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ANNALS 


SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM 


& 4 1g 


i/ ‘ w'lé 
VOLUME XXVII. Ven JUp 99° 


¢ 


The Stone Age Cultures of "South Africa. 


By A. J. H. Goorwin, M.A, and C. vay Rie Lows, B.Sc, A.M.1.C.E. 


ISSUED MAY 1929. PRICE 26s. 


PRINTED FOR THE 


TRUSTEES OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM 


'_ BY NEILL AND CO., LTD., 


212 CAUSEWAYSIDH, EDINBURGH. 


ANNALS 


OF THE 


SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM 


VOLUME XXVIII 


ANNALS 


OF THE 


SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM 


MOLUMEE XX VLL 


The Stone Age Cultures of South Africa, 
By A.J. H. Goopwin, M.A., and C. van Riet Lowe, B.Sc., A.M.I.C.E. 


PRINTED FOR THE 
TRUSTEES OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM 
BY NEILL AND CO., LTD., 212 CAUSEWAYSIDE, EDINBURGH. 


1929, 


TRUSTEES OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM. 


Sir THomas Murr, C.M.G., M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.B.S. 

The Hon. Jonn Wituiam Jaaccer, F.S.S8., M.L.A. 

Prof. Witt1am ApAm Jotuy, M.B., Ch.B., D.Sc., F.R.S.S. Afr. 
Councillor W. F. Fis, J.P. 

Dr. J. G. VAN DER Horst. 


Zize 


SCIENTIFIC STAFF OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN 
MUSEUM. 


Epwin Lronarp Git, D.Sc., Director and Keeper-in-Chief. 

KerpreL Harcourt BARNARD, M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S., Assistant Director ; in Charge . 
of Fish and Marine Invertebrates. 

REGINALD FrepertcK Lawrence, B.A., Assistant in Charge of Reptiles and 
Batrachians, Arachnids and Myriopods. 

Apert JoHN Hessz, B.Sc., Ph.D., Assistant in Charge of the Entomological 
Department. 

Miss STAR GARABEDIAN, B.A., Assistant in Charge of the Botanical Department. 

Arraur Lewis Hau, M.A., Sce.D., Honorary Keeper of the Geological and 
Mineralogical Collections. 

SIDNEY Henry Havueuton, B.A., D.Sc., Honorary Keeper of the Palaeontological 
Collections. 


The Stone Age Cultures of South Africa, 
By A. J. H. Goopwin, M.A., and C. van Riet Lowe, B.Sc., A.M.I.C.E. 


PREFACE. 


So much progress has been made in the study of South African pre- 
history in the past three or four years, and so large a measure of 
agreement has been reached among the various workers as to the 
grouping and sequence and significance of the stone implements and 
other cultural remains, that the time appears ripe for a statement of 
the conclusions which have been reached and a fairly comprehensive 
description of the material and occurrences on which they are based. 

Many pioneers in this field have contributed towards laying the 
foundations of our present-day knowledge ; most of them are referred 
to largely in these pages. But as far as published work is concerned, 
and particularly in point of illustrating by means of abundant figures 
the types of objects under discussion, there can be little question but 
that the late Dr. Péringuey’s “ Stone Ages of South Africa,” appearing 
as Vol. VIII of these Annals, was the most important of the earlier 
publications. It is thus appropriate that the present volume should 
also be issued by the South African Museum in the same series of its 
Annals. The interval since Dr. Péringuey’s work was prepared is 
eighteen years. In European archaeology such a period nowadays 
brings no very large change in general conceptions ; in South African 
archaeology the interval has brought something like a revolution. 
Current and future investigations are likely in time to produce more 
or less considerable modifications of the system here adopted, but its 
main lines seem now to be sufficiently firmly established to warrant 
the production of such a work as this, which it is hoped will serve as a 
new basis and starting-point for archaeological work in South Africa. 

Our indebtedness to the two authors is very great. Mr. C. van Riet 
Lowe’s brilliant work in the Orange Free State has been a leading 
factor in clearing up the confusion of ideas that prevailed until very 
recently, and his careful and finely illustrated account of his material 
and deductions is an extremely valuable contribution to this volume. 
To Mr. Goodwin we are even more indebted, for, in addition to his 
very substantial share in preparing the volume, the Museum has 

Vil 


vill Annals of the South African Museum. 


profited to an extent that is difficult to acknowledge at all adequately 
by his systematic study and arrangement of its immense collection of 
stone implements. 

It remains to acknowledge the financial help that has been received 
from the Committee on African Life and Languages of the University 
of Cape Town. Our commitments for publication at the present time 
are particularly heavy, owing to the amount of systematic work that 
is being done on the collections ; and the monetary support that has 
been afforded to us by Professor T. T. Barnard and his Committee has 
made it possible to be more generous both in text and illustration 
than would otherwise have been possible. 

LEONARD GILL. 
SouTH AFRricaN Museum, 
Aujust 1928. 


CONTENTS. 


THE EARLIER STONE AGE IN SouTH AFRICA— PAGE 


1. Part I.—An Introductory Survey of the Geographical and Archaeological 
Conditions in South Africa. By A. J. H. Goopwin, M.A. (With 1 
Text-figure.) ‘ : ‘ ‘ : ‘ : : ; : 1 


2. Part JJ.—The Stellenbosch Industry. By A. J. H. Goopwin, M.A. 
(With Plates I-V and 5 Text-figures.) . 3 F s : ; 9 


3. Part IIl.—The Victoria West Indusiry. By A. J. H. Goopwin, M.A. 
(With Plates VI-IX.) . : : ‘ ‘ : : : . 53 


4, Part IV.—The Fauresmith Industry. By A. J. H. Goopwin, M.A., and 
C. van Riet Lows, B.Sc., A.M.I.C.E. (With Plates *X-—XIV and 
5 Text-figures.) . : ‘ : ‘ : é ‘ : oa ail 


5. Tot MIppLE STone AcE. By A. J. H. Goopwin, M.A. (With Plates 
XV-XXII and 3 Text-figures.) : : : ‘ : : Se 


6. THE Later Stone Ace. Introduction by C. van Rret Lowe, B.Sc., 
A.M.I.C.E., and A. J. H. Goopwin, M.A. .. ; ‘ j Lad 


7. The Smithfield Industry in the Orange Free State. By C. vAN RiEtT Lowe, 
B.Se., A.M.I.C.E. (With Plates XXIII-XL and Text-figures A-H.) . 151 


8. A Few Notes on the Archaeology of Sheppard Island. By C. van Rier 


Lowe, B.Sc., F.R.A.I. (With 2 Text-figures.) : : : . 235 

9. Addendum on the Further Distribution of the Smithfield Industry. By 
A. J. H. Goopwin, M.A. ; : : : : ; é =| 245 

10. The Wilton Industry. By A. J. H. Goopwin, M.A. (With Plates 
XLI-XLIT! and 2 Text-figures.) . ; : 3 : : . 251 

11. South African Neolithic Elements. By A. J. H. Goopwin, M.A. (With 
. Plates XLIV and XLV and 1 Text-figure.. : : : 5 AHI 
INDEX . ‘ : : : : ; : : : : : - 285 


ix 


ANNALS 


OF THE 


SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM 


VOLUME XXVII. 


THE EARLIER STONE AGE IN SOUTH AFRICA. 
THE STONE AGE CULTURES OF SOUTH AFRICA, 
By A. J. H. Goopwin, M.A., and C. vaw Riet Lowe, B.Sc., A.M.LC.E. 


1. Part I.—An Introductory Survey of the Geographical and Archaeo- 
logical Conditions in South Africa.—By A. J. H. Goopwin, M.A., 
Senior Lecturer in Social Anthropology, University of Cape 
Town. 


(With one Text-figure.) 


THE science of archaeology depends basically upon our knowledge of 
the geographical, climatic, and geological conditions present at various 
phases of the Quaternary period. The chronology supplied by geologi- 
cal evidence must necessarily be accepted by the archaeologist. The 
distributions of the various types of culture can only be accounted 
for by a wide knowledge of the geographical and climatic conditions — 
of the various periods. 

Archaeology is a human science, and therefore cannot be treated 
as we would treat a purely physical science. We are not dealing with 
a science of a type similar to chemistry or geology which are neces- 
sarily bound by ever-present factors ; we must thus take into account 
the climatic and geographical causes necessarily affecting or confining 
individual groups of the human type. We are dealing primarily with 
a migrant and evolving animal, an animal which, within certain limits, 
is capable of inventing and perpetuating his various reactions to 
environment, or modifying those reactions to meet certain needs. 
The only tangible results of those cultural reactions we have to hand 
are those implements and objects which early man has left us, and 
which have survived to our day. Our knowledge of mankind is thus 

VOL. XXVII. 1 


2 Annals of the South African Museum. 


an ever increasing ratio: of the earliest periods we know relatively 
nothing ; of the following periods we know more, but, even so, far less 
than we know of modern man. 

Our conception of early geography within the human period in 
South Africa is hampered by a variety of factors. Foremost is our 
lack of knowledge. Second only to this is our lack of glaciations of 
any extent or of other chronological landmarks during the Quaternary 
period. Our only great glaciation (apparently from the north, 
peculiarly enough) was long previous to human evolution.* It is 
possible that knowledge we may in time acquire of minor glaciations 
spreading from the Basutoland mountain-masses may help us to date 
our prehistoric period with some degree of accuracy. A further diffi- 
culty lies in the fact that whereas Europe is split up geographically 
into a variety of regions, alpine areas, broken littorals, temperate 
regions, and so on, from which prehistoric conditions can be judged, 
as yet hardly sufficient material can be accumulated with our present 
knowledge of Africa to justify such regioning. We know little of our 
prehistoric river system, and as little of the climatic conditions 
presented at any one period; while the extreme shortness and the 
isolation of our coastline from other countries does not allow of our 
using the presence or subsidence of land bridges as an aid in defining 
the date of any migration. 

What were the barriers hindering man’s movements in Africa during 
the prehistoric period ? What were the highways which invited his 
migrations ? What were the causes enforcing great game movements, 
making it necessary for man, the hunter, to follow? We cannot yet 
tell with any certainty, but the subject is an important one. It would 
be safest to deal with the geographical conditions now present in 
Africa, and to work back to the past conditions so far as we do know 
them. 

Africa is bounded to the north by the Mediterranean Sea, which is 
surrounded by a climatic area that is at present a single entity: the 
northernmost strip of Africa is not truly African from the human point 
of view. The Mediterranean forms a barrier which to-day is far less 
strong than the Sahara. This was probably more true during the 
Capsio-Aurignacian period of Europe, though even at that period 
the land bridges giving easier access to Europe were compensated for 
by a more fertile Sahara region. Since pre-Roman times the Sahara 
has become more and more of a barrier, until now it acts as a filter. 


* du Toit, “The Carboniferous Glaciation of S. Africa,’ Trans. Geol. Soc., 
Oct. 1921, p. 188. Also Coleman, “‘ Ice Ages,’’ London, 1926. 


Geographical and Archaeological Conditions in South Africa. 3 


Higher cultures can pass from north to south and survive, but lower 
cultures passing from south to north are immediately subdued and 
assimilated by the higher, better organised folks of the Mediterranean. 
As a result, although “something new” is always expected out of 
Africa, these things are only “new” from their very age. Africa is 
a pocket from which nothing tangible returns. 

South of the Sahara Africa divides into two regions. The Congo 
basin, with the forested regions of West Africa on the western half, 
forms an area attractive to a hunting people, and is fairly abundant in 
edible game; in the eastern part of the continent lies the mixed 
mountain and lake region of Africa, a definite highway to the south, 
with a great variety of climatic variation within a limited area. Still 
further south we reach that section of Africa which has most greatly 
affected the present distribution of South African tribes, and which 
most certainly affected the Later Stone Age peoples of this area. 

At the present time we know that South Africa can be roughly 
divided into three main sections, running from north to south. The 
western desert, practically useless as a highway, not attractive to a hunt- 
ing people, but definitely a barrier. This desert originally cut across 
into the heart of Rhodesia, but has decreased, leaving a passably good 
though dry climate; but this extension appears to have belonged to a 
period long previous to man. East of this the central highroad lies 
between this desert and the great mountain masses of the eastward 
and southern fringe of the African plateau. These mountains form 
an “ eddy ” between the central highway and the fertile eastern high- 
way lying eastward of the main mountain masses, and running from 
north to south across the myriad short rivers of the east coast (see 
diagram). 

Cutting across Africa in the opposite direction are the rivers. 
First comes the Zambesi, passing across the central and eastern high- 
roads, while further south the Limpopo does likewise. Neither of 
these two barriers is impassable, though both in all probability con- 
stitute lines of lateral movement across the great highroads. Further 
south we have westward-flowing rivers. The Kunene cuts off the 
fertile territory of Angola from the less fertile Kaokoveldt, which in 
turn gives way to the semi-arid land of South-West Africa. South of 
the Kalahari, but cutting also across the central highroad, is the 
Orange River, together with its great tributaries. These rivers did 
not form barriers, but seem to have enclosed a great area of attraction 
within their basin. The desirability of this area was increased a 
hundred-fold by the presence of large amounts of indurated shale or 


+ Annals of the South African Museum. 


Fic. 1.—Diagram of Southern Africa showing desert barriers (shaded) and mountain 
masses (black), with probable effects of these on an immigratory people approach- 
ing from sources to the North. 


Geographical and Archaeological Conditions in South Africa. 5 


lydianite, a material of a tractable type with an even fracture and 
of a hardness eminently desirable to the worker in stone. We will 
see how the Fauresmith implement makers were either attracted on 
their migrations by the presence of these delights, or else evolved a 
variation of their original culture during their sojourn in this region. 
In the Later Stone Age, too, we will see how Smithfield man apparently 
began his industry and evolved it here. 

We can presume quite fairly that much the same conditions 
extended right back to the beginning of the Later Stone Age. During 
the Middle Stone Age a somewhat similar state of affairs seems to have 
existed. There still seems to have been a western desert region, 
though whether it extended over its present area we do not know. 

The Kalahari seems to be moving southward, leaving Southern 
Rhodesia, and increasing in the south. Probably in time it will link 
with the semi-arid Karroo region. This desiccation seems to have 
been general-in Africa, and dates back in its beginnings, so far as can 
be judged, to some period after the beginning of the Middle Stone Age.* 
Certain investigators regard this desiccation as slower than has hitherto 
been believed, and would date it as previous to the human period ; 
others regard it as part of a rhythm. The fact remains that during 
the Earlier Stone Age the vegetation and animal life supported by 
climatic conditions in various parts of South Africa was capable of 
supporting peoples where water does not at present exist. Similarly, in 
semi-arid parts of South Africa, relatively thick population by hunting 
peoples was possible, together with the animal life concomitant.f 

Much of this aridity appears to be due to the breaking down of 
barriers previously supporting large lakes, and also to the gouging 
out of deep passages by certain rivers,{ resulting in a failure to spread 
and too great fixity of course. Much aridity has similarly been caused 
by lack of vegetation of a type capable of preventing erosion and of 
building up surface soil. This has been largely due, in all probability, 
not so much to a decrease in rainfall, as to the alternating dry periods 
and seasons of torrential rains. This has resulted in a loss of ability 


* See Schwartz, ““The Kalahari Project,” Soc. de Geog. Geneve; also ibid., A 
South African Geography, London, 1921, and in his various other works. For 
Jubaland and Uganda see Hobley, London Geographical Journal, 1914, p. 44, and 
L. Harger, Uganda Natural History Society, vol. vi, p. 192. Similar evidence for 
various parts of Africa can be found in Brooks’ “Climate through the Ages,” 
London, 1926. 

7 Penning, “‘ Gold and Diamonds,” London, 1901. 

t Cf. the Batoka Gorge, Victoria Falls, and the gorge below the Aughrabies 
Falls, Orange River. 


1} 


6 Annals of the South African Museum. 


to assimilate the rain which does fall, and in the resultant removal of 
lighter surface soil. 

The Industries.—The work, of which these papers is the first report 
of a detailed type, was begun in 1924 and is still continuing. The 
survey was started at the South African Museum, and at first con- 
sisted in the sorting of all the implements into types, and the subse- 
quent association of each implement with others into industrial 
groups. This process is still going on, but sufficient is now known to 
allow of our giving an introductory series of papers on South African 
pre-history, owing not only to my museum research and my inadequate 
field-work, but mostly to Mr. C. van Riet Lowe’s excellent, detailed, and 
untiring work at various sites, more especially in the Free State. His 
work has proved to us very conclusively that the lydianite area of the 
Orange River basin is an archaeological unit in itself and must be 
treated as such. This beautiful dull-black material was practically 
a new medium, and as a result the Free State was the mother of varia- 
tions in industries which can only be judged when a thorough archaeo- 
logical survey of the Free State is done. He is doing it, and while this 
present series of papers is to be regarded as general, very much has 
been left unsaid about the Free State which he alone is in a position to 
say. It is his exact and superior knowledge of the Free State too 
which has led me to invite his co-operation in the Fauresmith paper, and 
later in the Smithfield paper. These two papers are to be regarded 
in the light of additional to his forthcoming work on the Orange Free 
State archaeology. , 

As a result of our joint work, and with the help given me by the 
Museums of the Union and by various field-workers, the following 
general scheme has been arrived at. How final it is remains to be 
seen, and especially is this true of the Free State, as we shall see. 


Later Stone Age Wilton, 
pmarthivel dia Ave ssc acc: ae 
Middle Stone Age Still Bay, Glen Grey, and a variety of 
industries showing Mousterian origins. 
Karlier Stone Age Fauresmith, | 
Victoria West, 
Stellenbosch. 


(This table reads from the bottom upwards.) 


Of these we may say that the Stellenbosch is a relatively pure off- 
shoot from the same source as the Lower Palaeolithic of North Africa : 
the Victoria West is an apparent local evolution. 


Geographical and Archaeological Conditions in South Africa. 7 


The Fauresmith is of great interest as it appears to be the first 
of the South African industries to evolve within the lydianite area of 
the Free State. It is basically of a Lower Palaeolithic origin with 
possible Mousterian additions. The coup-de-poing is augmented by 
a strong flake industry, trimmed flakes and true cores appearing. 
Within the Free State, or at least in the region of the Modder, Riet, 
and Orange rivers, this industry seems to shade directly into the 
Smithfield “A” period of the Later Stone Age. Elsewhere normal 
elements of Middle Stone Age type intervene between the Earlier 
Stone Age and Smithfield “ B.” 

The Middle Stone Age shows a number of industries, not yet sorted 
fully, showing a common origin with the Mousterian of North Africa. 
They have little in common with one another except their obvious 
origin and the fact that they show varieties of points, with types 
paralleling the Mousterian, proto-Solutrean, and even the Lower Solu- 
trean of Europe. The Middle Stone Age seems actually to have been 
either an evolution, or more likely a series of offshoots from an evolu- 
tion much the same as that appearing in the east of Europe during 
those three periods. 

The Later Stone Age is Neo-anthropic in character, and is probably 
basically an offshoot of a late Mesolithic or early Neolithic stock 
of North African origin. The Smithfield “A,” as we have seen, is 
very much the same as the Fauresmith without the cowp-de-poing, 
and perhaps marks Neo-anthropic influences on the already mixed 
Fauresmith makers. Smithfield “B” is even more definitely Neo- 
anthropic. Pottery and polished stones appear, though the un- 
polished implements are all of Capsio-Aurignacian type. It is an 
advance upon the Smithfield “ A,” and appears to follow it in time. 
Smithfield “C” is similarly Neo-anthropic, and is generally to be 
regarded as a cave culture. 

The Wilton seems to have been of late Capsian origin with Neolithic 
additions. It is a cave culture primarily, though open sites do appear. 
An almost exact parallel to this industry * is visible in North Africa 
at the Djebel Redeyef rock-shelter. 

The Smithfield “ A” and “ B” are now definitely associable with the 
rock engravings of the dolerite areas, while Smithfield “C ” and Wilton 
are as definitely associable with the cave paintings of the Union. 
The Later Stone Age folk were thus the artist race of South Africa, 
and physically can be regarded as belonging to the “San” or so-called 
Bushman race. 

* L’Anthropologie, vol. xxiii, 1912, p. 151. 


2. Part II.—The Stellenbosch Industry. By A. J. H. Goopwin, M.A., 
Senior Lecturer in Anthropology, University of Cape Town. 


(With Plates I-V and five Text-figures.) 


In 1912 the late Dr. Péringuey, then Director of the South African 
Museum at Cape Town, wrote his monograph “ The Stone Ages of 
South Africa.” In this work he drew world-wide attention to the 
archaeological remains of the Union, thus making the first great 
attempt to lay a firm foundation for this science in South Africa, 
though similar work had been done previously on a smaller scale by 
J.P. Johnson. South Africa had not been behind in her archaeology. 
In 1866 Sir Langham Dale found and recognised the first stone 
implement in South Africa. By 1872, papers of extreme archaeological 
interest were appearing in the Cape Monthly Magazine. Péringuey, 
however, attempted a new nomenclature, realising the difficulties 
which had been encountered by previous writers. Johnson, for 
instance, had been forced to speak of ‘‘ Acheulic ” and “ Solutric ”’ 
in attempting to draw parallels without implying exact identity 
between South Africa and Europe. 

It was Dr. Péringuey who first made use of the term “ Stellenbosch 
type,’ but his use of the term was apparently much narrower than 
that which is now in use. He says: * 

“I find no difficulty in dividing the South African bouchers into 
several types, owing to their appearance or facies, or to the material 
of which they are made.” 

On the following page he says of his Stellenbosch implements : 

“They are of a type so numerously illustrated in all the South 
African districts of the Cape Colony and also beyond (Cape, Stellen- 
bosch, Paarl, Worcester, Tulbagh, Ceres, Clanwilliam, Malmesbury, 
Piquetberg, Caledon, Mossel Bay, Knysna, Port Elizabeth) that they 
may well be ranked under the name ‘ Stellenbosch type.’ ”’ 

He speaks also of the ‘‘ Orange River type” : 


* Péringuey, Annals S.A.M., vol. viii, p. 17. 


10 Annals of the South African Museum. 


“These palaeoliths are mostly made of banded jasper, brown or 
yellow, and occasionally white with bluish veins. . . . The implements 
thus produced rival the best Acheulean flints in finish. They do not 
usually attain the great size and heavy weight of the Stellenbosch type 
examples.” 

He also gives a list of districts in which this type is found: Alice, 
Bedford, East London, Carnarvon, Kenhardt, Prieska, Warrenton, 
Pniel, Vryburg, Modder River, Smithfield, Transkei, Pretoria, Wit- 
watersrand, Potchefstroom, Vereeniging, Swaziland. Further on he 
states : 

“On the whole, and in spite of the differences mentioned, the facies 
or general appearance of these two, or perhaps three, types is astonish- 
ingly alike.” 

Since his death some four years ago a vast amount of new material 
has been accumulated at various museums in South Africa, most 
notably at the South African Museum, Cape Town, the McGregor 
Museum, Kimberley, and the Albany Museum at Grahamstown. The 
archaeological side of anthropology is also being stressed at the 
National Museum, Bloemfontein, the Port Elizabeth Museum, and the 
Transvaal Museum, Pretoria.* All these collections I have been 
privileged to visit, and permitted to make notes and drawings of the 
various implements represented. As a result of these various finds 
it has been deemed best to regard all Péringuey’s types as falling 
under the single heading of “‘ Stellenbosch.” Péringuey himself has 
admitted (vide supra) that his differentiation was based largely upon 
differences of material, and that the general appearance of his types 
is often astonishingly alike. For these and other reasons it has been 
thought safer to regard the Stellenbosch type as a single industry, 
while recognising local variations depending more or less entirely upon 
the differences of material. 

Two main geographical areas are immediately discernible, and 
these fall roughly into Péringuey’s two original groupings. The first 
is the Cape System, or Southern Mountains area. This lies roughly 
between Cape Town and Port Elizabeth, or even East London, and 
for about a hundred miles inland. The second is the Vaal River area, 
lying between the Transvaal border (near Warrenton) and the junction 
of the Vaal and Harts Rivers. But these can only be regarded as 
geographical regions, the industries only showing variations due to 
differences in the material used. The first of these two areas has never 


* These museums will be referred to throughout this series of papers as S.A.M., 
M.M.K., A.M.G., N.M.B., P.E.M., T.M.P., respectively. 


The Stellenbosch Industry. 11 


been completely written up, though Péringuey touched upon various 
sites at Stellenbosch, and in the neighbourhood of Knysna. 


TYPOLOGY. 


Throughout the Stellenbosch industry, the most typical and obvious 
implement is the cowp-de-pomng or boucher. This implement is 
probably the best known of any type, occurring as it does throughout 
the entire Old World. There is little difference in the implements 
appearing from India, South Africa, North Africa, or Europe. The 
one basic difference is that of material. While in Europe and North 
Africa flint is used, in India and in Central and Southern Africa the 
most convenient local material is made use of. This implement 


VVODEC 


Text-Fic. 1.—A variety of cowp-de-poing shapes found in the Stellenbosch 
industry of South Africa. 


definitely proves a cultural unity between the Lower Palaeolithic of 
Kurope and our Stellenbosch industry in South Africa, though the 
original home of this culture has not yet been ascertained. 

The coup-de-poing is best described as a stone some 6 inches long, 
shaped by human agency, normally from a water-worn boulder, by 
means of flakes removed about the perimeter. The resultant shape 
is much that of a shelled almond, a stone with lenticular cross-section, 
and bounded by an amygdaloid edge. While this shape is the most 
common, two or three varieties appear; a pear-shape (ficron) similar 
to the almond but with a more tapering point; a leaf-shape (limande) 
tending to a point at either end; an oval cowp-de-poing ; and rarely, 
a circular type. In the last three the greatest width of face is across 
the mid-length of the specimen, while in the two former it is about 
one-third of the way down the mid-line. In all cases there appears 
to be a desire for symmetry across this line, except in the leaf-shape, 
where a few specimens appear showing a tendency towards a lunate 
or half-moon shape (see text-fig. 1). : 

All the sites known appear to have been factory or workshop sites, 


12 Annals of the South African Museum. 


and hence a high proportion of well-made implements is hardly to be 
expected, and in fact the percentage is often very low ; but in all 
cases in which large numbers of specimens have been sent in from 
sites, a strong tendency is noticeable towards a well-shaped, evenly 
worked implement. The whole body of the implement is surrounded 
by a sharp edge, often further sharpened by step-flaking, or resolved- 
flaking. This edge extends round the butt, and right round to the 
point. The thickest part of the implement (usually from an inch to 
an inch-and-a-half) is in the centre of its greatest width, the point 
(or points) tapering from here. The point end of the implement 
always shows the most delicate working. The resulting tool is neat 
and well made, denoting the early presence of artistic pride in South 
Africa. In the best specimens the ratio between length : breadth : 
thickness is about 5: 23:1. 

The second artefact * worthy of note is the cleaver, or biseau. This 
would appear to me not to have been an implement, but rather a 


ABA 


TExt-FIc. 2.—Various biseau shapes found in the Stellenbosch industry of 
the Union; portions with secondary working are shaded. 


crucial stage in the manufacture of the coup-de-poing, a stage at which 
it could very readily be seen whether or not the resulting implement 
could have been successfully completed (see Plate V). However 
this may be, this artefact must in fairness be included as a type-speci- 
men of the Stellenbosch industry. The implement is exactly similar to 
the coup-de-poing, except that in place of the point there is a straight — 
unworked working-edge at right angles to the length of the implement. 
In a few instances, from the Vaal River only, so far, the point has been 
completed and the wedge-shaped edge takes the place of the butt. 
The similarity to the modern axe is immediately apparent, and unsafe 
conclusions as to hafting, uses, and so on can be jumped at with the 
utmost ease. The size is slightly greater, generally speaking, than that 
of the coup-de-powng (see text-fig. 2). 


* Artefact or artifact =object made by artificial means. 


The Stellenbosch Industry. 13 


Lastly come a heterogeneous group of hammer stones, discoidal 
artefacts, and the like. These are formed by their use, and thus fall 
into the class of instruments rather than that of implements. The 
commonest shape, and that to which the term “ discoidal artefact ”’ 
has been applied, is a rough polyhedral disc, often slightly truncated 
so as to leave a small platform in the centre of each face. This type 
has obviously been formed by the use of the perimeter of a circular 
pebble as a hammer stone (see text-fig. 3). 


TEext-Fic. 3.—Fabricator or Discoidal artefact, Stellenbosch. S.A.M. collection. 


Péringuey attempted to show that a knowledge of a flake technique 
was to be found with the Stellenbosch material. There does not seem 
to be sufficient evidence that this was usually so. All the examples 
he brings forward are of little use as proofs. For instance, the speci- 
mens he describes from Smithfield may yet prove to belong to the 
Fauresmith Industry. The Robberg specimen is apparently not a 
human-made flake, and certainly not an implement. The East 
London specimen is similarly doubtful. The Nooitgedacht specimens 
appear to be flakes struck from the cowp-de-poing in the making. 
This, however, is negative evidence. It seems certain, from Mr. 
Lowe’s finds at Knysna, that flakes struck off in the making of the 
coup-de-poing were occasionally used as rough scrapers. 


14 Annals of the South African Museum. 


We may thus state that there is not sufficient evidence that the 
makers of the Stellenbosch implements normally used a pure flake 
technique (implying the removal of fluting flakes or longitudinal 
trimming flakes), nor is there evidence that this industry contains con- 
ventionalised flake implements. We can, however, presume the use 
of spalls or flakes struck from the cowp-de-poing, as scrapers, etc. The 
action of water, pressure, and similar natural forces, upon the edges 
of likely-looking flakes must be taken into consideration in this 
connection. On the other hand, however, Mr. Lowe found at Knysna, 
stratified at depth and lying cheek by jowl with Stellenbosch material, 
large flake cores which he asserts belong to the assemblage; these 
come from the Knysna-Concordia road. He regards this as evidence 
of a knowledge of a crude flake-technique. This discovery will be 
mentioned again later in dealing with Mr. Lowe’s Knysna finds. | 


SoUTHERN MountvAIN AREA. 


The Southern Mountain or Cape System area appears at some time 
either to have been very thickly populated by the bearers of the 
Stellenbosch culture, or else populated over a considerable period of 
time. 

The Cape System consists of a group of sandstones and subordinate 
shales, and comprises a three-fold grouping, viz., the Table Mountain, 
the Bokkeveld, and the Witteberg Series, distinguishable from one 
another only by their fossil contents. The Table Mountain (T. M. 8.) 
consist of thick unfossilised grits and quartzitic sandstones. The 
Bokkeveld consist of similar sandstones but with shales and flag- 
stones plus marine fossils of Devonian affinities, and on the whole 
associable with the Gondwana of India, with the Devonian of America, 
and with occurrences in the Sahara. The Witteberg sandstones are 
also quartzitic, but the fossils are carboniferous, and the shales 
subordinate. In the western portion of the Cape System granites 
of pre-Cape Age underlie the T. M.S. and outcrop at the Cape, Paarl, — 
and various neighbouring sites. 

The material used by the makers of the Stellenbosch implements in 
this area was invariably a quartzitic sandstone, either from the Table 
Mountain Series or from the Bokkeveld. The most easily obtainable 
form was the larger talus material from the mountains, the talus 
consisting of quartzitic sandstones of both types. It is thus not 
possible to differentiate between the two sources of material. 

The normal processes of denudation have formed much of the sand- 


The Stellenbosch Industry. 15 


stone into river gravels, and further denudation has left these gravels 
capping the foothills below the mountain ranges. It is from these 
water-worn gravels that the Harlier Stone Age folk obtained their 
material, and worked their implements on the spot. As a result most 
of the implement sites lie on the higher lands, well above (often 100 
feet or more) the present river levels. Such is the mode of occurrence 
in and about Stellenbosch, Paarl, and Wellington, and in fact all the 
towns lying below the mountains in this part of the country. 


Paarl. 


Péringuey * describes various sites of this type. Speaking of 
occurrences at Paarl, he says that in an ironstone gravel quarry he 
found several coups-de-powing of large size. 

“Some 400 or 500 yards away on the higher slope of the hill, and 
about 14 or 2 miles from the Breede f River, a piece of ground had 
been delved for establishing a vineyard. Alongside were two heaps 
of palaeoliths and nuclei, thrown aside by the workmen. ... Nota 
single scraper or small spall was to be had. These palaeoliths and 
nuclei were found at a depth of 24 or 3 feet—the depth of the 
delving.” 

Unluckily he gives no exact locality for this particular site, and 
thus it has not since been searched for further material. Dr. Péringuey 
presumes that the material for manufacturing the coups-de-poing was 
brought up from the river below for the purposes of manufacture. 
Judging from other exactly similar sites this would appear to be 
an unnecessary presumption; it would seem more likely that high 
gravels were also used here, and that these gravels, containing the 
sandstone material, have since been left as broken terraces capping 
the foothills. The Berg River has cut down very considerably since 
these gravels were laid, which is not surprising when it is remembered 
that this point is only thirty miles in a direct line from the sea. 

The Rev. Breedt of Wellington very kindly motored me to a number 
of other sites in the Paarl vicinity. One of these lay some three miles 
north of Huguenot station on the Paarl-Wellington road, which runs 
west of the Berg River, and at the fork of the Klipheuvel-Wellington 
road. Here the circumstances are similar to those obtaining at 
Péringuey’s site. Implements occur to a depth of two feet in a fine 
gravel formed (apparently) of a fine ironstone and kaolin from the 
Paarl granites. An exactly similar occurrence is to be seen about 

* Op. cit., p. 47 et seq. t Should be Berg River. 
VOL. XXVII. 2 


16 Annals of the South African Museum. 


50 yards from the crossroads of the Malmesbury-Paarl road and the 
Wellington-Klipheuvel road, towards Wellington. At both these 
sites, Mr. Breedt and myself found implements of normal Stellenbosch 
type in the slight roadside diggings excavated to obtain road metal 
(see Plate I). 


Wellongton. 


Mr. Homan, until lately the owner of Zoutendal farm some two 
miles north-west of Wellington station, invited me to visit the estate 
as he had come across a number of implements in the gravels Capel: 
the hill which forms the main part of the orchard. 

The highest point of the orchard lies about 80 feet above the present 
river level. The river terrace in which the trees now stand is composed 
of a large number of boulders of quartzitic sandstone which have 
aggregated at this point and cover an area of over 300 yards by 500 
yards. Here worked pebbles formed a very small part of the gravels, 
perhaps 2 per cent., and although huge piles of stones had been 
collected and cast out, implements were relatively scarce. However, 
sufficient was found to show that the normal Stellenbosch types were 
again represented from this site. The finest specimen is still in the 
keeping of Mr. Homan. 

He also brought out a point of interest regarding the soil. Before 
the planting of fruit trees began the whole area was covered by the 
South African Olive (Olea verrucosa), a remarkably long-lived tree. 
These trees had been standing sufficiently long to make a considerable 
change in the structure of the soil, which is clayey and fertile where 
olive trees once stood. The height above the present river level argues 
great age too, and the implements are in some cases considerably 
water-worn, pointing to the fact that these gravels were in process 
of formation when the implements were being made. Others show 
no signs of wear and may be of slightly later age, or perhaps escaped 
rolling. The gravels here, though actually lower than the other 
Wellington gravels, are not really lower in relation to the present 
river levels; the Zoutendal gravels do, however, appear to be newer 
than the gravels lying immediately below the mountain range, if we 
may judge from the relative wear of the implements enclosed. 

Above Wellington and immediately below the mountain are a 
number of sites similar to those to be studied at Stellenbosch (see 
later). Mr. Breedt kindly took Mr. Burkitt and myself to a site on 
Mr. Brink’s farm a few miles out of Wellington. The occurrence 
here is very much the same as that found elsewhere in this district, 


The Stellenbosch Industry. Uy 


a gravel left high and dry to cap a hillock. The implements were 
again of normal Stellenbosch type. 

Later Mr. Breedt took me to a further farm Bovlei set similarly 
upon arise. The circumstances of the find were identical with those 
obtaining at Péringuey’s Paarl site. A field had been broken up for 
purposes of tree planting, and all stones likely to impede the plough 
had been thrown out and piled. In these piles were large numbers 
of implements in excellent condition. No flakes were represented, 
these, of course, not being thrown out. Time would not allow of a 
further search, but flakes should most certainly be found turned up 
by the plough, as the larger implements are all from the upper two feet 
of soil. 


Semondium. 


Returning further south, some seven miles due south of Paarl lies 
the station of Simondium towards the French Hoek Valley. Dr. 
Péringuey notes implements from here and gives a large scale map of 
the district.* 

West of Simondium towers Simonsberg, forming the western flank 
of the Drakenstein Valley. This mountain falls abruptly, then levels 
out towards the railway station, leaving a succession of small hills. 
One of these, Pontac Hill, behind the homestead of the Pomona estate, 
proved to contain gravels, exactly similar to those occurring commonly 
below these mountains. A donga, or erosion gulley some 10 feet 
deep, showed that some of the material from the gravels above had 
dropped to a lower level. Dr. Péringuey traced this site for about a 
mile up the ascending talus of Pontac Hill and about 250 feet above 
the present level of the Berg River. Two miles below this highest 
point, in a cutting at Simondium station, he found further evidences, 
probably the lower end of the same gravels. The implements were 
not in a rolled condition, and hence must have been made from the 
gravels when these were lying exposed. 


Stellenbosch. 


Stellenbosch lies some 10 miles south-east of Simondium and 15 
south of Paarl. The situation of the town is very much that of 
Wellington, nestling in the Stellenbosch mountains which form part 
of the main massive range running northwards to form part of the 
escarpment of the main plateau. The mountains here also drop 

* Op. cit., p. 49. 


18 Annals of the South African Museum. 


steeply and form rounded hillocks as they near the river level and the 
plain. Here again the gravels lie at the tops of these hillocks, while 
the river system has cut down leaving them as a series of graded 
terraces, all being of probably much the same age. Implements of 
Earlier Stone Age type are scarce in the valleys, though they do occur, 
having been apparently washed down from the higher levels. 

A site of this type was discovered by Mr. Burkitt and myself near 
Stellenbosch station. The road leads across the railway line past a 
wine-factory, and thence crosses a small stream. Near the road, and 
on the far side of the stream from Stellenbosch, is the cemetery. 
Nothing appears to have been dug up in excavating this ground in 
the process of burial, but towards, and on both sides of, the road, 
some 20 feet above the level of the stream, a considerable amount of 
material has been excavated for brick- or road-making purposes. In 
these quarries and near the surface appear a small number of imple- 
ments. The percentage here is slight compared with the unworked 
material, but there is sufficient to show a workshop site, apparently 
in two layers. 

This site forms a part of Dr. Péringuey’s Bosman’s Crossing site, 
which has been cut in two by the stream. A spur of the Papagaiberg 
abuts on a tributary of the Herste River, and had been intersected 
by a road on one side and a railway cutting on the other. The space 
between these had been used for a considerable period as a brickfield. 
Dr. Péringuey found two layers of worked implements. These layers 
ran right through the entire spur, reappearing on both sides of the road, 
and also of the railway cutting. The lower layer apparently lay directly 
on the granite formation which it followed. The brick clay lying 
above these implements amounted, in places, to 20 feet. This suggests 
a very considerable lapse of time since the implements were deposited, 
even allowing for the fact that the overlying clay formed part of the 
Papagaiberg talus and was probably quick in forming. This part of 
Stellenbosch has changed considerably during the past fifteen years 
and * Bosman’s Crossing’ does not now appear under that name, 
but it seems that it stood a little south of the site now taken up by 
Stellenbosch railway station. 

A somewhat similar site has been revealed some 200 yards west of 
Du Toit station; this, however, is not very rich, and the material 
appears to have gravitated down from a higher level. The ground 
here has been excavated for yellow clay, and as a result the surface 
soil for some distance above the lip of the quarry has been denuded, 
carrying implements into the otherwise sterile quarry. 


The Stellenbosch Industry. 19 


Higher up the slopes towards the Stellenbosch mountains are various 
sites. The late Hon. John X. Merriman submitted implements of 
this Stellenbosch type from his farm Schoongezicht on the Rustenberg 
road. Similar finds are reported from Rustenberg farm itself (see 
Plate IT). 

At Lorraine, a farm some 3 miles from Stellenbosch on the French 
Hoek road, Mr. Lowe discovered a number of implements on the crest 
of a hill which had been ploughed and dug up as an orchard. None 
of the implements were in situ, but all had been found in the clayey 
surface soil of the field, to a depth of some 3 feet. There is a consider- 
able amount of gravel material, rounded boulders, etc., with the 
implements, but the latter were not in a rolled state, and appear to 
have been made from the gravels. 

While this site does not appear to extend to the top of the hill, it 
is quite thick on the face overlooking Stellenbosch. Very little well- 
finished material appears, though Mr. Hill, the owner of the farm, has 
collected a few specimens which show that the desired standard was 
similar to that expected elsewhere in the same industry. The site 
is extremely rich, some 20 per cent. of the gravel material showing 
signs—however slight—of working ; perhaps a quarter of this material 
is sufficiently advanced to show the general morphology. From these 
it is seen that the only implements made (excluding the possibility 
of a minor flake industry) were the cowp-de-poing, the biseau, and the 
usual fabricating artefacts normal to the industry. The shape of 
the cowp-de-poing (as is usual in the Stellenbosch district) is the almond, 
the size being normally in the region of 7 inches long by 34 inches wide 
by 2 inches thick in well-advanced specimens. 

At Blaauwklip Spruit (or Blouklipspruit) some 4 miles out of 
Stellenbosch on the old Somerset road, the road crosses a small low- 
level concrete bridge over the spruit (rivulet), and a hundred yards 
up the hillside is the farm entrance. A little way in front of the home- 
stead is a “land,” ploughed up and worked as a vegetable garden. 
From the top 3 or 4 feet, a number of implements in varying stages 
have been thrown out. These show that here again the implement- 
_ bearing gravels do not quite crest the hill. The site is almost exactly 
the same as that at Lorraine, and as rich. Mr. Lowe discovered the 

site in the stream below, where he found that rolled implements and 
refuse occurred actually in the gravels of the stream; this led him to 
search on the banks above the stream, and the main site was revealed. 
On a later visit Professor Dart discovered similar material in these 
gravels, including a few worked flakes. One such flake appears to 


20 Annals of the South African Museum. 


be a scraper of a fairly definite type, and is thus of interest in this 
connection. The almond-shape again appears to be the normal, the 
size being about 6 inches by 3 inches by 2 or 14 inches thick in the 
more finished implements. One or two roughly blocked-out specimens 
reach a length of 10 inches, a width of 5 inches, and a thickness of 3 
inches. The types are identical with those occurring at other sites 
in the neighbourhood. 

Almost exactly similar implements have been sent in from various 
sites of like type in the neighbourhood. Mr. Lowe reports other sites 
at Ida’s Valley, Rustenberg, on the Stellenbosch-French Hoek road, 
on Hell’s Hoogte (in a gravel pit immediately adjacent to the road 
right on the Hoogte), and also on the slopes of the Drakenstein beyond, 
notably at Pniel (Stellenbosch). 


Villiersdorp. 


Some 30 miles east of Stellenbosch, and behind the mountains 
overlooking this town, is Villiersdorp. Mr. C. O. Payne has sent in a 
large number of implements from here. These occur in exactly 
similar fashion in the gravel pits cresting the foothills below the 
mountains, and apparently lie in the gravels above the town. They 
are the same in every way as the Stellenbosch and Wellington speci- 
mens, the size and shape agreeing, as also the mode of occurrence. 


General. 


The various sites so far mentioned form a group of sites lying in 
an L 20 miles by 30. They are of interest as they show that the area 
below the mountains was comparatively thickly populated at this 
period. While we cannot regard the implements found on the higher- 
level sites, immediately below the mountains, as of an age equal to 
that of the gravels containing them, owing to the unrolled condition 
of the artefacts, yet the accumulation of soil above the gravels— 
usually only a couple of feet—is considerable when we realise that 
these gravels are situated on the tops of foothills, which have since 
been left standing as terraces by rivers which have carved out valleys 
below. In the case of Mr. Homan’s farm, Zoutendal, the whole hill 
stands well away from, and well below, the hills above Wellington, 
and the gravels were obviously formed by the Berg River when 
Tunning at a height of about 100 feet above its present level. The 
implements in this gravel are rolled, and while identical in every way 
with those appearing from the higher terraces, are obviously older 


The Stellenbosch Industry. 21 


than this lower terrace, and in fact may have gravitated or been 
washed down from the higher terraces at a time when these newer 
gravels were in process of formation. 

It would appear, then, that the whole area between Wellington, 
Paarl, and Stellenbosch at one time formed a plain below the mountains, 
some 250 to 300 feet above its present level. Gravels formed of 
mountain talus were left in this plain, and implements were made 
from the river material ready to hand. Subsequently the river level 
fell by some 150 feet, at which time the gravels on Zoutendal farm 
and similar sites were left, containing water-worn implements. Since 
this period the river has dropped a further 100 feet. 

Later Stone Age material appears to be confined to the surface of 
the Stellenbosch Flats, or plains below the mountain ranges, and thus 
belong to a far later period than the material accumulated in the 
gravels. 


Cape Peninsula. 


Between the area discussed and the Cape Peninsula lies a plain some 
30 miles across and generally not over 100 feet above sea-level. The 
surface is sandy, and rests directly upon the granite. The Cape 
Peninsula is a high-standing promontory rising directly from the Cape 
Flats and bounding them at their southern end, and reaching a height 
of 3600 feet in places, then falling almost directly to the sea. Formerly 
this mountain range was presumably linked up with the Stellenbosch 
mountains which bound the Flats to the north, and the formation, 
Table Mountain Sandstone upon granite, is identical. 

Throughout the Peninsula sporadic finds of Stellenbosch implements 
have occurred. No site has yet proved really rich, but many show a 
fair number of specimens. One of the most interesting is the site 
which appears to extend from Bishopscourt, through the “ Hen and 
Chickens” (a rock formation) and on to Kirstenbosch. Sporadic 
finds have appeared from here at different times. No really good 
specimens appear, but the rejects show that the desired implement 
was here the same as in the Stellenbosch area. Various single 
specimens appear from sites on the Cape Flats; in fact, as Péringuey 
mentions, the first implement of this type found in South Africa was 
discovered on the Koeberg Road by the Hon. W. F. Lyttelton in 
1880.* Further finds have been reported from the Wynberg and 
Constantia valley, but exact localities are not known. Dr. Péringuey 


* But compare Burkitt, South Africa’s Past in Stone and Paint, Cambridge, 
1928, p. 59. 


22 Annals of the South African Museum. 


found coups-de-poing at Fish Hoek,* and Colonel Hardy has found 
similar implements at the opposite end of the same valley, some 4 miles 
distant, at Noord Hoek. 

Probably one of the best Cape Peninsula sites was discovered by 
Mr. Lowe and myself almost half way down the slope below Cape 
Point lighthouse towards the Cape of Good Hope. This was a surface 
site, though the implements were found embedded firmly in a soft 
rock, and had been covered by shifting sand which had moved with 
the prevalent winds and left the site bare. The soft rock had obviously 
been formed from such wind-blown sand. Here again the implements 
are of the usual Stellenbosch type, and show no variation in shape or 
Size. 

Clanwilliam. 


Before leaving the western end of the Cape System, it is worth 
noting that implements have been sent in from the Clanwilliam dis- 
trict and various other sites by Mr. J. M. Bain, an ardent collector, 
now resident near Stellenbosch. Somerset West and Gordon’s Bay 
have also yielded a little, and it has been stated that a site occurs on 
the Steenbras Mountains behind Gordon’s Bay. Péringuey fj describes 
a site at Beukesfontein, Ceres, and another at Maatjesfontein in the 
Laingsburg district, but both of these lie on the northern edge of the 
Cape System, and the material used in both cases is the bluish-grey 
Dwykachert. This is of interest, as it probably shows that the Stellen- 
bosch folk were proceeding southward and had not yet accepted the 
Table Mountain Sandstone as a possible material. 


Pringle Bay, Hangklip. 


Some of the most beautifully finished implements from the Southern 
Mountains area were found by the writer at Pringle Bay, collected on 
a hard, dry, turfy loess formed below an old spring on a mountain 
slope. Together with the material of Stelienbosch type were found 
implements of Still Bay facies, the material was all on the surface, and © 
relative age was not discernible (see Plate III). 


Montagu. 


Farther east, the South African Museum excavated a cave some few 
miles from Montagu. This site may be regarded as the most important 
hitherto found in the Union, in that it is the only large cave which has 

* Op. cit., locality described, p. 65 et seq. | .Opucitpape ole 


The Stellenbosch Industry. 23 


so far been excavated with anything like full scientific care and 
thoughtfulness. This cave was first discovered as an archaeological 
site by Mr. F. Jansen (now of East London), who has since achieved 
some little fame in the matter of the Victoria West implements. As 
a result of his discoveries, Dr. Haughton and Dr. K. H. Barnard of 
the South African Museum excavated the cave as far as the fallen 
rock would allow. 

Some 6 miles east of Montagu a valley cuts southward into the 
Wittebergen and branches out into a Y. Almost opposite the fork, 
but on the right-hand side of the Western branch of the valley, appears 
a cave, some 200 feet up the face. A constant water supply exists 
in the valley below, and the cave is eminently suitable for bats and 
men. The main cave extends some 50 feet into the mountain, then 
ata height of 20 feet a narrow passage-way leads far into the mountain. 
Prehistoric man did not make use of this upper cave—probably 
having no means of access—but for some little time it has been used 
for obtaining supplies of bat guano. 

The deposit was found to consist of beautifully stratified layers to 
a depth of about 16 feet.* If we leave out of consideration various 
rises and falls in the strata, we may broadly summarise the deposits 
thus :— 


. A 6-inch layer of surface soil. 
. A 6-inch layer of Wilton material. 
A 1-foot sterile layer of ferruginous sand. 
. 2 to 3-foot layer of stone implements of Stellenbosch type. 
. 3 feet of sterile ferruginous sand. 
. 3 to 4-foot layer of stone implements of Stellenbosch type. 
. A 3-foot sterile layer of ferruginous sand. 
. A layer of Stellenbosch implements, up to a foot in depth. 


Hae oOwb 


The cave proved a double sequence. Layer H was difficult of access 
owing to fallen material, and only two good cowps-de-poing were 
recovered. These were of the pear-shaped variety of the Stellenbosch 
industry. Layer F, the next inhabited layer after (7.e. above) H, 
contained similar pear-shaped specimens with a very small per- 
centage of almond shapes (15 out of 77). In the next inhabited 
layer, layer D, the percentage of almonds immediately rises (70 out 
of 89), while in addition four are almost round, or ovate. So, 
judging only from these better specimens, we may express the 
sequence thus :— 


* Goodwin, ‘“‘ The Montagu Cave,” Annals 8.A.M., vol. xxiv. 


24 Annals of the South African Museum. 


Pear. Almond. Ovate. Total. 
Layer D . : 15 70 4 89 
Layer FF. : 62 15 Nil. T7 
Layer H . 2 Nil. Nil. 2 


There was thus a change in fashion between layers F and D, which 
resulted in the pear-shape being displaced by the almond, and, to a 
lesser extent, by the ovate. It would be interesting to discover 
whether or not the ovate finally displaced both the earlier types. The 
second point of interest is the appearance of atypical Wilton types 
in layer B, again separated from the Earlier Stone Age material by a 
sterile layer. 

Half-way between Montagu hospital and the road-bridge a number 
of cowps-de-poing were found in a slight cutting made by a rain-water 
gully. These are not well made, and are of little interest. 


Riversdale. 


Across the Langebergen to the south-east lies Riversdale. Mr. C. 
H. Heese has done a large amount of indefatigable work here in the 
few years of his residence. He has discovered among other things 
a scattered Stellenbosch site at Riversdale about the showground. 
The implements, which are often well made, lie about a foot beneath 
the surface of the ground in ironstone gravels. They are of the usual 
quartzitic sandstone. The site extends across to the railway line 
where it is again revealed in a cutting. This site appears to be of the 
same foothill gravel type as those occurring in and about Stellenbosch — 
district. 

At Still Bay on the coast 20 miles south-south-east of Riversdale, 
coups-de-poing are also found, embedded in a limy concretion. This 


site will be referred to in a later paper dealing with the Still Bay 
industry. 


Mossel Bay. 


Probably one of the richest sites in this part of the Cape System is 
that discovered by Mr. J. H. Power at Mossel Bay. The town of 
Mossel Bay is situated on a promontory ending in Cape St. Blaize. 
The whole of this promontory forms an extremely rich archaeological 
field, and has been inhabited for some thousands of years by various 


The Stellenbosch Industry. 25 


peoples. Along the central keel of this projection of land runs the 
main road to Cape Town ; a little south of this, and about 6 miles from 
the Mossel Bay station, are a number of shifting sand-dunes, situated 
high up on the shore. Beneath these are a large number of imple- 
ments in various stages of manufacture. Mr. Power made several 
visits to the site and succeeded in taking back a vast collection to the 
McGregor Museum, Kimberley. This collection is of extreme interest, 
as Mr. Power, not satisfied with obtaining the best implements only, 
also obtained a huge variety of unfinished specimens, which indicate 
to the student the technology and methods employed by these folk 
in the manufacture of their implements, which will be referred to 
later. Any attempt at dating the finds was impossible in this case, as 
the sand overlay the material and kept it from being buried under any 
more stable deposit. The constant rolling and shifting of the sand- 
dunes have alternately revealed and covered different portions of the 
site, making it difficult to judge the full extent of the deposit. Mr. 
M. C. Burkitt visited this site while at Mossel Bay, and took a consider- 
able amount of material with him to Cambridge, leaving the greater 
volume behind at the South African Museum. There is reason to 
believe that Mossel Bay will yield a vast amount of valuable informa- 
tion if carefully investigated by the right workers. 


Oudtshoorn. 


Above the Kammanassie Mountains stands Oudtshoorn, where the 
1925 meeting of the 8. A. A. A. S. was held. While attending this 
meeting, | came across an extraordinary site on a small hill a mile 
or so north of the town. The cowps-de-poing are small (4 inches long), 
and all show a convex cleavage face along the two edges and the butt. 
The fact that it seems impossible to remove flakes of this type from 
a stone with any consistency has led me to the belief that these were 
of purely natural origin, but further research may throw more light 
on the subject. The “ technique ”’ (if such a term may be employed) 
reminds one immediately of the scaling or shelling normally found in 
the spheroidal weathering of dolerite, but occurring also in cases of 
similar weathering in certain quartzitic sandstones. Until further 
knowledge is obtained these finds will have to be ignored. 


George. 


George is a little forest town below the mountains, some 40 miles 
south of Oudtshoorn. Visiting here for a few hours I was surprised 


26 Annals of the South African Museum. 


to find a well-made cowp-de-poing directly under a street lamp in the 
exact centre of the town. This find was providential, as it was made 
late at night. The following morning I was able to locate four imple- 
ment-bearing sites. The first lay a little way north of the town in a 
donga running beneath the railway line due east of a small reservoir. 

The town is built on a single street, which is joined at the north end, 
and at the middle, by two branches of an entrant road. The southern 
branch passes the golf course and the Industrial School, the northern 
runs directly from this road to the Dutch Reformed Church. The 
second site would appear to lie between these two roads on either side 
of a stream, as I found two indications—one opposite the golf course 
between the roads, the second in a small cutting on the northern 
branch, lying 3 feet deep in the talus material here prevalent. The golf 
course and the brickfields yielded nothing, nor did the commonage, 
except for a single specimen some 2 miles south of the town, and a 
little east of the continuation of the main street. There is reason to 
believe that a large amount of material could be obtained from this 
part of the country directly below the mountains if the local foresters 
could be made keen on archaeology. One of the difficulties at present 
is the fact that stones are returned to the ground in the process of 
tree planting, with the result that surface indications are rare, and that 
the stratification is upset in the afforested areas. Foresters might 
find themselves in the position to note stratification and also to collect 
some of the better specimens. 


Knysna. 


About 40 miles east of George stands the forest-harbour of Knysna 
situated below the Outeniqua mountains. The place-names in this 
area (Gouwkamma, Tzitzikamma, Kamnassie, Knysna, Outeniqua, 
etc.) immediately remind one that it was inhabited until comparatively 
recent times by pastoral tribes of Hottentots. The country here is 
extremely fertile, and has probably supported a considerable popula- 
tion for some thousands of years. The cave- and open-sites show an 
extraordinary richness which supports this view. 

In 1922, Mr. C. van Riet Lowe found himself in a position to study 
the Stellenbosch industry of this area with remarkable results.* 
During this period he kept in constant touch with the Anthropological 
department at the University of Cape Town, and the greater part of 
his collection is housed there. I quote freely from his paper and letters 
to the department. 


* U. C. T. Engineering and Scientific Society Journal, 1922, pp. 36-50. 


The Stellenbosch Industry. 27 


“ Situated about 200 yards on the left of the road from Knysna to 
the Concordia Plantations and about 24 miles from the village of 
Knysna is a small rounded hill, separated from the main ridge by a 
slight saddle. The entire surface of this hill and of those in its 
immediate neighbourhood is composed of a dark loamy soil with slight 
impregnations of fine ferruginous gravel in the form of ‘ iron pan ’— 
the whole overlying Table Mountain Sandstone.”’ 

As a result of his excavations here, Mr. Lowe discovered a number 
of stone implements of Stellenbosch type. These seldom appeared on 
the surface, but a large number of artefacts were discovered in the 
soil and sub-soil of this hill at depths varying from 18 to 80 inches, 
through a layer of sand and in the “iron pan.”’ All these, and in fact 
all the implements found, were of T. M.S. 

A number of coups-de-poing varying in size from 5 pounds (9 inches) 
to ¢ lb. (4 inches) were found. In association with these were a 
number of scrapers, knives, etc. Most interesting of all was the associa- 
tion of a single true flake-core with the flakes and cowps-de-poing. This 
would imply a further evolution in stone technique than is normally 
presumed for this industry. A number of detaching hammers and 
discoidal artefacts also appear from this site. 

In all, Mr. Lowe has recorded 10 areas in which coups-de-poing and 
associated artefacts were found. He givesa locality sketch of Knysna 
and the immediate surroundings, marking the sites and lettering them. 
Areas A, B, and C appear to be at or near workshop sites (see map). 

A. Rich in yields, described above. 

B. The surface and sub-soil here (overlying T. M.S.) are similar to 
those of site A, but the ground has been cut up by dongas, revealing 
implements which appear to have gravitated from a position further 
east. 

C. The formation here is typical of the Enon Conglomerates, but 
is denuded. “Iron pan” is noticeable. Many of the numerous 
boulders from these beds have been worked, so a few advanced 
specimens were found. 

D. Isolated cowps-de-poing, flake knives, and scrapers appear from 
the neighbourhood of “ The Hill” (C. W. Thesen), on the western 
slopes and near the crest of the hill on the west of the re-entrant shown 
on his map, and near the conjunction of the Enon Conglomerates and 
the T. M. 8. 

H. This area is about 4 miles from Knysna on the Plettenberg Bay 
road. It contains recent gravel pits. This site is in or near a work- 
shop. 


The Stellenbosch Industry. 29 


F. Stands on a spur of the hill overlooking the Knysna-Concordia 
road, about a mile north-east of Knysna. The formation here is 
exactly similar to A, B, D, and E. 

G. Lies about a quarter of a mile east of F, and is similar. 

H. Lies in Block C, of the Concordia Plantation. 

K. Lies about 60 yards east of the 14th milestone from Knysna 
on the Plettenberg Bay road. 

L. Is a quarry some 200 yards east of the 16th milestone. 

He mentions three other isolated finds. 

From all his sites the implements are of precisely the same nature— 
coups-de-poing, biseaux, scrapers, and flakes, the implements being in 
all stages of manufacture, though completed artefacts are rare. All 
show signs of having been made from water-worn boulders. 

The country-side along the Knysna to Plettenberg Bay road is flat 
or slightly undulating. It contains many pans (fens) and the sub- 
soil is impregnated throughout with the hydrated ferric oxide known 
as “iron pan,” the result of badly drained territory. This iron pan 
is extensively dug and used for road-metal. The small quarries at 
the 14th (K) and 16th (L) milestones were opened for this purpose 
and revealed a large number of cowps-de-poing and flakes at a depth 
of about 3 feet. 

Mr. Lowe showed that the ridge constituting the “ back-bone ”’ 
along which the Concordia road runs, including almost the entire 
length of the present Eucalyptus avenue, was at one time a large 
Stellenbosch industry settlement. The implements are identical with 
those appearing from elsewhere in the Cape, both in technique and 
shape and also in material. The only addition appears to be the 
presence of worked flakes and a single true flake-core. One specimen 
of particular interest consists of an elliptical scraper about 34 inches 
by 24 inches by 4 inch (maximum), with “ heavy ” secondary trimming 
along the major axis edge opposite the bulb; it is in Mr. Lowe’s 
collection. However, further research will be necessary before any 
conclusions can be arrived at on this point. 


OTHER SITES. 


Various other known sites in the Eastern Province of the Cape fall 
within the Cape System. Finds have been sent in from Kingwilliams- 
town, some of which are in Dr. Bruce-Bayes’ collection, East London, 
and some in Kingwilliamstown Museum; others are from Stone’s 
Hill, Grahamstown, and from Healdtown, both in the Albany Museum 


30 Annals of the South African Museum. 


collection, and others from Alice, the last being represented in the 
Kinegwilliamstown Museum. 


