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AMERICAN TEXT BOOK 


OF PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC 


AGRICULTURE, 


INTENDED FOR THE USE OF 


COLLEGES, SCHOOLS, AND PRIVATE STUDENTS; 


AS WELL AS FOR 


THE PRACTICAL FARMER. 


INCLUDING 


ANALYSES BY THE MOST EMINENT CHEMISTS. 


BY CHARLES FOX, 


SENIOR EDITOR OF THE “‘ FARMER’S COMPANION, AND HORTICULTURAL GAZETTE;” 
LECTURER ON AGRICULTURE IN THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN; 
COR, MEM. OF THE N. Y. LYCEUM OF NAT. HIST.; 
AND OF THE PHILADELPHIA AND CLEVELAND ACADEMIES OF S8CIENCFS; 
MEMBER OF U.S. AGRICUL. s0cy., &c. 


DETROIT: 
PUBLISHED BY ELWOOD AND COMPANY. 
1854, 


Entered according to Act of Congress in the year 1854, by 
8. D. Etwoop & Company, 
In the Clerk’s Office for the District or Michigan. 


DETROIT: 
E. A. Wares, Printer, Advertiser Steam Presses. 


TO 
DR. SILAS H. DOUGLASS; 
PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY, GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, &¢., IN THE 
UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN; 
TO WHOSE EXERTIONS AND ENERGY, THE 
ESTABLISHMENT OF AGRICULTURAL LECTURES 
IN THAT INSTITUTION, 
IS, 
TO A GREAT EXTENT, DUE. 
AND WHO, FROM AN EARLY DAY, HAS EARNESTLY 
AND PERSEVERINGLY LABORED IN THE CAUSE OF SCIENCE IN 


THIS STATE: 
THIS VOLUME 


IS DEDICATED BY HIS MOST SINCERE AND 


OBLIGED FRIEND 


THE AUTHOR. 


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PREFACE. 


Tue following work is strictly what it professes to be— 
A Text Boox. It is not intended so much to teach the Sci- 
ence and Art of Agriculture, as to enable the Teacher to teach. 
Tn its character it is suggestive, and makes no pretensions to be 
a perfect Encyclopeedia of the subject. At the same time it is 
believed that there is no point—so far as the work professes to 
go—on which it is important that the Teacher should enlarge, 
or the student learn, to which they will not find their attention 
directed. Nor will the experienced Farmer, or the general rea- 
der fail to be interested. Practice and science are brought to- 
gether, and compelled to assist each other; instead of being un- 
naturally divorced, as, unhappily, they have too long been in 
this department of knowledge. 

This little work is the offspring of a sorely felt necessity. A 
year since, the Author was unexpectedly called upon to deliver 
a course of lectures on Agriculture, before the newly organized 
“Scientific Department” of the University of Michigan. He 
had for some years studied the subject, both practically and 
theoretically, and collected a valuable library in connection with 
it. But this he had done merely for his own gratification, with- 
out any direct object in view, and certainly with no intention of 
ever becoming a teacher of Agriculture. A sense of duty to 
the public would not allow him to refuse the invitation; and 


Vi. PREFACE. 


painfully conscious of his deficiencies, he assumed the office, de- 
termined to do the best *%e could. Upon the very threshold, 
however, he met with an unexpected difficulty. He could find 
no book, published either in America or Europe, adapted for a 
collegiate class, many of whom were practical and middle-aged 
farmers, and some to whom the very terms of Science were un- 
known. Professors Johnston, Norton, and Nash have each pub- 
lished elementary works, most excellent so far as they go; but 
they are confined almost entirely to the chemical portion of the 
subject, and “Practical Agriculture in its connection with Sci- 
ence” was the topic demanded. There are other books again, 
but deficient on the other side,—consisting merely of directions 
how to cultivate the land,—being chiefly compilations, and ma- 
king no pretensions to a higher or scholastic character; so that 
the Author was obliged to prepare and write his entire course 
of lectures, and the students lost much from the want of some 
work which they might study in private, or refer to from time 
to time. This loss was chiefly felt in regard to analyses, figures 
and scientific words. It is quite impossible that a student can 
understand the one, or recollect the other by merely hearing 
them; and yet if these portions are lost, much of the value of 
the succeeding information is lost likewise. 

Within the few last years, the study of Agriculture in the 
United States, has assumed a new form. It is beginning to be 
introduced, not only into Colleges, but also into Primary Schools; 
and in conversing with other gentlemen, the Author found that 
this want was as sensibly deplored by others, as it had been by 
himself. He therefore undertook to write out the substance of 


his lectures. Neither his more important engagements, nor his 


PREFACE. vii. 


health permitted him to anticipate more. But having made 
a beginning, he found the subject constantly enlarging, and he 
has, to the best of his ability, collected and arranged a synopsis 
of all that is known,—so far as he could ascertain it—of the the- 
oretical and practical truths and principles of Agriculture, up to 
the present moment. The analyses which are given, are, it is 
believed, the very latest that have been made, and, perhaps 
without exception, are worthy of all credit in the present posi- 
tion of the Science. The more strictly technical portion is either 
the result of the Author’s own experience and experiments, or 
it is compiled from the most trustworthy sources adapted to the 
present position and necessities of the American Famer. 

The only novelty, which can be claimed as such, is the ar- 
rangement, each subject being complete within itself. Much 
more might have been introduced, and one of the chief difficul- 
ties that have been experienced has been compressing the mat- 
ter,—the omitting of all which did not appear to be absolutely 
necessary for the object in view, and the using as few words as 
possible. 

It was essential that the book should be of moderate size, and 
cheap—this the Publisher insisted upon as a sine gua non,—and 
consequently much that might have been inserted has been left 
out. Thus, it is taken for granted that the Teacher or the Stu- 
dent is already familiar with Botany, and the elements of Ag- 
ricultural Chemistry. Had these topics likewise been intro- 
duced further than they have been, they would have swelled 
the work far beyond the requisite size. For the boundaries of 
agricultural knowledge are like those of the horizon, ever enlarg- 
ing as we travel on, till they embrace almost the entire circle of 


Vill. PREFACE. 


the sciences and Arts. So vast are the subjects, that a writer 
uttempting to include the whole, would find that a library, nota 
volume, would be the result of his labors. Besides, with the 
excellent elementary works already mentioned, and Prof. Gray’s 
Botanical Text-book, repetition could not have been avoided, and 
this too, has been most scrupulously abstained from, as regards 
works in general circulation among us. So again, the topics 
treated upon in the early chapters are presented merely in out- 
line. Agri¢ultural Meteorology—though essentially a most inte- 
resting and important application of Science,—is yet in its ear- 
liest infancy; and the materials do not exist for accurate or ex- 
tended instruction; while the Natural History of Plants, the Air, 
Water, &c., belong rather to the department of the Chemist and 
the Vegetable Physiologist, than to the practical Agriculturist. 
Enough only is written on these subjects to serve as an intro- 
duction to what follows. é 

In many instances, and always in the Analyses, the authority 
quoted is mentioned, chiefly in order that the Teacher may be 
able to refer directly to the original, where he will usually meet 
with a more complete elucidation of the subject than could be 
admitted into these pages. 

It will be observed that the work is tinted 4 in type of three 
sizes. Those portions which are considered as peculiarly im- 
portant, or as being capable of comprehension by students of all 
ages, are printed in the largest type; that which is abstruse is 
in a second sized; and that which peculiarly interests the prac- 
tical farmer is in the smallest type. The Chapters are likewise 
so arranged as to permit the teacher to select such subjects as he 
chooses. 


PREFACE. ix. 


No one can attempt to teach an irregular science, or a “sci- 
entific art” such as Agriculture is rapidly becoming, without 
discovering how much he must depend for explanation and il- 
lustration on his own resources. The strict sciences, such as 
mathematics, may be entirely taught by books; but in agricul- 
ture there is still so much that is uncertain, and so many scien- 
ces and arts are combined within it, that—without taking into 
consideration the discoveries that are almost daily made—a life- 
time, laboriously devoted to the subject could scarcely render 
one individual master of the whole. It is hoped, therefore, that 
the Teacher who may use this book will enlarge upon the vari- 
ous subjects, and explain that which is difficult—in one word, 
that he will consider it as the mariner does his chart, as a di- 
rector of his course, but a director from which he is at liberty 
to differ should his superior experience and knowledge induce 
him to do so. ‘ 

The Author has no desire to assume to himself more credit 
than is due, nor to make excuses which are not strictly true. 
But constantly and seriously occupied in various other duties; 
for a length of time at a distance from the Press; and com- 
pelled to search for materials in a large number of books—con- 
siderably over one hundred volumes having been consulted and 
compared—he has not only found the labor of compiling these 
sheets a very arduous one, but is well aware, that had he been 
able to devote more time to the object he could have rendered 
them more truly worthy of the acceptance of the public. Should 
another Edition be called for, many emendations will probably 
be mate. 


The limits of this volume forbid the subject of Domestic 


x. PREFACE, 


Animals, and some other topics being touched upon. For an- 
other work, a large amount of materials is on hand, and 
should life and health be spared, the writer may, perhaps, 
include them in another volume. That, however, must depend | 
upon the success with which this meets. 


University, Ann Arbor, Mich., 
Feb. 14, 1854. 


CHAPTER I. 


INTRODUCTORY. 


1. The word Acricuururse is derived from two Latin words, 
Acsr, a Field, and Currura, Cultivating or Tilling. It there- 
fore means, strictly, The working of the sotl; but is now used 
to describe every process connected with Farming. 

2. Agriculture may be divided into (a,) growing of grains; 
of edible plants; of oil bearing plants; of vegetables used im 
dying, &c.; (2,) of grasses; (¢,) breeding of stock; (d,) fat 
tening of stock; (e,) producing wool; (f,) manufacture of checse 
and butter; (g,) cultivation of fruit; (h,) of vegetables and 
flowers; (¢) viticulture, (or the culture of the grapevine,) and 
wine making; (j,) Planting, or the production of cotton, rice, 
sugar, tobacco, &e. And, in Europe, to the above are added, 
(k,) forest matters; (7,) manufacture of beet sugar; (m,) the 
production of silk; and of some other minor articles. 

3. Any of these processes may be pursued by itself; though, 
in most instances, it is found profitable to include more than one 
of the above divisions on the same farm. In this respoct, agri- 
culture differs from manufactures; the latter becoming more 
profitable as the division of labor becomes more simple. 

4. Agriculture is an Art, which, to be truly understood, 
requires the study of many Scrmncus. 


Arg is the application of knowledge to practical purposes. Scienes is 
a knowledge of the principles of Art. Ifthe knowledge be merely as- 
1 


6] AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


cumulated experience, its application is empirical art; but if it be expe- 
rience reasoned upon and brought under general principles, it assumes 
a higher character, and becomes a scientific art. 


5. The following are usually considered the Sciences which 
ave naturally included in the Art of Agriculture:—I. Mathe- 
matical Science: (a,) arithmetic; (6,) algebra; (c,) geometry ; 
(d,) mechanics; (e,) surveying; (7,) levelling; (g,) stereome- 
try, (the measuring of solid bodies,) (h,) linear drawing. I. 
Physical and Natural Sciences: (a,) physics; (6,) meteor- 
dlogy; (c,) mineral chemistry; (d,) mineralogy; (e,) geology; 
(f,) botany. IIL. Technological Sciences: (a,) organic chem- 
istry; (0,) scientific agriculture; (c,) arboriculture; (d,) sylvi- 
culture; (e,) vegetable and animal physiology; (f,) veterinary 
art; (g,) zoology; (4,) equitation. IV. MNoological Sciences: 
(a,) rural architecture ; (0, ) forest economy ; (¢,) book-keeping ; 
(d,) rural economy; (e,) rural law. Each of these, again, is 
divisible into several sub-divisions; and the list may be still 
further added to with practical advantage. 

6: While a knowledge of all these sciences is necessary to the 
thoroughly educated farmer, only a part of them is included in 
what is commonly termed practical agriculture. Of this latter 
portion, meteorology, chemistry, geology, mineralogy and botany, 
are usually taught by themselves; leaving field-work, arboricul- 
ture, animal physiology, zoology, and veterinary art in a class 
by themselves. To these last, the following pages will be de 
voted. It must, however, be observed, that so closely are the 
majority of these sciences interwoven in forming the agricultural 
art, that it is impossible entirely to disconnect the one from the 
other. This is especially the case with chemistry and botany: 
a knowledge of the principles of which must be considered as 
absolutely essential, and which, together with certain depart- 
ments of geology, must be frequently referred to. 


7. The farmer is a manufacturer. His art converts the soil and air 
into graip, meat, wool, oil, and other substances, He creates nothing : 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 3 


he only causes a change of arrangement of materials already existing; 
which materials are governed by known and fixed laws. What the far- 
mer, therefore, requires, is an intimate acquaintance with these material, 
and with the natural Jaws to which they are subject. The earth and air 
are composed of a certain number of simple elements. But in this primi- 
tive shape, they are unfit for the support of animal life. Yet they will 
become either weeds or useful plants, according to the mude in which 
they are used. Again, if they become the latter, the quality prodaced 
on a given area will be large or small according to known and fixed 
rales ; and if domestic animals are reared, these will be large or smal], 
healthy or unhealthy, according to the same certain and unalterable 
laws. It depends, therefore, rpon the knowledge which the practical 
farmer has of these Jaws, and the use he makes of this knowledge, 
whether he receives the largest possible return for his labor or not 


8. The object of the practical farmer is to raise from a given 
area of land the largest quantity of the most profitable produce 
at the least cost; and not only to avoid impoverishing the soil, 
but to render it gradually more productive. A knowledge of 
the above named sciences will enable him to do this; and thns 
he is repaid pecuniarily for the labor of his mind, as the work- 
man is repaid for the labor of his body. 


10. The earliest effort in Europe for the establishment of an Agri- 
cultural School, was made by M. L’Abbe Rosier in 1775; but, owing 
to the neglect of the government, it failed to go into operation. In 1799, 
Fellenberg, of Switzerland, established the Hofwyl School, which ap- 
pears to have been the first institution of the kind. 1n 1818—1822, M. 
de Domsbasle commenced a Model Farm, of 375 acres, in connection 
with a place of education, at Roville, in France, In 1827, the Royal 
Agronomie Institution of Grignon, near Paris, was commenced, by the 
government. It owns a farm of 1,250 acres, and receives yearly a grant 
of about $12,000. In Germany, in 1806, the celebrated Dr. A. D. Thaer 
opened an Agricultural Academy at Moegelin, in Prussia, to educate 
superintendents for large estates. In 1845, the Royal Agricultural 
College of Cirencester, England, was chartered. Such institutions are 
now abundant in every part of Europe. 

11. Dr. E. Hitchcock, in the “ Report of Commissioners to the Oom- 
monwealth of Massachusetts concerning an Agricultural School, January, 
1851,’ gives the following list of Agricultural Educational Establish- 
ments in Europe : 


4 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


Qe 
. .2 Bae 
SCHOOLS. = 23 5 3\= 2 85 £| Total 
£218 S15 213 sjea5 
Yn England, - - - 1 4 5 
Ia Ireland, . - - - 1) 25 |} 34 3 63 
In Scotland, . 2 2 2 3 
In France, - . : - 5 70 75 
In Italy, : ¢ > - 1 1 2? 
In Belgium, - . : . tals yee 8 9 
In Prussia, - . - - SH DPS Es 2 32 
In Austria, = a - - 4 3 4,25 1 33 
In Wurtemberg, > - = * 8 2 hid bole 7 
In Bavaria, - > - > > OF Ra es SP 35 
In Saxony, - - - . jie a 1 5 
In Brunswick, : : 1 1 Q 
In Mechlenburg Sahn . 1 i | 
In Schleswig Heleteiny Be riche 2; 2 4 
In Anhault, . 1 1 Q 
Io Duchy of Hesse, ~~. - 2 2 
In Duchy of Weimar, - - 1 1 
In Duchy of Nassau, =p | pie 1 1 
In the Electorate of Hesse, - 1 1 
In Duchy of Baden, - . 1 1 
In Duchy of Saxe MehateRe. 1 1 
In Russia, - SP ler ot he 1 68 


| 


Total, : - - - | 22 | 54 {214 | 48] 14 | 352 


12. Besides these, there are Colleges devoted to instruction in Vete- 
rinary Art, the most important of which are, the Imperial School as 
Alfort, in France, and the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons, in 
London. In these institutions, a very complete education is afforded, 
Veterinary Colleges were first organized in France and Germany, in the 
beginning of the eighteenth century ; and a great many valuable works 
from the pens of eminent practitioners have appeared on this subject 
The first English College owes its origin, in 1792, toa Frenchman of the 
name of Saint Bel. In France, Veterinary Surgeons hold a high pro- 
fessional and social position, and many of them ate members of the 
Order of the Legion of Honor. These schools, as well as the agricultural, 
receive annually liberal grants of money from government. One point of 
great importance is, that a Hospital for diseased animals is connected 
with each College, so that not only have the students an opportunity af 
studying living pathology ; but, on the appearance of an endemic, thers 
is great probability of the cauge and cure being ascertained speedily. 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 5 


13. Agncultural education is necessarily divided into the theoretical 
and the practical—or the Science of Agriculture and the Art of Agricu 
ture. The former involving the reasons of action, is properly learnt first ; 
and may be imparted without any connection with a farm ; the second, 
including, as it does, manual dexterity, comparison, and experiment, 
must necessarily be taught in the field. Or the two may be taught 
simultaneously. There appear, however, in many cases, to be serious 
reasons against the latter course. A student of law or medicine first 
completes his theoretical education, and then proceeds to practice; and 
this seems to be the most rational course in agricultural education algo. 
Ia the higher European Colleges, lectures are given in the field, after a 
large amount of information has been acquired ; but, it is believed, that 
the students are not required to labor. There is certainly no efficient 
reason why a student of agriculture must necessarily spend a given pop- 
tion of his time in physical toil; the more especially, as the manual 
operations of a farm are intrinsically simple, are easily learned, and 
require rather the exercise of the muscles than ofthe mind. A museum of 
rural objects, including models of implements, with likenesses of the best 
stock; and a hospital for diseased animals; connected with occasional 
visits to the best farms in the neighborhood, and to agricultural fairs, 
will supply everything that is requisite for the full education of a young 
man brought up on a farm; the practical skill being acquired when be 
returns home, to make agricultare the serious occupatian of his life, 


CHAPTER II. 


PLANTS.--THE AIR.---WATER. 


14, Plants are formed by a re-arrangement of simple sub- 
stances, (or elements,) already existing in (a,) the air, (0,) the 
water, and (c,) the soil. Animals are formed by a re-arrange- 
ment of these plants, of water, and of air. These changes are 
not simply mechanical, but chemical; and are under the dires- 
tion of a power called Lire, of which very little is yet known. 
Heat, light, electricity, the wind, the rain, and the sun, have also 
a powerful influence over vegetable and animal existence. 

15. Wherever the proper elements and circumstances unite, 
there will vegetable life exist. 

16. While all plants are composed of a certain quantity of 
different substances, the various orders of plants demand either 
a different proportion of the elements; or one requires an 
element which is not requisite to the existence of another plant. 
Thus, one species of plants grows in earth containing a large pro- 
portion of potash or soda, as wormwood (artemisia ) and aspara- 
gus; while another requires little or no potash, as Indian com 
One grows in water, without any connection with the soil; while 
enother grows in the air like the wind-plant of Florida; or the 
mistletoe of Europe, forcing its radicles into the sapwood of 
another tree. 

17. While plants grow naturally where they find the ele- 
ments, and other circumstances necessary for their formation; 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOE. 7 


they are also abundant or rare, according to the proportionate 
existence of these circumstances. 

18. A plant not indigenous to a given locality, will grow and 
flourish, if transplanted, in exact proportion as it finds the ma- 
terials and circumstances in its new locality the same as in its 
native one. 

19. These facts are the ground-work of Agriculture as an in- 
talligent art. 

20. Comparatively few plants exist which are useful to man, 
amd these, in their wild state, are naturally confined to narrow 
bounds. The business of the Farmer is, therefore, to cause such 
plants as he requires, to grow where he wishes them; and not 
only to grow, but by artificial adaptation of circumstances to 
compel them to yield so abundantly that their intrinsic value 
is greater than that of the labor bestowed upon them. 

21. A striking example of this principle may be given in the 
growth of the Pine Apple in England. This is a plant requir- 
ing the heat of a long tropical summer in order that it may 
perfect its fruit. Until steamships plied between the West In 
dies and Great Britain, this fruit could not be carried to the 
latter country, without rotting. But so delicious is the flavor, 
that the English were not willing to be deprived of it, They 
consequently formed, by means of glass-houses and furnaces, a 
tropical atmosphere: they imitated the rich organic soil in which 
this plant is found to flourish; they supplied the moisture neces- 
sary at certain periods of growth; and not only brought the 
fruit to perfection, but greatly improved it in size and flavor. 

22. The principles may therefore be laid down, (a,) “ that 
out of nothing, nothing is made;” if it is desired to grow a 
given plant in abundance, all the elements that enter into that 
plant must be supplied in abundance, (3, ) all other circumstan- 
ces requisite to its perfection in its native state must also be fur- 
nished; (c,) that plants cannot be grown where these requisites 
are deficient; (d,) but that it is in the power of the Farmer, by 


8 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


the acquisition of knowledge and by intelligent labor, so to mo- 
dify existing circumstances as to cause a plant to grow profitably 
where naturally it could not do so. 

23. On these simple principles, depends the utility of plow- 
ing, harrowing, manuring, irrigation, and the other mechanical 
processes of cultivation. 

24. In other words, the art of Agriculture, when confined to 
growing plants, is simply adapting the soil, and surrounding cir 
cumstances to the natural demands of the plant; each plant 
varying somewhat from another, in its requirements. 

25. In order to do this, it is necessary to understand, (a, ) the 
materials which are or can be supplied by air, water, and soil; 
(for in this connection, manure is merely a modification of the 
wil,) (4,) the materials which enter into the composition of each 
plant; and (c,) the incidental changes, which meteorology and 
chemistry may produce. 

26. Tur Arg or ATMOSPHERE According to M. Regnault, 
100 cubic inches of atmospheric air, deprived of aqueous vapor 
and carbonic acid, weigh 30.82926 grains. At 62° Fahr. air 
is 810 times lighter than water, and 11,000 times lighter than 
mercury. 

The chemical composition of air is, (Dumas and Boussian- 
gault ):— 

Air . Reg Air by Volume. 


Oxygen, 3.10 20.90 
Nitrogen, Mechanically combined, : 6.90 79.10 
100.00 100.00 


— Besides these constituents, the atmosphere always contains a 
variable quantity of watery vapor and carbonic acid gas, besides 
other gasses and vaporous bodies which are observed to enter 
into it. The younger Saussure has ascertained that the mean 
proportion of carbonic acid is 4.9 volumes in 10,000 volumes of 
air; or almost exactly 1 in 2,000 volumes; but it varies from 
6.2 a3 a maximum to 3.7 as a minimum, in 10,000 volumes. 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 9 


Its proportion near the surface of the earth, is greater in sum- 
mer than in winter, and during night than during day. It is 
also more abundant on the summits of high mountains than m 


the plains. 

27. Composrrion or Dry Am sy VoLumz.— 
Nitrogen, - - - - - - 7912 
Oxygen, - - - - - - - 2080 
Carbonic acid, - - - - - 4 
Carburetted hydrogen, : - . - 4 
Ammonia, (3 vols. of hydrogen with one of 

nitrogen,) — - - - - - - varies 
Ozone, - - - - - - “ 
Organic matter, and salta, - - - ahs 


28. Prof. Horsford, in experiments made in Boston, Mass., in 
1849, (Am. Assoc. of Science, ) found the quantity of ammonia 
in the air greatly to exceed that detected by Fresenius, at Wies- 
baden. Liebig, at Giessen, found it in rain-water and snow; and 
estimates that one pound of rain-water contains a quarter of a 
grain of ammonia. * 

“ A field of 26,910 square feet must receive annually upwards of 88 Ibs, 
of ammonia ; or 71 lbs. of nitrogen ; for by the observations of Schub- 
ler, about 770,000 lbs. of rain falls over this surface in four months, and 
consequently the annual fall must be 2,310,000 lbs.’’—Liebig, Agricul, 
Chemistry. 

Liebig assumes, and justly, that such salts as are found in rain 
water must have been held in suspension in the air, and washed 
out by the shower. 

29. M. Barrall, of Paris, has lately examined the composition 


©The following table exhibits the results of several determinations by Prof. Hors 
ford, at Boston, Mass., of the relative quantities of ammonia found in rain and snow- 
water. 
AMMOKIA IN RaIN AND MELTED SNOW IN ONE CUBIC METRE. 
1849—Dec’r 22,in rain, 1.56 grains. 1850—March 18,insnow, 1.49 grains. 
«29; in snow, 263 ‘  22-3,in snow, 0.96 - 
1850—April 4,in rain, 0.24 ‘“ July 16, in rain, Cr 
“. . 4in snows, () 0,72); : 
Annual of Scientific Discov. 1851, p. 234. 


10 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


of rain water; and from these examinations we find that if we 
take the annual depth of rain to be about 24 inches, this quan- 
tity conveys to every acre of land the following substances »— 


Nitrogen, - - ; a " 454 tbs. 
Nitric acid, - - - . ci 103. 
Ammonia, - : . zZ . 19} « 
Chlorine, = - - - a ‘ 12} « 
Lime, = - - - - = 85 CO 
Magnesia, - - - . r ll « 

227 Ibs. 


30. Thence it appears that the quantity of ammonia held in 
the air varies according to the locality; and, probably, other cir- 
cumstances, 

31. Horsford, in continuing the experiments above referred 
to, found that at Boston, in the summer, when vegetable and 
animal decay is most rapid, the quantity of ammonia in the air 
is at a maximum, and afterwards decreases regularly until the 
winter season, when it is ata minimum. The following table 
shows the amount of thirteen different analyses :— 


Date. pasta by Welk UE ap. 
1, Sails, wr es | Ramer ne ae 
2. July. 9, - - - - - - 46.1246 
S wy ese eee ee, 
4, September 1 to 20, - - - - 29,7457 
5. October1l, - - - - - 28.2396 
6. October 14, - - - - - 25.7919 
7. October 30, - . - - - 13.9315 
8. November 6, - - - - - 8.0953 
9. November 18, 12 and 13, . - 8.0953 
10. November 14, 15 and 16, - - -  4,7066 
11. November 17 to December 5, - - 6.1328 
12. December 20 and 21, - - - - 6.9885 
13. December 29, - - - - W211 


Annual of Scient. Disc. 1850, p. 221. 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 11 


Liebig (Agri. Chem.) observes “that the ammonia contain 
ed in rain and snow water possesses an offensive smell of per 
spiration and animal excrements,—a fact which leaves no doubt 
respecting its origin.” These experiments have been repeated 
in France, Germany, America, and England with the same re- 
sults. It is probable that in the neighborhood of large cities, 
and in densely peopled countries, the air contains a much larger 
proportion of this valuable alkali, than in the wild and thinty 
settled districts. Some curious agricultural and pathological 
phenomena may be explained by these facts; but the subject 
still requires more extended and minute examination. 


32. Henry and Chevallier have detected acetic acid and 
probably hippuric acid in the atmosphere. Horsford supposes, 
as the result of his experiments, that the organic effluvia in the 
air are of acid character. 


33. Ozone, also, appears to vary in quantity. 


Ozone is believed to be a form of oxygen, and is produced when elee- 
tric sparks are taken through perfectly dry oxygen. Itis formed in the 
air during thunder storms. Air impregnated with it acts very much as 
ifa trace of chlo1ine gas were present, which ozone appears to resemble. 
Little is yet known of it, but it probably has some connection with 
health and epidemic illness ; and is suspected to act on plants by effeet- 
ing their growth. 

34. Vaughan (Am. Assoc. of Science,) states that by means 
of feeble currents of electricity, the amount of carbonic acid 
which water and moist surfaces continually absorb from the air, 
is decomposed, and serves to supply the principal part of the 
humus of the soil. 

35. Although, they have not been detected, there can be no 
doubt that the Sporules (seeds) of minute Cryptogamic plants, 
auch as Mould, Rust, d&c., are generally floating in the air, 
ready to take root wherever they find proper conditions. The 
atmosphere is also full of Animalcules and infusorial forms. 

36. Dr. Smith (Proc. of British Assoc.) in experiments on 


£3 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


the air of towns, detected sulphuric acid, chlorine, and a sub- 
stance resembling impure albumen.* In a warm atmosphere the 
albuminous matter very soon putrifies, and emits disagreeable 
odors. By oxidation, this substance gives rise to carbonic acid, 
ammonia, sulphuretted hydrogen, and probably to other gasses. 

37. Mulder found free muriatic acid in the rain water of Am- 
aterdam, which he ascribes to the decomposition of the chloride 


© This substance, which has been noticed in rain and snow water by several Chem+ 
ists, bas recently been carefully examined by Dr. A. A. Hayes, of Massachusetbs. 
(Proce. of Ar. Assoc. of Science, 1850, B. pp. 207-212.) It has been named Pyrrhia. 
Obtained from carefully filtered solutions, it appears as a brown yellow adhesive sub- 
stance, haying a strong oder of perspired matter, generally containing the remains of 
smimalcula, spores of fungi, and atmospheric dust. After its solution has been freed 
from ammoniacal salts, the changes following in its fermentation produce ammania. 
Dr. Hayes is inclined to attribute to this substance, @ powerful influence oyer vegeta- 
tion. When fertile soil is undergoing fermentation, the vapors, by condensation, af 
fard a substance much like Pyrrhin ; but the state of admixture here renders it more 
campound than when it is obtained from the atmosphere through the aid of falling 
rein. To the falling of this substance from the air, Dr. H. attributes the remarkable 
growth of vegetation observed in New England and other places, when heavy rain 
succeeds a long continued period of dry weather in summer. ‘The more fertile a 
sail, either naturally or as resulting from judicious cultivation, the more the quantay 
of matier, having the character of a ferment, we always find in our analysis.” 


The following passage bearing on this subject appears in Silliman’s Am. Journal 
@ Science and Arts, for September, 1853, page 273:—‘‘In continuation of his long 
researches on the composition of arable soils, M. Verdeil and M. Rissler haye recog- 
nized in the aqueous extracts of these soils, the constant presence of a substance like 
gugar; and also a large proportion of mineral substances, little soiuble or even insok 
wble in water. Thus in 100 parts of aqueous extract, they found 49 of organic matter 
and 54 of inorganic, consisting of sulphate, carbonate, and phosphate of lime, oxyde 
ofiron, alumine, magnesia, all ingoluble in water (or scarcely soluble); and as the 
presence of carbonic acid alone is not sufficient to explain the presence of these sub- 
stances in the aqueous extract, MM. Verdeil and Rissler have sought for the cause of 
this zolubility, and concluded that it is due to the saccharine ingredients, for only a 
very little water is required along with this sugar to dissolve large quantities of insolk- 
uble salts. They have recognized again the fact that nitrogen which enters into the 
composition of humus is found in the condition of an ammoniacal salt, and not in 
that of an organie substance; for they have collected the whole under the form of 
@ammonia in boiling the concentrated extract with milk of lime.” 


We refer to this not as yet proving anything certain, but as a subject well worthy of 
more investigation. There are many unexplained phenomena connected with vege- 
tation which may receive elucidation if these facts prove to be correct. The rapid 
growth and change of color of plants after a thunder storm in summer has Jong been 
noticed by the writer, and probably by most persons living in the country. 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOE. 13 


of magnesium contained in the waters of the lake of Haarlem, 
by the action of the sun’s rays, 


38, The quantity of water in the atmosphere varies consider 
ably, at different times and in different places. It is, besidey 
dependent on the temperature of the air and of the water evap- 
orating from the earth’s surface. The proportion of aqueous 
vepor has been determined by Verver, for the Netherlands, In 
1000 volumes of air, he found the minimum 5.8; the maximum 
10.18. ‘The average of fifty observations during May, August, 
and September was 8.47. From an early hour in the morning 
to 10 o'clock, A. M. it was 7.97—from 10 to 2 o’clock, P. M, 
8.58; and from 2 o'clock till the evening, 8.85 ( Dfulder. ) 


The atmosphere in New England is believed to be much 
drier than that of Germany. At a meeting of the Boston Nat 
ural History Society, 1852, this difference was discussed. In 
New England the dew point is several degrees lower. Various 
differences are noticed by foreign artizans in the processes of 
their different callings, attributable to this dryness of the ai. 
The climate of New England is regarded as more nearly resem 
bling that of the high Alps than that of any other part of Eu- 
rope. Missouri, on the contrary, appears to have a still wetter 
atmosphere. At the winter season of the year the air of New 
England is so nearly anhydrous, (free from morsture, ) that such 
articles as raw hides dry in a temperature just below freezing, 
_ without being frozen. (Annual of Scient. Discov, 1853.) 


39. All these constituents of the atmosphere have an impor 
tant influence upon the character and luxuriance of vegetation. 
Of the whole, however, carbonic acid and water are the most 
important. Carbon, and the elements of water form the prix 
aple constituents of vegetables; the quantity of the substances 
which do not possess this compositon being in a very small pro- 
portion. 

40, The leaves and other green parts of a plant exposed to 


14 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


the light, absorb carbonic acid, decompose it, retain the carbon, 
and emit an equal volume of oxygen. 


Plants thus improve the air by the removal of carbonic acid and by 
by the renewal of oxygen, which is immediately applied to the use of 
man andanimals. The horizontal currents of the atmosphere bring with 
them as much as they carry away, and the interchange of air between 
the upper and lower strata, which their difference of temperature causer, 
is extremely trifling when compared with the horizontal movements of 
the winds. Thus vegetable culture heightens the healthy state of a 
country ; and a previously healthy country would be rendered quite un- 
inbabitable by the cessation of all cultivation. 


47. But in the dark, or during the night, the reverse action 
takes place. Then green plants emit carbonic acid and absorb 
oxygen; while the whole volume of air undergoes diminution at 
the same time. From the latter fact it follows that the quanti- 
ty of the oxygen gas absorbed is greater than the volume of 
carbonic acid seperated; for if this were not the case no dim 
nution could occur. 


42, Liebig has endeavored to prove that plants absorb di 
rectly from the atmosphere much of the nitrogen (ammonia, ) 
which they require in their composition; but his views are now 
generally considered unsound; and the ablest physiologists teach 
that plants in a normal state imbibe carbonic acid and water 
only through the leaves, while all other constituents enter by the 
roots through the soil. Mulder lays down the following princi- 
ple as sufficiently established :—ZJ¢ zs the function of the roots 
to convey to plants water, ammonia, organic salts, and a small 
quantity of inorganic salts; but that of the green parts, espe- 
cially of the leaves, to increase the amount of the non-nitroge- 
nous constituents of plants, by the absorption of carbonic acid, 
accompanied with an emission of oxygen. 


43, The other components of the atmosphere must, therefore, 
reach the plant through the soil; they being generally impart- 
ed to the soil by rain or snow. ‘Their value and importance 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 15 


will be better understood when we come to speak of the Som, 
of Draining, and of Manurss. 


44, Water consists of two volumes of hydrogen gas with one 
volume of oxygen, chemically combined: or by weight :— 


Oxygen, - - - - 88.91 8 
Hydrogen, - - - - 11.09 1 
100.00 9 


The oxygen and hydrogen are therefore combined exactly in 


the proportion 8 to 1, as appears by the proportion of the last 
column. ( Graham.) 


45. From the chemical combination of hydrogen and oxygen in water, 
a series of special consequences follows in the organic kingdom. It isa 
Known fact that, when substances, chemically combined, are again de- 
composed, the action of other substances also, which are contained in the 
circle of action is reciprocally awakened. Wherever in the organie 
kingdom, water is decomposed—and this frequently happens—the de- 
compositiun re-acts on the substance from which the influence proceed- 
ed, and produces impo: tant chemical transformations of all the substances 
inctuded in the circle of action. This chemical action proceeds, as 
regards water, from two elements, which are both chief constituents of 
organic bodies. (Jfulder.) 


46. (a.) The first effect of water on plants is that they are 
maistened by it. It acts chemically, forming hydrates with or- 
ganic compounds; also, merely as a liquid, to moisten, dissolve, 
or keep solid substances in suspension. 


47. (b.) Water is indispensable to keep the fleshy parts soft, 
to enable them to grow and be fed. 


48. (c.) also as a dissolving and suspending fluid. 
For it is only by the circulation of a fluid through the existing 
parts of an organic whole, that the support and nourishment of 
the whole organism can be effected; and many of its actions 
rest entirely upon this process. 


49, (d.) The action of water’ differs in plants and animals as 


16 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


to the way in which it disappears again from the organic sub- 
stances. 

50. Plants receive water from (a,) the dew, (0,) from rain, 
(¢,) from the soil by evaporation; in case of irrigation, and im 
certain localities, directly (d,) from streams or ponds, and (¢,) 
from vapor held in suspension in the atmosphere. 


51. A cubic inch of water at 62° Fahr., Barometer 30 inches, weighs 
in air 252,458 grains. The imperial gallon has been defined to contain 
10 pounds avoirdupois (70,000 grains) of distilled water at that temper- 
ature and pressure. Its capacity is, therefore, 277.19 cubic inches. The 
specific gravity of water at 60° Fahr. is 1, boing the unit to which the 
densities of all other liquids and solids are conveniently referred; it is 
845 times heavier than air at that temperatura 


Water readily combines with or absorbs a great variety of 
solid or gasous bodies; and it is by means of water that most 
of the materials of the structure of plants are introduced. OGon- 
sequently the composition of the water which cultivated plants 
may receive in any given locality is of great importance to the 
Farmer. 

53. We have already seen (§28-87) that rain, washing the 
ear, receives a variety of substances from the atmosphere which 
it conveys to the soil and plant; but the amount of these substan- 
ces varies in different positions, Thus Dr. Madden has calculated 
that the quantity of rain which falls at Penicuick, in Scotland, 
in a year, brings down upon each acre of land in that neighbor- 
hood more than 600 ibs. weight of common salt, (Johnston. ) 
while in countries remote from the sea it is believed that no 
sat is held in suspension in the atmosphere. And thus, the 
rein may supply or withhold an important element of vegita- 
tron. 

54. Rain water ts purer than spring, river, or sea water. 
Dew is believed to be purer than ordinary rain water. 


Dew is caused by the cooling of the earth, plants, &c., by noctur- 
nal rqdiation, The appearance of dew always follows, never precedes 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 17 


the fall in temperature of the bodies on which it is deposited; thence 
the phenomenon cannot be attributed to anything more than a simple 
condensation of the watery vapor contained in the air, comparable in all 
respects to that which takes place upon the surface of a vessel contain- 
ing a fluid that is colder than the air. The quantity of the moisture 
dissolved in the atmoaphere is so much the greater as the temperature 
is higher. In very warm climates the dew is so copious as to assist 
vegetatiun essentially, supplying the place of rain during a great part of 
the year. When the sky is clear and calm during the night, vegetables 
cool down and very soon show a temperature inferior to that of the air 
which surrounds them. Thus plants are often destroyed by frost in 
spring. when the thermometer, a few feet above the ground, stands 
above the freezing point. But clouds, preventing the rapid radiatior, 
also prevent plants cooling to the same point; and on cloudy nights, 
as also on those preceeding severe rain storms, there is no dew. 
The Farmers of Peru, South America, whose crops are often destroyed 
by this nocturnal radiation, have long been in the habit of making arti- 
ficial clouds by setting fire to a heap of wet straw or dung, and by this 
means raising a glond of smoke which destroys the transparency of the 
atmosphere, from which.they have so much to apprehend. Unless the 
plants and surfce of the earth coo] below the temperature of the air there. 
caunot be dew. (Boussingault.) 


55. But it is from springs, and the water otherwise contained 
in the earth that plants cheifly receive their inorganic nourish- 
ment. As such water is always rising to the surface, it brings 
with it whatever substances are held in suspension by it; and 
deposits them either near the roots of the plants or on the sur- 
face, to be washed down again by rain. Thus the great marl 
beds, which form the bottom of most of the small lakes of the 
interior of Michigan, are deposits of lime dissolved in springs, 
and which becomes a carbonate of lime, and therefore insoluble, 
when exposed to the atmosphere. The great, beds of nitrate of 
potash and soda, (saltpetre,) and other salts, found on the sur- 
face in various parts of the world, are believed to owe their 
existence to the same cause. Tables of the analyses of various 
waters will be here given, by which it will be seen how impor- 
tant an element it is in the production of vegetation: 

2 


18 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


56. Sea Water, (Schweitzer,) from the English Channel. 


eo ce km 
Common Salt, - - - - - 2,706 
Chloride of Potassium, - - - 76 
Chloride of Magnesium, - - - 366 
Bromide of Magnesium, - - - 3 
Sulphate of Magnesia, - - - - 229 
Sulphate of Lime, - - -— - 140 
Carbonate of Lime, - - - - 3 
Iodine, - - - - - - traces. 
Ammonia, - - - . - - traces. 

100,000 


57. Scuyiem, Water, (B. Silliman, Jr.,) taken from the 
Fairmount Reservoir, Philadelphia: 


Grains in 1 gallon. 


Chloride of Sodium, - - - . 0.1470 
Chloride of Magnesium, - - - - 0.0094 
Sulphate of Magnesia, - - - 0.0570 
Carbonate of Lime, - - - - 1.8720 
Carbonate of Magnesiaa - - - 0.38510 
Silica, - - . - - - - 0.0800 
Carbonate of Soda, - - - ~ 1.6436 


Organic and other matter, volatile at red heat, 1.2400 


5.5000 


Carbonic acid given off by boiling from 1 gallon, 3.879 cubic 
inches. 


THE SOLID, FIXED, AND INSOLUBLE RESIDUE OF THE SAME 
WATER.— 
Grains in 1 gallon. 


Solid residue at 212° fahr. - - - 5.50 
Fixed at a red heat, - - - - 3.69 
Insoluble in water, . - - - 2.145 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 19 


The Schuylkill water, when settled clear, is water of superior 


purity. 
58. Tae waters or THE Deap Sza, (Poggendorff,) pro- 
cured near the North end, not far from the mouth of the Jordan: 


Chloride of Calcium, - - : - 2.894 
Chloride of Magnesium, - - -  - 10.534 
Chloride of Potassium, - - 1.398 
Chloride of Sodium, - - - - 6.578 
Chloride of Aluminum, - - . 0.018 
Bromide of Magnesium, - - - - 0.251 
Sulphate of Lime, - - - - 0.088 
Silica, - - - - . . - 0.003 

21.773 


59. Water from the Great Sarr Laxe, Utah Territory, 
(Dr. L. D. Gale.) The water was perfectly clear, and had the 
specific gravity of 1.170. 

100 parts evaporated to dryness, and heated to 300° Fahr., 
gave solid contents 22.422, and consisted of 


Chloride of Sodium, - - . - 20.196 
Sulphate of Soda, - - - - 1.834 
Chloride of Magnesium, - -~— - 0.252 
Chloride of Calcium, = - - - - 0. trace. 


60. Warm Sprine, or Sart Laxe Crry, (Dr. L. D. Gale,» 
100 parts of water gave :— 
Sulphuretted hydrogen, absorbed in the water, 0.037454 


“ & combined with basis, 0.000728 
Carbonate of Lime, precipated by boiling 0.075000 
Carbonate of Magnesia, “ “ 0.022770 
Chloride of Calcium, - - . - 0.005700 
Sulphate of Soda, - - - - - 0.064835 
Chloride of Sodium, - - - - 0.816600 


1.023087 


20 AGRICULTURAL TEXT=BOOK. 


61. Tue Artzsran WELL, AT GRENALLE, near Paris, ( Payen, ) 
contains in 100,000 parts :— 


Carbonate of Lime, - - - - 6.80 
Carbonate of Magnesia, —- - - - 1.42 
Bicarbonate of Potash, - - - - 2.96 
Sulphate of Potash, =e) 
Chloride of Potassium, - - - - 1.09 
Silica, - - - - - - - 0.57 
Yellow matter, not defined, = - - - 0.02 
Organic nitrogenous matter, - - - 0.24 

14.30 


62. Several Sprines at Harrrorp, Connecticut, (Bull, 
give in 10,000 parts of water :— 


Rae at Se ee 


Sulphate of Lime, - 10.69 |0.61 {0.30 {0.79 | 0.89 
Chloride of Magnesium, | 0.41 |0.23 |0.22 |0.81 | 0,41 
Chloride of Caletum, - |1.12 |0.70 |0.39 179 
Chloride of Sodium, - 1.91 2.67 
Carbonate of Lime, (2,25 | | L3Ls)O.21 & 4 148 
Carbonate of Magnesia, 0.19 1.51 
Crenate of Magnesia, - 0.13 |0.76 | 0.44 
Carbonate of Soda, - j0.22 11.09 {1.19 | 2.35 2.67 
Oxide of Iron, - - 
cet Aaelad Tada |.0.04 O88 oy , 0.04 trace. 
Lime, - - - - 0.23 
Silica, - - - 10.18 [0.60 |0.14 | 0.04 0.10 
Loss, - - - - |0.10 | 0.46 0.18 1.78 
Total fixed ingredients, |7.11 |5.51 |3.35 |6.36 |11.82 


63. These examples are sufficient to show how water in 
the earth is charged with foreign matter, varying constantly, 
according to circumstances. The absolute quantity of saline 
matter contained in spring water, has been shown by Grange to 
be influenced in some cases, (as in the valley of the Isere,) by 
the relative height of the locality, and increases from the tops 
of the mountains towards the valleys. The relative quantities 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 21 


of the different salts is variable; the soluble salts, particularly 
the chlorides, were found in this instance to diminish; while the 
insoluble, or difficultly soluble salts, gypsum and carbonate of 
lime increased as the site of the spring was at a lower level. 
The nature of the soil, likewise, alters the relative quantities of 
the different salts. The chlorides preponderate in magnesian 
soils, and vary from 25 to 32 per cent., while in anthracitic soil 
they do not amount to more than 10 or 16 per cent., and in 
calcareous soil to only between 4 and 8 per cent. of the saline 
matter. The sulphates are found in nearly the same proportions 
in calcareous and anthracitic soils; in the former, they vary from 
24 to 31, and in the latter from 18 to 87 percent. In the 
Nicomien, they do not amount to more than 5 or 12 per cent. 
of the dissolved saline matter. The carbonates vary from 36 
to 47 per cent. in granitic soils; from 48 to 71 in anthracitic, 
and from 83 to 88 per cent. in chalk soils. Soda salts, (chlorides 
and sulphates,) preponderate in magnesian, and particularly 1 in 
anthracitic soils; the total quantity of sulphates in the latter 
soils is much greater. Magnesian salts are remarkably constant 
in water from magnesian and anthracitic soils; their relative 
quantity averages between 19 and 23 per cent. in water from 
granitic salts and slates; and between 11 and 23 in anthracitic 
formations.—( Knapp. ) 

64. The quantity of saline and earthy matter in spring water, 
varies from about 20 grains to 1,800 grains in the gallon; when 
above 100 grains per gallon, it constitutes a mineral water. The 
average quantity in ordinary spring water is from 20 to 80 
grains. The most common salts are sulphate and carbonate of 
lime, sulphate, muriate, and carbonate of potash and soda. 

65. The presence of phosphorie acid in some waters has re- 
cently been discovered. 

66. Three-fourths of the weight of the body of man and of 
the higher animals is composed of water; and the lower ani- 
mals are constituted in like manner. Even the wood of trees 


92 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


contains one-third and more of its weight of water. Dr. Salis- 
bury gives the following tables exhibiting the per centage of 
water, dry matter, and ash in the horse chestnut, (.dsculus hip- 
pocastanum,) at Albany, N. Y., at two different periods: 


| MAY 4, 1849. 

3 Z| s |383 lade lege 

fuzz] 2 |222 |255 [225 

Ae a mer [RN | oN 

S235| | |fugh/¥S5.| 528 
BS25| S Inentisissibaes 
Per cent. of water, - 80.000] 79.408] 88.987| 51.000} 56.130 
Per cent. dry matter, - | 20.000) 20.592] 11.013) 49.000] 43.870 
Per cent. ash, - - 1.852} 1.838] 1.271} 5.000] 0.510 

Per cent. ash, cal. on ary. Fe 
matter, 9.359 aig eo yh 1.162 
MAY 18, 1849. 

an & a | o ae 

| ¢ | 4 | #8 lege |Ez3 

3 LS oD bag ena 

3 BM |4¥2e-|83e 
oS 4 Bg 5 ae sls hl 
& Pe ~e [ma SSiFags 
Per cent. of water, - 87.047| 78.485| 84.730) 50.500| 48.000 
Per cent. dry matter, - | 12.953) 20.515) 15.270) 46.500) 51. 970 
Per cent. ash, - - 1.313] 1.582) 1.100) 4.290) 0.550 
Per cent. ash, cal. on dry 2} 19.133] 7,746] 7.209] 9.226) 1.116 

matter, 


67. The air in water is a mixture of the same constituents as 
atmospheric air, but they are not present in the same propor- 
tions—the air contained in water being much richer in oxygen, 
and containing 32 per cent. of its volume of that element 
(Knapp,) and in water from freshly melted snow 34.8 per 
cent. The quantity of air retained by water at an altitude of 6 
to 8000 feet is reduced to one-third of its usual proportion. 
Hence fishes cannot live in Alpine lakes. 

63. Water contained in the soil may be so impregnated with 
salts or organic acids as to destroy vegetation. Some of the 
salts of iron are thus destructive. A cure may be effected by 
thorough draining. Water containing the salts of lime is called 
Hard Water. Its effect on horses is very remarkable. Hard 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 23 


water drawn fresh from the well will make the coat of a horse 
unaccustomed to it stare: and it will not unfrequently gripe 
and otherwise injure him. ( Youatt.) Milk, Lutter, and cheese 
are also sensibly affected by the quality of the water drunk by 
the cow. Dr. Wilson has found fluoride of calcium in milk, as 
well as in the blood and urine of animals, which must have been 
derived from this substance dissolved in the water usually drunk. 
(Proc. British Assoc.) 

69. Goitre and Cretinism, diseases common in the vallies of 
the Alps, as well as in the other parts of the world, are believ- 
ed to arise from the deleterious action of the water containing 
salts of magnesia, and the absence of a sufficient quantity of 
lime. In some places cattle are subject to a disease of the bones 
in consequence of a want of lime in the water. On the contra- 
ry, carbonic acid acts favorably on vegetable life. Dr. Daubeny 
found by experiments, that although very large quantities of 
carbonic acid were injurious to plants, yet that when present in 
water, from one to five per cent. more than is natural, it is bene- 
ficial. 

70. M. Lassaigne has found arsenic present in the natural 
deposites of the mineral waters of Wattviller to the amount of 
2.8 per cent.; but the poisonous property of the arsenic is de- 
stroyed by its combination with peroxide of iron. Free sulphuric 
acid has also been detected in springs in Virginia. 

71. River water differs much in its constituents from spring 
water. It takes its character from the geological formations 
through which it flows. It is apt to hold in suspension much 
sand, earth, and organic matter. The quantity of sediment dis- 
charged by the Mississippi River annually is estimated at from 
2,137,061,974 cubic feet (Marr) to 28,188,083,892 cubic feet 
(Brown and Dickeson.) 


CHAPTER III. 


THE SOIL. 


72. To a common observer the soil is a heavy, cohesive, 
torpid substance; varying in color; and, more or less, mixed 
with stones. Examined scientifically, it is a compound sub- 
stance; made up of many materials, each of them differing in 
its qualities; some of them lying in mere mechanical contact; 
others chemically combined. The soil is usually divided into 
two parts, (a, ) the surface soil; (6,) the sub-soil. They usual- 
ly differ (c,) in constitution; (d,) mechanical structure; and 
(e,) by the first (a,) containing more organic matter, and less 
salts than the other. 

73. Strictly all accumulations of loose materials resting upon 
rock constitutes the soil. These loose materials vary in depth 
from a few inches to one or two hundred feet; and occasionally 
consist of different layers or beds placed one over the other. 

74. The earthy matter of all soils has been produced by the 
gradual decay, degradation, or crumbling down of previously ex- 
isting rocks. 

75. Soils are formed (a,) immediately from the rock upon 
which they rest; or (4,) from deposites, drift, d&e., brought by 
water and other geological causes froma distance. In the latter 
case, the soil may have no relation whatever, either in mineralo- 
gical characters or in chemical constitution, to the immediately 
subjacent rocks. To these constituents must be added the re- 
mains of plants and animals; and carbon. 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. gs 


76. The principal rocks whose decay has given rise to the formation 
of suil may be briefly enumerated as follows : (Afulder.) 

(a,) Quartz Rocks; (0,) Feldspar Rocks; (c,) Mica Rocks; (d.) 
Hornblende Rocks ; (¢,) Serpentine Rocks; (f,) Augite Rocks; (g,) 
Alumina Rocks ; (h,) Lime Rocks; (i,) Gypsum ; (j,) Iron. 

77. The value of Irrigation for the purpose of manure depends upon 
the geological formation through which the stream passes. 


79. Soils differ much in the relative quality of the substances 
which compose them; but all fertie soils contain the same ma- 
terials. 

80. The great bulk of all such soils consists of three earths: 
(a,) Silica, (or sand,) (6,) Alumina, (or clay,) (¢,) Lime. Gen- 
erally, these lie in juxtaposition, inert, and producing no effect 
on each other. To these must be added (d,) Water, which is 
always present uniting them. Deprived of water, soil becomes 
dust; but the water varies in its relative quantity according to 
the proportionate mixture of these three materials. 

81. The economical character and usefulness of the soil varies 
in proportion to the predominance of one or other of these sub- 
stances. 

82. On a general average, the earthy part of the soil consti- 
tutes about 96 per cent. of its whole weight when free from 
water. (Johnston.) 


83. By Silica, is meant siliceous sand or siliceous gravel of various 
degrees of fineness from an impalpable powder to sand-stones. By Clay 
—a finely divided chemical compound consisting very nearly of 60 per 
cent. of Silica and 40 per cent. of Alumina, with a little oxide of iron, 
and from which no sandy matter can be separated mechanically or by 
decantation. By Lime—Carbonate of Lime, in the shape of chalk, lime- 
stones, marl, shell-sand, dc. 

84, Soils may be classified as follows :— 

(a,) Pure Clay, pipe clay, = 60 per cent. Silica, 40 per 
cent. Alumina, oxide of iron chemically combined. (6, ) Strong- 
est clay soil, brick clay, pure clay (a,) with 5 to 10 per cent. 
of sand which can be separated by boiling and decantation, 
(¢,) Clay loam == 15 to 30 per cent. fine sand and pure clay, 


26 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


(d,) Loamy clay = 30 to 60 per cent. sand and pure clay. 
(e,) Sandy loam — 60 to 90 per cent, sand and pure clay. 
(f,) Sandy soil contains no more than 10 per cent. of pure clay. 
(9,) Marley soils, in which the proportion of lime is more than 
5, but does not exceed 20 per cent. of the whole weight of the 
dry soil. (h,) Calcareous soils, in which the lime exceeding 20 
per cent. becomes the distinguishing constituent. (7,) Vegeta- 
ble soils—of various kinds, from garden mould which contains 
from 5 to 10 per cent., to the peaty soil in which the organic 
matter may amount to 60 or 70 per cent. These soils are also 
clayey, loamy, or sandy, according to the predominant character 
of the earthy admixtures. 


85. The only use of the great bulk of the soil appears to be 
(a,) the upholding of the plant, and giving it a firm basis from 
which to spring; (,) the absorption of gasses, and the imbib- 
ing and retaining of other elements; (c,) the supplying of 
water, 

86. The remaining constituents of the soil may be divided 
into (a,) Organic matter; (6,) and chemical substances and 
salts, or Jnorganic matter. 


87. All soils contain organic matter in a greater or less pro- 
portion. This organic matter consists, in part, of decayed ani- 
mal, but chiefly of decayed vegetable substances; sometimes in 
brown or black fibrous portions; sometimes forming only a fine 
brown powder intimately intermixed with the mineral matters 
of the soil; sometimes scarcely perceptible in either of these 
forms; and existing only in a state of organic compounds more 
or less devoid of color; and at times entirely soluble in water. 
In soils which appear to consist only of pure sand or clay, or- 
ganic matter in this latter form may often be detected in con- 
siderable quantities.’ 

88. Chemically the organic compounds of the soil are thus termed :— 
(a,) Crenic acid; (6,) Apocrenic acid; (c,) Geic acid ; (d,) Humie 
acid ; (e,) humin, (or humus) ; (f,) Ulmic acid ; (g,) Ulmin. Humin 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 27 


and ulmin are insoluble in alkalies and in water ; the others are readily 
soluble in alkalies, and more or less in water also. 

89. All organic matter may be resolved into the four gasses, 
carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen; with or without a little 
ash, or inorganic matter. 

90. The nature and quantity of organic matter in the soil have 
great influence upon its character and fertility. 

91. The most useful portions of plants are chiefly organic; 
as the woody fibre, starch, gum, sugar, gluten, and albumen; 
and in animals, the flesh, milk, butter, cheese, &ce. Barn-yard 
manures, are also chiefly composed of water and organic matter. 
Thus, in well-preserved manure is found (Richardson, ) in 100 


parts :— 
Water, - . - - - 65 parts. 
Organic matter, - - - - 244 « 
Inorganic salts, - - - - ti Doni S 


92. The inorganic matter forms the smallest portion of the 
soil, but it is absolutely essential for the production of useful 
vegetation. Without it plants will not produce seed; and the 
deficiency of a single element may render the soil entirely 
barren. 

93. The names of these inorganic elements are :— 


Name. In combination with Forming 

Chlorine, (Bleaching Gas,) Metals, Chlorides, 
Iodine, - - - “ Todides. 
Sulphur, - : - ad Sulphurets. 

4 ee - Hydrogen, Sulphuretted Hydrogen, 

tell rib, Udine Oxygen, Sulphuric acid. 
Phosphoru,- - - & Phosphoric acid. 
Potassium, - : « Potash. 

a - - - Chlorine, Chloride of Potassium. 

Sodium, - -~ - Oxygen, Soda. 

« - - - Chlorine, Common Salt. 


Calcium, - - é Chloride of Lime. 


28 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK, 


Calcium, = - : - Oxygen, Lime. 
Magnesium, -  - “ Magnesia. 
Aluminum, - -— - ¥ Alumina, ( Clay.) 
Silicon, - - - “ Silica, (Sand. ) 
Tron and - - x Oxides. 
Manganese, t - - Sulphur, | Sulphurets. 


94. With the exception of Iodine, the above appear to be es- 
sential to the composition of all cultivated plants. 

95. The organic and inorganic elements are chemically com- 
bined, and are always undergoing change. They perhaps never 
exist in plants in a simple form. 

96. These inorganic materials may be so carried away from 
the soil by injudicious cropping that at last the land refuses to 
bear grain, until they are replaced, or, in other words, till the 
land is manured. Again, manure, by its chemical action, may 
set free these elements in the soil which were previously unfit 
for absorption by roots. To recapitulate 

97. A fertile soil consists of three earths:—(a,) Sand; (,) 
Clay, and (c,) Lime, mechanically combined; (d,) of four 
gasses, forming organic matter; and (e,) of eleven or twelve in- 
organic elements, in small quantities, chemically combined. 

98. Practically, the difference between a rich and an impoy- 
erished soil is this:—A rich soil contains every thing a plant 
requires 2 a soluble state, ready to be at once absorbed. by the 
roots of the plant. A worn-out soil contains the same constitu- 
ents but én an insoluble state, not capable of being dissolved in 
water, and therefore unable to enter into the roots. 


99. On whatever soil a plant is grown, if it shoots up ina 
healthy manner, and fairly ripens its seed, the quantity and qual- 
ity of the ash is nearly the same. 

100. No two plants of a different order contain the same 
quantity and quality of inorganic matter. The more widely two 
plants differ in their natural character, (e. g. turnips and wheat,) 
the wider will be the difference between their constituents. 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 29 


101. On these principles, in practical farming, is based the 
utility of fallowing, and the rotation of crops. 

102. The mechanical texture of the soil has a strong influence 
upon its practical fertility; very heavy clays, and very light 
sands, being both, for opposite reasons, apt to produce badly. 
The soil in which the particles are the finest, so that the air can 
enter, and the roots spread without difficulty, is, other things 
being equal, the best. In clay soils this division of the particles 
- must be produced by the plow and other mechanical means; 
while in loose sands it is too great, and must be amended by an 
admixture of clay and other substances. The great fertility of 
the bottom lands of the Scioto River, Ohio, is attributed to the 
remarkable comminution of the particles of these soils. 


103. The sub-soil also produces a sensible effect on the con- 
dition of the soil above it. If the soil is clay, it is impervious 
to water, and if the sub-soil is clay also, it also is impervious to 
water. The immediate effect of this arrangement is to render 
both soil and sub-soil habitually wet, and therefore cold, or per- 
haps barren, until evaporation dries first the one and then the 
other. A retentive sub-soil may render even a porous, sandy or 
gravelly soil above it habitually wet. A gravelly sub-soil, which 
is always porous, greatly assists in keeping a clay soil dry. When 
a porous soil rests on a sandy sub-soil, water can do no injury, 
while in dry weather, the evaporation from below may do great 
good. On the other hand, a clay sub-soil retains manure, while 
a sandy one allows it to leach away, and in practice, renders the 
soil incapable of improvement. Rock may act either as a re- 
tentive or porous sub-soil, according to its structure, In many 
clay sub-soils, draining is absolutely necessary. In sandy and 
gravelly sub-soils, very rarely so. 

103*, There is an important element which must always be 
taken into account in estimating the value of soils—their depth 
or thickness. In running a deepish furrow in a cultivated field, 
we generally distinguish, at a glance, the depth of the super- 


30 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


ficial layer, which is commonly called the mould or vegetable 
earth; this is a layer generally impregnated with humus, and 
is looser and more friable than the sub-soil upon which it rests, 
The thickness of this superficial layer is extremely variable; 
varying from two inches to two feet. Depth of mould or vege~ 
table soil is always, practically, advantageous; it is one of the 
best conditions to successful agriculture. If we have depth of 
soil, and the roots of our plants do not penetrate sufficiently to 
derive benefit from the fertility that lies below, we can always, 
by working a little deeper, bring up the inferior layers to the 
surface, and so make them concur in fertilizing the soil. Farther, 
a deep soil suffers less from excess or deficiency of moisture; 
the rain that falls has more to moisten, and is therefore absorbed 
in greater quantity than by thin soils; and, once imbibed, it 
remains in store against drought. 

104. Soils also vary much in color, as (a,) black; (6,) white ; 
(c,) blue; (d,) red; (e,) brown. The colors of soil have a 
considerable influence in regulating the quantities of heat ab- 
sorbed from the sun’s rays; the darker colored absorb more 
heat than the lighter colored; and the dark colored reflect the 
least. 

105. According to Shubler, while the thermometer was 77° in the 
shade in August, sand of a natural color indicated a temperature of 
1121¢ ©; black eand, 12314 © ; and white sand, 110°, exhibiting a dif- 
ference of 13° in favor of the black color. 

106. Color also influences the power of soil in retaining the 
heat of the sun. Dark colored soils, in the absence of the sun’s 
rays, radiate or part with the heat more quickly than light col- 
ored. Thus sand cools more slowly than clay, and clay than a 
soil containing much vegetable matter. This principle has a 
strong practical influence on the deposit of dew, and injury to 
vegetation by night frosts. 

107. Soils also vary in their power of absorbing and retaining 
moisture. The absorption is greatest in clay soils, especially 
when they contain humus, (vegetable matter.) 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 31 


Schubler gives the following table of the relative absorbing power of 
soils : 


1,000 grains of earth on a surface of 50 square 
inches, absorbed in 


12 hours./24 hours./48 hours |72 hours, 


KINDS OF EARTH. 


Grains. | Grains. | Grains. | Grains. 
Siliceous sand, + - 0 water.| 0 water.| Owater| Owater 
Sandy clay, - - a a ee ee te ce Eee 
Loamy clay, - me  tege 2 eA ah de te er.“ 
Brick clay, - - 20S ae. Fl aD Sa 
Gray pureclay, - we ae Pa oe 
Garden mould, - - BaP Aa BO MOK De 
Arable soil, - - LG) EV NQD~ tty WBA. fod BB, ff 
Humuvs, - - AS i OT Ae TO STZ 


Thus, while sandy lands may suffer from long continuance of 
dry weather, a neighboring field abounding in humus may ab- 
sorb sufficient moisture from the air to serve all the requirements 
of vegetation. 

108. The power of saturation by water, and the retention of 
moisture, vary in the same manner, and nearly in the same 
degrees. 

109. Another important physical property of soils, is their 
power to absorb oxygen from the air. 


According to Schubler :— 
Grains. Cubic inches ., , 
1,000 Siliceous sand, in a wet atate, apeor bed oxygen, p a ea ie 
1,000 Sandy clay, - SEs 
1,000 Loamy clay, - - - - % ee 
1,000 Brick ‘clay, a = . - 204 7 BSB 
1,000 Gray pure clay, - - - = 229 caee 
1,000 Garden mould,. - . - - 2.60 2eh 
1,000 Arabe soil, - - - - - 243 gen. 
1,000 Humus, - - - - 3 04 E EES 


Soils lose, in drying, the property of absorbing oxygen from 
the air, but regain it in the same proportion as before, on being 
moistened. The action of organic manures, and the production 
of carbonic acid, depend on the existence of oxygen in the soil; 
and, in practice, the difference is very great. Every farmer 
knows how little good is effected by his barn-yard manure on a 
crop in a very dry season, compared with a moderately wet one. 


32 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


And, in the same manner, such manures act more rapidly in 
soils rich in humus than in those chiefly consisting of sand, 


110. The different classes of soils are distinguished by grow- 
ing different classes of weeds; and frequently by the existence 
of different noxious insects. 

111. The capillary power of soils also differs. 

Capillary attraction or power, means the power by which a liquid 
ascends in the interior of a capillary tube, or tube of small bore, 
above the surface of the liquid which surrounds it. The phenomenon 
occurs in solid bodies which are capable of being wetted. Thus, 
when water is poured into the basin of a flower-pot, the soil gradu- 
ally sucks it in, and becomes moist even to the surface. The same 
_ takes place in the soil in the open fields, The water from beneath— 
that contained in the subsoil—is gradually sucked up to the surface, 
Where water is present in excess, this capillary action keeps the soil 
always moist and cold. 

Evaporation takes place from the surface of the land, and as 
each atom of moisture is taken up into the atmosphere, its place 
is supplied by another atom, communicated by the contact of 
the particles of soil, the more superficial acting on the deeper 
particles like so many pumps, to elevate the water, and supply 
the loss. Thus a naturally porous soil may be kept injuriously 
wet by an impervious sub-soil several feet below. 

Ordinary soils possess the power of separating, from solution 
in water, the different earthy and alkaline substances presented 
to them in manure. But these substances, necessary for the 
growth of the plant, are rapidly carried, by rain and other causes» 
down into the sub-soil, beyond the reach of roots. Were there 
no counteracting influences, these substances would soon be lost, 
and all soils become barren. But when warm weather comes, 
and the surface soil dries rapidly, then by capillary action the 
water rises from beneath, bringing with it the soluble substances 
that exist in the sub-soil, through which it ascends. And as 
this ascent and evaporation go on as long as the dry weather 
continues, the saline matter accumulates about the roots of the 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 33 


plants, so as put within their reach an ample supply of every 
soluble substance which is not really defective in the soil. Prac- 
tically, this principle is of great importance in manuring and 
draining. 

The relative capillary power of soils has not yet been thor- 
oughly tested; but, generally, in sandy and light soils, of which 
the particles are very fine, this capillary action is of great impor- 
tance, and is intimately connected with the power of producing 
remunerating crops. 

112. The following analyses are given as examples of various 
classes of Soils :— 


I. Cray :—Three specimens from the Zuider Zee, in the Netherlands 
(2. H, von Baumhauer. ) 


First. Second. Third. 

Tnsoluble quartzose sand, with alumina 
and silica, - - - 57.646 51.706 55.372 
Soluble silica, - - - 2.340 2.496 2.286 
Alumina, - - - - 1.830 2.900 2.688 
Peroxide of iron, - : . 9.038 10.305 11.864 
Protoxide ofiron, - - - 0.350 0.563 0.200 
Protoxide of manganese, - . 0.288 0.354 0.284 
_ Lime, - - - - 4,092 5.096 2.480 
Magnesia, - > - 0.130 0.140 0.128 
Potash, = - - - 1.026 1.430 1.521 
Soda, - - - - 1.972 2.069 1,937 
Ammonia, - - : - 0.060 0.078 0.075 
Phusphoric acid, - - . 0.466 0.324 0.478 
Sulphuric acid, - - - 0.896 1.104 0.576 
Carbonic acid, - . > 6.085 6.940 4.775 
Chlorine, : - : - 1.240 1.302 1.418 
Humic acid, - - - 2.798 g091 3.428 
Crenic acid, - - - - 0.771 0.731 0.037 
Apocrenic acid, - - - 0.107 0.160 0.152 

Humin, vegetable remains, and water 
chemically combiued, - 8.324 7.700 9.340 
Wax and resin, - : - trace trace trace 
Loss, . - - - 0.542 0.611 0.753 

—_—. 


100.000 100.000 100.000 


34 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


These are very rich soils, and derive their origin from the Rhine 
country, and are the product of decayed rocks. 


113. II. Cotton Lands of Mississippi. (J.P. Norion.) 


A. B. 

Organic matter, - - _ 4.740 6.290 
Silica, . - - e,. 1.299 0.072 
orcad an Iron, alumina, and phosphates, 0.230 ().019 
Lime, - > . - 0.389 6.020 
be danas Magnesia, - : - 0.090 none 
A. 2.470 pret. | Manganese, - - - 0.034 none 
B. 0.147 Potash, - . - 0.248 0.120 
Chloride of sodium, (common salt,) 0.107 See 
Soda, - - - - a cg 0.015 
Sulphuricacid, - - - 0.144 0.009 
Silica, - - - - 0.409 0.920 
Alumina, - ~ - - 1,644 1.820 
Iron, - - - - 1.448 0.670 
SoLvBLE Ix Lime, - - - - 0.535 1.340 
Act. Magnesia, . - - 0.576 0.080 
A 4.96 pret. | Manganese, - - - 0,002 none 
| Potash - - > 0.348 0.070 

py) es 2 
in Ee .  stimpi tes ik eis eae 
Sulphuric acid, - - 0.070 0.080 
{ Phosphoric acid, - - - 0042 0.003 
Tekin Silica, - - - - 78.845 84.930 
B Tron and alumina, - - - 5.946 2.370 
oy) 2 Me - . . 1.098 0.260 
A. 87.83 pret. | Magnesia, - - - -( dg 0.680 
B 88.373 “ Manganese, - - : 0.623 none 


100.059 89.867 


A. is from a strong cotton soil. B. was originally the same soil, but 
has been worn out by long cultivation. This analysis is peculiarly val- 
uable as an illustration, The first table gives the organic elements 
soluble in water, and which alone are available for the growth of the 
plant. In the new soil this amounts to about 214 per cent. of the 
whole. In the worn out soil, it is very trifling. A plant grown in the 
latter would be nearly starved ; while it would be entirely deficient in 
two elements of nutrition. The second table gives the inorganic ele- 
ments soluble in acid, but not in water. While, therefore, these are not 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. oa 


available for a growing crop, yet by means of rest, by the action of car- 
bonic acid, and of the atmosphere, or by fullowing, and by the applica- 
tion of chemical or dissolving manures, they may, to a certain extent, be 
rendered soluble in water, and the producing power of the soil be restor- 
ed. Thus, shut up, there are materials enough to grow twice the amount 
of crops already taken fiom the land..’ The third table gives the inor- 
ganic constituents, which are not soluble by any available means; and 
therefore they must be considered only as the basis; for.the others. 


Another fact to be observed is the very small proportion of such con- 
stituents available at any one time for the growth of plants; and the 
facility with which soils may be impoverished. In each 100 lbs, of the 
soil, free from moilature, only about 2 Ibs. can be converted into vegeta- 
tion. 


This table will be again referred when we come to Pirisidee the sub- 
ject of manures: but it is necessary to remark that, in actual growth, a 
plant may receive more than the above of necessiry netrit on ip by means 
of water evaporating from below. (§111.) 


114. IIL. Fertile pasture soil (A). — arable soil (B). Barren 
or unfruitful soil (C)., ( Johnston.) 


AG B. Cc. 
Silica, Quartz, Sand, and Silicates, - 71.849 87.143 61.57 
Alumina, = - - - 9.350 5.666 0.450 
Oxides of iron, - - - 5.410 2.220 0.524 
Oxide of Manganese, - - 0.925 0.360 trace 
Lime, ~ - - - 0.987 0.564 0.320 
Magnesia, - - - 0.245 0.312 0.130 
Potash and Soda, - - - 0.007 0.145 trace 
Phosphoric acid, - - - 0.131 ("060 i 
Sulphuric acid, - - - 0.174 0.027 — ge 
Chlorine, - - - 0.002 0.036 ‘ 
Humicaeid, - - - - 1.270 1.304 11 470 
Insoluble humus, . - 7.550 1.072 26.530 
Organic matter, containing nitrogen, 2.000 1.11 stan 
Water, - - - - 0.100 itis cere 
Carbonic acid united to the lime, - idais 0.080 trace 


The first is from a fertile alluvial district of Hanover, from the banks 
of the Weser; the second, from the banks of the Ohio River, is celebra- 
ted for yielding successive crops of corn for a long period without ma- 
nure ; and the third is from a moor in East Freisland. 


36 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


115. IV. The following (A,) is from an analysis of an inferior wheat 
soil, at Three Rivers, Michigan, by Dr. S. H. Douglass, compared with 
a good and fertile soil (B,) analyzed by Prof. Norton. 


1000 parts gave soluble in water A. B. 
Humic ac‘d and ammonia, - - : 0.264 4.740 
Silica, - - - - + - 0.063 1.299 
Lime, - - . - - - 0.256 0.389 
Potash and Soda, - - > ~ - 0.243 0.445 
Tron, alumina, and phosphates, - : 0.120 tie 


1000 parts gave wnsoluble in water 


Silica, - - - - - 902. 788.45 
Lime, - - - - - a ae, 10.98 
Tron, alumina, and phosphates, - . 34. 59.46 
Humic acid, - - - - - 4.7 Coy: 
Potash and Soda, - - . - 2.04 Bis & 
Organie matter, - - - - - 54. pats 
Not ascertained, : - * ° 654 eee: 


116. V. Analysis of an impoverished soil in the town of Freehold, 
Monmouth County, New Jersey, (A,) with the constituents which it 
ought to contain to render it productive, (B.) (Dr. Antisell.) 


A. B. 
Organic matters, - : - - 4.50 9.70 
Silicates, - - - - ~ - 87.60 ate 
Alumina, - : - - - 3.65 5.70 
Lime, = = - - - - -0.45 5.90 
Magnesia, - = . = - trace jaas 
Per-oxide of iron, - - - - « 1.39 eee 
Potash, - - - - - - 0.01 0.20 
Soda, - - - - - - 0.08 0.40 
Chlorine, - - - . * 0.06 0.20 
Sulphuric acid, : - - - - 6.12 0.20 
Phosphoric acid, with iron as phosphate, - 0.03 0.40 
Carbonic acid, - . - - a OSStE 4.00 
Moisture, - - - - : 2.00 \ Gas 
Loss, - - - - - - 0.01 ete 


100.00 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


37 


117. VI. Marl from Bordentown, (A,) and from Squankum, (B,) 


New Jersey. (Dr. Antisell.) 


Silicates, insoluble in hydrocholoric acid, 


Alumina, - 
Lime, - 
Magnesia, - 
Peroxide of iron, - 
Potash, - - 
Soda, - 
Chlorine, - - 


Sulphurie acid. 
Phosphoric acid, - 
Carbonic acid, 
Moisture, - 


Sulphur, combined with iron, 


A. 


- 68.66 
: 7.00 
- 1.40 
- 0.38 
- 9.00 
- 3.70 
- 0.30 
- 0.20 
- 1.30 
- 0.28 
- 6.46 
- 1.32 


100.00 


B. 


76.00 
5.00 
2.85 
0.18 
3.20 
5.80 
1.10 
0.40 
0.90 
0.46 
1.84 
2.00 
0.27 


100.00 


118. VII. Green Sand Marl, Shrewsbury, Monmouth county, New 


Jersey ; two varieties. (H. Wurtz.) 


Silica, => - 


Alumina and oxide of iron, - 


Potash, - - 
Magnesia, - - 
Hygroseopic water, 
Combined water, - 


A. 
* 48.24 
- 32.89 
4 6.38 
» 2.60 
. 4.81 
mtv ROE 


100.61 


119. VIII. Red Marl, Springfield, Mass. (Dr. 0. 7’. Jackson.) 


Peroxide of iron, with a trace of manganese, 


Water, - 
Silex, . - 
Alumina, - 
Lime, - 
Magnesia, - 


38 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


120. IX. Analyses of Shell Marl, Forfarshire, (A,) and Clay Mar), 
Ayrshire, (B,) Scotland, ( Johnston.) 


A. B. 
Carbonate of lime, - - - - 81.7 8.4 
Oxide of iron and alumina, - - - - 0.46 2.2 
Organic matter, - - - - - 14.6 2.8 
Clay and silicious matter, : - . - Be | 84.9 
Water, - - - - - - Bp! 1.4 


CHAPTER IV. 


METEOROLOGY. 


121. A good soil, well worked, with good seed, is not the 
only element of success in farming; the ctmartE has a powerful 
controlling influence on agricultural pursuits; an influence to 
which the farmer is compelled to submit. By knowledge, how- 
ever, he may so adapt his business to the climate, as to render 
the changes to which it is subject, beneficial, instead of injurious 
to him. 

122. The study of the laws which govern the climate is called 
meteorology. 


The word “ meteorology ’? means, literally, the science of meteors ; but 
the term is applied, more extensively, to the investigation of all the 
physical causes which affect the cundition of our globe ; and particularly 
to the effects of light, heat, and winds on the earth, the ocean, and the 
atmosphere, and the results of these agents in the production of climate- 


123. As meteorology is in itself an abstruse science, it will 
only be necessary, in this place, to give such principal laws and 
facts as bear upon agriculture. 

124, The main elements of climate are, (a,) the temperature 
of the air; (6,) of the soil; (c,) the quantity of rain and dew 
that fall; (d,) the character of the prevailing winds; (e,) the 
length of the seasons of heat and cold; and (f,) the seasons at 
which, and the mode in which the rains preyail. 

125. There is (a,) a general climate, and (46, ) a local climate. 
The first is equal, over the whole globe, on the same Jso-thermal 


40 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


lines; the second depends on local circumstances, such as moun- 
tains, table lands, large forests, lakes, &c., which affect the dis- 
tribution of heat and rain; and which may render the local 
climate better or worse than the general one. In the United 
States, the local climate is found to change as the country is 
settled and cleared; and it often varies sufficiently, within a 
comparatively small area, to influence the sort of crops to be 
grown, and the stock to be kept. 


Iso-thermal lines are lines of equal temperature; a term applied to 
imaginary lines drawn on a map connecting all those places on the sur- 
face of the globe which have the same mean temperature. Lines drawn 
through places having the same summer temperature, are termed Jso- 
theral; those drawn through places having the same winter temperature, 
are called Jso .cheimal; while lines drawn through places having other 
common temperatures, receive other appropriate names. Fully to ex- 
plain this to the student, it will be necessary for the teacher to exhibit a 
physical atlas of the globe, where the various lines are laid down. 


126. The climate may be practically changed, to a certain 
extent, by the farmer, by means of cutting down forests, drain- 
ing, deep plowing, high walls, and plantations of trees; and by 
the gardener, to any extent, by means of hot-beds, hot-walls, 
glass-houses, manures, &e. 

127. The following changes take place, owing to the culti- 
yation of a new country: (a.) Fogs disappear, and with them 
agues and other diseases; sometimes naturally; almost always, 
by a proper and sufficiently extensive system of drainage. * 
(Brown & Dickeson, Prof. Johnston.) (b.) Dews are less 
heavy; the quantity of running water is diminished; lakes and 
marshes dry up; hail-storms become more frequent; early and 
late frosts are more injurious to vegetation—( Boussingault. ) 


128. On the contrary, by neglect, a previously healthy coun- 


* A very striking instance of the improvement of health, and the ceasing of mias- 
matic diseases throughout a whole township, in consequence of draining, in Beverly, 
Mass., is given in the Abstract from the Returns of Agricul. Soc. in Mass., for 1846, 
p- 3, 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 41 


try may become incapable of sustaining human life, as in the 
marshes surrounding Rome, Italy; and the waters may again 
encroach and cover land that was previously retrieved from them, 
as in the Aragua Valley, Venezuela, So. America.—( Boussin- 


gault. ) 

129. The cultivation of perennial plants is limited by the 
lowest temperature of winter; that of annual plants by the mean 
temperature of summer. Thus a country so cold as to be inca- 
pable of sustaining trees, may yet have a sufficiently long and 
hot summer to mature grains and vegetables; and annual plants 
may prosper in a latitude so far North that perennial ones, indi- 
genous to the same climate, would perish from cold. 


The heat of the atmosphere is measured by an instrument called a 
thermometer, consisting of quicksilver or alcohol, enclosed in a vacuum 
tube, with a hollow bulb at one end. This is piaced upon a scale, 
graduated by actual experiment ; and the quicksilver rises and falls in 
the tube, according to the amourt of heat. Three different modes of 
graduation are employed in different countries ;, Fahrenheit’s in America 
and Great Britain ; Centigrade in France ; and Reaumur’s in France and 
other parts of Europe. 

212 degrees, (©) of Fahrenheit equal 100° Centigrade, and 80° 
Reaumur. 

32 degrees of Fahrenheit equal 0 Centigrade, and 0 Reaumur. 

There are various forms of the Thermometer, but all on the same 
principle. 

By the term mean temperature, is meant the temperature obtained by 
adding together the temperatures of the days or months required, and 
dividing by the number of days or months. Mean annual temperature 
is obtained by adding together the temperatures of all the months of the 
year, and dividing the sum by the number of the months ; so that the 
mean annual tcmperature expresses the height at which the thermometer 
would stand at any place, if we could suppose it perfectly stationary 
throughout the year. 


130. For the cultivation of annual plants, it is only necessary 
to know the mean temperature of the climate during the num- 
ber of months requisite for growth and the maturation of the 
seed, 


49 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK,. 


Boussingault gives the following list of temperatures fayorable 
to the particular plants, in the success of which man is more 
especially interested. Some of them require a mean annual 
temperature, others only a mean summer temperature, as below: 


Lag sel ae: 
NAME. £ & | NAME = i 
@ a » 3 
Fare i |: 
Cuveuule peau, = [o2~ #.| 73 ~ || tutee, Sn ey 
Banana, ¥ 64 [Pine Apple, | 
Indigo, e 71 ||Melon, 
Sugar Cane, « 71 ||Coffee, 
Cocoa Nut, if 738 || Wheat, 
Palm, - 78 ||Barley, 
Tobacco, 4 65 || Potatoes, 
Maize, as 59 || Flax, 
French Beans, | Apple, 
(Bariecots, sre | pad Oral, 


Thus we can grow melons, which only require a short period 
of summer for growth and maturation; but cannot grow pine- 
apples, which require at least two years before they bear fruit; 
although the former only needs one degree of mean temperature 
less than the latter. 


131. The number of days that elapse between the commence- 
ment of vegetation and the period of ripeness is by so much the 
greater as the mean temperature is lower. Thus, wheat, with a 
mean temperature of 59° F., requires 137 days to mature; 
with a temperature of 56°, 160 days; with a temperature of 
76°, 92 days. In other words, the lower the mean tempere- 
ture of the climate, the longer the crop must be in the ground 
before harvesting. And thus Indian corn may ripen in a shel- 
tered valley, but be annually cut off by frost on a mountain side 
a few miles distant. 


Experiments, however, prove that many grains, brought from a climate 
with a markedly lower mean summer temperature, to one higher, only 
acquire the power of ripening early by degrees of successive annual crops, 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 43 


a fact which is practically important in the growth and quality of cer- 
tain grains. 

Upon every parallel of latitude, at all elevations above the 
level of the sea, the same plant receives in the course of its ex- 
istance an equal quantity of heat. 

132. The temperature of the soil, in summer, greatly exceeds 
that of the-air. At Albany, N. Y., the temperature of the soil 
rises to 100° F. five feet below ae surface,’ and to 140° half 
an inch below. (Johnston.) But this temperature varies accord- 
ing to the color and quality of the soil, the ev aporation, the 
amount of, water it contains, the nature of the subsoil, &e. This 
internal heat is of great importance in practical farming’; a warm, 
dry soil allowing the seeds to sprout early in the spring; forcing 
forward the at as in a hot-bed; regulating the amount of 
dew deposited; controlling early and late night. frosts; and 
probably influencing, favorably for the farmer, the ; growth of 
parasitic fungi, such as rust, mildew, &c. It also causes, manures 
to act, and produces other beneficial effects, such as electrical 
currents. It can be regulated and increased by artificial means, 
but chiefly by proper drainage. 


133. Seeds require a given temperature of air anil soil for 
healthful germination; various plants differing in this respect: 
some requiring a much higher temperature than others. On 
this point, the following laws have been laid down: (a.) When 
the temperature at noon is given, (other things being equal,) the 
time necessary for the development of a seed may be ascer- 
tained. (,) Ifthe period of germination be given, the meridian 
temperature of the country during the period may be deter- 
mined. (c,) When the seed fructifies in the same year in which 
it is planted, the proper time for putting it into the ground is 
when the meridian temperature is such as to produce vegetation 
in the shortest period. (d,) An increase of temperature beyond 
a certain point, does not expedite the vegetative process. 


The following table has been drawn up from actual experiment, 


44 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


(J. T. Plummer ;) but it would have been more perfect if the tempera- 
ture of the soil had also been recorded: 


4 62° F.|Lima Beans, soaked, seguite - - 20 days 
oe ee = i iy Sent. - ren 
a) 838 8. “io Stade: be Pee 
% 51 Pass 8, - - . - - i ag 
| 59 ee 8, - - - - is aie 
Ss 74 B.S ovpdile dA - Bl Sys 
‘es ol woe - - tage ra 14s 
5 | 60 Bigbop” s early Peas, atch ea AS. Wg." 
s | 62 do do «uae tm a 2 
2 | 55 Radishes, s, - . . - - OR 
FS 60 do 8. - - - - 1 
= ) 70 do Asa se PLU 2) sah ut 
e 62 Onion Ayre s. - - - - 15, sf 
Ss 77 8. - - - - Jee 
- 54 Drum- “hadd Cabbge, 2 a ss cole 12 +4 
E 60 0 - ec a 
g, | 75 do 2 oP Oe Se ee a. ae 
= | 61 Red Cabbage s. > omits + halt 6h 
= 61 Beet, 8. - - - - ‘Pes 
s | 63 do I SOM a Lae Bek mor he 
FI 67 do 8. - - - - Bontt 
a 79 do 8. pe! eel tie Can Gey es 
g 58 Cucumber, - - : - - au 
E (si do His alae ac ale SE ah 


It is stated that at Albany, N. Y., of Indian corn planted 
when the temperature of the soil was but 45° in the spring, 
the seed all rotted; but when planted, when the temperature 
was about 60 °, it vegetated. 

