In addition, nothing better can be sup-
plied them than a half pint each of wheat shorts, mixed with a
250 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP.
little barley or oat-meal. Oil-cake and corn-meal are not so
suitable, as they do not aflbrd as much cassein, the only ni-
trogenized element, as the reader has been informed, of milk.
Their fodder through the winter should be of a miscellaneous
character. Pea and buckwheat straw are highly agreeable
to them, especially the former, which, from its succulency, is
well suited to their situation.
The reader is referred to the correspondence in the Ap-
pendix for many valuable hints on the management of breed-
ing ewes, when the yeaning takes place in April. In con-
clusion, comfort, quietness, and generous feeding are cardinal
points of attention with breeding ewes, through the whole
period of gestation.
WETHERS.
The proper treatment for wethers must be determined
by their ages ; when growing, however, they should receive
better attention than is usually bestowed. If turned off after
their third year, which is usually done if of the Saxon or
Merino variety, during the previous winter some graining
will be necessary for profit's sake. At this age the writer
confines his wethers mostly to oat and wheat straw, feeding,
in addition, to each hundred half a bushel of ^corn-cob and oat-
meal mixed, or that quantity of unground oats and corn, daily,
with half a bushel of cut apples, thrice a week. Apples are
much relished by sheep, and withal are very nutritious. After
partaking of a mess they manifest greater eagerness for other
food, which is quite conclusive of their being stimulating to
the appetite. They are an excellent substitute for roots and
brouse. Half a bushel (quartered before fed) to the hundred,
thrice a week, will be proper.
BUCKS.
After the tupping season is over, the bucks should be sep-
arated from the ewes, and fed a generous allowance of good
hay, with some grain. The latter is especially necessary, if
they have performed extra service ; and whether thus or
not, those which have not yet attained maturity, should re-
ceive the best of attention. For development of the greatest
size and the fairest proportions, which are certainly objects
of the highest importance, no other policy will accomplish.
It will be wise, therefore, in the flock-master not to spare
WINTER, MANAGEMENT. 251
his attentions, at no period of the year, to his stock's rams.
For some other observations on this subject, the reader is
referred to the chapter on Breeding and Crossing.
HOSPITAL FLOCK.
This is the general appellation of such sheep as are in
low condition, proceeding either from poor keep, or temporary-
illness.
The attentive and well-ordered sheep husbandman will
not be troubled with many of this class, for he will not over-
stock, neither will he permit any to remain on his hands till
they have become too old ; thus few will enter the " poor
house" to reflect unskilful management. It is scarcely ne-
cessary to say, however, that every good flock-master will
provide a place for the reception of sheep under consider-
ation, as often, in spite of his humane care, disease will make
its way to some individuals, which, in that event, require
removal from their strong and healthy comrades, and treated
accordingly. After the disease is subdued, their diet should
depend much on the character of the malady. As a general
rule, their food at first should not be of an exciting nature,
especially if the disease was seated in the stomach, or intes-
tines. But all suitable advice in this regard will be found
in the history of diseases. When a sheep is seen declining
in flesh, let it be removed forthwith to the hospital, and after
a few weeks perhaps it may resume its place in the flock
from whence it was taken ; this is often so, if the removal
is instant in the early stages of decline. Variations of the
food will greatly contribute to restore invalids, as well as
those in poverty of flesh.
MODES OF FODDERING RACKS.
The custom so general among sheep-farmers of strewing
fodder on the ground, is attended with a vast waste in the
aggregate, and a corresponding ill-doing of the flock. No
animal is more nice in its habits, or more keen in its sense
of smell, than the sheep ; consequently, if their fodder is
thrown upon the ground, in moist weather, two or three
passing over it, will cause the whole flock to reject the great-
er proportion, and thus from day to day their appetites are
unsatiated. The waste from this slovenly practice during
one season only, will more than counterbalance the cost of
suitable racks.
252
MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP.
FIG-.5.
7
j^i^
F1G-.4.
The kinds of rack most generally approved conforms to
those represented in the cuts, or are very similar.
Figure 1 is a model of those used by the writer for many
years. They cost but little, and little waste can result from
their use ; and are also light, and therefore easily removed,
which is sometimes necessary whether feeding is done under
cover or not. Where, however, the severity of the climate
compels feeding wholly under shelter, the kind designated
by figure 2, appears admirably adapted for the purpose. The
writer, however, never having used any of this description,
cannot speak confidently whether their superiority is greatly
over the other kind, and must therefore refer the reader to
the remarks concerning them of several of his correspond-
ents.
The upright pieces or posts of figure 1 should be of pine
or hemlock scantling, 2 by 3 inches, and at least 2 feet 9
inches in length. The lower boards 12 inches in width,
and the upper 10 inches ; the spaces between them 9 inches ;
the width of the rack 2 1-2 feet. The most convenient
length is about 12 feet, and if thus, 6 will be required for
100 sheep of the Saxon and Merino varieties, or grades of
these, when full grown.
For lambs, the width of the lower boards may be reduced
two inches, the top board not any, and the space between,
less about two inches, the width of the rack four inches less,
and the posts shortened three inches.
WINTER MANAGEMENT. * 25S
From the length of the posts, an allowance, it will be
seen, is made for nailing the lower boards two or three inches
above the bottoms of them, which is proper. Five racks, if
each is 12 feet long, will be required for 100 lambs of ordi-
nary size. There should be no crowding when eating.
The front and upper edges of the lower boards should be
planed slightly, to prevent the wool from the breasts and
necks of the sheep from being rubbed off. To secure the
boards permanently to the posts, spikes should be used of
sufficient length to clinch. Four spikes to each side and
end board are necessary.
Figure 2. The most correct idea of the construction of
this is given by the cut, which represents one sawed in two
crosswise. Six pieces of 3 by 4 inch scantling and 33
inches each in length are required for a rack. The shelv-
ing boards, as seen above the heads of the sheep, are of ^
inch stuff, and 14 inches in width, and are very necessary
to prevent hay seed and chaff from falling into the necks ;
and further, the hay, if pulled down faster than eaten, cannot
waste, as it is saved by the troughs. The front board of the
troughs should be 9 inches in width ; the space for the heads
of the sheep 10 inches ; and from the top of the space to the
end of the support, 14 inches. The triangles A A represent
the troughs. This is a double rack, but on this principle
they can be made single, and placed against the sides of the
shelter. They are more expensive than the kind first de-
scribed, but have decided advantages for feeding within
doors, as troughs are connected.
TROUGHS.
The boards of the trough (Fig. 3) may be of hemlock, or
pine ; the former, however, are not only cheapest, but hold
nails more firmly. They should be 10 inches in width, one
inch thick, and nailed at right angles, or, simply the edges
of two nailed together. A notch must then be sawed pre-
cisely to correspond with the flare of the trough into a two-
inch pine plank, a piece of which 12 inches wide and 15
inches long constitutjes the proper dimensions for the end
pieces, or legs of the trough. (See end piece, Fig. 4.)
FODDER PENS.
In connection with the subject in hand, pens for the re-
ception of the fodder when thrown from a stack or barn, are
22
254 MAiVAGEMENT OF SHEEP.
very necessary. Let four pieces of 3 by 4 inch scantling
be used lor posts, to which slats or boards 4 or 5 inches in
width should be nailed, and sufficiently close to prevent the
sheep from putting their heads between them. On each
side of the pen should be fastened a slat diagonally, which
adds to its strength. The posts may be 3J feet high, and
the pen about five feet square. Thus the hay is not run
over by the sheep when thrown down, and injured ; and if
the quantity should exceed a foddering, it can remain in the
pen, and the trouble of pitching it back is saved.
REGULARITY OF FODDERING.
The remarks as to regularity of feeding when fattening
are equally applicable to store sheep. At a given hour na-
ture calls for the allowance of food, and the careful shepherd
will see that it is not transgressed. But it is not more a
fixed time, than regular quantity, which needs observance.
Quantity, however, varies with temperature, as well as the
quality of the fodder, of which the reader has already been
made acquainted.
There are not a few who think it necessary that sheep
should be fed four times per day ; but this is wholly un-
necessary— three is quite often enough. If fed early in the
morning, at noon, and, in the heart of winter, an hour and a
half before sunset, it ajEfords them ample time between feed-
ings for quiet rumination and rest, which is interrupted by
more frequent attentions. Let the roots, grain, or whatnot
always be fed at noon ; after which the sheep will work at
the stubbs or coarser parts of the hay or straw left of the
morning foddering ; and thus all is consumed. If, however,
the temperature is severe, let a little fresh fodder be given in
addition to their grain.
BARNS AND SHELTERS.
Of the utility of barns for the protection of fodder no'one
will question, and that a well-constructed barn is conducive
to economy, is susceptible of demonstration. Hay is often
essentially damaged when stacking, by a sudden and violent
rain ; whereas, whatever is secured in a barn is freed there-
after from harm. Again, a skilful stacker is rare, and there-
fore much hay is subjected to damage from this cause ; and
when unthatched, of course much is injured on the surface.
Taking only these into view, the inducement is ample for
WINTER MANAGEMENT. 255
every sheep-farmer to build commodious barns for the recep-
tion of his provender. That they will reimburse their ex-
pense in a few years, by the saving of hay, and the better
order of the flock can be sustained from the improved quality
of the hay, all who have had the opportunity to judge, will
at once testify.
The construction of barns, as with dwellings, will always
vary, depending on the taste and means of the proprietor.
Where the climate is severe, and subject to considerable
depth of snow, making it difficult at times to travel a distance
to the sheep-folds, a large barn capable of sheltering all the
sheep, as well as their provender, is certainly desirable, and
would be preferred to several, especially if placed remotely
from each other. But it is a question, however, whether
the extra time consumed in carting the hay to fill one of
these mammoth barns will not more than overbalance this
inconvenience. Again, in case of conflagration by lightning,
which, if ever, is almost always after being filled with hay,
the loss is very considerable. The prudent flock-master,
therefore, will duly consider everything before he makes his
decision.
The locality of the writer being favorable with regard to
climate, and the snow rarely of much depth, he gives the
preference to single barns, which are situated on the borders
of his meadows, and therefore very convenient for the re-
ception of hay. These barns are 32 by 24 feet, with 16
feet posts. The sheds are placed at the east end of the barns,
and front the south. The latter, however, is objectionable ;
they should be on the west side, and front the east. By this
plan the barn affords ample protection from the cutting winds
of the north while the flock is feeding. The writer would rec-
ommend, in reference to the sheds, the north gable ends to be
placed in a line with the south sides of the barns, with single
roofs, the peaks of which may ascend to the eaves of the
barns, and the lower ends elevated ten feet from the
ground. The space for the sheep to occupy should be six
feet in height, with a view to easy removal of the manure by
carts ; and above, there will be abundance of room for the
stowage of straw and pea vines, for the variations of fodder,
and for the deposite of litterings. For 100 sheep the shed
should be 20 by 30 feet at least. By this plan, it will be
seen that the feeding racks must be placed in the yards.
To those whose circumstances forbid the expense of the
256 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP.
erection of barns and framed sheds, the writer would recom-
mend the following: — For the consumption of 100 sheep,
during the foddering season, two large stacks of hay are
necessary ; let those be placed in a north-east and south-
west line ; and when they are about to be built, place two
poles 35 feet each in length on the top of the stack pens,
the centre of the poles to be supported by strong crotches.
Before winter the hovel may be completed by putting rails
crosswise of the poles to support the straw necessary for the
roof; the back can be made of common boards, or by placing
rails or poles parallel, and about one foot apart, and stuffed
with old or partly rotted straw. This description of hovels
are warm, and made in a very brief time. Wind-breakers
may be built at right angles of the hovels, of the materials
and manner as the back of the hovel, which afford much
protection from winds when the sheep are feeding.
The following plans of sheep-barns are submitted, and
which were selected from a large number forwarded to the
writer, nearly all of them possessing considerable merit.
Fig. 1 represents a side-hill barn with underground apart-
ments, which are unquestionably warmer for sheep than any
other, and probably can be erected at as little expense.
Where, however, it is not feasible to build after this model,
the kinds represented by Fig. 2 and 3 may be substituted.
In regard to Fig. 2, the carriage-house and horse stable may
be dispensed with, and a shearing and wool house substi-
tuted.
DESCRIPTION OF FIGURE 1.
BY M. Y. TILDEN, OF NEW LEBANON, COLUxMBIA CO., N. Y.
A. Well with pump.
B. Water tubs.
C. Boxes for hay 4 by 6 ft. directly under a trap-door, through which hay is
thrown from the mow; this prevents the sheep running into it before feeding, and
also keeps the dust and seed out of the wool.
D. In this section is a shearing floor, 13 by 40 ft., and wool room 14 by 18 ft.,
plastered.
Racks are placed around the sides of each apartment.
WINTER MAN'AGEMENT.
257
258 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP.
DESCRIPTION OF FIGURE 2.
BY RICHARD MORGAN, OF AURORA, CAYUGA CO., N. Y.
I have adopted the plan of bringing all of the buildings upon the farm into ono
compact body instead of being scattered promiscuously over the farm. You will
discover that I have drawn four sheep- barns in connection with each other, a de-
scription of one of which will answer for all. Sheep barn No. 1 is a building^/fy
feet in length by ticenty in width, with fifteen feet posts, the first room or sheep
room to be sbc feet and a half in height from the bottom of the sill to the floor. A
tight floor overhead to keep oi« all dust and seed. The sheep are to be on the
ground, it being better than a floor of wood. A pen tliree feet high, and to contain
a space equal to five or six feet square, to be placed as ^shown by the letter P on
ground plan, for receiving the hay when pitched from the mow, that the sheep may
not trample upon it, and for holding the surplus hay that may be pitched from the
mow. A rack for hay, grain, and roots, to extend entirely around the barn, except-
ing at the doors ; one door opening into the interior yard and one into the outer
yard. The outer yard, in which the sheep are to go into, for their daily exercise,
extends around the barns upon three sides, to be subdivided into small yards for
the acconmiodation of each flock ; to be enclosed by a fence five or six feet high,
close boarded ; the division fences are each to have a gate near the barn for passing
with a team, as the barns are to be filled with hay from that side ; yards No. 1 and
4 are thirty-five feet by fifty ; Nos. 2 and 3 are thirty-five by eighty-five feet. The
mow is surticient for twelve or fourteen tons of hay each. The'^sheds, if built all at
a time, may be divided by a fence between flocks, and the mow be left all in one.
Each sheep barn gives room for one hundred sheep ; fifteen inches of rack for
each sheep ; suflicient room for all to lie down in, without being too much crowded ;
the room should be well ventilated by funnels running up through the roof, or by
windows near the upper floor, with blinds, or slats. The barn I believe to be a
good size for one hundred sheep, but to those who are willing to add two or three
feet more in width, in order to give an alley between the sides of the barn and
racks, would find it convenient and profitable ;— but with the size given there would
not be suflicient room. I will give you a description of the barn and carriage room
attached. The barn, carnage-house, and stable, occupies thirty-five by one hun-
dred feet ; K, is a granary for oats ; J, is a bay for oats in the sheaf; a cellar under
both for roots, with stairs at S, to enter the cellar, to be closed by a trap door, to be
hung with hinges ; I, is threshing floor ; G, is bay for hay ; H, is a stable for four
cows or oxen ; a passage way leads from the stable into the barn floor ; a small
door opens out of the stable into the yard; a small door also, from the threshing
floor, with large door in front for driving in with hay and grain: the whole occu-
pies forty-four feet of the building ; F, is a covered road-way into the yard, twelve
feet in width; D, is a grain room for the horses; C, is the horse stable with five
stalls, racks for hay and grain, &c.; B, is an alley, for mixing feed, enclosed tight to keep
dust and dirt out of the wagon-room ; O, is stairs leading into the hay mow ; A, is
carriage room, a deposit for farm implements, &c. A tight floor covers the carriage
room and stable, leaving the room nine feet in the clear. At N, sUiirs lead into a
room for storing wool. Let a room of suflicient size be partitioned off" in the loft,
and be made tight against rats, mice, and dust, lighted by a window in the end of
the barn. Let there be a window or door at each end of the mow for filling the
same with hay. When the sheep are to be shorn let them be housed in sheep
barn No. 1 ; let the wagon and tool room be cleared out for the purpose, and be
used for a shearing room ; V, V, V, are tables, or leaves made smooth, and to be hung
with hinges to the side of the room near the floor, to be used for shearing upon,
eight and a half feet wide ; when not in use to be fastened back against the side of
the room, taking up but two inches of the room ; the roller to place his table in
such a place near the stairs, that he may throw the fleece, when tied up, directly
into the wool loft; let there be a trap door in the wool loft for sacking the wool.
The sheep, when "fleeced," may be turned into the interior yard. If the barns
cannot be supplied with water by pii)es, let the well be dug as shown in the yard.
Yard No. 5 would answer a good purpose for fowls, and yard No. 6 for the hog-
pen, or if needed, erect a shelter, and keep the bucks safe from the other sheep, or
such other purpose as may be most convenient. The interior yard is fifty by sixty
feet, and may be used for young cattle. I should have given the height of the
barn and carriage house, which is eighteen feet posts. The expense of erecting
one sheep barn would be about ."JloO. The expense of erecting all of the buildings
would be about eight or ten hundred dollars, depending entirely upon the price of
lumber, and of labor.
WINTER MANAGEMENT,
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260 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP.
DESCRIPTION OF FIGURE 3.
BY JOSHUA BICKNELL CHAPIN, PROVIDENCE, R. ISLAND.
No. 1 — A, represents the main building or store-house — of the following dimen
Bions : length 45 ft., width 34 ft., height to the eaves 16 ft
The front internal arrangement is shown by supposing this end open.
B, B, are grain bins for convenience of daily distribution. They are 3 1-2 ft. wide,
12 ft. long, 3 ft. deep in front, and 3 ft. 8 in. at the back, with one or more divi-
sions. The bins are placed in lobbies — that lead, from either side, to the sheep-folds.
At the farther end of the main building on the left is a granary (not shown in the
drawing) 12 by 15 ft. and 8 ft. high. Adjoining this may be constructed a wool
room, of like dimensions ; and over these two rooms, as well as over the lobbies,
are spaces for depositing the straw of the dillerent grains.
The space at the right, C, C, beyond the lobby, and occupying the entire re-
mainder of that side of the barn, forms a capacious bay for the deposit of clover
hay, &c.
The width of the lobbies, including the bins, is 7 1-2 ft. The width of the main
floor is 10 ft. Under this, and descended to by a trap-door, is the cellar, capable of
containing 2500 bushels of roots.
It is intended that the main floor be used for the operations of cutting or other-
wise preparing the food, shearing, &c. The entrance at each end is the same.
The barn will contain from 60 to 80 tons of hay, and 2000 bushels of grain.
On the right and left of the main building are two wings, E, E, which are the
sheep barns. These are 75 ft. long (they may be longer or shorter according to the
number of sheep desired to feed), 25 ft. wide, and 6 ft. high at the eaves, and will
amply accommodate 400 or 500 sheep.
F, F, are the racks, which pass all around the folds, with the exception of
an entrance at either ends : the one for the ingress and egress of the sheep to the
yards, the others for the convenience of the shepherd. Between the racks and
the outer walls of the fold is a passage way, of 2 1-2 ft. width, passing all around,
the floor of which extends under the racks, and four feet beyond them, into the
fold proper. This is designed for the sheep to stand upon while feeding— by this
plan they eat better and waste less. The platform is elevated about 8 in. above the
ground— (represented in the drawin gby the shaded part).
The windows, hinged shutters, and doors, are sufficiently well shown in the
drawing. The shutters should be kept open, except during stonns, and severe cold
weather. No animal suffers sooner or more seriously from imperfect ventilation
than the sheep. Allowing a fold on either side of the main barn, admits of a divi-
sion of the flock, which is of much consequence.
The disposition of the yards is also shown by the drawing. Racks and open
sheds may be arranged around these if desirable.
A small house may be attached, and a division yard made at the outward end of
either fold, say at G, for diseased sheep. At H is a pump.
No. 2 is an enlarged view of the rack, f, &c. ; a is the platform spoken of above,
b is the back of the rack, c the feeding trough in front, d the feeding hopper to
the trough.
WINTER MANAGE]\IENT.
261
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CHAPTER XIV.
BREEDING AND CROSSING.
INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS— QUALITIES OF A GOOD MUTTON
SHEEP— QUALITIES OF PURE BRITISH BREEDS— LEICESTER— SOUTH
DOWN— CHEVIOT,&c.— REMARKS ON THEIR CULTIVATION— IN-AND-
IN BREEDING-CROSSING— BREEDING REGISTER — INFLUENCE OP
SEX— GOOD POINTS OF A MERINO AND SAXON— TUPPING SEASON.
INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS.
There is no department connected with the management of
every description of stock of such paramount importance as
the one we are about to consider ; and comparative success
or failure must depend in a measure on the degree of knowl-
edge of physiological principles the breeder may possess, to-
gether with that information acquired by perseverance, and
close and discriminating observation. Those principles
which form the basis of successful stock breeding are not
wholly the results of scientific investigation, but in part by
having the particular points to be added or changed in the
form and fleece well defined in the mind, a ready perception
of minute blemishes as well as good points, and indefatiga-
ble attentions in management in every regard. The breed-
er acts on that general law of nature, that " like produces
like," a knowledge of the anatomical structure of the animal,
with a thorough acquaintance of its habits ; but art or skill is
equally necessary to make everything available to his pur-
pose. So it is an union of art and science which forms the
perfectly successful breeder.
The jostling incident to a redundant population necessarily
begets excessive competition in every department of industry,
which sets invention at work, and wit accordingly is sharp-
ened to aid in every enterprise. Hence, in England, to sup-
port her numerous subjects, everything is brought into requi-
INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS. 263
sition — every rood of ground is made subservient to grazing
or tillage — the form of every animal is studied, and if sus-
ceptible of improvement, with a view to additional profit, is
persevered in till accomplished. Perfection, therefore, in
tillage and stock can only become very general where com-
petition is excessive at all points, in order to secure individ-
ual competency, and the support of an overgrown population.
Thus we have only to refer to countries sparsely settled, and
the means of support consequently ample and attainable with
little effort, to find indifferent agriculture, as well as indiffer-
ent animals, and therefore little knowledge possessed, or at-
tention paid, to correct principles of breeding. Our own
widely-extended country unfortunately affords incontroverti-
ble evidence of the truth of this position ; hence it is appre-
hended that we shall not practically avail ourselves of all the
light which has been afforded on breeding, to a very general
extent, for many years to come, because stern necessity is
not at our backs, as in overgrown Europe, to require it. This
is the fact at present, and it is feared the cause stated will
long operate to retard the progress of general improvement
in stock, commensurate with its importance.
England is indebted to Bakewell and EUman for extraor-
dinary reformations in her breeds of sheep ; but it is hazard-
ing little to say that she numbers hundreds among her breed-
ers at the present day quite as enlightened as their illustri-
ous predecessors. Bakewell and Ellman acted as pioneers
in a new and unexplored enterprise, and are worthy of the
renown they have so justly acquired ; but their efforts were
bent to improve the form and hasten its maturity, while the
American Bakewells and Ellmans have a twofold and far
more important object to accomplish — improvement of form
and fleece. Both are within the reach of American enter-
prise and skill, and in process of time will be attained.
As hitherto remarked, the carcase engrosses almost ex-
clusively the attention of British breeders, mutton being the
great object, and the fleece therefore takes secondary rank,
while in the United States it is the reverse. The subject of
breeding consequently will be divided, and that which will
claim attention first, is the consideration of the English breeds
of which the writer has no personal experience in their culti-
vation, and therefore is necessarily compelled to rely on such
authorities as his best judgment approves. The following
sound observations of Mr. Spooner will open the discussion :
264 BREEDING AND CROSSING.
QUALITIES OF A GOOD MUTTON SHEEP.
" There are various points that are sought after by breed-
ers, not because of the particular vahie of those points, but
because they are evidence of other vahiable qualities, such
as aptitude to fatten and early maturity. Thus, in the South
Down breed, small heads and legs, and small bones, are es-
teemed, as they are qualities which are found connected with
fattening properties. Black muzzles and legs are also val-
ued, probably because they denote the good constitution and
hardihood of the animal. We must, however, take care lest,
in carrying these points to an extreme, we neglect other val-
uable qualities. Straighlness of the back, breadth of loins,
and rotundity of frame, are points which cannot be disputed,
and are not merely signs of good qualities, but good qualities
themselves. The straightness of the back, so perfect in the
Leicester, is by no means natural to the South Down, in an
unimproved state, but rather the contrary. In the improved
breeds, however, it is present, and is justly regarded as an
excellent point, giving a better surface for the laying on of
jflesh, and affording larger scope for the abdominal organs.
Its converse, too, a round or convex back, is produced or in-
creased by the effects of poverty and cold, and is almost sure
to follow if the breed is neglected and exposed.
" The development of bone, of course, requires nutriment
as well as any other part, though not, perhaps, in the same
degree. Large bone, therefore, abstracts nutriment which
would otherwise be more profitably employed, and thus is
anything but a desirable point in sheep. Horns, for the same
reason, are much better dispensed wdth. One point in sheep,
which is justly regarded as extremely favorable, is a soft,
mellow feeling of the skin and pai'ts beneath. These parts are
the cellular, or rather adipose membranes, which in fat sheep
are full of fat, and in lean sheep, when possessing this mel-
low feeling, denote the plentiful existence of these membra-
nous cells ready for the reception of fat, which is deposited
in them almost in the form of oil.
" Breadth of loin and rotundity of frame are qualities that
require no observation, having been before alluded to. The
former denotes the presence of a large quantity of flesh in
the spot where it is most valuable, and it also bespeaks a
large and roomy abdomen. A round frame is also the sure
attendant of a large abdomen, and an extended surface for the
QUALITIES OP PURE BRITISH BREEDS, 265
muscles of the back and loins. A general squareness of
frame bespeaks large muscles, particularly of the quarters.
" What, indeed, is wanted in a good-formed animal, is as
much flesh and as little bone and gristle as possible, and this
flesh is required where it is most valuable ; for instance, it
is much more valuable on the loins and quarters than about
the head and upper or scrag-end of the neck. A large de-
velopment of flesh is pretty sure to be accompanied by a
disposition to fatten ; but for profitable feeding it is essential
that these qualities should be developed early — constituting
early maturity."
QUALITIES OF PURE BRITISH BREEDS.
The three pure breeds which claim so large a share of
attention in Great Britain, are the New Leicester, South
Down, and Cheviot. It is universally conceded that, so far
as propensity to fatten and early maturity are considered, the
Leicester outstrips all competition. These qualities may
be regarded as a model, and other breeds are proportionally
valuable as they approximate these prominent points of the
Leicester. Placed on a fertile pasture, and free from expo-
sure, its quick and large returns of profit will ever make it
the favorite of a large majority of English sheep-farmers.
Its drawbacks, originating from the extreme refinement of
its breeding by Mr. Bakewell and his successors, are, com^
paratively, a weak constitution, incapacity to endure travel
and exposure to bleak situations, and great liability to inflam-
matory disorders. Again, the assimilation of its food tends so
greatly to the production of flesh and fat, the milk secretions
are proportionally injured, and its qualities therefore for nurs-
ing are decidedly inferior to the South Down, Cotswold,
Lincoln, Cheviot, as well as some other varieties. Its prom-
inent good qualities, as mentioned, have been turned to the
improvement of other breeds deficient in these qualities, and
to such an extent that an original Lincoln or Cotswold is
quite rare in all England ; indeed it is thus with all other of
the ancient long-wooled varieties. Mr. Spooner observes,
" That the Leicester have been extensively employed in im-
proving the breed of other sheep, and so successfully has
this practice been in many instances that the result of the
cross has produced a breed more profitable than the Leicester
itself, retaining the fattening qualities of the sire with the
greater hardihood and adaptation to the soil possessed by the
23
26G BREEDING AXD CROSSIXG.
native breed." This is applicable to the Lincoln, Cotswold,
and Romney-marsh breeds. The mutton of the Leicester
(on the authority of ^Ir. Spooner) is by no means so good
as the South Down, which, however, is partly, not wholly,
owing to the early period (twenty months) at which they are
fit for the butcher, and partly to the very large proportion of
tallow compared to the lean. Thus it is not a favorite in the
London markets, and accordingly, of late years, the first cross
between the Leicester and the Down has been produced
instead of the Leicester ; and it is contended that this cross
is the most profitable sheep that can be fattened, making
greater and more rapid progress than the Down, and better
meat than the Leicester.
In the history of the South Down the reader is made aware
that between the original Down and the Improved there is a
wide diflTcrence, the latter possessing most of the important
requisites which constitute the perfect mutton sheep. With
a propensity to fatten inferior only to the Leicester, but with
later maturity, this breed are good travellers, hardy compared
with the Leicester, and capable of thriving on short pas-
ture. Their mutton is second only to the mountain breeds
in fineness of flavor, and instead of their fat being concen-
trated as in the Leicester, it is dispersed through the flesh,
or " well mattled," according to the butcher's phraseology.
Mr. Spooner says, " Nothing can aflbrd a better proof of the
sterling qualities of this breed than the fact that some twenty
years since, the price of South Down wool rendered the
fleece a matter of great importance ; and now, although the
price is reduced to one third, and it can never expect to real-
ize much advance, yet, notwithstanding this, the valuable
qualities of the animal, and the improvements that have been
made, have enabled the breed still to retain a foremost rank
in public favor."
The South Down ram is extensively employed at the pres-
ent day in Great Britain for perfecting the more inferior
breeds, and with the long-wooled sheep to produce a first
cross, the mutton of which is so highly esteemed. A dis-
tinguished breeder in Hampshire some years since crossed
the improved Cotswold ewe with the Down ram, and to such
perfection has he brought the product, that he now challen-
ges all England to produce a breed that will yield larger
returns. The Down is evidently making rapid progress in
the estimation of American breeders, and thus far, the cross
QUALITIES OF PURE BRITISH BREEDS. 267
with low grade sheep has been attended with much success,
which, however, considering its marked superiority, is by
no means a cause of wonder. Wherever the pasture is not
over-abundant, this breed is likely to take precedence over
all others for mutton.
The third pure breed is the Cheviot, which are inferior to
the South Down in fattening powers and early maturity, but
greatly superior in hardihood and endurance of cold. Their
excellence as nurses is pre-eminent, and consequently in
instances where it was desirable to push forward lambs for
market, the cross with the Leicester has been resorted to
with complete success. In the northern parts of this State,
as well as through the New England States, the Cheviot is
admirably adapted to the climate, and ordinary modes of
management.
The next breeds of the long-wooled varieties which will be
very briefly noticed, are the Lincoln and Cotswold. These,
however, have lost some of their original characteristics by
extensive crossing with the Leicester ram, and by it have been
made as greatly superior to their ancestors, as the modern
Leicester is over the old breed. In many respects the Lin-
coln and Cotswold are better suited for American breeders
than the Leicester, being hardier, carrying heavier fleeces,
and withal, are better nurses ; and, as observed of the Lei-
cester, where ample provision can be made for quick fatten-
ing, and placed in localities which afford facilities for easy
access to a good mutton market, they are worthy of much
consideration with those who cultivate sheep for the carcase.
The above brief summary of the qualities of the prominent
English breeds, which is but a recapitulation of what the reader
has remarked in their history, is for the purpose, in part, of
calling the attention of American breeders to their great and
undisputed merits. It will at once be conceded, that they are
not as profitable as the fine-wooled breeds, if placed in situa-
tions unadapted to them, and such localities have already been
pointed out. But it is scarcely necessary to say, that it would
be unwise for all to turn their attention to raising fine wool,
and wholly neglect the production of an article which is be-
ginning to be so highly appreciated, and paid for accordingly,
in our city markets. Fine mutton must always be in requi-
sition as well as fine wool ; and with a considerate choice of
breeds which produce the former, and of such as are partic-
ularly adapted to the products of the farm, the growing of
268 BREEDING AND CROSSING.
mutton can be made quite as profitable as the cultivation of
wool only. In addition to the value of the carcase, the new
American enterprise for manufacturing the combing wool of
English sheep, has already materially advanced the value of
their fleeces, as good combing wools are now commanding
as high as thirty-seven cents per lb. ; and the average weight
of fleece of the long-wooled breeds may safely be estimated
at six lbs.
The prejudice entertained against the British breeds by
American farmers originates in ignorance and mismanage-
ment. In many instances they have been abandoned and
unjustly condemned because they could not be supported on
the same amount of feed which is requisite for smaller breeds.
Now let the American breeder for one moment consider the
fact that the expenditure of food is in the ratio of the
size of the breed ; and if the same amount of flesh and fat
can be grown on three English sheep, that can on five or six
grade Saxons, or Merinos, pray why are not the three as
profitable as the six? The English breeds consume, we will
suppose, double the quantity of an equal number of the
ordinary American varieties, but when they are butchered
the proportion of valuable parts to the ofial is greatly the
largest, and the weight of carcase is occasionally three times
greater, and almost invariably more than double. All that it
is necessary to do in order to test the truth of these remarks, is,
to weigh accurately an equal number of English and Amer-
ican sheep, and also their daily rations till fit for the butcher.
This is the only way for every farmer to do, who doubts.
The turnip system of feeding so universal in Great Britain
for fattening sheep should be resorted to in this country
wherever it is practicable, and conformity in all other respects
to English practice. This we should not despise and reject
simply because England is one thing and x\merica another.
English animals and agriculture are second to none in the
world ; and in whatever point we imitate these, when prac-
ticable, will result in the largest returns of profit. The fol-
lowing observations, by Mr. Spooner, are in keeping with
the above remarks :
" The management and selection of any breed of sheep
must, after all, become a matter of pounds, shillings, and pence.
The question the farmer has to consider is, what description
of sheep will in the long run return the most profit ; and this
question must be viewed in relation to the management he
IN-AND-IN BREEDING. 269
will be able to adopt on the particular farm on which he
may be located. It is not therefore a simple, biitt a compound
question. It is not merely which breed will make most flesh
and fat, but which will make it in the shortest time and on
the least food ; which can bear the weather, or hard keep,
or travelling, or a particular mode of management, with the
greatest impunity. All these considerations must enter into
the farmer's mind before he can come to a sound conclusion.
From the want of making these considerations many fatal
mistakes have been made, and a flock has been selected al-
together unsuitable to the soil, and incapable of bearing the
severity of the weather."
IN-AND-IN BREEDING.
No point connected with breeding has elicited so much
controversy, and much of it certainly of a random character,
as the one we are about to consider. There are grounds, to
a certain extent, both for an affirmative and negative of the
question ; and therefore, the writer, with due deference to
divided opinion, will present some of the views and argu-
ments entertained and advanced on either side, which will
enable the reader to draw his own conclusions from the
premises.
By breeding in and in is properly meant choosing indi-
viduals to breed from of the same family between which
exist propinquity or relationship of blood. The objects
sought to be accomplished by breeding in and in, are to
strengthen good qualities and get rid of bad ones as soon as
possible ; it is therefore very evident that it requires a mas-
ter's skill in selection of individuals, for if any possess im-
perfections, these, however slight at first, become hereditary,
and will go on assuming a worse and worse type till the
breed become worthless. Mr. Cully, the eminent sheep
breeder, entertained the opinion, that less risk was run by
breeding in and in than is generally supposed ; yet at the
same time was slyly procuring his rams from Mr. Bakevvell,
and selling his own at high prices to others.
Blacklock contends that breeding in and in is as " destruc-
tive to flocks, as marriages of near relations to the human
kind. We would not Avitness an every-day entailment of
diseases, if people would forego their unnatural love of
money, and cease their endeavors to keep it in ' the family,'
by forming matrimonial alliances with those who are near of
23*
270 BREEDING AND CROSSING.
kin. The law of God forbids us to wed those who stand in
certain degrees of propinquity ; but, if we and our descend-
ants avail ourselves of the limits of this law, and marry on
its verge a certain number of times, misery must infallibly
be the lot even of the tenth generation ; and instead of be-
ing fathers of a mighty people, few and full of sorrow will
be the days of our children ; while in place of retaining in
their possession our darling wealth, it will, ere long, pass
into the hand of the stranger."
In 1800, Mr. Ezra L'Hommedieu, Vice-President of the
New York State Agricultural Society, collected very many
observations and facts on the breeding of sheep, which went
to show the degenerating tendency of breeding in and in.
Mr. Dick, of Edinburgh, states, on information given him by
many intelligent farmers, that cattle bred in and in are sub-
ject to dyers in the throat after they have attained their first
year. Blacklock says — " Clyers are enlarged lymphatic
glands, which are a sure sign of what is termed a scrofu-
lous habit, and a breaking up of the constitution."
Mr. Dickson asserts the following, which will be found in
the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, of Edinburgh : — " The
evil of breeding in and in, or, in other words, producing too
great refinement of tone, is manifested in the first place by
a tenderness of constitution ; the animals not being able to
withstand the extremes of heat and cold, rain and drought.
If the evil is prolonged through several generations, the
forms of the animals become affected, the bone becomes
very small, the neck droops, the skin of the head becomes
tight and scantily covered with hair, the expression of the
eye indicates extreme sensibility, the hair on the body be-
comes thin and short, and the skin as thin as paper ; the
jwints continue good, and predisposition to fatness increases,
but the whole carcase becomes much diminished in size,
though retaining its plumpness and beautiful symmetry. The
evil, however, does not terminate in the production of these
symptoms. Internal diseases ensue, such as disorganiza-
tion of the liver, or rot, polypi in the trachea, clyers, and
malformation of the neck and legs." A writer observes —
" It is from this cause that almost every Royal family con-
tains a large proportion of idiots, or, at the best, persons of
very weak intellect ; and such will continue to occur till
legislators fall on some plan of striking at the groundwork of
the mischief. If the laws of God and man define to us so
IN-AND-IN BREEDING. 271
clearly tlie evils of intermnrrying with relatives, — and if, as
all animals are constructed on one grand plan, we admit the
proximity of the sheep to the human race, it follows, that
what is destructive in this respect to the one, is destructive
to the other, and that we should seek, by a nearly similar,
if not wider range of rules, to obviate many of those dis-
eases, of which, when under our protection, they are so
frequently the subjects."
The above is deemed sufficient to show the ground on
which the opponents of breeding in and in substantiate their
arguments. The writer will now introduce the views of
Mr. Spooner on the other side of the question, and from the
great interest which every sheep-breeder, who aspires to
complete success in his calling, should feel on the subject,
no apology is necessary for the length of the extract.
" The subject of breeding in and in, or from near affini-
ties, is one which has given rise to much discussion, and on
which there still prevails much discordance of opinion. Its
merits, however, can be best understood by carefully exam-
ining into its advantages and disadvantages. In the human
subject, sexual intercourse between near relations is very
properly forbidden by law, and appears, indeed, altogether
foreign to our feelings ; and even marriage between rela-
tives of the second degree, such as cousins, is regarded by
many persons as subject to great objection, and apt to entail
disease on the offspring, and particularly disease of a men-
tal character. Statistical facts bearing on this matter cer-
tainly support this opinion in a marked degree.
" With animals there is no reluctance to sexual intercourse
between the nearest affinities, and the custom of breeding
from sheep closely related has been for a long time prac-
tised by breeders of considerable eminence. In the human
subject the objections to the practice are at once granted,
but let us see whether they likewise obtain with animals.
In the former, marriages are generally entered into with
little, if any regard to the health of the individuals con-
cerned, the consequence of which is, that the diseases of
the parents, or rather their predispositions, are entailed on
their offspring. The result of this is, that most families
have predisposition to some particular complaint ; and
thus if two members of the same family have sexual inter-
course, the probability is, that if both parents had predispo-
sition to a particular disease in an equal degree, this will be
272 BREEDING AND CROSSING.
increased in their offspring in a double ratio. But on the
contrary, if a man unites with a woman of a different family
and a different predisposition, the idiosyncracy of the off-
spring to the diseases of either parent is likely to be pre-
vented or retarded.
" With animals the case is different. If due attention be
paid, a principal object will be to breed from healthy sub-
jects, by which means one fertile cause of hereditary pre-
disposition to disease is prevented. A healthy form and
sound constitution are essential to successful breeding, and
for the development of those points we seek to obtain.
Thus the principal objection to breeding from near affinities
which exists in the human subject, does not obtain amongst
animals ; and even if, in the former, mental disease is more
apt to occur when this practice is pursued, this also is an
objection which does not apply to animals, though it has
been urged by some that sheep bred in and in are more sub-
ject to diseases of the brain — a conclusion, however, which
I am much disposed to doubt.
" Thus the objections to breeding in and in are not insuper-
able ; what, however, are its advantages ? The stronger
resemblance there is in the qualities of both parents, sup-
posing those qualities are good, the more likely is it that the
offspring will be perfect. By breeding with a view to im-
provement, the greatest excellences are likely to be con-
centrated in one family ; if, therefore, the members of this
family were not coupled, they must probably be united to
inferior animals of either sex, by which practice improve-
ment will be materially retarded. It is, therefore, very fre-
quently the surest method of arriving at the greatest degree
of excellency, and thus it is a practice which has been fol-
lowed by the most eminent breeders of sheep with the
greatest success ; yet it does not possess any advantages
peculiar to itself and different from those we have stated,
and if two rams were obtainable possessing precisely equal
qualifications, I should not be disposed to select one because
he was a near relation to the ewe, but the contrary.
'' In-and-in breeding may thus be either productive of good
or bad effects, but in neither case is the result to be attributed
to the close affmity, but rather to the circumstances con-
nected with it. If no care is employed either in selecting
or culling the flock, unquestionably both disease and defect
will arise ; and two animals, each predisposed to the same
LN'-AND-IN BREEDING. 273
bad quality, being allowed to connect, the predisposition to
such defect will exist in their offspring in a twofold de-
gree. If, on the other hand, proper care is employed —
if those animals only are allowed to breed that possess
good forms and healthy constitutions, then undoubtedly the
stock will be preserved pure, disease will be warded off,
and the proper form and qualifications will be perpetuated."
It is proper to add, that Mr. Spooner in a subsequent page
qualifies somewhat more the tendency of the above, leaving
the reader to infer that breeding in and in is a very nice mat-
ter, of which the number is exceedingly small in whose hands
it can be intrusted with safety, and to be pursued always
within proper limits. His views are presented rather to
show what can be said in its favor, and not because the wri-
ter thinks they should be acquiesced in. In his humble opin-
ion, in general, it is to this vile system of breeding that, quite
as much as the miserable general management to which Amer-
ican flocks have been subjected, we see so many worthless
specimens of sheep, both in form and fleece, throughout the
length and breadth of the land. It has been the practice of
thousands of sheep-farmers to confine themselves to a single
tup in their flocks until age, perhaps, had nearly destroyed his
procreative powers, putting him to his own progeny for suc-
cessive years, which resulted in causing disease and prema-
ture death, which, however, was often ignorantly and unjust-
ly attributed to imbecility of constitution of the breed : hence
in numerous instances the violent prejudices engendered
towards the Saxon race. Farmers in general of the North,
from the vicissitudes of the climate, if for no other reason,
must avoid the system of breeding in question, as they would
a reptile. None need imagine for a moment that their sheep
are so perfect in all respects, but others either far or near
may be found among which can be obtained individuals fully
equal if not superior to their own. At all events, the effort
should be made to find them, rather than incur the risk of ul-
timately making worthless those in their possession. Every
flock-master should beware of entering any flock to purchase
from, if he knows that its proprietor has pursued for any
length of time the breeding in-and-in system, and especially
if the flock is small, and the range therefore has been limited
for selection.
The evils incident to breeding in and in have long since
been discovered in England, and also among the celebrated
274 BREEDING AND CROSSING.
German Saxon wool-growers, and consequently a system has
been adopted of breeding from different families of the same
race. This unquestionably is the best course, where the flocks
are about perfect, as the males interchanged have shades of
difference impressed by soil, herbage, and treatment, and the
defects of each family have a good chance to be counteracted
by the perfections of the other. By this means the bad points
are gradually lessened, and of course are succeeded by other
valuable properties.
CROSSING.
The next system adopted in breeding, is crossing an infe-
rior race by another possessing properties desirable to ac-
quire. This, it will at once be conceded, is the most proper
course for us, as it will be the means of most speedily dimin-
ishing the imperfections which characterize the forms and
fleeces of a large majority of American flocks. Where the
contrast is so great as it is between the ordinary sheep of the
country and the pure Merino and Saxon, years will be re-
quired of patience, steady perseverance, and nice discrimina-
tion in selecting from generation to generation, before the
goal of perfection will be reached. Many sheep-farmers
imagine that two or three crosses will accomplish their ob-
ject, whereas nothing scarcely is more absurd to expect. The
greater the contrast, or less homogeneousness of the breeds
crossed, the greater length of time will be required, and skill
necessary to employ. The proper steps to be taken in the
process of crossing, the writer will endeavor familiarly to
illustrate.
The object sought, we will suppose, is the improvement,
for the most part, of the fleece, by changing its character
from openness and coarseness to the opposites, fineness and
compactness, or improvement in quantity as well as quality.
The ewes we will imagine are the more ordinary grades and
the ram of the Merino blood, the good pedigree of which
there can be no question, and whose fleece comes fully up
to the object of our wishes.
The result of the first cross will exhibit a few, the wool of
which about their shoulders approximates that of the sire,
while of other parts there will be great discrepancies, and
especially so in the region of the rumps and thighs. x\ll will
manifest a general improvement over the dams, and a few a
marked likeness of form to the sire ; taking the whole to-
CROSSING. 275
gether, however, the progeny of the first cross will present a
queer melange ; but they must undergo a rigid examination,
and those whose fleeces conform nearest to the rams should
be marked and retained, and those farthest from his excel-
lencies, disposed of. The ram may be again put to the same
ewes, but a similar result will follow, and selections should
be made from the second batch in like manner as from the
first. The question now presents itself. What should be done
with the ewes of the first cross, which we will suppose old
enough to receive the tup ? Should they be put to their sire ?
This is certainly revolting, to say the least of it, and yet if
it is done, is part and parcel of the in-and-in system. If it
is permitted, however, there can be little doubt, that their
progeny will approximate more nearly to the sire than if an-
other ram equal in all respects had been substituted. This
will arise from the first cross possessing much, in a general
sense, of his nature, or, in the phraseology of breeders, a
" strong dash of blood." Notwithstanding this, and however
others may differ, the writer would prefer decidedly using a
second ram, as, by so doing, he might correct some trifling
defect the original one may have possessed, and which, if
used, where the affinity is so extremely close, would exhibit
itself in a much stronger type in the second progeny.
If the second ram has been used, which we will consider
the most proper, it will make a second cross, and the prog-
eny of this will exhibit also a curious variety of fleeces and
forms, being neither one thing nor the other ; indeed, on the
whole, will operate to discourage much the breeder, and he
will think his object almost unattainable. Some will be, as
those of the first cross, pretty good about the shoulders, the
fleeces, however, thin ; others will show a dozen, more or
less, qualities of wool in their respective fleeces, in short,
everything but being right. But the breeder must not be
discouraged. Let another ram be procured of equal excel-
lence with the first and second, and used for the third cross,
and to his great delight, among the progeny he will discover
a number which begin to resemble quite closely the object
for which he is striving. After each successive cross, he
should pursue rigidly his course of selection, for his ultimate
triumph will depend greatly on his skill and attention in this
respect. The progeny of the fourth cross (at least a good
majority of them) will come well up to the mark — not quite,
however, as, by critical examination, he will discover some
276 BREEDL\G AND CRO^SLNG.
coarseness yet about the rump, belly, thighs, &c. ; and per-
haps the fleeces will not be compact enough; others there
will be, although qualities generally good, whose fleeces will
be too dry, not being sufficiently imbued with yolk.