Middledrift. 


The most interesting groups from this part of the Southern Mountains 
System are those to be found at Middledrift, a village set below the 
Amatola mountains near the source of the Keiskama River. Here 
the brothers Wilson, Mr. Gladwin, and others have made some very 
fine discoveries. 

The Wilsons regard the cowps-de-poing as contemporaneous with 
the points usually associable with the Middle Stone Age, but their 
evidence is from alluvial sites, and is therefore not strong. Hvidence 
of perhaps greater value lies in the fact that these two types appear 
at a depth of from 4 to 12 feet below the surface, showing that the 
Wilton and Smithfield implements to be found on the surface are of 
a later date. 

Father Stapleton of Grahamstown differentiates two river terraces 
at Middledrift. The lower lies at about 40 feet above the present 
river bed, and appears about 50 yards east of the suspension bridge 
which crosses the river below the hotel. The earlier (upper) terrace 
is visible some 400 yards further east, and stands about 80 feet above 
the river bed. The road cuts through both these terraces, but on 
visiting the gravels I found no implements whatsoever, nor artificially 
worked stones in the upper terraces (negative evidence), while discover- 
ing two industries at the lower terrace. The first was of Stellenbosch 
type, much rolled and obviously deposited as part of the gravel. The 
second was Middle Stone Age, consisting of a well-worked point and 
some flakes, quite unrolled, and obviously of a date later than that 
of the gravels. 

In the Euphorbia Donga, about a mile from Middledrift, were 
found a large number of coups-de-poing, at a depth of about 6 to 10. 
feet in the yellow clayey earth which had been cut into by the donga 
and its tributaries. Further from the town in a field overlooking 
the valley similar finds were made, but at no great depth. These sites 
were discovered by the local workers, and Mr. Burkitt and myself 
were enabled to visit there through their kindness. 


METHODS oF MANUFACTURE. 


It would be as well to note here a few variations in the methods of 
manufacture employed in the various sites within the Cape System. 


The Stellenbosch Industry. 31 


Primarily the Stellenbosch industry is a pure core industry. Périn- 
guey pointed out that in many instances a large portion of the butt of 
the coup-de-poing was unworked, and the surface was composed of the 
original boulder-face. He seemed to regard this as typical of the 
Stellenbosch industry, but actually it only occurs in artefacts in an 
early stage of manufacture—all well-finished cowps-de-poing show none, 
or in a few cases only a minute portion, of the original boulder-face. 
This brings us to the method very often employed. An ovate river 
pebble some ten inches long was taken, and four or five flakes removed 
from different directions, but all from about the same point. The 
result was much that obtained by sharpening a pencil. (Fig. 4 a.) 


TExtT-FIG. 4.—Two ‘ blocked out ”’ stones showing stages in the manufacture 
of cowps-de-poing. 


One end was pointed, the rest was left intact. The next step was the 
normal one of removing flakes from about the perimeter. 

Another method (found by Lowe at Knysna) was to take a large 
pebble, split off a reasonable flake, and trim this from the boulder-face, 
working round the perimeter. (See Plate IV.) Here the boulder-face 
took up the whole of one face of the coup-de-poing, the work would be 
continued in the normal way from now on. 

A third method employed was to remove a large flake, or perhaps 
better, a large lump, then to remove from this a flake. The result 
was a large flake having two convex faces, one forming each face. 
The object can best be described as a lens from which two opposite 
edges have been cut off square. (Fig.4 6.) Trimmed flakes were next 
removed from along each edge, from alternate faces, and if successful 
the work would be continued in the normal way. One point is of 
importance, as it will be reverted to in speaking of the Fauresmith 
coup-de-poing ; the two convex faces each have a normal bulb of 
percussion, but each is at the side of the face it governs, 7.e. at the edge 

VOL. XXVII. 3 


32 Annals of the South African Museum. 


of the implement, not at either end. Actually a few instances occur 
where the bulb is at the butt end, but these are negligible. This 
point may seem unimportant, but it is of extreme interest in any study 
of comparative material from Fauresmith, the Vaal River, and the 
Cape System. 


VAAL RIvER AREA. 


This area has already been written up by the writer * and little more 
need be said about it in this paper. Major Collins, writing for the 
Journal of the Royal Anthropological Instutute,t mentions a number 
of sites on the Vaal River, but most of these are outside the “ Vaal 
area’ as defined above (lying between Warrenton and the junction 
of the Vaal and Harts Rivers). He mentions sites between Meyerton 
and Vereeniging, at Vereeniging, near Klerksdorp, and so on. 
Johnson { mentions similar sites. Mr. Leslie of Vereeniging sent some 
implements from the most interesting site, and Dr. Péringuey speaks 
of it in his work.§ 


Vereeniging. 


The Vaal River has left extensive river terraces east and west of 
Vereeniging. Hast of the town is a small pit in which chipped quartz- 
ite flakes and various pebbles appear. West of the town, Mr. T. N. 
Leslie discovered unfinished cowps-de-poing of diabase, smoothed by 
the action of water; with these he found quartzite implements of 
rougher manufacture, and showing less signs of wear than the diabase 
specimens. Now diabase is a tough material with a relatively clean 
fracture, and tends to be abraded under the action of rolling ; quartz- 
ite, on the other hand, is a hard, brittle material, tending to shatter 
when struck, but only yielding to extreme rolling. The fact that these 
quartzite artefacts show less signs of wear, does not (as Péringuey 
and Leslie would like us to believe) necessarily imply two different 
periods and types of workmanship. The diabase implements all down 
the Vaal are well made, proving a good and tractable material ; on the 
other hand the quartzite implements throughout the country show a 
greater percentage of rejects, and a less even fracture. 


* Trans. Roy. Soe. S.A., vol. xvi, 1. 
{ J.R.A.L., vol. xlv, pp. 81 et seg. 


{ Prehistoric Period in South Africa, pp. 25, 26. See also Trans. S. Afr. Phil. 
Soe., 1905, vol. xvi, p. 107. 


§ “Stone Ages of South Africa,” Ann. S. Afr. Mus., vol. viii, 1912. 


The Stellenbosch Industry. 33 


Bloemhof.* 


_ Professor Dart of the Witwatersrand University + has described 
implements from the gravels at Bloemhof. The Vaal River here forms 
an island during the rainy season, but leaves one channel high and dry 
during the dryer season. It was in this dry river channel, which is 
4 feet above the normal water level (7.e. 7-10 feet from bed to bed), 
and at a depth of 4-5 feet in the gravel, that implements and two 
right upper molars of an extinct elephant (Archidiskodon) were found. 
The implements are of the usual type to be found along the Vaal, 
so far as one can judge from the photograph. Professor Dart Speaics 
of this gravel as the “ mammoth gravel ”’ and presumes that it “ must 
reach back to a rather early phase of the Pleistocene.” 

Dr. R. Broom in replying to this article suggests that t “‘ it may be 
regarded as almost certain that they (the elephant remains) are very 
much older than the lowest gravels of the Vaal, which cannot be ee 
great geological antiquity.” 

The remains described by Dr. Haughton§ as Lozodonta griqua 
Haughton and Griquatherium cingulatum Haughton, are all from the 
middle (60—70-foot) terrace of the Vaal, and date this terrace as of 
about Middle Pleistocene period. It seems more than probable that 
the lowest terrace at Bloemhof (if, of course, it is equivalent to the 
lowest terrace at Windsorton, etc.) is of middle to late Pleistocene 
date, and the implements of a similar age. 

From Windsorton southward to the Vaal and Harts River junction, 
the Vaal is lined by three gravel terraces ; the highest hes about 200- 
400 feet above the Vaal, and at a great distance (often 6 miles) from 
the river. The next gravel lies between 30 and 70 feet above the river, 
while the third series lies in the present river bed, or immediately 
above it, and is relatively modern. The highest gravel contains no 
human remains, and is apparently of Pliocene age. The next gravels 
are all Pleistocene, so far as fossil content proves, and contain imple- 
ments of Stellenbosch type. 


Windsorton. 


From Windsorton a number of implements have reached the 
Kimberley Museum. Here, as always, it is a little difficult to assign 


* See pp. 235-243 in this volume. 

+ Nature, vol. exx, 10th Dec. 1927, 3032, p. 41. 
t Ibid., vol. cxxi, 3rd Mar. 1928, 3044, p. 324. 
§ Trans. Geol. Soc. of S.A., 24, 1922. 


34 Annals of the South African Museum. 


the implements with any certainty to their correct terrace. The 
depth from the surface to'the finds is given, but neither the height of 
the gravel above the Vaal, nor the height of the ground-level above. 
the Vaal. However, the gravels here are of great age; they are 
composed of a mixture of fine water-borne materials and boulders, and 
have an overburden of sand often 24 feet thick (see Plate V). 


Riverton.* 


On Tipperary farm, Riverton, a small diamondiferous gravel was 
worked at the Rapids; a dam was built across the river and the 
working carried on below this. The gravel lies in the present river 
bed, and the dam was originally constructed of boulders from these 
gravels, and contains a large number of cowps-de-poing, biseaux, and 
discoidal artefacts, all of which, while crude and rough, fall within the 
variation usual to the rejects of the Vaal River area. The material 
used is diabase, the shapes are those typical of the Vaal River. Capt. 
Shortridge of the Kingwilliamstown Museum obtained better specimens 
than the writer, from Mr. 8. Tapscott who owns the farm. These 
show a tendency to a small coup-de-poing, 50 per cent. of the specimens 
being under 5 inches in length, 32 per cent. being between 5 and 6 
inches in length, and the remaining 18 per cent. being over 6 inches. 
The better finished implements are all of a neat almond shape. 


Pmiel Mission Station. 


This site is probably the richest Stellenbosch site in the Union, so far 
as the high standard of the rejects is concerned. It is also of interest 
as it forms the type of site of Dr. van Hoepen’s “ Pniel Culture.” f 
The subject of this culture will have to be reverted to when we have 
dealt with the Pniel finds. 

The alluvium about 100 yards from the old Mission building lies 
in the present bed of the river, and in order to work it a breakwater 
or dam was built enclosing part of theriver. This wall was constructed 
of river gravels taken from the river bed which just here skirts the 
foot of a dolerite kopje. In the gravels were found large numbers of 
coups-de-poing, biseaux, and discoidal artefacts; these have all been 
thrown up to form a breakwater. Two shapes are present: an 


* Johnson, op. cit., pp. 28 and 54. 
{ Van Hoepen, Die indeling en relatiewe ouderdom van die Suid-Afrikaanse 


klipwerktuie, S.A.J.S., vol. xxiii, pp. 793-809, 1926. See also Oor die Pnielse 
Kultuur, 8.A.J.S., vol. xxiv, pp. 566-570, 1927. 


The Stellenbosch Industry. 30 


almond shape and a narrow pear shape. The latter may prove 
(judging only from the Montagu Cave analogy) to be earlier, but owing 
to the fact that the implements are always in an already disturbed 
position when found, no proof is available from this site. One point 
is of slight interest, the pear-shaped cowps-de-poing tend to be slightly 
larger (up to 29 cm. in length) than the almonds. The normal varia- 
tion in the two types lies between 21 cm. and 12 cm., a fairly wide 
range. 

A peculiar type of triangular biseau is represented from this site. 
In the more usual biseau the implement is similar to the cowp-de-powng, 
but the end which would normally be taken up by the point is composed 
in the biseawu of the intersection of two cleavage faces, leaving a sharp 
edge more or less at right angles to the length of the implement. The 
biseau from Pniel, however, is often of a type which can only be 
regarded as a reversal of this; the point is present, but the portion, 
which in the cowp-de-poing would form the butt here consists of the 
axe-like edge.* With these normal Stellenbosch types appear a few 
unconventionalised flake-implements, of doubtful association. 


METHOD oF MANUFACTURE. 


It would be as well here to enter into the method of manufacture 
usual in this area. The material employed is generally amygdaloidal 
diabase, and has apparently been obtained from the river gravels 
themselves. The makers appear to have struck off a piece of material 
from a stone, then to have removed a large flake from the lump 
taken. The resultant flake was usually the size of the whole hand, 
or a little longer, and the two faces consisted of positive cleavages 
covering the whole of each face, the two ends often being formed by 
the intersection of these two curved surfaces, while the two edges 
consisted of the outside of the original stone. The shape can best be 
described as that of a lens which has had two opposite edges removed 
by having been cut off square, leaving two parallel edges revealing 
the section of the lens in each case. This shape once obtained, the two 
edges were trimmed alternately, leaving a section (taken through the 
width of the artefact) similar to a rough parallelogram. If the work 
was successful so far, the two edges would again be worked, but in each 
case from the face opposite to that chosen before. This would reduce 
the size of the artefact and the shape would tend to be that of a coup- 
de-poing: or in some instances, one end or the other would remain 

* See Péringuey, op. cit., Plate VIII, figs. 53 and 56. See also fig. 2 in this paper. 


36 Annals of the South African Museum. 


unworked, leaving the axe-like edge resulting from the intersection 
of the two original faces untouched. The former shape would re- 
present the cowp-de-poing, the latter the two types of biseau. 

In view of this technique, which is very consistent at Pniel, it 
appears impossible to associate these implements, as Dr. van Hoepen 
has done, with the Victoria West types, or with the single Le Vallois 
flake found by him at Thaba Nchu, about 150 miles east. It seems to 
be this association (forced and unproved as it is) which forms the 
basis of Dr. van Hoepen’s Pniel culture. 

It is necessary here to turn back to the methods of manufacture 
employed in the Southern Cape System area. Here we saw two 
methods: one was the method noted by Péringuey, the taking of a 
river pebble of a likely shape and size, and the removal of four or five 
flakes struck from a single point at one end, the resulting artefact 
being rounded at the opposite end where the original pebble surface 
appeared, and tapering at the end, from whence the flakes were struck, 
the flake-scars giving an impression exactly similar to the chip-scars 
left when sharpening a pencil. It is obvious that such a method of 
initial blocking out could only be employed where rounded river 
pebbles were abundant. From Mossel Bay the evidence brought by 
Mr. Powell shows, on the other hand, that the method of manufacture 
employed there was in most instances exactly that employed at Pniel 
and all down the Vaalarea. In other instances the usual Stellenbosch 
technique was employed. At Knysna, Mr. Lowe’s material showed 
that a variety of methods was employed in the manufacture of the 
coup-de-poing ; the most interesting being the occasional utilisation 
of a large lenticular flake struck from a heavy water-worn boulder, 
and worked in such a way as to leave the outside of the boulder un- 
worked and the whole of the cleavage face worked away by the removal 
of trimming flakes from the surrounding edge; the resulting artefact 
is aptly described by Mr. Lowe as a “ turtle back.”” The evidence thus 
leads one directly to the conclusion that the technique employed 
varied with the material used and the mode of occurrence of that 
material in each individual instance. The variations occur con- 
sistently right through the Stellenbosch industry, and it is therefore 
quite impossible to differentiate between the Vaal River industries 


and those found in the Cape System area on the grounds of technique 
employed. 


The Stellenbosch Industry. 37 


Barkly West. 


At Barkly West the river has apparently changed its course a number 
of times, leaving a series of gravels on the south side (Old Pniel) and 
on the north (Barkly West). 

There are three terraces represented here. The lowest lies a little 
above the present river level, and is best seen (though sadly disturbed 
by diamond diggers) on the southern side of the river. The second is 
some thirty feet above this, and appears at a depth of up to 24 feet in 
Canteen Kop on the northern side of the river. The highest terrace 
stands about 100 feet further up and contains no human implements 
or remains. It is not possible to differentiate between the types of 
implement found, as the two lower gravels (if two occur on the southern 
side) are completely mixed up at Old Pniel, and only one appears at 
Canteen Kop. The implements found at Canteen Kop are of the same 
material and shape as those from Pniel and other Vaal sites, but the 
rolled condition precluded any attempt at discovery to what extent 
the technique was the same. The implements are generally larger 
than those from Pniel.* 


Waldeck’s Plant and Niekerk’s Rush. 


The material from these sites is similar in every way to that found 
at Pniel, and no further remark is here called for. Mr Hodkinson f 
pointed out that the implements occur at a depth of from'10 to 30 feet 
below the surface in gravels over which lie 10 feet of red sand. These 
gravels may be of an age comparable with the lowest or the second 
gravels at Barkly West, but cannot be regarded as of an age comparable 
with the highest terrace at Barkly or the Klipdam gravel. It is 
possible that the Pleistocene fossils described by Beck t (Mastodon or 
Bunolophodon) are from this terrace, as also Fraas’ discoveries § of 
Equus zebra, Damaliscus sp., Hippopotamus, and Iridina. 

Mr. Hodkinson also showed that the gravels at this part of the river 
prove a sequence between the Smithfield (Later Stone Age) and 
Stellenbosch industries, the former lying on the surface, the latter being 
included in the gravels directly beneath. 


* See also Péringuey, op. cit., p. 59 et seq. 

+ E. T. Hodkinson, The Stone Cultures of the Vaal River Diggings, 8.A.J.S., 
1926, pp. 876-886. 

t Beck, Geol. Mag., 1906, p. 49. 

§ Fraas, Fauna aus den Diamanteifen von sudafrika, Zeits. der deutsch G. G., 
Heft lix, 2, 1907. 


\ 


38 Annals of the South African Museum. 


Droogeveld, Rooipoort, and Middelplaats North also show imple- 
ments of similar types.* 

Owing to the fact that the Vaal gravels are diamondiferous they have 
been thoroughly explored, with two main results. First, access to 
the gravel materials is easy, owing to the fact that the pitting and 
working necessary has been done by the diggers. On the other hand 
the disturbance of the gravels is extreme, and many gravels have 
been gone through a second time (as at Old Pniel) with more scientific 
methods. The result is that we have accumulated a considerable 
amount of show-material for museum purposes, but very little fact 
on which to base our deductions. The palaeontologist finds himself 
at a similar loss. Dr. Haughton f can only state of the specimens 
he examined that all “ probably came from the 60-foot terrace,’— 
apparently the second terrace above the river. 

It seems that an entirely new geological survey of this part of the 
river will be necessary to discover which gravels can be correlated, 
and also to discover whether du Toit’s original hypothesis of a series 
of barriers holding back the gravels { is correct, or whether these 
gravels grade with the river—a point brought out by Mr. Burkitt on 
his recent visit to this country. It would seem necessary also, in such 
a survey, to give the total depth of gravel at each point along the river, 
and the depth of the gravel below the present surface. Only by this 
means can we arrive at an immediate recognition of the comparative 
age of a find from the meagre evidence (which almost always takes the 
form of depth below surface) supplied by donors of implements. 

One point may prove of extreme importance. At a time when the 
highest (oldest) gravel was being deposited the Vaal River seems to 
have had a course very different from that at present followed. It 
seems to have turned westward from Windsorton, along the latitude 
28° 20’, then to have turned southward through Klipdam, thence 
following the present tributary of the Vaal due south to join the Vaal 
at a point 24° 37’ east by 28° 30’ south. The gravels along this line 
show no evidence whatsoever, so far, of stone implements, nor do the 
highest gravels, which seem to follow the river westward from this 
point. If we could obtain a fairly representative group of fossils 
from the uppermost terrace at Klipdam, and compare it with a group 


* Goodwin, Archaeology of the Vaal River Gravels, Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., xvi, 
1928. 


+ Haughton, On some fossils from the Vaal River, Trans. Geol. Soc. S.A., 1921 
vol. xxiv. 


t Du Toit, Annual Report Geol. Com., vol. xi, 1906, p. 171. 


The Stellenbosch Industry. 39 


from the middle terrace at Barkly West, or further down the river, 
we would be in a position to gauge the geological moment at which 
man appeared on the Vaal River. The evidence is available, and 
becomes increasingly so as diamond working continues. 


GENERAL DISTRIBUTION AND Facts. 


While these two main areas, that of the Vaal and the Cape System 
area, might appear to form two separate culture-centres, there is no 
reason to presume this to be so. They are very much more likely to 
be geographical areas which are better known to us at the present 
day owing to the drying up of the western and central portion of the 
Union. That this desiccation has occurred is proved by Penning’s 
discovery of stone implements of Stellenbosch type in what is now 
desert,* and also Dr. K. H. Barnard’s discovery of a large implement 
site on the surface and under similar desert conditions. 


OTHER SITES. 


A few interesting sites outside the two areas noted are worthy of 
mention. Mr. Bacon of Randfontein, Transvaal, sent a number of 
perfect coups-de-poing of quartzitic sandstone to the 8.A.M. and the 
P.E.M. These were found at a depth of 6 feet in a natural clay- 
puddled pan in Randfontein, which was being worked for brick- 
making purposes. The shape is amygdaloid and the implements are 
very well made, showing a high standard of workmanship. | 


Swaziland. 


In August 1921, the Government Secretary, Mbabane, Swaziland, 
submitted a number of specimens to Dr. Péringuey at the South 
African Museum. These had been discovered by the mining engineer 
at Ezulweni, Swaziland Tin Mines, Mr. Pote. The finds consisted 
of (a) cowps-de-poing, (b) lance-heads, (c) iron bangles or rings. 
The finding is described thus: ‘“‘ Mr. Pote was present when the 
‘Monitor’ (a powerful jet used for excavating and washing the tin- 
bearing gravels) was at work, and personally took out what appeared 
to be a mass of concrete. On breaking it open the rings were found, 
as if they had been worn or tied together. They were found a good 
20 feet below the present surface on the top of what is known as bed- 

* Penning, Gold and Diamonds, London, 1901. 


40 Annals of the South African Museum. 


rock (a soft substance underlying the tin-bearing gravels). In this 
gravel, ‘flint implements’ and weapons are frequently found in 
great profusion. The ‘ flints’ sent with the rings were found within 
6 feet of the rings and at the same level. The red soil which forms 
the overburden has never been found to contain ‘ flints’ . . . Hvery- 
thing goes to show that the ‘ flints’ in the tin-bearing gravels are 
of immense antiquity, and the question arises whether it is possible 
(if these rings are of the same date as the * flints’) for iron to have 
been preserved for such a lengthy period ? ” 

The idea that the iron bangles are of a date contemporaneous with 
the implements (of indurated shale, not flint) must, of course, be dis- 
carded as impossible. Erosion gullies (dongas) have apparently been 
the means whereby the iron and stone objects have fallen into associa- 
tion; Dr. Péringuey was in complete agreement with this view. Mr. 
F. H. Dutton in his reply objects, and states that “it seems certain 
that the rings were not buried in a deep hole, and that they were in 
man’s possession before that great mass 25 feet deep was deposited 
there.”’ 

Dr. Peéringuey also notes that two types of stone implement are 
present. “At Mbabane there have been found among the small 
objects usually called ‘ arrow-heads,’ five lance-head-like narrow 
points worked on both faces, of remarkable workmanship. The con- 
tiguity of these small spalls with the large bouchers is very surprising, 
and requires still a good deal of explaining.” 

Ths three types are most certainly in complete “ Glozellian ”’ 
association, and further evidence is necessary before we can definitely 
regard the Stellenbosch types of cowp-de-poing, the typically Middle 
Stone Age lance-heads, and the iron bangles as contemporaneous. 


Pretoria. 


From the Aapies River gravels in Pretoria, Mr. Leith collected a 
number of extremely bad cowps-de-poing, and formless implements 
of this group. These are of quartzite and ill made and uncouth as a 
result. It has been suggested * that these implements should form 
the basis of a subdivision of the Stellenbosch, a Pretoria industry or 
phase. Mr. Leith in his publication t spoke of these Pretoria finds 
as “ Holiths”; Péringuey points out { that cowps-de-poing were 

* Van Hoepen, 8.A.J.8., vol. xxiii, 1926, p. 793. 


7 G. Leith, On the Caves, Shell-mounds, and Stone Implements of S.A., 
J.R.A.I., 1899. 


t Péringuey, op. cit., p. 15. 


The Stellenbosch Industry. 41 


found with these in the same gravels. It seems unnecessary to make 
a dividing line between these Pretoria implements and those from 
other sites, the fact that the material is intractable and fractures 
unevenly accounts for the difference in standard, as may be seen at 
a large variety of sites in different parts of the country, e.g., along the 
Orange River and in the Barberton and Lake Chrissie districts. 

The factor of material is a basic and controlling one in South Africa. 
In Europe, flint and sometimes other tractable materials were used ; 
in South Africa owing to the complete absence of true flint we have 
a great variety of materials, but it is obvious after a thorough survey 
of sites that the industry is the same wherever the material allows, 
but is markedly and consistently different directly the material is 
of a bad type. This can at once be seen in Péringuey’s series of 
plates. 

An example may be taken from the Orange River. From the 
junction of the Orange and Vaal rivers westward, quartzites abound, 
while here and there banded jaspers appear. The implements from 
Griquatown, some few miles north of the Orange, are of jasper, and 
show the peculiar flat cleavage with clean edging so typical of jasper ; 
the resulting implements are generally flatter than those of diabase, 
dolerite, and quartzite from further up the river, owing to the banded 
structure of the jasper. It is at once apparent that the material 
with its peculiar structure has affected the implement ; in much the 
same way objects made of pitch-pine and of ebony in our own tech- 
nique vary considerably from each other. Whereas we have suited 
our material to our needs—concrete, cast iron, wood, wrought iron, 
goldfoil, each supplying an individual need—the maker of the various 
Stellenbosch implements conversely had to suit his implement to 
whatever material came to his hand. Directly quartzites are the 
best obtainable materials the workmanship falls off to a great extent. 
The size of the implements drops from 6 inches to 4 or even 3 inches. 
The length : width : thickness ratio changes from the fairly constant 
5:24:1 found in the normal Stellenbosch to 6: 4:3 in quartzite 
implements. Whether we shall have to make a separate industry of 
this quartzite group it is difficult to say; such a course might be 
legitimate, but seems unnecessary in view of the fact that the differ- 
ence is largely one of material. As a possible instance of reversion 
to type, Dr. Haughton discovered a typical Stellenbosch cowp-de- 
poing of perfect shape, some 7 inches long, 4 across and about 1| inch 
thick in Gordonia district. The implement is of a brown quartzitic 
sandstone, identical with some of the better T. M. S. material in 


42 Annals of the South African Museum. 


fracturing qualities, and it was possibly the chef-d’ wuvre of one of the 
wandering peoples who had passed across the Orange River, leaving 
behind the jaspers and quartzites of that region (Plate I.) 

It is exactly this difficulty of material that has worried Rev. Neville 
Jones in his Rhodesian work.* On p. 23 he says: “ The early 
Rhodesian had to make use of hard intrusive rocks, silerete, and any 
other stone of local occurrence and sufficiently hard to withstand wear 
and tear. While some of these rocks could be easily fractured, others, 
while being suitably tough, were refractory, and the most skilled 
artificer could not make a presentable tool from them. The result 
is that in some places, where the worker was evidently torn between 
a natural preference for producing a shapely implement and the obvious 
duty of producing a strong and tough one, there is often a wide 
variation in technique, and it would be easily possible, in more than 
one locality, to make a series covering whole ranges of European 
cultures. This is somewhat confusing, and would tend to lead one 
to the conclusion that any attempt to decide the relative antiquity 
of the implements in any given locality must be made on the evidence 
of the best examples only.” 

In spite of the hesitancy necessarily arising from the realisation of 
this state of affairs, Rev. Neville Jones still feels that at certain sites 
he is justified in presuming a sequence paralleling the Chelleo- 
Acheulean sequence of Europe; on p. 25 he continues,—‘ Some 
years ago I spent part of a holiday in examining an area to the 
south of Vryburg, and at Tyger Kloof t I found patches of gravel 
on high ground on the top of the Kaap Plateau and occupying depres- 
sions in the Campbell-Rand Dolomite. These were evidently the 
remnants of an ancient river terrace, which it was difficult to relate 
to any existing stream, unless it be to a deep kloof, generally more or 
less dry in the winter months, and half a mile or so away. In this 
ancient gravel I found a number of bouchers of typical Chellean type, 
but nothing comparable with those of Acheulean culture. At Taungs, 
a few miles to the south, there is, however, a gravel of obviously later 
date over which the present river flows, and there the Acheulean 
type is abundant. These two localities combine to furnish evidence 
that is, I think, sufficient of itself to indicate that there were at least 
two culture periods in the South African Lower Palaeolithic. I 
therefore hold that Dr. Péringuey’s original divisions should stand, 


* Neville Jones, The Stone Age in Rhodesia, Oxford, 1926. 
+ See also Neville Jones, Implement-bearing Deposits at Taungs and Tiger 
Kloof, J.R.A.L., vol. 1, p. 412. 


The Stellenbosch Industry. 43 


though I would prefer to call them ‘South African Chellean’ and 
‘South African Acheulean.’”’ Mr. E. G. Bryant has lately presented 
the S.A. Museum with a single cowp-de-poing recalling the Chellean 
of Europe. It appears to be from a high residual gravel, capping a 
kopje in Khosi’s Native Reserve, British Bechuanaland. 

Unluckily we have very little definite evidence of such a sequence 
as yet in the Union, though that does not preclude the possibility 
of future evidence forcing us to differentiate. Dr. van Hoepen drew 
attention to the vast differences between the well-made implements 
of the Vaal River and the uncouth specimens of the Aapies River, 
Pretoria—Leith even speaks of these latter as “ Holiths ”—but even 
here the material used on the Vaal is far more workable than the 
quartzites of the Aapies. Too little definite evidence of a true 
sequence of a bad early type followed by a good later type, both in 
similar material, has yet been discovered. One local sequence in 
shapes has been proved at Montagu Cave by Dr. K. H. Barnard, but 
even this does not constitute a cultural change, and more evidence 
from widely distributed sites would be necessary before any generalisa- 
tion is possible. 

Rev. Neville Jones gives a table of his finds at Taungs and Tyger 
Kloof, which is given below with slight alterations. 


Chronology. Finds. Locality. 
6 Later Bushman implements of | Taungs and Tyger 
crude workmanship, surface. Kloof. 
5 Karlier Bushman implements from | Tyger Kloof. 
subsoil. 
4 Well-worked flake implements | Taungs. 


from top 6 inches of pebble bed, 
apparently Mousterian in type, 
merging into 

3 Harlier flake implements, found | Taungs. 
throughout pebble bed, pos- 
sibly some cowps-de-poing. 

2 Coups-de-poing, scrapers, and pro- | Taungs. 
bably some flakes from pebble 
bed. (Péringuey’s “ Orange 
River type’’). 

1 Cruder couwps-de-poing, scrapers, | Tyger Kloof. 
and flakes from high terrace 
gravels. (Péringuey’s ~ Stel- 
lenbosch ’’). 


44 Annals of the South African Museum. 


CHRONOLOGICAL DATING. 


The chronology of the Stellenbosch industry relative to Middle 
Stone Age material is perfectly clear. The discovery by the writer 
of Middle Stone Age material at Middledrift lying unrolled and on a 
gravel containing rolled material of Stellenbosch type should be 
mentioned here. The discovery of Middle Stone Age material 
together with Stellenbosch coups-de-powng at Mbabane is of importance, 
but the evidence is not sufficiently definite for us to draw conclusions. 
The same may be said of the Pringle Bay finds. 

The Vaal River gravels have also produced evidence that the 
Middle Stone Age material there is of later age than the Stellenbosch 
material. A considerable amount of other data of a similar nature 
exists, but so far we have discovered no definite cave-sequence of 
these two ages. 

Montagu Cave gives the best proof of a sequence between Stellen- 
bosch and Later Stone Age types, but the Vaal River gravels give a 
similar sequence with great consistency ; Later Stone Age material 
being found on the banks, while the gravels directly below contain 
Stellenbosch material. 

Dr. Lebzelter while on a visit from Austria did a considerable 
amount of research work in the Natal Highlands south of Vryheid. 
The result of this work is perhaps a little startling in one respect, and 
is certainly worthy of note here. He states that wind has built up 
the earth into four loess-like terraces, composed of sand and small 
stones. Subsequently the sand has blown out from the surface of 
these terraces, leaving a “ gravel’ of small stones only, lying directly 
upon the normal loess. The lowest gravel is thus the earliest, in his 
estimation, while the highest is rhe latest.* 

“The surface finds,” he says, “ embrace two kinds of artefacts, 
viz., small implements similar to those of the rock-shelters and of the 
first gravelly layer, . . . and also large hand-axes of earlier palaeo- 
lithic character. Our observations have brought us to the conclusion 
that these massive hand-axes of early palaeolithic type are here 
younger, or later, than the culture of the first gravel layer, which, 
however, itself bears a similarity to the late palaeolithic, European 
Capsian.”’ 

These hand-axes or coups-de-poing appear on the surface of the 
humus which has accumulated over the highest “ gravel,” and their 


* Lebzelter and ne Stone Cultures of the ad Highveld and Northern 


The Stellenbosch Industry. 45 


position is indeed extraordinary unless they have gravitated from a 
still earlier river terrace situated at a higher level, but since entirely 
denuded. 

His further finds consist of :— 


Smithfield types). 

probably also Smithfield). 

similar to Middle Stone Age specimens). 

definitely Middle Stone Age and recalling Glen 
Grey Falls material, and Swaziland lance- 
heads). 

VI. “‘ Ingeleduan’’ (apparently similar to IV, but on finer flakes, 

Middle Stone Age). 


II. “ Inyatian ”’ 
III. “ Mangenian ”’ 
IV. “ Isikwenenian 

V. “ Inxobongoan 


bP) 


9 


This series (VI to II) is perfectly normal, Middle Stone Age followed 
by Later, but he believes the cowp-de-poing types to be later than even 
the Later Stone Age material, whereas they should precede the entire 
series. The evidence which has already accumulated elsewhere to 
prove the sequence Harlier—Middle—Later is so overwhelming and 
so consistent that it seems improbable that the Earlier Stone Age 
could have survived in this one area right up to such comparatively 
modern times. The findings, while suggestive and worthy of note, 
appear to be based upon some flaw in research which it is impossible 
to discover from the preliminary report here quoted. 


CONCLUSIONS. 


This paper, while giving a fair general survey of the sites represented 
at the various museums in the Union, is not by any means an exhaus- 
tive study. An exhaustive study of sites, or indeed a distribution 
map, would be misleading. From Cape Town the main railway line 
runs north-east to Johannesburg. East of this line the country is 
covered by a network of railroads, westward hardly any such lines 
exist. The obvious cause of this distribution of railroads is the 
uneven density of population, while the chief result is that the 
archaeology of the Union is only fairly represented from the south- 
eastern half of the sub-continent ; our distribution map follows the 
railways. How misleading such a map would be is immediately 
evident when we realise that wherever geologists have been in the 
north-western districts, implements of Stellenbosch facies have been 
discovered. 

A further point must also be brought out: in this paper it has more 


46 Annals of the South African Museum. 


or less been presumed that the Stellenbosch Industry is a single unity. 
Within limits this is true, but it is necessary to bear in mind the fact 
that variation within comparatively small limits does exist. These 
variations, however, all appear to centre round a norm, and they are 
of two types—those due to variation in material and source of supply, 
and those due to an individualism in time or place which we might 
term ‘‘fashion.” Under the first heading come the extreme varia- 
tions existing between the finest implements of quartzitic sandstone 
(the Pringle Bay specimen and the Gordonia specimen being typical) 
and the ill-made specimens of white quartz. It seems enough to 
state that so far as my knowledge goes (judging always from the best 
implements from representative sites) where good stone was used 
good implements appear, and that no really well-made implements of 
quartz or granite are known, though one or two promising specimens 
have been found.* So far as the distribution is concerned no great 
variation is known; we have seen that in the various well-known areas 
the mode of manufacture and the implements made are identical if 
we consider that some were made from rock fragments and some 
from water-worn boulders, the proportion varying in the different 
districts. 

As to fashion, we do not know much about the chronological order 
in which the various shapes occurred. Montagu Cave gave us a clue 
for the Southern Mountain area, but no additional evidence of a 
similar or of a further sequence has yet appeared either in this area 
or from elsewhere. 

These facts do not preclude the possibility that in time we may 
have to divide this phase into a number of either periods or areas, 
or even both.f It seems unlikely that South Africa was the field of 
a single invasion of Lower Palaeolithic culture which ceased from 
evolving within the Union, and also failed to receive successive 
suggestions and impacts from more northerly evolving peoples (if 
such they were). 

In this connection also it must be remembered that a differentia- 
tion has already been made between the Stellenbosch Industry and 
the Fauresmith, and this in itself is an acceptance of the possibility 
of some change greater than a mere change of fashion. Rev. Neville 
Jones’s Tyger Kloof finds and similar evidence from this area should 
most certainly evoke a division into a Lower and an Upper Stellen- 


* One is in the collection of Rev. Fr. Gardner, S.J., Gokomere, Fort Victoria, 
S. Rhodesia. 
t See Van Hoepen, 8.A.J.8., 1926, vol. xxiii, p. 793. 


bosch, even if no evidence is forthcoming from Stellenbosch itself. 
But it seems a pity to multiply our terminology to include evolved 


The Stellenbosch Industry. 


or degenerated forms. 


Throughout the following list of sites, the undermentioned abbreviations will 
be used. Sites marked with an asterisk may prove, with further knowledge, to be 
Fauresmith Industry sites; sufficient is not, however, known of these to class them 


LIST OF MATERIAL STUDIED. 


definitely as such at present. 


A.M.G. 


Albany Museum, Grahamstown. 


B.B.C. Bruce Bays Collection, East London. 

B.P. Bechuanaland Protectorate. 

Bul. M. Bulawayo Museum. 

Collins. Collins Collection (J.R.A.I., xlv). 

Ce. Cape Province. 

C.T.U. Cape Town University. 

Dart. Professor Dart’s Collection, Johannesburg. 

G.E. Griqualand Kast. 

G.W. Griqualand West. 

H.C.C. Hardy Collection, Cape Town. 

H.C.R. Heese Collection, Riversdale. 

J.P.J. J. P. Johnson’s books. 

Lowe. Collection of Mr. C. van Riet Lowe, Johannesburg. 
M.M.K. McGregor Museum, Kimberley. 

N. Natal. 

N.J. Neville Jones’ Collection, Bulawayo, Rhodesia, and book. 
N.M.B. National Museum, Bloemfontein. 

N.M.P. Natal Museum, Pietermaritzburg, Natal. 

O.F.S. Orange Free State. 

P.E.M. Port Elizabeth Museum. 

8. Swaziland. 

S.A.M. South African Museum, Cape Town, and Péringuey. 
S.W.A. South-West Africa. 

Ne Transvaal. 

T.M.P. Transvaal Museum, Pretoria. 
VOL. XXVIII. 


48 Annals of the South African Museum. 


STELLENBOSCH INDUSTRY SITES. 


Albert (T.M.P. 3197-8). 
Ariam’s Vlei (S.W.A.). 


Barberton (S.A.M. 3015-6, small 
c.-de-P.). 
Barkly West (M.M.K. 893, 934, 895, 
955). 
Barkly West (S.A.M. 1303, 1777). 
Barkly West (Lowe). 
Beaufort West (Dunedin) (S.A.M. 
1237). 
Bembesi, S. Rhodesia (Bul. M., 
S.A.M. 3802). 
Bizana (S.A.M. 3024). 
Blesbok Spruit, Transvaal (Lowe). 
*Bloemfontein (Collins), 
Bloemfontein (Lake View). 
Bloemhof (Lowe, Dart). 
Boshof (S.A.M. 1652). 
Britstown (S.A.M. 1785). 
Britstown (Ongers Rivier) (S.A.M. 
825). 
Bulawayo Townlands (Bul. M., 
P.E.M. 414). 
*Burghersdorp (Collins, S.A.M. 1840). 
Butterworth (S8.A.M. 1651). 


Caledon (S.A.M. 1149). 

Caledon (Kemp’s River) (S.A.M.). 

Caledon (Standford) (S.A.M.). 

Campbell (S.A.M. 754). 

Canteen Kop (M.M.K. 606, 728; 
S.A.M. 4536). 

Cape Flats (S.A.M. various). 

Cape Point (Lowe and Goodwin). 

Carnarvon (Roode Dam) (S.A.M. 
1094). 

Cedarville Flats, Griqualand East 
(Lowe). 

Ceres (S.A.M. 385) (Beukesfontein). 

Charter district (S. Rhodesia) (S.A.M. 
3802). 

Christiana (Lowe). 


Clanwilliam (Oliphant’s Rivier) 
(S.A.M. 392). 

Clanwilliam (Syferfontein) (S.A.M. 
1305). 

Constantia, Cape (S.A.M. 1216). 

Cradock (S.A.M. 1088; P.E.M. 283). 


*De Put (S.A.M.) (cf. also Victoria 
West Industry). 
*Devondale Siding (Collins). 
Douglas (S.A.M., M.M.K.). 
Droogveld (M.M.K.). 
Dunmurray (M.M.K.) (Hay district). 
Durbanville, Cape (8.A.M.). 


East London (8.A.M., B.B.C.). 
Ematjeni River, 8. Rhodesia (S.A.M.). 
Ezulweni, 8. (S.A.M. 3018, mixed). 


Fish Hoek, Cape (S.A.M., H.C.C.). 

Forbes’ Concession, 8. (S.A.M. 774, 
1905). 

Formosa, C.P. (Lowe). 

Fourteen Streams (Lowe). 


George (S.A.M.). 

Gobabis (S.A.M.). 

Gordonia (S.A.M. 4354-4358). 
Gordonia (Spitzkop) (S.A.M. 788). 
Gordonia (Grootdrink). 

Gordon’s Bay (M.M.K.). 

Graaff Reinet (A.M.G. 1695). 
Grahamstown (Stone’s Hill) (A.M.G. 
1652). (See Later Stone Age.) 
Griqualand West (M.M.K. 1287; 

S.A.M.). 
Griquatown (S8.A.M., M.M.K. 1130). 


Haakschein Vlei (S A.M. 788). 

Hawston (S.A.M. 1000). 

Hay (The Grove) (M.M.K. 41). 

Hay district (Plaatje’s Dam) (S.A.M. 
761). 


The Stellenbosch Industry. 49 


Hay district (Sand Drift) (S.A.M.). 

Hay district (Witsands) (S.A.M. 
788). 

Hay district (S.A.M. 513). 

Heidelberg (Cape) (S.A.M.). 

Heidelberg, T. (Collins, Lowe). 

Heidelberg (Vaal) (S.A.M. 3455). 

Henley on Klip, T. (Lowe). 

Herbert (S.A.M. 713). 

Hermanus, Cape (8.A.M. 1108). 

Hex River (764). 

Hopefield (S.A.M.). 

Hopetown (Blaauwkop) (S.A.M. 
/08). 

Hopetown (Driekopper) (S.A.M. 
/08) (small). 

Hopetown (EHlandsberg) (S.A.M. 
/08) (small). 

Hopetown (Karreedam) (S.A.M. 
/08). 

Hout Kraal (S.A.M. = /08). 

Humansdorp (Blaauwkrantz) (S.A.M. 
1479). 

Humansdorp (Uitvlugt) (S.A.M. 
698). 


Idutywa (S.A.M. 1654). 
*Jagersfontein (S.A.M., Lowe). 


‘* Kalahari ’’ (S.A.M.). 
Kamfersdam, Kimberley (M.M.K.). 
*Karree Siding. 
Kenhardt (Boschbulten) (S.A.M. 
1126). 
Kenhardt (Kruisnord) (S.A.M. 1207). 
Kenhardt (Zwartkop) (S.A.M.). 
Kheis (S.A.M. 788). 
Khosi’s Reserve (S.A.M.) (Bryant). 
Kimberley (M.M.K.). 
*Kimberley (M.M.K. 897, 912). 
Kimberley (S.A.M.). 
Kimberley Diggings (M.M.K. 600; 
S.A.M. 1188). 
Kimberley (Rooidam) (S.A.M. 711). 
Kimberley (Sekretaris) (S.A.M. 711): 
Kinderdam (Vryberg) (M.M.K. 282). 
Kingwilliamstown (S.A.M.). 
Kirstenbosch (Cape) (8.A.M. 3206). 


Klaver Vlei, Darling (S.A.M. 1093). 

Klein Chwaing (S.A.M. 788) (Gor- 
donia district ?). 

Klein Drakenstein (S.A.M. 794). 

Klerksdorp (Kaffir’s Kraal) (Collins) 

Klerksdorp (S.A.M. 1236). 


*Klipjespan (Kimberley). 


Knysna (Lowe, 8.A.M., C.T.U.). 
Koeberg Road, Cape (S.A.M.). 
Koffyfontein (S.A.M.). 

Komgha (S.A.M. 1240). 


*Krantz Kraal, Modder River, Glen 


Siding (Collins). 
Kroonstadt (M.M.K. 1088). 
Kuruman (Dikatlon) (S.A.M.). 
Kuruman (Dinoten) (S.A.M.). 
Kuruman (Gamopedi) (S.A.M.). 


Ladismith, C.P. (S.A.M.  /03). 
Lindeque’s Drift (Lowe). 

Logaging (B.P.) (M.M.K.) (surface). 
Lovedale, Tyumi River. 


*Luckhoff (S.A.M.). 


Lynedoch, C.P. (S.A.M. 1390 and 
664). 


Maatjesfontein (S.A.M. 1212). 

Mafeking (S.A.M. 782, 754). 

Malmesbury, C. P. (S.A.M.). 

Marianhill, Natal (M. Boule, Collins). 

Mashoweng (S.A.M. 788). 

Mbabane, S. (S.A.M. 3840). 

Meyerton, Vaal (Collins, Lowe). 

Middelburg (S.A.M.). 

Middledrift (S.A.M. 4540, 4541, 
4660, 4696; A.M.G.). 

Modder River, Kimberley (S.A.M. 
4664). 

Molopo River, Gordonia (S8.A.M. 
4605). 

Molteno (P.E.M, 389). 

Montagu (S.A.M. 4582). 

Montagu Cave (S.A.M. 3218). 

Morreesburg (S.A.M. 701). 

Mossel Bay (M.M.K. 1163, 1167, 
963 ; S.A.M. 4652). 


Nahoon Mouth (Lowe, M.M.K., 
S.A.M. 1288). 


50 Annals of the South African Museum. 


Namaqualand (S.A.M.). 
Namaqualand (Akadis) (S.A.M.). 
Namaqualand (De Dam) (S.A.M. 


1384). 

Namaqualand (Groot Mes) (S.A.M. 
1760). 

Namaqualand (Henkries) (S.A.M. 
1382). 

Namaqualand (Schaap  Rivier) 
(S.A.M. 16381). 

Namaqualand (Spektakel) (S.A.M. 
1631). 

Namaqualand (Stinkfontein) (S.A.M. 
1765). 


Namaqualand (Witbank, N. Jakaals- 
water) (S.A.M. 1382). 

Newlands (Griqualand West) 
(M.M.K.). 

Nondweni, Zululand (S.A.M. 3200). 


Okomba, S.W.A. (S.A.M. 1559). 

Olifant’s Rivier West, Hatis (S.A.M. 
427). 

Orange and Caledon Rivers junction 
(Lowe). 

Oranjeville (Lowe). 


Paarl (S.A.M. 4697, 4691). 

Parys (Lowe). 

Philipolis Road (S.A.M.). 

Pietermaritzburg (S.A.M.). 

Pinetown, Natal (S.A.M., Collins). 

Piquetberg (Lowe). 

Plettenberg Bay (S.A.M. 1633). 

Pniel, Vaal (M.M.K., S.A.M. 4539). 

Port Elizabeth (P.E.M., S.A.M.). 

Port Shepstone, Natal, Ivotsha 
(S.A.M. 1833). 

Powola Spruit, Shiloh district, Rho- 
desia (S.A.M. 3808). 

Pretoria (N.M.P., S.A.M. 94). 

Prieska (S.A.M. 145, 1091). 

Prince Albert district (S.A.M. 518). 

Pringle Bay, Cape (U.C.T.). 


Randfontein, Transvaal (P.E.M. 282 2 
S.A.M. 3018). 

Riet River (Kimberley district) 
(S.A.M. 711). 


Riet and Modder Rivers junction 
(J.P.J., Lowe). 

Riversdale (H.C.R.; S.A.M. 2467, 
3196; P.E.M. 715). 

Riverton, Vaal (Lowe, M.M.K., 
S.A.M. 4537). 

Robertson (S.A.M. /08). 

Rooidam, Kimberley (M.M.K.),. 

Rooipoort (M.M.K.). 

Rouxville district (Collins). 

Rustenburg, Transvaal (Sand Drift, 
Crocodile River) (S.A.M. 920). 


Sawmills, S. Rhodesia (S.A.M.). 

Schoonspruit, Klerksdorp (S.A.M. 
1236). 

Signal Hill, Cape (S.A.M. 1757). 

Simondium, Paarl (S.A.M.). 

Sir Lowry’s Pass, Cape (S.A.M. 1146). 

Smithfield (S.A.M. 1830). 

Somerset East (S.A.M. 1125). 

Somerset West (S.A.M. 1630). 

Stellenbosch (S.A.M., Lowe, M.M.K.). 

Steynsdorp, Transvaal (Vlakplaats) 
(S.A.M. 3019). 

Still Bay (H.C.R., S.A.M.). 

Swaziland (S.A.M., Collins). 


Taaibosch Spruit (Lowe). 

Tanqua, Calvinia (S.A.M. 388). 

Taungs (N.J.C., S.A.M. 3211). 

Temau River, Transkei (S.A.M.1875). 

** Transkei ’’ (S.A.M.). 

Tulbagh (S.A.M. /03, also 414). 

Tulbagh, Twenty-four rivers (S.A.M. 
/03). 

Tyger Kloof (N.J.C., S.A.M. 3212). 

Tyumi River, Alice (S.A.M.). 


Uitenhage (S.A.M. 3433, 3825). 

Umzimkulu district, Natal (S.A.M. 
1833). 

Upington (S.A.M. 2999). 


‘Van Rhyn’s Dorp (S.A.M. 1305). 


Vereeniging (Lowe). 
Vereeniging (S.A.M. 1612). 
Vereeniging (Vijffontein) (S.A.M.). 


The Stellenbosch Industry. 51 


Victoria Falls (S.A.M., Bul. M.). 

Villiersdorp (S.A.M. 4697). 

Viol’s Drift, Orange River (S.A.M. 
4606). 

Vlakfontein (Collins). 

Vryberg (Kinderdam) (S.A.M. 771). 


Waldeck’s Plant (M.M.K. 1475, 
1495). 


Warrenton. 

Wellington (S.A.M.). 

Windsorton (M.M.K., 1415-6-7; 
1472, 1496). 

Windsorton (M.M.K., S.A.M.). 

“Witwatersrand ”’ (S.A.M.). 

Worcester (S.A.M. 1363; H.C.R.). 

Wynberg (S.A.M.). 


Ann. S. Afr. Mus., Vol. X XVII. Plate I. 


Two views of a coup-de-poing from Gordonia, and a specimen from Paarl, 
S,A.M. Collection. 


Neill & Co., Lid. 


Ann. S. Afr. Mus., Vol. X XVII. Plate IT. 


fy 


= 
e 


us 


LLEN BOs 
CAPE CoOL. 


vy ; 


Two views of a couwp-de-poing from Stellenbosch. S.A.M. Collection. 


Neill & Co., Ltd. 


Ann S. Afr. Mus., Vol, X XVII. Plate ITT. 


Two views of a coup-de-poing from Pringle Bay, Cape Hangklip. U.C.T. Collection. 


Neill & Co., Ltd. 


Ann. S. Afr. Mus., Vol. X XVII. Plate IV. 


iN, 
cr". 


Specimen from Knysna from Mr. Lowe’s Collection at the University of Cape Town, showing 
cowp-de-porng in process of manufacture from water-worn boulder, 


Neti & Co.; Ltd. 


Ann, 8, Afr. Mus,, Vol. X XVII. Plate V. 


Two views of a cowp-de-poing, and a biseau, Windsorton, Vaal River. 
S.A.M. Collection. 


New & Co., Lid 


( 53 ) 


3. Part III.—The Victoria West Industry. By A. J. H. Goopwin, 
M.A., Senior Lecturer in Social Anthropology, University of 
Cape Town. 
(With Plates VI-IX.) 


BEFORE discussing this industry it would be as well to note that 
the neighbourhood of Victoria West provides examples of three, or 
perhaps even four, different industries; these, however, fall under 
their own various headings and do not affect the actual Victoria West 
Industry. 

The village of Victoria West is situated some seven miles west of the 
main Cape—De Aar line at Hutchinson, and at about 31° 24’ south by 
23° 5’ east. The village lies, enclosed on three sides, in a funnel- 
shaped valley between mountains of a tafelberg type, composed of a 
soft blue shale capped with dolerite. 

It would appear that at some very remote period the whole of this 
portion of the Karroo was capped with a dolerite sheet, at least 20 
feet thick. Subsequently the entire sheet has been broken up by the 
normal processes of denudation, and as a result the whole country 
has been left as a plain from which rise hills, perhaps 500 feet high, 
all exactly level at their tops, and reaching to the remains of the 
original dolerite sheet, which is still retained in the form of acap. The 
hills are of two types, directly resulting from this process of denuda- 
tion. The first is the “tafelberg”’ type, consisting of a large dolerite 
cap, and falling away at the edges to form a sloping hillside. The 
second type is the same, but the dolerite cap is merely a small circle of 
the original sheet, and the resulting hill takes the form of a slightly 
truncated cone with a dolerite crown, pyramidal, and known as the 
“spitzkop”’ type.* 

The dolerite is slowly weathering away with the passage of time, 
but these caps still stand as “built-up” blocks of dolerite, or large 
unrolled but heavily weathered blocks of rock. The sides of the 


ce 


* For a typical example of the “ spitzkop,”’ see Rogers and du Toit, Geology of 
Cape Colony. London, 1909, p. 266. 


54 Annals of the South African Museum. 


mountains are composed of talus and broken-down material from the 
level of the dolerite and below it, and blocks of dolerite thus form an 
integral part of the mountain slope, mixed in with an earthy rubble 
of disintegrated dolerites and shales. 

The surface of the talus is composed of dolerite boulders, varying 
enormously in size, which extend from the cap to the edge of the hill 
slope, and there stop in a very marked line. The reason for this 
demarcation appears to lie in the fact that the action of water is slowly 
building up sandy alluvial material from the slopes to form a plain 
out of which the hills rise. The dolerite talus thus disappears and 
extends, in all probability, well below the present surface, but has 
slowly been covered by the sandier soil gathering round the feet of the 
hills. Here and there slight rises in the plain point to the subsided 
remains of old spitzkops, still held together by the broken-down cap 
of dolerite, but slowly conforming to the plain. 

The hills lying north and south of Victoria West * are of the tafel- 
berg type, and they run together above the town to form a narrow 
pass, opening out almost immediately into a wide basin. In the 
middle of this pass and overlooking the town from its western end 
stands a small spitzkop, attached by a saddle to the southernmost hill. 
Across this poort has been constructed a dam, which holds back the 
water from which the town is supplied. The dam is small, but the 
water extends back from the wall for a distance of two miles, and 
is a mile wide at its greatest width. This reservoir forms a small 
corner of what must once have been a vast lake or pan extending 
over an area of a hundred square miles, being held back by the hills 
above the town, and it has subsequently broken through and carved 
the poort. This lake would cover the present farms of Blaauwkrantz, 
Ganskraal, part of Gemsbokfontein, and portions of the Victoria West 
Commonage. 

Hither owing to the presence of the lake, or to the breaking through 
of the natural dam holding back this vast mass of water, the whole 
area in the valley covered by Victoria West appears at one time to 
have formed the bed of a stream, either wide and short-lived as a 
result of the bursting dam, or perhaps perennial and meandering over 
the enclosed plain. As a result it is noticeable that at the height of 
the present native location on the northern hillside, and at a corre- 
sponding level on the opposite slope, there is a deposit of lime, while 

* Mr, Jansen states that the south hill is a dyke, not a true tafelberg. The local 


dolerite is of two types, coarse and fine, and the coarser dyke appears here to have 
forced its way through the finer. 


The Victoria West Industry. 5d 


some of the softer rocks near the native location on the northern side 
have been considerably undercut by the action of water. 

History.—Mz. F. Jansen, while Resident Magistrate at Victoria West, 
had his attention drawn to rough cowps-de-poing behind the present 
hospital, and as a result he spent a considerable amount of time and 
energy in searching for further sites in the vicinity and elsewhere. 
He was able in time to locate various sites at Victoria West itself. 
These will be referred to as : 


Hospital, 

Golf Course, 

Station, 

Western hillside (south-west), 
Eastern hillside (north-east). 


He has also located four sites outside the immediate vicinity of the 
town: 

Zuurkop, Wolvefontein, 

Vingerfontein, 

Melton Wold, 


Loxton. 


All named from various farms on which they appear. Besides these 
there are a variety of minor sites from which individual specimens 
have been collected. At all these sites he discovered that the coup- 
de-poing, roughly made in dolerite, was present, together with a homo- 
geneous group of implements of a type not normally associable with 
the cowp-de-poing. 

Description of Implements.—These “‘new”’ implements * are in their 
general conception similar. They are more or less high-backed 
objects showing a core technique. The high back is formed by the 
removal of a number of flakes from a circular edge which bounds the 
implement. The opposite face is the more interesting and consists of 
a single negative cleavage scar forming a depression over the greater 
part of that face, and edged for perhaps a third of the circumference 
by a narrow lip formed of the scars left by the removal of a number of 
minor flakes: in many instances this lip has been worn smooth by 
weathering, or perhaps from use. (See Plates VI and VII.) 

The size and the general shape of the artefacts vary, the length 
varies (at Victoria West) from 4 inches to 9 inches, the flake scar 


* Jansen: “A new type of Stone Implement from Victoria West,” S.A.J.S., 
Xxilil, 1926, pp. 818-825. 


56 Annals of the South African Museum. 


of the main flake removed is relative, of course, to the size of the 
implement, but always maintains a fairly constant ratio to the whole 
of the face—generally about 3: 4. 

There are some three or four recognisably different norms about 
which recognisable types may be grouped. The “hoenderbek”’ 
(fowl beak) shape comes to a point at the one end, the main flake is 
struck off from one side of the under face. The “horse-hoof” type is 
round, and the back tends to be flatter, the under face shows the 
normal cleavage scar, but very often it appears that a second and 
smaller flake was struck from the same point as the main scar, and 
covers a large part of the main scar. The “skilpad”’ (tortoise shape) 
type is similarly round, but has a higher back, while only a single flake 
has been removed from the under face. So much can be gathered 
from the implements found; the extreme weathering of the dolerite 
in all instances makes it difficult in many cases to see from what point, 
relative to the core, the main flake has been struck off. Similarly it is 
always difficult to see from where the smaller flakes were removed. The 
flaking is generally heavy, and no light secondary trimming is visible. 

Material_—The dolerite used is always fine (though coarse material 
was ready to hand) and the texture may best be described by stating 
that the consistency and timbre were very similar to those of cast-iron. 
While the fracture of this material is of course of the normal conchoidal 
type, the bulb of percussion is often small, and hardly visible, while 
the secondary ridge, encircling the bulb at a radius of about an inch 
and a half, is excessively pronounced. (See Plate VIII, 1.) From 
experiments conducted with fresh fractures it was ascertained that the 
great saucer-like depth of a negative scar left by the removal of a flake 
was due to the cast of this marked secondary ridge, and also to a 
tendency towards a very sudden upward turn taken by the cleavage 
on nearing the release at the front end of the flake. 

One other fact is of interest, the note given off when the dolerite is 
struck is musical, pointing to considerable vibration within the stone. 
Much of this vibration appears to be across the direction of the stone, 
giving one or two interesting results. If a long piece of stone is held 
by the middle, and an attempt is made to remove one end by a blow, 
a portion from the opposite end is often removed ; the cleavage in such 
an instance occurs at a point symmetrical about the part held to the 
point of percussion, and at the opposite side. Again, if an attempt is 
made to remove a flake from a piece of material, the blow will very 
often fracture the stone into two halves, the fracture in this instance 
being at right angles to the plane of the desired flake cleavage. 


Ann. S. Afr. Mus., Vol. X XVII. Plate VI. 


WIChORIA WEST, ZAR UNO P. MELTON WOLD, 
Uncinate. Horse-hoof. High backed. 


APPROXIMATE SCALE IN IN CHES,___ 
Cia SLR Ee Ea ee 


\\ 


Ly 
| 


ANS 
Ta 
Au 


Pe 
NN 


a 
ar 
A 
NY 


re \ 


sau 


a 
gaue 


Dorsal, ventral, and lateral views of three implements of Victoria West type. 
After Jansen, 8.A.J.S., xxiii, 1926. 


The Victoria West Industry. 59 


Argument.—When Mr. Jansen first announced his discovery, he met 
with a cool reception. Individual artefacts of this type which had 
weathered to any degree, especially in dolerite, which is a difficult 
material to work, were regarded as more than probably natural forms. 
Professor Schwartz of Grahamstown, from specimens submitted to 
him, declared that their form was definitely the result of insolation— 
the effects of alternating extremes of heat and cold. 