This subject is one of great importance to the farmer; large 
quantities of seed and labor are annually lost in consequence of 
inattention to such particulars; and there is yet much to learn 
that is valuable inthis regard. The proper time for seed-sowing 
may be accurately ascertained by means of experiment; and by 
the use of the thermometer and meteorological tables. 

134. As is well known, a ray of the sun’s light, consists of 
seven rays of different colors, which, uniting, form the ordinary 
white light. But, besides this, the sun’s rays contain three dif- 
ferent kinds of rays: (a,) a ray of light; (6,) of heat; (¢,) of 
chemical agency. The effect of these on vegetation is essen- 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 45 


tially different. Yellow light, (a,) impedes germination, and 
accelerates that decomposition of carbonic acid, which produces 
wood and woody tissues. Under its influence, leaves are small 
and wood short jointed. Red light, (0,) carries heat, and is 
favorable to germination if abundance of water is present, in- 
creases evaporation, supports the flowering quality, and improves 
fruit. Under its influence, color is diminished, and leaves are 
scorched. Blue light, (c,) (also called chemical action, or ac- 
tinism, ) accelerates germination, and causes rapid growth. Under 
its influence, plants become weak and long jointed. ( Hunt.) 
These three agencies exist in different proportions in the sun-~ 
beam in the spring, summer, and autumn. The blue, (¢,) is 
greater in spring; the yellow, (a,) in summer. The blue, 
(chemical ray,) is less in the fall; and then the heating ray, red, 
(6,) predominates. Thus the sun’s rays differ in their properties 
at different seasons of year; and are adapted to the peculiar 
needs of the plant at the time. Still further, the proportion of 
these agencies vary in different latitudes and climates. Daguer- 
reotypes, depending on these principles, are poor in England, 
better in France, superior in New York, but best in the North- 
western States. Probably the chemical rays are more abounding 
in the above proportion, but there is yet much to learn on this 
subject; and it is not unlikely that the many differences known 
to exist in animal and vegetable life in these countries will be 
found to be more or less controlled by these peculiarities of the 
sun’s rays. Gardeners have attempted to make practical use of 
these facts by means of colored glasses, but, apparently, without 
much success. 


135. Rain is necessary for the life of most plants. In those 
countries where rain never falls, vegetation is either wanting, or 
—depending on dews—very limited. In other countries, where 
it only falls at a certain season, leaving many months at a time 
without a shower, plants only grow during the rains, and are 
parched up and disappear during the rest of the year. The 


46 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


amount of rain that falls in a year is governed by known laws. 
It varies in different parts of the same country, but is nearly the 
same, each year, in any given locality. 


Rain is measured, for meteorological purposes, by inches, The instru- 
ment used is called a Rain Guage, aud sometimes a Pluviometer. They 
are of various forms, but all acting upon the same principle—that of re- 
ceiving the rain into a vessel of known size, with a graduated measurer, 
divided into inches and parts of inches. The one generally used in the 
United States is known as the “Conical Rain Guage of DeWitt”?— 
equally simple and perfect. It consists of a copper cone, with a perfora- 
ted cap to prevent evaporation. It is fixed on a post, in a situation 
sheltered from winds, about 8 feet from the ground. The measurement 
is made by putting down perpendicularly to the bottom of the guage, a 
measuring stick, graduated in inches and their decimals. 


136. In Agriculture, rain is important as regards (a,) the 
season, and (6,) the mode in which it falls, whether in heavy 
storms, with long intervals between them, or frequently, in small 
quantities at a time; and (¢,) the direction from which it comes. 
Tf rain chiefly fell late in the Fall, in Winter, or in early Spring, 
vegetation would receive but little benefit from it. If it fell 
continuously at seed and harvest time, it would preclude cultiva- 
tion; if it fell in heavy storms, with long intervals between them, 
plants would be alternately forced forwards, and retarded. 
Where rain is very constant, as in the mountains of England 
and Scotland, grass-growing and cattle-raising are substituted for 
grain. Consequently, the axnwal amount of rain is of less im- 
portance than the frequency of it, and the seasons of the year 
over which it is spread. 


The annual amount of rains, averages :— 


Under the tropies of the New World, - 115 inches, 
“ “ “ nm OC Old World, ae z "6 “ 
Within the tropics generally, - . - 953, * 
In the United States, - = 2 or ee ae 
Europe, = - - - - : - 312 « 


Generally over the world, - - - - $426 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 47 


Much more rain falls annually in the United States than in 
Great Britain, if a few mountain districts in the latter be except- 
ed; but the mode of falling is different in the two countries, 

The following table will serve as an illustration of this subject, 
although being drawn from single years, it is not strictly accu- 
rate as regards each locality :-— 


PLACE, [Rainy Daya} nets | snows Days Days.| Inches. ||Snowy Days.| Inches. 
Truro, - - England, 152 50 ade et ee 
Exeter, - - 150 33 
Bechington, - - 185 35 || 
Greenwich, - S 167 28 
Liverpool, - 7. 190 31 
Hightield, - - “ 213 25 
Whitehaven, - ' 200 45 
Durham, - - &§ 152 21 
Neweastle, - Ks 140 30 
Saco, Maine, .- U. States, a4 
Cambridge, Mass., “ 
Mendon, - “ “ *814 
Worcester, “ i 88 37 61 
New York, N. Y., = 57, | 39 31 
Savannah, Geo., - 72 59 
Natches, Miss., a 87 75 
Ann Arbor, Mich., 79 23 33 


* Average of 15 years 


In England, more rain falls on the West than on the East, 
side of the Island; and the practical effect is that more green 
crops, which require more moisture than grain, are grown on 
the former; such crops making a larger return on the western 
side. 

137, Every inch of rain falling annua'ly is equal to a weight 
of rather more than 112 tons on each imperial acre; so that the 
mean annual weight of rain falling in the United States, exceeds 
the mean amount of rain on the eastern coast of England, by 
several hundreds of tons per acre. 

138. Another important consideration is (a,) the season of 
the year in which rain chiefly falls; and (0,) the distance of 


48 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


of time which usually intervenes between one day of rain and 
another. 

Thus, in 1841, according to the Army Meteorological Re- 
gister, there fell at Detroit, Mich., and New Orleans, La., the 
following inches of rain and snow in each quarter of the year, in 
so many days: 


~ DETROIT. ik [a | 1. | rv. Ix. ORLEANS| : | IL. | x. | IV. 
36/7.87|7.84|5.99|: Inches, pico 9.90|7.17|11.96 


Inches, 36/7 noe Teg 8 
ay f E 


Days, 


25} 20| 19 30 | 


Thus we see, that in Detroit, during this year, of 27.06 inches 
of rain, 11.35 or less than half fell during the six winter months; 
leaving 15.71 inches for the use of vegetation; while in New 
Orleans, 43.46 inches, or nearly three quarters of the whole 
year’s supply, fell during the winter months, leaving only 17.07 
for the six summer months. So that, while there is much less 
rain in Michigan, it is more equally distributed. 

139. The yield of grains, and root crops depends upon the 
mode in which the rain falls, whether in light showers, and 
dense fogs; orin heavy storms; and at the particular time of 
vegetating or flowering. These particulars again vary according 
to the soil, whether it is sand or clay, drained or undrained, 
Thus oats appear to demand a constantly damp atmosphere; 
buckwheat and peas light showers while flowering; while wheat 
is apt to be injured by rust, if much warm rain falls at the time 
it is ripening. The size and average weight of stock also seem 
to depend upon the mode in which rain falls. The health of 
sheep is certainly dependent on this peculiarity of the climate; 
and the naturalization of varieties probably depends upon it. 

Dr. P. A. Brown, of Philadelphia, observes “ that if a line be drawn 
diagonally through the United States from the South-east corner of New 
Hampshire to Texas, it will be found, that the woolly sheep, (Merino 


variety,) will breed and thrive everywhere North-west of it, and the 
hairy sheep, (long-woolled varieties,) everywhere South-east of this line; 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 49 


but that neither will thr-ve on the other sides, respectively, of that line, 
nor will they if the species are crossed.’? The same peculiarities are 
found in other parts of the world. The cause is not yet satisfactorily 
ascertained, but is undoubtedly more or less dependent on climate. 

140. Through a perfectly dry argillo-caleareous soil, in a 
state of fallow, rain descends in one day six times the depth of 
the quantity fallen. Thus a fall of 4-10ths of an inch will sink 
in a day through nearly 23 inches. ( Gasparin.) 

141. The power of the soil to absorb and retaiti moisture, is 
practically, an important consideration, and greatly influences 
the effects of the annual quantity of rain falling. The amount, 
of water which a cubic foot of various soils can contain before 
they allow any of it to run off was determined by M. Schubler: 

A cubic foot of 


Siliceous sand held of water 27.3 Ibs. 
Calcareous sand > 31.8. « 
Sandy clay 9 38.8 « 
Loamy clay a 41.4 « 
Stiff clay, or brick earth, “ 45.4 4 
Arable soil ad 46.8 “ 
Garden mould . 48.4 « 


142. The relative degree of rapidity with which rain water 
is evaporated, was also ascertained. Of 200 parts of each earth 
exposed for four hours, on a thin surface in a closed room, at 
652 Fahrenheit, there was an evaporation of absorbed water as 
follows: 

Siliceous sand lost 88.4 parts in a parts of absorbed water. 


Calecareous sand“ 75.9 « « @ d 
Sand clay 4520") Crane &“ « " 
Loamy clay “ 45.7 & . “ “ « 
Stiff clay, “ 35.9 4 «“ & « , 
Arable soil “ 32.0 « « « « Ps 
Garden mould “ 24.3 4 « “ & « 


It is readily pereeived how different must be the effect of 
dry weather upon crops grown in these various soils, 


50 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


143. Wheat, and probably other grains, vary in their quality 
and nutritive powers according to the warmth and relative dry- 
ness of the climate. Sir Humphrey Davy found in 1,000 parts 
of seed wheat in its natural state: 


Mucilage 
or Starch 
765 190 955 
725 230 955 
722 239 961 
750 200 950 
750 | ,225 | 975 


Gluten. | Total. 


From Middlesex, England, - 
Thick-skinned Scicilian Wheat, - 
Thin-skinned Scicilian Wheat, - - 
Wheat from Poland, - - - 
North American Wheat, - - - 


Thus the gluten of wheat, from the warm and dry climate of 
Sicily, far exceeded that of English wheat; while in wheat from 
the United States, the starch and mucilage, (the heat-giving 
constituents,) are nearly equal to those of England, and the 
gluten, (the flesh-forming constituent,) is far superior; or, in 
other words, the last is much more nutritious than the first. 


“The real value of wheat and of the other cereals and bread stuffs 
depends mainly upon the proportion of gluten and albumen which they, 
contain, their starch, glucose, and dextrine, or gum, not being considered 
nutritive.’—(L. C. Beck.) 

According to Prof. Beck, American wheat flour shows the following 
comparative analysis: 


Water, > . - - 11.75 to 14.05 per cent. 
Gluten, - - : - 9.90 to 14.36 f¢ 
Starch, - - - - - 66.00 to 70.20 ae 
Glucose, Dextrine, &e., - - 4.96 to 11.05 f 


144, The quantity of water contained in wheat greatly effects 
its value, as regards, (a,) keeping; (,) the quantity of bread 
it yields. 

(A.) Large amounts of Western flour are annually damaged 
by a chemical change which takes place, owing to the water 
eontained in it. This water amounts, on an average from 24 to 
26 Tbs. in every barrel of common flour. The total annual loss 
to the United States, from this cause alone, was estimated, in 


‘ 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 51 


1847, at from $3,000,000 to $5,000,000. It is not only the 
sourness which injures flour; but the gluten, and therefore the 
nutritive quality, is actually diminished. In Poland, and in 
some parts of the United States, wheat is dried before grinding, 
in which case, no change takes place. As much as 18 lbs. of 
water have been expelled from a barrel of Ohio flour. 

(B.) Wheat grown in dry climates yields more bread than 
when grown in wet climates. A quarter of English wheat has 
yielded 13 lbs. more bread than the same quantity of Scotch 
wheat. 

Wheat grown in New Jersey, lower Pennsylvania, the South- 
ern part of Ohio, Maryland, Virginia, the Carolinas and Georgia, 
contains less water,and more nutritive matter than that from 
the more northern States Experiments have proved that 
manures produce an effect similar to climate in raising the 
nutritive value of wheat, in proportion as they contain nitrogen ; 
and it is not improbable that the manure received from the air 
in dry climates has an especial effect in this respect. 

145. “It is impossible, when we are examining these facts, 
not to feel how closely the meteorology of a neighborhood influ- 
ences even the composition of the grain which it produces. The 
English miller is well aware of these things; he mixes with the 
wheat produced in the damper districts of that Island the dry 
wheat produced in lands where the mean temperature is much. 
higher, the rain-fall considerably less, and, in consequence, more 
free from moisture. Such factsytoo, are of practical use to the 
agriculturist, for he well knows how, by improved systems of 
cultivation, the obstacles presented by even climate are over- 


come.” (C. W. Johnson.) 


There is no reason for believing that the moon has any influence on 
the weather, or the crops, except as imparting light and heat. There 
are many old superstitions still popular on this subject. It has been 
closely investigated both in Germany for fifty years, and in England for 
twenty, and no connection between the moon and the weather could Le 


52 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


detected. In every phase, the moon is the same to, us, as a material 
agent, except as regards the power of reflected light ; and no one sup- 
poses that moonlight produces wet or dry. Why, then, should that 
point in the moon’s course, when it begins to emerge from the sun’s 
rays, have any influence on our weather? Twice in each revolution, 
when in conjunction with the sun at new, and in opposition to it at the 
full, an atmospheric spring-tide may be supposed to exist, and to exert 
some soit of influence. But the existence of any such tide at all is 
denied, and the absence of fluctuations of the barometric pressure favors 
the negative of this proposition. Night-feeding birds and animals, 
however, and oysters, grow fat or thin, according to the state of the moon 
and tides, In Kentucky, horses are said to be subject to disease of the 
eye, amounting to blindness, during the period of full moon, which is 
not the case when the moon does not shine. Dark stables are the reme- 
dy ; and the philosophy of the disease is easily understood. 


In conclusion, every farmer is recommended to procure and use a good 
Barometer. It will, at all times warn him of the approach of rain and 
wind storms ; and after a little experience, he will find no difficulty in 
deciding upon the weather for twelve or twenty-four hours in advance. 
When he goes to bed at night, he can make a shrewd guess whether it 
will rain or not in the morning; and during harvest he will be forewarned, 
and can prepare for rain, and thus often save his hay and grain from 
damage. At sea,a barometer is now of essential necessity. Mr. Red- 
field, of New York, has lately pointed out the great service it will render 
to those navigating our large lakes ; and to the farmer, it is quite as 
useful. As agriculturists become more familiar with the barometer, they 
will cease to put faith in the weather-superstitions of the dark ages ; and 
will find innumerable useful and interesting practical questions de- 
cided by it. There are two kinds in common use, the perpendicular or 
circular Barometer, depending for its action upon Mercury (Quicksilver); 
and the Aneroid Barometer—a French invention—depending on the ac- 
tion of gas ina thin metal case. The first is the most complete and 
expensive, but the latter is quite sufficient for ordinary purposes, is not 
easily damaged, and is much more compact. It requires, however, to 
be occasionally compared with a standard mercury barometer. 


CHAPTER V. 


FORMATION OF PLANTS. 


146. It has been already stated that plants are formed of or- 
ganic and inorganic elements, which they receive from the soil 
and air, (See § 81-93.) The living plant possesses the power 
of receiving into itself these bodies, of changing or digesting 
them, and of re-arranging them in a different way, so as to pro- 
duce new substances. In the same manner a new born animal 
swallows milk, and changes the milk into blood, bones, muscles, 
brain, &c. The perfect tree is only air, water, and a portion of 
the soil in.which it is growing; as the animal, a few months’ 
old, is only milk in a different shape. Ifthe soil does not con- 
tain all the materials requisite to form a plant, it either will not 
grow at all, or it will grow unhealthily. 

147. A perfect plant consists of three parts, (a, ) a root, which 
remains in the soil, (0,) a trunk or stem which branches into 
the air, and (c,) leaves. Each of these is differently formed, 
generally contains different proportions of the elements, and is 
endowed. with a peculiar function. 

148. The stems of plants differ in their construction, some 
being much more simple than others: The stem of a tree con- 
sists of three parts: (a,) the pith, in the centre; (6,) the wood 
surrounding the pith; and (c,) the barks which cover the whole. 
The pith consists of soft celular tissue (or parenchyma,) which 
is at first gorged with the nourishing juices of the plant, but 


54 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


which in time become exhausted, leaving the older pith dry and 
light, or mere empty cells, which are of no further use to the 
plant. The wood consists of woody fibre, among which vessels 
are more or less copiously mingled, capable of carrying liquids 
up and down between the root and the leaves. The branches 
are only a continuation of the stem, and have a similar structure. 
The bark consists of three portions; (a,) the liber which lies 
next the wood; (0,) the outer bark, composed of two parts, 1, 
the green or cellular layer, 2 the corky layer, and (c,) the epé- 
dermis or skin which invests the whole. 

149. The root, immediately on leaving the trunk or stem, 
has also a similar structure; but as the root tapers away, the 
pith gradually disappears, the bark also thins out, the wood 
softens, till the white tendrils, of which its extremities are com- 
posed, consist only of a colorless, spongy mass, full of pores, (or 
minute holes,) but in which no distinction of parts can be per- 
ceived. In this spongy mass, the vessels or tubes which descend 
through the stem and root, lose themselves, and by them these 
spongy extremities are connected with the leaves. 

150. A leaf is an expansion of the stem. Like the stem 
therefore, the leaf is made up of two distinct. parts, the cellular 
and the woody. The leaf is a highly organized structure, con- 
taining innumerable rounded globules, cells, and veins, regularly 
arranged. It is also full of pores through which air can enter. 


151. In a growing plant, the sap enters by the extremities of 
the roots, (spongioles, ) ascends through the vessels of the wood, 
and is passed over the inner surface of the leaf by the fibres 
which the wood contains. Thence, by the vessels in the green 
of the leaf, it is returned to the bark, and through the vessels of 
the inner bark it descends to the root. 


CHAPTER VI. 


WHEAT.—(Triticum.) 


152. There are three kinds of grain on which mankind prin- 
cipally feed, (a,) Wheat, (6,) Rice, (c,) Indian Corn or Maize. 
Of these, Wheat is chiefly confined to the colder regions of the 
world; and, in the United States, is second in importance to 
Maize. It belongs to the botanical family of Grasses. It is not 
found in a wild state, and the country in which it originated is 
unknown. 

Wheat has lately been produced by the continued cultivation of a plant 
wild on the shores of the Mediterranean, called A%gilops, This is no 
more extraordinary than the origin of most of our garden vegetables. 

Wheat grows in a great variety of climates. In Europe, the 
polar limits are stated to be as follows :— 


: Mean Temperature, (Fahr ) of _ 
SATUS) Sa) Sra ae 


YEAR. | WINTER. | SUMMER. 
Scotland, (Ross-shire, ) 58° 46° ga° 57° 
Norway, (Drontheim,) 64 40 25 59 
Sweden, 62 40 25 59 
Russia, (St. Petersburgh,)| 60°15’ 38 16 61 


The iso-thermal curve of 57° 2’, which appears to be the 
minimum temperature requisite for the cultivation of wheat 
passes, in North America, through the uninhabited regions of 
the Hudson’s Bay country. At Cumberland House, lat. 54° 
N., long. 102° 20’ West, this grain is successfully raised. The 


56 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


possible cultivation of wheat towards the Equator oscillates be- 
tween lat. 20° and 25°. It is grown successfully in Chili, and 
Rio de la Plata. In southern Peru it grows at a height of 
8,500 feet; and at the foot of the volcano of Arequipo, at a 
height of 10,600 feet. 

The introduction of this grain into the United States was in 
1602, when it was sown on the Elizabeth Islands in Massachu- 
setts. In 1611 it was sown in Virginia; and in 1648 many 
hundred acres of it were cultivated in that colony; though it 
was afterwards neglected to give place to Tobacco. It was in- 
troduced into the Mississippi Valley in 1718, but owing to the 
character of the soil and climate, sueceeded badly, running to 
straw instead of grain; yet in 1746 it became an article of ex- 
port from the Wabash to New Orleans. The principal wheat- 
producing States are 


| BUSHELS. POPULATION. 

| 1840. | 1850. 1840. | 1850. 
New York, - - - ||12,286,418|13,121,498|!2,428,921|3,097,394 
New Jersey, - - 774,203} 1,601,190|| 373,306) 489,555 
Pennsylvania, - - ||13,213,077|15,367,691)|1,724,033) 2,311,786 
Delaware, - - - 315,165} 482,511|| 78,085} 91,535 
Maryland, - - - || 3,345,783] 4,494,680|| 470,019) 583,035 
Virginia, - - -  |/10,109,716)11,232,616}) 1,239,797 |1,421,661 
Ohio, - - - - - |/16,571,661/14,487,351||1,519,467|1,980,408 
Kentucky, - - + || 4,803,152] 2,140,822|| 779,828] 982,405 
Michigan,- - - - || 2,157,108] 4,925,889)|, 212,267| 397,654 
Indiana,- - - - 4,049,375! 6,214,458|! 685,866} 988,416 
Illinois, - - - - || 3,335,393] 9,414,575|| 476,183] 851,470 
Missouri, - - - || 1,037,386] 2,981,652|| 383,702] 682,043 
Wisconsin, - - - 212,116] 4,286,131]| 30,945] 305,191 
lows = set 154,693] 1,530,581|| 43,112! 192,214 


During these ten years there was a gain on the whole crop 
of the United States of 15,645,378 bushels; while the crops of 
New England decreased from 2,014,000 to 1,090,000 bushels, 
In 1849, the wheat crop of the United States amounted to 
100,503,899 bushels. It is estimated that one bushel of seed 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK, 57 


is used for every ten bushels produced; and that an average of 
three bushels is annually used by every individual of the popu- 
lation. 


153. Botanists distinguish eleven species or sub-species, viz :— 


1. Triticum estivum, - Spring Wheat. 

2. Ly hybernum, - - Winter Wheat. 

3. ¢ compositum, - - Egyptian Wheat. 

4,  %  turgidum,- -  - Turgid Wheat. 

5. ” Polonicum, - . Poland Wheat. 

6. * Spella, - - - Spelt Wheat. 

i monocuccum, - - One-grained Wheat. 

8. compactum, = - - Compact Wheat. 

9. 4 atratum, - - Dark-spiked Wheat. 
10. “ —_ hordetforme, - — -  Barley-like Wheat. 
ry, ~ } - - Far Wheat. 


154. Of these, however, some may only be varieties. In the 
United States, two only, the Spring and Winter Wheat, are 
generally grown; though it is believed that Spelt may occa- 
sionally be met with as a spring wheat. The latter, which is 
the hardiest of the family, is cultivated in the south of Europe 
and Germany; and is known by its almost solid straw, and the 
chaff adhering to the grain so as to be separated with great dif- 
ficulty. It may be grown on poor soils, but yields an inferior 
flour in small quantities. The others have no peculiar merit. 

155. Spring Wheat was known in England as early as 1666, 
but has been cultivated only to a small extent there; and not to 
a much greater one in Scotland. In the United States, it does 
not appear to be as popular as formerly, except in districts, where 
Fall Wheat is apt to be killed during winter. Asa general thing, 
the grain is not as large, contains more gluten, makes flour of a 
different quality and flavor, and brings a lower price in the 
market. Sir John Sinclair informs us that from 1767 to 1812 
it was a practice with the best Scotch farmers to sow Fall Wheat 


58 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


in Spring, from February to April, though March was general- 
ly the favorite month. The. real Spring Wheat does not ap- 
pear to have been generally known in that country till the be- 
gining of this century. Though sown in April or May it ripen- 
ed as early as winter sown wheat. It was not, however so pro- 
ductive as winter wheat sown either in Winter or Spring, and 
the ears were shorter. There are many nominal varieties in the 
United States, the best probably being the Italian, the Siberian 
Bald, or Tea Wheat, and the Black Sea Wheat. Of this last 
there are again two varieties, the red and the white chaff ; both 
of which are bearded. It is not known that the practice of 
sowing Fall Wheat in Spring has ever prevailed in this country, 
though there is no apparent reason why it should not succeed 
as well as in Scotland, and be profitable in certain localities. 
In the Northern States, it is considered important that Spring 
Wheat should be sown as early as the season will permit. 
The soil may be lighter than for the Fall variety ; it ought to 
be in good condition ; and is generally better if it has been 
plowed, and laid uy dry in the Fall. From one and a half to 
two bushels is the proper quantity of seed per acre ; more gen- 
erally the latter. ‘The after processes of harvesting and thrash- 
ing are similar to Fall Wheat. 


156. The varieties of Fall Wheat are very numerous, differ- 
ing not only in appearance, but also in constituents, in adapta- 
tion to soil and climate, in hardiness as regards disease and in- 
sects, and in productiveness. There appears to be one fact as- 
certained regarding them, which is, that they are constantly un- 
dergoing change in their relative productiveness. A new varie- 
ty will be introduced into a given locality, and for a few years 
will succeed better than any other, after which it begins gradu- 
ally to deteriorate in the qualities which at first recommended 
it. The ancient varieties appear to have been much inferior to 
some in the present day. There are four distinct divisions, (a, ) 


White, (4,) Red, (c,) Bald, (d,) Bearded: the Red being gen- 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 59 


erally hardier, but coarser than the White ; and the same may 
be said of the Bearded as compared with the Bald ; but in 
other respects there is no material practical difference. 


General Harmon, of Wheatland, Monroe County, N. Y., who has de- 
voted a long life to the study of and experiments upon Wheat, in 1844 
gaye the following as the best varieties known in the United States: 

1. While Flint, probably introduced from the Black Sea into New 
Jersey, in 1814. Its peculiarities are, (a,) strong straw ; (6,) solid 
grain with thin bran ; (¢,) the chaff adheres to the grain so that it does 
not readily shell out ; (d,) it is little affected by frost; (e,) it has with- 
stood the Hessian Fly better than any other now cultivated. Its usual 
yield is from twenty to twenty-five bushels per acre, but it has produced 
fifty-four bushels to the acre. 2. Improved White Flint. It is superior 
to the last in the size of the berry, the thinness of the bran, and the 
weight per bushel. 3. White Provence, introduced from France, (a,) 
it grows rapidly, yielding much straw; (6,) ripens four or five days 
earlier than the common varieties ; (c,) withstands cold, and is not in- 
jured by insects ; but the straw is soft and it is apt to fall down. It is 
bald, berry very large and white ; yielding flour well and of good qual- 
ity. 3. Old Red Chaff, originated in Southern Pennsylvania. It is a 
bald wheat, with red chaff but a white grain ; and in other respects is 
similar to the last. On new oak lands it succeeds admirably, but on old 
lands it is subject to rust, mildew, insects, and winter-kiliing. 4. Ken- 
tucky White Bearded, (Hutchinson, Bearded Flint, Canada Flint,) a 
white chaff, bearded wheat. 5. Indiana Wheat, originated in Indiana, 
a white chaff, bald wheat ; peculiarly adapted tostrong soils. 6. Velvet 
Beard, or Crate Wheat ; introduced from England twenty-five years 
ago: a red chaff, bearded, large berried wheat. It is very hardy, not 
apt to be thrown out by frost, nor injured by insects. 7. Wheatland 
Red, originated from the Virginia May, by Gen’] Harmon: it is red 
ehaff, bald wheat, and not apt to rust. 8. Golden Drop,an English 
variety. 9. Mediterranean, introduced from the South of Europe fifteen 
years since. Itis a light red chaff, bearded, berry red and long, bran 
thick, and flour inferior ; but it is not injured by insects, and ripens ear- 
ly. 10, Blue Stem, cultivated in Virginia about fifty years since, but 
now generally grown in the Northern States. Formerly it was a red 
wheat, but it is now changed to a beautiful white. It is very produc- 
tive. 

This list might be much extended, but it could not be of any practi- 
eal utility. 


60 AGRICULTURAS TEXT-BOOK. 


157. The qualities desirable in Wheat may be thus shortly 
enumerated: Straw of medium length and size, not apt to fall 
down, to be attacked by insects or rust, nor killed by frost or 
wet ; able to stool out or tiller, so that each grain gives several 
roots and stalks. The heads long, well filled ; the chaff ad- 
hering to the grain so that it does not easily shell: the kernel 
white, flinty, solid and large, with thin bran, and yielding a 
white homogeneous flour in large quantity of first quality; the 
skin elastic, not breaking up into small particles in grinding, and 
filling the flour with specks of bran so small as to be incapable 
of seperation; not apt to sprout if necessarily exposed to wet 
after harvesting; germinating rapidly, and growing steadily af- 
ter sowing. Any wheat that united all these qualities would 
be nearly perfect. 

158. Wheat is expected to weigh sixty pounds to the Amer- 
ican bushel. The crop varies from eight to sixty bushels to the 
acre; the average throughout the United States is between 
twelve and fifteen bushels per acre. Occasionally a bushel of 
wheat will weigh as high as sixty-six pounds, 

The American Bushel contains, - - + 2,150.42 cubic inches, 

The English (Imperial) Bushel contains - 2.218.192 ‘3 

The English quarter of Wheat is eight Imperial Bushels of 70 Ibs. 


each, equal to 914 American Bushels of 60 Ibs. each. Wheat is sold in 
the States by the Bushel of 60 Ibs. In England by the quarter of 560 lbs. 


159. Ultimate anatysis of Wheat grown at Bechelbronn, 
1837.—( Boussingault. ) 


GRAIN, i STRAW. 
ipa Tae aR 
Carbon, - - - - - 46.10 48.48 48.38 
Hydrogen, - = + - = 5.80 5.41 5.21 
Oxygen; oe 29) ein eet 43AD aD 39.09 
Bi ieteger esti yst',~ x, 050k, viaetaanilil 0.35 0.35 
Fete corn at, whe atic, bo hiades dna 6.97 6.97 
100.00 100.00 100.00 


160. The composition of Wheat varies greatly according to 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 61 


many circumstances, such as (a,) the soil; (0,) the manure 
used; (c,) the variety; (d,) the climate; (e,) the time it is 
harvested, &e. The following analysis by Sprengel may be 
taken as an average. 100,000 parts dry wheat contain 1177 
parts of ash or inorganic matter; the same quantity of wheat 
straw contains 3518 parts of ash, They consist of the follow- 
ing substances: 


GRAIN. STRAW. 

Potash, : - - - 225 20 
Soda, . - - - 240 99 
Lime, - > - - 96 240 
Magnesia, - - - - 690 32 
Alumina, . - - ° 26 90 
Silica, - - - - 400 2870 
Sulphuric Acid, - - : 50 37 
Phosphoric Acid - - - 40 170 
Chlorine, - oe > > 10 30 
1777 3518 


161. Analysis of the organic, or combustible portion. 100 
parts of wheat in its natural state contain. ( Gregory.) 


Albumen, - - - - - eo 
Gluten, - - ° * “ 3 99 
Starch, - - > ” - as +5507 
Gum, Dextrine, Pectine and Sugar, - - = 46 
Fibre and Husk, ° - - - - 11.9 

82,31 


162. Or according to another analysis (Gregory,) the parts 
may be thus divided: 

Water, . ° a = - on My BE 

Organic Matter, - - ° _ “ - 85:2 

Ash, - : : - < * me tO 

163. The influence of variety of seed and mode of culture 
are shown by the following results of the examination by Bous- 
singault of several varieties of wheat grown in the Botanic 
Garden at Paris: 


62 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


Husk or Bran| Water in the | Flour in the | Gluten, &c.m 
in the grain, | Fyjour, per grain, per | the Flour, per 
per cent. cent. cent. cent. 

Cape Wheat, - - 19 81 7.0 20.6 
Russian Wheat, - 18 82 6.4 24.8 
Dantzig Wheat,- - 24 76 7.3 25.8 
Red Foix Wheat, - 18.5 81.5 - 93 26.1 
Barrel Wheat, - - 22 78 8.8 27.7 
Winter Wheat,- - 38 62 14.1 33.0 


164. The time of cutting affects the weight of produce, as 
well as the relative proportions of flour, bran, and gluten. 
Thus from three equal patches of the same field of wheat in 
Yorkshire, cut twenty days before the crop was ripe, ten days 
before ripeness, and when fully ripe, the produce was in grain. 


( Johnston.) 
20 days before. 10 days before. Fully ripe. 
166 lbs. 220 lbs. 209 lbs. 


and the per centage of flour, sharps, and bran, yielded by each, 
and of water and gluten in the flour was as follows: 


When cut. in the grain, per cents in the flour, per cent. 

i Flour. Sharps. Bran. Water. Gluten. 
20 days before it was ripe, 74.7 7.2 17.5 15:7 9.3 
10 days before, - 279 oo 13.2 15.5 9.9 
Fully tip - - 722 11.0 16.0 15.9 9.6 


When cut a fortnight before it is ripe, therefore, the entire 
produce of the grain is greater, the yield of flour is larger, and 
of bran considerably less, while the proportion of gluten con- 
tained in the flour appears also to be in favor of that which was 
reaped before the wheat was fully ripe. 

165. Bran, as is well known, constitutes, notwithstanding its 
dry appearance, a very excellent food, and is fattening for stock, 
Used in bread, it adds much to the nourishing qualities of it, es- 
pecially in the case of children. The average composition of it 
is represented as follows: ( Johnston.) 


Water, - = - - - 13.1 per cent, 
Albumen, (coagulated, + . ~ - 19.3 ‘ 
Oil, = i - - = - 4.7 “ 
Husk anda littlestarch, - - . = OG,.* cee 


Saline matter, (ash, ) * - * * ve 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 63 


The following is a more minute analysis of Bran from a Soft 
French Wheat, grown in 1848: (Millon.) 


Starch, dextrine and sugar, - - - 53.00 per cent. 
Sugar of Liquorice, - - - - =F KAD, apc 
Gluten, - - - - - : 14.90 s 
Fatty matter, . - - - = 3.60" Oras 
Woody matter, - - - - - Se Oby . S 
Salts, (inorganic,) - - - - - 050 “ 
Water, - - - - - - 13.90 ve 
Incrusting matter and aromatic principles, —_- oi | a is 
100.00* 


A large portion of the inorganic matter in Bran is Phosphate 
of Magnesia, a very valuable salt both in food and for manure. 
Common bran, however, owing to the flour adhering to it, is 
generally much richer than the above analyses. 


166. The following is another view of the constituents of 
wheat, being the extremes of fourteen analyses of as many dif- 
ferent varieties, lately made by Peligot: 


Water, - - + 13.2 to 15.2 per cent, 
Fatty matters, - - - . - 10 to 1.9 ‘s 
Nitrogenous matters insoluble in water,  - 8.1 to" 19.8 
Soluble Nitrogenous matter, (albumen, ) ~ 14 to 24 ue 
Dextrine, - - - - - &4. to 105 “ 
Starch, - - - -~ = 565i) to 67.1 = 
Cellulose, (woody matter,y = - - o ORR) BEE. 
Saline matter, - - - - UAito 19 ¢ 


*The reader is referred for further information on the nutritious value of Bran to 
an Essay by Prof. J. F. W. Johnston, published in Edinburgh, Scotland ; and to the Re- 
port of Prof.L, C. Beck in the Patent Office Report for 1849, p.55. Dr. Daubeny 
observes “that according to the experiments of Magendie, animals fed upon fine 
flour died in a few weeks, while they thrived upon the whole meal bread. Brown 
bread, therefore, should be adopted not merely on a principle of economy, but also as 
providing more of those ingredients which are perhaps deficient in the finer parts of 
the flour.” 


64 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOE. 


167. The composition of wheat may, therefore, be roughly 
stated, as: 
Heat-producing constituents, Starch, Sugar, Gum, - 50 to 60 per cent 


Flesh-forming " Gluten and Albumen, 16 to 18 “ 
Water, - ss 10 to 18 st 
Useless, 4 woody fibre, >, Mt * 
Inorganic, “s yarious salts, - Zito 4 e 


168. In damp climates, such as that of Great Britain, the 
grain of wheat is generally larger and plumper than in hot, dry 
climates; but analyses show that the small grain raised in the 
hotter and drier air greatly surpasses the former in its nutritive 
value. 

169. Prof. Beck, in his numerous examinations, found that 
the wheat and wheat-flour of the United States are equal to, if 
not greater in nutritive value than those afforded by samples 
produced in any other part of the world. 

170. The following is an analysis of Michigan (.A,) and 
of Richmond Mill (B,) Flour: (Beck.) 


A B 

Water, - - - - = 1225 11,70 
Gluten and Albumen, . : - 10.00 13.00 
Starch, - - - - - 67.70 67.50 
Glucose, Dextrine, &e., - - - 8.75 6.90 
Bran, - - - - = Og 0.50 
Ash, - : - - - 0.55 0.40 

100.00 100,60 


171. The proportion of gluten in flour not only increases the 
nutritive value, but also the economical. It is to the peculiar 
mechanical property of this gluten that wheat flour owes its 
superior power of detaining the carbonic acid engendered by 
fermentation, and thus communicating to it the vesicular, 
spongy structure so characteristic of good bread. Where the 
proportion of gluten is large, the bread, absorbing more water, 
&c., weighs heavier. Thus, on an accurate and careful experiment, 
two pounds of Cincinnati flour, and two pounds of Alabama 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK, 65 


fiour were each, separately, mixed with a quarter of a pound of 
yeast, and were made into loaves and baked in the same oven. 


The Cincinnati loaf weighed Se 3 lbs. 

The Alabama loaf weighed = - - - - 84 lbs. 

The gain in the latter is 22 percent. over the former; or five 
barrels of Southern flour are equal to six of Northern flour. 
(Pat. Of. Rep., 1846, p. 150.) 


172. When fermentation, or rising, in bread is affected by 
the addition of yeast or leaven to the paste or dough, the char- 
acter of the mass is materially altered. A larger or smaller 
proportion of the flour is virtually lost; according to Dr. W. 
Gregory it amounts to a loss of one sixteenth part of the whole 
of the flour. To avoid this, it has been recommended to raise 
bread by means of carbonate of soda and muriatic acid, which 
produce the same effect as yeast, while the sugar and gluten 
are saved; these two former materials forming common salt; and 
giving off carbonic acid gas, 


173. The best sorts for Wheat are those which contain a 
good proportion of clay and lime. Light and sandy soils do 
not usually produce good wheat. 


Boussingault gives the following classification of soils: 


| | 5 é 
Soils omen - composi- Usually Designated. . 2 : 4 z 
E é (861 5. 
Clay with humus, Rich wheat land, 74} 10] 4 |11.5 
6 “ 6o 6 81 6 4 5 5 
it “ “ “ &s 79 10 4 6. 5 
Marly Soil, « * 40 | 22] 36| 4 
Light soil, with humus, | Meadow land, 14 | 47 | 10 | 27 
Sand Soil, humus, |Rich Barley land, 20 | 67 |/ 3.|'10 
Argillaceous land, Good Wheat land, 2 a61.2)| 4 
Marly Soil, Wheat land, 30 | 12; 2 
Argillaceous land, 4 ne 38 2 
Stiffer “«  « «6 | 48 | 50 2 
Clay, tit 5 | 68 | 30 2 


66 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


! be 
oO. 
Soils sceenpne to composi- Usually designated. és 3 23 : 
6 1.8, 150s 
Stiff ar gillaceous land, Bar ‘ley land, Ist class,| 38 60 2 
2d class, 33 | 65 2 
Sandy Clay, 5 wine 28 | 70 2 
¥ fé Oat land, 23.5) 75 1.5 
Clayey Sand, wa tl 18.5| 80 1.5 
e oF Rye land, 14 | 85 1 
Sandy Soil, oe 9 | 90 hn 
“ec “ “6 4 95 0. 75 
6é 6 “ “cc | 2 97.5 0. 5 


Besides these constituents, a good wheat soil should contain 
a notable proportion of potash, soda, phosphoric acid, and nitro- 
gen. In Great Britain, the introduction of turnips and clover 
culture and drainage has greatly extended the range of wheat 
producing soils; this grain being now cultivated in rotation, 
with profit, even on sandy soils; so true is it, that science can 
adapt the earth and climate to almost any crop which it is de- 
sirable to cultivate. 

174, Wheat, is considered a scourging crop, rapidly impoy- 
erishing the soil, in consequence of its requiring for its compo- 
sition large quantities of materials, chiefly inorganic, which are 
naturally rare in soils. In this respect, it is placed at the head, 
of grains. According to Boussingault, a medium crop of wheat 
takes from one acre of ground: 


3 |ACIDS. | 3 
5 |nA ¢ 

“ 
Al ; | 
| 4 E < 
lg}s). 3 d 

. 8 + 8 

& rs plelé é g q I 
elalalele(z]el#]il 24 

ma c= ° = 3 | S| . 
Sis slalelél sisicl #1e 
tbs {tbs | tbs Ibs|tbs|tbs| tbs ibs|Ibs| ibs |tbs 

Wheat, - - - |1052/!2.4| 25/12/0.3} | 0.8| 4/7! 0.4 
Wheat ‘tins - |2558|7.0)179 ae 9 17 (122. | 18 
Total, - 3610/9.4|204| 17|1.8| 1|15.8|13 |24 |121.4| 13 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOR. 67 


An average crop takes of organic matter the following, in 
grain and straw: 

Carbon, - =. 2259 Ths, | Oxygen, *) =... = 1923 Ibs. 
Hydrogen, - - 262 “ j Nitrogen, - - 52 “ 
or, as Ammonia, 63 Ibs. 

In consequence, it is found, in practice, that it is impossible 
even upon the best wheat soils, to grow this grain for several 
years in succession, without injuring the land; and, in most 
cases, the crop becoming so small as to be unprofitable. What 
is taken away must be replaced either directly by manures, or 
by growing other crops which do not require the chief constit~ 
uents of wheat. 


175. There are many rich soils in the Western States, such 
as Prairies, and River Bottoms, in which wheat runs to straw, 
and produces very little grain. This is commonly said to be 
owing to the land being “too rich;” but, in reality, it must be 
in consequence of a deficiency of some constituents of the 
wheat; which judicious manuring would supply. We are not 
aware that a comparative analysis of such lands has been yet 
made, but they will probably be found deficient in the alkahies 
and lime. 

176. The manures for wheat necessarily vary according to 
the nature of the soil, and the mode in which it has been erop- 
ped. It may, however, be stated as general proposition, that our 
wheat lands appear deficient in ammonia, and that they cannot 
fail to be benefitted by nitrogeneous manures, such as guano, 
flesh, blood, sheep-dung, wel/-saved barn-yard manure, and such 
like. 

There are probably few fields in the country in which the 
crop may not be greatly increased by judicious manuring; and. 
very many that require manures to continue them at or bring 
them up to their original fertility. 

177. It has been already stated (§159,) that the composition 
of wheat varies greatly according to the manure employed. 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


Thus, manures which are rich in nitrogen (ammonia,) not only 
increase the crop, but also produce a grain richer in gluten, and 
therefore intrinsically more valuable. On ten patches, each one 
hundred square feet, of the sante soil (a sandy loam,) manured 
with equal weights of different manures in the dry state, 
Hermbstadt sowed equal quantities (} Ib.) of the same wheat,—- 
collected, weighed, and analyzed the produce. His results are 
represented in the following table: 


-| B| 2 Pl al s % 

tS =} C) 
Z) 2) 2) 2]. ) 3] 2] Flee é 
|] 2] £] 3] eg] €] 2B] Bel 
| 2l| 2] &\ gs €| #l slegl 8 
RETURN 14 fid} 14 fid 12 fid 12 fid 12 fid 10 fid)9 fold 7 fold 5 fold 3 fold 
Water, - - - 4.3) 4.2] 4.2] 4.3] 4.2] 4.3] 4.3] 4.2) 4.2) 4.2 
Gluten, - - - |34.2/33.9)32.9/32.9/35.1/13.7)12.2|12.0) 9.6} 9.2 
Albumen, - - 1.0} 1.3) 1.3} 1.8} 1.4) 1.1] 0.9} 1.0] 0.8} 0.7 
Starch,- - + - |41.3)41.4|42,8/42.4/39.9)/61.6)63.2/62.3}65.9|66.6 
Sugar, - - - | 1.9) 1.6} 1.5} 1.5) 1.4} 1.6] 1.9] 1.9] 1.9) 1.9 
Gum, - - - -| 1.8) 1.6] 1.5] 1.5) 1.6) 1.6) 1:9) 1.9) 1.6) 1.8 
Fatty oil, - - 0.9; 1.1] 1.0; 0.9] 1.0; 1.0} 0.9; 1.0; 1.0; 1.6 


Sol.phosphates,&c| 0.5| 0.6] 0.7| 0.7; 0.9] 0.6) 0.5} 0.5) 0.5) 0.3 
Husk and Bran, |13.9}14.0/13.8)14.2|14.2/14.0|14.0|14.9)14.0|14.0 


99.8}99.7|99.7|99.7|99.7|99.6|99.8|9.7|99.8|99.7 


It must not, however, be forgotten, that these are garden ex- 
periments; and while the theory is probably quite true, in field 
culture the farmer may be unable to produce exactly the same 
results, Such experiments must be considered rather as illus- 
trating a general principle, than as positively useful in practice, 
except to a limited extent. 

178. The only mode in which a farmer can judiciously use 
manure, is by haying an analysis of his land, showing what con- 
stituents are soluble, what may easily be rendered so, and what 
is wanting. 

179. In many parts of the United States, wheat soils are manured by 


the complex action of clover, plaster (sulphate of lime) and sheep dung. 
The philosophy of this is as follows: The surface soil is naturally, or 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 69 


has become by cultivation deficient in soluble lime and sulphuric acid, 
two constituents consumed in large quantities by clover ; and which 
must be supplied before clover can grow. The clover is therefore sown 
with powdered plaster which contains these two elements, and it grows 
luxuriantly. But while the surface soil has been impoverished, the sub- 
soil remains full of salts ; and the clover sends down its deep tap roots 
into the subsoil, collects such inorganic matter as its finds there, and 
brings it to thesurface. The sheep eat the green part, and scatter the con- 
stituents of the clover over the ground, together with the ammonia formed 
in the urine. The clover is then plowed up, and all that it has received 
from the subsoil and the air, is again rendered more or less soluble by 
decay, and supplied to the surface soi) where the wheat roots find it. 
This can searcely be called real manuring. With the exception of a lit- 
tle lime and sulphuric acid, nothing is supplied te the field but what it 
or the air contained before. The clover has acted as a collector. It has 
brought together on the surface what was before scattered in the sub- 
soil, but it affords nothing new. The effect, in time, of such practice 
roust be, that not only the surface but the subsoil also becomes impov- 
erished ; and each crop of wheat carries off the constituents of a larger 
area, than it could possibly do without clover. Unless, manures from 
the barn-yard or other sources are also supplied, the soil must, finally, 
be very seriously injured. 


180. There are various modes of preparing the land for 
Wheat; (a,) summer following, with three distinct plowings, 
(6,) plowing once; (c,) plowing once and rendering the surface 
mellow with a cultivator; all of which have their advocates, 
and all are probably good for peculiar soils, and under peculiar 
circumstances. (See PLOWING.) 


181. There are also various modes of covering the grain, (a, ) 
by a harrow or drag; (0,) by plowing it in with a shallow fur- 
row with a plow or cultivator; (¢,) by ribbing; (d,) with a 
Drill Machine. (See Ivetemenrs.) 


182. Wheat is sown (a,) either broadcast by hand or by a 
machine; (4,) by a drill; or in England (c,) by a‘dibble. 


183. It is harvested (a,) by hand with a sickle or reaping- 
hook; (2,) with a cradle; (c,) by a machine worked by horses. 


70 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


In all cases, it is usually bound with a band made of its owm 
straw into sheaves, and set up in shocks to dry. 

184. It is either (a,) stacked out of doors, or (6,) put into 
a barn; (c,) or thrashed in the field. 

185. It is thrashed (a,) by a flail; (4,) by horses or cattle 
treading on it; (¢,) by a machine moved by horse-power; (d,) 
or, among the French, by a machine called Le Diadle. 

186. The chaff is separated from the grain by (a,) a Fan- 
ning Mill, or (6,) by the wind. 

186. It is then ready for (a,) storing in the granary, or (4, ) 
sending to market, which is usually done in bags holding two 
measured bushels. 


188. It has been already stated (§163) that the comparative 
ripeness affects the weight and quality of the grain. The best 
practical rule is to cut when a grain of wheat pressed between 
the finger and thumb is easily crushed, and yields a considera- 
ble quantity of juice; and when the straw is still more or less 
green, especially near the root. Some experience, however, is 
requisite in determining the exact time. 


189. For seed, on the contrary, wheat should be allowed to 
stand until it is quite ripe; and then selected with care. The 
best wheat is raised from seed carefully selected from large heads. 
In former days, when wheat was winnowed by the wind, the 
largest and heaviest grains were preserved for seed. Great im- 
provement, both in the variety and crop, may undoubtedly be 
affected by exercising care in this particular. Experiments seem 
to prove that wheat thrashed by a machine frequently has the 
germinating power destroyed; and though it may throw out 
leaves is deficient in roots, and therefore perishes. 


The Boston Cultivator, 1845, gives an instance of a farmer in Ver- 
mont, who saved his seed wheat, who used, before thrashing, to select 
the best sheaves, and striking them over the side of an empty barrel as 
it lay on the floor, three or four times, he obtained a very superior seed 
wheat. Thus the largest and ripest kernels were seperated and collect- 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 71 


ed. While the process was kept secret, so high a reputation had this 
wheat, that the neighbors willingly paid double the usual price for it. 

190. The quantity of seed sown to the acre varies in the 
United States from one and a half to two bushels, broadcast; 
and about one bushel if drilled. In Great Britain, where much 
more seed of all the cereals is sown than with us, three to four 
bushels is the usual quantity, when broadcast. 


191. The waste of seed in the soil is very great, especially 
when broadcast; chiefly in consequence of the irregular depth 
at which the grain is planted. The following calculation has 
been made, (Stephens.) “ Wheat at 63 Ibs. to the bushel, gives 
87 of its seeds to the drachm ; or 701,568 to the bushel (in 
apothecary’s weight,) or 865,170, (in  avoirdupois weight.) 
Now three bushels of seed are sown on the acre, or 2,595,510 
grains of wheat. Suppose that each grain produces one stem; 
and every stem bears an ear containing the common number of 
32 grains, the produce of the acre should be 96 bushels; but 
the heaviest crop in Scotland rarely exceeds 64 bushels to the 
acre, or 33 per cent. of the seed is lost in the best crops, and 58 
per cent. in an ordinary one of 40 bushels.” It is very impor- 
tant that such experiments as these should be made in the Uni- 
ted States, so as to ascertain the exact quantity of seed to be 
sown in each soil and climate. 


192. The depth at which seeds are sown, is also very impor- 
tant. In order to germinate, a seed must have acccess to mois- 
ture, air, and warmth, but be excluded from light. If covered 
too deep, it will not sprout; if too shallow it is apt to perish for 
want of moisture and from other causes. Seeds of different 
plants germinate at various depths. It is laid down as a rule 
that wheat sown before winter should be as deeply covered with 
earth as to be beyond the reach of injurious frost, say four or 
five inches; but when sown in spring it should be lightly coy- 
ered, little exceeding one inch. In no ease should wheat be 
deeper than six or seven inches. In light dry soils it should be 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


deeper than in wet adhesive clays; and where clods are numer- 
ous more seed is requisite than where the earth is in fine tilth. 
The following table is given on the authority of M. Moreau, of 
Paris. He formed thirteen beds in which he planted one hun- 
dred and fifty kernels of wheat at various depths: 


At Depth of 


| Came up. | No. of Heads. | No. of Grains. 
7 inches, 5 682 
64 14 6 2,520 
Boag he 20 174 3,818 
44 « 40 400 8,000 
44 * 73 | 700 16,500 
1 yield 93 992 18,534 
ot 123 1417 35,434 
Zhi & 130 1560 34,349 
ee Se 140 1590 36,480 
it ia 142 1660 35,826 
I 6s fie 137 1561 35,072 
ae 64 529 10,587 
On surface, 20 107 1,600 


From these experiments it would appear that the grain should 
not be sown at much greater depth than two inches, nor nearer 
the surface than one inch. The soil is not stated. 


193. Wheat a year old is considered to be better for sowing 
in the Fall than new wheat. New wheat germinates quicker, 
but is more easily affected by bad weather and insects, and gen- 
erally the stalks are neither as numerous nor as strong. 


194. Wheat is frequently steeped or pickled (a,) to act as a 
manure; (0, ) to destroy the sporules or seeds of smut. Various 
substances are used, as (c,) salt and water; (d,) green vitriol, 
(sulphate of iron,) (e,) stale urine; (f,) arsenic, dc. Arsenic, 
however, has been proved to be decidedly dangerous to the 
sower, and the use of it is forbidden by the French government. 
Various modes of steeping, according to convenience, are used ; 
and the seed is dried with wood ashes, plaster, slacked lime, 
powdered clay, &e. 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 73 


195. In judging of seed wheat, the dimpled end of the grain 
should be distinctly marked, and the point from which the lit- 
tle roots proceed must be somewhat prominent; the end from 
which the blade springs should also be slightly covered with 
hairiness or wooliness, The little protuberances at either of 
those ends must not have been rubbed off, as the grain is there- 
by deprived of vitality, Kiln-drying spoils grain for sowing. 
It may be known by unusual hardness, and a smoky odor. 
Wheat that has heated in the stack will taste bitter; if slightly 
sprouted, sweet; and if long kept in the granary it will smell 
musty, and look dull and dusty. If eaten by the weevil it may 
be detected by pressing the kernel with the fingers. If rusted 
it will be shrunk; if smudty, it will have a black appearance and 
a peculiar smell. 

196. The weeds that principally injure wheat in the United 
States are (a,) Cockle, (Lychnis Githago;) (b,) Chess or Cheat, 
(Bromus secalinus;) (c,) Pigeon-weed, or Red-root, Steen- 
erout, Stony-seed, Wheat-thief, (Lithospermum arvense; ) (d,) 
(chiefly in spring wheat,) Field-mustard or Charlock, (Sinapis 
arvensis; ) (e,) Vetch, or Black-pea, Tare, ( Vicia sativa ? and 
Americana?) (f,) Wild-radish, also called Charlock. (Ra- 
phanus Raphanistrum.) These are all annuals; for perenni- 
al weeds are confined to no particular crop. 

Cockle (a,) is a strong growing upright plant, one to two and a half 
feet high, with a purple flower, and seed pod full of black seeds. It in- 
jures the wheat chiefly in grinding for flour, discoloring it, and giving 
an unpleasant bitter flavor. 

Chess, (6,) a species of grass. There are two other species of the 
game genus indigenous to the United States, and two more introduced 
from England. The leaves and stalk, in their earlier stages, greatly re- 
semble wheat, but the ftowers, stamens, and seeds, are very different, 
It grows chiefly in soil plowed in the Fall, but is also met with in mead- 
ows, and among spring crops, where no wheat was ever sown. It is 
probably a native of most parts of the Northern States, and like other 
weeds, the germs are contained in the soi] ready to vegitate as soon as 
the conditions of growth are favorable. The seeds are very numerous. 


74 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


Seven thousand kernels have been counted growing from one root; 
enough to seed three hundred acres thickly the third year, were it culti- 
vated. They are also very difficult to destroy, passing through animals 
and fowls without losing the germinative power. It was formerly as 
plentiful in England as it is with us, but by care in sowing cleau seed, 
it is now all but exterminated. There is a notion among some farmers 
that “ wheat turns into chess ;’”? but this is wholly opposed to all facts 
and analogies; and the belief may be classed among the superstitions of 
the dark ages that still linger in our profession. (See Patent Office Re- 
ports, 1849, p. 455; 1851, p. 650.) By sowing wheat seed perfectly clean 
of chess, it soon disappears. It is chiefly troublesome by drawing the 
nourishment from the growing wheat, and overpowering it ; and injur- 
ing the flour. When crushed, it is good food for horses and poultry, and 
if boiled, for hogs. 

Pigeon-weed, (¢,) has been introduced from Europe. It is an annual 
plant “slender, hoary with minnte oppressed hairs, somewhat branched ; 
leaves lanceolate, acutish, nearly veinless ; racemes few-flowered, the 
lower flowers remote ; corolla (yellowish white) not longer than the 
calyx.” ( Gray.) 

This weed appears to be confined to certain soils, such as in New 
York are known by the name of Marcellus Shales, and in Michigan, as 
Oak Openings, and Burr Oak Plains. In this latter State, it is found in 
the Interior, while it yet seems to be unknown in the heavy clays, form- 
ing a belt around the Peninsula. Where it becomes plentiful it is ex- 
ceedingly injurious to the wheat crop. It is not above thirty years 
since it was introduced into New York, and it has now spread wherey- 
er it finds a congenial soil. The peculiarities of the character and habit 
of this weed consist (a,) in the hard shell with which its seed or nut is 
covered ; (6,) in the time at which it comes up and ripens its seed ; (¢,) 
in the superficial way in which its roots spread. The seed is so hard 
that it passes uninjured through cattle and birds, and lies for years in the 
ground without perishing. It grows very little in spring, but shoots up 
and ripens in the Fall, and its roots spread through the surface soil on- 
ly, and exhaust the food by which the young wheat should be nourished. 
Itis said to be so prolific as to increase more than two hundred fold an- 
nually. When it has once got into the land, two or three successive 
crops of wheat will give it entire possession of the svil. In Yates 
County, N. Y., the seeds are crushed with linseed, for the oil they con- 
taiv, which is about 4 lbs. per bushel ; and for the addition which the 
husk makes to the oil cake. The only mode of exterminating it is, 
when slight, to pick it out of the growing wheat by hand ; and when 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 15 


abundant, to plow onc» or twice in the fall, after the seed has sprouted ; 
and to cultivate spring hoed crops, avoiding wheat forsome years. The 
seed must on no account be mixed with manure or given to stock, as it 
will thus be spread everywhere. As ordinary care and good farming 
will prevent its spreading further west, and as, in lands that suit, it is 
the most injurious wheat-weed in the Uuiced Slates, it is important that 
the whole community should attend to it. If allowed to grow on one 
farm, it will inevitably spread to others, being carried by birds, and 
other means. 


Field Mustard (d,) and Wild Radish, (f,) are known by their bright 
yellow flowers. They are injurious by taking the place of the grain, 
and overpowering it. The seeds are small, numerous, and very persis- 
tent. The best mode of eradicating these plants, is to pall them by 
hand when in blossom. 


Vetch, (e,) is a small creeping pea-like plant, adl ering to the grain 
by its tendrils. In some soils it is very plentiful; and is chiefly inju- 
rious in grinding, discoloring the flour and giving it a bad flavor, The 
seeds are small, round, and black. It may be exterminated by one or 
two hoed spring crops, and laying the land to pasture for a year or two. 
A good fanning-mill would probably clean the grain completely, but the 
writer has seen wheat brought to mill in Western Canada, containing 
one third of the seeds of the Vetch. It appears to be confined to rich 
clay and loamy lands. 


197. The parasitic fungi which are injurious to wheat are 
(a,) Smut or Bunt; (4,) Rust; (c,) Mildew. 


A Fungus is a cellular flowerless plant, deriving its nutriment by 
means of spawn. It livesin air, and is propogated by spores, which 
are naked, or by sporidia, so called when enclosed in little vesicles. 
Fungi may be said to consist of a mass of little cells, or little threads, 
or of both combined in various ways, They have no seed or fruit ex- 
cept their sporules, spores or sporidia, of which the methods of attach- 
ment are singularly curious and beautiful. They derive their nourish- 
ment from the substance on which they grow, and not from the media 
in which they exist, Well known Fungi are Mushrooms, Toadstools, 
Puftballs, mould on cheese, csc., most of which are poisonous, Many 
of them grow on living plants, as Smut and Rust ; but the small ones, 
to a great extent, on animal substances in a state of partial decay ; or 
where they can find nitrogenous compounds, as in bread, &e. The 
spores are often of exceeding minuteness, and epidemic diseases have 


76 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


been attributed to their influence. Certain species are found in the liv- 
ing human body; and in the inferior animals, These are called Hnto- 
phyta. <A striking instance is the disease which kills so many silk- 
worms, known as the Muscardine, where the Fungus is planted in the 
skin and grows externally. Dr. Leidy,(Smithsonian Contrib.to Knowl.) 
has described ten species of this order found in men. 

198. There are two species of Smut, (a,); the one (2,) Ure- 
do caries, or fwtidum, a brownish black dust, greasy, and fetid, 
taking the place of the kernel of wheat. It does not appear 
externally, being confined within the husk. The other (c,) 
Uredo segetum, (Black ears, Brand, Dust Brand, Burnt Corn, 
&e.,) is met with in Barley and Oats as well as Wheat. It re- 
sembles a black dust, growing within the glumes of the plant. 
It destroys the seed, and its envelopes. The spores are so 
small that a square inch could contain 7,840,000 of them, and 
within these again are inumerable sporoles. Smut (a,) is un- 
doubtedly propagated from the wheat seed to the living plant. 
M. Bauer (Trans. of Linnean Soc’y., London, vol. xviii, p. 
468, ) has shown that “Smut-balls” on grain can certainly be 
produced by inoculating the seed with the sporoles of the fun- 
gus. These bodies are carried into the interior of the plant by 
the sap, after being absorbed by the roots. Johnston says it 
can be seen where they have come up through the stalk. When 
examined, the tubes of the stalk were filled with black matter 
that had come through the vessels, affecting first the straw, then 
getting into the ear, whence it spreads itself all over. “‘Thou- 
sands of the sporules may be attached to a single grain of 
wheat, and yet be invisible to the naked eye. This disease is 
most common on damp undrained soils, with impervious sub- 
soils ; and may be eradicated by (a,) thorough draining of the 
land; (6,) and by washing the grain previous to sowing in 
some saline mixture (§198) and drying with slacked lime. 

199. Of Rust (,) there are also two species. One (c¢,) is 
found scattered over the inner surface of the outer chaff scales, 


the skin of which is raised into blisters. This is called by 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 7 


Botanists Uredo rubigo; itis of an orange yellow color; and 
when severe, causes the grain to shrink, and prevents matura- 
tion. The other (d,) Uredo linearis is confined to the straw 
and leaf, and is the color of the rust of iron, It canses the 
epidermis to split, and it is supposed to permit the emission of 
the juices. The grain is affected by this in the same manner 
as by the former. 


Wet soils are most subject to these fungi, but they especially 
appear during sultry, wet weather towards the flowering of the 
plant. 


200. Mildew (i.e. mel-dew, from an old notion that it was 
produced by honey-dew falling from the air,) or Blight, (c,) is 
produced by Puccinia graminis. It forms blackish brown pa- 
rallel, lives upon the straw, and seems to affect the entire plant, 
so that it deprives the sap of the power to form seed in a 
healthy state, and hence the grain is very much shrivelled, or 
no grain at all is formed. The spores of this fungus enter the 
straw by its breathing pores, which are closed in dry weather, 
but opened in a wet or damp atmosphere. This disease, like 
the last, attacks the plant in warm, moist weather, and often 
with remarkable suddeness and severity. Wet soils, and over- 
manured land are chiefly subject to it; and earth containing 
a large proportion of the salts of iron appears to add to the ten- 
dency. Draining is probably the only cure. 


201. Wheat is also subject to attacks from various insects. 
The injury caused by these is sometimes so great and perma- 
nent as to prevent the culture of wheat at all, as has been the 
case insome parts of New England and New York. We shall 
shortly enumerate those most common in the United States, re- 
ferring the student for scientific descriptions to Dr. 7. W. Har- 
ris’ Treatise on some of the Insects of New England which 
are injurious to vegetation, 2d. Hd., Boston, 1852, and for 
further information to the Patent Office Reports from 1844, 


: 


78 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


and to the older volumes of the Agricultural Periodicals of the 
United States. 

202. (A,) Insects injurious to the seed, when sown, and to 
the young plant: 


In Indiana, wheat has been injured both before and after germinating 
by a “red ant.” It bores a small hole into the kernel, and consumes 
the germ ; or cuts off the sprout, and eats intothe grain. Drilled wheat 
appears to escape these ravages. (Annual Report of Indiana State Board 
of Agriculture, 1852. 2. The Prairie Farmer, in 1844, describes a 
small fly, a little more than an eighth of an inch in size, with four 
wings, and the odor of a bed-bug, which did much injury in Illinois. 
It first destroyed the heads of wheat previous to harvest ; it then took 
to the corn-fields, killing that which was not too far ripened ; and then 
attacked the young wheat, cutting it off just beneath the surface of the 
earth, “ taking all clean as they go. They are of all stages of growth, 
and have been from the first, and the ground is perforated with the holes 
made by them.” 3. In common with many other grains and vegeta- 
bles, young wheat is sometimes injured by the “ Cut-worms,”’ (Agroti- 
dide,) ‘‘ Wire-worms,’? (Juli,) and “ Grub-worms,”’ ( Melolonthade,) 
but these wiil be referred to more particularly hereafter. 


(B,) Insects which injure the straw of wheat while growing: 


1. The Chinch-bug (Zygeus leucopterus. Say.) has done much se- 
vere injury in the South and West, including Wisconsin and Illinois. 
In its perfect state it is winged, and measures three-twentieths of an 
inch in levgth. The eggs are laid in the ground ; and the young make 
their appearance on wheat cbout the middle of June, and still later at- 
tack all kinds of grain, corn, and herds-grass, during the whole sum- 
mer. 2. The Joint-worm (Eurytoma ?) has proved eminently 
destructive in Virgima. It varies from one-tenth to nearly three-twen- 
tieths of an inch in length, is of a pale yellowish white color, with an 
internal dusky streak, and is destitute of hairs, It buries itself in the 
straw, generally at a joint, in or near the second or third joint from the 
ground. The substance of the straw fora distance exceeding half an 
inch is much swollen, and changed toa wood-like texture, while the 
surface exhibits long, pale spots, slightly elevated like a blister. The 
worm finally changes to a winged insect. Burning the stubble as soon 
as the grain is harvested is recommended as a cure. 3. The Hessian 
Fly (Cecidomyia destructor.) is supposed to haye been introduced from 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 79 


Germany into Long Island, R.I., by the Hessian troops, under Sir W. 
Howe, in 1776. Thence it gradually spread over the Southern parts of 
New York and Connecticut, at the rate of fifteen or twenty miles a year. 
It was found west of the Alleghany Mountains, in 1797. In many 
places, the culture of wheat was abandoned in consequence of its rav- 
ages. The body of the perfect insect measures about one-tenth of an 
inch in Jength, and the wings expand a quarter of an inch or more, 
Two broods are brought to maturity in the course of a year, and the 
flies appear in the spring and fall. In the latitude of New England, the 
female begins to lay its eggs on the blade of the young wheat at the 
end of September, or beginning of October. In four to fifteen days 
the egg hatches ; the maggot, of a pale red color, crawls down the leaf, 
and works its way between it avd the main stalk, passing down till it 
comes to a joint, just above which it remains, a little below the surface 
of the ground, with the head towards the root of the plant. Here it 
rests till its transformations are completed. It niether eats the stalk, 
nor penetrates within it, but lies lengthwise upon its surface, nourished 
wholly by the sap. As it increases in size, it becomes imbedded in the 
side of the stem, by pressure. If two or three are fixed in this manner 
they frequently czuse the plant to fall down and die. 1n five or six 
weeks they grow to full size—three-twentieths of an inch in length. 
About the first of December, they harden and change to a bright chest- 
nut color; in which form they are commonly likened to a flix seed, 
In this state, they gradually change to a fly, and appear again as such 
at the end of Apri! or beginning of May. Very soon after, they are 
ready to lay their eggs on the leaves of the wheat sown in the previous 
fall, or the same spring. In three weeks they entirely disappear from 
the field. Undergoing the same changes, the maggets from these eggs 
take the flax-seed form in June and July, In this state they are found 
at the time of harvest, and when the grain is gathered they remain in 
the stubble in the fields. Some, however, are carried to the barn 
The principal migrations of the flies take place in the middle of Au- 
gust and September. 4. In 1843, Miss Morris discovered in Pennsy'- 
vania, another species of the Hessian Fly. (Cecidomyia culmicola.) It 
differs in its habits from the former, by depositing its eggs early in June 
in the grain, The egg remains unbatehed till the gain is sown and 
germinates, and the maggot soon eats its way into and burries itself in 
the straw. Here it remains till it is ready to assume the flax-seed form, 
and then, emerging, fixes itself to the outside of the stalk. It has since 
disappeared from the locality, but may probably be met with else- 
where, being mistaken for the first species. 


80 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


5. The larva or maggots of Oscinis lineata, Chlorops pumilionis, and 
Chlorops glabra, and other flies allied to them, live within the lower 
part of the stems of wheat, rye, and barley, thereby impoverishing the 
plants, and causing them to become stinted in their growth. They are 
rather larger insects than the Frit-Fly. It is highly probable that some 
of these species, or the Oscinians with similar habits may be found in 
the stems of wheat, and other grains, and perhaps also in the ears. “A 
careful examination of all the insects that inhabit our fields of grain is 
very much wanted.” ( Harris.) 


6. The Patent Office Report, 1845, p. 144, mentions a worm which ap- 
peared among wheat in Buck’s Co., Penn. “It is a green worm about 
an inch long ; its head is brownish green, with two brown spots on it. 
It ascends the stalk of wheat, soon after it has headed, cuts off the 
head, and feeds upon the top of the standing part.” 


(C,) Insects which injure the grain of wheat in the field: 


1. Wheat-fly, Grain-worm, Weevil, (Cecidomayia Tritici.) This is a 
small fly, one-tenth of an inch long, somewhat resembling a musquito 
in form, and was probably introduced from England. It is said to have 
been first seen in America in 1828, im North Vermont, and Lower Can- 
ada. It has since spread to Upper Canada, New York, New Hamp- 
shire, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and probably other States ; and has, 
in some instances, caused the growth of wheat to be relinquished. The 
female appears from the begining of June to the end of August, in the 
wheat fields, in immense swarms, when they lay their eggs in the open- 
ing flowers of the grain. The eggs hatch in about eight days, and a 
little yellow magget is produced. It never exceeds an eight of an inch 
in length. From two to twenty have been found within the husk of a 
single grain. They prey on the wheat in its milky state, and stop when 
it becomes hard ; in consequence, the kernels never fill out. Late in 
July and early in August, these maggets change their skins and enter 
the ground, where they remain through the winter; at the depth of 
an inch. Deep plowing in the fall, and the use of caustic lime as a 
manure are recommended for their destruction, as the best among many 
receipts. 

2. Another small fly, very similar in its effects (Thrips cerealium,) 
has been met with in New Hampshire, 3. Brown Weevil, Grey Worm, 
Wheat-worm, (Caradrina cubicularis ?) This, which has proved very 
injurious in Western New York, Northern Pennsylvania, and other lo- 
calities, has not yet been distiactly recognized as a species, nor is its 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 81 


full history known. It is a catapillar or span-worm, from three to five- 
eighths of an inch long, of various shades of brown or yellow in color. 
It feeds not only on the kernel in the milky state, but also devours the 
germinating end of the ripened grain, without burying itself within the 
hull; and it is found in great numbers in the chaff when the grain is 
thrashed. They continue to eat the grain after harvest. Hot water 
should be poured on those met with in thrashing, and none should be 
allowed to escape. 


(D,) Insects which injure grain in the granary: 


1. The Grain Weevil, (Calandra or Curculio granarius.) This be- 
longs to the same faraily of insects as the Curculio which destroys 
plums. In its perfect state it is a slender beetle of a pitchy red color, 
about an eighth of an inch long. The female deposites her eggs upon 
the wheat after it is housed, and the young grubs hatched therefrom 
immediately burrow into the wheat, each individual occupying alone a 
single grain, the substance of which it devours so as to leave nothing 
but the hull, and the loss of weight is the only external evidence of the 
mischief that has been done. The adults also eat the grain. In Eu- 
rope, it has proved peculiarly destructive to stored grain. Roasting or 
kiln-drying the wheat, effectually destroys the grub. 2. The Grain- 
moth (Tinea granella.) 3. The Angoumois moth ( Anacampsis cereal- 
ella,) are small moths, resembling the well known carpet-month of 
houses, the grubs of which prey on stored grain. They have spread 
very generally over the United States. The last species was probably in- 
troduced into Virginia from France 

There are probably many other insects than the above injurious to 
wheat at various stages of its growth; but unfortunately practical 
farmers pay little attention to entomology, and are apt to confound not 
only one known species with another, but also those which are de- 
scribed with those which are not. An intelligent farmer would confer 
kn great benefit on the community were he to study carefully the habits 
of all insects injurious to vegetation in his own locality, and make the 
results known. Insects injurious to the farmer appear to be increasing 
in all parts of this country, and itis very essential that their habits 
should be accurately studied so that remedies may be devised. It is 
only by our becoming thoroughly acquainted with the character and 
peculiarities of our enemies, that we can hope to overcome them. Mera 
fruesses, and random experiments, rarely if ever, prove of any benefit. 
The loss annually sustained by the country in consequence of the de- 

6 


82 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOEK. 


predations of insects is exceeding great, and is calculated by millions of 
dollars. 


203. The manufacture of flour is, in itself, a business inde- 
pendent of the farmer. It employs a large amount of capital, 
requiring expensive buildings and machinery; and consumes 
much timber in the making of barrels. It is not necessary to 
refer to it any further in this place, otherwise than to say that 
a good farmer will always endeavor to take his wheat to market 
in the best and cleanest condition. In 1850, 2,202,335 bar- 
rels of Flour were exported from the United States. 


It is extremely important to the practical farmer to know the cost of producing 
wheat, so that he may be able to make his calculations, and avoid losses. The Com- 
missioner of Patents has more than once endeavored to acquire a knowledge of the 
expense of bringing a bushel of wheat to market, in various parts of the United 
States; and though, owing to difficulties in the way, it has been found impossible to 
arrive at an accurate estimate, the actual cost of every bushel of wheat, to the farmer 
may be stated to be from 50 cents to $1%¢ according to the location, the value of the 
land, and the need of manure, &c. The following, which is a bona fide account by 
a very intelligent, practical farmer, may be considered as the actual cost in’ the older 
settled parts of Michigan. The field contained 12 and 2-100 acres of land. 


Plowing,7 days, 3 pair oxen, 1 pair horses,2menandl boy, - - $21,00 


Harrowing 2 days with team, - - « ° - = 2,00 
Cultivating 2 days, - - - . - “ ‘a 2,00 
1934 bushels seed at $1,00, - + - - - = 2 19,50 
Sowing l day, - - - - - - - - - 63 
Cultivating 3 days and harrowing 1 day, - - - - . 5,00 
Furrowing and cleaning furrows, 2 days, - - - - - 1,50 
Weeding 44 day, - - : - - - . * 31 
Harvesting, &c.,37 days, = - . - : é = - 32,38 
Team, - - - - - - - - - 1,50 
Thrashing and cleaning,  - s é lo - : - 28,82 


Manures, - - - - - - - . - 7,75 
Interest on value of land, ($6 per acre,) - - 417,56 


—— 


$128,95 

The produce was 545 bushels of wheat or about 45 bushels per acre, making the 
eost about 23 centsa bushel. But if the crop had averaged 20 bushels only, which, 
on the average is a large crop, it would have cost nearly 54 cents a bushel. And had 
the crop been smaller still, say 15 bushels per acre, a fair average for the State, it 
would have cost over 71 cents a bushel, which is more than wheat was then selling 
for. 

There is one apparent error in this account, and that is in the interest charged 
upon the lard: Jand of su: b richness, drained, worked, and manured as it must be 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 8s 


‘© produce such a crop, and with its share of the necessary buildings, was at the 
time worth from $40'to $50 an acre, intrinsically. Say the smallest sum, ($40,) and 
the interest charged, instead of being $7,56, ought to have been $48,00 for twelve 
‘months; but it is usual to charge eighteen months interest on land employed in 
growing wheat, or $72,0C, This would still further raise the cost of the grain, on 
the farm, without allowing anything for profit, or remuneration for skill, or exper 
‘ces of marketing. The straw, horyeyer, is gencrally considered an equivalent for the 
latter. (4, Cone. Trans. of State Agricul, Socy. of Méch., 850, p, 487.) 


CHAPTER VII. 


RY E.-»-( Secale cereale.) 


204, Next to Wheat, Rye is most consumed by mankind in 
those latittides which are too cold for Indian Corn. It is be- 
lieved to be a native of Western or Central Asia. 

M. DeCandolle says that a M. Koch, whe has traversed Anatolia, Ar- 
menia, the Caucasus, and Crimea, affirms that he has found Rye under 
circumstances where it appears to be really spontaneous and native. 
On the mountains of Pont, in the country of Hemschin, upon granite, 
at an elevation of five or six thousand feet, he found our common rye 
along side the road. Jt was thin in the ear, and aboat one to two and a 
halfinches tong. Noone remembered that it had ever been cultivated in 
the neighborhood, and it was not even known as a cereal. 


205. It is cultivated, to the North of Europe, in Seandina- 
via, on the western side of the parallel of latitude of 67° N.; 
and on the eastern side to latitude 65° or 66° N. In Russia, 
the polar limit of rye is indicated by the patallel of latitude 
26°30’, Itis extensively cultivated in Europe, forming the 
chief part of the bread of Germany, Poland, Russia, Switzer: 
land, and other countries. In Great Britain, and the southern 
countries of Europe it is little used. In America, it does no 
appear to be grown in Pembina, on Red River, in the Hudson 
Bay Territory, latitude 47° N., ‘hough wheat, barley, maize, 
tobacco, potatoes, d&c., are cultivated with profit. It was in- 
troduced mto the North American colonies soon after their 
settlement by the English,—into. Nova Scotia, 1622; ints 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 85 


New England, 1648, and into South Virginia previous to 
that year. 


206. The production of rye in the United States decreased in 
1850, 4,457,000 bnshels when compared with 1840; but in New 
York it had been éncreased in 1850 by about 40 per cent. In 
1840 the total product of the country was 18,645,567 bushels; 
in 1850, 14,188,639 bushels. 

The chief Rye producing States are—(1850:) 


BUSHELS. BUSEELS. 
Pennsylvania, - - 4,805,160 | Connecticut, - - 600,893 
Now York,- =* =. 4948.182|\Ohie, =" - =" = 495 718 
Massachusetts, - - 481,021;!Kentucky, - - - 415,073 
Virginiaa - - - - 458'930||New Jersey, - - 1,255,578 
Michigan, - - - 105,871. 


It is grown, mere or less, in all the States except California 
and New Mexico; but, with two exceptions, (Maryland and North 
Carolina,) none give over 200,000 bushels. It has been chiefly 
used for distilling and feeding stock, though bread is made of it 
in some localities The export in 1850, was 44,152 bbls. of 
flour. 

207. There is only one eultivated species, but several varieties : 
(4,) Common; (8,) Multicole; (¢,) St. John’s Day; (d,) Sibe- 
rian; also, (e,) Spring, (f,) Winter, and (g,) Southern. 

Of the Common (a,) nothing need be said. The Multicole 
(many rooted, ) (6,) was introduced into this country by means 
of the Patent Office about 1844-5. It was found to produce 
heavy crops, and to stool out very perfectly,—ten to twenty 
stalks growing from every seed. It also appears to be well 
adapted for high northern latitudes. The St. John’s Day (c, ) 
is a native of the Italian Alps, and was introduced into Eng- 
Jand about ten years ago for soiling purposes, The seed is very 
small, dark, and hard, but the straw grows with great rapidity, 
to a great height, affording a remarkable quantity of green fod- 
der. The Siberian (d,) is a German variety, noted for the gi- 
gantic product of grain and stalk. The grain is large with a 


86 AGRICULPURAL TEXT-BOOE. 


thin skin, yielding an excellent flour. The other varieties have 
arisen from the period of sowing, or climate. 

The yield is from ten to thirty, or more bushels per acre, 
weighing from 48 to 56 Ibs. per bushel. In Michigan the legal 
weight of a bushel is 56 lbs. 


208. Ultimate anarysis of Rye and straw: (Boussin- 
gault. ) 


GRAIN. STRAW. 

Carbon, : - - 46.35 = - 49.88 
Hydrogen, - - - 538 - - - 5.58 
Oxygen, - ° - 44,21 - - 40.56 
Nitrogen, - + - 169 - ~ - 0.30 
Ash, - - : > 2.37 - - 3,68 
100.00: 100.00 


209. Inorganic analysis of the grain of Rye. The grain of 
Rye leaves 2.425 per cent of ash, which is thus composed: 
Will and Fresenius. Bichon. _ Mean. 
32.76 


Potash,. - - e 11.43 22.08 
Soda, - - - - 445 18.89 11.67 
Lime, - - - 2.92 7.05 4.93 
Magnesia, . - «, 1013 10.57 10.35 
Oxide of iron, - “ 0.82 1.90 1.36 
Phosphoric acid, - - = 4729 5181 49.55 
Sulphuric acid, - - 1.46 0.51 0.98 
Silica, - - - - 017 0.69 0.43 


210. Organic analysis of Rye, dried at 22°F. (Horsford 
& Krocker. ) 


| Rye flour from Rye flour from — 


Vienna, Hohenheim. 
| No.1. | No.2. | Schilf. | Standen. 
Gluten and albumen, - - 11.92 | 18.69 17.73 15.76 
Starch, - - - - - 60.91 | 5448 | 45.09 47.42 
Woody fibre, gum, sugar, - 24.74 | 24.49 | 35.77 35.25 
Ash, - - - - - - 1.33 | 1.07 2.43 2.37 


| 98.90 | 98.73 | 101.02 | 100.80 
Moisture in fresh substance, - | 13.78 | 14.68 | 1394 | 13.82 


211. It will be observed from the above, that Rye varies 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 87 


much in its composition according to the soil in which it is 
grown. Hermbstadt experimenting with the grain as he did 
with wheat (§177,) found in 100 parts: 


:|2 lElel, |? 

. ie r= 2 a 

Manuredwith -  - 3 SiS |. ln 2% elo|la.|38 
2 rn ao 5B wis A g | 2a g 

ee) 1% |S2(S2|/8R|2)5 | hss 

* a |2 SS)H5/2g/ ee ;23e/8 

=) nIio la" |IRtolm@olmic l>slo 

@iuten and albumen, - 15.6 15.6/15.6 {15.5 [15.3 [15.1 [14.7 b2.8/1t-4 [Ll t.2 

Starch, gum, sugar, fat, - |63.0 63.02 59.2 |61.5 |63.1 |60.8/64.8/66.0 |or's 
Increase in grain, - - 14 fold. |ISf|IZ4FfI3F JO9fF jIS4eflllfl9f |6f \4f 


212. Inorganic analysis of Rye straw. 100,000 parts of the 
straw, contain 2793 parts of inorganic matter. (Sprengel. ) 


Potash, ° - - 32||Oxide of manganese, - -—— 
Soda, - - - e 11/|Silica, - - = 2297 
Lime, - - - 178||Sulphuric acid, - - 170 
Magnesia, - - - 12\|Phosphoric acid, - - 51 
Alumina, 95 ||Chlorine, - - if 
Oxide of iron, acres | oo 

2793 


213. The flour of rye is not white like that of wheat, but has 
a pretty strong, grayish brown tint, and does not bind so firmly 
with water. It yields a short, much less tough dough, out of 
which it is impossible to seperate the gluten from the starch by 
washing with water. The cause of this is probably to be sought 
in some peculiarity of the gluten of rye. It contains very little 
fibrin, and on the contrary a nitrogenous substance, which Heldt 
has ascertained to be vegetable gelatin. The starch is of the 
same nature as that contained in other seeds, 


214. Dombaste found that 100 parts of rye flour yielded, 
when baked, 145 Ibs. of bread, or nearly the same quantity as is 
yielded by northern wheat. Johnston found rye bread, when 
- leavened, to lose 44, when yeasted, 46 per cent. of water. 100 
Ibs. of flour containing naturally 16 per cent, of water, must 
then have yielded from 150 to 160 lbs. of bread. 


215, The sorts best adapted for rye are of a light, sandy 


8s AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


character, As wheat is the cereal of the clay, so rye is the ce- 
real of the sandy soils. It will, however, grow well on all soils 
if rendered sufficiently friable, and not damp. 


216. As will be observed by the analysis, ($208,) the princi- 
pal inorganic constituents are Potash, Soda, Magnesia, and Phos- 
phoric acid, but the per centage of ash is very small, rarely, if 
ever, above 24 per cent. of the dry grain, Wood ashes, either 
unleached or leached are the most available manures. 


217. Rye is sown as a winter and spring crop,—generally as 
the former. One plowing is given and the seed dragged in. 
If more care is taken in the preparation of the soil the crop will 
be larger. It is a custom in some localities to sow rye among 
standing corn, hoeing it in, and leaving the ground as level as 
possible. After the corn is removed, the rye is rolled. Har- 
rowing and rolling in the spring, are recommended. 


218. The time of sowing in the fall is, in the Northern States, 
from 20th August to 20th September. From 1} to two bush- 
els of seed are sown, the richest lands demanding most. In 
spring it should be sown as early as the climate will permit. 


219. In other respects, the culture, harvesting, &c., resemble 
those of wheat. 


220. If cut before fully ripe, the grain makes better flour, 
and in larger quantity; but if intended for seed it should be 
fully ripened. 


221. In some countries, rye and wheat are sown together. 
In England this mixture is called Mesling, Mescelin, or Mas- 
lin, (from an old French word mester, to mingle.) 


222. Rye is frequently sown for fodder, being either pastured 
during the winter and spring, or cut green for soiling stock in 
stables. It affords a large amount of valuable food, and the 
crop of grain is improved by pasturing to a certain point. 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK, 89 


223. It is also employed to plow in as a green manure. In 
the lighter class of wheat soils, it is recommended, after harvest~ 
ing the wheat, to plow, and sow rye as early as possible; pasture 
with sheep and young stock through the winter, and then plow 
in fora spring crop. This system, alternated with two or more 
years of grass or clover, will rapidly restore unpoverished soils. 
For this purpose the Multicole, and probably St. John’s Day 
variety are the best, but we are not aware that the latter has yet — 
been tried in the United States. 


224, There are no weeds peculiar to rye; but those which 
are troublesome to wheat will generally be found among this 
grain, according to the season in which it is sown. 


225. The only parasitic fungus affecting rye is Ercor ( Sele- 
rotium clavis. ) 


Ergot is a kind of spur- which issues from the grain of rye. It is not 
a fungus itself, but a morbid growth caused by the existence of minute 
fungi in the grain. It is not confined to rye alone, but has been ob- 
served occasionally in wheat and barley, and some of the grasses. It 
isa poison when eaten in bread, producing a spontaneous gangrene, 
called ergotism. It is also a powerful medicine, for which purpose it was 
first used in the United States, in 1807. The composition of the ash of 
ergot is asfollows: (Hngelmann.) 