Let the breeder pursue an undeviating track in selection,
for he will discover individuals even after the seventh and
eighth crosses comparatively indifferent, and if his motto is
" onward," he will not breed from these. But what, perhaps,
will surprise him greatly at this stage, notwithstanding a
particular ewe may be almost as perfect in her fleece as
either of the rams employed, yet she will bring forth an
off'spring occasionally, which will represent the defects in a
marked degree of some of those of the first and second cross !
but were he an " old stager" this would not astonish him, as
it is an ordinary occurrence for even ten or fifteen years after
the commencement of improvement in instances where the
blood on one side was of the ordinary stamp, and which
would have been still more frequent, if the rams used had
not been iclwlly pure. This is an item showing the great
value to be attached to blood.
After the seventh or eighth cross, will it be proper to em-
ploy any males produced in the flock ? As a general rule,
no; it is safer to procure them from another family higher
bred. Hitherto it has too frequently been the case that, after
a flock has been pushed far on to perfection, the breeder has
resorted to his own rams, by which improvement has ceased,
arising from the propensity of even high-grade animals to
transmit some of the defects of the stock on one side from
which they sprang, to their progeny. This rule, however,
may sometimes be violated with impunity. For instance,
after the third or fourth cross, some of the ewes may pro-
duce offspring uniformly alike, and very perfect, and such
instances show that they have been very thoroughly infused
with the pure blood of their sires ; therefore in such cases it
may be safe to employ their off'spring as tups. But the
breeder should be very sure of the circumstance stated, which
can only be arrived at with certainty by attention in marking
the lambs for several successive years.
In breeding for the fleece, other points must not be neg-
lected, such as form, and indications of sound constitution.
The remarks which have appeared in reference to breeding
the mutton sheej) will apply in some measure to Merinos
and Saxons. Small bone, and a compact square frame, but
CROSSING. 277
not too large, are always good points in any breed, and
should never be lost sight of. It should be considered that,
after we have shorn the fleece, the drovers have a right to
step in to judge of the carcase, and they have a curious way
of " coming over us," if our sheep are too small and slab-
sided.
The following observations on the subject in hand are by
Blacklock, which the writer believes are worthy of much
attention, and which he quotes for the reason that he feels
they will have more weight than any he can offer himself,
while they also corroborate several points already set forth.
" The fact is, that, if you wish to have a particular kind
of sheep, you must first of all be in possession of a pasture
suitable for the new-comers. You must consider the influ-
ence of the individval parents on the progeny, the size of
the animals, their habits and dispositions, and their peculiar-
ities in regard to the time of their maturity, and fattening
properties ; and, having anticipated these apparently trifling
affairs, you must see that the surface of the farm, its degree
of exposure, and the quantity and quality of its productions,
are calculated for the profitable maintenance of the breed in
view. Far too little attention is bestowed, at the commence-
ment of such an undertaking, on these all-swaying matters.
Farmers enter upon this, the most arduous of all professions,
with the settled conviction, that nothing is so simple as the
engrafting of a race of animals on a particular part of a coun-
try. They have read, or heard, of others who have gained
fame, and a fortune, by successful endeavors of the kind, and
they think that nothing is easier than to follow their example ;
but they forget the thoughtful hours, and irksome duties,
these men had to tolerate, before they could speak of any-
thing like success. No animal can be made to forego at once
a long-used food, an ancient locality, a peculiarity of clime and
season, and the instinctive habits that have been long nurtured
by these, without both it and its progeny suffering from the
change!^
" In crossing there are several important things to be at-
tended to. Well-formed parents ought to be selected, and,
if enlargement of the carcase be wanted, the issue should
be better fed than its originators, which ought to be of a size
rather under, than above what the pasture is capable of sup-
porting. The size of the parents should not be much dispro-
* The truth of this remark will strike the prairie flock-master.
24
278 BREEDING AND CROSSING.
2)ortioned at first, as nature abhors sudden extremes, and does
everything in the most gradual manner. We must not imag-
ine that when, by dint of crossing, we have obtained the
variety wanted, that it will remain in the condition we have
brought it, without the slightest liability to alter. Many far-
mers believe they have done all that is required, if they
subject their stock to three or four crossings with a breed of
acknowledged excellence. They think that the improved
animals they have obtained will support their acquired char-
acters, uninfluenced by extraneous agency. Now nothing can
be more faulty than this mode of management, as is proved
by a comparison of stock so treated, with flocks which have
uninterruptedly received that undeviating attention which can
alone ensure a continuance of the properties desired. Such
men forget that the climate is operating with as great certainty
as on the rocks around ; and that as the herbage is determined
by the nature of the adjacent rocks, so are the peculiarities
of the sheep influenced by the herbage ; and that if they man-
age to change the characters of the breed, it can, in a majority
of cases, be only for a time, unless the tendencies of the sur-
rounding elements are counteracted by a constant recurrence
to the originators of the flock.
" In crossing we must beware of the tendencies which
nature, in numerous instances, displays to perpetuate dis-
eases, dispositions, and aberrations of the normal structure.
A predisposition to many diseases is engendered in the sheep,
by too great refinement in breeding, which tends to diininish
the size of the animal, prevents them feeding to perfection, de-
stroys their fecundity, and imparts great tenderness of con-
stitution. Accidental deviations from the natural type may,
also, be hereditary, as is seen in those races of dogs which
have a supernumerary toe on the hind foot, and tarsal bones
to correspond. In the human race, also, several gener-
ations of a particular family have been distinguished by
having six fingers and six toes on their hands and feet. It
is in like manner to an accidental malformation, that the
Americans are indebted for their Otter breed of sheep."
BREEDING REGISTER.
It is of the highest importance that every sheep-farmer
who aspires to distinction and success in his profession, and
more especially those who are strictly professional breeders,
should properly classify their sheep, and keep a record of
BREEDING REGISTER.
279
them. This particular, and, indeed, everything appertaining
to the subject of breeding, is most rigidly attended to by
German flock-masters, and is the means by which breeding
from too close affinities is avoided, as also for affording a
reference to the qualities of every individual of the flock.
The Germans are exceedingly particular in their examina-
tions, beginning with the lamb when only a few months old,
which receives at this time a mark denoting its qualities,
and subsequently and before it has attained the age of one
year, is subjected to two more inspections, and if the results
correspond with the first examination, it receives a final
mark of approval, and is retained as a permanent member of
the flock. The first class is denominated " Super Elector ;"
the second class " Elector ;" the third class " Prima ;" the
fourth class " Secunda ;" the fifth class " Tertia," Few
among the better flocks will range as low as the last, and if
any individual is found to sink any farther, it is disposed of.
The sheep are put upon a table and held, while the exam-
iner with a small pair of scissors clips samples from the
neck, shoulders, and thighs, which are at once enveloped in
papers, and on the back of each is noted a number corres-
ponding with the ear-marks. A clerk, with pen and ink, is
in attendance, who notes down the texture of the staple,
whether short or long, round, flat, or spiral, exterior appear-
ance of the fleece, evenness, size, shape, &c.
The following cut exemplifies the mode of numbering on
the ears, by which the age of each individual is denoted,
and its general qualities explained by reference to the Reg-
ister.
Each slit in the lower rim of the right ear represents, 1
do. upper do. 5
do. lower left 100
do. upper do. 500
280
BREEDING AND CROSSING.
The central hole in the right ear, 25
do. left 50
In the above figure
7 slits in the upper rim of the left ear, 500 each 3500
4 do. lower do. do. 100 do. 400
The central hole in do. 50
4 slits in the upper rim of the right ear, 5 do. 20
4 do. lower do. do. 1 do. 4
The central hole in do. 1 do. 25
Number of the sheep, 3999
The following is a form of a Breeding Register kept by
the late Mr. H. D. Grove. His notes of explanation, to-
gether with some valuable remarks, are quoted from Col-
man's Fourth Mass. Agricultural Reports, and which are
worthy of much attention, from his acknowledged experi-
ence and skill as a sheep-breeder.
BREEDING REGISTER, FROM JULY 1, 1838, TO JULY 1, 1839.
No.
Year in
which
born.
Tup'dby
Ram No.
Date of
lambiug
No. of lambs.
Classification of the
Lambs, etc.
General Remarks.
Rams
Ewes.
25
1
1833
1834
27—4
26—4
6—4
7—4
1
1
1 CL small, and
close curled.
2 CI. middle,
small curls.
Thin lambs— one was
very feeble and died.
The lambs had a few-
hairs under the belly,
&c.
" In the first column is the number of the ewe ; in the
second, his age, and instead of writing it out in full, I
merely write 3, 4, 5, and 6, which means either 1833, '34,
'35, and '36, &c. In the third column is the number and
age of the ram, thus 27 — 4, — 27 means the number, and 4 his
age, namely, 1834, &c. In the fourth column is the day
and month when the lamb is yeaned, thus 6 — 4, — 6 means
the 6th day, and 4, fourth month. In the 5th and 6th columns
are the number of ram and ewe lambs. In the seventh is
the classification of the lambs, when a few days old, and
the last column is for general remarks.
" I am very particular in classifying my lambs with as
much accuracy as possible, to enable me to decide upon the
good or bad qualities of a progenitor as a breeder ; if his
progeny is not such as I desire, he is rejected at once from
further service. I do not often use my rams after they are
BREEDING REGISTER. 281
5 or 6 years old, for when they have attained that age, their
progeny begins to fail in vigor and strength. Much, how-
ever, depends upon the treatment he receives. If a ram is
carefully used, not over-worked, he will retain his vigor and
elasticity much longer, and I have known rams 7, 8, or even
9 years of age, whose progeny was as vigorous as that from
a ram of 3 years old.
" I select my stock rams with the greatest care, for I con-
sider this the most important point in breeding ; and here I
find my records of great value in aiding me to make the best
choice. If, for instance, I have a ram before me, who has,
in every respect, the requisite qualities, and turning to my
records, I find his ancestors occupy a high rank, that is,
stand in the first class for a number of generations back,
I then have no hesitation to appoint him a sire for my ewes,
and in nine cases out of ten, he acquits himself to my entire
satisfaction. Or, if I have two rams before me of equal
quality, and hardly knowing to which one to give the pref-
erence, my records decide the question, for the one who has
the best ancestry is preferred to the other.
" The experienced shepherd knows, that even in full-
blood flocks, not all individuals are equal in quality of wool,
size, form, &;c., but that some families arrive to much greater
perfection than others. Here again my records are of great
value, for with their aid I can designate every individual
member of each family, and cross them with other families,
and in such divisions as I think most beneficial. For eleven
years have I thus managed my flock, and selected my stock
rams from those of my own raising, and yet I have no very
near relationship, and I can go on eleven years more in the
same manner and avoid that error, only taking a little more
trouble, and some years use more rams, than to a superficial
observer would seem necessary. Now if my sheep were
not numbered and recorded, I could not go on without run-
ning the risk of injury to my flock by too close breeding.
This is an important point in the breeding domestic animals
of all kinds, and if once lost sight of, the injury will soon
be perceived by the experienced and discerning eye, which
injury is often irreparable. That it is lost sight of and is
overlooked by too many of my brother shepherds, is but too
true, and this is one reason why so many make but little
progress in the improvement of their flocks."*
* Notwithstanding Mr. Grove undoubtedly was equal if not superior to
24*
282 BREEDING AND CROSSING.
INFLUENCE OF SEX.
This question, in former times, excited much discussion
among breeders and physiologists, many contending that the
influence of sire and dam were equal upon the progeny,
taking general and not particular qualities into view. When
thus considered, there is much of truth in this conclusion,
although correct observation has very clearly established the
fact, that the influence of the male greatly predominates rela-
tive to the color, as well as texture of the hair and wool. This
opinion is sustained by Mr. Sanford Howard, associate ed-
itor of the Cultivator, in an able paper on the subject of
breeding, published in that periodical of 1844, On the point
in question he speakes thus :
" It is, however, reasonable to suppose, that in some re-
spects this influence of the parents cannot be equal ; and
that the theory is well founded that the constitutional quali-
ties, nervous temperament, &c., are more likely to resemble
the dam, and the external qualities, such as outward form,
color, hair, &c., to resemble the sire. Many examples
might be cited in support of this theory. Many farmers
have noticed how much more likely their animals are to in-
herit the diseases of their dams, than their sires. When we
consider that the animal is supported during the foetal stage of
its existence entirely from the blood of the mother, and that
this blood, circulating through every part of the system, would,
of course, be afl'ected by the state of the animal's health, this
consequence would seem to be perfectly natural.
" On the other hand, it has been noticed that the outward
features of the sire, more frequently than those of the dam,
any other sheep-breeder of our country, and the great precautions he ob-
served not to breed from those between whom there existed too near af-
finities of blood, yet the writer has every reason to believe that he en-
croached on the breeding in-and-in system to a greater extent than he
was sensible of. Mr. G., as appears from his concluding remarks, dep-
recated the practice, for no one knew better than himself, theoretically
at least, the certain evils attending it. The writer engaged a valuable
ram of him previous to his decease, which, soon after getting home, he
lost by one of those legitimate diseases (dyers) which follows the system
of breeding in question. The loss of tlie valuable animal is certainly a
matter of no consequence to the public, but the cause is, however, and
which the writer has purposely delayed mentioning, that it might go
forth appended to his late friend's remarks in allusion to the ])oint in hand,
and have its proper weight in connection with all that has hitlierto been
said on the subject.
INFLUENCE OF SEX. 283
are enstamped on the progeny. This has been attributed to
the nervous influence of the dam — or what is called the in-
fluence of the imagination of the dam on the foetus. Prac-
tical men believe there is something m this. Professional
breeders avail themselves of the principle in giving to their
animals some desired marks or qualities. It must have been
something akin to this, by the influence of which, through
the medium of peeled rods, Jacob caused the cattle to be
born ' ringed, streaked, and speckled.' Breeders of horses
sometimes take great pains to operate on the imagination of
the mare, and thus produce in the foal certain characteristics.
At the time of conception, or within the first month after-
wards, the fcetus seems to be particularly susceptible to this
influence, and it is not difficult to produce the changes spo-
ken of. Some striking instances of the eflfect of this sym-
pathetic influence might be given. One of the most re-
markable, perhaps, as showing the evidence of anterior ex-
citement, is that of a mare, seven-eighths of Arabian blood,
after having produced a foal by a stallion quagga, (a species
of zebra,) continued, after a lapse of five years, to reproduce
the markings of that animal, at three successive births, al-
though the sire of all the subsequent progeny was a thorough
bred Arab horse. This is a well authenticated fact, and
correct portraits of the mare, the hybrid, and the three foals
which the mare afterwards had by the horse, the latter
showing the stripes of the quagga, are preserved.
" The influence of one black sheep, though it may never
have any progeny, is often noticed in causing black lambs.
Shepherds who have kept black dogs with their sheep, have
observed the same effect. The nervous influence of animals
in a state of pregnancy, shows itself very conspicuously in
the eff'ects of fright on the offspring. Many cases of this
kind might be cited in the human species, as well as in our
domestic animals."
In immediate connection' with his closing remarks, the
writer will state, that he makes it a point never to breed from
sires or dams that are otherwise than entirely white, yet a
few years since one of his highest bred ewes produced a
lamb whose head and tail were perfectly white, but every-
where else jetty black, and thus resembled a skunk. From
this it is not unreasonable to suppose that, in the early stage
of gestation, one of these disgusting animals crossed the path
of the ewe, causing such a degree of fright as to impress the
284 BREEDING AND CROSSING.
marks of the skunk upon the foetus. This is only an analo-
gous instance, with results quite as singular, as observed in
the offspring of the human species, produced by highly ex-
citing circumstances during pregnancy.
The following will show that the male exercises a mate-
rial influence also upon the form, indicated most strongly,
however, in general, in the progeny of the first cross. Mr.
Boswell, in his essay on the subject in question, published
in the Quai'tcrJy Journal of Agriculture, says — "Being fully
convinced of the power of the male on the offspring, I have
always accounted it as a loss to put a bad male to a high-
bred female, and have never done so. I have, however,
observed, where the country people have purchased high-
bred sheep at any sale of mine, and bred from them with
the ordinary rams, that the breed very quickly got bad ;
whereas, when a Bake well ram had been purchased, I have
seen a most remarkable change in the quality of the sheep ;
and, in several instances, where the ewes had been tolerable
from which they had been bred, the cross was so nearly re-
sembling a New Leicester, as to deceive any one who was
not a thorough judge."
A writer observes — " The progeny of most domesticated
animals often bear a striking resemblance to the grandmother
or grandfather, and it is well known that the desired changes
cannot be effected on a. breed, or that the desired breed can-
not be produced, till the third, fourth, or even the fifth cross-
ing, so that the importance of having few defects in a stock
will readily be admitted, seeing their debasing consequences
are carried through whole generations, and that, though ab-
sent in one remove, yet that they may appear in the next."
As an instance to show how these " debasing consequen-
ces " may be prolonged through defect of the male, the fol-
lowing is stated, having occurred with the writer's personal
knowledge : — The father of the writer, nearly twenty years
ago, purchased a high grade Saxon ram distinguished for
good form and fineness of wool, but was objectionable on ac-
count of the openness of his fleece and shortness of its sta-
ple ; he was used, however, for several years. The ram ex-
hibited a peculiarity about his eyes, which protruded so far,
as to give him a ludicrous aspect, and consequently he re-
ceived the soubriquet of " bulge-eye ;" in addition to this, his
pate was entirely bare of wool, and nothing but the fineness
of his fleece induced his usage in the flock. But after a fair
GOOD POINTS OP A MERINO AND SAXON. 285
trial he was abandoned, his stock in general exhibiting his
lightness of fleece, and many his peculiarity of visage ; and
therefore the worst specimens were disposed of as soon as
possible. But strange as it may appear, for more than
twelve years after, a " straggler " would now and then ap-
pear, whose eyes and fleece were the very counterpart of the
ram in question ! and the novelty of the circumstance is, the
dams of these were as perfect in all respects as the average of
the flock, and entirely free from the peculiarities described in
the ram ! I. Stanley Carr, in a paper published in the Jour-
nal of the English Agricultural Society, on the agriculture and
management of sheep in Northern Germany, says — " I know
an instance where a large and valuable flock has been for
years retrograding, in consequence of one unsuitable ram
having been introduced into it 12 or 14 years ago."
The above strongly manifests the influence of the male,
and aflbrds a striking lesson to the flock-master, to beware
of imperfections of every character, no matter however
slight, in his stock rams, as irreparable injury may follow if
it is neglected.
It is supposed by some that the sex of the progeny is de-
termined by the relative ages of the parents ; thus, issue
from a young male and an old female will in general he fem-
ifime, while that from an old male and a young female will
generally be masculine. The writer having little confidence
in this theory, and from never having met with but one re-
corded instance of its being tested, he has never thought it
worth the trouble of an experiment. He has, however, re-
peatedly put rams of 18 months old to ewes which were
from 4 to 7 in years, and as in other instances where older
bucks were used to ewes of similar ages, the number of
lambs as regards sex were nearly equal, rarely varying more
than five in 100, which, as far as he is able now to recall, a
majority would sometimes be masculine, and again, feminine.
The point is noticed that others may make the experiment
if they think proper.
GOOD POINTS OF A MERINO AND SAXON.
From the description of the Merino, as presented to the
reader in the history of the race, it has been seen that there
is an essential diff*erence in conformation between some of
the varieties, and that all are deficient in that symmetry of
outline so necessary in any animal to please the eye of the
286 BREEDING AND CROSSING.
breeder of taste. Many of their ungainly points liav^e been
removed by the Germans ; and doubtless it would have been
thus to some extent in this country, provided that, from their
landing on our shores up to the present time, there had ex-
isted, without interruption, a remunerating price for their
fleeces ; but unfortunately this has not been so, and conse-
quently the instances are rare where any improvement has
been effected in either form or fleece. Nature, ever benefi-
cent in her purposes, for centuries was at work moulding
the Merino for a specific object, and that object consisted in
producing a superabundant covering for its body, and incom-
parable in its general qualities for the manufacture of the
softest and most beautiful fabrics ; whereas, if its conforma-
tion had been essentially different, it would not be what it
now is, but a mutton sheep. It has been seen that the im-
provement effected in the English breeds, was at the sacri-
fice of the quantity and quality of the wool of the old breeds,
proving most conclusively, that in breeding the Merino, if
we attempt to mould its form too much after the fashion of
the improved English sheep, it will be at the hazard of a
diminution of some of the admirable qualities of its fleece.
A wide chest and large abdominal organs are indispensable
qualities in a mutton breed, as they afford the means of has-
tening maturity, by enabling the animal to take up much
food, and more readily converting it into flesh and fat. But
on the contrary, these qualities are not needed to the same
degree for the production of a material for the finest fabrics,
and in the largest quantity. Nature constantly battles for
her rights in these matters, and evinced her obstinacy when
the English breeder undertook to overtask her by endeavor-
ing to make the Merino at once the producer of fine wool
and fat mutton ; but in the struggle she triumphed, showing,
that the race and draft horse can never be so assimilated,
that the product will exhibit the fleetness of the former
with the strength and docility of the latter, nor the sheep
both the bearer of much fat on its loins, and a fleece of the
finest texture.
It has been observed that the Germans materially cha,nged
the form of the Merino, but it must be considered that in ef-
fecting this, they resorted to that extreme " refinement of
tone" in breeding, which always results in producing effem-
inacy, and to this is to be ascribed the extreme fineness of
the fleece of the Saxon Merino variety, at the sacrifice, how-
GOOD POINTS OF A MERINO AND SAXON. 287
ever, of quantity, and much of its original hardiness of con-
stitution. It is, therefore, for the reasons assigned, the
writer is of the opinion that the form of the Merino cannot
be essentially altered without perverting the object of nature,
and at the hazard eventually of pecuniary loss. If we at-
tempt to mould it after the fashion of the true mutton sheep,
there is danger that the assimilation of its food will be for
the production of more flesh and fat, and a consequent de-
terioration of the fleece, and reduction of its weight. Again,
if we breed for increase of size, we do not augment profits,
as large animals consume proportionally ; and if we adopt
the German example, while we improve the appearance of
the carcase, and texture of its covering, it will be at the ex-
pense of size, and hardiness. Therefore, in accordance
with these views, the writer is bound in duty to say to the
breeder of the Merino, Be not too anxious to rid the animal
of those peculiarities with which nature has endowed it. We
may relieve it in some measure, and can do so without sacri-
fice, by proper selections of a portion of the superfluous folds
of skin about the neck ; and by proper attentions in feeding,
it will acquire that rotundity necessary to gratify the eye of
taste. Wide chest and an expansive abdomen cannot be
efl'ected by mere breeding without also full measure of
food. The horizontal springing out of the ribs from the
spine in the improved English breeds, is quite as much
from this cause as any other. Ill feed the famed Leicester
for two successive generations, and think you that its beau-
tifully-arched ribs, and capacious abdomen, would be present ?
Indeed, it would be the height of absurdity to expect it.
The best specimens of the Merino present forms well
enough for all practical purposes, and it should be our duty
to breed from such individuals as will best preserve and trans-
mit the admirable properties of its fleece to the latest gene-
rations, and not hazard experiments simply because its form
is not as perfect as our wishes would have it.
The qualities of a good Merino ram are as follows : —
Wool should appear from the forehead to the fetlocks, and
as compact as possible, with due regard to a good length
of staple, which is now highly prized by manufacturers ; the
fibres spiral or much crimped ; no jar or hairs intermingled
with the fleece ; little variation as possible in the qualities
of the fleece, as in the genuine Spanish there are but four
qualities, the lowest growing about the legs, and this, there-
288 BREEDING AND CROSSING.
fore, is one of the most essential points to observe. Mel-
lowness of skin, which indicates a fine fleece, and that the
mucous coat is filled with the unctuous substance, yolk,
which confers so much softness and brilliancy to the wool,
and protects its surface from the injurious action of the
weather ; hence in the male there can scarcely be too much
yolk, for a deficiency in the ram will cause too little in the
other classes of the flock, in which it is never present in too
large quantities, however abundant in the sires ; the eyes
should be bright, prominent, with a placid expression, which
indicates docility of disposition, a point always to be consid-
ered ; the horns should be large, and the spirals not too
short, and not too near the eyes ; the frame compact, but not
over large, neck thick where it sets on to the body, and
straight from the withers to the horns ; back short and hori-
zontal with the rump as possible, which is rare, however,
with the breed ; buttocks well protruded, and tail at its root,
not too wide ; the bones not too large, as they abstract nu-
triment, nor the legs too long.
We will now consider briefly the points of the Saxon va-
riety of the Merino.
The artificial value attached to the finest fleece, induced
the Germans to cultivate the Merino solely for this object ;
and so long as there are castes of society, and the highest of
these fancy that a wardrobe only of the finest texture is ne-
cessary as a means in part to support that distinction, so
long will the Saxon race be appreciated and profitably cul-
tivated. But when this adventitious state of society ceases,
the chief aliment of profit of the Saxon will cease with it.
The reader, however, will probably coincide with the writer
in the belief that that day is very remote, and therefore the
race cannot become extinct ; and in proportion to the increase
of wealth in our country, in that ratio will increase the demand
for the superlative material the breed produce.
The true Saxon is of beautiful symmetrical proportions, but
not hardy ; a light fleece, but of such exquisite fineness of
texture as in some instances to be only the psVo^^^ P^^^ ^^ ^^
inch in diameter, while the Merino rarely is less than the
Tjj^th. That tenderness of constitution peculiar to the German
Saxon is not present to the same degree in the American ;*
* The writer lias now in his possession a ewe 12 years old, from the
flock of Major Grant of Walpole, descended from the Searl's importa-
tion, as fleshy and hardy as any individual of his flock.
TUPPING SEASON. 289
and is therefore successfully cultivated in the cold latitude of
New Hampshire, and with equal profit to the ]\Ierino, when
properly managed.
The essential points of a good Saxon ram conform to those
of a Merino ; in reference to the eyes and horns they are
identical ; the staple cannot be too fine, silky, long, and yet
compact, — the objection to a very short staple is now very
general ; the spiral curls or crimp very minute or close, —
this is a prominent good point ; the fleece should be imbued
with yolk, which is indicated by the surface being somewhat
dark, — a dry fleece is unprofitable, and the wool never so
soft and strong ; the wool should be very white below the
surface, — if it has a bluish or pearly-grey cast, it denotes an
unhealthy sheep or an indifferent constitution. The form
should be square and compact, with a tolerable wide but deep
chest, and full, round belly ; bones small, and legs not too long,
with a good covering of wool ; full about the hind quarters ;
the neck small and tapering near the head, without ruflfles,
and no droop from the withers to the poll ; the back nearly
straight, with tameness and docility of disposition.
TUPPING SEASON.
This important season we will suppose being near at hand,
the rams should be rigidly examined, and those selected for
use should be served in an aldermanly way for several weeks
before they are put, by givdng their " lordships" each a gill
of oats daily, to which may be added, at intervals of two or
three days, half a handful of wheat, which will increase more
rapidly the supply of seminal fluid. If the duty to be per-
formed is extra, high feeding should be continued till their
services for the season have expired.
The number of rams apportioned to 100 ewes, depends
much on the breed, the age, and vigor they possess. With
the English breeds, the ram is put'when 18 months old, and
if he has been pushed forward by artificial means, will cover
from 60 to 80 ewes ; the latter is considered in England the
maximum, with security to the health of the ram, and sound-
ness of constitution to his progeny. Overtasking the male is
always followed by a greater or less degree of effeminacy of
his gettings, and therefore should be avoided. Nothing is
gained either by allowing the ram to cover too many, as his
vigor fails him proportionally, when he arrives at the age of
six or seven ; whereas, if prudently worked when yoimg, will
25
290 BREEDING AND CROSSING,
retain his generative powers in considerable strength till he
is ten years old. The Saxon and Merino breeds being slow-
er in attaining maturity than the British varieties, greater
care should be observed with the young rams, by not permit-
ting them to cover more than from 15 to 20 ewes, when only
18 months old. The writer uses five of this class to the
hundred ewes, and from three to four when the rams are in
their prime. This course is followed by hardier and earlier
offspring, the lambs nearly all dropping within the space of
a fortnight. They are put from the 5th to the 8th of De-
cember, and thus when the period of parturition arrives, the
grass is somewhat abundant, and a flush of milk follows.
There is a diversity of opinion as to the best manner of
putting the rams — a large majority turning in several at once,
others keeping them confined in yards and bringing a certain
number of ewes for each to serve daily, while many turn in
only one buck at a time, to remain a day or two, when he is
taken out and his place supplied by another. This is prob-
ably, where the flocks are large, the better and least trouble-
some way ; and prevents contests which are unavoidable
■when several rams are together, which results in the master
one performing a heavier duty than is compatible with reten-
tion of his vigor, and hardiness to his progeny.
Supposing the rams begin their services in the early part of
the month of December, they should cease at the close of the
month, and be withdrawn from the flock, as they lose their
gallantry after the tupping season is over, and sometimes
when feeding they are very unceremonious with their horns
among the ewes, which cannot but cause momentary suffer-
ing, if nothing worse. In conclusion, the writer strongly
protests against the use of one ram to over 50 ewes, (and to
do this he should be a very prime animal) not but what a
larger number can be tupped, but because of its injurious ten-
dency with the progeny, which may not manifest itself par-
ticularly when young, but is perceptible when grown, in
some form or other, and limits materially longevity. If we
reason from analogy on this point, it will quickly set us right.
From the earlier maturity of the British breeds, the ewes
are ready for the tup when at 18 months old ; but the Saxon
and Merino never should be put until they have attained the
age of two and a half years. If done before this, they will
drop their lambs, and often wholly disregard them, which
arises from their not being supplied with the necessary ali-
TUPPING SEASON. 291
ment to sustain them. Nature teaches a lesson on this point
which should not be disregarded, and supersedes all argu-
ment.
Has the flock-master, before the tupping season has arrived,
duly performed his duty in selecting those only that are right
in all respects, for breeders 1 Does every ewe approximate or
come fully up to the mark in form and fleece ? Is the latter
fine, close, and compact, staple long, and as even as possible
from the neck to the thighs, and well wooled on the belly
and legs ? In short, do they possess those qualities which
look to the goal for which the master is striving 1 If so, he
has at least done his duty, and patience only is necessary to
obtain his certain reward. But if he permits a solitary ewe
to be tupped, whose general qualities are much below the
average of the flock, his course of improvement will be re-
tarded. Let him look to it.
15
STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP.
BY W. C. S POONER,
VETERINARY SURGEON, LONDON.
CHAPTER XV.
GENERAL VIEW OF THE STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP— SKELETON-
BONES OF THE HEAD— BONES OF THE BODY— BONES OF THE FORE
EXTREMITIES— THE FOOT— BIFLEX CANAL— THE HIND EXTREMI-
TIES—MUSCLES OR FLESH— BRAIN AND NERVES— ORGANS OF MAS-
TICATION, &c.— ORGANS OF DIGESTION— THE URINARY AND GENE-
RATIVE ORGANS— CONTENTS OF THE CHEST— CIRCULATION OF
THE BLOOD— RESPIRATION AND ITS EFFECTS.
GENERAL VIEW OF THE STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP.
The body of the sheep resembles, in most respects, that
of the ox ; with a somewhat less degree of nervous energy,
it possesses a greater capability of enduring the extremes of
cold and heat, and still stronger digestive organs. Much of
the nervous energy is, indeed, expended on these parts, and a
diminished degree is possessed by the organs of locomotion
and sensation, in which respect both the ox and the sheep
differ considerably from the horse.
The body of the sheep, in common with other animals, is
composed of solids and fluids, the latter exceeding the former
in weight in the proportion of six or eight to one. To the
solids, however, is owing the organization of the frame, for
they surround and contain the fluids. Late anatomists con-
sider that animals are composed of three forms of tissues,
which they have denominated the fibrous, the lamellar, and
the globular. The two former are exemplified in the struc-
ture of the cellular substance, which composes the greatest
proportion of the animal fabric : the fibrous is characteristic
of the muscular and ligamentous structures ; the fibrous
STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 293
united with the granular is exhibited in the texture of the
glands, and in the medullary substance of the nervous sys-
tem ; and the globular is shown in the composition of the
chyle, the blood, and several of the secretions. These sev-
eral textures being combined together in different propor-
tions, we have the various organs of which the body is com-
posed.
To give support to the animal frame, and afford fixed objects
for the attachment of various parts, is the use of the skeleton,
which is composed in the sheep of nearly two hundred bones
of various sizes and shapes. These bones, in order to admit
of motion, are connected one to another by means of strong
bands called ligaments, the ends of the bones being con-
structed in various ways so as to admit of motion ; in many
we have the form of a hinge, in others that of a ball and
socket. The motion of the limbs is effected by means of
the muscles or flesh, which, although to a casual observer
appearing as a homogeneous mass, is readily separable into
a greater number of distinct bodies of various forms and sizes.
These muscles have commonly two separate attachments,
which are usually bones, and by contracting in length, they
bring these points of attachment nearer to each other. Mus-
cles are composed of a vast number of fibres, which, on
being acted on by nervous influence, diminish in length and
increase in bulk, and thereby approximate the different ob-
jects to which they are attached. They are usually fastened
to bones by means of a strong white substance called tendon,
which, however, possesses in itself no power of contraction,
but merely communicates the contractile force to the object
to be acted on. Where the two objects of attachment are
distant from each other, the greater portion of the distance
is occupied by the tendons, the advantage of which is owing
to their diminished size in proportion to their strength ; thus
we find the legs of sheep below the knee are light and slen-
der, from the absence of muscular and the substitution of
tendinous substance. The greater part of the muscles are
voluntary, being under the control of the mind ; but some
are involuntary, such as the heart and the diaphragm.
Muscles are extensively supplied with vessels of various
kinds, such as arteries for their nourishment, and veins for
the return of the blood after this purpose is effected. They
have likewise nerves, which not only furnish sensation, but
also communicate to them the mandates of the will.
2.5*
294 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP.
These nerves proceed either from the brain or spinal cord,
which, therefore, may be considered as the fountain of sen-
sation and the residence of the mind. And thus sensation
is first sent from the extremities to the brain by the nerves,
and then by another set of nerves the will is conveyed to
the muscles.
The hraiii is a soft pulpy substance contained within the
head, and the spinal cord is somewhat similar in structure,
and extends from the brain to the tail, through a hole in the
bones which form the spinal column. The body is divided
into two principal cavities, the chest and the abdomen, and
separated by a muscular partition called the diaphragm. The
former contains the heart and lungs, whose uses are princi-
pally to purify and distribute the blood by means of the res-
piration and the circulation ; and the latter contains the stom-
ach and bowels, in which the functions of digestion are car-
ried on, besides several important glands, such as the liver,
kidney, and pancreas, together with other supplementary
parts. Both the small and large intestines are fastened to
the spine by means of a strong membrane called the mesen-
tery, which, besides veins and arteries, is furnished with a
vast number of small vessels called lacteals. These lacteals
open into the intestines, and there absorb the nutritious part
of the food, which is a white milky fluid called the chyle,
and convey it to a vessel running along the course of the
spine, which empties itself near the heart into the circulating
system. Thus by these means the blood becomes enriched
with nutriment, and is thus enabled to supply the constant
waste the system is continually undergoing.
The blood being furnished with nutriment, requires to be
purified before it is fit for circulation ; for this purpose it
passes into the right side of the heart, by the muscular con-
traction of which it is sent to the lungs, where- it becomes
exposed to the action of the atmosphere, by which it is
changed from a dark to a light red color, and being freed
from impurities, it enters the left side of the heart, and from
thence is sent, by means of the arteries, to all parts of the
body, supplying every part with nourishment, and furnishing
the various glands of the body, not only with their own
proper nourishment, but with material for the secretion of
their peculiar fluids. Thus the salivary glands separate the
saliva from the blood ; the pancreas, a juice somewhat sim-
ilar ; the testicles, the semen ; and the kidneys, the urine.
STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP. 295
Each gland separates its peculiar fluid and no other. The
urine being secreted by the kidneys, is conveyed by means
of two small but long tubes into the bladder, whence it is
excreted from the body.
The liver is nourished by the arteries, but separates the
bile from the dark impure blood, which is conveyed to it by
a large vein. The contents of the bowels are passed on-
wards by the influence of their peculiar action, and having
had the nutritious part extracted are excreted from the body,
generally in a solid form.
The cellular membrane is a very elastic substance, and en-
ters largely into the composition of the body : it connects
the various glands together, forms frequently a covering for
the muscles as well as for various vessels, and exists in the
form of cells, which have communication with each other.
The adipose membrane is found in various parts of the
body, and, indeed, secretes the fat, which is deposited in a
liquid form, and in small circumscribed bags. The fat thus
contained often performs the important office of affording a
cushion for parts that would otherwise be exposed to injury ;
thus we find that the socket of the eye is abundantly fur-
nished with this material.
There are two other important membranes which are ex-
tensively found in animal bodies : they are the serous and
the mucous membranes. Whenever an internal part has an.
external opening, we find that it is furnished with a mucous
membrane which secretes mucus for its protection ; but
when the cavity has no external opening, then it is lined
with a serous membrane which secretes a thin watery fluid
to lubricate the parts, and preserve them from injury by fric-
tion. Thus from the entrance of the mouth and nostrils to
the anus, throughout the whole internal surface of the bow-
els, a mucous membrane exists, by which the fluid is se-
creted, the nature of which gives a name to the membrane,
and which protects it from injury either by the external air,
or by the contents of the bowels. In like manner we find
the bladder and urinary organs similarly lined.
On the other hand, the cavity of the chest and the abdo-
men, with their contents, as well as the internal surface of
blood-vessels, are furnished with a serous membrane, which
secretes a watery vapor. These different membranes are
very frequently the seat of disease, and are subject to severe
and dangerous inflammation. The admirable manner la
296 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP.
which the various organs are packed away in their proper
cavities is worthy of particular notice. The lungs and the
heart are so adapted to the shape of the chest, that there is
at no time any vacant spot ; and the more numerous contents
of the abdomen are so disposed, that while each has suffi-
cient freedom for the proper performance of its functions,
yet the whole are packed away with the most economical
care : there is no void whatever to be found.
SKELETON OR BONY STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP.
The skeleton of animal bodies is formed of bone, a sub-
stance possessing firmness and stability for the attachment
of muscles, the protection of the vital organs, and the sup-
port of the softer parts. It is composed of animal matter
and earthy salts ; the former consisting of cartilage, gelatine,
and fat or marrow, and the latter of phosphate of lime in
considerable proportion, a lesser quantity of carbonate of
lime, and a small portion of other salts. The cartilage of
bones is formed before the earthy matter, and constitutes, in
fact, the nidus in which the latter is deposited. Bones can
be freed from their earthy portion by immersion in an acid,
by which process the gelatine is also dissolved, and pure
cartilage is left, which is elastic, but retains the original fig-
ure of the bone. On the other hand, bones, by exposure to
a great heat, are deprived of the animal substance, and the
earthy part remains.
The use of the marrow is more particularly to prevent the
too great dryness and briitleness of bones. To the animal
portion of their composition they are, therefore, indebted for
their shape and what degree of elasticity they possess, and
from the. earthy portion they derive the important purposes
of strength and stability. Thus are these different elements
combined together, and by an union of their diflerent princi-
ples form a substance admirably adapted for affording full
scope for the play of the various organs of life, protecting
at the same time the vital parts from external injury, admit-
ting and assisting the powers of locomotion, and, in fine,
forming a secure fabric for the beautiful building of animal
frames.
Every bone is covered by a membrane called the perios^
teurn^ which also lines the internal cavities and secretes the
marrow ; its use is to circumscribe the form of bones and
protect them by its tenseness, as well as to afford the medium
THE BOXES OF THE HEAD. 297
whereby lliey are furnished with their vessels. The shape of
particular bones intimately corresponds to the purpose for
which they are intended ; where for the office of protection
we find them flat, and where for the purpose of motion, long
and cylindrical, as in the extremities.
THE BOXES OF THE HEAD.
In the construction of the skull the most perfect mechan-
ism is displayed. The first object to be obtained is the pro-
tection of the brain from the accidents to which, from the
peculiarities of animals, it is mostly exposed. For this pur-
pose the skull consi>ts of two tables or plates ; the outer
thick and tough, the inner hard and brittle : the former, by
yielding in a measure to resistance, diminishes concussion,
whilst the latter, by its hardness, prevents sharp bodies from
penetrating to the brain. Now, if these two plates were re-
versed, the brittle would not only be in great danger of frac-
ture, but would also vibrate considerably; and the injurious
effect of this vibration may well be conceived when we are
told that, even with the present wise precaution, it often oc-
casions in the human subject greater mischief than the most
serious fractures.
There is a remarkable difference in the appearance of the
head in the horned and the polled sheep ; the former have a
more pugnacious, and it may be a more sensible appearance,
owing to the elevation and projection of the upper part of the
head. This, however, is in appearance only, for the promi-
nence of the head is not formed by any increase in the brain,
but is owing to the considerable space which exists between
the two tables of the skull, the outer being half an inch or
upwards from the inner. This separation accomplishes two
purposes, one being the additional security it affords to the
brain by the interposition of this vacant space, and the other
the greater root or basis it afibrds to the horns. And when
we consider that horned sheep are generally more pugnacious
than others, and that they have not only the will, but the
power, of butting each other with great force, the additional
security is not without use. In fact the brain is seated so
much beneath and behind the forehead, that very little of the
shock can be communicated to it. This circumstance too
operates in affording protection to the polled sheep as well.
Between the skull and the brain are interposed several mem-
branes, which also assist materially in preventing vibration,
298 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP.
like a piece of parchment on the inside of a rummer glass.
The skull in quadrupeds is composed of upwards of thirty-
bones, which are connected together by dove-tailed sutures.
It used to be considered that the object of this extensive di-
vision of the bones was the convenience of ossification, which
always commences at the centre ; but a more extended view
has discovered other wise purposes ; for not only is the dove-
tailed suture the strongest mode of union, but it is also the
best adapted for securing the brain from injury, as it yields
considerably to the impression received, and thus wards off
both concussion and vibration. There is an exception, how-
ever, to this usual connexion in the temporal bones which
form the sides of the cranial cavity, and which are connect-
ed to the other bones by what is termed the squamous suture
— one bone, in fact, simply overlaps another. This union is
inferior in strength to the former ; but nature has here another
office to perform, and the reason of this exception will at once
be comprehended on examining the skull. If a considerable
blow be received on the upper portion of the arch, its sides
are the parts most likely to give way ; and to guard against
this consequence, the under bone overlaps the upper, and
thus acts like the tie-beam of an arch in keeping the parts
together. This dove-tailed suture does not connect the bones
of the inner table ; for, though a carpenter might find this mode
of union serviceable in joining the sides of a wooden box, it
would by no means be found applicable in connecting togeth-
er brittle substances, as it would be extremely liable to chip
off at the edges.
The cranial cavity, or that part which contains the brain,
is not more than a third the size of the other parts of the
skull, the remaining portions being devoted to mastication
and smelling.
There are no less than nine bones which enter into the
composition of the cranium. The two frontal bones form
the anterior part usually called the forehead ; but the inter-
nal plate of these bones separates and recedes from the ex-
ternal plate so as to form a cavity between them, which is
called the frontal sinus, and is divided by a septum or ridge
of bone between them. The internal plate forms a covering
for the anterior lobe of the cerebrum. In horned sheep the
separation of the plates of the frontal bones is considerably
greater than in others. The horns proceed on each side
from the frontal bone, and seem, as it were, prolongations of
THE BONES OF THE HEAD. 299
the bone ; for although externally we find the structure of
horn, internally we have bone, and between this horn and
bone we find the vascular structure by which both are secre-
ted. In many animals the age can be judged of by the horn,
which each year presents an additional ring round its base.
In the cow this is not an uncertain guide, and is owing to
the irregular growth of the horn at different periods of the
year, growing probably with greater force in the spring than
in the winter ; but in the sheep, although the same causes
obtain, yet it cannot be depended on with accuracy. At the
root of the horn we observe a cavity which communicates
with the frontal sinus.
The two parietal bones are proportionately shorter than in
the horse, and are situated at the upper and middle parts of
the cranium, and cover the middle lobes of the cerebrum, to
which their internal part closely corresponds.
The occipital, a single bone of great strength, is found at
the back and base of the cranium. Its internal surface
covers the cerebellum, and on a strong process at the base
the medulla oblongata rests. The external surface of this
bone is extremely irregular. At its lower and back part
is the occipital hole, through which the spinal cord, as well
as some nerves and an artery, make their exit from the brain.
On each side of this hole the bone is smooth and rounded
for the purpose of articulating with the atlas, the first bone
of the neck ; besides which there are several curious pro-
cesses for the attachment of muscles.
The temporal bones forming the sides of the cranium are
composed of two parts, the squamous and the petrous.
Though in man these pieces are united, yet in the sheep
they are distinct from each other. The squamous portion is
externally a convex plate with a hooked projection arising
from it ; this process assists in forming the zygomatic arch.
The squamous portion affords at the posterior part a shallow
cavity for the articulation of the lower jaw-bone. This gle-
noid cavity, as it is termed, is much deeper in carnivorous
animals, which require to open their jaws more extensively :
and an inspection of this portion of the skeleton alone will
enable the comparative anatomist to decide to what order
the animal might have belonged. In herbivorous races a
grinding lateral motion of the jaws only is required, and ac-
cordingly the articulation is wide and shallow. The zygo-
matic arch, too, is much more arched in the carnivora, in order
300 STRUCTUltE OF THE SHEEP.
to afford more room for the development of the temporal
muscle, which governs the jaw, than is required for the more
moderate exertions of herbivorous animals. The petrous
portion of the temporal bone, so called from its rocky nature,
is apparently a solid convex figure. It contains, however,
the organ ol" hearing, and has on its internal surface orifices
for the passage of the auditory nerve, and on the external we
fmd a larger orifice for the passage of sound. The internal
structure of this bone is as beautiful as it is curious, possess-
ing vestibules and canals for the ramification of the nerve,
and a singular cavity having a communication with the mouth,
in which are discovered four diminutive bones, with their
corresponding muscles, which serve the purpose of propaga-
ting and modifying the sound.
The inferior and middle parts of the cranium are formed
principally by the sphenoid, a bone which somewhat resem-
bles a bird in flight, having a bod}' and four processes, two
of which are called the wings and two the legs. This bone
supports the middle lobes of the cerebrum, and presents
holes and depressions for the passage of nerves. The cranial
cavity is separated from the nasal by the ethmoid bone, which
also somewhat resembles a bird in flight, but without legs,
and is situated in front of the bone last described. It sup-
ports the anterior lobes of the cerebrum, and has holes for
the exit of the olfactory nerves ; and on its internal and in-
ferior surface it forms cavities called the ethmoidal sinuses,
which are separated by a long septum from each other, and
are perforated by a vast number of small holes for the passage
of the olfactory nerves to the nasal cavities. It is this thin
part of the bone which is penetrated in the operation of
wiring giddy sheep. Such is a brief description of the
various bones which form the cranium and envelop the brain,
and which are connected together and arranged on principles
more durable and economical than can be displayed by the
noblest specimens of mechanical skill.