This view was based upon three hypotheses. First, that the greater 
number of specimens lie on the concave face when found, the pyramid- 
ally worked face being uppermost. Secondly, it was doubted whether 
flaking by the percussion method would produce the saucer-like 
depression forming the under side of these specimens. Finally, he 
and Mr. J. Hewitt doubt whether it is possible to remove a flake 
9 inches in width from this type of dolerite without a manched 
hammer. 

Mr. Hewitt has dealt with these objections in a paper,* and the 
views expressed are worth quoting. He gives three possible views : 

‘““ There are some people, including the discoverer himself, who look 
upon them as implements made for some specific purpose. . 
Another view is that of Mr. R. A. Smith,+ who regards them not as 
implements but as cores from which large oval flakes have been 
struck. . . . The third view is of the geological sceptic who refuses 
to see any evidence of human handiwork therein. There are certain 
weighty arguments in favour of this position. In the first place, there 
is the undoubted fact that dolerite is a most intractable material for 
making implements of palaeolithic type: our own crude experiments 
in this direction have been sufficient to show the very great difficulty 
of utilising material so tough and which flakes so erratically for the 
production of the flakes contemplated on the second hypothesis. 

“A very cogent reason for suspecting the artificial nature of these 
stones lies in the fact that dolerite breaks up naturally under the 
influence of alternating heat and cold into a great variety of forms, 
some of which certainly present an artificial appearance at any rate 
to those unacquainted with the vagaries of dolerite. Thus flaked off, 
the corner of a large boulder may present a rounded, or even facetted 
outer surface, while the inner surface is shallowly concave throughout. 
It must be admitted, however, that amongst the undoubted sun-split 


* J. Hewitt and Rev. P. Stapleton, S.J., ‘““ On some remarkable Stone Implements 
in the Albany Museum, Grahamstown,” S.A. Journ. Nat. Hist., vol. v, December 
1925. 

{t See Man, July 1909, pp. 100-103. 


60 Annals of the South African Museum. 


stones that we have examined,* none agree well with the Victoria 
West specimens.” 

Against the objection that all the Victoria West implements are the 
results of insolation, it may be urged that owing to the rolling of these 
artefacts, rolling which is evidence in all surface specimens, they 
would naturally stabilise themselves upon their widest and flattest 
base—the concave face. If this part were shielded from the sun in 
this way, it would not be influenced by the extremes of heat and cold, 
and hence the main flake could not have been removed by insolation. 
Conversely, if the object lay upon its back, and it were possible to 
remove the main flake by insolation, then the flake-scars on the 
shielded face could not have been removed by insolation. We are in 
fact dealing with an artefact which has both faces trimmed : one face 
by the removal of a number of flakes leaving a pyramidal back; the 
other by the removal of a single large face, bounded on two sides by 
a number of small flake-scars, giving a concave face. 

It has already been shown that dolerite cleaves without a marked 
bulb of percussion, but with a well-defined secondary ripple and a 
marked “ kick-up ” at the release of the flake. Both of these factors 
would go to produce the saucer-like depression on the one face. Ther- 
mal fracture, or fracture by insolation, on the other hand, shows, in all 
the specimens I examined at Victoria West, that a curve is presented 
in only one plane. 

Finally, both Mr. Jansen and myself have proved it possible to 
remove a flake comparable in size with any removed on Victoria West 
specimens, with a manched hammer or with a properly peined hammer- 
stone, though it is admitted that the fracture is precarious, and 
governed largely by the lateral vibrations set up in the stone. 

Quite apart from the quality and character of the material, the mode 
of occurrence in the various sites precludes any possibility of thermal 
fracture. The chief points worthy of note in this connection are that 
the distribution is not even, sites are defined, and each is confined to an 
area usually about 100 yards square. These sites do not occur on the 
same faces of hills, thus they do not get sunshine at the same period 
of the day. The sites do not in all instances form part of talus 
material, the station and the golf-course sites stand out in the 


* In view of this last statement it would be as well to state here that we are not 
now dealing with the long, curved “ knives,” etc., which appear to be purely the 
results of insolation, and not the result of human handiwork; these specimens 
appear at first sight to be “‘ plunger-flakes,”’ but actually show no signs of artificial 
shaping.—A. J. H. G. 


Ann. S. Afr. Mus., Vol. X XVII. Plate VII. 


1, Three views of artefact from Vingerfontein, Victoria West district ; 2, three views of 
Hoenderbek (cock’s beak) type from same site ; 3, horse-hoof type from Zuur Kop, 
Victoria West district. (In each instance the Museum number (in black) appears 
in the negative cleavage scar.) 


Neill & Co., Ltd, 


The Victoria West Industry. 61 


plain, and the material appears to have been actually brought 
there. | 

The Sites.—The most easily accessible site is that upon which the 
railway station has been built. This site consists of a large number of 
stones, all well under a cubic foot in size, scattered over an area of 
perhaps half a mile by a quarter of a mile. The station stands in the 
centre of this site, and the goods yard has been entirely cleared of arte- 
facts and other stones. On the north-east side of the station this site 
extends on the flat, while on the south-west it rises to a small eminence. 
Over the whole surface hundreds of worked stones appear in all stages 
of manufacture. To the north-east the site stops at a long low rise, 
composed of a large variety of stones, but containing little dolerite. 
The site appears to continue to the east of this hill on a scattered stony 
surface. 

The golf course lies north of the village, a little way round the foot 
of the hill bounding the north-eastern side of the town. Here the site 
extends in disconnected patches for a distance of perhaps two miles, 
lying below the mountain slope which it follows round as far as Mar- 
seilles farm. ‘This series of sites does not form part of the talus, but 
between the talus-edge and the string of sites les a perfectly bare strip 
perhaps two hundred yards wide, while on these patches in the plain 
almost every stone shows some signs of having been fractured by 
human agency. In the actual talus, stones have also been worked, 
but here the percentage of worked material is low, the greater number 
of stones being pure talus material. 

The school site lies on and in the talus of the opposite hill, which 
bounds the Victoria West valley on its south-western side. The 
greater part of the material appears to lie on the surface, but a certain 
quantity appears in a trench dug 3 feet deep into a limy concretion 
below the school. This site is probably the continuation of the site 
called by us the ““ West Bank Site,” which lies on and in the talus of 
the same hill, but about a mile nearer the dam. At this West Bank 
site we have the most interesting collection of finds. On the surface 
a considerable number of worked artefacts were to be found, and 
when an avenue of pepper trees was planted here some years ago, 
Mr. Jansen found artefacts at a depth of 4 feet beneath the present 
surface of the soil and ina limy deposit. Appreciating the significance 
of this fact, Mr. Jansen asked for the help of eight native prisoners, 
and permission was granted by the Department of Justice at Pretoria. 
With their help we were able to discover a considerable amount about 
this industry. Below the surface was an apparently sterile layer 


62 Annals of the South African Museum. 


of 2 feet, below this again was an aggregation of implements, about 
2 feet thick. (See Plate IX, 2.) The same types reappeared at 
depths of 8 to 10 feet, each layer showing relatively less weathering 
than the one above, until at a depth of 10 feet no appreciable weather- 
ing was visible. 

This lowest layer rested upon a hard natural concrete composed of 
lime, shale, and talus from the mountain; this concretion in turn 
rested upon the original soft shale bed which here rises at an angle 
steeper than that of the talus, and crops out a few hundred feet up the 
slope. 

It would-appear from the relative weathering of the artefacts that 
there is no definite reason to regard these deposits as successive 
occupational layers, they would seem rather to mark successive falls of 
rock higher up the mountain slope, forcing surface material to slide 
down and cover other surface material until the talus has accumulated, 
together with the contained implements, to a depth of 10 feet. Mr. 
Jansen regards these layers as occupational layers divided by con- 
siderable intermediate periods. In any attempt to date the finds, 
however, we must regard the period as dating from an age previous to 
or contemporaneous with the lowest deposit of the series. An ex- 
amination of the implements in the lowest layer in their unweathered 
state forces one to the conclusion that the stones are the work of man, 
artefacts in the true sense, and that we are in the presence of a definable 
and recognisable industry of a specialised type. The methods em- 
ployed in the manufacture become more apparent. At this level, as 
on the surface, the implements are of the types described above, and 
are mixed with coups-de-poing of a rough type, compatible with the 
fracturing qualities of the dolerite from which they are made, and 
obviously suffering in finish as a result of the intractable nature of the 
material employed. 

One implement from this site is of supreme interest ; it consists of a 
coup-de-poing in what would appear to be a grey quartzitic sandstone. 
It was originally heart-shaped, some 4 inches long, by 3 across, 
and extremely well made. The edges are straight, the workmanship 
fine, and the implement appeared at a depth of 8 feet from the 
surface in absolute association with the Victoria West types. The 
differences between the two types of cowp-de-poing are extreme, and 
would probably be more so but for the fact that this finer specimen 
was damaged in the recovery. (The main drawback in the use of 
convict or “ coloured’ labour in excavating.) This shows immedi- 
ately that either the Victoria West workers were capable of producing 


The Victoria West Industry. 63 


a finer implement, given the right material; or else that they were 
sufficiently friendly with the Stellenbosch industry groups to trade 
with them, and to appreciate the neater implements so obtained. 
One small fact is of interest, the heart-shape of this single implement 
is not the shape usually favoured by the Victoria West workers, nor 
for that matter has it any direct affinities with the shapes used by the 
Stellenbosch workers. It falls into a shape-class of its own. Mr. 
Jansen suggests that the isolated well-made cowp-de-poing found here, 
and the isolated specimen to be referred to from Cofimvaba, both 
imply contemporaneity of the Stellenbosch and Victoria West im- 
plements, and a certain amount of exchange between the groups. 
(See Plate VIII, 3.) 

Other Sites.—A little way past the dam enclosing the end of the 
valley, and along the Carnarvon road, the hills are split up, to the 
north, by peculiar valleys running up from the roadway. In most 
of these are to be found artefacts of the usual Victoria West types. 
This is of interest as the lake (now most inadequately represented by 
the dam) which at one time covered this basin must have entered the 
mouths of these various valleys, and it 1s possible that the makers of 
the implements date from a period when this lake was present, and that 
they lived beside the coves about its edge. After passing those valleys 
which show signs of the relatively recent presence of water, the 
implements cease until further sites at Zuurkop (Wolvefontein), 
Vingerfontein, and Melton Wold are reached. 

The site at Zuurkop (Wolvefontein farm) lies on the slope of the 
conical hill bearing that name. The road cuts through the site, 
which extends to the edge of the bed of an intermittent river in the 
valley below. The whole site might be some two miles long and half 
a mile across. The material used is the same fine-grained dolerite we 
get at all sites, and implements appear in great profusion over the 
surface of the ground. The commonest type from this site is the high- 
backed tortoise-shape. In spite of the fact that no excavation has 
been made at this site, it appears probable that the site is of purely 
surface nature, and that it does not descend to any depth. 

Melton Wold, the next site, is still further from Victoria West in 
the same line. It is not so rich as the Zuurkop sites, but is similar 
in other ways. The road cuts through the surface site, which appears 
scattered. 

A little further along the same road, and round the curve of the hill 
overlooking Melton Wold, access can be obtained to the site on Vinger- 
fontein. This site lies perhaps a mile eastward from the road almost 

VOL. XXVII. 5 


64 Annals of the South African Museum. 


directly below the mountain. The material is again similar, and 
bouchers are once more to be associated with the Victoria West types, 
which do not vary at all considerably from those to be found at other 
sites. 

Mr. Jansen also discovered a site at Loxton, 52 miles west of Victoria 
West. The implements from here are the same in type and form as 
the other Victoria West implements, but heavily weathered. The 
position is very similar to the Victoria West sites, a narrow poort with 
a plain beyond. 

Further Distribution. Quite apart from these sites in the more 
immediate neighbourhood of Victoria West, it has now been found 
that this type of implement has a very much wider distribution than 
was at first supposed. The writer has found specimens at Nakob 
(S.-W. Africa) and at Cofimvaba (Transkei), which so far appear to be 
the western and eastern extremes of distribution. Mr. C. van Riet 
Lowe has also found a specimen at De Put, Edenburg district, and 
another at Spitzkop, in the Fauresmith district, O.F.S., while Mr. 
M. C. Burkitt, on his visit to the Union in 1927, discovered a specimen 
at the Half-way House on the Kimberley to Barkly West Road. 

Britstown.—Mr. C. H. Heese spent a short time at Britstown (some 
50 miles north of Victoria West) after his visit to the Victoria West 
sites, and here made an extremely interesting discovery. Writing 
apropos of his finds here, Mr. Heese says : * 

“ The time at my disposal for research allowed only a brief inspec- 
tion of four sites at Britstown, two on the commonage (dolerite) and 
two on the adjoining farm, Gemsbokfontein, or Gemsbokdam 
(lydianite). 

‘ The dolerite implements on the rand (ridge) in the east of Brits- 
town were identical in shape and weight to those on the Victoria 
West golf-course site: three tools satisfied a hurried investigation 
at the foot of the hill; square and slanting nose with pointed butt : 
no ‘horse-hoof’ recovered. The site at the (Britstown) railway 
station I found very much silted up; on the exposed crumbling 
dolerite dyke some ‘ tortoises ’ and ‘ horse-hoofs ’ were found with the 
customary bouchers, much worn, also ‘ stone-balls’ + (Mr. Jansen’s 
‘hammer-stones’). The railway station itself forms the centre of the 
site, which extends towards the village as far as the school grounds. 


* MS., 19th November 1926. 

{ Note.—These must not be confused with the pecked stone spheres found else- 
where and of apparently later age. Mr. Heese here refers to a variation of the 
“ discoidal artefact ’’ or fabricator, or perhaps facetted stone ball. 


Ann. S. Afr. Mus., Vol. X XVII. Plate VIIL. 


1, Two views of a modern fracture, showing lack of bulb, and marked secondary 
ridge; 2, ancient fracture on possible reject, showing presence of marked 
negative secondary ridge ; second cut shows opposite face; 3, well-made 
coup-de-poing of quartzite, badly damaged in excavating, found at 10 feet. 


Neill & Co., Lid, 


The Victoria West Industry. 65 


“ The lydianite sites at the base of the Gemsbokrand, west of 
Britstown, were of particular interest to me. . . . The approach from 
the southern side at first brought little encouragement, until the site 
itself was touched. My eye was set on ‘ horse-hoof’ and ‘ tortoise ’ 
forms, as these had been found in the morning, and soon they became 
as plentiful as on Zuurkop at Victoria West; the flakings are better 
preserved, the size of the largest here slightly exceeded the size of the 
smallest I had picked up at Victoria West ; the shape shows a tendency 
to broaden out at the butt to a © tang,’ squared at the base. 

“ The following morning a friendly motor took me to some other 
lydianite sites. The first, an outcrop of the rock-bed, yielded nothing 
in the way of bouchers. It is needless to add that neither ‘ horse- 
hoofs,’ etc., were seen. The adjoining ‘ rotting’ dolerite was likewise 
sterile. 

“When I turned to sites we had passed by at first, I came to an old 
boucher site, and also upon “ horse-hoof’ and ‘ chisel’ (square based) 
types. The latter were smaller than the smallest Victoria West in 
my collection.” 

De Aar.—Concerning other sites also visited, Mr. Heese says : 

“De Aar was inspected on Monday, 15th November, only one site, 
on the golf course, which cuts the site in two. The dolerite here is 
coarser than at Victoria West, and the tools are badly worn by the 
coarse sands and driving winds. Practically every shape at Victoria 
West was found here, also the thinner flakes, trimmed for other uses, 
were in evidence, but on the whole less numerous than at the Victoria 
West golf course. 

“At Worcester the gravels yielded bouchers, ‘ wedges’ (bzseauz), 
etc., but nothing resembling the Victoria West culture.”’ 

It is worth noting that the Britstown lydianite specimens are the 
only implements of Victoria West type so far known in any material 
except dolerite. They are of extreme interest as they are slightly 
different from the normal shapes. 

Manufacture.—To understand the following remarks on the manu- 
facture of the Victoria West implements it is necessary to state that 
this paper is the direct outcome of the wish of the South African 
Association for the Advancement of Science, Section E, that a small 
commission should visit Victoria West with the intention of clearing 
up two points: first, whether the objects here discussed were capable 
of being regarded as of human origin; and, secondly, whether the 
objects collected were core-implements, and hence of interest in them- 
selves, or conversely, whether they were prepared cores from which 


66 Annals of the South African Museum. 


a needed flake had been struck. As a result, the various sites were 
visited by Mr. F. Jansen, the discoverer of the implements, Mr. C. H. 
Heese of Riversdale, and the writer. 

In spite of the acknowledged fact that all three of us were probably 
biased in our preconceived ideas on the first point, in favour of accept- 
ing the objects as of definitely human origin ; yet I feel that we have 
made out a reasonably strong case in favour of their acceptance as 
artefacts, a verdict which seems to have been supported by the Nakob, 
De Put, and Cofimvaba finds, and perhaps also by Dr. van Hoepen’s 
discoveries at Bloemhof.* 

The second point, however, proved the centre of heated arguments, 
and has by no means been cleared up yet. Inanargument of this type, 
it must be remembered that absolute proof is not easily obtainable, 
probability and circumstantial evidence play a subtile but prejudicial 
part in any attempt at demonstration. Exactly the same state of 
affairs is to be seen in the HKuropean discussion of Holiths; it was 
proved conclusively that stones identical with Holithic types could be 
made with the aid of concrete-mixers, but this did not necessarily 
show that Koliths were not the product of a human or humanoid being. 
Points of this kind cannot be regarded as proven, an open mind must 
be kept on the subject, and one may not with any fairness “ believe ”’ ; 
one can only “ incline to the view,” until further evidence is forth- 
coming. However, for the sake of euphony, the word “ believe ” will 
often stand for the less definite phrase in order to avoid repetition 
in the following argument. 

The question under discussion is as to whether these high-backed 
artefacts showing a core technique were the desired implements or 
whether the core was merely a well-prepared nucleus, shaped to pro- 
duce a flake of a definite type. In other words, is the core a variety 
of the cowp-de-poing ; or is it a “ tortoise-core ”’ similar in type to those 
discovered at Northfleet (England) ? + 

Mr. Jansen inclines to the view that the large core would be the 
desired implement, and the flake thrown away; he bases this view 
largely upon the method he believes to have been used in the manu- 
facture of the implement. He infers that the main flake (covering 
about two-thirds or more of the under side of the finished implement) 
was struck off first from a “raw” block of dolerite. The next step 
would be the removal of flakes all round, striking the blows about the 
edge of the main flake-scar, in fact using the sudden upward turn at 


* van Hoepen, 8.A.J.8., 1927, vol. xxiv, p. 566, “‘ Oor die Pnielse Kultuur.”’ 
{ British Museum Handbook to “ Stone Age Antiquities,” 1926, p. 33. 


Plate IX. 


Ann. S. Afr. Mus., Vol. XXYII, 


SUIMOYS 


G 


doy 9y 


Q 


O 


"q00} G 
TUOo], Mopoq 


jo yjdep ve 4e ‘ozIs yURqysSeA\ UL snp ‘youd 
(q) yisodep Aunty, Fo uorzIsod sat7ZRIJoI SUTMOYY ‘T 


(V) [Pieqeur ppeyyywmg pue 


Neill & Co,, Lid, 


The Victoria West Industry. 67 


the release of the flake as a striking platform. From these flake-scars 
were next struck a series of flakes at right angles to them. The result 
would be, according to Mr. Jansen, the high-backed upper face of the 
implement. 

This method of manufacture does not appear possible in view of our 
knowledge of the fracture of stone, nor does it agree with the evidence 
of other observers. Dr. van Hoepen, Professor Radcliffe Brown, 
myself, and others have noted that wherever the weathering did not 
interfere with our inspection of the small flake-scars bounding the 
main flake-scar, they were always struck off from the outside edge (1.e. 
not from the edge of the flake-scar). Dr. van Hoepen says: * 

“ There is no difference in type between the smallest material from 
Bloemhof and the largest from Victoria West. From the Bloemhof 
material it is obvious that the stones were prepared in the first place 
in order that a great wide flake might be struck off. It thence follows 
that the large stones from Victoria West were also shaped with this 
intention. In the greater number of stones from Bloemhof, it is 
obvious that the main flake was struck off last, and this after the 
smaller flakes had been removed. In the Victoria West stones it 
would appear that the case is the same.” 

On the other hand, Mr. Heese says : 

“Tf Mr. Goodwin has ‘ never found that the flakes trimming the 
core were struck off from the edge left by the removal of the main 
flake,’ some of my finds show such instances. Mr. Goodwin’s theory 
of the manufacture seems to hinge on this matter, as also his idea as 
to the whole purpose of the core—the ‘ final flake.’ ” 

My own view is that the implement was made originally in the shape 
of a wide cowp-de-poing, one face high-backed, the other less markedly 
convex. Almost the whole of this flatter face was removed by a single 
blow, using a point about an inch or less away from the bounding edge 
on the more pyramidal face as the point of percussion. The resultant 
core would be exactly of the type we now have, and the flake would be 
of a shape and size which we can generally presume was useful. 

Mr. Jansen objects : 

“TI don’t remember finding a single boucher as wide as the cores. 
On the contrary they were all rather flat, and narrow compared with 
their length.” 

Actually the South African Museum has two specimens collected by 
me at Victoria West, which are identical, except for the removal of the 


* “ Oor die Pnielse Kultuur,” loc. cit., p. 567. 
ft Letter, 25th April 1927. 


68 Annals of the South African Museum. 


final flake, which occurs in one only. The strongest argument against 
the ‘‘ desired flake ”’ view is that in many of the horseshoe types, after 
the removal of the main flake, a second flake appears to have been 
struck off from within the first flake-scar. This most certainly does 
not fit in with my view expressed above, and I do not attempt to 
explain it, yet in spite of this second flake, the “ split ” or flaked cowp- 
de-poing theory appears to me to be by far the more rational explana- 
tion. 

The importance of agreement on the method of manufacture is 
obvious. If the main flake were removed first, then it would be 
untrimmed, and the core would thus be proved to be the implement 
wanted. If, on the other hand, the main flake were proved to have 
been struck off after the trimming of the core we would be left with 
three alternatives: either the makers needed the core, or the flake, 
or both. 

It has been argued that Dr. van Hoepen’s specimens show a core 
some two inches long, from which a flake, perhaps an inch in diameter, 
had been removed, and that this “ proves ” that the core was needed, 
such a small flake being useless to the maker. But, conversely, we 
may argue that many cores were of such vast proportions that they 
were useless except to a race of giants, while even the flakes removed 
would prove cumbersome. 

In attempting to judge from the large flakes removed, the difficulty 
lies in the fact that it is impossible to produce any authentic flakes. 
All the flakes which might have been produced by this means are too 
worn and weathered to prove anything, as Mr. Heese points out : 

“ Dolerite, with its coarse grain, disintegrates at so fast a rate that 
small or thin implements soon become unrecognisable as such, if they 
do not break up altogether.” 

We are thus baulked at every turn, mainly by the degree of weather- 
ing present on the implements observed. If a sufficient number of 
unweathered specimens were produced from depth, a far saner view 
of the whole industry would result. For the present it is necessary 
both to reserve final judgments and to regard the cores as possible true 
implements, while still searching for worked flakes likely to have been 
struck off and used as tools. 

Chronological Sequence.—The finding of the heart-shaped coup-de- 
poing in the series of deposits on the south-western side of the Victoria 
West valley in complete association with the Victoria West implements 
does not tell us very much as to relative chronology. The heart- 
shape does not yet imply any one particular phase of the Stellenbosch 


The Victoria West Industry. 69 


Industry, and thus does not give us any conception as to whether the 
local industry is an early or a late offshoot. We do not know what 
the exact relationship existing between the two actually is. 

The limy deposit in which this association was proved continues 
without a break along the lower part of this south-western hillside 
towards the dam. Some two or three hundred yards along it skirts 
the edge of Moonlight Kop. Here the deposit is exposed by the road- 
cutting, and is seen to be upwards of six feet in depth. Over the 
deposit talus has accumulated to a depth of one or two feet. We can 
safely presume from the continuity of the deposit, and the fact that 
throughout the distance between the western hillside site and the 
Moonlight Kop sporadic implements of Victoria West type occur in 
this deposit, that the whole layer is of a single age, and is all con- 
temporaneous with the Victoria West implements. Lying directly on 
the talus material which covers this extension of the Victoria West 
deposit the writer discovered a small but very rich site of the Smithfield 
“C” phase of the Later Stone Age. This site proves that a very con- 
siderable period had elapsed between the Victoria West and Smithfield 
“C”’ periods. (See Plate IX, 1.) 

Some years ago Rev. Perold of Victoria West submitted a number 
of Middle Stone Age implements to the South African Museum. 
These came from the surface near the golf-course site, and the circum- 
stances of the discovery point to their being of a date somewhat later 
than that of the Victoria West implements. 

These facts justify us in regarding the Victoria West Industry as of 
the Harlier Stone Age and partly or entirely contemporary with the 
Stellenbosch Industry. 


(i) 


4. Part I1V.—The Fauresmith Industry. By A. J. H. Goopwin, M.A., 
Senior Lecturer in Social Anthropology, University of Cape 
Town, and C. van Riser Lowe, B.Sc., A.M.IL.C.E., Public 
Works Department, Johannesburg. 


(With Plates X—XIV and five Text-figures.) 


THE Fauresmith is an Industry closely allied to the Stellenbosch. 
It is difficult as yet to say whether it is an evolved or specialised 
branch of the Stellenbosch, due partly or entirely to the presence of 
a useful material as Lowe is inclined to believe, or whether we are 
here presented for the first time with an infiltration of that racial or 
cultural impetus which, coming into South Africa, was to give us the 
industries grouped together as the Middle Stone Age. It is sufficient 
to say that the differences between this industry and the Stellenbosch 
have been regarded by both the writers of this paper, and by many 
others, as sufficiently definite to necessitate the invention of a new 
category. 


ASSOCIATION. 


As in the Stellenbosch industry, so in the Fauresmith, the coup: 
de-powng is the most typical implement (see Plates XI and XII). 
The workmanship is fine, which may be due to a superior standard 
having been desired and attained, or purely to the fact that the in- 
durated shale (lydianite) invariably used is the most tractable and 
amenable material of any used in South Africa. The cowps-de-poing 
are of a type which Mr. M. C. Burkitt, while visiting the Union, stated 
to be very similar to those of the La Micoque period or variation 
in Europe. The shape is generally a neat almond, sometimes an 
ovate; the limande is rare, and the triangular cowp-de-poing exceed- 
ingly scarce; the pear-shaped variety, so far as is known, does not 
appear at all. The size is generally small, and the implements are 
of a length and weight which make them eminently suitable for use 
in the hand (Plate X). 


712 Annals of the South African Museum. 


The following table gives a comparison between the average length, 
breadth, and thickness of implements in millimetres from twelve 
Stellenbosch sites, the largest implement and the smallest implement 


of the group. The same is done for six Fauresmith sites. » 
Stellenbosch. Fauresmith. 
Length. | Breadth. snes Length. | Breadth. ene " 
Greatest individual 
specimen . 260 102 40 164 87 47 
Highest single- -site 
average . 230 102 38 126 73 30 
Average of all 
specimens Tie lelO 88 40 108 64 28 
Lowest | single-site 
average ; 150 76 3D 100 59 27 
Smallest individual 
specimen . ce elon 66 30 T4 53 21 
Average ratio A252 2-22 4:2:3:1 


It will at once be seen that the greatest individual Fauresmith 
specimen falls below the average Stellenbosch, while some Faure- 
smith sites show an average lower than the smallest individual 
Stellenbosch specimen. The sites were chosen quite at random, 
and further examples would show much the same result. Thirty 
advanced Fauresmith cowps-de-poing were measured, and fifty ad- 
vanced Stellenbosch implements. These include the implements 
measured by Lowe.* 

Associated with these cowps-de-poing are discs, scrapers (text-figs. 
1, 2, 3, 4), slightly trimmed flake points, and occasionally biseaua. 
Faceted hammer stones or polyhedral stones, three or four inches in 
diameter, are also found. The biseauax associated are ill made and 
of coarser material, most commonly dolerite, but deeply patinated 
and almost unrecognisable. This fact forces Goodwin to the con- 
clusion that the association is a chance one, and that either they mark 
the presence of Stellenbosch implements which have slipped in amongst 
the Fauresmith, or that they are the result of trials of new material. 


* The Fauresmith “ Cowp-de-poing,” S.A.J.S., vol. xxiv, 1927, p. 502. 


Ann. S. Afr. Mus., Vol. XX VIT. Plate X, 


Two aspects of a Fauresmith cowp-de-poing from Brakfontein Farm. Lowe Collection. 


Neill & Co., Lid. 


Plate XI. 


Ann. S. Afr. Mus., Vol. X XVII. 


EE 
= 2 


Zz 


cs 


Four views of a Fauresmith type coup-de-poing. Klipjespan, Boshof. 


M.M.K. 1176 


“MOTJOITIOD “YEW «= “joysog ‘uvdsoldipy ‘g § cep Aoproquiry *g { Aoproquaryy ‘Arvaqvy ‘{ “buzod-ap-sdnoo ad.&y YALUIS9.INv if 


Plate: ot 


; 


‘ 
\ 


q Afr. Mus., Vol. X XVII. 


Pi q 
Ann. 8. 


as 


i 

2 
aN | 
Ny 
| 
{iS 


| 


The Fauresmith Industry. 17 


The fact remains that these biseaux show execrable workmanship, bad 
choice of material, and a complete lack of finish, and yet they are 


Text-Fic. 1.—Three views of scraper. Brakfontein farm. 
Lowe collection. 


nominally associated with well-made cowps-de-poing of eminently 
suitable material, whence it may appear after further investigation 
that the Fauresmith Industry lacks the biseau type completely. 
On the other hand, Lowe considers the biseau to be merely aberrant. 


(fs) Annals of the South African Museum. 


TECHNIQUE. 


Before enlarging upon the methods employed in the manufacture 
of the cowp-de-poing, it would perhaps be best to speak of the flake 
technique as it is found in the smaller implements of this industry. 

The most typical element in the Mousterian technique of North 
Africa and of Europe is the presence of a flake industry in which the 
flakes are trimmed on one face only and show a faceted butt. In this 
technique either the striking platform has been trimmed by the 
removal of various small flakes before the needed flake was removed, 
or else the necessary flake has had all signs of the striking platform 
removed by chipping over that end. This peculiar method of butt- 
ing is very typical of most Fauresmith flakes, and would thus appear 
to prove the presence of what we may call (for want of a more exact 
term) Mousterian influence. This term is thus meant to imply the 
presence of a culturally acquired knowledge of the Mousterian tech- 
nique, and does not in any way presume the presence of Neanderthal 
man in South Africa. 

The Mousterians also show a lack of skill in completely mastering 
the fluting technique, or longitudinal trimming, which is so typical 
of the later Neo-anthropic industries—this failure is again present in 
the Fauresmith Industry. 

The flakes do not show much sign of any conventionalised tools 
unless the side-, end-, and hooked-scrapers are to be regarded as such. 
The end-scrapers are coarser than those we will come to later in 
the Smithfield industry, but they fall quite within the limits of the 
Smithfield types, and might perhaps have been classed as such if 
picked up unpatinated, unassociated, and singly. The side-scrapers 
suggest the concavo-convex of “Smithfield A” (Later Stone Age), 
and Lowe has found three particularly well-made specimens (text- 
figs. 2, 3, 4). The hooked-scrapers are very typical, not appearing 
in any other South African industries. A few other scrapers are 
known and one or two worked points also appear. Considering the 
number of well-made flakes and also the regular presence of true flake 
cores, the number of flake tools is disappointing. Both the couwps-de- 
poing and the flake tools lie side by side at depth in various deposits 
and show identical patination and oxidisation. The patina is interest- 
ing; Lowe states that the commoner dark grey or blackish lydianite 
turns to a reddish-brown or terra cotta when exposed to the elements 
away from the action of water. This discoloration is due to the 
oxidation of the iron content, and depends largely, if not entirely, 


The Fauresmith Industry. 79 


apn the amount of iron impregnation and the length of exposure. 
The incrustation may even amount to one-eighth of an inch in depth. 


\ \ } - ' 
Bo allel Dae liar hor: 
SS ttt My, My, 


My, 


TExt-F1c. 2.—Three views of semicircular scraper. Fauresmith. Lowe collection. 


Water—hydration and oxidation combined—turns the stone blue- 


grey, and the material tends to be water-worn under the action of 
running water. 


VOL. XXVII. 6 


80 Annals of the South African Museum. 


THE COUP-DE-POING. 


It has been stated in an earlier paper * that the type of Stellen- 
bosch implement peculiar to the two lower Vaal River gravels shows 
a similarity to Fauresmith types. This is obvious when a large study 
collection is available, and Lowe regards this as being a probable 
key to the origin of Fauresmith Industry. 

It was shown that the prevalent method of manufacture along the 
lower Vaal terraces consisted of the utilisation of a laterally removed 
flake as the block or core from which the cowp-de-poing was made. 
In these gravels was also found a possible association, never yet proved 
with any certainty, of cowps-de-poing of a fine type and flake imple- 
ments. It is quite within reason to suppose that a flake technique 
was already present in an embryonic form in the Stellenbosch industry 
on the Vaal, on the Suikerboschrand, and at Knysna where the presence 
of a single flake core has raised a multitude of questions and surmises. 
The discovery of worked flakes at Blaauwklip-spruit near Stellenbosch 
itself, in the gravel terraces of the Suikerboschrand, near Heidelberg 
(Transvaal), and in similar terraces of the Klip River, near Henley, is 
also significant. This point, it will be seen, is of extreme importance 
to us in any attempt we may make to obtain a sane view of the 
Fauresmith Industry. The point which still remains to be proved is 
the presence of a true flake technique in the Stellenbosch. Péringuey 
long ago recognised the fact that chance spalls were trimmed for use 
by the Stellenbosch workers. It is also possible that much of the 
material we have hitherto regarded as of Stellenbosch type from the 
Free State belongs either to a transition phase or to the Fauresmith 
proper. 

The Stellenbosch and Fauresmith coups-de-poing do show definite 
differences. One of these would appear to be fairly basic, the utilisation 
of a longitudinal flake as the material from which the Fauresmith 
coup-de-poing was made. This technique is quite obviously allied 
to the flake technique employed in the making of the smaller flake 
implements. As a result of this method the butt end of the coup-de- 
poing often shows a part of the striking platform left as a small eye- 
shaped flattening at this end. In many instances this “eye” has 
been dexterously removed by a single well-placed blow, leaving a 
peculiar twist very like an eye-lid and giving a very typical distortion 
at this point. In many unfinished specimens, the whole or a large 


* Goodwin, ‘‘The Archaeology of the Vaal River Gravels,” Trans. Royal Soe. 
S. Africa, vol. xvi. 


The Fauresmith Industry. 81 


part of the cleavage plane is visible, taking up the greater part of that 
face, the outer face being worked all over in all instances (Plate XII). 

The process of manufacture thus consisted of two stages, the striking 
of a large and suitable flake from a core, and the subsequent trimming 
of this to a couwp-de-poing shape. The large flake thus becomes a 
core in a cowp-de-poing technique, which is peculiar in another way 
also. In one of the normal methods employed by the Stellenbosch 
makers the block was roughly hacked to shape, then reduced, the 
working becoming more and more delicate as the desired size was 
reached. This method was never used by the makers of the 
Fauresmith implement, but apparently the whole of the outer 
face was first worked, and the cleavage face worked later if the 
necessity arose and the shape proved suitable. The Stellenbosch 
makers also had a definite preference for water-worn boulders where 
these were obtainable, but the workers in lydianite preferred rock 
fragments of local origin. 

The coups-de-poing from the Fauresmith sites also have a straight 
edge, differing from the zig-zag so often apparent in the Stellenbosch 
industry, and very often too the Fauresmith coup-de-poing shows a 
decided S-shaped twist or screw, reminding one at once of the typical 
twist of the European Acheulean. This is extremely rare or lacking 
in Stellenbosch implements (Plate XI). 

The shape is often very typical. The Stellenbosch cowp-de-poing 
is generally a true almond when viewed in plan, and if marked across 
its greatest width, the length of this lime would only slightly exceed 
the distance between itself and the extreme butt of the implement, 
giving a shape much that of a slightly side-flattened semicircle. 
If a shorter, stockier Fauresmith specimen were so marked it would 
show in most instances an almost exact half-circle. 

So far as we now know, the Fauresmith Industry is confined approxt- 
mately to the southern and south-western part of the Orange Free 
State and to the neighbouring districts of Kimberley and a portion of 
Herbert. It is typical of the Beaufort and Hcca shale areas of the 
Karroo system. These shales are intensely cut up and metamor- 
phosed by plutonic intrusions (chiefly dolerite), and the result of the 
metamorphosis is the indurated shale or lydianite, as typical of this 
industry as it is of the later Smithfield industries. It is a flinty 
material with a clean, dependable fracture leaving a sharp edge. 

History.—The history of our knowledge of this industry is interest- 
ing. Some years ago Mr. Leviseur of Bloemfontein submitted a 
number of implements to Dr. Péringuey of the South African Museum. 


82 Annals of the South African Museum, 


These implements (S.A.M. 3240) were recognised by Goodwin as of 
interest in 1923 and shown to Professor Radcliffe Brown, then head 


oo came SSN SS NY : 


TExt-FIG. 3.—Three views of scraper similar to Smithfield type of concavo- 
convex. Fauresmith Industry. Brakfontein farm. Lowe collection. 


of the Department of Social Anthropology at Cape Town University. 
It was agreed that the specimens showed a great variation from the 
Stellenbosch type and necessitated a more extended nomenclature. 
The points of greatest interest were the twisted cowp-de-poing, the 
presence of the longitudinal flake-scar on one face of some speci- 


The Fauresmith Industry. 83 


mens, the fine workmanship, the flake implements, and a worked- 
out core. 

At apparently very much the same time Lowe stumbled on this 
industry himself, and his subsequent researches are therefore of 
extreme interest. Writing to Goodwin in 1923, he says: “In the 
spruit that runs through Burghersdorp I have collected many rather 
water-worn scraper knives, scrapers, and a variety of cowp-de-poing 
which is quite new to me. I have also two specimens from near 
Philippolis, and have examined similar specimens in the local museum, 
the best of which are from the Fauresmith district, and were found 
by Mr. Leviseur. 

“T am forced to allocate these finds to the Chelleo-Mousterian 
period,* though I do this rather temerariously because the workman- 
ship of the small hand-axes, for such they appear most probably to 
have been, seems too good, too thoughtful for our clumsy, though 
good, Chelleo-Mousterian. The material is lydianite, and this has 
advantages over Table Mountain or any other ordinary sandstone 
and is more workable than most stones, but even so I cannot help 
feeling that a better and more flexible thumb than that of our Chelleo- 
Mousterian is shown here!” (Plate X). 

Writing in July 1926, he says further: “‘ My experience of Faure- 
smith workshops tells me this, the cowps-de-poing are always small : 
2-inch specimens are not uncommon, but in contradistinction to 
the common clumsy and unwieldy cowp-de-poing of Stellenbosch 
type, these refined Fauresmith types are handy and wieldy, and 
whereas the old Stellenbosch man invariably chose water-worn 
boulders for his purpose, Fauresmith man almost invariably (if not 
always) worked on flakes from rock fragments. Processes of manu- 
facture, so far as shaping or secondary trimming is concerned, are 
identical—probably direct, free-hand percussion—never pressure. 
On many almost completed Fauresmith cowps-de-poing, the original 
bulb of percussion is still discernible or traceable, though invariably 
this is missing in finished specimens because the manufacturer worked 
both faces of his tool, and in the process of his secondary work oftenest 
worked the bulb off, occasionally leaving a section of the platform. 

“A fair average specimen would be about 44 in. by 24 in. by 2 in 
thick (115 mm. x65 mm. x20 mm.), almond-shaped, sometimes ovoid 
and characteristically Acheulean in facies. I am enclosing a sketch 
of one specimen I have that is just as remote from (or akin to) your 
Stilbaai types as it is from (or to) the Stellenbosch. In both appear- 

* Now called the Stellenbosch Industry. 


84 Annals of the South African Museum. 


ance and workmanship these Fauresmith types fill the gap, as it 
were, between such coups-de-poing I have found in the Cape or along 
the Vaal, and Stilbaai points.” 


A 
ms . 
ot: “ is oe 
6 fa. - > Sas 
e 2 8 : 1 eS 
. 5 ‘ . . ‘ 
; . . 
. . . . 3) . 
’ ’ . ~ aes s 
U ‘ 5 3 5 . 
- ‘ oS 
eimet x 4 
a6 5 
. . = ? 3 Wi, 
S ay ze 5. Sa ZF 
5 : : S xs = 
5 : SN Eee 
5 - —— 
\ - SS bo S90 = EB 2 
x Se = as = a = ZEEE Bx ——= es 
SS Ez bee SS S=—eN — ZEEE SS 
—S = — = 2Z= & 
a ———— 4 


TExtT-FIc. 4.—Three views of scraper, similar to concavo-convex. Brakfontein 
farm. Lowe collection. 


This last point, the inter-relation of the Stellenbosch, Fauresmith, 
and Stilbaai types, will be spoken of in a later paper dealing with the 
Middle Stone Age periods, and more especially with the Glen Grey 
industry. 


The Fauresmith Industry. 85 


Writing in September of the same year (1926), Lowe says: “It 
will interest you to know that I have in two different localities found 
well-marked stratification. In the Kromellenboog spruit, and in the 
Fauresmith town spruit on the town commonage, we have states of 
affairs which are remarkably similar. Smithfield types are found on 
the natural ground surface, while below and separated by seven feet 
or so of sterile strata, we find ina 3-foot gravel bed (water-borne) 
implements of Fauresmith type.” 

Lowe was thus able to prove conclusively that the Fauresmith 
Industry was considerably earlier than the Smithfield B. phase of the 
Later Stone Age. Hitherto the only proof we had of this fact was 
that Fauresmith implements are invariably heavily patinated, while 
Smithfield implements are lightly patinated or entirely free from 
oxidation. 


DISTRIBUTION. 


Lowe gives the following factory sites in the O.F.S., the names of 
district and farm being given in each instance :— 


Fauresmith distroct : Bloemfontein district : 
Blaauwheuvel Honing Kopje 
ene (ee) Boshof district : 
Dwarsvlei 
Erfdeel Damplaats 

-Fauresmith Town Lands Bleierjeths 
Ieoietontoim Meerlandsvlei 
ee ae Schaapfontein 
Petrusberg Edenburg district : 
Rorich’s Hoop Springfontein 
oo Luckhoff district : 
perZkep : Luckhoft 
Spitzkop II 
Valschfontein Philippolis district : 
Zuurfontein Onder Dwars Rivier 


Besides these a further site is represented in the South African 
Museum, from Fauresmith, and another in the Herbert district, 
while Kimberley shows several specimens, one from the site of the 
present library, and housed in the McGregor Museum. A single 
coup-de-poing from Brandfort has also been given to the Department 
of Social Anthropology at Cape Town University by Dr. Schonken 
of Klerksdorp. 


86 Annals of the South African Museum. 


SITES. 


1. Brakfontein (No. 231), District Fauresmith. 

This site is situated on the right of the road from Koffiefontein to 
Fauresmith, and about twelve miles from the former. 

In a small re-entrant into what appears to be an old consolidated 
sand-dune (now overgrown) immediately adjacent to the road, im- 
plements were first found by Lowe in 1926. Closer examination 
revealed the fact that the dune had encroached over the original 
site and completely buried it until erosion set in. At first only a few 
implements could be recovered, but after each rain and as opportunity 
offered, Lowe revisited the site and found more and more specimens 
being exposed. So that in course of time, the finest and most repre- 
sentative collection from any single Fauresmith site was made. 

Save for a few biseau types in dolerite, the material used throughout 
was lydianite or indurated shale. Several extremely neat and 
‘finished ”’ cowps-de-poing were found, a few side-scrapers (one of 
which is concavo-convex), end-, and hooked-scrapers. 

On account of the long burial and the consequent protection from 
the elements, the implements are in a rare and excellent state of 
preservation ; they have weathered to various degrees, from a khaki 
to a rich light chocolate colour. Owing to this state of preservation 
and the richness of the site, Lowe has constituted this as the main 
type-site of the industry. 

2. Onder Dwars Rivier—On the slopes of a kopje immediatel 
adjacent to the Philippolis Road Station, and opposite the goods: 
yard, is an excellent and instructive Fauresmith site. Cowps-de-poing 
and crude scrapers were first found here by Lowe in 1923. All the 
implements are on the surface, and the exceedingly heavy incrusta- 
tion on the specimens suggests very long exposure. In cases the 
weathered surface consists of a terra-cotta coloured crust one-eighth 
of an inch in thickness; the angular edges appear rounded, and one 
entire implement looks as though it had been rolled under running 
water, which, however, is not the case. No biseaux were found, 
and the material used throughout is lydianite or indurated shale. 

In the course of time, the makers of the Smithfield B. implements 
came to the same locality and similarly established a factory site. 
They used Fauresmith coups-de-poing, etc., as fabricators, and they 
retrimmed Fauresmith flakes. These later implements show either 
very light patination or a complete lack of it, and where a Fauresmith 
flake has been retrimmed the body of the resultant implement is 


Ann. S. Afr. Mus., Vol. X XVII. Plate XIII. 


Three views of scraper. Brakfonteinfarm. No. 231. Lowe collection. 


Ann. 8. Afr. Mus., Vol. X XVII. 


Three views of side-scraper. Brakfontein farm. No. 231. 


Plate XIV. 


Lowe collection. 


aan 
ea 


The Fauresmith Industry. 9] 


heavily patinated or incrusted, while the surfaces exposed by later 
secondary trimming are entirely or almost free from any signs of 
such oxidation. : 

3. FauresmithImmediately above bed-rock, which varies from 


TExt-ria. 5.—Three views of Fauresmith cowp-de-poing. M.M.K. 495, Kimberley. 


six to sixteen feet below the natural ground surface, the Fauresmith 
Town Spruit has, through and in the immediate vicinity of the village, 
exposed a bed of water-borne gravel that contains vast quantities of 
Fauresmith Industry remains. All the implements are somewhat 
water-worn, and the surfaces have weathered to a blue-grey colour, 


92 Annals of the South African Museum. 


but wherever a fresh chip has been removed the original very dark 
grey to black of the unweathered lydianite can be seen. 

Immediately south of the village and near the bridge, where the 
implementiferous gravels are about three feet in depth, and lie some 
seven feet below the natural ground level of the banks, the remains 
of a Smithfield B. settlement appear on the bank. The separating 
stratum of earthy material is sterile and contains no remains of 
human handiwork. 

4. Lockshoek.—On the farm Lockshoek, 14 miles north-east of 
Jagersfontein, and 21 miles east of Fauresmith, Lowe again found 
stratification, for here is an excellent Smithfield B. surface site on the 
banks of the Kromelleboog Spruit, while beneath and separated from 
the surface by a seven-foot sterile stratum, occur water-borne gravels 
containing Fauresmith remains. Although these gravels have yielded 
many cowps-de-poing and flakes—all slightly rolled, and of lydianite— 
no biseaux have yet been found. The indurated shale has weathered 
to a light blue-grey colour on the surfaces of the specimens, but has 
remained the usual dark-grey to black inside. 


CHRONOLOGY. 


It is difficult to give any estimate as to what chronological 
relationship exists between the Stellenbosch and Fauresmith 
industries. From a purely evolutionary point of view, the Faure- 
smith is the ‘‘ later’ or more advanced of the two, but no evidence 
as to the actual sequence or contemporaneity of these two industries 
has yet appeared. We do know that the Fauresmith is very con- 
siderably earlier than either the Smithfield B., as has been shown, or 
the Wilton Industry, and the technique and type implements ally it 
sufficiently to the Stellenbosch to justify its inclusion in the Harlier 
Stone Age of South Africa. The fact that a new influence—called 
Mousterian—may be represented here for the first time would imply 
that the Fauresmith stands late in the Harlier Stone Age, and probably 
marks the arrival and first signs of the Mousterian influences which 
appear to have given us the Middle Stone Age. 


ADDENDUM, 


One or two other sites are of interest while dealing with the 


Fauresmith Industry : 
Cofimvaba.—(S.A.M. 4347, 4548, and A.M.G.). 


The Fauresmith Industry. 93 


The implements represented at the Albany and South African 
Museums from this site are of very considerable interest. The site 
implies an association rather similar to that occurring in the Faure- 
smith Industry throughout the Free State, though it lies about 130 
miles south of the nearest Fauresmith Industry site. It shows the 
contiguity of coups-de-poing with a group of flake implements and 
trimmed flakes in the material sent to the Albany Museum, though the 
specimens in the South African Museum consist of flake implements 
only. 

The administrative village of Cofimvaba lies in the Transkeian 
native territories on the Queenstown—Butterworth road. In 1925 
Mr. C. W. Wilmot, then postmaster of Cofimvaba, presented a number 
of implements to the Albany Museum, Grahamstown, and to the 
South African Museum, Cape Town.* These came from the river 
upon which the village is built, and from a stratum traceable for a 
distance of up to four miles along the river. The implements appear 
to have been covered or sealed in by a layer of river boulders and by 
thick deposits of sandy loam. Mr. P. H. Walker } regards this layer 
as having been wind-deposited and to be composed of cave sandstone, 
implying a dry windy climate. Mr. Hewitt regards the deposits as 
consisting of a series of home or factory sites, though it appeared to 
Goodwin more probable that the stratum had been fed at some time 
from a factory site or series of workshops a little higher up, or border- 
ing upon the stream. Neither of these points need worry us at all 
considerably here, the presence of the implements implies the presence 
of man; the subsequent accumulation of sandy material and boulders 
implies a considerable passage of time since the deposition of the 
implements. 

Mr. Hewitt describes three groups of implements found, and these 
agree (except for the presence of the cowps-de-powng) with the material 
sent to the South African Museum by Mr. Wilmot. 

(1) A number of long, slender, parallel-sided flakes (up to 5 inches 
in length), many quite untrimmed, some trimmed on the inner face, 
some on the outer face; triangular points with edge-trimming. 

(2) An end-scraper (one is also present in the S.A. Museum collec- 
tion), possibly intrusive. A single large flattish scraper, oval in 
outline, 34 in. by 2? in. 

(3) Coups-de-poing, not well made but “typical” and discoidal 
artefacts. 


* Hewitt, S.A.J.S., vol. xxii, 1925, p. 443. 
+ “The Stone Age in §.A.,” article in East London Dispatch, 25th March 1927. 


94 Annals of the South African Museum. 


All these implements are of shale, more or less indurated. 

Whether these Cofimvaba implements form a single series, or whether 
two groups have been mixed together, it is difficult to say. If two 
groups have been so mixed, then one belongs to the Stellenbosch 
Industry, and the other shows affinities with the Middle Stone Age 
material from elsewhere. If, on the other hand, they form a single 
group, then we may have a site representing the extreme south- 
eastern evolution of the Fauresmith. 

Thabu Nehu.—Dr. van Hoepen of the National Museum, Bloem- 
fontein,* reports the presence of a well-made Levallois flake in his 
Museum from Thabu Nchu, some 45 miles east of Bloemfontein. The 
flake measures about 120 mm. x 90 mm. x 12 mm. (max.), and is worked 
over the whole of the outer face with primary chipping ; no secondary 
or trimming flakes appear, and the under face or cleavage plane is 
quite unworked. The flake is apparently unassociated, and little is 
known of its history, but it is most certainly a Levallois flake. 
Where this stands in relation to the South African cultures it is 
impossible to say. In Europe the Levallois flake is being more 
and more regarded as a late Acheulean implement, and as more 
typical of this than of the Mousterian. Whether the culture repre- 
sented by this flake should fall into our Harlier Stone Age group or 
the Middle Stone Age it is quite impossible to say. Dr. van Hoepen 
links it with the Pniel material, but it is difficult to find proof for 
his reasoning, and further material with a complete history will be 
necessary before anything definite can be said. 


* “Quderdom van die Suid-Afrikaanse Klipwerktuie,” 8.A.J.8S., vol. xxiii, 
1926, pp. 804, 805. 


( 95.) 


5. The Middle Stone Age.-—By A. J. H. Goopwin, M.A., Senior 
Lecturer in Social Anthropology at the University of Cape Town. 


(With Plates XV-XXII and 3 Text-figures.) 


ORIGINALLY when working on the prehistoric period in South Africa 
it was found necessary and convenient to divide the entire time-field 
into two main periods, known as the Harlier Stone Age and the Later 
Stone Age respectively. As a result of further research it has become 
more and more evident that these terms do not comprehensively 
cover our prehistoric period. In the first instance these two terms 
were regarded as representing the South African equivalents of the 
Mediterranean Lower Palaeolithic period in the first group, and all 
later industries and cultures in the other. The Harlier Stone Age 
thus originally comprised the Stellenbosch, the Fauresmith, and the 
Victoria West Industries, the internal time-relationship between these 
three being entirely unknown. The Later Stone Age was regarded 
as embracing the Still Bay Industry (originally included under the 
term “ Hastern Culture ’’) and two interrelated industries, the Smith- 
field and the Wilton. Within the Earlier Stone Age were thus 
grouped all cowp-de-poing industries, while in the Later Stone Age 
appeared a variety of flake industries, though the division was not 
made on any such arbitrary basis. 

With the accumulation of material directly resulting from the 
more intensive study of the archaeological field, it was forced upon 
our notice that we were dealing, in South Africa, with a series, not of 
two, but of three main invasions, either of a migratory or of a purely 
cultural type. It was therefore found necessary to redivide the 
Later Stone Age and to form a third group. The cleavage is perfectly 
natural. Inthe Later Stone Age were originally included two groups. 
The one consisted of the old “ Eastern Culture,’ comprising the 
present Still Bay Industry and a variety of more or less allied material. 
These industries cannot be regarded as in any way typically Neo- 
anthropic ; they can now be shown to be of distant date, and the 
Still Bay has proved to be associable with a physical type peculiar 

VOL. XXVII. c 


96 Annals of the South African Museum. 


to itself. The other group consisted of the Smithfield- Wilton complex, 
composed of two main industries, typically Neo-anthropic in character 
and in technique, both associable with a physically modern type, 
both to be regarded as extending well into modern times, and to 
both of which can be attributed artistic feeling. In short we can now 
definitely assign this Smithfield-Wilton group to the physical race 
known rather vaguely as the “San” or Bush-Hottentot peoples, 
while on the other hand we can assign the Still Bay Industry to the 
physical type described by Dart as the “ Boskopoid Race.” * 

Over and above the obvious and even basic differences between the 
modes of technique employed by the makers of the Still Bay imple- 
ments and those preferred by the Smithfield- Wilton groups, additional 
material which has subsequently accumulated has had to be accounted 
for. From time to time sites have been found revealing implements 
and facies bearing a distinct family resemblance to the Still Bay 
material, but by no means includable under that industrial term. 
As an instance of this, the writer discovered the Glen Grey Falls 
site in December 1926, and it was immediately apparent that this 
site showed strong affinities to the Still Bay material, but could not 
fairly be included as belonging to the same industry. The matter 
was left in abeyance for the time, and Mr. M. C. Burkitt was invited 
to visit the site in August 1927. He immediately pointed out the 
necessity for a complete revision of the group which had previously 
been called the “‘ Hastern Culture,” and as a result the term Still Bay 
Industry is now to be regarded as applicable only to an industry 
which is truly represented by the name-site, and which is, so far as 
our present knowledge goes, strictly confined to our southernmost 
littoral. The term “ Hastern Culture” has long been discarded as 
unscientific and misleading; its place is taken by the term Middle 
Stone Age. 

This revision of the terminology applied to South African pre- 
history brings out more clearly the fact that we are dealing with at 
least three main invasions. If we were to fall back on the terminology 
employed round the Mediterranean Basin we might term these 
(a) Lower Palaeolithic, (6) Middle Palaeolithic or Mousterian, and 
(c) Neo-anthropic. These terms have unluckily become more and 
more wide in their connotations, and have come to be applied to 
concepts and to groups of ideas whose associations are only true in 
their entirety in Europe. Racial, cultural, and temporal concepts 


* “ Boskop Remains from the South-East African Coast,” Nature, vol. cxii, 
No. 2817, and elsewhere. 


The Middle Stone Age. 97 


have merged through continued associations, so that it is now possible 
to speak in a loose way of Lower Palaeolithic Times, Mousterian 
Man, and Neo-anthropic Industries. This bastardisation of Huropean 
terminology has rendered it relatively useless in this or in any other 
extra-Huropean country, but in spite of the imperfections of this 
medium, we can still with perfect clarity draw a broad and purely 
cultural parallel between these three main Huropean periods and the 
three main periods of South African prehistory, although closer and 
more detailed collation is at present unsafe. 

As has been already pointed out, the Fauresmith Industry of the 
Earlier Stone Age would seem to mark the first appearance of “ Middle 
Palaeolithic ” elements in the subcontinent. We are here faced for 
the first time with the appearance of a conventionalised flake tech- 
nique in addition to the more normal coup-de-poing forms so typical 
of the Earlier Stone Age. The flake type represented shows a series 
of flake-implements, frequently with faceted butts, and showing a 
tendency to convergent rather than parallel flaking on the outer face 
of the flake. This faceting of the butt in a certain proportion of the 
flakes may well be accounted for by presuming that the flake tech- 
nique here employed was the result of an evolution from a core 
technique and the obvious effect of using flakes or spalls struck 
from the cowp-de-powng as primarily unconventionalised tools. The 
presence of convergent flaking might similarly be accounted for, as 
this would appear to be entirely due to the angle at which the blows 
removing the flakes were struck. The sudden appearance of con- 
ventionalised flake tools is not so easily explicable. The elements 
described above may more safely be regarded as intrusive, as they 
are to become typical of the Middle Stone Age industries. We may, 
however, infer one of two things, either that the Middle Stone Age is 
a direct evolution from the Fauresmith Industry: or that certain 
elements which were appearing in the south of Africa mixed with a 
basic industry already present to produce the Fauresmith, and that 
these elements increased in intensity and strength, through the further 
infiltration of purer stock, to lay the foundations of the Middle Stone 
Age. The similarity between the Middle Stone Age Industries as a 
whole and the Mousterian of North Africa, etc., has already been 
pointed out by Mr. Burkitt on his recent visit. Very strong affinities 
are seen to exist, most notably the faceting of the butts of the flake 
tools, and the tendency to convergent flaking. Mr. Reid Moir has 
pointed out * that this latter tendency is typical of the Mousterian, 


* Man, May 1928, No. 58. 


98 Annals of the South African Museum. 


so much so that it must be taken into account in differentiating be- 
tween that phase and the two chronologically adjacent periods. The 
Rev. Neville Jones * has long recognised a “‘ Mousterian ”’ element 
in Rhodesia. It therefore seems more than probable that we owe 
both the flake implements in the Fauresmith Industry and the basis 
of the Middle Stone Age to a “ Mousterian ”’ influence or infiltration, 
not necessarily from Europe, but certainly from the north. 

The elements which are peculiar to the Middle Stone Age and to 
which reference has been made above are worthy of further study, 
and may best be dealt with here. We have already seen that the 
Earlier Stone Age was typified by a core technique, that is, by the 
shaping of a core to the maker’s needs. This technique has already 
been sufficiently described in the Stellenbosch paper, and nothing 
more need be said of it here. We will find that the Later Stone Age. 
is typified by a pure flake technique, consisting of the preparation 
of a core, and the subsequent removal of a flake which is finally 
trimmed for use. The preparation of the core may be divided into 
two stages, the making of a flat percussion or striking platform, and 
the removal of a series of longitudinal and parallel trimming flakes 
struck from about the edge of the striking platform, and running 
down one face of the stone to flute it at right angles to the platform. 
The final flake struck off is thus composed on its inner face of the 
positive cleavage-scar, while the outer face is made up of a series of 
parallel flutings or negative cleavage-scars: all of these scars show 
their origins to have been at the striking platform. 

The makers of the Middle Stone Age implements employed a 
technique in some ways intermediate between the Earlier and Later 
Stone Age methods. The artefacts are all of a flake type, and no 
true core-tools are discernible. Two basic differences are noticeable 
between the technique here employed and that to be used in the 
Later Stone Age. In the Middle Stone Age the striking platform 
is not flat, but is distinctly faceted. The trimming flakes are not 
parallel (as they are in the Later Stone Age), but tend to be con- 
vergent; as a result of this preparation the final flake removed is 
eminently suitable for use as a point, and, indeed, the typical imple- 
ment throughout the Middle Stone Age Industries is the worked 
point in a variety of forms. 

This difference between the parallel and convergent flaking is due 
to the angle of incidence of the blow removing the flakes ; if the blow 
is struck at right angles to the percussion platform the flakes removed 


* The Stone Age in Rhodesia, Oxford, 1926, passim. 


The Middle Stone Age. Ms 38) 


will be parallel, whereas if the blow is struck at a “ wide angle ” the 
flakes will tend to converge.* As a result the main body of the 
flake lies at right angles to the fragment of flat striking platform 
left on the spall in the Later Stone Age flakes, and the shape will 
tend to be that of a rectangle. In the Middle Stone Age, on the 
other hand, the flakes tend to be triangular, while the strongly 
faceted butt or fragment of the striking platform is distinctly visible 
from the cleavage face, and therefore lies at an obtuse angle to the 
cleavage face, and at an acute angle to the outer face which bears 
the signs of convergent flaking (see text-fig. 1). 