Potash, - - 45.38)|Sulphuric acid, - 0.02 

Soda, - - -  16.79)|Chlorine, - = 2.36 

Lime, - - 1.68!|Silica, - - 15.60 

Magnesia, - - 5.34 oo 

Oxide of iron, - 2/34 104.95 

Phosphoric acid, - - 15.44! a 
Per centage of Ash, - - - - 0.36 


It is chiefly found where rye grows in damp adhesive soils. Ani- 
mals should not be allowed to eat it; as some will do when it is mixed 
with grain. 


226. There are no insects peculiar to this cereal. 
227. The straw, owing to its length and stiffness, is useful for 


many economical purposes, but not as good for feeding stock as 
some other sorts, unless cut and bruised. 


90 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


227* Petri gives an experiment made to ascertain the proper depth 
for planting rye, as follows: 


Depth of seed, Appeared above ground in |No. of plants that came up. 
g inch. : 11 days, 7eths. 
de Ff | aaa all. 
2 inches, ig Teths 
3 « 20 « 34 ths, 
4 “ 91 “ 6 
5 « 22 « 3éths. 
6 « a3 « 1th 


The root stalk forms itself always next below the sutface of the 
ground ; and if we place the grain deep, it must first put out its sprouts 
to the surface, and form its side branches in a nearer connection with the 
air. We never find that the sucker-roots are arranged from below to 
above, but the contrary. 


CHAPTER VIII. 


BARLEY .—(Hordeum.) 


228. The native country is unknown. 


229. Barley is cultivated further north than any other of the 
grains. In Europe, its northern limits are as follows: 


Orkney and Shetland Islands, - Lat. 61° N. 

Faroe Islands, - - - - s 661° ta.61° 16’ N. 
Western Lapland, - : - Oe ie 

Russia (White Sea, ) - - > «” 67° to68 ?-H, 
Archangel, - - - NETS It. 


Central Siberia, - - - - «“ 58° to59 °N. 


It cannot be grown in Iceland, lat. 63 ° 30’ to 66° N. 

In summer mean temperature, the northern limit varies be- 
tween 46° 4’ and 49° F,, in the latter being injured by rains. 
Its northern limit, in America, does not appear to have been as- 
certained. 


230. It is cultivated in the four quarters of the globe: i 
Syria and Egypt for more than 3,000 years. 


231. It was introduced into the United States by Gosnold in 
1602, and by colonists into Virginia in 1611. By the year 
1648, it was raised in abundance in that eolony, but it after- 
wards diminished in quantity. 

The annual amount of Barley grown in United States was, in 
1840, 4,161,504 bushels; in 1850, 5,167,016 bushels. The 
principal States that produce it are, (1850:) 


92 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


BUSHEILS. BUSKELS. 

New York, - 3,585,059|| Pennsylvania, . 165,584 

Ohio, - . 354,358]| Maine, - - 151,731 

Wisconsin, - 209,692|| Massachusetts, - 112,385 
Michigan, - - - 75,249 


All the other States, except Florida, Louisiana, and Oregon, 
raise more or less, though four of them did not produce a thou- 
sand bushels each in 1850. There is little or none exported. 
It is chiefly consumed in the manufacture of malt and spiritous 
liquors, while some is fed to hogs and o.her stock. 


232. Six species or varieties are cultivated : 
1. Hordeum distichum.—Two-rowed Barley. 


2. “ —— gymno-distichum.—T wo-rowed naked Barley. 

3. “  disticho-zeocriton.—Two-rowed Sprat, or Battle- 
dore Barley. 

4, “ — hexastichum.—Six-rowed Barley. 

5. “ —— gymno-hexasticum.—Six-rowed naked Barley, 

6 “  hexasticho-zeocriton.—Six-rowed Sprat, or Bat- 


tledore Barley. 

Of these again, there are some thirty sub-varieties, such as 
the Chevalier Barley; the Hudson’s Bay, &e. 

The two-rowed variety is most commonly cultivated. The 
sub-varieties are distinguished by the quality of their grain, 
their period of ripening, and productiveness. In mild climates 
barley is sown, like wheat, in the fall, and is known as winter-bar-” 
ley. Occasionally the color of the corolla is black. In the 
naked barley, the corolla is not attached to the grain, and it 
thus resembles wheat. It was introduced into England in 
1768, and is known in the United States, but in neither coun- 
try does it appear to be much cultivated. The Sprat Barley 
has the spike short and conical, the awns long and spreading, 
and the seeds more compressed than in the first sort. The 
straw, also, is very short. It is little cultivated. In siz-rowed 
Barley, three rows of flowers on each side of the spike are fer- 
tile, and consequently three rows of grains on each side are 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK, 93 


perfected. The chief sub-variety of this is known as Bere or 
Bigg. Ut is more hardy and productive then the two-rowed, 
and is used for fall sowing. In Europe it is much cultivated; 
in the United. States but little. The yield of Barley is from 
twenty to sixty bushels per acre, weighing from 45 to 55 lbs, 
per bushel according to variety. In Michigan the legal weight 
of a bushel is 48 lbs. 


233. Ultimate anatysis of Barley, dry (A,) and with water, 
(B.) (Zhompason.) 


A B 

Carbon, 4 - - - 46.11 41.64 
Hydrogen, - - 7 - 6.65 0.02 
Nitrogen, - a - - - 1.91 1.81 
Oxygen, - : 42.24 38.28 
Ash, - - - - 4 3.09 2:79 
Water, - ° - - 9.46 

100.00 100.00 

238. Inorganic analysis of Barley. ( Thompson.) 

Silica, - . - - - > - 29.67 
Phosphoric acid, - - - - “ - 36.80 
Sulphuric acid, - - - - - - 0.16 
Chlorine, - - - - - - - 0.15 
Peroxide of iron, - - - “ : - 0.83 
Lime, - - - - - ° . 3.23 
Magnesia, - - - - - - - 4.30 
Potash, - : : - - - - 16.00 
Soda, . - - - - - : 8.86 


Mean of ten analyses of Barley grain, ( Way & Ogaden,) 
from calcareous soils, Dorset, England: 


Ashesin 100 parts, in crop as taken from the ground, - 2.34 
Ashes in artificially dried plants, - - . a). 2.43 
Potash,  « - - ° ° - ° 19.77 
Soda, - : : : 4 : : 3.93 
Magnesia, - - ‘ ° - ° a 8.55 
Lime, - - . > ~ - « - 258 


Phosphoric acid, , ° * 


. 
a 


3.20 


94 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BGOOK 


Sulphuric acid, - - . : . = 183 
Silica, - . “ - - - - 26.49 
Peroxide of iron, - - - - - - i Te 
Chloride of sodium, - . . - - 0.47 


In some specimeris the chloride of sodium amounted to 1.01, and 
‘chloride of potassium to 5.65 per cent. 


235. Organic analysis of Barley dried at 212° F. (Krock 
er and Horsford, and Thompson.) 


| wees Barley ay oe Bar- | Scotch Barley 
fohenheife. Fe Hohenheitn Scotland. 


Gluten and anny 17.70 14.72 15.24 
Starch, - ~ 38.31 42.34 39.86 
Husk, Gum, Sugar, 42.33 42.46 46 19 
Ash, 5.52 284 3.26 
Moisture in the first grain, = 13.80 16.79 | 12.71 


236. Barley has been less perfectly examined than any of 
the other cereals, except oats, and the nature of the gluten con+ 
tained in them is totally unknown, All that can be said with 
certainty upon this point is confined to the observation that the 
gluten of these two grains is mechanically separated with mach 
greater difficulty than that of either wheat or rye; that by the 
agency of some other substance in the flour, it is almost whol 
ly dissolved in water, and is much less abundant than in either 
of the other two. It is also probable that it contains but little 
fibrin, and resembles in this respect the gluten of rye 


( Knapp.) 
237. Hermbstadt, in experimenting with Barley, found that 


the action of nitrogenous manures tends rather to increase the 
crop than to the production of gluten, 


238. According to Proust, the greater part of the non-nitro= 
genous constituent in Barley is not starch, although a substance 
similar to it, but insoluble in boiling water, which he called Rog 


deitn 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK, 95 


239, Analysis of Barley straw, (A,) (Fresenius) and awn, 
(B.) ( Way.) 


A B 

Sand and Silica, - - : . 43.8 70.8 
Potash, - - - . * - 21.0 “ivi 
Soda, - « - . - 0.8 0.4 
Lime, . ° ° - . > 72 10.4 
Magnesia, - - - - - 3.3 13 
Oxide of iron, - . . . &» ORT 14 
Chloride of Potassium, ; . 3 . 89 

Chloride of Sodium, . 11 
Phosphoric acid, - yeah, : 3.1 2.0 
Sulphuric acid, - - - - - 11.7 3.0 
Carbonic acid, - - - ~ — 20 


240. The value of Barley depends much on the relative 
hardness of its husk, and this appears to be influenced by soil 
and manure in its culture. A soft thin skin adapts it better for 
malting, and a light chalk soil is best suited to produce it of 
this character. Fromberg has ascertained that the hard Barley 
contains less gluten and albumen than the softer kinds: thus 
be found: 


Nitrogen equal 


Water. to gluten, &c. 
Soft or malting Barley to contain pr. ct. - 18.55 10.93 
Flinty or Pot Barley, - ~ 134 8.03 


The effect of soil upon the Barley crop is known to all practical farm 
ers—so that, in Great Britain, the terms barley-land and wheat-land are 
the usual designations for light and heavy svils. On clay lands the pro= 
duce of barley is greater, but it is of a coarser quality and does not malt 
so well,—on loams it is plump and full of meal, and on light chalk soils 
the crop is light, but the grain is thin in the skin and of a rich color, 
and well adapted for malting. (Johnston.) 


241, Malt is Barley which has been made to germinate by 
moisture and warmth, and afterwards dried, by which the vital- 
ity of the seed is destroyed. By this process, a peculiar nitro 
genous principle, called diastase, is produced. This, though it 
does not constitute more than 1-500th part of the malt, serves 


56 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK, 


to affect the conversion of the starch of the seed into dextrine 
and grape sugar, 100 lbs. of barley yield about 80 lbs. of malt, 
part of which difference is the loss of the water previously con- 
tained in the barley. Thompson gives the following compara- 
tive table of barley; and malt made from the same grain; show- 
ing the change which takes place in the organic constituents: 


BaRLeEy. Matt. 
Carbon - -— = epee el a 41.64 | 33.95 
Hedrogen 4 2) 8) ee Ns 6.02 5.31 
Nitrogen - - ot fale - - 1.81 0.88 
Oxygen - - - - - - 37.66 34.46 
Ash - - - - - - - 3.41 1.34 


Waiter - - - - - - - | 9.46 4.06 


ee ee 


| 100.00 | 80.00 


Or the loss sustained by barley in malting may be stated as 
follows: 


Water, - - - - - - 6.00 per cent. 
Saline matter, + - - - - 0480.8 
Organic matter, - - - - oi) UAR2 ae 


242. Barley is rarely or never used in America and Great 
Britain as bread, but it is eaten in soups and given to the sick 
as Pot and Pearl Barley, in which condition it is considered 
very nourishing. This form is produced, by rubbing the grains 
in an appropriate machine, till they are deprived of the husk 
and outer coats, and become spherical. Such barley is generally 
imported into the United States from Scotland, but there is no 
reason why it should not be prepared here. A porridge made 
of barley meal is used in Scotland. 


243. The quantities of mineral matter removed from the acre 
by a crop of 40 Imperial Bushels of Barley, and 2650 lbs, of 
straw are as follows: 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 97 


By the Grain. | By the Straw. Tora. 
Potash - - - 7.24 Ibs. | 10.29 tbs. | 17.53 Ibs. 
Soda Pee dae © 6.92" * 5.24 « 
Magnesia - - = 3.97 “ 5.25 “ 9.22 « 
Phosphoric acid - - | 20.74 * S08." > b 28.76 6 
Sulphuric acid - - 0.05 “ 2.66 Poe.” 
Chlorine - ~ - O102F '$ ISS OS 1.60 * 

36.34 Ibs. | 25.72 Tbs. | 62.06 ibs. 


244. As has been already observed, Barley succeeds best 
on lands more sandy and lighter than those adapted for wheat, 
yet containing a good proportion of calcareous matter. In the 
United States it is always sown in the spring; and in the North- 
ern States, the earlier it is in the ground the better, so that it 
may have a long period of growth. Unless the soil is very 
light, it is well to plow in the fall, and again in the spring, and 
to render the earth mellow by the use of the cultivator and 
harrow before sowing. For a good crop the land should be 
rendered rich by previous manuring; but barn-yard manure ap- 
plied directly to the crop is supposed to be injurious. From 
two to three bushels of seed are generally sown to the acre; and 
the land should be rolled immediately, or, which is perhaps pre- 
ferable, as soon as the young plant is from one to two inches 
high, The productiveness of barley appears to depend much 
upon rolling. Judge Buel, of Albany, N. Y., recommends 
steeping the seed in a weak solution of Saltpetre (Mitrate of 
Potash or Soda,) for twenty-four hours; and some use the 
black water which collects in barn-yards around manure-heaps 
for the same purpose. 


245, Barley is known to be ripe by the disappearance of the 
reddish hue on the ear; and by the ears beginning to droop 
against the stem. Unless intended for seed, it should be cut 
before it is fully ripe, both on account of the better quality and 
weight of the grain, and to prevent waste by shelling. 

7 


98 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK: 


246. Harvesting of barley is the same as of other grains, ex: 
cept that it sometimes happens that the straw is too short for 
cradling, when it may be mowed and raked into bundles to dry. 

247. The straw is used for fodder and litter, but for the for- 
mer purpose is not so good as wheat and oat straw. 

248. It is the best grain with which to sow grass and clover 
seed. 

249, There are no weeds peculiar to this crop. 

250. The only parasitic fungus which usually attacks barley 
isthe smut (“ Black Heads,’ ) Uredo segetum, (§197, ¢;) but in 
some parts of the United States this has proved very injurious, 
especially on the six-rowed varieties. 

251. In New England, barley has, at times, suffered severely 
from the Joint-worm (Hurytoma, ) ($201, 6, 2.) Other insects 
may probably injure the crop, but they do not appear to have 
been described. 


CHAPTER IX. 


OATS — vena. 


252. The Oat is supposed to be a native of Asia. A species 
is found wild in California, 

253. The Nerthern limits of this grata in Europe appear to 
be in 


Scotland, - - + Lat 58°40’ N, 
Norway, - ~ . - Lat. 56°  « 
Sweden, - - - - Lat 63°80’ “ 
Russia, = = . + Lat. 62° 80’ “ 


It is extensively cultivated in the Northern, but not in the 
Southern parts of Europe. It grows well in Bengal, India, 
lat. 25° N. In America it is cultivated as far as settlements 
extend Northwards. It was introduced into the United States 
at the same time as Rye. In this country it is confined prin- 
vipally to the middle, western, and northern States. Its profit- 
able production would appear to depend much on the frequen- 
‘ey of rain during its growth. 

254. The total produce of the United States in 1840 was 
123,071,341 bushels, in 1850, 146,678,879 bushels. 


The chief oat-producing States are (1 850:) 


New York, = 26.552,814 bush.!![llineis, - - 10,087,241 bush. 

Pennsylvania, - 21,538,156 “ | Kentucky, - + 8,201,311 “ 

Ohio, - see Age wae. Tennessee, - 7,703,086 “ 

Virginia, + + 10,179,045 “ Misssouri, - - 5,278,079 « 
Michigan, - 2,866,056 bush. 


All the other States produce more or less,—fifteen of them 
frem one to four millions of bushels. With the exception of 


300 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


about 60,000 bushels used in making liquors, the whole is con- 
sumed in feeding stock. There is scarcely any exported. 
255. Five species are cultivated: 


1. Avena strigosa.—Bristle-pointed Oat. 

2. Avena brevis.—Short Oat. 

3. Avena sativa—Common Oat. 

A, Avena orientalis.—Tartarian Oat. 

5. Avena nuda.—Naked Oat. 

These again are divided into many varieties. 

The first two are of inferior quality, but hardy, being culti- 
vated in the mountainous parts, the one of Scotland, the other 
of Frenee. The common oat is best known, and has been much 
improved by careful culture. The TYartartan oat, has its pan- 
icles shorter than the last, neatly of equal length, all on the same 
side of the rachis (flower stalk) and bearded. It is so hardy 
28 o thrive in soils and climates where the other grains cannot 
be raised. It is much cultivated in England and not at all in 
Scotland. “It is a coarse grain more fit for horse feed than te 
make into meal.”  (Stephens.) The corolla is frequently 
black. The naked oat; like wheat and naked barley, has the 
corolla detached from the seed. It has long been cultivated in 
Europe, and it is said to be productive, and the meal to be fine. 
The popular varieties such as the Potato, Hopetown, Georgian, 
Siberian, Dyock oats, &e., belong to the common oat. (3) 


256. In Scotland the oat yields very large erops, from 36 to 
114 bushels per English acre. In the United States, the crop 
probably does not much exceed 30 bushels per acre, except in 
very favorable localities; but 90 bushels per acre haye been 
raised, and prize creps of 60 to 75 bushels are not uncommon. 
The soil and climate of Michigan are not favorable to it. The 
weight, per bushel; varies from 30 to 48 lbs., according to varie- 
ty and culture. In Michigan, the legal weight of a bushel is 
32 Ibs. 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 101 


Stephens says that in Scotland: 
The potato oat, weighing 47 lbs. per bushel, gives 806,144 grains per 


bushel. 
The Siberian early oat, weighing 46 lbs. per bushel, gives 641,792 


grains per bushel. 
White Tartarian oat, weighing 42 lbs. per bushel, gives 731,136 grains 
per bushel. 


257. Ultimate anarysis of the grain (A,) and straw (B,) of 
oats (Boussingault.) One part of dried oats leaves 0.0398 of 
ash: one part of straw leaves 0.0509 of ash. 


A B 
Carbon, - - ~ - 51.09 50.25 
Hydrogen, - - - - 644 ~ 548 
Oxygen, - - - - 36.25 38.80 
Nitrogen, - ° . - 2.24 0.38 
Ash, - - - - 398 5.08 

100.00 100.00 


258. Inorganic analysis of oat grain. (Way & Ogsden, 
and Norton. ) 


1 n ' ' ' 
#| 4. 18 |aalt, eal8e 
' E 3 a 
Sl] gi s lee] 2)n9 [aSklad 
=| Ss 3S 7) Ss ik 3S (4,4 
E16 | Oo [68] £2 leoalscsisse 
3 ° 3 of 2. Real 2a Lae 
312] 2 |22| 82 seeeeeles3 
° s SB 18°] oF |S POs Sbi5 am 
q iw | a 1a x i= 
Achesin 100partsincrop . z 4 
Giakon feonerornd } 2.27| 2.451 2.65) 2.22) 214) 2:90) 2.18] 6.79 
Ashes in artificially dried 2.50} 2.73) 2.97; — a 3.02) — ar 
plants, renter 4 - ‘ 
Potash - - - | 17.80] 19.70} 24.30] 21.22] 31.15] 16.76] 26.18] 8.13 
Soda - - - 3.84) 1.35] 5.51) — _ 2.49) — a 
Magnesia - = = 7.33; 8.25) 8.26) 11.26) 8.64; 7.70} 9.95: 1.°9 
Lime - - - 3.54) 1.31] 2.65) 669} 5.21] 3.92) 5.95} 3.15 
Phosphoric acid - - | 26.46] 18.87 | 14.49) 38.48} 49.19] 18.19] 43.84] 1.54 
Sulphuric acid - 1.10} 0.10] 1.74) 18.36) 2.54] 1.29.) 10.45) 6.46 
Silica - - ~ | 38.48} 50.03! 41.861 3.60) 1.73] 47.08! 2671 76.16 
Peroxide of iron - 0.49} 0.27} 069) — 0.80} 0.64] 0.40) 2.33 
Chloride of sodium - 0.92} 0.07) 0.45) — _ 0.20; — = 
Chloride of potassium - _ _ _- _ —- 0.14) — _ 
t 


259. Inorganic analysis of oat straw, (Mean of Lew and 
Boussingault. ) 


302 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


Potash, - = 2 Cc 3 19.74 
Soda, = - : - - - 969 
Lime, - - - - - 8.0% 
Magnesia, > ~ : - . - 3.78 
Oxide of iron, - - - - 18% 
Phosphoric acid, - : 4 =: - 956 
Sulphurie acid, = - . x - 4 3.2G 
Chlorine,  - - zB 4 E - \go5 
Silica, - - - - - : 48,42 

100.00 


The nutritive matter afforded by an acre of oat straw weighing 2700 lbs. 
is, of husk or woody fibre 1220 lbs. ; of starch, sugar, dc., 950 lbs. ; of 
gluten, cic., 36 lbs.; of oil or fat, as of saline matter 1%5 lbs. ¢Ste- 
phens. ) 

260. Organic analysis of four varieties of Seotch oats, (Vor- 
ton and Fromberg,) viz: Hopetown oats, Northumberland, 
(A,) Hopetown oats, Ayshire, (B,) Hopetown oats Ayrshire 
(C,) Potato oats, Northumberland (D.) 


A. B Cc | D 

Starch - - 65.24 64.80 64.79 65.60 
Sugar - - 4.51 2.58 2.09 0.80 
Gum - - = 2.10 2.41 2.42 2.28 
Oil - - 5.44 6.97 | 6.41 7.38 
Epi dnitcogenoes [S127 | 1085 | ET | tans 
Gluten, § Compounds, 2.47 | 1.46} 1.33 1.45 
Epidermis (or skim} - 1.18 2.39 2.84 2.28 

0.94 eae 


Alkaline salts and loss, 2.84 1.84 


100.00 | 100.00 


100.00 | 100.00 


From these analysis it appears that the oat is very rich im 
oily matters and flesh-forming compounds. 


Avenin is a substance resembling casein (or eheese when ehemieally 
pure) precipitated by acetic acid from the aqueous solution of oat meal. 
it appears to differ but slightly from aibumen in its ultimate conyposi-~ 
tion ; and in its utility, as food, it is probably rather more nourishing. 


261. The proportious of nitrogen and protein ( flesh-forming) com- 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 103 


pounds in nine specimens of oats have been determined as follows: 
( Norton.) 


« 


| Oats 


Hopetown oats Oats from Wig-|from 


Potato oats 
tonshire, Scotl'd|N. Y. 
Nitrogen, - - - [2.13 2.35) 2.28 th | 2.89 o| 2.49! 300 
Protein compounds, - | 14.0] 14.78) 14.04]17.36] 17.77] 18.24 | 22.01 | 15.66] 18 86 


The relative proportions of nitrogen and protein compounds in the 
husk, (A,) grain (B,) and whole oat (C,) are as follows: 


A B Cc 
Nitrogen, - - 0.30 282 2.18 
Protein compounds, + - 1.88 17.77 13.72 
The mean of eight samples of Scotch oats gave Mr. Norton 
Grain, - - - - - 76.28 
Husk, + . - - - - 23.68 


The maximum of husk being 28.2, and the minimum 22.0. Fresh 
oats contain from 16 to 21 per cent of water. 


The organic composition of the Husk is: 


Hopetown Oat. Potato Oat. 
Oil, - - - - 1.50 0.92 
Sugar and gum, - - - 0A7 0.75 
Gluten and coagulated albumen, - 1.88 1.88 
Cellulose, - - - - 89.68 89.46 
Saline matter, (ash,) - - 6.47 6.99 


262. Animal manures increase the crop and. weight of the 
husk rather than the proportion of gluten. 


263. In America, oats are used solely for feeding animals, 
and for this purpose they are equal to any other grain; com- 
bining the largest amount of useful qualities. For horses do- 
ing hard work, or where great speed is required nothing can 
replace them; and as the proportion of oil which they contain 
is but little inferior to that in Indian corn, while it is probably 
more readily digested and received into the system, they are 
used with great advantage for fattening hogs and other stock. 
For this purpose, however, owing to the hard husk, they ought 
to be crushed, and are preferable if boiled. 


Where crushing or grinding cannot be effected, boiling serves nearly 
as good a purpose. 


104 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


The peculiar form of the casein or avenin appears to give 
oats a nourishing power little inferior to that of animal food. 

In Ireland, Scotland, and other countries, oat meal constitutes almost 
the entire food of zhe majority of the people ; and those who live on it 
are not only physically perfect, but are able to undergo great exertion. 
and bear up against severe exposure and hardship. Owing to the small 
proportion of gluten, yeast-bread cannot be made with oat meal as with 
wheat flour, and it is usually eaten boiled, or made into thin cakes, dried 
in the air. Before grinding, it is necessary to kiln-dry oats; and they 
are ground in a mill constructed for the purpose, the mill-stones being 
different from those used in flouring mills. 

264. Oats will grow upon almost any kind of soil, but the 
clays, and loams that are sufficiently retentive of moisture are 
the most favorable. 

Owing to this facility of cultivation less pains are frequently 
bestowed upon this crop than upon others; though it will well 
repay proper culture. 

There is a prevalent notion that oats particularly exhaust the 
soil on which they are grown, but we believe it to be a mistake, 
The form of the roots, however, predisposes the soil to collect 
in clods, and hard lumps, which are afterwards broken with dif- 
ficulty, and unless these are carefully disintegrated, they may 
probably affect the succeeding crop injuriously. Barley, on the. 
contrary, seperates the soil, rendering it mellow with its roots. 
As a mechanical agent, therefore, the roots of the oat plant may 
act unfavorably. The different varieties, containing such dif- 
ferent proportions of organic constituents, are adapted to dif- 
ferent soils and circumstances. 


265. A crop of 50 bushels of oats, and 3800 Ibs. of straw 
takes from the acre of soil the following quantities : 


By the grain. By the straw. Total. 
Potash and soda, - - 10.88 Ibs, 64.78 lbs. 75.66 Ibs 
Magnesia, - - Soe 8.95 * 1247 * 
Phosphoric acid, - 14.48 “ 5.38 “ 19.86 “ 
Sulphuric acid, - - i ehade eke T2370 
Chlorine, - - O35 rho a 886 « 


—_--— 


3451lbs,  97.57]bs. —-132.08 lbs, 
(Stephens. ) 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 105 


266. In the northern States, oats are always sown in spring, 
from the commencement of vegetation to the begining of June. 
They are a favorite crop to sow upon plowed sod. The quan- 
tity of seed varies from two to four bushels an acre; in Scot- 
Jand six bushels are sown; under most circumstances, the larger 
quantity is preferable. The seed should be well harrowed in 
and rolled. 


267. The best time for harvesting is’ before the grain is quite 
ripe, and while the straw is partially green. Oats may be cut 
with a sickle, cradle, scythe, or machine; but should be left for 
a few days in- swath, before. binding, By the grain will ma- 
ture. Oats thus cut before they. are quite -ripe are larger, and 
heavier, while the straw, as fodder, is ‘more nutritious. ~-Oats, 
eut as above, do not appear to be inferior in any respect. 
(§312.) 

268. Oat straw is more esteemed for fodder than that of 
wheat, barley, or rye. According to experiments made in Ger- 
many by Viet, 200 Ibs. of oat straw with the chaff are equiva- 
lent to 100 lbs. of good hay, though, for the United States, this 
estimate is probably too low. If not too ripe when cut, and if 
saved in good condition, cattle in stables can be kept during 
winter in improving condition upon this straw alone, Late ex- 
periments in Scotland have proved oat-straw to be fully equal to 
hay for animals fattening on roots, 


169. In this country, there is no insect peculiarly injurious 
to oats. In common with other grains, it occasionally suffers 
from the Wire worm. 

270. Smut (Black heads, ) ( Uredo Segetum,) appears to be 
the only fungus to which it is generally subject, and this, rarely, 
to any great extent. 

271. There are no weeds peculiar to this crop. 


In soils where Wild Mustard (Sinapis arvensis,) and Wild Radish 
(Raphanus raphanistrum,) are abundant, oats are perhaps more seri- 


106 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


ously injured than any other grain. As many persons are ignorant how 
to’ root out these weeds, it may be well to copy the following rules by 
alate French writer in the Annales de l’agriculture, who had been en- 
tirely successful in clearing a farm overrun with them, 

1, Plow very deep, so as. to give all the seeds within reach of the 
plow facilities for germinating. 

2. Harrow the ground till every clod is broken, for the seeds are of- 
‘ten retained in clods, and only germinate when these are disintegrated 
by rain, d&c., or by artificial means. 

3. Cultivate two hoed crops before grain is sown, and do not allow a 
single plant of mustard to go to seed. 

4. For the third crop, grow oats, drilled at a sufficient distance to per- 


mit hand hoeing between the rows. 

By using these means, and not allowing a single plant to seed, the 
worst fields may be cleared in three or four years. It is important 
that the first plowing should be deeper than any succeeding one, as the 
soil frequently contains the seeds to a great depth, which will germin- 
ate as soon as exposed to the air, 

Of course it is requisite that all grain sown should be quite free from 
the seeds of the mustard. ; 


272. Common salt, from four to eight bushels per acre—spread three 
or four days before the seed is sown, and lightly harrowed in, has been 
found an useful manure for oats, especially at a distance from the sea, 
It supplies the soda, chlorine, and magnesia ; it retains moisture in the 
soil ; it acts asa solvent on the other constituents of the earth; and gen- 
erally strengthens the straw. We warmly recommend a trial of it in 
those parts of Michigan where the oat crop is apt to fail. Wood ashes 
also (uncleached) are a valuable manure, especially in sandy soils, for 
oats, 


CHAPTER X. 


INDIAN CORN—MAIZE.—Zea Mays. 


273. The origin of the word “Maize” is from the Haytien 
mahiz. This grain is a native of the American continent, and 
was unknown to the rest of the world till the discoveries of 
Columbus. It is still found growing wild from the Rocky 
Mountains to Paraguay, but in this state, instead of having each 
grain naked, it is completely covered with glumes or husks. 
A variety of the wild corn has been cultivated of late years in 
the northern States, under the name of “Texas corn.” This 
grain was found by the first European explorers of the contin- 
ent to be everywhere cultivated by the natives. 

Only one species has usually been recognized in this country, but 
the late M. Bonafous, director of the Royal Agricultural Garden of Tu- 


rin, in his Histoire naturelle agricole et economique du Mais, describes 
four distinct species, viz : 


1. Zea Mays—vwith leaves entire. 

2. Zea CARAGUA, With leaves denticulated. 

3. Zea Hieta, With hairy leaves. 

4. ZEA ERYTHROLEPIS, with grains compressed, and red glumes— 
(husks. ) 


From these, but especially the first, all the varieties at present culti- 
vated have sprung. 

274. It has a wide range of temperature in America, flour- 
ishing from about 40° of Southern to beyond the 45° of 
Northern latitude. In Mexico its highest limits vary from 2000 
to 8000 feet above the level of the sea; and the time 
necessary for it to ripen differs from six weeks to seven months, ac- 


108 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


eording to the mean temperature. In Europe, it is grown from 
the shores of the Mediterranean as far north as the Nether- 
Jands. The region of cultivation appears to be gradually ex- 
tending further north; probably by the origin of new and 
hardy varieties. It is also grown in Northern, Southern, and 
Western Africa, India, China, Japan, Australia, the Sandwich 
Islands, the Azores, the Madeiras, the Canaries, and numerous 
otler ocean islands. With the exception of Riee, it is the food 
of a larger number of human beings than any other grain. 


275. In the United States, it was first cultivated by the Eng- 
lish on James River, Virginia, 1608; the Indian mode being 
closely followed. . Since then it has been everywhere.a favorite 
erop,-and annually -a larger quantity is produced. The increase 
from 1840 to 1850 was 214,000,000 bushels, equal to 56 per 
cent. over the former period. In New England it has increased 
nearly 50 per cent,; and no State has retrograded. 

The following is the production of the most important States 
according to the census of 1840 and 1850: 


New York, 10,972,286 17,858,400 
Pennsylvania, 14,240,022 19,835,214 
Maryland, 8,233,086 11,104,631 
Virginia, 34,577,591 35,254,319 
North Carolina, 23,893,763 27,941,051 
Georgia, 20,905,122 30,080,099 
Alabama, 20,947,004 28,754,048 
Mississippi, 13,161,237 22,446,552 
Tennessee, 44,986,188 52,976,293 
Kentucky, 39,847,120 58,675,591 
Ohio, 33,668,144 59,078,695 
Indiana, 28,155,887 52,964,363 
Illinois, 22,634,211 57,646,984 
Missouri, 17,332,524 36,214,537 
Michigan, 2,277,039 | 5,641,420 


Total production of the United States in 1850, 592,326,612, 
bushels, which at the low average of ten cents per bushel on 
the farm, gives an annual return of $59,232,661 in this one 
crop alone. The corn crop, however, represents not only the 
vegetable food of man, but also animal food in the shape of 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOCK: 169 


pork and beef ; and also various manufactures, such as oil, stea- 
tine, bristles, Prussian Blue, &e.; and large quantities of vahu- 
able manure, in.the shape.of reftse and offil, In one or other 
of these forms, a large amount of corn is annually exported to 
foreign countries; and the industry of the United States greatly 
depends upon it. The same evils, however, which attached to 
the growth of the potato in Ireland, may, it is feared, hereafter 
follow the~ great production of corn in those States where it is 
most easily raised. 


276. The varieties are very numerous, depending upon the 
character of the soil and climate, from the small shrabby corn 
of Northern Canada to the gigantic stalks of the Southern 
States; and the composition and nutritive qualities of the grain 
vary in like proportion. In practice this is a very important 
fact, as the nutritive value of corn is constantly varying according 
to circumstances. 


(A.) The Phosphates differ in quantity aecording to variety. Sweet 
Corn appears to contain the most. Dr. Jackson analyzed two grains of 
corn (the Tuscarora and Sweet Corn) grown on the same ear, and he found 
nearly double the amount of phosphates in the latter, showing that even 
when mixed, so as to grow on the same plant, each variety retains its 
power of select ng its appr»priate quantity of inorganic salts. A crop 
of Sweet Corn will take twice as uch of the phosphates from the soil 
as the other variety, but at the same time will gite more material to 
the animal for the formation of bone. On the same principle the 
stiffness of the joints and lameness of the feet common in horses fed 
too freely with corn may be explained, these affections arising from an 
unnatural growth of bone procured from the corn. 


(B.) The proportion of Starch changes according to the variety and 
elimate. Southern Corn contains more than Northern. Tuscaroracon- 


tains the most of any variety examined. Rice Corn, and Pop Corn 
contain the least. 


(@.) The relative proportions of oil and gluten also vary in the same 
manner. Rice Corn contains the most oil; Pop Corn, Canada Corn, 
and Brown Corn rarik neat. Burden Corn has a very fine white oil, 


116 AGRICULTURAL THXT-BOOK 


Tuscarora Corn does not contain either oil or gluten.* There is a dife 
ference also in the mode of distribution of the oily and glutinous parts 
of corn; the Southern and Devt varieties having the oil and gluten on 
the sides of the elongated seed, while the starch projects quite through 
the grain to its summit, and by its contraction in drying, produces tle pe- 
culiar pit or depression in this variety ofgrain. Popping Corn contains 
the oil in little six-sided cells in the horny portions of the grain, in the 
form of minute drops. When heated, the oil is decomposed into cara 
buretted hydrogen gas, and every cell is ruptured, the grain being com> 
pletely voluted. 

(D.) The meal of those varieties. containing much oil is less liable to 
fermeiit and become sour. 

(#.) The colors depend upon that of the hull and of the oil; the 
latter, when yellow showing its color through a transparent epidermis 
(or skix.) The color of the oil varics much in different varieties. Red 
and blue corn owe their hues to the colors of the epidermis. 

(#) The oil appears to reside chiefly immediately under the hull, so 
that when animals do not digest the outer coating of the grain, as is the 
case when corn is fed unground to hogs, much of the oil is Lost. 

(G.) The inorganic salts, and especially the phosphates appear to be 
confined to the chit and germ. (Javkson.) 

(H.) The large eight-towed yellow corn contains 13.9 per cent. of 
albumen, casein, and gluten, while the Sioux contains 16.5 per cent. of 
the same. 

The eight-rowed Squaw Corn contains 60.6 per cent. of starch, sugar, 
oil, and gum, while the eight-rowed small white Flint contains 76.6 per 
cent of the same. If the Squaw Corn is worth fifty cents a bushel for 
fattening, the Flint would be equally cheap at fifty-eight cents a bushel, 

( Gould.) 


*There are apparently two sorts of corn known as the “‘ Tuscarora” the one men- 
tioned above as devoid of oil, if the analysis is correct, and ome analyzed by Dn 
Salisbury (known also as “Turkey Wheat,”) which contains 5.32 per cent. of oil, 
calculated without the water. What we ourselves have grown as “ Tuscorora,” was 
a peculiarly ‘iry, starchy grain, With a thin skin, apparently deficient in ol. We 
would here refer the reader to the admirable Essay on Corn by Dr. Salisbury, con- 
taining the most complete and accurate examination of this grain perhaps ever made, 
in the Transactions of the New York State Agricultural Society, vol. viii, 1848. It 
‘occupies 199 closely printed octavo pages; and we would willingly have extracted 
more from it had our limits permitted. As these volumes, however, are not difficult 
to meet with, we prefer referring the reader to the Essay itself, as any quotations 
taust preve deficient without the contexte 


AGRICULTURAL THXT-BOOR, i111 


From these facts it will be perceived how importatt it is that 
the farmer should study the adaptation of variety to the purs 
pose intended in consumption: ‘If he wishes to give young an- 
imals large bones, let him feed them on Sweet Corn; but at the 
same time manure the soil with dissolved bones, or other phos- 
phate-bearing manures. He would endeavor in vain to fatten 
animals with the Tuscarora, as it contains no oil, while it makes 
the best bread, and is peculiarly adapted for the manufacture of 
corn starch, Again, the hard northern gluten-bearing corns 
are better for working animals than the southern-starch bearing 
varieties, though the latter, independent of the oil, will make 
most fat, the former most flesh, An accurate analysis .of all 
varieties grown in the United States would be of great pecuni- 
ary value to the country, 


277, The varieties of corn are generally distinguished by 
(a,) the number of rows of grain in the ear, # eight, twelve, 
fourteen, and sixteen-rowed; or by (4,) the color, as white, yel= 
low, brown, &c., but none of the common divisions are either 
accurate or scientific. It were useless to recite the names of 
the many varieties, the more especially as they are constantly 
ehanging by hybridizing, It may be noticed that northern 
corn will improve, if removed southwards, in size and product- 
iveness, but southern corn taken to the north will either not 
tipen at all, or soon degenerate, 

The origin of Sweet Corn is unknown, but it appears to have been 
used by the Indians of New England before the artival of the Pilgrims: 
It appears like an unripe grain ; and contains aft unusually large pro- 
portion of the Phosphates, and a large quantity of sugar and gum with 
but little starch ; while the stalks, being small, take up a less propors 
tion of the saline matters of the soil. 

278, The qualities desirable in a good variety differ accord- 
ing tothe soil and climate. In the Central and Southern 
States the following may be laid down as peculiarities to be 
attained: (a, good growth of stalk and leaf; (,) several ears 


fg (4 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK, 


on each stalk; (c,) cob small, but long, and grains long and 
numerous; (d,) husk thick and hard so as to shed water, and 
resist the attacks of birds; (e,) ripening sufficiently early to es- 
cape early frosts. Inthe Northeastern States, corn with a short 
light stalk, but with suckers, or supernumerary stalks bearing 
ears, as in the Dutton, is preferred. 


279. The weight of a bushel of corn greatly varies. The 
Jegal weight in Michigan is 56 Ibs; to the bushel. It is stated 
that corn on the cob loses 20 to 50 per cent. in measure by 
shrinkage in seven months, and 10 to 15 per cent. in weight. 
When sold on the cob by the bushel, 2:to 14 bushels of ears 
are equivalent to one bushel of shelled corn according to variety. 
Tn the Southern States it is frequently measured by the barrel 
of five bushels. 


280, The yield to the acre varies from 20 to 200 bushels of 
shelled corn. 


The following premium crops of corn were grown in Kentucky in 
1850. There were nine competitors, and the surface in cultivation ten 
acres by each competitor. 


J. Matson, - - 189 bushels, 1 quart per acre. 
P. Pean, : - = 189 as ti 
8. H. Chew, - - Ione oS * 
J. Hutcherait, - « - 115 o L 
A. Vanmeter, - - 1081¢ “ a 
Ki. Hedges, - “ e lO gt 4 
E.W. Hockaday, - - 100 c 
Dr. B. W. Dudley, - =, LODe at . 
H. Varnon, + - - 98 Ve oy 


or, 11,440 bushels 10 quarts shelied corn oft 90 acres, perhaps the largest 
quantity ever raised from the same area. (D.Lce.) But it shows what 
corn can produce under good cultivation and favorable circumstances. 


281. I. Inorganic anatysts of white Flint corn, sown on @ 
sandy loam and manured in part with coal ashes, (Salisbury, ) 
New York: 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 118 


| Kerneis. | Leaves. | Cob 

Silica, - - - 9.50 53.550 | 13.600 
Alkaline Phosphates, - 35.500 

Earthy Phosphates, + - 19.250 | 23.920 
Lime, - - - | 0.160 6.092 | 0.300 
Magnesia, = - - 2.410 1.250 | 0.900 
Potash, - - - 23 920 12.762 | 35.802 
Soda, - - - 22 590 8.512 | 5.914 
Chlorine, - - 0.405 9.762 0.132 
Sulphuric acid, - - 4385 4.185 0.345 
Organic matter, - - 0.367 | 2.314 
Carbonic acid, - - - 6.134 


II. Southern corn (Shepherd, ) 100 parts gave 0.95 parts ash, 
composed : 


Silica, . - - : - 38.45 
Potash, with trace of Soda, - - - - 19.51 
Phosphate of lime, - - - - 17.17 
Phosphate of magnesia, : - - - 1883 
Phosphate of potash, - - - - 2.24 
Carbonate of lime, - - ~ - - 2.50 
Carbenate of magnesia, = - - : - 2.16 
Sulphate of lime and magnesia, - : - 0.79 
Silica, (mechanically present, ) : : - 1.70 
Alumina, - - - - - {race 
Loss, = - - - - - 1.65 

100.00 

III. Corn, (United States.) (F'romberg.) 

Potash, - - - ; - 26,63 
Soda, - . - - . - 7.54 
Magnesia, - - - - - 15.44 
Lime, - . era . ee 
Phosphoric acid, - - - - 39.65 
Sulphuric acid, > : - - - 5.54 
Silica, - - - - - 2.09 
Peroxide of iron, - : - - - 0.60 

99.08 


It will be perceived from these analyses that Indian corn va- 
8 


114 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


ries very greatly in its inorganic constituents. But we are led 
to believe that it varies still more in Europe, if Liebig (Agricul. 
Chem.,) is correct in stating: “There are certain plants which 
contain either no potash or mere traces of it. Such is Indian 
Corn. (Zea mays.) For plants such as these the potash in 
the soil is of no use, and farmers are well aware that they can 
be cultivated without rotation on the same soil.” 


The water in dry corn varies from 10 to 15 per cent.; but as 
high as 37 per cent. when first ripened. 


282. Organic analysis of various varieties of corn grown in 
New York. (Salisbury.) Golden Sioux corn, 12,—14-rowed, 
an improved variety of Buell’s Dutton corn (A,) Ohio Dent 
corn (B,) small 8-rowed corn (C,) White Flint, grown on clay 
loam, and manured with coal ashes, horse dung, and unleached 
wood ashes (D,) large 8-rowed yellow corn (E.) 


a fread OO, Peace = 
Starch , - - 36.06} 41. 7 30.290 40.34 


49.22 
Gluten, - - 5.00} 4.62| 5.600) 7.69] 5.40 
Oil, - - - 3. rt 3.88] 3.900) 4.68) 3.71 
Albumen, - - - 4.42! 2.64' 6.000! 3.40) 3.32 
Casein, - - 1.92} 1.32] 2.200} 0.50] 0.75 
Dextrine, - = - 1.30) 5.40) 4.615) 2.90; 1.89 
Fibre, - - 18.50; 21.36/26.800; 18.01) 11.96 
Sugar and extractive matter, 7.25| 10.00) 5.200} 8.30) 9.55 
Water, - = = 15.02! 10.00)13.400) 14.00} 14.00 


When the dough of Indian corn is washed with water, a 
glutinous residue is left different from the gluten of wheat, and 
characterized by its solubility in alcohol, and therefore altered to 
vegetable gelatin. 


The organic composition of corn in Europe differs from the 
above according to the following analyses. (Knapp and 
Payen.) 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 115 


men Meal Indian Meal Paste. 

Hohenheim. ee Grain of Corn. 
Gluten - - | 123 
Aivodta R 14.66 | 13.65 
Starch, - - 66.34 77.74 71.2 
Sugar, gum, - f 
Fatty matter, - - 18,18 7.16 9.0 
Husk, - - 5.9 
Ash, - - - | } 12 


6 OT Cae ee CE | 2 Cee Oe 
The amount of inorganic matter taken from an acre of the 
soil by the small white Flint corn is: ( Gould.) 


Silicic acid, - - ~ - - 210.14 Ibs. 
Phosphates of iron, lime, and magnesia, _ - - 94.58 « 
Potash, - - - - - GA 71. 74 
Soda, - - - - - 63.00 “ 
Lime, - - - - - 25:69 | 
Magnesia, - - = = - a 
Chlorine, - - ~ - - 1962". * 
Sulphuric acid, - - > : 30.34 « 
881.85 Ibs, 
Of organic matter there is taken from ene acre: 
Sugar and extract, - - - - 2,892 lbs. 
Starch, (in kernelonly,) - - - - 5,139" 
Rosin, (in cob only,) - - - ~ ig? 
Fibre, : - - - - 11,526 « 
Albumen, - - - - > 817 “« 
Casein, - bi \4= - - - 396): 
Zein, (in kernel only,) - - - 143“ 
Dextrine and gum, . - - - 1027 « 
Oil, (in kernel only,) - - =i nie 312 “ 
Chlorophyl and wax, - - - - 1713; « 
Glutinous matter, - - - - 420 « 
22,546 Ibs. 


Of this, 8,008 Ibs. are taken off bythe kernels, leaving 
14,538 lbs. for the rest of the plant. Of the inorganic matter 
99 Ibs. are contained in the kernels, leaying 782 lbs, for the stalks, 
leaves, &c. 


216 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


Amount of the several proximate organic bodies in a ton of 
each of the following parts when ripe. (Salisbury. ) 


| Leaves. | Sheaths Stalks, | Cob. | Kernels. 


| Iba. Ibs. | Ibs. | Ibs. | Ibs. 
Sugarand extract, - | 336.000} 180.000! 186.660; 94.000; 266.40 


Starch, - - trace. | 1186.00 
Resin, - - : 12.500 

Fibre, - - 1086.000} 1338.000} 1402 660} 883.760 17.80 
Matter by potash, - | 139340) 116.640) 71.340] 314.240] 11980 
r pnengia - - 160.800} 70.060) 12.000} 10.500 85.80 


Casein, - - 34.660 8.040) 72.000 2,000 1.60 
Zein, - - 33.60 
Dextrine and gam, - 116.00 57.600| 105.340] 16.000 65.20 
Oil, 72.00 
Sean, chlorophy] steed yr 
and wax, - 12.040)) g, 
Glutinous mattis, | 57.400 84.000} 51.240 
Water, - 55.340} 167400) 71.400! 626400} 169.906 


Percentage of dry matter in the following several parts of 
Small White Flint Corn, when ripe. (Salisbury. ) 


Leaves, - - 40.108 - 1. 31.128 
Sheaths, - - - 29.342 |! Kernels, - . - 62.540 
Stalk, - - 13.635 || Cob, - - - 45.652 
Tassel, - - - 58.722 i - - - 18.825 


Sheaths of husks, - 30.643 

The following table shows about the amount of the several proximate 
organic bodies thrown away in rejecting the cob, calculated from the 
analysis of the Small White Flint variety. 1000 Ibs. contain not far 
from 200 Ibs. of cob, and 809 lbs. of grain. These contain the following 
proportions, expressed in pounds and decimals of a pound. (Salisbury.) 


200 lbs. Cobs. | 800)bs. grain. | 1000 Ibs. ears. 
Sugar and extract, - 13.582 | 115.320 | 128.902 
Starch, - - 0.003 487.384 487.387 
Fibre, - - - 127.687 7.712 | 135.399 
Oil, - . ~ 39.824 39.824 
Zein, - 31.856 21.856 
Matter peperated by pot- : | 
ash from fibre, - 45.404 51.856 97.360 
“Albumen, - - 1.518 37.136 38.654 
Casein, - - _ 0.288 00.688 0.976 
Dextrine or gum, - | 2.310 | 28.224 | 30.534 
Resin, - - = 1.806 1.806 
Glutinous matter, - | 7.402 | 7.402. 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 11%, 


In the above table the inorganic matter is not seperately considered, 
it being distributed among the several organic bodies. By rejecting the 
cobs of 1000 Ibs. of dry ears about 200 lbs. of organic matter 1s lost 
which consist of 1314 lbs. of sugar and extract, 22714 Ibs. of fibre, 453¢ 
Ibs. of water soluble in potash, 114 Ibs. of albumen, 4% Ib. of casein, 
2.31 lbs. of gum or dextrine, 1.8 lbs. of resin, and 7.4 Ibs. of glutinous 
matter. Hence the cob, although not rich in nutritive matter, ean by 
no means be said to be destitute of these proximate pzinciples which, 
go to support respiration and sustain animal heat, and those which are 
capable of being transformed into nerve, muscle, &c., and the phos- 
phates which contribute so largely to the formation of bone. 


Inorganic composition of the ash of the ripe cob, (Salisbury.) 


Carbonic acid, - - . - 9.455 
Silicic acid, - - - - - 10.320 
Sulphuric acid, - - - - . 1.336 
Phosphoricacid, - ° - . - 1310 
Lime, ere - - - * 3 833 
Magnesia, ° - - - - 6.745 
Potash, - - - - : 34.400 
Soda, - - - . - - 11.495 
Chloride of sodium, : . - - 1.980: 
Organic acids, - - . - - 6430 
Phosphate of peroxide of iron, = - - A45 

99.544 


Of all the twenty-seven varieties of corn examined by Dr. Salisbury, 
the Rhode Island Sweet is the richest in albumen, oil, and dextrine, and: 
the most deficient in starch. Asa general rule, those varieties with 
full corneous kernels are richer in the nitrogenized bodies and oil, and 
Jess rich in starch than the indented kinds; and of the corneous sorts 
with distended grains, the yellow seems to be richer than the white in, 
oi], and those bodies which contain nitrogen, and less rich in starch, 


According to Fresenius, the oi of corn consists of : 


€arbon, - - » - - 79.68 
Hydrogen, - - : - - 11.53 
Oxygen, - - - : - - 8.79 


283. Inorganic analysis of the leaves of corn at different 
stages. (Salisbury. ) 


118 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


[uly 19,| Aug. 2.|Aug. 23.| Aug. 30, Oct. 18. 


Carbonic acid, - 5.40| 2.850) 0.65/ 3.50} 4.050 
Silica, - - - 13.50/19.850} 34.90] 36.27|58.650 
Sulphuric acid, - 2.16) 1.995} 4.92) 5.84! 4.881 
Phosphates, - - 21.60!16.250! 17.00! 13.50) 5.850 
Lime, - - 0.69} 4.035] 2.00) 3.38) 4.510 
Magnesia, - - 0.37] 2.980} 1.59) 2.30] 0.865 
Potash, - - 9.98]}11.675| 10.85! 9.15) 7.338 
Soda, - - - 34.39'29.590) 21.23) 22.131 8.520 
Chlorine, —- - 4.55 6.020 3.06} 1.63| 2.664 
Organic acids, - - 5.50| 2.400} 3.38] 2.05] 2.200 

[ 98.14/97.750| 99.58) 99.75|99.523 


Proximate organic analysis of the leaves at different stages of 
growth, calculated with the water. (Salisbury. ) 


| Aug. 2. _Aug.2. | Aug. 2. | Oot. 18. Aug. 23. | Oct. 18. 


1.110 a ee aa 16.800 


1.890 | 
1.390 3.350 


oc and extract soluble in alcohol, 
do insoluble in alcohol, 
Fibre with a little snaps de TY 


Fibre, : a 8.620 | 6.950 | § 54300 
Matter seperated from fibre a weak 

solution of caustic cian y 0290 oni ; 6.967, 
Albumen, - trace. 0.020 8.040 
Casein, - - - - ; 0.730 | 0.100 Li3s 
Dextrine or gum, - - 0.850 1.270 5.800 
Oiland resin, - - - 0.150 0.139 4133 
Chlorophy] and su - > 
Water, - - - 86.762 | 82.482 2.767 


284. Dr. Jackson found 100 grains of the Chit yield 6.4 
grains of ashes (§279. 11) which consisted of: 


Phosphate of lime, - - . - 24 
Phosphate of magnesia, - - - +. 08 
Phosphoric acid, a little potash, silica, and oxide of iron, - ae 

6.4 


In composition, the Chit differs materially from the rest of the kernel 
in containing a very large per centage of oil and albumen, and a small 
per centage of starch. In the analyses of the Chit, the oil amounts to 
from 26 to 30 percent., and the albumen from 17 to 20 per cent. of the 
dry matter, while the starch ranges from about 10 to 124g per cent. 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 119 


285. The feeding qualities of corn are universally known; 
and throughout the greater portion of the United States, it is 
used as bread for man, and depended on for fattening hogs and 
beef. There do not appear, however, to have been many accu- 
rate experiments made to ascertain how many pounds of corn 
are requisite to make a pound of meat. There are many difli- 
culties in the way of arriving at accurate results in these re- 
spects. Different breeds, and even individuals of the same 
breed possess different fattening qualities; we have seen that 
the variety of the corn used must make much difference; clean- 
liness, and mode of feeding make more still; while corn ground 
and cooked is found to possess much more nutritive power, 
bushel for bushel, than when fed in its natural state. The fol- 
lowing table, compiled from some experiments by Mr. H. L. 
Ellsworth, may be considered as an approximation towards the 
relative value of raw unground, and cooked ground cormm,— 
though owing to peculiar circumstances the hogs fed on mush 
did not make as good progress as they ought to have done: 


| ‘ 

eter Weight at . - | Value of corn 
z Bina ai ‘Fed daily. | endof15 Gain. Ie da 1! when pork is 
2 days. 3 cents per Ib. 
“1/131 ibs 4 oz 2 (324 Ibs. meal] §149 Ibs l3oz|13 Ibs 9 om} } 105{bs mex])/55 cts pr bush 
2!150 lbs 4.0z § |cooked,each.| 2165 lbs 130z|15 Ibs 9 oz. 
3] 157 Ibs 4 oz 7 lbs raw 179 lbs 130z)22 Ibs 9 oz. 91010; 
4|i20lbs40z$| corn,each. | 0146]1bs _|25 Ibs 12 oz } $COrn)|581¢ ¢ pr bush 

Ena of <0 
days. In 20 days. 

1/149 Ibs 130z? | 141bsraw |179 Ibs 29 Ibs 3 02.| 2 o¢9 heer 
2|165 lbs 130z§ | corn, each. |189 Ibs 23 Ibs 3 oz. 31 cts pr bush 
3|Sick. ; 24 Ibs meal 
4,146 cooked, each} 166 Ibs 20 Ibs 701bs meal|48 ets pr bush 


Thence it is deduced that raw food is to cooked food as 68 
to 103, making the gain by cooking 55 per cent. over uncooked 
food; or 3 bushels of meal cooked is equal to 44 bushels of dry 
hard corn. Or looking at this table in another light; the farmer 
selling his corn by turning it into pork, would receive 55 cents 
a bushel if it was fed cooked, while he would only receive 384 
cents per bushel if fed raw. It is generally estimated that if 


120 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


eorn is cut up and fed to hogs in the field, 15 bushels will fat- 
ten each one; that is, add 100 lbs. weight of flesh. If hogs 
at gross weight are worth $3,00 per ewt., this makes corn worth 
20 cents per bushel. If hogs are confined in pens, raw dry 
corn is worth 80 cents, and cooked meal 50 cents per bushel; 
so that the gain by grinding and cooking, over feeding in the 
field is 150 per cent. The manure, in the calculation of a skil- 
full farmer, should cover the incidental expenses of fire, feed- 
ing, &c. It is to be observed, however, from the above experi- 
ment, that hogs fed on mush did not increase in weight so 
rapidly as the others. Considering that many millions of bushels 
of corn are annually fed to animals in the United States, it is of 
great economical importance, worthy of the attention of the 
Federal and State Governments, that extensive and accurate 
experiments should be made as to the most economical mode 
of fattening stock. If we suppose—and we put the case in all 
respects lower than the truth is believed to be—200,000,000 
of bushels of corn, bearing a market value of 25 cents per 
bushel, are annually fed to hogs, and by improved means of 
feeding a saving of 25 per cent could be made, it would leave 
50,000,000 bushels, worth twelve millions five hundred thousand 
dollars to be applied to other purposes; and which now are an- 
nually thrown away, without being of any possible value, either 
direct, or indirect, to man. 

Mr. Ellsworth, however, observes that “where land is cheap 
and easily tilled, and labor dear, as in the West, it may be best 
to make hogs their own harvesters. My present impression is, 
that [in Indiana] the most profitable way to feed corn, all things 
considered, is to cut the corn, as soon as it begins to turn hard; 
then hogs will eat corn, cob, and stalk; then too, the weather is 
mild, and swine will thrive much faster in September, October, 
and November, than in December, January, and February.” 
This calculation is, of course, based on peculiar circumstances 
confined to certain localities. 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 121 


286. Corn meal, owing to deficiency in gluten, &c., does not 
rise with yeast like wheat flour. The different varieties make 
different qualities of bread. The Southern and “ Oregon” va- 
rieties are preferred for this purpose, as containing more starch. 
Yellow corn has more flavor, and absorbs more water than the 
white. In France it has been found that 150 Ibs. of corn will 
make from 215 to 223 lbs. of good bread. Mr, Ellsworth 
found that 14 lbs. of good corn meal, thoroughly cooked, will 
make 90 Ibs. of mush, so thick as not to run when taken out of 
the kettle; so that, in this form, the power of absorbing water 
is very great. The quality of bread likewise depends upon the 
mode in which the corn is ground. In the South, the mill 
stones are dressed so as to cut the meal into sharp particles, and 
not to crush it into powder as is done in wheat-flouring mills,— 
the corn being fed to the stones by handfuls at atime. Meal is 
often mixed with rye or wheat flour, and thus made into loaves. 


Dr. Clos has lately given, in the Journal d’ Agriculture pratique, the 
result of certain experiments made to ascertain the comparative econo- 
mical value of Yellow and White coin, grown in the South of France. 
He found that Yellow corn meal when cooked absorbed water, and made 


mush as follows: 4 
Weight of Meal : Difference, or weight 
Hac og Weight of Mush. Gfiwater sbeoriel 
Kilograinme. Kilogramme. Kilogramme. 
3.794 * - 11.932 - - 8.138 
3488 - - 11 136 - - 7 648 
3.549 - - 12.054 - - 8.505 
Total, 10831 - - 35.122 - - 24.291 
White corn meal, cooked in the same manner gave: 
3.977 : “ 11.075 - ~ 7.098 
3.977 - . 11.442 - - 7.465 
4.161 - - 11.687 - . 7.526 
Total, 12.115 - - 34 204 - - 22.089 


The Yellow corn gives a larger quantity of mush in proportion to the 
meal used, and each kilogramme of meal absorbs over two kilogrammes 
of water, while the White corn mea) absorbs Jess than two kilogrammes, 


122 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


or the mush of the Yellow is in proportion of 39.285 to 34.204 of the 
White from the same weights of meal. The Yellow meal, on sifting, 
gave less bran and more useful meal than the White by one-twentieth. 
It was further shown (a,) that the Yellow corn is drier and harder ; (,) 
resists moisture and is kept more easily ;and (c,) weighs more per bush- 
el than the White. The same experiments repeated in America could 
not fail to be useful. (A kilogramme, is 2 1-5 lbs. avoirdupois.) Mr. 
Gould has stated that 10 lbs. 12 oz. of Long Island corn grew ona given 
space, while 15 Ibs. 2 oz. of large 12-rowed red corn grew on the same 
space of a precisely similar soil. The large White Flint yields 2.4 tons 
of grain to the acre on the same soil where the large Yellow Sioux 
yields 3.5 tons per acre. 

287. The stalks, leaves, and husks, have a great nutritive value 
for fodder. When well saved, being cut before they are fully 
ripe, they are probably very nearly equal in this respect to com- 
mon hay. They contain much sugar; and are believed to be 
more valuable than hay when fed to milk cows; producing a 
larger quantity of milk; but no accurate experiments seem to 
have been made. In 1848, the Commissioner of Patents pro- 
cured from seventeen States, estimates of the supposed value of 
corn fodder, and it varies from $1 to $5 per ton; exclusive of 
manure made from it. If stalks are given to cattle in their 
natural state, a large portion, and that the heaviest, is wasted ; 
but if cut and mixed with a little meal, nearly the whole will 
be eaten. The relative value, therefore, will of course depend 
on the mode of feeding. Again, it must be taken into consid- 
eration whether the husks are left on the stalks or not; the 
practice varying in different localities. The size of stalks also 
makes a difference, the small northern corn containing more 
consumable fodder than the large southern; and some varieties 
are believed to be much richer in sugar, and probably albumen 
than others. 

288. The cob, also, when divested of grain, contains a nota- 
ble amount of nutriment. Most animals will eat it when soft, 
but refuse it when hard. Mr. Ellsworth had cobs crushed and 
ground, and kept his store hogs and other stock through the 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 123 


winter upon the meal. The cob is often crushed and ground 
with the corn when intended for fattening animals, and produ- 
ces a good effect mechanically as well as nutritiously. Oxen, 
however, are supposed to suffer from the fibres collecting in and 
obstructing the intestines. 

289. Green corn stalks afford a saccharine juice which can be 
crystallized into sugar. Many experiments were made in this 
direction a few years ago, but the cost was found too great to 
compete with cane sugar. The time, however, may come when 
this manufacture will prove profitable, as that of Beet sugar is 
at present in France. 

290. Corn is frequently sown broadcast to be cut green for 
soiling, when the grain becomes of secondary importance. 

291. Corn may be made to grow, with manure and skilful 
cultivation, upon almost any kind of soil, but the land peculiarly 
adapted to it is that which contains a large per centage of veg- 
etable matter, is fine, friable, warm, deep, and sufficiently sup- 
plied with moisture by evaporation. Prairies, and diluvial de- 
posites along rivers, may be called the natural habitat of corn. 
It will grow where wheat prospers, but wheat will frequently 
not mature profitably in the best corn lands. 

The following is an analysis of a rich corn-bearing soil in Ohio, oc- 
casionally overflowed by the Scioto River. It has been cultivated fifty- 
one years ; and has borne forty-five crops of corn, and two or three of 
wheat, and been a few years in grass or clover. With the most ordinary 


culture it yields 80 bushels of corn to the acre. (D.A. Wells.) 
I. Constituents soluble in pure water : 


Extract o alkali i a : 
ee ee me 
: Iron, lime and silica, - - - - 0.012 
II. Constituents soluble in dilute acid : 
(Iron, alumina, and manganese, - - 2.760 
Organic matter, combined with the aboye, - 0.860 
Total acid ex- { Say Lou! @ieat eek. Gata d Dw iN 


Phosphoric acid, - - - - traces. 


Ne Magnesia, - - - - - 0.280 
Potash and soda, - : - - 0.161 


124 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


Organic matter rendered soluble by ammonia, - - 3.140 
“ “ “ “ “ oe je - ] .030 
i “ remaining with insoluble residue, = = - 1.720 
Insoluble silicates, - . - - - - 83.010 


100 parts of the insoluble residue gave 59 parts silicious, and 41 parts 
clayey matter. 

Water, hygroscopic and combined, . - - 3.500 

Resinous and waxy matter, - - - - - 036 

The most striking fact in connection with these soils is the exceeding 
fineness of their particles. 

A deep rich mellow soil, in which the roots can freely extend 
a great distance in depth and laterally; and where, owing to the 
fineness of the soil, they will not be injured by drought, nor hid- 
den from the heat of the sun, and from atmospheric influence, 
is what the corn grower should provide for this crop. A com- 
pact clay which excludes alike air, water, and rapid growth of 
roots, forbidding all chemical changes, is not the soil for corn. 
As it grows rapidly it requires a constant supply of food, and 
this can only be attained where there is water enough to act as a 
solvent to the solids. As will have been observed in the inor- 
ganic analyses, the per centage of ash in corn is comparatively 
small, organic matter and water forming the great mass of the 
tissue. 


292. A great variety of manures are applied to this crop ac- 
cording to the requirements of the soil. Organic manures,— 
barn-yard dung and such like—are those which will most gen- 
erally prove serviceable; and next to these, decayed vegetable 
matter. In consequence, corn is found to succeed well on grass 
or clover sod. Of the inorganic manures, dissolved bones, un- 
leached wood ashes, salt, and plaster, promise to do good, ¢f the 
soil is deficient in these elements. 

293. When corn is planted on sod, (a,) spread manure on 
the grass; (6,) plow deep, laying the furrow flat; (c,) roll, and 
(4,) harrow with a long sharp toothed harrow, or a cultivator, 
till the surface is rendered friable two or three inches or more, 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 125 


deep; both of these processes being lengthwise of the furrow; 
(e,) spread compost, or well decayed dung, and harrow it in 
again. If corn is to be planted on stubble, one plowing, and a 
thorough harrowing, with the same application of manure, is 
all that is requisite. 


294. Corn is planted, (a,) by hand with a hoe, or (2,) by a 
drill, either (c,) in hills, or (d,) rows; and these latter either 
(e,) equal or (f,) alternate. If by hand, the lines are laid out 
by (9,) alight plow drawing a shallow furrow both ways across 
the field, so as to divide it into squares, at the proper distance, 
or (h,) by a corn marker, a coarse implement made somewhat 
similar to the form of a hay rake, with the teeth or pins at the 
distance apart proper for the corn; the whole being drawn by 
a horse; (i,) the drill will plant either in hills or rows. The 
usual distance apart for hills is three to five feet each way, ac- 
cording to the size of the corn; for rows three to four feet, and 
the plants nine to twelve inches apart in the row. 


The amount per acre of the crop depends much on the mode of plant- 
ing. Ina favorable soil it rarely happens that each original stalk does 
not produce one ear; allowing these ears to produce in shelled corn one 
gill each, the amount produced per acre by different methods of plant- 
ing will be as follows,—four stalks being allowed to each hill when 
planted in that form: 

One acre in hills 4 feet apart, gives 2,722 hills or 10,885 stalks, 
RS. eS er 7 or 19,3600 °°" 
cad ualtit “ “3ft. by 2 ft. “ 5,808 * 82,232 « 
« «  indrills 3 ft.and 6 inches forplants,  - 29,040 “ 
S “in double drills thus : 
* * . 2 * * 
* * = * * * x 
6 inches apart, the plants 9 inches in the rows, and 3 feet 9 inches from 
the centre of the drills would have 30,970 stalks. An acre planted 3 
rows ina drill thus: 
* * * * 2 * ® 


126 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


rows 6 inches apart, and the plants 9 inches in the rows, with a distance 
of 3 feet from the centre of the drills would have 43,560 stalks, or 170 
bushels ; while the hills, 4 feet by 4 feet, could only give 42 bushels. A 
crop of 170 bushels to the acre was actually raised, some years since, in 
Madison county, New York, on the three row system. 


295. The proper depth at which to plant the corn is about 
1 inch to 14 inches, 

The following experiment was made by Burger, in Germany: 

Indian corn which was planted at the depth of 

No.1, 1 inch, came up in 8% days. 

No. 2, 14 inches, came up in 9% days. 


No. 3, 2 inches, came up in 10 days. 
No. 4, 23 inches, came up in 114 days. 
No. 5, 8 inches, came up in 12 days. 
No. 6, 3% inches, came up in 13 days. 
No. 7, 4 inches, came up in 13} days. 
No. 8, 4% inches, came up In — days. 
No. 9, 5 inches, came up in — days. 
No. 10, 54 inches, came up in 17} days. 
No. 11, 6 inches, came up in — days. 


Nos. 8, 9, and 11, were dug up after 22 days, when it was 
found that No. 8, had an inch more to grow to reach the sur- 
face. Nos. 8,and 11, had just sprouted but were short, and 3 
inches below the surface. No. 10, came up in 17} days, but 
withered after 6 days growth. The more shallow the seed was 
covered by the earth, the more rapidly the sprout made its ap- 
pearance, and the stronger, afterwards, was the stalk, 

Corn will not germinate unless the temperature of the soil 
attains to 55 ° Fahr., and at a temperature higher than 110 ° 
it equally refuses to vegetate. 

“ Much of the damage which is supposed to arise from planting in 
the ‘ wrong time of the moon,’ is really due to planting when the soil 


is at the wrong temperature, and if the time ever arrives when the aver- 
age crop of the country is equal to what our premium crops now are, it 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 127 


must be when every farmer owns a thermometer and knows how to use 
it.’ (JS. Gould.) 

An experiment was made in Connecticut in 1844 to plant corn three 
inches deep. Itcame up and grew well until it was three or four inches 
high, and then stopped for a fortnight, while the same corn planted at a 
lessdepth grew rapidly. On examination it was found that a joint had 
been formed about an inch and half above the kernel, and that the roots 
had sprouted out from the joint leaving all below to perish. While the 
process of changing roots was going on the plant ceased to grow above 
ground, but in about a fortnight recovered its vigor; and it was about 
that length of time later in maturing the grain, than the seeds which were 
planted shallower. 

296. The following table will show the quantity of seed, re- 


quired, on an average, to plant an acre in hills, 


Distances of the Quantity required Quantity required 
hills apart. 4 grains to a hill. 5 grains to a hill. 
QUARTS. QUARTS, 
3 feet by 2 feet, - 14.52 18.15 
3 Puy Ss) | - - 9.68 12.10 
33 “ bys * - 8.30 10.37 
BaF ee ag ae 2 : 7.11 8.89 
4 “by3 « ‘ 7.26 9.08 
BF OR hy By those - 6.22 7.78 
45 “oby4)) & . 5.44 6.80 


297. The culture of the corn after it is above ground varies 
much. While some put a small quantity of ashes and plaster 
in the hill at planting, others wait until the corn is a few inches 
high, It will only be necessary shortly to state the various pro- 
cesses which are then pursued; (a,) hoe, plow both ways, throw- 
ing the earth into hills round the corn, hoe and plow again; (6,) 
hoe and plow, as above, but keep the earth level, and not raised, 
around the roots; (¢,) hoe, but avoid plowing or hilling, cutting 
up the weeds, and rendering the surface friable with the cultiva- 
tor. It is quite necessary that weeds should not be allowed to 
grow, and that the earth should be frequently stirred; but 
whether deep plowing, or the use of the hoe and cultivator 
alone are best is a disputed point; and probably depends on the 
nature and richness of the soil. 


128 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


These directions only apply to the Northern and Atlantic States. In 
the rich Western Prairies and river bottoms, corn culture isa much more 
simple process. 

298. Itis a custom with some to plant corn five to eight feet 
apart in rows, and in the fall to plow between them, and sow 
wheat. As a system of rotation, this mode appears to possess 
peculiar advantages. For particulars,see Mr. Bartlett’s letter in 
the Farmer's Companion and Horticultural Gazette, Novem- 
ber, 1853. Pumpkins are generally planted in each alternate 
hill or row. In Virginia, peas are sown between the rows after 
the last hoeing, to be afterwards eaten off by hogs. In a 
similar manner clover is sown in New Jersey. 


299. It is also customary to steep corn before planting to (a, ) 
prevent birds and insects from injuring it; (6,) to act as a ma- 
nure. For the first purpose soak the corn a few hours in warm 
water, and then mix it with tar thrown into water sufficiently 
hot to melt it. Hach grain will be thinly coated withtar. Dry 
with plaster or ashes. For the second, use a weak solution of 
saltpetre, or salammoniac, (Muriate of ammonia,) 1 |b. to 44 
bushels, or 1 oz. to a quart of grain—mixed in warm water, 
and poured over, to remain upon the corn for 18 hours before 
planting. The corn sprouts with a rich green color, and grows 
rapidly, but whether it finally increases the crop is still dispu- 
ted. 


300. To grow corn broadcast for fodder, rich clean land is 
required. It is prepared with one plowing, is slightly harrowed, 
and the corn sown at the rate of 3 to 4 bushels to the acre. It 
is then harrowed in and rolled. It is sometimes planted in 
drills, and worked with the cultivator. 


301. The best time for harvesting, or cutting the corn is 
when the grain is glazed, but not yet perfectly hard, and the 
atalks still partially green. 


302. Previous to this process, and at the time when the ears 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 129 


but not the grains were fully formed, it used to be the custom 
to top the corn, i. e., cut off the stalks and leaves above the 
highest ears; but this is now generally abandoned. Truer views 
of the physiology of vegetation have taught that the leaves are 
necessary for the elaboration of the sap which forms the grain; 
and careful experiments proved that when the plant was thus 
deprived of part of its foliage, the grain was lighter and the 
ear not so well filled, although it might ripen a little earlier. 


3038. In the Southern States, it is customary to pluck the 
leaves of corn, dry them for fodder, and stack them, leaving the 
stalks standing in the field, to be afterwards eaten by stock, or 
plowed in. As this is generally done before the grain is formed, 
the same injurious results follow as in topping. 


The following experiment was tried in South Carolina in 1846. 
Twelve rows of corn, as nearly equal in appearance as could be found, 
were selected. Nos. 1,4, 7,10, (A,) were left with the leaves on, until 
they were generally dry as high as the ear, and, on some stalks to the 
top. They were then cut up at the roots; shocked on the field until the 
other grain was gathered in; they were then hauled in and husked from 
the stalk. Nos. 2, 5, 8, 11, (B,) were left with the blades on until quite 
ripe. Nos. 3, 6, 9, 12, (C,) were stripped of their blades before ripen- 
ing, butas late as usual. The results were as follows : 

A, when shelled, measured 4 pecks, 1 gallon, 2 quarts, | pint, weighed 7034 Ibs. 
B, ain i ? - eed al mr Fee 1}g a 7132 lbs 
Cc, « “ rk ne ee ey | 

The fodder, taken from the last, weighed 18 lbs., which added to the 
weight of the corn is 73 lbs.—1 1-2 lbs. more than the corn alone from 
which no leaves were taken. It thus appears that this process deprives 
the corn of nearly the weight of the fodder when cured, without reck- 
oning the time also consumed in taking the leaves off. 


304. Corn is harvested by cutting close to the ground, with 

a heavy knife manufactured for the purpose, or part of a scythe 

blade, fixed to a handled of some sort. Several hills are laid 

together, and bound with acorn stalk; with straw rope; or other 

cheap band. These bundles, to the number of 4 to 8, are then 

tied around the stalks of a hill left standing for the purpose. 
9 


130 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


There are various modifications of this process, but all on the 
same principle. The corn thus stands, until the leaves, stalks, 
and ears are dry; in the north, till after the first strong frost, 
the effect of which is to expel the remaining water. 

Then the bundles are opened, and the ears of each stalk 
separated from the husk, thrown into baskets, and removed by 
wagon to the corn crib. The workman holds in his hand a 
short, sharp, piece of wood, generally attached by a string to 


the wrist, to facilitate the opening of the husk. The husks | 


should remain attached to the stalk; and not be torn off as is 
too often done. The stalks are then again tied up, and left in 
the field till it is convenient to haul them to the barn, or stack 
them. When stacked out of doors great care must be taken 
that the rain does not get in, otherwise rot will rapidly ensue. 


305. When sown broadcast, the stalks are usually cut while 
green, and fed to stock in stables. If retained till winter they 
may be cut, bound, and stacked as above. A hittle salt scattered 
among the stalks in stacking will be found useful to prevent 
moulding, and cause the animals to eat them more perfectly. 

In 1845. over 31 tons of green corn stalks were raiscd to the acre in 
Massachusetts. The product of two acres 32 rods, fed 20 cows, 1 heifer, 
2 bulls, and 5 spring calves for 7 weeks and 5 days ; the dried produce 
off the same acre being estimated as equal to 15 tous of the best “ Eng- 
ligh’? hay. This production, however, is much greater than what is 
generally obtained. Ten bushels of “white flat Maryland corn” were 
sown on the 2 32-160 acres. Corn is sometimes sown broadcast for the 
purpose of plowing it inas a manure for wheat. 

306. Corn is seperated from the cob by (a,) thrashing with 
a flail; (,) treading with horses; (c,) a machine called a corn- 
sheller, of which there are several sorts, some moved by hand, 
others by horse power. If required to be very clean the corn 
is then passed through a fanning mill. 

The following is a rule for finding the quantity of corn, shelled or in 
ear, ina house of any dimensions, Having previously levelled the corn 
in the house, so that it will be of equal depth throughout, ascertain the 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 131 


length, breadth, and depth of the bulk; multiply these dimensions to- 
gether; and their product by 4; then cut off one figure from the right 
hand of this last product. This gives the bushels, and decimal of a 
bushel of shelled corn. If corn in the car, substitute 8 for 4, and cut off 
ene figure as before. 

ExaupLp :— 


12 feet long. 
li feet broad. 


6 — feet deep. 


4 — multiple for shelfed corn. 


316.8 bushels in house. 


When 8 is used as a multiple to find the quantity of corn in 
the ear, it ison the ground of 2 bushels of such making 1 of 
shelled grain. 


There are other rules given for the same purpose which de not agree with this, 
and it appears that the accuracy of this mode of measuring requires further testing. 


307. It is very important that the best ears should be saved 
for seed; as corn rapidly degenerates or improves according to 
the seed planted. Careful farmers select the best ears while 
husking; leave part of the husk attached to them; plait them 
together; and hang them up in adry room. Corn not per- 
fectly ripened or dried, heats when thrown together in large 
quantities, and the germinative power is lost. Two years ago, 
owing to early frosts, the corn in Michigan was imperfectly 
dried; and, in the spring, corn taken from the crib very gener- 
ally failed to grow; while, preserved in the house, as above re- 
commended, it is said no failures occurred. The loss of labor 
and time, and of the crop in consequence, was estimated at many 
thousand dollars in this one State alone. It is found advisable 
to change the seed every few years, procuring the new from a 
location further north, and from a different soil. 


308. In the southern, and middle western States, it is customary to 
turn hogs and cattle into the field of standing corn, but this is a very 


132 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK- 


wasteful proceeding, unless labor is very costly. In south Ohio, the 
corn is cut and tied in bundles, avd daily hauled to a small field, where 
stalks, grain, leaves, d&c., are thrown on the ground for the fattening 
cattle to eat. The next day, these are removed to a seeond field, and 
their place is taken by a drove of hogs, which pick up what the cattle 
have wasted or refused. Thus, the two are fed alternately in different 
fields ; and the swine fattened at comparatively little cost. 


309. If the cobs are not ground for feed, they should be 
mixed with animal manures in a state of fermentation, when 
they will gradually decay. They contain many valuable ele- 
ments of manure. They are occasionally used for smoking 
hams, and some other minor domestic purposes. 


810. There are no weeds peculiar to this crop. Indeed a 
skilful farmer will not allow a solitary weed to grow among his 
corn; and thence it is an excellent crop for cleaning foul land. 


311. Corn is subject to the growth of a very ee and 
destructive fungus or Brand. 


Maize Brand (Uredo maydis. De Candolle,) attacks all the paren- 
ehymatous organs of the corn plant, and more or less completely de- 
stroys them. The stalk, however, the female, and the male blossoms, 
are the parts which it most especially affects. Its development is a 
peculiar one, as it forces out great masses of cellular tissue, formed 
from the tissue of the mother plant, and similar in formation to the lat- 
ter. Some parts of the organs affected by the brand swell and become 
white. This species always impairs some blossoms, as soon as it is 
seated in the ear, while the other blossoms standing near bear good ripe 
kernels. The brand bladders can be very easily removed from the liv- 
ing plants by cutting them out, only this must be done as soon as pos- 
sible, in order that in cutting them out the bladders may not scatter 
tLeir powder, and thus a future crop of brand not be prevented. For 
seed only, kernels should be selected from plants which have remained 
wholly free from the brand. This fungus is, by the structure of its 
spores, different from all others, and only related to the wheat brand. 
Corn in rich, damp loam appears more subject to this disease than in any 
other situation, and draining would probably prove an effectual cure. 
(See Trans. of N. Y. Agricul. Socy.,, vol. viii., p. 842.) 


In the Patent Office Report for 1847, a description of a disease whieb 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 133 


appeared in Maryland is given, and which we suspect to be another 
species of brand. 

“The cap of the injured ear is discolored, and when opened a few 
grains near the apex of the ear, and one side of it, mark the commence- 
ment of the disease in their sickly and shrivelled appearance ; this in- 
eveases in space and intensity until the whole ear exhibits a deadly and 
gangreneous mass of black, rotten grains, while the whole plant on 
which it grows is erect, and of the most healthy and vigorous appear- 
ance.’ It did much injury to the crop. 


312. The insects most injurious to the corn are: 


(A.) Cut-worms. These are thick, greasy-looking caterpillars, from on® 


to two inches in length, of a dark ashen grey color, with a brown head, 
a pale stripe along the back, and several minute black dots on each 
ring. They are the grub of a species of moth, belorging toa group 
called by Dr. Harris Agrotidians ; and there aie many species in the 
United States, each species probably confining itself to a particular 
family of plants, as one to the cabbage, another to grasses and grains, 
The moths fly by night, appearing in July and August. They lay their 
eggs either in the ground, or on the rovrs of plants in the autumn, and 
these are hatched in the spring, the Cut-worm being produced. These 
feed on plants, concealing themselves in holes in the ground during day, 
and appearing only at night. During the summer they become chrysa- 
lids; remain in that state about four weeks; and the moth again ap= 
pears in the fall. The corn Cut-worm, is probably the Agrostis messo- 
via of Harris. They feed only on the sprouts and young staiks and do 
not eat the seeds of plants. 

(B.) Wire-worm, or Julus, a hard, worm-like form, with the skin 
seperated into compartments or rings. It is not a true Jnscct as it un- 
dergoes no transformation; and belongs to the class Myriapodia, a 
name derived from the great number of feet with which most of the an- 
imals included in it are furnished. There are several species. 


(C.) Wire-worm. In some localities, especially in new lands, and 
on plowing up old grass fields, another insect known by this name 
proves very injurious to young corn. They are long, slender, worm-like 
grubs nearly cylindrical, with a hard and smoth skin, of a buff or brown- 
ish yellow color, the head and tail only being a httle darker; each of 
the first three rings are provided with a pair of short legs; under- 
neath the last ring is a short retractile wart, or prop leg. These are the 
grub of a species of Beetle, the Hlaters or Spring beetles, well known 
in this shape by the faculty they possess of throwing themselves up- 


134 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


wards with a jerk, when laid on their backs. There are many species, 
some of which appear to be confined to rotten wood. It is believed 
that they remain in their feeding or larva state not less than five years, 
before changing into beetles. The grubs injure corn both by eating the 
grain when first sown, and also by cutting off the young plant just below 
the ground, as the Cut-worm eats above the surface. 


(D.) Spindle-worm. This is the caterpillar of a moth (Gortyna Zee,) 
and is well known as destroying the spindle of corn. Its ravages, how- 
ever, generally begin while the cornsta’k is young, aud before the spin- 
dle rises much above the tuft of leaves in which it is embosomed. The 
mischief is discovered by the withering of the leaves, and when these 
are taken hold of, they may often be drawn out with the included spin- 
dle. On examining the corn, a small hole may be seen in the side of 
the leafy stalk, near the ground, penetrating into the soft centre of the 
stalk, which when cut open will be found to be perforated, both upwards 
and downwards, by a slender worm-like caterpillar, whose excremen- 
tious castings surround the orifice of the hole. The grub grows to over 
an inch in lenzth, and to the thickness of a goose quill. The chrysalis 
is lodged in the burrow formed by it; it is of a shining mahogany 
brown. ; 

(£.) The grub of the May-beetles, (Dor-bug, Cock-chafer, Anomala,) 
injures corn by eating the roots. It is a white, thick, smooth skinned 
semipellucid- worm, with a brownish head, and when fully grown nearly 
half an inchin diameter. It is frequently thrown out of the ground in 
digging or plowing. When in a state of rest, it usually curls itself up 
in the shape of a crescent. It is supposed that it oceupies from three to 
five years in the grub state, before changing. 


(F.) The Granary Weevil. (Fly Weevil—G@rain moth—Angoumois 
moth,) Butalis cerealella,) which is so destructive to stored wheat, is 
also -njurious to corn in some localities, when it is kept unprotected 
more than six oreight months. (Sce §202.) 

(G.) The true Grain Weevil. (Curculio granarius,) also attacks 
stored corn. (See§ .) 


(71) The Grain moth (Tinea granclla,) also feeds on corn under sim- 
ilar circumstances. - 

(1.) Corn Weevil (Silvanus Surinamensis,) is very commonly found 
among stored corn, as well as in other grains, and in sugar. It also in- 
fests mills. It is said that Sassafras Root, mixed with the grain, drives 
them away. (ora very full description and a plate of this, and Calan- 
dra granaria, see N. Y. Trans. of Agricul. Society, vol. viii., p. 656.) 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 135 


313. A great variety of preventives have been tried, but 
only a few appear to be worthy of use. Salt, perhays, is the 
most generally successful against such grubs as live in the 
ground: ‘Two to four bushels per acre of fine salt being sown 
broadcast, and slightly harrowed in, a few days before planting. 
If the corn is to be planted on sod, fall plowing—late in the 
season—will affect some good; also steeping the grain in saline 
and ammonical liquors; and tarring. It has been recommended, 
and practised with success, to hang the seed corn in the smoke 
house, and smoke it with the hams: the pyroligneous acid ap- 
pears to be offensive to insects and birds, while it does no injury 
to the grain. For insects injuring the ripe corn when stored, 
abundance of air, and thorough ventilation are the best preven- 
tives. A barrel, impregnated with tar, it is said will drive 
away the True Grain Weevil, (C. granarius,) (g,) if it is 
placed in the granary. It is thus employed in France. 
The farmer will find much profit in cherishing birds; even 
the red-winged Black Bird, ( Agelaius phoeniceceus,) and Crow 
Black Birds, ( Quiscalus versicolor and ferrugineus, )-—on his 
farm; for though they destroy some grain, it is but a choice of 
two evils; it being always found that where birds are driven 
away the loss by insects becomes extreme. A single pair of 
Crow Black birds will, in one season, destroy thousands of in- 
jurious grubs. 

The whole subject of insects injurious to vegetation in America, still 
requires much study and persevering observation ; and notwithstanding 
Dr. Harris’ labors, there is yet much of practical importance to learn 
regarding it. We believe that the day will come when means will be 
discovered of preventing these ravages ; but before this can take place, 
not only must the habits of the insects themselves, but also the peculiar- 
ities of the plants and soil be much better understood than at present. 
Many facts would lead us to believe, that an impoverishment of the soil 


is necessary befure insects can become seriously injurious, as it is cer- 
tainly connected with diseases of vegetation. 