The face occupies a larger portion of the head than the
cranium, but is less in proportion than the ox and the horse,
and particularly the latter animal. Its upper part is formed
by the lower portion of i\ie frontal hones, which are consid-
erably longer in the sheep than in the horse, descending
much lower down, and in fact forming the roof of a great
portion of the nasal cavity. Another peculiarity in these
bones is, that whereas in the horse they descend in a straight
THE BONES OF THE HEAD. 301
direction, in the sheep, just above the orbit, they form almost
a right angle.
The nasal bones are much less developed in the sheep
than in the horse.
The superior maxillary bones, though relatively smaller
than in the horse, yet form a great portion of the face, ex-
tending the whole length of the molar teeth, for which these
bones form suitable sockets, and laterally from the molar
teeth to the frontal and nasal bones. Within the cavity of
the mouth these bones form the roof of the palate, being
united together by a suture. This portion of these bones is
wider though shorter than in the horse, so that the molar
teeth are farther apart, and the mouth thus gains in width
what it loses in length. Thus situated, these bones have
three surfaces — the facial, the nasal, and the palatine. At
the superior part of their palatine surface we find what are
called the palate bones, which, in the horse, chiefly consist of
narrow curved bones, forming tosfether the semi-oval border
dividing the cavity of the mouth from that of the nostril, and
serving for the attachment of the soft palate. In the sheep,
however, these bones extend further down into the mouth,
and form, indeed, a portion of the palate, which, in the horse,
is formed of the maxillary. The border, too, instead of
being nearly semi-circular, is almost conical, from being so
very narrow. The consequence of this structure is, that the
upper entrance to the cavity of the nostrils is much less in
proportion than in the horse, and the soft palate is less de-
veloped, so as not to close the cavity of the mouth. The
nature of the sheep corresponds with this structure : not
being an animal of speed, it does not require to inhale so
much atmospheric air ; and the purposes of rumination re-
quire the food to ascend from the stomach to the mouth,
which it could not do if the soft palate were developed, as in
the horse, where it closes the back part of the mouth, except
when food is passing from the mouth towards the stomach.
The anterior or inferior maxillary bones, which are want-
ing in the human subject, are attached above to the superior
maxillary bones, and thence descending and enlarging, in the
horse form the sockets of the upper incisor teeth, but in the
sheep and other ruminating animals not possessing these
teeth, they become smaller instead of larger as they descend,
merely forming the basis of the hard pad which meets the
under incisor teeth.
26
302 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP.
The molar bones, comparatively larger in the sheep than
in the horse, and irregular in shape, are situated on the
sides of the face above the large maxillary, and partly
within and partly without the orbit of which they form the
lower part.
The lachrymal bones, so called because the lachrymal
duct for the conveyance of the superfluous tears to the nos-
trils passes through them, is situated about half within and
half without the orbit, the latter portion being between the
molar and frontal bones — a diflferent arrangement from that
which obtains in the horse. The orbit or bony socket which
contains the eye is thus composed of a variety of bones.
There is a long but very thin bone called the vomer, situ-
ated at the floor of the nostrils, and running throughout their
length, and having a groove into which is imbedded the car-
tilaginous substance which divides the nostrils into two equal
cavities.
The posterior maxillary or lower jaw bone is formed of
two halves, united at the inferior part by cartilage in the
young subject and by bone in the adult. This united por-
tion forms the sockets for the eight incisor teeth, which
sockets, however, are by no means so deep or so strong in
proportion as in the horse, and thus it is common for sheep
to lose or break these teeth soon after they are fully devel-
oped. From the place of junction the lower jaw bones sep-
arate and gradually recede from each other, becoming wider
and deeper, and forming strong and secure sockets for the
molar teeth, after which the bones become thinner, turn up-
wards, and terminate in two extremities, one rounded, which,
with the temporal bone above, forms the maxillary joint,
which is secured from displacement by a hook-like projec-
tion which is the other termination of the lower jaw bone.
The bones which we have mentioned as composing the
face are none of them solid in their structure, but most of
them hollow, and thus various cavities or sinuses are formed
which are called after the bones in which they appear. Ac-
cordingly we have the frontal, the maxillary, the sphenoidal,
the ethmoidal, and the palatine. The frontal are the largest
and most important, particularly in the horned sheep, in
which they are partly divided into cells and communicate
with other sinuses immediately surrounding the horn. These
singular cavities are not found in the young subject, but are
gradually formed as the size of the head increases. They
THE BONES OF THE BODY. 303
thus serve the important purpose of increasing the size of
the head without adding to its weight.
THE BONES OF THE BODY.
The neck is formed by seven bones, which, with the ex-
ception of the two first, are very much alike. The first is
connected with the occipital, or bone of the skull, with
which it forms a joint possessing much motion in a vertical
direction. In the human subject it is termed the atlas, from
its supporting the head. It forms a joint behind with the
dentata, as the second bone is termed, from its having in the
front part a process like a tooth, which, however, aflbrds the
head considerable lateral motion. All the bones of the neck
are extremely irregular in shape ; they all possess a large
hole through the centre for the passage of the spinal marrow,
and small ones at the sides for the exit of nerves and arte-
ries. They have also projections on each side and above
for the attachment of muscles, and each one forms a joint
both before and behind which affords that great flexibility
to the neck which most animals possess.
The back or chine is composed of separate bones called
vertebrae, of which there are thirteen belonging to the back
alone. They all possess, like those of the neck, a hole
through the centre for the passage of the spinal cord, as well
as a small one at the side for the exit of the nerves. The
superior projections or processes are much higher than those
of the neck, but considerably shorter than we find in the
horse ; and thus we have high withers in this animal and
low ones in the sheep, and they are also shorter in the im-
proved breeds than in the wilder races of sheep, a channel
between the shoulders and along the back being justly re-
garded as a sign of a disposition to fatten. These processes
serve for the attachment of muscles, as well as of a strong
elastic substance which is attached to all the bones of the
neck as well as to the occiput, and serves to support the
head, and thus relieves the muscles to a great extent.
The ribs are attached to the vertebrae by means of a joint
— one rib is joined to two vertebrae, and vice versa, thus af-
fording the ribs a certain extent of motion. There are thir-
teen ribs on each side, eight true and five false ; the former
are attached to the sternum or breast-bone, and the latter are
merely joined to the former at their lower parts, which is
formed of cartilage. The ribs should spring from the back
304 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP.
bone as horizontally as possible, as thereby the rotundity of
the frame is increased.
The loins are formed by five bones, which partly resem-
ble the bones of the back ; but instead of ribs springing
from the sides there are fixed bony processes, several inches
in length, which aflbrd a protection or roof for the abdomen.
These processes, in a well-formed sheep, should be long
and horizontal.
After the loins the spine continues in the sacriun, which,
in the lamb, is composed of separate pieces, but is consoli-
dated into one bone in the sheep. This bone is perforated
for the passage of the spinal cord, which, however, dimin-
ishes in size, and terminates at the end of the sacrum in
several nerves which run to the tail. The bones of the tail
are numerous, but are not perforated.
THE BONES OF THE FORE EXTREMITIES.
The joints or articulations of the extremities are the same
in number as those of the horse, but the limbs, on reaching
the fetlock joint, become divided, and the four bones situated
below the fetlock are consequently double. The scapula or
blade-bone is similar in shape to that of the horse, having a
spine or ridge down its middle for the attachment of mus-
cles, but in sheep the bone is not so long in proportion to its
width. It is attached to the ribs by muscular substance, by
means of which the body is suspended or hung like a car-
riage between the two fore-legs, and concussion is thereby
materially diminished. From the more circular shape of the
ribs the shoulder blades are attached to them with much less
mechanical advantage as far as speed is concerned. They
are placed wider apart, both above and below, but particu-
larly at their lower parts, so that the limbs spread open, at
a greater angle, much more like a pair of compasses than
do those of the horse, and even the ox, thus giving the
sheep that rolling walk so peculiar to the animal and so dis-
advantageous with regard to speed.
The humerus, or shoulder-bone, strong and cylindrical,
forms with the blade above the shoulder-joint, the action of
which, with that of the elbow-joint below, is more limited
than that of the horse.
The radius or bone of the fore-arm is comparatively
shorter than that of the horse, and we find that it is always
THE BOXES OF THE FORE EXTRExMITIEIS. 305
long in animals of speed and short where speed is not re-
quired : this bone is also strong and cylindrical.
The ulna, or bone which forms the elbow, does not sup-
port the weight, but serves for the attachment of the power-
ful muscles so conspicuous in a shoulder of mutton and
which are generally divided by the first cut. For this pur-
pose it is attached to the radius, and rises above the elbow-
joint, the back of which it forms, but does not reach the
knee. This joint, the carpus, is composed of seven bones,
arranged in two rows, the upper of which articulates with
the radius, and the lower with the cannon or metacarpus.
The metacarpus or shank much resembles that of the
horse, until it reaches the fetlock, where it is to some little
extent cloven, so as to articulate with the double arrange-
ment of the bones below. Instead of the two small meta-
carpal or splent-bones that we find in the horse, there is
merely one, and that of small extent and use.
The small bones situated at the back of the fetlock, called
the sesamoids, and which serve as levers for the attachment
of ligaments and the action of the sinews, are double those
of the horse, being four in number.
The bones below the fetlock, viz., the large pastern or os
suffraginis, the small pastern or os cototkb, the os pedis or
coffin-bone, and the navicular bo?ie, are all double, and, like
the same parts in the ox, somewhat resemble in shape the
bones of the horse sawn in two.
All these joints have less extent of motion than we find
in the horse, and the bones therefore present a more upright
appearance. In the horse and in the ox an angle is formed
at the fetlock with various degrees of obliquity, and the three
bones below pass down in a straight line though in an ob-
lique direction. In the sheep, however, there is a different
conformation ; the large pastern-bone passes down in an ob-
lique forward course, as in the ox, but the small pastern de-
scends in a perpendicular direction so as to form an angle
with the bone above almost as great as, though precisely op-
posite to, that of the fetlock-joint. This it is which gives
the more upright appearance to these parts in sheep, though
the cause is not externally visible, and it throws the centre
of gravity on the back part of the coffin-bone and on the
horny heels of the foot. The small pastern bone is rela-
tively longer than in the horse, and there is more motion in
26*
306 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP.
the pastern-joint, though much less in the fetlock ; indeed
the action of the former is quite as much as the latter.
Though not belonging to the skeleton, this will yet be the
most convenient situation for noticing the structure of the
other parts of
THE FOOT.
The bones dividing at the fetlock, the tendons likewise,
both before and behind, become divisible, and there are con-
sequently two flexor tendons or benders and two extensors to
each division. The former, as in the horse, consists of a
perforans and a perforatus, the latter forming a sheath for
the perforans just above the fetlock, in which it continues to
the small pastern-bone, into which the perforatus is inserted.
The perforans then glides over the back of the navicular
bone, which forms a sort of pulley, and is inserted into the
lower and back part of the coffin or foot-bone. Of the ex-
tensors one is inserted into the upper and front part of the
small pastern, and the other is continued to the coffin-bone.
These bones are connected together by capsular and other
ligaments, and there is one very strong one in particular, which
passes from the lower, inner, and anterior part of the large
pastern in a perpendicular direction to the inner and back part
of the coffin-bone. To the lower and back part of the coffin-
bone is attached an elastic pad of a fibrous and ligamentous na-
ture, which receives the greater part of the superincumbent
weight, and by yielding to it takes off the jar. It rests on
the horny heels of the foot, which thus supports the principal
part of the animal's weight, very little resting on the anterior
portion of the foot. It is thus very evident that there is a
considerable difference both in the structure and functions of
the various parts of the foot in the sheep and in the horse.
In the latter we find that the crust or wall of the foot is con-
nected to the coffin-bone by means of a double arrangement
of a vast number of horny and fibrous plates, the former
connected with the inside of the crust, and the latter with the
coffin-bone. These laminae, as they are called, are dove-
tailed together, and thus the connection is rendered of great
strength ; and the vast extent of surface thus afforded, and
the elasticity of the parts, obviate concussion, and afford,
indeed, an admirable spring and a principal cause of the
elastic tread of the animal. In the ox we observe an ar-
rangement somewhat similar, though the laminae are much
BIFLEX CANAL. 307
less developed ; but in the sheep, so little weight being sup-
ported by the crust and front part of the foot, such a com-
plicated structure is not required, consequently we find no
laminae, but the crust is connected to the bone by a simple
vascular structure, which secretes the principal part of the
crust, in the same manner as the sole or lower part of the
foot is formed. The coronary substance which in the horse
secretes the greater portion of the crust is wanting in the
sheep. The sole of the foot is secreted as in the horse by
the vascular membrane above, and there is a greater thick-
ness of this dense substance interposed between the coffin-
bone and the sole of the foot.
We can thus understand from this description how it is
that the horn of the foot is so speedily restored in sheep
when the hoof is lost in foot-rot or the epidemic by the matter
insinuating itself between the horn and the bone : it has not, as
in the horse, to wait for the slow and tedious growth of the horn
from the coronet downwards. The inside of the crust is con-
siderably thinner and weaker than the outside, particularly
towards the back part, where foot-rot most frequently com-
mences.
The horny part of the foot may be considered to consist of
the crust, or wall, and the sole. The former surrounds the
outside of the foot and turns inwards at the toe, and passes
in a straight direction to the heels. It is thickest at the toe
and thinnest on the inside. The sole is situated at the bot-
tom of the foot between the outer and inner part of the crust,
but it is difficult to say where the crust ends or the sole
begins, the structure of each being so much alike. The
heels are formed both by the crust and the sole, though princi-
pally by the former, which turns inward and joins the inner
crust, and it here becomes more elastic and spongy, resem-
bling very much the frog of the horse. This part supports
the principal part of the weight, and suffers most when sheep
are driven much on the hard road.
We have yet to notice a very singular peculiarity in the
foot of the sheep, which is the
BIFLEX CANAL.
The large pastern-bones are connected together by liga-
mentous substance, and it is not till the pastern-joint that the
foot becomes exteriorly disunited. At the situation of this
joint in front we can detect a small opening sufficiently large
308 STRUCTURE OF TIIE SHEEP.
to admit a small probe ; this is the entrance of the canal just
spoken of, which presently enlarges, and passes first down-
wards, and then winds round in a semicircular direction,
ending in a sort of cul de sac. On cutting into this canal it
appears to be a duplication of the skin ; its internal surface
is lined with hair, and there is found a considerable quantity
of detached hair mixed with a waxy secretion in the canal,
secreted by various glands. This hair is no doubt excreted
from the internal surface, and which, from the smallncss of
the opening, cannot escape, or rather is detained for a useful
purpose. The use of this canal thus stuffed with hair is self-
evident. We have mentioned the great motion possessed by
this pastern-joint, which is so great as to threaten to chafe
the skin by the friction of one side against the other. It is
to prevent or ward off' this friction that these biflex canals, or
rather hair-stuff'ed cushions, are provided ; and they act, indeed,
precisely like the fenders which are lowered down the side of a
vessel to prevent it coming into contact with another. The ox
possesses little or no motion in this joint, and consequently re-
quires no such provision to prevent friction. The benevolence
of Nature is strikingly exemplified by this simple structure.
This part occasionally suff'ers from the insinuation of dirt
and sand, and is subject to inflammation and ulceration, which
sometimes prove very troublesome.
THE HIND EXTREMITIES.
The haunch is formed by three bones in the young subject,
but these bones soon become consolidated into one, and is
called the pelvis or basin, within which is situated the blad-
der and part of the organs of generation. Viewing this bone
from below it appears pretty nearly circular within, but exter-
nally the circle is broken by various irregular processes, two
of which project upwards on each side the spine which lies
between ; then two others extend backwards below the tail
and are called the haunch bones, and two project laterally, and
are termed the hips. These bones project but little in a well-
formed sheep, being altogether clothed with flesh and fat.
The bones of the pelvis extend downwards and backwards
from the spine, and towards the inferior part form on each
side a deep cap or sock(;t, into which fits the upper part of
the thigh bone, which is formed like a ball so as to fit into
the socket. The thigh bone, or fcBmur, extends forward, and
is relatively longer in the sheep than in the horse. It is the
THE MUSCLES OR FLESH. 309
flesh surrounding this bone which composes the bulk of a leg
of mutlon. Its lower part forms with the tibia below the sti-
Jle joint, which is singular from having two cartilaginous bod-
ies within it ; and is protected in front by a small bone call-
ed the patella or knee-pan, which bone becomes a sort of
pulley, receiving the insertions of the very strong muscles
above, and is attached below to the tibia by strong ligaments.
The tibia or leg bone runs backwards from the stifle, and
is not so long in proportion as in the horse ; it corresponds
to the radius in the fore extremity, and it forms the upper
part of the hock joint.
This joint is composed of six bones arranged in rows so
as to form three articulations, but motion is confined to that
formed by the astragulus or knuckle bone and the tibia ; the
other bones serve as cushions to diminish concussion, with
the exception of the os calcis, situated at the back, which acts
as a lever receiving the insertions of the powerful muscles
which straighten the hock. This bone is much shorter than
it is in the horse, speed not being required. The bones be-
low the hock correspond with those found below the knee in
the fore extremity.
THE MUSCLES OR FLESH.
Although the shape of the body depends materially on that
of the skeleton, so that if the latter is anywise faulty the for-
mer wall not be perfect, yet there is a very great contrast be-
tween the appearance of the skeleton and that of the body
itself, of which it forms a part. Whilst the former is angu-
lar and extremely irregular, the latter is round and smooth,
so that though the good shape of the animal depends on the
skeleton, yet it requires the eye of the anatomist to detect, in
the conformation of the latter, the good points which in the
body itself are readily observed.
The bulk of the body is formed of flesh or muscles ; their
principal use, when living, is to effect the movement of the
limbs ; when dead, to afford nutriment to man. The motion
of the body is occasioned by the contraction of the muscles,
which, being fastened to different bones, draw these bones
towards each other, and thus the limbs are bent whenever
particular muscles shorten or contract. These muscles,
which bend the limbs, are called the flexors, whilst an oppo-
site set which straighten them again, are denominated the
extensors ; the latter, however, are mostly smaller and weak-
310 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP.
er than the former. The size and shape of muscles are very
diversified, some being so minute as to be scarcely visible, as
those within the ear ; whilst others, namely, those of the
loins and buttocks, are large enough to afibrd a feast for sev-
eral persons ; some muscles are thin and spread out like a
fan, others are thick and bulky, and whilst some are extreme-
ly short, others are cylindrical and of great length. Muscles
are furnished with nerves both of motion and sensation : the
former convey the mandates of the will, and are thus the
cause of motion ; the latter communicate the sense of feeling,
and are the medium both of pleasure and pain ; but there is
considerably less degree of feeling possessed by the flesh
than by the skin. The muscles are composed of fibres, and
are bound together by cellular membrane, and they are, in
sheep, mostly clothed with fat, which also is deposited amongst
the fibres. It is the capability of containing this fat, and the
abundance and laxity of the membrane containing it, which
distinguishes a sheep of a good from one of a bad breed,
and gives to the former that softness and elasticity or resil-
iency which is felt on handling it, even when poor. The
former sheep, too, possesses large muscles, particularly at
those parts where the meat is most esteemed. Thus the
loins of a good sheep are broad, and abundantly covered with
flesh and fat, and so likewise are the buttocks and the shoul-
ders, whilst the head and neck are small. The muscles that
are in most constant use are more interlaced with tendinous
fibre, and consequently are much less tender, as meat, than those
which are less actively engaged. The muscles of the lower
part of the legs between the knees and hocks and the joints
above, as well as those of the neck and head, are instances
of the former kind ; whilst the muscles of the loins, and more
particularly those within the pelvis, are examples of the lat-
ter, and afford the most tender meat in the body.
THE BRAIN AND NERVES.
The brain, the seat of the mind, and the fountain of sen-
sation, is a soft body, situated in a cavity of the skull called
the cranium. In man it occupies by far the greater portion
of the skull ; but, in the sheep, from its much smaller size,
and from the large space devoted to the face, its cavity, the
cranium, is much the smaller part. It is closely invested by
a membrane called the pia mater, whilst the cranium is lined
by a firm, strong membrane called the dura mater. Between
THE BRAIN AND NERVES. 311
these there is another delicate membrane called the tunica
arachnoides. The dura mater, by its duplications, forms sev-
eral processes and sinuses ; the former, by descending be-
tween its divisions, serve to secure the brain in its position,
and the latter act as reservoirs for the venous blood, thus pre-
venting the brain from being injured by any temporary im-
pediment in its passage.
The pia mater closely embraces the brain, and dips into
its convolutions. The brain consists of three parts — the
cerebrum, the cerebellum, and the medulla oblongata.
The cerehrum is considerably the largest, and is divided
into two hemispheres, each of which closely corresponds
with its fellow.
On cutting into the cerebrum, we find that it consists of
two portions — the medullary or white, and the grey or corti-
cal part. The latter is mostly situated towards the surface,
and the former towards the centre, but both appear to run
into each other. Within the hemispheres there appear to be
various cavities, canals, and membranes, which, in this work,
it is unnecessary to describe.
The cerebellum, or little brain, is situated behind the
cerebrum, than which it is considerably smaller. It appears
to consist of medullary and cortical substance mingled to-
gether.
The medulla oblongata, the smallest division, is situated
at the base of the brain. It is medullary in its structure,
and gives origin to the greater part of the cranial nerves.
It is by far the most sensible part of the brain, for whilst
portions of the cerebrum have been cut away in some ani-
mals without giving any apparent pain, the least pressure on
the medulla is productive of injury or death. The brain is
largely supplied by means of the carotid arteries with blood,
which is returned to the heart by the jugular veins.
The spinal marrow may be considered as the continuation
of the brain, running from the medulla oblongata, throughout
the spinal canal, to the tail. It is enveloped by the same
membranes as the brain, and continues to the sacrum, where
it ends in several nervous cords. Its form is cylindrical,
and it has been found to consist of six bands, in the centre
of which there is a sort of canal. The nerves arising from
the brain and spinal cord, in sheep, are forty pair, ten of
which proceed from the brain and the remainder from the
cord, and are therefore called the spinal nerves.
312 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP.
On examining a nerve, we find that it consists of a vast
number of white filaments, each having its particular cover-
ing, and yet compactly bound together and invested by
membrane.
Of the cranial nerves the first pair is the olfactory, the
nerve of smelling, pulpy in its structure, and the largest in
the body. It rises from the cerebrum, passes out of the
cranium, and is spread out on the membrane lining the nos-
trils.
The second pair, the optic, rise from the cerebrum, but,
before they pass out of the skull, join together and decussate,
the right nerve going to the left eye, and vice versa. Each
takes an oblique course, pierces the outer coats of the eye,
and is spread out in the form of the retina, and thus conveys
the impressions of objects to the brain. The sense of hear-
ing is supplied by a soft nerve, the auditory, which enters
an orifice in the temporal bone, where the seat of hearing is
contained. The sense of taste is supplied by the fifth,
which is a compound nerve, conveying both sensation and
motion. The other cranial nerves convey sensation and
motion to the various parts of the head ; but there is one
nerve which demands more particular notice. This is the
par vagum, or pneumo-gastric of the French. It rises from
the brain, passes down the neck close to the carotid artery,
and distributes branches to the pharynx, larynx, and oeso-
phagus, heart, lungs, stomach, and liver. If divided on
both sides in the living animal, death immediately ensues.
Its importance may thus be readily conceived ; it is inti-
mately connected with life itself, giving to the heart and
stomach their power of motion, independent of the will.
The spinal are compound nerves ; having a double function
and a twofold origin, they convey both sensation and motion.
They arise by numerous filaments from both the upper and
under surface of the spinal cord. The filaments coalesce,
and, before they emerge from the dura mater, join together,
previous to which the upper nerve forms a sort of knot called
a ganglion. This latter is the nerve of sensation, the other
the nerve of motion ; and thus, though united together, the
filaments are yet distinct, and a part is endowed mostly with
sensation, or with motion, according as the filaments of the
former or the latter predominate.
There is yet another nerve which requires to be noticed
ORGANS OF MASTICATION. 313
as being of great importance. It has been called the gan-
glial, from the nature of its apparent origin, and sympathetic,
from its functions, but more properly the great organic nerve.
It appears to arise from a small red ganglion or knot at the
base of the brain, and just previous to the commencement
of the spinal cord. It appears to have intimate communica-
tion with all the other nerves, and distributes branches to all
the glands, arteries, and absorbents of the system — the heart,
lungs, and digestive organs ; it is the soul, as it were, of the
organic system, influencing the functions of nutrition and se-
cretion.
We have before observed that the brain of the sheep is
small as compared with the size of the body. In fact, the
whole nervous system is, as it were, feebly developed, and
this peculiarity has a considerable influence over the diseases
of the animal, and accounts for the fact that in the greater
number debility quickly supervenes, and in many the animal
speedily sinks.
THE ORGANS OF MASTICATION, ETC.
The mouth of the sheep and its contents are admirably
adapted for their natural functions. The sheep is intended
by Nature to thrive on scanty pasture and to take a consider-
able bite, and much closer to the ground than the ox. The
lips are therefore protected by hair, which defends them
from injury from the ground ; they approach somewhat to a
point, and the upper lip is cleft, which suits it well for the
purpose.
The incisor teeth or nippers, like those of the ox, are sit-
uated only on the lower jaw, the upper having instead a firm
fibrous pad, sufficiently strong to retain the food between it
and the teeth. The incisor teeth are eight in number in a
perfect mouth, but the lamb, when dropped, has only two,
and sometimes none visible, but in a few weeks the others
make their appearance : these, however, are but temporary
teeth, smaller than the permanent ones, and adapted to the
size of the mouth. By two years old the central teeth drop
out, and are succeeded by two larger and stronger teeth — the
permanent. These teeth are formed within the sockets in
the bone some time previous to their appearance, and pressing
against the root of the temporary incisors, gradually induce
their absorption. By three years old the two next teeth
have undergone the same change, and are succeeded the
27
314 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP.
followincr year by those adjoining, so that by five years the
whole eight teeth are thus renewed, and the sheep is then
said to be full-mouthed. Although the order and period of
these changes are sufficiently regular to ensure them as a suffi-
cient criterion for a general rule, yet it is not without exception,
as sometimes the permanent teeth appear much earlier, and
at others their appearance has been protracted to a later
period.
After the sheep becomes full-mouthed, there is no method
of judging of the age with accuracy, but the teeth rarely
remain perfect long, particularly if fed on turnips ; some of
them are lost or become broken, and the sheep is then said
to be broken-mouthed.
The incisor teeth are somewhat conical in shape, the point
being inserted in deep sockets ; the portion visible is covered
by a very hard transparent material called the enamel, and
it is brought to a sharp edge at the anterior part, so that it
cuts very much like a chisel. Compared with those of the
horse the incisor teeth appear somewhat loose, but this is
rather an advantage than otherwise. The food, being em-
braced between the incisor teeth and the pad above, is torn
asunder by the nodding action of the head, and the food is
conveyed by the tongue to the molars or grinders. When
turnips, however, form the diet, the food is scooped out, as
it were, by the teeth alone, and they are consequently sooner
worn out and broken ; but even otherwise, this effect gener-
ally follows a few years after the mouth becomes perfect.
The molar teeth are six in number, on each side of each jaw ;
they are firmly planted in deep sockets, and their faces are
covered with enamel. These faces are very irregular, but
admirably adapted for tearing and grinding the tough and
unyielding grass ; and they are also secured in their positions
by means of the gums, which, in common with the other
parts of the mouth, are covered with a mucous membrane,
and in some parts a firm dense material is interposed between
the mucous membrane and the bone.
The sides of the mouth are formed by the cheeks, which
are composed of skin and membrane sufficiently loose to
admit the limited motion of the jaws ; they are connected
with the powerful masseter muscles, which form the greater
part of the bulk of the face, and principally occasion the
grinding motion of the jaws. In the skull we find the lower
jaw considerably narrower than the upper, but in the living
ORGANS OF MASTICATION. 315
animal this does not appear, the space being occupied by the
masseter muscles.
The lips greatly assist in gathering together the food, and
are largely furnished with the nerves of feeling ; they are
composed of skin, muscle, and membrane, and possess the
powers of motion and sensation in a high degree.
The mouth is abundantly supplied with a watery fluid
called saliva, particularly during mastication, when it is se-
creted and poured in in considerable quantities. This fluid
is principally secreted by three pairs of glands, the largest
of which are the parotid, situated at the root of each ear,
and from which two ducts on each side convey the fluid and
unite in one previous to entering the mouth. The submaxil-
lary glands are situated under the jaws, and their ducts ter-
minate in tubular eminences near the fraenum or bridle of the
tongue. The other salivary glands are the suhlinguul, situ-
ated under the tongue : its ducts terminate rather higher up
than those last described. Besides these there are other
small glands connected with the cheek and the bottom of
the mouth ; and one peculiar to sheep situated behind the
lower jaw, and extending towards the eye, and communica-
ting with the mouth by means of a duct opening near the last
molar tooth. There is thus from these various sources an
abundant supply of saliva more copious than most animals
possess, and which is rendered necessary by the hard and
woody nature of the food consumed in a natural state. And
it has been found that a large supply passes into the stomach
independent of mastication, and is there required for softening
and macerating the dry food ; for, when deprived of this sup-
ply by an experiment, it has been found that the contents of
the paunch remained dry.
The mouth is principally filled with the tongue, which is
muscular in its structure and very flexible, being, indeed, a
principal agent in mastication and swallowing. It is larger
at the upper part than towards its tip, and is confined poste-
riorly to the muscles between the branches of the lower jaw,
by a sort of fleshy bridle, and above to a singularly shaped
bone called the os hyoides. It possesses both the power of
feeling and tasting, and for this purpose is well supplied with
two descriptions of nerves, and is covered by both cutis and
cuticle.
There is a marked distinction in the back part of the
mouth between the horse and the sheep and other rumina-
316 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP.
ting animals. In the former the velum palati, or soft palate,
a fleshy substance attached to the semicircular border ot the
palatine bones, is sufficiently long to fall down on the back
of the tongue, and thus effectually to close the back part of
the mouth, except when food is passing, and prevent either
the air or food returning through the mouth. Thus a horse
can breathe through his nostrils only, and whenever food is
vomited it passes in the same direction. The sheep being
a ruminating animal, such a structure would be inapplicable,
as it would prevent the food being returned to the mouth ;
consequently the soft palate is considerably shorter and nar-
rower. It does not reach the tongue, and the diminished
extent of the palatine bones, to which it is attached, as be-
fore observed, also limits its action.
The larynx, the pharynx, and the tongue are connected to-
gether and to the upper jaw-bone, or rather to the bones of
the head, by means of the os hyoides, so called from its re-
semblance to a spur. The semicircular part of the spur em-
braces, in a manner, the larynx, whilst the shaft is intimately
connected with the root of the tongue. The os hyoides has
two long appendages, which articulate with the temporal
bone. Thus situated and constituted, this bone gives great
support to the soft parts connected with it, whilst, at the
same time, it freely admits their extensive mobility. In the
act of swallowing, therefore, this bone is greatly called into
action.
Adjoining the pharynx are two large spaces called the
Eustachian cavities, situated one on each side, and commu-
nicating by means of a tube with the internal ear.
THE ORGANS OF DIGESTION.
The digestive organs of the sheep, like those of grami-
nivorous animals in general, are extensive and complicated,
having a far more difficult and elaborate office to perform
than those of carnivorous animals. The food of the latter
is taken, as it were, ready prepared; its constituents closely
resemble those of the blood itself, and, of course, it is ex-
actly similar to the flesh it is intended to nourish. A small
quantity of food only is required to be taken, and nearly the
whole of this food is employed in nourishing the system or
supplying its waste, the faeces being exceedingly scanty.
The digestive organs of herbivorous animals have a much
more onerous task to accomplish ; the food is in a more
ORGANS OF DIGESTION. 317
crude or less prepared state ; the nutritious portions bear a
much smaller proportion to the whole mass, and, accordingly,
the food taken is of very considerable bulk. To meet these
peculiarities the digestive organs are much more spacious
and more complicated than those of the carnivora ; means
are afforded for detaining the food until the nutriment can be
properly extracted, a larger amount of chemical and vital
force is employed, and a more abundant supply of nervous
energy afforded. The horse, in a state of nature, is almost
continually feeding ; he bites short and well triturates his
food, but is almost constantly so engaged ; and though, in a
domesticated state, the food is not so abundant nor so fre-
quently taken, it is in a much more nutritious form. Corre-
sponding to these natural habits, we find that though the ali-
mentary canal altogether is of enormous bulk, the stomach
itself is single and of moderate size. Digestion is almost
constantly going on ; food is passing out of one orifice of
the stomach as it comes in at the other, and the supply of
bile is constant, there being no reservoir for it — no gall-
bladder. The smallness of the stomach is compensated for
by the prodigious bulk of the large intestines. Thus the
horse, though an animal that requires a large quantity of food,
is yet able to perform great physical exertions, and can make
them after a full meal more readily than any other animal.
The ox, the sheep, and other ruminating animals, have,
like the horse, very extensive digestive organs, but very dif-
ferently arranged. The horse, in a state of nature, will
rarely get fat ; the ox and the sheep, in good pasture, will
almost invariably do so, and will otherwise greatly increase
in size ; the digestive organs are, therefore, more bulky than
in the horse, and much more complicated. The intestines
are of greater length, though not so large, and instead of
one stomach there are no less than four.
The natural food of the sheep is embraced by the joint
apposition of the incisor teeth of the under jaw and the
cartilaginous pad on the upper, and is separated mainly by
the action of the muscles of the head and neck, giving the
head an almost constant motion, which may be readily ob-
served when the animal is feeding on pasture. The grass
is torn off, not bitten ; but when turnips form the food the
teeth are more actively employed, and consequently are
more worn and become sooner lost. The food being mode-
rately chewed by the molar teeth or grinders, to which it is
27*
318 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP.
conveyed by the tongue, is by the same organ carried to the
back of the mouth, and being softened by the saliva and
thereby mixed with atmospheric air, enters a flesliy bag
called the pharynx or gullet.
This pharynx is lined by the same membrane as the
mouth, and is surrounded by, and, in fact, composed of vari-
ous muscles, which contracting force the food forwards into
a long tube called the oesophagus, which leads to the stomach.
The pharynx is situated inmiediately above the larynx or
cartilaginous box which forms the entrance to the windpipe,
and the food in entering the gullet passes over the entrance
to the larynx, which it is prevented from entering by a trian-
gular lid termed the epiglottis, which in the act of swallow-
ing shuts down on the larynx, but otherwise leaves it open
for the purpose of respiration. The food after leaving the
gullet enters the oesophagus, a very long tube lined internally
by a white insensible membrane, and externally by muscu-
lar coats, which, by contracting, force the food onwards to
the stomach. The oesophagus passes down the neck to-
wards its left side and somewhat above the windpipe, with
which it enters the chest between the two first ribs ; it then
takes an upward or ascending course through the cavity of
the chest over the base of the heart, passes the midriff or
diaphragm, and then descending soon afterwards reaches
the stomachs. On entering the chest it somewhat dimin-
ishes in size, but again expands in the abdomen. It does
not actually terminate in either of the stomachs, but in what
is called the oesophagean canal, which is about four inches
and a half in extent, and is formed above by a continuation
of the oesophagus, and below by a sort of muscular pillars
— duplications of the upper portions of the first and second
stomachs. Thus the oesophagean canal is a sort of lobby
or passage having entrances to the different stomachs, and
which, with the exception of the second and fourth, are the
only entrances these stomachs possess. By the annexed
cut it will be seen that the food duct commences at the en-
trance to the rumen, and for the space of three inches its
floor consists of muscular pillars or lips, formed by the up-
per part of the second stomach, the entrance to which is be-
tween these lips. The pillars then continue within the
cavity of the third stomach for the space of an inch and a
half to the entrance of the fourth stomach, the cavity of the
third being principally situated above, forming the roof of
ORGANS OF DIGESTION. Sl^
the oesophagean canal. The entrance, however, to the third
commences before the opening into the second stomach
ceases. The entrance to the fourth stomach is two inches
and a half in extent, and is formed by duplications of the
mucous and muscular coats of this viscus, which meet so
as to close the entrance when either the will of the animal
or the necessity of nature requires.
The usual course of the food is into the rumen or first
stomach, whose entrance is close to the termination of the
oesophagus and the entrance of the canal. This stomach is
of enormous extent, occupying, indeed, when full, nearly
three-fourths of the abdomen. It lies towards the left side
extending to the flank, and by a sort of muscular band it is
partially divided into two principal compartments. It is
lined externally by the peritoneal membrane, in common
with the other contents of the abdomen, and internally by
an insensible membrane, called the cuticular, between which
there are two other coats — the mucous, which secretes the
fluid found in the stomach, and external to this the muscular
coat, which is formed of two orders of fibres running in op-
posite directions. Its interior aspect presents a number of
pouches or compartments, which are formed by muscular
bands thrown across from one part to another ; and the sur-
face presents an innumerable number of papillae or eminen-
ces, not sharp, but blunt-pointed, which are formed by the
mucous coat and merely covered by the cuticular. These
papillae are coarser in the lower compartment of the viscus
than in the upper. We have said the rumen consists of two
compartments, but with greater propriety it may be stated
that there are three, a smaller one being situated immediately
below the termination of the oesophagus and adjoining the
second stomach. The use of these partial divisions is very
evident. They relieve one portion of the stomach from sus-
taining the whole of the weight of the food, and they afford
a sort of steps or resting-places for the food that has under-
gone maceration, the upper and smaller compartment being
that into which the food is raised just previous to being ru-
minated. The rumen is partly attached to the second stom-
ach, but only communicates with it through the common
opening into the oesophagean canal.
The second stomach is called the reticulum ; its size is
considerably less than the rumen, but it possesses much
strength in its coats, and its muscular fibres are more devel-
320
STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP.
INTERNAL VIEW OF THE STOMACHS.
ORGANS OP DIGESTION. 321
DESCRIPTION OF THE CUT.
A. The lower part of the (Esophagus, showing its external coat.
B. Its internal coat at its termination.
C. The upper compHrtaient of the rumen, or first stomach, showing its internal coat.
I). The strong mu-cular band which divides the lower from the upper compartment.
E. The lower compartment of the rumen.
F. Another muscular band.
G G. The external coat of the rumen.
H. The entrance to the rumen cut open, and its opposite part reflected Ijack, so as
to exhibit an internal view of the second stomach.
I. The external coat of the reticulum, or second stomach.
J J J J. The muscular pillars forming the floor of the CEsophagean canal whea
close, but now spread open to show the second stomach.
K K. .\n internal view of the reticulum, or second stomach, showing its peculiar
honeycomb structure.
L L. The continuation of the oesophagean canal at the entrance to the third
stomach.
M M. An internal view of the maniplus, or third stomach, showing its peculiar
folds or plaits.
N N. The fleshy lips, which act as valves to guard the entrance between them to
the fourth stomach.
O. The termination of the oesophagean canal.
P P. The external coat of the abomasum, or fourth stomach.
Q, d. The internal coat of the abomasum, or fourth stomach, showing its folds.
Both these coats are displayed by slitting open the stomach and then pinning
the duplications together, at its upper part.
R R. The valve formed by puckerings of the internal coat, and guarding the en-
trance into the small intestines.
S. The internal coat of the small intestines.
oped. It is globular in shape and somewhat larger than the
maniplus, and is familiar to us in tripe, not only from its cel-
lular structure, but from its being thicker than the others.
Its internal aspect is very singular, having a vast number,
indeed several hundred, of shallow cells somewhat like a
honeycomb. These cells are much smaller at the part of
the viscus nearest the entrance, and gradually increase in size
from this point. The sides of these cells consist of ridges
formed by the mucous and cuticular coats, and smaller ridges
are also observed running across within the cells. Most of
them are pentagonal, but many have six sides, and on their
surface we observe an immense number of sharp-pointed
papillae much smaller in size though sharper than those of
the rumen, and which secrete a mucous fluid. This viscus
has the same coats as the rumen, but the muscular coat has
two layers of strong fibres arranged both transversely and
longitudinally. The opening into this stomach is of some
extent compared to its size ; the duplications or lips which
form it are indeed the floor of the greater portion of the ceso-
phagean canal. Though in the ordinary state the roof or
upper part of the reticulum is the floor of the oesophagean
canal, yet if air is pumped into the cesophagus so as to dis-
322 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP.
tend the stomachs, the situation of the reticuhim will become
reversed, rising up towards the oesophagus ; and thus if this
viscus is disteiided in hoove, as from its free communication
with the rumen it probably is, it must press upon the dia-
phragm with very considerable force, greater in proportion
even that the rumen itself The contents of this stomach
are more liquid than those of the others.
Somewhat before the end of the entrance of the second,
the canal terminates, as it were, in the third stomach, the
maniplus or manifolds, so called from its curious internal
structure, which is formed by a great number of plaits or
folds arranged longitudinally in a direction from the entrance
of the stomach ; so that although it is not large, externally
not exceeding the reticulum, its internal surface is increased
in more than a tenfold degree. These plaits are very cu-
riously arranged, being in the form of seven or eight groups
of six leaves, each leaf dissimilar in length, the longest ex-
tending almost from the upper to the lower part of the stom-
ach. These leaves are studded with numerous small papillae,
much harder than those of the reticulum, and some on the
edges of the plaits of the shape of a bent cone, thus /Y ,
the point directed towards the entrance. It has been found
in certain cows that would never retain their food, but were
continually scouring, that these plaits were unusually short.
The maniplus has but one opening, but this opening is in
direct communication with both the canal and the fourth
stomach, as may be seen in the sketch, page 320. The
plaits are studded with numerous minute papillae, somewhat
similar to those found in the reticulum. The maniplus pos-
sesses four coats like the others, and its external appearance
is globular. Its contents are generally found of a much
harder consistence than those of the other stomachs.
This stomach, when full, is found above the oesophageal!
canal, forming, indeed, a portion of its roof, and its longest
leaves fall down, as it were, almost into that canal.
The ahomasum, as the fourth stomach is called, is, in fact,
the true stomach, being that which secretes the gastric juice
by which the food is converted into chyme. It is this pe-
culiar acid which gives it the power of coagulating milk, and
in calves it is particularly employed for this purpose in the
manufacture of cheese, under the term rennet.
ORGANS OF DIGESTION. 323
Externally this organ is somewhat conical in shape, its
apex being the part which joins the intestines. It possesses
three coats, like the other stomachs ; but its internal surface
is very different, being smooth and shining, and of a pale red
color. Its mucous membrane is, indeed, very vascular, and
this secretes the gastric juice. The internal surface is greatly
increased, and exceeds the external, by being in the form of
plaits, arranged longitudinally, but very different from those
found in the maniplus. The entrance to this stomach (its
cardiac opening) is close to the entrance to the maniplus ; it
is arranged somewhat in a crescentic form, and is situated at
one extremity of the base, whilst the pyloric opening, leading
into the small intestines, is, as before observed, situated at
the apex. Having thus described the situation and appear-
ance of the stomachs, an external view of which may be seen
at page 326, we must return to the consideration of the course
of the food through them.
The situation, the structure, and the size of the rumen
point it out as the first and general receptacle for the food,
which receives in the mouth only sufficient mastication to
enable the animal to swallow it. It is then received by the
rumen, and morsel after morsel is taken until this viscus is com-
paratively full. The animal then feels some repletion, and
rumination usually takes place, the animal generally prefer-
ring a recumbent posture. It has been shown, however,
that it is not the food just taken, but that which has been
swallowed some twelve or sixteen hours previously, that un-
dergoes the ruminating process. The food, indeed, is turned
and shifted about the stomach by its muscular action, and
well mixed with the fluid secreted by its internal surface :
it, of course, enters at first the superior compartment, from
which it passes to the inferior, and again enters the former
division ere rumination takes place. A tolerably full stom-
ach is necessary for the act ; for it has been found in sheep
that had fasted for several days that a tolerable portion of
food still remained in the rumen. Before rumination can take
place it is evident that the food must rise to the upper part
of the viscus and enter the oesophagean canal. What, then,
is its direction ? The liquid portion passes on in the course
of the canal ; but it is contended by some physiologists that
the second stomach, the reticulum, is the active agent in ru-
mination, and that the food enters it previous to its being re-
turned to the mouth, and they are supported in this opinion
324 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP.
by the muscular strength possessed by this viscus. In op-
position to this opinion it may be urged that it requires but
little more Ibrce to raise the food to the root of the oesopha-
gus than to the entrance of the reticulum, and also, that the
contents of the second stomach are of a more fluid nature
than those of the first. It is not to be supposed that all the food
taken is again ruminated ; it is only the hard indigestible
portion that undergoes the process. Rumination is assisted
by the pressure of the abdominal muscles and the diaphragm,
and the larger and more distended the stomachs the more
likely they are to receive assistance from these aids. Keep-
ing these facts in view, we are inclined to believe that both
the first and second stomach may have equal power in the
process of rumination. In accordance with this idea we must
suppose that a mass of food is raised from the rumen into the
oesophagean canal, that the hardest and driest portion is se-
lected by the root of the oesophagus, and that the other part
passes onwards, and whilst some portion may reach the third,
the great part will fall, as it were, through the trap-door into
the second stomach, there to undergo a further macerating or
digesting process. When this viscus is moderately full it
will contract on its contents, and first squeeze out the fluid
portion, which will, of course, pass onwards into the third
and fourth stomachs, whilst the solid part will be embraced
by the oesophagus and returned to the mouth.
It is evident that the functions of the oesophagus are much
more onerous than in non-ruminating animals, and according-
ly it is furnished with more muscular power ; the lower por-
tion particularly is surrounded with spiral muscles, by which
the selected pellet is first sent upwards.
It is not unlikely that some portion of the food may be
submitted two or more times to the process of rumination.
It is probable that the most liquid portion of the food at
once enters the fourth stomach, and that of a harder nature
the maniplus. The singular construction of this viscus evi-
dently shows that it must eflfect an important office, and it
has been found that in animals which through life have never
thriven well, notwithstanding that they have consumed a lar-
ger quantity of food than other beasts, the maniplus has been
imperfectly formed, the plaits being short so as to afford con-
siderably less surface than usual. The use of this stomach,
therefore, is to detain the food, to press it between its folds,
and to soften it by the secretion aflforded by its extensive
ORGANS OF DIGESTION. 325
surface, and thus to prepare it for the action of the gastric
juice in the fourth stomach, to which organ we now trace it.
In the young animal living entirely on its mother's milk,
the fourth is the only stomach employed ; it is, therefore,
then fully developed, whilst the others are small and imper-
fectly formed. The milk contains the elements of nutri-
tion in a much more perfect state than it exists in vegeta-
ble food. It requires but a little separation in order to fit it
for nutrition. As the young animal gradually becomes in-
ured to other food, the other stomachs become more devel-
oped. By the time the food reaches the abomasum it is in a
macerated pulpy state, and fit to be exposed to the powerful
solvent action of the gastric juice. This fluid is secreted in
abundance by the mucous coat of the fourth stomach. It is
a peculiar fluid, acid in its nature, and so powerful a solvent
that it has been known after death to dissolve a portion of
the coats of the stomach itself. It has in its composition
hydrochloric acid, and its action on the food is of a chemical
nature, converting it into chyme and rendering it into a fit
state for the other digestive processes. The food being thus
dissolved passes through the pyloric opening into the small
intestines ; this orifice has a valve-like construction (see p.