TExtT-Fig. 1.—Convergent flaking and faceted butt. 


In this preliminary statement it is intended to give the reader a 
fairly clear conception of the general types of implement which are 
here grouped together. It reveals the purely technical basis of the 
differentiation, while chronological and other grounds for the division 
will be dealt with under the headings of the various individual sites 
and industrial groups, and will be finally summed up in the conclusion. 

Our first difficulty in the study of the Middle Stone Age lies in the 
fact that we still have insufficient material, while much of the material 
which we have at our disposal has been sent in without data. Asa 
result we are at present unable to divide this main period into in- 
dustries with a sufficient degree of certainty. It is, therefore, neces- 
sary to utilise two terms, the word Jndustry being employed where a 
group is certain and definable ; but in cases where uncertainty may 


* This is visible in modern Australian work. Compare Spencer and Gillen, 
The Arunta. Macmillan, 1927, chap. xxvii. 


100 Annals of the South African Museum. 


still exist either in our knowledge of the exact relationship of the 
group to the other groups and industries, or where insufficient data 
have been collected to form a basis of a definite classification, the term 
Variation will be employed. This does not, of course, preclude our 
raising a ‘“‘ Variation”’ to “‘ Industry ” status should evidence of a 
sufficiently definite type accumulate to justify such action. 

This difficulty is immediately encountered in any attempt to deal 
with the following four groups, which I have termed : 

The Glen Grey Falls Industry. 
The Pietersburg Variation. 

The Still Bay Industry. 

The Howieson’s Poort Variation. 

If these four groups alone comprised the Middle Stone Age our 
task would be relatively simple, as they form what at first sight 
would appear to be a direct evolutionary series, linking up with the 
Fauresmith Industry in the first place, and finally evolving into the 
Later Stone Age Industries. Unhappily, a number of other varia- 
tions occur which must be accounted for ; perhaps these are sports 
and offshoots thrown off from the main evolution suggested by 
these four. Such a view would be easy, save for the fact that other 
factors have to be taken into consideration. First amongst these is 
that we do not know that this hypothetical evolutionary series 
necessarily implies a time-sequence. Investigation along these 
lines would prove useful, and would most certainly be suggestive. 
The “dominant” would appear to be the Mousterian influence, 
appearing with the Fauresmith and ousting the palaeo-anthropic 
coup-de-poing, or at least reducing it in size to the lance-head. Final 
contact with Neo-anthropic industries would seem to have forced the 
appearance first of the Still Bay Industry, and eventually the more 
obviously mixed Howieson’s Poort Variation. 

We have already seen that the Fauresmith Industry marks the 
appearance of a probable invasion, and may thus have to be regarded 
as a mixed industry. The similarity between this and the Glen 
Grey Industry is evident, though most, if not all, of the Earlier 
Stone Age characteristics have gone. The Pietersburg Variation is 
directly comparable with the Glen Grey Industry, but there is a very 
considerable fining of technique and a greater symmetry of implement. 
From this it seems but a step to the Still Bay Industry, in which a 
technique and a beauty of form very comparable to the Lower Solu- 
trean of Europe make their appearance. Mr. Burkitt * suspects 


* Quoted below. 


The Middle Stone Age. 101 


that he can see the beginnings of a Neo-anthropic invasion in the forms 
of the Still Bay, while in the Howieson’s Poort Variation this influence 
becomes more certain and dominating, so that this last is to be re- 
garded as a mixed group, Still Bay and Neo-anthropic elements 
appearing side by side and in the same deposits, thus throwing the 
road open for the Later Stone Age. The Howieson’s Poort Variation 
thus forms as strong a link between the Middle and Later Stone 
Ages as the Fauresmith did between the Karlier and Middle. 

Those variations which fall outside this series will have to be dealt 
with separately when these four units have been disposed of. 


THE GLEN Grey Fats InpustrRy. 


Some fourteen miles east-north-east from Queenstown is Driver’s 
Drift, a ford and bridge by which the Queenstown—Lady Frere Road 
crosses the White Kei River. Some three miles up this river, which 
here flows south, an interesting formation is met with. The river 
falls suddenly into a gorge, perhaps 150 feet in depth; the sides are 
precipitous and remain so for about a mile as they follow the river ; 
below this the dolerite gives way to alluvium and shales, and the 
gorge automatically widens out into down-country.* At this open- 
ing of the gorge a dolerite-capped kopje guards it on its eastern side ; 
on the talus forming the foot of this hill and reaching as far down 
as the high-water mark of the White Kei is an implement site of 
surprising richness if we consider the area which it covers. The 
material seems to lie on, and immediately beneath, the present surface, 
and shows no signs of having been rolled by water-action ; both this 
and the compactness of the site point to comparative modernity, 
archaeologically speaking. 

On a farm, Rockwoods, in the great Bongolo Basin, some four 
miles from Queenstown and a mile north of the Queenstown—Lady 
Frere Road, a kloof cuts down from the high mountain lands towards 
the homestead which stands in the basin below. The eastern krantz 
or cliff-face has fallen somewhat, and a rough cart-road has been built 
up the kloof on the talus. The slight cutting necessary to build the 
road reveals an extensive stone implement site in the talus and 
above the fertile land which borders the stream below. A short 
search reveals the similarity between this material and that found at 


* See Rogers and du Toit, Geology of the Cape Colony, London, 1909, p. 268, 
for a section at this fall. 


102 Annals of the South African Museum. 


Glen Grey Falls, and shows that here it forms part of the mountain 
talus directly upon which lies Later Stone Age material. 

Other sites in the Queenstown district point to the presence of this 
industry over the whole of this area, but the evidence from these 
sites is not yet sufficiently definite to merit quotation. 

Dr. Lebzelter of Austria, when visiting South Africa, discovered 
a quantity of very similar material at Keilands Mission Station in 
the Stutterheim district, some fifty miles south-east of Queenstown. 
Here a donga or erosion gully cuts through the yellow ochreous clay 
in the fields below the mission station, and reveals a site about a 
foot below the present surface of the Kei River alluvium. At a 
little distance from this site Dr. Lebzelter found Smithfield B material 
lying directly upon the surface of the alluvium. The site is neither 
sufficiently extensive nor typical to give much conclusive evidence, 
but the material is definite enough to point towards Glen Grey 
affinities. 

Some years ago an interesting collection came into the hands of 
the South African Museum; these implements constituted the life 
work of Mr. Alfred Brown, a recluse living at Aliwal North in the 
north-eastern province of the Cape. Mr. Brown had spent a very 
considerable part of his life forming a private museum in his home. 
He kept copious notes, conscientiously recorded on a “ double entry ” 
system, one in diary form, the other under a variety of headings, 
archaeology, palaeontology, mineralogy, etc. The stone implements 
themselves were kept in separate drawers housed in a series of boxes : 
each box had a number, while each tray or drawer was similarly 
numbered. At his death, for purposes of packing, it was thought 
fit to combine the contents of the several boxes together, with the 
result that the material has become inextricably mixed, and almost 
the whole of his life’s work has been lost, as his entries refer almost 
entirely to the box and tray numbers. A little has been retrieved, 
and as a result a certain amount is known. If the individual imple- 
ments had been marked by him, or if more care had been taken after 
his death to keep the various implements in their proper boxes, a 
most extensive survey of a single archaeological area would have been 
opened to us. 

The implements consist almost entirely of material showing very 
strong affinities to the Glen Grey facies, and of Wilton types. Only 
in one instance can any sequence between these two industries be 
reconstructed from his notes and implements. In a yellow clay 
deposit west of Kriedfontein sluit and north of a small dyke through 


The Middle Stone Age. 103 


which flowed an evil-smelling stream, Mr. Brown discovered a hoard 
of Wilton implements. These seem to have been the material from 
a workshop site, but the maker, apparently to conceal all evidence 
of his presence, had collected the flakes into a heap and had placed 
large stones on either side, with a hammer stone on top. Subsequent 
denudation had removed the soil which had apparently been placed 
over this heap, and disclosed the oblong hammer-stone. Some 
200 flakes were found embedded in the clay which had washed into 
the hiding place ; these were of Wilton type and perfectly clean and 
unpatinated. About this site a number of other flakes and imple- 
ments had also been revealed by the removal of the overlying soil, 
showing that the cache had been erected over or buried into an old 
site. Mr. Brown collected some sixteen flakes and implements from 
a radius of a few yards. These last have. mostly been displaced in 
his collection, but three are known with certainty: these consist of 
lance-head types worked over the whole of the outer face, and are 
similar to Glen Grey elements. 

Similar implements, all assignable to the Glen Grey Industry, were 
found by him on sites at Middleplaats, Melkspruit, the racecourse, 
and on the boundary of Grassridge farm, all in the Aliwal North 
district. 

During May 1928 Mr. H. P. Thomasset of Weenen, Natal, sent me 
a considerable number of implements, some of which were returned 
to him and some of which he kindly gave to the Cape Town University 
collection. These he discovered along the banks of the Bushman’s 
River on which Weenen stands. The site appears to be rich, and 
the implements are very like the Glen Grey material and that dis- 
covered by Dr. Lebzelter in much of this area. Points and roughly 
made lance-heads abound and form the bulk of the finds, a core- 
scraper and a double concave-scraper also appear. The workman- 
ship is not very advanced, but this again parallels the Glen Grey 
material. 

Implements showing similar facies are represented at the Grahams- 
town Museum from the Tugela basin, from Ravenshill Tarkastad 
district, from Gowie’s Kloof overlooking Grahamstown, and from the 
gravels exposed in making a playing-field at St. Aidan’s College, 
Grahamstown. 

Dr. Lebzelter’s discoveries in the neighbourhood of Mangeni, some 
sixty miles south of Vryheid show strong similarities. He has named 
three groups, the Isikwenenian, the Inxobongoan, and the Ingeleduan 
respectively. All show affinities to the Glen Grey material, though 


104 Annals of the South African Museum. 


the Inxobongoan may be more closely allied to the Pietersburg 
Variation.* 

Facies.—Judging from the material collected from the Glen Grey 
Falls site and housed at the South African Museum (S.A.M. 4552 and 
4690), this industry shows primarily a flake technique, though there 
are signs of its having had an origin in a core industry. The most 
symmetrical and carefully made implements of the series fall into a 
class midway between the small neat cowps-de-poing of the Fauresmith 
Industry and the beautifully made lance-heads of the Still Bay. 
The workmanship is not good, tending to be coarse. The more 
finished types are rare, and only three or four good specimens appear 
from the Falls site. These consist of small amygdaloid implements 
up to 3 inches (75 mm.) in length, about 14 inch (40 mm.) in width 
towards the butt, and fairly thick. They are made on longitudinal 
flakes, the bulb of percussion sometimes appears at the hinder end, 
but has often been removed by flaking ; the remainder of this cleav- 
age face is untouched. The outer face is strongly rounded and is 
worked all over: where the striking platform is present it is faceted. 

A second type of implement is the point; this is wide and flat, 
some 24 inches (60 mm.) long, by 14 inch (40 mm.) across at the 
base. The shape is roughly that of an isosceles triangle, the butt is 
again faceted, and working is confined to retouching along the 
edges only. These points are typically Mousterian. 

Among other implements are high-backed points, side-scrapers, 
and neatly made discoidal artefacts, or fabricators bounded by a wavy 
edge. Small cores verging upon core-scrapers, and crude, unevenly 
made end-scrapers complete the industry (Plates XV and XVI). 

Throughout this industry consistent faceting of the butt is apparent, 
and a core shows this to have been done previous to the removal of 
the flake. The primary longitudinal trimming flakes are struck from 
the percussion platform, and tend to be convergent. 

Distribution.—It will be seen from this survey that this industry 
appears to be confined to the Natal-Eastern Province strip (the 
Eastern Highway) so far as our present knowledge goes, and from 
north to south the known distribution is this: 


Mangeni (Lebzelter). 

Tugela Basin (Albany Museum, Grahamstown). 

Bushman’s River, Weenen (Thomasset, and University of Cape 
Town). 


* Lebzelter, Annals Transvaal Museum, XII, iii, 1928. 


Mien Ss. Afr Mus. Vol. XXVIL Plate XV. 


1 and 2, Lance-heads, and 3, a point, from Glen Grey Falls. 


Me. S. Afr. Mus., Vol. XXVIL. - Plate XVI. 


Implements of Glen Grey type. 1, Redirecting flake, Glen Grey Falls ; 2-6, varieties 
of points, Weenen, Natal ; 5 and 6 show faceting of butts. 


7* fe a 
Lae Pe avai) ee, 
te = 
ec i 
x oe : i 
Nee ag i 
al } 
f pitas a ni - 
~ Vix if c Wy 
NG 
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\ 
/ 
Ta? 
AL 
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Fy 
a 
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. 
F 
; 
i 
' 
iN 
. . . > ’ 


The Middle Stone Age. 109 


Aliwal North (Brown Collection, and South African Museum). 
Ravenshill, Tarkastad (Albany Museum). 

Glen Grey Falls (South African Museum). 

Rockwoods, Bongolo, Queenstown (South African Museum). 
Bower’s Drift, Queenstown (South African Museum). 
Keilands, Stutterheim (Lebzelter). 

Gowie’s Kloof, Grahamstown (Albany Museum). 

St. Aidan’s College, Grahamstown (Albany Museum). 


PIETERSBURG VARIATION. 


The Glen Grey Industry stands out very distinctly from the Still 
Bay, but an illuminating link seems to be present in the Pietersburg 
Variation. While on the one hand this may be regarded as merely 
a refined Glen Grey, yet on the other hand it shades into Still Bay 
forms, even equalling them in symmetry and beauty in a few instances. 

The technique evidenced in the Pietersburg Variation is far finer 
than that shown in the Glen Grey Industry. The lance-heads are 
well formed and show at least two distinct types. One is wide and 
almond-shaped, lenticular in section with a rounded butt; the shape 
is clear-cut and well defined ; working is common on the under face. 
A second type is narrow, and about the same length, 24-3 inches 
(60-75 mm.), as the first type, but if cut across would show a section 
approximating either to a semicircle or to a right-angled isosceles 
triangle, the diameter or hypotenuse in these respective sections 
being formed by the original cleavage face. This second type is often 
markedly keeled along its length. A third type, less common but 
more advanced, is the long, leaf-shaped lance-head, very similar to 
the usual Still Bay form. A good example of this type forms the 
cover-design of J. P. Johnson’s books. It should thus be obvious 
that the two main criteria differentiating between the Glen Grey 
Industry and the Pietersburg Variation are the better workmanship 
and the greater variety of forms evident in the latter. 

Grace Dieu, Pretersburg.—Mr. HK. G. Paterson of Grace Dieu sub- 
mitted a number of implements to the Albany Museum, Grahams- 
town. These he had discovered in dongas cutting into the surface 
of the soil. The implements do not seem to appear on the surface 
of the open veld. Mr. Paterson tentatively associates pottery, but 
this seems to be of a modern Bantu type. The implements are far 
superior to, though similar to, the Glen Grey material. The outer 
face of the lance-heads is consistently worked all over, and in some 


110 Annals of the South African Museum. 


instances the same treatment is evident on the cleavage face. The 
length varies from 2—24 inches, the shape being that of a wide almond. 
In the better finished specimens the butt is perfectly rounded, while 
in the unfinished specimens it is faceted. The angle between the 
striking platform and the cleavage face is about 115°, and the butt is 
thus plainly visible from this face. The material used is a surface 
quartzite (Plates XVII and XVIII). 

It has been found necessary to use this as a name-site in spite of 
the fact that the finest specimens and the greatest variety occur in 
Swaziland, as the best known site, at Ezulweni, shows the presence 
of coups-de-poing and modern Bantu metal ornaments in close 
association with the lance-head forms. 

Swaziland.—The finds from this site, at Ezulweni in Swaziland, 
have already been mentioned in speaking of the Harlier Stone Age 
material associated. The association of the various artefacts was 
recognised by Dr. Péringuey as interesting if it was to be regarded as 
reliable. We have here what would seem to be the association of 
implements of three distinct periods: Earlier, Middle Stone Age, and 
modern Bantu. The association of the first and last is obviously 
untenable, and the further question immediately arises as to how 
far we can accept the association of couwps-de-poing with well-made 
lance-heads. 

During August 1921, Dr. Péringuey received some iron bangles, 
some coups-de-poing, and a number of lance-heads of Pietersburg 
type from the tin-bearing gravels of Ezulweni. These objects were 
found in apparent association, when excavation was being done 
with a powerful Monitor jet at a depth of 25 feet below the 
present surface, and lying upon bed-rock. The implements were 
found within 6 feet of the rings, and no implements were noted as 
occurring above this level. Dr. Péringuey pointed out that the iron 
could not possibly have lasted until the present time, if its age is to 
be gauged by the association with Harlier Stone Age elements, and it 
seems more than likely that we have here an association of three 
industrial groups, brought about by gravitation to rock-bottom by 
means of dongas. The cowps-de-poing are very typical of the Stellen- 
bosch Industry, and are made of indurated shale and of granites 
from the Swaziland Series. The lance-heads are typical of the 
Pietersburg Variation, and are of indurated shale. 

These lance-heads are worthy of further study: they are of two 
types, in each case worked over the whole of both faces, while the 
butts are carefully rounded. The one type is a long narrow variety 


_ Ann. S. Afr. Mus., Vol. XXVII. - 


Plate XVII. 


Three lance-heads from Grace Dieu, Pietersburg. (E. G. Paterson, Albany Museum, 
Grahamstown, 1856.) 


VOL. XXVII. 


8 


i" hinge iB Wo Ay - 5 Ak 
ee aay va iat erated ne Beco 
7 ag 4 4 Oe 10 ea 

Pte BAe EE eee 


Ann. S. Air. Mus., Vol. XXVIII Plate XVIII. 


~ ~ tw x 
5 ‘eae —— 
YF = 


Lance-heads, etc.: 1-5, Grace Dieu, Pietersburg (Albany Museum). 
6, Dordrecht ; and 7, Victoria West (S.A.M.). 


ta 
aT? & yt 
ae ) 


i, 


The Middle Stone Age. 115 


rising to a keel down the outer face ; the other type is wide and flat. 
_ Various points are also present in this group; they are triangular in 
shape, and very symmetrical. One specimen is of a quartzitic sand- 
stone, and is very similar to the specimens to be noted later from 
Mossel Bay and Knysna. Together with these was submitted a 
large (560 mm. X 15 mm.) crescent or lunate of light green chert. 
This recalls the rare crescents to be found in association with Still 
Bay material at the Cape and elsewhere (Plate XIX). 

Various sites appear in the Transvaal, all showing similarities to 
the Pietersburg material. From Barberton (S.A.M. 3016) are lance- 
heads of the same two types, the one triangular in section and long 
and narrow, the other flat and wide. From Klerksdorp come two very 
well made examples of this narrow lance-head; one is remarkably 
well-made, and is identical with the specimen to be mentioned later 
from Victoria West. The outer face is worked all over, while the 
bulb of percussion is carefully worked away on the cleavage face ; 
the butt is again rounded (8.A.M. 1236). Rustenberg, Transvaal, 
shows similar specimens (S.A.M. 789) so far as shape is concerned, 
but the workmanship is coarse. 

From Genesa and Morokwen, 65 and 120 miles respectively north- 
west of Vryburg, come implements of similar type. A well-shaped 
butt from a lance-head certainly shows very close affinities with 
Pietersburg. 

Apart from these sites which seem to form a wall across the Trans- 
vaal, there are a few outlying sites which are of interest from the 
point of view of distribution. From Dordrecht, in the Eastern 
Province, the Rev. T. W. Green has presented the South African 
Museum with a number of points and well-made lance-heads (S.A.M. 
1585), the latter being worked over the whole of the outer face, and 
also at the butt end of the cleavage face. The butt is rounded, and 
the section semicircular. 

A certain number of the implements collected by Mr. Alfred Brown 
in the Aliwal North district show a tendency to be more like the 
implements of this Pietersburg Variation than the Glen Grey Industry. 
Unluckily our lack of knowledge makes it impossible to use this 
material, or to draw any conclusions from the evidence he has 
collected. 

The Albany Museum, Grahamstown, shows excellent specimens 
from Dr. Atherstone, sent in by him from Kleinemond, Bathurst 
district. These are all of the almond, and of the long narrow keeled 
types, worked over the whole of the outer face and at the bulbar end 


116 Annals of the South African Museum. 


of the cleavage face, the butt being rounded in each instance. A 
single specimen of the long narrow type is also represented from 
Cossakspost, Middelburg district (A.M.G. 1619), and is worked on 
the outer face only. | 

All these sites seem to show that this variation had a strong hold 
in the Eastern Province, and in the Transvaal. Evidence of a distri- 
bution in the central portion of the Union is available from Victoria 
West. In 1912 the Rev. J. G. Perold submitted a number of small 
implements from the golf course at Victoria West; the series was 
sent in as though from a single site, but they show every sign of 
having belonged to two different periods, if not two different sites. 
The earlier of the two shows very distinct signs of strong patination 
on the black indurated shale used, while the more recent specimens 
are entirely unpatinated and sharp. This later material consists of 
typical Smithfield end-scrapers and the like, and is fairly definitely 
assignable to Smithfield A. Of the patinated implements one con- 
sists of a large point, steeply and badly worked along the two edges, 
forming a rough equilateral triangle ; with this is associable a well- 
made lance-head, broken at the tip, but otherwise a well-finished 
specimen. It is a narrow type, triangular in cross-section, the outer 
face being worked over the whole surface to a central keel, while the 
bulb of percussion is worked away on the cleavage face, the remainder 
of this face being unworked. 

Distribution.—Again, treating the distribution from north to south, 
so far as is at present known it is as follows : 


Pietersburg (Albany Museum, Grahamstown). 
Rustenburg (South African Museum). 
Klerksdorp (South African Museum). 
Swaziland (South African Museum). 

Balfour (South African Museum). 

Barberton (South African Museum). 
Dordrecht (South African Museum). 
Middelburg (Albany Museum, Grahamstown). 
Aberdeen (South African Museum). 
Kleinemond (Albany Museum, Grahamstown). 
Morokwen (South African Museum). 

Genesa (South African Museum). 

Victoria West (South African Museum). 


Plate XIX. 


Ann. S. Afr. Mus., Vol. X XVII. 


S.A.M., 1653, 3210); 6, Mfongosi, Zululand 


1 
(S.A.M., 4343\; 7, A large crescent 


from Swaziland (S.A.M., 3210). 


—5, Swaziland ( 


Lance-heads and points : 


The Middle Stone Age. 119 


Tue Stitt Bay InpustrRyY. 


It has already been pointed out that the Pietersburg Variation 
seems to form a step from the Glen Grey Industry towards the Still 
Bay, and in fact implements assignable to this first group which 
almost exactly parallel the finest Still Bay material are in the posses- 
sion of the Transvaal Museum, the South African Museum, and Mr. 
C. van Riet Lowe, and are all from the Transvaal—Swaziland area. 

The typical implement of the Still Bay Industry is again the lance- 
head, worked evenly and neatly over both faces. The most usual 
shape is the laurel leaf, with a semicircular, or a wide-angled pointed 
butt. The implement is thin, never exceeding a centimetre in thick- 
ness, even in the largest known specimen (120 mm. x 47 mm), 
though this thickness seldom falls below 5 mm. in the smallest speci- 
mens (38 mm. X 23 mm.). An allied, but less common type is the 
willow-leaf, or medium lance-head ; it is long and leaf-shaped, and is 
similarly worked over the whole of both faces. The section is 
lenticular, and the semicircular- and triangular-sectioned types are 
both missing, and as a result, the central keel so typical of the 
Pietersburg Variation is absent. With these types appear points, 
which may be divided roughly into two classes : the normal triangular 
point, apparently common to all Middle Stone Age industries; and 
an oak-leaf type, so called from the wide and rounded scalloping 
along the edges. The secondary flakes removed from the edges of 
this latter type are spaced out and the result is a strongly scalloped 
edge, the waves being too widely separated to allow of the implement 
being termed “ serrated.”’ These oak-leaf types are in many instances 
curved, either to left or to right, thus presenting an asymmetrical 
face. The point proper is symmetrical, straight, and not scalloped, 
and is similarly worked on the outer face only, trimming being con- 
fined to the edges, leaving the primary longitudinal trimming flakes 
visible on the outer face (Plate XX). The butts in both these 
types, and indeed in all implements of this group where working is not 
complete, are formed by strongly and evenly faceted fragments of 
the percussion platform. 

In 1866 Sir Langham Dale, who had been greatly interested in the 
final results of the Boucher de Perthes controversy in Europe, dis- 
covered a large flake of chert, trimmed longitudinally, with a strongly 
faceted butt, some four miles along the Maitland road, and on the 
Table Bay side (west) of that road. As a result of further research, 
he and his sons may be said to have laid the foundation of South 


120 Annals of the South African Museum. 


African archaeology. Considerable interest was at once shown by 
the local savants of the day, and from time to time articles appeared — 
in the Cape Monthly Magazine (New Series) and in the publication of 
the Philosophical Society. Notable among these papers are Dr. 
Dale’s articles in the Cape Monthly for 1870, and the interesting paper 
by Mr. E. J. Dunn in the Transactions of the Philosophical Society 
for 1880. To a large extent these papers centred about the Cape 
Peninsula, and as a result the history of the Still Bay Industry has 
been a long one. 

The Dale Collection.—The greater part of Sir Langham Dale’s col- 
lection has been presented, by both himself and his sons, to the 
South African Museum.* 

The most interesting and typical implement coe is again 
the lance-head ; the shape is normally leaf-like, and the two aspects 
consist of an outer face, trimmed all over to give a slightly curved 
section, and an under face, similarly trimmed, but flatter. In some 
instances working is almost entirely confined to the outer face, the 
removal of the bulb of percussion by lateral flaking, or a thinning 
towards the point sufficing for the under face. In the finest specimens 
the whole of each face is worked evenly. With this beautiful tech- 
nique the even-grained surface-quartzite normally used produced a 
delicate implement. 

Wide and medium “leaves” predominate, the narrow, heavily 
keeled type common in the Pietersburg Variation being absent. The 
butt is normally rounded, but in some instances the implement is 
butted by a point less sharp than that at the forward end. The 
size of the implements in the Dale Collection varies to a very con- 
siderable degree, specimens ranging between 75 mm. X 34 mm. 
<x 10 mm., and 38 mm. X 23 mm. X 5 mm.; the workmanship on 
the smaller implements is clumsier and less delicate than that on the 
larger. This seems to have been due to the size of the implement 
and the resultant difficulty of dealing with it. 

A few rough side-scrapers also make an appearance, and the Dale 
Collection contains a single well-made lunate or crescentic scraper, 
almost identical with the specimen referred to above from Swaziland. 
This is from a Fish Hoek site, and it is larger (30 mm.) than the 
Wilton type of crescent, which will be mentioned in a later paper. 
It will be seen that Colonel Hardy also associates the lunate with his 
Still Bay material (Plate XX). 

The Hardy Collection.—The sites worked by Colonel Hardy are of 


* Goodwin, Sir Langham Dale’s Collection, S.A.J.8., xxv, 1928... 


Ann. S. Afr. Mus., Vol. X XVII. Plate XX. 


1, 3, 4, Lance-heads from Maitland; 2, oak-leaf type (Dale Collection, S.A.M.) ; 5, butt portion 
of lance-head, Still Bay ; 6, large crescent, Fish Hoek (S.A.M., 1144). 


The Middle Stone Age. 123 


extreme interest.* The Cape Peninsula consists of a mass of mountains 
joined to (or separated from) the mainland of Africa by a flat, sand- 
covered plain, seldom rising more than 70 or 80 feet above sea-level. 
The northernmost mountain-mass of the Peninsula reaches its highest 
point in Table Mountain, which backs Cape Town to the south. 
The whole forms a single group which is cut off from the remainder 
of the Peninsula by a long valley, 3 miles from side to side, which 
cuts through the mountain masses, opening on to False Bay at Fish 
Hoek and on to the Atlantic Ocean at Noord Hoek some 5 miles 
away. Along the centre of this valley for the greater part of its 
length runs a hill which is covered by wind-blown sand at its eastern 
extremity, but rises free from sand at the centre of the valley. To- 
ward the top of this hill, and in the centre of the valley, is a cave 
overlooking the southern branch of the valley, with a magnificent view 
of both oceans ; it is known as Skildegat, and will be referred to later. 

At the foot of the sandy portion of this hill, and on the southern 
side, Colonel Hardy discovered a site in the shifting sands, and has 
constantly revisited it over a number of years, collecting material 
as the caprice of the prevalent winds allowed. The material used at 
this site is the fine-grained surface quartzite, which is preferred 
throughout the Still Bay Industry, having a clean, even, dependable 
fracture, making it eminently suitable for the purpose to which it 
was put. A few specimens occur in Table Mountain Sandstone, a 
granular quartzitic sandstone with a dependable, though coarse 
cleavage. This latter material weathers faster than the surface- 
quartzite, and is more easily pitted and rounded by the wind-blown 
sands. 

As at Sir Langham Dale’s Maitland site the lance-head type pre- 
dominates, but the variation is here even greater, the length varying 
from 100 mm. to 40 mm. Here also the better finished specimens 
are worked over the whole of both faces, the original cleavage face 
tending to be slightly flatter than the outer face, giving a lenticular 
section. The shapes are similar to those appearing from Maitland, 
wide and medium leaves predominating. The forward point is 
usually formed by an angle of 40° to 50°, and the sides curve back 
to a butt which is either semicircular, or pointed with an angle of 
about 90°. In one or two instances diamond shapes occur, both 
ends being evenly pointed. The rounded or pointed butt coincides 
with the original position of the bulb of percussion, and in a few 
instances the cleavage face is left intact or the two ends alone are 


* Goodwin, The Hardy Collection, S.A.J.S., xxiii, 1926. 


124 Annals of the South African Museum. 


worked ; the object seems to have been to give the implement a good 
“* stream-line,”’ and it is difficult to class these partly worked imple- _ 
ments as rejects, as the workmanship is often extremely fine. One 
or two instances of the “oak-leaf”? make their appearance, both 
straight and curved types, but the workmanship is cruder than that 
found on the true lance-head. 

At the opposite end of the valley, some four miles away, stands 
Noord Hoek. The valley has here passed the central hill, and opens 
out into a wide flat, mostly sand-covered, and running perhaps a 
mile inland. Towards the coast this flat is covered by shifting sand- 
hills, but further inland this gives way to a hard turfy earth, sometimes 
covered with a limy deposit. It was directly upon this hard earth 
that Colonel Hardy discovered his Still Bay material, often covered 
by shifting sands. The material here is exactly similar to that found 
at the opposite end of the valley, lance-heads, oak-leaves, etc., being 
discoverable at both sites. 

Covered by the shifting sand-dunes, to the seaward side of an 
inland lagoon or pan are to be found a number of Kitchen Middens 
containing pottery and the usual associations of the local Later Stone 
Age sites. This site would appear to be entirely separate from the 
Still Bay Industry site, but the material from here has very naturally 
been thinly scattered over the area occupied by the Middle Stone 
Age material. It would appear from the positions of the two sites 
that the sand on the seaward side of the pan had accumulated since 
the Still Bay peoples left their site, and that the later arrivals had 
lived on the shores also, but on a later beach, built up of sand, blown 
and drifted from the west. 

Colonel Hardy has also done a considerable amount of research 
work at a site between Milnerton and Maitland, some five miles 
across the Cape Flats from the town, on what is possibly a continuation 
of Sir Langham Dale’s site. It is situated on a shale floor, and as 
a result of the presence of iron the implements have taken a deeper 
patination than the sand-covered Noord Hoek and Fish Hoek speci- 
mens. The material used is the same surface-quartzite, and the 
types represented are similar to those found by Sir Langham Dale and 
Colonel Hardy at other Cape Peninsula sites save for the fact that, 
hike Sir Langham Dale’s specimens, they tend to be smaller than those 
found in the Fish Hoek valley. The specimens in the Hardy Collec- 
tion from here lie between 79 mm. X 28 mm. and 48 mm. X 17 mm. 
They have usually been worked over both faces, but in a few instances 
only the outer face has been touched. 


The Middle Stone Age. 125 


Usually associated with these Still Bay types, Colonel Hardy has 
found a number of “ anvil-hammer-stones,”’ flattened spheres, usually 
river pebbles or beach material, which have been used about their 
equators as hammer-stones, the perimeter being thus chipped and 
scarred by the action of hammering. The centre of each face, too, 
often shows signs of pitting, as though these stones had also been 
used as anvils in direct or indirect rest percussion. In course of time 
and as a result of usage, flakes have been removed from these hammer- 
stones, and Colonel Hardy has collected an interesting series, some 
specimens showing a few flakes struck off, others showing a little of 
the original surface of the stone only, a series of flake-scars, all 
showing an origin about the equator, taking up the whole of both 
faces. This forms the “ discoidal artefact’? or fabricator, which 
seems to be common to all our South African Industries.* 

Colonel Hardy has discovered a number of large crescents at Fish 
Hoek. These vary in size from 80 mm. to 25 mm. in length, and are 
therefore much larger than the crescents or lunates of Wilton type 
which lie between 20 mm. and 8 mm. These large crescents are not 
worked along the chord, or straighter edge, though some show possible 
signs of usage along this part. The curved edge is worked with a 
steep “ backing ” technique, directly across the depth of the imple- 
ment. One specimen shows working on the under (cleavage) face 
very similar to that employed in the manufacture of the lance-head : 
this fact may point to a weak Jink between this and the Howieson’s 
Poort material. 

Skildegat Cave-——We have already had reason to mention the 
presence of this cave which is situated on the southern face of the hill 
dividing the Fish Hoek—Noord Hoek valley, and looks southward 
across a stream running through the flat country below. 

Once the hill is ascended the cave is most easily approachable 
along a natural pathway passing along the foot of the rock krantz 
or cliff in which the cave is situated. The cave is large, measuring 
about 100 feet across the mouth, by 50 feet deep, and rising to a 
domed roof varying from 6 to 30 feet in height above the present 
surface of the deposit. This deposit is known to reach a depth of 
over 10 feet, but is so filled with roof debris fallen from the ceiling of 
the cave that work below this level is dangerous. 

In 1925 the writer, at the instigation of Mr. J. C. van der Poll, 
dug a trench across the cave from front to back ; further work proved 
inconvenient and it was abandoned, only the upper midden refuse 


* Compare Neville Jones, op. cit., p. 113. 


126 Annals of the South African Museum. 


of Wilton type having been disturbed. A short time after this Mr. 
Peers and his son visited the cave and commenced investigation, 
discovering a number of skeletons in the deposit towards the back 
of the cave. They very kindly invited me to visit the site from time 
to time and to take notes. Excavation is still being done in a 
methodical and careful way, and although a few preliminary reports 
of a popular type have appeared, no scientific paper has yet made its 
appearance on the subject of this cave. 

In the upper deposits Mr. van der Poll had discovered a fragment 
of a bored stone and other evidences which proved that the cave had 
been inhabited by a people bearing a Wilton culture, and following a 
“ strandloper ”’ (beach-dweller) mode of subsistence. Mr. Peers later 
discovered three complete skeletons of the type usually a sociated 
with Wilton material, and the fact that these had been laid upon beds 
of bushes and branches which had not appreciably decayed, together 
with the presence of a fragment of twisted iron lying under one 
skeleton, go to prove that the cave had been inhabited by these folk 
until the European occupation of the Cape. It is of interest here to 
note that van Riebeek in his journal mentions that this valley was 
inhabited during his governorship, and in fact seems to have been the 
home, or at least the refuge, of Herry or Harry, his amusingly dishonest 
interpreter. 

While the makers of the Wilton implements are most certainly to 
be associated with cave-paintings, yet this cave shows no signs what- 
soever of cave-painting having been practised. The name Skildegat 
(painted hole) is more than suggestive, but save for a few fragments 
of red ochre in the cave deposits of Wilton type, no signs of painting 
appear. It is, of course, possible that the sea air attacks the material 
used as paint, and this might account for the complete absence of 
cave-art. 

Well below the Wilton material, and not buried from those deposits, 
occurs a single, almost complete skeleton of an entirely different type. 
Physically the skeleton is markedly heavier in every bone than the 
dainty infantile skeletons of the “San” race associated with the 
Wilton material. Kyebrow ridges are here present, the nose is wide, 
and the whole make-up is rugged. Little more need be said here, 
save to state that this skeleton appears.to fall within the group 
described by Professor Dart as of “ Boskopoid ” type. 

A full description of the implements before the publication of a 
monograph on this cave would be premature, and it is only necessary 
to state here that the implements are of Still Bay type, showing a 


The Middle Stone Age. 127 


tendency to affinities with implements to be described later from 
Howieson’s Poort. 

The importance of this cave cannot be overestimated. It proves 
the sequence of Still Bay and Wilton, it associates physical types with 
each, and it proves that the later types continued until a compara- 
tively modern date (seventeenth century). 

Pringle Bay.—Pringle Bay is a small inlet, bounded on the east by 
Cape Hangklip, and lying on the other side of False Bay from Somerset 
Strand. The land bounding the bay to the north rises slowly, and 
merges into the talus of Cape Hangklip on the east, and into the other 
hills bounding the bay to the west. It was well up on the slopes of 
the western hillside that I discovered a large reedy loess deposit, 
which had formed below a small but persistent spring. The blown 
sand had been caught up in the reeds and their roots until a cushion 
of black loess some 5 feet thick had been formed. Above this layer 
_ the loess had changed, and the superficial deposit of about 5 feet in 
thickness is composed almost entirely of blown sand, with a minimum 
of roots and vegetable content. This 5-foot sandy layer has been 
denuded, and is only left in peculiar tectiform lumps scattered about 
on the exposed surface of the darker loess. Before the accumulation 
of this final sandy layer there had been two human occupations of 
this site. The first shows very fine specimens of the Stellenbosch 
Industry, made in the white Table Mountain Sandstone prevalent 
about the site. The later occupation consists of Still Bay material 
made in a dark surface quartzite, while only a few flakes of the Table 
Mountain Sandstone make their appearance (text-fig. 2). It is 
obvious that the comparatively damp climate, which is apparently 
marked by the presence of the reedy loess, gave way at some time to 
a very much dryer and more windy climate, during which the sandy 
loess accumulated, and it was previous to this change of climate that 
both these occupations took place. This point will be referred to later 
in dealing with the climate of this period as a whole. 

Still Bay.—Some three or four miles west of the Kaffir’s Kuil River- 
mouth, south of Riversdale, the coast rises steeply to form a hill 
overlooking the sea. This hill stands out conspicuously from the 
surrounding sand-covered hills, owing to the presence of a scar of 
red sandy earth which faces the sea. Over and on the crest of this 
hill is a wide area covered with a limy deposit, much the same as that 
present at the Noord Hoek site, but here it overlies the red sandy 
soil. Hmbedded deeply in this lime are to be found cowps-de-poing 
of normal Stellenbosch type; they are of quartzitic sandstone and 

VOL. XXVII. ) 


128 Annals of the South African Museum. 


seldom well made. Bones of a large buck or buffalo have been found 
in association with these implements by Mr. Heese in the same limy 
deposit. Sporadically over the surface are to be found pottery, 
implements, and midden-refuse of the type usually associable with 
Wilton types and the coastal sites which occur on this coast, and from 
this point they run from the top of this hill, down a slight valley, 


TExtT-Fic. 2.—Lance-head from Pringle Bay. (Actual size.) 


across this and up the opposite slope. Here the surface is again 
covered by the limy deposit which has washed away in places to 
expose the red earthy subsoil. It is this end of the series of man-made 
deposits that constitutes the. Still Bay name-site. 

It will be seen that Mr. Heese has found three industries in close 
proximity to one another: Stellenbosch material on the first hill, 
Wilton material stretching across from here to the second hill, and 
Still Bay material on the latter. It is unluckily impossible with our 
present knowledge to date the three industries respective to one 


The Middle Stone Age. 129 


another from evidence available at this site, but it is worthy of note 
that the Wilton site does not in any way coincide with the Still Bay 
site, but is situated lower down the slope, and only touches the Still 
Bay site at the latter’s south-eastern end, the remainder being free 
from Wilton material towards the top of the hill and across it. The 
position is thus exactly similar to that presented at Noord Hoek and 
at Sir Langham Dale’s Maitland site, in each case the nuclei of the 
sites are definitely separate, though their outer edges tend to overlap. 

The actual material from the Still Bay sites is very much the same 
as that discoverable at Noord Hoek and elsewhere. If anything, the 
workmanship is a little finer than that found at the Cape Peninsula, 
but the forms remain very little changed. The material here, also, is 
the beautiful surface quartzite preferred by these folk, but here and 
there flakes and refuse from rough attempts to utilise quartzitic 
sandstone also occur. 

Over the crest of the rise, to the immediate westward of this site, 
a considerable quantity of sand has accumulated. From its position, 
relative to a few flakes discoverable beneath the sand, it would appear 
that this accumulation is subsequent to the appearance of the Still 
Bay workers ; similarly the aggregation of sand on the western slopes 
points to a period of strong westerly winds. Elsewhere in this 
neighbourhood Wilton material overlies the driven sand. 

Other Sites —Sites are known at Stellenbosch, and one or two 
possible areas occur towards Port Elizabeth, but apart from these, 
very little further is known of the distribution of this industry. It 
would appear then from our present knowledge that the Still Bay 
Industry proper is confined to the southernmost coast of Africa, from 
the Cape Peninsula to the region of Port Elizabeth. 

Mr. M. C. Burkitt, on his recent visit to South Africa, pointed out 
the possibility that the Still Bay technique and industry would 
appear to be the outcome of a mixture of Middle Stone Age and Neo- 
anthropic influences. This seems more than probable in the light of 
the Howieson’s Poort finds, which show a mixture of Still Bay and 
Neo-anthropic types very clearly, and we can presume that the racial 
types represented by the two industries were not mutually abhorrent, 
but sufficiently alike physically to allow of mixture of some sort. 
From our knowledge of modern races we may presume that such a 
mixture implied the presence of two types of implement makers 
(t.e. the men), and not merely concubinage resulting from wars, 
as in this latter case the two types of implement could not both 
Survive. 


130 Annals of the South African Museum. 


How1eEson’s Poort VARIATION. 


Some three miles south-west of Grahamstown, and situated high 
ap in a krantz or cliff facing the Howieson’s Poort Hotel, across a 
wide valley is a cave well-hidden by trees and looking eastward. 
Mr. J. Hewitt and the Rev. P. Stapleton, S.J., first reported their 
finds from this site in 1925, and work has been done in this cave from 
time to time since that date. In this paper * they refer to a series of 
peculiar flakes from the Kasouga River-mouth, paralleling specimens 
from Bell, Peddie district, and from this Howieson’s Poort cave. The 
distinctive feature of these particular flakes, which only form a part of 
the cave finds, is the appearance of secondary trimming on the under 
face of the flake. Work of this type is very uncommon, and is usually 
to be associated with Middle Stone Age material. Later Stone Age 
implements only show working on the outer face, the cleavage face 
remaining intact. In a later paper tf these two writers enter into a 
much fuller account of the finds, while further details will appear in 
another paper in the 8.A. Journal of Science for this year (1928). 

The rock shelter is peculiar in the complete absence of cave- 
paintings, and for the fact that the type of refuse marks it as being 
more in the nature of a cave-workshop than a home-site. No animal 
remains appear, nor are there any of the shells, pottery, or beads 
usually associable with a Later Stone Age home-site. The deposit 
is small but rich. The surface accumulation is perhaps a foot thick, 
and consists of vegetable matter, guano, wind-blown sand, ete. 
Below this is the inhabited layer which consists of a black deposit 
about eight inches to a foot thick, which les directly on a pure sandy 
layer. 

The cave is of extreme interest, showing as it does a mixed industry 
consisting of Still Bay elements combined with Neo-anthropic ele- 
ments, the latter of a type not known in a pure state elsewhere in the 
Union. 

The Still Bay implements consist of the usual lance-heads worked 
over the whole of both faces. The shape is much the same as that 
found in the normal Still Bay Industry sites, but the size is generally 
small, lying in the neighbourhood of 50 mm. xX 30 mm., some being 
as small as 40 mm. x 18 mm. (Plate XXI, 11-14). 


* Hewitt and Stapleton, ““Some Remarkable Stone Implements, etc.,” S.A. 
Journal of Natural History, v, 23-38, Dec. 1925. 

+ Ibid., “‘ Some Stone Implements from Rock Shelter, etc.,” S.A.J.S., pp. 574— 
587, 1927. 


Ann. S. Afr. Mus., Vol. XXVIL._. Plate X XI, 


Implements from Howieson’s Poort (Albany Museum, 1831): 1-6, blades, ete. ; 
7-10, concave scrapers; 11-14, lance-heads; 15, trapezoid; 16 and 18, 
crescents; 17, blade. 


i 
i 4 j 


a Pi rin “ 


oo 
i 
‘ 


The Middle Stone Age. 133 


The Neo-anthropic elements are peculiar and typical. Crescents 
appear, but they are far larger than the Wilton types, ranging as they 
do from 50 mm. X 15 mm. to 32 mm. X 14 mm., with a thickness of 
4 mm. towards the thicker back. In the Wilton crescent the curved 
edge is usually trimmed vertically, the Howieson’s Poort finds are 
bevelled, while the working is in some instances confined to the two 
ends of this curved edge, the chord or straighter edge of the crescent 


_ being unworked. The large size of these crescents immediately 


recalls the Still Bay crescents, which though scarce are apparently 
widespread and form a definite part of that group. The material 
used at Howieson’s Poort is again the surface quartzite so beloved 
by this group of people. The Howieson’s Poort crescents seem to be 
a variation of the transverse arrow-heads typical of North Africa and 
the Iberian peninsula, and a single specimen of this type actually 
occurs here (Plate XXI, 15). 

With these crescents can be associated pointed blades, having a 
characteristic trimmed oblique edge towards the apex. The point 
is sometimes obliquely recurved. A series is represented, and is 
illustrated in the papers above referred to, which reminds one of an 
oblique-burin technique. A flake has been detached from the apical 
end, and the facet thus formed runs obliquely from the tip to a point 
about one-third of the way down the implement, on the opposite 
edge. A number of “rod-scrapers,’ rod-like pieces of worked 
flake, ranging from 58 mm. to 26 mm. in length are represented. 
They are a constant type, and recall the “redirecting flakes ”’ 
appearing sporadically in the Middle Stone Age. Scrapers of 
various types also appear together with end-scrapers, horse-shoe 
scrapers, hollow-scrapers (spokeshaves), and so on, but the small 
thumbnail scraper so typical of the Wilton Industry is completely 
absent. These scrapers shade into the flake-knives worked on the 
under face, which in this aspect resemble the lance-heads of Still 
Bay type. 

One extremely interesting group described by these writers under 
the term “ gravers ”’ represents the true burin of Europe. The burin 
technique employed consists of the working of an edge obliquely 
or directly across the end of a flake, and the subsequent removal of 
a single fluting flake from the prepared end, the scar running down 
one edge of the flake. This leaves a chisel- or gouge-like edge at the 
intersection of the trimmed end and the flake scar. This scar is best 
known as the burin facet. Some seventeen burins are illustrated in 
Mr. Hewitt’s papers, and these were the first true burins to be recog- 


134 Annals of the South African Museum. 


nised in South Africa. One or two examples have appeared from 
Skildegat Cave, but they are still uncommon. 

The lance-heads associated with these elements are often worked 
over the whole of the outer face, and the faceting of the butt is also 
common. Ina few instances work appears also on the under (cleavage) 
face towards the butt end only; the normal type, worked over the 
whole of both faces, is, of course, fully represented. No specimens 
appear to reach the degree of finish apparent at Still Bay. 

Mr. Hewitt draws attention to the similarities existing between these 
Howieson’s Poort finds and material discovered by him at the Kasouga 
River-mouth, and again to the similarities present between these two 
and the Still Bay Industry. The further comparison between these 
finds and the Cofimvaba specimens does not appear to be tenable. 

In a note to the second paper, Mr. M. C. Burkitt adds: “ The 
Howieson’s Poort finds as a whole are exceedingly interesting and 
quite unlike those of the well-known Wilton Industry. They are 
undoubtedly to be correlated in culture, though probably very much 
later in date, with the Upper Palaeolithic. They are, however, 
elements of Middle Palaeolithic culture still surviving here, and 
these have undergone modification, the result being a sort of Still 
Bay type of tool. That Middle Palaeolithic man has left his mark as 
far south as the Grahamstown district can be abundantly proved. 
Can we consider the true Still Bay types as a hybrid of Mousterian 
and Neo-anthropic cultures? There is analogy for a similar pheno- 
menon in North Africa.” 

It is of interest to note that the uppermost layer (layer B) at 
Montagu cave shows slight affinities to the Howieson’s Poort material, 
though it is also strongly allied to the Wilton types, to which group 
it was originally relegated. 


Other Variations —As has been noted before, these four groups 
appear to show a sequence from the Fauresmith, leading through the 
Middle Stone Age to the Neo-anthropic Industries. That this sequence 
is not purely evolutionary in the strict sense of the word, but rather 
to be regarded as a progressive hybridisation, is more and more clear 
as we study the northern forms which have come down to us, sometimes 
unchanged, but as often metamorphosed in a striking manner. 

The Stellenbosch appears to be a pure industry ; the Fauresmith 
is apparently a hybridisation of this with a possible Mousterian 
influence. The Fauresmith seems to have branched into two indus- 
tries, or more correctly two industries show affinities to the Fauresmith, 


The Middle Stone Age. 135 


but not to each other. The first of these, with which we have already 
dealt, is the Glen Grey: the second will be dealt with later by Mr. 
Lowe, and is the Smithfield A. The Glen Grey Industry is not 
markedly different, save in fineness of workmanship, from the Pieters- 
burg Variation. A further advance marking, as Mr. Burkitt points 
out, possible Neo-anthropic influence is the Still Bay. The final 
step is the Howieson’s Poort Variation. 

So far so good, but is this all? Unluckily it is not. We have a 
number of groups which are either local variations, that is, in the 
nature of deteriorations or sports cut off in space from contact with 
advancing cultures: or else variations forced upon the workers by 
the presence of differing material. The discovery of the true relation- 
ships is going to prove difficult. 

Mossel Bay Variation.—It will be easiest to deal with a group of 
which we can presume the origin before attempting to speak of the 
disconnected variations scattered throughout the country. 

For a considerable time stone implements from the great cave at 
Cape St. Blaize, and from other sites in the Mossel Bay district, have 
called forth a deal of speculation. Implements from these sites at the 
South African Museum show a large number of unworked points and 
flakes of Table Mountain Sandstone. All are trimmed by parallel 
or convergent fluting flakes ; in all cases the butt, where visible, is 
faceted. There seems to be a minimum of worked points, though one 
similar to a lance-head type is represented in the Transvaal Museum 
collection. 

The cave at Cape St. Blaize has been spoilt from an archaeological 
point of view by the surface having been levelled, and a seat over- 
looking the sea having been added. Some two years ago I visited 
the cave, but was unable to add any tangible evidence towards the 
elucidation of the mystery of the true position of this variation. 
A number of Wilton implements of surface quartzite were discovered, 
and these appeared to be mixed up very considerably with the Mossel 
Bay types. This led me to the conclusion that the Mossel Bay 
implements formed a local variation of the Wilton. I feel, however, 
that further search at this cave might reveal a sequence of industries 
which should be of immense value, and which would entirely 
contradict my original conclusions. 

A recent visit to Knysna has thrown a considerable new light on 
the Mossel Bay types there found. For some years Mr. William 
Brown has taken a very considerable interest in the local archaeology, 
and he very kindly showed me a number of sites, mainly consisting 


136 Annals of the South African Museum. 


of Mossel Bay implements. Across the mouth of the Knysna River 
from the village known as The Heads, stands the Western Head, a 
high hill facing the sea and overlooking the river. The approach to 
the top of this hill is made from above a peculiar natural bridge, 
formed of two double arches, perhaps a hundred feet high, in series 
with two caves, which do not cut right through the rock. These 
two caves have been inhabited at some time by a people with a 
strandloper type of subsistence, the deposits having been covered 
with wind-blown sea sand deposited by a south wind. 

From here the ascent is steep until the topmost point of the head- 
land is reached. The top is then found to be a large sand-covered 
flat. For over a mile the surface soil is composed of hard sandy 
loess partially cemented, but cut into by dongas or erosion gullies. 
The uppermost 4 feet is then seen to consist of red loess, while below 
that a considerable amount of vegetable matter produces a harder 
black loess. The upper more sandy layer seems sterile of implements, 
but directly this is denuded large implement-covered areas appear. 
The implements and flakes are all of T.M.S. of a coarse type. The 
erosion of the patches where implements are found has released the 
sand, and great sandhills move over the surface from year to year 
revealing and concealing parts of the site. 

All the implements are of one general shape; they may be described 
thus: Longitudinally trimmed flakes, trimmed by the removal of 
two, or at the most three, convergent flakes. The third flake removed 
is usually the central one, and is nearly always “ stepped” at about 
one-third of the distance along the spall. This is so usual that it 
would appear that it was intentionally done to give a “ stop’ on one 
face in order to make hafting more easy. The flakes generally form 
points with a general shape much that of an acute-angled isosceles 
triangle. A number of parallel-sided rectangular flakes, perhaps 2-3 
inches in length (50 mm. to 75 mm.), point to this form being also a 
desired type. Secondary trimming seems uncommon, but is present 
in some specimens. Some few oak-leaf types appear. In all instances 
the butt of the implement or flake is faceted and gently rounded 
(Plate X-XIT). 

Mr. Brown found, and presented to the South African Museum, 
an excellent point of agate, or some similar flint-like material, showing 
a typical Mousterian shape and technique. One edge is trimmed 
very heavily, the other but slightly, a discrepancy due in all proba- 
bility to the thickness of one edge of the flake originally removed. 
The butt is similarly faceted (text-fig. 3). 


en) cs Afr Mus, Vol. XXVIL Plate XXII. 


1-3, Untrimmed points in quartzitic sandstone, Gouritz River, Mossel Bay ; 4-6, 
trimmed points; and 7, a ‘‘ quarter lemon ” from Knysna. 


— : ; . Pa y - ry nat aleay Sl iad ; 
, | bay) j ook A ae 
: 8. J r ; 
*: : ; t, od sais Iewraite 
| | ab Tuk 4 * 
; i 7 , a f a) si : 


The Middle Stone Age. 139 


The quartzitic sandstone used at this Knysna site seems to be the 
only material available in any quantity; a few specimens of chert, 
cloudy quartz, agate, etc., do occur, but they are very uncommon. 
The quartzitic sandstone is brittle and coarse, and as a result fine 
work is impossible, and a technique similar, to that found on the 
Still Bay material is quite out of the question. In the agate specimen 
mentioned above the workmanship is immediately finer, and is very 
like the Mousterian of Europe. The oak-leaf types point to a connec- 
tion between this industry and the Still Bay, and it is very possible 
that an almost complete lack of fine-grained material created the 
Mossel Bay Variation directly from the Still Bay or some very similar 
industry. The lack of secondary working is largely due in all prob- 


TExt-Fic. 3.—Point of Agate from Knysna Heads. (Actual size.) 


ability to the fact that the coarse-grained sandstone used produces 
a natural, fine, saw-like edge. A further point in favour of the view 
given above is that at all Still Bay sites there are a certain number of 
flakes showing distinct similarities to the Mossel Bay material, and a 
number of flakes of Table Mountain Sandstone are always present 
at these sites. 

The sites at which this variation appears are Cape St. Blaize 
(Mossel Bay), Gouritz River, both the Eastern and the Western Head 
at Knysna, and one or two other neighbouring sites. 

In a railway cutting on the forest narrow-gauge railway, Mr. C. van 
Riet Lowe found a skeleton of “ San ’’ (Later Stone Age) type in 1922. 
In 1928, Mr. FitzSimons* of the Port Elizabeth Museum started 
excavations at this site, and recovered a number of skeletons with 
rough implements of the type usually to be associated with the 
coastal midden peoples. Some little time later Mr. William Brown 

* §.A.J.8., vol. xxv, 1928. 


140 Annals of the South African Museum. 


discovered a deposit of Mossel Bay types at a depth of 22 feet, 
directly below the skeletal remains which were near the surface. 
This proves a sequence of time between the two industries, and 
the fact that the interjacent deposit consisted of sand will be referred 
to again in the paper. 

Alexandersfonten Varration.—Some six miles south of Kimberley 
a wide undrained valley has formed, and is known as the Alexanders- 
fontein Pan. During the rainy season this forms the centre of a large 
drainage area, and as a result the high lands surrounding the pan have 
been inhabited by a great variety of people of different cultures over 
a long period of time. Lying on the higher lands as they do, the 
implements left by these peoples have been open to the action of the 
elements, and as a result material of various types has washed down 
towards the pan below. In this way a large number of types and 
implements of different ages have become almost inextricably mixed, 
and relative age can only be judged by the uniform patination within 
each group of implements. 

Messrs. Swan & Power of Kimberley have expended a great deal of 
time and energy in collecting material from here for the McGregor 
Museum, Kimberley, and as a result of their work we find that there 
is (1) a considerable quantity of relatively unpatinated Smithfield 
material, and (2) a large number of other implements much more 
heavily patinated, and, therefore, to be regarded as of earlier date. 
These last implements are of great interest. They are all of a flake 
type, showing longitudinal convergent flaking and a faceted butt. 
The outer face is seldom worked with any certainty, and though 
what may be regarded as rough secondary chipping does appear, this 
might be due to wear. The under (cleavage) face shows in a very 
considerable number of cases the presence of flaking of a type usually 
associable with pressure (wide, shallow flake-scars) and very definitely 
of human origin. 

What relationship exists between this type and the other “ Mous- 
terian ’’ or Middle Stone Age elements in the Union it is impossible 
to say with any certainty. Exactly similar material was found by me 
scattered over the Middelburg (Cape) Golf Course, but this, too, shows 
a lack of definition and a degree of wear making it difficult to say 
whether the slightly worked flakes discovered are the desired imple- 
ments, or whether the makers had more specialised implements in 
view. The extreme patination on the indurated shale, and the 
relatively slight patination on the Smithfield implements of the same 
material, make it more than likely that the Alexandersfontein Varia- 


The Middle Stone Age. 141 


tion is considerably earlier in age than the Smithfield B types found 
at Alexandersfontein. 

Hagenstad V arvation.—Major Collins * describes a site at Hagenstad, 
some thirty miles north of Bloemfonteim. He here discovered a 
series of stone implements under two distinct layers of peat, each 
about 8-10 feet thick. These artefacts seem to have occurred in 
association with bones of extinct animals, burnt fragments of wood, 
and wooden pins. All the implements but two were lost; these 
two are described as a spear-head and a knife. It seems to have been 
at this site that Captain R. G. Helme discovered a number of shale 
implements of interest. He describes the site as being situated at 
the radio-active springs of Hagenstad, Brandfort district. He dis- 
covered implements at a depth of 20 feet below ground-level, and in 
association with the teeth and bones of an extinct buffalo, Bubalus 
baintt. The implements consisted of triangular points, worked on 
flakes of indurated shale, and step-flaked along the edges of the outer 
face. They were 2 or 3 inches in length and half as broad.t 

Mr. Lowe visited this site some time later, and was shown a number 
of flakes with certain similarities, embedded in the hard crystalline 
floor of Floris mineral baths,t and found there by Mr. Venter (S.A.M. 
4671). The deposit here looks as though it might produce some 
interesting fossils of human date, as in the small volume of material 
submitted by Mr. Lowe were found hippo teeth and a large variety of 
other bones firmly embedded in the mineral matter, together with 
human-made flakes. The most interesting implement he has sent 
in from this site is a long point, dagger-like, some 10 inches in length 
and about 24 inches across the greatest width. Together with this 
were found a number of small spheres, about 3 inches in diameter, 
similar to types which have been sent in from time to time from 
various museums.§ A number of smaller flakes very similar to Captain 
Helme’s material are also represented. These show facetted butts in 
a few instances only. The working on the long point is simple, and 
is well done, flakes having been removed with considerable evenness 
from the two edges for the entire length and on the outer face only. 


* Journal Royal Anthrop. Inst., xlv, 79, 1915. 

+ For associated fauna see R. Broom, ‘‘Man Contemporaneous with Extinct 
Animals in South Africa,” Annals S.A. Mus., vol. xii, p. 13, 1913. 

t For a section see p. 191. 

§ Compare Dart, ‘‘ Round Stone Culture of South Africa,” S.A.J.S., xxii, 427, 
1925. For an illustration of the long point see Goodwin, ‘The Middle Stone 
Age,” S.A.J.8., xxv, 1928. 