314. Many of the European physiologists, have for a length of time 


a 


be es 
7 


136 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


been endcavoring to decide the question whether grains will germinate 
before they are fully ripe? The last writer on the subject, M. Duchar- 
tre, Professor of Botany in the Agronomic Institution of Versailles, has 
made many very complete experiments, with satisfactory results. We 
are only able to give here a summary of the truths he arrived at. 

1, The grains of the cereals are able to germinate, if harvested at least 
twenty to twenty-five days before maturity, or complete ripeness, al- 
though the germ is yet very imperfect. 

2. Such seeds require a longer time to sprout than those quite ripe, if 
sown immediately without drying. 

3. The same proportionate number of seeds will grow in both cases, 
with the exception, perhaps, of barley. 

4. Seeds imperfectly ripened germinate much more surely if they are 
well dried before sowing. In this case they sprout as soon as perfectly 
ripe seeds. It would appear that seeds harvested in an unripe state are 
able to mature themselves if kept for some time,—the embryo being 
nourished and developed at the expense of the moisture and albumen. 

5. In practice, there need be no fear as regards sowing seeds of tho 
cereals cut a long time before maturity, but the threshing should be de- 
ferred as long as possible, 

6. Where the crop is large and laborers searce, the harvest may be 
commenced much earlier than is usual, without any fear of injuring the 
grain, 

7. The plants grown from seeds gathered twenty-five days before 
ripening, and allowed to dry for seven weeks, so far from being weak 
and inferior, were remarkable for their vigor, and on the whole no dif- 
ference in this respect could be perceived in favor of well ripened grain. 
It would be well to make a series of similar experiments in America, a8 
practically, it is a very important subject. 


CHAPTER XI. 


RICE.—BUCKWHEAT.—MILLET.—CANARY 
GRASS. 


315. Rice has been known and cultivated from the earliest 
periods, and furnishes food to a large portion of the human 
family. Its native country is unknown. 


316. There are two varieties, (a,) Common Rice; ( Oryza 
sativa) and (6,) Cochin China, Dry, Upland, or Mountain Rice ; 
with several subvarieties, as Long Grain and Small Grain, &e. 

317. The first (a,) is cultivated in marshes; and, for a great 
part of its growth, is partially under water. It requires a warm 
climate. On the Eastern continent it matures as high as the 
45th parallel of north lat. and as far south as the 38th. On the 
Atlantic side of the Western continent, as far north and south 
as 38° of lat. On the western coast as far north as 40 ° or 
more. It is cultivated in India, China, the Indian Archipelago, 
Eastern Africa, South of Europe, southern portion of the United 
States, and in parts of South America. It was introduced into 
Virginia in 1647, and into Louisiana in 1718. According to 
Boussingault it requires a minimum temperature of 75 ° F. 

318. The second variety (%,) grows on mountains and dry 
soils; several degrees further north and south than the first. It 
is found high on the range of the Himalayan Mountains, and is 
cultivated in the northern provinces of China, in Hungary, 
Westphalia, Virginia, Maryland, Lllinois, Missouri, &c. It was 
introduced into Charleston, S. C., from Canton, in 1772. 

319, The States in which Rice is chiefly cultivated are 


138 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


1840. 1850. 
South Carolina, - 60,590,861 Ibs, 159,930,613 Ibs, 
Georgia, -  - 12,384,732 38,950,691 
Louisiana, - 3,604,534 “ 4,425,349 « 
North Carolina, 2,820,388 “ 5,465,868 “ 
Mississippi, -  - 11 %105. 4 | 2,719,856 * 


Besides Virginia, Florida, Alabama, Texas, Arkansas, Ten- 
nessee, Kentucky, Missouri (700 lbs.) and Iowa (500 Ibs.) 
The total crop of the United States was, 1840, 80,841,422 Ibs; 
1850, 215,312,710 Ibs. The rice grown in South Carolina is 
considered the finest in the world, having much improved in 
quality in that State. 

320. The Wild Rice, of the North Western Lakes, which is gathered 
and eaten by the Indians, belongs to a different botanical family, and 
is known as Zizania aquatica. It is not cultivated. The Patent Office 
Report, 1846, p. 289, mentions a grain by the name of Hungry Rice, 
cultivated at Sierra Leone, Africa, as worthy of introduction into this 
country ; but itis probably a species of Jfil/et, and not a true Rice. 


321. Unhusked rice consists of: (Johnston. ) 


Husk, - - ee - - - 20.91 
Grain, - = - - - - 79.09 
Carolina Rice, (A,) and Rice Flour (B,) gave: 
A. B. 
Water, - - - - - 13.0 14.6 
Ash, - . - - 0.33 0.35 


322. Considering a rice plant in its dry mature state to 
weigh 100 grains, the mineral matter in the different parts of 
the plant are as follows: (Shepard.) 


In the stubble and root, - - - - 36.08 
Straw and leaves, “ - - - 36.08 
Husk, - - - - - - 14.20 
Cotyledon and Epidermis, - - - 11.70 
Clean rice, - - - - - - 194 

100.00 


323. Dry rice contains: (Payen.) 


Starch, - - - - - - 869 
Gluten, &c., - - - - - 7.5 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 139 


Fatty matter, . - - - oy ie 
Sugar and Gum, - - - - . 0.5 
Epidermis, - - - - - eae)! 
Saline matter, (ash) - - - = 0.9 


Rice contains less fatty matter than any other grain, and the 
greater portion of the fat is contained in the outer coats. John- 
ston found in the siftings or cleanings of rice, from 5 to 53 per 
cent. of fatty matter. 


324. Inorganic analyses of Rice grain (A,) and husk (B.) 
(Johaston.) 


A B 
Potash, - + - - - 1848 1.60 
Soda, . - - - 10.67 1.58 
Magnesia, - ~ - - 11.69 1.96 
Lime, - - - - 1.27 1.01 
Phosphoric acid, - - - - 53.36 1.86 
Sulphurie acid, - - - — 0.92 
Silica, - - - = | 3235 89.71 
Peroxide of iron, - - - 045 0.54 


Varieties of rice from India give a much larger per centage 
of ash than those grown in the United States. This grain is 
probably less nutritious than any other ordinarily used by man; 
as it contains a comparatively small proportion of glutinous or 
nitrogenous matter. 

325, The soil adapted for the common rice is of a marshy 
and wet character, containing much organic matter, which can 
be overflowed or drained when requisite; but it will grow 
(though less profitably) on light, moist uplands without irriga- 
tion, when cultivated with the hoe or plow. On wet lands, the 
embankments and ditches being prepared, the soil is well 
plowed, the seed sown at the rate of 1# io 2} bushels per acre, 
and harrowed in with a light harrow, thickly set with teeth. 
In South Carolina, from April to May, is the usual season. 
Immediately after, the water is let on, so as barely to overflow 
the ground. As soon as the grain begins to swell, the water is 
withdrawn. When the plant is three inches high, the water is 


140 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


again let on, leaving the top leaves a little above it. A fort- 
night before harvest, the water is finally drawn off. 

326. Rough rice, while the husk is still attached, is called 
Paddy; and large quantities are exported in this condition. 
A peculiar mill is required for cleaning the husk from the 
grain, and in this process large amounts of “Rice flour” are 
formed. The “flour,” the chaff, and the straw are used as ma- 
nure for this crop, and are deemed among the very best. The 
chaff is spread even over the surface, about three inches deep, 
and plowed in. The straw can be safely used when the field is 
fallowed. It is then put on the land thick, and bedded in. 
Prof. Shepard says “The planter who sells his crop in the con- 
dition of Rough Rice, robs his land of 27.84 per cent of the 
mineral ingredients of this species of produce, while on the other 
hand, he who sells it as clean rice, abstracts from them but 2 
per cent. of these ingredients.” 


327. The Upland Rice is sown in April and is ripe in Sep- 
tember. The usual method is to sow it in drills about 18 
inches apart; but if the land is well prepared and clean, it may 
be sown broadcast. 


328. The yield of an average crop of common rice in South 
Carolina is about 40 bushels per acre, while a good crop will 
give as high as 55 bushels. We find the product of 16 acres 
thus described when prepared for market: 

Rough rice, 376 bushels, give of 


Clean rice, - - - - 10,754 lbs. 
Small rice, - - - - 1614 bushels. 
Flow, - - 31 “ 


The Upland Rice yields from 25 to 30 bushels an acre, 


329. Rice is measured by the Barrel of 600 Ibs, and by the 
Tierce. 

330. This grain is eaten boiled in its clean state; it is ground 
into flour; and starch is made from it. Manufactured on a 
large scale, Patna rice yields 80 per cent of marketable starch ; 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 14} 


8.2 per cent. of fibrous starch granules; and 11.8 per cent. of 
gluten, bran, and a small quantity of light starch. In India, 
a fermented intoxicating liquor called arrack is prepared from 
it. When damaged, it is occasionally used for feeding hogs and 
fowls, and though deficient in oil, the iarge amount of starch 
which it contains enables it to fatten. ‘The refuse from rice- 
mills is probably more fattening than the clean grain. 

331. Microseopic examination of the soil of rice fields shows it to be 
filled with minute animal forms and shells capable of supplying a large 
amount of phosphoric acid, the chief inorganic ingredient of this grain. 

332. Buckwuerar (derived from the German Buchweitzen 
* Beech-wheat,” from the resemblance of the seeds to the Beech 
mast) is not properly a grain, but belongs to the family of 
knotweeds, of which there are twenty species in the Northern 
United States. It is probably a native of China. There are 
three cultivated species; (a,) Common Buckwheat, Polygonum 
Fagopyrum; (6,) Tartarian Buckwheat, P. tataricum, and 
(c,) Notch-seeded Buckwheat, P. emarginatum. There do not 
appear to be any varieties. 

In the Trans. N. Y. State Agricultural Society, 1848, p. 572, mention 
is made of a Blue Buckwheat, grown in Sullivan county. Its peculiari- 
ties are, 1. It is less injured by the sun. 2. Can be sown earlier. 3. 
Weighs heavier ; and 4, Makes from 3 to 5 lbs. per bushel more flour 
of a better quality, than common buckwheat. The flour sold for 25 
eeuts per 100 Ibs. more in the New York Market. In one instanee it 
yielded 41 bushels per acre. Whether this is a variety, or one of the 
above mentioned, we are unable to decide. 

The first is chiefly cultivated in America, the second in Italy, 
the last in China. In Europe it is grown for food from Russia 
to Italy, Great Britain excepted; and being a very short time 
in the ground, can be adapted to great differences of climate. 
tn the United States it can Le grown in every section, but is 
chiefly cultivated north of North Carolina and Tennessee. The 
total crop in 1840, was 7,291,743 bushels, and in 1850, 
8,956,916; New York (3,183,955 bushels) and Pennsylvania 


142 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


(2,193,692 bushels) being the largest producers. Michigan is 
the fifth largest, giving 472,917 bushels, beg only inferior to 
Ohio and New Jersey. It has probably been grown in America 
about 150 years. 


333. Organic analyses of Buckwheat flour from Vienna (A,) 
and Tartarian Buckwheat from Hohenheim (B.) (Horsford 
and Krocker.) 


A B 
Gluten and Albumen, - = - 688 9.94 
Starch, - - - - 65.05 44,12 
Woody fibre, Gum, Sugar, - - - 2647 46.26 
Ash, - - - - 1.69 2.30 
Moisture in fresh substance, - - +e 14.19 


334. Inorganic analyses of Buckwheat from Cleves (Bichon) 
(A,) and New York. (Salisbury.) (B,) 


A B 

Chlorine, - - -_ 0.20 
Potash, - - - 8.74 4 RRBs 
Soda, - - - 20.10 é 2.04 
Lime, - - - 6.66 0.14 
Magnesia, . - - 10.38 2.66 
Oxide of iron, - - 1.05 

Phosphoric acid, - - 50.07 Earthy phosphates, 57.60 
Silica, = - - - 0.69 7.06 
Sulphuric acid, - - 2.16 7.30 


There exists a striking identity in the composition of buck- 
wheat and rye. In the seeds of the former there is 27 per 
cent. of husk. The 73 per cent. of flour, closely resembling 
that of rye in color and properties, contains 10} of gluten, and 
52 of ordinary starch. The greatest resemblance also exists in 
tie constitution of the ash when both plants have been grown 
on the same soil. The dried grain of rye contained 2.4 per 
cent., that of buckwheat 2.1 per cent. of ash. 


335. Boussingault gives the following as contained in the 
grain (A,) and straw (B,) 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK, 143 


A B 
Water per cent, - : : - I25 11.6 
Nitrogen per cent. of dried, - - 2.40 0.54 
ss bot dried, - - == O10 0.48 
Ammonia dried, calculated from the nitrogen, 2.94 0.65 


336. Inorganic analysis of Buckwheat straw (Sprengel) 
100,000 parts of the dry straw contained 3203 parts of ash: 


Potash, - > - - - . «999 
Soda, - - - - - i 62 
Lime, - - - - : - 704 
Magnesia, - - : * - 1292 
Alumina, - = . Fy & T 26 
Oxide of iron, - - 2 = = 15 
Oxide of manganese, - - - - Sy P-gp 
Silica, 5 - - - - e 140 
Chlorine, = - - ¢ - i 95 
Sulphuric acid, = - - - - 2 217 
Phosphoric acid, - - - a - 988 

3,203 


337. An acre of 28 bushels, weighing 56 Ibs. per bushel, 
gives of the grain, an average of 


Organic matter, - - : - 1326 lbs, 
Ash, - - - - - 220 
Nitrogen, - - > : - 32“ 
Phosphoric acid, - - - a 14) * 
338. Proximate organic analysis of Buckwheat: (Salisbury.) 
Starch, - - - - - - 4247 
Sugar and extractive matter, - - ai) 616 
Dextrine and gum, - - - - 1.60 
Epidermis, - - - - : 1442 
A light gray matter insoluble in water and boiling aleohol, - 10.10 
Albumen, - - - - - 6.70 
Casein, - - - - - 0.78 
Matter dissolved ont of the bodies insoluble in water, by boil- : 9°66 
ing alcohol; rising with a substance analogous to water, ‘ 
Oil, - - . . - - 0.47 
Water, - - - - - - 12.88 


98.24 


144 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


339. Buckwheat is used as food for man and animals, and is 
decidedly nutritious. Its fattening qualities are found in prac- 
tice to be higher than could be supposed from analysis; and 
the meat formed by it is of peculiarly fine quality. The outer 
husk being hard, this grain should always be ground or cooked 
before feeding. 

340. The uncrushed grain, and the fresh straw produce a remarkable 
and hitherto unexplained effect upon swine. If allowed to feed in a 
newly harvested buckwheat field, the head and ears are attacked by an 
eruption, with apparently intense itching, while the animal presents all 
the symptoms of intoxication. In severe cases death ensues. So, like- 
wise, the fresh grain fed whole in large quantities, disorders the bowels ; 
but if ground or cooked, these symptoms are not observed. In the latter 
case the husk is passed by the animal entirely undigested. Further 
investigation is necessary to explain these phenomena. 

341. The straw is harsh, and not relished by horned cattle; 
but horses will eat all except the coarsest parts, and keep in 
good condition upon this alone. Buckwheat straw, unthrashed, 
and cut up is excellent fodder for working horses. It must be 
kept in a dry place, as it readily absorbs moisture, ferments, 
and spoils. If boiled, the straw will form a thick jelly. 


342. Buckwheat is frequently sown for the purpose of plow- 
ing in as a green manure to precede the wheat crop. Though 
not equal to clover, it is yet beneficial to lands deficient in 
organic matter. It should be turned under when beginning to 
blossom. 

343. The lighter class of soils is supposed to be the best for this 
grain, but it will prosper on any except the heaviest. Generally, 
the land receives but one plowing, and a light harrowing; from 
2 to 3 pecks of seed to the acre are sown broadcast, and then 
well harrowed in. In the latitude of Michigan, about the 20th 
June, is the best time to sow; but we have known good crops 
to succeed barley, when the frosts were late. 


344, In harvesting, the best mode is to cradle it; rake it 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 145 


into small bundles, which are fastened by merely twisting the 
tops; and let it stand till dry. If cut with a scythe and left 
upon the ground, the seed is apt to shell out; the straw dries 
slowly; and much sand and dirt adhere to the grain. It should 
be thrashed at once as it is drawn into the barn, otherwise it 
will again absorb moisture, and heat. The best mode of thrash- 
ing is with horses, a machine being apt to break the grains. It 
must be cut before the whole is fully ripe. 


345. The crop varies from 10 to 30 or 40 bushels; 20 to 25 
being probably the average. It appears to depend much upon 
the state of the weather when in the fullest blossom. 


346. The legal weight of a bushel of buckwheat in Michigan 
is 42 lbs. 


347. Mixer. Under this name five plants of differing 
genera, which are cultivated for their seeds, are comprehended. 
They are all true grasses. 

(A.) Common Millet, Panicum miliaceum. 

(B.) Indian or Grand Millet, Sorghum vulgare. 

(C.) Guinea Corn, Sorghum cernuuin. 

(D.) Bengal Grass, or Italian Millet, Setaria ttalica. 

(#.) German Millet, Setaria germanica. 

Th ; first (a,) is most generally grown in the United States; 
the others being rarely met with. The second and third (5) 
and (c,) belong to the same family as Broom corn, (Sorghum 
saccaratum.) Inother countries they are used as food for men 
and animals, and the straw or stalks as fodder. 

The Indian Millet (6,) furnishes the bread of the Arabians and other 
people of the East, as well as of those of Africa. It is also eaten in 
Italy, Spain, South of Germany, and the West Indies. It matures per- 
fectly in the neighborhood of Detroit. In its mode of growth it 
resembles Indian corn, but the seeds are different. In this country it 
is scarcely worth cultivating except as a curiosity, as it requires the 
same labor as corn, while its produce is smaller, and of an inferior 
quality. 

10 


146 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


348. As an article of food the Common Millet (a,) is very 
similar to rice. It does not appear to have been perfectly 
analysed; but the following are given as the inorganic con- 
stituents of the grain grown at Giessen, Germany. (olich.) 


Potash, - - - . . - 9.58 
Soda, - - - - - . 131 
Magnesia, - - . - : - 7.66 
Lime, - - ° : - ° 0.86 
Phosphoric acid, - - : - - 18.19 
Sulphuric acid, + - - - : 035 
Silica, - - - - - « 59.63 
Peroxide of iron, - - - - - 0.63 
Chloride of sodium, - - - - - 948 


349. The soil required for this crop is dry, rich, and well 
pulverized, sandy,rather than clay. It should be deeply plowed, 
and well harrowed. If sown broadeast, half a bushel of seed is 
the proper quantity, but on rich ground a peck may prove sufli- 
cient. If drilled, 8 quarts of seed are enough. If intended as 
a fodder crop, more seed should be used, it being regulated in 
proportion to the richness and condition of the soil. 1t will do 
well on land that is too light for grass. The time for sowing 
in Michigan is from the Ist of May to the Ist of July, or even 
later if intended for soiling; June is the usual month in New 
York. After sowing, the field should be rolled. When in- 
tended for a grain crop, it must not be allowed to become 
entirely ripe, or much will be lost by shelling. It may be 
cradled and bound, or cut with a scythe and raked into bundles, 
In New York, as much as 2} tons of fodder, and 32} bushels 
of seeds have been raised to the acre. As high as 60 to 80 
bushels of seed per acre are said to have been produced. ( Allen.) 
The usual crops are from 1 to 2 tons of straw, and 20 to 30 
bushels of seed. 

350. In the United States, Millet seed is never used for 
human food; but when ground into meal it is excellent for 
fattening animals, The chief use of Millet is to take the place 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 147 


of hay when that is likely to fail; or to serve for soiling; for 
both which purposes it is admirably adapted. According to 
Boussingault, dry Millet straw contains 0.96 per cent. of nitro- 
gen, and 147 Ibs. of it are equal in nourishment to 100 lbs, of 
ordinary natural meadow hay. If intended for hay alone, it 
should be cut as soon as the head is fermed, and treated like 
any other grass, 


351. Canary Grass, (Phalaris canariensis ) is rarely eulti- 
vated in the United States, and what is used among us for 
feeding tame birds (its only value) is chiefly imported. It is, 
however, well adapted for most parts of this country; and might, 
it is believed, be rendered profitable, if grown on a small scale. 
It is a native of the Canary Islands, but is now grown in the 
south of England, and other countries. It requires a rich, fine, 
loamy soil. The seeds are drilled about a foot a part, as early 
in spring as frosts will permit, at the rate of 4 to 5 gallons per 
acre. Afterwards, the space between the rows must be kept 
well worked with a shovel plow, or some similar implement, and 
perfectly free from weeds. It may be harvested, cured, and 
thrashed like any other grain. From 30 to 35 bushels per acre 
is the ordinary yield, and from that to 50 bushels per acre. 
The straw is rough and coarse, but may serve for winter fodder 
and bedding. 

These are all the Cereal plants grown in the Northern United 
States for their seeds. 


CHAPTER XII. 


LEGUMINOUS PLANTS.—BEANS; PEAS; 
LENTILS; VETCHES; AND LUPINES. 

352. This class of plants derives its name from the seeds producing 
legumin,a substance identical in composition with the casein (or cheese) 
of milk ; corresponding with the gluten (or nitrogenous compound) of 
the cereals. It is formed of Oxygen, Hydrogen, Carbon, and Nitrogen, 
with Phosphate of Lime and Sulphur incorporated ; but the exact 
quantities do not appear to be accurately ascertained. (Carpenter. ) 


358. Under this head several botanical genera are included, 
most of them natives of temperate climates; and there are 
many varieties produced by cultivation. The following may be 
enumerated as those chiefly used by man: 

(A,) Common or English bean, Faba vulgaris 
including Field beans, Sow, Horse, Gar- 

den beans, &e, 


(B,) Kidney beans, Phaseolus vulgaris. 

(C,) Lima beans, Phaseolus lunatus. 
with several other species and varieties. 

(D,) Common lentil, Ervum lens. 

(£,) Bastard lentil, Ervum Ervilia. 

(F,) One flowered lentil, Ervum monanthos. 

(G,) Chick pea, Cicer arietinum.* 

(#,) Common pea, Pisum sativum. 


with several species and varieties. 


* This long cultivated pea was found by Capt. Stansbury’s party, growing wild in 
the Interior of Oregon, and in the yalleys of the Utah, in sandy bottom land. (£zp/o- 
ration, p. 385.) It is a native of the South of Europe, and is grown in India under the 
name of Gram. It has always been supposed to require a hot climate. 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 149 


(Z,) Lupines, Lupinus albus. 

(J,) Tare or vetch, Vicia sativa. 
with several other species. 

(K,) Broad bean, windsor bean, Vicia faba. 


354. In the United States the cultivation of leguminous 
plants is chiefly confined to Kidney Beans (4,) and Peas (A, ) 
some varieties of which prosper in every section of the country. 
In the census they are united together; and no account appears 
to have been taken of them before 1850. In that year the 
total crop was 9,219,975 bushels, or nearly double the quantity 
of barley grown. North Carolina produced the largest amount, 
viz: 1,584,252 bushels, while South Carolina, Georgia, and 
Mississippi, alone besides, produced each, over a million of 
bushels. The crop of Michigan was 74,254 bushels. In the 
Northern States, these crops may be considered as of inferior 
value. 


355. As regards the analyses, it will be most convenient to 
class them all together; and we shall be obliged to depend 
chiefly on the labors of foreign chemists. 

The following by Horsford and Krocker of Germany, and 
Thompson of Scotland are believed to be correct. 


* | Large 
— a Net | White b su her 
pri 2 vs ’ | Bean, | Vienna. is 
seis pain Vienna. Scotiand 


| Giessen. 


a | I | | 


Vegetable casein & albumen| 2802 | wz 18 | 28.54 | 29.31 | 3046 | 29.43 


Starch,  - - - | 48.81 37.50 40.00 | pe 
Gum, - “ . 28 AO ; 66.23 | 9990 | 69617 | 95:06 } 65.61 
Ash, seer 4 - | 318 | 279 | 438 | 401 | 2.60 | 3.96 
Skin, - - - 765 } G61Ly 4.11 4.41 ? ? 
Moisture in the fresh seed. 13.43 19.50 13 41 15.80 13.01 10.60 


From this table it appears that the nutritious qualities of each 
species is very nearly the same. The flesh-forming constituents 
are large, and there is sufficient starch for all the purposes of 
life, but little or nothing to form fat. Other analyses give from 
1.5 to 2.1 per cent. of oil or fatty matter in beans, and from 1.9. 


150 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


to 2.7 per cent, in peas, probably in or immediately beneath the 
skin. ° 


356. Ultimate ew of White Peas, (_A,) and Pea Straw 
(B,) (Boussingault} raised on manured land, yielding 16 
bushels per acre, weighing 62 lbs. per bushel. One part of 
peas, after complete drying, weighed 0.914; one part of dried 
peas left of ash 0.0314. Of the straw, the acre produced 22 or 
23 cwts. (of 112 lbs.) One part of the straw, after drying, 
weighed 0.802; one part of this left of ash 0.11382. And Scotch 
Beans, dried at 212 ° popes Cyt ohn is 


ERAS w 
Olen, ha ah) a, 

Carbon, ~ 46, 06 46 94 45.80 45.59 

Hydrogen, 609 6.24 500 

Oxygen, - 4053 39 50 35 57 

Nitrogen, - ay 4.18 418 2.31 | 4.61 

Ash, - * - Lat) ek 314 11.32 396 


10.60 per cent. of water was expelled from the Beans in the process of 
drying. 


357. Inorganic analyses of leguminous plants: 


Will 
and Fre Bichon. |} Bichon. Levi. ee 
senius. 
s Scoch 
Pea Pea hang Bean. | Lentil. | pean 
Potash - - : 39.51 R419 20,82 38.69 34.31 24.15 
Boda - : - 3.98 12.76 19.06 1178 13 30 9.42 
Lime - - - 4.91 2 46 726 590 624 518 
Magnesia - - 6.43 8 60 : gl 913 24% 9 03 
Oxide of iron - - 1.05 0.96 103 | oar ! 198 130 
Phos: huric acid - 34.50 34.57 37.94 31.34 35.52 | 35.26 
Chloride of sodium - 3.71 | 
Chlorine - - 0.31 1.48 0 33 4.56 i: LL 
Briphuric acid - - | 491 | 3.56 | 134 | 247 | 
ilicn = - 0.25 2.46 0.44 lot 13 3 


358. Inorganic analyses of Field Pea (A,) and Straw (B.) 
(Prof. Way.) 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 151 


A B 

Silica, : - . 124 - - 5.36 
Phosphoric acid, == : - 34.81 . 450 
Sulphuric acid, - - - 5.68 « - 566 
Carbonie acid, - - - 1.82 - 14.74 
Lime, - : - 632 - - 37.99 
Magnesia, - - - 6.57 - 6.73 
P. roxide of iron, - - 059 - ah Hoyt 
Potash, . - - - 40.19 - LT17 
Soda, : - . 065 - 248 
Chloride of sodium, - - 0.68 - 3.57 
Chloride of potassium, — - : 142 - : 


These analyses prove that pea straw is a peculiarly valuable 
fodder. According to Boussingault, dried pea straw contains 
1.95 per cent. of nitrogen; and 64 lbs. of it, are equivalent for 
nourishment to 100 Ibs. of ordinary hay, while 27 lbs. of white 
peas, and 25 lbs. of beans (0,) are equivalent to 100 lbs. of 
hay. 

359. Nutritive matter derived from an imperial acre of pease, 
producing 25 bushels or 1600 lbs. (Stephens. ) 


Husk or woody fibre, - - - 130 Ibs. 
Starch, gum, &c., - - - 800 “ 
Gluten, - - - - 380. “ 
Oil or fat, - ~ - 34“ 
Saline matter, or ash, ° - - 48 “ 


36\'. Sugar appears to be contained in only a few of the leguminoua 
plants as in the Sugar-pea ; gum, on the contrary, mucus, and pectic 
acid, a wax-like substance, and the same salts as in the cereals, are cons 
stant ingredients in all. [n the skins, pariicularly of lentils, tanuin is 
found. A large quantity of potash and soda, and a larger proportion 
than usual of sulphur acid, characterize their ashes. The lequmnin of 
the pea and bean differs from the gluten of wheat in being soluble in 
water, and in very dilute acid or alkaline solutions. 


361. Tus PEA most commonly cultivated in the Northern 
States, in fields, is the Grey or Canada Pea, (Pisum ar- 
vense,; ) but varieties of the White Pea (P. Sativum, ) are also 
grown on a large scale. In Virginia and the States southwards 


152 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


The Chickasaw Pea, The Cow Pea, The Black-eyed Pea, and 
others, unknown at the north, are in common use, where they 
are depended upon for pasture, as clover is with us. 


362. The soil best adapted to this crop is a loam, a little in- 
clining to clay, abounding in the alkalies. Barn yard manures, 
freshly applied, are injurious as forming much straw at the ex- 
pense of the seed; but ashes, plaster, and lime, and probably 
guano, may be used with much benefit. Land habitually wet 
should not be sown with peas. 

363. Unless the soil is very highly cultivated and very fria- 
ble, plow in the fall, laying the furrows up high; and again, 
crossways in the spring, so soon as the earth is sufficiently dried. 
Harrow thoroughly, and deeply. The common quantity sown 
in New York is 1 to 1} bushels per acre, but the Scotch use 
4} bushels; and in the United States, from 3 to 4 bushels are 
preferable to the smaller quantity. The goodness of the crop 
greatly depends upon the roots being so deeply buried that they 
are beyond the risk of the earth around them drying up in 
summer, ‘To ensure this, as it is very difficult if not impossible 
to cover the seed evenly with a harrow, they should be plowed 
in with a wheat cultivator, so as to leave them from 2 to 24 
inches or more below the surface, and then the field should be 
well rolled. 


364, Harvesting is efiected with the scythe, the straw being 
rather torn up and rolled into heaps than cut; or when fully 
ripe, the roots may be easily and quickly pulled with a horse 
rake, Pease are then left on the ground till dry, and are either 
put away in the barn; or, as is preferable, thrashed as they are 
hauled in. This may be done with the flail, or horses, the lat- 
ter being the most expeditious and cheapest. The bottom of 
the wagon should be tight to prevent waste. 

365. In Virginia, peas are frequently grown among corn, be- 
ing planted between the corn hills, and made at the expence of 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 153 


very little additional tillage, other than what the corn alone 
would receive. After securing enough for seed, the pease are 
usually fed off the land to hogs, and in that way, are a very 
important auxiliary to the crop of corn: while the aung, and 
straw plowed in, manure the land for the next season, 


366. In other southern States, the Cow, Indian, or Stock 
Pea, is much relied on for pasture, and as a fertilizer. It is 
sown broadcast, or in drills, or it is hoed in among corn, when 
the culture of the latter is finished. Under any circumstances, 
the pea is valuable as a green manure; but the cost of seed is 
too great, and the quantity of straw too small to render it pop- 
ular for this purpose. 


367. The great enemy of this vegetable, and one which dis- 
courages its more extended cultivation is the Pea-weevil, or 
Pea-bug, (Bruchus Pisi.) 


After the pea-vines have flowered, and when the peas are just begin- 
ning to swell in the pod, the weevils deposite their eggs singly, in the 
pod, just above the pea, chiefly at night, or during cloudy weather, The 
grubs, as soon as batched, penetrate into the pease; and in time bore a 
round hole from the centre to the hull, leaving the latter, and generally 
the germ of the future spront untouched. The grub is changed to a 
pupa within its hole in the pea, in the autumn ; and from November to 
the spring casts its skin again, becomes a beetle, aud gnaws a hole 
through the thin bull in order to escape, which frequently does not hap- 
pen before the pease are planted for an early crop. Pease containing 
this insect may be detected by a minute hole, and dimple. It may be 
killed by immersion in very hot water ; but as the mischief is already 
done, ai d as the weevil lives on other plants, this process can be of little 
use. 

These attacks may be escaped, it is said, by sowing in the 
month of June, after the parent insect has ceased to deposite 
its eggs; but as the abundance of the crop appears to depend 
on a certain amount of rain or moisture while it is in blossom, 
and as great heat is injurious to it in its early growth, equal 
difficulties or risks exist in this attempt to,finu a remedy. Till 
lately, the district lying along the River Thames in Canada, 


154 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


was free from the weevil, and a large portion of the peas con- 
sumed in the Northern States were imported thence, but this 
immunity is said to have passed away. According to Dr, Har- 
ris, the weevil, as late as 1852, was rare in New Hampshire, 
and still unknown in Maine. 


“The crow-blackbird (Quisealus versicolor,) is said to devour great 
numbers of these beetles in the spring ; and the Baltimore Oriole, (Jete- 
rus Baltimore.) splits open the green pods for the sake of the grub con- 
tained in the pease, thereby contributing greatly to prevent the increase 
of these noxivus insects. The instinet that enables this beautiful bird 
to detect the lurking grub, concealed as the latter is, within the pod and 
the hull of the pe., is worthy our highest admiration” (Hurris,) 

368. The Statutes of Michigan provide no standard weight 
for the bushel of pease. The average crop is from 20 to 25 
bushels, but as high as 50 bushels per acre is not very uncom- 
mon. 


369. Pease are frequently fed to hogs. As has been already 
perceived they possess little capability to fatten, but no food can 
be given which will form flesh more rapidly; and in this re- 
spect they are essentially useful. They should be either ground 
and cooked, or soaked and partially soured before feeding. If 
fed whole, they are apt to swell greatly in the stomach, and in- 
jure or even kill the animal; but if this does not occur, much 
will be passed undigested, therefore wasted. At present, ground 
pease are made into bread in Scotland and some other coun- 
tries. Soup or gruel made of ground pease is an excellent food 
for calves. 

Tt is customary, in some localities, to sow pease and oats together, for 
the purpose, afterwards, of feeding to horses The supposed benefit de- 
rived is the upholding of the pea, as it clings to the straw of the vat. 
We are inclined to think, however, that the oat will suffer as much or 
more from the overshadowing of the pea, as the pea gains from the pro- 
tection of the oat ; and prefer mixing the two afterwards as we require 
them. 

In some soils, a heavy crop of pease proves benefic.al in destroying 
weeds ; and leaves the ground both clean aud mellow. The roots of 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 155 


this plant render the soil very friable ; and in this respect are beneficial, 
mechanically, on adhesive clays. 


370. Beans. In the United States, the English Bean, (a,) 

(which in that country takes so important a place in the rota- 
tion in clay soils,) does not prosper. Our climate appears to 
be either too hot or too dry for it. With us three species or 
varieties, belonging to the genus Phaseolus (b,) are commonly 
grown as a field crop, the larye white bean, the small white 
bean, and the China bean, the latter having a spot of deep red 
upon it. Some 30 other varieties may be found in gardens— 
known as climbing beans and bush beans; and in France and 
England as Harricot Beans. 
, 871. The above (d,) will grow well on any soil, but sandy 
or gravelly lands are generally preferred, both on account of 
their being more easily kept clean, and because upon them the 
seed is less apt to be damaged in case of rain when ripening, 
Upon clay and other retentive soils, the pods which he upon 
the ground are easily injured and rotted when nearly ready to 
harvest. Upon sandy lands, also, the seeds ripen earlier and 
more evenly.. 

372. Beans may be grown in hills, in rows, or broadcast. 
The following is considered the best mode of culture, succeed- 
ing a hoed crop manured the previous season. Plough twice, 
and harrow well, or plow once, and render the surface fine with 
the cultivator, and roll. About the 1st June, plant in rows 22 
inches apart,—either using a drill, or having marked out the 
rows with a corn marker,—at the rate of six beans to the foot. 
Hoe about the 26th of June, and again about the 16th of July; 
perfectly destroying the weeds. It is believed by the most skil- 
ful growers of this crop, that it is better not to plow, or other- 
wise disturb the ground, if the weeds can be kept down by hoe- 
ing. When the pods have turned yellow they are ready for 
harvesting, which is done by pulling the plants, and striking the 
roots against a stick held im the left hand, till they are clean; 


156 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


the plants are then lightly stacked on the ground, rails or blocks 
of wood having been laid for the purpose. The stacks should 
not be so large that the sun-shine and wind cannot enter. 
When entirely dry, they should be hauled, and immediately 
thrashed by flail, otherwise the pods will again absorb the mois- 
ture, and heat. The beans should be spread for a few days on 
the barn floor and occasionally turned until they are perfectly 
dry; as even, after thrashing, if thrown into too large a heap, 
they will be apt to mould. 


373. The following is an account of the expense of raising a 
crop of one acre as above, in Jefferson county, “. Y., in 1851. 
The kind used was the “small early Vermont Bean.” 


Plowing, harrowing and working, - - $1.75 
Planting by hand, - - - 15 
First hoeing, - - - 113 
Second hoeing, - - - 3.09 
Pulling and stacking, - - - 2.40 
Drawing, thrashing, cleaning, and measuring, - 1.75 
One bushel of beans for seed, - - 1.00 
Board, - - - 2.50 
Interest on land, - - - 350 

$17.87 

VALvE or Crop. 

34 2-32 bushels beans at $1.00, - - 34.06 
One ton of straw, &e., - - - 5 00 

$39 06 
Deduct expences, - - - 17.87 
Net proceeds per acre, - - - $21.19 


374. The crop varies from 15 to 40 bushels. As high as 60 
bushels is said to have been raised to the acre in New York. 
Of late years, the supply has rarely proved commensurate with 
the demand. 

375. The straw is eaten by horned cattle and sheep. For 
the last it is, m common with pease and pea straw, particularly 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK, 157 


excellent in consequence of the large amount of sulphur which 
it contains—this being an important element in wool. 


376. Lentizs are rarely or never cultivated in the United 
States except as a garden plant. The seed has been distributed 
(1853) by the Patent Office; and in this manner this useful es- 
culent may become better known. In the south of Europe 
and in Asia it enters largely into the food of the people. There 
are several varieties of it, distinguished by the color of their 
seeds, the greater or smaller growth of their stems, and the 
earliness of their period of ripening. 

377. The Lentil requires a somewhat light soil and warmth, 
It is greatly less productive of straw than the pea and the bean, 
and the produce of seed is also comparatively small. There 
could be no benefit in introducing it into field-culture in this 
country. In gardens, it may be cultivated as peas are. 


378. The Tare or Vercu is largely grown in Great Britain 
as a forage-plant, for which purpose it is much esteemed. In 
the United states it does not appear to be usually cultivated, 
though it will prosper in the northern States. There are sey- 
eral species and varieties; and in situations where grass is defi- 
cient, and regular rotations of crops are employed; or where 
grass fails early in the season, as on many of the Prairies, this 
crop would prove beneficial. All animals are fond of it, and 
all thrive on it in an eminent degree. Hogs may be fattened en- 
tirely onit. It causes milch cows to give more butter than any 
species of green food; and horses can be kept fat on it. 


379. In Europe itis sown both in autumn and in spring, but 
in our Northern States, it would necessarily be a spring crop 
only. It requires land in good condition and free from weeds. 
In Scotland, manure is always given it, and the land is well 
worked. It possesses the advantage of growing on all classes 
of soils. It is generally sown broadcast, at the rate of 3 to 4 
bushels per acre; but oats are frequently mixed with it, when 


158 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


1} to 2 bushels of Tares, and 1 bushel of oats are enough. 
Light or poor soils require more seed. The Hopetown, or 
White-lowered Tare, is considered the most valuable variety. 
When intended for fodder, Tares are usually cut and fed to 
stock in stables or yards. If intended for seed they may be 
treated as pease, being cut with a seythe. If fodder is wished 
for, sowing should take place in rotation: and the plant be used 
after the pods are formed, but long before the seeds become 
ripe. 

380. Luprygs are grown with us as a garden flower, but in 
Italy are used both as food, and to plow under as a green ma- 
nure, a practice derived from the ancient Romans. ‘The flavor 
is said to be coarse and bitter. They flourish in light sandy 
lands, but can be of no value to us, 


CHAPTER XIII. 


GRASSES AND OTHER FODDER PLANTS. 


381. As the production of domestic animals, and manure 
depends on grasses, we consider these as next in importance, 
The Belgians have a proverb which should be written in letters 
of gold on every barn-door: “ Without dung, no erops; with- 
out cattle, no dung; without grass, no cattle.” 


382, The botanical family of Grasses (Gramznee,) is ex- 
tremely numerous; there are few parts of the world where 
some species are not found growing wild; while in moderate 
climates they form the great mass of vegetable production. In 
Agriculture, they are usually divided into (a,) wild grasses, and 
(6,) cultivated or tame grasses. These latter (2,) are grasses 
of peculiar value, which are regularly sown; while the former 
(a,) spring up naturally where they are found, without sowing, 
With very few exceptions, grasses do not change into varieties 
by cultivation, like other plants, but remain the same as when 
wild. In England, over thirty distinct species are employed 
for different soils and purposes. In the United States, not 
more than half a dozen, at the utmost, are usually sown, though 
we have a great variety of wild species. Seventy-two have al- 
ready been detected in Michigan, without counting those that 
have been introduced. The culture of hay, at present, is prin- 
cipally confined to the Eastern, Middle, and Western States, 
from which the Southern markets are mainly supplied, in the 
form of pressed packages or bales. 

The reason for using so many species of grasses as the English do, 


160 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOE,. 


(and in which respect it is very important that we should follow thei, 
example,) 1s that a greater weight can be produced on an acre; some 
are of temporary duration, some of permanent; the period ot matura- 
tion differs, so that, when mixed, some are always in the best condition 
for pasture; the nutritive power differs ; some are best adapted for pas- 
ture, others for meadow; and some prosper in one sort of soil, others 
in another sort. Mixed grasses are found to feed animals more profit- 
ably than one single kind ; and it may be said, that the improvement 
of stock in Great Britain commenced, and has kept pace with the intro- 
duction of cultivated grasses, and other fodder plants. Great pains are 
taken in that country to find and cultivate the best species. In the 
United States we have been much too negligent in this respect. 

In 1840, the hay crop of the United States was 10,248,- 
1082 tons; in 1850, 13,838,579 tons; in which, however, clover 
is included. 

383. The following species are the most valuable: 

(a,) Phlewm pratense. Timothy, Herd’s grass. (Meadow 
Cats-tail.* ) 

(6,) Agrostis vulgaris. Red Top, Herd’s grass. 

(c,) Agrostis alba. White Bent Grass, White Red Top, 
Fiorin. (Marsh Bent Grass.) 

(d,) Muhlenbergia Mexicana. Yow] Meadow Grass. 

(e,) Poa Pratensis. Green Meadow Grass, June Grass. 
(Smooth-stalked Meadow Grass.) 

(f,) Poa compressa. Blue Grass, 

(9,) Poa trivialis. Rough-stalked Meadow Grass. 

(h,) Dactylis glomerata. Orchard Grass. (Rough Cocks- 
foot Grass.) 

(i,) Lolium italicum. Italian Rye Grass. 

(j,) Lolium perenne. Perennial Rye Grass, or (Darnel.) 

(k,) Lolium annuum. Annual — do 


There isa species of Rye or Darnel grass (Lolium temulentum,) greatly resembling 
the Perennia!, which is poisonous to every thing but hozs. It is naturalized in Mas- 
sachusetts. In some parts of Europe it is a weed among wheat, and when eaten in 
flour is frequently fatal. (Abstract of Med. Scien., June 1851, p. 299.) 


*The lust name within brackets in this list is that which is usually used by English 
writers. Those marked * belong to the South. 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 161 


(1,) Anthoxantham odoratum. Sweet-scented Vernal Grass. 

(m,) Alopecurus pratensis. Meadow Fox-Tail. 

(n,) Cynosurus cristatus. Crested Dog’s-Tail. 

(0,) Avena flavescens. Yellow Oat Grass. 

(p,) Triticum dasystachyum. Michigan Couch Grass. 

(q,) Phalaris Americana. Ribbon Grass. 

(7,) Festuca elatior. Tall Fescue Grass. 

(s,) Festuca pratensis. Meadow do. 

(t,) Tripsacum dactyloides. Gama Grass.*: 

(u,) Sorghum halpense. Guined or Egyptian Grass.* 

(v,) Cynodon dactylon. Bermuda Grass.* 

(w,) Grama.* 

Besides these there are several species of Poa and Festuca 
that are valuable for pasture. When the subject is better in- 
vestigated, undoubtedly many indigenous grasses will be added 
to the list, especially from California. 

384. We will notice, in as small a space as possible, the peculiarities 
of these grasses: (a,) is a native of both Europe and the United 
States. It may be found growing wild in the counties of Ingham, 
Clinton, Shiawassee, &c.,in Michigan, upon certain loamy clay soils, in 
great luxuriance, and it is known to spring up, without sowing, on 
clearing off the woods, and plowing. It is the most generally cultiva- 
ted grass for dry soils in the United States, affording 114 to 21¢ tons of 
dry hay per. acre; and in favorable situations remains permanently 
for very many years. It abounds in seed, which is easily saved, yield- 
ing from 10 to 34 bushels per acre. ( Wiggins.) To save the seed, al- 
low it nearly to ripen; mow ; bind and shock like wheat, and thrash 
with horses. With a proper fanuing mill, the seed can be perfectly 
clvaned, as readily as that of any of the cereals. According to Mr. Sin- 
clair,* the nutritive value is double when ripe compared with the period 


*A few years since a very extensive examination of the nutritive value of the Eng- 
lish grasses was made by George Sinclair, under the direction of the Duke of Bed- 
ford at his estate of Woburn; and the results were published in an octivyo volume, 
with colored copperplate engravings of most of the grasses, under the name of Hortus 
Gramineus Woburnensis. ‘The work is now very difficult to obtain. The only copy 
we have seen in America is in the library of the Patent Office, Washington. “Much 
interesting information was collected by Mr.S., but his labors are of less value than 
they ought to have been from his want of skill as an analyst, and his ignorance of the 
eee ag ae of nutrition. As, however, no one has gone over the same ground, his 

ook is often quoted and referred to, ‘The chief results will be found tabulated in 
Allen's Amer. Farm Bool:, p. 110. 


11 


162 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


of flowering, while the weight is the same. The ripe crop exceeds the 
flowering in value as 14 to 5. It is usually sown with wheat in the 
fall, or with oats or barley in spring—the latter being preferable—and 
red clover is generally mixed with it. If sown alone, half a bushel of 
seed, or if with clover 12 quarts of grass, and one pound of clover is 
the proper quantity. Many persons sow less than this, but there is no 
economy is stintivg grassseed. There should be enough to form a thick 
sod the first season. In heavy clays even more seed may be requisite, 
Timothy may be cut in the morning, and hauled into sheds or barns the 
same afternoon, using a bucket full of salt to each ton; but if stacked, 
it must be drier. The faults of this grass are: 1, the coarse stem and 
head. 2. The deficiency of leaf. 3. The small quantity of the after 
crop ; and 4, the dying out of the plant in winter in certain classes of 
soils. It is better adapted for horses and neat cattle than for sheep, and 
compares badly with the fine, leafy hay of the English meadows. It 
is well adapted for mixing with other grasses. (6) and (c) Both belong 
to wet or marshy lands, and will not prosper in entirely dry soils ; they 
can, therefore, scarcely be called cultivated grasses, though they are often 
sown in such situations. They are natives of the United States. They 
have creeping roots or stolons, and are very difficult to eradicate. The 
two greatly resemble each other, but the latter has white instead of red 
heads or flowers. In England, they are not held in much estimation. 
With us they are placed as hay, by many persons, on a level with Timo- 
thy, and for sheep they probably surpass it, the stalks being fine, and 
the leaf abundant. They afford good pasture, and grow rapidly after 
being cut or grazed. The latter species (c,) iscalled Fowl Meadow grass 
in many patts of New York, a name which has led to much confusion. 
If sown in marshes, they readily exterminate the coarser grasses and 
weeds, and form a productive meadow. About one bushel of seed to 
the acre should be used, or two bushels if sown on clean plowed land. 
About 11 tons to the acre of dry hay is the usual product, the grass 
diminishing greatly in weight after cutting. (d,) Till lately, this grass 
has only been sown in Massachusetts, where it is also called Duck-grass, 
aud Swamp-wire-grass, but it is now getting into general favor. It is 
mentioned by the Rev. J. Eliot, of Connecticut, as early as 1751, from 
whom we learn that it was supposed to have been brought into a poor 
piece of meadow in Dedham, Mass., by ducks and other wild water- 
fowls, and therefore called by such an odd name, There can be little 
doubt, however, that it is indigenous to Michigan where it is frequently 
met within swamps. It grows tall and thick, and makes a soft and 
pliable hay. One good quality is that it does not spoil by standing 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 163 


after itis ripe, but may be cut any time from July to October. It is 
represented as yielding heavy crops; grows about three feet high ; and 
is essentially fine in the stalk with abundance of leaf, flower, and seed. 
Indeed, it appears to be the best American grass for damp soils yet 
known, and is worthy of very extensive culture. It is found to succeed 
best in drained marshes, which can be overflowed for two or three weeks 
in the spring and winter, When sown in such situations the land should 
be plowed, and between two and three bushels of seed harrowed in, 
with or without a grain crop. 1t may, however, be sown in lands too 
wet to plow, though yielding in such places an inferior crop; and it 
would be well to mix the two last species (b) and (c) with it. (Dr. H. 
Wheatland in Farmer’s Companion, vol. ii, p.5.) (e,) Is or has been 
abundant in all the Northern States, coming up immediately after the 
forests have been cut down, thoughit is now said to fail in the older 
Eastern States. It belongs to dry soils, and forms a thick, though shal- 
low sod, and excellent pasture, especially for sheep. In heavy timber- 
ed clay soils it is generally mixed with the indigenous white clover. 
(Trifolium repens.) The stalks or culms are short and naked, the leaves 
reclining partially on the ground, and it is only when peculiarly luxuri- 
ant that itis worth cutting for hay. It is found, however, in all old 
meadows where the soil is adapted to it. It is rarely, if ever, sown, 
though the seed may be collected without difficulty. It dries up after 
flowering in June, but in the damp climate of England, it appears to 
grow more luxuriantly. “At the time of flowering, the produce on an 
acre is 10,209 lbs., when ripe 8,507 lbs., and the lattermath (aftergrass) 
is 4,083 Ibs., and bears nearly an equal value with the ripe crop.’ 


(f,) Is the well known Kentucky Blue Grass, so famous as pasture. 
It much resembles the last, but is of a deep color, with a bluish hue, and 
is better adapted for making hay. The late Hon. Henry Clay informed 
the writer that when he first went to Lexington, Ky., that county was 
covered with cane-brakes, the trees standing at distant intervals ; and 
as soon as the cane was destroyed the blue-grass appeared. It is said 
to be confined to a peculiar geological formation, one of the lower lime- 
rocks of the great western coal field ; and that the underlying rocks 
can be distinetly traced both in Kentucky and Ohio by the existence of 
this grass. If this proves to be everywhere the case, as present circum- 
stances incline us to believe, this grass must be considered as strictly 
local in its habitat. The seed may be purchased at the Cincinnati seed 
stores. 


(g,) According to Prof. Gray, this grass 1s not a native of America, 


164 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


though naturalized in some parts of the Eastern States. It resembles 
the June grass (¢.) Donaldson in his Zreatise on Grasses does not 
speak favorably of its productiveness in England, although it is sown 
among others for pastures. It requires a sheltered situation on damp 
clays and strong Joamy soils, and is easily hurt by frosts. 

(h,) This grass is also a native of England, but has become entirely 
naturalized in the Atlantic States. It belongs to dry soils, though it 
does well in moderately damp situations, and, in its native state, grows 
in clays andheavy loams. It prospers well in the neighborhood of De- 
troit, proving quite hardy, and is about a fortnight earlier in the spring 
than either Timothy or June grass. It1s a large, strong, tall grass, with 
somewhat coarse culms, and abundance of leaf; but, unless annually 
pastured, it has a tendency to grow in clumps instead of covering the 
ground, This is corrected by grazing the meadow in spring and fall, 
It succeeds well under trees, (hence its American name,) and the leaf, 
when cut or eaten, continues to grow; unlike Zimothy, which must 
throw up a new leaf. “The produce, when flowering, is 27,905 lbs., 
per acre ; when ripe, 26,544 ]bs, and the lattermath, 11,910 lbs.’ Un- 
der most circumstances, it is essentially a most valuable grass, and is 
much relished by all kind of stock. It is the favorite grass of the rich 
pastures around Dublin, Ireland. The aftergrass is very abundant, and 
does not seem to suffer from heat as much as our grasses. It should al- 
ways be sown with other species, but it ripens about a fortnight before 
Timothy. The Balled Drop-seed grass, ( Muklenbergia glomerata, Trin,) 
somewhat resembles it, aud might, we are inclined to think, be profita- 
bly sown with other species in wet places. The latter is a native of 
Michigan. 

(i,) Undoubtedly stands at the head of all cultivated grasses for pro- 
ductiveness, for feeding qualities, and for hay, but like all the Rye 
grasses, it has a tendency, if allowed to seed, to impoverish the soil. It 
ia probably a distinct species and not a mere variety. Compared with 
the common Rye grass, it arrives sooner at maturity ; has a greater 
abundance of foliage, which is broader and of a lighter color; grows 
taller ; spreads less on the ground ; its spikes are longer; the seed is 
lighter, smaller, and less in quantity. It is preferred by cattle to any 
other grass. It grows through winter; is earlier in spring ; does not 
suffer from heat; and continues growing luxuriantly till checked by 
frost. The ¢rwe species is perennial, and prospers well in the neighbor- 
hood of Detroit. The great difficulty we have found with it, is that 
cattle, horses, and sheep are so fond of it, that when mixed with many 
other varieties they leave all the rest, and eat this grass deep into the 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 165 


soil, thus destroying it, When not allowed to be pastured, it is very 
luxuriant, and makes excellent hay, generally seeding twice a year in 
this latitude. We are inclined to believe that the coramon and the an- 
nual species, have often been sold for the Jéalian in the United States, 
and indeed, it is said that it can only be procured pure from a few 
great seed-dealers in England. In that country, it is usually sown with 
red clover, at the rate of 1 to 3 bushels of grass seed, and 8 to 16 lbs., of 
clover seed to the acre. (See Patent Office Reporis, 1845, pp. 373, 376 ; 
1846, p. 258.) 

(j,) Is more used in Great Britain for meadows on all kinds of soil, 
and mixed with other grasses in pastures, than any other species; (k,) 
resembles it in all respects with the exception that it is an anuual, and 
therefore used in rotations, where one year’s grass only is required. 
Experience has given them a very high 1eputation, and late analyses, it 
is said, have proved them to be the most nutritive of grasses. They 
are generally sown with the clovers at the same rate as the previous one 
(i). They would be found highly profitable in the wheat soils of Mich- 
igan to sow with clover; the clover not being diminished in quantity, 
while this excellent grass is added to it. They are gradually finding 
their way into favor in the Atlantic States, though their appearance, 
compared with Timothy is unfavorable to them, There are several im- 
proved varieties, as Pacey’s, Stickney’s, Russel’s, &c. A late writer in 
the Journal of the Highland Agricul. Society, (October, 1853, p. 111,) 
mentions the following objections to the Perennial Rye grass, (7) “Its 
growth is much stunted by being cropped or cut over ; it is impatient of 
drought; it throws out few roots or radicle leaves ; it covers the land dur- 
ing summer with dry inuutritious herbage.”” These objections, which 
are probably exaggerated, do not apply to the Italian species. 

(Z,) Is chiefly valuable as pasture, the leaf being short, and the rich 
perfume being lost when the grass is ripe or dried. It is to this that 
the English meadows owe their well known odor ; and the butter made 
in Delaware County, Pennsylvania, (where this grass has long been 
naturalized,) its excellent flavor. It prospers well in the neighbor- 
hood of Detroit, though it is a native of Great Britain. It is there con- 
sidered the earliest of all the grasses, and succeeds best in moist Jocali- 
ties, such as rich deep loams, but not in wet soils. Its owes its peculiar 
scent to an aromatic essential oilof which benzoic acid is the base. The 
same flavor may be imparted to butter, by giving the cows 20 to 30 
grains of Benzoin twice a day, previously dissolved in hot water, and 
mixed with meal. This should constitute a part of all mixtures of grass 
seeds, intended for permament pastures. The seed is difficult to pro- 


166 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


cure, and therefore expensive, but it is found that in Pennsylvania, when 
once it is rooted, it is only exterminated by the plow. (See Patent Office 
Report, 1849, p. 373.) With the writer, in a very rich damp loam, the 
culm grows fully three feet high. 

(m,) Is held to be the best permament meadow grass in England, for 
rich lands. It so greatly resembles Timothy that it is difficult to distin- 
guish it when not in blossom, but it affords much more leaf, the culm 
is finer, and the aftergrowth heavier. We have found the winters too 
cold for it in Michigan, and would not recommend it in this latitude. 

(n,) Is also an English grass, of second rate value, and has proved too 
tender for this climate. Where it prospers it is chiefly valuable for 
pasture. 

(o,) The same remarks will apply to this. (p,) Our experience with 
this has been accidental, it having appeared in the corner of a perma- 
ment meadow, and spread over a large space, exterminating all the 
other grasses. It is an early, rich growing species, with great abund- 
ance of leaf, stalk and seed, makes excellent hay, and cattle of all kinds 
prefer it to Timothy. We mention it here that more experiments may 
be made with it. Should it not prove difficult to exterminate, like the 
English Couch grass, we know no native species that has more to re- 
commend it on clay soils. (9,) This, known as the Ribbon-grass of 
the Gardens, prospers luxuriantly in wet marshes, soon covering them 
over, and forming a dry elastic surface. After a few years, the leaf as- 
sumes one color. Horned cattle eat it, but horses do not appear to like 
it. It may be planted, by throwing roots into the water, at a foot or 
two distance from each other. The seed appears to be barren, and it is 
subject to a species of Hrgot. Mr. Allen failed to make it prosper on a 
clay marsh in New York. (r) and (s.) Prof.Gray, supposes these 
grasses to be naturalized from Great Britain, and that the latter is pro- 
bably a mere variety of the former, but a more valuable grass. - They 
prosper best in moist or boggy alluvial soils, but are of little general in- 
terest in this country. Of the Southern grasses we know nothing per- 
sonally. The best accounts of them will be found in various volumes 
of the Patent Office Reports.* 


*Since writing the above, a communication has been received from J. M. McATlis- 
ter, Esqr., Summerville, Cass Co., Michigan, who has experimented upon a great va- 
riety of native and foreign grasses. He finds Orchard grass peculiarly valuable ; but 
the most important that he has met with, is Randal Grass,the seed of which was re- 
ceivedfrom Virginia. He has succeeded in introducing this extensively into Cass 
and the neighboring counties. (See Farmer's Companion, vol. iii, p.30.) The seed 
resembles that of the Rye Grass; the living plant we have not seen, and do not know 
the botanical name. 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK, 167 


The Tussac Grass, from the Falkland Islands; and the Pampas Grass, from the 
Prairies of South America, have been introduced, the first into Ireland, and the lat- 
ter into Scotland, with great promise of success. There is little doubt but that they 
would be found valuable in our Southern and Middle States. They are both remark- 
able for their feeding qualities. It is believed that the Twussac Grass requires the 
neighborhood of the Sea; or at least, of salt springs. 


385. As regards the AnaAtysis of grasses, little seems yet to 
have been done with accuracy. Perennial and Italian Rye 
Grass have been carefully examined by Thompson and Way ; 
but with this exception we have no means of ascertaining what 
species are included under the terms “Hay” and “ Grass,” ana- 
lyzed by the yarious chemists; while the probability is that 
each grass differs in its constituents, in its amount of nitrogen, 
and in the peculiar salts which it requires; and, likewise, accord- 
ing to the soil and climate in which it is grown. The English 
meadow hay is usually formed of 20 or 30 species, besides 
clovers; of the German we have no particulars. Mr. Norton 
gives the following “average of organic substances in Mead- 
ow Hay, from Boussingault and Johnston,” but thinks the 
amount of nutritive matter too high. 


Water, - » 16 Ni a aes substances, - if 
Starch, - - 4 : 3 
Gum and sugar, - - 2 


Woody fibre, - - 50 
8 


Ash, - 


386. Thompson gives the following analysis “of almost en- 
tirely Rye grass, (Lolium perenne.” ) 


Water, - - - - - 75 
Soluble Salts, 1.34 
Silica and Insoluble Salts, = * ¢ tee 
Organic matter, - - ~ - - 23.66 


Or reducing the same to its ultimate constituents, when fresh 
(A,) and dried at 212°F. (B,) together with hay made at 
Giessen, (Dr. Will; ) species of grass not mentioned (C;) and 
hay grown in the neighborhood of Strasburg, France, (Bows- 
singault; ) species not mentioned (D):— 


168 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


| A. B. | C. D. 
Carbon, - - 11.35 45.41 45.87 45.80 
Hydrogen, - - 1.48 5.93 5.76 5.00 
Nitrogen, - - 0.46 1.84 ; ALBS 150 
Oxygen, - - | 1039 | 41.54 9 1) 38.70 
Ash, - - - 1.32 5.28 6.82 9.00 
Water, - - - 75.00 


Thompson found the amount of solid matter in this grass to 
vary from 18 to upwards of 30 per cent, according to the early 
or late period of growth. ‘When grass first springs above the 
surface of the earth the principal constituent of its early blades 
is water, the amount of solid matter being comparatively trifling ; 
as it grows, the deposition of a more indurated form of carbon 
gradually becomes more considerable; the sugar and soluble 
matter at first Increasing, then gradually diminishing, to give 
way to the deposition of woody substance. 

Table of Rye grass before and after ripening. 


jisth June.| 234 June. [13th July. 


Water, - - - 76.19 81.23 69.00 
Solid matter, = - - 23.81 18.77 31.00 


These are important facts; for if the sugar be an important 
element of the food of animals, then the farmer should cut 
grass for the purpose of hay-making at that period when the 
largest amount of matter soluble in water is contained in it. 
This is at an earlier period of its growth than when it has shot 
into seed, for it is then that woody matter predominates—a sub- 
stance totally insoluble in water, and therefore less calculated to 
serve as food to animals than substances eapable of assuming a 
soluble condition. This is the first point for consideration in 
making hay, since it ought to be the object of the farmer to 
preserve the hay for winter use in the condition most resem- 
bling the grass in its highest state of perfection. 

100 parts of the stem and seeds of Rye grass when dried as 
hay, gave: 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 169 


| Stem. Stem. | Seed. 
Water, ~ : 15.50 19.30 11.376 
Organic matter, - - 79.52 75.72 82.548 
Ash, - - - 4.98 4.98 6.070 


887. Inorganic constituents of Rye Grass (Lolium Peren- 
ne,) Stem, (A,) and seed (B,) (Zhompson,) and Italian Rye 
Grass (L. italicum, ) in flower, (C,) and in seed (D.) ( Way.) 


A. B. C. D; 
Silica, - - 64.57 | 43.28 159.18 | 60.6 
Phosphoric saat - - 12.51} 16.89} 6.34 6.3 
Sulphuric acid, - - - 3.12 | 2.82 13 
Chlorine, - - - trace.| 2.27*| 5.6* 
Carbonic acid puiC - - 3.61 | 
Magnesia, - - - 401| 531} 223 2.6 
Lime, - - 6.50 | 18.55) 9.95 | 12.3 
Peroxide of i iron, &e., - - 0.36) 210} 0.78 0.3 
Potash, - - 8.03} 5.80 12.45 | 10.8 
Soda, - - : BT Tash wide 0.1 


Thompson observes “There is no doubt that these numbers 
undergo very considerable modifications on different soils.”. The 
seed tends.to remove a larger portion of phosphoric acid from 
the soil than the stem; the quantity of acid found in the seed 
exceeding that in the stem by one-fourth. The same remark 
applies to the lime. The quantity of alkalies is twice as great 
in the stem as in the seed, while the total ash of the secd is a 
sixth part superior in amount to that of the stem. 

388. According to Boussingault, 10,000 parts good meadow 
hay (species not mentioned) contain 547 parts of i ae mat- 
ter, consisting of : 


Potash, - - - 130 
Soda, - - - ae Pt 10 
Lime, - . - 107 
Magnesia, - - - - 43 
Oxide of iron, - - - la 


*Chloride of Sodium, The amount of this is remarkable, and may be the reason 
why cattle are so fond of this grass. 


170 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


Silica, - . - - 189 
Sulphuric acid, - - - 16 
Phosphoric acid, - - - 32 
Chlorine, - - » 15 

547 


The Nitrogen amounts to 1.65 equal to 2 per cent of Ammonia ; the 
fat, wax, or oil to 3.8; and the starch, gum, dextrine, and pectine to 50 
per cent, the rest being woody fibre and waste. 


389. Liebig gives the following summary analysis of “ Hay :” 


100 parts of hay dried in the air contain 86 of dry matter. 
14 of water. 


100 


100 parts of hay dried at 212° F.—116.2 dried in air contain: 
Carbon, - - 45.8 
Hydrogen. - - 50 
Oxygen, - - 38.7 
Nitrogen, - «= 15 
Ashes, - - 9.0 
100.0 
100 Ibs. of hay dried at the ordinary temperature contain 1.29 nitro- 


gen. 
240 oz. of such hay—15 lbs, contain 3.095 oz. of nitrogen. 
72 oz. of oats, =41¢ lbs. contain 1.34 oz. of nitrogen. 


4.435 
390. Prof. Way has given the water (A,) and flesh forming constitu- 
ents (B,) of the following grasses, in 100 parts. 


A. B. 
Sweet-scented Vernal grass, - 80.35 - - 2.05 
Orchard grass, + | - 70 - 4.06 
Meadow barley, . - 58.85 = - 4.59 
Timothy, - - 57.21 - 4.86 


391. The following principles may be laid down. (a,) The 
proportion of soluble matter yielded by any species of grass, 
when made into hay, varies not only with the age of the grasses, 
when cut, but with the soil, the climate, the season, the rapidity 
of growth, the variety of seed sown, and with many other cir- 
cumstances which are susceptable of constant variation. (6,) 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 171 


Animals have the power of digesting a greater or less propor- 
tion of that part of their food which is insoluble in water. 
Even the woody fibre of the hay is not entirely useless as an 
article of nourishment. (c,) The most valuable constituents of 
the grass, such as the albumen, easein, starch, sugar, &c., may 
undergo great and ruinous change by fermentation and washing 
before and after the hay is put in stack or barn; so that ill-made 
hay, exposed to rain, may be inferior in nutritive quality to the 
coarsest straw. (d,) The riper the straw or grass, the less solu- 
ble matter does it contain; and soil, season, and manure will 
equally affect the quality of hay. One field will grow a hard 
wiry grass, while another will produce a soft and flexible plant, 
and highly nutritious hay. In England, a much higher price is 
given for hay cut off old grass fields, than for the first crop grown; 
and race and hunting horses are fed on hay over a year old, 
new hay injuring their wind and condition. (e,) Thompson 
found that the soluble matter of hay capable of being taken up 
by cold water, was as much as 5 per cent, or nearly a third of 
the whole soluble matter in hay. Thence we may form some 
notion of the injury liable to be produced by every shower of 
rain which drenches the fields during hay harvest. But hot 
water will extract over 16 per cent. of soluble matter; and if 
we consider the warmth of the soil and hay, and also of the 
rain in summer, the loss in this country is probably much greater 
than 5 percent. (f,) The bleaching of hay is owing to the 
loss of wax, as much as 2 per cent of which may readily dis- 
appear. But this wax is important for fattening; and bleached 
hay is decidedly deteriorated in feeding qualities. In Scotland 
100 parts of hay were found to be equivalent to 3874 parts of 
grass; or it requires nearly eight tons of grass to yield two tons 
of hay to the acre. By late analyses at the Royal Agricultural 
College, Cirencester, England, Ltalian Rye Grass was found 
to contain: 


Water (in natural or green state,) - - = 80.770 


273 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


Nitrogenized, or flesh - forming 2 natural state, - - 2861 
matters, - - dried at 212°F. - 14.87 

Non-nitrogenous, or heat and fat- 2 natural state, - - 14389 
forming matters, - . dried at 212° F. - 75.09 


Inorganic matter orash, - peret plata’ t 1004" 


In making hay for our own use, but more especially in purchasing 
hay, all these points must be taken into consideration. A load of hay, 
before seeding, earcfully dried, not exposed to rain or heavy dews, put 
by in sheds with salt so that fermentation is impossible, bears a much 
higher intrinsic and therefore money value than hay carlessly made, on 
which rain bas fallen, and which has been stacked damp. <A spirituous 
smell is not uncommon in stacks, which shows that the sugar is lost, 
and with it, probably, most of, or all the nitrogenous constituents. Such 
hay as we have mentioned last, 1s probably inferior in value to well 
saved oat straw. To bea good judge of hay, requires both much ex- 
perience, and the consideration of many particulars; while the differ- 
ence in nutritive qualities between good and bad samples—frequently 
resembling each other to the eye—is very great. Old hay, that is, hay 
which is over a year old, other things being equal, is always the most 
valuable. Some chemical change takes place by which it is supposed 
to be rendered more nutritive ; and as has been already stated, horses 
prosper better upon it. The same peculiarity is found in grasses when 
used for pasture. Ithas been noticed, in the valley of the Kennet, Eng- 
land, that sheep might safely be fed upon, or soiled with the grass of the 
Jirst crop of the water-meadows, but it was dangerous to do either with 
the second crop of the same grass, (O.W. Johnson.) Prof. Way analysed 
the grass of such meadows taken April 30th (A,) and 26th June (B,) 
and found that in 100 parts in a green state there were contained : 


A. B. 
Water, - . 87.58 74.53 
Nitrogenous matter, - - 3.22 2.78 
Fatty matter, - - 0.81 0.52 
Starch, gum, sugar, &e.,  - - 3.98 11.17 
Woody Fibre, - - 3.13 8.76 
Ash, - - - 1.28 2.24 


This not only shows that the very season at which grass is cut or fed 
is a matter of importance, bus elucidates a beautiful provision of na- 
ture. In spring, growth is provided for, and heat or fat is not requisite, 
but in order to provide for the cold of winter, the later grass abounds 
in fat forming constituents, so that a provision may be laid up for the 
inclement season. 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 173 


392. Grasses prosper, on the great majority of soils—not on 
all—but those containing a fair proportion of clay and loam, 
with moisture, are the most profitable both for meadow and 
grazing. ; 

393. A field laid down to grass for a length of time improves 
the soil for grain crops,—much if pastured, partially if mowed. 

394, The manures requisite for grasses, necessarily vary with 
the needs of the soil, which can only be ascertained by analysis; 
but these plants peculiarly require the alkalies in the form of 
soluble silicates, the phosphates of magnesia, and lime, with 
nitrogen. Unleached wood-ashes contain the silicate of. potash 
in the same proportion as straw, Lesides several other important 
salts, and consequently are an excellent manure for this crop. 
Barn-yard-manures may also be applied with profit, but they 
are generally preferred in the shape of composts. Guano, 
plaster, &e., are found profitable in some localities. Salt is 
highly beneficial in some soils,—2 to 3 bushels per acre sown 
in spring. In England, nitrate of soda (Saltpetre,) at the cost 
of $6.00 per acre, has been used with profit. If barn-yard 
manure is used, it should be hauled and evenly spread on all 
lands containing clay, soon after the hay is taken off ; on sandy 
lands, in spring. In both instances, harrow in spring, as soon 
the ground will bear the team without poaching, and mix the 
manure into the soil, till the whole looks black. There can be 
no injury done by tearing up the surface grass. If the sod is 
thin, sow on a little more seed and roll. By such a dressing of 
well-saved barn-yard manure every three years, a meadow may 
be kept in high condition. Such fields should not be pastured 
in spring, nor at any time when wet. 

395. Timothy seed, in the United States, is usually sown with 
a grain crop; if with wheat in the fall or spring; with oats, or 
barley in spring. Barley is decidedly the best crop for the pur- 
pose. The first year’s grass on the same field, one-half sown 
with oats, and half with barley, will show a very decided profit 


S 


174 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


in favor of the latter. In laying down a permanent meadow, 
the field should be well manured, plowed deeper than usual, and 
put in good condition in every way. In clay soils, finish put- 
ting in the grain crop, and harrow fine and evenly. Then sow 
the grass seed, and roll in, till the surface is smooth, and the clods 
entirely broken up. In such lands Timothy seed does not re- 
quire to be deeply buried, and the same applies to clover when 
sown with it. In sand, give the grain one harrowing, sow the 
grass seed, harrow cross ways, and finish by rolling. In Great 
Britain, harrows made much lighter than the usual ones, with 
long, narrow teeth, placed rather near together, are used ex- 
pressly for putting in grasses. In some cases a “brush har- 
row” is used for the same purpose. In very heavy soils, it is 
recommended to roll as soon as the grain-sowing is finished, sow 
the grass on the smooth surface, and finish with light harrowing. 


To sow evenly requires some experience. The seed is caught 
between two fingers and the thumb, instead of the whole hand, 
and the casts are more frequent than in grain-sowing. There 
are machines, fastened by a strap to the sower’s neck, for the 
purpose of sowing grass and clover seeds, which do the work 
well, and cost only a small sum. Weeds are often conveyed in 
grass seeds, and none but the perfectly clean should be pur- 
chased. Such will cost more at first but will be cheapest in the 
end. The Journal of Agriculture gives a table from actual 
experiment of the proper depth at which to sow these seeds. 
Fourteen species of grasses and clover were tried, and in all 
cases those on the surface, and not more than a quarter of an 
inch in depth sprouted the best; at 3 inches none at all ap- 
peared. In certain sandy and gravelly soils, however, grasses 
and clovers are apt to dry up in summer, if the roots are super- 
ficial. (See Patent Office Reports, 1846, p. 694.) 

396. Under some circumstances, it is beneficial to steep such 
seeds previous to sowing, to strengthen and insure the germin- 
ating powers. The best mode of doing this, is to spread the 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 175 


seeds on the barn floor, and shower over them gradually, with 
frequent turnings, as much water, at a time, as they can absorb 
without any running off. Do this for a whole day, at separate 
intervals, until they are thoroughly saturated. At night, make 
them up into a heap and cover with cloths so as to raise the 
temperature. Before sowing, spread out on a cloth to dry in 
the sun for a short time, so that they can be easily separated. 
Old or damaged seeds, incapable of germinating, are sometimes 
sold. This may be discovered by placing a piece of flannel at 
the bottom of a common saucer, saturating it with water, and 
sowing a few seeds on it. Keep in a warm place, renewing the 
water as it evaporates, and in three or four days all the seeds 
capable of germinating, will sprout. The same test may be 
applied to any kind of seed. 

In Maine, the grain intended to be sown, is wet or soaked, the 
grass seed is mixed with the grain in this wet state, to which it 
readily adheres, and in this manner it is sown. We only men- 
tion this mode to condemn it; as either the grain must be 
buried too shallow, or the grass too deeply; in growing, the two 
will be apt to interfere; and the plants will be uneven. 


397. These rules, with slight modifications which must be 
learnt from experience, will apply to all species of grasses. The 
small and light seeds are usually sold by the pound weight. 
The statutes of Michigan do not determine the weight of a 
bushel of Timothy seed, but 60 Ibs. is the usual standard. 


398. A great diversity of practice occurs as to the time when 
grass should be cut for hay. So far as can be ascertained by 
theory, the period at which grasses contain the largest propor- 
tion of nutritive matter is just previous to flowering, and while 
in blossom; but in practice, some species appear to be as good 
if not better when the seed is ripe. The question can only be 
determined by many carefully conducted experiments; and we 
trust that a matter of such great importance will not be allowed 
to remain in its present uncertain condition. Timothy cut 


176 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


while in blossom, makes dusty hay, owing to the pollen; which 
is unpleasant, if not injurious to stabled animals. 

Late experiments, very carefully made in Scotland, show that Italian 
and Pereonial Rye grass, mixed bay, and clover, cut before flowering 
(a,) when in flower (4,) and when ripe (c,) fatten in unlike proportion, 
so as to be valued at (a,) 6d. per stone of 28 lbs.,(0,) at 54¢d., and (¢,) 
at 5d, At the same time it was found that good oat straw was just as 
valuable as hay for fattening beef animals, when roots, oil-cake, &c., 
were given as the main food. 

899. The more simple the operation of hay-making the better. 
The following plan has been followed for many years with 
complete success, the grass being pure Timothy, and Timothy, 
Red Clover, and June Grass mixed. If the meadows are ex- 
tensive, begin mowing when first the heads appear. Do not cut 
till the dew is nearly or quite risen, leave till afternoon in 
swathe, rake into windrows with horse rake, and form into light 
cocks, each containing about one hundred pounds of dry hay; 
next morning, as soon as the dew is risen, throw these cocks 
open; and leave them so for a couple of hours, and then haul 
into sheds. Let a man stand with a bucket of salt, and scatter 
about half a handful on each large fork-full as it is packed 
away}; using about an ordinary bucket-full of salt to a ton of 
hay. ‘This is all that is necessary. The hay will come out in 
the winter nearly as soft and green as when put by; and vail 
be eaten with avidity by the stock. If it is intended to be 
stacked, it had better stand the second day in cock, and be 
treated in the same manner as above on the third. If the 
grass has flowered, even this labor is not necessary. It may be 
cut in the morning, raked into windrows in the afternoon, and 
immediately hauled into sheds. By this rapid process, nothing 
is lost; the wax, the nitrogen, and the salts are saved; much 
labor is saved; and risk from rain and dew is not incurred; while 
the common salt prevents fermentation, souring, and the growth 
of the fungus so common on badly made hay, usually known as 
mould or mustiness, and which is so injurious to horses* 


*The following passage contains much valuable practical matter, based on true 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 177 


“ Bad hay will change a horse’s appearance in two days, even with an 
unlimited quantity of oats, The kidneys are excited by it to extraor~ 
dinary activity. The urine, which in this disease is always perfectly 
transparent, is discharged very frequently and in copious profusion. 
The horse soon becomes hide-bound, emaciated, and fecble. His thirst 
is excessive. He never refuses water, and he drinks as if he would never 
give over. The disease does not produce death, but it renders the horse 
useless, and ruins the constitution. Musty hay is said “to be bad for 
the wind,’ and it is certainly so for every part of the body.’? (Stephens.) 


400. Grass is cut with (a,) a scythe, or (6,) a mowing ma- 
chine. It is raked with (c,) a hand-rake, or (d,) a horse rake, 
of which there are several kinds. It is pitched with a hay- 
fork, for which purpose the two-tined is generally preferred. 
The mowing-machine and the best horse-rake will cut and rake 
about 12 to 15 acres a day, under favorable circumstances, with 
four horses and two men. The same work to be done by hand 
would require about 18 men. 


401. It is laid down as a principle, which appears to be 
strictly true, that hay can scarcely be injured by its own juices 
alone, but if wet with rain or heavy dews it requires very care- 
ful drying before being put away. 


402. In hauling, three and sometimes four men are required. 


principles. ‘‘Damp hay, or even grass, may be stacked with layers of straw, or of 
old hay, sprinkled with salt to prevent heating, and to draw out the juice from the 
damp grass, which is then absorbed by the straw.” [Rev. A. Huxtable, an eminent 
English Agriculturist, has long practiced this mode of putting hay by; and he finds 
that by so doing, not only does the grass require but little drying, but it so imparts 
its juices to the straw, as to render the latter still more valuable. The two are 
placed in layers, and in use are cutthrough, and mixed.] ‘ Mouldy hay, put together 
with salt, from 8 lbs. to 25 lbs. per ton, was better relished by cattle, and did them 
more good than sound hay stacked without salt; of which many instances are re- 
corded. (Johnson on salt, p.105.) In Germany they even cure fresh cut grass by 

pitting with salt, 1 Ib. to the 112 Ibs.; it comes out quite a paste, and is said to go 

further as food than the same quantity of grass made into hay. When hay is packed 

with straw, the latter may vary from one-eighth to one-quarter, and the salt from 

1 lb. to 3 lbs. per ewt., according to the dampness of the new hay. If old dry. hay 

is used instead of straw, {it must be in larger proportion because less absortent. 

And where neither can be had, chaff might do, or even bran if salted enough to pre- 

vent fermentation.” Farmer’s Magazine, vol. iv , (1853) p. 280. 


12 


178 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


One stands on the wagon, one or two pitch to him, and one 
rakes the ground. It is not often, however, that the man on 
the wagon is able to stow it away as rapidly as two can pitch to 
him. Where hands are scarce, the raker is sometimes dis- 
pensed with, the hay-rake being run over the field when all is 
hauled. In changeable weather, no more should be cut in a 
day than can be well taken care ef before night. 


403. If sheds are used, the stowing away is very simple; 
one man standing on the load pitching, one inside catching and 
spreading the hay, and one salting and treading down. If 
stacked, the man on the stack requires experience, which can 
scarcely be taught by writing, so as to carry it up straight, of 
proper size and weight all round. An ill-made stack is very 
apt to fall over, or to let the wet into crevices and cracks, How- 
ever, stacking is very deficient in economy. More or less hay 
is inevitably spoilt; and in winter it has either to be carried to 
to the barn to be consumed, exposing the remainder to 
wet, or the cattle, while feeding, are exposed to all vicissitudes of 
weather, waste much, and manure the ground, immediately 
around the stack, inordinately. It is calculated that a good 
shed, adapted for hay above, and for stock beneath, with proper 
racks, pays its own cost in three seasons, in saving alone. 


404. There isa mode of increasing the yield of grass called 
Gurneyism, from its discoverer, the Hon. G. Gurney, of Corn- 
wall, England. It consists of covering the field with 14 tons 
to the acre of straw, letting this lie for some time, and then 
raking it off. The grass is then cut or grazed, and the straw 
again returned. The principle on which this acts is unknown, 
but every one must have observed that grass covered with 
straw, or a bush grows more rapidly than when not covered. 
‘This mode does not appear to have been much used in Eng- 
land, and probably not at all in America, (See Patent Office 
Reports, 1846, p. 254, ) 

405. Irrigation of meadows is of high antiquity; and 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 179 


greatly increases the yield. It requires the land to lie peculiarly 
in connection with running water, and a complex and artistic 
series of ditches and draining is necessary. It is too extensive 
a subject to enter upon in this work, though there are many 
positions in the United States where it may be favorably em- 


ployed. 


406. Good old hay is leng and large, hard and tough ; color inclining 
to green rather than to white, has a sweet taste and fragrant smell, and 
when infused in hot water produces a rich, dark-colored tea. In damp 
weather good hay absorbs moisture, and becomes heavier. “A truss” 
of goed old hay weighs 56 lbs. (Stephens.) The fellowing rule is 
given to find the weight of hay in bulk, but we have not tested it. It 
necessarily varies with circumstances, old hay weighing heavier per 
square foot than new ; aud ripe hay heavier than if cut before blossom- 
ing. 

“ Multiply the length, breadth, and height into each other, and if the 
hay is somewhat settled, ten sclid yards will make a ton. Clover will 
require 11 to 12 such yards.’’ 

A peculiar mede of renovating worn out meadows has been employed 
of late years in Massachusetts. At the end of August or begining of 
September, the grass land is carefully and neatly plowed and rolled 
down. Fifteen to twenty loads of compost are next spread to the acre, 
and harrowed both ways. The grass seed is then sown and covered 
with a brush harrow, and is ready to cut the next summer, though per- 
haps a little later. The seed must be applied liberally, say three to 
four pecks per acre. (Trans. of Agricul. Socicties of Mass., 1852, p. 769.) 

There are various other modes of renovating worn out mcadows when 
it is not convenient to plow them, for which see The Furmer’s Compan~ 
ton and Horticultural Gazetie, vol. ii, (1853,) p. 20. 

“In forming mixtures of grass seeds, every soil should be supplied 
with its appropriate mixture, both as regarcs succession and qualities ; 
and as the permament ones require time to come to maturity, some of 
the more short lived should be introduced that there may be a crop 
from the begining, and also that there should be as great a variety as 
possible, The grasses thrive permamently only when mixed, some 
forming herbage in the spring and autumn, and a few throughout the 
warmer months ; if they did not closely succeed each other, weeds would 
#00n appear,” 

The following table, arranged by one of the large English Seed 


180 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK, 


Dealers, may prove practically valuable. This assortment of grasses, 
&c., is recommended as forming peculiarly excellent pasture. It were 
well if our American grains and grasses were tabulated in the same way. 
The number of seeds in an ounce are found by counting the number 
in a grain weight. The prices are given in English sterling, 5 shillings 
being rather more than one dollar—one penny to two cents. 


| Price of seed in|Average| Average number 
Scientific names. | London. weight. | of seeds in one 
|per bus. | per Ib.|per bush ounce. 
s. d. | s. d. | lbs, 
Loliumitaliewm, - - 6.0%) O06 | 15 27,000 
Dactylis glomerata, = 40, 111g 40,000 
Trifolium pretense, - 0.6 | 64 16,000 
Trifolium pratense perenne, - 0.7 | 64 16,000 
Alopecurus pratensis, - 5.0 0.8 51g 76,000 
Festuca pratensis, - - 6.0 | 06 | 13 26,000 
. duriuscula, —- 60 ! 06 | 916 39,000 
Poa nemoralis sempervirens, - 16 | 151 333,000 
Lotus corniculatus, - 6.0 | 62 28,000 
Achillea Millefolium, - - 2.0 | 2917 | 200,000 
Lolium perenne, ~ 5.8 0.3 | 24 14,850 
Trifolium repens, - 0.6 | 65 32,00 


CHAPTER XIV. 


CLOVER (Trifolium,) AND OTHER 
FORAGE PLANTS. 


407. Next to the Grasses, the Clovers are the most valuable 
as fodder plants. They belong to an entirely different botani- 
eal family, that of the Leguminose, or Pulse Family, and are 
known by the generic name Trifolium from tree, and foli- 
wm, a leaf. Thence they are frequently called in English T’re- 
Foils; the leaves mostly presenting three lobes. Eight distinct 
species are found in the North United States; others again in 
the Southern States and California; and others in Europe. 
More than 160 species in all are enumerated by botanists. 
Nine species are cultivated in Great Britain; usually, only two 
in the Northern States of America, The following are the 
the most important: 


(a,) Trifolium pratense, Annualor Biennial Red Clover.* 
(6,) “ pratense perenne, Perennial Red Clover, Cow 


grass.* 
(¢,) « repens. Dutch or English White Clover. 
(d,) “ repens, American White Clover.* 
(e,) “ — hybridum, Hybrid or Alsyke Clover. 
(h) « minus. Lesser Yellow Trefoil, 
(9) “ procumbens, Low Hop Trefoil. 

P 

(A,) “ medium, Cow or Marl Grass, Southern 


*Those marked * are either natives of America, or extensively naturalized. 


