An annotated bibliography on the biological effects of constructing channels, jetties, and other coastal structures

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205
OSes

ES Army
Caast. Eng. Ket
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MR 83-2.

An Annotated Bibliography on
the Biological Effects of

Constructing Channels, Jetties, and

Other Coastal Structures

by
Julie C. Ford,
Arthur K. Hurme, and Edward J. Pullen

WHO!

DOCUMENT
COLLECTION

MISCELLANEOUS REPORT NO. 83-2
JANUARY 1983

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RESEARCH CENTER

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AN ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY ON THE BIOLOGICAL
EFFECTS OF CONSTRUCTING CHANNELS, JETTIES,
AND OTHER COASTAL STRUCTURES

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Julie C. Ford, Arthur K. Hurme, and
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Coastal ecology
Migration

Annotated bibliography
Biological effects

| ABSTRACT (Continue en reverse side if neceaeary and identify by block number)
This bibliography includes 199 historic and recently published research

reports for use in evaluating the biological effects of constructing channels,

jetties, and other coastal structures on fish and shellfish migration.

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PREFACE

This report is published to provide coastal engineers and scientists a
comprehensive annotated bibliography for evaluating the biological effects
of constructing channels, jetties, and other coastal structures. The bib-
liography is useful for planning and designing coastal engineering projects
and preparing environmental assessments and statements. The compilation of
the bibliography was carried out under the U.S. Army Coastal Engineering
Research Center's (CERC) Effects of Channel Deepening and Jetties on Fish
and Shellfish Migration work unit, Environmental Impact Program, Environ-
mental Quality Area of Civil Works Research and Development.

The report was compiled by Julie C. Ford, Arthur K. Hurme, and Edward
J. Pullen of the Coastal Ecology Branch, under the general supervision of
Mr. R.P. Savage, Chief, Research Division.

Technical Director of CERC was Dr. Robert W. Whalin, P.E.

Comments on this publication are invited.

Approved for publication in accordance with Public Law 166, 79th Con-
gress, approved 31 July 1945, as supplemented by Public Law 172, 88th Con-
gress, approved 7 November 1963.

Colonel, Corps of Engineers
Commander and Director

ENERODUGEDON 3 5 0. 3)
USE OF THE BIBLIOGRAPHY.
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY .

SUBJECT INDEX. ... .

°

CONTENTS

AN ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY ON THE BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF
CONSTRUCTING CHANNELS, JETTIES, AND OTHER COASTAL STRUCTURES

by

Julte C. Ford, Arthur K. Hurme, and Edward J. Pullen

I. INTRODUCTION

This bibliography presents a collection of references to early 1980 to aid
the coastal planner in an evaluation of the biological effects of constructing
channels, jetties and other coastal structures. Emphasis is placed on their
effects on fish and shellfish migration. Most of the citations were obtained
through an intra-agency bibliographic retrieval system, a computerized search-
ing process that provided citations of the most recent publications available
by keyword. Abstracts not included in the original citations were found at the
Coastal Engineering Research Center (CERC) library or at the Library of Con-
gress. This bibliography is published primarily to assist engineers, planners,
and administrators in planning and assessing the effect of projects on fish
and shellfish. It should be used in conjunction with Mulvihill, et al. (1980) }
which was prepared simultaneously.

II. USE OF THE BIBLIOGRAPHY

The bibliography is arranged alphabetically by author and the entries are
numbered. Most references include a citation and a short abstract. Each
reference is listed by number in the subject index (keywords) located in the
back of the publication.

To search a given topic, refer to the subject index and locate the term
that best describes the subject. For example, if the subject is mtgratton
then review all references and abstracts listed under migration. If refer-
ences on more specific topics are required, a combination of keywords may be
used. For example, if information on shellfish migratton is desired, check
those references that appear under both keywords (shellfish and mtgratton) .

Some references may be listed under only one of several closely related
keywords and the literature dealing specifically with channel deepening and
jetty effects on fish and shellfish migration is sparse; therefore, potential
keywords should be checked to insure complete coverage of a particular subject.

IMULVIHILL, E.L., et al., "Biological Impacts of Minor Shoreline Structures
on the Coastal Environment: State of the Art Review," FWS/OBS-77/51, 2 Vols.,
Biological Services Program, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C.,
Mar. 1980.

III. ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. ADKINS, G., and BOWMAN, P., "'A Study of the Fauna in Dredged Canals of
Coastal Louisiana," Technological Bulletin of the Loutstana Wildltfe and
Fisheries Commtsston, No. 18, Feb. 1976.

Samples were made on four environmental types: (a) open, unaltered areas,
(b) open canals, (c) semiopen canals, and (d) closed canals. Sampling was
accomplished by using various gear over a 2-year period. During the study,
67,560 individuals composed of 88 different species were collected. The
open, undisturbed areas offered the largest numbers of individuals and the
closed canals contained the fewest, although the animals collected in the
closed canals were larger. A decrease in catch and in species diversity of
planktonic organisms was noted in closed canals. Hydrological conditions were
most stable in closed canals. Dissolved oxygen remained within tolerance limits
of marine organisims during most of the study; however, fish kills were observed
in semiopen and closed canals. Water chemistry reflected a fluctuation trend
dependent on freshwater and saltwater intrusion. Peak levels of most nutrients
were recorded following flooding conditions of storm surges caused by the pas-
sage of hurricanes.

2. APPLIED BIOLOGY, INC., "Literature Review for the Assessment of Larval Fish
and Shellfish Movement Through Oregon Inlet and the Potential Effects of
Inlet Stabilization by Jetties," U.S. Army Engineer District, Wilmington,
Wilmington, N.C., unpublished, Apr. 1980.

This literature evaluates the potential effects of jetty emplacement on
ocean-to-estuary larval transport at Oregon Inlet, North Carolina. Commercially
important fish and shellfish in Pamlico Sound can be categorized in terms of
their vulnerability to potential jetty construction effects by assessing their
migratory patterns and life-cycle relationships to estuarine nurseries. Sea-
sonal observation of larval density distributions, in association with current
direction and speed data, would allow a prediction of jetty emplacement effects
and provide a data base for comparison with postconstruction monitoring study
results.

3. ARNER, D.H., et al., "Effects of Channelization of the Luxapalia River on
Fish, Aquatic Invertebrates, Water Quality, and Furbearers,'" FWS/OBS-76-
08, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington D.C., June 1976.

Biological data collected July 1973 to January 1976 from an old channelized
segment, an unchannelized segment, and a newly channelized segment of the
Luxapalia River in Mississippi and Alabama revealed that productivity of the
old channelized segment has not recovered to the levels exhibited in the unchan-
nelized segment. There was an increase in the turbidity trends and in the num-
ber of plankton organisms in the newly channelized segment. In the unchan-
nelized segment there was an increase in the average number per sample of fish
and macroinvertebrates and in the diversity of plankton, macroinvertebrates,
and fish. Utilization of an expanding habitat created by annual flooding was
indicated by the preponderance of terrestrial invertebrates found in the stom-
achs of fish collected behind the levee. Indexes of the abundance of furbearers
associated with the river were obtained by night lighting, sign count, and
trapping. Muskrat and beaver, the species most commonly associated with an
aquatic habitat, were far more numerous in the unchannelized segment than in
either the old or newly channelized segments.