142 Annals of the South African Museum. 


The McGregor Museum, Kimberley, shows some similar points 
which may prove to belong to this variation. Mr. Wohlfahrt has 
submitted six specimens from a depth of 12 feet in gravels in the 
Vaal River at Windsorton, a similar specimen found with these is 
present in the South African Museum. These were not associated 
with coups-de-poing, which were discovered at a still greater depth 
in gravels directly below these points. Mr. Skill has presented a point 
of exactly similar type to the McGregor Museum from Droogveld in 
the Barkly West area. The Port Elizabeth Museum also contains 
a very similar point from the Sidney Estates, Vaal River (P.E.M. 718). 
This specimen is some 6 inches long. Whether all these types re- 
present a single Middle Stone Age Industry, or whether there is merely 
an affinity between these elements, it is difficult to say. The triangular 
flakes found by Captain Helme are very similar to points represented 
in the Albany Museum, Grahamstown, from the Peddie coast and 
from Roberts’ Vlei, Grahamstown. The workmanship on these 
implements is good, but the retouch is confined entirely to the edges 
of the implements and to the outer face. 

Sawmills Variation, etc—Implements from Sawmills, described 
by the Rev. Neville Jones in his “ Stone Ages of Rhodesia,” seem to 
fall into the Middle Stone Age; in fact they show certain affinities to 
the Aliwal North material described above. 

A further similarity to the Sawmills implements is visible in the 
material represented in the South African Museum (8.A.M. 2998) 
from Butterworth in the Transkei. The implements from here are 
of a rich brown chert or jasper, and are delicately worked, the material 
allowing of very fine workmanship. One implement of a black 
glass-like stone is neatly worked with a technique very similar to 
that found at Sawmills. The other elements resemble Aliwal North 
material more. The workmanship at Sawmills is well advanced, and 
Mr. Jones says on p. 53: “ Mr. Stevenson has recently found a point, 
neatly worked on both faces, which nearly approaches the quality 
of the Solutrean ‘ laurel-leaf’ point, and exhibits the skill to which 
these people attained.” Later he observes (p. 113): “Some of the 
more advanced examples from Sawmills and the caves of the Matoppo 
Hills make a near approach to these Cape Flats points, but they fall 
a little short in the degree of finish they exhibit.” This may prove 
a very useful link between the two areas, but it seems a little too 
eatly to group these various types under a single industrial or 
variational term. 


The Middle Stone Age. 148 


CONCLUSIONS. 


It would thus appear that we have in the Middle Stone Age a number 
of more or less allied groups. Some of these fall excellently into a 
presumptive evolutionary series, while others fall well out of this series 
and appear to consist of local variational sports. There is a certain 
similarity running through the entire Middle Stone Age, notably the 
continued presence of convergent flaking, the use of points, and the 
faceted butt. They would all appear, therefore, to have had a com- 
mon origin, presumably to the north, and in all probability in that 
culture to which we may safely refer as the “ Mousterian.” Of some of 
these groups we know sufficient to assemble the material into definite 
industries ; in other cases considerable research of a wider type is 
needed before we can with any fairness judge of what should constitute 
an industry and what a variation. Material from a single site, if it 
forms a wide and truly comprehensive collection, may be regarded 
in some instances as sufficient to found a new industrial or variational 
group. lack of knowledge is not the only reason why certain groups 
have been termed variations. The Pietersburg Variation has been 
so called because we do not yet know where it merges into the Glen 
Grey Industry and into the Still Bay Industry respectively. The 
Howieson’s Poort Variation has been so called as it is definitely a 
mixed industry showing an apparent mixture of peoples, a mixture 
which can be analysed, and is not an intimate combination as the 
Still Bay might appear to be. 


CLIMATE. 


Let us retrace our steps and look at the various circumstances 
governing our finds in the extreme south between Cape Town and 
Port Hlizabeth. In the Fish Hoek Valley the implements of Still 
Bay type occur on what would seem to be a turfy ground formed 
during a moist and fertile climatic period. Over a part of this, and 
concealing some of the finds, has accumulated a layer of wind-blown 
sand. This sand has been blown and drifted to this part of the 
coast by a west wind. We noted that midden refuse, Wilton imple- 
ments, pottery, etc., of the Later Stone Age type lay directly upon 
this sandy deposit, but nearer the present coast, and I deduced from 
this that the accumulation of sand from the west had shifted the shore- 
line further out at this point by perhaps half a mile between the two 
occupations. At the Pringle Bay site I found Still Bay and Stellen- 

VOL. XXVII. 10 


144 Annals of the South African Museum. 


bosch types of implements lying directly upon a turfy loess, the product 
of a moist but windy climate; this loess contains a maximum of 
vegetable matter, the remainder of the deposit being made up of 
wind-blown sea sand. Above this stratum and directly above the 
implements, the deposit changes to a pure sandy loess containing no 
vegetable matter. At Still Bay the position is much that occurring 
at Noord Hoek, though here instead of a beach, sand has accumulated 
on the western slopes of the neighbouring hills, similarly deposited 
by a west wind. At Knysna the Mossel Bay implements lie on a 
like deposit composed of sand and vegetable matter, and have had 
a 3- or 4-foot sandy layer accumulated above them, even at a height 
of some 400 feet above sea-level, by a west wind. A similar sand 
deposit overlies the Mossel Bay material found by Brown at the site 
described by Lowe and by FitzSimons near Knysna. 

What has happened at Howieson’s Poort? Here we seem to have 
an exactly opposite state of affairs; the Howieson’s Poort Variation 
is lying directly upon a sandy layer, and is in turn covered by a 
humus layer. 

What do these facts imply ? The prevalent winds in this southern- 
most part of Africa should be westerly, but owing to the uplift of air 
produced by the heated surface of the Kalahari desert this wind is 
diverted, and becomes a south wind when it strikes the Cape. Can 
we then presume that the climate of the Middle Stone Age period in 
the Kalahari was cooler and perhaps more fertile than it is at present ¢ 
We have the apparent fact of west winds depositing sand at the Cape, 
while on the other hand we have the hippo teeth at Hagenstad, and 
evidences of a more amenable climate at Taungs. 

If the sand-depositing west winds are all of a single period, and 
if the Howieson’s Poort sand deposit was accumulated by this means 
(which is unlikely), we have a rough means of dating the Middle Stone 
Age relative to the sandy period, and the entire Middle Stone Age 
save for the Howieson’s Poort Variation would seem to have preceded 
this climatic change. 3 

Can we correlate this sand-accumulating period with the European 
glacial periods? After the end of the Bihl Stadium in Europe, the 
storm centre, which had hitherto formed a reasonable climate in the 
Sahara, shifted northwards, leaving a hot desert area behind, and 
producing a humid climate of winter rains in the Mediterranean basin. 
Now the climate of Africa west of 28° E. is symmetrical about the 
EKquator at the present time. Can we presume that this symmetry 
is normal and balanced, and that the creation of a desert in the 


The Middle Stone Age. 145 


Sahara region would imply a simultaneous creation or accentuation 
of desert conditions in the Kalahari area? If so, we can date the 
Kalahari desert and the westerly accumulated sand of the southern- 
most littoral as of post-Biihl date (say 7000-6000 B.c.). If it were 
possible to prove such a correlation, we would be in a position to lay 
the entire foundations of chronology and recent geology in South 
Africa. 


SEQUENCE, 


One point must not be overlooked. We have been using the term 
Middle Stone Age to cover the group here dealt with. Is this justifi- 
able? I think itis. At Windsorton the material is datable as being 
intermediate between the Harlier Stone Age deposits in the deeper 
gravels, and the Later Stone Age material of the surface. At Rock- 
woods, Queenstown, the Glen Grey material lies in the mountain 
talus; Later Stone Age material lies above it. At Skildegat cave the 
Wilton types are shown to be later than the Still Bay types. At 
Knysna Mr. Brown has shown that a similar state of affairs exists, 
“ strandlooper ” skeletons lying at a depth of 8 feet, and Mossel Bay 
types at a depth of 20 feet. At Still Bay we find Stellenbosch types 
of implement embedded in the hard red earth, lying upon which is 
Still Bay material. At Middledrift the writer found Middle Stone 
Age material lying upon gravels containing water-worn implements 
of Stellenbosch type. 

This and other evidence mentioned in this paper justifies us in 
regarding the Middle Stone Age as lying between the EHarlier and 
Later Stone Ages, and the term used would appear to be an adequate 
label for the whole. 


10* 


ipa a 
ae TS (Nia oh 


nt) eile a wy eee 


( 147) 


6. The Later Stone Age.—Introduction by C. van Rizet Lowes, 
B.Sc., A.M.I.C.E., and A. J. H. Goopwin, M.A. 


Tue Earlier Stone Age comprises, basically, a variety of core in- 
dustries; small flake tools appear only sporadically and with little 
consistency, and flake cores are almost entirely absent. The Stellen- 
bosch Industry shows little if any advance on the Lower Palaeolithic 
of North Africa and Europe; the Victoria West a variation without 
a necessary advance. In the Fauresmith Industry, however, we see 
the flake coming into its own. Here attempts at longitudinal 
flaking and the appearance of faceted butts imply either a lithi- 
cultural evolution or a cultural admixture. 

With the Middle Stone Age we get our first view of pure flake 
industries. Lance-head and point types predominate, faceted butts 
are common, and longitudinal flaking comes into its own. As the 
highest point of an evolutionary series we get the Still Bay Industry, 
shading into the Howieson’s Poort group. With the former we can 
now associate a definite physical type, but apart from our knowledge 
of the stone implements and the physical remains we know little of 
this phase, and indeed hardly anything of the arts, crafts, and means of 
subsistence, in spite of the fact that this latter appears to have been 
largely based on animal foods. 

With the dawn of the Later Stone Age we arrive at a wider and better 
known field. We are in a position to give not only the lists of im- 
plements made and used, but also the foods, clothing, industries, arts, 
and physical characteristics of its people. We recognise a Neo-an- 
thropic group, and, definitely belonging to it, those “ Bushmen ” our 
immediate forbears so sanctimoniously annihilated in a fit of righteous 
indignation that lasted well over a century. The term “‘ Bushman,”’ 
however, has always been loose and unscientific, and the only definition 
that is now possible is ““ a number of peoples enjoying a cattle-thieving 
and a hunting mode of life, living in the more arid parts of the Union, 
and consisting of members of broken-down Bantu clans, Hottentot 
groups, San tribes with a slight admixture of European blood.” 
Along the coastal regions the term Strandlooper has been applied to 


148 Annals of the South African Museum. 


any person of no fixed abode, with a predilection for shell-fish and a 
habit of leaving the shells about. 

In both cases we must regard the terms as unscientific and for our 
purpose useless. Physically we have a group of people, named by 
various writers the “San” tribes, of fairly definite physical type at 
present inhabiting parts of the Kalahari. This term might, at the 
present state of our knowledge, be best used to imply the physical 
type predominant in all the Later Stone Age peoples. 


THE SMITHFIELD AND WILTON INDUSTRIES. 


Some years ago Dr. Kannemeyer from Smithfield, a friend of Mr. 
Alfred Brown of palaeontological fame from Aliwal North, took 
considerable interest in archaeology. He corresponded for some 
years with Dr. Péringuey, and at his death almost his entire collec- 
tion came to the South African Museum (8.A.M. 1830), of which Dr. 
Péringuey was then Director. Unluckily the collection, though almost 
entirely of the group we have called Smithfield, has confused with it 
individual specimens of Middle Stone Age type. 

Mr. Alfred Brown also took a keen interest in archaeology, and one 
point, perhaps psychological, is of interest with regard to these two 
collectors. Dr. Kannemeyer concentrated almost entirely on Smith- 
field material, while Brown, his confrére, appeared to disregard—or 
perhaps failed to recognise—Smithfield types, and to have set out 
to discover only Middle Stone Age material. The fact that Middle 
Stone Age implements do occur in and near Smithfield, and that 
Lowe has discovered a number of Smithfield sites in the immediate 
vicinity of Aliwal North, show that both types appear at and near 
both towns. 

For some years the writers of these papers have been working on 
the Later Stone Age, and the results here set forth have been arrived 
at by a co-operative method of field and Museum work, an interchange 
of ideas, and a sifting of theories only possible between field and 
Museum workers. The Museum worker needs a quick confirmation 
or denial of his theoretical ideas, while the field worker needs the 
great accumulation of material at the disposal of the Museum worker 
for his comparative knowledge. Work must necessarily be shared. 
Many other workers have done a very considerable amount on the 
stone implements of South Africa, but they have always been either 
pure field workers or simply Museum men, and the results of their 
labours are often not only misleading but, more often than not, of 


The Later Stone Age. 149 


little real use. The field worker cannot know what to seek, or fails to 
appreciate the true significance of his finds, and the Museum worker 
cannot check his theories, especially the more negative ones, unless 
their researches are complementary. It may very truthfully be said 
that on the contents of each parcel received depends the validity of 
the Museum worker’s every theory. 

In 1925 the term “Smithfield”? was first used to describe the 
industry investigated by Dr. Kannemeyer at Smithfield, and best 
represented in Péringuey’s book by the photographs of Cottell’s 
Cradock specimens. 

The term ‘‘ Wilton ” was first made use of at the same time, and 
was taken from a cave on a farm of that name near Grahamstown. 
Mr. J. Hewitt excavated the site for the Albany Museum and defined 
the industry there represented. 

At first sight it would appear that the Smithfield Industry re- 
presents an offshoot from the Neo-anthropic Capsio-Aurignacian 
cultures of the Mediterranean basin—most probably from the Lower 
Capsian peoples—while the Wilton, with its marked affinities, 
appears to be more closely related to the Upper Capsian group. 
Culturally, a strongly marked similarity is present between these 
three industries, but very much more research will be necessary 
before we can discover the true relationship between the Smithfield, 
Wilton, and Capsian groups. Unluckily one road is not yet open to 
us, for nothing is known of the physical characteristics of the people 
who carried the Capsian industries across North Africa. 

It is, however, almost certain that the Smithfield Industry is an 
evolved and localised form of a Neo-anthropic group belonging to 
South Africa, and perhaps even confined in its evolution the Upper 
Orange and Vaal Rivers catchment area. Several workers—notably 
Neville Jones, Lowe, van Hoepen, Burkitt, and Goodwin—have at 
different times sought for Smithfield material in Southern Rhodesia, 
but so far no traces of this industry have been found north of the 
Limpopo, or, for that matter, beyond the confines of the Union. 

Wilton material, on the other hand, is found from the Cape to the 
Zambesi ; and to those who constantly look north for origins, this 
rather suggests the possibility of this industry having been the parent 
and the Smithfield a later variant. That this, however, is not wholly 
the case can only be proved after a closer examination of the industry 
than can be afforded in this Introduction. 

It is sufficient here to say that it has been found necessary to divide 
the Smithfield into three phases, presently designated ‘“‘ A,” “ B,” 


150 Annals of the South African Museum. 


and “‘C.”’ Of these, Smithfield “ A’’ has every appearance of being 
the earliest, is most probably largely indigenous, and therefore least 
like the Wilton and Capsian ; Smithfield “ B ” is a variation of “ A” 
toward the Wilton, while “C” is very like the Wilton and Upper 
Capsian : the whole indicating strongly convergent evolution on the 
part of the Smithfield Industry, while the Wilton remains fairly 
constant. 

From the evidence presently available it seems as though we should 
adopt as our working hypothesis the assumption that the bearers of 
the Wilton Industry represent an offshoot from the Capsian Group of 
North Africa, and that during the southward migration they moved 
in successive waves that probably diverged into two main channels— 
one down the central zone where the Smithfield variations are so well 
developed, and the other down the east coast where the industry 
remained fairly constant. A possible third channel is down the 
western desert route. 

So far as the Smithfield Industry is concerned, it is only those 
Neo-anthropic waves that came down the central zone that interest 
us. Here the earliest arrivals came into contact with two great 
moulding influences: (1) The presence of Middle Stone Age folk still 
inhabiting the great area drained by the Upper Orange and Vaal 
Rivers, and (2) the presence of a new, desirable, and eminently suitable 
material. In this area, liberally focussed on the Orange Free State, 
this new material, lydianite or indurated shale, provided a vast amount 
of stone with excellent fracturing qualities, and, in addition, the 
Middle Stone Age folk seem also to have given the invaders certain 
new ideas as to stone implements. It is to this first contact between 
two entirely different cultures that we must perhaps look for the 
beginnings of the Smithfield Industry, just as we must look to later 
waves and later contacts for the changes in the convergent evolution 
above referred to. Thus we see that although the Smithfield may 
represent an ofishoot from the purer Neo-anthropic Wilton, it is 
indirect, and it is not to the latter alone that we must look for 
possible beginnings or “ parentage.” 

Most typical of these Later Stone Age Industries—Smithfield and 
Wilton—is the flat striking platform, the fine longitudinal parallel 
flaking, and the even, steep secondary trimming. 


(151 ) 


7. The Smithfield Industry in the Orange Free State—By C. van 
Riet Lowe, B.Sc., A.M.I.C.E. 


(With Plates XXIII-XL and Text-figures A-H.) 


INTRODUCTION. 


In his chapter on chronology in the Handbook of Aboriginal American 
Antiquities, Holmes says*: “ One of the most important problems 
is that of the antiquity of the occupancy of this southern extremity 
of the continent.... The researches in this field have not yet 
advanced to a stage where definite and generally accepted conclusions 
have been reached. 

“The most serious hindrance to progress in correctly interpreting 
the evidence of antiquity arose from the assumption on the part of a 
number of students that the course of human history in America 
must be parallel with that of the Old World; that occupation of the 
continent was indefinitely remote, and that the course of cultural 
development must correspond in every essential respect with that of 
prehistoric Europe; that traces must exist, and should be found, of 
the initial period corresponding to the European palaeolithic and the 
later stage duplicating the neolithic. This unfortunate assumption 
has cast a shadow over the whole American archaeological field, not 
as yet fully dissipated. That the parallel is not complete, however, 
is now fully recognised, and American antiquities of all stages and 
types are being employed to develop the history of man in America 
whether or not in accord with the Old World determinations.” 

This statement so completely and effectively describes and reflects 
the state of affairs in South Africa that the words might, with absolute 
application, be substituted for America wherever the latter occurs. 

The confusion that arose out of the adoption or adaptation of 
European classifications and nomenclature to suit local needs was such 
that in 1925 the writer first strongly urged the necessity for a com- 
plete break-away from the European school.t Meanwhile Mr. A. J. H. 

* Bureau of American Ethnology, Smithsonian Institution, Bulletin No. 60, 
pt. i, 1919. 


+ Lowe, ‘“‘Stone Implement Workshops in the Orange Free State,” S.A.J.S., 
vol. xxii, 1925. ; a wee 


152 Annals of the South African Museum. 


Goodwin, senior lecturer in Social Anthropology at the University of 
Cape Town, was also working in this direction, and the ultimate 
break-away is undoubtedly due to his larger influence. 

At the annual session of the South African Association for the 
Advancement of Science, held in Pretoria in July 1926, the founding 
of this new system of describing local prehistoric periods was accepted 
by all local prehistorians, and it was decided definitely to abandon 
the direct use and application of Kuropean terminology. 
|: The following table gives a broad outline of the scheme, the 
Palaearctic counterparts being quoted for comparison :— 


South Africa. 
European and North |. 
African counterparts. 


Age. Industry. 
Earlier Stone Age | Stellenbosch’ . . | Chellean. 
: Victoria West ene 
Fauresmith Acheuleo- 
Mousterian. 


Middle Stone Age | A variety of industries} Mousterian. 
with Mousterian affinities. 
Incompletely studied. 
A Capsio- 
Later Stone Age . | Smithfield < B Aurignacian. 
C 


Upper Capsian. 


Wilton 


From this table it is seen that one of the Periods of the Later 
Stone Age—Upper Palaeolithic in character—was named the SmITH- 
FIELD. Mr. Goodwin suggested the name, not only on account of 
the fact that at that time the best assemblage of artefacts of this 
Period was from Smithfield, but also to honour and commemorate the 
pioneer work of the late Dr. Kannemeyer in that area. 

The term implied and embraced a lithicultural group that was 
distinctly recognisable and seemingly well defined at the time, but 
one that, it.was later found, called for closer scrutiny. 

But for the recognition of certain Capsian features,* it was 
impossible to establish either European or North African parallels, 


* Goodwin, ‘‘ Capsian Affinities,” S.A.J.S., vol. xxii, 1925, 


The Smithfield Industry in the Orange Free State. 153 


for among the implements that belonged definitely to the Smithfield 
were types that were fairly, if not wholly, typical of the various 
Periods that constitute the Palaearctic Upper and Epipalaeolithic 
Ages. 


HISTORICAL. 


Working in the Riet River Valley (see accompanying map, Plate 
XXXVII) toward the close of 1926, the writer first discovered at De 
Kiel Oost No. 101, ten miles north of Koffiefontein on the Koffiefontein- 
Jacobsdal main road, not only the possibility of, but also the necessity 
for, dividing the Smithfield Industry into two clearly defined lithi- 
cultural groups, and suggested a Lower and an Upper phase,* the 
time sequence of the industrial groups being indicated by a marked 
variation in incrustation and patina between the different and 
differing assemblages. 

The following extracts from a letter to Goodwin, dated 16th 
October 1926, are therefore interesting : “ I devoted last Thursday to a 
resurvey of the Blaauwbank sites and tumbled across a new and most 
rich settlement and factory site (De Kiel Oost). Here Smithfield 
man followed the trail of Fauresmith folk and lived and had his being 
for a very long spell, for I only worked a portion of the area and, 
among innumerable flakes, detaching-hammers, trimming-stones, 
and cores of Smithfield type, collected from the surface— 


1. Axe-edged implements (concavo-convex scrapers) . ee wht 
2. Circular scrapers : , fF KS, 
3. Duckbill end-scrapers : e252 
4. Thumbnail scrapers . : al 
5. Trimmed points 2 
6. Stone borers. eS 
‘T. Bored stones (frimmnbintainsr or ameemiplate) LG 
8. Grooved stones (fragmentary) . : peas 
9. Pounders and grinders ; mea: 
10. Grindstones (of which there were ere wild wd: 
11. Palettes . : ; bmn BR 
12. Stone ring (broken) . ; bien AL 
13. Fragmentary pottery. 
14. Fauresmith couwps-de-poing re-used by Smithfield man as 


factory hammers and cores. 
. Fauresmith flakes retrimmed by Smithfield man. 


ft 
Or 


* Lowe, ‘“‘ Bored Stones,” S.A.J.S., vol. xxiv, 1927. 


154 Annals of the South African Museum. 


... This is the second discovery I have recently made where 
Fauresmith and Smithfield types overlap and where the remains of 
the former have been re-used by Smithfield man. The variations in 
patina are most marked... . I notice also a marked variation in 
patina between the circular and duckbill scrapers found with the axe- 
edged implements (2.e€. concavo-convex scrapers) and similar scrapers 
of genuine (szc) Smithfield type. It would appear as though the 
axe-edged implement man—early Smithfield ?—preceded the true 
Smithfield man here just as the Fauresmith man preceded both, and 
also that he occupied only a section of the site. The circular and 
duckbill end-scrapers that are associated with the axe-edged imple- 
ments are heavier and clumsier than the ordinary Smithfield types, 
and they are also more heavily patinated. . . .” 

This was the beginning of the breaking-up of the Industry and a 
sharp look-out was kept for occurrences of. concavo-convex and 
circular scrapers. It was intended to make a special study of associa- 
tions. By good fortune, the discovery of other and entirely separate 
Lower Smithfield sites soon followed, notably at Lockshoek, No. 191, 
(fig. A), and at Blaauwheuwel, No. 425, district Fauresmith. These 
sites made it immediately apparent that there was a difference, and 
showed also that where the Lower Smithfield stations were always in 
the open and apparently confined to the south-western portion of the 
Orange Free State, the Upper included both open and cave sites that 
existed over the entire Upper Orange and Vaal Rivers catchment 
areas, z.e. including the whole province shown on the accompanying 
map and extending considerably beyond its borders. In the course 
of his field-work, the writer gradually came to recognise such varia- 
tions between the great majority of Upper Smithfield cave and open 
sites, that the necessity for grouping the former under a different 
though distinctly relevant sub-head arose. Obviously the cave- 
Smithfield belonged to the same culture, but such typological differ- 
ences and differentiations existed, that it became essential to establish 
another sub-group. 

Meanwhile, however, owing to the complete absence of stratification 
between the so-called Lower and Upper phases, and after discussion 
with Mr. Neville Jones, it was decided to name these Smithfield 
“A” and “B” respectively. 

Throughout this period of more or less intensive field-work, Te was in 
constant communication with Mr. A. J. H. Goodwin, and it is worthy 
of special note that toward the close of 1927, both Goodwin and I 
found it necessary, simultaneously and independently, to subdivide 


The Smithfield Industry in the Orange Free State. 155 


the Smithfield into at least three groups. In a letter to Goodwin, 
dated 21st October 1927, I wrote: ‘‘ Yesterday I was adding the 
finishing touches to my new map, and, puzzling over the Smithfield, 
decided to classify the sites—‘ A,’ ‘ B,’ and ‘ C ’—~.e. a variation of 
the Lower, Middle, and Upper, and actually did so :— 

*“ SMITHFIELD ‘ A.’—Full range (sec) of Smithfield implements plus 
large circular and concavo-convex scrapers. 
Culturally contemporaneous with rock en- 
gravings. Open sites. 

“SMITHFIELD ‘ B.’—Spokeshaves appear. Implements tend to 

be smaller. Specialisation in bored stones. 
Large circular and concavo-convex scrapers 
disappear. Open sites. 

“‘ SMITHFIELD ‘ C..—Spokeshaves abundant. Pygmy implements. 
Culturally contemporaneous with cave paint- 
ing. Large circular and concavo-convex 
scrapers absent. Bone points. Cave sites, 

and this morning I received your note saying: ‘I have been a bit 
worried by the fact that the Cave Smithfield is different from the 
open-site types. I am thinking of calling it Smithfield “C.” It 
tends to be more like a crescentless Wilton.’ ” 

Our decision, after a great deal of correspondence and fruitful 
interchange of notes and ideas, to avoid the use of the terms Lower, 
Middle, and Upper as applied to these now distinct lithicultural 
groups, was, and still is, due to an entire absence of stratification 
and the consequent impossibility of definitely establishing sequences 
or time horizons. 

It would, however, seem that the earliest manufacturers of Smith- 
field implements appeared in Southern Africa a very considerable 
while ago and here evolved—in a variety of ways: (1) either in- 
dependently to produce a sequence of types, or (2) by infiltration 
and a series of contacts with the manufacturers of the more Neo- 
anthropic Wilton types—three distinct and partially contemporaneous 
groups. 

That the three groups—‘“‘ A,” “ B,”’ and “‘ C ”—are most intimately 
interrelated and that two of these—‘B” and “C’’—are closely 
related to the Wilton is abundantly clear, and although the surface 
and general indications lead one to visualise a straightforward 
evolutionary process—“‘A” to “B” to “C”—it is as yet quite 
impossible to say not only whether or how this took place, but also 
what part the Wilton played. 


156 Annals of the South African Museum. 


It is, however, my considered opinion that the earliest Neo-anthropic 
arrivals found certain areas of the Riet River Valley still occupied 
by men of an earlier period, and that the first contact gave rise to a 
“fusion” that marks the beginnings of the Smithfield Industry. 
Certain aberrant, though often improved, types of implements appear 
in “ A” that also appear in the most highly developed Fauresmith 
assemblages, and it would seem as though there occurred a partial 
overlapping of two otherwise entirely separate and distinct industrial . 
groups and periods. It is, however, much more probable that, as a 
result of the first Neo-anthropic wave, “ A” is an indirect offshoot 
from and an improvement on a not yet fully appreciated Middle 
Stone Age * that either evolved from or, by infiltration, came into 
contact with and borrowed from the Earlier. The Middle Stone 
Age has, for lack of adequate field data, been imperfectly studied, 
and the scanty nature of occurrences in the Orange Free State gives 
rise to complexes that are extremely difficult to unravel. 

It may be taken, however, that the Smithfield Industry as a whole 
does form a distinct and composite, though in itself somewhat complex 
group. The rise of “A,” which heralds the dawn of the Industry, 
is obscure, but does appear to represent a contact and partial fusion 
between the earliest Neo-anthropic wave and the indigenous Middle 
Stone Age folk. All we can say with certainty is that the heavier 
points and scrapers (end and side) that occasionally occur in the best 
Fauresmith and Middle Stone Age assemblages reappear in an im- 
proved form on unadulterated “‘ A ”’ sites; that certain other Smith- 
field types, as will be shown later, reveal also Middle Stone Age or 
Mousterian-type influences, and that rare and apparently “foreign ”’ 
Wilton specimens are also occasionally found. This may be due to 
partial contemporaneity, overlapping and borrowing one from the 
other, or it may indicate a lithicultural interrelationship that resulted 
from, so far as ‘“‘A” is concerned, contact between the earliest 
Neo-anthropic wave or waves and Middle Stone Age folk. 

Until such time as we find complete stratification, the Middle Stone 
Age must remain imperfectly understood, and until it is understood, 
the problems that now confront us must remain. On the other hand, 
we have definite stratification to prove that Smithfield “ B,” which is 
less like the Middle Stone Age and much more like the purer Neo- 
anthropic Wilton, followed long after both the Middle and Earlier 
Stone Ages, and, despite the absence of stratification within the 
Smithfield proper, the greater age of “‘ A,” when compared with 

* Goodwin, “‘ Introduction to Middle Stone Age,” S.A.J.S., vol. xxv, 1928.. 


The Smithfield Industry in the Orange Free State. 157 


“B” and “C,” is clearly manifested in the weathered and incrusted 
surfaces. 

As one would naturally expect, there is, apart from occasional 
overlapping and indications of partial contemporaneity, a distinct 
shading off of “ A ”’ to “ B,” just as it is equally obvious that, despite 
recurrent overlapping, there is a shading off of “B” to “CC.” Un- 
adulterated “‘ A,” “ B,” and ‘“‘C”’ sites are known, but this over- 
lapping of “A” and “ B” and of “ B” and “ C ”—not, so far as we 
know, of ““ A” and “‘ C ’’—is frequent, and any absolute demarcation 
is a matter of extreme difficulty. 

As it is impossible not only to describe, but also to appreciate 
the subdivisions of the Industry until all the implements and occur- 
rences. have been described, we shall first turn to the necessary 
descriptions. 

DESCRIPTION OF IMPLEMENTS. 


(1) Duckbill End-scraper. 


By far the commonest and most typical implement, and one that 
appears throughout the three groups, is a small rectangular end-scraper 
known from its shape as a “duckbill.” This invariably is a slender 
flake from the outer face of which have been struck two to three 
long fluting flakes, these latter having been removed before the whole 
was struck from the core. The striking platform is untouched and 
therefore flat. In the normal or typical specimen, the end remote 
from the platform and bulb is trimmed by the removal of a number 
of steep, small flakes struck from the underside or flake-surface 
until the end, being secondarily trimmed, acquired the shape and 
appearance of a bevelled arc (Plate X XV, fig. 1). 

From factory-site debris it is quite clear that the manufacture of a 
normal duckbill comprised— 

(i) preliminary shaping of the core by the removal of light fluting 
flakes from the edge selected ; 

(ui) the removal of the main flake by a blow struck immediately 

behind these fluting flakes (Plate XXIV); and 

(1) the trimming of the flake so removed, a flake of necessity 

slender if the workmanship was accurate (Plate XXIV). 

(i) The tromming of the core by the preliminary removal of fluting 
flakes was a straightforward process that does not call for description. 

(u) The removal of the main or primary flake was achieved by means 
of a detaching-hammer, apparently by direct rest percussion, 7... 
the core was held at rest on the ground in one hand as shown in 


158 Annals of the South African Museum. 


Plate XXIII, and the detaching-hammer in the other. By constant 
use the latter gradually became a faceted spheroid or polyhedral 
stone, averaging about 3 inches in diameter (Plate XXII, fig. 1). 
Cores and detaching-hammers are common and, in passing, it may 
be mentioned that these detaching-hammers are indistinguishable 
from those of the other and older industries.* Flakes suitable for 
secondary trimming were then selected from those so struck and the 
process of further (secondary) trimming commenced. 

(iii) The trimming of the flake-——To achieve the finer and more 
accurate workmanship required in secondary trimming, it is essential 
that the fabricator have an angular working edge, the angle to be as 
near 90° as possible. Detaching-hammers are too irregular and round- 
edged, and the manufacturer therefore discarded both these and the 
core for the trimming-stone and anvil. The latter was any large 
fixed or movable stone with a flat upper surface bounded on one 
side by a right- or acute-angled edge, and the trimming-stone 
(Plate XXIII, fig. 2) a heavy flake struck specially for the purpose, 
the working edges of both being—after use—considerably bruised and 
step-flaked. 

The flake to be trimmed was held on the anvil with its flake surface 
uppermost, the end to be trimmed projecting slightly over the right- 
angled edge of the anvil below (Plate XXIV). By this indirect rest- 
percussion method, and under short, sharp, and precise blows from the 
trimming-stone, the implement rapidly acquired a bevelled edge across 
its end and emerged as a small rectangular chisel-like tool perhaps an 
inch or two long and half an inch or an inch wide, the length in all 
cases being greater than the width (Plate XXV, fig. 1). 

Variations of this simple type occur. Occasionally the sides as 
well as the end remote from the bulb are trimmed (Plate XXV, 
fig. 2), or the fluting flakes from the back are replaced by a keel 
(Plate XXV, fig. 3). In very rare cases, both ends are trimmed and 
we have a double-ended scraper (Plate X XV, fig. 4). 

Apart from the double-ended scrapers, which are known to occur 
in “A” and “ B” only, these duckbils appear in all three phases, 
the only differences being in size and workmanship. In “A” they 
tend to be large, though normal types and sizes do appear; in “ B” 
the size is entirely normal and the retouch surer than in “A”; in 
“C” the implements not only tend to be still smaller, but incline 
rather to a thumbnail shape, so much so, as a matter of fact, that 
thumbnail shapes far outnumber duckbills. 

* Lowe, ‘‘ The Fauresmith Coup-de-poing,”’ S.A.J.S., vol. xxiv, 1927. 


The Smithfield Industry in the Orange Free State. 159 


(2) Circular Scrapers. 


A sub-variety of the duckbill is the circular scraper. This was 
manufactured in an exactly similar fashion, but the secondary trimming 
is more elaborate, and the whole, instead of being angular in plan, is 
circular (Plate X XVI, fig. 1). The worked edge forms a continuous 
circular arc beginning at one side of the striking platform and ending 
at the other. The platform is always left. 

Large circular scrapers that fluctuate about the size of crowns, 
60 mm. in diameter, are abundant in “ A,” but do not appear either 
in “B” or “C.” J have only found one circular scraper on a “ B”’ 
site, Aliwal North @75; it is about the size of a shilling, some 
25 mm. in diameter. 


(3) Concavo-convex Scrapers. 


The concavo-convex scraper, sometimes referred to as an axe-edged 
implement or chopper-scraper, is a particularly interesting tool 
inasmuch as it shows an unusual mastery of stone technique. 

It consists of a flake trimmed on the outer face by a single blow 
and then removed from the core by a second blow struck immediately 
behind the first, the resulting flake thus having a negative bulb on 
one face and a positive on the other. It is therefore bounded by two 
flake surfaces, and in shape and appearance is concavo-convex 
(Plate X XVI, fig. 2). 

Across the width of the flake opposite the striking-platform, and 
invariably on a slight curve, the implement is trimmed to a bevelled 
edge, so that, in plan, it is roughly isoscelene or forms the segment 
of a circle with the two bulbs, the negative and the positive, both at 
or near the centre of the circle. The two confining or outer radii are 
normally unworked, but the base or arc is always trimmed to a bevel. 

Two types appear: In one the radii to the outer corners and mid- 
point of the trimmed arc are all roughly equal, and the shape approaches 
that of an equilateral triangle (Plate X XVI, fig. 2d). In the other, the 
line from the centre (bulbs) to the mid-point of the arc is about 
one-third of the true radii from the bulbs to the outer edges or ends 
of the arc, and the finished shape is that of an obtuse-angled isosceles 
triangle (Plate X XVI, fig. 2c). 

The concavo-convex scraper appears in “ A” only, and is entirely 
and definitely absent from both “ B” and “ C.” 

Rare occurrences of this type are, however, known in the best 


160 Annals of the South African Museum. 


Orange Free State Fauresmith assemblages,* and it is this con- 
tributory factor that leads one to believe that the earliest Smithfield 
arrivals found men of an earlier period still in occupation of the Riet 
River Valley. It would seem that the morphology of the implement 
is too definitely characteristic for its occurrence on two entirely 
different lithicultural horizons to have been quite fortuitous. 


(4) Trimmed Pornts. 


Normally, these are simple flakes struck from a core and then 
trimmed along the two bounding lateral edges to the shape of a 
slender acute-angled isosceles triangle; the process of manufacture 
being similar to that resorted to for duckbills, 7.e. the secondary 
trimming is all on and from one side, and the flake surface and butt 
are untouched (Plate X XVII, fig. 1). 

The workmanship and symmetry of these are such that their use 
as side-scrapers only is suggested. In instances, however, the 
secondary trimming is so symmetrical, and has been so carefully 
done, that it would seem as though working points were aimed at 
(Plate XX VII, fig. 2). Lastly we come across true Still Bay types, 2.e. 
points worked on both sides in Solutrean fashion (Plate X XVII, fig. 3). 

From @81, the Wepener “B”’ factory site, is the lanceolate type 
(a) carefully worked all over one face, but only slightly worked on 
the other, while from @80, the Mook “B”’ factory site, is the frag- 
ment (6) carefully worked with fluting flakes over both faces. Another 
site that has yielded a similar point is @55, Hagenstad. These are 
the only known cases, and it must therefore be emphasised that the 
occurrence is exceedingly rare. Also it cannot yet be said that these 
Solutrean-type points definitely belong to the Smithfield Industry. 
The side-scraper types and those points worked only on one face, 
however, do belong, but are commoner in “A” and “B” than in 
co» 

From the Smithfield “ A ” factory site at De Kiel Oost No. 101 are 
two trimmed points of particular interest and importance. The first 
(Plate XXVIII, fig. 1) is broken, but has on one surface artificially 
incised or engraved lines. From the nature of the lines it would 
seem that they once extended beyond the surface here shown and that 
they were cut when the flake was still fresh, for microscopic examina- 
tion shows no difference in the weathering in and out of the lines. 


* Goodwin and Lowe, ‘“‘ The Fauresmith Industry,” Ann. 8. Afr. Mus. (present 
volume). 


The Smithfield Industry in the Orange Free State. 161 


This occurrence is of particular interest because, as will be explained 
later, it seems that the art of rock engraving in the area under 
consideration was practised by the manufacturers of “‘ A ”’ implements. 
The second (Plate XXVIII, fig. 2), also from the De Kiel Oost “ A” 
site, is an ordinarv trimmed point with a keel and heavy, beaked point 
from the end of which, and down the length of the tool, a long fluting 
flake has been struck by a blow at the point. The point is therefore 
rather like the prow of a ship—the flake surface being the deck— 
sharp-nosed, steeply “ backed,” and keeled. Have we not perhaps. 
here the tool used. for rock engraving? Some sort of artefact must 
have been used, and, apart from this specimen, we have nothing that 
is even suggestive of the ordinary graver or burin of Palaearctic 
regions. Although its exact purpose is naturally obscure, and 
despite the fact that orthodox gravers have been found in Southern 
Africa,* the suitability of this point as a graver is undoubted, and I 
therefore venture to figure it as a graving tool. The notes under 
Smithfield “ A ” that follow later are, apropos of this, illuminating. 


(5) Serrated Scrapers. 


This is a variety of circular scraper that appears to belong rather 
to “ A” than to “ B,” and one in which we again see a skill in, and 
unusual mastery of, stone technique. The type is rare, and the great 
majority of those so far found are from “A” sites; only a few speci- 
mens have been recovered from “ B” assemblages; none from “ C.”’ 
Indications certainly lead one to believe that, essentially, it belonged 
tather to ‘“‘ A ’’ than to “ B.”’ 

A typical specimen is shown in Plate X XIX, fig. 1. The whole is 
worked on a flake, and, although the flake surface is entirely un- 
touched, the obverse shows an intensity of secondary trimming that 
is exceedingly rare in this Industry. We have (i) the general shaping 
of the primary flake by the removal of flakes struck off the back, 
most probably by direct free-hand percussion ; (ii) the preparation 
of the bevelled edge by indirect rest percussion as in the case of an 
ordinary duckbill, z.e. with a trimming-stone and anvil; and (iii) the 
removal of small fluting flakes at regular intervals round the working 
edge, flakes removed, it would seem, by pressure or, at least, indirect 
free-hand percussion, 7.e. the removal of the small, regularly pitched 
fluting flakes from the implement held in one hand, by a punch held 


* Stapleton and Hewitt, “ Stone Implements from Howieson’s Poort,” 8.A.J.S., 
vol. xxiv, 1927. - 


162 Annals of the South African Museum. 


between the fingers of the same hand and striking the punch with 
a hammer-stone held in the other. The resulting edge is rather like 
that of the sickle flints described by Miss Caton Thompson in “ The 
Neolithic Industry of the Northern Fayum Desert.” * The regularity 
of the “ wave-lengths ” or pitch of the serrations is most striking, 
and there can be no doubt that some specially precise method of 
flaking must have been resorted to. 

Occasionally these scrapers are simple, flat flakes with no appreciable 
secondary trimming beyond that required for the serrations. 


(6) Notched Scrapers or Spokeshaves. 


These are flakes on which the secondary trimming is confined to a 
shallow notch or notches (Plate X XIX, fig. 2). No occurrence is 
known in “A,” only a few have been found in “ B,” while in “C” 
they are common. Occasionally the notch appears in the side of 
another implement, such as a duckbill. 


(7) Stone Borers. 


Invariably these are heavily though neatly trimmed points 5 to 7 
inches long and triangular in cross-section (Plate XXX, figs. 1 and 2). 
An average specimen would be about 14 cm. long and 3-5 cm. across 
the widest section of the butt, whence it tapers to a point at the end. 
These tools were used for pecking and abrading the holes through 
bored stones. The initial pecking process damages the point and the 
abrading wears down the angular and sharp edges to such an extent 
that the point ultimately becomes wholly circular in cross-section. 

Occasionally naturally pointed stones were also used as abraders 
(Plate XXX, figs. 3 and 4). In such cases there is little or no 
secondary trimming—just a pointed stone worn circular in cross- 
section and conical over the length used for abrading. 

These tools occur throughout the Industry, though the best and 
most elaborately worked are undoubtedly from Smithfield “B” 
sites. The four specimens shown on Plate XXX are from the type 
“B” station @27, Avalon, Riet River Valley, O.F:S. 


(8) Bored Stones. 


These artefacts occur in all three phases, but it is to “ B” that 
‘we must look for the best, for it was undoubtedly during this phase that 


* J.R.A.L., 1926, vol. lvi, pl. xxxvi, figs. 9 and 10. 


The Smithfield Industry in the Orange Free State. 163 


intense specialisation in their manufacture took place.* Those 
associated with “‘ A” are large and coarse, and no specimen with a 
polished exterior is known from this phase. Also, as in “C,” they 
are markedly less common than in “ B.” 

The commonest type is the spheroid with hour-glass perforation 
(Plate XX XI, fig. 1). Apart from subvarieties, there are two main 
types: the digging stone and the ring. 

(a) The Digging Stone.—This includes four conventionalised types : 

(i) the spheroid (artificially rounded) ; 

(ii) the ovoid (either artificially or naturally rounded) ; 
(ii) the pyriform (artificially rounded) ; 
(iv) the pseudo-rectangular (artificially shaped). 

(i) The Spherord.—In the same material this varies considerably 
in size and weight. Specimens ranging from 18 lb. and about 9 inches 
(23 cm.) in diameter to 14 oz. and 14 inches (3-8 cm.) in diameter are 
known. The perforation is usually hour-glass, but cylindrical holes 
are known. Of the hundreds of bored stones I have found and 
examined, only one has a complete hole bored through from one side 
only. The general practice was to start boring at both ends at the 
same time, the hole being always medially constricted when fresh, 
though after much use the constriction becomes less marked and the 
tendency is toward a cylinder. In the specimen bored from one side 
only the diameter of the hole at one end is 30 mm. and at the other 
6 mm., and it is entirely conical. -The over-all diameter of the stone 
is 7:5 cm.; the material, soapstone. The softness of the stone 
probably influenced the maker to work through from one side only. 

But for their shapes, the ovoid and pyriform types (Plate XX XI, 
figs. 2 and 3) are similar to the spheroids. Naturally rounded stones 
were seldom used, the vast mass having been artificially shaped 
throughout. 

The pseudo-rectangular (Plate XX XI, fig. 4) appear to have been 
ordinary spheroids worn cube-shaped by use as grinders. There are 
either two or four grinding surfaces, usually four, not so far as I know 
either one or three. At the centre of the grinding surface we often 
find the small concavity so characteristic of the grindstones of this 
period. (See notes under Grindstones.) 

It is generally presumed that these bored or digging stones were 
used as make-weights for digging sticks, and, although we know that 
this was largely the practice among the aboriginal San folk, we 
cannot, with the freest rein to our imagination, assign all those known 


* Lowe, ‘‘ Bored Stones,” S.A.J.S., vol. xxiv, 1927. 
VOL, XXVII. 11 


164 Annals of the South African Museum. 


to this category. A 1+-o0z. specimen would not add appreciably to 
the weight of any stick that might be used for digging. 

In cave paintings, definitely associated with “C,”’ bored stones 
appear as club-heads as often as they appear as make-weights for 
digging sticks, so that at least we have two uses to which they were 
put (Plate XXXII). My own opinion is that, in addition to utilitarian 
needs, they also had certain ceremonial significances. 

(b) The Ring.—This is a circlet of stone that resembles an armlet 
or anklet (Plate XX XIII, fig. 1). The size does not vary much. It is 
usually about 10 cm. in external, and 7 cm. in internal, diameter. It 
is a beautifully worked and highly polished artefact oftenest made of 
slightly indurated shale. Specimens of pure shale are also known. 
In cross-section, the “ body ” of the ring is an acute-angled isosceles 
triangle with a rounded base—concave outwards. 

The process of manufacture comprised (1) the selection of a suitable 
slab of shale, either indurated or pure, the rounding off of the outer 
edge by flaking, and the beginning of the perforation by pecking and 
chipping prior to (11) abrading and (i) polishing. When about one- 
third completed, the artefact resembles a bladed disc. 

These rings, always rare—it is believed that only eleven “ finished ” 
specimens have so far been recovered—are known to occur in the 
“B” and “C” phases only. Interesting is the fact that exactly 
similar stone rings are used as arm-rings by the Tuareg.* 


(9) Grooved Stones. 


These are natural boulders or pebbles, either fixed or movable, in 
which hollow-ground grooves of varying sizes and shapes occur. It 
would appear as though there are four types. 

(a) The first may be classed as a tool-sharpener or whetstone. 
Either fixed or movable, it has on its surface grooves in various 
directions and of varying sizes. These grooves are often striated 
and were obviously worn by having had points rubbed in and along 
them, the points, most probably, being of bone. 

(6) The second is a bead-stone (Plate XXXIV, fig. 1). This is a 
small water-worn pebble of sandstone, usually about 10 cm. long, 
with one or more perfectly U-shaped grooves that measure about 
5 mm. wide and 3 to 5 mm. deep. The groove is straight and fits 
the characteristic ostrich egg-shell bead of average size. The regular 
choice of sandstone, invariably friable, is significant. 


* F. Rennell Rodd, “‘ People of the Veil,” pl. xxxvii, p. 285. 


The Smithfield Industry in the Orange Free State. 165 


It is probable that this stone was also used as an arrow-straightener, 
for by heating it and passing a green stick or reed up and down the 
groove, the tendency would be for the shaft to dry out in parts and so 
enable the artificer to straighten out any irregularities. 

These deductions on usage are based on actual observations made 
among the surviving San tribes. Such artefacts as these are still in 
use, and the occurrence of identical specimens on Smithfield factory- 
sites and settlements is rather indicative of similar usage in prehistoric 
days. Or perhaps it would be more correct and more descriptive to 
say “in the past,” for the prehistory of Southern Africa, anomalous 
as 1t may sound, is certainly not all prehistoric, and it is my considered 
opinion that both the “B” and “C” phases of the Smithfield 
Industry were extensively practised in this country long after 
Kuropean invasion and settlement. It is because of this that one 
feels entitled to make deductions such as the above. 

(c) The third type is known as a poison-stone. Here the groove 
is broad and shallow—perhaps 12 mm. across and up to 5 mm. deep. 
Again from observations among recent and surviving San folk, it 
would appear that the poison used on arrow-tips was poured into or 
smeared in this groove and the arrows to be poisoned worked up and 
down or round and about in the poison in the groove. 

(d) In the fourth type, the groove or grooves are again perfectly 
U-shaped and similar in size to those in the bead-stone, but in 
longitudinal section the groove is an arc, and the direction of the 
groove often oblique to the axis of the stone (Plate XXXIV, fig. 2). 
This obliquity of the groove, and the fact that, longitudinally, it is in 
itself not straight but curved, suggests that the artefact was held in one 
hand and worked or pulled up and down an insecure object such as a 
taw-hide thong—much as a cobbler often uses his wax. 

One is inclined to regard this tool, which is always of soft, friable 
sandstone or shale, as a brayer used for cleaning, stretching, and 
shaping leather or gut thongs—perhaps bow-strings—the leather, of 
course, being raw-hide and wet. 

Grooved stones occur throughout the series, and the poison and 
braying stones, so far as we know, in “B” and “C” only—though 
I see no reason why they should not appear in “ A ” also. 


(10) Grindstones. 


Upper and lower grindstones are found throughout the Smithfield 
Series, and a striking feature of both the lower and upper stones is that 


166 Annals of the South African Museum. 


they are invariably made either of dolerite or of fine-grained tough 
sandstone. Where partially indurated shale has been used, the 
grindstones are always small, rather like palettes. The upper stone 
is usually a ball of dolerite, the characteristic weathering of which is 
spheroidal, or a river pebble, one or more faces of which have been 
rubbed down by use to a flat. or very slightly convex surface. Typical 
of the upper-stones is the occurrence of a small, pitted hole or con- 
cavity about 1 cm. across and 3 or 4 mm. deep at or near the centre 
of the grinding surface. 

Mr. Goodwin tells me that this pit is still made in the grindstones 
of surviving San folk, and says that it serves to catch up and turn 
over the tsama (melon) and other wild seeds they grind. The per- 
fectly smooth grinder will not “catch ”’ on the seeds otherwise, as 
the material being ground forms a smooth paste on the lower stone 
which resists grinding. 

These upper stones are of a size which implies that they were 
held in one hand, and many were used as pounders as well as grinders, 
for where on one face, usually at one end, we have a smoothly rubbed 
and polished surface, we have on another, usually at the opposite 
end, a roughly abraded and pitted area that indicates the fact that 
the stone was used as a pounder or pestle too. 

The lower grindstone is usually a flat slab perhaps 30 cm. square, 
and has a shallow groove some 5 to 8 cm. wide and up to 2 cm. deep, 
the groove running almost the full length of the face. 


(11) Artefacts with Ground Edges. 


Apart from the artefacts referred to above where pecking, abrading, 
and polishing appear, the Smithfield Industry has no parallel with 
the orthodox Neolithic of Palaearctic regions. The makers of Smith- 
field implements never, so far as we know, attempted the typical 
Neolithic axe or celt, and, with exceedingly rare exceptions, none of 
their implements show that they ever attempted to make a true 
cutting or chopping edge by polishing. One of the exceptions 
referred to is a thin slab of sandstone one edge of which has un- 
doubtedly been Bround to a cutting edge (Plate XXXIII, fig. 2). 
This is from the type “ B” station — @ 27, Avalon. 

Mr. Heese has figured ground and polished fragments from Brits- 
town, Cape,* not unlike the above, and these, with a few other similar 


* Heese, ‘Ground and Polished Stone Implements from the N.W. Karroo,” 
S.A.J.S., vol. xxiii, 1926. 


The Smithfield Industry im the Orange Free State. 167 


finds, constitute our nearest approach to cutting implements, and are 
the only types that it has been possible so far to associate with the 
Smithfield Industry. 


(12) Bone Tools and Ornaments. 


(i) Tools —It has not yet been discovered whether bone was 
definitely used in “ A” or not, but its use is certainly indicated by the 
presence of grooved stones of Type (a), the tool-sharpener. In “B,” 
however, unconventionalised bone points do occur, and that figured 
in Plate XX XV, fig. 1,1s from @81, the Wepener “B” station. In 
“C” they are common (Plate XXXV, fig. 2). These points are 
merely unconventionalised awl-like tools, first scraped and then 
rubbed to a point at one end, the other beimg left untouched, small 
straight bones of birds and animals being used. 

In the Cape Province, however, Goodwin has been able to associate 
conventionalised bone arrow-tips with Smithfield remains. These 
conventionalised types are: (a) a point that consists of a bone rubbed 
to a pencil shape, about 10 mm. thick and 80 mm. in length. The 
one end is pointed, the other squared off to a platform at the butt, 
the platform being about 4 mm. in diameter. The shape is thus 
very much that of an elongated torpedo, with one end cut off square. 
(6) The other type is thinner, about 6 mm. thick and 80 mm. long, 
pointed at both ends and usually more shapely than the other. The 
use of similar points by the surviving San folk in South West Africa 
has frequently been described. 

(ii) Ornaments.—Plate XXXV, fig. 3, shows a small artificially 
pierced fragment of bone, apparently used as an ornament. This is 
from 0103, Ventershoek “C” site. The perforation is hour-glass. 

Interesting in this connection is the fact that Neville Jones figures — 
an exactly similar specimen from a Rhodesian Wilton site.* 


(13) Ostrich Egg-shell. 


(i) Uteletarian.—Extensive remains of ostrich egg-shells on all 
Smithfield settlements indicate their use throughout the Industry, 
but the only utilitarian need that the shell proper is known to have 
served is that of a receptacle for storing and carrying water. One end 
of the shell was opened and the contents emptied out. The opening 
was then trimmed to a neat circular shape and the sides near the hole 


* Neville Jones, “‘ The Stone Age in Rhodesia,” Oxford, fig. 24, p. 73, No. 5. 


168 Annals of the South African Museum. 


bored for the “ strings ’’ from which the egg was suspended. These 
receptacles were often ornamented by having ladders or a series of 
chevrons incised into the shell round the periphery near the mouth. 
All drilled holes are conical—except after considerable use. 

(ii) Ornamental.—(a) Pendants.—Fragments of shell were cut into 
crude ellipses and each ellipse perforated by a small hole near one of 
the foci. Occasionally the periphery was scalloped (Plate XXXV, 
fig. 7). 

(b) Beads.—Hgg-shell beads are exceedingly common in “B” 
and “C.” The average bead is a small ring of shell with an external 
diameter that seldom exceeds 8 mm. and averages about 5 mm. 
(Plate XX XV, fig. 8). The hole through the centre is large and, when 
fresh, always hour-glass or conical. The beads were strung on gut or 
sinew and the “chain” often of appreciable length. From the neck 
of a skeleton (San) exhumed on a “ B”’ site—@ 29, Slagtkraal—lI col- 
lected sufficient beads to complete a 4-foot chain. 

Where it is definitely known that whole-egg water-carriers or 
receptacles, pendants, and beads, particularly beads, were extensively 
made and used during the “ B” and “C” phases, we cannot be so 
sure that the same may be said of “A,” despite the fact that un- 
adulterated “A” sites have yielded quantities of shell fragments. 
In this connection, however, it must always be borne in mind that the 
openness of the vast majority of sites has not been conducive to the 
preservation of bone and shell tools and ornaments, and in the com- 
parative age of “ A” may lie the explanation of the meagreness of 
the occurrence of these artefacts. 

(c) Shell, Bone, and Pottery Borers.—The implements used for 
piercing and boring holes in ostrich egg-shell beads, bone pendants, 
and pottery are actually miniature or pygmy stone-borers, on which, 
it may legitimately be said, the secondary trimming is barely macro- 
scopic (Plate XXXV, fig. 9). These ostrich egg-shell borers, as they 
are called, are usually triangular in cross-section, taper to a point, 
average about 2:5 cm. in length and about 4 mm. in greatest diameter 
at the butt. It is likely, however, that tapered flakes of suitable 
size and shape and with suitably sharp edges were also used. 


(14) Pottery. 


Sherds are found on all Smithfield settlements and factory sites, 
but these are so uncommon on “ A ” sites that it is not yet felt possible 
definitely to associate the art of the potter with the maker of “A” 


The Smithfield Industry in the Orange Free State. 169 


implements. In “B” and “C,” however, pottery makes a definite 
appearance. The pot and sherds illustrated on Plate XX XVI are from 
“B” factory sites—the former from @42, Eagle’s Nest, the latter 
from @27, Avalon—the type “ B”’ station. 

The holes in the fragments are conical, tapering inwards, and were 
obviously bored after the pot had been baked. The Hagle’s Nest pot 
is U-bottomed, about 11 cm. high, and stands in unstable equilibrium. 
It is the only known whole pot from the high-veld open sites. 

All the pottery contains grit obtained from ground rock, was well 
baked but not glazed. The openings are wide, the rims always 
slightly everted, and the general contours and size often strongly 
reminiscent of those of an ostrich egg. When any design appears it 
is always of simple type—impressed or incised. No colouring matter 
was used. 

In association with Smithfield remains in the Cape Province comes 
a type of pot of particular interest, and I am indebted to Mr. Goodwin 
for the following description: ‘In size the pot is generally large, 
standing perhaps 40 cm. high. The neck is wide, with a slightly 
everted rim. Below the neck the pot bellies out to an egg-like 
shape, the point of the egg forming the roundly pointed base. 
Immediately below the neck are two lugs, mammiform in shape and 
situated at extreme opposite sides. These lugs are pierced from side 
to side, parallel with the pot wall and horizontal, by a hole about 
5 mm. across. In a few instances grass rope has been found passed 
through these lugs as though for suspension. Decoration, incised or 
impressed on the clay before baking, appears.” 

Excellent illustrations of these pots appear in Péringuey’s “ The 
_ Stone Age of South Africa.” * Lugs with grass ropes passed through 
them are to be seen in the McGregor Museum, Kimberley. 


(15) Wood. 


A single wood point (Plate XX XV, fig. 4), charred at one end and 
suggestive of a fire-stick, is all we have. Itis from the Ventershoek 
“C” assemblage. 


(16) Glass. 


The use of modern glass for implements is a subject that has given 
rise to a great deal of controversy, and, although many scores of so- 


* Ann. S. Afr. Mus., vol. viii, 1911, pl. xxiv. See also Burkitt, South Africa’s 
Past in Stone and Paint, Cambridge, 1928, fig. xix. 


170 Annals of the South African Museum. 


called glass implements are to be seen in various local museums, it 
would appear as though very few of these are acceptable. Among 
the many thousands of implements, collected from over two hundred 
factory sites and sett]ements, all of which were unknown and unworked 
when first visited, I have only two glass implements and one of these 
is doubtful. Itis, however, patent that the other, definitely associated 
with “ B,” has been artificially trimmed. This implement (Plate 
XXXV, fig. 5) is a thumbnail scraper from @71, Bethulie. It is 
from an open site situated on the right bank of the Orange River, 
some three miles from the nearest habitation, and there is nothing 
about the locality either to attract or invite attention. I mention 
this because it is no picnic spot, and few civilised men, I am sure, 
have passed this way. 

The site yielded a typical assortment of “B”’.types (see Site 
List), and among the scrapers was this one of glass, and no other 
glass was found at or near the site. It is a typical thumbnail 
scraper, rather scratched, and apparently pitted by wind-blown 
sand. 

The occurrence, to my mind, is by no means surprising ; rather is 
it surprising that more genuine glass implements have not been 
found. There can be little doubt that both the “B” and “C” 
variations were practised by the aboriginal San, and glass was intro- 
duced into this country long ere these aboriginals disappeared from 
the area under review. A parallel is to be found in Australia, and 
we should expect to find glass tools indubitably associated with the 
remains of primitive man. 


(17) Orescentic or Lunate Scrapers. 


Among the mass of Smithfield implements collected, only two 
crescentic scrapers have so far been found. Strangely enough, these 
are both from the De Kiel Oost “A” site. Plate XXXV, fig. 110, 
shows the specimen in my private collection. The other was found 
by Burkitt and is in his Cambridge collection. The occurrence is 
provocative and strange, and one tends to regard it as of extraneous 
origin—as though the maker of Wilton implements dropped his 
passport en passant.* The nearest known Wilton site is near Kim- 
berley, about sixty miles north-west of De Kiel Oost. 

A few crescents were found in the @48, Dieplaagte-@54, Meer- 


* Vide infra, p. 187, “‘ Stratification.” 


The Smithfield Industry in the Orange Free State. al 


landsvlei area, over seventy miles north of De Kiel Oost.* These 
also appear in Smithfield assemblages, but the data at our disposal 
is insufficient to justify any expression of opinion. 

An essential feature of a crescentic scraper is that it be isoscelene in 
lateral cross-section as shown in Section x—x, fig. 116, Plate XXXV. 


(18) Skeletal Materval. 


But for a single exception, all the human remains so far recovered 
from Smithfield settlements—“‘ B” and “C” only—have been pure 
“ Bush ” or San. 

When a skeleton is exhumed or found at or near any site it is, of 
course, impossible to say whether the remains belonged to it or not, 
but so many widely separated sites have yielded pure San remains 
that it appears reasonable to assume that these folk were the makers 
and users of “ B” and “C ” types. 