182 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


Clover, (?)* 


(%) « — incarnatum, Crimson Clover. 
(i) “ — alezandrinum, Egyptian Clover. 
(k,) « — arvense, Rabbit-foot. Clover.* 
(1) “ — reflexrum, Buffalo Clover.* 
(m) “  agrarium, Hop Clover.* 


Of the above, 4 are “ Red’’ Clovers: 3 are “ White;’’ 3 are “Yellow;” 
and the rest varying. (6,) (h,) and (/,) are in common use with urs 
the latter chiefly in the Western States where it is indigenous. We 
have distinguished between the ‘ Dutch” and “American” White 
Clovers, which Botanists do not usually do, but having grown them 
side by side, we find them essentially different in habit; the first (c,) isa 
tall, strong growing plant, well adapted for meadows, standing frequent- 
ly, when supported, 18 inches high; while the latter (d,) is short, ad- 
hering to the ground, and wholly unfit for meadows. If one is only a 
variety of the other, which appears probable, they are, economically, 
very distinct. The Dutch or English White Clover would be a valu- 
able addition to our plants of this family. Attempts have been lately 
made to introduce into America the Alsyke Clover, (e,) and the seed 
has been distributed by the Patent Office. It isa native of the South 
of Europe, but has long been cultivated in Sweden and Germany, where 
itis very highly esteemed, and latterly in Great Britain. It is de- 
scribed as peculiarly luxuriant. The root is fibrous, aud the heads 
globular. Thestems are recumbent, but they do not root in the soil ; 
“in short it may be described as a giant white clover, with flesh colored 
flowers.’ It yields two mowings annually. It will grow luxuriantly 
on poor, bare, obdurate clays as well as on light sands. It ripens its 
seed much eatlier, and continues in vigor much longer than the Red 
Clovers. When once rooted it will remain for a great many years in 
full vigor, and produce annually a great quantity of herbage of excel- 
lent quality. A heavier crop of wheat is invariably produced after this 
than after other clover. The quantity of seed requisite is from 10 to 15 
pounds per acre, while it will yield over two cwt. on thesamearca. It 
does not suffer from the severest frosts ; it will flourish on barren land 
where few grasses will grow at all; and with it the soil never becomes 
“clover sick.” (Dr. Lindley.) Such is its European reputation, and 
it is certainly worth trying extensively in this country. The seed in 
London is worth two shillings sterling—50 cents—per pound ; and at 
that price might become with us an article of export. 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 183 


The Crimson Clover (t,) is a native of the Southern and Central 
parts of Eurepe. It is an annual, and must be sown in autumn that it 
may flower and arrive at maturity in the following season. It has lat- 
terly attracted much attention in England. The Egyptian clover (j,) 
is also an annual. The other species are small, and unfit to be sown 
alone, but are commonly mixed by the English with grasses, for which 
purposes they are well adapted as varying the food, and filling up blank 
spaces. They would be profitable with usin permanent pastures.” 


408. Red Clover prefers clayey soils; it generally thrives in 
good wheat lands; in light and sandy ground it gets bare and 
frosted. During its early growth it always requires the shelter of 
some other plant. It is apt to be lifted out of the ground and 
destroyed by frost in winter, if eaten bare, and not covered by 
snow. White Clover grows spontaneously in most clay soils, 
such as are known as “heavy timbered lands;” appearing as 
soon as the forest is removed. For sheep-pasture nothing can 
surpass it; but it is usually rather short for larger stock. It 
has a peculiar effect on horses in producing severe salivation 
when in blossom, but without apparently injuring the health or 
strength :—why, does not appear to be ascertained. This, we 
believe, has not been observed in the European variety. 


409. The Red species are extensively grown throughout the 
Northern United States, chiefly, however, in the moderate cli- 
mates. In wheat-culture, they are greatly depended upon as a 
sort of manure. ‘ 


*The difference between the annual Red Clover (a,){and Cow Grass (A,) is thus 
given by a late English writer. (Farmer's Magazine, vol. iii., 1853, p. 424.) “The 
first has a somewhat spindle shaped root, with but few fibres, grows more upright, 
has fewer hairs on the stem and leaves, thrives luxuriantly, etem generally hollow or 
pipey, broad leaves, and reddish-purple flowers; the latter has a somewhat creeping 
root, the stem grows zigzag and less globular than the other, andis solid or pithy, 
with a narrow leaf which, with the flowers, has a paler hue; it comes into flower 
from twelve to fourteen days later than the first.” We do not remember ever meet- 
ing with the first in our Western States, where we are inclined to believe that our 
“large” species is the Buffulo Clover. It is, however, very difficult to distinguish the 
various species of this family. The California Cloversare spoken of as far surpassirg 
any we at present cultivate in the Eastern portion of the continent. 


184 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK, 


410. Ultimate anatysis of Red Clover (a?) (Boussingault,) one part 
of clover hay after complete desiccation weighed 0.790: one part of 
dried hay left, 0.078 of ash. 


I. I. 
Carbon, - ° 47.53 47.19 
Hydrogen, - - . 4.69 5.33 
Oxygen, . - 57.96 37.66 © 
Nitrogen, - . - 2.06 2.06 
Ash, - - 7.76 7.76 
100.00 100.00 


A surface of 120 square yards gave 44 Ibs. roots, weighed 
after being thoroughly dried in the sun; when pulverized after 
drying in the stove the weight was reduced to 37 lbs. When 
perfectly dry one acre would furnish 1428 lbs. of residue. 
Composed as follows: 


Carbon, - - . 43.4 per cent. 

Hydrogen, - ° 58 ay 

Oxygen, - - - 60 «|, 

Nitrogen, . i in) 

Salts and earth, - ° 12.6 He 
100.00 


The same writer shows the amount of clover hay obtained 
from, and clover roots left in the soil of one acre with the ele- 
mentary matter of the latter, which forms manure when plowed 
under, as follows: 


Produce of hay per acre in 1839, : - 2292 Ibs. 
do driedat 212°F., - - 1810 Ibs. 
Roots dried in the sun, per acre, - - 1833 Ibs. 
do do at110°F., - - 1418 lbs. 
These roots consisted of, per acre, 
Carbon, . « . 615 lbs, 
Hydrogen, - - + 75 Ibs. 
Oxygen, - - - 523 Ibs. 
Nitrogen, - - rr 26 lbs. 
Salts and earth, ° ° ° 178 lbs. 


1417 Ibs, 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK, 185 


Thus returning, for the use of the next crop, only 204 Ibs. of nitro- 
gen and salts, per acre. 


411. Prof. Way finds 100 parts of the following clovers in 
their fresh state, to contain of water (A,) and flesh forming 
principles (B.) 


A. B. 
Crimson clover, (i,) - - 82.14 2.96 
Red clover, (a,) - - 81.06 4.27 
Cow grass, (h,) - - 74.10 6.30 
Sainfoin, - - = | 71664 4.32 


And Dr. Anderson, ( Trans. Highland Agricul. Society, 1853, 
p- 509,) gives the amount of albuminous or flesh forming mat- 
ters in the second crop of clover hay at 13.52 per cent. 


Schwertz reckons that 2 ewt. (224 lbs.) of green clover yield 48 lbs 
of hay. The relation of green to dry fodder varies with the age of the 
plant, and the meteorogical circumstances under which it has grown, 
At Bechelbronn 1 ton of clover in flower (second year,) afforded in 
hay 7 cwt.; 1 ton of clover in flower (first year,) afforded in hay 4 ewt, 
2 qurs, 24bs. The average produce of this fodder reduced to hay was 
41 ewt. (=112 lbs. per ewt.) 3 qurs. per acre. (Boussingault.) 


412. Approximate composition of the green stems of Red 
Clover (A,) and White Clover (B.) (Johnston.) 


A. B. 
Water, - . ° 76.0 80.0 
Starch, - - So 14 1.0 
Woody Fibre, - - 13.9 115 
Sugar, - - - 21 15 
Albumen, - ° - 2.0 15 
Extractive matter and gum, - - 3.5 3.4 
Phosphate of Lime, = - 1.0 0.8 
Waxand Resin, - - . 0.1 0.2 


413. Inorganic analysis of Red Clover; Broad Clover (A,) 
White Clover (B,) and Cow Grass, (7. Medium) (C.) 


186 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


| Red Clover. | Ps . 
ussin- - 

trie, Way. | Liebig. | | Way 
Carbonicacid, - . | 25.0 | 169 23.47 | 18.0 | 25.51 
Sulphuric acid, - 2.5 4.2 11 1.85 1.2 1,08 
Phosphoric acid, : - 6.3 6.3 4.1 6.71 11.5 5.41 
Chlorine, chloride ofsodi'm| 2.6 2.4 4.7 5.0 
Lime, uy 246 | 35.4 | 219 22.62 | 26.4 | 24.56 
Magnesia, . 6.3 11.2 8.3 4.08 | 8.2 4.52 
Potash, by - 26.6 14.9 16.1 36.45 143 34.72 
Soda, - : . 0.5 1.4 | 40.7 3.7 
Silica, - = 5.3 3.3 2.6 0.59 3.7 0.63 
Oxide of iron, &c.. - 0.3 1.0 0.5. 2.0 
Chloride of potassium, - 3.0 
Dried ash, - - | 9.56 7.97 


According to Sprengel, 100,000 parts of White clover in a fresh state 
contain 1735 parts of inorganic matter. 

414. The following is} a late comparative analysis of White 
clover (A,) Trefoil (B,) Red clover (a,) (C,) and Tares (D,) all 
grown on the same land in a natural condition, on the farm of 
the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester, England. (Dr. 
Voelcker.) 


Water, " a ; 83.65 |77.570|80. 640 82.16 
Nitrogenize matter capable 0 

producing flesh, s 4.52 | 4.481) 3.606} 3.56 
Substances free fr om nitr ogen ca- 

pable of sustaining respiration. 10,28) shh-940) ht 24), ae 
Inorganic substances, - - 1.57 | 2.000} 1.970) 1.54 


mi! B. | ©. |p. 


By “ Trefoil" {the context leads us to suppose that Hop clover (7. procumbeus,) (g 
is meant, but as the writer neglects to give the botanical name we cannot be sure. 


415. The following tables, show the difference of the water 
and inorganic constituents of Red and White Clover hay, on dif- 
ferent soils. ( Way.) 


[ee a a a Ee 


Red Clover. | White Clover. 
a ry 
lao ay. [Bitom| c 
Water, ” - 13.97 | 12.20 | 12.60 | 12.00 
Ash, - Ort Yate 4 Te .70° TT ae 
Ash calculated on the dry, - 7.87 | 8.11 | 8.81 | 8.65 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 187 


Composition of 100 parts of ash of Red and White Clover 
hay. ( Way.) 


Red Clover. | White Clover. 

ston | cy. [SUM | Chr. 
Silica, ° “ 4.03| 2.66! 4.63| 2.74 
Phosphoric acid, - : 5.82| 6.88| 10.93] 12.12 
Sulphuric acid, . 3.91| 4.46] 7.05| 7.38 
Carbonic acid, . - 12.92 | 20.941 18.64! 17.41 
Lime, - - 35.02 | 35.76| 26.32] 26.51 
Magnesia, - - 11.91] 10.53] 7.46] 8.83 
Peroxide of iron, - 0.98} 0.95} 1.17} 2.76 
Potash, - - 18.44 | 11.30] 15.17| 13.50 
Soda, - - 2.79 3.03| 4.41 
Chloride of sodium, - 4.13} 0.58) 6.56| 4.32 


5.92 


Chloride of potassium,- = - | 


416. Mineral matters contained in a ton of Red (A,) and 
White Clover (B,) hay. (In pounds and tenths.) ( Way.) 


A. B. 
| Ibs. | Ibs. 
Silica, - - - 5.2 6.3 
Phosphoric acid, - - - 10.0 19.9 
Sulphuric acid, - . 6.6 12.4 
Lime, - > - - 55.6 45.5 
Magnesia, + - - 17.7 14.0 
Peroxide of iron, - - - 1.5 3.4 
Potash, - - - 23.2 24.7 
Soda, - - r . 2.2 6.4 
Chloride of sodium, - - SA J 8.5 
Chloride of potassium, - - 4.7 
128.4 141.1 


417. As will be seen by these various analyses, the clovers 
are all peculiarly nutritious, containing everything that can be 
wanted for the growth and sustenance of an animal. The flesh 
and fat-forming constituents are large, and phosphate of lime, 
for the formation of bone predominates. The long tap-roots 
force them away deeply into the subsoil, the fibrous roots col- 
lect nutriment from the surface, and the large fleshy leaves, as 


188 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


in all leguminous plants, are capable of absorbing such constit- 
uents as the air can afford. At the same time, if cut as hay, 
and carried off the ground, the clovers remove a comparatively 
large amount of valuable materials from the soil, and it is only 
owing to the fact that much of the material is collected in the 
subsoil, below the usual depth of the plow, and the roots of the 
cereals, that it does not become a scourging crop. As it is, it 
returns to the surface of the soil that which it has gathered from 
the subsoil, and which, under the ordinary system of cultiva- 
tion would not have become available. Under a system of 
thorough-draining, which allows the roots of all plants to go to 
a great depth, many of the supposed advantages of clover as a 
manure would be lost. 


418. From these analyses, also, we learn what manures are 
likely to be peculiarly advantageous; viz, such as contain nitro- 
gen,—guano, barn-yard dung, urine, &e.; and such as contain 
the inorganic constituents—lime; phosphoric acid, in the shape 
of ground bones; sulphuric acid, in the shape of Plaster; Pot- 
ash, as wood ashes; and soda, as common salt. Unless land 
contains a notable proportion of all these, Clover cannot prosper 
upon it. 

419. Clover is always sown with some grain erops, and usu- 
ally in the spring, as hard frosts are apt to injure the young 
plants. If with fall wheat, the seed is frequently sown upon the 
last snow in the spring, the covering which it receives from 
absorption being sufficient, or it may be harrowed and rolled, 
If sown with spring grain it should be treated as is recom- 
mended for grasses, The quantity of seed requisite, when 
unmixed, is from 10 to 18 Ibs., according to the character, 
condition, and richness of the soil. Some persons steep the 
seed for twenty-four hours and roll it in plaster. 


420. If intended for hay, it should be cut immediately after 
blossoming, and before the seed begins to form. The same 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 189 


rule applies to the second crop. Seed is saved only from the 
second crop; and may be cut in the usual manner and thrashed, 
or the heads are pulled off by an implement for the purpose, and 
the hay left as pasture. Before thrashing, the seed should be 
allowed to become perfectly dry. The produce varies from 
2} to 6 bushels per acre, when cleaned. Cleaning the seed for 
market, requires a machine for the purpose worked by horse- 
power. In consequence, many farmers sow it mixed with the 
chaff, in which case they must judge as well as they can of the 
quantity. 

Clover seed should be large, full, glossy, and of bright orange yellow 
and bold purple mixed ; when handled it has an oily feel. Damaged 
seed is said to be frequently dried and polished in England for sale, but 
this can generally be detected by the rougher feel, and the duller ap- 
peurance ; and still better by spronting it as directed for the grasses. 
The Statute weight in Michigan is 60 lbs. to the bushel, but the best 
seed will weigh as much as 64 lbs. or over, At 64 Ibs, to the Imperial 
Bushel, 2000 grains weigh onedrachm. (Stephens.) Theseed of White 
Clover is very small, of a rich golden yellow color, weighing 65 Ibs. to 
the bushel, and affording 4000 grains to a drachm weight. (Stephens.) 
New seeds are the best, the germinating power failing the second year. 
Large quantities of the seed of Red Clover are annually exported to 
Europe. 

421. In making clover hay, great care must be taken that 
the leaf is not so scorched and dried up as to break into pow- 
der; which too often happens, to the great injury of the hay. 
This may be avoided by the following process. While mow- 
ing, have men to follow, and put every swathe into small cocks, 
at about a rod distance. On the second day, or if the weather 
is damp, not till the third, turn over one of those small cocks, 
and place two more upon it, laying the greenest part nicely on 
the top so as to shed rain; then let it remain several days, It 
becomes a little heated, and the moisture all evaporates through 
the cock. Before hauling in, open the cocks, and air them for 
an hour previous. By loading and unloading it receives air 
enough to be thoroughly cured, if sufficiently sweated in the cock. 


190 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK, © 


It remains green, with all the leaves upon the hay, just as it 
came from the scythe. (A. Y. Moore.) The same may be 
accomplished more rapidly, though perhaps not quite as per- 
fectly, by allowing the clover to lie in swathe just long enough 
to wilt, and be warmed through. Then put in small cocks, and 
leave two days, if the weather is dry and hot, longer if cloudy 
or damp; air before hauling, and salt as directed for grass-hay. 
We have followed this plan for many years with great success, 
The clover is not quite dry when put in the shed, but the salt 
prevents any injury. We prefer it to be damp enough to melt 
the salt, and partially heat. 


422, In the United States clover appears to be free from any 
peculiar enemies or diseases. In Europe it suffers from sey- 
eral, 

In some of the Eastern States, a caterpillar has been found in large 
numbers spinning its webs over the clover, but it does not appear to be 


very injurious, nor is the species accurately determined. (Harris? 
Treatise, 2nd ed. p. 354.) 


But in both continents, the land sometimes fails to produce 
clover when sown, a condition known by the name of Clover 
Seckness. While Agricultural Chemistry was unstudied, this 
peculiarity was the cause of much wonder and many disputes. 
It is now well known to be owing to the deficiency of the soil 
in one or more of the inorganic constituents requisite for clover; 
and can be cured by special manures; by sowing it at longer 
intervals; or by using a different rotation of crops. To this 
cause may also be attributed the dying out of clover after hay- 
ing partially attained its growth, which sometimes occurs in 
over-cropped wheat lands. Seed still retaining its chaff, or out- 
ward covering, is supposed to be less subject to failure than 
when clean, which is probably true. Where Red Clover is apt 
to be destroyed in winter, by the frost raising the roots out of 
the ground, it may be partially or wholly prevented either by 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 191 


leaving the aftergrowth uneaten, or by spreading straw heavily 
over the sod to be left all winter, and then raked off. 


423. Besides the true Clovers or Trefoils, several other plants closely 
resembling them are more or less used,in Great Britain, to mix with 
grass seeds. Two of them are natives of the United States—(a.) 
Sweet Clover, or Yellow Melilot (J/elilotus officinalis,) and (6,) White 
Melilot (Mf. leaucantha,) but the most important of this genus is (c,) 
the Bokhara Clover, (Jf. leucantha major,) a biennial. It stands the 
winters in Scotland, and probably would in our middle States. Two 
species of the Bird’s-foot Trefoil are also used in England. (Lotus 
eorniculatus, and L. major.) Besides these, the following might be 
profitably introduced among us. (d,) Burnet, (Poterium Sanguisorba. ) 

This is frequently grown in gardens as an herb ; and we find it quite 
hardy in damp loam on the Detroit River, though it naturally belongs 
to dry and calcareous soils. It is one of the first plants to become 
green in spring. It enters largely into old English meadows and pas- 
tures, and from its peculiar bitter and aromatic flavor, would probably 
be beneficial for sheep in miasmatic chmates. (For picture and de- 
scription, see Patent Office Report, 1847.) (e,) Yarrow or Milfoil, 
(Achillea Millefolium)—a native of the United States. It is closely 
eaten by pasturing animals, and has long been cultivated in Great Bri- 
tain along with other herbage plants. (f,) Ribwort, or Plantain. 
( Plantago lanceolata.) According to Prof. Gray, this is extensively 
naturalized in the Eastern States. Cattle greedily eat our common 
Plantain, (P. Major,) a well-known weed around houses. 


424, Lucern (Medicago sativa,) together with the next 
mentioned, are extensively cultivated as fodder plants in some 
parts of Europe, but are of little practical interest, at present, 
in the United States. This is a perennial, grows a foot and a 
half to two feet high, and flowers in June and July. . It requires 
a deep light soil, with an open subsoil. It is sown either broad- 
cast, or in rows, and cultivated with the hoe and cultivator, 
which process must be continued for at least three years; till 
which period it does not arrive at its full growth. When sown 
broadcast, it has also to be kept clean with the hoe, like turnips. 
There are two species, both of which have become naturalized 
in the Eastern States. 


192 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


426. Sarnroin (Onobrychis sativa,)—(from the French 
sain, healthy—foin hay )—is, likewise, a perennial, but belongs 
almost exclusively to the chalk and lime formations and light 
sands. It is on dry rocky soils that the chief advantages of its 
cultivation are observed. 

It may be cultivated like clover, or grown in rows like the 
last. It is used either as hay, for soiling, or pasture. It con- 
tains 76.64 per cent of water, and 4.32 flesh-forming princi- 
ples, being slightly more nutritious than Red Clover. ( Way.) 


Boussingault (See Rural Heonomy, chap. vi., p. 321, New York ed.,) 
found this crop to vary, per acre: 


Dry herb, ~ - 2068 Ibs. to 5462 lbs. 
Seed, . - - 66 lbs. to 582 Ibs. 
Weight of total crop, - 2134 Ibs. to 6044 Ibs. 


Plaster has as remarkable an effect upon it as on clover. 
426. Aualysesof Lucern (Sprengel) (A,) and Sainfoin ( Way) (B): 
A 


Organic matter, - : 89.6 - 937 

Ash, = = : - 103 - - 6.36 

Inorganic analyses of the above, (Licbig and Way. ) 

3 B. 

Sand and Silica, - - 23 - 32 
Potash, - - : 173 - - 319 
Soda, - - 49 - 
Lime, - 2 - 28.5 - - 243 
Magnesia, - > 6.7 * 5.0 
Oxide of iron, . - 04 - - 06 
Chloride of sodium, - - oo - 0.8 
Phosphoric acid, - - 66 - - 94 
Sulphuric acid, - > 1.0 : 3.3 
Carbonic acid, - * 29.0 - - 152 
Chloride of potassium, - : 62 


427. Cuicory (Cichoriwm Intybus, ) also called “ Succory,” 
is a native of England, but it has become naturalized in the 
Atlantic States. It is recommended as a fodder plant, and the 
root is extensively used in Europe to mix with, or as a substi- 
tute for, coffee. The rich aromatic bitter of the French coffee 
is chiefly owing to this. In Italy it is made into hay; in 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 193 


France it is cultivated extensively for forage, and enters into 
the regular rotations of the fields. It is attracting much at- 
tention at present in England. It will withstand the severest 
cold, and bear drought well, its large leaves covering the ground, 
and the root striking deep into it. It comes very early in the 
spring, and may be cut for soiling several times in the year. It 
is a perennial with very ornamental blue blossoms. 


428. Comparative analysis of tho dry root (A,) and fresh root (B,) 
of Chiccory. (Dr. Anderson.) 


A. B. 
Water, - - 18.01 - - 80.58 
- Ash, on dry, - - 3.64 - 6.17 
Nitrogen, on dry, . 1.60 - - 148 
Ash on moist substance, - - - 1.31 
429. Inorganic analysis. (Jbid.) ‘ 
Silica, — . - 3.790 - - 0.99 
Peroxide of iron, - . 0.657 - 0.81 
Lime, : - 8.644 - - 6.09 
Magnesia, - : 5.777 : 3.15 
Sulphuric acid, ~< - 13.048 - - 4.80 
Phosphoric acid, - . 13.882 : 10.02 
Potash, - - 29.687 - = 42.60 
Chloride of potassium, - - - 1.78 
Soda, - - 7.641 - : 
Chloride of sodium, - . 2.555 . 6.83 
Sand, : - 3.271 - - 112 
Charcoal, - - 2.567 - 9.90 
Carbonic acid, - - 7927 + - 11.40 


It seems from the above that the plant has great powers of appro- 
priation or replacement of constituents. It probably is able to replace 
the potash with soda. 

430. Where this plant is grown for the sake of the root the 
following is the English mode of cultivation, The autumn 
previous to sowing, the land must be manured and deeply 
plowed, and if it be dry and porous,—the best for this crop— 
harrowed before winter. About the second week in May, the 
soil is ridged up so as to deepen it, and facilitate subsequent 

13 


194 - AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK, 


hoeing, and the seed sown at the rate of 34 to 4 Ibs. per acre 
in drills, 12 to 14 inches apart. The plants will not appear for 
a month orsix weeks, and during this period care must be taken 
to keep down the weeds with the cultivator. The plants, if too 
thick, should be thinned to 5 or 6 inches, The subsequent cul- 
tivation consists in careful hand-hoeing, Late in October the 
roots are dug with a three-pronged fork, The leaves may -be 
previously removed and fed to sheep. When taken up the 
roots are topped and tailed, then washed, and cut into slices like 
turnips, only in lengths as equal as possible. They must be 
dried, either by exposure to the sun, or in kilns, when they are 
ready for market, The usual yield is from 12 to 15 tons of 
the wet roots per acre, the latter diminishing when dried to 
about 14 tons. The price in England varies from $50 to $150 
per ton, When used, the slices are roasted and ground like 
eoffee. The principal objection to this crop is the great difficul- 
ty with which it is afterwards eradicated, the smallest fibre left 
in the ground forming a plant. Still this may be accomplished, 
or nearly so, by hoeing. Sheep, in common with all stock, are 
very fond of the leaves, and prosper well upon them; and a 
few acres devoted to this esculent would prove valuable for early 
and late sheep-feed, and for horses and cattle in summer. If 
sown broadcast 12 to 14 lbs. of seed to the acre are required. 

431, Wurtz Musrarp, (Sinapis alba,) has of late years 
been cultivated in England as a forage plant, but from experi- 
ments we have made with it, it does not appear to be suitable to 
this climate. The heat dwarfs it, and it is seriously injured by 
a minute black beetle, which attacks it early in spring. In 
light soils, however, it might succeed better, 

These constitute all the forage plants that ean be of interest 
in the Northern States; except Rape which will be described 
in the next chapter, 


‘ 


CHAPTER XV. 


PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR ROOTS, 
AND LEAVES. TURNIPS. (Brassica.) 
KOHL RABI. CABBAGE. RAPE. 

432. In Great Britain and Germany roots are grown to a 
very great extent to feed stock, and to act, indirectly, as a reno- 
vator of the soil, in rotations. It is not yet a century, since the 
present system of root culture was introduced, but it has entire- 
ly revolutionized Agriculture, and the Art could not now be 
profitably exercised without it. This class of plants is not nu- 
merous, and they owe their beneficial effect on the soil chiefly 
to the fact that they are not allowed to seed. If they bear 
seed, they cease to be “fallow crops,” and in their effects be- 
come similar to the cereals. They may be comprised in the 
genera, (a,) Turnips, (including Cabbages;) (6,) Potatoes; 
(¢,) Carrots; (d,) Parsneps; (e,) Beets; (f,) Jerusalem Arti- 
chokes; (9,,) Onions; (h,,) Sweet Potatoes. Still more are culti- 
vated as garden plants. The climate of a great portion of the 
United States is but illy adapted for the winter-preservation of 
several of these roots; and this fact, together with our less 
scientific and more careless mode of farming, has tended to 
discourarge their cultivation. In the older States, however, 
more attention is now being paid to this subject, and there are 
none of the above which may not be successfully and profita- 
bly cultivated in Michigan. The profit of a root crop is tw 
fold—direct and indirect :—direct, when we sell or so consume 
the produce in feeding animals as to realize more money than 
the production has cost us; indirect, when our only profit is in 


196 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


the manure and the improvement of the soil for succeeding 
crops. English farmers are content to grow large fields of 
turnips, &c., and fatten many head of stock, merely for the ben- 
efit which the succeeding grain crops will receive. 


433. Turnips belong to the botanical family of Canpacs, 
(Brassica, ) of which the following species are cultivated in the 
United States. 


(4,) Brassica Rapa, Common Turnip. 
(b,) = Napus, Rape, or Cole. 
(¢,) cd Oleracea, Cabbage, 

’ The true Turnips again are thus divided: 
(a,) Brassica Rapa, Common Turnip. 


(2,) ‘ Campestris Na- 
po-brassica, Swedish Turnip. 
(c) «  Napus esculenta, Turnip-rooted Cole. 
(d,) 5 Oleracea Caulo- ~ 
rapa, Turnip-stemmed Cabbage or 
Kohl-rabi. 

Of the turnips, there are very many sub-varieties originated 
by cultivation, such as round, depressed, fusiform, white, green, 
and red, each of which is supposed to possess some peculiar 
good qualities. We shall, probably, originate in the United 
States varieties better adapted to our climate than those of Eu- 
rope. The three great divisions at present are, (a,) The Com- 
mon Turnip; (4,) The Hybrid Turnip; and (c,) the Swede, 
(or Ruta-Baga, a name, but rarely used by English writers.) 


434, The Common Turnip is too well known to need de- 
scription. The Hybrid (2,) has the leaves of the Common 
Turnip, and the character of Rape and of the Swede, and is 
supposed to be formed by a cross of these three. It is hardy, 
nutritious, and less apt to be injured by frost. The Swede (¢, ) is 
hard, yellow, containing less moisture, and keeps longer into 
spring, so that it is the last consumed. 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 197 


435. The soil best adapted to this crop contains a small 
amount of clayey matters, and is characterized by its light, 
loamy texture. Barley and Turnips usually prosper well on 
the same soil. The following are analyses made in Scotland, of 
two different specimens of good “Turnip soils,” on which such 
crops had just been grown. (Dr. Anderson. ) 


Insoluble silicates, - - 87 89 - 90.695 
Soluble silica, - - - 007 - - 90.073 
Peroxide of iron, . - 2.94 - 1.233 
Alumina, » - - - L.59nn-) ‘+ , 0.893 
Lime, - - - 0.38 - 0.319 
Magnesia, - ve - 0.13 + - 0.279 
Potash, - - - 0.14 - 0.056 
Chloride of sodium, - - 0.10 Soda 0.043 
Sulphuric acid, - . 0.05 - - 0.039 
Phosphoricacid, - - - 004 - 0.018 
Organic matter, - - 466 - + 4.996 
Water, - - - 1.75 - 1.444 
Chlorine, - - - - = trace. 
Nitrogen, - - - - 0.164 


These analyses, are valuable not only in this peculiar aspect, 
but as a standard whereby to compare our own soils. They had 
Jong been cultivated and highly manured. 


436. The meteorological conditions of the country seriously 
influence the yield of turnips. Thus Scotland and the West of 
England, with their greater amount and frequency of rain, pro- 
duce larger crops than the Eastern shores of the same country, 
(C. W. Johnson; ) while in most parts of the United States, 
we are obliged to sow late to escape the heat, and the roots are 
very much smaller. 


437. Ultimate anatysis of the Turnip. (Boussingault.) 
A slice weighing 2 oz. 17 dwts. dried in the stove was reduced 
to 4 dwts. After thorough desiceation, one part of turnip weighed 
0.075, consequently the root contains 92.5 per cent of water. 
One part of dried turnip left 0.0758 of ash : 


198 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


Carbon, : - : 42.80 . 4953 
Hydrogen, . - 554 - - 5.61 
Oxygen, - - . 42.40 - 42.20 
Nitrogen, - - LGB ici\"= - 1.68 
Ash, - - - 7.58 - 7.58 


438. Water (A>) solid matter (B) and ash(C ;)—100 parts 
in moist state—in turnips, grown in four different localities in 
Scotland. (Dr. Anderson.) 


White Globe Turnips (a,) , 9318 6.82 067 
do dontv (6) <= - 9285 715 078 
do do (¢) . 94.03 5.97 0.69 

Swedes, do Ch) - 90.07 9.91 0.57 


439. Inorganic analysis of the same turnips. (Dr. Ander- 
aon. ) 


A. B. Cc. D. 
Silica, - - 0.60 {| 0.18 0.28 
Potash, - 47.460 44.11 4283 48.02 
Soda, - - 2.655 5.48 13.66 ave 
Chloride of sodium, - 13.990 21.99 5.45 | 7.04 
Lime, - 8.689 7.91 923 | 1067 
Magnesia, - - 4.555 3.88 4.97 4.45 
Bulphuric acid, - 12.603 | 9.03 1223 12.16 
Phosphorie acid, - 8.613 6.81 11.14 13.07 
Peroxide of iron, - 1,435 013 1.1 0.31 0.38 


The proportion of nitrogen in healthy turnips varies within 
extremely wide limits, and that without any assignable cause. 
In two of the above specimens the nitrogen was respectively 
3.81 and 2.54. By comparing the analyses of other chemists 
the nitrogen may be averaged from 1.65 to 4.31, equivalent to 
2.00 and 5.22 of Ammonia. From these facts we learn that 
this plant varies not only in its agricultural requirements but 
also greatly in its nutritive powers; and that one ton of turnips 
may be capable of forming as much flesh, as two and a half 
tons grown on a different soil. Dr. Anderson places the aver- 
age of the flesh-forming matter in turnips as low as 1.27 in 100 
parts of the fresh substance. The phosphates vary in a like 
manner. In 12 analyses of turnips of two varieties, grown on 
different soils, and with different manures, these varied from 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 199 


6.8 on clay to 17.6 on “black land;” while the nitrogen in the 
fibre, and the nitrogen in the juice, equally uncertain, appear to 
bear no relative proportion to each other. 

440. Organic analysis ni Swedes: ( Vohuson. } 


Albumen, - 3.5 
Fat and oil, - - - 2.0 
Gum, Dextrine and pectine, - - - 14.9 
Sugar, - - - - 58.9 
Fibre and hod, - ° - - . 20.3 


“The potato is characterised by containing a large propor- 
tion of starch in connection with a small quantity of albumen 
—the turnip and carrot by containing in place of the starch a 
variable proportion of sugar, and of a gelatinous gummy-like 
substance, to which the name of pectin has been given. In 
the Swedish Turnip and in the carrot the pectin is usually pre- 
sent in the larger quantity.” (Johnston.) The same writer 
gives the following comparative table; remarking, however, 
that “ these analyses are very defective, and apply with any de- 
gree of correctness only to the specimens actually operated on.” 
They will answer, at the same time, to give a general view of 
these plants. 


Variety of Turnips. 
| White. | Swedes. josh enee: Common] Sugar | Parsnip. 
carrot. beet. 

Water, 79.0 80.0 78.9 80.0 85.0 79.4 
Starch and fibre, 72 5.3 6.0 9.0 3.0 6.9 
Gum (pectin,) 2.5 3.0 3.5 175 | 20 6.1 
Sugar, 8.0 9.0 9.0 7.8 | 10.0 5.5 
Albumen, 2.5 2.0 2.5 11 ? 2.1 
Salt, 05 | 05 | 05 | jt 2 
Loss, 0.5 0.2 0.5 Joil 0.35 ? 


441, Average of water (A.) and ash (B.) in turnips grown in 
England, ( Way and Ogsden. ) 


| Watrr. | ASH. | Asu Dry. 
: | 
4 

7| 86.0 — 1.13] 0.48) 073/10.90| 4 00} 7.30 
0} 79.0] 85.5] 2.64! 1.19] 1.84/18.00] 8.00/12 98 


Highest. 
Lowest. 


Mean. 


g 
by 
= 


Highest. 


i 
=| 
Bulb, 92. 
Top, 90. 


200 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

The nitrogen in the tops appears to average much higher than in the 
bulb. 

442. A crop of 20 tons of bulbs or roots, and 4 tons of leaves 
of turnips, mangel wurtzel, and carrots will respectively with- 
draw from the soil of an acre as follows:—( Way.) 


Turnips. M. Wurtzel. Carrots. 
Phosphoric acid, . 45 lbs, 21 lbs. 39 Ibs. 
Sulphuric acid, a) 22.4 578 
Lime, 90 « a1 197% 
Magnesia, 14“ 22 « 29 “ 
Potash, 140 “ tan.“ 134 « 
Soda, eo Yad 70°" 103°" 
Chloride of sodium, “i aed 160 “ 85 < 

429) 449 “ 664 “ 


443. Pectin, or Pectic acid (C H O) (Solly) is a substance analo- 
12 8 #10 


gous to gum, which exists in many plants, and especially in fruit. Itis 
a tasteless solid, which swells up, and gelatinizes with water. It pos- 
sesses feeble acid powers, combining with bases to form pectales. Con- 
taining no nitrogen, it belongs to the heat or fat forming constituents of 
food—and in this respect appears to act as an equivalent, in food, to 
starch. Pectic acid has been found in every plant for which it has been 
sought for ; but in some it usurps the chief place, as in turnips, carrots, 
beets, Jerusalem artichokes, onions, and in all kinds of fruits. It is 
also found in the stalks and leaves of herbaceous plants, in the wood and 
bark of all the trees examined, dc. See Bousyingault Rural Keon. p. 129. 
Pereira on Food and Diet. Ch. ii. § 6. 

444, The characteristics desirable in the turnip are hardiness 
against insects and disease; rapid growth; moderate size of 
bulb; and capability of keeping sound and fresh. Not only are 
very large bulbs apt to be hollow, or cellular, but late examina- 
tions have shown that they contain, proportionably, less nutritive 
matter than smaller ones: in some instances the difference was 
as high as 50 percent. In England some varieties are found 
much more liable to disease than others; and some retain their 
flavor and solidity longer than others. In all these respects, the 
Swedes appear to stand preeminent. 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 201 


445. In Great Britain, the average good crop varies from 13 
to 40 tons of bulbs “topped, tailed, and well cleaned” per acre, 
according to soil, and meteorological locality; while the tops of 
Swedes reach as high as 17 tons on the same area, 

“If planted 28 inches from row to row, and 10 inches from turnip te 
turnip, each turnip taking up 280 square inches, there would be 22,402 
turnips, which at 3 lbs. each is 30 tons, 6 lbs. per acre; at 4 lbs. each 
turnip, 40 tons, 8 lbs. per acre.’’ 

In New York and Pennsylvania 600 Lushels per acro of the 
common turnip are generally considered a good crop. The 
Farmers’ Cabinet, iii. 17, mentions an instance where 850 
bushels were raised to the acre. The Swedes yield one-third 
more than the common variety; of these 1200 to 1600 bushels 
have been raised to the acre. ( Wiggins.) In Rensselaer Co, 
N. Y. a premium was given in 1848,for a crop of the last of 
1,238} bushels per acre. 


446. The cost of cultivating the last named crop was as follows, the 
quantity of land being 1 2-10 acres, 


Plowing the fall previous, - ° ° $2.25 
do and harrowing in spring, - - : 6.50 
Light harrowing, previous to sowing, - - 50 
Seed, - - . - . Tr) 
Drilling in seed at $1 per day, . - 31 
Thinning, Weeding and after culture, 11 days, - - 8.25 
Man and horse with cultivator 3 times, - - 2.50 
14 days harvesting and securing, - - - 10.50 
20 loads of manure, - = - - 13.00 
Interest on land at $150 peracre, ~< . - 12.60 
$57.16 

1,486 bushels at 1244 cents per bushel, - - $185.75 
Net proceeds, - - - . $128.59 


(Trans, of N. Y. State Agricultural Socicty, Vol. viii : p. 328.) 


447. The culture of this crop in Great Britain is very com- 
plex, and has, perhaps, been more thoroughly studied than any 


202 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


other. We must refer our readers to works especially upon the 
subject, merely laying down the following principles. 

(a,) The soil for this crop should be light, rich, thoroughly 
plowed, and pulverized. Fair crops may be raised on some 
clay soils, but they require more labor to put them in a proper 
condition. No crop demands more thorough tillage previous 
to the sowing. 

(4,) Drilling the seed, at 20 to 24 inches, the distance of the 
tows, instead of broadcasting, saves much after labor. 

(c,) The land must be kept perfectly clean, and often stirred 
with the hoe. 

(a,) The manures requisite are those which will supply nitro- 
gen, and the peculiar inorganic constituents. Supposing the soil 
to be in a fair average condition, the following may be applied: 
1. Super phosphate of lime; 2. Ground bones, in various states 
of preparation; 3. Guano; 4. Barnyard manure, or compost; 
5. Common salt; 6. Wood ashes; 7. Lime; 8. Plaster. In 
rich English soils, guano, bones, and ashes, are usually consider- 
ed sufficient. 

(e,) It is exceedingly important that the young plant should 
be rapidly forced into the “rough leaf.” Previous to this, it is 
subject to the attacks of several insects; and its future prosperity 
appears to depend on the early rapidity of growth. 


448. In the United States, turnips are usually grown as a 
second crop in the fall, being sown in New York and Michigan 
from the end of July to the 12th of August. The Swedes re- 
quire the longest period of growth. If sown broadcast, a quart 
of seed, if by drill, a pint is sufficient. The harvesting must be 
performed before hard frosts set in. The roots are pulled by 
hand, laid on the ground, the tops of the two rows facing each 
other. A man follows with a bill hook, and separates the tops 
from the roots. Three men will harvest 300 bushels a day. 
The tops are taken to the barn yard for the cattle. The best 
mode of storing is in root-cellars, with straw; but hills or pits— 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 203 


such as are used for potatoes—may be made in the field. On 
feeding, the bulbs should be cut up. This may be done with 
a common shovel, but there are various machines for the pur- 
pose, which save much labor. 


449. Fattening cattle, averaging 900 lbs. live weight, will 
eat 150 lbs, of common turnips daily, with 7 Ibs. of oat straw. 


450. In Europe, many diseases, such as Fingers and toes, Black cracks, 
&c. seriously injure this crop. In the United States it appears to be free 
from any general malady. 

451. There are several insects which are more or less injurious in this. 
country. The worst is the Black Flea-beetle ( Haltica pubescens, [11 ?) 
if we do not have the true Turnip fly of Europe (H. nemorum); but 
little is yet kuown of this family. On a small scale, it may be driven 
off by scattering over the plants finely powdered plaster, or boiled plas- 
ter mixed with spirits of turpentine, and dried ; but the best preventa- 
tive is rapidly forcing the plant into the rough leaf. This insect is pecu- 
liarly fond of White Mustard, which may be sown in the neighborhood. 
In Massachusetts, the caterpillar of a white butterfly (Pontia oleracea) 
devours turnip leaves. The [ulus also bores into the roots, and even the 
common Earth-worm appears, in some way, to penetrate them. 


452. If seed is required, the best roots should be selected in 
spring, set out about 2 feet apart, in good land, and hoed while 
growing. If any particular variety is required it must be kept 
far apart from any other. 

453, The seeds of turnips contain much oil. The following 
production of seed and oil is given by Boussingault. 


: Swedish Turnip. Rape, Kohl Rabi. 
ow ‘ I5ewt. gr. 251bs. 16ewt. Qqrs.18lba, 13cwt. 3qrs. 191ba 
Whole qnt’ty 2 
" oil, pr. aere, 595.8 lbs. 641.6 lbs, 565.4 lbs. 

il obtained : 
per cent. "a a _ 
Cake pr. cent. 62 62 61 


454, Kont Rai, Turnip stemmed Cabbage, is chiefly culti- 
vated in Germany, where it is eaten both by man and animals, 
It is perfectly hardy on the Detroit river, is subject to few casu- 
alities, and is little affected by frost. It may be grown in the 


204 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


seed-bed and then transplanted, like a cabbage, or drilled, and 
thinned out, and cultivated as turnips are. It should be sown 
as early in spring as the temperature will permit. It is much 
harder than any of the turnips, and in rich lands, apt to become 
stringy. We consider it worthy of more extended cultivation. 
There are two varieties—the green and purple. Horsford 
gives the nitrogen as 2.17 per cent. 

455. Cassace (Brassica oleracea.) Of this there is a great 
number of varieties, most of them adapted to garden cultivation. 
In some parts of Great Britain, the larger varieties are cultivat- 
ed in fields for the purpose of feeding cows and other stock; 
but in the United States, the price of labor, and the climate will 
probably long preclude cabbages from being a field crop. They 
require very rich clayey soils, as well as high cultivation. The 
leaves average 92 per cent. and the stalks 84 per cent. of water. 
The nitrogen is believed to be proportionably greater than in 
any other plant consumed by man except perhaps mushrooms. 
The flower of one species (cauliflower) in the dry state has been 
found to contain as much as 64 per cent. of the flesh-forming 
constituents ( Johnston.) The inorganic constituents resemble 
those required by the rest of the family, viz: the alkalies, sul- 
phuric, and phosphoric acids, and chlorine. 

456. Raps. ‘Two species of this are usually cultivated, Rape 
or Cole (Brassica Napus) and Colza (B..campestris.) The 
use is twofold—(a) as a forage plant; (6) to afford oil from 
the seed, the cake of which is largely consumed as a ma- 
nure and as top dressing for wheat and other cereals. Rape is 
a native of England; isa hardy plant; and has a wider range of 
soils than the turnip. It requires also, less culture and manure; 
and can be produced under circumstances in which the turnip 
eannot be profitably cultivated. The root is of no value. As a 
pasture plant it is admirably adapted for sheep. Where the 
climate will permit, it may be sown in spring, for fall feed. It 
is usually drilled 24 inches apart, in the rows, and kept clean by 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 205 


a cultivator, but, if the land is free from weeds, large crops may 
be raised by broad-casting. If drilled, 2 lbs. of seed to the 
acre will suffice. It weighs about 53 lbs. to the imperial bushel. 
The cake in London, sells for about $25 a ton, being one half 
the value of Linseed cake. In 1846, the Patent Office distri- 
buted the seed, and recomimended its culture as an oil plant; 
but we are not aware that it has yet been generally introduced. 
As sheep-feed, in our large prairie country, south of Michigan, 
it is deserving of much attention, to take the place of grass in 
the fall. (See Patent Office Report, 1846, pp. 314, 400.) 


In the same work for 1850, p. 190, J. E. Dodge, of Erie, Penn., thus 
writes :—‘ I have cultivated Rape for several years, and find it very pro- 
fitable. The soil for growing Rape on should be rich and clean. A 
thorough old-fashioned summer fallow is probably the best for the Rape 
crop. It should be sown the last of August,—3 pints of seed to the 
acre. It will be ready to cut in the last of June or first of July. We 
cut it with large reaping hooks, and lay it in small bunches to dry, for 
eight or ten days. Then, with a large cloth spread over the hay-ladder, 
we proceed to haul in, and thrash with a flail immediately. The greater 
portion of the chaff is to be raked off, and the remainder left, with the 
seed, one or two weeks on the barn-floor to dry. It will produce from 
30 to 50 bushels per acre. Itis worth $1.00 per bushel in Erie.” 

It is understood, however, that the crop is occasionally injured 
by frosts, if uncovered by snow, in this latitude. As a green 
manure, to be eaten by sheep, and the roots plowed under, it is 
considered essentially valuable, and may profitably take the 
place of an occasional clover crop in wheat culture, 

457. We have been unable to meet with trustworthy analyses 
of this plant; but in its general character it resembles the rest 
of its family. 

458. Inorganic analysis of Rape (Rammelsburg) 100 parts 
of seed gave of ash 4.54,—of straw, 5.21. 


Seed. Btraw. 
Potash, - - - - 25.18 8.13 
Soda, ~ : - —_— 19.89 


Lime, - - - - 12,91 20.05 


206 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK, 


Maenesia, - - - , 

Eoiaa af Iron, - - - - 062 ; a6 
Phosphoric acid, - - . 45.95 4.76 
Sulphuric acid, = - . - - 0.53 7.60 
Carbonic acid, - - > 2.20 16.31 
Muriatic acid, ° - - . 0.11 19.93 
Silicic acid, - ° - - 1.11 0.89 
Dr Madden gives the constituents of the cake as— 

Water, - - - - - 10.5 
Organic matter, - : - = wail 85.5 
Earthy phosphates, - - - . 3.0 
Siliciate of potash, - : - - 1 


Frequently as much as 9 per cent. of soil remains in the cake, 
which affords nearly double the fattening matter of Indian corn, 
if it should prove equally available in digestion. Cattle are said 
to dislike the flavor of Rape cake, so that it is rarely used for 
feeding. 


It may be stated in this connection, that Boussingault and Dumas 
consider that the oil of seeds is intended for the production of heat by 
undergoing combustion at the period of germination. Generally, oily 
seeds retain their germinative powers for a long period, but this does 
not appear to be the case with the cabbage family. Such seeds should 
always be fresh ; and certainly not more than two years old. 

Mr. Low concludes his essay on this family in the following words, 
which are worthy of the serious consideration of American farmers :— 
“The extended culture of the turnip has enabled us to carry the prac 
tice of breeding and feeding our domestic avimals to a state of perfec- 
tion, in which no other country has yet been able to rival Great Britain. 
The cultivation of the plant in rows, instead of the former method of 
broadcast, may well be regarded as an improvement of the highest im- 
portance. It has enabled the farmer to secure abundant returns, which 
the former methods of cultivation did not admit of, and go to increase 
the number of useful animals that may be maiptained upon tke farm, 
and to subject the lighter soils to a species of culture more beneficial 
than any other that had been befo:e devised for them.” 

To this it may be added, that while, in the northern United States, 
turnip culture may never be as profitable as in Europe, yet it may be 
very greatly increased, and by the production of new and hardy varie- 
ties adapted to our climate, and by improved processes of culture 1t may 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 207 


be rendered as beneficial to the soil here as elsewhere. Not only will 
the improvement of our stock depend on the introduction of green or 
root-feeding during winter, but also the retaining the good qualities of 
the animals we import, must necessarily do so. They have been ren+ 
dered what they are are by such feeding, and without it they must 
inevitably deteriorate. 


In §444, it is stated that large bulbs “ contain less nutritive matter 
than small ones’? This subject has just been examined with great care 
and accuracy by Messrs. Sullivan and Gages, Chemists to the Museum of 
Irish Industry ; and as some very important practical facts are now for 
the first time brought to light, we add them here: “On the continent 
where beet-roots are grown for the purpose of manufacturing sugar, it 
was long since remarked, that large sized roots yielded less sugar than 
moderate sized ones, between one and three pounds in weight. Witha 
few exceptions it is now found, that as a general rule, small roots con- 
tain a larger per-centage of solid matter than larger roots. Thus 100 
tons of the small roots of sugar beet would be equal to 167.43 tons of 
the large; 100 tons of small Mangel-wurzels contain as much solid mat- 
ter as 142.18 tons of Jarge; 100 tons of small Swedish turuips would 
be equal to 118.37 tons of the large, in spectmens of all these roots actu- 
ally examined, 

The following table contains a summary of the mean results of the 
examinations of 450 roots. 


12.059 |12.810 
14.532 |13.635 12.645 |11 188 |12.031 |13.370 12 998 


a é ‘ o (24 . 
asses (3.18. a 1 sé : 
j SIF (58188 )] 5 | & |e8B 
Size of Roots. De lees! oF | OP] a a |ese 
g seh" es iscsi si Fga 
S gias | 24 /a2"] 3 | 3 
See Le | & Fo 
Average of roots above 7 Ibs. - {10.204 10.617 (10.785 | 8.704 /10 755 
“ “ “Bibs. - 111.653 !13.476 11.028 110.115 {11.257 
From3to5ibs. -  -  - {15.708 114934 (13.974 


Average of all roots, - - 


This table shows some unexpected results, Thus the sugar-beet con- 
tains the largest amount of solid matter of any of the root crops now 
cultivated ; and red and white carrots, though usually sold at a much 
higher price per ton, are very little superior to ordinary Swedes, and 
much inferior to the varieties of beet. Of course, it is not pretended 
that the value of roots can be determined by the per-centage of solid 
matter alone, as its composition must be taken into account. But in 
the same variety of plant, it will give an approximation to the truth— 
indeed practically speaking a very close one ; in different species, or dif 


208 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK, 


ferent families of plants, it is absolutely necessary to take the composi- 
tion as well as the quantity of solid matter into consideration. In the 
ease of carrots, however, an examination of the solid matter does not 
show that they are superior to that of the beet. Asa general rule we 
have found that those roots of a particular variety of the beet which 
had white flesh were superior to those exhibiting a colored flesh. An- 
other cause of exception was that the roots which grew out of the soil, 
and whose upper segment was colored more or less green, contained 
less solid matter than those which had fully grown under the soil ; 
hence if a large part of the root grows out of the soil, the portion thus 
exposed will partake of the charaeter of the segment immediately be- 
low the crown. This would seem to recommend a change in the usual 
practice of culture.” 


CHAPTER. .XV.L. 


POTATO (Soianun tullerosdm. ) JERUSA- 
LEM ATICHOKE (Helianthus tuberosus.) 


458*, Porato. This well known, and till lately, most use- 
ful esculent, belongs to the botanical family of Solanee, or the 
Night-shade Tribe, of which many of the species are poison- 
ous. The potato itself, in an uncooked state, is, to a certain ex- 
tent, injurious to human beings; and if kept till spring, in a 
dark place, a new chemical alkaline principle called Solanine is 
formed in the shoots, which is a powerful poison. (For analy- 
sis, see Liebig’s Animal Chemistry, note 38. ) 


459. As the potato has much diminished in value as a field crop,’ 
and there is no prospect at present of the Rot being remedied, we shall 
fay but little about it, considering it rather as ie a to the 
gardener than the farmer. 


460. It is a native of South America, and is still found wild 
in Chili. 


In 1545, a Slave merchant, John Hawkins, introduced the potato from 
New Grenada into Ireland. From Ireland the plant passed to Belgium 
in 1590. It was neglected in England till introduced by Sir Walter 
Raleigh in the beginning of the 17th century ; and was not in general 
cultivation in Scotland till near the end of the eighteenth century. 
When the potato came from Virginia into England, for the second time, 
it was already disseminated over Spain and Italy. It has been ascer- 
tained that this root has been cultivated on the great scale in Lancashire, 
England, since 1684; in Saxony, since 1717; in Prussia in 1738. In 
1710, it began to spread in Germany, but the famines of 1771 and 1772 
seemed necessary to lead the Germans to cultivate it upon the great 
scale, In less than two centuries it has literally overspread the earth ; 

14 


210 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


and at the present day is found growing from the Cape of Good Hope 
to Iceland and Lapland. (Boussingault and Sir J. Sinclair.) 

The Egg Plant (Solanum Melongena ;) the Tomato (Lycopersicum 
esculentum,) and the Red Pepper (Capsicum annuum,) as esculents ; and 
Deadly Night-shade, (Atropa Belladonna,) a well known medicine, be- 
_ long to the same family. The Bittersweet of our own woodsand fen- 
ces (S. Dulcamara,) may be mentioned as the Type in the Northern 
United States. 

461. The plant may be propagated by seed, in which case a 
vast number of new varieties is originated; or by the tubers, 
which contain buds or germs from each of which a stem will 
arise; and the variety continue constant. The germ will grow 
equally well if severed from the tuber, retaining merely a small 
fragment of the skin and substance; and it submits to desicca~ 
tion by a hot stove without losing vitality. 

It has long been a disputed point whether it were better to plant the 
entire tuber, or to cut it up into fragments, but no accurate decision 
seems to have been arrived at. In conseqnence, we may conclude that 
the practical difference is very small. QGuneral custom leans towards 
the latter plan. “It has been observed that “eyes” or germs taken from 
tuber that have not been fully ripened are more vigorous than those that 
have been taken from suchas have been very fully ripened. This leads to a 
rule in practice, that the teber to be planted shall be those which were 
taken up before the stems had begun to decay inautumn.’’ (Low.) 

The number of varieties is very great, and always increasing. 
The chief distinction is that of early and late kinds. 


462. The peculiar characteristic of this root is the quantity 
of starch that it contains in combination with much water, and 
potash in its ash. The quantity of dry solid matter depends 
much upon the state of ripeness to which it has attained. The 
ripest leave 30 to 32 per cent of dry matter, the least ripe only 
24 percent. The quantity of starch varies according to variety 
from 10% to 32 per cent; and, accordicg to Liebig, in the wid 
state, this root is almost destitute of nourishing constituents, 
Since the rot has prevailed, potatoes appear to have lost much 
of the starch they previously possessed. ‘The crop, also, other 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 211 


things being equal, varies in the weight per acre, according to 
variety, more than perhaps any other cultivated plant. The 
quantity of starch is at its maximum in the winter. In the 
spring, vegetation becomes active, and the buds begin to grow at 
the expense of the starch contained in the tuber. Hence, at this 
season, potatoes are less mealy, and, in consequence, less es- 
teemed for eating. The tissue of the potato consists of a mass 
of cells, and in these the starch is stored up in the form of grains, 
of the ordinary shape, and these congregate principally in a zone 
near the skin, and are less abundant toward the center; the re- 
maining space, in and between the cells, is occupied by a thin 
albuminous liquor, constituting three-fourths of the total weight 
of the tubers. All the nitrogenous matter is dissolved in the 
juice, and consists almost entirely of albumen, with a very small 
quantity of asparagin and free acids. The substance of which 
the cells consist is essentially different from that found in other 
plants. It possesses the property of swelling in water into a 
translucent jelly, and of being transformed into sugar and gum 
by the action of acids, and consequently occupies a position in- 
termediate between starch and woody fibre. Potatoes are rea- 
dily frozen at a few degrees below freezing point, and when 
again thawed are soft and sodden, and allow the greater part of 
the juice to flow out—in fact, the cellsare burst by the ice formed 
within them, the organic structure is destroyed and vitality lost; 
while decay speedily succeeds. A chemical change, when the 
freezing has been gradual, is often perceptible; the tubers be- 
come remarkably sweet, and contain an appreciable quantity of 
uncrystallizable sugar. 
463, Ultimate anatysis of the Potato :—( Boussingault. ) 


Carbon, - - * 2 Water, - .759 
Hydrogen, - - S lid matter dried at 230 > 

Oxygen, = - it Far. in cacvo, - 24.1 
Nitrogen, - - 5 | —_— 
Asher, - - u 0 100.0 


From this we see that the proportion of Nitrogen is very amall ; but 
it is still smatler in potatoes that have been kept fur some time. 


212 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


Nitrogen in | Nitrogen in 
100 parts of - - - - Moisture. | driedsub- /undried sub- 
stance, stance. 
Potato, fresh, - - - 794 1.80 0.37 
Potato, kept ten months, - - 76.8": 1.18 0.28 
464, Proximate analysis of the Potato: 
MICHAELIS. | | JOHNSTON. 
Red Potato. | Natural state.| Dry. 
Water, - - : Water, - : 75.52 
Starch and amylaceous fibre, 30.460 | |Starch, - 15.72 64.20 
Albumen, - 0.503 || Dextrine, “ 0.55 2,25 
Gluten, . = : 0.055||Sugar, - “ 3.30 13.47 
Fat, - = - 0.056 || Albumen, casein 
Gum, - - - 0.020''Gluten, is ; 141 sth 
Asparagin, - - 0.063|| Fat, - - 0.24 100 
Extractive, - - - 9.921) | Fibre, - 38 13.31 
Chloride of potassium, - 0 176 
Silicate, alamina, and salts, - 0815 
Free citric acid, (2?) - - 0.047 


According to Ilisch, what was formerly believed to be citric acid is 
phosphoric, muriatic, and malic acids. ey 

465. Inorganic analysis of the Potato: ¢ ‘Bcncesin gilt 
F debris | 3 and Daubeny.) _ 


ESS ERD TEES 


=e 2 | | 2 e 
~ = ao) . 2 
| 2) 34 eee El2|3 
ess : Ee 2 heh 
=| ee 2 hal ae a |u| ot 
elst| 4 Oe RO ha oe ee 3 
oe ho eee a a = eo o Ld - al 6 
js 2/2/28 /5|2|2/2/ 2/213 
aia) 2isls lable tals dels be 
Rotate tubers, i 4.06/59 Yo} 6.25/2.69/13.16) & 27)6.52/0.59)5 20/) 9 
d $.01)57.58|3 66) 4.53/0.81) 9 98)14.63/3.68)0.42/9.6 ba 
do | 3.75|49.73)1.93) 5.03/3.31| 14.58) 18.04 }2.49/0,5617.5 2 
do 11.27 46.60 8 70\4.54/13.301 4. ‘66/1 .95|3.3013.43; 13.30 
do 1.03; 50.00)0.84| 6 85)2.70|16.20| 2.37|7.15/5.1511.95/11.90 
do 0.76 13.80 12. 65/3. 10}11.15} 6.0 |6.67/6.85/2.30} 6.70 
Mean of six analyses, i 
Carb. acid deducted, | 3.92°55 7511.86) 5 28'2.07119.57113 6414 23/0 59 7.01: 


ne 


466. According to Boussingault and Liebig, the nutritive 
power of the potato is very low. “A horse may be kept alive” 
says the latter “by feeding it with potatoes, but life thus sup- 
ported is gradual starvation; the animal increases neither in size 
or strength, and sinks under eyery exertion.” The true value 
of this tuber, as food, is evidently to supply carbon, in the shape 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 213 


of starch, for the purpose of sustaining breath and heat, not for 
building up the body. Pereira estimates that 1 Ib. of butcher’s 
meat is equal to 10% lbs. of potatoes. In consequence, those 
who live solely upon them are obliged to consume inordinate 
quantities; and the stomach, habitually distended with the great 
bulk, becomes unnaturally enlarged, and incapable of digesting 
concentrated food. This was shown during the Irish famine, 
when more than an equivalent of corn meal, or other nitrogen- 
ous food, being much smaller in quantity, entirely failed to sus- 
pend that craving which the stomach feels when empty. 

At the same time, in consequence of the great yield per acre, 
much more nourishment can be produced from a given area of 
soil by this crop, than by any other except perhaps corn, The 
following Mample will prove this (Knapp ):— 

From one hectare of land (= 2.471 acres) there were pro- 
duced under similar circumstances, 

3,400 lbs, wheat, 2,800 lbs. rye, 2,200 lbs. peas, 38, 000 Ibs. potatoes, or 
3,036 do 2,538 do 2,980 do 9,500 do 

after deducting the amount of moisture. In this quantity of 
dry produce there is contained: 


In wheat. In rye. In peas. In potatoes. 
Nitrogenous matters, 570 lbs. 440 Ibs. 560 lbs. 950 lbs. 
Starch, | ie has 1,196 “ 780 “ 6,840 “ 
Mineral ingredients, 90 “ Gers" 60 “ 323 “ 


And in consequence, when the Irish learné to depend on this food 
alone, cultivating chiefly with the spade, population very rapidly in- 
creased ; the land was subdivided into portions too small to be profita- 
bly applied to grain—for where one acre of potatoes would sustain a 
family, it would require many acres of grain to do the same, together 
with the necessary cattle—and when this crop failed, there was nothing 
to fall back upon, starvation ensuing in consequence, In India, the 
same results follow the dependence on rice, in many respects a very 
similar food. It may be laid down as a general principle, that the more 
highly civilized, intelligent, and prosperous nations are, the greater 
amount of nitrogenous vegetable and animal aliment do they con- 
sume; and in wearing out the soil of a single farm, or of a State, 
the decline is gradually from muscle-forming to heat-producing pro- 


214 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


ducts, and finally to grass, for cattle raising, for the use of distant 
communities. But as the grass-product becomes genera] the population 
gradually decreases in numbers. 


467. We shall not attempt to explain the cause of the Rot, 
hor yet repeat the various theories which have been originated. 
The ablest scientific men—while each has his own private opin- 
ion—acknowledge their inability, satisfactorily to account for it, 
any further than for the cholera and similar human epidemics. 
It is probably owing to some undetected atmospheric influence, 
and may be connected with electrical phenomena. One fact, 
however, appears to be generally acknowledged, viz, that rich, 
ammoniacal fermentmg manures, tend to merease the disease, and 
that new soils, of a porous character, or old soils supplied with 
inorganic manures, are apt to produce the healthiest“tubers. It 
is a peculiarity in this case, that remedies which are successful 
in one instance or locality, entirely fail in others; and thus, all 
specifie curative means are now looked upon with suspicion. In 
Russia, drying the potato soon after digging, by artificial heat, 
has been found successful, yet failed in England; while, in 
Michigan, Mr. Mott and others have remedied the evil by leav- 
ing the tubers intended for seed in the ground where they grew 
until required for planting, taking the precaution to plant deep 
and cover with straw to prevent freezing. It is certain that in 
some soils this is a perfect preventive, and some unexplained 
change goes on in the potato; for, in the second season, the old 
potato which has acted as seed will be found perfectly sound, 
but altered in flavor. The same gentleman recommends leay- 
ing the tubers, intended for eating in the spring, in the ground 
all winter, when they will be found as fresh and unaltered as 
they were in the preceding autumn. (See Farmer's Compan- 
ton and Horticultural Gazette, Vol.i, p.77. ii, p.14.) The fol- 
lowing receipt has been lately published by an English farmer, 
not only as a manure, for which purpose it is undoubtedly excel- 
lent, but also as a preventive:—( Agricultural Gazette.) 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 215 


30 Ibs. wood ashes, 20 lbs. common salt, 

15 lbs. burnt bones, in fine powder, 30 lbs. air-slacked lime, 

10 ibs. plaster, (su’phate of lime,) 7 Ibs. nitrate of soda, (saltpetre ) 
The whole to be intimately mixed. When planting, put into 
every hole an ounce of the above, cover it with some earth, and 
plant the tuber, or cutting: above it. Habitually damp, undrain- 
ed, adhesive clays sould be avoided for this crop, while sands, 
gravels, and loams, lying on a porous subsoil, may often be suc- 
cessfully tried, even now. 


468. In Great Britain, the potato was considered as a fallow- 
crop, and improved the land still more in consequence of being 
liberally supplied with fresh animal manures; and the surface, 
between the plants, being frequently plowed and hoed. Great 
pains were taken in preparing the field, and it was left in fine 
condition for wheat or other grains, which will not bear the di- 
rect application of dung, In our rotations, corn may take this 
tuber’s place, especially if planted at distant intervals, In that 
country it, was and is usually grown in rows, the earth being 

eaped up around the potato plant as it grew. In the United 
States much. less pains have generally been taken, and the Adll 
system is commonly followed; 4 potatoes, or sets, being plant- 
ed close together in each hill. These hills are from three to 
four feet apart, and the interval is worked and kept clean with 
the plow and hoe. Undoubtedly the larzest crops per acre can 
be raised on the English plan, When healthy, the time for 
digging, is when the stalks and leaves have partially withered; 
or when the skin of a tuber, recently unearthed, cannot be rea- 
dily rubbed off with the hand. In Michigan, there is usually 
period in October of the two or three weeks, when the weather 
is steadily fine, dry, and warm; but is succeeded by rains and 
frosts. This time, then, should be seized for the harvesting of 
this crop. The Irish dig with a spade or shovel; the New En- 
glanders with a fork; or potato-hoe. The first, our experience 
teaches us to be the most rapid, and cleanest; but the shovel, 


216 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


when lifted, requires a peculiar twist of the wrist, by which the 
earth and tubers are separated, and deposited in different places, 
which twist requires practice to accomplish successfully. In 
harvesting, it is important that the potatoes be not left exposed 
to the air and sun longer than can possibly be avoided. When 
first dug they are peculiarly sensitive to light, and if kept cover- 
ed in the wagon with a thick cloth, or straw, till laid by in a 
dark place, they will retain their mealy qualities much longer 
than otherwise. A potato, exposed partially to the air in grow- 
ing, turns green, moist, and unpleasantly waxy. ~ This mistake 
is often made; the tubers being left on the ground in small 
heaps, for at least a whole day, or even several days. While 
this was an important crop with us, we always threw them into 
a corn-basket; and this, as soon as it was full, was emptied into 
a covered wagon; the consequence was, that the potatoes were 
remarkable for their fine flavor, and good qualities. 

469. Besides being used in the ordinary shape, many preparations of 
starch were prepa'e! from the potato. The larger quautity of the starch 
used by the laundress, and articles sold under the name of Arrowroot 
Farina, &c., were derived from this plant. Dritish gum, (Dextrine,) ex- 
tensively used in stiffening calicos, and applied to the back of postage 
stamps, is formed from wheat starch by roasting, or by nitric or sulphu- 
rie acid, potato starch failing to produce it. The water, in which pota- 
toes have been boiled, is destructive to lice upon hogs, cattle, dc. The 
potato possesses a peculiar curative power over the Scurvy which attacka 
sailors confined to salt meat. In France, an extensive manufacture of 
Sugar from Potato Fecula or Starch is carried on, “ Thus by the aid of 
Chemistry we obtain sugar from potato-starch, sulphuric acid, chalk, 
and water. The sugar is used for giving ‘‘body” to Burgundy wine, 
and for confectionary.”’ (Annual of Scien. Disc. Vol. 1, p. 173.) 

470. JerusaLem ArticHoke (derived from the Italian word 
for Sunflower, girasole ; i. e. girare, to turn, and sole sun,— 
bearing no reference to the City of Jerusalem,) belongs to the 
family of Sunflowers, and is a native of America, It was intro- 
duced into Europe probably from Mexico in 1497; and was 
much esteemed before potatoes were generally used; and in case 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK, 217 


of the total loss of the latter esculent, may be soagain. In France 
and Germany it is extensively grown as food for stock; we re- 
member seeing, a few years since, large fields of it near Massilon 
in Ohio, and it has been successfully tried in New York, Ala- 
bama, &e. In the United States, however, it is not usuaily cul- 
tivated, except in gardens. Both the tubers and stalks are val- 
uable. The first are occasionally eaten, either boiled or roasted, 
by men, but are not in the present day much esteemed as a veg- 
etable, being apt to produce flatulency. The tubers grow in 
clusters attached to the true root, somewhat in the manner of 
potatoes, and the stems are from 5 to 10 feet in height, with a 
considerable quantity of large leaves. In Michigan it flowers, 
but does not bear seed. The crop is large, giving from 10 tons, 
to 1,200 bushels of tubers, and 114 ewts. of dried stems per acre. 
(Boussingault, and N. Y. Cullivator.) The tubers, when 
once planted, are very apt to spread, and are difficult to eradi- 
eate; but in Europe this inconvenience appears to be obviated by 
turning swine into the field. “Taking into account the hardy 
qualities of this plant, its productiveness, and easy culture, it may 
be doubted whether it merits the neglect into which it has 
fallen. Granting its inferiority as an article of food for cattle 
to turnips, &c, it must be of some importance, especially since 
the potato has failed, to have a plant that can be so easily raised, 
and on soils so low in the scale of fertility.” ( Low.) 

471, Ultimate Anatysis of the Tuber (A) and dried Stem 
(B) of the Jerusalem Artichoke. (Boussingault. ) 


A tuber fresh from the ground weighed 1 oz. 15 6-10 dwts: after dry- 
ing in the stove 7-10ths dwits : after complete desiccation, one part was 
reduced to 0.208. 


A B 
Ya a 
i I. 
Carbon, - - 43.02 43.62 45.66 
Hydrogen, - - 5.91 5 80 543 
Oxygen, - - 43.56 43.07 45.72 
Nitr gen, - - 1.57 1.57 0.43 


Ash - - 5.94 5.94 2.76 


218 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


In this analysis of the stalks, the carbon and nitrogen are probably 
rated too low. It will be observed that these tubers are almost identical 
in composition with the potato, the only essential difference being a lit- 
tle more ash in the first. According to the same writer, 30.8 Ibs. of Je- 
rusalem Artichokes are equal to 11 lbs, hay, as fuod for horses. “ These 
roots are excellent food for the borse ; they are eaten greedily, and he 
thrives upon them.” 


472, Proximate analysis of the tubers of the Jerusalem Ar. 
tichoke. ( Braconnot. ) 


Unerystallizable Sugar, - - : 14.80 
Tnuline, - - : - - 3.00 
Gum, - = - : : 1.22 
Albumen, - - - = - 1.00 
Fatty Matter, - +e : - 0.09 
Citrates of patash and lime, - - - 1.15 
Phosphates of potash and lime, + - : 0.20 
Sulphate of potash, - : : - ‘012 
Chloride of potassium, - - . 0.08 
Malates and tartrates of potash and lime, - - 0.05 
Woody fibre, ae - - - ‘ 1.22 
Silica, - - - - - 0.03 
Water, - : - - 77.05 


M. Payen found a larger proportion of Sugar in this tuber than that 
stated above, and be ascertained that the fatty matter consists of stear- 
ine and elaine. 

Boussingault found :— 

Of dry matter, 20.8 | Water, 79.2. 

473. Inorganic analysis of the tuber of the Jerusalem Arti- 

choke. (Boussingault.) Per centage of ash in dry state 6.00, 


Potash, . - - - - 54.67 
Soda, - - ° - - - traces 
Lime, - : : - - 2.82 
Magnesia, - : - - - 221 
Oxide of iron, alumina, &c., - - : 6.39 
Phosphoric acid, = : - - - 13.27 
Sulphuric acid, . > - - 2.70 
Chlorine, - - - - - 1.97 
Silica, - - - 15.97 


It will be observed how rich in phosphoric acid this plant is, 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 219 


and consequently how beneficial for growing animals; but in 
order to derive all the benefit possible from this fact, either wa- 
ter rich in lime, or some food containing an abundance of calcium 
should be supplied at the same time. 

Inuline (Cas, Hx, Ox,) is a variety of starch found in the dablia, and 
many other plants; specific gravity, 1.356, fuses at 212°; rendered 
yellow by iodine. Its aqueous solution dovs not gelatinize in cooling. 
(Solly.) 

The following is the result of the analyses of two varieties of Jerusalem 
Artichoke—tho white and red—made by Dr. Salisbury of Albany, N. Y., 
in 1850 :— 

White Tubers, Red Tubers, Tops of red variety, 


Water, - - 83.608 68.35 40.08 
Dry matter, : 16.392 31.65 59.92 
Ash, - - 0.774 1.352 3.85 
Ash Cale. or dry matter, 4 723 4.27 6.425 


Inorganic analy-es of the tubers of White [A,] and Red [B,] Jerusa- 
lem Artichokes, and the tops of the Red variety, [C,] grown near Alba- 
ny, N. Y.:— 


A B Cc 
Carbonic acid, - - - 21.75 23.10 trace 
Silicieacid, - - - 1.60 1.40 26.55 
Phosphoric ecid, + - - 9.75 12.05 11.10 
Phosphate of iron, - - - 120 125 3.25 
Lime, = = . . 1.95 3.35 1830 
Magnesia, - > - : 0.55 030 8.85 
Potash, - : - - 42.20 43.65 11.40 
Soda, - - - - 1525 660 15.85 
Chlorine, - - - 255 265 0.85 
Sulphuric acid, - - - 195 445 405 


98.75 98.80 99.60 
Proximate analysis of the fiesh tubers of the White [A,] and Red [B,] 
Jerusalem Artichoke ; and of the fresh tubers of the Potato, [C.] 
A B Cc 


Water, - : : 83.608 68.330 74.712 
Fibre, ee - - 2232 3.676 6.829 
Sugar and extract, - - 3.952 7.688 2.367 
Dextrine, - : - 2652 5436 0.923 


Casein, > - : 2.052 4400 2.054 


220 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


A B Cc 


Albumen, - - - 2080 4.086 0.185 
Starch, - - - 2.850 5.884 12.399 
Resin, - - - 0.168 6.184 trace. 
Glutinous matter, : - 0.096 0.122 0.609 
Fat, - - - - 0.024 0.018 0.008 


Ultimate organic analysis of the dry tubers of the White [A,] and 
Red [B,] Jerusalem Artichokes :— 


A B 
Carbon, : . - 45.817 45.918 
Oxygen, - - - - 40.926 40.566 
Hydrogen, - - - 5 768 4.829 
Nitrogen, - - - 3.378 3.597 
Ash, - - - 4.728 4.270 


474, The tubers are an excellent food for milch cows, horses, 
and sheep, but should be used in connection with dry food and 
salt. Hogs likewise prosper upon them; and when the ground 
is not frozen, they can help themselves and save the cost of har- 
vesting. The nourishing quality of the root is very little, if any 
lower than that of the potato, while its inorganic constituents 
are more useful, he stalks are nearly as valuable as the tu- 
bers; and in this respect it has an advantage over the potato, 
Although cutting the stalk in the beginning of September may 
diminish the growth of the tubers—which is questionable—the 
fodder that is obtained at that season will fully compensate for 
the loss. 

According to Schwertz, 100 kilogrammes (220.548 Ibs. av- 
oirdupois) of green stalks, equal as regards nutritious qualities 
31.250 kilogrammes of hay; but the value is increased if they 
are mixed with other vegetable matters. If for winter fodder, 
the stalks should be left as late as possible, eut, and dried as hay; 
and in this condition all domeetic animals eat them. In some 
parts of Europe, the stalks are also used as fuel; and Boussin- 
gault found them profitable as absorbers of liquid manure,—ow- 
ing to the amount of pith—when thrown into hog-pens, 

475. The soil and climate appear to matter little. The tu- 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 221 


bers, either above or below ground, bear a degree of cold that 
no other cultivated root will do. They are thus of essential util- 
ity in northern climates, and may be left in the ground all win- 
ter, if wanted for early spring use. ‘Tis plant can bear the 
effects of great heat equally well. With the exception of 
marshes, all places and all soils suit; and even the shade. of 
trees, in moderation, is not injurious. The following results 
have been arrived at by experiments in France :— 


Alluvial land gave, 20.868 Kilog. of tubers. 
Turfy land, very dry, 20763". = Le 
Sundy clay, 22563“ ¢ 
Calcareous earth, 18.908 “ 4 


From which it would appear that dry and light soils agree best 
with this plant. 


476. In Europe, where Artichokes enter regularly into rota- 
tions, the ground is prepared and manured as if for potatoes, in 
the spring: and planting should be accomplished, as early as 
possible. They may, however, be planted, equally well, late in 
the fall, in dry soils. Whole tubers are used, and placed in rows, 
at about 1 inch below the surface, leaving sufficient space be- 
tween the rows to use the cultivator, and the plants about nine 
inches apart. When they appear above ground, the soil is kept 
clean with the plow or cultivator, and hand hoe. If not har- 
vested the first year, they will cover the whole surface of the 
ground thesecond season. 


477. The stalks, if intended for dry fodder, must be left as late 
as the climate will allow of their being entirely dried. They 
may be cut with a strong sickle, or a corn-knife, from 2 to 3 feet 
above the ground, if tall; or in proportion, if short. They are 
lightly bound in bundles, and seven of these bundles are placed 
in shocks, After a week, and when the outside leaves are well 
dried, the shocks are separated, and replaced, so that 14 stand 
together, and 7 are placed on the top, like a roof, with the cut 
ends upward, and strongly fastened toward that end. In this 
way they stand till perfectly dry. 


222 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK, 


478. The tubers may be dug when convenient, in the same 
manner that potatoes are; but, if another crop is intended to 
succeed, great care must be taken to gather up every portion. 
As they grow in clumps, a little experience will render this easy. 
If it is intended to continue artichokes on the same ground 
enough sinall tubers may be left to serve for seed next season, 


479. If they are to be used during the winter, they may be 
piled in heaps in a dry place, and covered with straw and earth. 
Wet injures them more than frost. (Girardin and Debreul; 
See also Patent Office Report 1844, p. 145; 1845, p. 321; 
1846, p. 186; 1848, p. 159, 578.) 


480. In the above references, much interesting information wll be 
found. We would hardly, in our present state of agriculture, recom- 
mend this crop to be introdaced into our rotations or upon rich 80 ls, 
but we are confident that every farmer would find it profitable to set 
apart a field for tnis plant, and use the stalks in place of hay, and the 
tubers for his horses, sheep, milch cows, and hogs in winter and spring. 
‘There are certainly few plants which can be raised so readily, nor one 
which will yield more food at less cost. After a few years the artichoke 
will die out, in many localities ; having exhausted the svil of the peculiar 
food it requires. 


CHAPTER XVIL 


PARSNIP (Pastinaca sativa.) CARROT 
(Daucus Carota.) BEET (Betu Vulgaris.) 


481. The Parsnip is a native of England, of the Continent 
of Europe, and of Asia, but in its wild state is useless, if not 
poisonous. It has become naturalized as a wild plant in the 
United States, (Gray; and when once established as a weed, 
is very difficult to exterminate, while the root diminishes in 
size. Formerly, it was in more general use than at present, and 
it is now more cultivated in Catholic countries than in Protest- 
ant. Shakespear refers to it in the old proverb that “smooth 
words butter no parsnips.” It is cultivated both as a field and 
garden crop; and in the Channel Islands, (Jersey, Guernsey, 
and Alderney,) and in parts of France, it is greatly depended 
on for fattening hogs and cattle, and as food for milch cows, for 
all which purposes it is perhaps superior to any other root, 

482. There is probably only one species, but several varie 
ties, of which, in Great Britain and America, the Large Jers 
sey is considered the best for field culture. Of this there are 
two sub-varieties, (a,) the fusiform, which strikes deeply into 
the earth, and (6,) the napiform, which becomes thick, and 
grows near the surface. French writers mention thee * varie 
ties us worthy of attention; (c, the Coguaine, with a long root, 
and tall leaves; (d,) the Lisbonnaise, with a shorter and thicket 
root; and (e,) the Siam, small, and of a yellowish tinge, tender, 
and richer in flavor than the others. Any of these, however, 
will degenerate in poor soil, or by careless culture, 


224 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK: 


483, Late examinations have proved this root to be more 
nutritive than the Carrot, while it greatly excels the latter in 
hardiness; freedom from disease and insects; in its adaptation 
to soils; in its yield; and facility of culture. We believe that 
it is far too much neglected, and were the fashion to change in 
our Northern States it would be greatly for the benefit of 
farmers. 

All animals are fond of the Parsnip. To milch cows it is eminently 
favorable, giving a flavor ard richness to their milk. which no other win- 
ter vegetable but the Carrot can give. The cows of Jersey and Guern- 
sey fed with Parsnips and hay, yield butter during the winter of as fine 
a tinge, and nearly as good flavor, as if they were fed in pastures. To 
horses it is equally suited as the Carrot. Hogs are extremely fond of it, 
and, when boiled, poultry may be fed upon it. (Low.) To this may 
be added, that next to the Artichoke, it bears frost the best of any of 
our cultivated roots, and it may be left in the ground through winter, 
not only without i injury, but even with an SP Eaton increase of succha- 
rine matter. ’ : 


484, No ultimate analysis of this root appears to have been 
made. ( E. T, Hemming, 1852.) 

485. Proximate analysis of the Parsnip root ( Voelcker, 
1852;) grown on stony, shallow soil, on the farm of the Royal 
Agricultural College, Cirencester, salir 


Ih. Average. 
Water, - ae 81.780 82.320 82.050 
Inorganic matter, (ash,) ° 0.941 0.924 0.932 
Nitroyenized organic substances, - - ~~ :1.310 1.250 1.280 
Carbonaceous matters, - - 15.969 15.506 . 15.738 


——— 


100.00 100.00 100.00 
or the same dried at 212 > F.— 


I. II. Average, 
Nitrogenized substances, + - 743 7.12 7.27 
Carbonaceous matter, - 87Al 87.65 87.54 
Inorganic matters, (@sh,) - - 5.16 5 23 5.19 


—_———— 


100.00 100.00 100.00 


Parsnips contain 6 to 8 per cent less water than turnips, and 5 to 6 
per cent less than mangolds. The quantity of flesh-forming substances 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 225 


in fresh Parsnips is about the same as that contained in turnips. Ina 
dried state, however, turnips are richer in protein compounds than pars- 
nips. 

486. Detailed proximate composition of Parsnips. ( Voel- 


cker.) 
In natural state. Calculated dry. 


Water, - - - 82.050 

Cellular fibre, ae - 8.022 44.691 
Ash united with the fibre, - - 0.208 ° 1.159 
Insoluble protein compounds, - 0.550 3.064 
Soluble casein, - - - 0.665 3.704 
Gum and Pectin, : - 0.748 4.166 
Salts insoluble in alcohol, - - 0.455 2.535 
Sugar, - - - : 2.882 16.055 
Salts solublein alcohol, - - 0.339 1.888 
Ammonia in the state of ammonical salts, 0.033 0.184 
Starch, - - - 3.507 19.537 
Oil, - - - 0.546 3041 

487, btangeaig analyaie of ae Rgrsnip. (Richardson.) 

Potash, - 36.12 
Soda, - - - > 3.11 
Magnesia, - ° - - oe 9.94 
Lime, - - - - - 11.43 
Phosphoric acid, - - - - 18.66 
Sulphuric acid, - - - - 6.50 
Silica, - - - - - 4.10 
Phosphate of iron, - - - : 3.71 
Chloride of sodium, - . - 5.54 


By this it will be perceived that it paling to the class of 
potash plants, but that it is also rich in the phosphates, The 
starch is all deposited in the external layers of the roots; the 
second layers contain much more protein compounds than either 
the heart or the outer layers. It will thus be noticed that the 
albuminous or protein compounds are not uniformly distributed 
throughout the whole mass of the root. 


Layers between 
In outer layers. Heart. the heart andthe 


outer layers. 
Per centage of nitrogen, 1.039 1.069 1.500 
Equal to 
Protein compounds, 6.493 6.668 9.375 


15 


226 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


488. Parsnips succeed best in a deep, well pulverized, loamy 
soil, but will prosper in much heavier clays than carrots, espe- 
cially if the soil is formed of granitic rocks. They require depth, 
and consequently the ground should be plowed deeply, or sub- 
soiled, which is better still; but they will force their roots in 
spite of obstructions. Fresh barn-yard manure is not injurious 
to them. 


489, The land being manured, (if requisite,) and plowed, is 
harrowed and rolled, and the seed sown broad-cast, by hand in 
rows, or by drill.* If by either of the first modes, it must be 
lightly harrowed, care being taken not to bury it above 1 or 14 
inches deep. It is important that the seed be fresh: if two 
years old it will not vegetate. In Jersey 3 or 4 lbs. (Le 
Couteur) in Scotland 10 lbs. (Stephens) per acre of seed are 
required. Jt generally vegetates slowly. Some soak it and 
mix it with damp sand to hasten germination, but in this case 
it should not be sown in dry land. If in drills, they should be 
just. wide enough to admit a one horse plow or cultivator, 
about 20 inches—and by degrees the plants must be thinned to 
6 or 9 inches apart, according to the size of the variety, and the 
richness of the soil; but it is better to sow rather heavily to 
prevent misses. When the plants are one inch high they are 
to be weeded with a hoe, and the land must be kept clean in 
this manner till they are large enough to admit a cultivator. 
After this they grow very rapidly, and soon cover the ground 
with their leaves, and prevent the further growth of weeds. 

The following plan is recomended, where a good drill cannot be 
procured, When the land is well harrowed and leveled, sow the seed 
broad-cast, harrow, and roll it; then when the plants appear, hoe 
into drills, either with a hoe-plow or hand-hoe. 

The chief labor requisite, is keeping down the weeds till the 
parsnips gain sufficient size to do it themselves. 


®The Drills manufactured by Emery & Co., of Albany, N. Y., sow this seed regu 
larly and at a proper depta. 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 227 


490. Harvesting is most readily performed with a plow, with 
a blunt or worn out share, drawn by a pair of horses, along or 
across the rows. The pressure of the plow and earth forces the 
roots out of the ground, when they are gathered into baskets by 
hand. They may be left in the ground, if intended for winter 
use, as long as the frost will permit; and, if for spring use, 
through the whole winter. They may be kept in cellars, or as 
is recommended for artichokes. 


491. In Jersey, the crop averages from 9 to 11 tons per acre, 
but has been known to be as great as 27 tons 8 ewt. 


492. When the leaves begin to fade, they should be cut off 
and given to cows; but if they are moist from rain or dew they 
are apt to inflame the udder. A good armful a day to each 
cow will impart nearly as much richness to the milk as the pars- 
nip itself. 

493. Domestic animals will eat the roots raw, but hogs are 
believed to prosper better upon them if they are cooked. Pork 
made of turnips is said to be quite equal to that made of corn. 
(See Trans. of N. Y. State Agricultural Society, Vol. xi, p. 
360.) 

494. Wine has been mace of this root, and a pure spirit may be ob- 
tained from it by distillation. 

495. For seed, the plants should be allowed to stand till the 
second season, or the best roots may be set out two feet apart 
each way, the crowns being under the surface of the ground. 
In the latter mode from 14 to 4 Ibs. of seed may be expected 
from a square rod of 164 feet. (Stephens.) The seeds ripen 
irregularly, and should be gathered by hand when ready, being 
spread under cover till quite dry. 