4. ARNOLD, E.L., Jr., "Man's Alterations of Estuaries by Dredging and Filling
a Grave Threat to Marine Resources," Proceedings of the 18th Annual Con-
ference of the Southeast Assoctatton of Game Fish Commissioners, Vol. 18,
1964, pp. 269-273.

Estuaries are being unwisely exploited to develop waterfront real estate
by dredging and filling. Accumulative effects of landfill activities threaten
the balance of nature in which estuaries play a major role. The typical dredge-
and-fill operation along the Florida coast is in the shallow bay bottom and tidal
flat areas. The operations destroy the marine productivity in the shallows where
extensive grass beds are prime fish nursery and forage areas. These development
activities also change long established currents. The Tampa-Boca Ciega Bay
dredge-and-fill project is noted to involve 9.25 million cubic yards of fill
materials. The Boca Ciega Bay is an excellent nursery and forage area that
would be destroyed by an extensive dredge-and-fill project.

5. ARON, W.I., and SMITH, S.H., ''Ship Canals and Aquatic Ecosystems," Setence,
Vol. 174, No. 4004, Oct. 1971, pp. 13-20.

Through a combination of ecosystem homeostasis and the perversity of man and
nature, often times the significant biological changes effected by environmental
modifications are not detected until long after the initial change has taken
place. The immediate impact, which may range from spectacular to undetectable,
is a deceptive measure of the long-term and often more important changes in the
ecosystem.

6. AULD, A.H., and SCHUBEL, J.R., "Effects of Suspended Sediment on Fish Eggs
and Larvae: A Laboratory Assessment," Estuarine and Coastal Marine Sctence,
Vol. 6, No. 2, Feb. 1978, pp. 153-164.

Eggs and larvae of six species of anadromous and estuarine fish indigenous
to the Chesapeake Bay were exposed to different concentrations of suspended
sediment to determine the effects on hatching success and short-term survival.
The egg experiments indicated that concentrations did not significantly affect
the hatching success of yellow perch, blueback herring, alewife, or American shad
eggs. Higher concentrations significantly reduced the hatching success of white
perch and striped bass; lower concentrations did not. Experiments with larvae
indicated that high concentrations significantly reduced the survival of striped.
bass and yellow perch larvae exposed for 48 to 96 hours. American shad larvae
appeared to be less tolerant than the other two species tested. Low concentra-
tions significantly reduced the survival of shad larvae continuously exposed
for 96 hours. The significance of these results is discussed relative to natural
and man-induced changes in sediment loading of estuaries.

7. BARADA, W., and PARTINGTON, W.M., Jr., “Report of Investigation of Environ-
mental Effects of Private Water Front Canals," Environmental Information
Center, Winter Park, Fla., 1972.

The impact of canal-type waterfront developments on Florida's aquatic environ-
ment and its possible conflict of public interest is discussed. Topics include
effects on fish and fishing, changes in water quality, benthos, sources of
pollutants, the effect on ground water, the effect on public health, and the
economic impact of these developments. The study was based on a literature
review and assessment by knowledgeable persons. Developing private waterfront
property causes serious environmental degradation beyond the private boundaries
and therefore affects public interest.

8. BASSI, D.E., and BASCO, D.R., "Field Study on an Unconfined Spoil Disposal
Area of the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway in Galveston Bay, Texas," Sea Grant
Publication TAMU-SG-74-208, Texas A & M University, College Station, Tex.,
Jan. 1974.

Dredge material obtained from maintenance dredging of the gulf Intracoastal
Waterway is presently disposed in unconfined, submerged areas alongside the
channel. Of interest, for economic and environmental reasons, is the disper-
sion of the dredged material with time. Grain-size analysis of bottom sediment
samples, depth soundings, and wooden stakes were employed in field investiga-
tions to determine the approximate location of material from one such disposal
area over a 5-month period after disposal.

9. BAXTER, K.W., and RENFRO, W.C., "Seasonal Occurrence and Size Distribution
of Postlarval Brown and White Shrimp Near Galveston, Texas, With Notes on
Species Identification," Fishery Bulletin, Vol. 66, No. 1, 1967, pp. 149-
158.

Postlarvae of the genus Penaeus were collected at the entrance to Galveston
Bay, Texas, over a 4-year period and along Galveston Island's beach during a
l-year period. Postlarval brown shrimp, P. aztecus, and white shrimp, P.
settferus, were the predominant penaeids caught. Morphological characters,
seasonal size differences, and the occurrence of juveniles in adjacent nursery
areas were used to identify these species. Seasonal occurrence, size distribu-
tion, and measures of relative abundance are given for the two species. The
uniform size of the postlarvae in collections taken along the beach and the
bay entrance indicated that small shrimp grow very little when they are along
the beach.

10. BEARDSLEY, G.L., Jr., "Distribution in the Water Column of the Migrating
Juvenile Pink Shrimp, Penaeus duorarum (Burkenroad), in Buttonwood Canal,
Everglades National Park, Florida," Amertcan Doctoral Dissertations,
University of Miami, Miami, Fla., 1967.

A l-year study was made of the vertical and horizontal distribution of
migrating juvenile pink shrimp in Buttonwood Canal, Everglades National Park,
Florida. The sampling gear consisted of 13 conical nets mounted in iron frames
evenly spaced across the canal. Samples were 1 hour long and were taken during
hours of darkness on the ebbtide. Sampling was scheduled each month to coincide
with the full, new, and one of the quarter moons. Results indicated that juve-
nile shrimpare most abundant on the surface of the canal during nights of the
full moon and the last-quarter moon. Juvenile shrimp also respond to changes
in current velocity moving off the bottom at the‘end of the floodtide and mov-
ing back to the bottom at the end of the ebbtide. Changes in lateral distribu-
tion also occur. These changes can be related to current patterns in the canal
or to the amount and distribution of floating vegetation in the canal. Studies
were also made on abundance, size, and sex ratio.

11. BEERS, G.D., "The Role of Dredging in the Ecosystem Management Program
Proposal for the Los Angeles Harbor," Swnmarites of the Second Annual
Envtronmental Engineers and Setence Conference, University of Louisville,
Louisville, Ky., 1972, pp. 14-16.

In an ecological study of the dredging of Los Angeles Harbor, surface and
substrate sediment samples were analyzed for particle-size distribution, total

8

Nitrogen, oil and grease, chemical oxygen demand, total sulfides and phosphates,
and benthic animal diversity and biomass. The degree of dredging was associated
with the degree of potential improvement in the quality of the sediments. Dredg-
ing to a depth of 3 meters would restore conditions for desirable benthic com-
munities.