320), admitting the food to pass in one direction only, and
then not until it has been sufficiently acted on by the gastric
juice.
The small intestines are of considerable length in the
sheep, being upwards of sixty feet. In the human subject
it is customary to divide them into three portions, and they
are called the duodenum, the jejunum, and the ileum. These
distinctions are arbitrary even in man, but still more so in
the sheep, and, in fact, cannot be properly applied. The
first portion of these intestines (the duodenum in man) dif-
fers much from the rest. It lies comparatively loose, and
on opening it we observe a yellow substance, which is, in
fact, the bile, which enters by a duct or very small tube
some eighteen inches from the stomach, and at nearly the
same place another fluid flows in from the pancreas or
sweetbread. These fluids, it may be supposed, exercise an
important office in the process of digestion, and the early
portion of the small guts is the situation where the admix-
ture takes place.
The liver is a bulky organ whose size, general appear-
ance, and shape must be familiar to most people. Its weight
28
326
STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEF.
EXTERNAL VIEW OF THE STOMACH AND INTESTINES
Spread apart and arranged according to the following scale, so as to show thcii
actual and relative size.
1 font.
ORGANS OF DIGESTION. 327
DESCRIPTION OF THE CUT.
A A. The msophagus.
B B B B. The rumen, or first stomach, showing its compartments.
C. The reticulum, or second stomach.
D. The maniplus, or third stomach.
E. The abomasum, or fourth or true stomach.
F. The commencement of the small intestines at the pyloric orifice of the stomach.
G. The situation where the biliary duct empties its contents into the duodenum.
H H H. The small intestines freed from the mesentery, and arranged evenly, so as
to show their length.
I. The termination of the small and beginning of the large intestines, guarded by a
valve.
J J. The colon, or first large intestine.
K. The blind extremity of the colon, by some termed the ccecum.
L. The rectum, or straight gut.
in sheep is about one-fiftieth that of the carcase, and its spe-
cific gravity is somewhat greater than water. It is par-
tially separated into divisions or lobes, and is principally
situated towards the right side. Its office is to separate the
bile from the venous blood — that which has circulated through
a great portion of the body and is on its way to the lungs to
be re-purified. It is called a gland, and is, in fact, a fine
sieve or filter, having the power of separating a peculiar
substance from the blood and no other. It is supplied with
arterial blood for its own nourishment, but by means of a
large vein called the vena porta it is furnished with venous
blood for the exercise of its functions. The bile being thus
separated, is then conveyed into a reservoir attached to
the liver and called the gall-bladder, from which the gall-
duct rises, and enters the intestine about eighteen inches
from the stomach. Ruminating animals, in common with
man and the carnivora, are furnished with a gall-bladder,
whilst horses and the other solid ungulous animals do not
possess them ; the reason being that in the latter the diges-
tive process is continually going on, and therefore a constant
supply of bile is essential, while in the former the food is
either taken in distinct meals, as in man and the carnivora,
or otherwise the ruminating process is carried on and re-
newed at different periods, as in sheep and cattle — in either
case requiring large and copious supplies of bile to complete
the process of digestion. It must be evident from the exist-
ence of the gall-bladder in some species of animals and its
absence in others that the bile must perform an important
part in the digestive process. One of its functions is to
neutralize the acidity which the food or chyme has acquired
in the stomach by means of the gastric juice, and thus pre-
328 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP.
pare it for the separation of the chyle which may be seeii on
the surface of the food. For this purpose it is largely sup-
plied with an alkaline fluid, which unites chemically with the
acid of the chyme. The quantity of bile secreted by the
sheep in 24 hours is very considerable, probably from 3 lbs.
to 5 lbs. ; but we are not to suppose that its sole use is that
above stated, for it has been proved that the bile does not
pass away with the excrements, but is again taken into the
S3^stem to perform an important office to be noticed when we
speak of the circulation. Thus the liver separates that
which would be detrimental to the blood, and it supplies
what is wanted for digestion as well as for another important
process in respiration.
Besides the bile the duodenum receives a copious supply
of fluid of a thin watery nature from the pancreas. This
fluid closely resembles the saliva, and its principal use ap-
pears to be to liquify the contents of the intestines.
The remaining part of the small intestines understood un-
der the terms jejunum and ileum are confined to, and con-
nected with, the spine by means of a thin transparent mem-
brane called the mesentery, which not only supports the in-
testines, but prevents their entanglement, and serves as the
vehicle by means of which the arteries, veins, nerves, and
absorbent vessels are transmitted to and from the bowels.
Amongst these there are some very minute, though very
numerous vessels called the lacteals, whose office it is to
convey the chyle, a Avhite milky liquid resembling albumen,
from the intestines to a duct termed the thoracic, which
passes along the spine and terminates in a large vein just
previous to its arrival at the heart.
The composition of the chyle is very similar to the blood,
differing from it in little more than the absence of its color-
ing principles. The lacteals, of course, open into the inner
coat of the intestines, and the greater portion of the chyle
is taken from the food in the small intestines and in the ear-
liest portion of them in the greatest degree. The small in-
testines are remarkably long in the sheep, exceeding, indeed,
sixty feet, and this great length renders them capable of con-
taining much more than the large guts.
In man, the large intestines are distinguished as the cmcum,
the colon, and the rectum ; in the horse, these divisions like-
wise obtain, and with much more propriety than the artifi-
cial distinctions of the small guts. The caecum and the
THE URINARY AND GENERATIVE ORGANS. 329
colon in the horse commence almost close to each other,
but the former is a blmd gut, having but one entrance.
The sheep, however, can scarcely be said to possess a
caecum, unless we term the blind portion of the colon
by that name ; for the fact is, the small intestines terminate
in the large at a right angle with them (see I. in cut p. 120),
and the blind portion extends about a foot in one direction
from this angle and maintains its size for the space of two
feet.
The termination of the small intestines in the large de-
serves particular notice. The internal membrane of the
former projects into the latter so as to form a sort of valve,
which, admitting the faeces to pass forwards, effectually pre-
vents their passing backwards, and thus, too, prevents the
effects of clysters operating- beyond the large intestines.
The diameter of the colon is about treble thai of the small
intestines, but this increased size only reaches the extent
of three feet, when the intestine gradually diminishes to
about the size of the small guts, and so continues for about
nine feet, when it enlarges about a foot prior to its termina-
tion. This latter portion may be termed the rectum without
impropriety. Soon after the large intestines become narrow,
the faeces gradually become hard, and acquire the form of
small black, balls, in which state they are dropped.
The chyle, we have observed, is principally absorbed from
that portion of the small intestines termed the ileum ; there
is little or none remaining by the time the faeces reach the
large intestines, but the fluid absorbed from these guts is
principally of a watery nature.
THE URINARY AND GENERATIVE ORGANS.
The urine is separated from the arterial blood by means
of the kidneys, which are two large glands shaped like a
bean, situated within the abdomen, but attached firmly to the
loins. These glands are largely supplied with blood by im-
portant arteries ; and the urine being separated as by a filter
enters two long white ducts termed the ureters, one of which
rises from the pelvis or central notch of each kidney, and
passes on to the bladder, whose coats are pierced in an ob-
lique direction (which, forming a sort of valve, prevents the
urine returning) not very far from its extremity or fundus.*
* The urine of the sheep is much less copious than that of the cow,
28*
330 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP.
The bladder is situated partly in the pelvis and partly in
the abdomen, the latter part being comparatively free, whilst
the former is closely attached to the pelvis. The shape of
the bladder is too well known to need description. It be-
comes smaller as it approaches its posterior part, where it
contracts and forms the neck just prior to its opening into a
canal called the urethra. The bladder, although apparently
so thin, yet has three coats, the middle one of which is mus-
cular and possesses the power of contracting so as to expel
the whole of its contents when required, and the opening is
usually kept closed by a sphincter or circular muscle, which
relaxes when the bladder is being emptied. The urethra in
the ewe is very short, a few inches only in length, and it is
guarded by muscles which are employed both in expelling
the urine and in the act of procreation.
In the ram the urethra is of considerably greater length,
extending the whole length of the penis ; it forms an acute
angle at the perineum, just under the anus. The penis is a
muscular organ, having a very curious structure, which ena-
bles it to receive at times a considerably increased quantity
of blood, which causes the erection of the organ and fits it
for the purpose of generation. Its usual state, however, is
flaccid, when its use is confined to the ejection of the urine.
The vagina and uterus, or womb or lamb-bag, lies between
the rectum above and the bladder below, and though much
within the pelvis in their ordinary state, yet when pregnant
they rise into the abdomen to a great extent. The vagina,
which commences a few inches within the body, is a cylin-
and, though less abounding m substances containing nitrogen, possesses
a larger proportion of salts. The following is an analysis of 100000
parts by weight : —
Water 96000
Urea, along with some albumen and coloring
matter 2800
Salts of potash, soda, lime, and magnesia, with
traces of silica, alumina, iron, and manganese . 1200
100000
This gives 4 per cent, more water than the urine of cows, than which it
is less fertilizing to the soil, if the latter is properly prepared ; but the
dung of sheep is much more nutritious than that of cows, and the urine
likewise, when dropped on pasture land, is more serviceable, in conse-
quence of the small quantity deposited at a time, and the less proportion
of caustic ammonia contained, so that it does not render the herbage
rank, as is the well-known effect of the fresh urine from cows.
THE URINARY AND GENERATIVE ORGANS, 331
drical cavity several inches in length, and opens into the
uterus by a round opening called the mouth of the womb,
which is naturally open, but becomes closed after impregna-
tion. Its shape corresponds with the extremity of the penis,
and these parts come into contact in the act of coition. The
womb consists of a body and two branches or horns. It has
the same number of coats as the bladder, but they are much
stouter and more so than those of the vagina. Attached to
the extremity of each horn by a membranous substance are
two red bodies called the ovaries, each of which consists of
a number of ova or eggs, the germs of the offspring, one of
which on being impregnated escapes into the uterus, and
thus, in the course of time, becomes a young animal ; some-
times, indeed, two or even three ova may be impregnated,
and twins or triplets are produced.
The testicles, or stones, as they are commonly termed, are
two oval glands situated in the scrotum, a sort of bag formed
by the skin and two membranes within, which are so dis-
posed as to form two separate cavities, each containing a
testicle. The testicles are first formed in the abdomen of
the foetus, and each possesses a covering closely attached to
the gland. They escape from the abdomen through the
openings called the abdominal rings and take with them por-
tions of the peritoneum, the membrane which lines the abdo-
men and its contents ; thus it is that they possess two coats
besides the skin. The abdominal rings remain open after-
wards, contrary to what takes place in the human subject,
so that a fluid can be injected from the scrotum into the ab-
domen, and thus it is that sometimes after the operation of
castration inflammation takes place and spreads upwards
into the belly and destroys the lamb. In those cases where
portions of the intestines are found in the scrotum they es-
cape from the abdomen, together with the testicle, and the
case is denominated congenital hernia. The testicles are
also each connected with the belly by means of the sper-
matic cord, which consists of a long slender muscle, nerves,
veins, arteries, and a strong hollow tube called the spermatic
duct. It is the latter which conveys the seminal fluid se--
creted by the singular structure of the testicle into the ure-
thra, where, after mixing with other secretions from some
small glands, it is forcibly ejected by the muscles of the
penis in the act of copulation.
The testicles are very large in proportion to the size of
33S STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP.
the animal, and are in keeping with the powerful seminal
powers possessed by the ram, and which enable him when
lull grown to serve properly eighty ewes or upwards.
THE CONTEXTS OF THE CHEST.
The mouth in the horse is almost entirely devoted to the
office of mastication. It is separated from the cavity of the
nostrils by a loose fleshy membrane called the velum palati,
which is confined to the bone above by a semicircular bor-
der, and falls downwards and backwards so as to prevent, in
a natural state, any communication between the windpipe
and the mouth. The sheep likewise possesses this velum
palati, but it is not so long, and therefore permits this animal
to respire through the mouth as well as the nostrils. The
importance of this construction is seen in the process of ru-
mination, and also accounts for the horse vomiting through
the nostrils, on those few occasions when this animal has
been known to vomit. The nostrils, however, are the prin-
cipal channel through which the air passes to and from the
lungs. Their entrance is comparatively small and confined ;
the sheep does not require so extensive a supply of air as
other animals that are called upon to make considerable ex-
ertions. The cavity of the nostrils is divided into two com-
partments by a thick cartilaginous substance, termed by
anatomists the septum nasi, fixed to the nasal in front, and
behind to the maxillary bones. This cartilage, as well as
the other parts of the nostrils, is lined by a fine delicate
membrane which secretes a mucus for its protection. It is
indeed an inflammation of this membrane which constitutes
a catarrh or cold, and an increase of its natural mucous se-
cretion is the discharge from the nose which is visible in
this disease. This membrane is called the Schneiderian,
from the name of its discoverer, as well as the pituitary, and
it is endowed with a high degree of sensibility, which it de-
rives from an abundant supply of sensitive nerves ; it is also
the principal seat of the sense of smelling, and for this pur-
pose the nerve devoted to this function is spread out on its
surface. This membrane also covers four curious bones,
thin and gauze-like in their structure, and rolled up like a tur-
ban, so that they are termed turbinated, and attached to the
chambers of the nostrils. These greatly extend the surface
on which the nerve of smell is diflfused, and consequently
CONTENTS OF THE CHEST. 333
increases the function of this sense, which sheep enjoy in
a very high degree. The nostrils at the upper and back
part terminate in a cartilaginous box called the larynx, which
is situated immediately beneath the pharynx or food-bag, so
that food, in passing into the latter, traverses the entrance of
the former, which, however, it is prevented from entering
by a triangular lid called the epiglottis : this lid in its usual
state is elevated from the glottis or entrance of the larynx,
so as to admit the free entrance and exit of the air, but the
passage of food forces it down so as to close the entrance
of the windpipe. The larynx is formed by four separate
cartilages besides the epiglottis just spoken of One is
shaped like a shield, and forms the front of the larynx and
great portion of its sides. Another below this is circular,
and two other smaller ones, shaped like an ewer, forms the
rims on which the epiglottis shuts down. The larynx is
lined throughout by a mucous membrane, which is endowed
with a high degree of sensibility, particularly at its upper
portion ; and thus when any foreign body accidentally en-
ters, or the mucus is in undue quantity, it excites the mem-
brane, and coughing is produced, by which it is expelled.
The idndpipe consists of a number of cartilaginous rings
connected together by elastic membrane so as to form a con-
tinuous tube passing down the front part of the neck, and
entering the chest between the two first ribs. The rings are
not completely cartilaginous, but the circle is made up of
membrane, the membranous part being on the upper portion
of the tube. This structure permits the windpipe to be bent
in any direction or compressed without injury, its elasticity
quickly restoring it to its former shape, or position. The
windpipe, on entering the chest, divides into two portions,
going to each division of the lungs ; and these subdivide into
others, which again ramify into numerous small tubes, which
ultimately terminate in very minute air-cells. The lungs,
which receive these terminations, form by far the greater
portion of the contents of the chest, which, however, it will
be proper to describe first.
The chest of the sheep, in common with most quadrupeds,
is unlike that of the human body, becoming narrow towards
the lower part and terminating like the keel of a ship ; a
form more favorable to the flexion and extension of the fore-
legs, as well as of the shoulder-blades, than any other.
This keel-like form is, however, much less developed in the
334 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP.
sheep than in the horse and many other quadrupeds. The
upper part of the chest is formed by the spine or back-bone,
the sides by the ribs, and the lower and front part by the
sternum or breast-bone. The number of ribs varies in dif-
ferent animals ; in man there are twelve, in the horse eigh-
teen, but in the sheep there are only thirteen pair. Each
rib possesses two heads or protuberances, each of which is
connected by a joint with two vertebrae or bones of the back,
and to the breast bone by means of cartilage. The sternum
or breast-bone, in young animals, is chiefly cartilaginous,
and may be separated into eight pieces ; it afterwards be-
comes divisible into four only, and with age is consolidated
into one. The ribs are externally convex, and are divided
into the true and false ; the former being situated anterior to
the others, and immediately connected with the sternum,
whilst the latter are implanted into each other at their carti-
laginous extremities, and are only connected with the breast
bone by means of the true ribs. Their connexion with the
spine, by means of a double joint, affords to the ribs a mo-
tion backwards and forwards, by which means the cavity of
the chest is enlarged or diminished. This motion, however,
is considerably less in quadrupeds than in man, for in the lat-
ter the rising and falling of the chest is seen in common
respiration, whilst in the former it is not perceived, unless
the breathing be embarrassed. The ribs are connected to-
gether by fleshy substance, termed the intercostal muscles,
which are disposed in an oblique course, by which means
their length considerably exceeds that of the space between,
one rib and another, so that a contraction of one-third their
length will bring the ribs together, which could not be the
case if the muscles took the shortest course from one rib to
another.
The chest is separated from the abdomen or belly by a
very singular and important muscle, called the diaphragm or
midriff, which is convex towards the chest when in a state
of rest. This muscle is shaped somewhat like a fan, and is
attached to the inferior extremities of the ribs and the spine,
by which means its position is rendered oblique, its develop-
ment more extended, and its action greater than it would
otherwise have been. The diaphragm, unlike every other
muscle, is fleshy at its circumference and tendinous at its
centre. The reason of this peculiar construction may be
thus explained : — the central part of the diaphragm is pierced
•THE BLOOD AND ITS CIRCULATION. 835
with two holes, for the passage of the oesophagus (the tube
which conveys food to the stomach) and the vein which
conveys the blood to the liver for the secretion of bile.
Now, if these important vessels were surrounded with mus-
cular substance, they would be forcibly compressed every
time the diaphragm contracted, and would in consequence
be liable to considerable injury ; but being surrounded with
tendinous substance, which possesses no such power of con-
traction, all danger of compression is at once removed, with-
out any sacrifice of strength or power in the muscle. The
diaphragm, when in a quiescent state, is convex towards the
chest, and when in action it becomes flat, thus enlarging the
cavity of the chest.
The thorax is everywhere lined internally by a thin se-
rous membrane, which secretes a fluid by which the sur-
face of the cavity is lubricated, and its contents are enabled
to glide upon each other without occasioning any friction or
inconvenience. This membrane is called the pleura, and
the portion which lines the chest itself is designated the
pleura costalis, while that which covers the lungs is distin-
guished as the pleura pulmonalis. This membrane divides
the chest into three cavities, one on the right side containing
the right lung, and the other two on the left side, the smaller
of which contains the heart and the larger the left lung.
The right lung is thus the largest, and consists of three
lobes or divisions, whilst the left lung only contains two.
These divisions of the chest do not communicate with each
other, so that if one cavity is injured, or air is admitted into
it, respiration can be carried on in the other.
The lungs are light spongy bodies, their specific gravity
being one-half less than water. They are composed of the
air-cells before spoken of, the bronchial tubes connected
with them, and a vast number of arteries, veins, and absorb-
ent vessels, the whole being connected together by cellular
substance, or parenchyma as it is termed : thus constituted,
the lungs are closely packed away in the cavity of the chest,
filling every part of it, so as to leave no vacant space what-
ever.
THE BLOOD AND ITS CIRCULATION.
The blood is by far the most important fluid in the animal
machine : it stimulates the heart to contract, secretes and
nourishes the various organs of the body, and supplies it
336 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP.
with heat ; and although it is the source whence other fluids
are obtained, it is yet a fluid sui generis, differing from all
others. Soon after it is drawn from the body it coagulates,
and then separates into two parts : the serum, a watery, col-
orless fluid, which floats on the top, and the crassamentum,
which appears of a firm consistency and a red color. The
serum is a peculiar fluid, and may be separated into its con-
stituent principles. If subjected to a temperature of 150®,
a portion is converted into a substance resembling albumen
or the white of an egg ; the other portion remains fluid and
is termed the serosity of the blood, and is that which consti-
tutes the gravy in meat. The serum contains several salts
in solution, the most abundant of which is soda. The
crassamentum is likewise divisible into two portions : the
cruor, w hich gives to the blood its purple hue ; and the
lymph, which is more solid in its nature, and is considered
the basis of the coagulum. The latter can be separated from
the former by washing, and likewise separates when the
blood is a long time coagulating, in which case the red por-
tion of the blood, being the heaviest, falls to the bottom of
the vessel, leaving the lymph on the top. The cruor, or
red portion of the blood, has been found, on being submitted
to a microscope, to be composed of globules, which are sup-
posed to be each about the three or four thousandth
part of an inch in diameter. It is therefere to these glo-
bules that the blood owes its redness ; but the intensity of
the color is subject to great variation, being darker in animals
that are poorly fed, or when exposed to carbonic acid, and
becoming more florid in others that are well fed, and also
when exposed to oxygen, or to atmospheric air.
The other part of the crassamentum, the lymph, which from
its nature is also called the fihrine, is, in fact, the most im-
portant of all ; for it is that which mainly supplies the dif-
ferent parts of the body, particularly the muscles, with nu-
triment, and repairs wounds and fractures in an extraordinary
manner. Unlike the cruor, it exists in the blood of all ani-
mals, and in every part of the system. Some animals have
entirely white blood, the cruor being absent ; and in red-
blooded animals there are some portions of the body, such
as the white of the eye, where the vessels are so small that
they do not admit the red globules. The specific gravity of
blood rather exceeds that of water ; but venous blood is
somewhat heavier than arterial. The temperature of the
THE BLOOD Ais'D ITS CIRCULATION. 337
blood varies in different animals ; in man it is 90*^, but in
the sheep nearly 100°. It is rather warmer in the arteries
than in the veins, and is liable to variation from disease, it
having been found in severe inflammations to be raised
7*^ in man, and in the cold fit of agues 4° lower than in a
state of health. It is, however, but slightly raised or de-
pressed by external temperature. It was not till compara-
tively a recent date that the blood has been considered to
possess vitality, which, however, is now generally acknow-
ledged. The vitality and fluidity of the blood are intimately
associated ; in fact, its coagulation, when removed from the
body, constitutes its death. The time in which this is ta-
king place is different in different animals, and is influenced
by various circumstances. In strong animals, such as the
horse, it is longer than in such weak animals as the sheep :
in the former it is often as long as fifteen minutes ; and if
the body be in a state of plethora, the vital power being too
highly developed, the death of the blood is much longer re-
sisted. In these cases coagulation is delayed, and, in con-
sequence, the red portion of the blood, being the heaviest,
falls to the bottom of the vessel, and the fibrine remains at
the top, constituting the huffy coat of inflammation. This
separation, when arising from the above cause, takes place
long before the serum is developed. The coagulation of the
blood has been endeavored to be accounted for without suc-
cess ; it was held by some that it was produced by the ces-
sation of its motion ; but it has been found that if stirred in
a vessel it will coagulate quicker than before. It was
thought that exposure to the atmosphere was the cause ; but
it has been known to coagulate in a vacuum, and likewise
in the body when a vein has been tied. It was next con-
ceived that it was caused by the low temperature to which
it is exposed ; but it has been ascertained that it will coag-
ulate quicker if the temperature is either higher or lower
than natural ; but if so low as to freeze the blood, it will not
coagulate when afterwards thawed. These experiments
show that the blood is analogous to no other fluid, and that
coagulation cannot be owing to physical causes, but can be
explained only by reference to its vitality.
Although the blood will coagulate in the body if obstructed,
yet there is a considerable difference between this state and
its coagulation out of the body. In the former instance co
agulation is longer occurring, new vessels are thrown into
29
338 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP.
its substance, and it becomes organized. So, likewise, if a
part be wounded, the divided vessels throw out clots of
blood, which adhere to the surface of the wound ; the red
particles become absorbed, the glutinous fibrine organized,
and the breach is thus gradually restored. Thus we see
how important it is that the blood should possess its peculiar
properties, its state of fluidity, and its disposition to coagu-
late : if the former did not exist, the blood would be ob-
structed in the capillary vessels, and the vital functions
could not be carried on ; and if deprived of its coagulating
property, no wounds could heal, or loss of substance be re-
stored, but the most trifling cut would be the precursor of
death.
The quantity of blood contained in the body is very dif-
ficult to ascertain ; for if an animal be bled to death, a good
deal will still remain in the blood-vessels. It has, however,
been estimated to be about one-fifth the weight of the body ;
and of this, about three-fourths are contained in the veins,
and one-fourth in the arteries. In young animals there is
more than in old ones, as in them the body must not only be
sustained, but increased in size. It is likewise more abun-
dant in wild animals than in tame ones, and in proportion to
the vigor of the animal.
The Heart is a strong hollow muscle, of a conical shape,
with its base towards the spine, and its apex towards the
left side, against which it is thrown at every contraction.
It is double, having a right and left side, the former contain-
ing black, and the latter red blood ; the right side is the
thinnest and weakest, being devoted to the lesser office of
the circulation of the lungs : the left the stoutest, having to
govern the general circulation of the system. Each of
these halves consists of two cavities, an auricle and a ven-
tricle ; the former, which derives \\s name from its resem-
blance to a dog's ear, is considerably thinner than the latter,
and is situated towards the base. The heart is formed prin-
cipally of fleshy fibres, connected together by cellular tis-
sue, whence it obtains its elasticity ; and its surfaces, both
internal and external, are lined by a transparent membrane.
The blood is prevented from moving in a retrograde course
by means of a number of valves : there are three in the
left ventricle, the edges of which are connected by tendi-
nous cords [cord<B tendina>) to small fleshy eminences on the
inside of the ventricle, called carnecs coIujiiikb, or fleshy
THE BLOOD AND ITS CIRCULATION. 339
columns. These tendinous cords are more numerous in the
valves of the left ventricle than in the other parts, and be-
ing supposed, with the valves, to resemble a mitre, are
named mitral valves. There are valves also in the right
ventricle for similar purposes, which are named tricuspid,
or three pointed ; also in the great artery, or aorta, and in
the pulmonary artery, where, having no cords, and resem-
bling, or supposed to do so, a half-moon, they are named
semilunar. The heart is enclosed in a strong membranous
bag, which is named pericardium, and this encloses also the
trunks of the veins and arteries, as well as the appendages
or auricles.
The heart is a muscle, but, unlike other muscles, it is in-
voluntary, being altogether independent of the will, and is
for this purpose supplied by a peculiar set of nerves. It is
also furnished abundantly with blood for its support, by
means of arteries which are the first that are given off ; and
these arteries are accompanied by veins for the return of
the blood to its proper receptacle.
THE CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD
is one of the most important processes in the animal
economy : when suspended for a few moments, a state of
insensibility is produced, and if this suspension continues a
little longer, death quickly supervenes.
The heart, we have seen, consists of two halves or sides,
the right being devoted to the pulmonary circulation. The
right auricle receives from a large vein, called the vena
cava, the blood which has travelled throughout the system ;
whence it passes, by the action of the heart, into the right
ventricle, which by its contraction forces it into a large
vessel called the pulmonary artery. Thence the blood is
sent into the lungs and ramifies throughout its minute ves-
sels, where it is exposed to the action of the inspired air,
and becomes, by means we shall afterwards speak of, red-
dened and purified. This process being accomplished, the
blood passes into minute vessels, which, coalescing, become
the pulmonary veins, and through them the blood again re-
turns to the heart ; thus finishing the circuit of the pulmo-
nary circulation.
The left auricle receives the purified blood from the pul-
monary veins, forces it into the left ventricle, which, con-
tracting, sends the vital fluid into a large strong vessel
340 STRUCTURE OF THE SUEEP.
called the aorta, whence it enters smaller arteries, to be dis-
tributed throughout the whole system. The remote divis-
ions of the arteries are called the capillary vessels, and in
ihem the blood, after having accomplished its purposes and
conveyed nourishment to all parts, becomes black and im-
pure, and in this state enters the capillary veins, which, con-
joining and increasing in size and diminishing in number,
convey the blood again to the right auricle of the heart.
Just before it enters the heart it receives a supply of chyle,
which, as we have before observed, is extracted from the
food, absorbed by certain small vessels called lacteals, and
conveyed by a specific channel to the heart. Such, then, is
the circle, or rather the double circle, which the blood takes,
and by which so many important purposes are beautifully
and correctly accomplished.
The circulation of the blood is accomplished by the joint
action of the heart and arteries, but principally by that of
the former. The contraction of the ventricles and of the
auricles immediately succeed each other : as the one ex-
pands to receive the blood, the other contracts to force it
forward, thus producing the unequal double action of the
heart that we feel. These actions, however, of the different
cavities could not be correctly performed unless some provis-
ion were made for preventing the blood, when the ventri-
cles contract, from retrograding into the auricles. This,
however, is effected by means of a valve, situated between
these cavities, which is formed by a duplication of the inner
membrane of the heart, thickened by fibrous substance.
The floating edges of this valve in the right ventricle pre-
sent three points and in the left two ; whence the former is
called the tricuspid, and the latter the mitral. The edges
of each valve are joined by numerous short tendons to the
fleshy columns of the heart ; and whilst the blood is flow-
ing into the ventricles the fleshy columns are passive ; but
when the ventricles act these columns also contract and
draw the edges of the valve together, and thus close the
cavity in that direction and prevent the blood re-entering
the auricle.
There are also valves that guard the entrance of the
aorta and pulmonary arteries, but they are of a different de-
scription, being of less strength, because they are not called
upon to oppose the powerful action of the ventricles. Ac-
cordingly we find that they consist of three folds of mora-
THE BLOOD AND ITS CIRCULATION. 341
brane, and are called, from their shape, semilunar. They
are so situated that when the blood passes into the arteries
they are thrown against their sides, and when the blood has
passed they are thrown up so that their edges meet, and thus
prevent the blood returning to the heart.
In fishes the heart is single, and only serves the office of
the pulmonary circulation, that of the system being accom-
plished by the arteries alone. In the sheep, though the
heart is the principal power, yet the arteries greatly assist.
The aorta, which receives the blood from the left ventricle,
divides into two branches, called the anterior and posterior
aorta ; the former conveying the blood to the head and neck,
and the latter to the lower parts of the body. These arte-
ries are strong and thick, and consist of three coats ; the
outer, the strongest and thickest, gives the vessels the re-
markable elasticity which they possess ; the middle coat is
the fibrous, which seems to be a modification of muscular
power, and enables the arteries to contract on their contents ;
the third coat is the serous, vvhich lubricates the interior of
the vessel and facilitates the passage of the blood. Thus
to these several coats, but particularly to the two former, do
the arteries owe the remarkable property they possess of
contracting when distended with blood, and almost immedi-
ately afterwards expanding to receive a fresh supply, and
which, assisted by the action of the heart, constitutes the
pulse ; and may be felt in every part of the body where an
artery is sufficiently near the surface to be perceptible.
The arteries, however, do not all possess an equal thick-
ness and power ; for instance, the pulmonary artery, though
quite as large as the aorta, is neither so thick nor so strong ;
and the reason is, that the same power is not required to
send the blood over the smaller circuit of the lungs as over
the larger one of the whole system ; and, for the same rea-
son, the right side of the heart is weaker than the left.
The arteries, as they divide and subdivide in their course,
become weaker in their coats in proportion to the diminu-
tion of their size, till at length they terminate in the minute
branches called the capillary vessels, which do not possess
any pulsating power, and many of which do not contain red
blood. Diminutive, however, as these branches may be, yet
it is by them that the most important offices are performed ;
by them the different parts of the body are nourished,
whether bone, flesh, nerve, or skin ; by them the various
29*
342 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP.
fluids are secreted, however different in appearance they
may be ; by them the most ghastly wounds are healed, and
often in a remarkably short space of time ; and all these
various offices are performed not only by the same class of
vessels, but by the same fluid, the blood. Having accom-
plished these important purposes, the capillary arteries ter-
minate in equally minute vessels, called the capillary veins ;
and so abundant are these diminutive vessels that the finest
point of the finest needle cannot be plunged into the body
without penetrating some of them. By the time the blood
reaches the veins it becomes dark and impure, and loaded
with carbon : the office of the veins, therefore, is to return
it to the heart to be again purified. The circulation, how-
ever, becomes much slower as it is further removed from
the impulsive power of the heart, and the veins, which are
supposed to contain two-thirds of the whole blood circula-
ting in the system, are consequently much more numerous
than the arteries : they do not, however, possess the same
strength in their coats as the arteries, nor have they any
pulsating power. They have, however, the assistance of
other agents in propelling the blood to its destination. The
greater number of them possess valves, which admit the
blood to pass in one direction, but effectually prevent its
passing in any other. It was, indeed, from reflecting on the
structure and necessary office of these valves that led the
immortal Harvey to discover the circulation of the blood.
Another circumstance peculiar to the veins is their situation,
being mostly near the surface of the body, whilst the arte-
ries are generally deep seated. The wisdom of this pro-
vision is evident : it is well known that in wounds it is
readily ascertained if an artery be wounded by the jet of
blood that ensues, and which even from an artery of small
size is very considerable, and the danger of death from
bleeding is often great in consequence of the force with
which the blood is thrown into these vessels. Now such
being the danger attending the division of arteries, it was
necessary to remove them as much as possible from the risk
of injury, and accordingly they are almost invariably deep
seated, and when they do approach the surface it is in pans
least likely to be injured. Thus round these important ves-
sels nature throws a thick muscular covering, and protects
the whole by a mantle so sensitive as to give warning to the
least attack. The veins, however, do not require this care ;
THE BLOOD AND ITS CIRCULATION. 343
in them the circulation is languid, and their wounds are com-
paratively unimportant and unattended with danger, for the
blood generally stops, without assistance, from its coagula-
ting quality. It is also of importance that the greater por-
tion of the veins should be situated near the surface, in or-
der to receive the influence of the atmospheric pressure,
which greatly assists the motion of the blood ; and it has
also been found that veins possess a power of absorption in,
common with a particular order of vessels called the absorb-
ents ; thus these various purposes are effected by the rela-
tive position of the veins and arteries. The structure of
the veins is very different from that of the arteries ; for,
whilst the latter are thick, elastic, and composed of three
coats, the former are thin, inelastic, and composed only of
two coverings. But although thin they are yet capable of
affording great resistance to pressure.
We have seen that the blood is sent to all parts of the
body by the action of the heart and arteries, but what is the
cause of its return ? First in importance is the law of hy-
drostatics, "that all fluids support their level." Thus the
same law by which springs arise, and streams are produced,
and rivers flow towards the sea, is brought to bear in the
living system, and enables the blood in the arteries to sup-
port that in the veins. This effect is greatly assisted by
the action of the valves in supporting the column of blood.
The blood thus supported and propelled by the arteries, as-
sisted by atmospheric pressure, must go somewhere, as the
valves prevent return ; it goes, therefore, where alone a va-
cancy is afforded, and that is in the right auricle of the
heart, which has just propelled its contents into the ventri-
cle. To these several forces may be added a power of suc-
tion the heart possesses whenever the chest is enlarged in
respiration.
The manner in which the chyle is mixed up with the
blood, so that its color quickly disappears, is worthy of par-
ticular notice. It is owing, indeed, to the great agitation
the blood receives, and to the irregularity of the heart's in-
ternal surface. When the auricles contract, their contents
are, in a great measure, discharged into the ventricles, but a
portion is thrown back into the veins, which constitutes
what is called the venous pulse, and may sometimes be seen
in the jugular veins. In like manner, when the ventricles
contract a portion of their contents is thrown back into the
844 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP.
auricles, at any rate that part of it situated behind the vah-es.
By these means an agitation is produced which effectually
mixes these different fluids together.
It has been ascertained that the veins possess a power of
absorption in common with a numerous class of vessels
called the absorbents, or lymphatics. These vessels are
very minute, and are distributed throughout the whole body ;
they generally accompany the veins, and, like them, are fur-
nished with valves.
0\ RESPIRATION AND ITS EFFECTS.
The phenomenon of respiration, which is carried on from
the first mirmte after birth to the last of existence, consists
of two acts, inspiration and expiration. The former, that of
inhaling the atmosphere, is accomplished mostly by the
diaphragm, which, in its relaxed state, is convex towards
the chest. As its fibres contract, the muscle flattens, and
thus enlarges in a considerable degree the cavity of the
thorax. A vacuum is thus produced, or rather a tendency
towards it; for the air rushes into the lungs, and the blood
into the heart ; and, as the lungs are elastic and spongy in
their nature, they become closely adapted to the enlargement
of the chest, and prevent any vacuum from taking place be-
tween them and the sides of the thorax. The diaphragm is
thus the chief agent in the act of inspiration, although in
some degree assisted by the intercostal muscles, which raise
the chest, and also, when the breathing is violently excited,
by those muscles that in quadrupeds attach the fore extremi-
ties to the body. The air thus drawn into the lungs traverses
throughout its internal surface, and, having fulfdled its office,
is forced out by the act of expiration. This part of the
process is effected chiefly by means of the elasticity of the
lungs, which acts as soon as the diaphragm becomes passive,
assisted, however, in some degree by the elastic cartilages
of the chest, and occasionally by the abdominal muscles.
Atmospheric air consists of unequal parts of two aeriform
fluids, viz., four-fifths of nitrogen or azote, and one-fifth of
oxygen in each 100 parts ; besides which it contains other
heterogeneous matters, such as odorous effluvia, aqueous ex-
halations, electric matter, and carbonic acid gas. It every-
where surrounds and embraces the globe, extending, in the
opinion of some, a distance of forty-five miles, and in that
of others a much greater height. Its gravity differs very
PwESPlRATlON. 345
much at different times and in different places, being heav-
ier on a clear than on a close day, and also in low places
than in lofty ones. The small portion of carbonic acid gas
which the atmosphere contains is not chemically, but me-
chanically mixed with it. This gas is evolved by the
fermentation of beer, and the decomposition of vegetables,
and is often found in wells and deep places. It is much
heavier than the atmosphere, and thus remains in these low
places by its gravity. A lighted candle placed in this gas
is immediately extinguished ; so that it is used as a safe-
guard in descending into these low and foul places ; for
whatever will not support combustion will not support life.
It is not a simple gas, like oxygen, but is formed by the
union of carbon and oxygen.
Nitrogen or azote is a simple gas, but its use in the at-
mosphere seems to be principally of a passive nature, being
for the purpose of diluting the oxygen and rendering it less
stimulating : it will not alone support life or combustion, but
is chemically mixed with the oxygen. Oxygen is essential
for the support of life and combustion ; for if air be deprived
of it no animal can live, nor will a candle remain lighted.
It is abundantly furnished by plants and shrubs, which thus
restore the loss of it occasioned by animals. When a flame
is exposed to this gas it greatly increases in brilliancy ; and
when venous blood is submitted to it, it quickly becomes florid.
We have before shown that all the blood in the body was
in its turn carried from the heart to the lungs by means of
the pulmonary artery, which di^ddes and subdivides into the
smallest branches, and terminates in small capillary veins,
which, coalescing, become larger, and convey the blood
again to the heart by the pulmonary veins. Before it reaches
these veins, however, an important change takes place : the
blood proceeds from the heart in a black and impure state ;
it returns reddened and purified ; it is submitted in its course
to the action of the air in the air-cells, not by actual contact,
but through the membrane which forms these cells : and by
this means the important change is effected.
There is, we well know, a considerable difference be-
tween the expired and the inspired air ; the former is hot,
the latter cold ; this is healthy, that injurious ; one will sup-
port combustion and life, the other is unfit for breathing, and
will extinguish a flame. There is but little difference in
quantity between the air in its different states, but the oxy-
346 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP.
gen in expired air has nearly disappeared and carbonic acid
gas is found in its stead ; it also contains much aqueous va-
por, which is condensed in a visible form, at a temperature
of 60°. Thus, although the carbonic acid gas is much
heavier than common air, yet, partly from the aqueous va-
por which the expired air contains being much lighter, but
principally from its own increased temperature, the expired
air, notwithstanding its carbonic acid, is yet specifically
lighter than the atmosphere ; and consequently rises up-
wards, and thus, in great measure, is prevented from being
respired a second time. It has been found by experiment
with a portion of atmospheric air, containing 80 parts of ni-
trogen, 18 of oxygen, and 2 of carbonic acid, that, on being
respired, the nitrogen continued the same, but the carbonic
acid was increased to 13 parts, and the oxygen reduced to
5 ; whence it appeared that 11 parts of carbonic acid were
substituted for 13 of oxygen, 2 parts having entirely disap-
peared. Thus the disappearance of the greater portion of
the oxygen was accounted for by its being converted into
carbonic acid ; but there remained a small portion, whose
absence could not be thus explained, more particularly as
Sir H. Davy calculated that about 32 ounces of oxygen
were necessary for 24 hours' expenditure in a man ; but
only 26^ ounces are requisite for the formation of even 37
ounces of carbonic acid gas, giving us an unexplained sur-
plus of 5j ounces of oxygen, during the above period. By
some it was supposed that this surplus oxygen united with
the hydrogen thrown off by the blood, and is thus converted
into watery vapor : by others it is held, that this oxygen is
absorbed by the blood, and enters the circulation. Carbonic
acid gas is exhaled from the lungs in different quantities du-
ring different periods of the day, being generated in the
greatest quantity about noon, decreasing in the afternoon
and night, and again increasing in the morning. It also in-
creases in man by taking animal food.
Sir H. Davy contended that a small portion of nitrogen is
absorbed by the blood ; but this has been denied by others.
The chief use of nitrogen, however, is to dilute the oxygen ;
for if the latter is inspired pure a sense of warmth is felt in
the chest, the heat of the skin is raised, the pulse quickened,
and other symptoms of excitement are produced. A given
quantity of oxygen will, however, support life longer than
the same quantity of atmospheric air. It has been computed
RESPIHATION. 347
that, in the course of twenty-four hours, about 2 lbs. 8 ozs.
of oxygen is consumed by a man. After an ordinary respi-
ration a considerable quantity of air still remains — perhaps
four-fifths, one-fifth having been expired.
Having mentioned the changes that take place in the at-
mosphere, we must next consider in what manner the blood
becomes so altered by its passage through the lungs.
The blood, as it traverses through the body, gradually be-
comes darker ; it is loaded with carbon, and is rendered
unfit for the circulation, and in this state it is called venous
blood. If venous blood, taken out of the body, be exposed
to oxygen, it quickly becomes red ; and so it does if ex])0sed
to the atmosphere, but not so rapidly. So, likewise, if ar-
terial blood be exposed to carbonic acid, it quickly acquires
the color and character of venous blood. In the same man-
ner is the color of the blood changed in the lungs ; thus the
principal use of respiration appears to be to free the blood
from its impurities ; and this is effected although the air and
the blood do not actually come in contact. It was found,
that if blood in a common bladder were exposed to the at-
mosphere for some time, it acquired a coating of florid
blood ; and thus, as the membrane lining the air-cells is by
no means so thick as that of the bladder, there is no longer
any difficulty in accounting for the change taking place. It
has been the subject of some dispute as to when the change,
or rather exchange, takes place, some contending that the
carbon unites with the oxygen in the air-cells, whilst others
maintain that the oxygen enters the blood, and there unites
with the carbon, forming carbonic acid gas, which is then
exhaled into the air-cells. It was found, however, that if
venous blood were put within the exhausted receiver of an
air-pump a quantity of carbonic acid escapes ; thus proving
the presence of this gas in the blood, and supporting the
second theory. And as there appears to be a greater quan-
tity of oxygen abstracted from the atmosphere than can be
accounted for by the formation of carbonic acid, we must
conclude that a portion mingles with the blood and enters
the circulation ; which theory agrees with the fact, that it
has recently been discovered, by correct analyses, that both
venous and arterial blood contains carbonic acid, nitrogen,
and oxygen ; but that the latter gas is most abundant in ar-
terial and the former in venous blood.
Although the action of the heart is much more frequent
348 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP.
than that of the chest in respiration, yet there is a most in-
timate connexion between the one and the other ; for, be-
sides the changes which we have spoken of in the blood, it
rushes into the heart when the chest is expanded, and when,
from any cause, respiration is delayed, the pulse becomes
less frequent and more languid in consequence of the ob-
struction in the current of the blood. Thus, in violent fits
of coughing, the chest collapses, the air is expelled, and the
blood not being purified, is unfit for circulation, and the con-
sequence is the veins of the head become distended, and,
in man, the person becomes red or black in the face, and
sometimes a blood-vessel has ruptured and death super-
vened.
CHAPTER XVI.
DISEASES OF THE SHEEP.
INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS — DISEASES OF THE BRAIN AND
SPINAL MARROW— STURDY OR DIZZY— HYDROCEPHALUS— TREM-
BLING—APOPLEXY. THE AIR PASSAGES — GESTRIS OVIS OR GAD-
FLY, CAUSING WORMS IN THE HEAD— CORYZA OR COLDS. DIS-
EASES OF THE STOMACH AND INTESTINES — HOOVE — BRAXY—
STRETCHES— DIARRHCEA OR SCOURS-ACUTE DROPSY OR RED WA-
TER—DYSENTERY-POISON. DISEASES OF THE LUNGS— ANATOMY
OF THE LIVER— ROT— INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS — DROPSY.
DISEASES OF PARTURITION— ABORTION— INVERSION OF THE UTE-
RUS—GARGET. THE INTEGUMENT OR SKIN -DISEASES OF THE
SKIN— SCAB OR ITCH— ERYSIPELAS— JOHNSWORT SCAB— PELT-ROT
—SORE MOUTH— MAGGOTS. FOOT-ROT— FOULS.
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.
There is no department in the management of sheep so
little understood as the nature and treatment of their dis-
eases. Happily, however, for the American shepherd,
many of the diseases which prove so destructive in Great
Britain, are here of rare occurrence. From this circum-
stance, the compiler of the following treatise has been com-
pelled to rely on Messrs. Youatt and Blacklock, both distin-
guished veterinary surgeons, for much information concern-
ing those diseases, which, with us, are but partially known.
It is proper therefore to affirm, that this treatise has been
compiled from the most approved authorities — from personal
knowledge of the writer of some diseases which are most
common to the country, as well from careful comparison of
the opinions and experience of some of the most distin-
guished breeders of sheep in this and the Eastern States ;
and hence, he has every reason for believing that the pre-
monitory symptoms, preventives, and treatment of every dis-
ease, which will be noticed, are entitled to the implicit con-
fidence of the American shepherd.
30
350 DISEASES OF TIIE SHEEP.
But, should the several remedies proposed, in every case
prove inadequate to perform a cure, let the reader, before he
condemns, remember that diseases of the human family are
sometimes fatal from their extraordinary virulence, and at
other times from neglect of timely treatment. This remark
is applicable to sheep, as well as all other domestic animals.
Again : diseases are often fatal from want of the necessary
knowledge of their origin and locality, confounding those
peculiar to the brain and spinal marrow with those of the
air passages, or the sto?nach and intestines. Therefore, with
a view to avoid mistakes of this character, the various dis-
eases have been properly classified under appropriate heads,
as will hereafter be noticed.
The following remarks of Mr. Blacklock, inculcating
" caution in prescribing," are very just : — " Great reliance is
in general placed upon prescriptions, which profess to suit
diseases in every stage and circumstance. Than this, how-
ever, scarcely anything can be more absurd. It is an opin-
ion engendered not so much by ignorance as by laziness, a
determination not to be put about by thinking of a remedy
for the evils which surround us, but, while we continue to
soothe ourselves by doing something, to leave everything to
the hit-or-miss practice of charlatans.* There are many
"who, on being informed of the presence of disease in a
neighbor's flock, confidently advise the employment of a
favorite nostrum, on the empirical supposition that because it
cured, or was thought to cure, one flock, it will cure another.