The seec’s are apt to produce blisters and watery vesicles on the bands 
and arms of those gathering them, which may be preverted by rubbing 
well with grease previous to commencing. 

496. Neither insects nor disease of any kind appear to injure 
this plant in the United States. 


228 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


497, The best manures, are rich dung, guano, bones in some 
form, wood ashes, plaster, and common salt. The inorganic 
compound should be drilled in with the seed. 


498. Tur Carrot—like the parsnip—belongs to the botan- 
ical order of Umbellifera, the Hemlock or Parsley family, some 
of the species of which are mutritive, and many of them poison- 
ous. The wild carrot is a common weed in Europe, and is 
wholly useless, having a hard, slender, fusiform root. Mr. Low 
is inclined to think that our edible variety has been derived 
from warmer countries, and not from the wild plant of northern 
Europe, which no modern cultivation has been able to change. 
Jt was known to the Romans, and is described by Pliny. It 
was introduced into England, as a field crop, by Flemish refu- 
gees, towards the end of the 16th century. ‘The varieties are 
very numerous, being divided into (a, ) field, (4,) garden, (c, ) 
red, (d,) white, &c., while the root varies in shape from fusiform 
to napiform. The most esteemed for field culture are the (¢,) 
White Belgian, (7!) Altringham, (9, ) orange, and (h,) long red 
carrot. 

499. The culture of this root for the feeding of stock has 
rapidly increased both m Ameriea and Europe, during late 
years: still, with us, it is rare, and grown in small quantities. 
}t requires a peculiar soil, and careful cultivation, and in its early 
stages is difficult to attend to. At the same time, it is nutritive, 
and when every thing is suited to it, very heavy crops may be 
grown. 

Analysis appears to indicate that 350 to 400 parts of carrots are re- 
guired to replace 100 parts of good meadew hay in feeding horses ; and 
this root is much inferior to the equivalent of potatoes, in practice. 
(Boussingault.) Thaer says that a working horse may be kept in con- 
dition on 70 or 80 lbs. of carrots, and 8 lbs. of hay daily. 

500. No ultimate analysis appears to have been made. The 
organic matter, ash, and nitrogen have been found to bir as 
follows, calculated dry. 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 229 


Boussin- | Voelcker. Way. Fromberg. 
gault. 
and Pies Die 
a anne Horsford. Root. Root. | Top. | Root. Top. 
Organic matter, 93.710 ) | 93710} 935 | #13] 905 | 93.5 81.3} 90.5 84.6 
Ash, 6.290 | 6.50 | 18.7| 9.49 | 15.4 
| 1.34 
Nitrogen, 
abi 
Water, 88.260 


501. Proximate analysis of fresh white Belgian carrot (A,) 
¢ompared with the fresh parsnip, (B,) grown on same soils :— 
( Voelcker, 1852.) 


A. B. 
Water, - - - 88.260 82.050 
Organic matter, containing nitrogen, - 0.596 1.280 
Organic matter, fitted for the support of 
respiration aud formation of fat, 1€.399 15.738 
Inorganic substances, - - 0.745 0.932 


In round numbers, carrots may be assumed to contain about 
88 per cent. of water, and 12 per cent. of solid matter. 


502. Proximate analyses of the fresh (A) and dried (B) white 
Belgian carrots, ( Voelcker,) at 112° F. 


, A. B. 

Water, - - - - 87.338 

Cellular fibre, - - wl 7G 27.412 
{norganic matters attached to fibre, - - 0.145 1.145 
Sugar, = - - - 6.544 51.682 
Salts soluble in alcohol, - - : 0.409 3.230 
Gum and pectin, —- i 0.885 6.989 
Inorganic salts insoluble in alcohol, - - 0.293 2.314 
Soluble casein, - - 0.498 3.934 
Insoluble protein compounds, - - 0.169 1.334 
Oil, - - - 0.203 1.604 
Nitrogen, in state of ammoniacal salts, - 0.008 0.063 


503. Inorganic analysis of the white Belgian carrot (A,) 
{ Way,) and of the parsnip, (B,) ( Richardson.) 


230 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


A B 


Silica, - . - - - 1,19 4.10 
Phosphoric acid - - - 8.55 18.66 
Sulphuric acid, - - - 6.55 6.50 
Carbonic acid, - - - 17.30 

Lime, - - - 5 - 8.83 11.43 
Magnesia, - - - 3.96 9.94 
Peroxide of iron, - - - 1.10 

Potash, - . . - 32.44 36.12 
Soda, - : - - 13.52 3.11 
Chloride of sodium, - . - 6.50 5.54 
Phosphate of iron, - - - : 3.71 


504. Dr. Voelcker (Jour. Royal Agricultural Society of England, Vol. 
xiii, p. 395,) thus compares the white carrots and parsnips tovether :— 
1, There is a genera] resemblance in the composition of both roots. 2. 
Parsnips contain less sugar than carrots, the deficiency of which is re- 
placed by starch, not occurring in carrots. 3. Carrots contain an average 
of 12 per cent. of solid substances, parsnips 18 per cent. Thus parsnips 
will be found much more nutritious than carrots. 4. The flesh-forming 
constituent of parsnips is greater than that of carrots. Parsnips are 
bout as rich in albuminous compounds as mangolds. Thus fresh 
parsnips contain 1.30 per cent. and dry, 725 per cent of flesh furming 
constituents ; the above carrots, fresh, 0.612 per e-nt, and dry, 5.46 
per cent. of the same. Parsnips also contain more nitrogen in the form 
of ammoniacal salts. 5. Parsnips contain a double proportion ot fatty 
matters, 6. The difference in the relative proportions of cellular fibre in 
both roots is very great. The cellular fibre, occurring in carrots, par- 
snips, turnips, mangelds, &c,, must not be regarded as useless in the 
animal economy ; for there can be little doubt that the soft and young 
fibres of these roots are readily converted in the stomach of animals into 
gum and sugar, and applied in the system to feed the respiration, or for 
the formation of fat. 7. Parsnips possess greater value than white Bel- 
gian carrots as a feeding or fattening material. Parsnips are, indeed 
very valuable as an article of food ; they are liked by cattle, and highly 
esteemed by Continental farmers for fattening stock. Moreover they 
stand the frost better than any other root-crop cultivated in England. 


505. Carrots require greater care in cultivation, than any 
other plant of the sort. The soil must be light, sandy, rich, and 
fertile to the depth of at least a foot, to produce good crops. 
Freedom from weeds is also very essential, as the young plant 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 231 


is delicate, and at first grows slowly. The ground should be 
plowed and prepared, as far as possible, in the fall, and the seed 
sown in spring, as early as the climate will permit :—Thaer says, 
“ even before the winter is over, and while the snow remains on 
the ground,” in Prussia. Manure adds much to the yield, but 
if dung be used, it ought to be well rotted or composted; or 
raw manure may be plowed in, in the fall, and compost dragged 
in, in the spring previous to sowing. In Scotland, it is applied 
at the rate of 25 tons to the acre, and placed in the drills imme- 
diately below the seed, ( Stephens. ) 

506. The seed should be fresh, for if two years old it fre- 
quently fails. From 3% to 6 Ibs. to the acre are required. As 
it germinates slowly, at the ordinary spring temperature, the fol- 
lowing process is recommended. Enclose the quantity wanted 
in a bag, and soak in water for 48 hours—and this 8 or 9 days 
before sowing. After soaking, spread the seed about a foot in 
thickness on the barn floor, and germination will take place in 
6 or 7 days. When the seed is observed to be “chipped,” it 
should be sown, being previously mixed with fine dry sand, to 
about 4 pecks to the acre, seed and sand together. By drill is 
the best mode of sowing, the ground being previously rolled, 
and rendered very smooth; but it may be sown by hand, rows 
being previously marked out, and the seed covered with a hoe. 
Broad-casting would require so much expense in weeding, as to 
be entirely inapplicable. Seed dealers now prepare carrot seed 
by rubbing off the hairs or points; but where this is not done 
the seed may be separated by mixing intimately with sand or 
ashes; or rubbing forcibly between the hands. The seed should 
be slightly covered. In wet weather, it will penetrate the 
ground spontaneously. The rows or drills should be about 20 
inches, and the plants 6 to 8 inches apart, according to the size 
of the variety. In such roots, nothing is gained by crowding, 
as much being lost in size, as is gained in number. 


507. Whenthe carrots show themselves, they should be raked, 


232 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
. ¢ 


hoed, and thinned; the hoeing must be repeated at least twice. 
When sufficiently large, so as not to bé injured, the cultivator 
may be run between them, and the weeds kept down till the 
leaves cover the ground, 

508. The leaves are of little value for feeding stock, cattle not 
liking them, Carrots may be dug with an iron fork, or by a 
blunt plow, as is recommended for parsnips, the tops being cut 
off. They are not injured by moderate frost, but when severely 
frozen they are apt to rot as they thaw. On the other hand, 
when put in large heaps, and kept very warm, they soon fer- 
ment and rot. The safest mode is to place them in layers alter- 
nately with straw, in cellars or heaps, yentillation being allowed 
till the approach of severe cold, when the heaps must be covered 
with straw or earth, 


509. The following is the cost of raising a crop of one acre of carrots, 
at Fredonia, Chautauque county, New York, in 1848, on green sward 
turned under, rolled down, and harrowed with a fine harrow, and sowed 
on top of the sod, May 4th. (Trans. of N. Y. Agricul. Soc’y. vol. viii. 
p- 327.) 


Plowing and harrowing 1% days, team a7 nian sisialeasele't cinta ce fate iniece oe ple Oren cee 
Raking and sowing 10 days @62}4 cents,.« beidhe's <i 25 


Hoeing and weeding 16 * wo --10.'0 
do second time 10 * Bis) rage - -6.25 
‘Harvesting 33 * ‘s ae . «. 20.63 
4 tbs Seed A ease dbs gmse bere seebestuevactievee cegoniOM 
Interestjon 1and, «52 = «\s elle,0 tee sie wisi%) 0,0, Aspe einies Ry ere oe ute 
$50.11 

996 bushels carrcts at 1234 cents, 120.75 
Profit, $70.64 


701g days of man’s labor, and 114 days of horse labor upon one acie 
of land, Twelve and a half cents per bushel is apparently a very high 
price, when the true nutritive value, and the quantity of water con- 
tained are compared with the price of oats, buckwheat, or some other 
Toots.* 


*If Oats are worth 37/4 cents per bushel, Carrots are evidently too dear at 1234 
cents, if the following mode of estimating the value of food is correct. We take equal 
weights of the two vegetables to be compared and find the equivalent proportions of 
nutriment ineach. Thus:— 


Oats 100 the - - - Carrots 100 tb 
Deduct water, 16 “ - . - = 88 « 


— 


Solids left Eee a | - - - 22 « 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 233 


510. The Carrot contains in place of starch, as also the turnip, a varia- 
ble proportion of a gelatinous gummy like substance, to which the name 
of Pectin has been given. It is a tasteless solid, whic swells up and 
gelatinizes with water. It possesses feeble acid powers, combining with 
bases to form pectates, It is represented by the symbol C2; Hs ; Oo. 

(Soily. ) 
511. The average crop in the the United States, with good 
cultivation, is from six to eight hundred bushels per acre. 


( Wiggins. ) 

The following crops of Carrots have been raised by L. Risley, of Fredonia, Chau- 
tauque Co., New York, allowing 53 lbs of the fresh roots to the bushel. (Pat Office 
Reports 1850, p. 385.) Mr. R. took the Premium of the State Agricultural Society, 
annually, for 10 years; so these may be consilered above the average : 

1 acre gave 159034 bushels, at a cost of $104.75, or 11932 days labor at 6244 cents. 


yw 498 «“ “ 25.76, “ 
% “ 82614 Ti “ 42.69, “cc 
1 i 966 “ “ 60.llor 70%2 * bf 
136 © 931833 “ 51.37 “s 
1 = 95134 ll he 46.63 be 


With the exception of the first and fourth, the particulars are not given. The Car- 
rots were sown in drills from 12 to 14 inches apart, and hoed as soon as the young 
plant could be seen. The plants were left from 2 to 4 inches in the row. In the cost 
of the first crop, $15.00 is charged for manure, and $10,50 for “Improvement of land”; 
the rest is the actual outlay for labor, and seed without interest. The charge for wa- 
ges is unusually low. 


~ 


Of this 
Nitrogencous matter forms 16 per, cent, - 13.441b | 5 per cent - 1.101b 
Hr os matter “ 77 ° GEGB'SS (TSe eens 19.36 ** 
A “ 6“ - 52 6 
Husk “ : “ a ie “c ; 6 && = L3ge 


Now, allowing that a bashel of Carrots weighs twice as much as a bushel of Oats, 
though 56 lbs per bushel is the usual estimate, 3714 cents worth of Oats contain over 
6 times as much nitrogenous matter as 12/4 cents worth of Carrots. 


1% “ «carbonaceous “ oe > 
sf «ash and residue “ fs S 


but as the nitrogenous matter is by far the most valuable for common food, the Onts 
greatly overbalance the Carrots in value in this respect. In another shi of view, 
i. e. the fattening qualities of the two, the dry Oat contains from 5 to 7)4 per cent of 
oil, while the dry Carrot contains only about 1}4 per cent.; so that in every aspect, 

except the supplying fresh food, in winter, to the animal, the Carrots appear to be 
very much overcharged at that price. As has been already mentioned, Boussingault, 
experimenting on a horse, places the value of Carrots compared with hay as 400 to 
100; and hay being worth to the farmer for feeding or wool growing (not for sale 
tanto cilies, in which case other elements of cost enter,) not more than $5 a ton, 
109 lbs. of Carrots would be worth about 6 cents or 314 cents per bushel. Still, in 
proportion to Oats, this 1s too high. We offer this view of the subject fur further 
consideration. 


234 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


512. Tur Bert belongs to the botanical order of Chenopo- 
diacee, the Goose-foot family. 

Spinach, (Spinacia olcracea,) and Lamb’s-quarters, (Chenopodium 
album,) belong to the same family. 

The original type of the garden and field-beet, is the Beta 
maritima, or sea-beet, a plant indigenous to the sea shore of 
many parts of Great Britain, especially where an argillaceous 
formation borders the sea-line; the root is somewhat fleshy, and 
the leaves are gathered and eaten. ‘The cultivated varieties are 
the Beta hortensis or cycla, the Chard Beet, which is cultivated 
for its leaves alone; and the Beta vulgaris, which comprises all 
the red, white, and variegated beets, the root of which is of chief 
value, whether used for garden or field culture. Of both these, 
there are very many varieties in size, color, shape of the root, and 
mode of growth. The field-beet is generally known by the 
name Mangel-Wurzel, (German for “ Root of Scarcity ;” ) or 
Mangold-Wurzel, (which literally means, the “Root of the 
White Beet,” ) or it is simply, and more usually termed Afan- 
gold, Field-beets may be again subdivided into those which 
are cultivated for the feeding of cattle, and those from which 
sugar is made, which latter contain more saccharine matter, and 
are generally white. 

Such sugar is now manufactured on the Continent of Europe, includ- 
ing Russia, to a very great extent; and the quantity is annually in- 
creasing, as Chemistry simplifies and renders cheaper the process. This 
manufacturing is said to have been lately introduced into Utah. Tho 
best varieties of sugar-beets are (a,) the Disette, with a white root, skin 
and leaves, each root weighing from 25 to 34 lbs.;(,) the Silesian bect, 
the sweeiest, but smaller; (c,) the Yellow beet, (d,) the Siberian beet. 
(For a very minute and accurate account of the Beet-sugar manufacto- 
ries of Europe, see Anapp’s Chemical Technology: London Ed., 1851, 
vol. iii., pp. 339—416.) 

In 1841, the production of Beet-sugar in Kurope was estimated at 
55,000 tons; in 1847 at 100,000 tons; in 1850 at 190,000 tons. In 1842 


France produced 40 millions of kilogrammes, (45,000 tons ;) in 1853, 
80 millions kilogrammes, (99,000 tons.) “Tlis progress has been ow- 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 235 


ing to improvements, chiefly chemical, each year in the manufacture. 
(Ann. of Scien. Dise., vol. iv., p.95.; Silliman’s Journal, vol. xvi., N.S., 
p. 275.) 

513. The Mangold can be grown successfully for sugar-ex- 
traction at all places between 45 ° and 56 ° N. Lat. in Europe. 
At Tobolsk, in Siberia, this crop is cultivated for food, but the 
root is supposed to contain a smaller proportion of sugar than 
than that raised farther south; judging from the effect of a 
warm climate on wheat, the nitrogenous matter should like- 
wise be smaller. The Sugar or Silesian Beet is more particu- 
lar as to climate, and consequently does not succeed so well in 
general cultivation. (Prof. Wilson.) 


514. The root of this plant is not strictly a true root, but 
a thick fleshy protuberance of the stem, to which the actual 
roots are attached. The bulbous portion of some kinds of beet 
is formed below the surface of the earth; in others, it is above, 
exposed to the air; and again, in some it is placed midway be- 
tween earth and air. Most varieties are spindle shaped; some, 
long and narrow, like the radish; others thicker, and more round; 
some nearly square, with deep indentations; and seldom flat- 
tened. The varieties are also distinguished by the leaves, curled 
or smooth; light or dark green; fringed with red; or entirely 
red. 


515. If a root is cut across, it will be seen to be composed of 
concentric zones or layers of fibrous vessels and cellular tissue 
differing in color more or less according to variety. It will be 
remarked, that the leaf-stalks take their origin pretty deeply in 
the body of the bulb, and there form an extensive region called 
the heart, characterized by its greenish color and abundance of 
fibrous vessels; and, chemically, more analogous to the leafstalk 
than to the rest of the bulb. The actual bulbous matter is dis- 
tributed in a zone about this heart, extending below it to the 
point. The exterior, or skin, is composed of a peculiar compact 
cellular substance, containing mineral and nitrogenous matter ; 


236 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK, 


immediately beneath which lies the herbaceous tissue, contain- 
ing the coloring matter, an essential oil, and several other pecu- 
liar organic compounds; then succeed the concentric zones of 
vascular and cellular tissue. In the cellular tissue is deposited the 
saccharine matter, the proportion seeming to be greatest in those 
cells immediately in contact with the vascular tissue. The 
germ (where the leaves enter the bulb) contains a large propor- 
tion of the saline matters, but no sugar. The cells contain 
‘neither starch, nor crystalline salts, but only a liquid, consisting 
chiefly of dissolved sugar. The fibrous vessels, on the other 
hand, contain no sugar, at least those do not which are situated 
in the heart, but they contain salts in a crystalline form. Some 
25 or 30 distinct substances are found in this root. 


516. In Great Britain the root is held in high estimation as a 
fallow-crop, and as food for fattening stock; and the culture is 
understood to be increasing. No statistics regarding it in the 
United States appear to exist. We are inclined to believe that 
this crop is annually becoming more common in the Atlantic 
States. 


517. Ultimate analysis of the root, (A;) and leaves, (B;) of 
the Mangold. (Boussingault.) 


A. B. 
————| 
i's Il. 
Carbon, - ° 42,75 49.93 38.1 
Hydrogen, - - - bal 7 5.94 5.1 
Oxygen, - . 43.58 43.23 30.8 
Nitrogen, - - - 1.66 1.66 45 
Ash, - - 6.24 6.24 21.5 


The leaves appear to possess a far higher value, both as a feeding, and 
asa manuring substance, than is usually assigned to them. The pro- 
portions of water were about the same in each ; and the analysis shows 
that, in a chemical point of view, the leaves were three times as valua- 
ble as the same weight of roots would be. (Prof. Wilson.) 


518. Proximate average of several analyses of Mangold. 


( Knapp.) 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 237 


Sugar, - - - - 10 

Soluble salts, pectin, certain azotized compounds, &c., . 3 

Water, - - « - 83 

Woodly fibre, insoluble salts, albumen, and other azotized com- ; 
pounds, - - - - 


100 


519. Proximate analysis of Mangold —“Sugar Beet.”— 
(Horsford and Krocker.) Root grown at Giessen: 


Fresh, Try. 
Albuminous matter, - - 2.04 pH ARS 
Sugar, - - . 12.26 68.8 
Cellulose and other nitrogenous substances, 2.56 14.6 
Mineral substances, : . 0.89 5.0 
Water, - - 82.25 
520, Inorganic analysis of Mangold. ( Way.) 
Tops. Roots. 
Silica, - - ° 199 2.57 
Phosphoric acid, - - - 5.15 3.08 
Sulphuric acid, - : - 5.8 3.37 
Carbonic acid, - - . 6.49 18.32 
Lime, - - - 8.65 1.95 
Magnesia, > - - 8.66 pa 
Peroxide of iron, - - 0.96 0.6 
Potash, - - : - 21.26 24.79 
Soda, - ° - 7.01 13.75 
Chloride of sodium, = - - - $3.96 29.41 
Per centage of ash, - - - 17 0.886 


Payen found 1,11 per cent of nitrogen in dry beet, of which one-third 
was due to the albumen. Horsford, obtained from beet-root, which 
lost in drying 821g per cent of water, 1.8 per cent of nitrogen, Under 
the very probable supposition that all these nitrogenous substances are 
of an albuminous nature, these nnmbers would correspond with 11.54 
per cent of albuminous matters, or 6.16 per cent of the amount of sugar. 
( Knapp.) 

As will be noticed above, Chloride of Sodium (common salt) enters 
largely into the composition of the Mangold. Prof. Way gives the fol- 
lowing comparative table of the quantity of salt yielded by one ton of 
each of these plants: , 


238 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


Roots. Tops. 
Mangold Wurtzels,  - - 5.29 - - 12.82 per cent. 
Carrots, - - 1.42 ~ 7126. ois 
Turnips, - - 1.49 ° - 6155. 1% 


521. The average quantity of nutritious matter afforded by 
a crop of Mangolds of 20 tons, or 45,000 Ibs. per acre, consists 
of 900 Ibs. of husk or woody fibre; 4,950 lbs. of starch, sugar, &c; 
900 lbs. of gluten, &c; and 450 Ibs. of saline matter, or ash. 
No oil or fatty matter has yet been detected in an appreciable 
quantity. (Johnston. ) 


522. This crop prospers on much heavier soils than either 
turnips or carrots; but a light clay soil, containing a fair pro- 
portion of humus, and rendered rich by manures, is the best. 
Moisture, especially in the beginning of the ‘season, is very ne- 
cessary, in order to develop its full size and good qualities. An 
excess of moisture is very rapidly absorbed by beet roots. 


523. In France, it is a common practice to sow the seed ina 
seed-bed, and afterwards transplant. In England, the soil is 
plowed twice in the fall, laid up dry in the winter, manured 
and plowed again in the spring. With us one plowing is 
generally considered all that is required. Depth and friability 
are necessary in order to procure large crops, and the sub-soil 
plow may be used to great advantage. The land must be thor- 
oughly harrowed, and the seed drilled at the rate of 3 or 4 Ibs. 
per acre, not more than one exch in depth, and from 12-14 to 
24 inches apart. Sowing may take place as early as frosts will 
permit. The seed should be steeped from 12 to 24 hours 
in water, to cause rapid germination; though if the soil and 
season are very dry, this may prove injurious. The subsequent 
cultivation consists of hoeing, and using the cultivator, keeping 
the earth fresh and perfectly clean. When well up, the plants 
must be thinned. Many leave the planis too close to each oth- 
er, which interferes with growth, hoeing, and cleaning. If plant- 
ed 2 feet apart, there will be a produce on the acre of 10,890 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 239 


plants; that is both two feet apart, lengthways and breadth- 
ways, 

According to Boussingault, the culture of a hectare (—2.471 acres,) of 
sugar-beet, requires, in France, the labor of a man fur 113 days, and of a 
horse for 35 days; but much of this labor might probably be saved by a 
better system of management and improved implements. 

524. The peculiar organization of this root requires great care 
to be exercised in harvesting the crop, as the slightest injury to 
it is sure to be followed by a tendency to decay when it is stored, 
At the same time, it keeps well to a late period of summer if 
earefully stored without injury by frost, or rain, or mechanical 
causes. The beets which grow above the ground are best gath- 
ered with the hand; kinds that grow underground require to be 
loosened by running a plow along the drill. The tops are then 
carefully cut off, without injuring the heart. In Alsace, it is the 
custom to take away the leaves, and trim the roots upon the 
ground, the refuse, which is a valuable manure, being plowed in 
immediately. Or the leaves may be fed to cattle, though they 
are said not to be very fond of them. Fine weather should 
be selected for the operation, and especial care must be taken to 
preserve the roots from wet and frost. It is desirable that they 
should be exposed on the ground, for three or four days before 
they are stored away, in order that they may lose as much of 
their moisture as possible, 


525, Various modes of preserving them are used, such as (a) 
storing in pits dug in the ground, 4 to 5 feet deep, and covering 
with straw, and a thick layer of earth. To insure ventillation, 
narrow ditches or gutters are made in the soil under the heap, 
and chimnies are formed by inserting stakes to be afterwards 
withdrawn. Or (0) the roots are piled between two rows of hur- 
dles, set up at 6 or 8 feet apart, and then built up from the top 
of the hurdles ina long pyramidal form. A second row of hur- 
dles is then set all round, at a distance of 9 inches from the oth- 
er, and the space between the two filled with loose straw well 


240 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


pressed down. A good thatch is laid over the centre. In our 
Northern States, the most economical plan, when this crop is to 
be regularly cultivated, would probably be the preparation of 
root houses, or cellars under barns on hill sides. 

526. The crop varies very much according to soil, manure, 
and cultivation. In France, the average maximum is about 278 
ewts. per acre; the minimum 67 ewts. per acre. Boussingault 


gives, for the same country :— 
Tons. Cwts, Qrs. Ibs. 


Pas de Calais, ° ° 12 9 1 19 
Department of the North, - - 12 stp 2p 25 
Department of Cher, - : 15 i es 


or an average for the whole country of 10 tons, 9 ewt. 1 qur. 
13 lbs. per acre. In England as high as 39 tons, 13 ewts. per 
acre have been procured, by not applying manure directly to the 
crop; but 20 tons are considered a good average on soils yield- 
ing 5 quarters (=46 American bushels,) of wheat to the acre. 
Wiggins gives the yield, in Delaware, of the Silician Sugar 
Beet at 800 bushels per acre, but 4 premium crop was grown 
in Monroe County, New York, of 1,489 bushels per acre, of 50 
Ibs. per bushel (=873 American or 33 English Tons,) at a to- 
tal cost, including manure, of about $22,00. (TZrans. of N.Y. 
Agricul. Soc’y. vol vite. p. 328. 

527. Cattle are readily fattened on this root. Late experi- 
ments in Scotland have proved Mangolds to be as profitable for 
this purpose as any other food that can be given. Steers weigh- 
ing 935 Ibs. live weight, consumed 120 Ibs. of Mangolds per 
day, divided into three feeds, and 7 lbs. of straw besides. In 
100 days each animal gained 161 Ibs. (Trans. of High. and 
Agricul. Soc’y. of Scotland 1853.) 

528. Manures act very variably upon this root. Ammoniacal 
manures increase the size and yield, but injure the sugar, while 
organic manures add to the sugar, but the crop is smaller. Gu- 
ano is beneficial if the roots are intended for feed. Common 
salt is specifically beneficial, and should be applied in moderate 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK, 241 


quantities under nearly all circumstances. It appears to be best 
to apply barn-yard manures to the previous crop. 

An instance is given where an application of 3 ewt. of salt to 

__the acre increased the crop from 26 to 40 tons. 

The Beet at all stages of its growth, including the period of its flow- 
ering, exhibits the same relative proportions of water and solid ingredi- 
ents ; consequently half grown and full grown bulbs, flowering and not 
flowering plants, leaye very nearly the same amount of dry residue. 
With the period of bearing seed, this residue rapidly diminishes in quan- 
tity. But the separate constituents vary in proportion, Thus, the Su- 
gar gradually increases with the growth, attains a maximum at a certain 
period before ripening, when it again diminishes, and disappears with 
the formation of seed. 

529. In England this root is frequently sold at £1 (=$4.88) 
per ton, but the real value to the farmer for feeding, is estima- 
ted at about one half, or $2.00. In this country, where meat 
brings a lower price, the value is of course less. The improve- 
ment of the land, when properly cultivated, ought, however, to 
be estimated as a profit. 

530. No peculiar diseases or insects appear to injure this crop/ 
in the United States. In Europe, there are several of both, 
and of late in France it has suffered from a Rot similar to that 
of the Potato. 

531. A sort of beer is sometimes made of it, at a low cost. 

A good vinegar may also be procured by grating the root, 
expressing the juice into a barrel, and allowing it to undergo fer- 
mentation in a warm place. Six gallons have been made from 
a bushel of the root of the Sugar-beet. A cider-mill might be 


used for the purpose. 

As this root is the raw material of an extensive manufacture, which demands great 
scientific skill, its culture and peculiarities have been thorougly studied ; and more, 
probably, has been written upon it than almost any other vegetable product whatever 
except wheat. In these pages, we have only been able to give a compressed abstract, 
and therefore refer the reader to the following works among many others. Thaer’s 
Principles of Agriculture ; Johnston’s Agricul. Chemist.; Journ. of Royal Agricul. 
Socy. of England, vol. xiii.; Pat. Off. Reports 1849.; British Farmers’ Magazine vols. 
xxii, xxiii; Knapp’s Technology vol. iii; Journal d’ Agriculture pratique, Tome vii. 
Low’s practical Agriculture, Stephen’s Farmer’s Guide; Wiggin’s American Far- 
mer, &c., &c. . 


16 


CHAPTER XVIII. 


SWEET POTATOES, (Convolvulus Batatas.) MUS- 
TARD, (Sinapis nigra and alba.) HOPS, 
(Humulus Lupulus.) 

532. The Sweet Potato, belongs to the order Convolvulacee, 
the Convolvulus or Bindweed family, of which the common 
Morning Glory of the gardens ( C. purpureus,) may be men- 
tioned as a type. The Yams of South America, and the medi- 
cine Jalap are also of the same genus. The Sweet Potato is 
biennial, growing with a large, long shaped bulb at the root. 


538. As an agricultural plant, it may be considered as pro- 
perly belonging to warm climates, but can be cultivated pro- 
fitably, on suitable soils, as far north as Michigan. In New 
Jersey, large quantities are annually grown; but in all the nor- 
thern States, the plant rapidly degenerates, and must be replac- 
ed by fresh bulbs from the South. In the southern States, this 
plant takes the place of the common potato, and is used not 
only for man’s food, but for cattle, hogs, &e. It is there raised 
with great ease, and returns from 200 or 300 to 1500 bushels 
per acre, according to soil and climate. (Patent Ofice Reports, 
1845, pp. 452, 453.) In this present article we shall confine 
ourselves to its culture in the North. 

534. The only analysis of this root with which we are ac- 
quainted is one made in the West Indies, (0. Henry.) 


Starch, : - . 24 - - 133 
Albumen, - : - - - 9 
Sugar, - = - - - > 33 


Cellular matter, - - . ts Ps 68 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 2438 


Fixed oil, = - - - - - - dl 
Malic acid and salts, - - - - 14 
Water, - . - . : - 732 

| 1,000 


535. This plant requires a sandy, rather light, deep, and well 
stirred soil, which must be located on a dry subsoil; and the 
whole either naturally rich in organic matter, or rendered so by 
manuring. Stiff clay does not suit it. Slips or sprouts, from 
the previous year’s tubers, are used for planting, and these are 
prepared in either of the following manners, (a.) Ina bed of | 
earth, make a box with planks set edyewise, and fill in about a 
foot in depth of good warm horse-stable manure, over which 
spread two inches of fine rich earth; on this lay the potatoes 
so near as to almost touch each otker, tia cover them from 2 to 
24 inches deep with the same earth. If the nights are cold, this 
bed must be carefully covered with straw, or some other warm 
covering, which is to be removed during the day. There is a 
danger in making the bed too warm, and so spoiling the roots. 
They must be kept tolerably wet after the sprouts appear: when 
these are 3 inches long, they are fit to set out. (2,) Dig a hole 
a foot deep, the size of the space required, and fill in with ma- 
nure from the horse-stable, sufficient to make a good hot-bed. 
It should be raised 10 or 12 inches above the sesticn of the 
ground, and the top of the bed should be sand and loam. Place 
the potatoes in rows, about 6 inches apart, and cover them to 
the depth of 24 or 3 inches, Afterwards proceed as above. 


536. The ground should be plowed very deep, and thrown 
up in ridges or hills; if the latter, such as common potato hills, 
after they have been hoed. This should be done immediately 
before planting, so that the soil may be moist and fresh. Set 
two plants in a hill, 2 or 3 inches apart, and make the top of 
tho hill sufficiently hollow to hold a pint of water. If there is 


244 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


no rain, watering in the evening is requisite for a few days. Hf 
in ridges plant the slips 8 or 10 inches apart. When the weeds 
begin to appear dig or plow between the rows, clean round the 
plants with a hoe, and draw a little dirt round them. When 
plowed the last time —about the last of July — hill them up. 
If the vines have grown across the furrows, turn them carefully 
back, and afterwards replace them. No earth should be allow- 
ed to fall upon the vines; and if they root, they should be pulled 
up, otherwise small and worthless potatoes will be produced at 
each root, and the main ones will be inferior in size. They 
should be dug as soon as the frosts kill the vines. 


537. There is great difficulty in the north, in preserving 
these tubers from decay during winter. The best mode appears 
to be placing them in moderately sized boxes, and keeping them, 
in a room sufficiently heated to prevent frost, at an equal tem- 
perature; allowing them, however, to “sweat” before packing 
them away. (See Patent Office Report, 1846, pp. 450-457. 
Trans. of N. Y. Agricultural Society, Vol. viii, p. 426.) 


538. Musrarp. (Stnapis nigra, and alba.) This plant is 
very rarely cultivated in the United States, except on a small 
seale; mest of the mustard consumed in this country being im- 
ported from England, where the manufacture is confined to a 
very few localities. There are or were mustard manufactories in 
Philadelphia and New York, but the seed was chiefly imported 
from Holland and Germany. The Black mustard is preferred 
for this purpose, but becomes a very troublesome weed when 
cultivated. Of late years, the White mustard has been sown 
in rich soils in England for sheep feed during summer, for which 
' purpose it is found to be profitable, but in the United States 
both the climate and the Turnip Flea are injurious to it. This 
species cannot become a weed, as it is killed by a very slight 
frost. It is occasionally used medicinally; and in Europe oil 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 245 


is extracted from it at the rate of 36 lbs. of the white, and 18 lbs. 
of the black species from 100 lbs. of seed. (For a very complete 
account of this plant see Patent Office Report, 1845, pp. 312, 
397, 959-966 ; compared with Ib. 1848, p. 160.) 


539. Tu Hor isa native of the United States (Gray, ); but 
the cultivated varieties, of which there are many, are believed to 
have been introduced from England, in which country it is ee 
wise indigenous. 


540. The only uses to which it is usually put are in medicine 
and the imparting a bitter principle to malt liquors; and in the 
United States the chief field of cultivation has been New York. 
It was introduced into England from Flanders in the reign of 
Henry VIII, A. D. 1509-1547; and in that country it is grown 
ehiefly in the counties of Kent and Sussex. The quantity pro- 
duced in New York in 1840, was less than half a million pounds; 
in 1850, 2,500,000 lbs, which exceeds five-sevenths of the whole 
crop of the United States, 


New York also stands foremost in the production of ale, beer, and 
porter. The breweries of the State produced in 1850, 645,000 barrels 
of ale, &c., being more than a third of the quantity returned for the 
whole Union. (Census Report Dec. 1, 1852, p. 75.) 


541. The hop is a perennial, the stems dying each winter, 
and being reproduced. The male and female flowers are on 
different plants, the latter only being of use; but a few male 
plants are generally grown among the others. The flower is 
the part used; the active principle,—a waxy yellow powder, call- 
ed Lupulin,—being produced under the scales of the strobiles. 


542 The following analysis of the Lupulinic grains, and of 
the scales, are copied from Pereira’s Hlements of Materia 
Medica, 


246 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


Lupulinic grains. | Scales. 

PaveN, CHEVALLIER, and PELLETAN. | Ives. ! Payen, &c. 
Volatile oil, - 2.00;|Tavnin, - 4.16}| Astringent matter- 
Bitter principle, (Lupulite,) - 10.30)Extractive, - 8.33||Inert coloring do 
Resin, - 50 to 55.00 oe principle? a4 Chi crophylle. 
Lignin, - 32.00}Wax, - 10.00]|Gum. 

Fatty, astringent, gummy matters, } Resin, - - 30.00/)Lignin. 


ozmazome, malic and carbonic | Potash, lime, and 
acid, malate of lime, acetate of f traces, ammonia with 
ammonia, chloride of potash, acetic, hydroch- 
sulphate of potash, &c., 2 loric, sulphuric, 
nitric, &c. Acids. 

Lupulinic matter. 


Lignin, - - 38.33 


—— 


99.30 100,00 


543. Inorganic analysis of the Hop (A;) and Leaves (B ;) 
and Bind or Stem (C;) of the Hop Plant. (WVesbzt. ) 


The 2 bs. of Hops, dried at a steam heat, lost 3 oz. of moisture, leav- 
ing 1 1b. 13 oz. of dry hops. These furnished 1282 grains of ashes, or 
nine-tenth per cent.—93g oz. of leaves, dried, lost 11g of moisture, 
leaving 814 oz. of leaves, These left 572 grains of ashes, or 1614 per 
cent.—1 lb. 21 oz. of the Bind, dried, lost 17% oz. of moisture, and left 
1 lb. 056 oz.of dry Bind. These gave 353 grains of ashes, nearly 5 per 
cent. 


bi gle: oad ae 
Silica, - - - 2150] 12.14! 6.07 
Cloride of Sndiands - - 7.24) 9.49! 6.47 
Chloride of Potassium, - - - 1.67). ——)| . 9.64 
Soda, - - - —| 0.39; —— 
Potash, - - - - 25.18) 14.95] 2435 
Lime, - - - 15 a3 49 67| 38.73 
Magnesia, - - - sale 5.77, 2.39] 4.10 
Sulphuric acid, - - - 5.41] 5.04) 3.44 
Phesphorice acid, - - - 9.80! 2.42) 6.80 
Phosphate of iron, - - 7.45} 3.51] 0.40 
Per centage of ash, (dried) - - 9.87| 13.06} 3.74 


544. Amount of inorganic matter removed from the soil by 


an acre of Farnham Hops. (JVesbit.) 

The number of hills to an acre varies in different localities. In some 
places 1000, in others 1260, in other 1440 hillsto the acre. The following 
is estimated from actual analysis of 4 hills, at the rate of 1000 per acre. 
(Nesbit) 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. Q47 


500 Ibs. Hops| 14634 Ibs. Leaves|239 Ibs. Bind) Total Plant 
tb 


oz. tb oz. th oz. 
Silica, - - ee 2 7) 0 914/12 416 
Chloride of Sodicum, 3. 3g 1 10 0 10 5 Tig 
Chloride of Potassium, 0 12 015 k iL 
Soda, - - 0 Ol 01 
Potash, - « V hd Ste web EO 2 6 {16 31 
Lime, - - Y Ore So 2 313 |19 84 
Magnesia, = - Sopergy @ FF Ine 0 644) 3 5% 
Sulphuric acid, - 2 63} 0» .14 0 514} 310 
Phosphoric acid, -| 4 6 ee we 0 914) 5 6% 
Phosphate of iron, 3. 5 0 10 0 034) 3 1534 
Total, es} We eT SMe A OK 


545. There are several varieties, of which the Farnham, the 
Golding, the Yellow Grape, are considered the best. 


These are found to differ much in the proportion of their in- 
organic constituents, and consequently the above analyses must 
only be considered as an approximation as regards the species, 
while it is accurate as regards one variety. (See Stephen’s Far- 
mer’s Guide, vol. ii, p. 45, 320.) 


546. The soil peculiarly adapted to this plant is a rich, deep, 
rather adhesive elay, with abundance of organic matter, or veg- 
etable mould; and a porous rocky subsoil. A dry subsoil is 
considered essential. The variety grown, and the quality of the 
produce depend entirely upon the character of the soil; and the 
peculiarities from these causes are almost as numerous as they 
are in wine-culture. In England, large quantities of valuable 
manure are expended on hops; such as bones, woollen rags, &e. 
The following, for the inorganic portion, may be given as a sam- 
ple :—(Journal of Royal Agricul. Society, 1846, part 1.) 


I sw 98 
Guano, - - 3 cwt. 1 ewt.} 
Common Salt, ~ Aiee ‘a 
Saltpetre, (or - - lig “ _ 
Silicate of Potash,) : ly « a per acre. 
Plaster, (gypsum, ) ~ oo 144 
Super phosp ate of sate, : - 14g “ 
Pearlash, -_ = Bee 


248 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


It may be laid down as a principle, that the more richly hops 
are manured, the better will be the quality and yield. 

547, The culture of this plant, the picking, drying, packing, dc., de- 
mand a great outlay of labor, much skill, and more experience ; and it 
would be useless to attempt to teach the practical manipulations in our 
limited space. We must therefore refer the reader anxious to know 
more of the subject to other works, and recommend those who wish to 
to cultivate the hop to visit a plantation, and thus acquire on the spot 
the necessary knowledge. 

548, Hops are planted in hills; and long poles are driven 
in for the bind to climb on. They do not come to full bearing 
till the third season after planting, and will yield profitably from 
12 to 20 years, Inthe United States in a good season, each 
hill will average 2 lbs. of hops ready for market; but more fre- 
quently the produce is below that. Appropriate buildings and 
kilns are necessary for drying, as well as peculiar baskets, cloths, 
bags, &e. The price is subject to very great and sudden varia- 
tions; and the grower must have a large number of workmen 
at his command, as the crop, when ready for picking will not 
permit delay without serious injury. (For a very complete ac- 
count of hop culture in the United States, see Wiggins’ Amer- 
ican Farmer, and Trans. of N. Y. Agricultural Society, Vol. 
iv, p. 447, &c.) 

549. Cost of cultivating 2 acres of hops at Morrisville, N. Y. (TZrans. 
of NV. ¥. Agricultural Socicty, 1845, p. 497.) The soil was a mixture of 
dark loam and gravel, well adapted for grass. Jt was well plowed 


and manured with 40 loads of barn yard manure per acre, and planted 
with hops and corn. The next season the account stved as follows :— 


41 loads of manure put in hills, - - $30.00 
Rise of poles, ° - - - 45.00 
Labor of cultivating, - - - 40.00 
Interest on land, == - . - 14.00 
Harvesting and bagging, - - ° 87,50 

216.50 
Produce of 2 acres, 2500 lbs, at 1244 cents, : 312.50 


Net profits, © : - - $96.00 


CHAPTER XIX. 


ONIONS, PUMPKINS, TOBACCO, CASTOR-OIL BEAN, 
LIQUORICE, UNCOMMON PLANTS. 


550. Tuz Onion (Allium Cepa,) though usually ranked 
among roots (bulbous roots) is in reality a bud, formed at or 
underneath the ground, and whose scales are thick and fleshy. 
It is a biennial. | 

There are several species known in garden culture as Garlic, (Allium 
Sativum); Rocambote, (A. Scorodoprasum); Chive, (A. Schanopraswm);* 
Leek, (A. Porrum); Shallot, (A. Ascalonium); and several varieties of 
the first (A. Cepa), as the Top onion (.A. Viviparum,) bearing perfect 
bulbs or buds in place of seed ; the Potato onion, producing by the for- 
mation of young bulbs on the parent root, an ample crop below the 
ground ; red, white, yellow ouions, &e., &c. There are five species 
indigenous to the northern United States, (Gray,) which sometimes 
become very troublesome weeds in pastures, in consequence of being 
eaten by cows, and flavoring the milk. The medical plant Squil/s be- 
longs to the same family. 

551. The native country of this esculent is unknown, but it 
has been cultivated from a very remote antiquity; as we find 
it—in its different species—the common food of the Egyptians 
in the time of the Pharaohs, before the Exodus of the Israelites. 
It is now cultivated in all parts of the world. In Hindoostan it 
is considered sacred, and not eaten. In Europe, the Portugal 
onions are the finest. In the United States, the field culture of 
the onion is chiefly confined to limited districts of Connecticut, 
Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and New York, certain towns 


*Found growing wild on Lake Superior, by Prof. Agassiz. Also a native of the 
Alps, to the height of 7000 feet. (Agassiz L. Supcrior, p. 166.) 


250 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


being celebrated for the quantity of good onions which they 
produce and export. What are not required for home con- 
sumption are sent chiefly to the West Indies and South Amer- 
ica. The census takes no notice of this plant. From 1835 to 
1845, 30,000 to 40,000 bushels and from 1850 to 1853 from 
125,000 to 150,000 bushels a year were raised in the town 
of Danvers, Massachusetts, alone; and though, to the farmer it 
is rather an insignificant product, yet it employs many men and 
women in its culture, and adds largely to the comfort of the 
small cultivators of New England. Its moral effect is beneficial, 
as it teaches the value of manure, of clean, neat cultivation, and 
steady industry; and it is said that onion-growing districts are 
always remarkable for their prosperity, economy, and intelli- 
gence, 

552. Onions do not appear to have been accurately analysed. 
They owe their peculiar odor and flavor, as well as their pun- 
gent and stimulating qualities, to an acrid volatile oil which 
contains sulphur. When eaten, the oil becomes absorbed, 
quickens the circulation and occasions thirst. According to 
Fourcroy, Vauquelin and Le Grange, the following is the com- 


position :— 
Acid volatile oil, Starch, 
Unerystallizable sugar, Woody fibre, 
Gum, Acetic and phosphoric acids, 
Vegetable albumen, Phosphate and carbonate of lime, 
Sulpbur, | Water. 


The nourishing quality probably depends on some unknown 
property of the oil, or an alkaline base, resembling creatine in 
meat; and may be classed with such sustaining substances as 
chocolate, opium, &c., of the principle of which we are yet to- 
tally ignorant. The ashes contain alkaline and earthy salts. 
This plant is used medicinally as a local irritant both internally 
and externally; as an expectorant, diuretic, and anthelmintic. 
Garlic is the most active of the family in its properties. 


553. The soil should be mellow, dry and rich: it need not, 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK, 251 


necessarily be deep. A rich sand, sandy loam, or gravelly loam, 
when well manured will answer. Onions do not appear to ex- 
haust the soil, and may be grown for many years in succession 
without deteriorating. The following is the mode of culture 
pursued in Danvers, Mass, (D. Buxton, Jun.,in Farmer's Com- 
panion and Horticultural Gazette, Vol. ii, p. 86; iii, No. 3.) 

Such land is selected as would give a good crop of corn; wet 
land will answer if the seed can be got in by the first of May. 
It must have been plowed from the sod at least three years, un- 
less a crop of carrots was raised the second year. Land may 
be rich and well manured, and yet not bear onions the first year 
of planting; afterwards the crops will be good as long as the 
land is kept well manured. Six or seven cords of good barn- 
yard manure per acre are sufficient. Salt mud and “ mussel- 
bed” are valuable for a change. Ashes, particularly on new 
land, are beneficial. The land is plowed shallow, rendered fine, 
and rolled as early in spring as the climate will permit, and the 
seed is sown in drills 10 or 12 inches apart by a machine made 
for the purpose. With it, a man can sow two acres a day, and 
drop the seed thick or thin. New land requires 3 lbs., old land 
24 Ibs. of seed per acre; the young plants being more likely to 
live on old than on new land. Weeding is performed with a 
wheel-hoe (which costs about $1,) two or three times before the 
plants are large. A man can weed 14 acres perday. ‘The rest 
of the weeding is chiefly done by boys, and the expence de- 
pends on the management of the land the first year or two; it 
being of the utmost importance not to allow any weed to go to 
seed. The crop must be kept perfectly clean. When the stalks 
shrivel, and fall spontaneously, the bulbs have ceased to grow, 
and should then be pulled up and laid on the ground for some 
days to dry. If the weather is moist they must be turned. 
After this they must be spread in the Larn till thoroughly dried, 
and then wove into ropes, or the stalks cut off before putting in 
barn, and the onions, when dry, packed in barrels. 


252 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


554. In selecting onions for seed, take the largest and those 
which ripen the earliest, as by so doing the crops will ripen in 
warm weather. If no care is taken, onions will soon run out, 
ripening late, and growing with large stiff necks in October. In 
Massachusetts they should be harvested and dried by the first 
of August. 


555. The average crop at Danvers is about 450 bushels per 
acre, though 600 or 700 are not uncommon, and occasionally 
1000; the wholesale price from 40 to 50 cents per bushel. An 
instance is given in the Albany Cultivator, where 12094 bush- 
els of carrots, and 630 bushels of onions were raised off the same 
acre. 


556. In Russia, the Potato Onion is cut into 4 parts, leaving 
the quarters hanging together at the root, the onions having 
first been hung up and dried in the smoke. Smoking, however, 
is not necessary. The quarters thus united are planted, and 
produce 4 fine onions. This course has been successfully pur- 
sued for thirty years, resulting in abundant crops. (Pat. Office 
Report, 1847, p. 188.) 


557. In Vermont, New Hampshire, and north Massachusetts, 
a maggot has, of late years, proved very destructive to this plant. 
It is the young of the Onion Fly, (Anthomyza Ceparum,) 
which lives in the roots and causes them to perish. It appears 
to be the same insect that destroys the onion in Europe, and 
has probably been imported. It lays its eggs on the leaves of 
the onion, close to the earth, so that the maggots, when hatched, 
readily make their way to the heart of the onion. They come 
to their growth in about two weeks, turn to pup within the 
onions, and come out as flies a fortnight afterwards. It is said 
that the onion crop may be preserved from the attacks of this 
fly by sowing the seed on ground upon which a quantity of 
straw has been previously burned. (Harris’ Treatise on In- 
sects, p. 494.) In Scotland, the evil is remedied by dusting 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 253 


the soil with dry coal soot once a fortnight. (London Garden- 
er’s Chronicle, May 26, 1853.) 


558. Besides this, onions appear to be free from the attacks of insects 
and disease. It sometimes happens that many of the plants grow with 
thick stems and small bulbs. These may be left in the ground during 
the winter. Many of them will stand the frost, and in the spring they 
may be taken up and set in a bed where they will grow to be good 
onions, 


559. Tue Pumpkin, ( Cucurbita Pepo,) is the only plant of 
this family usually cultivated as a field crop; though in many 
parts of the United States, the other genera might be grown in 
the same manner with facility. 


The Cucumber, (Cucumis sativus) ; the Musk Melon, (C. Melo); the 
Water Melon, (C. Citrullus); the Round Squash, (Cucurbita Melopepo); 
the Long Squash, (C. verrucosa); the Orange Gourd, (C. aurantia); 
and the Vegetable Marrow, (C. ovifera); the Bottle Gourd, (Lagenaria 
vulgaris); the Balsam Apple, (Momordica Balsamina), belong to the 
same family. There are two species indigenous to the northern United 
States——The One-seeded Star Cucumber, (Sicyos angulatus) ; and the 
Wild Balsam Apple, ( EZchinocystis lobata,) (Gray.) The varieties of this 
farnily are exceedingly numerous, and they hybridize with great facility, 
even among different genera, as the cucumber and pumpkin, &e. The 
Pumpkins and Squashes ate natives of America, and were unknown in 
Europe previous to the time of Columbus. The early voyagers found 
them in common use among the Indians through the whole extent of 
country from Florida to Canada, and probably far to the west. Melons 
and Gourds are derived from Southern Asia. Persia has long been 
famous for the former. (Dr. Harris in the Trans, of the Amer. Asso. 
of Science.) In medicine, Colocynth, (Cucumis Colocynthus), and 
Squirting Cucumber, ( Momordica elaterium,) belong to this family. 


560. Although this plant is so so generally cultivated, and 
enters so largely into the winter food of animals and men 
throughout the Western States, and notwithstanding that it has 
acquired a national importance in New England, very little in- 
formation has been collected regarding it, atid we are unable to 
meet with an analysis of it. Cucumbers and melons have been 
more fortunate, and we shall quote these as presenting a family 


254 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOGK. 


resemblance. The pumpkin probably owes its chief value to the 
sugar and starch which the flesh contains, and the oil in which 
the seeds are rich. For fattening, the latter appear to be chiefly 
of value. This plant probably contains a less per centage of 
water, than any of the rest of the family; but that per centage 
must still be large. There is a sweet variety, cultivated in gar- 
dens, which promises to be more profitable as food than the 
common sorts, though it does not usually grow to as great a 
size, and we recommend its adoption in the field. 


561. The per centage of water, dry matter and ash, in the 
Musk Melon, (A,) and Water Melon, (B,) (Salisbury. ) 


A. B. 
Per centage of water, - - 90.987 94 §98 
do dry matter, - - 9013 5.102 
do ash, - - . 0.271 0.248 
do ash in dry matter, = - 3.007 4.861 


36,900 Ibs of Musk Melons, and 40,322 lbs. of Water Melons contain 
each 109 Ibs of inorganic matter or ash, as follows :— 


190 lbs. ash of _ 160 Ibs. ash of 

Musk Melon. Water Melon. 
Carhonie acid, - - 1155 11.42 
Silicie acid, - - - 2.20 1.21 
Phosphoric acid, - - 25.40 14.93 
Sulphuric acid, - - : 3.90 1.63 
Phosphate of iron, - - 2.30 4.52 
Lime, . - - - 5.85 7.32 
Magnesia, - - - 0.60 1.31 
Potash, - - - 8 35 23.95 
Soda, - - - 34.25 30.63 
Chlorine, - - - 5.20 1.81 


(See Trans. of Amer. Assoc. 1851, pp. 195, 221.) 
562. Composition of the Green Cucumber, ( John.) The 
peeled fruit (A,) the fresh peel, (B.) 


A. 
Sugar and extractive, 1.66 {Solid matter, similar to } 
Chlorophylle, 0.04 | that of the pealed fruit 45 
Lignin with phosphate of lime, 0.53 | but containing much ? j 
Mucas, with phosphoric acid) Lignin, 
ammonical salt, malate, phos- | Water, 85 


phate, sulphate, and muriate > 0.50 
of potash, phosphate of lime | | 
and tron, 

Water, 97.14 4 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 256 


563. The pumpkin is generally grown in connection with 
corn, occasionally with potatoes; and rarely or never alone, 
Two or three seeds are planted with the corn in the hill or row, 
and thinned out to one afterwards, the plants being left from 6 
to 8 feet apart. No further care is requisite except to gather 
and store before frosts occur. 


564. The usual yield is probably from 3 to 4 tons per acre; 
but there are instances on record of 7 tons per acre among corn, 
and 15 tons per acre among potatoes. (Patent Office Reports, 
1844, p. 144; 1847, p. 188.) 

565. There is great difficulty in preserving this fruit during 
winter; as, in consequence of the quantity of water it contains, 
frost readily destroys it; and even without frost, rot will occur 
wherever the skin is bruised. The best mode is to pack upon 
a tier of rails laid on the ground, under a warm shed, with straw 
between each tier of pumpkins; and before severe frost occurs, 
cover thoroughly in all directions with a heavy covering of straw. 
This latter must be deferred as long as possible, in order to al- 
low: the superfluous moisture to escape. 


566. It has been recommended to grow the Vegetable Mar- 
row in the same manner, to feed hogs and other animals. This 
is a very hardy and productive species, but whether it has any 
advantages above the pumpkin, in an agricultural point of view, 
has not been tested. An instance is mentioned where 20 tons 
had been produced on an acre. 

567. For fattening hogs, these fruits are supposed to be more 
nutritive if boiled. For ruminant animals, living on dry food, 
they are probably preferable in their natural state. Pumpkins 
increase the yield and richness, and improve the color of milk. 

568. The young plants are apt to be destroyed by the Cut- 
worms, and Cucumber Beetle, ( Galeruca vittata; ) and there- 
fore more seed should be planted than is required. Many rem- 
edies have been proposed for the injury caused by this Beetle. 


256 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


The cheapest and most effective is the dusting the leaves with 
common plaster; or with boiled plaster (such as is used by ma- 
sons) mixed with spirits of turpentine, and dried. This appli- 
cation must be repeated after rain until the rough leaf is well 
grown. Occasionally, this insect, and another much larger spe- 
cies injure the fruit when ripe by burrowing into it to a consider- 
able depth. The only remedy is harvesting as rapidly as possi- 
ble. In some localities the Cucumber Flea Beetle ( Haltica 
pubescens.) is also injurious to the young plants. 


569. Toxsacco, (Nicotiana Tabacum) belongs to the Sola- 
nacee, or Nightshade family, and is nearly connected with the 
Jamestown Weed (Datura Stramonium) and Henbane ( Hyos- 
cyamus niger,) well known weeds and medical poisons. One 
species, Wild Tobacco, (JV. rustica) is found indigenous to the 
Northern States. There are several other species, (V. repanda, 
Persica, Glutinosa, Macrophilla, dc.) the first of which forms 
the best Havanna cigars; and the second, “the delicate and fra- 
grant tobacco of Shiraz;” besides many varieties. It is a native 
of America; and was found by Columbus to be in common use 
among the Indians in 1492. It was introduced into France in 
1559, and into England in 1586, It is now cultivated in most 
parts of the world, except Great Britain where its culture is pro- 
hibited by law; but the tobacco of Cuba, Virginia, Maryland, 
Kentucky, and Connecticut is the most celebrated. No plant, 
perhaps, more readily adapts itself to greater differences in 
climate, or none, except the grape, changes more in its composi- 
tion and economical value. At the same time it is remarkable 
for the injurious and impoverishing effect that it produces upon 
the soil. The tobacco of Michigan is said, so far, to have proved 
inferior in flavor and strength; while a valuable article is 
brought to market from Western Canada, 


In three or four years, the tobacco grown in Germany from American 
seed, acquires an aroma perfectly distinct from that of fine tobacco, and 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 257 


this it retains pertinaciously. Too rapid and luxuriant growth spoils 
the flavor of the leaf, which on the contrary is heightened by pruning. 

570. The Virginians began to cultivate this plant very early, 
following the Indian mode. In 1611, it was first grown by the 
use of the spade, and shortly increased to so great an extent as 
almost to preclude the sowing of grain. Before the Revolution 
merchantable tobacco was a legal tender in which taxes and 
ministers’ salaries were paid, and it almost became the currency 
of the colony. At present the culture in the United States ap- 
pears to be on the decline. In 1840, the total produce of this 
country was 219,163,319 Ibs; in 1850, 199,752,646 Ibs, show- 
ing a decrease of 19,410,673 lbs. 

The chief tobacco producing States in 1850 were :— 


Virginia, 56,803,218 lbs. | North Carolina, 11,984,786 Ibs, 
Kentucky, 55,501,196 “ |Ohio, 10,454,449 «“ 
Maryland, 21,407,497 “ |Connecticut, 1,267,624 « 
Tennessee, 20.148,932 “ |Indiana. 1,044,620 « 
Missouri, 17,113,784 “ 


No other State gives one million of pounds; Michigan re- 
turns only 1,245 lbs.; while Maine, Vermont, Rhode Island, 
Delaware, and Minnesota produce none.* The principal va- 
rieties cultivated in the United States,-are the Virginian; Large- 
leaved; Dwarf; Cuba; Common Green; Summerville; Light 
Burley, &e. 

571. Proximate analysis of the fresh leaves of Tobacco. 
(Posselt and Reinmann. 1827.) 


Nicotina, 0.06 Malic acid, 0.51 
Nicotiapvin, 0.01 Lignin and a trace of starch 4.969 
Bitter extractive, 2.87 Salts, 0.734 
Gum with malate of lime, 1.74 Silica, 0.088 
Chlorophylle, 0.267 | Water, 88 280 
Albumen and gluten, 1.308 


*From 1800 to 1539 the whole quantity of tobacco exported from the United States, 
annually, was about 82,000 hogsheads. The Western States, during this period, never 
exported, on an average, over 35,000 hogsheads. In 1840, the West exported 40,000; 
in 1841, 54,600; in 1842, 68,000; in 1843, 89,800; and in 1844, 81,200 hogsheads. 
This last was nearly as much as the consumption of Europe then demanded. From 
18.000 to 20,000 hogsheads of Virginia tobacco were consumed at home. Above 
75,000 hogsheads were supposed to be raised in other conntries than the United 
States. 

17 


258 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK, 


572. Inorganic analyses of eight specimens of Hungarian 
tobacco-leaf. ( Will and Fresenius. ) 


Mean of 4 analyses. Mean of 4 analyses. 
Potash, - - 26.46 - - 12.14 
Soda, - ° - 0.56 - 0.07 
Lime, - ° 27.87 - - 45.90 
Magnesia, - - 9.72 - 13.09 
Chloride of sodium, - 6.91 - - 3.49 
Chloride of potassium, - “221 - 3.98 
Phosphate of iron, - 7.00 - - 5.48 
Phosphate of lime, -_ o— - 1.49 
Sulphate of lime, - 7.14 - - 635 
Silica, - - - ,ARa3 . 8.01 
Per centage of ash, . 21.28 —- - 23.68 


(See, for particulars, Knapp’s Chemical Technology, Vol. ui, p. 149, 
and Johnston’s Agricultural Chem. last Ed,) 


Among the constituonts of the tobacco leaf, Nicotine is the most char- 
acteristic. This isa volatile vegetable alkaloid (Cio Hig N2) belonging to 
a class of nitrogenous organic substances which are, for the most part, 
gifted with a very energetic and remarkable action on the animal sys- 
tem. Pure nicotine is a colorless oily liquid with a slight smell of 
tobaceo, which, when the liquid is heated, or mixed with ammonia, be- 
comes very intense and biting ; it has also a sharp irritating taste, a few 
drops acting as a poison on smallanimals. This substance, which gives 
value to tobacco, does not exist in a state of nature, but is a product of 
fermentation. The fresh leaves possess very little or no smell. When 
they are distilled with water, a weak ammoniacal liquid is obtained, 
upon which a fatty crystallizable substance swims, which does not con- 
tain nitrogen and is quite destitute ofsmell. But when the same plant, 
after being dried, is moistened with water, tied together in small bun- 
dles, and placed in heaps, a peculiar process of decomposition takes 
place. Fermentation commences, and is accompanied by the absorp 
tion of oxygen, the leaves become warm, and emit the characteristic 
s nellof prepared tobacco. When the fernentation is carefully promoted, 
this smell increases; and after the fermentation is completed an oily 
azotised volatile matter, called nicotine, is found in the leaves. This 
substance was not present before the fermentation. The different kinds 
of tobacco are distinguished by having very different odorifereus sub- 
stances, which are generated along with nicotine. (Liebig Ag. Chem.) 
This fermentation begins during the harvesting, or even before, but is 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK, 259 


stopped by the process of devine The quantity of n‘cotine in the fees 


i in commercial leaves at cau tO aan, 


It varies according to the locality in which the plant is grown, rendering 
it stronger or weaker, as follows :—(Schlosing.) 


leaves has been estimated at —— 


Per centage in the dry leaves. Per centage in the dry leaves. 
Department Lot, (France,) 7.96|Department Elsas, (France,) 3.12 
a Lot-Garonne, cs 7.34| Virginia, 6.87 
a Nord, ag 6.5+{ Kentucky, 6.49 
s¢ 6 Tile Vilaine, * 6.29| Maryland, 2.29 

i. Channel of Calais, “ 4.91] Havanana, less than D: 


Besides Nicotine, tobacco contains albumen, and a gluten-like substance, 
gum, resin, miulic, and citric acid. 

It has been discovered by the “ Tobacco Administration” in Panis, 
that the value of tobacco stands in a certain relation to the quantity of 
potash contained inthe ashes. Another striking fact was also disclosed. 
Certain celebrated kinds of American tobacco were found gradually to 
yield a smaller quantity of ashes, and their value diminished in thesame 
proportion. (Liebiy Agricul. Chem.) The large quantity of ammonia, 
of lime, and thealkalies required by this plant is the cause of its so rap- 
idly impoverishing the soil, while it supplies no material for the produc- 
tion of manure. The mode of cultivation, also, exposing the soil to the 
evaporating effect of the hot sun undoubtedly adds to the evil. In rich 
loams, where the solution ofthe minerals of the soil is rapid, and where 
10 to 20 per cent of vegetable matter is incorporated in the earth, to- 
bieco may be obtaine.l for many years, but it is always an exhausting 
crop. It has been stated, that a crop of tubicco removes, in less than 
three months, 170 lbs. of mineral matter from one acre of land, without 
estimating the silica. The important mineral subsiances presented in 
Hwva ma tobacco, were in 100 parts ashes:—(Hertwig, in Liebig’s Anna- 
len, April 1843.) 


Silts of Potash, - 3415) Salts of Lime, - - 5138 
Magnesia, = - 4,09; Phosphates, - 9.04 


“The total quantity of tobacco retained for English consumption in 
1848, was nearly 17,900,000 lbs. North America alone produces up- 
wards of 200,000,000. The combustion of this mass of vegetable mat- 
ter would yield abo it 340 000,000 lbs. of carbonic acid gas; so that the 
yearly increase of carbonic acid gas fiem tobacco smoke alone cannot 
be less than 1,000,000 lbs ; a large contribution to the annual demand 


for this gas made upon the atmosphere for the vegetation of the world.” 
{ Ellis.) 


573. The manure for this crop should be such as can rapidly 
and readily supply ammonia; for instance, guano, night-soil, 


260 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


hog’s dung, well rotted sheep and cow stable manure, &e. In 
Europe, malt-dust, and rape-cake, either powdered or dissolved 
in urine are highly prized. The manure and urine of horses 
are objectionable as giving a bad taste to the tobaceo. ( Col- 
man’s Hurop. Agricul. wi. 548.) 

All the ingredients necessary to replace the ash of 100 lbs. of 
tobacco leaves, are present in the following mixture :—(John- 


ston. ) 
Bone dust, - 15 lbs. | Carbonate of Soda, (dry) 5 Ibs. 
Sulphuric ‘acid, 8 “ | Carbonateof Magnesia, 25 “ 


Carbonate of Potash, (dy) 31 “ | Carbonate of lime, (chalk) 60 “ 

The leaf appears to have the power of replacing a deficiency 
of potash in the soil with lime; while, as was before shown, the 
soil and climate produce a great difference in the proportion of 
the inorganic constituents, 


574. The best soil for this plant is a light sandy loam; or a 
light soil rich in organic matter, having a portion of sand mixed 
with it. Clay soils are not adapted for it. New or fresh land 
is better than old; and pretty steep hill-sides, if light and rich, 
are better for the production of fine tobacco, than level land. 


575. The following is the mode of culture pursued in Con- 
necticut and New York; and in the West, north of the Ohio 
river. (a,) A “seced-bed” is prepared as early in April as pos- 
sible, for which the richest and best land, moist but not wet, is 
chosen. It-is manured, dug deeply, pulverized, and rendered 
fine and smooth; and the seed sown broad-cast, at the rate of 
one table-spoonful to the square rod, before the earth becomes 
dry. After this it is raked, but the seed is not buried; it is 
rolled, or a man treads it in, rendering the surface of the bed as 
hard as possible. Weeds must be carefully extirpated. When 
the plants have leaves two or three inches long they are fit for 
transplanting—about the beginning of June. (b,) The field 
intended to be planted should be well manured, and plowed at 
least twice; harrowed, and rolled, and left as smooth as possible. 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 261 


The rows are marked out, 3 feet, or 3 feet 4 inches, according 
to the variety grown; and on these rows small hills are formed 
for the reception of the plant, at 2 feet, or 24 feet apart. To 
make fine tobacco it is important to plant early, so that the leaves 
may be cured when the weather is warm and dry. [If it rains 
at the time of setting out, advantage is taken to plant as many 
as possible. If not, about half a pint of water is poured into each 
hill, and the plants immediately set.* After this, the field is 
examined several times, and where plants are dead, or injured by 
the worm, others are set in. (c,) As soon as they stand well, 
they are either carefully hoed and the vacant places filled with 
new plants, or the cultivator is merely passed between the rows. 
After this the plants are kept clean with cultivator and hoe, be- 
ing hoed three or four times without hilling. The plants are 
frequently and thoroughly examined for the tobacco worms; and 
they must be destroyed, or the crop will be greatly injured. 
(d,) When in blossom, and before the formation of the seed, the 
plants are topped about 32 inches from the ground, leaving from 
16 to 20 leaves on each stalk. If there are late plants, in con- 
Sequence of re-setting, break them low, and they will grow faster 
and ripen sooner. Allsuckers must be broken off. (e,) When 
ripe, the time of cutting—the leaf is spotted, thick, and will 
erack when pressed between thumb and finger. It may be cut 
any time in the day after the dew is off; left in the row till wil- 
ted; then turned; and if there is a hot sun, it is turned often 
to prevent burning. After being wilted, it is put into small 
heaps of 6 or 8 plants, and earted to the sheds for hanging. 
Here it is hung with cotton twine on poles 12 feet long, and 
about 20 plants on each side. It must hang until the stem of 


*It may be useful to mention that all young plants, either in garden or field, may 
be transplanted with great certainty of success by forming a deep hole with a round 
stick an inch in diameter ; insert the root in the centre of this hole, holding the plant, 
with the left hand; pour in water till it overflows; and immediately fill it up with 
fine earth dribbled in with the right hand. Even cucumbers and melons may be safe- 
ly transplanted by = method. 


262 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


the leaf is thoroughly cured to the stalk—from 6 to 10 weeks. 
It is then taken down, in a damp day (to prevent the leaves from 
crumbling,) and placed in large piles by letting the tops of the 
plants lap each other, leaving the butts of the plants out. It re- 
mains in these heaps from 8 to 10 days, before it is stripped, 
depending on the state of the weather, but must not be allowed 
to heat. When stripped, it is made into, or tied in 3 small 
“hands,” the small and broken leaves being kept by themselves. 
When fit for market, it is collected in large quantities,andslightly 
pressed in boxes containing about 400 Ibs. each. 


576. In some places in the South, it is the custom to dry the 
leaf by fires, a process which requires much care and experience ; 
and a peculiar class of buildings or sheds. The seed-bed is also, 
at times, burned or charred before the seed is sown; a process 
which, in certain soils only, enriches the soil by setting free the 
inorganic nourishment; addsashes, from the fuel consumed; and 
destroys the seeds of weeds, but also much of the organic mat- 
ter of the soil. 

577. In Kentucky and Indiana, and some other districts, hogsheads 
are used for packing. The hogshead should be 41¢ feet long, and 31g 
broad in the head, with a bulge only sufficient io hold the hoops. Such 
a cask should hold, without tuo hard pressing, which is injurious, 1300 
er 1400 Ibs. of net tobacco. The cask should weigh 150 or 160 Ibs. 
Ash timber is the best for the purpose. 

578. The crop varies from 1000 to 2000 Ibs. of dry leaf to 
the acre, according to the variety, closeness of planting, and soil. 
An average crop of 2700 Ibs. has been grown on several acres. 
In France the crop is stated to be 4000 lbs. ( Colman.) 


579. The following was the cost of cultivating one acre in Massachu- 
setts in 1845: 


Interst on land, - - - - $15.00 
10 carts of manure, @ $2.50 25.00 ; 

Carting and spreading, 5.00 } one half, 15.00 
Plowing twice, - - - - - 3.00 
Harrowing and marking, + ~ - - 1.00 
Seventhousand tobacco plants, - : - - 3.50 


Holding and setting, - = - - 3.00 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 263 


Hoeing 4 times, - : - - - 5.00 
Securing and killing worms, - - - 2.00 
Topping and securing, - : 2 - 4.00 
Cutting and hanging to dry, : - : 4.00 
Shipping and packing, - - - - 5,00 
Rent of drying shed, - : - - 4,00 
Freight, * : - - - 3.00 
$67.50 

Produce 2000 lbs. @ 8 cents, 160.00 
Net profit, $92.50 


580. The chief disease which affects the tobacco leaf is the 
“spot” or “firing,” believed to be owing to rot. It appears when 
there is too much rain; and is more liable to occur on sandy 
soils, than on those that are “stiff, red and thirsty.” We sus- 
pect that it is owing to too rapid an absorption of some material 
from the soil, during wet weather; and that it resembles the 
“curl” of the Peach-tree leaf under similar circumstances, The 
practical cure is said to be deep plowing between the rows as 
soon as it appears. A careful analysis of the leaf would proba- 
bly show a change in the proportion of some inorganic constitu- 
ents. 

581. The only insects usually liable to injure this plant, are a 
Cut-worm, and the Tobacco-worm; the latter follows this crop 
wherever it is cultivated. Dr. Harris does appear to mention it. 
The worms attack the plant twice in a season, first when the 
latter are one third or one half grown, and again when the to- 
bacco is ready for cutting. The most effectual remedy is gath- 
ering them by hand and killing them; but Turkeys are found 
of great assistance in destroying these insects: they eat, and kill 
thousands which they do not eat. The first brood may be rea- 
dily destroyed by Turkeis, but when the second one appears 
the tobacco is generally so large that Turkies do but little good. 
(See Farmer's Library for 1848, for a full account of this 
Insect.) 

582. To save the seed, allow a few of the strongest plants to 
produce their flowers. Each plant will ripen, in September, as 


264 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


much seed as may be necessary for stocking half a dozen 
acres. 

(For further information on this extensive subject the reader is referred 
to the various works on practical agriculture ; the Patent Office Reports, 
especially the vols. for 1846, pp. 740-754, and 1849, pp. 318-326, con- 
taining a Prize Essay, by W. W. W. Bowie of Maryland, and for the 
manufacture, to Knapp’s Technology, vol. iii.) 

583. Tae Castor Or, Puiant, Parma Curisti, (Ricinus 
communis, ) belongs to the Huphorbiacee, or Spurge family ;— 
a family which contains the Croton Bean, and many other med- 
ical plants. 

It is a native of India, but has been known from the earliest antiqui- 
ty, seeds of it having been found in some Egyptian Sarcophagi, and it 
was used by the Greeks. It is naturally a perennial, attaining the height 
of 15 or 20 feet, with a thick stem ; but in cold climates it becomes an 
annual, not more than 3 to 6 feet high. There are many instances of 
perennial plants becoming annuals by change of climate, as is the case 
with the common English daisey when transplanted to, or grown from 
seed in India. There are 5 distinct varieties or species, differing chiefly 
in the color and pruinous condition of the stem, and the quantity of oil 
yielded by the seed. 

584. This plant is cultivated to some extent in Indiana, Illi- 
nois, Georgia, and other States enjoying a like temperature. 
The only useful part is the seed, or “bean,” from which an oil 
is expressed, to be used in medicine; for the manufacture of 
hair-oil by barbers; for machinery; and for burning. In its com- 
mon state, the odor and taste are exceedingly disagreeable, but 
these can be eradicated by refining. The American oil is of 
very fine quality. and has a less unpleasant flavor than the East 
Indian; but it is often objected to by Druggists in consequence 
of its depositing a solid fat in cold weather. (Pereira. ) 


585. No analysis of any value to the Farmer has been pub- 
lished. 


586. A good crop will yield 35 bushels of beans per acre, and 
the oil will be from 25 to 60 per cent according to the goodness 
of the seed and manufacture. The cultivation is similar to that 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK,. 265 


of corn. The beans from which the oil has been expressed are 
said to form a valuable manure. They appear to contain a large 
amount of nitrogenous matter; and the stems, roots. &ec. can be 
plowed in again. 


587. Liquorice, ( Glycyrrhiza glabra.) This, also, isa med- 
ical plant, with a local agricultural importance, and it might be 
still further profitably introduced into the United States as one 
of the minor products of the soil. It isa native of, and cultiva- 
ted inthe South of Europe, but prospers in England. Our an- 
nual import of it is said to exceed $250,000, and the demand 
is constantly increasing. The root, (the only useful part,) has 
recently been employed in France for the manufacture of paper. 
It was introduced into Georgia and the Carolinas at an early 
day, but the great attention now paid to Cotton has caused it 
to be neglected. It is a perennial, with long tap-roots extend- 
ing very deep into the ground, and creeping to a considerable 
distance. 


588. The soil should be a moist, loose, sandy loam; or dilu- 
vial of river-bottoms. If not rich, it must be manured with well 
rotted dung, ashes &c. It should be subsoiled or trenched 3 
or 4 feet deep; and if sufficiently rich, thrown into three and a 
half foot beds, including the alleys, in the centres of which the 
sets are planted early in March, 18 inches apart. Ifthe ground 
is not sufficiently rich, trenches must be dug throughout the 
field, 3} feet apart, from centre to centre, and 3 or 4 feet deep. 
When one trench is dug, it must be filled with earth from the 
next, well incorporated with compost, and alleys made 7 or 8 
inches wide, mid-way between the trenches, the earth being 
spread over them, so as to form raised beds throughout the 
plantation. 


589. The “sets” being procured, and cut into five or six inch 
‘pieces, dibble holes along the centres of the beds, 18 inches apart, 
and 8 inches deep, into which thrust a piece of root, and cover 


~ 


266 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


it up. The after culture, for that season, consists in keeping the 
beds perfectly free from weeds, by the hoe. In the fall, when 
the stems are decaying, they are cut down, and a light dressing 
of rotten manure is spread on the surface. Early the following 
Spring, dig lightly between the rows, taking care not to injure 
the roots. During the second and third summers, the only la- 
bor is hoeing to kill the weeds. 


590. At the end of three years the roots are fit for harvesting ; 
which is done when the stalks are fully decayed. Begin by 
digging at one end of the rows, and so take up all the roots. 
When they are collected, the small side shoots are trimmed off, 
and preserved in dry sand in a cellar for fresh “sets”; and the 
large roots are prepared for sale. They are offered in three 
shapes—the entire root—the same dried and ground to powder 
—and the inspissated juice. The sooner liquorice is sold the 
heavier it weighs; and the greener it is the more virtue it con- 
tains. An acre has sometimes produced 4000 to 5000 lbs. of 
roots, valued at $400 to $500. (Jour. of the U. S. Agricul. 
Socy. July 1853, p. 53.) 


591. There are various other plants which have been recommended 
for cultivation in the United States, which have not yet been introduced 
to any extent, such as (a,) Madia Sativa, grown in Germany for its oil ; 
(5,) Myagrum Setiva, Gold of Pleasure, also cultivated in Europe for vil ; 
and in England for Sheep-feed and oil, as it may be pastured early and 
yield a good crop of seed afterwards. It is perfectly hardy in the neigh- 
borhood of Detroit, bearing the coldest weather, and being among the 
first flowers in Spring to blossom. In the South of Europe it gives two 
crops in aseason. (See Patent Office Report 1846, page 314; Thaer’s 
Princ. of Agricul. i. 528. (c,) The Bene Plant, (Sesamum Orientale,) 
cultivated in South Carolina and Georgia for its oil, which is as good 
as that of the Olive for table use; andthe leaf is employed asa cure for sum- 
mer diarrheeain children. (d,) Madder, ( Rubia Tinctorum,) and (e,) Indi- 
go, used in dyeing, the former remaining 2 or 3 years in the ground be- 
fore harvesting: both of these require a warm climate. (/,) Dyer’s 
Weld (Reseda Luteola,) grown in Germany as a dye ; the cultivation is 
represented as botin easy and profitable. (g,) Dyer’s Woad, ( Jsatis tine. 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 267 


toria,) the seed of which,with that of Weld, has lately been dristributed 
by the Patent Office. The leaves are the part used. There are others ofa 
similar character ; but in genera] they require too much time and labor 
to perfect, or the demand is too limited to attract general attention. 

(For a full account of the eulture of Madder, Woad and Weld, in Fian- 
ders, see Colman’s European Agriculture, vol. ti. np, 530-352.) 


CHAPTER XX. 


TEASEL. FLAX. HEMP. BROOM CORN. 
OZIER WILLOW. 

592. Tease, (Dipsacus Fullonum,) is a native of Europe, 
and is used by the manufacturers of woollen cloth to raise a nap 
on the surface, by means of the fine and elastic hooks with 
which the seed pod is armed. There is a native American 
species (D. sylvestris,) devoid of these hooks, and therefore 
useless, ; 

593. It was not till about 1820 that this plant was introduced int® 
field culture in the United States. It is now grown in parts of New 
York and New England, in sufficient quantities to supply the demand, 
The first raised in this country sold for $10 per thousand ; as late as 
1835, they were imported at a cost of $4 or $5 per thousand; from 1845 
to 1850, they were afforded as low as 75 cents to $1 per thousand. The 
demand for them necessarily increases with the number of woollen man- 
ufacturies, and as these are met with in most of our Western States, 
this plant could probably be grown with sufficient facility and profit, 
on a limited scale, to make it worth the attention of Western farmers, 
for home use. 

594. Having a tap-root, the teasel requires a deep rich soil. 
A strong, gravelly loam produces the best and most serviceable 
heads; and sward-land plowed deep, and well turned under in 
April is preferred. After plowing, the soil is pulverized and 
made smooth and even. The land is marked out in rows 3 or 
34 feet apart, or a drill is used, and the seed sown at the rate of 
6 quarts to the acre, and lightly covered. This should be done 
early in May. In about a month, the field is thoroughly weed- 
ed with the hoe and fingers, and the plants thinned out to a dis- 
tance of from 4 to 6 inches. After this, a cultivator is used 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK, 269 


between the rows, and the earth drawn lightly around the plants 
with a hoe, thinning them to a distance of 6 to 8 inches. Dur- 
ing the rest of the season, the weeds must be kept down, and 
the earth preserved mellow by the cultivator and hoe. Early 
the next spring the cultivator is again used, and earth drawn 
around the roots with the hoe. In July, the blossoms will ap- 
pear; and about the first of August the earliest are sufficiently 
ripe for cutting. This is done as soon as the blossom is entirely 
off the “bur,” and before the seed is fully matured. It is necessary 
to go through the field two or three times to collect them all at 
the proper age, to prevent any being injured by remaining on 
the stem while others are being matured. Cutting is performed 
with a large knife, held by the workman in one hand, while he 
seizes the teasel with the other, leaving from 3 to 6 inches of 
stalk, and throwing it into a basket. An experienced work- 
man will cut from 20,000 to 25,000 in a day, if the crop is a 
good one. When taken from the field, they are carefully spread, 
6 inches deep, on open floors, in an airy place, under cover. If 
the weather is damp, they must be frequently turned. When 
sufficiently dry, which is known by the seed seperating freely 
in moving, they are stored away, or packed in boxes for market. 
The yield is from 50,000 to 200,000 per acre, worth from 75 
cents to $2 per thousand. In Europe, they are sorted according to 
quality, each quality being known by a peculiar name, and they 
are bound up in a curious manner. 

‘595. The only insect injurious to this plant is “the common 
white grub” which feeds on the young roots; in some instances 
to such an extent as to destroy a whole crop. The winter, also, 
occasionally makes great destruction ; the plants being partially or 
entirely killed [in Oneida county, N. Y.,] by an open winter, 
accompanied by severe frost. Late frosts in Spring are like- 
wise injurious. A sort of “rust” is also destructive, caused by 
a long continuance of warm, wet weather, after the flower bud 
is fully formed. (Patent Office Report, 1850, p. $15.) 


Lod 
270 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


596, The use of teasels has been, to a considerable extent, 
superseded in the United States, within a few years, by the in- 
troduction of machinery to produce the same effect. (Allen. ) 

597. To procure seed, it is only necessary to leave a few of 
the strongest plants, till they are quite ripe, dry them well, and 
thrash with a flail, 

598, Frax ( Linum usitatissimum ) is a native of Europe but 
has long been cultivated in this country. There are two indigen- 
ous species in the Northern United States, (Z. Virginianum, 
and rigidum, ) of no economical value. Two species or varie- 
ties are cultivated, the common, and one with a yellowish seed, 
lately introduced into Ohio, which is said to yield a larger crop, 
and to be in many respects superior. We have seen the seed, 
but not the plant. 


599. The census returns of flax are stated to be incorrect, and not to 
be depended on; but there is reason to believe that its cultivation is 
rather decreasing than otherwise, in consequence of the difficulty of 
preparing the fibre for market ; and the seed alone not proving suffi- 
ciently renumerative. 


600. Inorganic analysis of the entire plant of the flax grown 
in Ireland, (Sir A. Kane.) 


Potash, ~ - - » 11.78 
Soda, = = - 11 8&2 
Lime, 4 - - 14.85 
Magnesia, - - - 938 
Alumina and oxide of iron, - . 2 7.32 
Phosphoric: cid, . . . 1305 
Sulphuric acid, - = e 3.19 
Chlorine, - 4 fe 290 
Silica, . . : 9571 
Per centage of ash, dry, : 2 500 
601. Inorganic analysis of Linseed. (Johnston. ) 

. Riga. Dutch, 
Potash, - - 25.85 17.59 30.01 
Soda, . 0.71 6.92 1.88 


Lime, . - 25,27 8.46 8.12 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 271 


Riga. Dutch. 
Magnesia, - - 0.22 14.83 14.52 
Oxide of iron, - - ey Gy 1.25 068 
Phosphoric acid, - 40.11 36.42 37.64 
Sulphuric acid, == - 2.47 216 
Sulphate of lime, - 1.70 
Chlorine, - - 0.17 0.29 
Chloride of sodium, ° 1.55 
Silica, - - 0.92 10.58 5 60 
Percentage of ash, - 4.63 


602. Inorganic analysis of English (A;) and American (B,) 
Linseed cake. (Johnston. ) 


A. B. 
Alkaline salts, - - 32.72 38.28 
Phosphates of lime and magnesia, - 49.44 56.40 
Lime, - - . 5.06 1.25 
Magnesia, - - 1.57 trace. 
Silica and sand, - - 11.21 4.07 
Percentage of ash, - - 7.3 6.04 


The alkaline phosphates are included among the alkaline salts, 


603. When the Flax plant is steeped in the ordinary way of 
preparing it for the flax-mill, much of the saline matter it con- 
tains is extracted by the water. This water, when evaporated 
(in Ireland) left a dry solid extract, which being burned gave 
42 per cent of ash, of which the composition was: (Sir R, 
Kane.) 


Chloride of Potassiam, - - 9.05 
Sulphate of potash, - . e 10.48 
Carbonate of potash, - a 9.05 
Carbonate of soda, - - - 31 43 
Phosphate of iron and alumina, = - - 7.62 
Phosphate of lime, : = - 5.00 
Carbonate of magnesia, : - 4.76 
Carbonate of lime, - : 9.52 
Silica, - ° - 13.09 


The saline matter is not by any means all removed by steeping. 
Both the outside portion taken off at the flax-mill, and the pure fibre 
leave when burned a considerable proportion of ash. 


272 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


604, Ultimate analysis of Linseed. (Z'hompson.) 