12. BENEFIELD, R.L., "Shell Dredging Sedimentations in Galveston and San An-
tonio Bays,'' Technical Series No. 19, Texas Parks and Wildlife Department,
Austin, Tex., 1976.

Sedimentation on oyster reefs caused by hydraulic mudshell dredging was
studied at seven sites in Galveston and San Antonio Bays. Silt baskets and
core tubes were used to monitor rates of sedimentation. Important factors in
reef sedimentation were oyster reef contours, sediment composition, direction
of current flow, and number of shell dredges discharging sediments. Sedimenta-
tion was not found on a reef 0.91 to 1.22 meters above the surrounding bottom
during the operation of a shell dredge 91.4 meters from the reef edge. A reef
with a flat profile received deposits of dredged sediments when the nearest of
five dredges was 1798 meters away. Sediment deposits of 10.2 to 15.2 centi-
meters caused oyster mortalities. It was found that each dredge site contained
particular characteristics and that regulations requiring inflexible minimum
distances between dredges and reefs were not appropriate.

13. BOEHMER, R., et al., "Effects of Suspended Marine Sediments on Selected
Commercially Valuable Fish and Shellfish of Massachusetts," Proceedings of
the Seventh Annual Offshore Technology Conference, Vol. I, 1975, pp. 133-141.

With various levels of suspended, fine-grained marine sediment, acute bio-
assays were performed on several marine fish and shellfish to determine possible
lethal effects of short-term exposure to levels of suspended sediments encoun-
tered in the dredge plume of an offshore sand and gravel mining operation. Tox-
icity increasing with longer term exposure was evident with coho salmon and sil-
verside and, to a lesser extent, with winter flounder, hake, and bay scallops.
Coho salmon was the most tolerant of the fish, followed by winter flounder
and silverside. Although initially tolerant of higher concentrations of suspend-
ed sediment, menhaden, yellowtail flounder, hake, and silverside were less toler-
ant at longer durations. This indicates that with some species the toxicity of
suspended fine sediment is more dependent on the length of exposure, whereas
with other species the toxicity is more dependent on the concentration. The
highest tolerance was exhibited by the adult stage of quahog, soft-shell clan,
and oyster. Although these three shellfish were the most tolerant, the bay
scallop was the most susceptible of those species tested. Bay scallop larvae
were more tolerant than adults. Lobsters were relatively tolerant to suspended
sediments, although apparently vulnerable while molting.

14. BOUMA, A.H., "Environmental Studies Related to Shell Dredging in Gulf
Coast Estuaries," Proceedings of the Seventh Annual Offshore Technology
Conference, Vol. I, 1975, pp. 83-91.

Although the many estuaries along the gulf coast vary significantly in
physical and biological aspects, the various studies on shell dredging all
point to the same general conclusions. The additional suspended load re-
sulting from dredge discharge, the oxygen budget, and the rapid salinity
changes is considered to be the most important environmental aspect. The
impact of dredging on the estuarine environmental parameters is less than
would be suspected.

15. BOUMA, A.H., and HOLLIDAY, B.W., "Shell Dredging and Enyironmental Impact
Statements,'' Sympostum on Ocean Mining, OSM 11, World Dredging Conference
Association, 1973, pp. 66-84.

An environmental impact study was required for San Antonio Bay, Texas, to
determine the influence of shell dredging on the bay environment and on the
adjacent Aransas National Wildlife Refuge. Industry and nonbiologically oriented
agencies recognize a degree of harmful effects inherent to shell dredging, in-
cluding silting of exposed oyster reefs. Other groups and agencies heavily
oppose dredging because it may destroy certain benthic species and the food
chain of other animals. Comparisons with other states reveal that a proper
management program should be initiated to evaluate the problems in these two
viewpoints.

16. BOUMA, A.H., HOLLIDAY, B.W., and HALL, G.L., "Environmental Statement on
Shell Dredging: San Antonio Bay, Texas,'' Sea Grant Publication TAMU-SG-
74-104, Proceedings of the Stxth Dredging Seminar, Mar. 1974, pp. 38-58.

A study of the environmental effects of shell dredging in San Antonio Bay,
Texas, on the Aransas National Wildlife Refuge and the adjacent bays was under-
taken by a team of approximately 50 investigators. Certain changes to the bay
environment, which were a direct result of dredging, were studied and evaluated.
These changes included circulation, aquatic life, population density of dredge
holes, feeding habits of fishes, oyster reef distribution, dispersal of pollu-
tants and navigation routes. Other studies dealt with the effect of spoil
distribution from dredging operations on live reefs, dredging fossil reefs,
and implantation of artificial reefs. In addition, the effect on the economy
and revenue to the State, due to the termination of shell dredging as a detri-
mental measure or due to the depletion of resources, was discussed.

17. BROWN, C.L., and CLARK, R., "Observations on Dredging and Dissolved Oxygen
in a Tidal Waterway," Water Resources Research, Vol. 4, No. 6, 1968,
pp. 1381-1384.

Evidence indicates that resuspension of oxidizable bottom sediments in a
tidal waterway caused significant reductions in the dissolved oxygen concen-
tration of the water. During dredging, dissolved oxygen was reduced 16 to 83
percent below normal.

18. BRUER, J.P., "An Ecological Survey of the Lower Laguna Madre of Texas, 1953-
1959,"" Publteations of the Institute of Marine Science, Vol. 8, University
of Texas, Austin, Tex., 1962, pp. 153-185.

Hydrographic data and comments on the distribution and habits of marine
species are presented for the lower Laguna Madre of Texas, a shallow, hyper-
saline marine bay extending 122 kilometers north of the Rio Grande delta. In
summer, waters of the gulf move northward through the lagoon with increasing
salinity due to evaporation. The various species in the plankton and bottom
communities diminish with distance from the pass. In winter, the flow is south-
ward. A population of commercial oysters, Crassostrea virginica, near the pass
apparently is adapted to high salinity conditions. Some ecological effects of
manmade changes are described, including the effects of opening Port Mansfield
Pass, the isolation and silting of South Bay due to dredged material disposal,
and the management of the Rio Grande River during floods.

19. CADDY, J.F., "Underwater Observations on Tracks of Dredges and Trawls and
Some Effects of Dredging on a Scallop Ground," Journal of the Fisheries
Research Board of Canada, Vol. 30, No. 2, Feb. 1973, pp. 173-180.

Three types of fishing gear tracks in bottom sediments were observed
from a submersible in Chaleur Bay (Gulf of St. Lawrence). Tracks from
past otter-trawling activities covered at least 3 percent of the bottom
area; these were probably made by trawl doors. Shallow tracks made by
inshore and offshore dredges during the course of the study could be distin-
guished from each other and from trawl tracks.