But for the exception referred to above, indicative of ceremonial 
inhumation of an impure “ Bushman,” f all the skeletons so far 
found suggest rather a haphazard shoving away of the body into any 
convenient crevice or cavity either in rock or in the ground and there 
covering it slightly with earth. 


THE SMITHFIELD “‘ A” INDUSTRY. 


Remains of “A” are fairly extensive, but few factory sites are 
known and these are all in the open, along or in the immediate 
vicinity of the Riet River Valley in the south-western corner of the 
Orange Free State. The appended map shows the known extent 
of the industry, and, although Smithfield remains are found beyond 
the borders of the area shown, this area has been specially selected 
because (i) it has been more elaborately and carefully studied than any 
other, (11) we have an unusual mass of field observations and data on 
which to build our assumptions, (i11) the Industry is more freely and 
fully developed here, and (iv) the entire series—“ A,” “ B,” and “C” 
—appears in the field. 

The total number of factory sites recorded is 104, and of these ° 
only five are unadulterated Smithfield “A.” The best site is -@ 37, 
on the farm Lockshoek No. 191, district Fauresmith, illustrated on 


* J. P. Johnson, The Stone Implements of South Africa, 1908; Geological and 
Archaeological Notes on Orangia, 1910. 
+ Lowe, ‘“‘ Modder River Man,” S.A.J.S., vol. xxiii, 1926. 


172 Annals of the South African Museum. 


the field sketch opposite (fig. A). The implements and artefacts 
collected here represent a typical factory-site assemblage, and 
include :— 


1. Concavo-convex scrapers. 9. Grindstones. 

2. Large circular scrapers. 10. Pounders and grinders. 

3. Duckbill end-scrapers. 11. Fabricators—Cores. 

4. Side-scrapers. Detaching - ham- 
5. Trimmed points. mers. 

6. Stone borers. Trimming-stones. 
7. Bored stones. Anvils. 


8. Grooved stones. 

So far as the Smithfield Industry is concerned, the concavo-convex 
and large circular scrapers are known to occur in “ A” only. Notched 
scrapers do not appear, and other elements that make a definite 
appearance in the industry, but that have not yet been found to 
belong to “ A,” are thumbnail scrapers, ostrich egg-shell beads and 
their borers—though the presence of grooved bead-stones is indicative 
of bead: manufacture. The association of pottery has also not yet 
been satisfactorily established, despite the fact that sherds have been 
found. 

The workmanship generally is cruder than in the other and, in my 
opinion, later groups, and the implements are larger. The largest 
duckbill found measures approximately 110 mm. by 60 mm. by 
12 mm., while the average fluctuates about 60 mm. by 24 mm. by 
5 mm., which is not only above the average of the other groups but 
actually ranks amongst the largest specimens. 

Considered as a whole, there can be no doubt that the “ A” group 
has every appearance of having antedated both “B” and “C.” 
“A” and “B” sites frequently overlap—at De Kiel Oost, for example 
—and such occurrences tend, to the uninitiated, to be most mis- 
leading ; but fortunately, in almost every such instance, the “A” 
implements tend generally to be more deeply patinated and more 
heavily incrusted than those of “ B ’’—an exceedingly helpful fact. 
The overlapping of “ A” and “ C” sites is not known. 

It is, however, only when we examine an unadulterated “ A ”’ site 
that the true significance of its separateness and distinct morphology 
are appreciated. Such a site is at Lockshoek, where a full range of 
“A” implements was found and where there was no admixture of 
implements characteristic, in the order of importance of occurrence 
and technique, of the “ B” and “C ” phases. 

It was during this phase that I believe rock engraving was 


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SMITHFIELD 


INDUSTRY 
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ric. A. 


Fie. A.—Locality sketch of Smithfield “ A”? Type Station: -@ 37, Lockshoek, No. 191, 
District Fauresmith, O.F.S. 


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The Smithfield Industry in the Orange Free State. 175 


practised, for, apart from the almost regular contiguity of “A” 
sites and rock engravings, we have in typical “A” assemblages, 
rock fragments and one implement that have artificially incised or 
engraved lines on their surfaces. The implement has already been 
described (Plate XXVIII, fig. 1). The artificially incised lines on rock 
fragments, a specimen of which is shown on Plate XXVIII, fig. 3, 
comprise little figures of simple geometric design, mainly ladders or 
chevrons. The engraved fragment here illustrated was found on the 
De Kiel Oost “ A” site and is in Burkitt’s Cambridge collection.* 

The subject of rock engravings constitutes a study in itself, and it 
is not possible to discuss the matter in detail here. It is sufficient 
to note that these engravings usually depict animals. One finds 
on a single site: elephant, giraffe, rhinoceros, eland, a variety of 
antelope—large and small—baboons, jakhal, meerkat, human beings, 
snakes, simple geometric figures, etc. The technique varies con- 
siderably, and it would seem that there are four distinct styles : 

(a) Profile only ; in long, thin scratched lines. Deep patina. 

(6) Profile only; in short, stubby lines. Superimposed on (a). 

Less deep patina. 
(c) Profile only, but broad and pecked. No lines. Light patina. 
(d) Pecked profile with body either wholly or partially pecked in. 
Hye usually shown. Light patina. 

Hach object is depicted as a separate entity. Grouping or com- 
position does not appear. 

One of the finest examples of rock engraving known is reproduced 
as a double-page illustration in the Illustrated London News, vol. 173, 
No. 4656, of 14th July 1928. The discoverer’s attribution of great age 
to this work of art, however, finds no support among local prehistorians. 

For an analysis of rock engravings, I would refer my readers to 
Schapera’s interesting statement on certain stylistic affinities with 
the Capsian.f Schapera deals with both engravings and paintings, 
and, quite apart from any consideration of associated or contiguous 
artefacts, concludes that the engravings belong to a more primitive 
and earlier period than the paintings—an illuminating and important 
conclusion. 

One point of extreme interest in connection with the “A” phase 
is the fact that in the assemblage of material collected on the Faure- 
smith Industry type-station on the farm Brakfontein, No. 231, district 

* Burkitt, op. cit., fig. xviii. 

{+ Schapera, “‘ Stylistic Affinities,” S.A.J.S., vol. xxii, 1925. See also Burkitt, 
op. cit., pp. 145-152. 


176 Annals of the South African Museum. 


Fauresmith, O.F.8., appear a few unusually well-developed end- and 
concavo-convex scrapers.* Had these implements not been found 
so definitely associated with Fauresmith material, it would, despite 
the unusually deep incrustation, have been the most natural thing 
to allocate them to Smithfield “A.” It is just such an occurrence, 
singular as it is, that inclines me to the belief that the earliest Smith- 
field arrivals actually came into contact with, if they did not here 
evolve from, a Palaeo-anthropic type. 

It is also illuminating to note that the Fauresmith Inducheg’ 
advanced Acheulean to Mousterian (La Micoque) in type, appears to 
be an offshoot from and an improvement on the Stellenbosch,t 
Chellean-type, and that in the hey-dey of its practice we find distinct 
Mousterian influences that recur in the Middle Stone Age and in 
Smithfield “A.” The heavy circular scraper with serrated edge, 
for example, is here suggestive of a Mousterian influence, for occur- 
rences of other implements with serrated edges have, in South Africa, 
been found only in assemblages that reflect Mousterian affinities. 

It is difficult otherwise to explain why this phase not only differs 
so from, but preceded the “B” and “C” with their more neo- 
anthropic types, and why the latest or “C” phase shows such a 
leaning towards the typically Neo-anthropic Wilton Industry. 

I find it difficult to escape the suspicion that the earliest Smithfield 
arrivals actually came into contact with, if they did not evolve 
from or were influenced by, a strong but earlier local element that left 
its mark in the forms that survive and appear in the “A” phase 
only, and that these forms were discarded when the later Smithfield 
peoples, with their more fully developed neo-anthropic characteristics, 
put in an appearance. 

SMITHFIELD “ B.” 


This group is confined almost entirely to open sites and not only 
covers the entire province shown, but extends considerably beyond 
its borders. The best and fullest development and most extensive 
remains are undoubtedly to be found in the Orange, Caledon, Riet, 
Kaffir, and Modder River valleys—particularly the Riet. The 
accompanying map (Plate XX XVII) shows 92 factory sites, 35 of 
which are in the Riet River Valley. All of these are in the open. 

The type station is @27, Avalon, a sketch map of which is shown 
opposite (fig. B). An idea of the richness of this site may be gleaned 

* Goodwin and Lowe, “‘ The Fauresmith Industry,” Ann. 8. Afr. Mus., 1928. 


+ Lowe, “‘The Fauresmith Coup-de-Poing,” S8.A.J.8., vol. xxiv, 1927. Also 
| Burkitt, op. cit., pp. 167-168. 


SOM es 


3 
ORCHARD OR 
=I 


wm & wo > 2 G 


\ STONE WALL 
> 


oer 


SMITHFIELD B 
FACTORY SITES 
SHOWN DOTTED. 


SCALE 


ha 100 YARDS —>| 


<—. Way uUogsie 


Fic, B.—Locality sketch of Smithfield ‘‘ B” Type Station: @ 27, Avalon, No. 554, 
District Fauresmith, O.F.S. 


The Smithfield Industry in the Orange Free State. 7) 


from the fact that, when it was first discovered, I was able in the 
course of an afternoon’s work to co-ordinate and collect over fifteen 
hundred exhibition specimens from a section of the station that 
covered less than an acre. Later I added considerably to this already 
fine and representative assemblage, and was able to give many 
hundreds of specimens to various local museums and universities. 
It is from here that the best assortment of grindstones, grooved 
stones, pottery, bored stones, and stone borers comes, and, although 
many sites have yielded similar assemblages, none has produced such 
a quantity of “finished” specimens. There can be little doubt 
that in this area there once thrived a dense population or that it 
supported settlements over a long period of time. 
The complete list of “ B” types includes the following :— 


1. Duckbill end-scrapers. 14. Ostrich egg-shell beads and 
2. Thumbnail scrapers. pendants. 

3. Side-scrapers. 15. Incised ostrich egg-shells. 

4. Notched scrapers. 16. Bone points. 

5. Trimmed points. 17. Pottery. 

6. Stone borers. 18. Glass implements. 

7. Bored stones. 19. Implements with ground edges. 

8. Stone rings. 20. Fabricators—Cores. 

9. Grooved stones. Detaching - ham- 
10. Grindstones. mers. 
11. Pounders and grinders. Trimming-stones. 
12. Stone palettes. Anvils. 


13. Ostrich egg-shell borers. 

This list makes it immediately apparent that (i) concavo-convex 
and large circular scrapers are missing, and (11) that thumbnail and 
notched scrapers, ostrich egg-shell beads and borers, pottery, bone, 
glass, and the art of grinding edges definitely appear for the first time. 

The implements tend generally to be smaller and more wieldy, and 
the retouch surer than in “ A.” By far the commonest implement 
is the duckbill end-scraper. Its numerical increase and preponder- 
ance over the other types have now multiplied in an almost ludicrous 
manner. I have collected as many as seventeen without moving 
my feet, and well remember Neville Jones’s amazement when he 
collected fourteen in a similar fashion. 

The largest duckbills seldom exceed the average of “A,” “de. 
60 mm. by 24 mm. by 5 mm., and the average of “ B”’ would measure 
about 30 mm. by 15 mm. by 4 mm. 

The entire assemblage is definitely neo-anthropic in character, and, 

VOL. XXVII. 12 


180 Annals of the South African Museum. 


excepting those implements that include polishing, it may rightly 
be said that the characteristics reflected are paralleled in the Mediter- 
ranean and Huropean areas by Capsio-Aurignacian types, and that 
the general indications suggest an evolution from Smithfield “ A.” 

It is during this phase that the manufacture of bored stones develops 
into such a marked feature, and it may legitimately be claimed for 
“B” that it was an age of both serious and intense specialisation in 
these and other implements that bespeak the presence of a nomadic 
hunter of the great open veld. We have all the tools required to cut 
and shape sticks, clubs, bows and arrows, to sharpen wood and bone 
points, to clean and dress skins or scrape the meat off bones, to bray 
raw-hide thongs, to dig and grind wild roots and edible foodstufis 
that it was possible to procure in the plains so frequented and favoured 
by these people. 

The “B” phase also shows an occasional contiguity to both rock 
engravings and cave paintings when, in the former case, typical 
“A” implements are absent, and in the latter, typical “C” 
implements in the order of importance of occurrence are also 
absent, and it would seem as though the industry is part-associable 
with both these artistic developments. 

While it is impossible to gauge the full age of the industry, it is 
definitely known that its practice persisted until long after the arrival 
of Europeans. The use of glass alone proves this, and of further 
interest in this connection is the fact that, toward the close of 1927, I 
actually came into contact with one of the very few survivors of the 
now, so far as the Union is concerned, almost extinct San folk. 

On the farm Schaapplaats, on the left bank of the Vet River, 
immediately opposite @ 64, Il Paradiso, about sixteen miles due west 
of Theunissen, district Winburg, O.F.S., was the aged “ Bushman ” 
(the popular term is used) whose photograph is here reproduced 
(fig. D). He was a child when his father was captured and “ tamed,” 
and was brought up in service on the farm where his father had lived 
and hunted before him, and where I actually found him—civilised 
but slim. In addition to Afrikaans, in which tongue we conversed, 
he spoke an original San dialect and told of his father’s use of stone 
for the manufacture of scrapers for paring down and shaping wooden 
clubs, bows and arrows, for cleaning skins, preparing karosses and 
taking the meat off bones, and although the material to hand where 
we met was intractable—coarse sandstone and dolerite—he actually 
struck flakes and demonstrated the secondary trimming of end- and 
side-scrapers. He also explained that sharp chips of stone were used 


The Smithfield Industry in the Orange Free State. 181 


as arrow-tips, but knew of no conventionalised shape. The chips 
were fixed by means of a natural gum-cement and gut. He was 
eager to take me out on the veld to show me the plants that furnished 
their poison and medicine, but, most unfortunately, I had not 
sufficient time at my disposal to make an investigation. 

But for his chin, which is insufficiently receding and small, all his 
features are pure “ Bush ” :— 


Height. . 4 feet 8} inches. 

Frame , : . Dwarfish. 

Face : . Triangular and fox-like. Forehead 
almost vertical. 

Hyes : . Small and sunk. 

Nose : ‘ . Broad, flat, no bridge. 

Jaws : : . Prognathus. 

Kars. : . No lobes. 

Hair. : . Peppercorn. Twisted and wiry. 

Colour 3 3 . Yellowish brown. 

Skin j . Loose. 

Feet and ea. . Diminutive. 

Limbs : ; . Slender. 

Back ‘ : . Hollow. 

Chest Well developed. 


I was able to hel Miss Bleek, our noted student of Bushman 
Janguages, to visit him, and in a recent letter (10th June 1928) she 
says: “I got down enough words to place the language. The 
difference between this speech and the Colonial Bushman’s is distinct. 
It is much nearer that of the Bushman of Griqualand West and 
‘Gordonia—how much I can’t tell until [am at home and can compare.”’ 
She is satisfied that he is a “ Bushman,” and we may expect to hear 
more of him later. To me, he is a link with Smithfield “ B.” 

The distribution of the industry extends considerably beyond the 
borders of the Orange Free State, but the area shown contains the 
best and most fully developed remains. 

The list of factory sites known, as well as the materials used, is 
given in the Site List. 

One aspect of “B” that cannot be ignored here is discussed in a 
statement made two years ago, and that is the probable relationship 
between the Smithfield and Wilton Industries.* That these industries 
are closely interrelated is beyond question, but when this earlier 


* Lowe, ‘‘ Wilton and Smithfield Industries,” S.A.J.S., vol. xxiii, 1926. Compare 
Burkitt, op. cit., pp. 93-94. 


182 Annals of the South African Museum. 


statement was made we had not yet recognised the great territorial 
extent of the Smithfield, neither did we appreciate the time covered 
by, nor did we know the many types included in, the Industry. The 
possibility of the existence of the groups or subdivisions now described 
was also not known. “A” and “C” had not yet been recognised, 
and the Smithfield Industry referred to described “ B”’ particularly 
but included also certain cave or “‘C” types. Now the combination 
of these latter groups, with no apparent relationship to any industry 
other than the Wilton, seemed at the time to represent a deterioration 
of this purer and more typically neo-anthropic prototype, but the sub- 
sequent discovery of “A,” and the recognition of this obviously earlier 
and probably true prototypic phase, throws so much fresh light on 
the problem that a revision of this earlier statement is necessary. 

Where now I do not accept the idea that the “ B ” phase represents 
a degraded Wilton, I must draw attention to the great probability 
of Wilton influences, either pure or impure, making themselves felt 
on the slowly evolving Smithfield groups, and point out that actually 
we may be dealing with a number of neo-anthropic invasions, and that 
both the “ B” and “ C ” phases may largely owe their differentiations, 
not only from the earlier Smithfield, but also from each other, to 
successive waves of more typically neo-anthropic influences, 1.e. to suc- 
cessive waves of Wilton peoples coming down from the north. The 
occasional occurrences of crescentic scrapers and of points worked on 
both sides—Solutrean-type—so characteristic of the Rhodesian Wilton* 
in typical Smithfield assemblages rather supports the suggestion. 

Whether the incoming and migratory Wilton remained pure or 
not, it is impossible to say, but the probability is that certain changes 
did take place. That the Wilton does vary we know, for, whereas 
bored stones are exceedingly rare in Rhodesia and have not yet been 
definitely associated there with the Wilton, they do occur in the 
Wilton in the Cape, and the significance of this, to my mind, is that 
the Cape Wilton represents the re-emergence of migratory movements 
after the passage through and contact with the zone of Smithfield 
influence. 

* Neville Jones, “‘ Stone Age in Rhodesia,’ Oxford, 1926. 

When this book was written, the new nomenclature had not yet been fixed, but. 
the Wilton Industry is described on page 29 in the Classification Table under 
‘* South African Stages, (b) : Cave and surface deposits, with implements of generally 
accepted Bushman origin.” An excellent illustration of a Wilton assemblage is 
given on page 73, fig. 24. Nos. 32 and 33 are crescentic scrapers; No. 1] isa 


Solutrean-type point; No. 15 is a duckbill; and Nos. 17, 19, and 20 are thumbnail 
scrapers. 


The Smithfield Industry in the Orange Free State. 183 


SMITHFIELD “ C.” 

This is essentially the cave phase of the Smithfield Industry and, 
as such, includes certain new and characteristic features that appear 
only in the other groups, when they do appear, in positions of consider- 
ably less prominence. The most marked differences are: (i) the imple- 
ments generally have diminished in size and the workmanship is finer ; 
(ii) that, whereas in “‘ B” the duckbill end-scraper is the most common, 
in “C” it is almost entirely replaced by the thumbnail (Plate XX XV, 
fig. 6) ; (ii) notched scrapers, pottery, and bone points are common ; 
(iv) cave paintings are now a regularly associated feature; and (v) 
the concavo-convex and large circular scrapers of “ A,” as well as the 
rock engravings of this earlier phase, are now definitely absent. 

The best station is O 103, Ventershoek, on the Basutoland border, 
near Wepener, O.F.S., shown on the field sketch overleaf (fig. C). 
The site isin a cave about a quarter of a mile off the Wepener-Mafeteng 
main road, and most of the implements found were in the debris from 
and talus immediately below the cave. The walls are richly decorated 
with paintings—typical “ Bushman paintings’”’—and here, too, is 
one of the finest panels I have ever seen. On an area of about 
9 square feet we have depicted a scene that is best described as 
“The Raid.” The work is in polychrome, black, browns, reds, 
yellows, and white, and shows a party of “ Bushmen” (red ochre) 
chasing off a head of cattle (piebald—in all the colours mentioned 
above), while another body of “‘ Bushmen ”’ (red ochre), armed with 
bows and arrows, is fighting a rearguard action against a horde of 
pursuing Bantu (black, but dressed in skins and ornaments in various 
colours). Arrows (white) literally rain on the oncoming Bantu, and 
the entire effect is a masterpiece of realism and action.” 

A complete assemblage of implements and artefacts of “C” 
comprises :— 


1. Thumbnail scrapers. 11. Grooved stones. 

2. Duckbill end-scrapers. 12. Ostrich egg-shell beads. 

3. Side-scrapers. 13. Ostrich egg-shell borers. 

4. Notched scrapers. 14. Pottery. 

5. Trimmed points. 15. Bone points. 

6. Solutrean-type arrow- 16. Painting materials. 

heads (?) 17. Fabricators—Cores. 

7. Stone borers. Detaching - ham- 

8. Bored stones. mers. 

9. Grindstones. Trimming-stones. 
10. Pounders and grinders. Anvils. 


* Compare Sollas, ‘‘ Ancient Hunters,” fig. 233, p. 434. Compare also Périn- 
guey, op. cit., pp. 166-169, pl. xxv. 


184 Annals of the South African Museum. 


The trimmed points, side and notched scrapers are identical with 
those of “ B,” the latter occurring much more frequently. 

Bored stones and their borers become less common, but the polishing 
of the former is of a higher quality. Pottery and bone become much 
more common and occur now as regular and important features. 
Quantities of ochreous painting materials are found, and we are able 
definitely to say that the cave paintings were done by the makers of 
“C ” implements. 

The tanged arrow-heads shown on Plate XXXYV, fig. 10, are from 
the vicinity of O 97, Modderpoort, on the right bank of the Caledon 
River, near Ladybrand, O.F.S., and, although I have made exhaustive 
searches in and near the vicinity of these finds, I have found only 
Smithfieldian remains, and it does not seem impossible, though 
admittedly the idea is incautious, that these are Smithfield. They are 
the only three known, and I record the occurrence as one unusually 
problematical and interesting. The case, however, may be a parallel 
with the De Kiel Oost crescents. 

It would appear as though the practice of this phase was confined 
entirely to the mountainous areas of the north-eastern Cape, the 
eastern Free State, Basutoland, and the western borders of Natal, 
with possible extensions along the Drakensberg to the north and south 
of the areas described. The best development undoubtedly took 
place in the Caledon River Valley, 7.e. along the border of the Orange 
Free State and Basutoland. The list of known factory sites and 
materials used is given in the Addendum. 

The question of materials to hand is important and a study of 
the data in the Site List illuminating. When we review the entire 
Smithfield range, we immediately notice the decrease in sizes of 
implements: “A” to “B” to “C.” The ubiquitous duel 
end-scraper of “ A,” for example, fluctuates from 110 mm. to 30 mm. 
in length ; in ““ B” from 40 mm. to 20 mm., and in “ C ” from 30 mm. 
to 10 mm. The workmanship becomes finer and, on the whole, the 
retouch surer. It is probably this decrease in size that gives rise in 
““C” to the characteristic thumbnail scraper, for this actually is a 
diminutive duckbill with a tendency to fan out over the trimmed 
end. Another influence, apart from the probability of neo-anthropic 
waves from the north, and an important one on this tendency to 
decrease, lies in the material to hand. Where in “A” and “B” 
lydianite was almost exclusively used, in ‘“‘ C ” it very seldom appears. 
The makers of “C” implements used chalcedony, chert, quartz, 
agate, jasper, and similar flint-like materials—collected in quantity 


J 


dics Ta Al f ee 


Q 
LA r 
es 
) Ii 7 { 
ae e 1AM zi 
<— ae 
RIiSinG Z- = 
GROUND =. C 
3 <=: r 
0 ag =- 
= | 
PAINTINGS#Z.” a 
a 4 f/, 
| NE U 
=~ ~ 
8S: y 


<a 
= a eb aE Rae: Deere 
=9 4 
x — 
COON ESS i 
Sk SSNs + 
iG , ( ETENG®™ 
ae Date ¥ Ut MAF 
Wy Or | - 
Wty!» 
8 Yy | 
- ¥ 
ZG, : | Wi gee eee ee 
Ze My oo Soaeese 
ol oe” TAN 
=e i 
Sey 
CAZES ! 
Zeal eM 
2 
= | 4 CT) Ww 
MES: SMITHFIELD Cc 
| v FACTORY SITE AND 
ie SETTLEMENT IN 
1 2 CAVES AT © :O103. 
x» Oo gh ..g 
| my) SCALE (Get t 
a vy 
[4-100 YARDS 
- Y 


Fie © .« 


Fie C.—Locality sketch of Smithfield “‘C”’ Type Station: ©O103, Ventershoek, 
District Wepener, O.F.8. 


att > 
BH: te 4% 


The Smithfield Industry in the Orange Free State. 187 


in the rivers and streams that drain the volcanics of the Drakensberg 
Mountains (see “ Geological Notes,” p. 193). All this material was 
obtainable in small sizes only, chiefly as water-worn pebbles, and 
primitive man was therefore obliged, once he had taken to the moun- 
tains where there is almost a complete absence of lydianite or 
indurated shale, to be content with small flakes. 

For reproductions of rock or cave paintings of this phase, I must 
refer my readers to the remarkably fine reproductions in Miss Helen 
Tongue’s “ Bushman Paintings.” * It is also anticipated that the 
Carnegie Institute will soon publish Stow’s equally fine collection. 
Miss Bleek is presently busy preparing this for publication. 


STRATIFICATION, 


When the term Smithfield was originally invented, it was intended 
to imply and describe only that industry here referred to as “ B,” 
but this paper, it is hoped, makes it clear that the results of later and 
more elaborate field-work oblige us to recognise at least three closely 
interrelated, but distinct, industrial and lithicultural groups. The 
term Smithfield Industry now includes the subdivisions herein 
referred to as “ A,” “ B,” and “ C,” these possibly being the Lower, 
Middle, and Upper phases. 

So far as time-sequence within the Smithfield proper is concerned, 
it has been shown that the only fairly definite sequence is that ‘“‘ A ”’ 
has every appearance of having preceded both “B” and “C,” 
whereas it is more than probable that these latter phases were largely, 
if not wholly, coeval—‘‘ B”’ in the open and “C” in the caves. It 
would also seem as though they flourished contemporaneously with 
the Wilton. The affinities between “B” and “C” and the Wilton 
are astonishingly marked. This applies most particularly to the cave 
or “C” Smithfield and the Wilton, for it is almost correct to say that 
Smithfield “ C ”’ is a crescentless Wilton. This typically neo-anthropic 
Wilton, so strongly reminiscent of the Upper Capsian of North Africa, 
is immediately recognisable from ‘“‘ A” and largely so from “ B,” 
but it is only just separable from “C.”’ The vast majority of “C” 
Smithfield and Wilton sites are under rock-shelters or in caves, and 
both are definitely associable with cave paintings of Eastern Spanish 
style, and the fact that they are closely allied is irrefutable, but just 
how it is presently impossible to say. My personal leanings are 
toward the “successive wave” theory, 7.€. successive waves of 


* Bushman Paintings, Oxford, 1909. 


188 Annals of the South African Museum. 


typically Neo-anthropic (Wilton) people moving southwards and there 
influencing the already “ settled ’? communities. 

So far as Southern Africa is concerned, Rhodesia, in my opinion, is 
the real home of the Wilton Industry, despite the fact that equally 
typical, though occasionally somewhat altered, remains are found at 
the southern extremity of the continent. It is possible that most, 
if not all, the Cape sites represent the remains of those migratory 
waves that succeeded in penetrating the steppes of the high-veld and 
ultimately “ settled ’’ farther south. ? 

En route, however, certain “ contacts’ were made and the migra- 
tion was marked by apparently extraneous characteristics and 
influences left in its trail. Thus “ A,” for example, may have been 
slowly evolving into “ B” when one of the earlier “ waves”? made 
contact and, in certain areas, directed this evolution. And what 
more likely area can we find than the Orange Free State with its water- 
courses bounded in the west by the arid and waterless deserts of the 
Kalahari and in the east by the great chain of Drakensberg Moun- 
tains ? It is otherwise difficult to account for the presence of what 
actually are extraneous elements in the Smithfield—occasional 
crescentic scrapers and Solutrean-type points of Wilton type—and 
for the occurrence of bored stones within the Wilton in the Cape. 

Another and perhaps later wave made contact with an already 
changing “ B ”’ in and near the more mountainous areas of the Caledon 
Valley in the eastern Free State and so gave rise to “CC.” But it is 
impossible to theorise on the meagre archaeological evidence at 
present at our disposal. A great deal has still to be done before our 
problem is satisfactorily solved. The possibilities of degeneration 
must also be borne in mind. I emphasise this, because the physical 
degeneration of the aboriginal San folk, long ere they disappeared 
from the area under review, is an accepted fact. 

A thorough study of primitive art, particularly cave paintings, will 
throw much light on the subject and, incidentally, perhaps also 
provide a clue to routes followed. 


Although we have no stratification within the Smithfield proper, 
and cannot therefore establish chronological horizons, we have a mass 
of evidence to prove that the “ B”’ phase followed long after both the 
Karlier and Middle Stone Ages. Apart from the great differences in 
patina and incrustation already referred to, the following are the 
two most convincing and illuminating instances :— 

(1) At @56, Floris, O.F.S., we have a “B” surface site overlying 


re Ss 


. 


Fie, D.—Photograph of “ Bushman ” from Schaapplaats, 
District Winburg, O.F.S. 


| 


The Smithfield Industry in the Orange Free State. 189 


a 7 to 9 feet sterile stratum under which occur implementiferous 
gravels with Middle Stone Age—Mousterian-type—remains. The 
accompanying sketch (fig. E, p. 191) shows a cross-section that 
clearly demonstrates the state of affairs. 

(2) At @36, Lockshoek, No. 191, O.F.S., we have a “B”’ surface 
site overlying a 7-feet sterile stratum under which occur implementi- 
ferous gravels with Harlier Stone Age—Fauresmith or Acheuleo- 
Mousterian-type—remains as shown on the accompanying diagram 
and photograph (figs. F and G). 

From these and similar occurrences elsewhere, it is definitely 
known that “‘B” followed long after (1) the Middle Stone Age, and 
(2) the Earlier Stone Age. 

Despite recurring types, and a certain overlapping, every indication, 
whether in patina or incrustation, suggests that “ B ” also postdated 
“A” and probably antedated “‘ C ” in its beginnings. 


SUMMARY. 


The Smithfield Industry heralds the arrival of Neo-anthropic Man, 
-and with him the dawn of the Later Stone Age in South Africa. The 
entire assemblages of implements and artefacts are essentially Upper 
and Epipalaeolithic in character. 

The Industry comprises three distinct phases or sub-divisions, “ A,” 
“B,”’ and “C”; these, despite a certain overlapping and contem- 
poraneity, apparently represent the Lower, Middle, and Upper 
Periods.* 

Our present knowledge of the Industry is perhaps best summed up 
as follows :— 


Smithfield “A.” 


This has every indication of being the earliest phase of the Industry, 
and betokens the appearance in South Africa of Neo-anthropic Man. 
It shares certain common features with both the Middle and Earlier 
Stone Ages, but whether these imply a successive overlapping of these 
otherwise entirely distinct lithicultural groups, or suggest an 
evolutionary development, it is as yet impossible to say. We must 
wait for a more critical and exact study of the Middle Stone Age. 
Characterised by concavo-convex and large circular scrapers (Plate 
XXVI), it is associable with rock engravings, and its position on the 
time scale is the base of those Periods or Industries that follow the 


* Vide supra, p. 187, “‘ Stratification ”’; vide infra, p. 190, ‘‘ Smithfield ‘C.’ ” 


190 Annals of the South African Museum. 


Middle and belong to the Later Stone Age. Tentatively we may 
therefore regard it as the Lower Smithfield. 


Smithfield “ B.” 


This is the best represented and most fully developed phase of the 
Industry. It is definitely neo-anthropic in character, and, although 
it includes types reminiscent of the Middle Stone Age, it cannot be 
said to share any integral or regular features in common either with 
this or the Earlier Stone Age. Characterised by the duckbill end- 
scraper, Intense specialisation in bored stones and a complete absence 
of concavo-convex and large circular scrapers, it 1s associable with 
both rock engravings and cave paintings, and has every indication of 
being an offshoot from and advance on “ A,” thus constituting the 
Middle Smithfield. Excepting those implements that have ground 
edges, or are in any way polished, it is paralleled in the North by 
Capsio-Aurignacian features, not only lithiculturally, but also 
artistically. When Goodwin first drew attention to the affinities 
between the Smithfield and the Capsian,* the Smithfield he visualised 
was essentially this ““ B” or Middle phase. 


Smithfield “ C.” 


This is also definitely neo-anthropic, and, apart from certain typo- 
logical differentiations, it varies from “B” only in that it is essentially a 
cave industry regularly associated with cave-paintings. Characterised 
by a preponderance of thumbnail scrapers (Plate XXXYV, fig. 6), a 
regular use of bone and notched scrapers, it is, but for the absence of 
crescentic scrapers and any appreciable presence of “pointes ” 
worked on both sides, duplicated by the Wilton (“ Upper Capsian 
type ’’)—to which it appears to be as closely related as it js to “ B.” 
Concavo-convex and large circular scrapers are definitely absent, and, 
although its exact position is obscure, it would seem (1) to have 
followed long after “ A,’’ and (2) to have been largely, if not wholly, 
coeval with “B” and Wilton. Indications lead one to conceive it 
to be the latest offshoot from, and development or culminating 
phase of, the Smithfield—whatever influences brought about its 
creation—and therefore the Later Smithfield. 


* Goodwin, “ Capsian Affinities,” S.A.J.S., vol. xxii, 1925. 


FLOKVS . | 
swiTHFiEL. 8 Bo ~ @56- 


WUNERAL LATSIS. 
FACTORY SITE ON SURFACE . 


SAND. - J FLEET '- STLRILE , 


PLAT -18°- STELILE 


WATELR BORNE GRAVELS 
CONWTAUNING WHIDOLE STONE 
AGL PLWAINS - VNRPOLLED,— | 


ALSO AN ABUNDANCE OF 
NWUNLERALISED ANIMAL 
RENMIAIN S , 


SIG. Le « 


LOCKSITOLK 


KPPOMELLLELOOG SLY 7 . 


oe ee 
swm7del.o 4 ~ Q@s6E- 
FACTORY SITE OM SURFACE 


ALLUVWIUNMI- C708 FEET - 
STERILE. 


YATE BORNE GRAWELS 
CON TAYWING REMAINS OF 
fo = 
ee Pay of ea ie } BOO ee INDUS TR 


Fic. E.—Stratification between Smithfield ‘“B”’ and Middle Stone Age remains at @ 56, 
Floris Mineral Baths, O.F.S. 
mains at @ 36, 


Fic. F.—Stratification between Smithfield ‘‘ B” and Fauresmith re 
Lockshoek, O.F-.S. 


a rat tet 


The Smithfield Industry in the Orange Free State. 193 


GEOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES. 
(With special reference to the influence of material to hand.) 


A consideration of the map of the Orange Free State immediately 
reveals the fact that, whereas the western two-thirds, more par- 
ticularly the western half, is a monotone of undulating plains in the 
form of high-veld or steppes where rock outcrops are composed 
entirely of shales—Ecca and Beaufort of Permian and Triassic Age— 
and doleritic intrusions, the eastern third is mountainous and made 
up almost exclusively of sandstones of the Stormberg Series of 
Rhaetic-Jurassic Age. 

The altitude of the western two-thirds fluctuates about 4500 feet 
above sea-level, whereas that of the east rises rapidly until, along the 
eastern border, it exceeds 10,000 feet above sea-level. Inevitably, 
therefore, the main drainage is east-west, the rivers becoming more 
sluggish and tending over the flat western districts to meander. 

Tn the eastern mountainous areas the sandstones are either coarse- 
grained and intractable, or soft and friable, and always entirely un- 
suitable for the manufacture of stone implements. The shales of the 
central and western districts are even more unsuitable when pure, 
but vast and frequent intrusions of plutonic rock—Karroo Dolerites— 
occur throughout this latter area, andthe shales at and near the contact 
planes are baked or indurated and form “ indurated shale ”’ or lydianite 
—the extent of the induration or metamorphosis depending on the 
nearness of the shale to the intrusion. It is this lydianite that is so 
eminently suitable for the manufacture of stone implements, and 
primitive man turned to it eagerly and used it in preference to any 
other material when and wherever hecould. Outcrops are particularly 
extensive and frequent in the south-western districts, and this was 
probably the most influential factor in man’s choice of a settlement. 

Depending on the extent of induration and the consequent im- 
pregnation of iron compounds, lydianite varies from a rich silky 
dark-grey to black when freshly broken ; it is a flint-like stone with 
an even, conchoidal fracture ; all flakes have typical bulbs and so even 
is the texture of the material that “ripples ” seldom appear. 

On the other hand, the only suitable material available in any 
quantity in the eastern districts is that which originated in the 
volcanics of the Drakensberg—the culminating feature of the Storm- 
berg Series. These lavas cap only the highest chains of mountains, 
but in the loads of streams and rivers that drain the heights are 
quantities of chert, chalcedony, agate, quartz, and similar flinty 


194 Annals of the South African Museum. 


materials that are constantly being brought down to the valleys, 
and it was this supply that constituted practically the only material 
suitable for man’s needs. I say “ practically,’ because there are in 
the Stormberg Series occurrences of shale that have, in places, been 
indurated by dolerite or other igneous intrusions. Indurated out- 
crops, however, are infrequent. 

While lydianite occurs in bulk in the steppes of the central and 
western districts, the flinty rocks from the mountainous east are 
broken up and invariably reduced to water-worn pebbles, so that 
where it is possible to spall a good, large flake in the west, it is im- 
possible to do so in the east, and in this, very probably, we have a 
factor that contributed largely to the comparatively pygmy Smith- 
field “‘ C ”’ types and, incidentally, to the finer technique. 

The importance of material to hand cannot be over-emphasised. 
Instances are known where men of the same Jithicultural group 
produced good implements where the material was good and bad 
implements where the material was bad. A striking example occurs 
in our local Stellenbosch Industry. At Pretoria the material is bad 
and the implements are crude and ill formed, whereas along the Vaal, 
north of Kimberley, the material 1s good and the impiements, manu- 
factured by people of the same lithicultural horizon, are good and 
well formed. Further, it cannot be doubted that the material to 
hand in the Riet River Valley in the south-western Free State gave a 
considerable impetus to the development of the Fauresmith Industry. 
And so, too, we must take into account the possible influences of 
material to hand in the Smithfield, for, where lydianite alone is 
procurable, the “ B ” phase is “ heavier ” than it is where chalcedony, 
agate, and quartz are also available. The “B” sites along the 
Orange River, for example @70 and @71 near Bethulie, @74 
Goedemoed, @75 Aliwal North, and @76 Doctor’s Drift, have very 
many smaller implements than those along the Riet River Valley 
@1 to @36 inclusive, but the umplements and the order of wmportance 
of occurrence are the same, and the smaller sizes along the Orange River 
due entirely to the use of those flinty pebbles brought down from the 
volcanics of the Drakensberg. The Riet River does not drain volcanic 
areas, and its valley was populated not only because of a convenient 
water supply, but rather on account of the great abundance of suitable 
material in the valley and its immediate surroundings. 

This desirable material (lydianite) was probably the greatest 
attraction, for dense settlements thrived here not only during the 
Later Stone Age, but also during the Middle and Earlier Stone Ages. 


The Smithfield Industry in the Orange Free State. 195 


The Weathering of Lydiamte. 


When exposed to the elements away from the action of a regular 
water-supply, 7.e. when out on the veld, the iron contents are oxidised 
and the colour changes first to khaki and then through a rich light 
chocolate to a rusty brown. The discoloration exists in a crust that, 
in instances, reaches 3 mm. or say one-eighth of an inch in thickness. 

When exposed to the action of water or very humid conditions, 1.e. 
under the action of hydration in addition to oxidation, the exterior 
assumes a lighter hue and there is no appreciable crust. For example, 
all implements found in springs, or where they have been under water 
in sluggish streams, are light grey. Under the action of running 
water the implements inevitably become water-worn, but the light 
grey exterior remains. 


I must record my indebtedness to Mr. A. J. H. Goodwin for per- 
mission not only to quote his observations and opinions so freely, 
but also for his hearty co-operation and collaboration in this work. 
To Mrs R. F. A. Hoernle I am indebted for many suggestions and for 
having checked the MS., and to Dr. E. C. N. van Hoepen I owe 
thanks for the loan of the tanged arrow-heads for reproduction here. 
These tanged points are to be seen in the National Museum at 
Bloemfontein. 


SITE LIST. 


Notes ON SOME TYPICAL SMITHFIELD INDUSTRY Factory 
SITES SHOWN ON PratE XXXVII. 


(Showing lists of associated implements, etc., and materials used.) 


To the lists of implements given here—this is the implication of 
“factory site” as distinct from settlement only—must always be 
added the usual variety of fabricators : detaching-hammers, trimming- 
stones, anvils, and debris; cores, flakes, and rejects. All these 
fabricators and debris occur on the factory sites shown. 

Materials used are shown by the following abbreviations :— 


L=Lydianite or indurated shale. Q=Quartz. 


A=<Agate. Ss=Sandstone. 
C=Chalcedony. Sh=Shale. 

Ch=Chert. So=Soapstone. 
J =Jasper. D=Dolerite or Diabase. 


Twelve sites only have been chosen—four from each phase, and it 


may be taken that each is essentially characteristic of the phase 
VOL. XXVII. 13 


196 Annals of the South African Museum. 


represented. To give such detailed lists for all the sites known is 
merely to repeat—with negligible variation—the lists of implements, 
etc., associated with each particular phase. | 


(A) Smithfield “ A” Sites. 


(1) Site— -@37. (Type.) 
Locality.—Farm Lockshoek, No. 192. 
District.—Fauresmith, O.F.S. 
Description.—Situated about 16 miles north-east of Jagersfontein 

on the Jagersfontein-Bloemfontein main road. A well-known farm 

easily accessible from Jagersfontein. In gorge above homestead, 
immediately below dam wall, and on the surface over broken ground 
adjacent to the main road as shown in fig. A, remains of a fully 
developed “ A” site werefound. The collection from here includes: 


Concavo-convex scrapers te 
Circular scrapers LL. 


Duckbill end-scrapers. . : : : é L. 


Side-scrapers Lh. 
Trimmed points I. 
Stone borers Le 
Bored stones : : ; ‘ Ss. 
Grindstones . : : 4 : : Des 
Pounders and grinders . 4 : : ‘ D. 

Ss. 


Grooved stones 
Rock engravings in. vicinity. 


(2) Site-—-@17. 

Locality — Farm Blaauwheuwel, No. 425. 

District.—Fauresmith, O.F.S. 

Description.—Situated on the right bank of the Riet River, im- 
mediately opposite Koffiefontein and downstream of the bridge, we 
have a surface site particularly rich in remains. The list of imple- 
ments collected includes :— i 


Concavo-convex scrapers 
Circular scrapers 
Serrated circular scrapers 
Duckbill end-scrapers 
Trimmed points 
Engraved stone 


Pe 


‘oury poydd1ys oy9 oaoqe avodde you op 
10}4R] Woy], ‘SUTVUTOE YPIUISIINe | oe YURG OY} JO oSVq JY} Ye STOAVIS SHOJoFIQUOUTOTA UIT OYA UL O{IITM “OE @ oJIS A1OJOVE .. | ,, OY} SE oOVJINS 944 UG 


"I6L (ON SYooysyooyT urey oy} uo ytnadg Sooqo[jouory oy} UL UOTPRO HVS YQtuUseMey-._,, Pleyyyruag jo ydeisojoyg—"y ‘vi 


oo OE 


aap 2 -< 


eect Om 


The Smithfield Industry in the Orange Free State. 197 


Stone borers : : : é 5 , Joe 
Bored stones : ; ‘ , , ‘ Ss. 
Grindstones . : : ‘ : , su DiSs: 
Pounders and grinders . : : : 3) oD, Ss. 
Grooved stones. F ‘ i ‘ ‘ Ss. 


Rock engravings in vicinity. 


(3) Site.—-@ 14. 

Locality Farm De Kiel Oost, No. 101. 

District.—Jacobsdal, O.F.S. 

Description.—Situated on the left bank of the Riet River, im- 
mediately downstream of the bridge some 10 miles north-west of 
Koffiefontein on the Koffiefontein-Jacobsdal main road, are extensive 
surface remains of both “ A” and “ B ” settlements and factory sites. 
The entire factory site here referred to covers about six acres, and the 
“A” site is at the extreme downstream end. Unfortunately there 
is overlapping, but the “A” implements are distinct from those 
of “ B,” and, even if a lot is mixed, it is possible to sort them into their 
correct groups by patina and incrustation only. As an experiment, 
this was actually done by two independent workers. 

The “A” factory site extends over an area of broken ground 
about a quarter of a mile downstream of the bridge, and the imple- 
ments and artefacts collected here include :— 


Concavo-convex scrapers ope 
Circular scrapers L. 
Serrated scrapers . L. 
Duckbill end-scrapers L. 
Trimmed points—one of which Has meenerally 

incised lines on the unworked surface (Plate 

ROOV IL fig. 1). : i. 
Stone borers : : : : ; te tier 
Bored stones : ‘ : Ss. 
Grooved stones . : : : : : Ss. 
Pounders and grinders . : ‘ ; » Ds Ss: 
Grindstones . F F » Di Ss: 
One engraved stone (Plate XXVIII, hie, She. 1 Sh. 
One Solutrean- ae ale (pygmy) (Plate XX VI, 

LS SE), 0. A. 


‘Two crescentic scrapers (Plate XXXY, hee 
lla and 6) , - ‘ : , wt EAS 


198 Annals of the South African Museum. 


Fragmentary pottery. 

Fragments of ostrich egg-shells. 

Rock engravings in vicinity. 

Fauresmith coups-de-poing heavily weathered 
and rolled, re-used by Smithfield man as fabri- 
cators, and 

Fauresmith points retrimmed by Smithfield man. 


(4) Scte.—-@-22. 

Locality. Farm Brakfontein, No. 231. 

District.—Fauresmith, O.F.S. 

Description.—The farm Brakfontein is 8 miles south of Koffie- 
fontein on the main road to Fauresmith. On the right bank of the 
spruit that runs past the orchard in front of the homestead, and about 
200 yards upstream of the orchard, were found extensive remains of 
an ““A”’ site. Implements and artefacts collected here include :-— 


Concavo-convex scrapers L 
Circular scrapers : :; : L 
Duckbill end-scrapers . : : : iby 
Trimmed points L 
Stone borers L 


Bored stones : ; : ; : : Ss. 
Grooved stones . : ; . : Ss. 
Grindstones . : : E é : : D. 
Pounders and grinders . : : D. 


Fragmentary pottery. 
Rock engravings in immediate vicinity. 


The above sites are all in the open and on the surface. 


(B) Smithfield “ B” Sites. 


(1) Sete-—e@27. (Type.) 

Locality.—Farm Avalon, No. 554. 

District.—Fauresmith, O.F.S. 

Description.—Situated about 25 miles north-east of Jagersfontein 
on the Jagersfontein-Bloemfontein main road. On the left bank and 
in the bend of the Riet River about a quarter of a mile upstream of the 
causeway as shown in fig. B are extensive remains of a Smithfield “ B ” 
settlement and factory site. All implements are found on the surface, 
but shifting sands are apt to cover and uncover these at different 
times. The list of implements and artefacts collected here includes :— 


The Smithfield Industry in the Orange Free State. 9 


Duckbill end-scrapers . ; L. 
Thumbnail scrapers : : ' Py PANO Dee 
Side-scrapers . P , L. 
Trimmed points . ; ane L. 
Stone borers Sf emines L. 
Bored stones ; : : : Ss. 
Grooved stones . : Ss. 
Grindstones . : : : : : ae Ss; 
Pounders and grinders . : : % IDSs: 
Stone ring and fragments of incomplote PIMs s. Sh. 


Pottery (fragmentary) (Plate XX XVI, figs. B, C, and D). 
Ostrich egg-shell fragments, beads, and pendants. 

Ostrich egg-shel] borers . : , 5 Ch. 
Stone palettes : : : ; Sh. 


(2) Srte.— @ 42. 

Locality.—Farm Eagle’s Nest, No. 550. 

District.—Boshof, O.F.S. 

Description.—Situated about 16 miles north of Petrusburg on the 
Petrusburg-Boshof main road and on the left bank of the Modder 
River immediately downstream of the approach to the bridge, and 
also partially upstream, are extensive remains of a Smithfield “ B”’ 
settlement and factory site. All the material is on the surface, and 
the list of implements, etc., collected here includes :— 


Duckbill end-scrapers  . : : ; L. 
Thumbnail scrapers 3 : 4 ay HAL Ole Cacla, 
Side-scrapers : : ; ‘ L. 
Trimmed points . : ; ; Le 
Stone borers. ; : , : L. 
Bored stones (smallest i OZ) 2 : ; Ss. 
Grooved stones. : : Ss. 
Grindstones . : i : D. 
Pounders and grinders . ; ; . D, Ss. 
Pottery. 


Ostrich egg-shell fragments and beads. 
Skeletal material (see text). 


(3) Site.— @ 65. 
Locality.—Farm Paardenvallei, No. 668. 
District.—Winburg, O.F.S. 


200 Annals of the South African Museum. 


Description.—Situated about 8 miles south of Theunissen, 2 miles 
downstream of the railway bridge at Vet River Station and on the 
left bank of the Vet River in the immediate vicinity of the home- 
stead are extensive remains of a “B” settlement and factory site. 
The material is all on the surface, and the list of implements, etc., 
collected here includes :— 


Duckbill end-scrapers  . : : ; L. 
Thumbnail scrapers : : . . A, O2Caie 
Trimmed points . : L. 
Stone borers : : : : : ar 
Bored stones : ; . Ss, So. 
Grooved stones Ss. 
Grindstones . : D. 
Pounders and grinders . eee: D: 


Fragmentary pottery. 
Ostrich egg-shell fragments and beads. 
Bone points (found by owner of property) ? 


(4) Szte— @ 80. 

Locality —Farm Mook, No. 54, 

District.—Wepener, O.FS. 

Description.—Situated about a quarter of a mile from Van Staden’s 
Rust village, 24 miles south of Wepener, and in the immediate vicinity 
of the homestead, orchards, and kraals are extensive remains of a 
“B” settlement and factory site. The material is all on the surface, 
and the list of implements, etc., collected here includes :— 


Duckbill end-scrapers . : : L, A, 'C, dGhe 
Thumbnail scrapers : d ; L, A, C, 5; Che 
Trimmed points . : ; L. 
Notched scrapers . : L. 
Stone borers : , : , ; L. 
Bored stones ‘ . : ; Ss. 
Grooved stones . : : : : : Ss. 
Grindstones . ; . : : : ; 1D 
Pounders and grinders . : - IDOE: 


Fragmentary pottery. 
Fragments of ostrich egg-shells. 
One Still Bay type point (Plate XXVII, fig. 3b) . ie 


The above sites are all in the open and on the surface. 


“UlOZUOFULBOT_ JOLI4SIp ‘aoyemsAvg ‘LG @ ‘9718 A1Oyoey; ATYSNpUl ..g_ ,, Ployyyrurg yeord Ay we Jo Jou109 e Jo ydeisojyoygG—' fy “OTT 


The Smithfield Industry in the Orange Free State. 


(C) Smithfield “CO” Sites. 


(1) Site.—o 103. 


Locality.—Farm Ventershoek. 
District.—Wepener, O.FS. 


Description.—Situated about 5 miles from Wepener on the Wepener- 
Mafeteng main road, half a mile upstream of the bridge over the 
Ventershoek Spruit, in and near the caves shown in fig. C are excellent 


remains of a “‘ C ”’ settlement and factory site. 
etc., collected here includes :— 


The list of implements, 


Thumbnail scrapers A, Q, C, Ch, L. 

Duckbill end-scrapers Ch, L. 

Trimmed points L. 

Notched scrapers . L. 
- Stone borers L. 

Bored stones Ss. 

Grooved stones Ss. 

Grindstones . Ss, D. 

Pounders and grinders . D. 

Bone points. 

Bone pendant. 

Pottery (fragmentary). 

Fragments of ostrich egg-shells. 

Bead borers. 

Fragment of stone ring . Ss. 


Fragments of red ochre. 
Cave paintings (polychromes). 
(2) Site-—o 100. 


Locality.—Clarens Town Lands. 
District.—Bethlehem, O.F.S. 


Descrvption.—Under rock shelters and in talus immediately below 


these in gorge above the village are remains of a “C” site. The list 

of implements, etc., collected here includes :— 
Thumbnail scrapers A, Q, C, Ch. 
Duckbill end-scrapers Cr ii: 
Trimmed points L. 
Notched scrapers . C, L. 
Bored stone fragment Ss. 
Grindstones . ; Ss. 
Pounders and grinders . Ss. 


202 Annals of the South African Museum. 


Bone point fragments. 
Fragmentary pottery. 
Cave paintings (monochromes). 


(3) Site-—o 101. 


Locality. Farm Schaapplaats. 

District.—Bethlehem, O.F.S. 

Description.—Situated about 5 miles south-east of the village of 
Clarens and in the gorge immediately adjacent to the homestead (de 
la Harpe) is an unusually spacious and deep cave that has been used 
as a shelter for sheep for years. The ground is therefore considerably 
disturbed, but in, and in the immediate vicinity of, the cave is an 
abundance of “C”’ remains. The collection from here includes :— 


Thumbnail scrapers : : ; . QO CreAssing 
Duckbill end-scrapers . ; . Cae 
Trimmed points . ‘Te 
Notched scrapers . ; er, . Cale 
Grindstones . : : Ss. 
Pounders and grinders . Ss. 


Bone points. 

Pottery (fragmentary). 

Ochreous painting materials. 

Cave paintings (polychromes and monochromes). 


The paintings here are of an unusually high order. 
It is worthy of note that bored stones have been found in the 
neighbourhood. 


(4) Site.—o 102. 


Locality —Van Reenen Town Lands. 

District.—Harrismith, O.F.S. 

Description.—Situated about a mile east of the village of Van 
Reenen and very near the crest of the Drakensberg Mountains is a 
deep gorge that contains numerous caves and rock-shelters. Many 
of these caves were inhabited by “‘C”’ Smithfield folk, and from one 
I was able to collect :— 


Thumbnail scrapers Suni 
Duckbill end-scrapers C 
Notched scrapers . 

Fragment of grindstone 

Pounders and grinders . 


? 


Som eee 


The Smithfield Industry in the Orange Free State. 203 


Fragments of bone points. 
Fragmentary pottery. 
Red ochre. 


Bored stones have been found in the vicinity. The walls of the 
caves contain many fine examples of cave painting, but excursionists 
to the mountains have, unfortunately, destroyed most of these. 
Initials of every Dick, Tom,:and Harry literally cover the walls of 
the finest cave and so many of the finest paintings. 


ComMPLETE List oF Known Factory SITES IN THE 
ORANGE FREE STATE. 
The site numbers correspond with those given on the map. 


SMITHFIELD “‘ A.”’ 


Site No. Farm. District. 
14 De Kiel Oost No. 101 : : .  Jdacobsdal. 
Il Blaauwheuwel, No. 425 ; .  Fauresmith. 
21 Luckhofi Town Lands : : .  Luckhofi. 
22 Brakfontein, No. 231 ; ‘ .  Fauresmith. 
37 Lockshoek, No. 191 . : % ; 3 


SMITHFIELD ‘“* B.’’ 


Site No. Farm. District. 

if Modder River Station : ef . Kimberley. 
2 Twee Rivier_ . : : é . Jacobsdal. 
3 Klpfontein . : é : : ks 
4 Jacobsdal Town Land i : : zi 
5 Weegdraai ‘ : 3 ; : yee 
6 Saltpan . : : ; : : a 
7 Pramberg ; ‘ ; : ; - 
8 Gannahoek ; A ; ; ; *, 
9 Die Aar . 3 , : 4 : > 

10 Blaauwbank . : : ! ; i 

11 Blaauwbanksdrift . : é j e 

12 Kopjeskraal_. : 5 : : s 

13 Groot Kopjeskraal . : ¢ : iy 

14 De Kiel Oost I 3 2 _ : i 

15 De Kiel Oost II . ‘ : : 8 

16 Rooidraai . ; : : ; @ 


a lire Blaauwheuwel . ‘ : : F Fauresmith. 


204 


Site No. 


18 
9 
20 
23 
24 
25 
26 
27 
28 
29 
30 
dl 
32 
33 
34 
30 
36 
38 
39 
40 
4] 
42 
43 
44 
45 
46 
47 
48 
49 
50 
51 
52 
53 
54 
55 
56 
57 
58 
59 
60 


Annals of the South African Museum. 


Farm. 


Uitdraai . 
Sekretariskop . 


Koffiefontein Town Tae 


Telegraaffontein 
Blaauwbank 
Kromdraai 
Riverside 

Avalon : 
Klein Philippolis 
Slagtkraal 
Slagtkraaldrift 
Bethany . 

Spitzkop . 
Goedehoop 
Middelfontein . 
Slagfontein 
Lockshoek 
Paardeberg 
Leeuwfontein . 
Devilliersrust . 
Poplar Grove 
Kagle’s Nest 
Petrusburg Town Lands 
Panfontein 
Nooitgedacht 
Leeuwrand 
Kaffir River Station . 
Dieplaagte 
Damplaats 

Rietkuil . 
Klandsput 
Tweelingsfontein 
Vooruitzicht 
Meerlandsvlei . 
Hagenstad 

Floris Mineral Bankes 
Bayswater 
Roodekraal 
Shannon . 
Mazelspoort 


District. 
Fauresmith. 


EKdenburg. 


29 


39 


29 


29 


Fauresmith. 
Petrusburg. 
Boshof. 


29 


Petrusburg. 


Bloemfontein. 


22 


39 


Boshof. 


Brandfort. 


Bloemfontein. 


23 


33 


3: 


Site No. 


61 
62 
63 
64 
65 
66 
67 
68 
69 
70 
fal 
72 
73 
74 
75 
76 
17 
78 
79 
80 
81 
82 
83 
84. 
85 
86 
87 
88 
89 
90 
91 
92 


Site No. 


93 
94 
95 
96 


Farm. 
Klipkraal 
Waterworks 
Thaba ‘Nchu Town Teast 
Il Paradiso ‘ 
Paardenvallei (or Perevlei) 
Vet River Station 
Landdrostmoeite 
De Hoop : 
Philippolis Town ands 
Bethulie I _,, Ri 


Bethulie IT _,, 4, 
Spitzkop . 

Smithfield Town ee 
Goedemoed 


Aliwal North 
Doctor’s Drift . 
Wesselsdal 
Sweetfontein 

Bethel 

Mook 

Wepener Town aad 
Philippolis Road Station 
De Put 4 : 
Tafelkop . 

Harmonia 

Taaibosch Spruit 
Weenkop 
Houthaalberg . 
Osfontein 
Boesmansfontein 

De Kolken 
Vlakfontein 


SMITHFIELD “ C,”’ 
Farm. 
Zastron-Mooifontein 
Bushmanskop . 
Mokari 
Goschen . 


The Smithfield Industry in the Orange Free State. 


District. 


205 


Bloemfontein. 


Thaba ’Nchu. 


Winburg. 


Philippolis. 


Bethulie. 


Smithfield. 


99 


Rouxville. 


Aliwal North. 


be) 


Rouxville. 
Wepener. 


39 


Philippolis. 


Edenburg. 
Winburg. 


29 


Rouxville. 


Philippolis. 


District. 
Zastron. 
Wepener. 


Thaba ’Nchu. 


206 Annals of the South African Museum. 


Site No. Farm. District. 
97 Modderpoort . . Ladybrand. 
98 Caledonpoort : ; ; : a 
99 Ficksburg Town Lands. ; .  Ficksburg. 
100 Clarens a * : : . Bethlehem. 
101 Schaapplaats . : i a 
102 Van Reenen . : : .  Harrismith. 
103 Ventershoek . : : .  Wepener. 


SpEcIAL Notes on Map. 


While the map shows the present known distribution of the three 
phases of the Smithfield Industry, it must be emphasised that no more 
careful or intense search has been made in any one portion of the 
province than in another. The density of settlement in the south- 
western districts is largely, if not wholly, attributable to attractive 
conditions, most particularly with regard to material to hand. But 
for bored, grooved, and ring stones and grinding accessories, the use 
of lydianite was almost exclusive in this area. 

During 1927, Messrs. M. C. Burkitt and A. J. H. Goodwin accom- 
panied me on a 300-mile tour through the south-western districts, 
and later in the same year Mr. Neville Jones was also able to visit 
many sites, and I doubt whether, among the many thousands of 
implements collected, those of any material other than lydianite 
amounted to | per cent. 

The meagreness of settlements and factory sites in the northern 
and eastern districts is due entirely to scarcity of suitable material. 


Ann. 8S. Afr. Mus., Vol. X XVII. Plate X XIII. 


DETACHING HAMMERS. 


FACETTED OR POLYHEDRAL STONES. 


TRIMMING STONES .« 


eS ote 
~ R_worKina £DGE 
BOTTOM VIEVV. 


, WORKING EDGE 
FRONT VIEW (STEP FLAKED) 


BOTTOM VIEW 


Fic. 1.—Detaching-hammers. Fic. 2.—Trimming stones. 


ae 


a 


yi 


Ann. 8. Afr. Mus., Vol. X XVII. Plate XXIV. 


| METIIOD OO HANOLWG 
DETACHING HAMMERS & TRIVINING STONES . 