Nothing is taken into account, saving that, in both cases the
affected animals are sheep ; and it is at once concluded,
that what benefited one will benefit another. The many
niceties in prescribing are never thought of: oh, no, that
would be of no use ! Of course it can be of no importance
to give a moment's attention to age or sex, pasture and situ-
ation, or to leanness or fatness, or to the presence of preg-
nancy ! These are of trifling moment, and only to be de-
spised by a person armed with a recipe, which some one
has shown to be capable of walking like a constable through
the body, and bearing off the intruder ! But enough of this :
sufficient has, I think, been said to prove the utter folly of
confiding in things of the above nature or intention, and to
* Whenever we hear a person recommending a medicine of universal
virtues, we may safely set him down either for a fool or an impostor.
Things which are good for everything are good for nothing.
STURDY, OR STAGGERS. 351
show that such confidence can lead to nothing but a waste
of life and capital. Even though the remedy is a harmless
one, it ought (unless calculated from known powers to arrest
disease) to be received with distrust, as incurring a loss of
time, during which other and better measures might have
been resorted to."
DISEASES OF THE BRAIN AND SPINAL MARROW.
T^e Diseases of the Brain are Sturdy, or Dizzy, caused
ly Hydatids or Blobs ; Hydrocephalus, or Water in the Head ;
Trembling, or Leaping-ill ; Apoplexy.
STURDY, OR STAGGERS.
This disease is not of frequent occurrence in the United
States, but very common in Great Britain. It is caused by
Hydatids or Blobs. " These are animals, generally pear-
shaped, found in various animals where they are parasitic,
and resembling a vesicle or bladder filled with water. It
was for a long time doubted whether they had an indepen-
dent existence ; but as they have evidently a voluntary mo-
tion, and as they have the property of acting on matter in
such a way as to convert it into a substance like that which
constitutes the agent, (which, according to Roget, demon-
strates a vital power) there is no reason to doubt it has a
distinct animal existence. Hydatids occur sometimes in
man, but more frequently in animals. In hogs, it causes the
measles ; in sheep, in the brain, they cause the staggers, and
in the liver, the rot."*
In England, according to Mr. Youatt, this disease is
nearly always confined to sheep from six to twelve months
old ; after that period sheep seem to have acquired an im-
munity from the attack of the hydatid.
The symptoms are as follows : — " The sheep cease to
gambol with their companions — they are dull — they scarcely
graze, they ruminate in the most languid and listless manner
— they separate themselves from the rest of the flock — they
walk in a peculiar staggering, vacillating way — they seem at
times to be unconscious where they are, or they seek some
ditch or brook, and there stand until they appear to be com*
* Die. of Terms ; Cultivator.
352 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP.
pletely giddy, and suddenly tumble in. In the midst of their
grazing they stop all at once, look wildly around as if they
were frightened by some imaginary object, and start away
and gallop at full speed over the field. They lose flesh ;
the countenance becomes haggard ; the eye wanders and as-
sumes a singular blue color. This last circumstance, al-
though not observed so carefully as it ought to be, is per-
fectly characteristic of the disease ; and a good shepherd
would select every sturdied sheep from the flock, guided
simply by the color of the eyes.
By and bye the sturdied sheep commences a rotatory mo-
tion, even while grazing, and always in one way, and with
the head on the same side. When this occurs, he almost
ceases to eat or to ruminate (chew the cud), partly because
the disease, from its debilitating character, destroys the ap-
petite altogether ; and also because he cannot restrain those
circular motions, during which it is almost impossible to
graze ; but principally because he is rapidly becoming blind.
He begins to be unconscious of surrounding objects. The
habit of turning round increases ; he continues to form these
concentric circles for an hour at a time, or until he falls ;
and then scrambles up again, and commences the same
strange motion. At length he dies emaciated and ex-
hausted."
The remedy sometimes for hydatids, as soon as discovered,
is by removal from all wet, low land, to dry pasturage. The
disease, however, is rarely cured. In some desperate cases
it has been effected by trepanning, and the extrication of the
hydatids.
James Hogg, the Ettrick Shepherd, says — " The sturdy
more commonly attacks sheep if exposed to a windy and
sleety winter. It is always most destructive on farms that
are ill-sheltered, and on which the sheep are most exposed
to blasts and showers."
HYDROCEPHALUS, OR WATER IN THE HEAD.
This disease, it appears, is more general with young
lambs, than with the adult sheep. " It is not confined within
a cyst — it is not a portion or part of a living animal, as in
the disease just treated of — but it accumulates between the
two inverting membranes of the brain, — the pia mater and
the arachnoid coat ; or it is found within the latter ; or, and
TREMBLING, OR LEAPING-ILL APOPLEXY. 353
more frequently, it occupies and distends the ventricle of
the brain."*
An English writer remarks — " Young lambs oftener die
of water in the head than the shepherd or the sheep-master
suspects." The symptoms are — a short time after birth the
appetite sometimes fails, but frequently is voracious — the
bowels become relaxed, but oftener constipated ; the lamb
is dull and disinclined to move — staggering a little, pining
gradually away almost to a skeleton — and dying, occasion-
ally before it is a month old. The disease is generally in-
curable. Epsom sahs, with ginger and gentian, have some-
times proved efficacious. Diseases of the brain in animals
are unmanageable, and baffle the most skilful efforts for
their removal.
TREMBLING, OR LEAPING-ILL.
Blacklock says, " Several affections are included under
the name of trembling, or leaping-ill, all having, in common,
more or less of the symptoms which these names denote.
They may be considered as arising from exposure to cold
and damp, especially on long, fatiguing journeys. Injuries
of the loins, either inflicted by themselves in jumping and
running, or by others from rough usage in the fold, are com-
mon causes of the disease ; but in this variety the hind quar-
ters only are powerless. Another species is owing to op-
pression of the brain from congestion, in this way resem-
bling incipient sturdy, and occurring only in very fat sheep.
" The treatment of the first variety is by rest, shelter, and
a supply of nutritious food. In the second kind, no cure
can be accomplished, and the animal should be immediately
slaughtered. Copious blood-letting, and doses of Epsom
salts, will be found of most advantage in the third species ;
but if the sheep can be disposed of, so much the better, as
this kind of trembling is almost certain, unless combated by
energetic depletion, to end in sturdy."
APOPLEXY.
This disease is peculiar only to sheep when they are very
fat ; it is their plethoric situation which is the inducing
cause. But the fit rarely occurs, if the animal is kept quiet ;
but hurried journeys, worry, and over-fatigue will often do it.
Sheep, therefore, in high condition, should be driven with
* Youatt.
30*
354 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP.
great care. If the symptoms are aggravated, a small quan-
tity of blood should be drawn from the jugular vein, and four
oz. of Epsom salts immediately administered, and one oz.
every six hours, until the bowels are open. The sheep
should then be very sparingly fed for a few days.
THE AIR PASSAGES.
CESTRIS OVIS, OR GRUB IN THE HEAD CORYZA.
Blacklock says, " Much annoyance is caused to the sheep
by the presence of animals in the air passages. The
CEstris ovis (Gad-fly) deposites its eggs on the margin of
the nostril in autumn ; these are soon hatched, and the larvae
immediately find their way up the interior of the nose, till
they arrive at the frontal sinus, a cavity situated between the
layers of the frontal bone, and of considerable size in the
sheep. Here they remain until the following spring, when
they quit, burrow in the earth for a short season, then be-
come winged insects, and ready to enter upon the career of
torment so ably gone through by their predecessors."
To prevent the attacks of this mischievous insect, it will
be found necessary about the beginning of July, and again
about the first of August, to assemble the flock, and thor-
oughly tar the parts adjacent to the nostrils. Others have
tried, with success, smearing the bottoms of troughs, and
sprinkling salt occasionally over it. The effluvia of tar is
abhorrent to all winged insects ; and hence the philosophy
of this treatment.
Few sheep are exempt from grubs in the head, and when
the number does not exceed two or three, will not cause
much annoyance. It feeds on the mucus secreted by the
sinus membrane.
When the number of grubs is larger than common, they
produce much irritation, and the sheep will sneeze violent-
ly. Blacklock says, " Tobacco smoke is the only available
remedy, and a very good one, being easily brought in con-
tact with the worms, and, when properly administered, cer-
tain in its eflfects. One person secures the sheep, holding
the head in a convenient position, while another, having
half-filled a pipe with tobacco, and kindled it in the usual
manner, places one or two folds of a handkerchief over the
CORYZA HOOVE. 355
opening of the bowl, then passes the tube a good way up
the nostril, applies his mouth to the covered bowl, and blows
vigorously through the handkerchief. When this has con-
tinued for a few seconds, the pipe is withdrawn, and the
operation repeated on the other nostril."
CORYZA.
During the winter season this disease is very common
with sheep that are wholly exposed, or when shelters are
imperfectly constructed. The chief annoyance is occasion-
ed by an excess of mucus, which clogs the nasal passages,
and causes great difficulty of breathing. When a sheep is
in this situation, it is said to have a " bad cold." In some
cases, unless relieved, the sheep will sometimes die from
suffocation. At other times the inflammation will extend to
the bronchial tubes, and pulmonary consumption (rot) will
ensue.
Treatment . — Removal to a warm shelter, and a dose oi
purgative medicine, is all that will be required. The eflx)rts
of nature, however, are sufficient to remove the disease,
when the attack is slight.
The preventive, which is always worth the pound of cure,
are good shelters, and wholesome food.
DISEASES OF THE STOMACH AND INTESTINES.
HOOVE, OR DISTENSION OF THE STOMACH BY GAS.
This cannot be considered a disease, but an impediment
of respiration and circulation. It is occasioned by the sheep
being changed from a poor pasture to a luxuriant one, and
gorging itself to an immoderate degree. The gullet is ob-
structed, and the gases in the paunch cause remarkable dis-
tension, with no passage for their escape, except into the
chest, which ends in suffocation of the animal.
Treatment. — An aperture is sometimes made with a sharp
instrument in the side to permit the passage of the gas ; but
this Blacklock explicitly condemns. The remedy is the
probang, a flexible rod, with a small ball of wood or ivory at
the end, which, being forced to the lower extremity of the
gullet, removes the obstruction, and the gas or wind is
readily void^.
356 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP,
Prevention. — Change the flock often, and neither a poor
pasture nor too rich a one will follow. But peradventure it
happens that sheep must be put suddenly on too high keep,
salt them freely before it takes place, and this should be re-
peated for several successive days.
BRAXY.
This disease is not unusual to sheep kept in the latitude
of ours. It originates from several causes ; and first — a
sudden change from green to dry food ; second — when the
animal partakes of some irritating weed to which it is wholly
a stranger ; third — frozen grass is an exciting cause, rapidly
producing inflammation by lowering the temperature of the
stomachs so as to arrest digestion ; fourth — when, being
worried, forced to plunge into a stream of cold water. It is
constipation of the bowels, followed by a high degree of in-
flammation.
Sympto7ns. — The sheep is seen to frequently lie down and
get up, loathing its food, and drinking often ; the mouth is
parched, the eyes red. partly closed and watery. The head
is down, the back drawn up, and belly swollen ; there is
scarcely any passage through the bowels, the urine is small
in quantity, high colored, and sometimes bloody. Death
occurs not unfrequently after a lapse of a few hours, and
again, not till nearly the expiration of a week.
Treatment. — Bleeding must be resorted to at as early a
stage of the disease as possible ; but previous to this the
sheep must be placed in a tub of warm water, and there kept
for half an hour ; then administer two ounces of Glauber
salts, dissolved in water. An injection of tobacco decoction
will be also of great benefit. The animal must then be kept
warm by throwing a blanket about it, and given laxative
provender for a week or more.
STRETCHES.
This disease very commonly occurs in flocks which are
kept exclusively on hay, or other dry food, and is fatal very
often, unless an early application of medicine follows the
attack.
Symptoms. — The sheep will alternately lie down and rise
at brief intervals, frequently stretching, and refuses every
kind of food. It is now generally admitted that it proceeds
DIARRHCEA, OR SCOURS. 357
from costiveness, by being deprived wholly of green food.
The disease is unknown in Great Britain, where succulent
provender is so bountifully fed.
Treatment. — Two table-spoonfuls of castor oil, or one
ounce of Epsom salts, will be effectual. A small quantity
of hog's lard has also been used with success. A neighbor
administers a large quid of tobacco ; and he recently in-
formed the writer that he had never lost a sheep by the
stretches after administering this nauseous potion.
Preventive. — Give the flock green food once a week or
oftener — such as apples, potatoes, or turnips. Pine or hem-
lock boughs are also excellent.
DIARRHCEA, OR SCOURS.
This being so common and fatal a disease with the junior
portions of the flock, in our own country, requires an ex-
tended notice. The following are Mr. Youatt's remarks,
and mode of treatment : —
" If the affections of the external coats of the intestines
do not frequently occur, inflammation of the inner coat or
mucous membrane is the very pest of sheep. When it is
confined principally to the mucous membrane of the small
intestines, and is not attended by much fever, it is termed
diarrhoea ; when there is inflammation of the large intestines,
attended by fever, and considerable discharge of mucus,
and occasionally of blood, it is dysentery. These diseases
are seldom perfectly separate, and diarrhoea is too apt to de-
generate into dysentery. The diarrhoea of lambs is a dread-
fully fatal disease. If they are incautiously exposed to the
cold, or the mother's milk is not good, or if they are suckled
by a foster-mother that had yeaned too long before, a violent
purging will suddenly come on, and destroy them in less than
twenty-four hours.
" When the lamb begins to crop the grass at his mother's
side he is liable to occasional disturbance of the bowels ;
but as he gains str«».ngth, the danger attendant on the disease
diminishes. At weaning-time care must sometimes be taken
of him. Let not, however, the farmer be in haste to stop
every little looseness of the bowels. It is in these young
animals the almost necessary accompaniment or consequence
of every change of diet, and almost of situation ; and it is
frequently a sanative process ; but if it continues longer than
twenty-four hours — if it is attended with pain — if much mu-
358 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP.
cus is discharged — if the appetite of the animal is failing
him in the slightest degree, it will be necessary to attend to
the case. Then use the following remedy : — Take of pre-
pared chalk an ounce, powdered catechu half an ounce,
powdered ginger two drachms, and powdered opium half a
drachm ; mix them with half a pint of peppermint water.
The dose is from one to two table-spoonfuls morning and
night.
" The diarrhcea of lambs is, in a majority of cases, attribu-
table to the carelessness or mismanagement of the farmer,
either referrible to deticient or improper food, or the want of
shelter at an early age ; as the animal grows up he is better
able to struggle with the disease.
" Diarrhoea occasionally attacks the full-grown sheep, and
is too often fatal, especially when it has degenerated into
dysentery. It is very common in the spring, and particularly
in the early part of the season, when the new grass begins
rapidly to sprout. Here, still more decidedly than with the
lamb, the sheep proprietor is urged not too suddenly to in-
terfere with a natural or perhaps beneficial discharge ; and
after w^hich the animal often rapidly gains condition. Four
and twenty hours should pass before any decisive step is
taken ; but if the looseness then continues the sheep should
be removed to shorter and dryer pasture, and hay should be
offered to them, if, after having tasted of the fresh grass of
spring, they can be induced to touch it. If the looseness
does not abate, then adopt the treatment recommended."
With the writer's flock, diarrhcea rarely occurs with
lambs when suckling the ewes ; it is at an after age, gene-
rally during their first winter, and early in the following
spring, when they commence nipping the young grass.
The disease originates under the following circumstances :
First: Too sudden a change from dry to green food.
Therefore, as has already been remarked in a previous part
of this work, when the foddering season is about to expire,
the flock should not be allowed to go wholly to grass, but
permitted to eat only a little each day for a week or more ;
then the sheep may be placed on their pastures permanently,
with impunity.
Second : Salting freely too early in the spring, while the
grass is young and flashy.
Third : When beginning to feed grain, giving it in too
ACUTE DROPSY, OR RED WATER. 359
large quantities. It should be fed moderately at first, and
the quantity gradually increased.
Fourth : Feeding unripe hay. This is not generally-
known as an inducing cause of scours ; but the compiler
knows it to be so from sad experience, and the fact has been
repeatedly confirmed by the experience of farmers living in
the vicinity of his residence. In this country, it is prob-
ably the most prominent cause of the disease.
Fifth : Exposure to sudden transitions of weather ; shel-
ters are therefore needed as a preventive.
Sixth : Eating of irritating weeds ; the flock in this case
cannot be removed too quickly to another field, and salted.
Diarrhoea can be easily arrested, by mixing a small quan-
tity of pulverized alum in wheat bran, and fed for a day or
two. If this should not succeed, there is a tendency to
dysentery, and a purgative of castor oil (a table-spoonful)
should be administered, accompanied with dry food, and lit-
tle drink. The reader is also referred to Mr. Youatt's re-
cipe, already stated. A decoction of hemlock bark, after
boiling, is a powerful astringent, and has been used with
success.
ACUTE DROPSY, OR RED WATER.
Red water is a common disease in American flocks.
Sheep that are destroyed by it present no premonitory symp-
toms of any disease whatever ; the shepherd leaves his
flock at night after a minute examination, and on his return
in the morning, a sheep will be found dead, lying nearly in
the usual posture, the legs bent under them, and the head
protruded. Apparently there has not been any severe strug-
gle, and on examination the belly contains a greater or less
quantity of bloody fluid. Often a change of pasture, espe-
cially from a dry to a cold one, and especially if accompa-
nied with white frost, will induce the disease, which origi-
nates in excessive inflammation of the enveloping membrane
of the intestines. The animal becomes chilled by this sud-
den change of situation. The belly, coming most in contact
with the damp and cold ground, is first affected ; the peri-
toneal coat of the intestines becomes chilled — reaction, in-
flammation, soon follows — its natural function, the secretion
of a fluid to lubricate the cavity of the belly, is morbidly and
strangely increased — the fluid accumulates, and it is red and
bloody from the rupture of the small vessels of the periton-
360 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP.
eum distended by inflammation. The inflammation pursues
its course with ahnost incredible rapidity, and the animal
soon dies.
The careless observer would not always mark the diflfer-
ence between diarrhcea and dysentery ; they are, however,
perfectly distinct in their seat, their nature, and their conse-
quences. Diarrhoea is often an effort of nature to expel
from the intestinal canal something that offends. It may be
only increased peristaltic action of the bowels, increased se-
cretion from the mucous glands, and accompanied by little
inflammation and less danger. It is, at first, an affection ot
the small intestines alone ; but it may extend through the
■whole alimentary canal, and inflammation, which is not a ne-
cessary part of it, appearing and increasing, general fever may
be excited, attended by considerable danger. Dysentery is
essentially inflammation of the large intestines — the result of
neglected or obstinate diarrhoea, or altogether distinct from
it — the consequence of unwholesome food — of being pastured
on wet or ill-drained meadows — and of being half starved
even there. Fever is a constant attendant on it in its early
stages, and wasting and debility rapidly follow.
The discharge of dysentery is diflerent from that of diar-
rhoea. It is thmner, and yet more adhesive. A great deal
of mucus mingles with it, which causes it to cling to the tail
and the thighs ; and there it accumulates, layer after layer
— a nuisance to the animal, a warning to the owner of much
danger, and that near at hand. When this kind of evacua-
tion has been established but a little while, the next warning
will be a loss of flesh, and that to an extent that would
scarcely be deemed credible. Sometimes the animal eats
as heartily as ever ; at other times the appetite utterly fails.
Dysentery occasionally carries off" its victim in a few days ;
but frequently will live five or six weeks.
It is only lately that the proper treatment of this malady
has been recognized. In every case of acute dysentery,
and whenever fever is present, bleeding is indispensably re-
quisite ; for this is a disease of inflammation. Physic
should likewise be administered, however profuse the dis-
charge may be ; for it may carry away some of that perilous
stuflf which has accumulated in the large intestines, and is a
* By Youatt.
POISON ANATOMY OF THE LIVER. Sfil
source of fearful irritation there, and it will lessen the gene-
ral fever which accompanies this stage of the malady. The
sheep must be removed, and its food changed. Mashes,
gruel, and a small quantity of hay, must be given.
Two doses of physic must be administered, and then re-
course must be had to astringents.
The purging medicines must not be discontinued, until
there is a perceptible alteration in the stools ; the doses, as
a general rule, should be small, and given for several days.
The sheep must not be turned on the same pasture from
which it was taken ; let it be a dryer one.
POISON.
Sheep and calves will often, in the winter or spring of the
year, eat greedily of the low Laurel {Kalmia Angustifolia).
The animal appears to be dull and stupid ; swells a little,
and is constantly gulping up a greenish fluid which it swal-
lows down ; a part of it will trickle out of its mouth, and dis-
color its lips.
The plant probably brings on a fermentation in the stom-
ach, and Nature endeavors to throw off the poison herb by
retching or vomiting.
Treatment. — In the early stages, if the greenish fluid be
suffered to escape from the stomach, the animal most gene-
rally recovers. To efl'ect this, gag the sheep, which may
be done in this manner. Take a stick of the size of your
wrist and six inches long, — place it in the animal's mouth ;
tie a string to one end of it, pass it over the head and down
to the other end, and there make it fast. The fluid will then
run from the mouth as fast as thrown up from the stomach.
In addition to this, give roasted onions and sweetened milk
freely.*
130
DISEASES OF THE LUNGS, LIVER, AND KIDNEY.
ANATOMY OF THE LIVER. f
It seems to be a law of comparative anatomy that the bulk
of the liver shall be in an inverse proportion to that of the
lungs. In the horse the lungs are necessarily capacious.
He needs a large supply of arterial blood in order to answer
* Northern Shepherd. t By Youatt.
31
362 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP.
to its rapid expenditure when the utmost exertion of strength
and speed are required from him. In the ox the kmgs are
less developed ; yet this animal is used in some countries as
a beast of burden, and employed in Great Britain in agricul-
tural labor ; the lungs, therefore, are of considerable size,
and the liver, although much larger than in the horse, is re-
stricted in its growth. In sheep little exertion of strength
or speed is required ; and the lungs are smaller compared
with the size of the animal. The liver is proportionally
larger : it is about one twentieth part of the whole weight of
the animal, or nearly double the proportionate size which it
is in the human being.
The liver of the sheep differs little in form and situation
from that of the ox. It is placed in the anterior part of the
abdomen, between the maniplus and the diaphragm. It has
but two principal lobes, separated by a triangular scissure,
through which, in the pregnant ewe, the umbilical vein of
the foetus passes. Its office is to receive the blood that is
returned from the intestines ; to separate from the blood, or
to secrete by means of it, a fluid termed bile, and to transmit
the remaining part to the lungs, there to undergo the usual
process of purifaction, and be changed to arterial blood.
The vessel to which the bile is first conveyed is the gall-
bladder; where it is stored up for future use, and perhaps
undergoes some change. From the gall-bladder it is con-
veyed to the first intestine, the duodenum, either in a con-
stant but slow stream, or probably in a larger stream while
the work of digestion is going on ; the supply from the gall-
bladder, and probably the secretion from the liver, being
stopped at other times. A little before this duct reaches the
intestine, it is joined and perforated by the duct from the
pancreas. The fluid from the pancreas is mixed with that
from the liver, and the compound flows on to the duode-
num."
ROT.
This disease is classed among those of the liver, because,
except when the animal dies perfectly worn out by the mal-
ady, the most striking and the supposed characteristic mis-
chief is found in this organ.
Happily for the American farmers, this destructive mala-
dy is, comparatively, of unfrequent occurrence in their
flocks ; but in Great Britain, on the authority of Mr. Youatt,
ROT. 363
more than a million of sheep and lambs die every year by
this disease. "In the winter of 1830-31 this number was
more than doubled ; and had the pestilence committed the
same ravages throughout the kingdom which it did in a few
of the middle, eastern, and southern counties, the breed of
sheep would have been, in a manner, extirpated." Many of
the farmers lost their entire flocks, not an individual sheep
escaping.
It appears, however, the disease is not peculiar to Eng-
land. Many sheep are destroyed by it in Germany. In the
north of France they are frequently swept away by it ; and
in the winter of 1809 the ravages were terrific throughout
the kingdom. It has prevailed at some periods nearly over
all Europe, as far north as Norway.
The compiler has no personal knowledge of this destruc-
tive malady, and is therefore compelled to rely on the ac-
count presented by Mr. Youatt, all of which that is of inter-
est is subjoined.
" The early symptoms of this disease are exceedingly
obscure ; this is much to be deplored, because in the first
stage of it alone does it often admit of cure. The animal
is dull, lagging behind his companions — he does not feed so
well as usual. If suspicion has been a little excited by this,
the truth of the matter may easily be put to the test, for if
the wool is parted, and especially about the brisket, the skin
will have a pale yellow hue.
" The eye of the sheep beginning to sicken with the rot
can never be mistaken ; it is injected, but pale ; the small
veins at the corner of the eye are turgid, but they are filled
with yellow serous fluid, and not with blood. Farmers very
properly pay great attention to this in their examination or
purchase of sheep. If the caruncle is red, they have a proof
which never fails them that the animal is healthy. There
is no loss of condition, but quite the contrary, for the sheep
in the early stage of the rot has a great propensity to fatten.
Mr. Bakewell was aware of this, for he used to overflow
certain of his pastures, and when the water was run off*
turn those of his sheep there which he wanted to prepare for
the market. They speedily became rotted, and in the early
stage of the rot they accumulated flesh and fat with wonder-
ful rapidity. By this manoeuvre he used to gain five or six
weeks on his neighbors.
" As the disease becomes confirmed the yellow tinge be-
364 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP.
gins to spread — the muzzle and the tongue are stained — the
animal is more dull and dispirited — his false condition rap-
idly disappears — the membrane of the nose becomes livid —
the tongue gradually assumes the same character — the eyes
are dull, and their vessels charged with a yellow-brown
fluid. The breath now becomes fetid — the bowels variable
— sometimes costive, and at other times loose to a degree
that defies the power of medicine. The skin often becomes
spotted with yellow or black — the emaciation is more and
more rapid — the general fever increases — the vessels of the
eye are more distended and red — the skin becomes loose
and flabby, and if it is pressed upon, a peculiar crackling
sound is heard — the wool comes ofl" when pulled with the
slightest force — the appetite entirely fails — the belly begins
to enlarge — on pressure fluid is easily recognized within it,
and hence one of its names 'the hydropic' or dropsical rot.
The animal is weak in every limb — a violent purging is now-
very frequently present — the sheep wastes away to a mere
skeleton, and at length he dies — the duration of the disease
being from two to four or six months.
" When a rotted sheep is examined after death, the whole
cellular tissue is found to be infiltrated, and a yellow serous
fluid everywhere follows the knife. The muscles are soft
and flabby; they have the appearance of being macerated.
The kidne5's are pale, flaccid, and infiltrated. The belly is
frequently filled with water, or purulent matter ; the perito-
neum is everywhere thickened, and the bowels adhere to-
gether by means of an unnatural growth. The heart is en-
larged and softened, and the lungs are filled with tubercles.
The principal alterations of structure are in the liver. It is
pale, livid, and broken down with the slightest pressure ;
and on being boiled it will almost dissolve away. When
the liver is not pale, it is often curiously spotted. In some
cases it is speckled like the back of a toad. Nevertheless,
some parts of it are hard and scirrhous ; others are ulcer-
ated, and the biliary ducts are filled with flukes. Here is
the decided seat of the disease, and it is here that the na-
ture of the malady may be learned. It is inflammation of
the liver. In consequence of this the secretion from the
liver is increased — at first scarcely vitiated, and the diges-
tive powers are rendered more energetic ; but soon the bile
flows so abundantly that it is taken into the system, and the
eye, the brisket, the mouth, become yellow. As the disease
ROT. 365
proceeds, the liver becomes disorganized, and its secretion
more vitiated, and even poisonous ; and then foUovi^s a total
derangement of the digestive powers.
The liver attracts the principal attention of the examiner ;
it displays the evident effects of acute and destructive in-
flammation ; and still more plainly the ravages of the para-
sites with which its ducts are crowded. Here is plainly the
original seat of the disease ; the centre whence a destruc-
tive influence spreads on every side. Whatever else is found,
it is the consequence of previous mischief existing here.
Then the first inquiry is a very limited one — the nature of
this hepatic affection, and the agency of the parasites that
inhabit the liver. Are they the cause or consequence of dis-
ease ?
The Fluke — the Fasciola of Linnaeus — the Distoma he-
paticum of Rodolphi — is found in the biliary ducts of the
sheep, the goat, the deer, the ox, the horse, the ass, the hog,
the dog, the rabbit, and various other animals, and even in
the human being. It is from three-quarters of an inch to
an inch and a quarter in length, and from one-third to half
an inch in greatest breadth. The head is of a pointed form,
round above, and flat beneath ; and the mouth opens late-
rally instead of vertically. There are no barbs or tenacula,
as described by some authors. The eyes are placed on the
most prominent part of the head. No difference of sex has
yet been discovered in the fluke-worm, and it is believed
to be an hermaphrodite. * * * *
Then, is the fluke-worm the cause or the effect of the
rot ? To a certain degree both. They aggravate the dis-
ease ; they perpetuate a state of irritability and disorgani-
zation, which must necessarily undermine the strength of
any animal ; they unnaturally distend, and consequently
weaken the passages in which they are found ; they force
themselves into the smaller passages, and, always swimming
against the stream, they obstruct the flow of the bile, and
produce inflammation by its accumulation ; they consume
the nutritive juices by which the neighboring parts should
be fed ; and they impede the flow of the bile into the intes-
tines, by clogging up the ducts with their excrement and
their spawn. Notwithstanding all this, however, if the
fluke follows the analogy of other entozoa and parasites, it
is the effect and not the cause of the rot. The ova are
continually swallowed by the sound animals and the dis-
31*
366 DISEASES OF lUE SHEEP.
eased ; but it is only when the fluids are altered, and some-
times essentially changed, and the condition of the digestive
organs is materially impaired, that their appearance is fa-
vored, or their multiplication encouraged.
WHAT, THEN, IS THE CAUSE OF THE ROT IN SHEEP ?
The knowledge of the cause can alone guide us to a
cure, or at best to the prevention of it. It does not arise
from deficiency of food ; a sheep may be reduced to the
lowest state of condition — he may be starved outright, but
the liver would not be necessarily as often in a diseased
state. It is not to be traced to the effects of sudden flush of
grass. The determination of blood to the head, diarrhcRa,
dysentery, might be thus produced, but not one symptom re-
sembling rot. Some persons, led away by a favorite theory,
have traced it to defective ventilation ; but in the closest
keeping to which the British sheep is usually committed
there is no foul air to be got rid of, and defective ventilation
would be words without meaning. * # # *
The rot in sheep is evidently connected with the soil or
state of the pasture. It is confined to wet seasons, or
to the feeding on ground moist and marshy at all seasons.
It has reference to the evaporation of water, and to the pres-
ence and decomposition of moist vegetable matter. It is
rarely or almost never seen on dry or sandy soils and in
dry seasons. In the same farm there are certain fields on
which no sheep can be turned with impunity. There are
others that seldom or never give the rot. * # #
Some seasons are far more favorable to the development
of the rot than others, and there is no manner of doubt as
to the character of the seasons. After a rainy summer, or
a moist autumn, or during a wet winter, the rot destroys like
a pestilence. A return and a continuance of dry weather
materially arrests its murderous progress. It is, therefore,
sufficiently plain that the rot depends upon, or is caused by
the existence of moisture. A rainy season, and a tenacious
soil, are fruitful or inevitable sources of it.
But there is something more than moisture necessary for
the production of rot. The ground must be wet, and its
surface exposed to the air ; and then the plants, previously
weakened or destroyed by the moisture, will be decomposed ;
and, in that decomposition, certain gases or miasmata will
INFLAMMATION OF THE LXINGS. 367
be developed, that cannot long be breathed, or scarcely
breathed at all, by the sheep without producing the rot.
Chemistry, even in its present advanced state, will afford
no means of analyzing these deleterious gases ; and it is a
matter of little practical consequence to be acquainted with
their constituent principles. * * * * Then the mode of pre-
vention consists in altering the character of as much of the
dangerous ground as he can, and keeping his sheep from
those pastures which defy all his attempts to improve them.
Treatjnent.-— In the early stage of the disease, bleed.
Abstract, according to the circumstances of the case, eight,
ten, or twelve ounces of blood. There is no disease of an
inflammatory character, at its commencement, which is not
benefited by an early bleeding. To this let a dose of physic
succeed — two or three ounces of Epsom salts ; and to these
means let a change of diet be immediately added — good hay
in the field, and hay, straw, or chaff in the straw-yard.
To this should be added — a simple and a cheap medicine,
but that which is the sheet anchor of the practitioner here —
common salt. * * * * p;;^ The farmer is beginning to be
aware of the valuable properties of salt in promoting the
condition, and relieving and preventing many of the diseases
of all the domesticated animals. In the first place, it is a
purgative, inferior to few, when given in a full dose ; and it
is a tonic as well as purgative. Its first power is exerted
on the digestive organs — on the stomach and intestines —
augmenting the secretions and quickening the energies of
each. It is the stimulus which Nature herself points out,
for, in moderate quantities and mingled with the food, men
and beasts are fond of it. The sheep, having a little recov-
ered from the disease, should still continue on the best and
dryest pasture on the farm, and should always have salt
within their reach. It should be rock salt.
INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNG§.
This is by no means an unfrequent disease among sheep.
It is caused by cold and wet pasture — chills after hard dri-
ving— washing before shearing, when the water is at too low
a temperature — shearing when the weather is too chilly and
wet, and other circumstances of a similar description. Its
first indication is that of fever — hard and quick pulse — dis-
inclination for food — ceasing to chew the cud — unwilling-
ness to move — slight heaving of the flanks, and a frequent
868 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP.
and painful cough. The disease soon assumes a more ag-
gravated form, but further description will be useless : it is
sufficient ibr the farmer to know the first stages of the mala-
dy, and then pursue that course of treatment which experi-
ence determines as best.
Treatment. — Bleed and purge freely, and secure the sheep
in some comfortable place, free from all exposure to the vi-
cissitudes of the weather. Let no irritating food be given.
Mashes of wheat bran will be found excellent, with a little
salt occasionally.
DROPSY.
This disease is induced by long exposure to cold and wet
weather. Tapping is condemned by Blacklock, unless per-
formed by a skilful veterinary. The best plan is to bleed
freely, and give two or three doses of Epsom salts. It is
better, however, in general, to kill the sheep at once, as
rarely a permanent cure can be effected.
DISEASES OF PARTURITION.
ABORTION.
This disease is not so common as in cows, but sometimes
occurs very extensively in flocks of sheep. Ewes are liable
to it through every stage of pregnancy ; but generally it oc-
curs when they are about half-gone. The causes are vari-
ious : — sudden fright, jumping over ditches and whatnot,
worried by dogs, and the too free use of salt ; but the prom-
inent cause is the unlimited use of turnips and succulent
food.
The symptoms, according to Spooner, first manifested, are
dulness and refusal to feed ; the ewe will be seen moping
at a corner of the fold, and will be heard to bleat more than
usual. To these succeed restlessness, and often trembling,
with slight labor pains ; and in the course of twelve hours
abortion will have taken place. Sometimes the parts will
be so relaxed, that the uterus or vagina will become invert-
ed, and the expulsion of the placenta will precede that of the
foetus.
Mr. Spooner recommends placing the ewe in a dry situa-
INVERSION OF THE UTERUS INTEGUMENT, OR SKIN. 369
tion, as soon as her situation is discovered, and the follow-
ing medicine may be given with some nourishing gruel :
Epsom salts ^ ounce.
Tincture of opium - - - 1 drachm.
Powdered camphor - - - i do-
The two latter medicines may be repeated the following
day, but not the salts, unless the bowels are confined.
INVERSION OF THE UTERUS.
Though this occasionally takes place in the ewe at any
period, from sudden severe exertion or straining hard, yet it
is most frequent immediately or very shortly after parturi-
tion. In this case it arises from the violent spasmodic ac-
tion of the womb, which turns inside out, and protrudes out
of the sheep.
No time should be lost in replacing it. The ewe must be
placed on her back, with her hind feet elevated ; and the
hands being lubricated with oil or lard, the uterus should be
gently forced back into its natural situation. Twenty to
thirty drops of the tincture of opium should be given in a
pint of gruel, and the ewe kept perfectly quiet.
This is inflammatory affection of the udder, caused some-
times by constitutional derangement, but generally by the
death of the lamb, and the milk of the udder becoming co-
agulated.
An ounce or two of Epsom salts, with a drachm of gin-
ger, should be given the ewe, dissolved in warm water ; let
the udder be fomented with water as hot as it can be borne.
The fomentation, if necessary, should be repeated, and then
camphor ointment rubbed upon it twice a day. If the
swelling continues, and matter forms, it should at once be
opened by an incision, and the puss pressed out. If the
smell is very offensive, it should be syringed with a weak
solution of chloride of lime for several days.
THE INTEGUMENT, OR SKIN.*
The skin of the sheep, although composed, like that of
Other animals, of the cuticle, the subjacent mucous tissue and
the true skin, differs materially from that of most of them in
* By Youatt.
370 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP,
some of its functions. It is exceedingly deficient both in the
powers of secretion and absorption ; or rather there are cir-
cumstances about it which materially limit the action of these
functions ; and, as it were, confine the office of the skin to
the production and the support of the fleece. It is surround-
ed by a peculiar secretion, adhesive and impenetrable to mois-
ture— the yolk — destined chiefly to preserve the wool in a soft,
pliable, and healthy state.
There can be little cutaneous perspiration going forward
from the skin of the sheep, and there are consequently {evi
diseases that are referrible to change in this excretion ; and,
on the other hand, little or no advantage can be derived from
an increase of it, as indicating a salutary direction of the fluids,
or relieving other and dangerously-congested parts. There
is likewise less expenditure or radiation of animal heat, both
on account of the interposition of the yolk, and the non-con-
ducting power of the wool. The caloric disengaged from the
sheep is about the seventh part of that of a man. This is a
wise and kind provision of nature, well explaining the means
by which the animal is enabled to endure many hardships
from vicissitudes of weather.
DISEASES OF THE SKIN.
Scab, Erysipelas, Johnswort-scab, Pelt-i'ot, Sore Mouth,
Maggots.
SCAB, OR ITCH.
This disease of the skin is exceedingly common among
sheep almost all over the civilized world. According to Mr.
Youatt, there are several varieties of it. " A sheep is occa-
sionally observed to scratch himself in the most furious man-
ner, and with scarcely a moment's intermission. He rubs
himself against every projection of the fence, and of every
post, and the wool comes off from him in considerable flakes.
When he is caught there is no appearance whatever of cutane-
ous disease.'" Mr. Young says, that " the sheep rub them-
selves in all attitudes — they have clear skins without the least
sign of scab — never observed that it was catching — and the
better the food the worse they become."
Treatment. — The sheep should be caught and housed,
shorn as closely as possible, washed all over, and most care-
SCAB, OR ITCH, 371
fully, with soap and water ; and after that, on the second day,
with a wash of lime-water and tobacco decoction, of equal
parts.
The ordinary scab in sheep is much akin to the mange in
other animals. It is most common in the spring and early
part of the summer. It may be produced by a variety of
causes, such as bad heep, and exposure to cold and wet weather ;
thus producing suppression of the perspiration. The pre-
vailing cause, however, is contagion.
Symptoms. — The sheep is restless — scratching and nib-
bling itself, and tearing off the wool. When closely exam-
ined, the skin will be found to be red and rough. Numerous
pustules have broken and run together, and form small or
large patches of crust or scab — hence the name of the disease.
The shoulders and the back, most frequently, earliest exhibit
these pustules. The general health of the animal is affected
according to the extent and virulemce of the eruption ; some-
times he pines away and dies, exhausted by continued irri-
tation and suffering. It is a most contagious disease. If it
is once introduced into a flock, the farmer may be assured
that, unless the diseased sheep are immediately removed, the
whole of his flock will become infected.
It seems to spread among the sheep, not so much by di-
rect contact as by means of the rubbing-places ; for it has
happened, that when a farmer has got rid of his tainted flock,
and covered his pastures with a new one, the disease has bro-
ken out again ; and this has arisen from contact of the sheep
with the old scratching places of fences, trees, and so forth.
" After it was found that the itch in the human race was
caused by an insect, a species of Acarus, it was supposed that
similar cutaneous diseases in animals might arise from the
same source. M. Walz, a German, was the first to establish
this point and fully investigate its character, and numerous
subsequent examinations have proved the correctness of his
opinions. He found that the scab, like the itch, mange, &c.,
is caused by animalculae ; that the irritation caused by his
burrowing in the skin, forms the pustule, and that when this
breaks, the acarus leaves his habitation and travels to anoth-
er part of the skin, and thus extends the disease. When
one of these acari is placed on the wool of a sound animal,
they quickly travel to its roots, where the place of burying
themselves is shown by a minute red point. About the six-
teenth day the pimple or pustule breaks, and if the acari is
872
DISEASES OF THE SHEEP.
a female it appears with a multitude of young. These im-
mediately set to work on the skin, bury themselves and prop-
agate until the poor animal is irritated to death, or becomes
incrusted with scab. M Walz satisfactorily traced the par-
asite through all its changes, and by experiment discovered
its mode of action, and method of infection. He found that
when the male acari was placed on a sheep it burrowed, the
pustule was formed, but the itching and scab soon disappear-
ed without the employment of any remedy. Such was not
the case where the female acari was placed on the sound
skin ; as with the breaking of the pustule from eight to fif-
teen little ones made their appearance. M. Walz found that
the young acari kept in a dry place, dried and crumbled to
dust ; but when old, that it would retain its life through the
whole winter ; thus proving the necessity of not relying on
the season for their destruction, but on preparations of active
medicine when the disease shows itself. Of the origin of
these insects, we of course can know nothing ; it is enough
that we are certain when they make their appearance they
can be met and destroyed." — [Cultivator.)
Fig. 3.
Fi? 1. The insects of their natural size on a dark ground.
Fig. 2. The fbniale, of 366 times the natural size, larger than the male, of an
oval form, and provided with eight feet, four before and four behind.
a. The sucker.
b. b. b. b The four anterior feet, with their trumpet-like appendices.
c. c. The two interior hind-feet.
d. d. The two outward feet, the extremities of which are provided with some
long hairs, and on other parts of the legs are shorter hairs. To these hairs the
young ones adhere when they first appear from the pustule.
e. The tail, containing the anus and vulva, garnished by some short hairs.
Fig. 3. The male on his back, and seen by the same magnifying power.
ERYSIPELAS. 373
Treatment. — Shear off the wool about the pustules, then
let the scab be removed with knife or comb : after which the
diseased parts must be washed with soap and water ; then
apply the following mixture : — One lb. of plug tobacco to four
gallons of water, which should be thoroughly boiled ; then
add the same quantity of lime-water with one pint of spirits
of turpentine.
Another recipe. A decoction of hellebore, mixed with
vinegar, sulphur, and spirits of turpentine.
The "Mountain Shepherd's Manual" recommends the
following :
Corrosive sublimate - - - 8 oz.
White hellebore in powder - 12 oz.
Whale, or other oil - - 6 gallons.
Rosin 2 lbs.
Tallow 2 lbs.
The sublimate is to be reduced to a fine powder, and
mixed with a portion of oil, and also the hellebore. The
rosin, tallow, and remainder of the oil are to be melted to-
gether, and the other ingredients then added and well mix-
ed. Should the ointment appear too thin, the proportion of
oil may be reduced, and that of the tallow increased."
Many years ago the first recipe was used in the writer's
flock, with entire success. The best recipe, however, is in
the shape of a preventive, namely, warm shelters for the
flock during winter, and wholesome and nutritious food the
year round. A poor sheep will always be the first to suflfer
from this loathsome disease.
ERYSIPELAS.
The appearance of this disorder is that of a red inflamma-
tory thickening of the skin breaking out into a fine eruption
frequently watery, attended with fever and heat. It attacks
most generally those sheep which are in the best condition,
and has sometimes proved very fatal, it being a disease
which does not run long before it kills the animal.
Examination after death generally shows an inflammation
of the stomach, kidneys, intestines, or the neck of the blad-
der, which may be brought on by feeding on too succulent
food.
Treatment. — A change of diet is recommended, and cool-
ing purgative medicines administered freely. The foUow-
32
374 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP.
ing prescription has been used with success : — Epsom saUs,
six ounces ; nitre, four ounces ; boiling water, three pints :
pour the water upon the sahs, and when about blood warm,
add four ounces of spirits of turpentine — give from three to
four table-spoonfuls at a dose, once or twice per day, accord-
ing to the severity of the disease.*
JOHNSWORT SCAB, OR ITCH.
That pestiferous weed, called Johnswort, if growing abun-
dantly where sheep are pastured, will cause an irritation of the
skin, often over the whole body and legs of the sheep ; but
generally it is confined to the neighborhood of the mouth.
If eaten in too large quantities, it produces violent inflamma-
tion of the bowels, and is frequently fatal to lambs, and
sometimes to adults. Its efli'ects when inflammation is pro-
duced internally are very singular. The writer has wit-
nessed the most fantastic capers of sheep in this situation,
and once a lamb, while running, described a circle with all
the precision of a circus horse : this was continued until it
fell from exhaustion.
Treatment. — Anoint the irritated parts with hog's lard
and sulphur. If there are symptoms of inflammation of the
stomach, administer tar — putting it into the mouth of the
sheep with a flattened stick. Simply hog's lard is used fre-
quently with success. Remove the flock to pasture free
from the weed, and salt freely. It is said that salt, if given
often to sheep, is an effectual guard against the poisonous
properties of the weed.
PELT-ROT.
This is a disease of the skin, as the name implies. It
causes a premature falling oflf of the fleece in the spring of
the year.
It is produced by exposure during the winter, and low
condition — the latter principally.
Preventive. — Good shelters and good keep. Let the wool
fluids be kept healthy and abundant, and there will be no
danger of any attack from this disease.
SORE MOUTH.
This is supposed by some to be caused by sheep eating,
in the winter season, noxious weeds, for it is that period of
* Northern Shepherd.
MAGGOTS. 375
the year generally that they are most subject to it. A cor-
respondent of the Cultivator thus speaks concerning it : " It
generally commenced in one corner of the mouth and spread
over both lips, and the lips swelled to the thickness of a
man's hand. My flock consisted of about 300, and in the
space of three weeks, about forty died of the distemper, and
not one had recovered. By this time at least one half of the
remainder of the flock were attacked. It occurred to me
that tar would be as likely as anything to give relief. I ac-
cordingly had my sheep all brought together ; and filled their
mouths, and daubed on to their lips all that could be made
to stick; and, to my surprise, it effected an immediate cure.
I lost but two or three after this, and these were nearly dead
when I made the application. In a few days, every sheep
was well."
The writer, a few years since, had a few of his sheep
affected in a similar way, and inasmuch as it was confined
to but one flock, he attributed it to irritating weeds cut with
the hay. The application of tar to their mouths was made,
as described above, which effected an immediate cure.
Hog's lard and sulphur will also cure the disorder.
MAGGOTS.
Sheep in the spring are subject to scours or diarrhcea,
which causes an accumulation of filth about the tail and at-
tracts the maggot-fly ; and again — rams by fighting will often
lacerate the skin around the forehead, which will also invite
the approach of the fly. If maggots are at work about the
tail, the sheep will be seen biting it, and rubbing against
fences and whatnot ; and the ram to shake his head almost
constantly, and also rubbing against every object that pre-
sents itself.