Scallop dredging lifts fine sediments into suspension, buries gravel below
the sand surface, and overturns large rocks embedded in the sediment, thereby
roughening the bottom. Dredging causes appreciable lethal and sublethal damage
to scallops left in the track; this damage is greatest on rough bottom.
Incidental mortalities to scallops with an offshore dredge of at least 13 to
17 percent per tow are of the same magnitude as estimates of the harvesting
efficiency made in earlier studies. Predatory fish and crabs were attracted
to the dredge tracks within 1 hour of scallop dredging and were observed in
the tracks at densities 3 to 30 times those observed outside the tracks.

20. CALDER, D.R., BEARDON, C.M., and BOOTHE, B.B., Jr., "Environmental Inventory
of a Small Neutral Embayment: Murrells Inlet, South Carolina," Technical
Report No. 10, South Caroiina Marine Research Center, Charleston, S.C.,
1976.

Studies were conducted to inventory macrobenthic communities, marshlands,
oyster reefs, and other wetlands areas of Murrells Inlet prior to initiation
of a project to construct two jetties to stabilize the channel. Dredge and
grab samples were collected and aerial photos were used. Species diversity was
highest inside the inlet and lowest at the mouth of the inlet. This pattern is
typical of a neutral embayment and reflects the absence of a salinity gradient.

21. CALDER, D.R., and KNOTT, D.M., "Ecological Effects of Rubble Weir-Jetty
Construction at Murrells Inlet, South Carolina," Interim Report, Marine
Resources Research Institute, South Carolina Wildlife and Marine Resources
Department, Charleston, S.C., Aug. 1979.

This study at Murrells Inlet, South Carolina, describes the macrobenthic
communities during 1977, prior to jetty construction, and during early post-
construction. The effects of the north jetty construction on macroinvertebrate
communities were somewhat masked by seasonal population dynamics. However,
certain effects on the populations were apparent. The jetty construction caused
an increase in the number of species and altered the community structure at
locations sheltered by the jetty. Changes south of the jetty, which changed
from a high to a low wave energy environment, resulted in population changes.
The only other major impact during the early postconstruction study was the
elimination of communities directly in the path of the jetty. However, this
is expected to be offset by the buildup of plants and animals on and around
the jetty.

22. CALDER, D.R., et al., "A Reconnaissance of the Macrobenthic Communities,
Wetlands, and Shellfish Resources of Little River Inlet, North Carolina
and South Carolina," Technical Report No. 17, South Carolina Marine Re-
search Center, Charleston, S.C., 1977.

11

Prior to initiation of the Little River navigation project involving
channel stabilization and a jetty system, a study was conducted to inven-
tory benthic communities, wetlands, and shellfish resources of the area.
Qualitative and quantitative samples were collected and aerial photos were
used. The number of benthic invertebrate species is relatively low; how-
ever, the estuary serves as an important nursery for shrimp, crabs and fishes.

23. CAMMEN, L.M., "Macroinvertebrate Colonization of Spartina Marshes Artifi-
cially Established on Dredge Spoil," Estuarine and Coastal Marine Science,
Vol. 4, No. 4, July 1976, pp. 357-372.

Core samples were taken from dredge spoil planted with Spartina alterntflora,
spoil left bare, and the nearby natural marsh in two locations to determine the
factors influencing the development of the spoil fauna and also to compare the
spoil with the natural marsh fauna. Based on the calculation of total numbers,
total biomass, sample diversity, species richness, and faunal similarity between
plots, the difference in the elevation between the bare and planted spoil appeared
to be the major factor in determining the degree of similarity in their fauna.
Five factors are suggested to control the development of the planted spoil fauna:
the similarity of the spoil to the natural marsh in elevation and sediment par-
ticle size, the natural sedimentation rate in the area, the proximity of the
spoil to the natural marsh, and the relative maturity of the natural marsh
faunal community.

24. CAMMEN, L.M., SENECA, E.D., and COPELAND, B.J., "Animal Colonization of
Man-Initiated Salt Marshes on Dredged Spoil," TP 76-7, U.S. Army, Corps
of Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research Center, Fort Belvoir, Va.,
June 1976.

This study determined the differences in fauna in spoil areas and natural
marsh at Drum Inlet and Snow's Cut, North Carolina. A marked difference in
faunal development was found at the sites. Research also showed that piant-
ing Spartina on dredge spoil leads to the creation of a salt marsh, which
resembles a natural marsh.

25. CARSTEA, D., et al., "Guidelines for the Environmental Impact Assessment
of Small Structures and Related Activities in Coastal Bodies of Water,"
Technical Report MTR-6916, The Mitre Corporation, McLean, Va., 1975.

Criteria for an evaluation of the environmental impact of various shoreline
structures are given. Water turbidity, storm runoff, boat emissions, erosion,
sedimentation impacts on biota, impacts on ecologically vital areas, air quality,
and noise are some of the factors considered. Structures reviewed included
riprap, bulkheads, groins, jetties, piers, dredge fill, outfalls, submerged
lines and pipes, and aerial crossings.

26. ‘CHAMBERS, C.V., and SPARKS, A.K., "An Ecological Survey of the Houston Ship
Channel and Adjacent Bays," Publtcattons of the Institute of Marine Setence,
Vol. 6, University of Texas, Austin, Tex., 1959, pp. 213-250.

In the ship channel a dissolved oxygen gradient existed from a low dissolved
oxygen concentration in the upper channel to near normal concentrations at the
lower boundary of the survey area. The dissolved oxygen in the ship channel
below the mouth of the San Jacinto River is greatly influenced by the flow rate
of the river which is, in turn, largely controlled by rainfall. Studies of

We

bottom samples demonstrated that extensive silting has occurred in the ship
channel and bays. Low dissolved oxygen, hydrogen sulfide production, and
high organic content of the mud in the channel, all indicative of organic
pollution, prevent the establishment of a normal bottom fauna. In the bays
adjacent to the channel the dissolved oxygen concentration is independent

of the flow rate of the San Jacinto River, being dependent on phytoplankton
production of oxygen and, at certain seasons of the year, fluctuating widely
in a diurnal cycle. The concentration may range from supersaturation to
extremely low concentrations in a relatively short period.

A small temperature gradient was found in the ship channel, 2° to 3°
higher in the upper channel than in the lower part of the survey area.
When the dissolved oxygen level is sufficient, a large and diverse popula-
tion of fishes exists throughout the bays in the survey area and for a con-
siderable distance above the Humble Oil & Refining Company's outfall. The
‘species composition of this population varies with the season, with predom-
inantly marine fishes during the summer when the salinity is high and predom-
inantly freshwater fishes in the winter when the salinity is lower. Both the
number of species and the diversity of fishes present decreased farther up the
the channel.