Fresh. Dried at 212°, 
Carbon, - - A2.51 49.55 
Hydrogen, - - 6.22 7 26 
Nitrogen, - - 3.78 441 
Oxygen, ° ° 26.35 30.68 
Ash, * - 6.94 8.10 
Water, - - 14.20 


605. We are unable to meet with a perfect organic analysis 
of either the plant or seed, but the following results of 44 
analyses by Way, Nesbit, and Lawes, of English, American 
and Dutch Linseed, will give an idea of the composition: 


Water, - - 7.6 to 12.4 percent. 
Organic matter, - «' * 80 to 84.1 3 
Ash, ° - 5.44 to 11.40 s 
Nitrogen, - - 4.57 to 5.28 a: 
Albumen, gluten, and casein, 22.2 2 
Fat or oil, - - 9.1 to 13.5 # 
Gum, dextrine, &c., - 36.3 to 39.1 i 
Fibre and Husk, = 9.5 to 12.7 a 


606. The following recipes are given as special manures to 
return to the soil what is carried of by the seed (A;) and stem 


(B,) of Flax. (Johnston. ) 


A B 


Bone dust, . - 144 Ibs, 50 Ibs, 
Sulphuric acid, - ° tay? 25 
Carbonate of potash (dry,) - - 36“ UT oth 
Carbonate of soda, («ry,) - Ginifs QD ht! 
Carbonate of magnesia, - . a2). $ Pt iY 


280 lbs. 133 Ibs, 
Linseed leaves (on an average) 6 1-2 percent of ash, so that for every 
100 lbs. of linseed harvested, 13 lbs. of the above mixture require to be 
added to the land. The dry stem leaves 5 per cent of ash; every ton 
therefore carries off the land 112 lbs. of inorganic matter, to replace 
which 150 lbs., of the above mixture must be added. If this be care- 
fully done, and if the fermented scutchings be returned to the land, the 
culture of flax will cease to be exhausting. The flax-fibre is almost 

pure Liguin, ) 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK, QS 


Flax is cultivated in the United States for two purposes, for 
the fibre for weaving, and for the oil. The States which chiefly 
grow it are Kentucky, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Virginia, 
Indiana, Missouri, &e. Nearly every State returns, in the cen- 
sus, more or less. Were an easy and cheap mode of prepar- 
ing the fibre introduced, as there is every probability of there 
being, this crop would become both profitable and popular; as 
the supply, both here and in Europe, is inferior to the demand. 
The oil, the cake, and the seed are exported to Great Britain to 
some extent. The fibre is believed to be principally consumed 
at home. This is one of the farm products which demand the 
assistance of the manufacturer along side of the farmer to render 
it truly valuable; or the farmer has to relinquish his legitimate 
business, as a producer of raw material, and prepare the article 
for market, in its first stages of utility. Machines have lately 
been invented in Europe which entirely relieve the grower of 
the plant of the unpleasant labor of steeping, scutching, &e. ; 
and by one of these new processes, the liquor, in which the flax 
is prepared, is employed, with success, for fattening hogs, and 
eittle.* (Journal of Highl. and Agricul. Soc’y of Scotland, 
No. 42, 1853. 

In this place, we shall omit any mention of the European mode of 
cultivating this crop, as being much too laborious and expensive for the 
United States, and merely give an outline of the usual way of growing 
it here ; nor shall we describe the steeping, &c., as these after-processes 
demand a practical skill and experince which cannot be taught by writ- 
ing. 

“607. (a,) The character of the soil depends upon the pur- 
pose for which the flax is required: if for seed it can scarcely be 
too rich; if for fibre, it must not be such as will cause rank 


growth. The general principles are, to employ clean land, free 


*In the Weekly N. Y. Tribune of January 14, 1854, appears an advertisement of 
“*Flax and Hemp Machinery” for pulling flax, and breaking and dressing flax and 
hemp. It is said to require but few hands and little power to operate it, leaving the 
Flax and Hemp line in better condition than has been attained by machinery hereto- 
fore in any-country. 


18 


274 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


from weeds, as the flax-plant is delicate and easily smothered ; 
land containing much organic matter, as rich prairie; and either 
naturally, or artificially abounding in lime. Lime, ashes, and 
well rotten manure may always be used to advantage. (0,) 
Plow deep, as soon as the crop is off the field in the fall. Where 
frosts are severe, it is advantageous to throw the land up in 
ridges, so as to allow entire disintegration. Inthe spring, plow 
again, four or five inches deep; or if the soil is tenacious and 
weedy, plow twice in the spring. The object is to render the 
land really friable, and exterminate the weeds as thoroughly as 
possible; and this may be done in any manner that the farmer 
finds the most expedient. Harrow lightly. (c,) Sow broad- 
cast, 2} to 3 bushels per acre of seed, and harrow thoroughly 
both ways. With ¢héck sowing the fibre is of greater length 
and fineness than in thin -sowing; in the first case, the stem 
grows tall and straight producing little seed; in the latter the 
plant grows coarse, producing much seed, and a very inferior 
quality of fibre. As thin and thick sowing are merely com- 
parative terms, experiments should be tried by each farmer in 
order to ascertain the best quantity on his own land. The seed 
should be deposited about an inch deep. Finish by rolling, 
which is considered essential. (d,) The field is kept clean of 
weeds by the close thick growth of the plant, or by hand-weeding. 
(e,) If intended for the fibre, much experience is required in 
harvesting; as the marketable value of the straw depends alto- 
gether on the manner in which it is saved. The degree of ripe- 
ness isof peculiarimportance. In Ireland, the best time is de- 
cided to be when the seeds are begining to change from a green 
to a pale brown, the stalks for two-thirds of their height being 
yellow. In Europe, it is pulled by hand. In America the 
crop is often cradled, the scythe being from 18 to 22 inches 
long. In this case it is recommended to cut as soon as the 
blossoms begin to fall. If intended only for seed, leave till the 
bolls are generally turned yellow; and treat like wheat. The 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 275 


after-process, when fibre is wanted, must be learnt by expe- 
rience. 

608. The crop of fibre in the United States is said to aver- 
age 200 Ibs. per acre, if the plant is allowed to seed; but 400 
Ibs. if it is harvested when in blossom. The quantity of seed 
is from 8 to 15 bushels per acre; and about 2 gallons of oil are 
expressed from one bushel. But we find premium crops in 
New York of 284, and 20 bushels of clean seed, and 567 Ibs. 
of dressed flax per acre. 

609. Cost of cultivating 1.54—100 acres of Flax in Rensselaer coun- 
ty, N. Y.,in 1851. The soil was a heavy loam, on upland, the crop 


next preceding was oats; and the crop preceding that was corn ; on 
land many years in pene No manure was used. 


134 days plowing, - - - $3.00 
ag ss harrowing and sawing, - - 1.00 
6 pulling Flax at one dollar per day, on 600 
2 “thrashing and cleaning seed at one dollar per day, 2.00 
: day spreading and taking up, - 1.00 
“drawing in, and drawing to mill - - 2.00 
114 bushels seed at $1.50, - - - 2.25 
Paid for dressing and marking flax, - - 15.96 
Interest on land, - . - 10.50 
43.71 
CROP. 
By 23 bushels clean seed at $1.50, . - $835.50 
By 798 lbs. dressed flax at 10 cents, = - yes) 79.80". 115.30 
Net profit, - . : - 71.59 


(See, also, another account in New York Transactions of Agricultural Society, 
yol. y, p- 338.) 


610. An interesting account is given, in 1846, of the grow- 
ing of Barley and Flax together, in the town of Earlville, N. Y. 
An acre of land was prepared for barley ; after sowing two bush- 
els of this, one bushel of flax-seed was also sown, and the whole 
harvested together. They were harvested in the usual manner, 
threshed with a machine, and cleaned ;—it is supposed that the 
seeds were separated by the different sized screens in the fan- 
ning mill.—The sale of the crop was :— 


30 bushels of barley at 50 cents, ~— - - $15 00 
if flax-seed at $1, - - - 15 00 


$30 00 


276 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


It was believed that the barley crop was as good as if no flax 
had been sown; neighboring fields of barley alone giving the 
same yield of 30 bushels. (Patent Office Reports 1846, p. 
728.) 


611. Linseed oil, being essential for painting, is in constantly 
increasing demand. The Cake is greatly depended on in Great 
Lwzitain for fattening stock, and addingto the richness of manure 
heaps. Itis quoted at wholesale prices in New York at $28 to 
$35, and in London at $45 to 50 per ton. The best quality of 
the fibre in Ireland is worth from $250 to $300 per ton. 


Thompson, in his experiments on cows, found that Linseed- 
meal produced less milk and butter than Bean-meal. In feed- 
ing, too large quantities of linseed must not be given. About 2 
Ibs. of meal, boiled for 3 hours in 34 gallons of water, is a suf- 
ficient daily allowance, with other food, for an animal weighing 
800 lbs. The refuse of the pods is valuable as feed. 


612. In large sections of the West, it were of much importance to Ag- 
riculturists to influence the establishment of Mills for the preparation of 
fibre, and for oil-making. The two should always go together. 


Two patents for the preparation of the fibre are now used in 
Europe, and are represented as working economically, and requiring on- 
ly asmall capital. They are Scnenx’s and Wart’s Patents, an account 
of which will be found in the Journal and Trans, of the Highland and 
Agricul. Socy. of Scotland No. 42, p.116. The Royal Flax Society have 
published much of importance on this subject. Not only is the farmer 
interested in the direct profit of the crop, but also in the fattening and 
manure-forming refuse ; and as the business of preparing cattle in the 
West, for the Eastern market increases, flax will become essentially more 
important to us. But above all, it brings the manufacturer in direct 
contact with the farmer; and forms a market for his produce at his 
very door. It is not usually very advisable for the farmer to connect 
himself with manufacturing processes, but this 18 an exception; and 
there are thousands of acres devoted to corn and pork-making, in conse- 
quence of the difficulty of reaching a market for coarse grains, where 
flax culture, with appropriate mills controlled by a company of farmers, 
would be found exceedingly profitable. 


* 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK, 277 


Imports of Linseed into the United States for the past five years:— 


1849 - - bags 85,970)|1852 - - bags 191.979 
1850 - . “  108,401)/1853 - - © 228,737 
1852 - - © 192,090 


Imports and exports of Linseed oil :— 
Imports. Exports. 
1852 - - bbls, 11,364]/1852 - - bbls, 12,427 
1853. - . “  17,056]|1853- 20,536 
(N.Y. Weekly Tribune, Jan, 14, 1854.) 

Oil meal is quoted in New York at $1.44 to $1.50 per 100 lbs. 

613. Hemp, (Cannabis Sativa, ) is a well known plant cul- 
tivated, like the last, for the sake of its fibre, employed in the 
making of ropes, and coarse fabrics. It is probably a native of 
India, but it is now extensively cultivated in Russia, as well as 
in the United States, in Germany, and in other parts of Europe, 
in Arabia, Africa, &c. It is of the same family as the Hop and 
Nettle, the fibres of both of which genera have been used for 
the same purpose. According to Prof. Gray, Hemp has become 
naturalized as a wild plant in this country. 

The Indian Hemp (C. Jndica,) (which is the same species ( Pereira,) 
as the above,) is well known as aflording a resinous exudation, which 
is used in various forms, to produce a species of intoxication, among a 
large portion of the human race. In hot climates, the fibre degenerates 
in quality, while the narcotic ingredients inercase in quantily and in ap- 
parent strength. ‘ This is another of the many interesting facts now 
known, which show the influence of climate in modifying the chemical 
changes that take place in the interior of plants, and the nature and pro- 
portions of the several substances which are produced by these changes.” 
(Johnston in Blackwood’s Magazine, Vol. xxxvii. No.5, p.617.) This 
plant is employed to produce a narcotic effect by probably not less than 
two or three hundred millions of the human race in Asia, Africa, and 
South America. 


614. In the United States, the growing of Hemp is chiefly 
confined to Kentucky and Missouri; ten other States producing 
trifling quantities only. In 1850 this plant was not cultivated 
in Michigan. It is supposed to be decreasing in the annual 
product. 


278 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


615. Proximate analysis of Hempseed. (Bucholz.) 


Oil - : 19.1||Mucilage - 9.0 
Husk &e. -  38.3||Soluble albumen Kensetal) 24.7 
Woody fibre cad Starch, 5.0||Fatty matter, — - . 1.6 
Sugar dc : . 1.6]| Loss - ~ 0.7 


616. Inorganic analysis of Hemp-seed (A,) (Johnston. ) and 
the Straw (B,) (Kane. ) 


A B 

Potash, - - - - 21.67 10.99 
Soda, - - - - - 0.66 1.06 
Lime, - - - : 26.63 61.75 
Magnesia, - - - - - 1.00 7.16 
Oxide of iron, - - - - 0.77 0.54 
Phosphoric acid, - - - - 3496 4.73 
Sulphate of lime, - - - 0.18 ae 
Sulphuric acid, - - - -_ 1.61 
Chlorine, - : - - — 5.54 
Chloride of sodium, - - - - 0.09 —— 
Silica, - . - - 14,04 9.92 
Percentage ofash, - - - : 2.50 4.54 

617. Analysis of the Scutchings of American Hemp. (John- 
ston.) 
Alkaline salts, chiefly common salt aot sulphate of soda, 3.32 
Phosphates of lime and magnesia, and a little prep ate oflime, 19.15 
Sulphate of lime, (plaster, ) - - 3.26 
Carbonate of lime, - - - 26.45 
Carbonate of magnesia, - - - 2.80 
Insoluble siliceous matter, - - 45.02 
Per centage of ash in dry fibre, - - - 14,43 


618. In Commerce, Russian Hemp bears the highest value, being 
quoted in the New York Price currents at $265 to $300 per ton, while 
the best American only brings $180 to $220 per ton. The difference 
appears to be in the mode of preparation, Russian Hemp not being 
carried to the fermenting point in rotting ; while in the American, in- 
gipient decay has already set in. In the latter country, two processes 
are employed,—“ water-rotting,”? and “dew-rotting.”” In the American 
federal and mercantile navies Russian hemp is cheifly employed for 
cordage. “Russian hemp, when kept moist and warm, will lose its 
strength in about three weeks ;—the American water-rotted in two 
weeks; and the dew-rotted in from five to ten days.” (Crook & Co., 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 279 


Maysville, Ky. 1848.) The value of American hemp, however, is said to 
be rapidly increasing, owing to greater care and experience in preparing 
it for market. In 1845, the Navy Department decided that “American 
water-rotted hemp when made into cordage without the application of 
tar proved to be greater in strenth than Russian; amd the application of 
tar proved to depreciate its strength to that of Russian.’’ Large quan- 
tities of Western hemp are annually manufactured into cotton-bagging 
and bale rope. In 1845 the quantity so consumed was estimated at 
4(),000,000 lbs., sufficient to cover, 2,600,000 bales of cotton. 


619. The best land for hemp is that which has been tim- 
bered with black walnut, buckeye, hackberry, and white oak; 
or rich bottom lands. If sward land, plow in the fall, and again 
in the spring; if fallow, one deep plowing, well harrowed, in the 
spring is sufficient. In Missouri, 14 bushels of seed are sown 
broadcast per acre, from the Ist of April to the 10th of May. 
When the blossoms begin to fall, (from the middle of July to 
the Ist of August,) the hemp is cut. If left later, the quality 
is injured. An impliment similar to the point of an ordinary 
scythe, is used for harvesting. The plant is cut as close to the 
ground as possible, and the tops are lopped off as far as the seed 
ends, and the stalks are either thrown into the shade, or kiln- 
dried. While cutting, the stalks are assorted according to size; 
and bound up into bundles, 6 or 8 inches in diameter at the 
the butts, with two bands. A stick an inch in thickness, is placed 
in the center of each bundle, to facilitate handling. The bun- 
dles are then placed in properly prepared pools. or cisterns for 
rotting. Hemp, less than five feet in length, is reserved for 
dew-rotting. After a proper period, the bundles are withdrawn 
from the water, dried and stacked. After this, the mechanical 
operations of breaking, de, succeed. (For a full account of this 
subject, in all its aspects, see Pat. Of. Rep. 1845 and 1846, 
and the other volumes.) 

620. A species of wild hemp, resembling the Manilla, is said to be 


found in St. Louis county, Missouri; but it does not appear to be de- 
scribed by the Botanists. (Pat. Off. Rep. 1846, p.261.) A “Centen- 


- 


280 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


nial Hemp’? cultivated in China is recommended as adapted to this 
country. 

621. Cost of cultivating 1 acre of Hemp, in Missouri, 1849. (Patent 
Office Report, 1849, p. 328.) 


Rent of land, . - - $2.00 
14 bushel of Seed, - . - 0.94 
Seeding, - - - - 3.00 
Cutting, - - - - 3.00 
Shocking, - - = 0.50 
Spreading, - - - - 0.50 
Taklng up after rotting, - - - 0.50 
Breaking 800 lbs. - - - 8.00 
Hauling to river, - - - 2.00 
$20.44 

800 Ibs. @ $5 per cwt. - - - 40 
Net profit, - - - $19.56 


After this profit to the farmer, it falls into the hands of the merchant 
or buyer, who, after paying expenses to the St. Louis market realizes 
as follows : 


Cost of 1 ton on bank of river, => - - $100.00 
Baling for shipment‘ = - - - 3.00 
Storage, - - - - 2.00 
Freight to St. Louis, = - = - 8.00 
Insurance, - - é = - 1.80 
Commission for selling, - - 3.00 
Weighing, - - - - 0.40 
Drayage and storage 1 month, - - 1.00 
$119.20 

Market value, - : - 125.00 
Net profit to merchant, - - - $5.80 


622. Broom Corn (Sorghum saccharatum,) is cultivated 
solely for the purpose that its name indicates. It is said to be a 
native of India; and that its introduction inio the United States 
was owing to Franklin, who, finding a seed upon an imported 
whisk, planted it, and thus disseminated the plant. 


623. It is grown on a large scale on rich bottom lands in 
New York and Ohio, and to a more limited extent in nearly all 
the States. It prospers best on soil abounding in organic mat- 
ter, damp but not wet. Heavy clays are improper for it. The 
ground is plowed in the fall, and again in the spring; well-har- 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 281 


rowed; and the seed sown by a drill, in rows 34 feet apart, as 
early as the climate will permit. As soon as it is above ground 
it is hoed, and soon after thinned, leaving the stalks 2 or 3 inch- 
es apart. It is only hoed in the rows to remove the weeds near 
the plants; the harrow and cultivator are then run through to 
keep down the weeds, and a small double mould-board plow is 
likewise used between the rows. It is not left to ripen but cut 
green. Some persons lop the tops early, and let them hang 
down to straighten: others leave it till nearly ready to cut, In 
this case, one set of hands goes forward, and lops or bends the 
tops on one side, and another follows and cuts them off when 
bent; athird gathers them into carts or wagons. Atthe Factory, 
they are sorted over. and put in bunches, each bunch of brush 
of equal length. The seed is then taken off by appropriate ma- 
chinery, worked either by hand or horse-power. The brush is 
then spread thin to dry on racks, in buildings. In about a week 
it can be packed away. The brooms are made in winter, at 
about the rate of 75 dozen per acre. The stalks are left on the 
ground to be plowed in for manure. The seed is used for feed- 
ing stock. (Albany Cultivator.) The average yield in New 
York is 600 Ibs. per acre, at a cost of cultivating and securing 
the crop of $10 or $12. (MW. Y. Trans. 1849, p. 54.) 

624. Cost of a raising acrop of Broom-corn in Oswego County N. Y., 
1846. (Trans. NV. Y. Agricul Socy. Vol. v, p. 340.) The soil wasarich 


black loam ; the previous cropIndian Corn. The field low and wet with 
blind ditches. The area 1s not mentioned. 


25 Joads of manure, - = . $3.13 
Hauling and spreading same, - - - 3.13 
Plowing 1 day, (with horses) - : 1.00 
Dragging }2 day, - - - 0.50 
Marking out ground for planting, 3 X 134 feet, - 0.50 
8 quarts of seed - : - - 0.13 
Planting 5 days, at 50 cents, - - 2.50 
Dragging between rows 34 day, . - - 0.50 
Hoeing and thinning, 8 to 10 stalks ina hill, 6 days, - 3.00 
Dragging, - - a = 0.25 
Hoeing 4 days, - - - 2.00 


Tabling the corn, 532 days, - - - 2.75 


282 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


Binding and hauling in, - = < $0.75 
Scraping of the seed by machinery, - - 3.00 
Cleaning up seed, : - . 0.50 
Interest on Jand, : D . 3.50 
$29.86 
Crop :—1155 Ibs. brush a$4.50, - - - $51.97 
81 “ Seed at 18 cents - : - 15.19 
Manure for next crop, < : - 3.14 
—— $70.29 
Net profit, - - - - - - - $40.40 


It will be observed that the wages and cost of horse labor are charged 
much lower than the present rates. 


625. When cultivated ona large scale, with appropriate buildings and 
machinery for the manufacture of the brooms, the profit is said to be 
much greater, than when the operations are performed on a small scale. 
At present, much of the expense incurred in the above account would 
be saved by the use of improved implements, and with better manage- 
ment. The goodness and elasticity of the brush appear to depend 
partly on harvesting at the right moment, and partly on the soil and cli- 
mate. It is said that some soils invariably produce brush of a brittle 
character. The seeds, for feeding purposes, are estimated as equal to 
oats, but we are unable to find an organic analysis of them. (See Pat. 
Office Report 1849, p. 462.) 


626. Inorganic analysis of the ripe Broom-corn brush with the seeds 
(A,); and the quantity of such matter removed from the soil in a ton of 
Brush and Seeds, (B). (Salisbury.) 


A B 
Silex - - : 32.50 11.960 lks. 
Earthy phosphates, - - - 36.15 13.303 “ 
Lime, _- - - 0.40 0.147 « 
Magnesia, - - - 0.10 0,036 « 
Potash, - - - 97.32 10.053 “ 
Soda, e - © eee, s OSOCU Se 
Chlorine, . - - 950 0.846 “ 
Sulphuric acid, - - undetermined 
Composition of the ash of Broom-corn seed. (Salisbury. ) 

Carbonic acid, - - not determined. 
Silicic acid, - - - 41.975 
Sulphuric acid, - - not determined. 
Phosphoric acid, - - - 28.760 


Phosphate of peroxide of iron, - - 0.525 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 283 


Lime, - - - 0.845 
Magnesia, - - = - 3.010 
Potash, . - - 3.920 
Soda, - - - - 7.247 
Chlorine, - - - 0.245 
Organic acids, - - - 4.200 


—(See Pat. Off, Rep. 1849, p. 473.) 


627. Ozer Wittow (Salix.) This plant is used for the 
manufacture of baskets, and other willow-ware. The cultivation 
of itis only commencing among us. Hitherto, some of the 
wild species, of which there are 22 in the Northern States, have 
been used for coarse work; and the imports from Europe are 
stated at $5,000,000 annnally; each ton costing from $100 to 
$250. If attention were turned to this crop, there is no reason 
in either the mode of cultivation, in the climate, or appropriate 
soils, why willows might not become a very profitable product 
among us. At present, they are grown for market by a few 
individuals only, in New York, Mississippi, &ce. John Reed, of 
Staten Island, N. Y. is said to have been the first person in 
America who systematically ‘cultivated the ozier. 


628, The species and varieties, useful for this purpose, are 
very numerous. Dr. C, W. Grant, of N ewburgh, N, Y., has in 
his possession (1854) nearly 100 varieties, more than 70 of which 
are from England. Several, which are esteemed in that coun- 
try, have failed with us, probably from their leaves being too 
delicate to withstand the scorching of the summer sun. 


The following species are thus characterized by Dr. Grant. (a) Black 
ozier, (Salix nigricans,) brittle, worthless, and not a vigorous grower. 
(6) Round leaved Willow, (S. Caprea,) Color dark, quality indifferent, 
tolerates more water than any tolerably good ozier. (¢) S. Viminalis, 
in England, the most vigorous growing and generally cultivated; (d) and 
a sub-variety called Long-skin, both utterly unsuited to the climate of 
New York. (e) Yellow Willow, (S. vitellina,) and (f ) Huntingdon or 
White Willow (S. alba,) both moderately good ; the first as oziers, the 
second for hoops ; and greatly admired as ornamental trees. The follow- 
ing have been found the most valuable, as oziers, in New York. (9) 


284 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


Long-leaved Triandrous Willow, (S. Trtandra,) very vigorous and pro- 
ductive, excellent for basket work, and especially for “split work.’’ 
(h) S. Forbyana, emphatically excellent in all respects. (i) Purple 
Willow (S. purpurea,) “If there were but one ozier in existence, this 
would supply more of the wants of willow-workers than any other one.” 
It is so intensely bitter that neither animals nor insects will touch it. 
In the West, a decoction of the bark would be valuable in place of Qui- 
nine. It is also well adapted for bands and withes for nurserymen. 
(j) A new species from the county of Suffolk, England; it grows with 
astonishing vigor and is in every respect valuable. (For particulars, see 
Farmer’s Companion and Horticultural Gazette, Vol. iii, p. 13.) 

629. Willows will grow in a great variety of soils, especially 
if moist, but not profitably in any greatly unsuited to their 
habits. Drained swamps, when brought into tillage, afford fine 
sites for willow plantations, or “halts.” Deep, rich intervale, if 
with a little inclination the better, having a retentive subsoil, 
with a warm exposure, and some protection from wind, would 
leave nothing to be desired. A deep rich bottom of sandy 
loam, that is occasionally overflowed, such as would yield ex- 
cellent potatoes, but subject to June freshets,—not so much ele- 
vated above the summer level of the stream, that by penetra- 
ting to the depth of 3 feet, the roots would find moisture,— 
would have no superior. Any amount of overflowing, not in 
the growing season, would do no damage, but increase the fer- 
tility. Richness of soil is important, great depth indispensable, 
and easy culture desirable and profitable. 

630. Having sufficiently drained, plow deeply, or dig and 
trench thoroughly, and prepare the field as if for corn. Then 
insert the cuttings, (which should be two feet long,) perpendic- 
ularly and firmly in the soil, leaving only 2 inches above the 
surface. Plant in rows 3 or 4 feet apart, and one foot between 
the plants. Keep clean from weeds, at least for the two first 
years, with the hoe or cultivator. At the end of the second 
year, the oziers will be ready to harvest. There is a difference 
of opinion as to the proper season, some recommending the 
fall, or winter after the stopping of the circulation of the sap; 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 285 


others, the spring, when the sap starts freely and the buds be- 
gin to swell. If cut in winter, the oziers are tied in bundles, 
and stood up in cold water till spring. Every shoot must be 
cleared from the stool; leaving, however, about two inches in 
length for the young shoots to spring from. The oziers are 
then pealed by a very simple implement. (See figure.) It is 
merely a round stick of hard wood, about 
an inch thick and a foot long, quartered 
about half the length of the stick, and 
the two opposite quarters cut off, so that 
it will leave a sharp edge on both the re- 4 
maining two. ‘This tool is taken in the 
right hand, and the willow inserted in the 
slit with the left one, and pulled through, 
the bark coming off. Sometimes, a piece 
of split iron with half rounded edges on 
the inside, set in a bench, is used for the purpose. - With this a 
man and three or four children ought to peel 400 lbs. a day. 
As fast as a little bundle is stripped they are cured by laying 
them in the sun till they are perfectly dried; and then tied 
in bundles three feet round the butt; being stowed away in a 
dry place free from dust. They are sold by weight. 


631. In Mississippi the “ Italian ozier” is cultivated ; it grows 
on the uplands when well manured, to the height of 8 or 10 
feet in a season, clear shoots. Peeled shoots sell in Natchez 
and New Orleans, for 8 and 10 cents per pound; and cut green, 
with the leaves stripped, only, in September, for 2 cents per 
pound, The demand in New Orleans is greater than the sup- 
ply. (2. Affleck nN. Y. Agricultor, Jan., 1853.) 

632. We have no data from which we can ascertain the yield 
per acre, or the profits, but the latter are said to be very large 
when once the “halt” is fully established. It is to be hoped 
that our swamp lands in the west will soon be turned to this 
use; as not only will the country become more healthy, but 


286 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


thousands of acres can be rendered profitable to the community 
while at present they are valueless. It is rather a reflection 
upon us that we are obliged to import such an article as willow 
sticks; and so rapidly does the demand increase that it must be 
long before the market can be overstocked. 

In John Reed’s case we are told that he received more pro- 
fit from a few acres of willow than from the whole upland 
portion of his farm. Medicinally, Salicin, used, and perhaps, 
frequently sold as Quénéne, is prepared from willow bark. This, 
also, affords much Tannin, the cause of its astringency. 


CHAPTER XXI. 


FRUIT TREES AND VEGETABLES. 


633. To enter fully into a detail of orchard and garden 
plants would too greatly enlarge this volume; but the following 
notes and analyses are given, the latter not being easily met 
with, and as being both of interest and practical value to the 
cultivator. The teacher will experience no difficulty in pro- 
curing such practical works in this department as will suffice 
for his purpose; and more persons appear to be familiar with 
fruits and esculent vegetables than with agricultural, 


634, Tar Appte (Pyrus Matus,) (a,) a native of Europe, greatly 
changed by cultivation (0,) varieties very numerous, as sour, sweet, 
summer, autumn, winter, (¢,) propogated by seeds—grafts—budding— 
(cuttings) (d,) American varieties superior: quality, and value de- 
pend on soil and climate (e,) cultivation, pruning, gathering, packing, 
and preserving during winter (f,) dried, a considerable article of com- 
merce; machines for the purpose, various, (g,) profitable as food for 
stock, especially the sweet varieties ; for hogs better cooked ; sour ap- 
ples said to dry up milch cows, (h,) cider making; peculiar varieties 
for the purpose ; process and implements ; fermentation, spiritous, ace- 
tic; mustard seed delays the latter; when bottled, contains free car- 
bonic acid gas; the use of a raisin in each bottle in assisting to form 
this gas, (?,) manures, bones,—sulphuric acid—ashes—plaster—salt— 
lime—ammonia—wheat bran. (j,) Insects and diseases, (%,) the ash 
of fruit small, in quantity. 


635. Analysis of the Pulp (A;) and Skin (B,) of the Swaar 
apple. (Salisbury.) 


A. B. 
Percentage of water, : - 84.75 61.20 
«<< - as dry matter, . - 15.25 38.80 
e *' asb. ~ . 0.26 0.72 


Ash, calculated on dry matter, ° - 1.705 1.856 


288 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

636. Percentage of water and dry matter in the Tolman 
Sweeting (B;) Roxbury Russet (C;) Kilham Hill (D;) Eng- 
lish Russet (E;) Rhode Island Greening (F.) 


B. C. Ds E. F. 
Percentage of water, - - 8152 8135 8631 79.21 82.85 
. of dry matter, 18.48 1865 1369 20.79 17.15 
Mean of the six analyses, per centage of water, - - 82.664 


637. Inorganic analysis of the above, excepting the Tolman’s 
Sweeting; and including the Swaar (A;) without carbonic 
acid : 


A. Cc. D. E. F. 
Silica, - - 1758 , (2278), 1693, 4.051 1.412 
Phosphate of iron, - 2227 1564 1838 . 1062 1277 
Phosphoric acid, - 14.083 15.057 13.922 11110 11.664 
Lime, aw re 4.956") "A80T “R989 “S263 “aaa 
Magnesia, ° L786 °') 9100030 1.378" ADEE BA 
Potash, - - 42.0!6 34958 35.821 38323 38.440 
Soda, - 19296 25.173 | 25.826 30.408 22.781 
Chlorine, - - 2.092 2300 2334 1.848 2.272 
Sulphuric acid, - 6656 6889 7898 6.684 8.019 
Organic matter, : 5.139 = 5.021 6.290 5.187 © 7.503 


1000 lbs. of fresh apples contain about 827 lbs. water ; 170.4 Ibs, or- 
ganic matter; and 2.6 lbs. of ash. 1000 lbs. of dry apples contain 17 
to 18 lbs. of ash. 

638. Proximate organic analysis of 1000 parts of fresh 
Tolman’s Sweeting; (B) Rhode Island Greening; (F,) and 
Mean of the analyses of the six foregoing varieties (G.) 


B. BE: G. 
Cellular fibre, - - 33.90 33.58 32.03 
Glutenous matter witha little wax and fat, 3.52 1.32 1.94 
Dextrine, -- . : 28.96 32.07 31.44 
Sugar and extract, - - 99.5 76.37 83.25 
Malic acid, - - - 2.50 3.04 3.17 
Albumen, - - . 8.97 16.37 13.79 
Casein, - - 0.89 1.89 1.64 
Dry matter, - - - 177.79 16464 167.26 
Water, . . 81520 828.46 826.64 


Loss, ° * - 7.01 6.90 6.10 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 289 


Besides the above, apples contain a little tannic and gallic acids, es- 
pecially the Russets. The Tolman Sweeting showed a trace of starch. 
A small quantity of white wax, and a respectable percentage of gluten 
also exist. These analyses were made in the month of March, 


639. Comparison of the apple (A) with the ripe peach (B,) 
pear (C,) cherry (D,) and potato (E.) 
A. B. 


C. D. E. 
Chlorophyl, . - 1.10 0.08 
Sugar, - 8.3 16.48 6.45 18.12 0.25 
Dextrine, - = ok 5.12 EA) 3.23 
Fibre, - 22 1.86 3.80 rag 5.8 
Albumen, - «, BA 0.17 0.08 0.57 
Malic acid, - sre 1st 0.11 2.01 
Citric acid, - - trace. 
Lime, - 4.19 trace 0.03 0.01 
Water, - - 82.66 74.87 86.28 7485 79.7 
Gluten, fat, oi - 9.2 03 
Casein, - 0.16 
Starch, - 9.7 


The apple, if of good quality, may be regarded equally, if not more 
rich in fat-producing products than the potato. The apple is also 
richer in nitrogenous, or flesh-forming, products; and its inorganic con- 
stituents are peculiarly valuable. (Salisbury, in Trans. of N. Y.Soc’y, 
vol. ix. pp. 737—743.) 

640. Inorganic analysis of a Sweet Apple Tree; 19 years 
old. ( Emmons.) 


Outside | Heart | Bark of | Wood 

Bark wood. wood. | root. | of root. 
Potash, - - 0.44 | 3288 | 275 | 0.66 /|15.07 
Soda, 1.53. |-3.33 1.62 /11.38 |21.99 
Chloride of sadince, - 0.30 | 033 | 051 | 0.10 | 0.11 
Sulphuric acid, - 38.39 |1221 '9217 /30.83 | 1.84 
Carbonic acid, . 49.56 15.79 [3893 | 
Lime, : - 186 /15.56 | 266 | 1.00 {11.64 
Magnesia, - - 256 | 352 | 293 | 872 | 016 
Phosphate of iron, (| 0.72 | 091 
Phosphateof lime, — - 3.60 37.50 je440 6.39 13.96 
Phosphate of magnesia, a ee (ee 
Organic roatter, - 335 | 3.20 3.60 | 1.80 | 1.20 
Insoluble silica, - 126 | 045 | 020 | 286 ! 1.46 
Coal, . - | 126 | 035 | 001 | 072 


19 


290 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK, 


641. Inorganic analysis of the leaves of the Early Harvest 
Apple, collected September 30: bearing fruit. (Hmmons.) 


Silica, - - - 5.775 
Phosphate of iron, - - 4875 

Phosphate of lime, - - - 1.416 

Phosphate of magnesia, = - trace 

Silica, - - + . 5.125 

Phosphoric acid, - - 5.3859 16775 
Lime, - - ° - 36 398 
Magnesia, - - 0.075 
Potash, - - - . 13.179 
Soda, - - 11.616 
Chloride of sodium, - - - 0.060 
Sulphuric acid, : - 0,137 
Carbonic acid, - - - ; 15.200 
Organic matter, - - 2.850 

PROPORTIONS. 

Water, - - - - 54.341 
Dry, : - - 45.659 
Ash, - ° - - 5 4.194 
Ash, calculated dry, - ns 9.163 


642. Tue Pear (Pyrus communis, ) (a,) a native of Eu- 
rope, cultivated from remote antiquity; (6,) at present, Belgium 
is celebrated for this fruit; (c,) several fine American varieties ; 
(d,) propagated by seeds, (for stocks,) by grafting—budding— 
dwarf pears on Quince roots; (e,) requiresa soil rich in the phos- 
phates, much more difficult to cultivate than the last; (f,) subject 
to several diseases, from the seed to maturity, as Insect-bliyht, 
Frozen-sap-blight, &e; (g,) ripened artificially in the house, to 
acquire perfection of flavor; (%,) brings high prices in market; 
(z,) Perry—manufacture (2,) manures, unleached ashes, bones, 
lime, plaster, salt. 


643. Comparative analysis of the Sap-wood (A,) Heart-wood 
(B,) Bark of Trunk (C,) of the Pear Tree, and the Wood (D,) 
and Bark (E.) ofthe Root of the same. (Zmmons.) 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. | 291 


A B Cc D E 
Water, - - 48.80 22.05 63.70 22.33 58.80 
Dry matter, - ; 37.20 77.95 30.30 79.67 46.20 
Ash - - 0.20 O10 199 040 3.26 
644, Analysis of the leaves of the Bergamot Pear tree, (col- 
lected September 30, bearing fruit;) (A,) and of a Pear trea, 
(picked May 23, flowers just fallen,) (B.) (mmons.) 


A B 

Silica, - 4 250 Silicie acid, - 1.750 
Phosphates, (with 5 bases,) 16.550 - 95.050 
Lime - - 39.853 - - 4.715 
Magnesia, - 5.920 as) AOU eh. 4500 
Potash, - - 8.793 - - 18.950 
Soda, - - - 15.180 
Chloride of Sodium, 0.554 : - not determined 
Sulphuric acid, - - 4.464 do 

Carbonic acid, . 17.125 : - 11.560 
Organic matter, - 3.000 - not determined 

Proportions of (A,) 

Water, - - - 56.138 
Dry matter, - - ~ 43.862 
Ash, “ - a 3.260 
Do. caleulated dry, - - - 7.514 


For the organic analyis of the fruit, see (S 


) 

645. Quince (Pyrus Cydonia, ) (a,) native of the South of 
Europe; (,) varieties few, cannot be eaten uncooked, seeds me- 
dicinal; (c,) propagated by seed—cuttings—grafts—layers, 
(d,) cultivation simple; (¢,) injured by the Borer, and a worm 
that girdles the twigs; (7) manures,—barn-yard—salt—wool- 
en rags. 

646. The tree and fruit do not appear to have been analyzed. 
Souchay gives the following inorganic constituents of the seeds: 


Potash, - - §7.09'|Oxide of iron, - «EWS 
Soda, - - - 3.01)| Phosphoric acid, - 42.(12 
Lime, ° - 7.69|/Sulphuricacid,  - - 267 
Magnesia, : - 13.01||Cbloride of Sodium, 257 


Silica, > - 6.75 


292 _ AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


647. Pzacu (Persica vulgaris, ) (a,) native of Persia; said 
to have been found cultivated abundantly by the Indians by 
Hendrick Hudson, on his first voyage, but never discovered wild 
on this continent; supposed to be a cultivated variety of the al- 
mond (amygdalus communis, ); (6,) in Great Britain requires 
artificial heat; (c,) varieties exceedingly numerous; (d,) propo- 
eated by seed—budding—(grafting, and in New Zealand by cut- 
tings); (¢,) cultivation simple, pruning chiefly confined to short- 
ning in; (f,) aried; (g,) fattening for hogs—owing to the Cy- 
anogen of the kernel? (h,) distilled into brandy; (2,) manures 
—leached ashes; (j,) injured by the Borer, the Aphis, the 
Curculio; and diseases—the Yellows, Curl, &c.—causes and 
remedies. 


648. Inorganic analysis of the leaves of the Peach tree, 
(pulled July 22), (A,) and of the leaves of a tree affected by 
the Yellows, (B,) (H’mmens.) 


A B 
Carbonic acid, - - - 13.300 13.200 
Silicie acid, - - eis 0.600 0.800 
Phosphates, - - ° 9,600 141.600 
Lime, - - - - 16.220 14300 | 
Magnesia, - . * 5.900 5.300 
Potash, - - . - 14280 14.440 
Soda, - - - 21220 22.280 
Chlorine, - - - - 5120 4740 
Sulphuric acid, - - - 4,429 4.430 
Organic acids, - - - - 7,900 4300 


These analyses are peculiarly interesting, as showing that the 
disease called the “ yellows” does not arise from a deficiency of 
inorganic matter. Should further examinations sustain this 
yiew of the case we may be enabled to find a remedy for this 
scourge of the peach tree. We throw out the suggestion, that, 
owing to the constant generations of plants on the same soil, a 
change takes place similar to that observed when animals are 
bred in-and in; or in other words a scrofulous constitution be- 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 2938 


eomes inherent, which causes the absorption of too great propor- 
tions of inorganic salts, and thence disease, and early mortality. 
We cannot in this place do more than hint at this subject, but 
many facts and analogies may be adduced in support of this the- 
ory, and we submit it to the consideration of those who live in 
a part of the country where this disease prevails. In some soils, 
if long continued wet weather occurs in the early part of the 
summer, the leaves of this tree, even when perfectly healthy, be- 
come diseased, curl up, and fall off; an affection which we are 
inclined to attribute to an inordinate absorption of salts, but are, 
as yet, unable satisfactorily to prove it. 


649. Inorganic analysis of a small seedling Peach tree, aged 
23 years; mean diameter 34 inches; thickness of bark 1-7 inch; 
growth rather slow. (H'mmons.) 


Bark of| Wood of| Bark of| W ood of 

Trunk. | Trunk. } Root. | Root. 
Potash,.--c-ceccccccecesesnrssssccacssesece. } 1.20 Til 3.162 8 58 
Soda,..ceeeseceeeecees ee Oy : 11.15 192 15.92 
0.04 0.16 0.33 5.60 


4.19 1.51 3.44 0.58 


Sulphuric acid,.++++++--2e2cceceereecseeeeee 


Carbonic ACIG,. .cccceccecscccccctsccccccsces| —— aes pat een 
Lime, ..2-ccccscccvecccsccsccccccccscssecess| 42.17 23.26 38 48 O11 
Magnesia,..+-+e0+++ SBT ad anaieeimeae wie aie'a.o/e, sla’ela 2.16 6.40 2.91 On 
Phosphate of irOn,..+..-++se00- Dike oehe sidnse| 4) O45 0.32 10.40 1.02 
Phosphate of lime,...-..+ecesceeseeeereeeeees| 18.79 29.19 } \ 18.10 
Phosphate of mugnesia,..+.-s.cececcrsere cess 0.01 1 34 — 30 00 
Organic matter,..-coccseccceccevecceseveces 3.30 5.20 3.60 2.55 
Brno UBlG aNiGiiiveccces’s cnscccascnsamaecioess| 415 1.35 9.40 6.46 
COA), ano cccccccenssess otsccescvcccseecees| —— — 1.40 pence 
| Leaves | Pits | Bark of| Wood of 
: : Limbs. | limbs. 
MEAS sc oc wakes 0:04 6 eh os 6 ca ccecm |) Ua) 18.47 B.bd ! sYsZ) 
Borges: = 2 Re io orien 5.21 SF Fi 
Chloride of Sodiura,.. eas — 2.70 0.28 | 024 
Chloride of Potassiam,... . 0.36 oa — — 
Sulphuricacid,. .. 0-2. 2eecceccseeeee| 12.12 15.12 618 8.07 
GRPNGNIE BCI... ceye sic cece ceca nsecew| —— —— ee aioe 
MIE e se ae oles aele cme leccosccvewsses | Matt 16.80 31.98 24.64 
Magnesia,.. tats Vale. dsr e\aisvale bd s Bielaval anecd 8.00 133 6.00 9.76 
Phosphate of Iron,. » ace rises eeae s avae| saae has 1 60 0.60 
Phosphate of lime,.. . 2.222 ccccccesncee| 10,44 17.98 8 50 13.20 
Phosphate of Magnesia,. Geewinie coe 6/4 cneweunila [varie 0.02 0.20 0.2 
Organic matter,........-- ecw cccvece| 0.86 6.65 5.00 8.40 
TRISGUURSIE UGE oi us wialajels © oe nic a wie tele a 6.42 10.0u 4.30 1.00 
Ce isis cis cow heise om, stig shoe 4.48 —— 1.00 1.20 


For organic analysis see § 


294 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


650. The kernels, blossoms, leaves, and bark, possess poison- 
ous qualities, apparently independent of the hydrocyanic 
(Prussic) acid, contained especially in the first. ( Perera.) 

651. Tas Nectarine (Persica levis, ) is distinguished from 
the Peach by its smooth fruit; but it is believed to be merely 
a variety of the latter. In the United States it is rarely culti- 
yated in consequence of the great injury done to it by the Cur- 
culio. : 

652. Cuerry ( Cerasus vulgaris,) (a,) native of Asia, (6,) 
varicties numerous as Heart, Bigarreau, Duke, Morello, each 
ef which has many sub-varieties. Best in France; many good 
American varieties, especially those produced by hybridizing 
by Dr. Kirtland, of Cleveland, 0.; (c,) propagated by seeds— 
(for stocks and new sorts)—by budding—(grafts;) dwarfed by 
budding on the Perfumed Cherry (C. Mahaleb in (d,) cultiva- 
tion; pruning simple—branches should be trained near the 
ground, with a short stem. (e,) Manures,—bones, ashes, salt, 
plaster. 

653. Analysis of the leaves of the Oxheart Cherry, (picked, 
May 23rd,) (A;) and of the leaves of the Large Yellow Span- 
ish Cherry, (picked, September 30,) (B.) (Hmmons.) 


A. B. 

Carbonic acid, - - - 11.450 

Silicic acid, ° 2 1.850 

Phosphates, - - - 26.650 37.175 
Lime, - - 3.941 21.975 
Magnesia, - - - 3.465 3.195 
Potash, - - 23.757 13 948 
Soda, - - - 12.367 1.657 
Sulpburic acid, - - not determined. 10.260 
Organic acids, - - - do 7.650 
Silica, - - do 4.225 
Chloride of sodium, - - do 0 410 

PROPORTIONS OF THE LAST, (B.) 

Water, - - - - 58.628 
Dry matter, - - - 41.372 
Ash, - : - - 3.434 
Ash, calculated dry, - - - 8.300 


For organic analysis, see § 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 295 


654. Taz Pirum (Prunus domestica,) is a native of Eu- 
rope, with four indigenous species in the Northern United 
States. Owing to the destruction of the fruit by the Curculio, 
the culture of this tree has become insignificant. The principle 
inorganic constituents are Potash, Soda, Lime, and Phosphoric 
acid. (See Patent Office Report, ’49, p. 480.) Many modes of 
preventing the attacks of the Curculio have been proposed, but 
none have proved entirely effectual. Dusting the tree with 
slaked lime is, at present, looked upon with most favor. 

655. Graves ( Vitis,) (a; ) European grapes originally from 
Persia. Quite distinct species from native American Grapes, 
of which there are many species and varieties. (6,) European 
grapes difficult to cultivate in America. Large vineyards on 
the Ohio River, and other States south of that. (c,) Propa- 
gated by layers,—cuttings,—eyes,—grafts. (d,) Cultivation 
and pruning demand much skill and knowledge. Subject to a 
mould on the fruit, curable by sulphur. : 


656. Inorganic analysis of the leaves of the Catawba Grape, 
picked, June 2d, nearly full grown (A,) and the same picked, 
September 30, fruit abundant (B.) (H’mmons.) 


A. B. 

Carbenie acid, - - . 3050 8.900 
Silicie acid, - . 29.650 Silica 23.150 
Sulphtricacid, = - - 2062 1.426 
Phosphates, ° - 32.950 28.750 
Lime, - - : 4391 26 258 
Magnesia, > ° 1.740 5.330 
Potash, - - - 13.394 1.710 
Soda, - - 9.698 2.983 
Chlorine, - - - 0.741 

Organic acids, - - 2.250 3.450 
Chloride of sodium, - - 0.305 


From Grapes are made: 1. Grape Sugar. 2. Bitartrate of Potash, 
(Crude tartar or Argol.) 3. Raisins, and small black “ currants” im- 
ported from the Mediterranean. 4. Wine. 5. Brandy. 


657. GoosgBrrry (ibes Grossularia, ) (a, ) native of Great 


296 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


Britain—many cultivated sub-varieties—4 wild species in the 
northern United States—prefers a damp climate and soil; (6,) 
colors vary, red, yellow, green, differs also much in size, and in 
the prickles on the fruit; (c,), propogated by cuttings—layers, 
suckers, (c,) cultivation simple, best in the U. 8. in a damp, 
shaded place, or well mulched especially with salt-grass—pru- 
ning, annual shortening in, keeping the centre open to admit air; 
(d,) manure, ashes, salt,-well-rotted organic matter; (e,)a mould 
similar to that on grapes, often destroys the fruit. 

658. Organic analysis of the unripe (A,) and the ripe Goose- 
berry (B.) (Berard.) 


A B 

Chlorophy] and coloring matter - - OS 

Sugar, - - - 0.52 6.24 
Dextrine, - - - 1.36 0.78 
Fibre, - - - 8.45 8.01 
Albumen, . - - 1.07 087 
Malic acid, - - - 1.80 Q Al 
Citric acid. - - - 0.12 0.31 
Lime, - . - 0.24 0.29 
Water, - . ie - 8641 81.10 


The leaves of the Currant are rich in Soda and the Phosphates ; the 
blossom, in Potash. (Hmmons.) 

659. Ruusars; (Rheum rhaponticum,) (a,) many species 
cultivated, from Asia, China, Turkey, and Tartary; many 
sub-varieties produced by cultivation; (4,) the petioles, or 
leaf-stalks, used for pies, preserves, making wine; the root as 
medicine—the best from Russian Tartary, on the confines of 
China—the root grown in Europe and America very inferior as 
a drug; (¢,) cultivation requires deep rich soil, highly manured, 
and the plants covered during the winter with rough barn-yard 
manure—is sometimes blanched, by which the flavor is improved ; 
(d,) the leaf, flower, stalks &c., poisonous, chiefly in consequence 
of the Oxalate of lime contained in them, which is decomposed 
in digestion; (e,) specific manures, bones—plaster—salt—ashes 
—organic substances. 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 297 


660. Percentage of Water, Dry matter, and Ash, in various 
parts of the Giant Rhubarb, cut June 1, Plant in flower. (Salis- 
j 


bury.) 
Root, Stalk, Petioles, Leaf-blades, Flowers & Pedicles. 


Percentage of water, 82.000 8950 9346 88.00 86.90 
—— Dry matter, 18.000 10.50 653 12.00 13.10 
“Ash, 0.925 1.13 0.94 1.53 132 
“ash cale.on dry mat.5.194 10.76 14.384 12.75 10.7 


661. Inorganic analysis of various parts of the same plant—-viz— 
Root (A,) Leaf stalk (B,) Leaf blades (C,) Stalk (D.) 


A B. C. Di 
Silicie acid, - - 3.95 1.40 7.60 0.450 
Phosphates, - 30.05 2220 19.40 17.20 
Lime, - - 478 2.47 5.74 3.57 
Maguesia, - 2.92 0.20 1.16 0.20 
Potash, - ss 7a 5.28 7.87 8.09 
Soda, - - 24.73 33.26 27.36 33.26 
Sodium, . - 014 1.65 OAL 097 
Chlorine, - 0.22 2.50 391 1.48 
Sulphuric acid, - a eon 5.27 4.27 10.72 
Organic matter, - 7.35 15.60 6.40 12.15 
Carbonicacid, - - 12.05 9.43 14.90 9.40 


662. Proximate organic analysis of the Leaf stalks (gathered Sep- 
tember Ist) of a very large and succulent Rhubarb. 


Percentage of water, - - - 87.77 
. of dry matter, - - 12.23 
ash - - = DOT 
us ash cale. on dry matter, - 18.56 

With the Water. Without the Water. 

Fibre with a little starch and chlorophy], 1.26 9.89 

Malic acid and extract, with a little 
tartaric and oxalic acids, 5.70 44 62 

Dextrine, - - 0.55 4.30 

Fibre, - - as aie 25.30 

Matter separated from fibre, albuminous, _ 1.60 12.55 

Albumen, - : s O97 A 

Casein, = : 0.15 1.17 

Water, - - - 87.77 — 


(See Trans. N. Y. Agricul. Socety, vol. ix, p. 744.) 
663. Comparative analyses of the large red Tomato, (Sola- 


298 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK,. 


num lycospersicum,) (A,) and of Egg Plant, (Solanum me- 
longena,) (B.) (Salisbury.) 
I. Percentage of water, dry matter and ash: 


A B 

Water, . . - 94.75 91.35 
Dry watter, - - - 5.24 8.64 
Ash, - - - 0.33 0.60 
Ash, calculated on dry matter, : - 6.37 6.98 

II. Composition of the ash of the above: rt B 
Carbonic acid, - - 11.05 4.72 
Silicie acid, : - - 1.77 1.70 
Sulphuric acid, - - 1.79 4.74 
Phosphoric acid and peroxide of iron, - 24.07 28.77 
Lime, - - - 0.07 0.07 
Magnesia, - : s 1.64 1.37 
Potash, - - : 20.80 2051 
Soda, - - - 95.53 31.97 
Sodium, - - - 9.79 1.13 
Chlorine, - - - 4.24 1.73 
Organic acids, - - 4.55 2.20 

III. Proximate organic composition of the Tomato: 
Sugar and extract, with tartaric, citric and malic acids, 3.32 
Albumen, - - - - 0.21 
Casein, - - - - 0.20 
Dextrine or gum, - - ° 0.54 
Fibre with coloring matter, - - 1.01 
Matter separated from the fibre - : 0.32 
Water, - - - - 94.75 
With a small quantity of volatile oil. 

Proximate organic composition of the Egg Plant :— 
Sweet water and extract, with a peculiar bitter principle, 3.04 
Starch, - - - - 0.36 
Albumen, - - - 0,25 
Casein, . - - : 0.20 
Dextrine or gum, - . - 0.37 
Fibre, - - - . - 0.76 
Matter separated from the fibre, - - 0.97 
Water, - - - : 91.35 


With a small quantity of volatile oil and wax. 
(Sce Trans. N. Y. Agricul Socy. Vol. viii, p. 370.) P 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 299 


664. Asparacus (A officinalis, ) owes its flavor and proper- 
ties to a peculiar, easily erystallizable neutral substance (Cs N, 
H,; Os which occurs in several plants, as the Marsh-mallow, 
Cumfrey, Potato &e, called Asparagine. 

665. Lerruce (Lactuca sativa, ) owes its value to a narcotic 
principle called Zactucin. It acts upon the brain after the man- 
ner of Opium, and induces sleep; eaten during the day, it calms, 
soothes, and allays the tendency to nervous irritability. It is 
probable that it might be fed with a good effect to fattening an- 
imals; in a favorable soil, it is cultivated with great facility. 
(See Blackwood’s Magazine, Dec. 1853, p. 679.) 

666. Analysis of the Muskmelon (Cucumis melo,) (A;) 
Watermelon ( Cucurbita citrullus,) (B;) and Cucumber ( Cu- 
cumis sativus,) (C.) (Salisbury.) 

Percentage of water, dry matter, and ash:— 


A. B. C. 
Percentage of water, - : 90.987 94.898 96 364 
S of dry matter, - 9013 5.102 3.636 
* of Ash, - - 2.771 0 248 0.362 
- of Ash in dry matter, - 3.007 4.861 9.955 

Ultimate analysis of the above:— A, By) ee 
Nitrogen, - - 2.231 1.739 1.236 
Oxygen, - - 43.905 43.187 41.806 
Carbon, - - 44,820 43.764 40.984 
Hydrogen, : : 6.832 6.872 6.879 
Inorganic matter, : - 3.007 4.861 9.955 

Inorganic analysis of the above:— A. B. C. 
Carbonic acid, - - 11.55 11.42 13.25 
Silicic acid, - - 2.20 Sy 0.70 
Phosphoric acid, - : 25.40 14.93 18.90 
Sulphuric acid, - - 93.90 1.63 0.90 
Phosphate of iron, . 2.30 4.52 3.10 
Lime, : - - 585 7.32 4.30 
Magnesia, - : 0.60 1.31 0.20 
Potash, - . - 8.35 23 95 23.20 
Soda, - - 34.35 30.63 93.75 
Chlorine, - - - 5.20 1.81 1.10 
Organic matter, - - trace, trace, trace, 


300 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


Proximate organic analysis of the above (fresh, ):— 


A. B. C. 

Albumen, - - 0.918 0.572 0.356 
Casein, - - - 0.442 * 0.004 0.040 
Dextrine, - - 1.142 0.318 0.354 
Starch, - - - trace, none, 0.002 
Sugar and extract, - 5.250 3 020 2.826 
Chlorophyl, - - - 0.004 0.006 0.006 
Fat, wax, and resin, - 0.038 0.022 0.031 
Citrie acid, - 2 - trace, 0.007 

Malic acid, - - 0.007 0.009 

Tartaric acid, - - 0.005 trace. 

Fibre, - - 1.123 1.058 9.61 
Water, - - - 90.987 94.898 95,354 


The varieties above examined were the Nutmeg Muskmelon; the 
Tang Red Watermelon; and the Early Long Prickly Cucumber. (See 
further, Trans. of the N. Y. Agricul. Socy., vol. xii., (1852,) pp. 335— 
337.) 

667. Analysis of the Vegetable Oyster-root—Tragopogon 
porrifolius,) (A;) of the Endive or Suceory-leaf— Cichorium 
Endivia,) (B;) and of Celery, (Apiwm Graveolens,) (C.)\— 
(Salisbury in Trans. of N. Y. Agricul. Socy., vol. xii.) 


Percentage of water, dry matter, and ash :— 


A. B. C. 
Percentage of water, - e 81.22 . 91.925 881225 
"of dry matter. . 1878 8.075 <<a 
a“ of ash, - - 1.465 1.010 1.375 
3 of ash in dry matter, - 8:333 12.507 11.931 

Ultimate analysis of the above: 

A B me 
Nitrogen, - - 0.995 2.170 2.121 
Carbon, - - 42.044 41,171 A0.626 
Oxygen, - - 44017 40.257 40352 
Hydrogen, - - 5.058 5.617 5.371 
Inorganic matter, - - 8.860 12 507 11.931 

Inorganic analysis of the above :— 2 : 
Carbonic acid, - - 24.60 13.80 20.80 


Silicia acid, - . 0.60 20.80 5.60 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK, 301 


A B C 
Phosphoric acid, - - 15.60 9.90 5.40 
Phosphate of iron, - - 185° 2.95 4.95 
Lime, - - 4.95 8.05 13.55 
Magnesia, - - 0.75 3.65 0.90 
Potash, . - 5.80 8.90 7.25 
Soda, - - 39.20 27.80 28.80 
Chlorine, - - 2.45 1.40 1.40 
Sulphuric acid, : - 3.90 2.10 10.30 
Organic matter, - - trace. _—~ — 
Proximate organic analysis of the above :— 
A B Cc 
Water, - - 80.610 91.925 88.225 
Fibre, - < i 2.764 1.348 3.168 
Sugar and extract, - - 3.665 4.300 5.685 
Dextrine, - - 1.435 0.735 0.905 
Casein, = - - - 0.172 0.100 0.115 
Albumen, - . 1.066 1.320 1.532 
Starch, =< - - 0.035 none. none. 
Resin, > + - 0.180 0 260 0.185 
Gluten, - - - (.014 0.055 0.095 
Chlorophyl, - - — 0.052 0.055 
Wax, . e . — 0.055 and oil 0.120 


CHAPTER XXII. 


MANURES. 


668. In order to understand the principles of manuring we 
mist consider :— 


(a,) A plant consists of two parts, an organic and a mineral part. 
The mineral part is drawn from the soil alone, by the roots; while of 
the organic part one portion comes from the soil through the roots, and 
another portion from the air through the leaves. 

(b,) The organie part of plants consists of four simple hodies, or 
pases; carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. In all the parts of 
plants these four are associated also, with minute quantities of sulphur 
and phosphorus. 

(c,) Of these four substances nitrogen appears to be drawn by the 
plant almost exclusively from the soil; the hydrogen and oxygen are 
drawn partly from the soil and partly from the air—chiefly in the form 
of water. The carbon is derived only in small proportion from the 
soil, being for the most part sucked in from the air by the leaves, in the 
form of carbonic acid gas. Sulphur and phosphorus come from the seil 
only. 

(d,) The mineral part of the plant, which forms from half of one per 
cent. to 15 to 20 per cent. of the whole weight of the dried plant, con- 
nists of about 12 different substances. (See § 93, p. 27.) Of these silica 
exists chiefly in the stems of grasses, grains, &c , and in smaller propor 
tion only in the softer parts and juices of plants. Potash, soda, chlorine 
and sulphuric acid are, for the most part, found in the sap; line, mag- 
nesia, and oxide of iron in the solid parts of plants. Phosphoric acid is 
necessary to, and is found in every part of a plant, but it collects in 
larger proportion in the grain or seeds as the season of ripening ap- 
proaches. (See Johnston’s Experimental A griculture, p. 7.) 

(e,) No plant therefore can flourish and come to maturity unless it is 
able to procure in a proper form, ard absorb the above substances. 


669, We must consider also :-— 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK, 303 


{@,) That a fertile soil consists of three portions, 1, Of one which is 
dormant, as the sand and clay which form by far the larger mass of it ; 
2. Of the above minerals and organic matter in a state in which they 

-are insoluble in water, and therefore cannot become part of a plant ; 
and 3. Of the same in a soluble form capable of dissolving in water, and 
of entering into the pores of the roots. (See § 113, p. 34.) 

(b,) That every crop which is taken off the ground carries away a 
notable portion of the soluble materials ; and, supposing that there exs 
isted no means of adding to them, all soil would rapidly become 
exhausted by cultivation. 

(c,) But uature is continually rendering soluble that which she finds 
insoluble in the soil, by the action of the air, of carbonic acid gas, by 
heat, electricity, moisture, and complex chemical changes which are 
always in progress, Again, a porous soil into which air and water can 
find their way, is constantly receiving additions from the atmosphere, 
and from spring water laden with soluble salts, raised by evaporation 
and capillary attraction. (See § 29, p.9, § 55, p. 17.) 

(d,) If, therefore, we were content to commence cultivating a virgin 
soil, abounding in all that is requisite to form a plant ; to take off one 
grain crop; and then leave the field uncultivated for a certain number 
of years, we might in this manner retain the fertility of the soil, and 
at each period reap an equally large crop, for any length of time. 

(e.) But this mode of cultivating the soil is unprofitable; and, there+ 
fore, the ingenuity of man has discovered various modes of hastening or 
dispensing with the action of nature. These modes are 1. A 6 re fallow, 
where two grain crops were taken in succession, and then the land was 
left unfruitful for a year, but frequently plowed and stirred so as to ex- 
pose every part of it to the dissolving action of the elements, 2. Rota- 
tions, so arranged that each succeeding crop abstracted only such mates 
rials as were not required by the other crops ; so that when grain was 
again sown it found an accumulation of those peculiar elements which 
were requisite for its prosperity. 3. Draining, whereby the soil was 
rendered porous to a considerable depth, and enabled to receive and 
retain such elements as the air and water were capable of supplying; 
and 4, Manuring, which is procuring from some other source, and ap- 
plying directly to ‘he soil the ciements necessary for the crop ; or, in 
other words placing in the ground the raw material which nature is to 
work up into grain; as the paper.maker collects old rags, out of which 
white paper is to be mide. (See Farmer's Companion and Horticullu- 
ral Gazdle, Vol. ii, p. 89.) 


(f) | Manvarya, therefore, may be defined to be the directly supplying 


3804 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK, 


to the soil those constituents which are necessary for the formation of 
the plant we wish to grow, and which, in a soluble shape, are either 
naturally deficient in the soil, or have become so by our carrying them 
off in the form of grain, meat, &c., we not being able to wait until nature 
performs this work for us,* 


670. Manuring is probably the most costly mode of restor- 
ing the fertility of the soil that can be practiced. 


671. But while many persons are content merely to retain, by 
manuring, their land at its natural point of fertility, others ren- 
der it much more fertile than it ever was; on the principle that 
if a certain quantity of applied manure can be worked up into 
a grain crop, a still greater quantity will supply a larger propor- 
tion of grain. 


2. From this it must be apparent that in order that a 
farmer may economically and skilfully manure his land, he must 
understand the composition of plants, the relative materials 
which constitute his soil, the constituents of the manures ap- 
plied, and their chemical action. For were he to put on his 
field a salt ina soluble form which would immediately become 
insoluble in consequence of chemical changes, the manure 
would be lost to him. 


In the following pages we shall chiefly confine ourselves to an ac- 
count of the manures which are generally available in the Northern 
States, and tke principles on which they act. For further information 
on this extended and intricate subject we must refer the reader to yorss 
especially bearing upon it. 


673. The following diagram from Dumas & Boussingault’s Chemical 
and Physiological Balance of Organic Nature, may be useful in this 


connection. 
4 


*A species of manurnig may be practiced, the princlple of which differs from the 
above; as where a salt is applied, zot for the purpose of directly entering into the 
plant, but to act, chemically, as a solvent, upon the insoluble constituents of the soil; 
6 asa fixer of gases, or other to” readily soluble materials, as charcoal and proba- 


bly plaster. 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 305 


AN ANIMAL A VEGETABLE 
is is 
AN APPARATUS OF COMBUSTION ; AN APPARATUS OF REDUCTION ; 
Possesses the faculty of Locomotion ; Is fixed ; 
Burns Carbon, Reduces Carbon, 
Hydrogen, Hydrogen, 
Ammonium, Ammonium, 
Exhales Carbonic acid, Fixes Carbonic acid, 
Water, Water, 
Oxide of Ammonium, Oxide of Ammopium, 
Nitrogen ; Nitrogen ; 
Consumes Oxygen, Produces Oygen, 
Neutral nitrogenized matters, Neutral nitrogenized matters, 
Fatty matters, Fatty matters, 
Amylaceous matters, Amylaceous matters, 
sugars, gums ; sugars, gums; 
Produces Heat, Absorbs Heat, 
Electricity ; Abstracts Electricity ; 

Restores its elements to the air, Derives its elements from the air, 
or to the earth ; or from the earth ; 
Transforms organized matters Transforms mineral matters into 

into mineral matters. organized matters. 


673. Manures are generally classed under three heads :—(a,) vegeta- 
ble ; (6,) anima) ; (c,) mineral, Those that are of vegetable origin be-. 
ing formed of decaying vegetable matter, consist, like the plant, of an 
organic and mineral part; of which the former is usually much the 
larger in quantity’ But anew branch of study is connected with the 
decay o1 decomposition of this vegetable matter, and expecially of its 
organic part, in the farm-yard, in the compost heap, or in the soil. This 
decay gives rise to new chemical combinations, which have much influ- 
ence on the efficacy of the decomposed matterasa manure. Thenature 
and products of this new series of chemical changes ought to be famil- 
iar to the farmer. 


674. Those manures which are of animal origin resemble, in com- 
position, the parts of the animal body from which they are derived—the 
blood, flesh, bone, &c. Or, if they consist of urine and dung of ani. 
mals, they have a certain relation, especially the solid excrements, to 
the food on which the animals havelived. Here, however, a new kind 
of information is demanded. These animal substances, like the vegeta- 
ble, putrify before they become directly useful to plants. In the bodies 

20 


3806 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


of animals, also, changes take place, by which the food consumed is 
decomposed, and new compounds of much importance are, in conse- 
quence, introduced into the urine and dung. All these changes are, in 
some degree, connected with the richness and fertilizing quality of ani- 
mal manures, or with the special action of the variety which may be 
used. To know on what the general efficacy or peculiar effect of such 
manures depends, their changes and the substances produced by them, 
should be understood. How different samples of the same kind of ma- 
nures differ in virtue; how this virtue is modified, Jost, preserved, or 
augmented—these questions are of much consequence in ordinary farm- 
ing, if the best, or most profitable results are to be obtained by the 
practical man. 


675. Mineral, or saline manuresare combinations, or mixtures of diff- 
erent combinations of one or more of those mineral substances which 
exist and are found in living plants. These saline substances are fixed 
and definite in their composition. But to use them right—to apply 
them in the proper place, at the proper time, and in the proper quantity 
—to understand their action, how they ought to be mixed, and why 
their effects vary in different circumstances and localities—all this re- 
quires that they should be thoroughly known, and their mode of action, 
as single substances and as mixtures understood. (See Johnston’s Ex- 
perim. Agricul. p. 246.) 


676. In order to show the very complex action of plants and manures on the soil, 
we extract the following curious and instructive account of an experiment by a prac 
tical English farmer, from the Journal of the Royal Agricul. Socy. of England, vol. 
ziti. p- 417.— 1852. It is worthy of careful study,and shows more clearly than any 
other document we are acquainted with, the difficulties which beset the farmer in the 
management of his crops and manures : 

“In the autumn of 1846, a field of three acres was manured at the rate of 20 tons 
of farm-yard manure per acre, and sown with rye for soiling in the following spring. 
It produced a very heayy crop, but on account of the stalks becoming too hard for 
the horses, half the rye wasallowed to remain for seed. The partof the field which 
had been cut for soiling was immediately plowed and sown with globe turnips, with 
a dressing of three cwt. of Peruvian guano per acre. The turnips were yery fine. 
After the seed rye was harvested and the turnips cleared, the whole three acres were 
plowed and set with beans the following February ; and now comes the curious part 
of the affair. The beans came up well allover the field; but a difference was soon 
perceived between those on the seed-rye and turnip ground, the former looking much 
more luxuriant than the latter, but we were not prepared for what afterwards took 
place. The beans that followed the turnips actually stopped all growth when six 
inches high, and, of course, did not seed, whereas, after the seed-rye they grew s0 
luxuriantly as to injure the produce, and this difference extended to the line where 
we had discontinued cutting the green-rye—the more conspicuous as we had stopped 
in the middle of a land. 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 807 


The result certainly astonished me, for it was in direct antagonism to all precon- 
ceived notions of farmers; as it is usually thought by them that crops do not impoy- 
erish the ground, nearly to the same extent when cut green, as when allowed to ri- 
pen their seed. Turnips, too, are generally supposed to extract the greater portion of 
their nourishment from the atmosphere. But here we find that beans actually re- 
fused to grow after the green-rye and turnips, notwithstanding the application of 
three cwt of guano, and the land being in much better tilth; where the rye was al- 
lowed to ripen its seed, and no extra manure applied they grew luxuriantly. 

I determined to inquire whether the researches of chemists would throw any light 
upon the question ; and the difficulty I had in compiling the following small tables, 
fully accounts to my mind for the fact that chemistry has hitherto received so little 
assistance from practical farmers. 


Probable Amount of Ingredients abstracted from or restored to One acre of Land by 
the several Crops and Manures of Rotation I, (Seeded Rye and Beans.)* 


ra ' 5 AS rat a 
o ow o (1) ° ° 
For one acre of JandinIbs.| 2 | 3 & | B z | g 3 £ | 23 
62 A PE Se Ph iw Ph 
Amount added to soil by 
caisie SpnpRRg } 3320 | 400 | 2380 | 180| 140| 40] 280] 140 
Ditto by seed Rye, 56 6 53 2) 0.7 os oe 1 
Totaladded for ryecrop, | 3376 | 406 | 2433 | 182] 141 40 | 280} 141 
Amount abstracted byditto! 2169 | 245 | 1868 34 25 0.1 10 14 
Balance after rye crop, 1207 | 161 | 565} 148] 116 40 | 270} 127 
Am’t added by seed beans 101 15 86 13 3 . 1 2 
Bulance left for Bean crop, | 1303 | 176 | 651. | 161! 119} 40] 271 | 129 
Amount required by ditto ? ? | 1647 ? 55 8 37 29 
Balance, Rad: ? ? | —3 | +64 | +32 [+234 [+100 
Rotation 2, (Green Rye, Turnips, and Beans.) 
lg } a £ 23 
. a) | a 
For one acre in lbs. a 36 EA 8 $s 3 e aa 
SE) psig be | 2 pA pee 
Amount added to soil by 
barn-yard manure, : 3320 | 400 | 2380 180 140 40 | 280 140 
Ditto by seed rye, 56 6| 53 2 a4 ae ee aye 1 
Tot'ladd for greenryecrop| 3376 | 406 | 2433 | 182] 141 40 | 280 | 140 
Amount abstracted by ditto! 1499 168 | 1233 Lhe aga Bg = 9 4 
Balance after ditto 1877 238 | 1200 170 124 40 271 137 
Am’'t added by 3 ewts guano ? ? ? 48 Ww 4 38 49 
Balance left forturnip crop,|__? ? ? | 218 |. 134 44 | 309 | 186 
Amt abstracted by ditto ? ? ? 159 166 5 102! 33 
Balance left after the2crops|—? ? Phar 59 | —32 39 | 20 
Aim’'t added by seed leaves, | 101 15 | 86 13 3 - i “e 
Balance left for bean crop, ? ? i 72 | —29 39 | 208: 155 
Am’t required by ditto ? ? 7 | 1647) 55 8] 37 | 29 
Balance ? ? ? | —92 ; —S4 | +31 [+171 |+126 


*Mr. Hemming calculated in the same manner every constituent of the plant, but 
the size of our page obliges us to give those only which are most essential to growth. 
(¢The mark (—) means minus, or that the turnips abstracted 32 Ibs. more Potash, 
than had been supplied to the soil by the manure and other sources. 1n the last line, 


308 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


When we come to compare the balance left in the soil after these Lwo rotations, sup- 
posing the bean crop to have succeeded in both, we find that with the green rye and 
turnips there is a large deficiency both of nitrogen and potash, that of the latter 
amounting to 84 Ibs. per acre, or in other words the soil would haye had to supply 
84 Ibs. of potash, in addition to that supplied by the manure in order to grow a crop 
ef beans, whereas in the rotation where the rye was allowed to stand for seed, there 
was a large excess of potash, and a sufficiency of nitrogen.” 

The above also elucidates a principle which the practical farmer should never lose 
sight of; viz, that a ficld may prove barren for a given crop, such as wheat, from the 
deficiency of only one or two constituents; andjthat, in order to supply this deficiency, 
our cheapest course generally is to give to the soil that peculiar material. Suppose I 
have a field which refused to grow wheat, in consequence of impoyerishment. Am 
i tosupply barn-yard manure, which contains every thing the wheat crop can require, 
but which is costly cwing to the quantity which [ must haul from a distance and 
spread? or shall I apply 3 ewt of guano, and 100 pounds of super-phosphate of lime, 
on the supposition that nitrogen and phosphoric acid alone are wanting? In the 
Michigan Oak openings we have reason to believe that it is a deficiency of these two 
materials only which renders the soil less fertile than it used to be; but a chemical 
analysis can alone positively decide the matter. In practice the question would be 
one of cost, supposing the barn-yard manure to be good: but the amount of common 
dung requisite to supply the nitrogen, phosphates and potash of the above named 
guano and bones, would have to be very much larger than we are in the habit of using 
to the acre. The above also teaches, that while a field may refuse to grow one crop 
profitably, it may be quite capable of growing another and different class of plants. 


677. Before manures can produce their full and profitable 
effect upon the soil, the land must be laid dry by drainage or 
other means. It must also be cleaned and kept clean from 
weeds. 

678. The value of the various constituents of manure may 
be thus classified; and the money cost, in the Western States, 
of any given manure can easily be estimated by the quantity of 
the following ingredients which it contains, in a soluble form, 


1, Nitrogen. 7. Potash. 

2, Ammonia. 8. Magnesia. 

3. Phosphoric Acid. 9. Iron and Manganese. 
4. Sulphuric Acid. 10. Lime. 

5. Soda. 11. Carbon. 

6. Chlorine. 12, Soluble Silica. 


679. It is impossible to ascertain by theory alone and with- 
out actual experiment, the exact effect which a given manure 
will produce upon a given soil or crop. The mechanical con- 


it shows that there were 92 Ibs. less nitrogen and 84 lbs. less potash than the bean 
crop required, and it appears to be taken for granted that the soil contained none of 
these constituents except where they had been artificially supplied.) 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 809 


struction of the soil, the climate, the season, the mode of cul- 
tivation, the salts already contained in the earth, but especially 
the period, mode, and form in which a manure is applied, all 
combine in influencing the final result. Theoretically, the val- 
ue of a manure depends upon the amount of nitrogen which 
it contains, but, practically, this does not always prove to be the 
ease; and in some instances, a salt, such as gypsum, wholly de- 
void of nitrogen, may return a larger crop than any nitrogenous 
manure we can apply. The rule, however, is general in its ap- 
plication, the exceptions comparatively few. The form of a 
manure, and the way in which we apply it are, in practice, of 
chief importance. Thus, in most instances, barn-yard manure | 
well prepared and well rotted, is very superior in action to “long 
dung,” unfermented, and with the vegetable matter undecayed. 
Yet there are soils and crops for which the latter is preferable. 
Again, bones owe much of their efficacy to the manner in which 
they are prepared. Whole bones, boiled bones, crushed or 
ground bones, bones dissolved in. sulphuric acid, and applied in 
a powder, or in a solution with water, all differ in their effects 
and profitable results. Thus, in an English experiment, it was 
found that— 


16 bushels of crushed bones gave 10 tons 3 ewt. turnips per acre. 
2 “bones dissolved in acid and applied dry gave 11 tons 15 ewt. 
4 “ “6 “ “ COP? FARE SON TS 68 
8 “ ce “ “ “ 16 “ 1 “ 
But when applied in a liguéd form at the time of sowing, the 
effect was still more remarkable, thus :— 
Tons per acre, 
16 bushels of bone dust (dry) produced 11 of turnips. 
ad dissolved in 83 Ibs of acid dried up and 2 u te 
suwn with the hand produced 5 
While 2 bushels, with 83 lbs. of acid, and 400 gal- 
lons water produced 
And, again, in a third locality in Scotland, 76 Ibs. 
of bones, 46 lbs. of acid, and 400 gallons of 
water produced 
While 440 lbs. of bones, with 28 lbs. of acid ap- 
plied dry, produced only 


Ing « 


310 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


The same rule appears to hold good as regards barn-yard 
manures. In Flanders and Switzerland they have long been 
dissolved in water previous to application, and, of late years, in 
Great Britain, the steam engine has been employed for this pur- 
pose, and the liquid carried over the farm in iron pipes, similar 
to those used for Hydraulic works in our cities; the extra pow- 
er of the manure being supposed to cover the greatly increased 
cost of preparation and application. (See Prof. J. W. F. 
Johnston's Essay on Manures, written for the Farmer's Com- 
panion and Horticultural Gazette, vol. 1, p. 98.) So in the 
same manner, Plaster has been’ found to act more efficiently 
when plowed in, instead of being scattered over the surface, and 
newly and finely ground gypsum is understood to act more ef- 
ficiently than that which is coarse, and long kept, even in tight 
barrels. And again, common salt has been applied with bene- 
ficial results, in large quantities, to fruit trees in one locality, 
while a smaller application has killed trees in another. 

There is no one subject in agriculture which demands, at the present 
day, more careful, continued, and widely extended experiments than the 
practice of manuring. Of the positive and relative constituents of 
common manures, the best quantities to apply, the condition in which, 
and the time when they should be used, the average effect which they 
produce, and the money profit derived from their application, we regret 
to believe that the great proportion of practical farmers are quite igno- 
rant; and there can be no doubt but that this ignorance causes great 
individual and national losses, 

680. I_—Anmat Manovrss. / 

Fxsu, is a rich manure in itself, and the rapidity with which 
it decays, enables it to bring other organic substances into a state 
of active fermentation. It is a very compound substance, in 
the ‘shape in which we generally meet with it—that of dead 
animals—consisting of the lean muscle, or Fibrin; of fat or 
oil; and of blood, which again consists of Fibrin, Albumen, 
(white of egg,) coloring matter, several salts and water; while 
connected with the flesh are hair, horns, hoof, tendons, bones, 


311 


again differing from the first in their relative composition. The 
only flesh, usually, at the farmer’s disposal is that of animals ac- 
cidentally dying, or, near cities, the refuse of the slaughter 
houses. A dead animal, if large, should be cut to pieces, and 
mixed with six or eight times its weight of peat, muck, earth, 
or even barn-yard manure; with plaster and salt; being shel- 
tered from the rain; the whole of which will be converted into 
a very rich compost. A horse will supply sufficient ammonia 
to grow an acre of wheat. 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


681. An ox, on the average, yields of 


Saleable meat: - 58 per cent/|Tallow, Te 8 per cent 
Skin, - 54 percent. 
The marketable meat contains, 


Dry bone, 10 per cent| Muscle, with blood, lymph &e 16 P. ct. 
Cellular tissued fat 5 “ Water, 71 


The chemical composition of flesh and blood is almost identi- 
cal, so that blood may be called liquid flesh, and vice versa; the 
solid or liquid state being more dependent upon structure than 
upon the amount of water—blood only containing 3 per cent 
more water than flesh. 


682. Ultimate analysis of Dry Beef (A,) and Dry Ox Blood, 


{B.) (Playfair and Pert rm B 

Carbon, - - 51.83 51.96 
Hydrogen, - - 7,57 7.25 
Nitrogen, - - - 15.01 15.0T 
Oxygen, : - 21,37 21.30 
Ashes : - - 4.22 4.42 


683. Inorganic analysis of the Blood of the Ox (A,) Calf (B,) 


and Sheep (C.) (nderlin.) x B c 

Phosphate of Soda - - 1677 30.18, 13.30 
Chloride of Potassivm, - . “gig $ 9265 6657 
Sulphate of Soda, - 3.85 2.94 5.38 
Phosphates of lime and magnesia, == 419 3.49 ; 13.92 
Oxide and phosphate of iron, - 8.28 9.28 ‘ 

Gypsum and loss, - - 1,45 1.46 0,83 


312 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


The reader will notice thelarge quantity of common Salt (Chloride of 
sodium, ) found in the blood of our domestic animals, and as our com- 
mon forage plants contain but a small quantity of it, he will see the ne- 
cessity of regularly supplying it with the food. In countries near the 
Sea, as in Great Britain, sufficient salt is deposited on the grass by the 
winds and spray, and there, salt is not given to cattle ; but in the West, it 
becomes an essential necessary of life, and were it not for the “ Salt 
Licks”, the Deer and oftter wild, ruminating animals would perish. 

(For the eftect of blood as a manure upon wheat, in its yield and 
composition see ante § 177 p 68 ; upon rye § 211, p 87; upon barley 
§ 237, p 94; and upon oats § 262, 103. 

684. Harr, Horn, anp Woot, are distinguished from the 
muscular parts of the animal body, by the large proportion— 
about 5 per cent—of sulphur which they contain. They consist 
of a substance, which, in other respects, closely resembles gluten 
and gelatine in its chemical composition. "When burned they 
leave from one to 2 per cent of ash. The inorganic matter, 
therefore, is generally the same as is found in the muscular fibre 
and the bone. 


685. Bonszs are, in reality, that portion of animals, to which, 
as a manure, the farmer is the most indebted. It has been ob- 
served that all useful plants contain phosphorus, which is one 
of the rarest minerals in the soil; which, when in a soluble form, 
is most rapidly withdrawn; and yet, without which, plants be- 
come useless, for the sustenance of animal bodies. It has oc- 
curred, that the old pasture lands of Cheshire, England, became 
impoverished of this clement; and although grass continued to 
grow, it was inferior in quality, and animals fed upon it be- 
came diseased, especially as to their bony structure. Till lately 
bones and brains have been the only available source whence 
Phosphorus could be procured. The following is the composi- 
tion of the Ileum of a sheep (A,) of an ox (B,) and the verte- 


bre of a haddock (C.) (Z’hompson.) 

A Bo Cc 
Organic matter, - - B33 "ARS “TRS 
Phosphate of lime, ° - 506 452 561 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 313 


A B c 
Carbonate oflime = - 45 6.1 3.6 
Magnesia, : - - 0.9 0.2 0.8 
Soda, - - . 0.3 0.2 0.8 
Potash, - - - 0.2 0.1 -—— 


The proportion of water in the bones of quadrupeds varies 


from 7 to 20 per cent according to the age of the animal, and 
the fat, or oily matter from 13 to 25 per cent. Those of the 
ox contain 64.5 per cent of earthy matter, and 35.5 per cent of 
cartilage; each family differing in this regard. 


686. Bones do not benefit plants under all circumstances, and, 
as has been stated, the form and mode in which they are ap- 
plied, is of much importance. In Great Britain where they are 
in especial demand for the turnip crop, it has been the fashion, 
till of late, merely to grind them in mills built for the purpose ; 
the bones being of different lengths, from fragments 1 inch long to 
dust; and sometimes boiled, sometimes unboiled bones were 
preferred. It is now becoming general there, and in the Uni- 
ted States, to employ them as Superphosphate or Biphosphate 
of lime, that.is, dissolved in Sulphuric acid. This may be done 
by the Farmer himself procuring the ground bones, and in lead- 
en vessels, boiling in Sulphuric acid diluted with water; but ac- 
cording to Johnston, the following is the ¢rwe superphosphate. 
“ When burned bones are reduced to powder, and digested in 
Sulphuric acid, diluted with once or twice its weight of water, 
the acid combines with a portion of the lime, and forms sulphate 
of lime (plaster) while the remainder of the lime and the whole 
of the phosphoric acid are dissolved. The solution, therefore, 
contains an acid phosphate of lime, or one in which the phos- 
phoriec acid exists in much larger quantity than in the earth of 
bones. The true bi-phosphate when free from water consists of 
714 phosphoric acid, and 28} of lime.” In a manufactured 
state, however, it is probably never found thus pure; and great 
complaints have, at times, been made that the manufacturers mix 


314 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


plaster, earth, salt, and other cheap ingredients with it. When 
purchasing, the farmer should procure an analysis of the sam- 
ples and afterwards compare them with the bulk. In Great Bri- 
tain the manufacture of fictitious and worthless manures is said 
to have become an extensive trade, the farmers thus losing large- 
ly from their ignorance of chemistry. On a small scale, bones 
may be rendered partially soluble by breaking or grinding, and 
mixing with fresh wood ashes, to be kept moist for a month or 
two. 


687. In the United States, Mineral Phosphate of lime or 
Apatite has been found and dug in considerable quantities at 
Crown Point, N. Y., and in New Jersey; some of which has 
been exported to England. So far, the purity appears to differ 
much, and the expense of mining and dissolving, has discouraged 
the progress of the works. The following are Dr. Jackson’s an- 
alyses of pure specimens of the minerals, compared with Prof. 
Johnston’s analysis of bones. 


New York. New Jersey. Bones. 

Lime, 47.230 
Phosphoric Acid, 45.710 © } 92.405 55.50 
Carbonic Acid, 1.218 4.00 
edi 1.554 F 
Chlorine, 0.130 Pete 
Caleium, 0,204 es eT 

uoriae, 0.590 
Calcium, 0.855 7.012 3.00 
Protoxide of Iron, 2.000 0.040 
Water, 0.500 —— 20.00 
Oxide of Manganese, 0.003 
Phosphate of Magnesia, 2.00 
Soda and common Salt, 250 
Gelatine (animal matter,) 33.00 


(See Jour. of Boston Socy..of Nat. Hist.) 

Many Marls, especially those formed of recent shell, and some lime 
rocks, contain notable proportions of the phosphates. 

688. Fisu are also a valuable manure, where they can be had 
in quantities. On parts of the New York and New England 
coasts they are annually caught in vast shoals for this purpose, 
and the time will come when the streams and lakes of the West 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 315 


will supply their portion to the soil. The bones and flesh of fish 
very nearly resemble those of quadrupeds in their phosphates and 
nitrogen; fish, however, generally affording more free oil. 
They should always be composted with muck, peat, &c. 