Treatment. — Dislodge the worms with a knife, and apply
spirits of turpentine. If they have penetrated far into the
skin, hold the sheep in such a position as to retain the liquid
for a minute or more in the affected part. By so doing the
maggot will crawl out and perish instantly. Sheep cannot
be too closely watched before they are shorn, otherwise
some will be destroyed from the above cause.
Sheep Louse [Hippohosca ovina) and the Tick (Acarus
reduvius) are destroyed by tobacco decoction. For particu-
lars, see " Summer Management of Sheep."
376 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP.
DISEASES OF THE HOOF.
FOOT-ROT.
This common scourge of the sheep, through all parts of
the United States, requires an extended notice of the causes,
and the most approved treatment. The compiler has had
no personal observation of this loathsome malady, other
than from seeing it in flocks away from his home, not a
sheep of his own ever having been attacked with it. For
this reason, he is compelled to rely on the scientific accounts
of Mr. Youatt, and of Professor Dick of Edinburgh, as to
the causes, and to intelligent sheep-breeders of our own
country, for its treatment.
Mr. Youatt proceeds to say, — " Foot-rot is a disease at
first, and usually throughout its whole course, confined to the
foot. The first indication of foot-rot is a certain degree of
lameness in the animal. If he is caught and examined, the
foot will be found hot and tender, the horn softer than usual,
and there will be enlargement about the coronet, and slight
separation of the hoof from it, with portions of the horn
torn away, and ulcers formed below, and a discharge of thin
fetid matter. The ulcers, if neglected, continue to increase ;
they throw out fungous granulations, they separate the hoof
more and more from the parts beneath, until at length it
drops oflf. All this is the consequence of soft and marshy
pasture. The mountain or the Down sheep — the sheep in
whose walk there is no poachy ground, if he is not actually
exposed to infection by means of the virus, knows nothing
at all about it ; it is in the yielding soil of the low country
that all the mischief is done."
The following is from the pen of Professor Dick : —
" The foot presents a structure and arrangement of parts
well adapted to the natural habits of the animal. It is di-
vided into two digits or toes, which are shod with a hoof
composed of different parts, similar in many respects to the
hoof of the horse. Each hoof is principally composed of
the crust, or wall, and the sole. The crust, extending along
the outside of the foot, round the toe, and turning inwards,
is continued about half way back between each toe on the
inside. The sole fills the space on the inferior surface of
the hoof between these parts of the crust, and being contin-
ued backwards becomes softer as it proceeds, assuming
FOOT-ROT, 377
somewhat the structure of the substance of the frog in the
foot of the horse, and performing, at the same time, analo-
gous functions. The whole hoof, too, is secreted from the
vascular tissue underneath.
" Now this diversity of structure is for particular purposes.
The crust, like that in the hoof of the horse, being harder
and tougher than the sole, keeps up a sharp edge on the
outer margin, and is mainly intended to resist the wear-and-
tear to which the foot of the animal is exposed. The soft
pasturage on which the sheep is occasionally put presents
little, if any, of that rough friction to which the feet of the
animal is naturally intended to be exposed. The crust,
therefore, grows unrestrained until it either laps over the
sole, like the loose sole of an old shoe, and serves to retain
and accumulate the earth and filth, or is broken off in de-
tached parts ; in some cases exposing the quick, or opening
new pores, into which particles of earth or sand force their
way, until, reaching the quick, an inflammation is set up,
which, in its progress, alters or destroys the whole foot.
" The finest and richest old pastures and lawns are particu-
larly liable to this disease, and so are soft, marshy, and lux-
uriant meadows. It exists to a greater or less extent in
every situation that has a tendency to increase the growth
of the hoofs without wearing them away.
" Sheep that are brought from an upland range of pasture
are more particularly subject to it. This is very easily ac-
counted for. By means of the exercise which the animal
was compelled to take on account of the scantier production
of the upland pasture, and also in consequence of the greater
hardness of the ground, the hoof was worn down as fast as
it grew ; but on its new and moist habitation, the hoofs not
only continued to grow, but the rapidity of that growth was
much increased, while the salutary friction which kept the
extension of the foot within bounds was altogether removed.
When the nails of the fingers or toes of the human being
exceed their proper length, they give him so much uneasi-
ness as to induce him to pare them, or if he neglects this
operation they break. He can pare them after they have
been broken, and the inconvenience soon ceases, and the
wound heals. When, however, the hoof of the sheep ex-
ceeds its natural length and thickness, that animal has no
power to pare them down, but there long continues a wound,
irritated and induced to spread, by the exposure of its sur-
3?.*
378 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP.
face, and the introduction of foreign and annoying matters
into it.
" The different parts of the hoof, Ukewise, deprived of their
natural wear, grow out of their proper proportions. Tlie
crust, especially, grows too long ; and the overgrown parts
either break off in irregular rents, or by overshooting the
sole allow particles of sand and dirt to enter into the pores
of the hoof. These particles soon reach the quick, and set
up the inflammation already described, and followed by all
its destructive eflects. * # *
" The ulceration of foot-rot will not long exist without the
additional annoyance of the fly. Maggots will multiply on
every part of the surface and burrow in all directions. To
this, as may be readily supposed, will be added a great deal
of constitutional disturbance. A degree of inflammatory
fever is produced. The animal for a while shifts about on
its knees ; but at length the powers of nature fail, and it dies
from irritation and want."
Treatment. — The following is Mr. Youatt's mode of cu-
ring the disease ; and it will be well to remember that this
gentleman is highly distinguished in England for his emi-
nent skill and knowledge as a veterinary surgeon.
" The foot must be carefully examined, and every portion
of loose and detached horn pared off, even though the greater
part, or almost the whole of the hoof, may be taken away.
The horn once separated from the parts beneath will never
again unite with them, but become a foreign body, and a
source of pain, inflammation, and fungous sproutings. This,
then, is the first and fundamental thing — every portion of
horn that is in the slightest degree separated from the parts
beneath must be cut away. A small, sharp, curved-pointed
knife, or a small drawing knife, will be the best instrument
to eflfect this.
" If there are any fungous granulations they must be cut
down with the knife or a pair of sharp curved scissors, un-
less they are exceedingly minute, and then the caustic
about to be mentioned will destroy them. The whole hoof
must be thoroughly cleaned, although it may occupy no little
time, and inflict considerable pain on the animal. The after
expenditure of time, and the suflering of the patient, will be
materially diminished by this decisive measure.
" The foot should then be washed with a solution of chlo-
ride of lime, in the proportion of one pound of the powder to
FOOT-ROT. 379
a gallon of water. This will remove the fetor, and tendency
to sloughing and mortihcation, which are the too frequent
attendants on foot-rot. The muriate or butyr of antimony
must then be resorted to, and by means of a swab, applied
to every denuded part ; lightly where the surface has a
healthy appearance, and more severely where fungous gran-
ulations have been cut ofT, or there are small granulations
springing up. There is no application comparable to this.
It is effectual as a superficial caustic ; and it so readily com-
bines with the fluids belonging to the parts to which it is
applied, that it quickly becomes diluted, and comparatively
powerless, and is incapable of producing any deep or cor-
roding mischief. The change of color in the part will ac-
curately show to what portions it has been applied, and what
effect has been produced.
" If the foot has been in a manner stripped of its horn, and
especially, if a considerable portion of the sole has been
removed, it may be expedient to wrap a little clean tow round
the foot, and to bind it tightly down with tape, the sheep be-
ing removed to a straw yard, or some enclosed place, or to
a dryer pasture. This last provision is absolutely necessary
when the sheep is again turned out ; for if the foot is ex-
posed to the original cause of disease, the evil will return
under an aggravated form.
" The foot should be dressed every day ; each new separa-
tion of horn removed ; and every portion of fungous submit-
ted to the action of the caustic, with a degree of severity
proportioned to the necessity of the case. The new horn
should likewise be examined. If it appears to be healthy
and tolerably firm, nothing should be done to it ; but if it is
soft and spongy, the caustic must be lightly applied. The
sooner the bandage can be removed, and the sheep turned into
some upland or thoroughly dry pasture, the better it will be
for the foot, and the health of the animal generally.
" The sheep that has been attacked by foot-rot should not
be suffered to rejoin his companions while there is the slight-
est discharge from any part of the hoof, inasmuch as the dis-
ease is highly infectious."
The following recipes for foot-rot have been used success-
fully by American sheep-breeders :
By Major Grant, of Walpole, N. H. : — 4 oz. blue vitriol,
2 oz. verdigris to a junk bottle of urine. The same has been
adopted by others with success.
380 DISEASES OF THE SHEEP,
Another : — Spirits turpentine, tar, and verdigris, in equal
parts.
Another, by Leonard D. Clift, Esq.,of Carmel, Putnam Co.,
N. Y. : — 3 quarts of alcohol, 1 pint spirits of turpentine, 1
pint strong vinegar, 1 lb. blue vitriol, 1 lb. copperas, 1^ lbs.
verdigris, 1 lb. alum, 1 lb. saltpetre, pounded fine : mix in
close bottle, shake every day, and let it stand six or eight
days before using: also mix 2 lbs. honey and two quarts
of tar, which must be applied after the previous compound.
Two applications will entirely remove the disease. A cor-
respondent of the Cultivator says, that he used the above
with perfect success, while almost every other recipe that
he ever heard of, failed.
There are an abundance of other mixtures or com-
pounds which are asserted to be " infallible cures ;" but the
question naturally arises. Is not the prevention better than all ?
and if so, what is it ? A friend of the writer, after having
become acquainted with the true cause of the malady, made
known by Professor Dick, and which has been fully present-
ed to the reader, immediately after his sheep are tagged,
which is done in April, he pares the horn or crust of the hoof
down to a level with the sole, and then applies a mixture of
tar — say four quarts, half a pint of spirits of turpentine, and
the same quantity of oil of vitriol, using it almost boiling hot.
The two latter ingredients are not mixed with the tar all at
once, but a little poured in at a time, inasmuch as they are,
in a heated stale, very evanescent. A small brush is used,
and not only the bottom of the hoofs, but the sides and clefts
are thoroughly coated. If the season is a wet one, he goes
through the same process late in the fall — but not otherwise.
By this precaution, although in the district of his residence
foot-rot is common, his sheep know nothing of the disease.
This is at least worthy of a trial by all.
One remark more. Foot-rot is contagious beyond all
question : and hence necessary care is requisite not to put
sound sheep on grounds where infected ones have run ; no,
not during the spring, summer, or fall — not until the frosts of
winter have utterly destroyed the poison virus which has
been left by diseased flocks. The following instance will
show this precaution to be indispensably necessary : A farmer
of the writer's acquaintance having been sorely plagued with
foot-rot in his flock, frequently renewing itself after repeated
cures, resolved to slaughter the whole, which was according-
FOULS. 381
ly done. Several months afterwards he possessed himself
of another flock, which were known never to have been in-
fected, nor was the disease known in the vicinity where their
purchase was made ; and lo ! in less than a month after they
were brought to their new home, the sheep became diseased
like their ill-fated predecessors. Every farmer should de-
duce a lesson from this not uncommon instance.
FOULS.
Blacklock says — " Another variety of foot-rot is produced
by the friction of long grass between the hoofs. The rubbing
of the grass frets the skin in the cleft of the hoof, the gland in
that situatlion swells, becomes enlarged, and suppurates. This
complaint is, however, more readily remedied than the other,
and does not cause nearly so much suffering to the sheep.
An application of tar, warmed to a liquid, and a small quan-
tity of spirits of turpentine, will heal the irritation." It is
not contagious.
CHAPTER XVII.
SURGICAL OBSERVATIONS.*
WOUNDS-TO STOP BLEEDING— REMOVAL OF EXTRANEOUS MATTER
—CLOSURE OF A WOUND— BANDAGLNG— CLEAN CUTS— PUNCTURED
WOUNDS— BRUISES AND SPRAINS— WOUNDS OF JOINTS — FRAC-
TURES—BLOOD-LETTING.
WOUNDS.
All the wounds which can be inflicted may be classed un-
der the heads of incised^ punctured, and lacerated.
An incised wound is one made by a cutting instrument,
such as a knife or piece of glass.
Punctured wounds are those produced by sharp-pointed
bodies, such as pins or thorns.
Lacerated wounds are those occasioned by blunt bodies,
as the teeth of a dog, tearing rather than cutting the flesh.
1st. Arrest the bleeding, if profuse, and likely to endan-
ger life.
2d. Clip away the wool for a few inches around the in-
jured part.
3d. Remove dirt or other foreign body from the wound.
TO STOP BLEEDING.
Bleeding will, if no large arteries are divided, cease on
the free exposure of the surface for a few minutes to the air;
but when a large vessel has been cut, more determined
means must be had recourse to. Pressure on the bleeding
surface and its neighborhood will in many cases succeed,
but this or any other similar method is far inferior to that of
securing the open vessel by a thread. To accomplish this,
» By Blacklock.
CLOSURE OP A WOUND. 383
the mouth of the vein or artery must be slightly drawn out
from the contiguous surface, by means of a small hook, call-
ed by surgeons a tenaculum^ and easily procured from any
blacksmith. While the mouth of the vessel is thus held ex-
posed, an assistant must surround it with a noose of thread,
which, on being secured with a double knot, will effectually
close it. The thread ought to be of white silk, though any
undyed thread, which is firm, round, and capable of standing
a pull, will answer the purpose. Care must be taken to
place the thread, before tying it, fairly behind the point of
the tenaculum, so as to avoid including the instrument with-
in the ligature — a circumstance which would lead to the
slipping of the noose and failure of the operation. The
hook is now to be withdrawn, and one end of the ligature cut
off by scissors a short distance from the noose. The re-
maining threads are allowed to hang out of the wound, so as
to admit of their removal when they become loose, which
does not, however, take place till the termination of the first
four days, and they are frequently retained for a longer pe-
riod. At each time the wound is dressed, after the fourth
day, the ligatures should be gently pulled, or, which is pref-
erable, twisted, to disengage them, if at all loose, so that the
wound may be more speedily closed. Before proceeding to
any operation where bleeding is expected, the operator should
provide himself with a few well-waxed threads, each twelve
inches long, so that no delay may ensue on a division of
large vessels.
REMOVAL OF EXTRANEOUS MATTER.
Dirt is best removed by washing with a sponge or old
linen rag and warm water. Other foreign bodies may in
general be extracted by the finger and thumb. In some
cases, however, it may be necessary to enlarge the wound
with a fine-edged knife, in order to facilitate the removal of
substances which, from their shape or situation, cannot be
otherwise displaced.
CLOSURE OF A WOUND.
The last thing to be done is to bring the edges of the
wound into as accurate contact as the state of the parts will
at the moment permit, without, however, using any force.
This, with a little care, is readily accomplished, the only
384 SURGICAL OPERATIONS.
difficulty being to retain them in the desired position. They
may be held in contact either by stitches, plasters, or ban-
dages, or by a union of the three. Stitches are only re-
quired when the wound gapes to a considerable degree, as it
\\'\\\ always do when running across a muscle. They may
be applied in the following manner. Transfix one side of
the wound with a curved needle with a well-waxed thread,
forcing the needle from without obliquely towards the bot-
tom of the wound, then carry it through the opposite side
from within, taking care to bring it out about the same dis-
tance from the edge as that at which it entered on the other
margin. The needle must now be removed, by cutting the
threads close to its eye, and while the ends are allowed to
hang loose. Your assistant will now bring the sides of the
wound together as accurately as possible, and retain them
there till you have tied the corresponding ends of the threads
in a double knot.
BANDAGING.
Adhesive plaster is in some instances of service, but upon
the whole ought rather to be dispensed with, being of diffi-
cult application, and moreover tending to the accumulation
of filth and the discomfort of the animal. Nothing will be
found to serve the purpose of supporting the parts so well as
a properly adjusted bandage, which is useful in every in-
stance, and sure to stay on if sewed here and there to the
fleece. The bandage should never be omitted where the
wound has any tendency to gape, as too great a strain upon
the stitches cannot but lead to delay in the healing process.
In bandaging a limb or part of a limb, commence always at
the foot, and proceed upwards ; in other parts of the body,
begin where you find it most convenient. Before applying
a bandage to a wounded surface, a couple of pieces of old
linen or cotton rag should be folded into pads or compresses,
and laid one on each side of the cut, and over these the ban-
dage should be rolled, evenly and with moderate and uniform
firmness. By this plan the separated surfaces are support-
ed and preserved in close juxtaposition, especially at the
bottom of the wound, a thing of some importance where the
cavity is deep. Transverse cuts of the limbs of sheep re-
quire more careful and more complicated treatment than cuts
in other parts, as there is a constant tendency of the edges
to retract. This retraction of the edges may be in some de-
CLEAN CUTS PUNCTtTRED WOUNDS. 885
gree obviated by the application of a splint, which may bo
made of a slip of stiff leather well wetted, so as to be easily
adapted to the form of the limb. It is intended to impede
the motion of the leg, which occasions the gaping of the
wound, and must therefore be made to pass over one or more
joints as circumstances may require. A bandage must be
placed over to make everything secure.
CLEAN CUTS.
Clean cuts, as every one knows, heal readily in a healthy
animal, seldom demanding above three dressings ; lacera-
tions, on the other hand, require a longer period for their
reparation, inasmuch as the process which nature goes
throuoh is more complicated. In the former, the parts are
speedily glued together, so soon almost as in contact, and
the union is generally complete within the first thirty-six
hours. Not so, however, with the latter. Here the parts
are bruised, torn, and perhaps to a considerable extent want-
ing. Some of the bruised portions may die, and are of
course to be renewed. This is a process requiring a great
effort on the part of the vital powers, which are often inade-
quate to the task, and on this account we ought, when ihe
injury is severe, to sacrifice the animal rather than run the
risk of its dying during the process of the attempted cure.
To replace the lost part, suppuration or the formation of
matter commences ; while under cover of this, a crop of
fleshy particles (granulations) rise to fill the vacancy.
Granulations are best promoted by warm emollient applica-
tions, such as poultices of oatmeal, linseed meal, or barley
flour, which ought to be frequently renewed to prevent their
becoming cold or dry. When the granulations become too
luxuriant, and rise, as they are apt to do, above the level of
the skin, the poultices must be laid aside, the sore washed
once or twice a day with a solution of sulphate of copper,
(made by dissolving two or three drachms of blue vitriol in
a pint of sol't water), and covered carefully over with a little
fine tow, spread with lard, or any simple ointment, by which
means, conjoined with cleanliness, a cure will easily be ac-
complished.
PUNCTURED WOUNDS.
The orifice being small in these, and the depth consider-
able, the sides are apt to adhere irregularly, and preveat tJao
83
386 SURGICAL OPERATIONS.
free escape of matter, which is certain to collect at the bot-
tom. To avoid such occurrences, it is in many cases proper
to convert a punctured into an incised wound. When, from
neglecting this, the matter is denied an outlet, an incision
must be made to allow it to escape, otherwise much harm
will ensue from its burrowing between the diflerent textures.
Fomentations will also here be serviceable, and should be
preferred to poultices. To apply them, place well-boiled
hay, when very hot and moist, within a fold of old blanket
or woollen cloth, and lay it on the injured parts, taking care
to renew the heat frequently, by dipping the bundle in the
hot decoction.
BRUISES AND SPRAINS.
These, unless severe, need not be interfered with. When
the shepherd, however, considers it necessary to make an
application, he cannot do better than foment the part for an
hour or so with meadow hay, in the same manner as recom-
mended for punctured wounds.
WOUNDS OF JOINTS.
Such wounds are highly dangerous, and apt to baffle the
most experienced. If the injury be extensive, the best
thing the farmer can do is to slaughter the animal.
FRACTURES.
If there be no wound of the soft parts, the bone being
simply broken, the treatment is extremely easy. Apply a
piece of wet leather, taking care to ease the limb when
swelling supervenes. When the swelling is considerable,
and fever present, you can do no better than open a vein of
the head or neck, allowing a quantity of blood to escape,
proportioned to the size and condition of the animal and the
urgency of the symptoms. Purgatives in such cases should
never be neglected. Epsom salts in ounce doses, given
either as a gruel or a drench, will be found to answer the
purpose well. If the broken bones are kept steady, the cure
will be complete in from three to four weeks, the process of
reunion always proceeding faster in a young than in an old
sheep. Should the soft parts be injured to any extent, or
the ends of the bone protruding, recovery is very uncertain,
and it will become a question whether it would not be better
at once to convert the animal into mutton.
BLOOD-LETTING. 387
BLOOD-LETTING.
In describing this operation, too much stress is always
laid on the importance of opening particular veins, or divis-
ions of a vein, in certain diseases. Such directions are al-
together unnecessary", as it matters not from what part of
the animal the blood be drawn, provided it be taken quickly.
Nothing tends so much to the recovery of an animal from a
disease in which bleeding is required, as the rapid flow of
the blood from a large orifice. Little impression can be
made on an acute disease by the slow removal of even a
large quantity of blood, as the organs have time to accom-
modate themselves to the loss, which might, for any good it
will do, as well be dispensed with. Either bleed rapidly, or
bleed not at all. The nearer the commencement of an ail-
ment, in which you employ bleeding, the operation is resorted
to, the greater the chance of doing good ; no time ought,
therefore, to be lost in using the lancet, when once it is
known to be required. Bleeding and nicking the under sur-
face of the tail, does very well where no great deal of blood
is required, but it is not to be thought of if the veins of the
face or neck can possibly be opened. These are to be
taken in preference to a vein on the leg, as they are much
more readily got at. The facial vein commences by small
branches on the side of the face, and runs downwards and
backwards to the base of the jaw, where it may be felt
within two inches of the angle, or opposite the middle
grinding tooth. It is here that the orifice must be made ;
the thumb of the left hand being held against the vein, so
as to prevent the flow of blood towards the heart, will make
it rise. Some prefer opening the jugular vein, which com-
mences behind the eye and runs down the side of the neck.
This vessel is, however, more difficult to open than the
former, being more covered with wool, and not so easily ex-
posed or made to swell. To effect this, a cord is drawn
tightly round the neck, close to the shoulder, so as to stop
the circulation through the vein, and render it perceptible
to the finger. A lancet is the instrument generally used in
bleeding, though a sharp-pointed penknife will do at a pinch.
The opening must always be made obliquely ; but before
attempting this the animal must be secured, by placing it
between the operator's legs, with its croup against a wall.
The selected vein is then fixed by the fingers of the opera-
388 SURGICAL OPERATIONS.
tor's left hand, so as to prevent it rolling or slipping before
the lancet. Having fairly entered the vein, the point of the
instrument must be elevated, at the same time that it is
pushed a little forward, by which motion it will be lifted
from, or cut its way out of the vein. A prescribed quan-
tity of blood should never be drawn, for the simple reason,
that this can never be precisely stated. If the symptoms
are urgent, as in all likelihood they will, your best plan is
not to stop the flow of blood till the animal fall or is about
to fall. When this occurs, run a pin through the edges of
the orifice, and finish by twisting round it a lock of wool.
APPENDIX
LETTERS FROM DISTINGUISHED WOOL-GROWERS
ON THE MANAGEMENT OF THEIR FLOCKS.
LETTER FROM HON. W.M. JARVIS, WEATHERSFIELD, VERMONT.
Dear Sir, — I received your favor of the 28tli ultimo, making
inquiries respecting Merino Sheep, and putting several questions
to me regarding those invaluable animals, which I cheerfully an-
svrer ; and the more so, because at some future period, when the
wool-growing business may be a primary object of agriculture
with the fai-mers of the Northern and Western States, much con-
fusion may arise from the conflicting pretensions and accounts of
many persons who are more disposed to puff up their flocks, than
to give the public correct information.
[Mr. Jarvis here alludes to the importation of Chancellor Liv-
ingston.]
The next importation was by Genl. Humphreys when he was
about leaving the Court of Spain, in 1801, to give place to the
Hon. Charles Pinckney, of South Carolina. It has been stated
by some late writer, that Genl. Humphreys married a Spanish
lady and obtained a part of his flock by means of her father.
This is not correct. Genl. Humphreys married the second daugh-
ter of John Buckley, a wealthy British merchant of Lisbon, when
he was Charge at the Court of Portugal, and took her with him
to Madrid on his appointment, in 1797, Minister at that Court.
The story of his obtaining these sheep is this. It was a custom
of the Spanish Court, when a Foreign Minister was recalled, on
taking leave to make him a present of five to ten bars of gold ;
each bar, if I recollect right, was of one pound weight ; but as
the law of this country forbids any Minister taking any present
from a foreign court, Mr. Humphreys declined it, but suggested
to the Minister that he should be much gratified with a royal li-
cense to take out of the kingdom two hundred Merino sheep.
This the Minister stated could not be granted, but intimated that
if he wished to take them out no obstruction should be thrown in
his way. These were purchased in Lower Leon, or Upper Es-
tremdura, and driven down the valley of the Mondego to Figueira,
where they were embarked for the United States. I never could
33*
390 APPENDIX.
learn out of what flock these sheep were obtained, but they un-
questionably were pure blood Transhuniantes, which is the only
fact of importance worth knowing. Still, I thought it worth while
to go into the above detail, as some late writer has undertaken to
give an account of Genl. Humphreys' maniage and the maimer of
obtaining some of these sheep, very different from the above.*
In 1831 and 1832, I made inquiries of some Connecticut gentle-
men about Genl. Humphreys' flock, and they told me that, at his
death, they had been sold in small parcels, and distributed about.
Man}' now make a parade of having Paular sheep, and those who
have the bump of credulity largely developed on the cranium,
may believe it, but I am persuaded that no one in the United
States can trace back any Merinos they may have had for the
last twenty years to that cabanna or flock. As I have mentioned
elsewhere, I bred my Paulars, Aiguerras, Negrettis, Escurials,
and Montarcos separateh% that is, each kind by itself, from 1811
to 1816, but in that year I began b}^ mixing all together, and have
ever since bred so without discrimination. Although at tliat early
day I had a very extensive intercourse with our breeders, I did
not know of another breeder who purchased Merinos of the difler-
ent flocks imported, that ever took any pains to separate the dif-
ferent kinds. So far from it, there was a general opinion perva-
ding the country that crossing the different kinds would improve
the wool. Doubtless the reason why we have latterly heard so
much puffiing about Paulars is owing to its having been under-
stood that the Paulars carried rather the heaviest fleeces.
From 1811 to 1826, when I began to cross with the Saxonies,
my average weight of wool was 3 lbs. 14 oz. to 4 lbs. 2 oz., vary-
ing according to the keep. The weight of the bucks was from 5i
lbs. to 6:1- lbs. in good stock case, all washed on the sheeps' backs.
My flock now consists of 1 60 pure blood Merino ewes, bucks, and
lambs, 100 pure blood Saxonies, and about 750 crossed between
pure blood Merinos and pure blood Saxonies. My flock has al-
ways been composed (jf the descendants of the Merinos I exported
in 1809 and '10, and the Saxonies imported in 1826, and the crosses
between the two, never having bred from any other kind. The
present average weight of my flock as above is about 3 lbs. 4 oz.
per head, but the pure blood Merino part of it will not vary ma-
terially from the original weight.
In reply to your question, whether I consider the Escurial,
Montarco, Negretti, Paular, or Gaudaloupe most profitable to the
American wool-grower, I reply, that as none of these varieties
are now distinct in our country, we cannot have a choice ; but
when I had a control of the five flocks, namely, the Paular, the
* The author of this treatise is personally acquainted with the wool-frrower who
put forth the statement Mr. Jarvis alludes to. and he has not a doubt but that it
was innocently done. It should serve as a caution, however, to others, to beware
of poins before the public with statements of which they have not proper testi-
mony to sustain. The public is indebted to Mr. Jarvis for the exposure of several
errors relative to Merinos.
APPENDIX. 391
AigueiTas, the Escurial, the Negretti and Montareo, I thought
there was so little difference that I concluded to mix them all to-
gether. It is true the Paular was rather the handsomest and car-
ried the hea\'iest fleece, and the Escurial was a shade the finest ;
hut the wool of all was soft and silky to the touch, and all pos-
sessed the felting or fulling properties so essential for superfine
broadcloths.
I take up my sheep from the 15th to the 25th of November,
according to the weather, and put them in separate yards of a
hundred to two hundred in a yard, having a trough supplied by
running water from an aqueduct in each yard. I give about a
pound and a quarter of hay in the morning, and the same quantity
in the afternoon to each sheep, fed in racks. If my hay runs
short, and I have a plenty of grain, I lessen my hay and give a
gill of com or a half pint of oats per head, at noon. By feeding
in racks in yards, as we have no ti'ouble m driving our sheep to
w^ater, one man will feed a thousand sheep, and take care of four
to six horses in a stable besides. To every yard there is attached
a shed for the sheep to run under whenever they \\'ill, and when
the shed gets foul it is lightly strawed over. A part of a sill is
slightly boxed up and salt kept in it. Potatoes contain much mu-
cilage or starch, and are a good article of food. The sugar beet or
mangel wurtzel possesses much saccharine matter, and is likewise
nutritious. When hay is scarce, about half may be saved by
givuig an equal weight of either sliced up in a cutting machine.
Rutabaga is also good food, but I think it does not contain more
than half the nutriment of either of the foregoing.
My usual yeaning season has been about the first of May, but
I have sometimes purposely had the lambs come ten days later,
sometimes ten days sooner, and the success of either has much
depended on the state of the weather. In a lot near to my house
where a man has looked after them three or four times a da}^ and
in rainy and stormy weather they have been put under cover at
night, I have raised nine lambs from ten ewes ; but when turned
to pasture without any special care, we generally do not raise
more than a lamb to two ewes. But I am satisfied it would
amply pay breeders if their pastures were within convenient dis-
tances to erect slight shanties in them, and in stomiy weather to
put their ewes in during the yeaning season. My nile has been
to put a buck to twenty-five to thirty-five ewes, according to his
strength: the Spanish rule was one to twenty-five.
Sheep prefer high diy grounds for pasture, but any dry lands
will answer well. They are not so healthy when fed on cold,
wet, or swampy land, and the foot-rot is undoubtedly occasioned
by swampy grcninds. As sheep are somewhat nice in the choice
of their food, if put in pastures where they can select a sufficiency,
I am not aware that the coarse or finer grasses would be likely to
have much influence on the quality of their wool. There was a
general opinion prevalent amongst the shepherds of Spain, that to
392 APPENDLX.
retain tlie soft, flexible, and felting properties of the wool, the
Mennos must be pa^^tured the year round. But the experience of
the Saxon.?, and of all those countries where the Merinos have
been bred, has proved this oi^inion to be erroneous. If one was
to reason from analogy, we should conclude that the wool grovrn
in a cold climate would be softer than that raised in a warm one,
as it is a well known fact that the beaver and all other furred
animals, found in high northern latitudes, have longer, softer, and
thicker fur than the same species have in southern laritudes,
Spain, however, has a mild climate, the thennometer being sel-
dom or never lower than forty degrees in the plains of Estrema-
dura or Leon during the winter, but the excessive heat of those
plains in the summer is avoided by pasturing the sheep in the
mountainous region. I think this breed of sheep would thrive in
the Alleghany range a-s far south as Georgia, and everywhere
north of forty degrees of latitude. But I am inclined to believe,
from what little I know of our Western Prairie.-^, that the Leicester
or some other of the large, strong, long-wooled breeds of sheep
would do better on the tall, coarse gi^asses comm<3n to them.
As comiected with sheep management, it will not be improper
to point out the remedies for some of the moiit common diseases.
Fo(jt-rot was totally unknown among the Spanish 3'Ierinos. It
was brought into this country in 1826 A\nth the sheep imported
from Saxony. The best remedy for this disease is Roman or
blue vitriol, pulverized very line, three parts, and one part of
white lead mixed into a thin paste with hnseed oil. Shghtly cut
the horn of the hoof to come at the part aflected, and if put on
in season one or two dressings will almost invariably cure them.
The foul substances ought to be cleaned out with a knife or thin
stick from between the hoof before it is put on. An excellent pre-
ventive against the foot-rot is to wash the hoof> clean in strong
soap suds ma,de of ordinaiy soft soap, directly after shearing, as
dunng this pnjcess their feet get very foul.* The scab, however,
was a disorder to which the Spanish Merinos were very subject,
if not taken great care of. Sulphur mixed with hog's lard, well
rubbed into the part affected, directly afier shearing, will cure the
disease. Another remedy is boiling tobacco in water till the
hquor is pretty strong, put into a hogshf ad tub, take the fore legs
in one hand and the two hind legs in the other, and immerse the
sheep except its head for about two minutes, then take a very
hard brush or a very fine curry-comb and scrub the hard scab off
from the part affected till it appears raw — pour on some tobacco
liquor and let the sheep run. One or two dres.-ings will almost
invariably cure them ; the be:=:t time likewise is directly after
shearing. If the lambs are immersed, it must be in a much
weaker liquor, as, if too strong, it is very pernicious to them.
Lambs are often infested with ticks, which are easily destroyed
* This will be avoided by littering the pounda often with straw.— ilutAor Am,
APPENDIX. 393
by Immersing tliem, about ten days or a fortnight after shearing
the ewes, in weak tobacco water. Sheep are sometimes subject
to be blown or bloated, which I believe to be a kind of colic.
The remedy is two great spoonfuls of castor oil mixed with a
tea-spoonful of pulverized rhubarb, to which add two or three
great spoonfuls of hot water to make it more fluid; open the
mouth and put do\\Ti a spoonful at a time as fast as they can
swallow it. It never fails to cure them if given before the sheep
has fallen. About half as much more is required for a stout
buck, and half the quantity for a lamb. If pulverized rhubarb is
not at hand, ground ginger will do, but it is not so certain.
I believe I have now answered all your questions, and shall
leave you at liberty to make what use you please of this letter,
or that some time since published in the Cultivator, which I the
more readily do, as it aflbrds me great pleasure to aid, in any
way, the advancement of this very important branch of Ameri-
can airriculture.
LETTER FROM WM. EROWNLEE, OF WASHINGTON, PENNSYLVANIA.
Dear Sir, — I received your letter informing me of your inten-
tion of publishing a work on Sheep Husbandry, and desiring my
\'iews on the subject. I have been engaged in that business for
nearly thirty j-ears, and have at this time a flock numbering
about three thousand and five hundred, one half of which is in
this county, and the remainder in Lee County, Iowa. I com-
menced my flock Av-ith the full-blooded Merinos, and after some
time crossed them with the long-wooled Saxons, which I received
from Dutchess County, N. York. My flock at present is chiefly
Saxon-blood, and average about three lbs. to the fleece of clean
washed wool. I give the preference to the Saxonies, as their
wool is rather the softest, and free of yolk or eke. The length of
time we feed our sheep, and the amount of hay they consume, I
cannot well decide, as it greatly depends on the winter, and the
quantity of winter pasture that we may have ; but generally we
have to feed more or less about five months, in which time the
sheep eat from six to eight tons of hay to the hundred ; but I be-
lieve in a close winter, and without much Avinter pasture, that
number will require ten tons. I prefer good clover hay to any
other, as they vAW improve upon it more than other descriptions.
I feed but little grain until towards spring, and then make use of
oats and com, which I think equally good. But if there are any
dousy or poor shr^p, I feed them some grain through the whole
of the winter. It has not been my practice to feed any roots,
although I think them very good.
I have been in the habit of housing my sheep in the winter.
The dimensions of my shelters are about sixty or seventy feet in
394 APPENDIX.
length, aiid sixteen in width, which are closed on the west side
and open at the east ; some are covered with boards, and others
with straw.
[The kind of rack Mr. Brownlee uses is the box rack.]
As for pasture, I prefer the prairie grass to any other until to-
wards fall, when it becomes dry, and sheep will not do so well on
it as other kinds. The blue grass I think ranks next, but timothy
and clover do very well. The prairie grass is not good for hay,
in my opinion, it being too binding, and therefore sheep do not
thrive upon it so well.
I generally keep from 150 to 200 together summer and winter,
unless on the prairies, where I keep one thousand together in the
sunmier, if they have a large district to range over. AVhen we
keep our sheep in the fields, I generally change them once a
week, and keep salt and ashes (about equal portions) in a trough
under some shelter constantly by them summer and winter ; they
can then take it as often as they please, and the ashes Asill prevent
them from eating too much salt. The effect of the ashes is to
keep them more healthy. I think sheep should not be without
water every day during the winter when confined to dr\' food.
My bucks are put with the ewes from the 15th to the 20th of
November, and usually raise from 80 to 90 lambs to the hundred
ewes.
As to diseases, I am happy to say that I have verj" little experi-
mental knowledge of them, as our sheep have not been exposed
to them, until last summer, when the foot-rot visited us, which is
a ver^' stubborn disease to cure. I had it in one of my flocks,
but I think I have eradicated it after much trouble, and will
here give you a recipe for the cure of it : —
One lb. of Blue Vitriol finely pulveiized.
One ounce of Alum.
Honey and hog's lard enough to make a stiff salve. The feet
must be closely pared, cleaned, and anointed with the salve, and
the sheep should be kept on diy ground on all occasions of tliis
kind.
I am glad to hear that you are undertaking a work of the de-
scription you name, and the few lines of broken remarks I send
you are at your service. I wish you much success in your
project.
LETTER FROM CHARLES B. SMITH, OF WOLCOTTVILLE, CONN.
Dear Sir, — Your favor of the 12th inst. is at hand. It gives
me great pleasure to leani that the public is so soon to be in pos-
session of a work on Sheep Husbandry, the need of which I have
no doubt every wool-grower feels. 1 am aware that I can give
you no new ideas on sheep management, yet I willingly comply
\Ndth your request in giving you my experience in the matter.
APPENDIX. 395
During the summer season my sheep receive but little atten-
tion. As soon as they are shorn, which is about the 1st of June,
I immerse all of them in a decoction of tobacco of sufficient
strength to kill the ticks, if there are any. I then divide them
into flocks, paying regard only to sex and condition, put them into
pastures, and when it can be done conveniently, change them
eveiy week. They are regularly salted once a week. About
the 1st November, or when the wool is of sufficient length to
judge of its quahty, I examine each one of them myself and se-
lect for sale such as I consider of the least value. I do not sell
my best ewes, although I am not unfrequently offered prices for
them which might be considered exorbitant. I let my rams re-
main with the ewes from the 25th of November till 1st of Jan-
uary. During the winter season, if the ground is not covered
wdth snow, I keep them in yards, always providing for them good
shelters, and of course plenty of water — feed them in the common
racks or boxes, placed in the open yard, on hay of good quality,
and give them as much as they will eat. I do not feed grain or
roots of any kind. I find by this ti^eatment that my flock go out
in the spring in as good condition as they were at the commence-
ment of winter, with their wool more perfect and more rich in ap-
pearance.* If sheep in good condition at the beginning of winter
do not receive sufficient attention during the winter to keep them
so, of course, the wool will show it, besides it very much lessens
its value. I have been engaged for several years past in the pur-
chase of wool, and almost daily have come in contact with wool
of this description, which has been essentially injured by the bad
management of the flocks during the winter season.
i have at this time something over 300 sheep, most of which
are pure-blooded Saxonies (i. e., if the importations of Saxons were
pure), having been bred from imported sheep. I have long been
of the opinion that the pure Saxony sheep, well managed, would
be hardy, and my object in the commencement of my flock was
to produce a strong, healthy animal, with a fleece of superfine
quality, and good weight ; in this I have perhaps succeeded tol-
erably well — certainly beyond my expectations, although I am
far from being satisfied yet. Notwithstanding there is quite a
family resemblance throughout the flock, yet I have some sheep
which are so different from any I have seen that I shall not be
satisfied unril my entire flock more nearly resemble them than
they now do.
I had much rather show my sheep than describe them, but as
you wish to know the quantity of wool they yield, (fee, I will
give you the weight of the fleeces of 104 ewes, which were kept
in the same flock last winter, and which raised 101 lambs; their
fleeces (104) weighed 341 lbs. ; and although the quahty of it was
* Mr. Smith seems to be well aware of the impolicy of high feeding, simply to
make heavy fleeces, and causing harsh and wiry wool.
396 APPENDIX.
considered better than the average of my clip, yet it was sold
with my entire lot for 70 cents per lb., to Messrs. Samuel Slater
6c Son.s, of Providence, R. I. To give you some idea of the
constitution of my sheej), 1 will say that during the last eighteen
months I have l(jst but four sheep, one of which was an imported
ram injured bv righting. 1 had forgotten to mention that I im-
ported from Germany two years since two rams and one ewe; I
think my Hock will be improved by this cross.
LETTER FROM JOHN JOHNSTON, OF GENEVA, NEW YORK.
Dear Sir, — I have before me your favor of the 24th inst., and
take great pleasure in stating to you my experience and practice
in sheep farming.
It is now twenty-three years that I have kept sheep in this
(Seneca) county, and fw the last 16 years my flock has varied in
number from 600 to 1000 ; at this time it amounts to 974, all
Merinos, and which originated from the flock of the late Hon. R.
S. Rose, before he crossed with the Saxon breed.
In relation to feeding sheep, my early custom was to feed with
hay alone during winter, excepting the lambs, to which I gave in
addition a httle oats or corn, and to my v/ethers, which were stall-
fed, corn, oats, buckwheat or peas, feeding at the rate of one
bushel of com, or its ecpiivalent in other grain, per day to the
hundred, allowing also as much hay as they would eat. I think
buckwheat quite e(jual to corn as feed for sheep.
Since the year 1840 I have adopted a different system of keep-
ing my sheep, at least so long as my straw holds out, which is
generally until the middle of Feb. or 1st of March. In 1840 I
entered the winter with lOoO sheep, allowing them as much straw
in their racks as they would eat, and some to waste. In addi-
tion to the straw I fed one bushel of oats, or one bushel of corn-
cob meal, (oats also mixed in grinding), to every 100 sheep per
day, exce])t my lambs, which were fed on hay. Under this
treatment my sheep wintered well, full as well as when fed
hay alone. I threshed every week, and conseijuently the straw
was always sweet.
During the winter of 1843-44, I tried an experiment successful-
ly, as follows : — I selected 100 ewes and 10 wethers of one year
old past; to this flock I fed wheat straw only, with one bushel
oilcake meal per day; this was continued imtil the 22d March,
when my straw was exhausted. I then fed them on hay, and
discontinued the oil meal. This flock did exceedingly well, being
fat in the spring. I also fed a flock of lambs (134) in the same
way until the 1st March, and then fed them on hay, discontinu-
ing the oil-cake ; they likewise did remarkably well, and were
the best yearlings of the breed I ever saw. The ewes yielded
APPENDIX. 397
precisely 3| lbs. of clean washed wool per head, and the yearlings
lacked only one pound in the aggregate quantity from them, of
averaging 3| lbs.
The present season I am feeding the whole of my flock, except
the lambs, straw and oil meal, at the rate of one bushel to the
hundred per day; 318 lambs are fed with hay and an allowance
of two bushels of oil meal per day. I may as well say here that,
in my opinion, the oil meal causes the wool to be finer than the
grain ; it is moi-e economical also than hay — and therefore think
it the best feeding for sheep. Clover hay will certainly fatten
sheep, if well cured, but they eat very large quantities of it, and
we know that it costs more to cut and cure than herds grass ;
while oil meal costs at the mill Sll per ton; now a ton contains
40 bushels, which gives 27^ cents cost per bushel. If I then feed
150 days, as we generally do, then each sheep would consume 41
cents worth of oil meal, and no more.
The quantity of hay consumed by sheep depends much on the
winter, and also on the condition of the lands. If the fields are
left rough in the autumn, with the pasture old, and the winter
like the last, and mild as the present so far, sheep would not re-
quire so much hay. But where the pastures are close fed by the
end of November, and where sheep are on hay for 150 days, I be-
lieve that each sheep will in that period consume 500 lbs. of hay,
if fed nothing else. In making this estimate, I of course suppose
that the sheep are to be shorn in as good condition as they were in
the previous November ; such is almost always the case with
mine, for I have no opinion of putting on flesh in summer to be
wasted in winter.
In respect to the keeping of sheep through the summer, I
would remark that I have large fallows, and I change my sheep
from pastures to these ; after hai-vest they have a range on the
stubbles. I never turn from winter keep until the pastures are
good ; these I sow with plaster, which causes a great increase of
feed.
[Mr. Johnston states that his ewes raise 90 per cent, of lambs.]
In relation to my Bucks, I would say that I have been tempted
recently to purchase some from gentlemen who have from time
to time boasted of their large average weight of fleeces, as pub-
lished in the Cultivator and other papers ; but unfortunately thus
far none of them have produced anything near the average weight
of wool claimed for them, which I cannot account for, unless the
gentlemen do not wash as clean as we do in this quarter. Cer-
tainly the sheep are never in worse condition than when they
came into my hands. For several years past my flock has yield-
ed an average of from 3 to 3^ lbs. ; the last clip averaged 3 lbs.
10 oz., and this year I hope for more.
Since I commenced purchasing high-priced bucks, it has been
my practice to put only one to the 100 ewes ; but he is pennitted
to remain among them only about 30 days, preferring rather a dry
34
398 APPENDIX.
ewe to a late lamb. I have rarely, however, more than five bar-
ren ewes to the 100, and that would be the case if 10 bucks had
been pennitted to run with them. The time when I tuni in my
bucks is from the 20th to the 25th of Nov. ; the ewes therefore be-
gin yeaning about the 20th of April.
[Mr. Johnston thinks, and very rightly too, that it is bad policy
to put ewes, of the Saxon and Merino blood, to buck before they
are two and a half years old.]
I always tag my sheep thoroughly before I turn them to pas-
ture, and wash them well about twelve days before shearing them.
I salt regularly once a week during the season of pasturage ; salt
is mixed with the oil meal when fed, as often as once a week, or
else a brine is made and sprinkled over the straw.
The protection of sheep from severe weather, I deem very im-
portant. My sheds are 24 feet wide, 16 feet posts, with girts 5^
feet from the foot of the posts, with poles laid on them to support
the hay, leaving the clear space under for sheep to go in at pleas-
ure.
[Mr. Johnston makes use of the box rack, and his feeding
troughs are of triangular shape and made of boards.]
During some winters I have confined my sheep to their yards,
while other seasons I have allowed them to go in and out at will ;
but the fonner management I deem altogether preferable, though
it is attended with much additional trouble in pumping water for
them. More manure is made by confining them wholly, an object
of much importance to the fanner; in adtlition to all, quietness is
promoted by it, and more flesh wdll be acquired from the same
amount of feed.
[Mr. Johnston adopts the old Scotch system of castration —
making an incision on each side of the scrotum, and then drawing
out the testicles with the teeth ; he thinks highly of this method.]
In conclusion, I will add that laiid in this neighborhood is
worth fifty dollars per acre, and will pay as good an interest, or
perhaps better, by raising sheep, than by tillage. Yet sheep and
wheat do well together, for the sheep manure the land, and better
crops of wheat and grass follow.
LETTER FROM JOSEPH BARNARD, OF HOPKINTON, NEW HAMP-
SHIRE.
Dear Sir, — Your letter of 12th inst. was duly received, and by
its contents I am informed that you are preparing a work for publi-
cation on sheep-husbandry, which I think is very much called for
in this country.