27. CHAPMAN, C., "“Channelization and Spoiling in Gulf Coast and South Atlantic
Estuaries," Proceedings of the Marsh and Estuary Management Sympostum,
Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, La., 1967, pp. 93-106.

Several methods of channel construction are used that permit varying
degrees of control over the resulting spoil. Mechanical excavation with
bucket dredges or draglines provides good spoil control on a small area.
Hydraulic excavation, however, requires large spoil areas and affords poor
control unless the spoil is removed from the construction site (hopper dredge)
or retained within ring levees.

Disadvantages of channelization and spoil dumping include the segmenta-
tion of bays, which promotes shoaling; increased saltwater intrusion; in-
creased flushing time; altered tidal exchange, mixing, and circulation;
increased turbidity; and loss of submerged aquatic vegetation. However ,
none of these changes are as significant as the direct physical loss of a
habitat.

Advantages of channels and spoil deposition include the connection of
isolated waters and marshes, which make them available as fish nursery areas;
the provision of routes of escape or refuge for fish during cold periods; the
improvement of water exchange and circulation; and the release of nutrients
trapped in bottom sediments.

Suggestions are made for planning channels and depositing spoil to reduce
the loss of vital bay and marsh habitats.,

28. CHASE, G.L., "Evaluation of Environmental Effects Associated with Sidecast
Dredging," Proceedings of the Eighth Annual Offshore Technology Conference,
Vol. 2, 1976, pp. 621-646.

Sidecast dredging has been employed annually in the New England region for
the past 4 years. Operation of the dredge is restricted to inlet channels and
ocean sand shoals. Physical and chemical analyses of sediment samples from 18
navigation projects confirmed that dredged material consists primarily of clean

13

fine to coarse sands. Some channels are characterized by eelgrass patches
with subsequent higher percentages of fine-grained sediment. Preliminary
studies by the U.S. Army Engineer Division, New England, have concentrated on
evaluation of dredging effects on turbidity, dissolved oxygen, and mobiliza-
tion of trace metal constituents. Four projects have been selected for compar-
ison of predredging and postdredging impacts on benthic communities.

29, CLARK, J., et al., "Studies of Estuarine Dependence of Atlantic Coastal
Fishes, Data Report II: Southern Section, New River Inlet, North Carolina,
to Palm Beach, Florida,'' Technical Paper No. 59, U.S. Bureau of Sport
Fisheries and Wildlife, Washington, D.C., 1970.

Studies conducted by the Sandy Hook Marine Laboratory determined the pro-
portion of young, economically important Atlantic species of fish that enter
estuaries their first year. The investigators surveyed the Atlantic Continen-
tal Shelf to locate the spawning areas and the season in which to follow the.
movements of larval and juvenile stages. This report presents temperature,
salinity, zooplankton volume, and the surface meter net collection of juvenile
fish data made on four cruises from New River, North Carolina, to Palm Beach
Florida, during the second year of fieldwork.

30. CONGDON, J.C., 'Fish Populations of Channelized and Unchannelized Sections
of the Chariton River, Missouri," Stream Channeltzation: A Sympostum,
Special Publication No. 2, American Fisheries Society, Dec. 1971, pp. 52-62.

This study determines fish losses resulting from stream channelization on
the Chariton River, Missouri. In the unchannelized section, 21 fish species
were found compared with 13 species in the channelized section. The standing
crop of fish in the unchannelized section was estimated to be 138 kilograms per
acre compared with 24 kilograms per acre in the channelized section, an 83-
percent reduction. In both the channelized and unchannelized sections carp,
river carpsuckers, and channel catfish were the dominant species. The standing
crop of catchable fish in the unchannelized section was estimated to be 85
kilograms per acre compared with 12 kilograms per acre in the channelized sec-
tion, an 86-percent reduction. There were six species of catchable-size fish
in the unchannelized section compared with four in the channelized section.

31. CONNER, W.G., and SIMON, J.L.,''The Effects of Oyster Shell Dredging on an
Estuarine Benthic Community," Estuarine and Coastal Marine Setence, Vol.
9, No. 6, Dec. 1979, pp. 749-758.

This paper describes the effects of physical disruptions associated with
dredging fossil oystershell on the benthos. Two dredged areas and one undis-
turbed control area in Tampa Bay, Florida, were quantitatively sampled before
dredging and for 1 year after dredging. The immediate effects of dredging:on
the soft-bottom community were reductions in the numbers of species (40-percent
loss), densities of macrofauna (65-percent loss), and total biomass of inverte-
brates (90-percent loss). During the 6 to 12 months after dredging, an analysis
showed no difference between the dredged and control areas in number of species,
densities, or biomass. Community overlap between dredged and control areas was
reduced directly after dredging, but after 6 months the predredging level of
similarity was regained.

14

32. COPELAND, B.J., "Fauna of the Aransas Pass Inlet, Texas: I. Emigration
as Shown by Tide Trap Collections," Publications of the Institute of
Marine Setence, Vol. 10, University of Texas, Austin, Tex., 1965, pp. 9-21.

A tide trap was used to sample the animals in the Aransas Pass Inlet,
Texas. The net was lowered 3 days per week at maximum flood and ebb tides
during the period 15 April 1963 to 15 April 1964. About 24 species of inverte-
brates and 55 species of fishes were collected with the tide trap during the
study. The total catch of all organisms was greatest in May, June, and
October. These large peaks were concomitant with the change in water level of
the bays and changes in temperatures. Most organisms were caught on ebbtides,
indicating a mass emigration of animals from the shallow, productive nursery
areas. Only anchovies were consistently caught during floodtides. Six species
of invertebrates and 11 species of fishes were considered to be common emigrants
and were caught in the tide trap in large numbers. All these organisms demonstrated
definite patterns in their emigration habits.

Computations of the tide collections showed that the,net productivity of the
bays was 233 kilograms per acre per year. About 3.9 x 10 kilograms per year
of late juvenile penaeid shrimp emigrated through the Aransas Pass Inlet.

33. COPELAND, B.J., and BECHTEL, T.J., "Some Environmental Limits of Six Gulf
Coast Estuarine Organisms," Contrtbuttons tn Marine Setence, Vol. 18,
University of Texas, Austin, Tex., 1974, pp. 169-204.

Literature and data collections of six sport and commercially important
species occupying gulf coast estuaries were analyzed utilizing a computerized
sorting technique. Catch ratios, reflecting catches above a threshold value,
were computed and sorted into temperature, salinity, seasonal and location
classes, and into various interaction categories.

Gross temperature, salinity, location and season ranges, and optima were
established for menhaden (Brevoortta patronus), sand trout (Cynoscion arenarius) ,
blue crabs (Callinectes sapidus), white shrimp (Penaeus settferus), pink shrimp
(Penaeus duorarum),; and brown shrimp (Penaeus aztecus). Analyses of interactions
among the environmental variables verified several conclusions from the single
factor analysis, but also delineated many details of habitat, migration, and
estuarine utilization.