7 ~ SHE COREL 75 TRIMIMIED AND THE /LAKES 
DETACHED FRONT THE CORE AS SHOWN /N 
ZTE ORLA CT I IEA OVE STE LD FOSGIBL LE: | TIA Fe 


THIELE CORE WAS NOF ALWAYS HELD AT RLS7 
( THE HANDS ARE THOSE OF THE SANE INDI ViDUA £.. ) 


- i 


(ALIGHT HAND) 


Lc «© FOINWING THE FLAKE SO STRUCK BY MEANS 
OF A TRININING STONE AND AN ANV/L,y THE 


FLAKE BEING HELD OW FHE ANWL WITHA 78S 
STLAKL - SURFACE UPPELPNTOS Zs AND VFHE LNO 


7O BEL FRININTIED FPROVUECTVING SLIGHTLY AS 


SHOVYN « 
TRINDVIVUINMG STONE 


(LEF7 HAND 


it ee ee 
Annan ice nea 4 


/ f DA: 
by aa intay, 


Fick "ELAN 60 agua em elitr ee 
; We i 
t 


Ann. S. Afr. Mus., Vol. XX VII. 


Plate XXYV. 


Fie. 1.—Typical duckbill end-scrapers, showing parallel fluting flakes off back. 
Fie. 2.—Duckbill end-scrapers trimmed at ends and sides: (c) rectangular, (d) triangular. 
Fic. 3.—Keeled duckbill end-scrapers. Fic. 4.—Double-ended duckbill end-scrapers. 


VOU, XXVII. 14 


~ 2a . 


lg PE ay Poca BS 


| 
| 
. 
| 
. 
| 
| 
| 
| 


i ee 


oe ee ee 


a 


me 


Ann. S. Afr. Mus., Vol. X XVII. Plate XX VI. 


BOTTOM 


NEGATIVE POSITIVE 
BULB BULB 


Fie. 1.—Circular scrapers. Fig. 2.—Concavo-convex scrapers. 


Ann. 8. Afr. Mus., Vol. X XVII. : Plate X XVII. 


SECTION X-X 


Ce 


Fic. 1.—Trimmed points, side-scraper type. Fic. 2.—Trimmed points proper. 
Fig. 3.—Still Bay or Solutrean-type points: (a) Wepener, (b) Mook, and (c) De Kiel Oost. 
Fie. 4.—Rod scraper. 


Nie Tiare * 


‘a ae Seat 


Ann. S. Afr. Mus., Vol. X XVII, Plate XXVIII. 


BOTTOM 


ENGRAVING ON ROCK FRAGMENT. 


Fia.3. 


Fic. 1.—Engraved point. Fic. 2.—Graving tool, Fic. 3.—Engraved rock fragment. 


Oe eee OME ee 


f F ’ f M 7 ve 
* f ERAS ANA 
. Per th a EN 
hn my ( ; aN: Seva ay i. 
ok : { ay et : 
Vv ; P Me terre ha 


ean) | Ae ' f wa 
hive eh, 


| EYEE, oe ETO Na TS eee 


Aa a 


a 


- 
5 


ers 


Ann. S. Afr. Mus., Vol. X XVII. Plate X XIX. 


Ns 


} 


1) 


\ 


=: NH 


\ 


v 


BOTTOM. 


BOTTOM 


Bottom. (+. 


Fie. 1.—Serrated scrapers. Fic. 2.—Notched scraper. 


avis eis ~ pars) Dawe 


Ann. S. Afr. Mus., Vol. X XVII. Plate XXX. 


SECTION Aad 


LP 


SECTION bb 3 


SECTION Aa. 


Atl Py POC A es nae So 
oe oO - 7? 
ak, eligmaiae See 
. cote 
tg pets 5 _ 
fe on OD POO 09a ed 
| GR Cr COE I OG 
- ap ONOirs =O + 
07409 va Aa io 608 
C0 Oe Or oO teton 
Witaphis fence pete —a 
2s: -wiireer= 
* re =yoKe 
a al eiceotac sae, 
’ a-L4 
. - . . 
. . 
° . 
‘ . rie 
Chiat) é 


SECTION bb. 


pCR EGO Jeon 
bas) Wa /O 6 n- 
see a\ aa ead 
be |—> WD 
=, Ooty 
ens, 
ee 
Bieia a 
14 
nad 


SECTION CC. 


EE 
c& 


Stone borers. 


Plate XX XI. 


Ann. S. Afr. Mus., Vol. XXVIT. 


V) 
LJ 
Z 
O 
‘as 
v) 


BORED 
SCALE FOR AVERAGE SPECIMENS. 


al 


4 


PSEUDO 
RECTANGULAR 


Se eta 


a 


g “ Tails Siw ins a ha SET ie Syren a RR Ba ets ze ae PS) OS Wey iS ethos, 


Ann. S. Afr. Mus., Vol. X XVII. Plate XXXII. 


SOVWE USES OF BORD. STONES. 


(FROM CAVE PAINTINGS.) 


AS MAKE -WEIGHT S 
FOR LKGGING-ST/CKS « 
JLLUSTIZCATIONS ON 
AYGH1T ALTER STOMY. 
ONE QUARTER SCALE. 
SEL : SRAQVIANN, 
BURCIIELL , STOW, 
VIELOUV EGIL ET Coe 


INOT LZ PYF OR/¥7 
SPLCIWILEIN OVER 
SAIOUL DL? OF 
WOMAN ON 7OP 
YE i a7 is 


AS CLUB HEADS. 
JLLUSTLZATIONS ON 
4YGIAT AFTER. STOW. 
ONE QUARTER SCALL. 
SELECTED FRONT 
GROUPS SHOWN IV 
CLREMONIAL. 

TAE UPPER FOUR 
FIGURES ARE -RONM A 
GROUP OF SEVENTEEN, 
THE TWO MEN BELOW 
FROM AA GROUP OF 
FOURTEEN — THE 
REMAINING TWELVE 
WEARING A SINULAR 
HEADDORESS — BOTH GROUPS 
APPARENTLY TAKING PART 
JN A DANCE « THE Four 
WOMEN ARE FROM A 
GROUP OF FWENTY-7'W0 — 
ALL S/INULAPRLY POSTURLED « 


Bored stones depicted in cave paintings. 


ae " a ; é : q 4 : , q 
. 0 ASS? CN le 
tN 


Ann. 8S. Afr. Mus., Vol. X XVII. Plate XX XIII. 


STONE RING. 


SW tne eee eter 


MATISIAAS SOAS 
WIS 
a EGE boe 


SS 
SN 


aS 


S 
WY 


SN 
ANON 


AAAS ANE 


WN 


ANAS 


SN 


TOP : SEGTION. 
AVERAGE EXTERNAL DIAMETER 100 mms. 
AVERAGE INTERNAL DIAMETER: 64 mms. 
MAXIMUM THICKNESS 8 


FIG. |. 


mrs. 


ae 


Yb iit 


GROUND sll 
RULE | VIEW SECTION. 


jae 
FIG. €. as 


Fig. 1.—Stone ring. 


Fic. 2._-Implement with ground edge. 
VOl.. XXVII. 


15 


Ann. S. Afr. Mus., Vol. X XVII. i Plate XX XV. 


OVEN Shree e 


SECTION. 


Vm = SECTION X-X. 
ii. 


le RE. 


Fie. 1.—Bone point from “ B.” 

Fic. 3.—Bone pendant from “ C.” 
Fia. 5.—Glass scraper from “ B.” 
Fic. 7.—Ostrich egg-shell pendant. Fic. 8.—Ostrich egg-shell beads. 


Fic. 9.—Bead borers. Fic. 10.—Tanged arrow-heads. 
Fig. 11.—Crescentic scrapers (from De Kiel Oost). 


Fic. 2.—Bone points from ‘“ C.” 
Fic. 4.—-Wood point from “C.” 
Fic. 6.—Thumbnail scrapers. 


Ann. S. Afr. Mus., Vol. X XVII. Plate XXXVI. 


CONICAL 
PERFORATION © 


oro 
Q 

LW 
QZ 
ie 
vg 
aq 
2 


Pottery. 


——_ 


AAL 


x cig whi) ae oe 
me a= 


a a ae 
bide DL) 2 21th 


a a= 


eF-AIOA) JOACIOS NoIwVIIES *77 


‘(oaer ‘adAy Leg 1149) squtod poururt7 ‘TZ 


‘SIer0q pue spveq ][eUS-sse Yorryso ‘0% 


*(erez) syutod 


Dy 


i?” 


SAC 


ANL 
(23 


LEMENT andl 
LEMENT 


LEMENT and 
ELEMENT « 


é 
= 


2owv12dalio727s » 


Ye WULES. 


S 


FF 


‘ 
mS 


wee ew ew we mere 


KOPSIESIRAA 


ke eA Dl SANS 


FRPOLEL 


FIET FIVER VALLEY. 


Map showing Smithfield Industry Factory 


4 Sites in the Riet River Valley, vicinity wy LLELNA TE 
y \ Jacobsdal, Koffiefontein. yy, WV KOFFIEFONTELMV Anon UcSACOBSDAL . 
\ (By kind permission S.A.J.S.) SHOVING 


My A: FAURESIITH INDUSTRY SETTLEMENT and FACTORY SITE - 
4 &: FAURESMITH INDUSTRY SETTLEMENT - 

@: SWTHFIELD INDUSTRY SETTLEMENT and FACTORY S/TE « 
O:SWTHVIELD INDUSTRY SETTLEMENT « ; SS 


£: Rock Lrgravi2gs. = 
K : Circular Sfore Kraal a2d +s fourdarrons - 


SCALe of MILES. 
ra ca 


\ 


x 
iostrict 2 
—~ 


“2, \ t 
\ wacenmaxdes h a 


Weaora' iw 
We, 


Manner Ry: ‘ | 
STA Tron. ~ . 2 ie ° ' | i 
z Nz 2 \ \ Eo Il an GE = = GF * Ball | / fay POS 
O OuaaiZT \ LE eace\ pT | | s = , i ' K--.. / \, ay || 
ofe ZX \}/ een | Li — | \ 4 = / Ni i 
. Sy ees 4 \/ 
b ea \ } | 
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\ \ a 
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\ , : 4 ” 
\ a / \ oy 
h se 
\ \ / \ Hi 
\ \ \ \ i il 
\ y 1 
\ \ \ 
\ 7 VR \ A fecereore ( 
\ \ \ } oom 
\ 4 \ SS 
\ 2 \f 
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\ * / 
\ \ 
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Neill & Co. Ltd. 


ee a 


Plate 


hat , at ae 
Math Eo a i ty lal RS 


oor a So ck , 
aC Rd ewe ee SR i oe Se et eret-LIOA) Todeios poredmoes 677 ‘(oren ‘0d 41 AV T1199) squtod pouruirs ‘TZ ‘SIoI0q pPuUv Spvodq TJOYS-sse YorI}so ‘OZ *(er1e1) syutod 


AP MD a Sg So 


-XXXVITT. 


_————————— 
} 3 
iP 
| ile 
Q i 7 /! 
Te , : iE 
si ieee S S] g (i = 
SEU S GE Foe ep as OP | 
NV SouWee 8 BS 3 < | il 
Wy NEN GRIN IN ve N 
SRE eS 8 g ee | 
Ssye Msg ET UNG ! 
YRS wa § SLA 
XN | il 
: | 


A 
2: B 
Cc 


PROVINCE 


OF THE 


ORANGE FREE STATE 


SHOWING 
SMITHFIELD INDUSTRY FACTORY SITES 


74 ~- soutien Al iousTRY FACTORY SITE ~~ 37 
27@ +- SWTHVIELD B INDUSTRY FACTORY S/7E ~~ @27 
O--omzmruo (BAe a DEBE REMAINS — > © 


70sO~- s7THELD CC wwausTey FACTORY S/TE- ~ O13 RHEWOR Tvl 
2 


SCALE of MILES 
O30 4 


RIVER 


ss 


fing a 


COMPARATWVE TABLE 


AFRICA LUROPEAN AND 


NORTH AFLICAN 
(xe) LRLEALT: 


CHELLEAN 


INDUSTRY 


STELLENBOSCH 


HIETOR(A WEST 
SALRESINTHL 


FARLIER 
STONE 
AGE 


ee 


ACHEULEO — 
MOUSTERIAN - 


A variely of incus- Catenceeve) 


Pres show, 
Mousleriasn jrllences. 
fneamplelely sluoted. 


MIDDLE 
STONE 
AGE 


WMOUSTERIAN 


LATL 
STONE 
AGE 


cARS/O ~ 


A 
SWINTHFIELD: B AURIGNACIAN 


c 


WULTON UPPER CAPSIAN. 


Bhemfonien, (928. 
—- 


Neill & Co, Ltd, 


apt 2" 


Plate XX XIX 


Ann. S. Afr. Mus., Vol. X XVII. 


OD a na aA SE 2 maherte 


ou0g ‘6T *souo0gs paaoors 
‘squrod pour} ‘QT 0} 9 


: 1 Ne Se 


“‘SIeI0q pue Spvoq ]jeYyS-sse Yoryso ‘OZ *(ere1) squtod 


Ben ap NL eee. vetamer-AIoA) Jodevios poyedios ‘77 “(ered ‘oda Avg T[149) syutod pourumy ‘TZ 
‘oy pue JT *SUII 91098 ‘OT ‘(‘szo £7 ‘QUsIoM) 9109S potog ‘GT *(ere1) stedeios poyojou ‘FT pue ST *SsieI0q 9u04s ‘ZT pue TT 
‘(papue-etqnop *F { peyeex, ‘¢) sdedvdos-pue T[Iqyonp ‘¢ pue ‘F *g pue *g dnorp “‘saodeios [reuquiny} ‘Mod 1aMoy ‘T dnors *srode10s 


‘(QLUTMNOONT) ADVIANASSY IVOIdA J, 
“AUCSOGNI .«@,, CIHICHLINS 


‘(qederos por ‘8) 
pus Ttqyonp Aus 


sodéq red¥ios-apis 
d ‘Moz zoddn ‘tT dnoi4 


> squawajduy Jo uoudriosag 


9. ¢ & & 


SIHINI 
"or € 


@aa dd i hehe 1 as aD 


cA] 


L 9 
di oor gt oF & 


eI 


I@ O2 GI 


G2 22 


agit ly 


a 
apes iy Daa eas 


Ann. S. Afr. Mus., Vol. 


£2 22 


SCALE 


XXVII. 


(2 Of 6 @ Li 


Plate XL. 


SMITHFIELD INDUSTRY. 


SAG? 
TYPICAL ASSEMBLAGE (INCOMPLETE). 


Description of Implements 


14 and 15, concavo-convex scrapers. 16 to 18, trimmed points, 


10 to 13, circular scrapers. 


7, keeled). 


e 
b) 


1 to 9, duckbill end-scrapers (5, double-ended 


( 235 ) 


8. A Few Notes on the Archaeology of Sheppard Island. 
By C. van Riet Lowe, B.Sc., F.R.A.I. 


(With Two Text-figures.) 


THE text-figures here reproduced demonstrate an occurrence of 
stratification at Sheppard Island, the complete details of which were 
collected only after the remaining papers of this volume had gone to 
press. The discovery, however, is of such moment that it is deemed 
desirable to include a brief statement as an addendum. 

Stimulated originally by Professor Dart’s report on “ Mammoth and 
Man in the Transvaal,” * I paid a special visit to the island, and as a 
result of Mr. Sheppard’s invaluable assistance, my own observations 
in “ diggings’ untouched until the day of my arrival, and a detailed 
tacheometric survey, it is now possible briefly to report as follows : 

The island, with a superficial area of about 35 acres, is situated 
in the Vaal River, about 10 river miles upstream of Bloemhof: 
lat. 27° 40’ 8., long. 25° 45’ EH. It may, therefore, be described as 
belonging either to the South-western Transvaal or to the North- 
western Orange Free State. Confined by the old river bed on the 
north and the new channel on the south, it is an island in the proper 
sense only during the summer (rainy) season. In winter, when the 
run-off is at a minimum, all the water passes down the new channel, 
and the old, elevated bed is left high and dry—the bed of the new 
being about 10 feet lower than the lowest point of that of the old. 
It is extremely fortunate that the opportunity for a visit not only 
coincided with the opening of the new diamond “ diggings ”’ but also 
that it occurred during one of the driest seasons on record. It would 
otherwise have been impossible to obtain so much information, for 
during the pleasanter summer months—cwca October—April—both 
channels are liable to be flooded and the island is then an island in 
the literal sense. 

Professor Dart was led to believe that the island is a relic of the 
old valley. This does not appear to me to be the case. Rather does 

* Nature, vol. cxx, No. 3032, 10th Dec. 1927. 


Shi. EAN 


SICAEE IN hEEil9. 


L 


N 
DD) GcRraverse. 


Seaton Ae ie 
CHANNE 


OLD 
"C” ovERLY ING 


SY ER a) ery tod 110) 


ss ie aN a Noo 


eee ey 


iS) LE ASINED 


HOUSE 
wa 
No.2 


| 
* 


{ 
_-+8 HOUSE 
a 
‘ ! 


OR AeWN- GE 


Sag 
SS Sy 10 MILES ; 
\ = —Tear a 


BLOEMHOF | 


NOTE - AREA COVERED BY 
DOIGGINGS SHOWN S7TIPPLED. 


"Ml MARKS POSITIONS OF MAMMOTH RENAINS. 


Fie. 1. 


A Few Notes on the Archaeology of Sheppard Island. 237 


it seem to have been formed by a process of siltation while the river 
was altering its course—an alteration that is still going on. Mr. 
Sheppard has lived on the island for the past twenty-one years, and 
he assures me that its contours have changed appreciably during this 
time—an assurance that I anticipated. A “slice,” “several feet 
thick,’ has been eroded from the Orange Free State or left bank, 
while to the southernmost arc of the island, on and near the line of 
section, has been added a slice that reaches a maximum thickness 
(on the X—X line) of 10 feet. This growth of the island is clearly 
indicated by a row of willows that originally grew along the water’s 
edge and now only appear half-buried in silt, some 10 feet back from 
the stream. 

My impression is that while the heavier and older D gravels (fig. 2) 
were in process of deposition, more particularly at and near the initial 
phase of the deposition, the river conformed more or less to the 
contours of the old river bed—in a channel perhaps somewhat wider 
than it presently is. On account of the inclination in the underlying 
rock, the tendency of the river was in a southerly direction, and be- 
cause of the depression marked “ Deep Pool” on the site plan, a 
barrier was created. This gave rise to a tendency in the stream to 
erode the southern or left bank and to silt up the original or old 
channel. 

This process of erosion and deposition was extremely slow, so slow 
in point of time that not only were the lighter and later C gravels 
piled up before the river had reached its present channel, but the D 
gravels had changed considerably in nature and composition—appear- 
ing over half the present channel as lighter and less compact D, gravels. 
This linking of the D and D, gravels is due entirely to the fact that 
both are diamondiferous, for they differ in all other respects. 

In addition to the slope of the underlying bed-rock of shale and its 
influence on the direction of the stream, the deposition or piling-up 
of the later and lighter C gravels provided the culminating phase of 
the obtruding influences and hastened the alteration of the stream. 
The further left or south the channel moved, the greater the eddies 
on the right, and these eddies initialled the deposition of the heavier 
clays that presently constitute the island; the lighter loam and 
sand being kept in suspension and so carried away with the current. 

All the material that appears in the island, a uniform heavy, black 
clay—known locally as pot-clay or turf—appears also in the confining 
banks, but in these latter there is a preponderance of lighter, yellowish 
sandy loam. Thus it would seem that the deposition of the lower, 


238 Annals of the South African Museum. 


heavier, and more compact D gravels, separated from those above 
by a distinct line of demarcation, took place during a definable 
geological phase, and that during the greater part of this phase the 
main flow of the Vaal was more or less confined to the old river bed, 
with an underlying, ever-present and ever-developing tendency to 
scour toward the left. 


THE GRAVEL BEDs. 


1. The“ D” Gravels.—Due largely to undulations and irregularities 
in the underlying bed-rock, these lower gravels vary in depth from 
6 inches to 6 feet. They comprise a compact mass of heavy, water- 
worn boulders and contain both rolled and unrolled types of Stellen- 
bosch implements lying cheek by jowl with completely mineralised 
and very slightly damaged remains of mammoth: (i) Archidiskodon 
transvaalensis, sp. nov. and (11) Archidiskodon sheppard, sp. nov. 
(Dart, op. cit.). 

The occurrence of both worn and unworn implements—the wear 
in some is such that they are barely recognisable, while in others the 
implements are so fresh that they might well have been made yester- 
day—indicates occupation during the deposition of the gravels. 
Whether or not this occupation was shared by the mammoths de- 
scribed, is, aS yet, impossible to say, but the teeth show so little 
evidence of having been rolled and are so jagged, yet complete at 
the roots, that contemporaneity is strongly indicated. I have little 
hesitation in venturing the opinion that we are here dealing with the 
remains of co-existing mammoth and man, and therefore do not 
agree with Dr. Broom when he says: * . 1t may be regarded as 
almost certain that they (the teeth) are very much older than the 
lowest gravels of the Vaal, ...” * The geological formation of the 
Vaal catchment upstream of Sheppard Island is such that had these 
teeth come from some older formation, they must have come a con- 
siderable distance, and must therefore have been subjected to such 
knocks and rolling as to suffer considerable damage en route. The 
teeth, however, are so well preserved that it is extremely difficult to 
account for their occurrence in these gravels unless they were freshly 
dropped at or near the scene of the discovery while the gravels were 
in process of deposition. When Dr. Broom sees these teeth and the 
surroundings from which they come, I am sure he will find it difficult 
to adhere to this expression of his opinion. 

The possibility of mammoth and man having been contemporaneous 

* Nature, vol. cxxi, No. 3044, 3rd Mar. 1928, p. 324. 


SICTION DO 


SCA Eon ING REE. 


HORIZONTAL 
190 O 300 re) 900 


VERTICAL 
40 60 Oo 


SHAFT NOE. 


> TRANSWAAL COR RIGHT BANK CONTPOSED OF WELL CONSOLIDATED 
YELLOW SANDY LOAN AND CLAY wT SNUTHTFIELD 3B : 
REMAINS ON SURFACE. 

ORANGE FREL STATE aR LLFT BANK. DULL WO) 5 LLY Os 
SHEPPARD /SLAND conmPOoslD OF STIFF BLACK ; OR “POT” 
CLAY wiTH SNUTHYIELO B " REMAINS OV SURFACE . 
LIGHT, LOOSE GRAVEL AND SAND wAxYIVG FeO EB INEHES TO 


J@ FEET IN DEPTH CONTAINING FAURE SAUTH RENIAINS | 


D, 1L/GHT LOOSE GRAVEL, SAND AND CLAY wARYiInG FeOM SINCHES TO 


LCFEET IW DEPTH conraAitiNnG FAURESNUTHI REMAINS 
D > HEAVY COMPACT GRAVEL VARYING FROM EINCHES TO O FEET 


IN DEPTH CONTAINING STELLENBOSCH 4ANOD NMIANINIOTSYT 


RENAINS .« 


! BED ROCK OF BLLNSH GREEN LZCCA SAALE. 


()) GRAVELS 2D) AND DD ARE D/IANIONDIFEROUS . 


WW) DEPTH OF SHAFT wo.f -(a) 7o feb of Grave/ : Zot 
Go), 7a fop of Shale + eg9'o! 


Vii) DEPTH OF SHAFT ~wo.2:1a) 7 loeb of Gravel’ S70" 


4 of 


Job of Shale . 40 O 


Fic. 2. 


240 Annals of the South African Museum. 


in Southern Africa is a vital point in the study of local prehistory, 
and it is unfortunate that authoritative opinions should be expressed 
when the available data are incomplete. 

The continuity of the D gravels under the island is demonstrated 
in two shafts. These are indicated on the site plan. In shaft No. 1 
the gravel occurs at a depth of 27 feet and rock 2 feet lower down ; 
in No. 2, at a depth of 37 feet and rock 3 feet lower down. Also along 
the extreme eastern and western shores of the island, the gravels are 
D—as shown on the site plan. 

2. The D, Gravels—Where the gravels reappear along the southern 
shore, we find they are no longer compact and heavy but comprise 
a mass of light, loose, water-worn pebbles (the term boulders is hardly 
applicable), sand and clay. The only feature shared with D is that 
they are diamondiferous, but even in this there is a difference, for 
whereas from a given volume from D we may obtain ten diamonds, 
from an equal volume from D, we may obtain only one. The de- 
position as a whole, 7.e. the apparently continuous D-D, bed, suggests 
a petering out of original or D elements as we proceed from the old 
to the new channel, and indicates an appreciable lapse of time be- 
tween the beginning and the end of the deposit as measured between 
the old and the new channels. Because of this, and because we seem 
here to have the tail-end, as it were, of the original deposit, I have 
named these southernmost new-channel gravels D,. 

Due again to undulations or surface irregularities in the underlying 
bed-rock, these D, gravels vary in depth from a few inches to a few 
feet. They contain both rolled and unrolled implements of Faure- 
smith type. No animal remains have been found and no implements 
of Stellenbosch type. 

Every indication leads one to assume that this new channel deposit 
is the tail-end of the original D bed. The depreciation in diamond 
content, supported by the occurrence of implements of a later age, 
suggests most strongly that the deposition of these lighter D, gravels 
constituted the culminating phase of these original deposits. This 
assumption is strengthened when we examine the next or C deposit. 

3. The C Gravels.—Due partly to the inclination of the underlying 
D gravels and largely, I imagine, to eccentricities of cross-currents 
and eddies, these overlying C gravels vary in depth from 18 inches 
to 16 feet. . The deposit is made up of light, loose, water-worn pebbles 
and sand, interspersed with a few boulders, and contains both rolled 
and unrolled remains of Fauresmith type. The line of demarcation 
between these upper C gravels and the underlying D deposit is clear. 


A Few Notes on the Archaeology of Sheppard Island. 241 


There is no gradual merging of heavy to fine material, and the differ- 
ences between the two layers are unmistakable. The deposit is 
identical in appearance and texture with that at D,, and differs from 
it only inasmuch as, where in D, we find diamonds, we do not find 
them in C. 

Here, therefore, we have a clear case of Stellenbosch-Fauresmith 
stratification, the old valley having been occupied at different times 
by people practising different industries. ° 

There is just one complexity: while the remains in the later and 
upper D, and C gravels respectively are typical of the Fauresmith 
Industry and include the characteristic small and neatly made flake 
coups-de-poing, trimmed points with faceted butts and unconven- 
tionalised scrapers, yet there occur a few such advanced specimens, 
largely unrolled, that we may be in the presence of either one or two 
further probabilities : 

(1) If the assemblage from the upper deposit is entirely Faure- 
smith, then we are here in contact not only with an outlier of the 
Industry, but with the most advanced phase hitherto recorded. 
This, if it be so, may necessitate a revision of the chronological 
horizon of the Industry, for the affinities of the assemblage are 
markedly Middle Stone Age. We have more evidences of “ Mous- 
terian influence ”’ here than is the case in those assemblages from the 
real Fauresmith terrain—the South-western Free State. Or 

(2) We may be in the presence of a mixture, an overlapping of two 
distinct yet partially contemporaneous cultures—the Fauresmith, 
with implements rolled and unrolled, and an early phase of the 
Middle Stone Age, with implements lightly, but largely unrolled. 
If this is the case, then the state of preservation of the implements 
inclines one to look upon the appearance of the more typical ‘‘ Mous- 
terian influences’ or affinities as the more recent of the two. The 
implements, however, appear throughout the upper C and D, de- 
posits, and wider and more detailed investigation will be necessary 
before any more definite opinion can be expressed. Several arti- 
ficially rounded stones have also been recovered from these later 
gravels, and as it has been possible in other parts of the Union (notably 
at Hlandslaagte near Heilbron, and at Floris Mineral Baths in the 
Free State) to associate these with the Middle Stone Age, the occur- 
rence is significant. 

My own leanings are strongly inclined towards this latter prob- 
ability, 7.e. that we have an intermixture and partial overlapping of 
two distinct industrial groups. 


b) 


242 Annals of the South African Museum. 


Smithfield Occurrences.—On or near the surface of the gravels and 
not only on both the Free State and Transvaal banks, but also on 
the island itself, are occurrences of Smithfield types; rare, it is true, 
but there nevertheless. 

In the old river bed I recovered a fragment of a stone ring in shale 
and on the island a typical trimmed point of side-scraper type in 
lydianite. Bored stones, duckbills, and thumbnail scrapers have 
been found on both banks. These remains are Smithfield “ B,” and 
the period of occupation appears to have been entirely recent. 

We, therefore, have the sequence: Stellenbosch—Fauresmith— 
Smithfield “ B,” with the possible addition of a phase of the Middle 
Stone Age between and separating the Fauresmith and Smithfield, 
thus giving us the most important and illuminating stratification 
hitherto recorded: Stellenbosch—Fauresmith—Middle Stone Age— 
Smithfield “ B.” 


In this brief summary it is possible to review only four further 
points of interest : 

(a) The gravels as a whole combine to form the most recent deposits 
or “ terrace”’ of this type in the Vaal, and the lower D deposit may 
therefore be regarded as Pleistocene—probably Late. There is no 
reason to presume geological antiquity; rather is the reverse the 
case, 2.€. that these gravels, despite their implementiferous and 
fossiliferous content, are relatively modern. 

(6) In the Stellenbosch assemblage from the older D gravels, 
coups-de-poing and biseaux occur in even numbers. All the biseau 
shapes illustrated in text-fig. 2 of Mr. Goodwin’s Stellenbosch paper 
in this volume appear, and I fail to see how even the sceptic could 
escape the conviction that both types were designedly made. 

In its essentials, the general assemblage is certainly characteristic 
of the Stellenbosch Industry, but it shows a general advance over the 
“ Southern Mountain” group. It is much more closely allied to the 
“Vaal River” group—a group that I incline to regard as the most 
advanced and probably the culminating phase of the parent or 
Stellenbosch Industry. We find such a general improvement not 
only in the implements, but also in the technique, that we may well 
be in the presence of the latest developments of the Industry and so 
near the beginning of that transition that led—largely due to the use 
of a new material, lydianite—to the Fauresmith. The Fauresmith 
in turn, in this very zone (a zone which we may well term the Lydianite 
Zone) later evolving—to the Middle Stone Age—either as an autoch- 


A Few Notes on the Archaeology of Sheppard Island. 243 


thonous development or due to the infiltration from the north of 
what we may tentatively term “ Mousterian influences,” or perhaps 
both. 

I am more convinced than ever that in the valley of the Vaal lie 
hidden the greatest and most important secrets of the prehistory of 
this country, and that not until it has been more thoroughly explored 
shall we solve the many problems that presently confront us.* 

(c) While the Stellenbosch implements are all of materials taken 
from the lower D gravels—quartzites, amygdaloidal lavas, diabasic 
rocks, etc.—the Fauresmith and Middle Stone Age types are almost 
exclusively of lydianite—the material so favoured during these in- 
dustrial developments. 

(d) While the Stellenbosch implements were originally discovered 
as incidentals to the occurrence of diamonds, the position over this 
area of the Vaal is such to-day that the presence of a large cowp-de- 
poing or biseau in a newly discovered gravel is almost as sure an 
indication of the presence of diamonds as is the “ bandom” or 
“bantam.” In. other words, if an experienced digger discovers 
Stellenbosch-type remains in a gravel, he immediately feels that the 
chances are a thousand to one that he will also discover diamonds ! 


Before concluding this brief statement, I must record my great 
indebtedness to Mr. H. Sheppard, the owner of the island, not only 
for his invaluable assistance, but also for such information during 
my all too brief visit that, but for him, my work would have been 
hopelessly inadequate. As a guide to those hopeful of furthering 
research in this area, I must also add that my entire Sheppard Island 
collection, as well as the details of the survey, have been given to the 
University of the Witwatersrand. 


* Lowe, “‘ The Fauresmith Cowp-de-Poing,” op. cit. 


VOU. “Xx VIL: 16 


9. Addendum on the Further Distribution of the Smithfield Industry. 
By A. J. H. Goopwin, M.A. 


Mr. Lowe’s monograph on the Smithfield sites of the Orange Free 
State has been so thorough that little need be added to his paper ; 
but, although everything points to the Orange-Vaal basin having been 
the original home of the industry and its variations, yet he has 
carefully avoided leaving the impression that they are confined to 
that area, and requested me to add this complementary note on 
distribution. 

It will have been seen that the evidence available is in favour of the 
hypothesis that variations “A” and “B” both evolved in this area, and 
that “C” is largely regardable as a variation produced by two factors 
—the change of material in the eastern part of the sub-continent, 
and continual attacks of a new industry appearing from the north, 
which seem to have had their greatest effect on the eastern edge of 
the main Smithfield area and near the Basutoland mountain masses. 
This influence is the Wilton Industry, which is relatively pure in 
Rhodesia, and seems to have been the main factor in the evolution 
of the almost microlithic “‘C” variation of the Smithfield, and at the 
same time to have introduced the cave-dwelling habit which, too, 
would be affected and suggested by the presence in the Stormberg 
series of “‘ cave sandstones,” and the great mountain folds of Basuto- 
land and the Eastern Cape. 

Mr. Lowe’s map, and our knowledge of the distribution of the 
variations outside the Free State, point to a confined “A ”’ variation, 
appearing almost entirely in the South-Western Free State, Kim- 
berley, and the various districts immediately south of this area. The 
“B” variation is far less confined, and seems to cover the whole Free 
State and a large part of the Cape Province. Smithfield “C” appears 
to extend towards the south-east in much the area occupied by the 
Wilton peoples, though this latter group seems to have extended 
westward along the mountain folds of the south as far as the Cape 
Peninsula, and even further to the north-west. 


SMITHFIELD “‘ A.” 


The McGregor Museum, Kimberley, shows a very fine assortment of 
Smithfield “ A ’’ implements, including the typical concavo-convex of 


246 Annals of the South African Museum. 


this variation, sites being well represented from Zoutpan (Jacobsdal, 
O.F.S.), Alexandersfontein, Wittepan, Rietpan (all Kimberley dis- 
trict), and from Kimberley itself. From near Modder River station Mr. 
Power has collected Smithfield “ A” implements from a site amazingly 
rich in Smithfield “B” implements. South of the Free State the tell- 
tale concavo-convex and its associated types appear from the Victoria 
West Golf Links, and are here associated with a number of odd 
scrapers made from the weathered outer faces of blocks of shale ; 
this natural face forming a deeply patinated patch covering the greater 
part of the outer face of the flake. These implements are in no way 
conventionalised, but are probably of the Smithfield “ A ” variation, as 
the utilisation of the outer crust of the shale is a very typical trait, 
noticeable at many Smithfield “A ”’ sites, but largely lost in the other 
variations. 

Craigie Glen, Wodehouse district, and Culmstock, Middelburg district, 
both show excellent examples of the concavo-convex. All these latter 
sites are represented in the South African Museum. 

Britstown offers a possible difficulty—an apparent evolution of a 
local character from Smithfield “A.” A fine specimen of the concavo- 
convex is represented at the South African Museum, but it is of a 
type not usual to Smithfield “A” sites elsewhere. It is very much 
wider and more shallow than the normal type (perhaps 4 inches by 
linch). This type is exactly paralleled from Hast London. 

From Britstown, too, come a number of beautifully serrated circular 
scrapers (in the collection of Mr. Heese at Riversdale), only paralleled 
by specimens in the collection of Mr. Swan at Kimberley. With the 
Britstown specimens are associated fine tanged arrow-points, but it 
is difficult to place these with any certainty with our present know- 
ledge. 

It is worth noting here that tanged arrow-heads were already 
appearing in the later Mousterian of North Africa, and, if the Smith- 
field A variation owes much to the Middle Stone Age, it is possible 
that the tanged arrow-head forms part of its debt. 

The peculiar scraper—showing affinities to the concavo-convex— 
illustrated by Péringuey * from Matatiele, Griqualand Hast, possibly 
belongs to the Smithfield Industry ; it is fairly typical, but is quite 
unassociated. This specimen similarly shows the weathered surface 
of the shale over the outer face. 


* Péringuey, Annals 8. A. Museum, vol. viii, Plate XVI, fig. 132. 


Addendum on Further Distribution of the Smithfield Industry. 247 


SMITHFIELD ‘“‘ B.”’ 


Most of the other open-air sites represented in the South African 
Museum collection and in other of our museums consist of Smithfield 
“B” sites. This variation is by far the most widespread and the 
richest industry of the Union. 

Of these sites little need be said : 
or two cave sites at Britstown, Naauwpoort, etc.; 
the same range of implements described by Lowe. 

Along the Orange River proper, west of its junction with the Vaal 
and south-west of Kimberley, the local jaspers have forced a slight 
variation ; square scrapers, etc. appearing among specimens sub- 
mitted to this museum by Mr. Bryant, but this area has been very 
insufficiently studied as yet. 

A site at the Half-way House to Barkly West from Kimberley has 
yielded Mr. Power a single tanged arrow-head similar to Mr. Heese’s 
specimens from Britstown ; the site at Half-way House is a “B”’ site, 
associated with rock engravings. 

The Moonlight Kop specimens from Wabiotin West show a tendency 
towards Smithfield “C,”’ so far as size is concerned, but the workman- 
ship and the types of implements represented seem to class it as of 
Variation “ B.” 


all are open-air sites, save one 
and all show much 


Additional Smithfield “ B” Sites. 


Albert. Hofmeyer. 
Aliwal North. Hopetown. 
Ariam’s Vlei. Hutchinson. 


Asbestos Hills. Jasper. 

Aughrabies Falls. Jasper. 

Barkly West (Half-way House). 
Engravings. 

Beaufort West. 

Britstown. 

Burghersdorp. 

Burghersdorp-Bethulie. 

Cradock. 

Culmstock, Middelburg. (“A” 
and Bx”) 

Darling. 

Dunedin. 

Hanover. 


Imvani Poort. 

Kab River (S.W.A.). 

Karroo River (Clanwilliam 
district). 

Keilands. 

Keilands (ZiguduCave). (?“C.’’) 

Kimberley. 

Ludlow (Naauwpoort). 
Paintings. 

Modder River Bridge. 

Molteno, Withoogte. (? “C.’’) 
Paintings. 

Norval’s Pont. 

* Orange River.” 


(2 ©0372) 


248 Annals of the South African Museum. 


Philipstown. Sabelele River (St. Marks). 
Pniel Mission. Engravings. St. Marks. 

Prieska Poort. Smithfield. 

Prieska. Jasper. Steynsburg. 

Queenstown (Bowker’s Park). Stormberg. 

Queenstown (Bongolo Shelter). Tarkastad (Skilder Krantz). 
Queenstown (Rockwoods). Paintings. 

Queenstown (Grobelaar’s Upington. 

Grave). Victoria West, Cordaat’s Kuil. 
Queenstown (Birch’s Nek). Victoria West, Moonlight Kop. 
Queenstown (Brook’s Farm). Vosberg. Engravings. 
Queenstown (Eller’s Farm). Vosberg Drift. 

(2 “C.”) Paintings. Vosberg Shelter. Paintings. 
Riverton, Vaal. Warmbad, S.W.A. 

Rosmead. | Warrenton, Vaal River. 


SMITHFIELD ‘“‘ C.”’ 


This is typically a cave industry ; and while it shades into “ B,” and 
is often difficult to separate from that group with any degree of 
certainty, yet even greater difficulty is encountered when we attempt 
to differentiate between the “C” group and the Wilton. So much is 
this so, that Mr. Burkitt * says: “ Mr. van Riet Lowe has lately 
come to the conclusion that the Smithfield Industry found so often 
in rock-shelters with paintings can be distinguished as a Smithfield 
‘C’ group from the above-mentioned divisions which he calls Smith- 
field ‘A’ and ‘B’ respectively. Personally I am not convinced that 
such a Smithfield ‘C’ can be thus separated. I fancy the occurrence of 
thumbnail scrapers, etc. in some of these industries merely indicates 
some contact with the Wilton Culture.” 

In a recent letter, speaking of this statement by Burkitt, Lowe 
(26, 8, 28) says: “ The occurrence of thumbnail scrapers, not only 
in the ‘C’ but also in the ‘B’ phase, does, as pointed out in my paper, 
indicate some contact with the Wilton; but it must be borne in mind 
that, apart from the typological differentiations that exist between “B’ 
and ‘C,’ and between ‘C’ and the Wilton, the presence of this thumb- 
nail scraper and its associated microlithic forms, may also very largely 
be due to material to hand, just as its numerical increase may be due 
to the exigencies of new environmental conditions. The fact that 
crescents have not been definitely associated with this ‘C’ or cave- 
Smithfield, and that bored stones do not appear in the Rhodesian 


* Burkitt, South Africa’s Past in Stone and Paint, Cambridge, 1928, p. 94. 


Addendum on Further Distribution of the Smithfield Industry. 249 


Wilton, are facts sufficiently significant to indicate the necessity for 
recognising this ‘C’ phase as a variation, not only of the Smithfield 
but also of the Wilton. The associated arts are also different.” * 

It will be seen, therefore, that Smithfield “C’’ may be regardable 
purely asa mixedindustry. But itis necessary tonameit; and rather 
than regard it as a branch of the Wilton the term Smithfield “C”’ is 
preferred. Itis better to use the name Wilton Industry for the purer 
stock which Mr. Neville Jones already recognises in Rhodesia—an 
area where the Smithfield does not appear. 

It is to be admitted that any scientific attempt to differentiate in 
certain instances becomes almost farcical, the Smithfield “C’’ being 
sometimes only a crescentless Wilton; the absence of the crescent 
being made up for by a greater number of small end-scrapers, thumb- 
nail scrapers, and horseshoe scrapers, which in themselves are often 
indistinguishable from the Wilton varieties. Many sites fall absolutely 
within the Smithfield “C ”’ group, or in the Wilton group. 

In the following list the bulk of intermediate and “ doubtful ” 
sites has been included. This slightly weakens the Wilton paper 
(which follows), but is perhaps safer, as it confines the term Wilton 
to a relatively pure industry. 


Britstown. 

Clarke’s Siding, Dordrecht. Paintings. 
Dordrecht (Mt. Victory). Paintings. 
Dordrecht (St. Catherine’s Cave). 

Dordrecht Kloof. Paintings. 
Grahamstown. 

Grahamstown (Stoneshill). 

Keilands, Zigudu Cave. (? “B”.) Paintings. 
Klipfontein, Kimberley. (?) 

Ludlow, Naauwpoort. (? “B’.) Paintings. 
Modderpoort. Paintings. 

Molteno, Kilgobbin. Paintings. 

Mossel Bay (mixed with Mossel Bay types 2). 
Smithfield Poort. 


Many sites have been insufficiently studied or are insufficiently 
represented to allow of their inclusion under either of these three 
headings. Further work on the Smithfield should make the three- 
fold division clearer, or may perhaps necessitate its re-arrangement 
on a sounder scientific basis. 


* Burkitt, Chapter IX, p. 133. 


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( 251 ) 


10. The Wilton Industrya—By A. J. H. Goopwin, M.A., Senior 
Lecturer in Anthropology, University of Cape Town. 


(With Plates XLI-XLIII and two Text-figures.) 


THE term “ Wilton ” was first used very tentatively by Mr. J. Hewitt, 
Director of the Albany Museum, Grahamstown, in July 1921. Some 
few years later, when attempting to sift out the various groups of 
implements into definite industries, I used the descriptive terms 
Pygmy and Microlithic in referring to this industry. In 1926 when 
finally submitting my scheme to the Science Association at Pretoria, 
the term Wilton was again suggested, and accepted. 

Our first knowledge of the Wilton Industry comes from the Cape 
Peninsula, various crescents, thumbnail scrapers, and the like, 
appearing from a number of kitchen middens and sand-dune sites in 
this district. Unluckily, Dr. Péringuey often used the term “ Cape 
Flats type” to include both the Still Bay Industry and the Wilton, 
as they are sometimes found in contiguity at the Cape. 

Mr. Hewitt’s careful and meticulous scientific methods have rendered 
a great service to archaeology, and have given us an interesting insight 
into the material found at the Wilton cave. This site was originally 
discovered by Mr. C. W. Wilmot (the discoverer of the Cofimvaba 
material), while he was postmaster at Qumbu. The farm Wilton 
stands some 5 miles east of Alicedale, and forms part of the original 
Hoffman’s Kloof farm. The rock-shelter is some 2 miles from the 
homestead, and overlooks a narrow kloof. The shelter is long and 
shallow, backed by a steep wall of overhanging quartzitic sandstone, 
which is covered with paintings. To quote Mr. Hewitt’s original 
paper *: “‘ On that site, ornamented with numerous rock paintings, 
Mr. Wilmot found in the ash and debris of the floor a large quantity 
of small scrapers and ostrich egg-shell beads, and together with them 
about a dozen or more crescents, all small, yet beautifully finished, 
the length ranging from half to five-sixths of an inch, with a maximum 
thickness along the curved back of one-seventh of an inch. Some of 

* “* On Several Implements and Ornaments, etc.,’ S.A.J.S., xviii., 1921, 454-467, 
with Plates ix—xii. 


252 Annals of the South African Museum. 


them still bear traces of red paint on the edges, and in one instance 
the paint forms a more or less distinct line on the under-surface, as if 
the maker of the implement had first outlined the curve in paint on 
the original flake.” 

He continues later: “ A Bushman origin for the Wilton crescents 
may be inferred from the cultural associations. The ostrich egg-shell 
beads and rock paintings suggest that conclusion, but additional 
weight is given from the fact that an adult skull, clearly referable to 
some branch of the Bushman race, was unearthed from the same rock- 
shelter. This skull is now in the Albany Museum, having been 
presented thereto by Mr. W. W. Wilmot, the owner of the farm. . . 
Remains of four burials, all probably of the same race, were found at 
the rock-shelter, and in each case the corpse had been covered with 
flat stones painted with red on their under-surfaces. Despite the 
fact of definite burial, we may assuredly connect the skeletons with 
the other objects above mentioned. Many of the beads were taken 
directly from the skeletons: others were found in the debris of the 
floor, along with pygmy implements, some of which were made, in all 
probability, for use in the bead industry.” 

Mr. Hewitt gives a more detailed description of this cave, which 
may well be quoted here in full. “ The floor of the rock-shelter at 
Wilton is covered very largely by ashes, which in places have a vertical 
depth of 4 feet, but no layers are traceable therein. This is the 
unanimous conclusion of the three investigators (Revs. P. Stapleton 
and Kilroe, and Mr. Hewitt), who devoted five days to its exploration.* 
Moreover, with few exceptions, the Wilton implements seem to con- 
stitute a homogeneous assembly, despite considerable range in size 
amongst the scrapers. . . . Amongst the numerous paintings on the 
inner wall of the rock-shelter are some spirited representations of 
antelopes in profile. The technique is quite superior, and a number 
of the antelopes are in two colours, red and creamy white, but there 
are no group scenes. A very distinctive feature is the treatment of 
the human figure, the limbs and body being tremendously elongated. 
These, which are wholly red, may not belong to the same period as 
the antelope pictures. . . . Thus we arrive at a conclusion which has 
long been anticipated, but not hitherto so well supported by actual 
data as now detailed, that the short-headed Bushman made the 
delicate ostrich-shell beads, the pygmy crescents, and the tiny scrapers, 


* This was their first excavation at this site; they have since paid frequent 
visits, and have done considerably more excavation, but their original conclusion 
has not been appreciably changed. 


The Wilton Industry. 253 


and was also the author of rock paintings of superior and characteristic 
technique.” : 

In this series of quotations I have deliberately left out his references 
to the possible presence of a second and later industry (apparently 
Smithfield “C ”’), as we are not dealing with this industry here. Were 
he more sure on this point we would be in a position to prove an 
interesting sequence, 7.e. that Smithfield “C,” at any rate in the south- 
eastern districts, is to be regarded as later than the Wilton ; and also 
to point to the possibility that both pottery and the bored stone 
belong primarily to the Smithfield Industry and were only introduced 
into this area at the end of the Wilton period. For further informa- 
tion the reader is referred to Mr. Hewitt’s paper. Against Mr. 
Hewitt’s suggestion of the presence of two industries it 1s worth 
noting that Mr. Burkitt * states: “ only one industry occurs; that 
is to say, the rock-shelter has only been inhabited by folk belonging 
to one culture.” 

Mr. Hewitt kindly allowed me to see his collections from this site. 
The implements represented consist mainly of small crescents of two 
types, thin flakes worked to a curve on one edge, and slightly thicker 
flakes worked on two edges. The crescent is usually analysed into 
an arc and a chord, the chord is the straighter of the two sides, the 
are curving round to meet this at each end. In the single crescent 
only the are is worked, the working being of a steep backing type, 
consisting of a series of evenly spaced trimming flakes struck or pressed 
off from the under (cleavage) face. In the double crescent the arc and 
chord are both worked. The section across the crescent is much the 
same as the section of a pocket-knife blade, or a scissors blade, the 
thicker edge being formed by the arc, the thinner by the chord. 

Pygmy end-scrapers of a shape and size similar to the Smithfield 
“C” type occur here also. Whether Mr. Hewitt is right in regarding 
these as belonging to a later appearance of Smithfield “C” man it is 
difficult to say. The presence of a bored stone points to this possi- 
bility. 

Thumbnail scrapers make an appearance at this site, and right 
through the Wilton Industry. These are very similar to the Smith- 
field ““C”’ types, and shade into the little circular horseshoe scrapers, 
and both may best be described as variations of the end-scraper, but 
both types are worked across the end and along each lateral edge 
giving a small (one cm. square) square or circular scraper of which 
only the striking platform remains unworked. With these micro- 

* Burkitt, South Africa’s Past in Stone and Paint, Cambridge, 1928, p. 47. 


254 Annals of the South African Museum. 


lithic implements appear tiny cores, some without secondary working, 
some very definitely made into core scrapers, tiny trimming flakes 
having been removed from about the circumference of the striking 
platform. With these may be mentioned little hammer stones, 
measuring an inch or less across, which appear to have been used 
for the purpose of making the secondary trimming on the crescents 
and scrapers. Small rod-like flakes, steeply worked on either edge, 
perhaps an inch in length, by a third of an inch across, by half an 
inch thick, are also found definitely associated with the Wilton imple- 
ments. These last make a sporadic appearance in the Smithfield “C” 
variation and in a few Middle Stone Age sites, though in the latter 
they tend to merge into the peculiar re-directing flakes of that period. 

Rough bone points (“awls’’) also appear from the Wilton Cave. 
These consist of split bones sharpened at one or both ends to a torpedo- 


ee eo eee 


‘A 7 Ready for use. 


Reversed. i i 


TExt-FIG. 1.—Foreshaft of modern Bushman arrow. a, end of 
reed shaft ; b, reed collar. 


like point, by the action of rubbing. Mr. Lowe has mentioned these 
points in his Smithfield paper. They appear to be in every way 
identical with the bone arrow-points used by the present-day Bush- 
men of South-west Africa, the Kalahari and Angola, which may 
therefore be shortly described. The arrow-head consists of three 
parts, measuring some 5 inches over all (13 cm.). The foremost part 
consists of the point, a splinter of bone rounded, and sharpened at 
the forward end, measuring about 7 cm. in length by 4 mm. at its 
greatest thickness. The butt, which is squared off, is bound into a 
reed collar, and rests directly against the forward point of the link- 
shaft, which is also bound into the reed collar. The collar usually 
measures 15 mm. in length by 7 mm. in diameter. The link-shaft 
consists of a rounded splinter of bone, pointed at each end, and 
measuring some 6 cm. in length by 1 cm. in thickness. The hinder 
end is inserted into the reed shaft of the arrow, which measures 


The Wilton Industry. 259 


perhaps 40 cm. in length.. The point is poisoned and the whole fore- 
shaft can be reversed in the reed arrow to. guard the poisoned point 
when not in use (text-fig. 1). It seems more than likely that the 
points found at the Wilton shelter and elsewhere are actually the parts 
of bone arrow-heads. 

Ostrich egg-shell beads and their tiny stone borers, showing delicate 
working across one edge, are also found in the Wilton site. Exactly 
similar beads occur among the modern Bushmen and the tribes with 
whom they have come into contact. In the Congo strings of beads 
of this type occur as currency, and many of the North African Neo- 
lithic sites show exactly similar beads made by the same process. 
(See Addendum.) 

Among the ornaments found by Mr. Hewitt may be mentioned a 
pierced univalve (Nassa) marine shell, apparently bored for suspension 
and a dassie tusk (Hyrax sp.) similarly bored towards the root. 

Having introduced a description of the name-site it is necessary 
before going further to explain exactly why the term Wilton has been 
used rather than a term such as “‘ Smithfield D.” At first sight, and 
judging only from the prehistory of the Union, it seems as though we 
were in the presence of an evolutionary series, starting with Smithfield 
“A” and evolving to the Wilton.* Directly we pass out of the Union 
it becomes immediately obvious that the Wilton of Rhodesia is earlier 
than that of the Union, and that no Smithfield types appear. Where 
mixture is present it is with Middle Stone Age types. Mr. Neville 
Jones illustrates f a series of Wilton types from the later deposits at 
Sawmills. The industry here appears mixed, crescents, lance-heads, 
and circular scrapers appearing side by side. In further illustrations 
(figs. 24, 25) he depicts material from what would appear to be a 
mixed site (Bambata), and two pure Wilton sites (Nswatugi and 
Kalanyoni). 

Judging from the purer sites, the Wilton in Southern Rhodesia 
appears to consist of crescents, thumbnail scrapers, horseshoe scrapers, 
ostrich egg-shell beads, and their tiny stone borers, bone points, and 
spatulae, pigment and paintings. The bored stone seems to be entirely 
lacking at cave sites, though a few have been recovered unassociated 
from other sites. Rock engravings have been found in a cave near 
Bumbuzi and are depicted by Jones (fig. 37).£ Further engravings 


* Lowe, “‘ The Interrelation of the Wilton and Smithfield Industries,” S.A.J.S., 
Xxili, 1926, p. 869. 

+ Neville Jones, Stone Age in Rhodesia, Oxford 1926, fig. 13. 

t See also Guide to Rhodesia, 1924, p. 364. 


256 Annals of the South African Museum. 


showing animal tracks, whirls, ladders, etc. have been reported and 
photographed by Mr. W. C. Montague Owen, Kasamba district, 
Northern Rhodesia, from a site 200 feet above the Munwa stream, 
4 miles from its junction with the Luapula River. These and the 
bored stones seem to be our only indication of the road taken by the 
original folk from whom the Smithfield Industry finally obtained these 
two elements. 

Within the Union we first encounter the Wilton Industry at Lichten- 
burg, whence material has reached the McGregor Museum, Kimberley, 
from Doornlagte farm. On the Vaal River it appears once more at 
Riverton (M.M.K., 1152) in close conjunction with Smithfield “B” 
types.. Johnson * describes implements from an island at Riverton. Mr. 
J. Swan has retrieved a number of Wilton crescents from the Riverton 
site; these have been presented by him to Professor Balfour of Oxford. 
Messrs. J. Power and 8. Tapscott have obtained similar collections. 
The site is an open site, situated on the south-eastern bank of the 
Vaal River; it has been cut up by dongas to a considerable degree, 
and the material is being drifted down to the river which at this point 
contains Stellenbosch Industry gravels. Similar Wilton implements 
are known from Rooipoort in the Kimberley district. The Port 
Elizabeth Museum also shows Wilton types from Kimberley district 
(P.E.M., 509). Further down the Orange River, Wilton sites are 
sporadically known, one site at Abiam, Gordonia, being represented 
at Kimberley. A few sites are known in the Kalahari (Gamotiep, 
Aries, etc.) and are represented at the South African Museum and in 
the Port Elizabeth Museum, while Johnson mentions crescents from 
the Hart—Vaal River junction. Itis evident that the Wilton Industry 
is well represented in this part of the Union. Many of the sites are 
in the open, and it has thus proved difficult to get a complete series of 
implements typical of this area. Crescents, small end-scrapers, and 
pottery seem typical here as elsewhere. Down the eastern side of 
the subcontinent the Wilton is not yet well known. The Free State 
shows sporadic occurrences (see Lowe’s statement on De Kiel Oost 
crescents in the previous paper), but insufficient is yet known of the 
eastern portion of this area to enable us to deduce much. 

Further north Barberton (A.M.G.) and Carolina (8.A.M.) have 
yielded implements which might be classed as of Wilton type. South 
of this new difficulties are encountered, as we enter native territory 
which has not been studied to any extent. The area south of the © 
native territories is not yet too well known, but Queenstown shows 

* J. P. Johnson, The Prehistoric Period in South Africa, Longmans, 1912. 


The Wilton Industry. 257 


Wilton types at a rock-shelter overlooking Rockwoods farm in the 
Bongolo basin. The shelter contains a weird series of window and 
ladder designs in red, yellow, white, and black.* Associated with 
these Wilton types I found a European brass pin, the head of which 
had been clamped on, and which probably dates back a hundred 
years. 

Many other caves in the Hastern Province, especially about 
Grahamstown, contain pure Wilton material. Another cave in this 
area excavated by Mr. Hewitt is the Spitzkop Cave, Springvale. 
Here he discovered Wilton types of implements, pierced fragments 
of sea-shells, bone points (better made than the Wilton specimens, 
one exactly similar point is of wood), ostrich egg-shell beads, remains 
of a firestick, portions of a European clay pipe, and china beads of 
white banded with red ; the last two point to modernity. The pierced 
sea-shells are relatively common in this district, and worthy of 
description. They consist of round fragments of nacreous shells 
about an inch across which have been bordered by a series of cuts about 
the edge, spaced at about one-tenth of an inch apart, and of similar 
length. This gives a roughly scalloped edge.t Together with these 
he found a section of bone, some 5 inches long, incised all about with 
cross-hatched lines, and a few “ palettes,” flat fragments of slate, 
which suggest a parallel to the European painter’s palette.t The 
Albany Museum shows similar palettes from the Port Alfred kitchen 
middens (A.M.G. 1717), here associated again with Wilton implements. 
A similar association occurs at Waterkloof, Stanhope (A.M.G. 1739, 
1741), where at two shelters containing paintings, bone points, Wilton 
implements, ostrich egg-shell beads, and quartz crystals were found 
with a palette. At Groot Kloof, Stanhope (A.M.G. 1742), the same 
association exists, ostrich egg-shell beads, a large incised bead, similar 
to the pierced sea-shell fragments mentioned above, incised pottery 
on which the incisions have been done before baking, giving an im- 
pression of corrugation, fragments of fibre string, very neatly made, 
and palettes all appearing together. From Kabeljauw’s Cave, 
Jefirey’s Bay, a very similar assortment appears, Wilton implements, 
incised ostrich egg-shell, ostrich egg-shell beads, pierced sea-shell 
pendants, bone points, a bored stone, and pottery. From a neigh- 
bouring midden site Wilton flakes are again associated with pottery. 


* An interesting parallel is visible in Frobenius’ “‘ Das unbekannte Afrika,” 
Munich 1923, Plate xi. 


+ See Hewitt, op. cit., Plate xi; cf. Plate XLIII, 10, in this paper. 
t Compare Péringuey, Plate xxvi, p. 196. 


258 Annals of the South African Museum. 


It will be thus seen that in the south-eastern province of the Cape 
the normal associations of the Wilton are: 


Crescents. 

Thumbnail scrapers. 

Horseshoe scrapers. 

Small end-scrapers. 

Small cores and hammer-stones. 

Bone points. 

Firesticks. 

Pottery. 

Ostrich egg-shell beads. 

Pendants of nacre, or of ostrich egg-shell. 
“ Palettes.” 

String. 

Paintings. 

Paint stones. 

Skeletons of a “ San ” (Bush-Hottentot) type. 


At Burnt Kraal (Grahamstown), a small rough cone, pierced longi- 
tudinally and similar to the bowl of a clay pipe, but of Wilton pottery, 
was found in a similar series of associations. It seems necessary to 
include also the bored stone, though this is by no means typical of 
the Wilton in Rhodesia. 

Middledrift, in much this region, shows an open-air site, situated on 
the banks of the river, where Mr. Gladwin and the Messrs. Wilson have 
found crescents and end-scrapers of surface quartzite, indurated shale, 
and other materials associated with pottery and ostrich egg-shell beads. 

Westward of this area, along the mountain ranges, various Wilton 
sites occur, but have not been properly explored. Mr. Fitzsimons’ 
excavations in several caves in the Tzitzikama Mountains are of 
interest, and several papers, by himself, and by Mr. Gear and Dr. 
Gordon Lang of Johannesburg, point to the presence of two racial 
types, an earlier “ Boskopoid race ”’ followed by the light-boned San 
peoples. No sequence of culture has been noted, but from the larger 
objects retrieved it is obvious that the later folk had a later Stone 
Age culture, perhaps Wilton or Smithfield “C.”” Owing to the fact that 
these people have taken to a “strandloping”’ type of subsistence, 
small implements are in all probability difficult to find. It seems 
likely that a series much the same as the Skildegat Cave sequence has 
been overlooked at these sites. 