689. Shell fish are rarely found sufficiently numerous to be 
used as a manure, except in a mineral state. In New England, 
muscles and oyster shells are collected. In Alabama there are 
vast deposits of this kind; and according to Dr. Houghton (/. 
S.,) much of the marl of Michigan is formed of recent shells. 
They chiefly consist of lime, a little phosphoric acid, animal 
matter, and in salt water, iodine, and soda. 

690. Barn Yarp Manures are composed of the dung and 
urine of animals, with hay, straw, &c., more or less decayed, and 
they necessarily differ much according to (a,) the species; (6,) 
the age of the animal; (c,) ihe food it eats; (d,) the mode in 
which the dung is preserved, whether exposed to rain, sun, &e.; 
(e,) the quantity of urine contained; (f,) the decomposition 
which has taken place; (g,) whether alkalies or lime are 
in connection with it during decay, and how long. 

691. Table exhibiting the amount in pounds of carbon, &c., 
in the food and dung of two cows during fourteen days. 
( Thompson.) 


Brown Cow. | Waite Cow. 

Grass. | Dung. nee Grass. | Dung. coener 

Ibs. | Ibs, | Ibs. | Ibs. | Ibs. | Ibs. 
Carbon, - 16134; 67 | 9437 || 16134] 64 9734 
Hydrogen, - 21 8 | 13 ee! 734, 1344 
Nitrogen, - 614,27-10, 3 8-10 614; 2% 4 
Oxygen, - | 148 5414] 931¢ 148 2 96 
Ash, : 13%] 1414] 4 4-10) 18%) 13%) 5 
Water, - 1107034! 90213116734 107034 860 | 21034 

14263/|1049 | 377 | 14263/|1000 | 42634 


(See also, Liebig’s Animal Chemistry. Note 4.) 


316 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


Or according to another estimate, a cow consuming 26.41 Ibs, 
of grass daily, emits in shape of dung 11.13 Ibs.; and con- 
sumes, in the support of its body, 15.28 lbs. 100 parts of 
fresh fallen cow-dung will afford 0.614 or five-eighths of a 
pound of pure ammonia, or about 2 Ibs. 2 oz. of carbonate of 
ammonia (sal volatile) of the shops. (iS. Z. Dana.) 


Analysis of 100 parts of cow-dung. (Penot.) 


Water, > . . 69.58 
Bitter matter, . . - 0.74 
Sweet substance, - « - 0.93 
Chlorophyl, - - - 0. 28 
Albumen, - - . 0.63 
Muriate of soda, - - - 0.08 
Sulphate of potash, - - - 0.05 
Sulphate of lime, - - - 0.25 
Carbonate of lime, = - - 0.24 
Phosphate of lime, . - - 0.46 
Carbonate of iron, = - - 0.09 
Woody fibre, . - - 26.39 
Silica, - - - 0.14 
Loss, - - - - 0.14 


The amount of water, however, mentioned above, is too small, 
Boussingault gives the following comparative analysis: 


Fresh dung. Dry dung. 
——— - “~ —_ 
Cow. Horse. Cow. Horse. 
Water, - * 90.60 el 
Nitrogen, - 0.22 0.54 a3 22 
Saline matter, - 13 4.02 12.0 16.3 


So that in every 100 lbs, of fresh cow-dung, we have + of 
a pound of nitrogen, and a little over one pound of salts. 

692. Table exhibiting the food and water of a horse, con- 
sumed; and dung and urine, voided in 24 hours. (Boussin- 
gault.) (See Liebig’s Animal Chemistry. Note 4.) 


Food. | Dung.| Consumed. 
Carbon, - . - 3938.0/1472.9)9465.1 
Hydrogen, - . 446.5| 191.3] 255.2 
Oxygen, . - - 3209.2) 1363.0)1846.2 
Nitrogen, - - 139.4] 115.41 24, 


Salts and earthy matters, - . | 672.2 634.5| +12.3 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 817 


Analysis of horse-dung, in Rhode Island, (Jackson.) 500 
grains, dried at a heat a little above that of boiling water, lost 
357 grains of water. The dry mass weighing 143 grains was 
burned, and left 8.5 grains of ashes, of which 4.80 grains were 
soluble in dilute nitric acid, and 3.20 insoluble. 


Water, - - : 357 
Vegetable fibre and animal matter, - : 135 
Silica, - - : - 3.2 
Phosphate of lime, - : ° 0.4 
Carbonate of time, - - 15 
Phosphate of magnesia and soda, ° - 2.9 
500.0 


Horse-dung, in consequence of the smaller proportion of 
water, and more ammonia, ferments, or “heats,” more rapidly 
than the solid excrement of the cow; the ammonia being 
evolved and lost; and in this mode it may be rapidly deterio- 
rated. 

693. The dung of sheep and of fattening hogs is richer in 
nitrogen than either of the above, and consequently ferments 
and acts more rapidly. 

Boussingault found the following proportions: 


Sheep. Hogs. 
aor -os 
Recent| Dry Recent|Dry 
Water, - 63:0./—— 4 eed 
Nitrogen, - - 1.11/2.99 0.63/3.37 
Ash - - 12.7 etl et 


694. Dung of birds (Fowls, Pigeons, &c,) being mixed with 
urine, is still richer. In Belgium the dung yearly produced by 
100 pigeons is valued at $5.00. Its immediate effect depends 
upon the quantity of soluble matter it contains, and this varies 
much according to its age, the mode in which it is preserved, &e. 
Thus Davy and Sprengel obtained respectively, of 


: Recent, Six months old. After fermentation. 
Soluble matter in 
Pigeons dung, 


The soluble matter consists of uric acid, urate, sulphate and 


23 percent 16 percent 8 per cent. 


$18 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


carbonate of ammonia, common salt and sulphate of potash; 
—the insoluble part of phosphate of lime, with a little phos- 
phate of magnesia, &e. By fermentation it loses a portion of 
its ammonia. Every farmer should carefully clean his fowl- 
houses, at least once a week, and pack the dung in barrels with 
plaster, dry peat, earth, and a little salt &c; and in the spring 
sow it on his wheat at the rate of 300 cwt to the acre. If 
properly kept it differs but little from guano, for which $50 per 
ton is now paid at our shipping ports. In Michigan, 10 bush- 
els more of wheat to the acre, might in many instances be thus 
obtained. 


695. We give the following analyses of Guano, chiefly to show 
the composition of what has proved to be the most valuable ma- 
nure in existence; and the nearer we can cause other manures 
to approach to it, the more perfect will our art become. It is 
merely the dung of salt-water birds preserved inthe dry regions 
of the globe, chiefly on the coast of Peru. It has lately been 
stated, from actual measurement, that unless other deposites are 
discovered, and if the demand continues at the present height, 
the whole will be exhausted within 9 years. A patent has 
lately been granted in Great Britain for the preparation of an 
equivalent compound, at a lower price, from fish, fish offal, &e., 
and salts. 

Analysis of 2 specimens of Peruvian aan ( Way.) 


Water, - - - 1257 13.67 
Organic matter and Salts of ammunia, - 33.67 52.97 
Sand and Silica, - . - 1.72 142 
Phosphoric acid, ° : 20.21 14,56 
Sulphuric acid, - - - 4.00 2.52 
Lime, - . 1 - 16.49 10.38 
Magnesia, - - . 0.80 0.31 
Oxide of iron, ° ° 0.22 0.73 
Potash, > - - 3.60 » 142 
Soda, - - ° 4.15 none 


Chloride of Potassium, - ° none 2.02 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK, 819 


Chloride of Sodium, - ° 2.57 none 

Or the average of per cent 
Ammonia at - - - 17Al 
Phosphate of lime at : - 24.12 
Potash at - - - - 3,50 


These three being the elements chiefly demanded by plants, 
and in which the soil is apt to be deficient: in Guano, they are 
in the proper state of solubility and combination, 


696, Niaur Sor, or human excrements, are extensively used 
in Belgium, Germany, China, and other countries; but the Eng- 
lish and Americans appear to have an insuperable objection to 
manuring with these substances.. A few years ago they were 
prepared in Great Britain and in the Ciy of New York, ina dry 
form devoid of smell, and called Poudrette and Urate ; but 
they seem to have gone greatly out of use, probably on account 
of the means taken to render them less obnoxious dispelling the 
gases, s0 as to reduce the value of the manure below the cost of 
production. The excrement of men living on animal food is 
richer in nitrogen and phosphates than of those living on yeg- 
etables. (See Liebig’s Aanimal Chemistry, Note 1.) 

697. Urinz. It is to the urine, that barn yard manure chiefly 
owes its value, both as regards nitrogen and salts; and yet in 
our Western States how few take any pains to save the liquids; 
or prevent their being afterwards washed out of the dung. Liebig 
denies that there is any available nitrogen in horse dung; and 
practically, it probably isso; sothat with from 3600 to 4000 Ibs, 
of fresh horse dung, corresponding to 100 Ibs of dry dung, we 
place on the land from 2484 to 3000 lbs of water, of 730 to 900Ibs 
of vegetable matter and altered gall, and also from 100 to 270 of 
salt, and other inorganic substances, a portion of which only are 
soluble; while in urine, rotted with water, we apply a large 
quantity of, nitrogen, as well as of the most valuable salts, and 
these in a dissolved state ready at once to feed the plant, and 
therefore requiring a very small quantity, as we have already 
shown respecting bones. The urine of all animals bears a very 


320 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


strong chemical resemblance. We give the following table from 
Sprengel showing the composition of Cow’s urine when fresh 
(A,);. putrified alone (B,); and when putrified with water (C.) 


is A B Cc 
CWress"7" « : - 4000 1000 600 
Albumen, - - : 10 _— — 
Mucus, - - 190 40 30 
Benzoin acid, : - 90 250 120 
Lactic acid, - . - 516 500 500 
Carbonic acid, . - 5256 16 1533 
Ammonia, - . - 205 487 1622 
Potash, - - - 664 664 664 
Soda, - - - 554 554 554 
Silica, = - ° . 36 D 8 
Alumina, - - - Q — tl 
Oxide of iron, - - 4 1 a. 
Oxide of manganese, - a: ar — = 
Lime, . ° ° 65 2 8 
Magnesia, - - - 36 22 30 
Chlorine, - } - ° 272 972 972 
Sulphuric acid, - - - 405 388 332 
Phosphoric acid, a . 70 26 46 
Acetic acid, (vinegar) - . = 1 20 
Sulphuretted hydrogen,- > _ 1 30 
nsoluble earth 

Wiosphatie Bid BaFbot aie: } Mise Dida sink: 4: 
Water, - : - 92,624 95,442 93,481 

100,000 100,000 10.0000 


It will thus te understood how fresh urine may destroy vegetation, 
and yet prove beneficial when decomposed. 


Solid matter in 1000 parts, Average 
Water quantity 
Drine of in. voided 
1000 parts in 
Organic. Inorganic. Total. /|24 hours 
Man, 930 to 970 22 to 52 8 to 18 30to 70 3 lbs. 
Horse, 886 to 940 27 to 79 33 to 45 60 to 124 22 
Cow, 880 to 939 50 to 70 20 to 47 | 70to120 40 
Sheep, 930 to 960 28 to 50 12to 20 | 40to 70 ? 
Pig, 926 to 983 9 to 56 9to 18 18 to 74 ? 


It is to the Urza which exists in urine in very much larger 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 321 


quantity than in any other substance, that its beneficial effects 
are Chiefly due. 


Urea is a white salt-like substance, very soluble in water, consisting 
of— 


Per cent 
Carbon, - - : - - > 20.0 
Hydrogen, - - ° - - 6.6 
Nitrogen, + - > - - - 46.7 
Oxygen, : - - : - 26.7 


Besides which, when the urine begins to ferment, this substance 
changes entirely into carbonate of ammonia. As this rapidly escapes 
into the air, the urine must be kept in covered vessels, and plaster, peat, 
sulphuric acid, &c., may be mixed withit ; but burnt lime must not be 
brought into contact with it. 

There are various modes of preserving the liquid manures of the barn 
yard, such as tanks, sawdust, dc.; but probably, in all respects, the best 
is the simple plan invented by Mr. Mechi, of England. This consists 
of a shallow, water-tight cellar under the stable, with a ffoor made of 
scantlings laid an inch and a half apart from each other, so that the dung 
adn urine fall below, and are preserved till carried to the field. Itis of the 
utmost importance to the farmer to preserve this liquid ; and if one 
must be lost, it ought to be the solid. 


699. Goop Barn Yarp Manure, then, is a mixture of 
dung, urine, and straw, kept from the rain and sun, decomposed 
to a certain extent; and its value, per ton, must depend equally 
on the various proportions of these matters which it contains; 
the food of the animals; and the state of the decomposition, 
&e. 

Analysis of barn yard manure, just previous to being ap- 
plied, at New Castle-upon-Tyne, England. (Richardson:) 


Fresh. 

Water, - - - - - 64.96 
Organic matter, - : : - - 2471 
Inorganic salts, - : : : - 10.32 
Dried at 212°, 

Carbon, - * - > - - 37.40 
Hydrogen, - - - : - 5.27 
Oxygen, ~ - - - - +. 25.52 
Nitrogen, : - - - : 1.76 
Ash, : : : : - - 30.05 


21 


322 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


Inorganic matter, 1. Portion soluble in water, 


Potash, - - - 3.22; Sulphuric Acid, - - 3.27 
Soda, - - - 2.73| Chlorine, - - a5 
Lime, - - - 0.34] Silica, - - - O.4'4 
Magnesia, - - 0.26 
2. Portions soluble in muriatic acid only. 

Silica, - - - 27.01} Carbonate of is. Be. - “ 63 
Phosphate of Lime, - 7.11} Sand, - - 0.99 
Phosphate of Magnesia, - 2.26 Carbon, . - - "0 83 
Phosphate of Iron, - ‘ce Alkali and loss, - 3.14 
Carbonate of Lime, - 9.34 


Thus, of 100 Ibs. of barn yard manure, well made, well taken 
care of, and hauled on the field, 65 Ibs. are pure water; of the 
remaining 35 lbs. 25 are inert carbonaceous matter, only ser- 
viceable as a source of carbonic acid, leaving only 10 per cent. 
of inorganic substances, and 0.6 of nitrogen, as true fertilizing 
matters. Of this 10 per cent. only 3 are of much value either 
as regards their commercial price or relative value. But the 
above manure is of extraordinary richness when compared with 
what we are in the habit of applying in the Western States. 
Ours is generally thrown out of the stables, every shower pene- 
trating through it, and carrying into the next ditch whatever 
there may be soluble in water; then, through spring and sum- 
mer, the heat of the sun and fermentation drives off all gases 
as formed; and when, at much toil and expense, we apply it, 
we find nothing which can feed a plant or assist it to grow. 
The “black water” found round manure heaps, where there hap- 
pens to be a hole in the ground, is sufficient proof of this. The 
peat and marl of our marshes are much more valuable than 
such dung. 

As this a point of great practical and economical importance, the 


teacher ought to impress it especially on the minds of his pupils, and 
may exhibit the effect of water aud heat on fresh manure before them. 


We strongly recommend all farmers who take the troub’e tohaul their manure 
onto their soil, to save it either on Mr. Mechi’s plan, or to have a cheap shed near the 
door of the stable into which it can be pitched, raking care to use sufficient straw, 
sawdust, peat, &c., toabsorb all the liquids. One load of such dung is proved to be 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 328 


equal to at least eight{that have been exposed. The best mode of saving sheep manure 
is to keep the sheep under sheds, giving sufficient straw to keep them clean. Not 
only is much manure thus saved, but less food is corsumed, and the sheep are much 
more profitable. (See Farmer's Companion and Horticulural Gazette, vou. 1, P. 6, 
64.) 


700. In America, the European mode of making composts of barn 
yard manures and other substances is not much employed. It is not 
only a greater expense of manual labor, and lower value of produce 
which forbid it, but there are serious reasons for believing that with our 
very hot summer climate, and comparative want of showers, composts 
will not act as effectively with us as they do in the Eastern Hemisphere. 
The subject, however, does not appear to have been yet tested by ex- 
periment, and we can only speak theoretically. 

There are many other sources ef animal manures enjoyed in various 
parts of the world, but which at present are of no practical interest to 
Western farmers, 

701. Mrvzrat Manourss. 

By this term we mean all substances of an inorganic nature, 
all of which are derived, either directly or indirectly, from the 
soil, such as wood and coal ashes, plaster, &e.. 


Woop Asus. These are the remains of trees, after the or- 
ganic or vegetable matter has been consumed (driven off in the 
shape of gas,) by fire; and consequently, while they all bear a 
general resemblance, they differ much in the relative proportion 
of the constituents, according to the trees and soils from whieh 
they are derived. As manures they havea two fold action; 
(a,) they supply to the plant the inorganic constituents which 
it requires; (b,) they act chemically as solvents upon other in- 
soluble salts already in the soil; or they neutralize acids, de. 


702. When we have burnt a tree and collected the ashes 
we find that they consist of two portions, those that are soluble 
in water and those that are insoluble. The average quantity of 
ashes from 100 parts of dry oak, beech, birch, &e., is 2.87. 100 
parts of such ashes afford 13.57 parts soluble; 86.43 parts in- 
soluble, the latter being left behind at our ash works, while the 
soluble have been boiled down and exported as potash. Pine 


824 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


wood (dry,) affords only 0.83 in 100 parts of ashes; of which 
50 are soluble, 50 insoluble. Wheat straw yields 4.40 in 100 
parts, 19 per cent. being soluble, 81 insoluble. 

Composition of the ashes of hard wood, (oak, beech, birch, 
&e., (A); of Pine, (Pinus abies,) (B); and of wheat straw, 


(C). (Dana.) 


100 parts of soluble contain A, B. Cc. 
Carbonic Acid, 22.70 13.50 — 
Sulphuric Acid, 6.43 6.90 0.2 
Muriatic Acid, 1.82 — 13.0 
Silex, 95 2.00 35.6 
Potash and Soda, 67.96 69.70 50.0 
Water, 7.90 

100 parts of the insoluble contain, A. B Cc. 
Carbonic Acid, 35.80 21.5 

Phosphoric Acid, 3.40 1.80 1,20 
Silex, 4.25 13.06 75.00 
Oxide of Tron, 0.52 22.30 2.50 
Oxide of Manganese, 215 5.50 

Magnesia, 3.55 8.70 

Lime, . 35.80 27.20 5.80 
Charcoal, 15.50 


The following gives a comparative view of the entire ashes 
of the oak (A,); elm (B,); Beech (C,); and fir tree (pinus 
sylvestris,); (D,); analysed in Europe. (Johnston.) 


A. B. c. Dd. 

Potash, 8.43 91.92 15.83 wk, 
Soda, 5.65 13.72 2.88 997 
Lime, 75.45 47.80 63.33 . 46.15 
Magnesia, 4.49 7.71 £129 13.46 
Oxide of Iron, 0.57 0.38 0.79 326 
Phosphoric Acid, 3.46 3.62 3.07 4.49 
Sulphuric Acid, 1.16 1.28 1.35 3.03 
Chlorine, 0.01 a 0.14 0.71 
Silica, 0.78 307 1.32 8.38 
Percentage of ash in the dry } 

hard wood, 0.143 


It is thus obvious that, by leaching, little else is removed than 


- 


AGRICULTURA® TEXT-BOOK. 825 


potash, soda, and sulphuric acid, (the carbonic acil being a pro- 
duct of combustion, and of no intrinsic value); and when ashes 
are thus separated on a large scale, a notable quantity of the 
alkalies remains behind. Though the refuse is not émmediately 
soluble, it will become available to plants in the soil by chemical 
action, and the power which roots appear to possess of decom- 
posing mineral matter; while such alkalies as remain will act on 
the silica, and form soluble silicates for grass and the stalks of 
grain. 

In leaching, more or less lime is always added for the pur- 
pose of depriving the potash of its carbon, and rendering it 
eaustic, so that the common leached ashes are richer in lime than 

_before the process commences. According to Dana, a bushel of 
good ashes contains about 5} pounds of real potash. In leach- 
ing ashes, generally about one peck of lime is added to each 
bushel of ashes, and as it loses no bulk during the operation, a 
cord of leached ashes contains about the following proportions 
—allowing an average of 4} lbs. per bushel to be leached 
out :— 


: Ibs. 
Phosphorie acid, - - . 117 
Silex, - - - 146 
Oxide of iron, - - - 17 
Oxide of manganese, > - 51 
Magnesia, - - - - 119 
Carbonate of lime, ineluding that added in leaching, - 3072 
Potash combined with silica, - - - 50 


Spent ashes therefore belong to the class of carbonates; and 
to the farmer are worth very nearly as much as the unleached. 

In nearly the whole range of soils, ashes are beneficial to 
cultivated plants; but much more so on sandy and gravelly 
lands than on clay, which being chiefly formed of granite 
rocks naturally contain potash. We have also seen, in the 
analyses of plants, that certain genera, such as turnips, carrots, 
potatoes, beets, &c., contain a very large amount of the alka- 


326 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


lies; to such therefore ashes are found to be an essential ma- 
nure. But the immnitdiate‘benefit of such an application is 
most perceptible upon leguminous plants, such as clover, peas, 
beans, &c. Applied to grass land, as a top dressing, it roots 
out the moss, and promotes the growth of white clover, where 
it is indigenous to the soil. On Red clover, it will act more 
certainly in connection with plaster. If applied in /arge doses 
to poor thin soils it is believed to act injuriously by causing a 
rapid disappearance of the organic matter, but this may be pre- 
vented by the use of peat, barn-yard manures, We., at the same 
time. 

In connection with all wood-ashes is a large quantity of 
charcoal, and imperfectly burned carbonaceous matter, which 
also add to the value of the manure, 

Unleached ashes act at once, most rapidly and powerfully ; 
leached ashes act more slowly, but continue to act for many 
years after being applied. In the large heaps of such ashes, 
as everywhere accumulate in the west around the asheries, we 
neglect a most useful source of fertility; and where they have 
thus lain for a length of time, they are probably, to a consider- 
able extent, again rendered soluble. Their effect on the me- 
chanical condition of the soil is also worthy of notice. They 
render sands more compact and retentive of water, while they 
separate and render friable, heavy clays. 

In practice, they should always be placed én the soil, where 
the roots can come in contact with them. 

It is a general custom to apply ashes to corn, on the surface 
of the ground, but in this way the plant can receive no benefit 
except from the little that is soluble and is carried down by 
rain; but placed in the ground previous to planting, the roots 
and chemical action will afford many elements not available in 
the other way. The only advantage of placing ashes on the 
surface is the protecting of the plant against grubs. The seed, 
however, should not come in immediate contact with the ashes, 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 827 


Prof, Way has lately ascertained that all clay soils contain a double 

silicate of alumina and one of the alkalies or alkaline earths, as :— 
Soda, Lime, 
Potash, Magnesia, 
Ammonia. 

which is slowly soluble, but sufficiently so to supply what plants re- 
quire ; and that these silicates, without exception, are capable of ab- 
sorbing and retaining ammonia; and, what is still more important, 
some of them have the faculty of abstracting ammonia from the air. 
“ Whenever a salt of ammonia or potash reaches the soil, and gets dis- 
tributed through it, a change occurs—a double silicate of alumina and 
ammonia is formed, and the salt which was added no longer exists 
there. The ammonia or potash henceforth exists in the soil only in 
the form of silicate, and is presented to the roots of a plant only in 
that form, or in the form of carbonate derived from it by the action of 
carbonic acid in the soil. And inasmuch as all average soils possess 
this property of conversion in more than the degree necessary for the 
quantity of manure which reaches them, the inference is obvious and 
incontestable, that nature has given to the soil this power for the spe- 
cific purpose of preparing the food cf plants, and we then have the soil 
occupying a place intermediate between that of mere dead matter, and 
the living organism of plants.’’ We can only thus slightly mention 
this most important and beautiful discovery ; and refer the reader to 
Prof. Way’s own writings in the Jour. of Royal Agricul, Soy. of Eng- 
land, vol. xiii, &c. 


703. Lime is everywhere an essential of a fertile soil, and in 
Great Britain is more extensively used than any other mineral 
substance. It is applied in a variety of forms, as (a,) carbon- 
ate of lime—lime rock—(44 lbs. of carbonic acid and 51 lbs, 
of lime;) (4,) the same lime rock burned, and the carbonic 
acid driven off, when it becomes caustic, but again absorbs car- 
bonie acid and moisture rapidly from the air when it again re- 
turns to a carbonate, or is “slaked;”* (c,) Gypsum, Plaster, 
Sulphate of lime. (d,) Phosphate of lime, as in bones, &e., of 
which we have already spoken. (e,) Silicate of lime, existing 
in many rocks and earths; (f,) Marls; (g,) Chalk, which is 
another form of carbonate of lime, chiefly found in England; 
(h,) Magnesian limestone, the base of which is lime, with a 


328 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


varying proportion of magnesia. Of these, only common 
lime, plaster and } are of present interest to us in this part 
of the country. — 

Lime rocks are rarely pure, and they vary much in their ex- 
act composition. It is believed that those of Michigan have not 
yet been analyzed. The following are specimens from Seneca 
county, N. Y., examined by Mr. Delafield, 

NO. 1. NO. 2. NO.3. NO. 4. 


Insoluble sand and clay, - ee it PR 40 178.0 
Alumina and peroxide of iron, - 14 23.0 26.0 9.0 
Carbonate of lime, - - 90.0 53.5 60.0 11.0 
Magnesia, - - 1.5 28 5.5 2.0 
Oxide of manganese, ° - none, none, 1.0 
Soluble saline matter, - 14 12 24 
Phosphoric acid, = - - trace, trace, O.1 


(Trans. of N.Y. Agricul, Socy., vol. x, p, 611.) 
The following are analyses of English lime rocks made by 
Prof. Johnston, in their unburned and burned states :— 


UNBURNED. no. 1, No. 2. 
Carbonate of lime, 94.86 95.89 
Sulphate of lime, - - 0.23 0.32 
Carbonate of magnesia, : 1.26 0.54 
Aluminaand oxide of iron, - - 0.73 1.20 
Phosphate of lime, - 2 2 
Silica, - - - 2.92 2.05 

BURNED. no. 1. No. 2. 
Lime, - - 89.93 88.85 
Magnesia, - - 1.02 0.43 
Sulphuric acid, - - . 0.22 0.30 
Phosphoric acid, - ° ? ? 
Alumina and oxide of iron, . 1.23 1.98 
Silicate in the state of silicate, - - 4.92 3.39 
Carbonic acid and moisture, - 2.68 5.05 


(Johnston on the use of lime in Agriculture, p. 243.) 

We shall shortly mention the effect of burned and slaked 
lime upon the land. 

1, Mechanical; it opens and renders free, stiff clays, and con~ 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 329 


solidates sands. 2. Chemical. (a,) increases the fertility of all 
soils in which it does not already abound; and especially of te- 
nacious, moist soils and those containing much inert vegetable 
matter; (,) it improves the quality of the crop; (c,) it increa- 
ses the effects of manure, calls into action that which is dormant, 
and less manures needs afterwards be applied; (d,) alters the na- 
tural produce of the land by killing some plants and favoring the 
growth of others—it kills moss and sour grasses and brings up 
sweet and tender herbage with clovers—wheat has a thinner 
skin, and yields more flour—runs less to straw—peas and beans 
are of better quality, and so with most plants; (e,) it hastens 
the maturity of the crop; (f,) it renders the whole country more 
healthy, and plants less subject to diseases. 


Lime, indeed, can scarcely be applied judiciously to any soil 
without benefit; but it requires care and experience acting as it 
does with a varying effect under different circumstances. 


The quantity of lime which ought to be added to a soil is of 
course a question of experiment and practice. Theoretically 3 
per cent of lime (finely disintegrated) at least, ought to be 
present in a soil which contains an ordinary proportion of veg- 
etable matter and of the other food of plants. In order to add 
1 per cent of lime to the land, the quantity to be laid en will 
depend upon the depth. The following table shows the num- 
ber of tons of burned lime as it comes from the kiln, which will 
give one per cent of lime to soils, respectively 3, 6, 9, and 12 
inches in depth. 


If the depth of the soil be 12 ins, 9 ins. 6 ins. 3 ins. 
Tons of burned lime, per cent per eent per cent per cent 
16 tons give : . 1 1, 2 4 
ae, a : - X% BR) ieddgetd 

Rr, : : a aa eee 
Pie pte g ee 4% 1 


Quantity of quicklime applied per Imperial acre in different 
localities ; 


330 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


Bush. Years. Bush. a year. When applied. 
Roxburgh, 200 every 19 or 1014 to the fallow 
Ayr, 40 «“ 5 or 8 do,, or lea 
Carse of Stirling 54.04 6 or 9 do 
South Durham, 90 .<« 12 or 816 do 
Worcester, 70 “ Gor 8 or 10 before grasses & tares. 
Flanders, . ; i or 4 


Or at the average of 8 or 10 bushels a year per acre. 


Lime is found, in some of its shapes, over a large portion of the Uni- 
ted States ; but so far, its application as burnt lime has been much neg- 
lected. For further information we refer the reader to Prof. Johnston’s 
Lssay on the use of lime in agriculture, 12 mo, pp, 259, Edinburgh, 1849. 


704, Gypsum or Piaster is a Sulphate of lime. 100 lbs of 
common gypsum consist of 46.lbs of sulphuric acid, 33 Ibs of 
lime, and 21 lbs of water. When it is heated to redness this 
water is driven off, and the gypsum is very easily reduced to an 
exceedingly fine powder. In this form it is used by masons. 
It dissolves in 500 times its weight of pure water, or 50 gallons 
will dissolve one pound. Thus it is often found in spring wa- 
ter, and in streams which pass through a soil in which gypsum 
exists. In solution with water it is decomposed when mixed 
with fermenting animal or vegetable matter. 

Gypsum acts very differently on different soils and in different 
localities; at times producing no visible effect whatever; and at 
others, becoming almost a necessary of profitable cultivation. 

The theory of its beneficial action has long been a subject of 
dispute. The most probable solution is, that to a small extent 
it supplies lime and sulphuric acid to the plant, but is chiefly 
useful by the power it possesses of solidifying and retaining 
the ammonical gases of air and earth. 

Benjamin Franklin first introduced it from France into the 
United States. It was afterwards imported from Nova Scotia; 
and as New York, and the other Western States were settled, it 
was discovered in abundance. Ohio and Michigan possess large 
beds of it in various localities. It is quarried, and ground in 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 331 


mills; but is supposed to differ in quality, some mines having 
a higher reputation than others, probably in consequence of 
greater purity. That used by masons is said to be ground from 
selected specimens. 


Tt were interesting to try quick lime along side of plaster, so as to as- 
certain the relative effect and profit of each. At present, plaster in 
Michigan is expensive, costing $7.00 loose or $9.00 in barrels per ton 
at the mill ; and most that is ased is carried by land either from De- 
troit or Grand Rapids; while there are few farms in the interior of 
the State which cannot procure excellent marl at little more expense 
than digging. The late Dr. Houghton expressed the opinion that upon 
our sandy lands, the shell marls, even without burning, would prove 
quite as effective. Of the quantity consumed in this State we have no 
gorrect statistics. We find that during the year ending June 1853, the 
Central Railroad carried 2,613 tons ; and allowing as much more for the 
Southern Railroad, and for private conveyance, we have a total of 5226 
tons averaging $10 per ton delivered on the farm, which makes a total 
of $52,260) per annum for this one manure. It is very important that our 
marls and peats should be more fully investigated and their effects care- 
fully tried. 


Prof. Johnston states that when mixed with common salt, the 


action of gypsum upon cloyers, beans, peas, &c., appears to be 
greatly increased. 


W. Alexander, of Ballochmyle, Scotland, dressed an apparently worth- 
lest crop of young beans with a mixture of 2 cwt. of gypsum, and one of 
common salt per acre. The effect was almost marvelous, and instead 
of a bad crop, his beans were the admiration of the country. He found 
a sensible effect produced by this mixture even after the beans were in 
flower. 

Plaster acts as a stimulant, and its tendency is to impoverish 
the soil unless organic and other manures are liberally added. 


705. Mar properly means an earthy mixture containing not 
less than 20 per cent of carbonate of lime. If the proportion of 
lime be less than this, the mixture is rather a marly clay, con- 
taining potash or silica in place of lime, as in the Green-sand 
marls of New Jersey, and Silicious marls of Massachusetts. (See 


332 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


§ 117, 118, 119, 120, ». 37.) Of the true marls, there are 
many varieties, differing both in composition and external char- 
acter; and consequently “in value. 


The following are analyses of marls in Seneca Co., N. Y. 


No. 1, No. 2, No. 3. 
Moisture, - - 4.50 1.0 3.48 
Organic matter, - 8.50 4.20 1.65 
Insoluble sand, - 6.60 6.0 5.0 
Carbonate of lime, - 77.10 83.33 83.35 
Magnesia, - - 2.10 2.16 40 
Phosphoric acid = 0.86 
Ries, ; cuca 28 2.00 
Common Salt, - — — 0.20 
Sulphate of lime, - _ 50 -- 
Sulphuric acid, - — — 0.46 


The lime marls appear to be formed in two modes; (a,) by 
the deposite of lime brought to the surface by springs; (,) by 
the accumulation of shells, and minute forms of animal life, or 
Infusoria, often microscopic, with caleareous coverings. “Some 
of these are so minute, that a cubic inch of stone has been cal- 
culated to contain the remains of 41 thousand millions of them 
—and yet deposites composed almost entirely of such remains 
have been met with of 20 and 30 feet in thickness. How very 
striking is it to find the united labors of these invisible creatures 
capable of producing such extraordinary effects! How very lit- 
tle we really know of what is going on around us!” (Johnston. ) 


The marls of Michigan are believed to consist of both these 
kinds, but especially of the latter. We believe they have ney- 
er yet been analyzed, but will probably be found rich in phos- 
phoric acid and ammonia. Mr. Delafield states of the New 
York marls above mentioned, that the poorest will afford 25 Ibs 
of phosphoric acid to every ton of dry and weathered marl. 
This is equal to 45 lbs of phosphate of lime, a quantity found in 
80 Ibs of bone dust, and equal also to what a grazing cow annu- 


AGRICULTURAL TIEXT-BOOK. 333 


ally takes from the land. The best Michigan marls will proba- 
bly be found much richer than the above—and here is the very 
substance in which our oldest wheat lands are beginning to be 
deficient, (See Genesee Farmer, August, 1853,) and yet it is 
allowed to lie neglected and despised in almost every marsh and 
lake. Marls may be applied in two modes, (a,) burned as lime, 
in which respect they do not much differ in effect from the best 
agricultural lime rocks; (6,) in the natural state, but dried so as 
to powder. Like lime they produce a mechanical and chemi- 
cal effect; the first differing with the soils and the character of 
the marl. The chemical effect consists in actually rendering 
the soil productive of larger crops. The exact mode of acting 
does not appear to be well understood. The observed effects of 
marl and shell sand, in so far as they are chemical, are chiefly 
the following :—They alter the nature and quality of the grasses 
when applied to pasture; they cover even the undrained bog, 
with a short rich grass—they extirpate coarse grasses and moss, 
and the weeds which infest unlimed wheat fields ; they increase the 
quality and enable the land to grow a better quantity of wheat; 
they manifest.a continued action for many years after they have 
been applied; like the purer limes, they act more energetically if 
aided by the occasional addition of other manure; and like 
them they finally exhaust a soil from which successive crops are 
reaped, without the requisite return of decaying animal or veg- 
etable matter. ( Johnston.) 

In practice it is probably best to dig the marl, and leave it to dry and 
disintegrate for some months before applying, One ton and upwards 
may be applied to the acre, and plowed in shallow at the last plowing, 


or worked in with the cultivator. To act effectually, time must be kept 
near the surface, and its constant effort is to sink below the reach of 


roots. 
706. Satur is chemically composed of the metal sodiwm, and 


the gas chlorine, chloride of sodium, or called by the older 
chemists muriate of soda. It is procured by evaporating the 


$34 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK, 


water of the sea or salt springs, and is rarely found in com- 
merce perfectly pure; salts of lime and magnesia being mixed 
with it. 

Salt is found in nearly all soils; in the ashes of all plants; 
and is necessary for animal life. It has been used in all ages 
and countries as a manure, and acts not only as a feeder of 
plants, but chemically as a solvent, and in this latter regard ap- 
pears to be most efficient. In some soils it strengthens the straw, 
but it acts variously in different localities. Theoretically, it 
ought to prove very efficient in our Western States. Mixed 
with plaster it is said greatly to improve the latter. It must be 
used with care, and not applied directly to the plants. In dry 
climates, where seasonable rains seldom fall, salt will rarely do 
anything but injury. Root crops, and of those, beets, appear to 
be the most.benefitted by salt. From one to ten bushels may 
be applied to the acre, sown broadcast and harrowed in, a few 
days before the seed is sown, In New York, three bushels to 
the acre have been found effective in destroying grubs, cut- 
worms, &e. 


707. Mup, Muck. ‘This substance is found in great abun- 
dance in many ponds, marshes, &e,, and in some localities it 
has been applied with great successas a manure. It necessarily 
varies much in its composition, Mr, Dana analyzed two speci- 
mens in Massachusetts, and he found them to consist of :— 


No. 1, No. 2. 
Soluble Geine, Ordant 5.10 8.10 
Insoluble Geine, t ape 8.90 6.50 
Salts and Silicates, 86. 0 84.40 


A cord of No. 1 weighed when dug 6117 Ibs., and contained 
solid matter, 3495 Ibs.; composed of geine, 495 lbs.; of sili- 
cates and salts, 3005 Ibs. The salts of lime were 24 per cent. ; 
from which we judge that it would prove a vaulable manure. 


Prof. Johnston examined a black mud from Leith Docks, 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK, 835 


which was carted away by the farmers. He found a considera- 
ble quantity of animal matter, with much finely divided silica, 
which were found under the microscope to be infusoria. 


Many mucks will probably be found to contain phosphoric 
acid, ammonia, vegetable matter, sulphur, and salts of lime and 
potash, and if so they are important to the farmer; but in our 
present state of ignorance regarding them, we can only recom- 
mend careful trials. We believe that, in practice, they are usu- 
ally left exposed to the air, after digging, till dry and disinteg- 
rated; and if dug in the fall, so as to be frozen, they are found 
to be inproved. 


708. III. Veartaste MaAnoures. 


These are practically of two classes; (a.) such as are grown 
for the purpose of being plowed in; (6,) and those which are 
collected from other sources, and applied as are ordinary ma- 
nures, ¢. g. peat, leaves, &c. In the West, the first are employ- 
ed in the shape of buckwheat, clover, and sometimes rye; and 
in other countries seyeral plants are used for the same purpose; 
being turned under immediately before flowering. Such plants 
as collect their food chiefly from the air by the leaves, and contain 
much carbon, or those whose roots pierce deep into the subsoil, 
are preferred. Their value is owing to the elements which they 
supply directly to the next crop; and they are estimated accord- 
ing to the amount of nitrogen, carbon, and inorganic matter 
which they contain. In soils deficient in organic matter, such 
manuring is often very profitable when properly applied. The 
mechanical tendency of such applications is, also, to render stiff 
soils more friable. 


In the second division a great variety of substances have been 
used, as straw, chaff, bran, rape cake, sawdust, malt-dust, &e. ; 
but, in this country, Pear promises to prove the most impor- 
tant. Peat is a partially decayed moss or sphagnum, and is a 
real coal in an imperfect state. Itis found in marshes and wet 


336 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


places, and is sufficiently abundant throughout Michigan and 
the other Western States. Like all other similar substances, it 
is subject to many variations in its composition. Some speci- 
mens contain a large proportion of ammonia, and they all ap- 
pear to be rich in salts and carbon, 

Analysis of peat from Paisley Moss, Scotland, viz: an upper 
peat, (A;) an under peat of the same bed, (B;) and of the 
Dutch ashes, formed of peat, (B.) (Johnston.) 


A, B. C. 

Organic matter, (charred peat,) - 54.12 3.02 25.77 
Sulphates and carbonates of be at 

soda, and magnesia, soluble in 6.57 5.1 2.78 

water, 
Alumina, soluble in acids, - «= 299 ree 1119 
Oxide of iron, - - 461 18.66 * 
Gypsum, - ° - 10.49 21.23 16.35 
Phosphate of lime, - - 0.90 0.40 1.24 
Carbonate of lime, e - 854 3.50 1.21 
Carbonate of magnesia, - 3.39 


10.88 43.91 37.24 


99.10 98.36 99.17 


Analysis of 10 varieties of Peat from Massachusetts, 


Insoluble siliceous matter, - 


( Dana.) 

Locality. | | Saluble Geine. | Insoluble Geine. | Total Geine. | Salts & Silicates. 
1. Dracut, 14.0 72.0 86.0 14.00 
2. Sunderland, 26.0 56 60 85 60 14.40 
3. Westborough, 48.80 43.60 92.40 7.60 
4, Hadley, 34.0 60.0 94.0 6.0 
5. Northampton, 38.30 - 44,15 82 45 17.55 
6. He 32.0 54.90 86.90 13.10 
%. ye 12.0 60.85 72.85 Q7.15 
8, “s 10.0 49.45 59.45 40.55 
9 ff 33.9 59.0 92.0 8.00 
10. oe 46.0 46.80 92.80 7.20 
Average, 29.41 55.03 84.44 15.55 


By the word “ Geine” this writer means the vegetable matter of soils, 
also called Humus, Ulmin, &c., and represented by the symbol C 40, 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 337 


_ #16, O 14, with, occasionally, an addition of ammonia. The term is 
now rarely used in agriculture. 

All Peat shrinks by drying, and Bi perfectly dried at 
240 ° F. loses from 73 to 97 per cent of water. When allowed 
to dry in the air, it still contains about two-thirds of its weight 
of water, and rapidly re-absorbs moisture. It shrinks from 
two-thirds to three-fourths of its bulk. Taking these data, 
100 parts of fresh dug peat, of average quality, contain — 


( Dana.) 
Water, . ~ - 85.0 
Salts of lime, > - - 0.50 
Silicates, - - Siw #-. 0.50 
Geine, = - - 14.0 


Owing to the difficulty of rendering Peat soluble, it has not 
been used in agriculture to the extent it deserves, in its natural 
state. It is frequently burned (or rather charred,) and the 
ashes are applied with good effect at the rate of from 50 bush- 
‘els to two tons per acre. 

Prof. Norton, says : “They usually contain from 5 to 6 per 
cent of potash and soda, considerable quantities of lime, mag- 
nesia, iron, &c., being therefore worth about as much as the 
poorer kinds of wood-ashes. In wet land, where varieties of 
peat wbound, which are only decomposed with great difficulty, 
it is sometimes advisable to burn them on a large scale for the 
purpose of obtaining the ash as manure. Heaps are made 
at convenient distances directly upon the surface of the bog, 
and the fire started by means of a little dry peat in the 
centre of each heap; as it burns through to the outside, fresh 
peat is dug up and. thrown on, and so the process may be kept 
up as long as desirable, It is to be observed as to all varieties 
of ashes, that their value is greatly impaired by exposure to the. 
weather.” But the best mode of using peat is to lay it in cat- 
tle stables, and to mix it with decomposing animal manures; 
when, it will, if* sufficiently dried, not only absorb the liquids, 
but. itself undergo fermentation. According to Mr.. Phinney, 

22 


338 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


of Lexington, Mass., a cord of fresh dung converts twice its 
bulk of peat into a manure of equal value to itself—that is, a 
cord of elear stable dung, composted with two of peat, forms a 
manure of equal value to three cords of green dung. 

Mr.S. L. Dana, of Lowell, Mass., wrote a book,a few years since, 
for the purpose of showing that peat mixed with an alkali, in all re- 


spects resembles, and, as a manure, is equivalent in effect to cow dung. 
The cost per cord, at that time, he estimates as :— 


1 Cord peat and digging, - - - $1.50 
92 lbs. potash at 6 cents, 5.52 ) 
Or61 Ibs. soda ash at 4 cents, 2.44 | 

Or 24 bush common wood-ashes ¢ average of alkalies, 3.65 
at 121¢ cents, = - - 3.00 | 
— J 

3)10.96 
$3.65 Per cord.... $5.15 


Were they really good hard-wood-ashes, about 16 bushels would be 
sufficient, but an excess is allowed to compensate for variation. At 
that period, clear cow dung was purchased by the Print works at an 
average cost of 174-5 cents per bushel, or $17.45 cents per cord, at 
times even higher. 

We must he e complete our very. imperfect remarks on manures, as 
the subject is sufficiently extensive to fill a much larger volume than 
this. The teacher will find all that he can require in the American 
Muck Book, by D. J. Browne, 12 mo. pp. 429, published by C. M. Sax- 
ton, New York, 1852. 

For the sake of convenience, however, we add a list of the articles 
used in various countries as manures, designating with an asterisk (*) 
such ascan probably be of service in the United States. 


JT, Anmrat Manvures. Refuse of Lard-Boilers,* (Cincin- 
Blood.* nati, &e.) The whole hog is 
Flesh * boiled by a_ heavy pressure of 
(Dried flesh, from South America.)| steam, and all, but the oil. leftas 
Bones.* a dry power.) 

Skin. Other refuse of Pork Packers,.* 
Wool. Bone Black, or animal charcoal, 
Hair.* from Sugar Refineries.* 
Feathers. Refuse of Bone and Ivory Turners, 


Woollen rags,* (England.) &e. 

Mill refuse,* (England.) Dung of Horses.* 
Fish, (New England, &c.) Cows.* 

Blubber, and other fish refuse.* e Sheep.* 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


Dung of Hogs.* 

a Men.* 
¢Pudrette.)* 
Droppings of Birds.* 
Guano.* 
Urine of all kinds,* 
(Urate.)* 
Shells, (marine and fresh.* ) 
' Jofusoria in muck.* 
Coral sand*? 
Scutch, (Glue maker’s refuse.)* 
Refuse from Tanueries.* 


If. Mryerat. 


Carbonate of Ammonia. 


. Nitrate of Ammonia. 


Muriate of Aramonia. 

Sulphate of Ammonia. 

Water from Gas works.* 

Lime from Gas works.* 

Coal Tar. 

Wood ashes, (unleached.)* 
do (leached. )* 

Coal ashes, ( Anthracite.)* 
do —_ (Bituminous,)* 

Ashes of Sea-weed, (Kelp, or Baril- 

la. 

Soap maker’s waste, (Soda.)* 

Bitterns, (Refuse of Salt works.)* 

Burnt clay.* ° 

Rubbish of old buildings.* 

Coprolites, (a mineral phosphate. ) 

Apatite, (a mineral phosphate.)* 

Lime, (carbonate of.)* 

Burnt lime* 

Sulphate of lime, (plaster.)* 

Phosphate of lime. 

Silicate of lime. 

Nitrate of lime. 

Marls, ( Calcareous.)* 

Potash. 

Nitrate of Potash, (Saltpetre.) 

Potash Matrls, (Greensand.)* 

Soda. 


339 


Silica, (Sand.)* 

Sulphuric acid. 

Olay, or sand, of Granite, Green- 
stone, Serpentine, and Basalt 
Rocks.* 


JII. VecerasLe Manvres. 
Straw .* 


Chaff.* 
Leaves of plants and trees.* 
Spoiled hay.* 
Saw-dust,* 
Charcoal * 
Vegetable matter, charred.* 
Spent Tan, (app. ars to act specifi- 
cally on strawberries. )* 
Apple Pomace.* 
Weeds * 
Cotton Refuse.* 
do Seeds.* 
Siems of Flax.* 
Refuse of water of flax mills," 
Bran. 
Rape Cake. 
Rape Dust. 


|Cake of Linseed. 


do Poppy seed. 
do Cocoa nut. 
Refuse of other oil-seeds. 
Peat.* 
Sea-weed,* 
Tops & leaves of cultivated plants,* 
Soot.* 
To pLow IN—GREEN Manures. 
Red Clover,* 
Buck wheat.* 
Rye.* 
Corn, (Maize. )* 
Turnips. 
White Lupines. 
Vetch or Tares. 
Rape. ; 
White Mustard. 
Vine twigs, (for Vineyards.)* 


Chloride of sodium, (common salt)*|Malt-dust. , 
Nitrate of soda, (Peruvian Sult- Refuse of Starch manufactories,* 


petre.) 


There are a fow other expensive 


Sulphate of soda, (Glauber salts.)|salts occasionally used in very high 


Magnesia. 


Sulphate of magnesia, ( Epsom|mentioning. 


salts.) 


farming, but they are searcely worth 
See Johnston's Ex- 


perimental Agr culture, 1849.) 


CHAPTER XXIII. 


PLOWING. 


709. Plowing is merely a means resorted to for stirring up 
the soil, and rendering it friable in order that it may receive the 
seed. Digging was probably the original mode of performing 
this operation, but as this is very laborious, although very eflect- 
ive, some sort of plow appears to have been invented as soon as 
oxen or horses were employed in agricultare. The history of 
the plow is the history of the art; for so intimately are good. 
crops dependent upon good Abeink that just ji in proportion as 
this implement has been improved so has the product ofthe earth 
increased in quantity. But it is only of late years that this all 
important implement has been formed on trwe mechanical prin- 
ciples; and, with the exception of Great Britain and America, 
nearly all the world still cling to the use of antiquated and in- 
efficient forms; nor can it yet be said that either the plow or 
the mode of using it are fully understood. The English and 
Americans form and use the plow on different principles, the 
first endeavoring to lay an unbroken furrow, the latter trying to 
break or pulverize the soil in the operation; while the proper 
depth of plowing in different classes of soils is very little under- 
stood by practical men. Notwithstanding the great skill with 
which the best American plows are made, there is still a wide 
field of improvement open in both these respects. “Within a: 
very few years, many efforts have been made to plow by steam, 
or by horse power, indirectly applied; and a Canadiamis at this: 
moment perfecting a machine in England; while there is one 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 341 


in successful operation in that country which may be worked 
either by steam or horse power. This is not strictly plowing, 
in the usual sense of the word, but turning up the soil by rotary 
cutters. Should such machines become generally available they 
will probably revolutionize agriculture, as the introduction of the 
Spinning Jenny &e. revolutionized the manufacture of Cotton 
and Woolen cloths; since it will be impossible for small farmers, 
working on the old plan, to compete with large capitalists, with 
extensive farms, doing all their work by steam and other ma- 
chinery. As however, the improvements introduced into man- 
ufactories have not only benefitted the world in general, but 
supplied work for a very much larger number of laborers, so 
may we expect this revolution in art to produce the same effect 
in agriculture. 

710. Till within a century, all plows were made of wood with 
wrought iron plates &e, nailed on, for the land-side, mould-board, 
and point. In Great Britain, they were generally prepared with 
one or two wheels at the end of the plow-beam, as they still are 
in France and Germany, and were drawn by 4 to 8 horses; or 
by a pair of horses with the addition of four, and sometimes of 
six oxen, with one man to hold, and two to drive. About 1763, 
James Small, of the county of Berwick, Scotland, a manufactu- 
rer of Agricultural implements, turned his attention to the im- 
provement of plows. In experimenting, he made the mould- 
board of soft-wood, by means of which it soon appeared where 
the pressure was the most severe, and where there was the 
greatest friction. He likewise applied true mechanical principles 
to the subject; introduced cast iron in place of wood; and so 
lightened the draft that two horses were quite as efficient as the 
heavy teams previously employed. This appears to haye been the 
first invention of the light and elegant cast-iron swing plows which 
are now every where in usein thiscountry. (Sir John Sinclair, in 
his Account of the systems of husbandry adopted in Scotland, 
1812, gives the full history of this invention.) This introduc- 


342 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


tion of an improved plow has not only had a most fayorable 
bearing upon agriculture in every respect, by reducing the cost 
of working the soil, and doing the work in a much better man- 
ner, but it is very doubtful, whether a very large portion of 
America could yet have been settled, if so many animals and 
men had been requisite to perform the operation. Plows are 
made so as to be adapted to every sort of soil and work, and. 
are arranged upon well known and accurately ascertained prin- 
ciples. ‘These principles every farmer should understand; but 
as this knowledge presupposes an acquaintance with mathemat- 
ics and mechanics we cannot enter upon it here. 

711. The object of the plowman is so to turn over the soil as 
to render it the best adapted for the growth of plants with the 
least expenditure of labor and time. If the soil is so turned as 
merely to be reversed, lying, as it were, in long ribbons, friabil- 
ity is not attained, but must be produced by subsequent opera- 
tions, with the harrow, cultivator, &e. If the soil is so broken, 
that part is reversed, and part is not, weeds are tempted to grow 
and the crop will be uneven. If there are inequalities, and deep 
holes, some seeds will be buried too deeply, others will be too 
shallow. The best plowmen, therefore, endeavor, while they 
separate the soil, entirely to reverse it, to lay the furrows per- 
fectly even on the surface, and to plow as deeply, and as great a 
width at the same time as possible. In narrow furrows, the soil 
will be rendered friable most effectually, but time will be lost. 

Depth is of great importance in successful agriculture, under 
nearly all circumstances. There may be subsoils of such a char- 
acter that it would be injudicious at once to turn up much of 
them; but by annually plowing an inch or so deeper, by de- 
grees great depth is attamed without injury. Deep plowing 
acts in the same manner as thorough draining, but to a less ex- 
tent. It gives the roots of plants a larger field from which to 
gather their food; it allows surface water to escape; atmospher- 
ic manures to be collected instead of running off; and it affords 


AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 343 


a more equal and probably a higher temperature and greater 
command of moisture. A field plowed three or four inches 
deep is easily exhausted; while such manures as are applied, 
soon escape beneath the reach of the roots; and, in many soils, 
in process of time, the plow passing at one equal and shallow 
depth forms an artificial and impervious hard-pan. According 
to Mr. Delafield in 1850, in Seneca county New York, “The 
evidence of every successive year, has. clearly manifested the 
economy and profit of deep tillage; the mechanical operations 
on the soil require less force and labor; less seed is necessary ; 
and all manures produce their full effect. Many of the best in- 
formed farmers are firm in the opinion that deep plowing and 
subsoil plowing are more effective on wheat soils when a judi- 
cious system of drainage has been adopted; for though deep 
tillage by the plow allows the roots of plants to seek their food 
ata greater depth from the surface, yet they will extend them- 
selves (in some soils,) to the cold influences of retained waters, 
where drains do not exist, and be deprived of that full measure of 
health and vigor which the principle of deep tillage is intended 
to afford.” 


The Jointer Plow, itivented in Michigan, is forcing its way into very 
general use. It isa miniature or small plow, which can be attached and 
detached from the beam of any other plow at pleasure, and is placed a 
short distance in advance of the main plow. It turns over 2 to 4 inch- 
es of the soil which is buried deeply and neatly under the furrow 
formed by the succeeding »low}; and with four oxen or horses, 10 to12 
inches can easily be reached. (See Transactions of Michigan State Ag- 
ricullural Society, Vol, iv, p 147.) 


712. Horses cannot draw a plow for any very great distance 
without stopping. A length of 250 yards is believed to be the 
best for the size of a field, allowing the horses to rest at the 
turning. The following table shows the quantities of land 
plowed at different speeds, at given breadths of the furrow-slices, 
(Stephens. ) 


344 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 


Speed; rate] Miscuuce walked Breadth of Quantity OF lana plowed 

per hour. in 844 hours. | furrow plowed in 844 hours at that speed. 
Miles | Miles, Yards, Inches, | A K P 
1 1248 9 0 3 1 
8 440 10 0 aD, 14 
uz} 12. 642 9 1 ot at 
“a4 12 220 10 1 0 34 
9 17 —-808 9 1 p 2 
16 = 880 10 1 2 28 
3 26 332 , 9 a cmt 3 
94 1320 2 10 ee ae 


Table showing the comparative amount of time lost in turnings while 
plowing long and short ridges, (Stephens.) 


Length Breadth «f ‘Time lost Vine devoted Hours of 
of ridge. furrow slice. | in turning. | to plowing. work. 
Yards Inches | H M H M | H 

78 10 2 Il 4 49 y. 20 
149 2 44 ipl rr 
200 a3 ay ky mrad Faw tass 
212 e 1 561g ee 
274 “s 1 22 8 32 hee 


718. There are a variety of modes of plowing to suit the nature 
of the soil and season of the year; though this diversity is more 
practised in Europe than in America, (For illustrations see 
Stephen’s Farmex’s. Guide, vol. 1 p. 171-186.) 


FINIS. 


GENERAL INDEX. 


> 


[The figures at the end of each line refer to the Seciions.] 


A 
Acclimating of plants 131. 
Acetic acid in air 32. 
Agriculture, meaning of 1. 
divisions of 2, 3. 
32 art and science of 4. 
& art of 24, 25. 
Agr icultural Schools, 10. 
education, 13. 
Air, 96. 


"chemical composition of 26, 
Atmosphere, 26. 


weight of 26, 
Ammonia in air 28, 30, 31. 
‘ a¢ in rain 29. 


as absorption of by plants 42. 


Arsenic in springs 70. 
Alumina, 80. 
Ash of plants 99,702. 
Animal plants limits of 129, 130. 
Analysis of sea water 56. 
Schuylkill 57, 
* Dead Sea 58. 
& Salt Lake 59, 60. 
Us. Grenalle 61. 
« Hartford 62. 
« Horse chestnut 66. 
es Barn-yard manure 91]. 
“ Clay soils 112. 
td Cotton lands 113. 


= Fertile and barren soils 114. 


“ Michigan soil 115. 
“ New Jersey “ 116. 
B Marl 117, 119, 120. 
oe Green sand 48, 
s Wheat 159, 162, 166, 167. 
nA Bran 165. 
St Flour 170. 
“ wheat soils 173. 
s rye 208, 209, 210, 
ss rye straw 212. 
——-6 ergot 225, 
ae barley 233, 234, 235. 
¢ barley straw 239 
“6 Indian corn 28), 283, 284. 
= rich corn soils 291, 
= rice 322, 323, 324. 
a“ buckwheat 233, 337. 
«6 millet 348. . 
“ leguminous plants 355. 


oe 
“ 
“ 


Analysis of clover, 410, 411, 412, 413, 414, 
1 


5, 416. 

pea and pea straw 356, 357, 358, 
grasses 391, 355, 387, 388, 389. 
sanfoin 425. 
chickory, 428, 429. 
turnip soils 435. 
turnip 437, 442. 
rape 458. 
potato 468, 465. 
Jerusalem artichoke 471, 473, 
parsnip 485, 487. 
carrot 5/0 to 503. 
beet 517-520. 
sweet potato 534. 
hops 542, 543. 
musk-melon 561, 666. 
cucumber 562, 666. 
tobacco 571, 572. 
flax 600, 605. 
hemp-seed 615, 616. 

“ scutchings 617. 
broom corn 626. 
apple 635. 638. 
pear-wood and leaves 643, 644, 
peach leaves 648. 

* tree 649. 
cherry leaves 653. 
grape leaves 656. 
gooseberry 658. 
rhubarb 660, 662. 
tomato 663. 
egg plant 463. 
water-melon 666, 
vegetable oyster 667. 
endive 667. 
celery 667. 
beef and blood 682, 683. 
mineral phosphates 687. 
cow dung 691. 
horse dung 691, 692. 
sheep and hog dung 693. 
pigeon dung 694, 
guano 695. 
cow’s urine 697, 
barn-yard manure 699, 
wood-ashes 702. 
lime rock 703. 
marls 705. 
peat 708. Yr \ 


ecexlvi.] GENERAL INDEX. 


Animal, an apparatus of combustion 672.\Beets uses and value of 527 


«* meat, tallow, skin of 681. ck manures for 5238 
Apple, varieties of, general remarks 634. “value of 529 
analysis of pulp and skin of Swaar| “ diseases and insects 520 
635, 636, 638, 629. “ beer and vinegar from 531 
2 comparison of wth peach, pear,cher-| Beck Prof. 143 
ry and potato 639. Blood, dry, analysis of 682, 683 
“ fattening qualities 639. Bread of corn meal 236 
** analysis of sweet apple tree 640. Bones, action of 679 
** tree, leaves of Early Harvest 641 “ composition of 685 
Ashes, wond 394, 702. “ action of as manures 686 
‘* effects of on soils 702. Birds must be cherished 313 
“ for Indian corn 702, Buckwheat, species, &c 332 
Asparagus, properties of (64. ae "plue 332 
& where grown, produce &¢ 332 
B ue analysis of 333, 334, 337, 238 
Barn-yard manure 91. se UL grain and straw 335 
Bread, the effects of yeast in 172. is « ‘straw 336 
“ of rye 214. ne its uses 339 
Barley, soils 173, 210. i effects of on swine 340 
where cultivated 229. ss qualities of the straw of 341 
iy amount raised 231, = tor plowing in green 342 
s: species cultivated 232, ag soils for 343 
« analysis of 233. “a harvesting 344 
sc nature of the grain 236. = produce per acre 345 
2 effects of manures on 237. oy legal weight of 346 
es starch in 238. Burnet 423 
“ straw, analysis of 239. Broom corn, how introduced 622 
«value of 240, oe vil for, management of, and 
2 malt of 241. yield 623 
« culinary uses of 242 “cost of crop 624 
s¢ mineral matter it takes from an BS Pyobts qualities of the brush 
acre 243 
se preparation for sowing 244 “ thee sis of brush and seed 626 


ne when known to be ripe 245 


“ narvesting of 246 Cc 

“6 straw for feeding 247 Cabbage, qualities &c 455 

~, to sow grass seed with 248 395 Canary grass 351 

ee weeds in 249 ‘© soil for and culture of 351 

«fungus on 250 5s harvesting and yield 351 

“ insects injurious to 251 Capillary power Lily, 

se grown with flax 610 Carrots, what a crop draws from soil 442, 
Beans, varieties 352, 358 458 

“what they require in soil 676 & order and families of the 498 

“ varieties grown 370 as culture of, increasing 499 

‘6 soil for 371 “  gompared with hay to feed 499 

sé culture 372 ne analysis of 500 to 503 

a expense of raising 373 sf compared with parsnips 504 

st yield per acre, 374 «culture and manure 605, 507 

ue straw of 375 BE seed per acre, mode of sowing 506 
Beef, dry, analysis of 682, 683 us digging and preserving 508 
Beets, varieties of &c 512 “cost of crop 509 

what a crop draws from soil 442 “  peetin in 510 

wc sugar from 512 6“ yield per acre 511 

Ke mangold the 513 Carbonic acid in the air 26, 34. 

s€ qualities of the root 514 a leaves ahsorb 46, 47. 

“peculiar formation of and proper- & favorable to plants 69. 

ties 515 ae action of on soil 113. 

«its value and uses in England 516 |Castor oil plant, remarks on the 583 

«analysis of 517 to 520 ee qualities of 584 

s nutritious matter in 521 6 no analysis of 585 

soil for 522 UW yield of beans and oil 586 

« seeding and culture 523 Cattle, fattening on turnips 449 

LS gathering, care in 524 Centigrade thermometer 129. 

“ preserving 525 Celery, analysis of 667 


« yield of crop 526 Chemical rays of light 134. 


GENERAL INDEX. 


Cherry, comparison of with apple 639 
ee varieties 652 
“analysis of leaves of 653 
Chess 196 
Chickory, its quolities 427 
“« “analysis of the root of 428, 429 
“s cultivation of 480 

Clay 80, 85. 
Climate 32). 

“elements of 124. 

* Joeal and general 125. 

* change ot 126. 

* change of by cultivation 127. 

“  ettects of on sheep 149. 
Clover, species &e 407 
alsyke 407 
«ved 408, 409 
«“ analysis of 410 ta 416 
- = of roots 410 
a hay, yield per acre 411 
6¢ white, analysis of 414, 415, 416 
a nutritive value of 417 
= manures for 418 


. 
a 


«é how sown, amount of seed &c 419 


«© when to be eut for hay 420 

Le saving seed 420 

&s hay, mode of curing 421 

“ diseases of 422 

- other plants resemble 423 
Cockle 196 
Color of soils 104. 

‘© experiments on 105. 

“ atiects the temperature 106. 
Composition of dry air 27. 
Couch grass (Michigan) 384 
Cows, parsnip leayes for 492 

** composition of dung of 691 
Cretinism 69. 
Cropping, effect of 96, 113. 
Cucumber, composition of 562 

0 analysis of 666 

Cultivation. effect on climate 127. 
Cut-worm 312 


Daguerreotypes 134. 
Detroit, rain at 133. 
Dew, cause of 16, 54. 


E 
Earths 97. 
Egg plant, analysis of 663 
Endive analysis of 657 
Ergot composition of 225 
Evaporation !11. 


F 
Fall wheat, varieties of 156. 
Farmer, position of 7. 
“object of 8. 

Fahrenheit’s thermometer 129. 
Fields, advantages of the right size 712 
Fish as manure 688, 689 
Flax, species 598 

“cultivation decreasing 599 

* analysis of 600, 605 

“effects of steeping 603 

«“ analysis of seed 604 


[ecexlvil. 


Flax special manures for 606 
“what cultivated for 606 
“ soil, sowing and culture 607 
“ manure for, gathering 607 
“ yield of nbre and seed of 608 
“ cost of crop 609 
“* growing wi h barley 610 
“oil and cake from seed 611 
“preparation of fibre of 612 
“ imports of reed of 612 

Flesh as a manure 680 

Flour analysis of 170. 
« manufacture of 203 
“ export in 1850, 203 

Formation of plants 146. 

Fowl] meadow grass 384 

Fungi 132. 197 

Furrows length of for profit 712 


G 


Germination of seeds 133, 314 
Giuten of wheat in moist climates 143. 
< i's properties 171 
Goitre 69. 
Gooseberry, varieties of, culture 657 
ss analysis of 658 
Grains, will they germinate before fully 
ripe 314 
wheat 143- 
rye 204, 227 
barley 228, 251 
oats 252, 272 
Indian corn 273, 314 
rice 315, 331 
buckwheat 332, 346 
millet 347, 350 
canary grass 351 
Grapes, general remarks on 655 
ey analysis of leaves of 656 
ue uses of 656 
Grasses, millet 347, 381 
& canary 361 
ue importance of 381 
CS ditferent species 382 
«mixing 382 
ss crop in U. S. 382 
“© what species most valuable 383 
« peculiarities of each 384 
sé analysis of 385 
«solid matter of rye 385 
ss important facts about 385 
sc inorganic analysis of rye 387 
“ constituents of vary 387 
& A of good hay 388 
« dry analysis of 389 
“ _ sweet-scented vernal 390 
ae orchard 390 
bad meadow barley 390 
aS timothy 390 
«« principles and facts in relation to 


ly soils for 392 

«© effects of upon soils 393 

“ad manures for 394 ; 
“how to apply mauures for 394 


ecexlviii. | 


Grasses seeding with timothy 395 
steeps for seed of 396 
weight of timothy seed 397 
cutting for hay 398 

mode of curing 399, 401 
how cut and gathered 400 
cured in its own juices 401 


irrigating 405 

assortment of seeds for pasture 
406 

Green sand marl, analysis 118. 

Guano, analysis of 695 


Hair, its composition 684 
Harmon, Genl. 156. 
Hard water 68. 
nt effects on horses 68. 
Hay, analysis of 389 
value of 391 
old 391, 406 
when to be cut 398 
ring 399, 401 
elects of bad on horses 399 
hauling 402 
storing and preserving 403 
weight ofin bulk 406 
clover, analysis of 410 
‘© produce of one acre 410 
making clover 42] 
carrots scompared with 499 
Hemp. species, remarks 613 
“© where grown in U.S. 614 
“analysis of s2ed of 615, 616 
se “ seutehines of 517 
superior value of Russian 618 
yaiue of American 618 
soil, culture and harvesting 619 
wild species of 620 
cost of crop 621 
Herd’s Grass, yield of, seed &e 334, 390 
us seed per acre, sown 384 
ve faults of 384 
se seed, whensown 395 
Hitchcock, Dr. quoted 3, 11. 
Hippuric acid in air Lg 32. 
Hogs, experiments in feeding 285 
“effects of buckwheat on 340 
“« Parsnins for 493 
“ dung of 693 
Hop, its = and the produce of 539, 540 
“character of the 541 
analysis of 542, 543 
“ inorganic matter removed from an 
acre by 544 
varieties of 545 
soil for and manures 546 
culture, gathering and price 547, 548 
cost of crop 549 
Horn, its composition 684 
Horse, food and water consumed and dung 
and urine voided 692 
dung of analyzed 692 
qualities of dung of 692 
“ for plowing 712 


“ 
“c 
“ 
“ 
“ 
“cc 
a“ 
6c 
“cc 
“cc 
“ 


iii 


“ 
“c 
“ec 
“ 


“ 
“ 


GENERAL INDEX. 


Horsford, Prof. 9, 28. 
Horse chestnut, analysis 66. 


. I 
Introduction 1. 
Insects, 110, 351, 202, 312, 313, 367, 451, 
568, 59.1, 595. 


mode of increasing growth 404 Indiau corn, necessary heat for 133 


its native place and species 273 

where cultivated 274 

\ bl first cultivated in U. §. 
75 

quantity produced 275 

varieties of and characterics 

276 

varieties how distinguished 277 

desirable qualities of 278 

weight of 279 

yield per acre 280 

analysis of 281 

“5 varieties 284 

= of the leaves of 283 

of the chit 282 

its feeding qualities 285 

economical use of 285 

its culinary uses 286 

salks &c for fodder 287 

cob of z&8 

sugar from stalks of 289 

sown broadcast 29", 300 

soil for 291 

manures for 29?, 702 

preparation of ground for 293 

how planted 294 

No. of hills and stalks on an 
acre 2:94 

depth to plant 295 

proper temperature for seed 
of 295 

experiment in planting 295 

quantity of seed required 296 

cultivation of 297 

sowing wheat among 298 

steeps for 299 

time to harvest 301 

topping 342 

ee ing up the leaves for fodder 

03 

experiment in harvesting 303 

how harvested 304 

husking of 304 - 

Management of stalks when 
sown for fodder 305 

amount per acre in Mass. 305 

how separated from cob 306 

measuring in crib 306 

aving seed, itsimportance 307 

feeding in the south 303 

cobs of, how managed 309 

weeds, none peculiar to 310 

fungus on—smut—its effects 
31l 

diseases of in Maryland 311 

insects injurious to 312 

remedies for insects in 313 


Iodine 94. 


GENERAL INDEX. 


Tnorganic matter 86, 92. 
i. elements 93. 
Irrigation 77. ‘ 
Iso-thermal lines 125. 
Iso-theral ‘ 125. 
Iso-chemical “ 125. 


J 

Jerusalem artichoke 470 
analysis of 471. 473 
uses and value of 474 
soil and climate for 475 
culture 476 
cutting & curing stalks 

77 


gathering the tubers 478 

preverving “ 479 

advantages of growing 
48) 


Kohl Rabi 454 
Kentucky Blue Grass 884 


L 
Leaves, action of 46, 47. 
Leguminous plants 452 
kd their culture in the U.S. 354 
Li ntils 352, 355, 376 
*¢ soil for 377 

Lettuce 665 
Liebig 23. 
Light 134. 
Lime 80, 83. 
in leached ashes 702 
vilue of, how applied 703 
Specimens and analysis of 703 
effects of burned on soils 703 
quantity to be applied 703 
Linseed ‘analysis of 605 

= oi] of and cake 611, 612 

ce imports of 612 
Liquorice, general remarks 87 

$6 soil for culture £83 
planting and culture 5°8 
+ harvesting and yield 590 

Lucerne 424 
Lupines 380 


“ 
“ce 
“cc 
“ 


as 


Marl, varieties of 705 
“© analysis of J17, 119, 120, 705 
** formation of, Michigan, 705 
*€ effects of on soils 705 
Manures, nitrogenous 146 
effects on wheat 177 
how to use judiciously 178 
clovei, plaster and sheep dung— 
the philosophy of their action 


+“ 


‘ 
for Indian corn 292 
for rice 326 
buckwheat plowed under 342 
for the grasses 39!, 406 
for clovers 418 
for parsnips 497 


[ccexlix. 


Manures for beets 528 

for hops 546 

for the onion 553 

for tobacco 573 

from oil beans 586 

for flax 606-7 

for apple 634 

for pear 642 

for quince 645 

for peach 647 

for cherry 652 

for gooseherry 657 
rhubarb 6/9 

general remarks on 668 
classification of 673 
ofanimal origin 674 
mineral 675 
interesting experiment with 676 
677 


“ 
“é 
“ 
“cc 
“c 
{ “ 
“ 


d 
classical value of 678, 679 
effects of 679 
animal, flesh 680 
** hair, horn, wool, bones, 
684, 685 686 
fish as 688 
mineral phosphates 637 
barn-yard, composition 690, 691 
cow dung 691 
horse dung 692 
dung of sheep and hogs 693 
dung of birds 694 
night soil 696 
urine 697 
oie ane of good barn-yard 
9 
analysis of barn-yard 699 
composts 7: 0 
mineral. wood ashes 701, 702 
vegetable, classes of 718 
value of 718 
sc. peat 708 
« list of articles used for 708 
Manuring the soil 669, 670, 671, 572 
Mechanical texture of soil 102. 
Meteorology 12!, 122. 
ss benefit of 145. 
Mean temperature 129. 
Meadow Sy laying down permanent 395 
“irrigating 405 
HE renovating old 406 
Mildew on wheat 200 
Milk affected by water 68 
Mineral phosphates, analysis of 687 
Mineral waters 64. 
Mississippi river 71. 
Millet, ¢ genera and character &c 347 
Indian 247 
its qualities and constituents 348 
soil for 349 
quantity of seed 249 
time of sowing 349 
harvesting and yield per acre 349 
‘* its ases 370 
Moisture, effect on wheat 144. 
Moon’s ac.ion on plants 145, 
Muck, composi:ien of 707 


eccl. | GENERAL INDEX: 


Muriatic acid in air 12, 37. 
/ Mustard, wild 271 

sk white 431 

LU manufacture of 538 
Musk melon analysis of 561, 666 


N 

Nectarine 651 
New Orleans, rain at 138. 
Nitrogen in hay 388, 389 

“in oats 389 

‘< jn clover roots 410 

se in dry beet 520 

“ in dung of sheep and hogs 693 
Nicotine in tobacco 572 
Night soil 696 


O 
Oats, soils for 175, 264 
natiye place 252 
s¢ where cultivated 253 
“ produce in U.S. 2% 34 
“« ‘species cultivated 255 
“ quantity raised per acre 256 
“  anaiysis of grain 257, .58 
af Wl of straw 259 
re Se of 4 varicties 260 
“ nitrogen and protein compounds i 
2t1 
‘* effects of manures on the 362 
“ uses of 263 
‘effects of on soils 264 
“ what 5 crop. takes from an acre 0 
soil 265 
‘© how much sown and when 266 
** when to harvest 267 
“ straw of for fodder 268 
“ inseets in 269 
«smut in 270 
© weeds in 271 
“salt for 272 
“peas with 369 
* compared with carrots 509 
Oil of seeds, its use 453 
plants yielding 591 
Organic matter in wheat 174 
4 in corn 282 
Orchard grass 390 
Organic matter 86, 87, 88 to 91. 
Onion, different species 550 
its native country 551 
“field culture and produce 551 
“ composition of 552 
“soil for and culture 553 
‘+ manures for 553 
* selecting for seed 554 
*© yield per acre 555 
«Culture of in Russia 556 
“ maggot in, remedies 557 
“© free from insects 558 
Oxygen in soils 109. 
Ozier willow, species, imports &e 627 
% species and varieties useful 6 28 
ee soils for 629 


Ozier willow, yield, swamp lands for 632 
Ozone 11, 33. 


Parsnip f81 
ee species and varieties 482 
“nutritive qualities and uses of 483 
analysis of 485 to 487 
is a potash plant 487 
soiland manure for 488 
ne culture &¢ 489 
% yield per acre 491 
© harvesting 490 
feeding ieaves of to cows 492 
Og how fed to animals 493 
+ wiue from 494 
ae obtaining seed of 495 
re insects and disense 496 
sf manures for 497 
ae compared with carrots 504 
Pasture, assortment of seeds for 406 
Peas, varieties of 352, 353 
analysis of and straw 356, 357, 358 
value of straw 358 
“* nutritive matier cf an acre 359 
“sugar in 360 
yarieties grown 361 
soil for 362 
“cultivation 363 
* harvesting 304 
“grown among corn 365 
« “how grown in Southern States 366 
“¢ pea-bug iny 367 
how to és: ape the insect 367 
“ yield per acre 363 
“their uses 369 
“oats with. effectson land 369 
Peach, comparison of with apple 610 
yarieties *-¢ manures for 647 
“ annlysis of leaves of 643 
“© yellows in, other diseases 648 
“analysis of tree 649 
“qualities of kernel &¢ 650 
Pear, compari on ot with apple 639 
“sp cies and varieties 642 
“analysis of wood and leaves of 643,644 
Peat, 708 
“ analysis of 708 
« properties of 708 
* charring and nixing with dung 708 
“ mixing with ashes 708 
Pectin 413, 510 
Perennial plants, limits of 129. 
Phosphoric acid in-water 65. 
Pigeon weed 195 
Pine apple 21, 
Plants, formation of 14, 15, 16, 146 668 
a, 2n apparatus of reduction 672 
“growth of 17, 18. 
“ cultivation of 20, 22. 
“composition of 100 668 
“perennial, and xznnual 129. 
“ physiology of 147. 
** stems of 148. 


ms cultivation and preparation Pe Plaster, composition and qualities 704 


use 630 
J cultare of in Mississippi 631 


“its action on soils 704 
‘Ss mixed with common salt 704 


GENERAL INDEX. 


Pluviometer 135. 
Plows improvements in 710 
Plowing objects of 709, 711 
a horses for plowing 712 
length and breadth of furrow 712 
advantages of proper shaped fields 
fot 712 
time Jost in 712 
variety of modes of 713 
Plum, varieties, curculio 654 
Population of the U. 8. 152. 
Potato 458 
“ present value as a field crop 459 
when introduced 460 
propagation 46] 
qualities of the root 462 
analysis of 563 to 465 
nutritive qualities of 466 
yield per acre 466 
rot iu 467 
cultivation and harvesting 468 
starch, arrow-root, British yum and 


“ 


[eceli« 


Rhubarb, species and varieties 659 
Ripening of graius 131. 
River water 71. 
Rice, general remarks 315 
‘«  yarieties 
where it grows and is cultivated 317, 
318, 319 
wild, a different family 320 
unhtisked 821 
analysis of 322, 323, 324 
fatty matter of 323 
best soils for, and culture 325 
cleaning &c 326 
oe mode of sowing the upland 
yield of per acre 328 
how measured 329 
iis uses 330 
soil in which it grows 331 
Ro ks 76. 
Roots, genera 432 
‘* profit of growing 432 


“ce 


other constituents contained in 469 |Rust on wheat 199 


* comparison of with apple 639 


Pumpkin the, its relatives 559 
* little known regarding St 560 
its value 560 
grown with corn 563 
yield 564 
preserving in winter 565 
its uses 567 , 
insects on young plants,remedies 
568 


“ 
“ 
“ec 
“ 
“cc 
“ 


Pyrrhin 36 and note, 


' 
Quince varieties 645 
oa seeds of 616. 
- manures 645 


R 
Rain, ammonia in 29, note. 
** composition of 29, 
6 eth cts of 53. 
“purity of 54. 
** necessity of 135. 
Rain-gunge 135. 
Rain, mode of measuring 135. 
‘© period of 136. 
* annual amount of 136. 
“ in England and the U States 136. 
% weight of 137. 
season of 138. 
mode of falling 139. 
descent in soil 140. 
ab-orption of Lil. 
evaporation of 142. 
Rape, seed of 453 
** species of 456 
oil from, cul-ure, manure for, weight 
of, value of cake &e 456 
culture in Pa., time of sowing 456 
analy is of 457, 458 
oil in cake 458 
Rays, different of light 134. 
Reaumur’s thermometer 129. 


“ 
“ 
“ 


“ 
“ 


culture and soil 659 
analysis of 660, 662 
Rye grass, (Italian) 384, 391 
Rye, soils for 173 

** its importance and native place 204 
where cultivated 205 
produce of in U.S. 206 
species and varieties 207 
analysis of 208, 209, 210 
varies in composition 211 
Straw analysis of 212 
flour of 213 
bread 01 214 
soils for 215 
inorganic constituents 216 
sowing and time of 217, 218 
culture and harvesting 219 
sown with wheat 221 
sown for fodder 222 
to plow under 223 
ergotin 225 
straw of 227 
depth to be covered 227 
what it takes from the soil 676 


8 
Salt in beets 520 
** in blood 682 
“ in composition 706 
“its value T06 
Sciences in Agriculture 5, 6. 
Schools in Europe 10, 11. 
Sheep, health of 139. 
“dung of 693 
Silica 80, 83. 
Smut on wheat 198 
Soil, nature of 72, 73. 
“ formation of 74. 
position of 75. 
composition of 79, 80, 82, 
classification of 84. 
use of 85. 
inorganic elements of 93. 


ecclii. | 


Boll 


“c 
“ 
“ 
“ 


fertile 97. 

rich and poor disintegrated 98. 
mechanical texture of 102. 
depth of 103.* 

color of 14. 

moisture in 107, 
absorbing power of 107. 
retention of wet in 108. 
oxygen in 109. 

capillary power of 111. 
power to absorb wet 141. 


Soils elasifiertion of 173 


“ 


what wheat takes fron 174 
best, for rice 325 
buckwheat 343 

ne millet 349 

M1) the pea 362 

ac beans 371 

te lentils 377 

« grasses 392 

= turnips 435 

zs artichoke 475 

«¢ _ parsnips 488 

“ beets 522 

sc hops 546 

«é onions 553 

= tobaceo 574 

«« _ Jiquorice 588 


se flax 607 
*© broom corn 623 
6) hemp 619 


analysis of turnip 435 
constituents of 669 

what ¢rops take away from 669 
action of the elements upon 669 
proper management of 669 
manurivg the 669; 670, 671, 672 


Statistics of wheat 152. 


Spindle worm 312 
Spring wheat 155. 
Sporules in air 35. 
Spring water 64. 


Subsoil, nature of 103. 
Sulphuric acid in springs 70. 
Sugar beets, large roots cont&in less sugar 


Sweet ‘Potato, o 


455 


se sugar from 512 
Super phosphate of lime 686 


“ 
ity 


order, family 532 

where may be grown 533 
analysis of 534 

soil and culture 535, 536 
presérving thro’ winter 537 


v 


Tare the (or Vetch) 378 
when gown, soils for &c 379 
easel, species 592 


“sé 


“ 
« 
ts 
6 


when introduced in U. &., ptice, 
&e. 593 

culture, &e. 594 

insects injuriols to 95 

use Of stiperseded 596 

to procure seed of 597 


‘Thermometer 129, 144. 


GENERAL INDEX 


Temperature of plants; 130. 


ny 
“ 
“ 


effects of un vegetation 131: 
efivcts of on seeds 133, 
of soil 132. 


Tobacco, species, remarks 569 


cultivation and produce 570 

analysis of 571, 572 

nicotine in 572 

composition and qualities 572 

manure for 573 

inyrenicnte taken away by 100 
lbs. 573 

soil for 574 

mode of culture and etiring 575 
“practiced south 576 

hogsheads for packing in 577 

yield ner acre 578 

cost of crop 579 

distase of 580 

insects troublesome 581 

saving seed 482 


Tomato analysis of 663 
Tree, analysis of sweet apple 640 


«"  Jeaves of Early Harvest 641 


Turri ‘ip, species 433 


common 434 

soil for, analysis of 434 

effects of climate on 436 

analysis of 437 to 442 

white globe, analysis of 438, 439 

€onstittients vary 439 

Preden, organic analysis of 440 
45: 


comparative analysis of varieties 
440 


what a crop draws from soil 44% 
pectin in 443 
desirable qualities of 444, 458 
jield in Great Britain 445 
“in N. Y. and Pa: 445 
cost of crop 446 
culture, soil, seed, manures, &c; 
447 
time of sowing, and harvesting 
448 
fattening cattle on 449 
diseases 450 
insects injurious to 541 
how to raise seed from 452 
quality of the seeds of 453 
advantages of their culture 459 
what they take frotn so] 676 


U 


Urine, its value 697 


“ 


composition 697 


Urea composition 697 
fermentation of 697 


co 


Vv 


Vegetable oyster, analysis of 667 
Vetch 196 

Veterinary schools 4, 12 
Vinegar from beets 531 


GENERAL INDEX. 


Ww 


Watermelon analysis of 666 
Water i in air 38. 67, 
composition of 44. 
*¢ chemical action of 45. 
“ effect of 46. 
“use of 47, 48. 
* sources of 50. 
« weight of 51. 
“ inorganic matter in 55, 
‘© gea, analysis of '56. 
“ Schuylkill “ 57. 
“* Dead sea “ 58. 
“ Salt Lake “ 
“ Grenable “ 61. 
“ Hartford “ 62. 
«salts in 63. 
“ phosphoric acid in 65. 
«* in animals and plants 66, 
“* in Horse chestnui 66. 
“* injurious to plants 63. 
“River 71. 
“* in svils 107, 108. 
Weeds, 110. 
Weight of rain 137 
Wheat affected by moisture 143, 168, 
value of 143. 
“« damaged by wet 144. 
“< botanical position of 152. 
*« polar limits of 152. 
*¢ introduction inthe U. S. 152. 
“ statistics of 152. 
« different species of 153. 
“ Spring and winter 154. 
«© qualities desirable in 157. 
“ weight of 158. 
‘analysis of 159, 162, 166, 167. 
“ time of cutting, 164. 


[ecelili 


Wheat flour 170. 


bran 165. 
the best oils for 173 
analysis of soils for 173 
what it requires and takes from the 
soil 174 
organic matter in 174 
why it runs to straw 175 
manures for 176 
effects of manures on 177 
clover turned under for 179 
modes of preparing land for 180 
modes of covering 181 
how sown 182 
how harvested 183 
how preserved 184 
how thrashed 185 
storing 186 
when tocut 188 
for seed 189 
quantity of seed per acre 190 
waste of seed 191 
depth to be covered 192 
old for seed 193 
steeps for 194 
how to judge of good seed 195 
weeds that injure 196 
parasitic fungi on 197 
smut on 198 
rust on 199 
mildew on 200 
insects injurious to 201 
to seed 202 
‘alle into flour 203 
cost of producing 203 
sown among corn 298 


Weevil in wheat 202, 312 
Wire worm 312 
Wool, its composition 684 


ERRATA. 


— 


Pace 62—Reverse the headings of the Table-—* Water in the Flour per 
cent,” and ‘Flour in the Grain per cent.’’ 

*« 161, line 10 from top, for “ Guined’’ read Guinea, 

“166, “ 5 from bottom after “ Randal Grass’ (“Festuca Praten- 

sis and Elatior.’’) 

“181 “ 4 from top for “ tree’? read tres. 

“187 “ 2 from bottom for “them” read their. 

“ 206 “ 13 from top for soil’ read oil, 

“ 250. While the last sheet was going through the Press, the third 
number of Prof. Johnston’s Chemisiry of Common Life was received, in 
which it is stated “ that the onion is remarkably nutritious. According 
to my Analyses, the dried onion root contains from 25 to 30 per cent. 
of gluten. It ranks in this respect with the nutritious pea, and the 
Gram (or Chick Pea) of the East.’’—Sce § 353, p. 148. 


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