The technique developed is considered to be capable of describing outside
limits and providing management criteria for estuarine programs.

34. COPELAND, B.J., and TRUITT, M.V., ''Fauna of the Aransas Pass Inlet, Texas:
II. Penaeid Shrimp Postlarvae,'"' Texas Journal of Setence, Vol. XVIII, No.
1, May 1966, pp. 65-74.

An investigation of the movement of postlarvae penaeid shrimp from the
Gulf of Mexico into shallow bays was conducted for 1 year at the Aransas Pass
Inlet, Texas. Two periods of peak abundance were observed, with Penaeus
aatecus making up the spring peak and Penaeus durorarwm making up the fall
peak. These periods of influx occurred when there was a net inflow of water
after previous periods of low water levels in the bays. Variations in post-
larvae movement were observed, with greater catches during the floodtide, at
night, and on the south side of the channel. The average length of postlarvae
varied seasonally.

35. CORLESS, J., and TRENT, L., "Comparison of Phytoplankton Production Between
Natural and Altered Areas in West Bay, Texas," Fishery Bulletin, Vol. 69,
No. 4, 1971, pp. 829-832.

Phytoplankton production was compared among an undredged marsh area, a
bay area, and an adjacent marsh area altered by channelization, bulkheading,
and filling. The average gross production (milligrams of carbon per liter per
day) in the altered area (canals) was 8 percent higher than in the marsh area
and 48 percent higher than in the bay area during June, July, and August 1969.
Gross and net productions were significantly higher in the canals and marsh
than in the bay; differences between the canals and marsh were not significant.

36. CRONIN, L.E., GUNTER, G., and HOPKINS, S.H., “Effects of Engineering
Activities on Coastal Ecology,'’ Interim Report to the Office of the
Chief of Engineers, U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers, Washington, D.C.,
1969.

An interim report is presented of a tentative listing of pertinent Corps-
related activities, with a preliminary analysis and evaluation of the ecologi-
cal effects. The activities included dredging, filling, dams, diversions,
jetties and groins, beach nourishment, land-cut canals, weed control, hurricane
barriers, finger-type developments, and ocean disposal. Also, studies that
would significantly improve comprehension, and therefore, the prediction of
the effects of coastal engineering changes are listed with supplementary
comments.

37. CRONIN, L.E., GUNTER, G., and HOPKINS, S.H., “Effects of Engineering
Activities on Coastal Ecology," Report to the Office of the Chief of
Engineers, U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers, Washington, D.C., 1971.

A team of consultants made a broad analysis of the effects that 13 types
of engineering activities have on the ecology of coastal areas. Studies which
would significantly improve the understanding of these effects also were identi-
fied. The following types of engineering activities were considered: dredging,
filling, dams, levees and spillways, diversions, jetties and groins, beach
nourishment, land-cut canals, weed control, hurricane barriers, finger-type
developments, ocean disposal, and wetlands modification.

38. DAIBER, F.C., "Ecological Effects Upon Estuaries Resulting from Lagoon
Construction, Dredging, Filling, and Bulkheading,'' Division of Fish and
Wildlife, Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Control, State
of Delaware, Dover, Del., 1975.

Benthic communities of tidal creeks, areas of the open bay, and dredged
lagoons in Rehoboth Bay, Indian River Bay, and Little Assawaman Inlet, Delaware,
were studied in an attempt to evaluate the biotic and environmental conditions
and quality of the dredged areas. Several environmental parameters, including
salinity, temperature, and dissolved oxygen of the bottom water, were measured
to relate the benthic community structure to the physical and chemical condi-
tions of the environment. Lagoon stations, as a group, were found to have lower
numbers of individuals and species and lower species evenness and diversity than
marsh or bay stations. These differences were only significant during the
summer and fall.

39. DeCOURSEY, J., and VERNBERG, W.B., ''The Effect of Dredging in a Polluted
Estuary on the Physiology of Larvae Zooplankton," Water Research, Vol. 9,
No. 2, Feb. 1975, pp. 149-154.

16

Water samples were obtained from three dredging locations in Charlestown
Harbor and from undisturbed control areas. The samples for each location were
taken from the dredge site, 183 meters downstream, and the site of the diked
disposal area. Daphinia were used for location I with a salinity of 0 parts
per thousand, Paleomonetes for location II with salinities of 8 to 15 parts per
thousand, and Polydora for location III with salinities of 10 to 13 parts per
thousand. Rates of survival, metabolism, and swimming activity of three test
species were measured to determine the toxicity level of the water samples.
Weir water proved the most toxic; the sample taken 183 meters downstream was
intermediate in effect. The water from the dredge site was the least toxic.

40. DINEEN, C., and DARNELL, R.M, ''The Effects of Shell Dredging on the Food
Habits of Fishes in San Antonio Bay, Texas," Environmental Impact Assess-
ment of Shell Dredging in San Antonto Bay, Texas, Vol. III, App. B10-E,
Texas A & M Research Foundation, College Station, Tex., Sept. 1973.
pp. 225-231.

The fishes of San Antonio Bay may be grouped into five general classes
based on their presumed feeding habits. The field capture data show three
of the species predominate in the populations inhabiting the bay--the bay
anchovy, the large-scale menhaden, and the Atlantic Croaker. These belong to
different feeding classes, and the rest of the fish community represents minor
variations of these three feeding themes. Further analysis of the possible
effects of dredging on the food habits of the fishes must take these factors
into account.

41. DURBIN, A.G., ''The Role of Fish Migration in Two Coastal Ecosystems: I.
The Atlantic Menhaden, Brevoortia tyrannus, Narragansett Bay, Rhode
Island, II. The Anadromous Alewife, Alose pseudoharengus in Rhode
Island Ponds," American Doctoral Dissertations, University of Rhode
Island, Kingston, R.I., 1975-76, and University Microfilms International,
Ann Arbor, Mich., 1977.

The impact of the Atlantic menhaden and the anadramous alewife on plankton
populations has been examined through laboratory observations of the feeding
behavior and filtering rates. Adult menhaden were offered five species of
phytoplankton and two species of zooplankton as food. The food ration of 4.5
x 10° kilograms of menhaden, a typical population size in Narragansett Bay, has
been estimated both from the energy budget and by assuming that the fish consume
an equivalent of 3 percent of their body weight per day. Menhaden are major
zooplankton predators and would be capable of reducing zooplankton standing
stocks in the upper bay to very low levels in a matter of days.

Sea-run alewives do not feed while in freshwater, and through mortality,
excretion, and the release of spawning products, they contribute substantial
amounts of nutrients of marine origin to the freshwater systems. Thus the ale-
wife acts as a nutrient source to the system, rather than merely as a means of
nutrient regeneration.