In the shell caves at Knysna filled with midden refuse, I was able 


The Wilton Industry. 259 


to discover Wilton crescents, thumbnail scrapers, a bone point, ostrich 
egg-shell beads, etc., forming a typical Wilton group. No pottery was 
‘represented at allin the caves. The implements were mainly of chert, 
quartz crystal, etc., and distinct in type from the Mossel Bay Variation 
implements which are more typical of Knysna. Many flakes of this 
industry seem to occur in the midden material, pointing either to a 
mixture of culture or to the Wilton midden makers having used these 
long flakes for shell opening. 

Pottery and bored stones have been found by Mr. William Brown 
at Duthie’s farm, and also at a site between the Inner and Outer 
Obelisks (the naval terms for the West Head and the signal hill), about 
100 feet above sea-level. They are not associated with implements. 
Paintings seem to be entirely absent, though Mr. Brown states that 
Messrs. Bain and Henkel, while excavating a coastal cave on the 
Western Head, discovered a large bone with an eland engraved upon | 
it. This was lent with other interesting objects to the British Museum, 
but was stolen on the return voyage. 

The Cango Cave at Oudtshoorn opens out of a shelter containing 
paintings; the debris from the floor shows crescents, thumbnail 
scrapers, ostrich egg-shell beads, etc. Some of these are housed in 
the Kimberley Museum. On a visit there, some years ago, I found 
work to be impossible as the floor deposit had been concealed by a 
roadway having been built over it. A certain amount of material is 
still discoverable below this road, however, having apparently been 
thrown out. 

The Cape St. Blaize cave at Mossel Bay is very similar to the 
Knysna caves, both Wilton and Mossel Bay types apparently occurring 
together. Whether this is due to later mixing of the deposits by the 
local authorities, or to an actual mixture of cultures it is impossible 
to say. The Wilton material also shows affinities to Smithfield “C.” 
The material used is surface quartzite, the Mossel Bay types being 
of quartzitic Table Mountain sandstone. 

Péringuey mentions and illustrates * an interesting object, con- 
sisting of a chipped core-scraper mounted on a stick with some type of 
cement. This was discovered by Mr. R. E. Dumbleton at the end of 
the last century, in a cave situated near the mouth of the Touw River, 
which passes southward a few miles east of George. Describing the 
cave | Mr. Dumbleton states that the cave floor was covered with a 


* Péringuey, op. cit., pp. 149-151 and Plate xix, 150. See Plate XLII in this 
paper. 
+ Cape Town Diocesan College Magazine, 1892. 
VOL. XXVII. 17 


260 Annals of the South African Museum. 


thick layer of guano which the owner of the farm wished to utilise, 
and a skeleton was recovered, but partially destroyed. Mr. Dumbleton 
commenced investigations towards the middle of the cave; a further 
skeleton was revealed lying on its left side in a fully flexed position 
and enclosed in a buck-skin ; he continues: “ On coming to the head 
I discovered immediately in front of the face two tortoise shells. . . . 
With these there was the lumbar vertebra of a large ruminant, several 
flint scrapers, and also a peculiar instrument consisting of a piece of 
flint fixed in gum-cement, in which was inserted a piece of wood about 
four inches long, serving asa handle. The latter was perfectly rotten 
and broke off short.” Happily the pieces were retained and the whole 
is now in the South African Museum. Little description of this 
object is necessary. It is some 6 inches in length, and consists of a 
round stick perhaps half an inch thick ; over half of the stick is enclosed 
in a mass of gum-cement, which is out of all proportion to the rest 
of the implement, the greatest thickness being almost 13 inches. 
Attached to the stick and set into the gum-cement is a core-scraper of 
surface quartzite. 

One other hafted stone implement from this area is housed in the 
South African Museum. It consists of a similar mass of cement 
attaching a flat unworked flake of slate to a stick. This was discovered 
in a cave near Knysna, and is mentioned in a letter from Mr. Henkel 
to Péringuey (S.A.M., 11th October 1912): “I attach a sketch with 
measurements of an implement found in a cave. Undoubtedly it is 
of the same kind as figured in Plate xix, 150. I can give you no 
further particulars at present, but am sending this hurried note to 
report the find, as apparently the implements are rare ”’ (Plate XLII). 

This specimen (8.A.M. 1588) is also housed in the South African 
Museum, and is of particular interest as it seems to imply that un- 
worked flakes, if of a suitable shape, were used, and actually mounted 
for use. The type of mounting would not allow of much lateral 
strain being exerted, and the implements would only stand relatively 
direct pressure. This mode of hafting is still to be found among 
modern Bush tribes among certain of whom arrows are tipped in this 
manner with quartz crystal.* _ 

The next area in which sites of Wilton types are known is the 
Riversdale district. Some years ago Mr. H. Harger submitted a 
number of implements from the sand-dune middens on the Still Bay 
coast to Mr. Hewitt of Grahamstown. Since then Mr. C. H. Heese 
of Riversdale has collected a very considerable number of implements 

* Goodwin, ‘‘ Sir Langham Dale’s Collection,” S.A.J.S., xxv, 1928. 


The Wilton Industry. 261 


of this type from the middens west of the Kaffirs Kuil River-mouth. 
Visiting this spot a few years ago, I found a number of Wilton crescents 
associated with pottery of the usual type, and with midden refuse. 
Mr. Burkitt some time later discovered identical material both here 
and in a nearby plantation.* 

Some few miles inland from here and north of Riversdale Mr. Heese 
is at present excavating a cave which shows a most perfect series of 
Wilton implements of quartz crystal, white quartz, surface quartzites, 
and the usual types of material. The cave is known as the “ Cave of 
Hands ” from the silhouettes of hands painted in red and the series 
of red dots, apparently ochred finger prints, on the walls. These at 
once link up with the original Wilton site, and various similar Hastern 
Province sites showing the same peculiarities. Dr. K. H. Barnard 
retrieved a number of Wilton implements from a similar cave in 
Garcia’s Pass, Riversdale. 

Caves at Rooi Els, some few miles from Gordon’s Bay, east of the 
Cape Peninsula, show an accumulation of midden refuse, containing 
a few rough bone and stone implements typical of the midden sites 
of the south coast, but not definitely associable with any particular 
industrial group. 

In the Cape Peninsula itself pure Wilton sites occur here and there ; 
from Diep River a very fine series of crescents showing a wonderful 
evenness of workmanship and similarity of form have been submitted 
to the South African Museum. They were collected about the edges 
of the vleis or meres typical of this portion of the Cape Flats. Some 
Wilton implements appear in the Dale Collection from Maitland, while 
Mr. J. M. Bain has sent in specimens from a variety of sites on the 
Flats (Plate XLI). Colonel Hardy has found a very considerable 
number of Wilton implements at various sites in the Peninsula ; Tf 
and the association of pottery, crescents, thumbnail scrapers, horse- 
shoe scrapers, ostrich egg-shell beads and their borers, with now and 
then a few bone tools, seems certain for this region also. 

Mr. Drury of the South African Museum recently excavated a cave 
at Witsands in the Cape Peninsula at the instigation of Mr. C. van 
der Poll. In this cave was discovered a large accumulation of midden 
refuse of the normal coastal type. The bone material at this cave is 
exceedingly abundant and interesting, and consists of bone points 
(“ arrow-heads ”’), bone awls, bone tubes, comparable with specimens 

* Burkitt, op. cit., fig. xix, 

tf See Goodwin, “‘ The Hardy Collection,” S.A.J.S., xxii, 1926, p. 826. Also 
Péringuey, op. cit., chapter ix. 


-262 Annals of the South African Museum. 


-known from inland sites but without ornamentation, ostrich egg-shell 
beads, bored egg-shell fragments, a nacre disc, similar to the Eastern 
Province specimens, a spoon or spatula, and a peculiar bone ornament 
or thin spatula (Plate XLIII). Pottery and rough flakes of midden 
types are associated. The bone implements are identical with those 
appearing in such abundance from the caves at Robberg near Knysna, 
and described by Péringuey in his work. There seems to have been 
a large bone industry at these coastal sites directly resulting from the 
presence of strong-winged sea-gulls, duikers, etc., whose wing bones 
make admirable implements with the minimum of exertion. The 
bone tubes often found are of interest ; they are sometimes decorated 
with incised lines, sometimes plain—no paint has been found in them, 
otherwise we would have an exact parallel with the Upper Palaeolithic 
paint tubes of Europe. 

At Bloembosch, Darling district, Dr. Péringuey found a collection 
of beautifully made Wilton types, apparently associated with bones 
of Equus capensis and Bubalus bainw. The site was partly covered 
by a shifting sand-dune. He associates a similar series, and has 
illustrated specimens in his work. He states (p. 140): “Mr. J. M. 
Bain and I discovered small cores, scrapers, and borers; also a few 
of the crescent-shaped pygmies ; perforated ostrich egg-shell beads, 
but of a somewhat larger size than those of Fig. 144, and not so care- 
fully concentrically rimmed ; rough scrapers... large scrapers, but also 
of the Cape Flats type ; a small mortar; nuclei of different types of 
rock ; broken ! kwes (7.e. bored stones); a small grooved stone for 
sharpening awls, etc. Here also we found two brass buttons of the 
same pattern as those usually found in the Cape Flats middens, as 
well as a few pieces of Oriental china, derived probably from the wrecks 
of some Dutch East Indian merchantmen sunk in Saldanha Bay... . 
Diligent search, three times repeated, failed to reveal any other kind 
of implement that could lay claim to great antiquity—no boucher or 
vestige of it was met with, no long knife-scraper showing sign of old 
age.” The double association of extinct animals of Recent age, and 
china sherds is not very convincing, but the site is of great interest 
in itself. 

At Montagu Cave, Dr. K. H. Barnard of the South African Museum 
found a very considerable number of Stellenbosch implements, in 
three deposits, each separated from the next by a sterile layer. Above 
a further sterile layer were discovered a number of implements showing 
strong similarities to the Wilton Industry. Crescents, Wilton cores, 
blades, some of Chatelperron type, etc., were common. A sandstone 


The Wilton Industry. 263 


fragment also occurred showing signs of having been used to grind 
down bone points. With these were found a duckbill end-scraper 
extremely like Smithfield types, and one or two unusual flakes of a 
blade-like character. 

I excavated a cave near the source of the Krom River (Clanwilliam 
district), which rises in a pass skirting the Sneeuwberg. At this cave 
an almost identical industry was revealed. Two or three trial pits 
were dug : 

Pit A at the edge of the cave showed a total depth of 18 inches. 
The top 6 inches contained pottery. The entire depth showed Wilton 
implements with apparent additions of various flake knives, etc. The 
excavation reached rock bottom. 

Pit B was dug in the centre of the cave. Pottery was completely 
absent. The top 5 inches was sterile; below this to a depth of 18 
inches Wilton types appeared. The excavation cut into an accumula- 
tion of roof fragments containing no implements. 

Excavation was next carried on in the talus, where exactly the same 
types of pottery and of implements appeared. This cave contained 
a few associable paintings, consisting of conventionalised signs, dots, 
imprints of small hands, etc., which link up with Riversdale and 
Wilton. The colour is dark red, and the floor deposit similarly con- 
tained fragments of dark red ochreous pigment, pointing to the paint- 
ings being contemporary with the deposits. Dr. K. H. Barnard and 
Mr Primos, who were present, suggested that these paintings were the 
efforts of modern herd-boys. 

Little is known of the Western Province and South-west Africa. 
Wilton-like flakes appear from Zak River, one or two crescents from 
the Orange River, and a few Wilton sites are known in the Kalahari. 
I have also been shown Wilton types, crescents, beads, etc., from 
Walvis Bay, which do not differ at all from the types common else- 
where. 


NorRMAL ASSOCIATIONS. 


The normal and constant associations composing the Wilton 
Industry are (Plate XLI) : 


Crescents. 

Small end-scrapers. 

Thumbnail scrapers. 
Horseshoe scrapers. 

Pygmy cores. 


264 Annals of the South African Museum. 


Ostrich egg-shell beads. 

Bead borers. 

Bead shapers (grooved stones). 

Pottery, of the eared and pointed-base type. 
Bone points (“ awls’’) and their sharpeners. 
Paint fragments. 

Paintings. 


To these may be added objects which have not been specifically 
mentioned in the sites given above, but which are almost always 
present, namely, lower and upper grindstones, which in no way imply 
a knowledge of agriculture, and of a type identical with those used by 
the modern Bushmen of the Union and South-west Africa. The 
lower grindstone consists of a river stone, on one or both faces of which 
a shallow groove, usually about 2 inches wide by 6-8 inches long, 
appears. The upper grindstone is a worn fragment of a pebble, the 
grinding face of which is slightly curved or flat, and has at its centre 
a slight pitting. The modern Bushmen use exactly similar stones for 
grinding the seeds of the tsama melon.* It seems more than likely 
that these folk had no knowledge of agriculture, as we find no signs 
of agricultural implements, no signs of domesticated plants, or of 
used agricultural lands, etc., while the modern descendants of these 
folk, who have not really advanced in any way, nor appreciably 
deteriorated where relatively pure, have no knowledge of agriculture 
even of a primitive type. 
Less constant elements appearing at Wilton sites are : 


Painted grave-stones (Plate XLII). 
Bored stones. 

Bone spatulae (Plate X LITT). 

True awls (Plate XLITI). 

Nacre and egg-shell pendants. 
String of twisted fibre. 

Rope of plaited fibre. 

Grass sieves. 

Basketry. 


Painted grave-stones are known from Wilton, Robberg, Tzitzikama, 

Coldstream, and one or two other sites. The specimen from the 

Wilton site is painted plain red. Robberg shows animal figures and 

human forms; Tzitzikama shows a whale, a group of three human 
* See Lowe’s Smithfield Paper, p. 166. 


The Wilton Industry. 265 


figures (Plate XLII), etc. Coldstream shows three female figures and a 
child.* Bored stones may be an intrusive element from the Smith- 
field as Lowe has suggested, but occur fairly commonly, especially at 
the Cape Peninsula. Spatulae are uncommon. I have found a racquet- 
shaped flat bone specimen at Noordhoek, and two or three others are 
known. True awls, bone points with the joint left as a handle 
(Péringuey, Plate xxiii, 172), occur in large numbers at the Robberg 
Caves, Knysna, and at Witsands ; they occur sporadically in cave and 
midden sites of the south coast, and are usually made of the bones of 
sea-birds. Nacre and shell pendants seem to be confined largely to 
the Hastern Province. String and rope are uncommon owing to their 
short life, but they are known. Plaited sieves, made by the twined 
or wrapped method (a straight warp, with twined or wrapped woof), 
are known, but are only fragmentary. Basketry is really unknown, 
but fragments of pottery occur upon which twined basketry has been 
impressed before baking as a design, proving that it was used by these 


folk. 
Types oF SITES. 
There are in general three types of Wilton sites : 


(a) Open-air sites. 
(b) Cave sites. 
(c) Midden sites (cave or open). 


(a) Open-air sites—These occur normally in parts of the Union 
where caves are uncommon (dolerite formations, etc.). Nothing need 
be said of these save that they are usually surface sites, in some 
instances implying the presence of huts of some sort by the distri- 
bution of implements. The unprotected state of the implements 
results in an almost complete absence of bone, ostrich egg-shell, and 
often of pottery, though we may presume that they existed. Only 
stone implements are to be expected at such sites. Burials and 
paintings are so far unknown. 

(b) Cave sites—A full range of objects may be expected. The drier 
the cave the greater the chances of an interesting haul of implements 
and their associated objects. Paintings and skeletal remains are 
common and important. 

(c) Midden sites.—These sites are of interest to the archaeologist 
because they seem to represent an inland people, who have taken to 


* See Burkitt, op. cit., fig. xx ; also Péringuey, op. cit., Plate xxvii, figs. 199, 200, 
and 201. : 


266 Annals of the South African Museum. 


a coastal type of subsistence. The term “ Strandloper”’ has been’ 
badly applied to these folk, and it would be better to use the term as 
a verb, implying a strandloping type of subsistence. Mr. Burkitt has 
suggested a new industrial grouping for these people, but this would 
seem unnecessary. The midden sites often show a full range of 
Wilton implements, pottery, bone points, and ostrich egg-shell beads, 
though many of the other elements have entirely disappeared, owing 
apparently to the presence of moisture. The cave middens do, how- 
ever, show a full range of the commoner associations. Added to 
these are two elements not found inland, vast accumulations of fish- 
shells of modern type ; and a number of rough instruments, apparently 
water-worn boulders, hacked into shape by use (not for use, so far as 
can be judged) in removing shells and breaking them open for eating 
purposes. These are unconventionalised and formless, though they 
often simulate the coup-de-poing and discoidal artefact (fabricator) of 
the Stellenbosch Industry. 

It is, however, necessary to note the changes apparently resulting 
from this mode of subsistence. Bone awls increase, amorphic stone 
instruments appear, grave-stones are more common, and appear to 
have been substitutes for the cave-art of the inland peoples, and in 
fact show human and animal figures of comparable types. At the 
same time flesh foods seem to have been largely replaced by fish, and 
the bulkiness of the shells compared with their contents gives an 
immediate impression of a vast population or a long continued 
residence. The populational density most certainly was greater than 
that of the inland folk, owing to the higher rainfall of the southern 
and eastern coastal belts of the Union, and to the increased supply 
of vegetable foods directly resulting from this, together with the 
abundant shell-fish supplies of the rocky coast. But even with this 
increase of density, only a comparatively small number of people 
could have subsisted in a given area. 
~ Mr. Drury, who has carried out a large number of excavations for 
the South African Museum, suggests that the inland peoples trekked 
periodically to the coast, and he brings forward remains of sea-shells 
in inland caves to support his contention. Mr. Hewitt shows similar 
proof in his caves, where nacre pendants of marine origin make their 
appearance. 

“ There is, on the other hand, the fact that many of the midden 
deposits fail to reveal Wilton or Smithfield “‘C”’ implements, the only 
stone objects appearing being the bored stone and the formless un- 
conventionalised stones typical of the midden folk, and occurring 


The Wilton Industry. 267 


throughout the world. Pottery of the usual type is often associated. 
This is very largely negative evidence. The extreme difficulty en- 
countered in any attempt to excavate a midden without a care- 
fully graded series of at least two sieves makes positive evidence 
almost impossible to obtain, and I have in several instances dis- 
covered Wilton implements in middens previously regarded as 
sterile, while, on the other hand, I have failed to obtain any small 
implements at all from other middens. It is thus possible that 
many middens are refuse heaps from an evolved or deteriorated 
Wilton, which has discarded the microlithic side of the industry as 
unnecessary. 

One further subject is of extreme importance, but has not hitherto 
been sufficiently studied: the possibility of the middens either being 
of different ages, or having been made in some instances by peoples of 
mixed cultures. The Knysna and Mossel Bay cave middens almost 
certainly show a mixture of Mossel Bay types with Wilton implements ; 
both series of caves have, however, been so disturbed that it is im- 
possible to say whether an actual mixture or a sequence is here 
represented. Similarly Mr. Fitzsimons has deduced a mixture of 
Stellenbosch and Wilton types with a possible further addition of the 
Mossel Bay variation, from his caves at Tzitzikama, but the similarity 
often existing between the formless midden instruments of the coastal 
sites and rejects from the Stellenbosch Industry has already been 
pointed out. From photographs published by him it seems very 
probable indeed that the “‘ cowps-de-poing ”’ depicted are actually the 
shell-cleavers normally associated. He also deduces an early heavy 
boned race followed by a series of San peoples, a conclusion similar 
to that reached at Skildegat, but shows no sequence in the types of 
implements discovered, a point of immense importance which seems 
to have been overlooked. The discovery of stratification and of 
associations are the first and last duties of the prehistorian. 


STRATIFICATION. 


The fact that our knowledge of Wilton material is largely confined 
to cave sites, together with the general absence of Earlier or Middle 
Stone Age implements from caves, makes stratification relative to 
Wilton implements a difficult subject. The richness of the bone, 
fibre, wood, and paint to be found in Wilton deposits, together with 
the common association of modern objects with Wilton types, point 
to this industry lasting well into the modern period. 


268 Annals of the South African Museum. 


The Montagu Cave* shows distinct stratification, determining the 
fact that the Wilton material is here later than the Stellenbosch. 
Similar conclusive evidence is available from Riverton and elsewhere 
on the Vaal River where Wilton implements occur on the surface 
above gravels containing Stellenbosch types. Middledrift in the Cape 
Province shows evidence of a like sequence. Much the same type of 
proof is forthcoming from Stellenbosch, where the implementiferous 
gravels are of an age much greater than the surface sites of Wilton 
type occurring on the Stellenbosch Flats. 

Stratification between Middle Stone Age material and the Wilton 
Industry is similarly difficult to find, and has apparently been over- 
looked in many instances. At the Skildegat Cave, in the Fish Hoek 
valley, Still Bay material underlies Wilton debris of a “ strandloper ”’ 
type.t Other Cape Peninsula sites showing both Wilton and Still 
Bay types are in sand-dunes, and stratification is difficult to obtain 
or to prove, but attention has already been drawn in the Middle Stone 
Age paper to the possibility at the Noord Hoek site of the Still Bay 
implements having been made near the seashore, and to the Wilton 
types having been left subsequently on a “ false’ or “ apron” beach 
which had by then accumulated to the westward to enclose the Noord 
Hoek vlei or lagoon. 

The sequence of physical types at the various Tzitzikama caves 
and at similar sites is of extreme importance, as, while it does not give 
us direct evidence, it re-affirms the sequence of an earlier Boskopoid 
type, which is proving to be associable with Middle Stone Age material, 
and a later San type which can be definitely associated with Later 
Stone Age industries. 

If we regard the presumption that Smithfield “C”’ and the Wilton 
are contemporaneous as valid, further proof of sequence might be 
deduced. : 

It does not seem unnecessary to appeal once again for more careful 
archaeological excavation with the intention of discovering stratifica- 
tion and association, with considerably less of the body-snatching 
methods of the ingenuously amateurish grave-robber. 


* Goodwin, ‘‘The Montagu Cave,” Annals S.A.M., xxiv. See also “‘ The 
Stellenbosch Industry ”’ in this volume. 
+ See “‘ The Middle Stone Age ”’ in this volume, p. 125. 


The Wilton Industry. 269 


ADDENDUM. 


THe MANUFACTURE OF OsTRICH EGG-SHELL BEADS AMONG 
Mopern BusuH-Fo.uk. 


Mr. James Drury of the South African Museum has for the last 
twenty years been perfecting a process for casting posed figures of 
the living body. The results of his work are housed in the Museum, 
and give an interesting survey of the racial types grouped under the 
term “‘ Bushmen.” He has given me an interesting account of the 
process of manufacturing ostrich egg-shell beads employed by the 


SSoux SS Sy 
SWS 


TEXT-FIG. 2.—Beads, fragments of egg-shell, bead-borers, and a shaping 
stone from various Wilton Industry sites. 


Naron tribe,* near Sandfontein (about 20° E. by 22° 8.). The bead- 
making is done by the women of the horde. A woman takes an 
ostrich egg-shell which she breaks into large pieces; she then bites 
these into bits about half an inch across. One fragment is now placed 
on a hard piece of skin and an iron-pointed wooden drill some 20 
inches long is applied to the centre of the fragment. The drill is held 
between the open palms of the hands, and rotated rapidly to and fro. 
When the shell is almost pierced, it is reversed and the drilling con- 
cluded from the opposite face. A pointed rimer, consisting of a small 
handle of wood in which is a fragment of iron, is inserted and the 
hole carefully rounded and finished off. The fragment of shell is 
roughly trimmed to a disc by placing it on an anvil stone and chipping 
* See also Miss Bleek, The Naron, University of Cape Town, 1928. 


270 Annals of the South African Museum. 


away the unwanted material with a hammer-stone. The shell now 
shows a rough symmetry. These fragments are strung on a length 
of gut which is knotted tightly at each end, compressing the drilled 
shells into a solid stick, and a piece of hemp is twisted between the 
shell fragments further consolidating the whole. This stick of shell 
fragment is now placed on the hard skin, and a stone in which is a 
groove of the desired size is rubbed along it, so as to grind the beads 
to a perfectly symmetrical circular shape, all of one size. The beads 
are now released and cleaned, and are added to the string necklace, 
etc., which is bemg made. Mr Drury adds: “The woman broke 
three out of every four beads while making them, so one can imagine 
what a tedious process it was. The string she was making was nearly 
12 feet long, and the time taken to make this was some three months ; 
it would be sold for two handfuls of tobacco.” 

If we reckon twelve beads to an inch, this means 1728 beads. The 
“cash value ”’ seems out of all proportion to the labour, but the only 
gauge is the value of the tobacco to the beadmaker and the value 
of the ornamentation to the buyer. 

Text-fig. 2 shows fragments of beads, stone bead-borers, and a 
grooved bead stone, implying that the method now employed is 
identical with that originally used by our Wilton and Smithfield folks. 


Ann. 8. Afr. Mus., Vol. X XVII. Plate XLI. 


Diente 


Wilton types from Cape Flats. 1, Single crescents; 2, double crescents; 3, end- 
scrapers; 4, thumbnail scrapers; 5, horseshoe scrapers; 6, three views of a 
core; 7, bead borers; 8, unworked flakes. 


Ann. S. Afr. Mus., Vol. X XVII. Plate XLII. 


1, Burial stone from Tzitzikama (P.E.M. Collection) ; 2, hafted core-scraper, 
Touw River cave ; 3, hafted unworked flake, cave near Knysna. 


Ann. S. Afr. Mus., Vol. X XVII. Plate XLITI 


Ft COU re 


WL Ma tya-e 


N 

. 
<8 
ait 

~ 
= 1/5 
Vii 
H 


Bone implements from Witsands Cave. 1, Thin bone spatula; 2, thick spoon; 
3, 4, 5, bone tubes; 6, 7, 8, 9, bone points; 10, nacre disc; 11, bored ostrich 


egg-shell; 12, 13, bone awls. 


VOL. XXVII. 18 


(277 ) 


11. South African Neolithic Elements.—By A. J. H. Goopwin, M.A., 
Senior Lecturer in Anthropology, University of Cape Town. 


(With Plates XLIV and XLV and One Text-figure.) 


It is an extremely difficult thing either to define or to confine the 
term Neolithic. The polishing of stone is not in itself a sufficient 
criterion. In Kurope the term has been applied to a number of 
cultures or civilisations which may or may not have been related to 
one another. The signs by which their Neolithism (if such a vile 
word may be coined) is recognisable are the presence of the polished 
stone celt, of pottery, domesticated animals, and agriculture, to name 
the four most evident criteria. In the Union we have no evidence of 
the presence of these four elements in complete association. The Smith- 
field “‘B” and ‘‘C”’ Industries and the Wilton all show the presence of 
pottery. Smithfield “‘B”’ most certainly shows polished stone-work, but 
there is no evidence whatsoever of the polished stone celt in actual 
association with any of the Later Stone Age Industries. It has already 
been shown that the presence of grindstones does not necessarily 
imply a knowledge of agriculture in spite of Mr. Burkitt’s suggestion.* 
Of domesticated animals there is no sign; even the dog is missing from 
cave or midden deposits, though we may presume its presence from 
gnawed bones of various large buck which appear from time to time. 

The Rev. Neville Jones Tf objects to the application of the term 
Neolithic to the Later Stone Age Industries. “The South African 
Upper Palaeolithic is sometimes spoken of as * Neolithic,’ but such a 
course appears more unsafe and misleading than to apply the cultural 
equivalent names, since to use this word is at once to suggest an age 
of polished stone implements, through which, as far as we know, this 
country has never passed. A few polished stone implements have 
been found in Rhodesia, but the only one about which I can obtain 
any information was found in an ancient working at Penhalonga. 
I am inclined to believe that it is not of very ancient date, and it 
cannot at least be produced as evidence of the existence of a Neolithic 
culture.” t 

On the other hand, Mr. C. H. Heese of Riversdale is keen on the 


* Burkitt, South Africa’s Past in Stone and Paint, p. 102. 
t+ Neville Jones, Stone Age in Rhodesia, p. 22. 
t The Battlefields specimen was not then known to him. 


278 Annals of the South African Museum. 


term “ Neolithic’ being used to include all ground stone-work of 
human origin.* 

It is necessary to admit that if the term Neolithic is to be applied 
only to the slight and relatively obvious cultural advance which is 
implied by grinding and polishing implements (vastly increasing the 
ability to design tools and decreasing the number of rejects as it did), 
then the term must necessarily be extended to include the Smith- 
field, in spite of the fact that the normal Smithfield implements are 
basically of Upper Palaeolithic or Mesolithic origin. If, on the other 
hand, the term is intended to apply to a phase typified by a particular 
implement (the celt or polished axe), then the term must be limited 
in applying it within the Union. Personally I would prefer to limit 
the term to industries showing at least three of the four elements 
mentioned, above—the polished celt, pottery, agriculture, and the 
domestication of animals, together with definite burial, the building | 
of huts, a predilection for art, etc. ; but our knowledge of the associ- 
ations of the few known specimens of the celt which exist in the Union 
is insufficient to allow of such limitation. 

The finds which I wish to describe here under the heading of 
“Neolithic Elements” are of two types. The first consists of a 
single, beautifully made “axe,” possibly ornamental, but certainly 
designed with a distinct cutting edge; the second group consists of 
three individual celts in various museum collections in the Union. 

The first type is described by Hewitt. ‘“‘ This specimen,” he 
states, ‘““ was found in a rock crevice at Paradise Kloof, Grahamstown, 
by Master Keith Glass, who presented it to Albany Museum. Within 
100 yards of the site of discovery there is a ‘ Bushman’ cave with 
paintings ; and from the floor of this cave various pygmy implements 
have been taken. The implement has some resemblance to a Zulu 
battle-axe in miniature, being sub-triangular in shape and having a © 
well-defined but short tang. There is a sharp cutting edge of 24 inches 
long, formed by grinding from both surfaces. The implement was 
evidently made from a flattish slab of stone, originally about one-third 
of an inch thick, and has deliberately been converted into its present 
shape by grinding. The surfaces generally and the sides have been 
well smoothed and no angular ridges have been left anywhere. The 
short tang seems to have fitted into a haft, and is slightly grooved at 
the base for binding purposes.” 

* C. H. Heese, S.A.J.S., vol. xxiii, 1926, p. 789. 


+ Hewitt, ‘‘ Peculiar Elements in the Wilton Culture,’ 8.A.J.S., vol. xxiii, 1926, 
pp. 901-904, with pl. xix. 


South African Neolithic Elements. 279 


This last statement I disagree with, but the point is not funda- 
mental; the tang appears to be more in the nature of a knob by 
which the “ axe’ might 
be hung by string as an 
ornament or a “ pocket 
knife ” (text-fig. 1). The 
shape and size of this 
object are reminiscent 
of Bantu razors, though 
these are always of metal. 
I make no apology for 
divorcing this find from 
the Paradise Kloof mate- 
rial described previously 
in the Wilton paper. It 
is an isolated find, not 
occurring in the cave, 
and differing from all 


Wil 1 a aa TExt-FIG. 1.—Flat ‘“ axe’ from Vaal Krantz, Para- 
uton elements in that ise Kloof. (A.M.G. Collection.) Actual size. 


it has a polished cutting- 

edge, a conception apparently foreign to the makers of our Later 
Stone Age material. Mr. Hewitt, perhaps rightly, links this element 
up with the ground or scratched “ palettes’ previously described as 
of Wilton type in this volume. 

It is necessary to point out the following facts which differentiate 
this “axe” from other South African specimens : 

(i) The entire implement is shaped and is symmetrical. 

(ii) The specimen is tanged. 

(i111) The implement is flat and thin, and could not have been used as 
a true axe. 

Let us turn to the celts of more normal Neolithic type. In contra- 
distinction to the Paradise Kloof specimens, 

(i) Only the blade or working edge is ground or worked at all. 

(11) Specimens are not tanged. 

(ii) The body of the implement is always heavy and robust, the 
working edge being formed by an angle of perhaps 40°, and 
is eminently suited to use as an axe. 

Within the Union there are three specimens of this latter type, 
only one of which has been at all adequately described. These 
specimens are housed in three museums, the South African Museum, 
the Albany Museum at Grahamstown, and the Stellenbosch University 


280 Annals of the South African Museum. 


collection, and I am indebted to Professor de Villiers for permission 
to photograph and describe this last. I believe a further note is to 
be published on this specimen by Mr. C. H. Heese in the South African 
Journal of Science. Mr. Lowe has also submitted a note to “ Man” 
on the implement. 

The implement which has been most fully described * is from the 
farm Vaal Krantz, a few miles from Spitzkop, near Grahamstown. 
It was picked up from among a number of stones which had been — 
thrown out in digging a water-furrow, and nothing is known of its 
history apart from this. Péringuey quotes the analysis of Du Toit, 
“The axe is manufactured out of a small, weathered lump of dark- 
greenish quartzite—the material of which can be matched at many 
localities on the border of the Karroo. The lump of rock shows on 
one side the surface which has been exposed to the air, 2.e. it is smooth, 
brown, and slightly polished. The under-surface is lighter in colour, 
rough, and slightly pitted. The lump was subjected to scarcely any 
trimming and the edge was then ground. The scratches were made 
in the operation of grinding, and are most decidedly not of glacial 
origin. The shape and scratches of the lump entirely negative the 
idea that it was a glaciated pebble from the Dwyka.” 

This last statement was evoked by Dr. Schonland’s belief that the 
pebble was glacially striated and hence of Carboniferous age in origin. 
He did not in any way imply that the worked edge was of Carboni- 
ferous age. A further remark on these scratches is made by Hewitt, 
who states that “ there are abrasion marks, clearly indicating that it 
has been bound up in attachment to a haft.” The natural shape of 
the original stone has been utilised and only the working edge has 
been ground. The shape is much that of the front view of a helmet, 
the straighter edge being worked (see Péringuey’s illustration). 

The second specimen, housed in the South African Museum (8.A.M. 
3449), is described as having been found “7 miles from the Peddie 
coast,’ and thus comes from the same general region as the Vaal 
Krantz specimen. The maker has similarly utilised the original 
shape of a water-worn pebble, and has ground the one end to an 
edge. The shape is roughly that of a tapering cylinder, the wider 
end of which has been ground and polished. The extreme edge shows 
signs of use. One face of the polished portion shows signs of having 
been pecked previous to the grinding operations. The thinner end 

* See S. Schonland, Records of Albany Museum, vol. ii, 1907; Péringuey, 


Ann. 8. Afr. Mus., viii, 1912, chap. xviii and fig. 26; Hewitt, S.A.J.S., vol. xviii, 
1921, pl. x, and ibid., 8.A.J.S., vol. xxiii, 1926, p. 902. 


South African Neolithic Elements. 281 


of the cylinder is of a size fitted to the hand, though this in no way 
implies that the specimen was not originally hafted. The total 
length is 12-5 cm. (5 inches), the width of the cutting edge is 6 cm. 
(24 inches), the width tapers towards the back, and the greatest 
thickness of the stone is 3 cm. (1:2 inch). The material is a quartzitic 
sandstone similar to the Table Mountain Sandstones, and the par- 
ticular stone was originally a water-worn pebble (Plate XLIV). 

The third specimen, housed at Stellenbosch University, was dis- 
covered by Mr. P. Krige of Stellenbosch, near Piquetberg, Western 
Province. It consists of a celt, oval in outline, one end of which has 
been sharpened to an axe-like edge. The material is an argillaceous 
sandstone from the Malmesbury Series, and the size is larger than that 
of the Vaal Krantz specimen, though the shape is similar (Plate XLV). 
In this specimen also there are signs of abrasion, the ground portion 
having been roughly pecked to shape before being finally rubbed down. 
The striations show that the grinding was done with a lateral motion 
(v.e. parallel with the edge, not at right angles to it).* 

Further comment on these two main types of “neolithic” axe 
would be rash at this stage, but attention must be drawn to other 
occurrences of very similar implements from Central Africa. The 
one consists of a small neolithic type of axe, some 3 inches long, by 
1 inch or so in thickness, housed in the South African Museum and 
found on the Uasin Gishu plateau, 1° N. by 35° E., north-east of Lake 
Victoria. In this specimen, made of a greenish granite, the edge 
only is ground, while the hinder end of the cylinder shows signs 
of pecking, as though it had been used as a hammer-stone. The 
remainder of the stone is completely unworked. A second speci- 
men is depicted by Stainier.— It was discovered by Commandant 
Christiaens at the confluence of the Wele and Bomokandi. It 
consists of an elongated drop- or pear-shaped stone, the thicker 
end of which has been beautifully ground and polished to an edge. 
About one half of the stone has been so treated, the demarcation 
being neatly defined by an equatorial line; behind this line the 
stone shows signs of having originally been a water-worn pebble. 
Schweinfurth t writes of similar Neolithic axes from the Congo. 
Other specimens of like type have been reported from further south, 


* A further specimen, pierced for hafting, has been described to me by Mr. 
Lowe, from Koster. 

+ Annales du Musée du Congo, Serie III. L’dge de la pierre au Congo, pl. i. 

t *‘ Note sur des objets en minerai de fer provenant du pays des Monbouttous,”’ 
Bull. de Inst. égyptien, 2° series, No. 4, 1883. 


282 Annals of the South African Museum. 


from the Katanga Province, from Battlefields, Southern Rhodesia, 
a specimen from Northern Rhodesia, etc. 

It seems probable from the evidence produced that we have, in 
Africa generally, and specifically in the Union, elements which can 
only be adequately described as Neolithic, and to which this term 
should be confined. The elements consist of edge-polished river- 
pebbles, chosen for their shape, but not otherwise worked. Pecking 
or abrading seems to have constituted the preliminary shaping of the 
chopping-edge, which was then completed by grinding and polishing. 

How these elements fitted in with the Later Stone Age Industries 
it is as yet impossible to say. Whether the idea behind the ground 
objects of the Smithfield Industry and the palettes of the Wilton was 
taken over from the bearers of the Neolithic elements by these folk ; 
whether we can associate the ground chopping edge with a living 
people, an early invasion of Bantu or Hottentot peoples; whether 
the Neolithic elements constitute a normal part of our prehistory or 
are merely sports thrown off in the evolution of local industries, are 
all questions which must remain unanswered until such time as our 
prehistory is a known science, rather than an inchoate feeling into 
the past. 


I desire to express my appreciation of the generosity of the Uni- 
versity of Cape Town and the Research Grant Board in freely giving 
me the time and means to pursue the studies necessary before writing 
this series, and to visit the sites. I must similarly thank the Directors 
of the various museums for their help and kindness, more especially 
Miss Wilman, Mr. Hewitt, and Dr. Gill, who have placed their entire 
collections and much original work at my disposal. 1 am indebted 
in no less a degree to individual field workers, Colonel Hardy, Mr. 
Langham Dale, the Messrs. Peers, the Messrs. Wilson, and Messrs. 
Gladwin, William Brown, Jansen, Heese, Neville Jones, and a host 
of others. My debt to Mr. C. van Riet Lowe for his collaboration, 
and the reading of manuscript, and my debt to Mr. M. C. Burkitt, 
especially for his advice on the Middle Stone Age, and on Later Stone 
Age art, and in pointing out to. me the immensity of the field for 
research, | am quite unable to express adequately.* 


* As advance copies of Burkitt’s work only reached South Africa towards the 
end of August, very little reference could be made to it, save for interpolated 
footnotes. It should most certainly be read in conjunction with this volume. 


Ann. 8. Afr. Mus., Vol. X XVII. Plate XLIV. 


rr le 


“ Neolithic ” type of celt, Peddie Coast. (S.A.M. Collection.) 


Ann. S. Afr. Mus., Vol. X XVII. 


Two views of a celt of Neolithic type, Piquetberg. 
(Stellenbosch University Collection.) 


Plate XLV. 


( 285 ) 


INDEX. 


Abiam, 256. 

Acheulean, 10, 43, 81, 83, 94, 176, 189. 

Acheulic, 9. 

Albany Museum, 10, 93, 103, 109, 115, 130 
et seq., 142, 149, 251-52, 257, 278. 

Alexandersfontein Pan, 246. 

Alexandersfontein Variation, 140. 

Alice, 30. 

Alicedale, 251. 

Aliwal North, 102,115, 142, 148, 159, 194. 

Anvil Hammer-stones, 125. 

Archaeological theory, 6, 95, 147-53. 

Associable fauna, 33, 37, 141, 175, 235- 
43, 262. 

Aurignacian, 7, 149, 180. 

Australia, 99 n., 170. 

Avalon, 162, 166, 169, 176, 198. 


Bacon, Mr., 39. 
Bain, J. M., 259, 261. 
Bambata Cave, 255. 
Bantu, 109, 110, 279, 282. 
Barberton, 41, 115, 256. 
Barkly West, 37. 
Barnare, Dr. kK) H., 23, 39; 43, 261; 262: 
Basketry, 264-5. 
Bathurst, 115. 
Battlefields, 277. 
Bayer, F. A. H., 44-5. 
Beads, ostrich egg-shell, 164, 168, 251- 
68. 
china, 257. 
manufacture of, 269-70. 
Bechuanaland, 43. 
Bell, 130. 
Bethlehem District, 201, 202. 
Bethulie, 170, 194. 
Biseau (Stellenbosch Industry, passim), 
io V1.0. 
Blaauwbank, 153. 
Blaauwheuvel, 154, 196. 
Blaauwklipspruit, 19, 80. 
Bleek, Miss D. F., 181, 269 n. 
Bloembosch, 262. 
Bloemhof, 33, 67. 
Bone tools, 167, 254-5, 257-8, 261. 
tubes, 261-2. 
Bored stones, 153, 162—4, 190, 255, 257, 
262, 265. 
Boshof District, 199. 
Boskop type of man, 96, 126, 258, 267, 
268. 


Bosman’s Crossing, 18. 
Boucher, see coup-de-poing. 
Brakfontein, 85, 86, 175. 198. 
Brandfort, 85. 
Breedt, Rev. J. M., 15-17. 
Britstown, 64-5, 166, 246-7. 
Brooms Dr. 141, 238. 
Brown, Professor A. Radcliffe, 67, 82. 
Brown, Alfred, 102-3, 115, 148. 
Brown, William, 134-40, 144, 259, 282. 
Bruce-Bayes, Dr., 29. 
Bryant, E. G., 43, 247. 
Bumbuzi, 255. 
Burghersdorp, 83. 
Burin technique, 133-4, 161. 
Burkitt, M. C., 16, 25, 64, 71, 96, 100, 
129, 134, 169 n., 170, 175 n., 181 n., 
206, 248, 253, 261, 277, 282. 
Burnt Kraal, 258. 
Bushman arrows, 254-5. 
Bushmen, see San Race. 
engravings, see Rock engravings. 
living, 147, 166, 180-1, 254, 260, 264, 
269-70. 
paintings, see Cave paintings. 
Butterworth, 142. 


Caledon River, 176, 184, 188. 

Cango Cave, 259. 

Cape Flats, 21, 123-7, 261. 

‘““ Cape Flats’ type, 251. 

Cape Peninsula, 21, 120, 123, 129, 251, 
261, 265, 268. 

Cape St. Blaize, 135, 139, 259. 

Capsian of North Africa, 2, 7, 44, 149, 
152, 175, 180, 187, 190. 

Carolina, 256. 

Cave dwellers, 22, 183-7, 248-9, 251- 
68. 

Cave of Hands, 261. 

Cave paintings, 7, 126, 183, 187, 190, 
248-9, 251-68. 

Chellean, 42-3, 176. 

Chronology, see under Sequence of 
industries. 

Circular scrapers, 153, 159, 189, 246. 

Clanwilliam District, 22, 263. 

Clarens, 201. 

Cleaver, see under Biseau. 

Climate, 5, 143-5. 

Cofimvaba, 63, 64, 92-4. 

Coldstream Cave, 264, 265. 


286 


Collins, Major, 32, 141. 

Concavo-convex, 78, 86, 153, 159, 188, 
189, 246. 

Congo, 3, 255, 281. 

Cossakspost, 116. 


Coup-de-poing, or boucher (Earlier ‘ 


Stone Age, passim). 
and Stellenbosch, 9-48, 72, 81. 
types of, 11, 24. 
and Victoria West, 55, 61. 
Fauresmith Industry, 71-94, 235- 
43. 
at Cofimvaba, 92-4. 
at Ezulweni, 39, 110. 
on midden sites, 266—7. 
Crescent, large, 115, 120, 125, 133. 
Wilton, 125, 251-75. 
and Smithfield, 170, 184, 248-9. 
description of, 125, 253. 


Dale, Sir Langham, 9, 119-23, 129, 261. 
Langham, 120, 282. 

Dart, Professor R., 19, 33, 96, 126, 
141 n., 235. 

De Aar, 65. 

De Kiel Oost, 153, 160, 161, 170, 171, 
172, 184, 197, 256. 

De Put, 64, 66. 

de Villiers, Professor, 280. 

Dieplaagte, 170. 

Diep River, 261. 

Discoidal artefact, 13, 125 (Stellenbosch 
Industry, passim). 

Djebel Redeyef, 7. 

Doctor’s Drift, 194. 

Doornlagte farm, 256. 

Dordrecht, 115. 

Drakensberg Mountains, 184, 187, 193, 
202. 

Droogeveld, 38. 

Drury, J., 261, 266, 269-70. 

Dumbleton, R. E., 259. 

Dunn, E. J., 120. 

du Toit, A., 2 n., 38, 53 n., 101 n., 280. 


Eagle’s Nest, 169, 199. 

Earlier Stone Age, 9-94, 97, 147, 188. 

East London, 13, 246. 

‘* Kastern Culture ’’ (Middle Stone Age), 

95-6. 

EKlandslaagte, 241. 

End-scrapers, 78, 86, 93, 104. 
duckbill types, 153, 157, 190. 
Smithfield Industry, 151-249, passim. 
Wilton Industry, 251-268, passim. 

** Koliths,”’ 40, 66. 

Europe, 2, 66, 78, 92, 96-7, 149, 153, 262. 

Ezulweni, 39, 110. 


Fabricator, 13, 125. 
Fauna, see Associable fauna. 


Annals of the South African Museum. 


Fauresmith District, 85, 86, 91, 154, 171, 
176, 196, 198. 

Fauresmith Industry, 5, 7, 46, 71-94, 
97, 104, 160, 176, 194, 240, 241. 

Fire-sticks, 169, 258. 

Fish Hoek, 120, 123-5, 143. 

FitzSimons, F. W., 139, 144, 258, 267. 

Flake technique in Stellenbosch In- 
dustry, 14, 34. 

in Fauresmith, 71-94. 
Floris, see Hagenstad. 
Frobenius, Leo, 257 n. 


Gardner, Rev. Fr., 46 n. 

Gear, H. S., 258. 

Genesa, 115. 

Geographical considerations, 1-7, 149, 
150, 193-4. 

George, 25-6, 259. 

Glaciations, 2, 144. 

Gladwin, C., 30, 258, 282. 

Glass implements, 169-70, 180. 

Glen Grey Industry, 45, 84, 96, 100, 
101-109, 135. 

Goedemoed, 194. 

Gordonia, 41, 46, 256. 

Gordon’s Bay, 22. 

Gouritz River, 139. 

Grace Dieu, 109. 

Grahamstown, 29, 103, 130, 142, 257-8. 

Grass ropes, 169, 263, 264. 

Grave-stones, 264-5. 

Green, Rev. T. W., 115. 

Grindstones, 155, 165-6, 264, 277. 

Groot Kloof, 257. 

Grooved stones, 153, 164-5, 269-70. 

Ground implements, 166, 277-82. 


Hafted implements, 259-60. 
Hagenstad Variation, 141-2. 
site, 141, 144, 160, 188, 191, 241. 
Half-way House, Kimberley, 64, 247. 
Hammer-stones, 13, 158. 
Hardy, Col. W. E., 120-5, 282. 
Harger, H., 260. 
Harrismith District, 202. 
Haughton, Dr. 8S. H., 23, 38. 
Healdton, 29. 
Heese, C. H., 24, 53-69 passim, 127-9, 
166, 246, 260, 278, 280, 282. 
Heidelburg (Transvaal), 80. 
Heilbron, 241. 
Helme, R. G., 141-2. 
Henkel, Mr., 259. 
Henley-on-Klip, 80. 
Herbert, 81. 
Hewitt, J., 59, 98, 130, 133, 149, 161, 
251-5, 260, 266, 278, 279, 282. 
Hill, Major, 19. 


: Hodkinson, E. T., 37. 


Index. 


Hoednerbek, 56. 

Hoernle, Mrs. R. F., 195. 

Holmes, 151. 

iHioman, Mr..17, 20. 

Hooked scrapers, 78, 86. 

Hottentots, 282 (see also San Race). 

Howieson’s Poort Variation, 100, 125, 
130, 133, 144. 


India, 11, 14. 

** Ingeleduan ”’ culture, 45, 103. 
Insolation and Victoria West type, 59. 
Invasions, 3, 65-6, 100, 150, 256. 

‘** Inxobongoan ”’ culture, 45, 103. 

‘** Inyatian ”’ culture, 45. 

‘** Tsikwenenian.”’ culture, 45, 97. 


Jacobsdal, 197. 

Jagersfontein, 92, 196. 

Jansen, F., 23, 538-69 passim, 282. 

Johnson, J. P., 9, 32, 109, 171, 256. 

Jones, Rev. Neville, 42-3, 47, 98, 125 n., 
142, 149, 154, 167, 179, 182 n., 206, 
249, 255, 277, 282. 


Kabeljauw’s Cave, 257. 
Kaffir River, 176. 
Kaffir’s Kuil River, 127, 261. 
Kalahari, 5, 144, 148, 254, 256, 263. 
Kalanyoni, 255. 
Kannemeyer, Dr., 148, 152. 
Kasamba District, 256. 
Kasonga River, 130, 134. 
Keilands Mission, 102. 
Kimberley, 81, 85, 170, 194, 246-7. 
Kingwilliamstown, 29. 
Museum, 29, 34. 
Kirstenbosch, 21. 
Kitchen middens, 124, 128, 148, 258, 
261, 265. 
Kleinemond, 115. 
Klein Philippolis, 177. 
Klerksdorp, 115. 
Klipdam, 38. 
Knysna, 13, 14, 26-9, 31, 36, 80, 115, 
135-40, 144, 145, 258, 260, 267. 
Koffiefontein, 153, 196. 
Koster, 281 n. 
Krige, P., 281. 
Kromellenboog Spruit, 85, 92. 
Krom River Cave, 263. 


Lang, Dr. Gordon, 258. 

Lake Chrissie, 41. 

La Micoque, 71. 

Lance-head, 100, 102, 110, 119-34. 

Later Stone Age, 5, 6, 7, 124, 147 
onward. 

Lebzelter, Dr. V., 44, 45, 103-104. 

Leith, G., 40, 43. 


287 


Leslie, T. N., 32. 
Levallois flake, 94. 
Leviseur, Mr., 81, 83. 
Lichtenburg, 256. 
Lockshoek, 154, 171, 
196. 
Loxton, 55, 64. 
Lunates, see Crescents. 
Lyttelton, Hon. W. F., 21. 


173; 189; LOT, 


McGregor Museum, 10, 25, 32 et seq., 85, 
140, 142, 169, 245, 256, 259. 

Maitland, 119, 123-4, 261. 

‘** Mangenian ”’ culture, 45, 103. 

Matatiele, 246. 

Materials used, 5, 10, 41, 46, 54-5, 78, 
86, 150, 184, 195. 

Matoppo Hills, 142. 

Meerlandsvlei, 171. 

Melton Wold, 55, 63. 

Merriman, Hon. John X., 19. 

Meyerton, Vaal, 32. 

Microlithic implements, 
Industry. 

Middelburg (Cape), 116, 140, 246. 

Middelplaats North, 38. 

Middens, 124, 128, 139, 148, 257, 261, 
265. 

Middledrift, 30, 145, 258. 

Middle Stone Age, 6, 7, 30, 44-5, 69, 
92, 94, 95-145, 147, 148, 150, 156, 
176, 189, 241, 242, 245. 

Milnerton, 124. 

Modderpoort, 184. 

Modder River, 171, 176. 

station, 246. 

Moir, Reid, 91. 

Montagu Cave, 22-4, 35, 43, 44, 46, 134, 
262, 268. 

Mook, 160, 200. 

Moonlight Kop, 69, 247. 

Morokwen, 115. 

Mossel Bay, 24, 115, 135-40, 144, 145, 
259, 267. 

Mousterian of Europe, 7, 139, 176, 246. 

influences, 78, 92, 94, 95-145, 176, 
189, 241, 2438. 


see Wilton 


Nakob, 64, 66. 
National Museum, 10, 94, 195. 
Neanderthal man, 78. 
Neo-anthropic industries, 7, 78, 96, 
129-34, 147 et seq., 156. 

Man, 96, 129, 149, 182, 188-90. 
Neolithic elements, 166, 277-82. 

of Europe, 7, 166, 282. 

of North Africa, 255. 
Nooitgedacht, 13. 
Noord Hoek, 123, 124, 125-7, 144, 268. 
North Africa, 2, 7, 133, 255. 
Northfleet (England), 66. 


288 


Notched scrapers, 133, 162. 
Nswatugi Cave, 255. 


Onder Dwaars Rivier, 86. 
Orange Free State, 7, 80, 85, 93, 151-234, 
235. 
Orange River, 6, 41, 247. 
‘“* Orange River ’’ type, 9. 
Ornaments, bone, 167, 257. 
nacre, 257-64. 
ostrich egg-shell, 168, 264. 
stone, 257. 
Ostrich egg-shell, see Beads, etc. 
Oudtshoorn, 25, 259. ; 
Owen, W. E. Montagu, 256. 


Paardenvallei, 199. 

Paarl, 15-6, 21. 

Paint-stones, 252, 262, 263, 264. 

Palaeolithic of Europe, 7, 11, 44, 96-7, 
134, 147, 1152. 

‘** Palettes,” 153, 257-8, 279. 

Paradise Kloof, 278. 

Paterson, E. G., 109. 

Payne, C. O., 20. 

Peddie District, 130, 142, 280. 

Peers, Messrs,. 126-7, 282. 

Penhalonga, 277. 

Penning, 5 n., 39 n. 

Péringuey, 8, 10, 15, 17-20, 21, 32—40, 
42, 80, 110, 148, 169, 251, 259, 
265, 280. 

Perold, Rev. J. G., 69, 116. 

Philippolis, 83, 86. é 

Pietersburg Variation, 100, 104, 109-116. 

Piquetburg, 281. 

Pleistocene, 33. 

Pliocene, 33. 

** Pniel ’’ culture, 34, 36, 94. 

Pniel (Vaal) Mission, 34-6. 

Points, 98, 104, 115. 

Poison stones, 165. 

Port Alfred, 257. 

Port Elizabeth, 129, 256. 

Museum, 10, 39, 139, 142, 256. 

Pottery, 7, 128, 147 et seq. 

Bantu, 109. 

Power, J. H., 24-5, 36, 140, 246, 247, 
256. 

Pretoria, 40-1, 194. 

‘* Pretoria ’’ Industry, 40. 

Pringle Bay, 22, 44, 46, 127, 143. 

‘“‘ Pygmy ”’ Industry, see Wilton. 


Queenstown, 101-02, 145, 256. 


Randfontein, 39. 

Redirecting flake, 107, 133. 

Retrimmed flakes, 153. 

Rhodesia, 5, 46, 98, 142, 149, 167, 182, 
188, 249, 255, 258. 


Annals of the South African Museum. 


Rietpan, 246. 
Riet River Valley, 153, 156, 162, 176, 
194 


River gravels, 15, 30, 32-5, 38, 145, 
235-43. 

Riversdale, 24, 261. 

Riverton, 34, 256. 

Robberg, 13, 262, 264, 265. 

Rock engravings, 7, 172, 175, 189, 190, 
247, 255. 

Rockwoods Farm, 101, 145, 257. 

Rod-scrapers, 133. 

Rooi Els, 261. 

Rooipoort, 38, 256. 

Rustenberg, 115. 


Sahara, 2—3, 14, 144. 

San Race, 7, 96, 126, 139, 148, 165, 166, 
168, 170, 171, 180, 188, 252, 258, 
267-8. 

Sawmills, 142, 255. 

Schapplaats, 180, 202. 

Schapera, I., 175. 

Schonken, Dr., 85. 

Schonland, S., 280. 

Schwartz, E. L. H., 5 n., 59. 

Schweinfurth, Dr., 282. 

Scrapers, 14, 34, 78, 93, 104, 157-70. 

Semi-circular scrapers, 78. 

Sequence of industries, 21, 23, 37, 39, 
44, 46, 68-9, 85, 92, 102, 145, 187-9, 
235-43, 267-8. 

Serrated scrapers, 161, 176, 246. 

Shell borers, 168, 262, 264. 

Sheppard, H., 235-6, 243. 

Sheppard Island, 33, 235-43. 

Shortridge, Capt. G. C., 34. 

Side-scrapers, 78, 86, 104. 

Sieves, 264—5. 

Simondium, 17. 

Skildegat Cave, 123, 125-7, 134, 145, 
258, 267, 268. 

‘* Skilpad,”’ 56. 

Slagtkraal, 168. 

Smith, R. A., 59. 

Smithfield Industry, 5, 37, 45, 78, 85, 
92, 116, 140, 148-50, 151-249, 253, 
255, 256, 263, 266, 277-8, 282. 

Solutrean of Europe, 7. 

Solutrean parallels, 7, 9, 160, 
183. 

Somerset West, 22. 

South African Museum, passim. 

South-West Africa, 64, 254, 263. 

Spatulae, 265. 

Spitzkop (Fauresmith), 64. 

Spitzkop (Springvale), 257, 280. 

Spokeshaves, see Notched scrapers. 

Stainier, Xavier, 281. 

Stapleton, Rev. Fr., 30, 59 n., 130, 161 
Nu, 22. 


182, 


Index. 


Stellenbosch, 17—20, 21, 80, 129, 268. 
Industry, 6, 9 et seq., 63, 71, 72, 80, 
81, 83, 92, 94, 127, 128, 143, 147, 
LiGs 194" 2385267. 
University, 280-1. 
Still Bay, 24, 127-9, 145. 
elements, 160. 
Industry, 22, 83, 95, 100-1, 109, 
119-29, 133, 143, 145, 268. 
Stone balls, 141, 241. 
Stone borers, 153, 162. 
rings, 153, 164, 242. 
** Strandlopers,”’ 126, 145, 147, 258, 266. 
Suikerboschrand, 80. 
Swan, J., 140, 246, 256. 
Swaziland, 39, 44, 110, 119. 


Tanged arrow-heads, 184, 236, 247. 
Tapsdott, S., 34, 256. 
Tarkastad, 103. 
Taungs, 42, 43, 144. 
Technique in Stellenbosch Industry, 25, 
30-2, 35-6. 
in Victoria West Industry, 65, 69. 
in Fauresmith Industry, 78-85. 
in Middle Stone Age, 96, 97. 
in Later Stone Age, 96, 97, 150, 157, 
180. 
Thaba Nehu, 94. 
Thomasset, H. P., 103. 
Thompson, Miss Caton, 162. 
Thumbnail-scraper, 258. 
Tongue, Miss Helen, 187. 
Tool sharpeners, 164. 
Tortoise cores, 66. 
Touw River, 259. 
Transvaal, 39, 40-1, 109, 115, 119, 235. 
Museum, 10, 119, 135. 
Tuareg, 164. 
Tugela River, 103. 
Tyger Kloof, 42-3, 47. 
Tzitzikama, 258, 264, 267, 268. 


Uasin Gishu, 281. 

University of Cape Town, 26, 103, 104. 
Stellenbosch, 280-1. 
Witwatersrand, 243. 


289 


Vaal Krantz, 280. 
River, 10, 12, 32-8, 80, 154, 194, 256. 

van Hoepen, Dr. E. C. N., 34, 36, 40, 

46, 67-8, 94, 149, 195. 

van der Poll, J. C., 125-6, 261. 

van Reenen, 202. 

Variation, 100, 143. 

Venter, Mr., 141. 

Ventershoek, 167, 183, 185, 201. 

Venterstad, 169. 

Vereeniging, 37. 

Victoria Falls, 5 n. 

Victoria West, 53-63, 115, 246, 247. 
Industry, 53-69. 

Villiersdorp, 20. 

Vingerfontein, 55. 

Vryburg, 42, 115. 

Vryheid, 44, 103. 


Waldeck’s Plant, 37. 
Walker, P. H., 93. 
Walvis Bay, 263. 
Waterkloof shelter, 257. 
Weenen, 103. 
Wellington, 16, 21. 
Wepener, 160, 167, 183, 200. 
Wilman, Miss M., 282. 
Wilmot, C. W., 93, 251. 
Wilson, K. J. and R., 30, 258, 282. 
Wilton Cave, 251-4, 264. 
elements, 156, 167, 170, 176. 
Industry, 7, 238, 92, 102, 125, 128, 
134, 135, 143, 148-50, 181, 182, 
187, 188, 248, 249, 251-68, 282. 
Winburg District, 199. 
Windsorton, 33, 38, 142, 145. — 
Witsands Cave, 261, 265. 
Wittepan, 246. 
Wodehouse District, 246. 
Wohlfahrt, A., 142. 
Wood, 169, 180, 257. 
Worcester, 65. 


Zak River, 263. 

Zoutpan, 246. 

Zululand, 44—5. 

Zuurkop (Wolvefontein), 55-63. 


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