You wished me to give you a history of my flock of sheep —
their pedigree, &;c. The following are the answers to your in-
quiries : — The number of my flock is between three and four
APPENDIX. 399
hundred, and the breed, Saxony, and mostly from the Searls im-
portation. I also obtained a buck which arrived at Boston in
1826, from the Burendorf flock, one of the most esteemed in Sax-
ony, for which we paid $128. The full-grown sheep of my flock
shear from 2 to 2^ lbs. per head, when in good condition. The
sheep are washed very clean, tagged close, by cutting off" all the
wool that is in the least dirty. We are very fastidious in doing
up our wool and preparing it for market. I received in 1838 from
the American Institute (New York) a medal for the finest wool,
and in 1839 my wool was sorted at the Middlesex Manufactoiy,
Lowell, which stood thus : —
[It having been stated in a foi-mer part of this work that there
were American Saxon flocks which rivalled the German, the fol-
lowing sorts of Mr. Barnard's wool will confirai the statement.]
32 lbs. Super Extra - - " -^ ^ ^
124 "
Extra
154 "
Prime '
103 "
No. 1
5i"
" 2
i"
" 3
00c.
$ 32 00
90
111 60
80
123 20
70
72 10
60
3 30
50
0 25
419 $342 45
[Average per lb. nearly 82 cents.]
When my flock comes to the bam for the winter, it is separated
into lots of from 50 to 60 each, and their apartments well ven-
tilated and littered ; in a word, I aim to keep the flock comfortable.
The principal provender given them is, from the first coming to
the bam until February, mowed oats, cut when about half ripe.
From the latter period and for the remainder of the foddering
season, they receive boiled potatoes, oat and corn-cob meal, mixed
together, and strewed on good hay, and put into crib boxes,
which ai'e placed in the sheep stalls.
[As far as could be comprehended from the description of the
crib-boxes they are similar to the cut, Figure 2.]
I browse my sheep occasionally during the winter season, by
driving them into the pastures, or woods, where they can crop
sweet-fern, hemlock, pine and cheekberry, and whatever else they
please. This contributes to their health ; if browse cannot be ob-
tained (owing to the depth of snow), roots of all kinds are substi-
tuted. Raw potatoes are very good, if given regularly and in
small quantities. Sheep, to do well, should have plenty of good
water provided for them through the foddering season.
My ewes yean their lambs in the month of May ; I raise gen-
erally 90 lambs from 100 ewes. My loss has not exceeded 2 per
cent, during the winter season.
[Mr. Barnard states that his sheep were affected with foot-
rot about 20 years since ; his remedy for the disease is omitted.]
400 APPENDIX.
LETTER FROM HENRY HARTZEL, OF DARLINGTON, PENNSYLVANIA.
Dear Sir, — Yonr communication came dnly to hand, and with
the greatest pleasure I embrace the opportunity of communica-
ting to you, as far as conveniently may be, the inforaiation de-
sired.
My flock at present numbers about 900 — of the Merino breed —
originally from the stock of Dickinson of Ohio, and Marvin of
this Stale.
2d. The flock yields from 3i to 3^ lbs. per head.
3d. The blood is considered valuable, and my sales annually
have been large.
4th. I never allow my sheep to herd in greater numbers than 50
to 100, either summer or winter.
5th. For the last two vears, I have folded from 100 to 150 at
the commencement of winter, within a small yard containing wa-
ter, without removing them until shearing. These were for
slaughtering, and fed accordingly.
We generally feed clover and timothy hay three times per day
when the weather is severe, and when otherwise, twice a day.
AVe do not feed grain or roots till in January or February, except
to such portions of the flock as appear in a declining condition.
These are put by themselves, and fed on wheat bran, oats, pota-
toes, and such articles as the nature of the case requires. To our
breeding ewes we generally feed from a bushel and a half to two
bushels of potatoes, finely cut, with the addition of half a bushel
of bran mixed per day to the 100. The sheep for slaughtering
alluded to, receive the same treatment as the ewes, except, that in-
stead of the bran, 1 peck of oats or buckwheat was mixed with a
peck of bran, and the whole mixed with the potatoes, and fed in the
latter part of the season twice a day. We generally feed our
com fodder at noon.
6th. We shelter our sheep during the whole winter season.
7th. In our climate we are obliged to fodder five months of the
year.
8th. Blue grass and white clover mixed, and timothy are, for
sheep pasture, the best we have here.
9th. We salt our flock once a week, but think twice would be
better.
10th. When we think our hay has not been sufficiently cured,
or has been damaged by bad weather, we add 1 quart of salt to
the ton ; but when well cured, we do not salt it at all.
11th. We put our bucks during the two last weeks in Nov.,
and wean our lambs in the latter part of August. It is destruc-
tive to put lambs upon luxuriant clover immediately after wean-
12th. There is always a ready cash market for wool in this
quarter.
APPENDIX. 401
IStli. TI16 average price of land in Beaver county is about 15
dollars per acre.
14th. The foot-rot is a disease unkno\\Ti to the sheep of Beaver
county.
JOINT LETTER FROM CHAS. W. HULL AND M. T. TILDEN, OF NEW
LEBANON, NEW YORK.
The flock was accidentally commenced, in the year 1810, by
the late Elam Tilden. He was in New York waiting the sloop
to sail, when he met the late Chancellor Livingston, who invited
him to go to a sale of Merino sheep, and while there he purcha-
sed a full-blooded ewe, and shortly after purchased of other impor-
tations.
From this stock sprang quite a flock of full-blooded Merinos.
In 1822 Mr. Hull became associated with him, and as soon as
the Saxons were introduced, they commenced crossing with them.
In 1827 they purchased one of the best rams ever imported (at a
sale in Brighton) ; in 1828 they purchased largely of both bucks
and ewes at the large sale in New York. From this stock, pre-
served pure, have sprung our present flocks. We have been very
particular to breed from the best Saxon bucks we could procure.
The flock on the farm of the late Elam Tilden numbers aboui
800 ; Mr. Hull's about 300.
Formerly our aim was short staple and light wool ; then our
fleeces averaged from 2 lbs. 6 oz. to 2 lbs. 9 oz. ; since the man-
ufacturers have discovered that length of staple is not incompat-
ible with fine wool, we have, by increasing its length, increased
its weight to 2| lbs., and we hope, by judicious breeding, to bring
them to 3 lbs., and still preserve the fineness of the fleece.
We winter in herds, ranging from 50 to 100, and in herding aim
lo keep those of an age, size, and sex together. We shelter all
principally in cellar bams, and feed all under cover, in boxes,
being particular to keep fresh water and salt by them constantly.
We consider both as essential for them as for neat cattle or horses,
for by having both water and salt by them, they never eat or
dnnk inordinately. To one who has never practised this system,
it would be quite a curiosity to see them running from the hay to
the water.
Our feed is well-cured hay, three times a day, of which we feed
them all they will eat, which is about 15 tons to the 100, except
about four weeks before the dropping of the lambs, when we feed
the ewes about a peck of corn-cob meal, mixed with one bushel
potatoes, or Rutabaga, grated, to the 100. Occasionally we feed
oat and barley straw, com stalks, &c., as we have them to spare.*
We make no difference in the feed of our lambs.
* Messrs. Hall & Tilden, it seems, adopt the German system of variety of food
—for which they are to be commended for their sagacity.
84*
402 APPENDLX.
We have pursued tliis system for man}- years, and would like
to compare our flocks, of over 1100, with any like number of fine-
wooled to be found, which are not furnished with a warm shelter,
let their feed be what it may. Our losses have also been very
small, not averaging one per cent. We aim to bring them into
the fold in fine order, which we consider very essential to their
wintering well. Under the old system of short pastures, feeding
at stacks without shelter, you may estimate the per centage of
loss, as high as 3'ou please, and not overstretch the bounds of prob-
abilit3% Are there not many farmers of the present day, who
still pursue this system, and wonder why they lose so many sheep,
and finally ascribe their " bad luck" to disease rather than the
true cause ? Experience should have taught them ere this, that a
large portion of hay stacked is injured by stonns, which, at the
very time the sheep should eat plentifully, they almost refuse it,
paj-ticularly if it becomes wet by a drizzling rain or a snow storm ;
as a consequence the loss of hay and sheep is large — the flock
comes out " spring-poor" — cuts less wool, and that more or less
injured for manufacturing.
We tried this system long enough to see its utter want of econ-
omy, and then adopted barns vnth basements or cellars underneath,
taking care to have them well ventilated ; and each succeeding
year has found us more and more satisfied with our experiment.
So firm is our faith, that we have no hesitation in recommending
to everj^ fanner who has none, to lose no time in providing them
for all his stock, or at least for his sheep. The increased value
of the manure will alone pay a good interest upon the investment.
Inbreeding we are careful to avoid the "in-and-in system."
We turn out from the 1st to the 15th Nov., and put from 50 to 100
with a buck, depending on his age and constitution. The buck
should be well fed. In large flocks, from 80 to 85 lambs to the
100 is the usual average raised ; small flocks the average will
range higher. Nights, and cold, unpleasant days, we are careful
to keep them housed. Wami days we turn them out to graze,
and find when the ewes can get a good bite of grass, that the
lambs are stronger, and that they require less feed and care. We
wean about the 20th of August. The sheep should be tagged
early in the spring, and when well tagged will yield from 16 to 20
lbs. to the hundred.
From several causes, Saxon wool is not now cultivated so
eagerly as formerly, and the demand for Merino has largely in-
creased. The heavier the fleece, the larger the price, even though
much of the weight consists of gum, &;c. This is a lamentable
fact, but how can it be expected otherwise, when so little discrim-
ination is made between Saxon and Merino wool? Some large
flocks have been broken up, and sheep shearing from 3i to 4 lbs.
substituted, and we predict, if this system of buying without
making a suitable discrimination is to be continued, it will result
eventually in the destruction of nearly all the fine-wooled sheep in
APPENDIX. 403
the country. Pride will doubtless cause some of us to continue
growing fine wool, for a time, but when we see our neighbors
getting about as much by the pound, and more by the fleece, in-
terest will prompt us to adopt the course which pays best.
The supply of wool having been larger than the demand for
the past three years, has, in our opinion, led the manufacturers to
suppose that no such change was going on. When the old stock
is worked off and a fair competition springs up, they will find it
difficult to obtain a supply of as good wool as under the same de-
mand three years ago.
If this should be the result they may attribute it to the want of
their usual sagacity. We trust they will look to this subject be-
fore it is too late. All the wool-grower needs to induce him to grow
fine wool is a proper system of discrimination ; let this be done,
and there ^vill be no difficulty in procuring a supply.
We believe that a proper emulation in the growing of fine wool,
tends to make better fanners, for if they once acquire a taste for
superior flocks, it will extend to other branches of farming, which
is a result to be desired by every one who has the interest of the
fanning community at heart.
LETTER FROM JOSEPH BARNUM, OF SHOREHAM, VERMONT.
Dear Sir, — According to your request, I herewith send you a
statement of my management of sheep, and the breed. My flock
consists of about 700, and is of the pure Merino blood ; for their
pedigree I refer you to Mr. Randall's statement in the Albany
Cultivator of December last. My flock was bought of Mr. A.
Cock, of Long Island, by Leonard Bedell, and said to be of the
Paular breed. I now own the flock and farm of the said Bedell, and
the sheep have been kept pure to this day. Last year I sheared
610, whi(«i yielded to me 2441 lbs. of wool, being a fraction over
four pounds per head. I tag my sheep immediately before turn-
ing them to pasture, and take from each about 3 onnces of wool.
I think it very necessary that sheep should be sheltered in win-
ter. Feeding roots is preferable to grain ; oats, however, I think
as good a grain as any. Tuniips and can-ots are very acceptable
to sheep, especially the last. One bushel of carrots to the hundred
will keep them thriving ; half a bushel of oats to an hundred lambs
daily will result greatly to their benefit. Four weeks before lamb-
ing it is veiy necessary that ewes should be fed from 8 to 16
quarts of corn or peas daily, as it ^vill contribute to their strength,
increase their milk, and give less trouble in raising the lambs. I
raise from 85 to 95 lambs from 100 ewes. They are usually
dropped in the field, during the month of May. One buck to a
hundred ewes is sufficient, if put up nights, and grained high. I
do not allow more than one buck to go with a flock of ewes at the
404 APPENDIX.
same time. I prefer ridge land for pasture ; an acre of our land
will pasture from 4 to 10 sheep. An hundred will consume from
10 to 15 tons of hay, if fed nothing else.
LETTER FROM CHARLES COLT, OF GE>'ESEO, JTEW YORK.
Dear Sir, — Your esteemed favor was duly received, and I
hasten to comply with the request therein contained. I have not
that experience to give you, which you will be able to obtain
from many of your correspondents, but such information as I am
possessed of will be cheerfully rendered.
Four years ago, I commenced my present flock of sheep by
purchasing of S. C. Scoville, of Litchfield county, Connecticut,
twenty-five yearling ewes and one yearling buck. This is all I
know concerning their pedigree ; I, however, believe them to be
full-blooded Saxons. My flock at present numbers two hundred
and fifty-six. Wishing to increase it as fast as possible, I have
ne\er as yet been able to cull my flock. I have always sold my
buck lambs in the fall after they were one year old.
The average weight of wool per head the present season was
2 lbs. 14 ounces. I am fully persuaded that by pursuing the
course I have marked out for m3'self, I can realize at least 3 lbs.
per head, of as fine quality of wool as I now get. I tag my
ewes in the fall and all my sheep in the spring, before turning
them out to pasture, chpping about i a pound from each sheep.
At shearing I do not put into the fleece any tags, or any of the
wool that falls upon the floor during the process of clipping. My
practice is to wash in a clean running stream, if possible, soon
after a hard shower. I then turn my sheep into a hard turf pas-
ture, shearing from six to ten days thereafter, as the weather will
permit. There has been much complaint made on accoimt of the
impossibility of shearing Saxons without the fleeces breaking. This
is owing to the want of proper benches for shearing. I use
benches about four feet long, two being connected by a piece of
tow cloth, about one yard wide and four feet long. The fleece
falling upon the cloth is kept clean, and is prevented from break-
ing.
I protect my sheep during winter, and here insert a ground
plan of my barn and sheds.
[Mr. Colt's plan is meritorious, but of necessity is omitted.]
My feeding fixtures are racks of different kinds. The best
kind is upon the following plan : — The bottom is a two inch oak
plank a toot wide and sixteen feet long, legs four and a half feet
long, crossed and halved together, and the bottom plank framed
into them, twenty inches from the ground, by a two inch round
tenon. The rack is filled with inch rounds, three inches apart.
The top pieces and legs are made of oak scantling, four by two
APPENDIX. 405
inclies ; and the top pieces are connected to the legs in the same
manner as the bottom plank is, the tenon nmning through the
legs sufficiently to put in a small wooden pin. The rick is made
flaring, so that it is two feet wide at top. The cost of each is
about two dollars.
I have never had my attention called particularly to the amount
of hay Saxon sheep will consume, but should judge I had kept
well one hundred during the winter on seven tons, together with
the straw and chaff' I fed them.
I feed neither roots nor grain, believing it to be neither profit-
able nor economical so to do, for the following reasons : — It is
much more expensive to feed grain ; — grain I conceive to be an
unnatural food for sheep ; — it causes an undue degree of heat,
and as it produces a greater quantity of wool, it is of coarser tex-
ture.
I think it is of gi-eat importance that a sheep should be, as
nearly as possible, in the same condition, as regards flesh, at all
seasons of the year, particularly a flock of sheep you intend to
keep and breed from. This you cannot do and feed grain a portion
of the year.
I think variety of food is beneficial during the winter. I should
prefer feeding clover hay about one-third of the time and timothy
the remainder ; clover has an effect upon the bowels of sheep
similar to that produced by grass. I also feed straw and
chaff', believing that there is no animal to which they can be fed
with as much profit.
Never having fed any grain, I cannot say what kind will pro-
duce the greatest quantity of wool.
The supposirion that sheep cannot be sufficiently well kept upon
hay during the winter is, in my opinion, erroneous. Much de-
pends upon the time at which, and the manner in which, it is
cured. I am satisfied from my experience, that timothy for
sheep should be cut at least two weeks before you would cut it
for cattle ; before the seed gets fully ripe, and clover while in the
blow. My practice in curing timothy is to turn out the swarths
immediately after the mower in the moniing, turning over again
after dinner, and cocking up the grass before night. The next
day (if fine) turning out from cock as soon as the dew is off',
turning over twice, and getting it into the bam before night.
Hay should be thoroughly cured, and still be as fresh as possible.
Clover requires a different process — I tuni out as in timotby, cure
as much as possible the first day, cock it up at night in tall,
slim cocks, and let it remain so two or three days till it is nearly
cured, then open it to the air and get it in. This process of cu-
ring preserves all the heads, leares, and most of the juice of the
hay.
There is no difficulty in keeping sheep well upon such hay,
properly fed out. I feed my sheep three times a day with hay
and twice with straw and chaff, watering t^vice daily.
406 APPENDIX.
I put my bucks about the 1st of December. Yearlings with
25 ewes, older ones with about 40. 1 make it a practice not to
put a ewe until she is two years old past. In this way a larger
and hardier race of sheep are produced. I have generally been
very' successful in the raising of lambs ; coming as they do about
the" first of May, few die. Nine-tenths I think would be a fair
estimate of theper centage of lambs I raise. Coming late in the
season, they generally drop in the field.
It is difficult to say how many Saxons can be supported on an
acre of land during the year, depending as it does on the quality
of the soil, the manner in which the land is stocked, the care
taken of the sheep, and various other circumstances. I stock my
lands with one bushel of timothy seed to every 8 acres in the fall,
and with the like quantity of clover, on the same ground, in the
spring. Herd grass pasture is peferable for sheep, but clover is
best to plough under for wheat. During the summer past I kept
250 sheep on 36 acres of pasture ground ; 10 acres of meadow
would \neld sufficient hay to support them through the winter.
This would seem to indicate that about five sheep can be kept
the year round upon an acre of my land.
Good improved farms in this section are worth $35 per acre.
The diseases most prevalent are the foot-rot, the scab, and the
grub in the head, but never having had any diseases in my flock, I
can give no opinion as to the best mode of treating them. Since
I commenced my present flock, 1 have lost but three sheep.
LETTER FROM C. N. BEMENT, OF ALBANY, NEW YORK.
Dear Sir. — Your favor came duly to hand, and in compliance
with your request offer you the following rephes to your queries : —
In regard to the management of sheep, I fear I cannot render
you such information as you may wish, as I have never kept an
exact account of the food consumed by them, neither can I impart
much information on the subject of feeding sheep for slaughtering.
You are aware, I presume, that my little flock consists of the
South Down variety, which are so highly esteemed in England
and beginning to be appreciated in this country for the quality of
their flesh, hardihood, and great aptitude to take on fat.
The stock from which my flock originated, was imported by
Sidney Hawes, in 1823, of whom I obtained them, consisting of
36 ewes, 2 bucks, and 10 two-year old wethers. The ewes, in
consequence of the carelessness of the person who had them in
charge, the winter and spring previous to my purchase, lost near-
ly all the lambs ; and at the time they came into my possession,
which was in July, they were most all afflicted with foot-rot.
This I soon cured by paring the hoofs and washing with a prepa-
ration of blue vitriol, spirits of turpentine, and vinegar. Some of
APPENDIX. 407
them were so lame as to stand on their knees to feed. After two
or three applications they entirely recovered, and became very
fat, so much so, that I feared they would not breed. On the 20th
of Nov. I commenced feeding the ten wethers a few rutabagas,
and continued to increase the quantity until they consumed about
three bushels per day. They were fed as much hay as they
would eat. I sold them to one of our butchers, early in Febru-
ary, for ten dollars per head. After dressing, their carcases
weighed from 80 to 100 lbs. each ; and the mutton was gi-eatly
admired, and extolled for its high flavor, juicy and tender (juality,
by all who partook of it. Their fat, unhke the Bakewell breed,
lying on the outside, hke pork, was firmly mix-ed with the lean,
or marbled, as some term it. It is estimated by those who have
cooked the South Down mutton, that there is as much edible meat
on a saddle weighing 30 lbs., as there is on a saddle of Bakewell
weighing 40 lbs., as a great proportion of the latter finds its way
into the dripping-pan.
I winter my sheep in yards with tight fences, and open sheds,
facing the east ; feed hay in board racks, under cover, and no gi-ain.
I put the bucks with the ewes about the 25th of October, so that
the lambs will come the latter part of March, and first of April.
About the first of March we begin to feed the ewes, say one bushel
of rutabagas to fifteen head, to induce a flow of milk. I have a
warm stable, where the ewes which are expected to lamb are
confined nights. The lambs are confined with their mothers until
three or four days old, when they are turned into the yard, and
seem to stand the cold as well as their mothers.
This method, I am aware, could not be adopted where large
flocks of sheep are kept. Formerly, I allowed the lambs to come
in May, and used to lose some from the cold storms which usually
occur in that month. Lambs will stand severe cold, if dry, much
better than wet. Besides, we have more time to look after them
in March, than we have in May, when work in the field is press-
ing. Young ewes will not always own their lambs ; by having
them in yards they are more at our command. Another advan-
tage I found in having lambs come early was, that when first
turned to pasture the young lambs will feed on the young grass,
by which means their growth was much accelerated, and by the
first of July were fit to wean.
The South Dowai sheep are very prolific, often producing twins,
and sometimes three lambs at a birth, and being good nurses, will
bring them up as well, if not better, than some other breeds will
one. A neighbor has ten half-blood South Dowti ewes, that pro-
duced last s^Diing twenty-one lambs, all of which he succeeded in
raising.
My flock has generally consisted of breeding ewes, and when 1
have weighed their fleeces, they have averaged 3^ lbs. per head.
I had one buck, which at two years old gave me 6^ lbs. I have
sold my wool from 25 to 35 cents per pound ; but latterly had it
408 APPENDIX.
manufactured into flannel, which I have sold at 50 to 58 cents ^er
yard.
South Down sheep, according to my experience, are hetter
adapted for those farmers living near market, where carcase as
well as wool is an object. They are also well adapted to cross
with our native sheep, imparting to them abetter qualit}'- of mut-
ton, as well as wool, stronger constitution, and greater aptitude to
fatten. Butchers will pay from 75 cents to -Si. 00 per head for
early lambs of this cross, and the mutton will alwaj^s sell more
readily, and command the highest price in market, for, as the
butchers term it, they always " die well."
There is another good quality of the South Do\ati : they have
not a roaming disposition, but are (]uiet and orderly, seldom leav-
ing their pasture, even when the fence is partly down ; whereas,
the native sheep can hardly be restrained when the fences are up —
in fact, I have had some long-legged sheep, that would clear, at
one leap, a six rail fence. After nine years experience, I have
found the South Down sheep as they have been represented, a
tough, hardy race, def3dng the severest storms.
LETTER FROM SAMUEL WHITMAJf, OF WEST HARTFORD, CONN.
Dear Sir, — My flock at present consists of 275, some of which
are superfine full- blood Saxons, raised from sheep which I pur-
chased at auction, at Brighton, Mass., and imported by George
and Thomas Searle, of Boston, in the years 1824, '25, '26, and '28.
In 1826, I bought a buck without homs, which I think laid the
foundation for all the wool in this region, which may be said to be
absolutely superfine. A majority of my present flock are Saxony
and Merino mixed, \vith a few half-blood South Downs, and a few
mixed blood Leicesters for experiment. I have come to the con-
clusion that the Saxon, after it has attained its growth, is as hardy
a sheep as any with which I have been acquainted. Our country
in general, I think well adapted to sheep. Our land, however, I
think too valuable for sheep husbandry, being worth about 50 dol-
lars per acre. Such of our land as is devoted to sheep pastures
are those in which clover abounds. In winter I feed under cover
entirely ; my shelters are in my bani under hay-lofts. I allow
from 50 to 100 sheep to herd together in winter. I do not think
water indispensable for sheep when they can get plenty of clean
snow ; but think they do better where thev have access to water.
I have seldom made use of grain ; when I have, it has been for
that class of sheep which I have thought needed better keeping
than barely hay, whether old or young. White beans are excel-
lent ; sometimes I have made use of oil meal, and in quantity it
has been from half to one gill per head daily. I generally suc-
ceed in raising 95 per cent, of my lambs ; in my first stock of half-
APPENDIX. 409
blood Saxons, I raised 126 lambs from 127 ewes. They com-
mence dropping about the first of April, and I wean them by the
first of September. When my flock was mostly Saxons, it shear-
ed 2^ lbs. per head, and a mixture of Merino has increased it to
2| lbs. I wash them in brisk running water, at the mill tail, and
shear from 7 to 10 days after. I have lost 5 per cent, yearly, from
disease, age, and accident. The only disease from which they
have suffered has been the rot ; in two instances within 25 years,
I have lost 20 per cent, from this cause. Sometimes, too, they
have suffered from worm in the head. As yet I am ignorant
of any cure for these complaints. I feed both in boxes and in
racks.
[The former are like cut No. 1, and, as near as comprehended,
the latter conform to No. 2. See plate — racks.]
Within 8 or 10 years past, I have several times sold the princi-
pal part of my flock, always reserving, however, some of the very
Ijest, from which I might reproduce another flock of superior ex-
cellence. At the present time I have only a small number of pure-
blood Saxons, the principal part consisting of the aforementioned
mixtures. As the result of my own observation and experience
with regard to the health and thrift of a flock, I may state that, in
this section of country, at least, more disease is induced by scanty
and bad keeping, than from any other cause whatever.
LETTER FROM MARK R. COCKRILL, OF NASHVILLE, TENNESSEE.
Dear Sir, — Your favor duly reached me, and I am much
pleased to give you any infonnation my experience has taught
me upon the important subject of wool-growing. You ask many
questions which I will endeavor to answer in part, in my plain
way of writing. I have about a thousand head of fine sheep, and
from 400 to 500 long-wooled or mutton sheep. My Saxon sheep
were imported in 1824 or '26, I cannot say which, and I find as
yet no falling off in quantity or quality of their fleeces; on the
contraiy, I believe a little improvement on both points and a lit-
tle more yolk, when well provided for, which you know does not
abound much in the Saxon breed. In addition, the fleeces are a
little more compact than formerly — hence more weight, and, from
our mild climate, the staple has become longer. In Tennessee
we do not fodder more than 80 or 100 days, and from the little
snow, our sheep pasture upon the grain fields, which soon grow
again, and thus we are provided with an excellent substitute for
roots. But both may be made use of to good advantage, as all
very well know that succulent food for sheep the year round, the
better they thrive. I assert it to be a fact that the cotton region
I am now in (Mr. Cockrill dates from Madison county, Mississippi,
where a part of his sheep are kept), in about latitude 32 degrees
35
410 APPEJ^DIX.
north, is better tlian any country north of it to grow wool, as the
sheep can be kept all the time grazing, by sowing small grain, for
if grazed otf, it (juickly grows again in a few days ; and the wool
of tine Saxon sheep in this climate is softer and more cotton-like
than any I have ever seen, although I have samples from all
parts of the world. I have travelled from this very place to
Boston sampling all the sheep of note on the way, and I found
nothing on my journey or at Boston as good as the wool I had
grown, and so said all the wool-staplers whom I met with, and
they were not a few. I presumed, in reality, that the blood of my
sheep was no better than many I saw, but the superiority of my
wool I ascribed to our climate, and the provision for the sheep of
succulent food the year round. The weight of my fleeces is fair
— say from 3 to 5i lbs. each.
At my residence, near Nashville, in latitude 36 deg. north, the
best lands, if well set in blue and orchard grass, Avill graze from 5
tf) 8 sheep per acre during the grazing season, when we have the
usual rains through the summer. With proper care of our
grown ewes, we may calculate on raising 80 lambs from one hun-
dred.
The long-wooled or Bakewell sheep are rather short-lived in
Tennessee, from getting too fat in summer, as they cannot lose
that great body of fat without deranging their health; hence,
compared to the Saxon or Merino, they are short-lived. My fine-
wooled lambs commence dropping on the 10th of March. Our
meadows yield from 1^ to 2^ tons per acre. Tennessee is not
the true grass climate ; about 28 deg. north is the most congenial
for grass ; notwithstanding, our State is fair for pasture ; blue and
orchard grass, white and red clover, prosper pretty well. We
feed considerable millet, which yields from 4 to 6 tons to the acre ;
this and Irish potatoes, which thrive reasonably well here, will
keep sheep in good health and condition.
There is much country in Tennessee and other Southern States
not fit for the plough, and would do admirably well for fine-wool-
ed sheep, and can be profitably so employed. A small capital
thus appropriated here in Mississippi would do better than cot-
ton-growing, at present prices.
[Mr. Cockrill states that sheep are exposed to liver-rot and
grubs in the head.]
I.ETTER FROM T. C. PETERS, OF DARIEN, GENESEE COUNTY,
NEW YORK.
Dear Sir, — Your favor covering certain queries in relation to
sheep husbandry is before me. I shall give you an account of our
management without a formal answer to the various questions
APPENDIX. 411
whicli your letter contains, giving you full liberty to use so much
of it as you may deem important.
We have been engaged in the business fifteen years, and for ten
years our flock has averaged about 600, mostly Merinos, or a cross
of Merino and Saxony. The average yield in that time exceeds
3i lbs., probably not far from 3 lbs. 6 oz. of washed wool. The
sheep are usually tagged before they are turned out to grass.
We never wash our sheep until the water is warm, nor shear un-
til the weather has become warm and dry. Hundreds of valuable
sheep are lost every year by too early washing and shearing.
If a rain-storm comes on soon after shearing we give them shelter.
The bucks are let among the ewes about the 5th of December,
and v/e think eight to an hundred not too many, but have fre-
quently used but five. The lambs begin to drop in May, and
generally continue through the month. In April we usually feed
the ewes with a little Indian com daily, less than a wine-glassful,
to each one. This makes them strong, and the lambs are much
more active than when the dam has not been so fed. About the
1st of September we take the lambs from the ewes and put them
into a field by themselves with a few dry ewes or wethers. They
are wintered in a separate flock.
Shelter we consider indispensable, not so much against cold,
as wet and storais. Around our barns we have sheds ; but, as
we prefer wintering a portion in the meadows, we make our stacks
so that sheds can be constructed there with little trouble. Two
stacks are built about 60 feet apart, perhaps further, depending upon
the number intended to be fed there. As our prevailing wind is from
the west, the stacks are on the north and south side of the shed,
and it is open to the east. The shed is usually made of boards
kept for the purpose, and is four feet high in the rear and six in
front. It is also very important that these shelters be often lit-
tered with dry straw, or when that is not at hand, dry muck or
swamp earth will answer if put in often. We usually put a
stack of straw to each shed. One hundred and fifty are as many
as it is prudent to keep in a flock during the winter, though we
have kept as many as two hundred. We have used moveable
mangers or board racks some, but generally feed upon the ground,
and fodder often.
We have fed peas, oats, and com ; peas we consider the cheap-
est food [and Mr. Peters might have added, without fear of con-
troversy, the best to promote the growth of a soft and long fila-
ment] . Like many others, we have never kept any account of the
quantity of grain fed.
Twelve tons of hay is considered a fair allowance for 100
sheep during the winter. We never make any account of straw
except as litter. Sheep do best when they have free access to
water in winter; although I have seen sheep winter well in
fields where they could not get it ; if shut up in yards water is in-
4 1 2 APPENDIX.
The pasturage which seems to do best for sheep is in old fields
which have been long in grass. They prefer dry, rolhng land.
Old pastures, however, should be close fed early in the season, so
that the grass will come up alike over the whole tield ; otherwise,
it ^^^ll be sj)otted. We usually calculate that thirty acres should
carr)' 100 sheep through summer and winter, pasture, hay, and
grain. The longer a tield has been used for a sheep-pasture the
more it will support. Fanns which will carry through four to
the acre, summer and winter, with tolerable buildings, can be
bought for from nine to fifteen dollars the acre. Lands with us
are valued according to their productiveness of wheat. Good
wheat famis are worth from twenty-five to fifty dollars per acre.
The most profitable fanning with us is sheep and wheat, as the
sheep do much the best with us when they have the free range of
a summer fallow.
Clover hay, if Avell cured, makes excellent fodder for them. We,
when stocking for hay, put one-third timothy with the clover seed,
and mow when the clover is in blossom, and cure in cocks.
There can be no better hay for sheep than is made in this manner.
Hence there is no stock that goes so well with wheat raising as
sheep. Many persons have lost sheep by tuniing them too soon
into wheat stubble. They should not be allowed to go in until the
hogs have had time to glean the field thoroughly.
We usually allow fifteen per cent, for loss of lambs, depending,
however, very much upon the season. Our loss rarely comes up
to ten per cent. Stall feeding has not been much practised by us,
the fall market generally paying the best.
The only disease among us is the foot-rot, and that has been
confined to the two flocks in which it appeared ; and hopes are
entertained by our flock-masters that it will be eradicated.
The disease was brought into the country by sheep from the
southeast. We have seen nothing of it yet among our own, and
have maintained a rigorous quarantine against our neighbors. If
vigilantly watched, I hope we shall be able to prevent its
spreading.
LETTER FROM DANIEL B. HAIGHT, OF WASHINGTON, DUTCHESS
COUNTY, NEW YORK.
Dear Sir, — I received a letter from you, in which you wished
me to inform you of my mode of keeping sheep, which 1 will do
with pleasure, although I have not had very much experience in
keeping South Downs, having, until recently, kept Saxons only;
therefore I am not able to answer all of ^^our interrogatories.
I have a small but valuable flock of South Downs, which I in-
tend to increase as fast as practicable, as I consider them the most
APPENDIX. 413
profitable, being more hardy and better adapted to our climate
than any other breed of sheep.
I have had a few of the Cotswold breed, but was glad to get
rid of them as soon as possible, on account of their being very ten-
der, and the wool of little value ; also, their requiring more food for
the same qaantity of mutton than the South Downs.
You wished to know my practice of wintering sheep. I endeavor
to have them in good condition at the commencement of winter,
which I do by feeding them with grain when the pasture begins
to fail, as I think there is much lost by neglecting them at this
season of the year. [Mr. Haight never uttered a truer thing.]
It cannot be too firmly impressed on the mind of every farmer that
it is more easy to keep an animal in good condition, and requires
less food to do it, by not allowing it to fall awa3% than to restore it
after once becoming poor. [Here is another important truth.]
It is of great importance to protect them from the cold winds
and storms, particularly rain. I keep them in flocks not exceed-
ing fifty, and a less number is preferable. I give them free access
to water, and feed them morning and night with hay, which was
lightly salted when put up, and some kind of vegetables in the
middle of the day. Potatoes, in my opinion, are preferable to any
other. I salt them frequently in the pasturing season, and keep
their noses thoroughly tarred from the first of July to the first of
October.
You wished to know how large a flock I keep. I have only
about thirty South DoAvns, and two hundred and fifty Saxons ;
the foniier will yield from three and a half to four pounds of wool
a head, and the last clip was worth thirty-seven and a half cents
per pound.
You also wished me to inform you of my mode of fattening
them, and at what age I turn them off* to the butcher. I am not
able to answer these inquiries, having kept them so short a time,
but I think they will do to tuni off" at two years old.
I weighed some of my lambs at three months and a half old ;
the twins weighed from seventy to eighty pounds each, and one
single lamb one hundred and one.
I have my ewes to lamb about the middle of April, and gener-
ally raise two lambs from each ewe. They are excellent nursers,
and produce very fine lambs for market.
I feed my ewes a little grain for three or four weeks before
lambing, so as to have them in good condition for yeaning, and
afterward commence feeding them wnth vegetables and with oat
meal and wheat bran mixed with a little water, which I increase
as the lambs increase in size.
35*
414 APPENDIX.
LETTER FROM JOHX H. EWI.NG, OF WASHINGTON, PEXN.
Dear Sir, — Your favor was duly received, from which I was
pleased to learn that you were engaged in the preparation of a
work on sheep husbandry ; one much needed b}' the wool-grower,
and of great importance to the country generally, as comparative-
ly little is known on the subject. Wool-growing must, in time, be-
come the great business of this country, possessing as we do all
the facilities to produce an article as cheap in time as any other
country, our climate, soil, and mountains being favorable for the
business ; nothing, therefore, but a home market is wanted to in-
duce our people to engage largely in it, and shortly not only sup-
ply home demand, but furnish large quantities for exportation.
***** * *
But I must return to your inquiries, and endeavor to impart, as
far as experience will warrant, my knowledge of wool-growing.
I have been engaged in the business about twenty years, and
have given it my personal attention. My flock exceeds two
thousand, and partake more of the Saxon than Merino character,
as well the most of the flocks in this section of country ; and yet I
am inclined to think the most of the original stock was of Merino
blood. But many of the flocks have been formed by crossing with
the native sheep, and by close attention for a series of years have
become very good, and will generally pass for full-blood Merino.
Shortly after the introduction of the Merino sheep in this country, a
few enterprising individuals, namely, the late William Hoge,
James Gilmore, and others, commenced the business, which was
afterwards much improved by Wm. Brownlee, and the late
Alexander Reed, and some others. But of those most distinguish-
ed for their efforts, Messrs. Wells and Dickinson of Steuben villa,
Ohio, are entitled to the greatest credit ; they made great prog-
ress in wool improvement, and spent a fortune to accomplish
their purpose, and establishing its manufacture. After a series of
reverses, they finally failed, to the great regret of all who knew
them. Upon the sale of their flock, I became the purchaser of a
thousand, from which my stock has been formed ; and not^^'ith-
standing they were originally from the best imported stock, and
the greatest care and attention given to their improvement for
many years, and since by myself, there is still much to be done.
Nothing, indeed, is more difficult than the making of proper selec-
tions of such as produce wool desirable to the manufacturer, and
at the same time profitable to the wool-grower. Again, in the
selection of breeders, the peculiar character of the stock will be
carried down for generations ; hence the selection of good bucks
is all-important. There ought, in all cases, to be three bucks to
the hundred ewes, otherwise the bucks will be more or less injured.
It is desirable that the lambs should not drop before the middle
of April, and on until the middle of May, at which time the grass
APPENDIX. 415
will begin to spring, and enable the ewes to fumisli an abundant
supply of milk. The time here mentioned is applicable to this
section of country ; the most suitable period in other places must
depend on the climate in some measure. Whenever the ewes can
have a flush of grass they will do well ; the deficiency of pasture,
however, may be supplied with a good rj^e-field, which will be
rather earlier, and no danger need be apprehended in turning evv^es
upon rye, as they will not scour as other sheep ; the nourishment
appears to be secreted in milk.
Our foddering season here lasts from five to six months, but not
more than three or four of bad weather, during which time we
feed on hay, oats, com and com fodder. Sheep should have just
what hay they ^\dll eat up clean ; and the ewes and weaker ones
be provided with a bushel of oats per hundred daily, or half that
quantity of com; in bad weather it is best to fodder three times a
day. The less gi'ain, however, they have the better, provided
they can be kept in good order, which alone can be done by the
use of roots, or an extensive range, w^hich has been permitted to
grow up during the summer, which of all others is the best mode
of keeping (if the owner has extensive lands) ; under these cir-
cumstances, sheep will require but little care. Those who adopt
this course should have fields of blue grass, as it is less liable to be
affected with frost than any other, and one of the best for
pasturage.
Those who feed during the winter on dry food, should be care-
ful to see that their stock has plenty of water ; the idea that sheep
will do without it is absurd, except when upon soft grass in the
summer. Potatoes are excellent to counteract the binding effect
of dry food, but are troublesome to feed where the flocks are large ;
when given, they should be washed and cut up in small pieces.
As to the use of salt, my plan is to salt two or three times a
week in the summer, more frequently in wet weather than in dry,
and generally on the ground. I do not salt my hay, though some
of our wool-growers speak well of it ; my stock is supplied with it
regularly during winter, and salt is very essential to health.
You ask, what kind of pasturage is best ? My experience has
led me to believe that wood-land range is best. For many years,
I have been accustomed to graze my flock on the mountains,
where it is all covered with timber and underbrush, and whenever
they have had sufficient scope, have done well ; and my opinion
is, that it has greatly contributed to their health. [This is to be
attributed to the variety of herbage they obtained.] Nothing
more conduces to the health of sheep than frequent change of pas-
ture ; without it they will not thrive.
[Mr. Ewing remarks that sheep are little subject to disease in
his section.]
Another and important matter wnth the wool-grower, is the
preparation of wool for market. The mode I have adopted in
washing, is to drive the sheep across some water that will s%vim
416 APPENDIX.
them, two or three hours before commencing to wash, so as to let
the wool become thurjughly soaked ; it will then wii.sh easily, and
all the ink will come out, leaving the wool perfectly white ; those,
however, who wish to make the manufacturer pay for dirt, will
not adopt this course.
There is one of your inquiries which I have omitted to refer to,
viz., the effect of climate and herbage upon the quality of the
wool. Upon this subject there can be but little doubt — a north-
em climate is far preferable for fine wool, and I am of opinion
from my present experience that very fine wool cannot be raised
in the South. In all cases that I have known it tried, the wool
has deteriorated, and the health of the sheep failed. 3Iuch also,
in my opinion, depends on the soil ; high poor lands will ])roduce
better wool than rich low lands. I sent a flock a few years since
to Warren county, Illinois, of about our latitude, and after three
years' experience, I scarcely knew my own wool ; the quantity
of wool and size of the sheep have increased, but the wool has
not retained its fineness. This no doubt arises from the pastur-
age ; the sheep become very fat in the summer, which increases
the harshness of the wool, and destroys that delicate texture it
has in the more eastern and high lands. The business of wool-
growing must ultimately settle down in the hilly and mountamous
countries where lands are cheap, and climate adapted to the na-
ture of sheep. Lands in this section are worth on an average from
20 to 25 dollars per acre, and at present the growing of wool is
considered better than the raising of grain ; this, however, will
not continue long, as the prices of grain must advance, and wool
dechne.
But I must close this communication, having extended it be-
yond your in(|uiries ; but it being a subject of much interest to
me, and one of importance to the country, I could wish our peo-
ple to know more on the subject. My ardent wishes are for the
success of your undertaking.
LETTER FROM LE0>'ARD D. CLIFT. OF CARMEL, PUTNAM COUNTY,
NEW YORK.
Dear Sir, — Your favor of was duly received, but I have
not found time before this, to bestow that care in my answer,
which its importance demands. And even now, I know not whe-
ther I shall be able to do the subject on which you request me to
write, viz., " my experience in the cultivation of the long-wool-
ed sheep," that justice, which will give satisfaction, and prove
worthy of a place in your contemplated treatise on American
sheep husbandry. I very much appreciate, sir, your motive,
and the object you have in view. It is high time that we have
eomething American on this, as well as many other subjects thaf
APPENDIX. 417
relate to our agricultural pursuits. I have been long convinced,
that to follow implicitly any foreign system of agriculture, \vill,
and has already, led us into many fatal errors.
My experience has been considerable with almost all of the
different breeds of sheep which have been common among us ;
and more especially for the last ten or twelve years my attention
has been given, in a great degree, to a flock of English, or long-
"wooled sheep. During this time I have imported several on my
own account, and have bought quite a number of others that were
imported, and have spared no pains nor expense to establish a
sample flock of English mutton sheep, fit or suitable to propagate
their species, or turn over to the shambles.
You propose a number of questions, relative to the habits
and qualities of my flock as a distinct breed — viz., the Lincoln-
shire. I have, as is well known, written several articles in re-
spect to them, as published in the Albany Cultivator and Amer-
ican Agriculturist, of recent dates. This, I think, supersedes the
necessity of repeating what I have already said about them, only
further to say, however, that taking the Lincolnshire sheep such
as I have bred, of this species of sheep, I have never yet had
any, in all respects, their equal. They have a compact, well-
formed carcase, and covered with a thick, long, and fine-stapled
fleece of wool, including the belly, neck, and legs. No sheep will
prove as hardy in our Northern climate, as those well covered wdth
wool ; and by the same rule, vice versa, in the Southern. The
fleece is the protection from heat as well as cold, and more than
anything else, in ray opinion, secures the good and hardy constitu-
tion of the sheep. The Lincolns are good feeders, and from
close observation I have noticed, that they would consume much
that other sheep would pass over and leave. They are quiet,
and easy of restraint, and excellent nurses ; but at the same time
have more agility and spirit of countenance, than any other of the
long-wooled breeds with which I am acquainted.
My flock of Lincolns have usually given me from 5 to 6i lbs.
of wool per head, on the average, and many individuals from 8
to 10 lbs., clean washed, and free from all tags, &c. In years
gone by, I have sold much of my wool at 37 cents per lb., and the
last clip brought 30 cents per lb. This kind of wool is now be-
ginning to be much sought for, and in quick demand for purposes
of worsted fabrics, &c. And now that machinery is being put
into operation for the manufacture of our long wools, these sheep,
and others of the like class, must be the most profitable to culti-
vate for the fleece alone, aside from their great value for mutton.
I have sold numbers of my wethers in the New York market, ac-
cording to age, &c., from 10 to 20 dollars per head. My lot this
winter, marketed about the 1st of February, brought me 12
dollars per head, on the average. Two of this lot was sold at
15 dollars each, and the weight of the carcases dressed, was 150
and 133 lbs. These wethers were two years old past. I fed
418 APPENDIX.
them last winter with good hay, and a moderate feed of chopped
turnips, mixed with a little meal, once per day ; and the present
winter, until marketed, their feed was about one pint of corn and
oats to each sheep per day, for abcmt eight weeks only.
As respects my general mode of management of these kind of
sheep, it may be asserted, that what is essential to the proper
management of one, or any particular breed of sheep, is essential
to all, less or more. A few things I can only name ; and first, I
regard protection from storms in winter, and the right sort of hay,
secured under cover, as lying at the foundation of all good sheep
husbandry. It is a well known fact, that of all domestic animals,
the sheep is the most harmless, and the most delicate hi the choice
of its food ; hence, we have only to be guided by these principles
of their nature, in all our management of them, to ensure success.
[Mr. Clift here enters into minute details of his process of cu-
ring hay, which is very meritorious, and worthy of imitation by
every fanner, but of necessity is omitted.]
It will be expected that I should say something of the manage-
ment of my ewes and lambs ; first, in regard to the ewes. In the
fall, about the first of September, I overhaul my whole flock, se-
lecring such of them as I design to keep over, and have lambs the
following spring, selecting none but those I feel assured will re-
main hardy through the winter, and bring a good lamb or lambs.
The remainder, or those I have condemned for purposes of breed-
ing, I fat, and sell to the drover or butcher, as soon as possible.
It is important that ewes should be in a thriving condition, pre-
vious, and at the time of taking the bucks, which, with me, is
about the middle of October, or first of November. I endeavor to
have my ewes come into the winter strong in flesh, and in order
to this, I am careful not to keep them out upon the fall pastures
too late. Many sheep are permitted to fall off in this way, when
of all other times it is most important to keep up thrift, and this I
do by giving them daily, at first, a bite of my choicest hay. I am
not in the habit of feeding grain, or roots of any kind, to my stock
ewes during winter. This I do, however, when the time draws
nigh for them to bring forth their young, by drawing oft" from lime
to time those coming forward. Ten days previous feeding at this
time is none too soon, and is of more importance than twenty after
the ewes have lambed, if you could do but the one or the other.
But my practice is to continue the grain or roots, more or less,
until they are turned off' to pasture for the season. Tagging at
this time is highly necessary, and should be perfonned with a good
pair of shears, and in as tasteful a manner as a jockey would "trim
his horse ; and also at all other times, when any dung is seen ad-
hering to the wool about the tail.
Small ranges, with a few sheep together, and shifted often,
sheep will thrive the best when at pasture.