42. DURONSLET, J., LYON, J.M., and MARCELLO, F., "Vertical Distribution of
Postlarval Brown, Penaeus aztecus, and White, P. settferus, Shrimp During
Immigration Through a Tidal Pass," Transactions of the American Fishertes
Soetety, Vol. 101, No. 4, Oct. 1972, pp. 748-752.

Knowledge of the vertical distribution of postlarvae penaeid shrimp as

17

they immigrate through tidal passes during night and day is useful in develop-
ing accurate and efficient sampling techniques for measuring relative abundance.
This study determined the vertical distribution of immigrating postlarval brown
and white shrimp through Bolivar Roads Tidal Pass, the major entrance to
Galveston Bay, Texas. The average catch of both brown and white postlarval shrimp
was highest in the upper 2 meters of the water column at night and at middepths
during the day. These depths would probably yield the most accurate abundance
estimates of the postlarval populations.

43. EBERT, T.A., “An Experimental Analysis of Sea Urchin Dynamics and Community
Interactions on a Rock Jetty," Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and
ECOLOGY NON cl 2ii5) WNOle) as ADI LOVE mpl ane Dre

During 1972-73 in Mission Bay, San Diego, California, the biomasses of
Strongylocentrotus purpuratus (Stimpson) and S. franetscanus (A. Ag.) were
manipulated in 21 experimental cells constructed on the rocks of the entrance
channel breakwater. Cells were set up with S. purpuratus only, with S. francts-
canus only, and with half of the biomass of each species. The rate of change of
biomass was positively correlated with original density. Because barriers
were not totally effective in restricting movement, the correlation is possibly
best interpreted as one of diffusion rather than density-dependent mortality.
The difference in the rate of loss between cells with single urchin species
and with mixed species may indicate that intraspecific is more intense than
interspecific competition.

Individual growth rates were determined and step-wise multiple regression
analysis was used to examine the relationships between growth increment and
initial size, total biomass, interaction of biomass and initial size, and posi-
tion along the jetty. Only the original size and the total urchin biomass were
significant.

The density of certain marine invertebrates was found to be correlated
with urchin biomass. The hard-shelled sessile mollusks Hinnites multtrugosus
(Gage) and Serpulorbis squamigerus (Carpenter) were positively correlated,
whereas the soft-bodied tunicates Ciona intestinalts (L) and Styela spp. were
negatively correlated.

44. ELSER, A.A., "Fish Populations of a Trout Stream in Relation to Major
Habitat Zones and Channel Alterations," Transactions of the Amertcan
Fishery Society, Vol. 97, No. 4, Oct. 1968, pp. 389-397.

The relationship of fish populations to major habitat zones and channel
alterations was studied in Little Prickly Pear Creek, Montana, during the
summers of 1965 and 1966. Fish populations were estimated, using a simple
mark-and-recapture census. Nontrout species were absent from the altered
stream sections, but made up 30 and 58 percent of the total number and weight,
respectively, in the unaltered stream sections. Trout were 78 percent more
abundant in the unaltered sections than in the altered. A statistical test
indicated a significant difference between the two trout populations.

45. FAZIO, F.R., "The Effects of Dredging on the Nutrient Cycles of Goose
Creek, New York," American Doctoral Dissertations, Fordham University,
1968-69, and University Microfilms International, Ann Arbor, Mich. 1977.

A study was conducted for 1 year to determine the effects of dredging
on the cycle of nutrients in Goose Creek, New York. Parameters measured were
phosphorus, nitrogen, silicate, and chlorophyll. Other variables monitored
were temperature, salinity, oxygen, pH, and light. Dredging had no apparent

18

effect on hydrographic phenomena such as salinity and water currents. Phos-
phorus and nitrogen did not seem to be affected. Silicate and chlorophyll
a were affected the most by dredging. Silicate was higher than the previous
year in the bay. Chlorophyll a concentrations were high during the summer
in the bay and channel. In the bay, these high concentrations seemed to be
due to benthic rather than plankton algae.

46. FESTA, J.F., and HANSEN, D.V., "A Two-Dimensional Numerical Model of
Estuarine Circulation: The Effects of Altering Depth and River Discharge,"
Estuarine and Coastal Marine Setence, Vol. 4, No. 3, May 1976, pp. 309-323.

Steady-state numerical solutions are obtained for a two-dimensional,
vertically stratified model of a partially mixed estuary. A number of cases
are run for various estuarine parameters; the river transport and Rayleigh
number being the two parameters that have the most pronounced effect. The
river transport is varied by adjusting the mean freshwater velocity. Decreas-
ing it allows salt and stagnant water to penetrate upstream. The estuarine
circulation weakens, but expands over a larger part of the estuary. The
position of the stagnation point with respect to the seaward boundary varies.
Increasing the Rayleigh number by deepening the estuarine channel results in
an increased circulation as well as strong intrusion of salinity and inward
migration of the stagnation point. The horizontal location of the stagnation
point is found to be proportional to the Rayleigh number and, therefore,
varies with the channel depth.

47. FRENCH, R.R., and BAKKALA, R.G., "A New Model of Ocean Migration of
Bristol Bay Sockeye Salmon," Fishery Bulletin, Vol. 72, No. 2, Apr. 1974,
pp. 589-614.

A model is presented that describes the ocean migration of Bristol Bay
sockeye salmon from the time the fish leave the estuary until they return as
adults. Bristol Bay sockeye salmon inhabit extensive areas of the ocean
during various stages of their life, ranging across most of the North Pacific
Ocean from about longitude 140° W. to near longitude 167° E. and from near
latitude 46° N. to latitude to 58° N. in the central Bering Sea. A direct
relationship was not found between the distribution and migration of the
sockeye salmon and the defined oceanographic features of the subarctic region
of the north Pacific Ocean.

48. FUNK, J.L., and ROBINSON, J.W., "Changes in the Channel of the Lower
Missouri River and Effects on Fish and Wildlife," Report No. Aquatic
Ser-11, Missouri Department of Conservation, Jefferson City, Mo.,
Nov. 1974.

This report documents changes made in the channel of the Missouri River
over the past 90 years and the loss of fish and wildlife habitat associated
with these changes. The water surface area of the river between Rulo, Nebraska,
and its mouth has been reduced by 50 percent. Islands have been virtually
eliminated. The full volume of the river's flow is confined within a
relatively narrow channel of rather uniform width. Both the fish of the
river and the wildlife have been taken for granted and overexploited.