Lambs should be weaned at the age of three or four months. I
do this as soon as my early mown meadows get a good coat of
APPENDIX. 419
grass, say from the middle of July to the first of August. There
are several important advantages to your flock, by weaning lambs
at those ages. At the time mentioned, the grass of the pastures
begins to be too wiry and tough for the lambs to thrive upon it,
and the ewes fail in flesh on the same account. Both, therefore,
will do better to be separated.
I might yet speak of many things connected with the manage-
ment of sheep, such as the necessity of water for them in winter,
keeping them free from ticks, shelters, bams, racks, &c. All these
things I attend to. And I would just observe, that while I have
been penning this article, we have had here an unusually severe
snow-storm, which has continued some forty-eight h(jurs ; and I
can assure you, sir, next to the health and comfort of my family,
has been the pleasure and satisfaction of having every animal on
my premises comfortably housed and sheltered from the howling
storm of snow and wind that has raged without and around us.
Wiih one exception, and this was a Tom turkey, that would, in
spite of me, keep himself perched high up into the top of an apple
tree. I was somewhat vexed at the foolish bird, but let him have
his own way. Why, sir, motives of mercy and humanity, as well
as interest, ought to influence every man that has a beast or bird,
to give them comfortable protection, and food sufficient to supply
their natures.
I regret that my communication is not more acceptable in mat-
ter as well as manner ; such as it is, however, it is at your dis-
LETTER FROM TALBOTT HAMMOND, OF BROOKE COUNTY, VA.
Dear Sir, — Your letter was duly received, and you have my
best wishes for the success of your worthy undertaking.
The number of my flock at present exceeds one thousand. My
sheep are principally of the Spanish Merino blood. My fii'st ad-
venture was in the fall of 1822, when I purchased seven ewes and
a buck of my brother, Charles Hammond, of Belmont county,
Ohio. His flock was bred directly from the flocks of Messrs.
Wells and Dickinson, of Steubenville. The buck that I obtained
of my brother was an imported one, for which he paid Mr.
Dickinson eighty dollars ; he was quite old at the time I procured
him. I have since then crossed my sheep with Saxony bucks
from Dutchess county, New York, but the result was not very
favorable ; therefore, on the whole, I preferred the Merino.
The average weight of my clips is from 2| to 3 lbs. per head.
Our foddering season in this country is not less than four months,
and sometimes longer. I shelter all my sheep in the winter
season. I have two shed bams, one of which will accommodate
500, the other 300, and for the balance of the flock we make tem-
420 APPENDIX.
porary sheds. I think there is no stock needs to be sheltered from
the stomi more than sheep, as we are subject to veiy sudden
changes of weather in this climate during the winter months.
Of grain, we feed principally com and sheaf oats ; corn-cob
meal makes a very hearty feed. J have no doubt but sugar-beets
and other roots nn'ght be raised and fed to great advantage here,
but we have not got into the way of it yet.
I think the best flocks of sheep in the State are of the Spanish
Merino, though some of them have been crossed more or less with
the Saxony. " In my opinion, the northwestern part of the State is
best adapted to sheep, the land being hilly, and a rich limestone
soil, well suited to the production of grass.
A half bushel of com to the hundred, or a dozen sheaves of oats
once a day, is about our rule of feeding grain.
On the"^subject of housing sheep, I am decidedly in favor of good
drj' sheds for them ; my experience is, that sheep should not be
suffered to get wet in the winter season. Last winter, I had
comfortable shelters for all my sheep, except one flock of about
200, which were exposed to the weather ; and I have no hesitation
in saving that they ate one-fourth more feed than any other flock
of the same number on the farm ; and the consequence of this ex-
posure was, that in the spring, when grass came, they were all
very poor, while the rest of my sheep were in good condition,
with full coats of wool on them. By feeding under sheds we save
all the manure, which is a very desirable object.
LETTER FROM ASAHEL B. HODSKINS, OF WALPOLE, N. HAMPSHIRE.
Dear Sir, — Your favor was duly received, in which you pro-
pound a series of questions, which I now proceed to answer to the
best of my ability.
My stock of sheep amounts to over 400 ; about one half of
which are pure Saxonies, bred from the importations of G. and T.
Searls, of Boston ; the residue were bred from pure Merinos, and
which have been crossed with Saxon bucks since 1825.
My sheep average 3 lbs. 2 oz. per head of clean washed wool,
which shrinks, in cleansing, from 22 to 25 per cent. I shelter my
sheep in winter. My shelter is formed by digging sufficiently
deep on a warm dry side hill, sloping to the south, and building a
smooth-faced stone wall, well pointed with lime mortar, below the
frost on the rear side, and across the ends and the middle, to sup-
port my bams, and rising 2^ feet above the ground on the rear
side, so as to fill against it to turn off water, and admit of a glass
window of 18 6x 8 glass. There are six divisions of my princi-
pal establishment, and one of these windows in each division, hung
to the sill of the barn, and turns upwards, to admit a fresh current
of air, which I think is indispensable to the health of sheep. On
APPENDIX. 421
these walls are placed my barns, 126 feet long, with additional
supports between the divisions of a sill and posts, the whole facing
the south, with 12 feet doorway to each, and closed by four doors,
so as to shut the two bottom, and leave the top ones open, if
necessary.
[Mr. Hodskin's racks conform to cut No. 2. (See racks.)]
I do not give my sheep grain when 1 have good hay, except
wethers, which I fatten ; and to these I give 8 quarts of com per
day, and one bushel of potatoes, cut fine. To my lambs I give
four bundles of oats per day to the one hundred. P^or some years
past I have given to my breeding ewes 5 pecks of potatoes every
other day, to the 100, from the time they were put in winter
quarters till turned to grass. Three weeks before my ewes drop
their lambs they are provided with 8 quarts of com, and the same
quantity of oats, which is fed between potato days.
I think sheep do better with a variety of food ; mine receive
hay three times per day, and once oat straw, the latter being fed
at night. I think they do much better thus fed than on hay only.
My lambs begin to drop about the 12th of April. I shut my
ewes under cover nights, while dropping their lambs, but when
grass begins to appear, I turn them out in fair weather, near by,
where I can see to them often. I do not lose on an average two
in 100 ; I reared this year 139 lambs from 140 ewes, and gave
three others away, which were twin lambs.
I think I have as hardy a flock of Saxonies as I ever saw of
Merinos, and are well formed ; but there are other flocks in this
tov^Ti as hardy as my own. I seldom lose a sheep except by dogs.
I do not know of a Merino flock, that produces so much money
per head as mine and some other Saxon flocks in this place.
I do not believe that there is a flock of pure Merinos in New
Hampshire ; as to Saxons, there is one small flock in this place
which are all pure, and several, a part only. A mixture of Me-
rino, native, and Saxon abound the most in this section.
I should have said, I never shut my sheep under cover in win-
ter, unless in some driving snow-stonii, and never close my back
windows except when the weather is very severe. I think when
sheep are provided with a comfortable shelter, kept clean and
well littered, they will seek it, when needed.
I think salting another essential point of good management.
My practice is to keep salt by them in troughs, and interaiixed
with a little flour of sulphur ; at other times, a little tar. Both of
these substances have a tendency to ward off" scab, and other dis-
tempers.
I also practise immersing my lambs in a decoction of tobacco-
water, say 7 lbs. of tobacco to the 100, to destroy ticks ; besides,
it keeps the skin healthy.
36
422 APPENDIX.
LETTER FROM MESSRS. PERKINS AND BROWN, OF AKRON, SUM-
MIT COUNTY, OHIO.
Dear Sir, — Your favor was received, and our reply will be as
brief as possible, and our remarks practical, so far as we are able
to make them.
We have about 1300 sheep, Saxon, and mixed-blooded, of
Saxon and INIerino. We have never taken more than 59 lbs. of
wool from 20 head of our tine sheep ; but our flock is principally
ewes and lambs. We are so well aware of the great difference in
th^ manner of fitting wool for market, that we deem the reports of
wool-growers in this particular as of very little value. We sup-
pose that kind of sheep (to the wool-grower) which not only pays
the most cash per head, but pay most per acre for the land they
occupy, to be the best breed. These remarks we do not intend for
those who can sell fat sheep and lambs to good account.
We take this opportunity to propose to those who keep fine
sheep, that, in order to detennine where the best fine sheep may
be found, each man concerned furnish yearly a certain number
of fleeces — say not less than five bucks, 20 lambs, and 25 ewes —
to be cleansed by some manufactm-er in the best manner, and the
cash value of each parcel to be detennined by a committee of
three of the best manufacturers in the United States ; and fur-
ther, that each individual deposit with his wool from one to live
dollars towards the expense of cleansing, and publishing a full
statement, and the balance to be paid as a premium to him who
shall furnish 50 fleeces worth most in cash when cleansed ; or,
in other words, to him who shall furnish the greatest weight of
the most valuable pure wool per head from each of the kinds of
sheep mentioned. We would hke to go into something of that
kind the present season. Who will join us ?
Our pure-blooded Saxons were from the flocks of Samuel Wliit-
man, of West Hartford, Conn. ; Col. Jenison, of Walpole, New
Hampshire; and of Frederick Brandt, of Kilgore, Carroll county,
Ohio, who brought over his sheep in company with the late H.
D. Grove's, ofHoosic, New York. Our mixed-blooded sheep
were selected from some of the best flocks in the counties of
Washington and Beaver, in Pennsylvania, and from the counties
of Brooke and Ohio in Virginia, and from Columbiana and Stark
counties in this State.
We keep more or less in a flock in summer and winter, accord-
ing to circumstances. We think the health of flocks depends, in
summer, more upon frequent change of pasture, than the number
of the flock ; but we have no doubt that the smaller the flock at
any season the better. We generally salt twice a week with
about three quarts to 100. We salt our hay when it is gathered.
What kind of pasture is best for sheep, we cannot well deter-
mine ; with us they appear to be most fond of timothy or herds
APPENDIX. 423
grass. The amount of slieep per acre that our lands will keep,
varies much ; some of them will support five to the acre through
the year. Lands will average about 25 dollars per acre here;
and we tliink wool-growing, if the whole business was properly
managed, and the sales of wool made understandingly, might be
made equal to any other farming business.
We put in our bucks from the 20th of Nov. to the 1st of Dec.
We probably raise 80 per cent, of lambs to the 100 ewes. For
the two last winters our flock suffered severely from wonns in
the head ; before that our loss was merely nominal. We shelter
our sheep. Any kind of shelter that will keep otf the storms and
break the winds, and yet be airy, we use.
[Messrs. Perkins and Brown use box racks.]
We have as yet had no experience in the use of roots. We
feed the value of half a bushel of oats, or some kind of grain,
per day, to the hundred, unless we have them in as good condi-
tion as we wish them, without it ; or unless we have plenty of
fall feed on the ground, when the winter sets in ; in that case, we
want neither roots nor grain, except in extreme cases. We stall-
feed no sheep.
The most fatal of all diseases of which we have any experience.
is that occasioned by the fly [CEstris Ovis), causing the worm in
the head. There is also a disorder of the feet, the fouls, to which
our sheep are very subject in summer. It is very easily cured with
tar only, and indeed will go off of itself, and is not in the least con-
tagious. Our honied cattle have the very same. We suppose it
to be entirely diflerent from foot-rot, but are not certain, as we have
no experience personally with that disease. [Messrs. Perkins and
Brown are right in their conjectures ; see Diseases of Sheep.] We
generally get along with as good common care of our flock as we
can, with but very little in the way of medicine.
We think that most shepherds do not examine and compare
flocks enough to know what constitutes a good sheep ; and that
an animal combining constitution, quality of wool, as well as quan-
tity, would -not be prefeiTed by thousands, at least of those zvho
tiiink they understand the matter well. The last remark we sup-
pose to be the most valuable we can make. Our success must
mainly depend on our first learning what is a thoroughly good
animal, and in the next place, how to take good common care of
him, and finally, how to make the peculiar traits of a good sheep
as general in our flock as possible. We suppose, if our flock is not
what it should be, that we need a variety to make it so ; say very
fine sheep, very long-wooled sheep, and very thick-wooled sheep ;
each kind of good constitution, and given very much to wool, (i. e.)
woolly all over, in order to breed successfully. We believe any
traits may be imparted to a flock, and would like to see our brother
wool-growers getting clear, among other things, of that worse than
useless appendage, the horns. We think it best to class our ewes
for breeding, giving to our most perfect class our most perfect
424{ APPENDIX.
bucks, keeping a distinction afterwards in all lambs from that
class. For those ewes that are defective in any trait, we use
bucks that excel as much as possible in those traits ; but avoid
breeding in-and-ifu We doubt not that Americans are capable
of as nice breeding as any other men on the globe, if they will but
apply in earnest to the matter, and not be governed by foolish prej-
udice and short-sighted selfishness. [The sentence would have
been complete, if the gentlemen had added criminal laziness.']
One great hindrance to improvement is the strong relish many
have for the extravagant accounts that some give of the pro-
ceeds of their business, and the marvellous fine puffing they
give when they want others to bay of them. Sober realities will,
we believe, wear the best.
LETTER FROM E. KIRBY, OF BROWNVILLE, JEFFERSON CO., N. Y.
Dear Sir, — I am pleased to learn from your favor that you are
progressing with your treatise on sheep. I am necessarily so
much absent from home, that I have not been able to bestow such
careful attention upon all the details of sheep husbandry, as to
authorize me to set up for a teacher. I will confine myself, there-
fore, to a few general remarks, bearing on such points of the in-
quiries contained in your letter as I can speak to with some con-
fidence.
I have about 1500 sheep. I formed my flock nineteen years
ago, by the purchase of 500 high-grade Merinos, and by subse-
quent additions, which I endeavored to improve, after the fashion
of the time, by an infusion of Saxon blood, for which purpose I,
from time to time, purchased imported Saxon bucks. Having be-
come satisfied that the wool-buyers do not make a just discrimina-
tion in price betAveen fine wool and that of inferior grade, and
that the Spanish Merino, by reason of its heavier fleece, is a more
profitable sheep for the farmer, in this climate, than the Saxon, I
am endeavoring to get back to the Merino platform, or rather to
medium ground between it and the Saxon, which shall combine
the advantages of the fine staple of the Saxon wool with the
heavier fleeces, and more rugged constitution, of the Merino.
This may unquestionably be attained by proper care in breeding
these rival branches of the family together.
To this end, in 1842, I purchased a Rambouillet buck of D. C.
Colhns, of Hartford, Conn. His stock promises to realize my
wishes. My yearlings of his getting are greatly admired ; one
buck, in especial, is a noble fellow. I lost my Rambouillet buck
in the spring of 1843 ; Mr. Collins kindly sent me another, which
I value highly. At the cattle show at Poughkeepsie, in Septem-
ber last, I purchased one of the Merino bucks exhibited by J. N.
Blakeslee, of Litchfield County, Conn., said to be of uncontaraina-
APPENDIX. 425
ted descent from the importations of Gen. Humphreys and others.
I also, at the same time, purchased of S. W. Jewett, of Vermont,
one of the Merino bucks exhibited by him. He is a fine animal,
of fair pretensions to purity of blood, as set forth in the certificates
recently published by H. S. Randall. In addition to these, I pro-
cured, in October last, two bucks and six ewes from Vermont. I
intended to get them from Consul Jarvis' well-known flock, but
they came from his neighborhood, with a warranty of purity of
blood ; but the warrant is not so reliable as if signed by Mr. Jar-
vis, who is well understood to have pure Merinos.
You have asked me to describe my flock ; I have done so fully,
and you canjudge of its character. I will now say something of
its treatment. Commencing the business of farming with more
zeal than experience, I fell into the common error, that sheep re-
quire no shelter in winter. The consequence was, that from this
cause, and perhaps allowing too great numbers to herd together, I
lost many every winter for several years. From exposure to the
weather they became diseased, discharged mucus from the nos-
trils, and numbers perished miserably. The survivors came
through the winter greatly emaciated — ewes, from want of nour-
ishment for their lambs, would abandon them as soon as dropped,
and many of them perished also.
I soon became conscious of the improvidence, as well as cruelty,
of exposing these valuable animals to the pelting storms of our
severe winters, and set about providing shelter for them. I con-
tented myself at first with sheds open, or nearly so, at the sides,
which turned the rain and descending snow, but left the sheep ex-
posed to the cutting winds that prevail so frequently in the winter
months. I continued to improve upon these structures, till now
my sheds are carefully enclosed on all sides, with an opening near
each end, for free ingress and egress, and made comfortable by
frequent litterings of straw.
Instead of the severe losses I used to sustain, I now have the
satisfaction of wintering my sheep with very little loss at all, and
that confined to the old and infinn. I am as well persuaded of
the importance of providing shelter for sheep, in this rigorous cli-
mate, from the storms of winter, as of any other ascertained fact.
Its necessity is indicated, as well by the instinct which invariably
leads them in bad weather to seek the shelter of fences, thickets,
or the lee of bams, as by the fatal effects of exposure. The ad-
vantages of this sort of protection may be summed up in the pres-
ervation of health, consumption of less food, better fleeces, and
more lambs.
My sheep are usually divided into lots of about 100 each for
winter quarters, though sometimes as many as 150 are allowed
to run together ; but the smaller the divisions the better. They
are fed on hay, corn-stalks, straw, peas, oats, com, oil-meal or
shorts, according to circamstances. Sometimes portions of them
rough it through the winter on hay alone. I have never fed them
36*
426 APPENDIX.
with rutabaga or other roots, except to a small extent, with pota-
toes. I am not so systematic and careful in feeding grain as to
make it worth while to go into details. This winter I am feeding
two flocks of 100 each with hay at morning and evening, and five
half pints each of still-slops at noon. The slops cost me 17^ cents
for 100 gallons, and the expense of hauling them from the distille-
ry, distant about 60 rods. The sheep are thriving under this treat-
ment, but T am not clear that it is more economical than feeding
grain. I feed out much less grain now than I did in former years,
when my sheep were exposed to the weather A\'ithout shelter, and
the sheep do much better now without it than they did with it.
[Mr. Kirby's racks are of the box kind.] In wet weather it is
of great advantage to be able to fodder under shelter. I have
abandoned the practice of salting my hay, except when compelled,
by stress of weather, to house it before it is thoroughly cured.
My sheep are salted about once a week the year round, and in-
stead of giving them tar as recommended by some persons, I oc-
casionally strew the yards with pine boughs, which they are
fond of.
I regard the fall management of iambs one of the most im-
portant branches of sheep husbandry. Having paid for my ex-
perience on this point as well as that of winter shelter, I can
speak with confidence. They should be separated from their
dams about the first of September, and with a few old sheep, that
require nursing, turned to the best pasture. Care should be
taken that they are not stinted till removed to winter quarters,
when they should have a small allowance of grain or oil-meal,
in addition to a plentiful supply of good hay. As soon as the
pasture begins to fail the ration of grain should be supplied. By
neglecting to provide suitable pasture for a lot of upwards of
100 very superior lambs one season, I lost the greater part of
them the ensuing winter. My utmost efforts, after I discovered
the error, were of no avail. I gave them a comfortable shed,
plenty of litter, good hay, a regular allowance of meal, and free
access to water ; but they never recovered, and the greater part
died before spring.
My bucks and ewes are put together about the first of Decem-
ber. The flock which I keep at my home barn, under my own
eye, and from which I raise bucks for the supply of my own,
and many of my neighbors' flocks, is managed in this way. The
ewes in lots of 20 to 35 are placed in separate pens, and a select
buck is turned into each pen, %vhere they are kept together 15 or
20 days. The ewes in each pen are marked with a letter in tar
and lampblack, to indicate what buck they were served by. At
shearing time, the best buck lambs are selected, and receive a
mark to denote their origin.
In my judgment, water is as essential to sheep as it is to any
other animal. They will go through the winter on snow instead
of water, and so would a man or a horse, if compelled by neces-
Ai>PENi)ix. 427
Blty to do so ; but either would prefer to have it thawed before
using it, rather than perform that office in his bowels.
When my sheep mn in large flocks without shelter, they were
occasionally affected with the scab, but since I have provided com-
fortable sheds for them, they have been troubled with no serious
disease. This climate is well suited to sheep.
LETTER FROM STEPHEN ATWOOD, OF WOODBURY, CONNECTICUT.
Dear Sir, — I have made, agreeably to your request, diligent in-
quiries respecting the varieties of ^Ierinos imported by General
Humphreys, but can learn nothing definite on the subject. I was
17 years old at the time of their arrival in this country, and think
Gen, H. called them Paulars ; but of this I cannot be positive.
I purchased a ewe from his flock, for which I paid him 120 dol-
lars, and put her to bucks sold by him into my immediate neigh-
borhood, and her descendants to bucks raised from his ewes, until
about 15 years ago ; since then I have used bucks of my own
raising. I have now a small flock of Merinos, in number about
150, about half of which are ewes, and the other half bucks and
wethers. They will consume through the winter about 18 tons
of hay. I feed the ewes, once a day, half a gill of corn and oats
mixed, from the first of December until the first of May. I feed
the lambs the above given time with half the quantity mentioned ;
the rest of the flock hay only. I wash my sheep as clean as I
can in the river, and let them run 6 or 8 days, and then shear
them; we generally shear from 10 to 15 per day; indeed, I never
hired a man that sheared as many as 20 in one day. My ewes
will shear yearly 5 lbs. of wool per head, my lambs 5 lbs. each,
ai.d wethers 6 lbs. ; my bucks will shear from 7 to 9 lbs. per
head. The heaviest ewe fleece last spring was 6 lbs. 6 oz., and
the heaviest buck fleece 12 lbs. 4 oz. I tag my sheep in the
spring, but not so thoroughly as you do. The buck I sold you
was finer than my others would average. You will confess,
doubtless, that he is a noble animal. Since I began my full-
blood flock, I have had three important properties in view to com-
bine, viz., constitution, quantity, and quality ; my success has at
least been satisfactory to myself.
LETTER FROM ABNER BROWN, OF NORTHEAST, DUTCHESS
COUNTY, NEW YORK.
Dear Sir, — Yours I have duly received, and now with pleasure
proceed to answer some of your interrogatories.
My flock of fine-wooled sheep is small, averaging for the last
428 APPENDIX.
10 years probably 160. I usually shear about 3 lbs. of wool per
head, and in the spring chp about 14 lbs. of tags from 100 sheep.
I much prefer washing in a stream of running water ; 1 think
this mode is easier for the washer, and there is less risk of injuring
the animal. Experienced and skilful shearers v/ill sometimes
shear 30 per day, and do their work well; but those workmen
who manifest carelessness, or recklessness in regard to the com-
fort of sheep, should be immediately discharged. I think that
from seventy-five to one hundred is as many as should herd to-
gether in the winter season. The building for shelter should be
enclosed, with doors to open and shut, as circumstances may re-
quire, on the south side. I deem it of vital importance, that
sheep have easy access to water, during the winter season. If
the water is not convenient to the sheep-bam, and cannot be
brought there, then carry the bam to the water. Some assert
that sheep will live in winter if they can get snow ; this is true,
and it is equally true, more or less will die too. Many diseases
are induced by depriving sheep of water.
After haying, I scrape my sheep-yards, and carry the manure
on to my meadows, before the rowen starts much ; in that way I
often double the quantity of hay, besides improving the quality.
[Mr. Brown made an experiment, which sarisfied him, that nothing
is gained by feeding fine-wooled sheep grain, pro\aded they are
well cared for during the whole year, and fed enough of the best
quality of hay.]
I think the Saxon sufficiently hardy to endure our hard winters
wdth that care and attention which may easily be given to all
dumb beasts in the domestic line, intrusted to reasonable and ra-
tional man. It is true that farmers somerimes, either by breed-
hig in-and-in, or by making an injudicious cross, will obtain an
unsightly, ill-shapen, narrow-chested animal, with weak vitals,
that will lie downi and die at almost any time. But I have not
lost over one per cent, annually, for the last ten years, and with
large flocks, properly managed, no greater loss will accrue. Suc-
cess must ever depend on good judgment and skill in management.
[Nothing more true.]
My lambs usually drop in the field in pleasant weather ; but if
the weather is stormy or cold, the ewes are placed in the sheep-
fold. We usually raise 95 per cent, of lambs from mature ewes.
The fine-wooled sheep are generally cultivated in this county
now ; but there are some Bakewells, Lincolns, Cotswolds, and
a few of the beautiful South Downs ; there seems to be a prevail-
ing desire among fanners in this vicinity to get the pure Sax-
ons. [Mr. B. uses a tobacco decoction to destroy ticks ; his local-
ity is well adapted to sheep, diseases being very rare ; cures the
stretches by the use of castor oil ; land is worth, in his town, from
45 to 50 dollars per acre.]
APPENDIX. 429
LETTER FROM JESSE EDINGTON, OF HOLLIDAY'S COVE, VIRGINIA.
Dear Sir, — [Mr. Edington states, that liis flock was formed by
the purchase, m 1821, of 200 superior ewes, descended from Gen.
Humphreys' importation, and subsequently by a portion of the
celebrated flock of Messrs. Wells and Dickinson, of Ohio.] These
flocks form the basis of my present flock of 3000, and they also
form the basis of nearly all the fine sheep hi this region of country.
My sheep are kept in flocks of about 200 each. They are fed
on hay and com ; say 5 tons to the 100, and at the rate of 50
bushels of com for that number, which is fed in troughs, and half
a bushel per day. Housing I think is necessaiy to protect the
animal from drenching rains in winter, as frequent wetting of the
wool renders the tops stiff' and rotten, and the whole fleece harsh
and apparently coarse ; moreover, injures the health of the sheep,
and requires more provender to sustain them. In severely cold
weather, they should be kept closely housed, and exposed only for
the purpose of obtaining water. [Mr. E. is located near the Ohio
river, and raises considerable com, the stalks of which he feeds his
sheep during ^\'inter.] I raised a considerable crop of sugar-beet,
which is excellent food for sheep, but expensive, compared with
com. Hay and com I think, upon the whole, the cheapest, best,
and most convenient feed for large flocks, with some oats occa-
sionally.
My average yield for the last 5 years does not exceed 2^ lbs.
per head, having 700 lambs, 800 to 1000 ewes, and the greater
part of the flock wot full grown. I raise about 75 lambs from the
100 ewes.
I wash in the Ohio river, which is generally very clear and soft,
with a pretty strong current. We put about 150 in a feny boat,
anchored a short distance in the stream, where three or four hands
wash over the sides of the boat. In this way, a sheep can be
washed pretty clean in about two minutes, and then they are per-
mitted to swim ashore, which removes all remaining dirt and
grease from the wool. They are then put on a clean sward from
4 to 8 days before shearing. The wool, washed in that wa\% vAW
be some 20 per cent, lighter than if washed in cold, limestone
water. [Mr. Edington's bams are spacious and convenient, but
his description is omitted.] I put my rams to the ewes the first
week in November, and permit two or three to the 100 ewes.
The rams remain with them about four weeks, and during this time
they are fed 2 gills of com a day, or twice that quantity of oats,
which is continued for a month after their separation from the
ewes.
Our best pasture is spear grass {poa pratensis), which grows
spontaneously on our rich lands, and will last the year round ; for
early and late grazing, white clover is uncertain. We are obliged
to fodder $ome five months of the year. I sold rny crop of wool
430 APPENDIX..
of 1830 to Messrs. Bullock and Davis, at 75 cents per lb., wliich
amounted to 6,400 dollars. I raised that year 900 lambs, and
sold 800 sheep for 2,500 dollars. [If Mr. Edington's success has
been in proportion to this statement since the period he mentions,
is it not highly encouraging to our Southern brethren to under-
take his vocation, of growing fine wool ?]
LETTER FROM SAMUEL GRANT, OF WALPOLE, N. HAMPSHIRE.
Dear Sir, — Your esteemed favor of the 16th came to hand a
few days since. I am gratified to leani that a work of the nature
you mention, so much needed by wool-growers, is about to be
published.
My flock at present numbers between 800 and 900, Saxony,
Merino, and half-bloods, the Saxons, perhaps, predominating.
My Saxons are p?<re-blooded, bred from the flocks imported by
Searle and Kratzman, in 1829. For the last three or four years,
I have crossed part of my flock with Jarvis Merinos. My fleeces
averaged last season 3 lbs. 6 oz. well-washed wool, which, con-
sidering the nuinber of Saxony fleeces, is a fair average. My
sheep (and this will apply to every lot in town) are closely shel-
tered in winter, and all have pure water in abundance at all
times. This I consider absolutely necessary. I feed in racks,
under the hay -lofts, wdth corresponding openings above, where hay
is carefully shaken down, at least three times a day. Hay is the
principal article of food. I have sometimes fed straw alone, with
a bushel of potatoes, (cut by machine) to 100 ewes, with good
success. The smallest, pooreist lambs are selected at the begin-
ning of the winter season, and usually fed with the better kinds
of hay, rowen, &c., together with perhaps half a pint oats each
per day. I feed either potatoes or oats liberally to ewes, four to
six weeks before they commence having lambs ; litter the folds
well with straw, at all times, to make them comfortable, and to
increase the quantity of manure. I fatten generally with coiti
— dislike potatoes for this purpose. We are careful to waste no
hay, every particle is eaten, when the quality is good ; feeding
without racks I consider slovenly and wasteful. We tend our
bucks when put to ewes, pennitting them to serve 6 or 8 per day,
and are careful to feed their lordships high ; they seldom exceed
100 ewes, going but once to the same ewe. We are partial to,
and take good care of our bucks throughout the year. I have
used this fall a Merino buck which sheared the past season 13^
lbs. washed wool.
The Saxons are not considered too tender for this region. We
are obliged to treat them carefully, but find no difficulty at all in
rearing them. Our ewes seldom foal out of doors, except per-
haps during the day, at which time they have the limits of the
APPENDIX. 431
yard. We oftentimes raise 94 to 98 lambs from an Imndred ewes.
The price of pure Saxony ewes varies from two to four dollars.
There are no diseases among sheep at present in this quarter, ex-
cept perhaps some cases of foot-rot. The best remedy for this
disease is, first, paring the hoofs closely, and then apply a wash
composed of the following ingredients : say, 4 oz. blue vitriol, 2
oz. verdigris to a junk bottle of urine. This is " sure fire."
I have no means of ascertaining accurately the amount of hay
necessary for 100 sheep during the winter; I should think at
least 12 or 13 tons. We are in the habit of dipping our sheep in
a strong decoction of tobacco, immediately after shearing, for the
purpose of destroying ticks. We give salt weekly, but never feed
tar.
[The feeding-racks of Mr. Grant conform to the cut Fig. 2,
to whom, with Mr. Hodskins, the writer is indebted for the de-
sign.]
At the time Searle and KJratzman imported their sheep, some-
thing hke 1000 of the very best grades were selected in Gennany,
and from this lot about 150 again selected and reserved for them-
selves, being the cream of the entire flock. This last very supe-
rior lot were given into my hands to keep, and eventually became
mine.
LETTER FROM JACOB N. BLAKESLEE, OF WATERTOWN, LITCH-
FIELD COUNTY, CONN.
Dear Sir, — Your favor has been received, in which you ex-
press a wish to know the pedigree of my flock of Merinos, and
some particulars as to my mode of management. In reference to
pedigree, I must refer you to a statement of mine on the subject,
and published in the Nov. number of the Albany Cultivator of
1844. [The following is an extract :] "My pure bloods are the
offspring of some of the first that ever came into the United States,
brought into the country by David Humphreys in 1802, which were
a present to his wife by her father. After a few years, two pairs
of them were purchased by Daniel Bacon, of Woodbury, Litch-
field county. They were kept in their pure state till 1811. There
was then an importation of the Guadaloupe sheep by a company
formed in Litchfield county ; John De Forest, supercargo. They
arrived at New Haven, and were sold at auction, Jan. 17, 1811.
There was one full-blooded Escurial buck, which was purchased
by Daniel Bacon at S275, and was crossed upon those sheep that
came by the way of Mrs. Humphreys. He continued this cross
rill 1816 or 1817, when he sold his Escurial buck to Wilham K.
Lampson for $1,130. He kept his sheep pure till the introduc-
tion of Saxony sheep. He then sold the remainder of his flock to
Daniel Martin. I began a flock of sheep in 1815, that were im-
432 APPENDIX.
ported by Peck & Atwater, New Haven. A part of them were
the Negretti and a part Montarco. I let them run together till
IS'23. I then procuied the use of a buck for three seasons, bred
by Daniel Bacon from his Escurial buck. The average weight
of the fleeces of the stock from this buck was four pounds, and
the wool brought me ten cents a pound more than the original
stock. In 1828 I purchased a buck that was raised by Daniel
Bacon. From that time down to the present, 1 have kept that
blood pure ; this flock is now a cross of three sorts of Spanish
sheep, and perfectly clear from native or Saxony blood. My
farm is not a healthy farm for sheep, and of course they are a lit-
tle under size. They are a full, round, handsome-bodied sheep,
with shortish legs and a very round neck. They have very
heavy fleeces for their size. Their wool is a long staple, a great
deal of crimp, and very compact at the outer end. They have
generally wool about their face and on their legs down to their
feet. After taking great pains to wash them, the average weight
of their fleeces this season was three pounds and a half, and there
are veiyfew flocks of Saxony sheep any finer. Mr. Samuel Law-
rence, of Lowell, who has had this wool for four seasons past, has
given his opinion that there is no Merino wool that compares with
it. This improvement has been made by a cross of the different
breeds. I am decidedly of the opinion that there is no full-blood
animal equal to a cross ; the reason I give is, that there is no per-
fect animal on the face of this earth : where an animal is imper-
fect, you can never remedy the defect by the use of an animal
that has the same defect."
I have for the last ten years kept from four to six hundred
sheep, but they were not all of the breed of which I have given
the pedigree. My last clip from my pure bloods averaged just 3i
lbs. per head, exclusive of tag-wool. I raise from 90 to 95 lambs
to the 100 ewes. My lambs are dropped in the month of March,
and of course during that time the ewes are protected. My best
buck went to 160 ewes the present season, and was fed high du-
ring service ; 50 ewes are enough for one buck, if he is pennitted
to run altogether with them. My sheep generally are fed in the
open field in the winter season, having sheds, however, to run
under when it suits them. My practice is to confine them to
hay mostly, except my ewes, before and during their yeaning,
when they are grained. I feed grain also to my feeble sheep. I
think a change of food very conducive to the health of a flock,
and I conform to this opinion as far as possible. In regard to other
particulars of management, I probably differ so little from the
practice of many other wool-growers, that it is needless, perhaps,
to enter into further details. My attention is not confined to rais-
ing of sheep, but for years past have bred many cattle and
horses ; the former is of the Devon blood.
APPENDIX. 43 i
LETTER FROM STEPHEN SIBLEY, OF HGPKINTON, NEW HAMP-
SHIRE.
Dear Sir, — In answer to yours of the 14tli inst., I will say that
my flock of sheep is of the Saxon breed, and at this time numbers
three hundred ; before my sales in the fall, it usually reaches
from three hundred seventy-five to four hundred. 1 began my
flock in the fall of eighteen hundred and twenty-one, with a few
Merinos which originated from a flock imported into this country
from Spain, and kept in the neighborhood of Newburyport, Mass.,
by a gentleman of the name of Gorham Parsons. 1 bred in the
same flock several years, and then procured and put to my sheep
an imported Merino buck. In the summer of 1826 a cargo of
very fine Saxony sheep was imported into Boston, and sold at
Brighton, Mass. A friend of mine in Hillsborough county in this
State attended the sale and bought two bucks, one of which I
purchased immediately after his return. In 1828 I introduced
into my flock a few Saxony ewes. The principal importers of
Saxony sheep into New England were two gentlemen of Boston
by the name of Searle. They purchased in Saxony, for their own
use, one hundred ewes and four bucks, without regard to price.
That flock was taken to Walpoie, N. H., by Samuel Grant, wdio
eventually became the owner of it, and from that stock I drew my
male breeders from 1832 to 1839. I likewise bought of the same
gentleman a few of his most approved ewes. In the fall of 1639,
I visited the celebrated flock of Electoral Saxony sheep of the
late Henry D. Grove, of Hoosic, New York, and bought of that
gentleman forty-seven ewes and three bucks. Since my purchase
of Mr. Grove, I have introduced no sheep from abroad into my
flock, for I am satisfied it cannot be done from any flock in this
country, without producing a retrograde. I am an equal owner
with another person of a silver medal, awarded for the finest
American wool by the American Institute at the city of New
York in 1838. The Massachusetts Chaiitable Mechanic As-
sociation also awarded to me a splendid gold medal for the finest
American w^ool in 1841.
My sheep are small, beautifully proportioned, and perfectly
healthy. I shear per head on an average, after tagging three
ounces from each, about two pounds of wool. I dispose of all
my wethers as young as possible to give place to breeders, which
are more profitable. Were I to keep a usual proportion of full-
grown males it would bring up my average to about two and a
half pounds. I have made it a nile for about twenty j^ears to
cull from my flock every coarse and ordinary ewe, and breed from
the finest only, with the utmost care as to male parentage. I
make the month of May my yeaning month, for I have never
known a delicately fine-wooled sheep that came in the winter. Cli-
mate has an effect, and a very great one, on our flocks, as regards
37
434 APPENDLX.
the quality of wool. All agree that a cold climate is calculated
to produce a finer, softer, and more abundant covering for the
animal creation, than a hot one, and for that reason a lamb that is
dropped in May, or the fore part of June, will produce more, and
better, wool than one that comes in the fall or fore part of winter.
By allowing the male to go to the female in December, we have
the whole of the winter for the formation of the animal, and with
all the other parts every fibre of wool is formed, and the lamb is
fitted for a cold climate, with a fleece of the finest and warmest
kind. After the perfect fomiation and production of the animal,
the heat of our summers produces no change in the quality of the
wool, or, if any, it is so slight as to be wholly unperceived.
Sheep that are at all times kept in a perfectly healthy condition,
continue to produce wool equally fine, soft, and beautiful, year af-
ter year, till visited by old age, and then, like the hair of an aged
person, it becomes in some degree more harsh and rigid. Were
we to provide for the birth of lambs in December, gestation would
be going on during the heat of summer, and nature, true to her
work, would prepare the lamb with a hairy, coarse covering,
suited to a wami cliinate. The broken surface, the dry summers,
and steadily cold winters of New England, New Yojk, Pennsylva-
nia, seem admirably adapted to the perfect development of all the
valuable properties of the sheep ; and it is certainly true that the
offspring of the Spanish and Saxony sheep that have been judi-
ciously managed, and bred in this secrion of country, now produce
wool more open and free, and more elastic and delicately fine,
than the imported original stock. It is not known that any per-
son in this country has gone into a minute calcularion of the
greater or less increase of wool arising from different kinds of
food ; nor is it necessary, for Providence itself attends to this bu-
siness, and it will not lead the husbandman astray if he furnishes
his flock with a variety of food such as their appetites crave. The
disposition of sheep prompts them to range over a precipitous
country, where herbage is various and territory extensive. No
domestic animal feeds upon so many kinds of plants as the sheep,
ner does any so quickly pine by confinement to any one kind.
Peculiarity of pasture may have some effect upon the fleece,
making it finer or coarser, so far as it affects the general health
of the sheep, and no farther. The most perfect and valuable wool
that can be produced is from sheep that are neither over-fat nor
miserably lean, but in a perfectly healthy condition. The main
and almost entire reliance for the improvement of the wool of our
flocks is in judicious selection, season of breeding, patience, and
the shepherd's unceasing attention. By a long and undeviating
course in these practices, our best flocks may be made to yield
fleeces that will not suffer by a comparison with the finest the
world produces ; and thus the avaricious may gratify his desire,
and the patriotic be prouder of his country.
During the inclemency of our winters sheep should be well
APPENDIX. 435
sheltered, but the stalls at all times well ventilated and made to
accommodate not more than one hundred. The wethers ought not
to be allowed to go in the stalls with the ewes in winter, nor the
lambs the first season of foddering with either. The cribs should
be swept daily and replenished with hay, cut in proper season
and perfectly dried, and made from all the usual kinds of our
grasses — the more kinds the better, not excluding the sour ones
that grow upon our low lands ; and weeds and vines may also be
included to advantage. In addition to hay, about 12 quarts of
Indian corn or an equivalent of smaller grain ought to be fed
daily to a hundred ewes, during three or four weeks in the rut-
ting, and four or five weeks in yeaning season — beginning the lat-
ter term three wrecks before yeaning. Lambs ought to be fed
during the whole of the first winter with about six quarts of com
or its equivalent, daily, to the hundred. Wethers full grown and
healthy will pass the winter very well without grain.
That management may be perfect, it is very essential that ex-
ercise, fresh air, and green food, should be given our flocks through
all the winter, and as often as four or five times each week. This
can best be done by dri\dng them to the woods where they can
browse from the bushes, or boughs pendant from large trees. If
the browse is beyond their reach, it ought to be cut for them and
placed in rows from which they can conveniently feed without the
privilege of running over it. No snow is so deep as to prevent
this being done, for, led by the shepherd, they make their own paths
and use them when needed. If browsing sheep is not practicable
with all wool-growers, they certainly can give their flocks exer-
cise in some other way, and green food also, by deahng out to
them potatoes, or some kind of turnips, which will be better than
nothing green ; turnips, however, are not regarded in this place
conducive to the growth of wool.
In the season of shearing, sheep ought to be washed as clean as
possible in soft running water, and their fleeces suffered to dry on
them, and then become a very little moist with the oil of the ani-
mal before shearing. No definite time can be fixed between
washing and shearing, for that depends on the weather. The honest
wool-grower will readily decide on the proper time to shear, and
be careful that his sheep do not wallow in the sand-bank or upon
ploughed ground, after the disappearance of snow in the spring,
and before shearing.
Sheep of the Merino and Saxon family are smaller than most
other kinds, but they produce the finest wool known in this or any
other country. The size and quantity of wool per head has been
an objection to these sheep by some. It is calculated that if the
cash income of a large, coarse, individual sheep is greater than
that of a small, fine one, the coarse sheep are most profitable to the
wool-grower. These partial calculations are delusive ; for it re-
quires the same, or nearly the same quantity and quality of food
436 APPENDIX.
to produce a pound of wool or a pound of mutton, whether it be
given to a large or a small sheep. The rational and safe basis on
which a profit is to be calculated and derived, is upon the quan-
tity and cost of food and the greater value of wool and mutton
produced therefrom. Fine sheep, ever since their introduction into
New England, have been duly valued by some, and they are now
coming into more general favor — the demand and price steadily
increasing.
The American who shall publish a work on Sheep Husbandry,
such as is needed and shall be api)roved, will do a greater service
to his country than all the furious politicians in it, and secure to
himself a name as durable as our granite, while theirs pass from
the world like shadows. I heartily wish you all the success due
to your laudable undertaking.
LETTER FROM SAMUEL LAWRENCE, OF LOWELL, MASSACHUSETTS.
Dear Sir, — ****** That the properties of wool
are affected by herbage and soil, I have not a doubt, and were it
not inx-idious, I would name some sections where wool-growers are
greatly favored by nature. One thing is certain, whatever may
be the character of the soil, where there are good shepherds there
is sure to be found good wool. By judicious selections and cross-
ing, I believe a breed may be reared which will give 4 lbs. of ex-
quisitely fine wool to the fleece.
We can make a fine cloth from a long staple, if the felting prop-
erty is right.
As a general remark, the wool of this country is badly put up,
the sheep are not properly washed, then they are allowed to run
too long after washing before being sheared ; and what is worse,
the " tags and stuff"" are rolled up inside the fleece, and tied with
tow yam. or heavy twine in enormous quantities. There are
honorable exceptions to this usage, and the names of the parties I
should like to show up as models for their inferiors to imitate.
Manufacturers are quite as much to blame in this business as
wool-growers ; they have seldom made sufficient difference in
prices between wool in good and bad condition.
The woollen manufacture of this country is on a more perma-
nent base than at any former period of its history, as there are
engaged in it more men of character and property, and the
amount of skill employed is very great. Should anything be
done to injure the present excellent tariff", the wool-grower will re-
ceive the blow. Our works are in full operation as usual, and if
we have no accidents, shall work over a million of pounds this
year. We are preparing to extend our works by the addition of
APPENDIX. 437
a new mill, which will require from three to four hundred thou-
sand pounds more per annum ; this will not be completed till the
fall of 1846.
If the wool-growers of this country will carry on their business
wnth as much heart and spirit as the Middlesex Company, the
time is not distant when we shall export woollens to foreign
countries.
37*
September, 1845.
MESSRS. HARPER AND BROTHERS
PUBLISH THIS DAY,
ELEMENTS OF MORALITY AND POLITY,
BY PROF. WHEWELL
This valuable new production, from the pen of one of the
most eminent scholars of the age, exhibits in a lucid, exact,
and elegant style, the great principles of moral, political,
and ecclesiastical science in a far more complete and me-
thodical manner than has ever yet been presented to the
public. In offering this work to the American reader, the
Publishers beg leave to introduce it as the commencement
of a new and attractive series oi sterling books, to be is-
sued by them, under the general designation of
Harper's New Miscellany.
The volumes of which will be legibly printed, in duodecimo,
on fine paper, and bound in extra muslin gilt.
Price Fifty Cents a Volume,
and issued at short intervals.
To render accessible to the million the fullest advanta-
ges of popular instruction in the various divisions of human
knowledge is the design of the above series. It is apparent
in the present day that books of intrinsic value are de-
manded by the people. Formerly the popular taste prefer-
red mainly works of mere amusement; the great body of
readers now seek them as vehicles of general knowledge
— books of a more permanently valuable cast — devoted to
some of the departments of science or general literature.
A new race has sprung up, glowing with the first ener-
gies of youth, requiring more expanded ideas of the world
in which they live, and a more reliable and well-digested
knowledge of the men, and the events of other times and
countries. A class of books expressly adapted to this de-
mand it is the aim of the Publishers to supply, and at
a price so exceedingly cheap that every person of ordinary
taste and advantages may thus become possessed of a
Complete Library of the Selectcst Litera-
ture of the Language and the Age.
In this collection it is intended to include the best pro
ductions in every department of knowledge ; popular philo-
sophical treatises on topics of universal interest ; the most
compact and brilliant historical books ; valuable biographi-
cal memoirs ; modern voyages and travels, &c. ; together
with scientific and other collateral divisions ; in the selec-
tion of all which, the most careful discrimination will be ob-
served. A mere glance over the wide domain of our English
literature will exhibit much yet unexplored and uncultiva-
ted, from which might be gathered the fruits of a rich, lux-
uriant harvest ; besides which, the ever-teeming issues of
the European press open up a vast revenue of literary
wealth, from which the above collection may be liberally
supplied. Original productions of American writers will
also occasionally be introduced. In submitting, therefore,
the esteemed work of Prof. Whew^ell as a kind of first-fruits
of their new " Miscellany," the publishers deem it only
necessary to add, that their arrangements for carrying for-
ward the enterprise being of the most complete and efficient
kind, they confidently rely upon their efforts being met with
a ready response from the entire reading community.
This, they venture to believe, will be insured to their
Miscellany, no less from the intrinsic value of the collec-
tion, than from its unparalleled economy ; each volume
being elegantly produced, bound in handsome and substan-
tial STYLE, FITTED WITHOUT FARTHER EXPENSE FOR PERMA-
NENT PRESERVATION IN THE LiBRARY ; the wholc serics be-
ing issued in uniform binding, while the price of each vol-
ume will be only Fifty Cents, far below the cost of any sim-
ilar series of books yet published in this, or, it is bel'evc*,
any other country.
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