49. GAYMAN, W., "Offshore Dredging Study: Environmental Ecological Report,"
Ocean Management, Vol. 4, No. 1, Sept. 1978.

Report discusses Israel's plan to dredge 14 million cubic meters of
kurkar, a soft calcareous sandstone, each year from the shallow sea floor

19

in Haifa Bay and off Netanya to supplement and eventually replace onshore
sources of kurkar, which is utilized extensively for road construction and
maintenance. During the first 10 years the proposed dredging should maximize
the area of rock outcrop and the irregularity of the bottom and replace, as
much as possible, the submerged ridges and rock outcrops lost by quarrying.
All the fauna and flora inhabiting the dredged areas will be destroyed or
displaced by the dredging. The new habitats will be partially repopulated
with many of the same species that previously lived in the mined area. The
dredging operation and the turbid plume generated will probably disrupt fishing
in a large part of the bay. The nutrient contribution to the coastal waters
and the adverse impact of salt brought ashore with the damp kurkar are not
likely to be significant. The Netanya dredging site is closer to the beach
than that in Haifa Bay and has a smaller, less diverse biota. However, the
deterioration of water quality may be detrimental to its recreational and
tourism values.

50. GERKE, R.J., and KACZNSKI, V.W., "Food of Juvenile Pink and Chum Salmon
in Puget Sound, Washington," Technical Report No. 17, Washington Depart-
ment of Fisheries, Olympia, Wash., 1972.

Pink and chum salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha and 0. keta) were collected
from three widely separated offshore areas of Puget Sound during April, May,
and June 1970 to determine the kinds and types of organisms in their diets.
Sampling areas included: (1) Anderson Island (southern Puget Sound), (2)

Port Susan (central Puget Sound), and (3) Toandos Peninsula (Hood Canal).

Fish collected from the Anderson Island area fed almost exclusively on har-
pacticoid copepods (95 percent of the stomach contents). Food items consumed
at the other sampling sites indicated a more variable diet, including gammarid
amphipods, barnacle nauplii, euphausids, hapracticoid copepods, and eggs of
invertebrate animals. Epibenthic forms were the predominant food type through-
out the sampling period at Anderson Island and during the month of May at the
other areas. Interspecific differences in the kinds of organisms consumed were
uncommon. The distinct ecological zone that epibenthic forms inhabit makes
them extremely susceptible to changes in the beach habitat brought about by
domestic and industrial development of intertidal and subtidal areas. Piers,
jetties, landfills, marinas, bulkheads, and other facilities that either
disturb or destroy beach areas could be highly detrimental to aquatic life,
especially the kind that lives in the bottom substrate. These saltwater
installations not only remove the living area for economically important fishes,
but also eliminate the habitat that supports the food these fish feed on. This
could have a great impact on the future of Puget Sound pink and chum salmon
stocks.

51. GILMORE, G., and TRENT, L., "Abundance of Benthic Macroinvertebrates in
Natural and Altered Estuarine Areas,"" Technical Report NMFS SSRF-677,
National Marine Fisheries Service, Galveston, Tex., Apr. 1974.

The abundance of benthic macroinvertebrates from March to October 1969
in West Bay, Texas, was compared between a natural marsh area, an adjacent
marsh area altered by channelization, bulkheading, filling, and an open
bay area. Abundance indexes, (area combined) of the four groups of phyla
caught were 66.4 percent polychaetes, 29.6 percent crustaceans, 2.5 percent
pelecypods, and 1.5 percent nemerteans; volumes were 44.0 percent polychaetes,
40.8 percent pelecypods, 10.7 percent nemerteans, and 4.4 percent crustaceans.
All organisms combined were slightly more abundant numerically and more than
twice as abundant volumetrically in the marsh than in the canals and were the
least abundant in the bay. Polychaetes were most abundant in the canals and

20

least abundant in the bay; abundance was highest at stations with low to inter-
mediate amounts of silt and clay or where vegetative matter was composed mostly
of live seagrasses or detritus. Crustaceans were more abundant in the natural
marsh than in the other two areas and showed a definite preference for the sandy
substrate in marsh areas. Pelecypods were most abundant numerically in the

bay but volumetrically the marsh had the highest standing crop. Nemerteans
were most abundant in the marsh and least abundant in the bay.

In general, the seasonal abundance of polychaetes and nemerteans varied
little during the study, whereas crustaceans and pelecypods were abundant
only during the spring and early summer.

52. GODCHARLES, M.F., "A Study of the Effects of a Commercial Hydraulic Clam
Dredge on Benthic Communities in Estuarine Areas,'' Technical Series No.
64, Florida Department of Natural Resources, Division of Marine Resources,
St. Petersburg, Fla., July 1971.

A Maryland soft-shell escalator clam dredge, the R/V Venus, was used in a
systematic sampling program to study its effect on representative bottom types
(habitats) in Tampa Bay and to conduct clam exploration in Tampa and Boca
Ciega Bays, the Cedar Keys area, and the Tarpon Springs vicinity. Six experi-
mental stations established in Tampa Bay were visually inspected and sampled
with a trynet before dredging and at various intervals after dredging. Benthic
plug samples were taken at the final sampling. Sediment samples were also
taken to assess textural changes by particle-size analysis. The collected
fauna were identified, counted, and in most instances, measured.

After more than a year no recolonization of seagrasses, Thalassta
testudinum and Syringodium filtforme, occurred in any dredged area. Some re-
growth of Caulerpa prolifera was observed 86 days after dredging. No increase
of clam set was detected during the study. Analyses of trynet hauls showed
no faunal variations between dredge and control plots at any time after
dredging, and benthic plug samples revealed marked faunal differences at only
one station. Redredging with the R/V Venus revealed no faunal declines
except for a marked decrease in quahogs, Mercenarita campechtensts, at one
station.

53. GUNTER, G., "Mortality of Oysters and Abundance of Certain Associates as
Related to Salinity," Heology, Vol. 36, No. 4, Oct. 1955, pp. 601-605.

A field mortality experiment on oysters was carried out from July 1949 to
January 1950 in Copano and Aransas Bays on the south Texas coast. Salinities
were higher than usual during this period and the water temperatures during
the fall and winter were much higher than normal. Mortality of oysters
shielded from predators in baskets was low.

54. GUNTER, G., "Some Relations of Faunal Distribution to Salinity in Estua-
rine Water," Ecology, Vol. 37, No. 3, Oct. 1956.

55. GUNTER, G., "Some Relations of Estuarine Organisms to Salinity," Limnol-
ogy and Oceanography, Vol. 6, No. 2, Apr. 1961, pp. 182-190.

Collectors often ignore salinity while carefully gathering other data for
locality records of estuarine organisms. There has been a great deal of
research indicating that salinity is a limiting factor to the distribution of
Many marine organisms, especially as it varies downward; these limits are often
quite sharp. Some recent evidence is reviewed.

21

56. GUNTER, G., BALLARD, B.S., and VENKATARAMIAH, A., "Salinity Problems of
Organisms in Coastal Areas Subject to the Effect of Engineering Works,"

Contract Report H-73-3, Office of the Chief of Engineers, U.S. Army,
Corps of Engineers, Washington, D.C., 1973.

The nongaseous substances normally moving in and out of animal and plant
cells are metabolites, water, and salts. The common salts in seawater deter-
mine both salinity and composition. The relationships of salinity to animals
and to plants living in the coastal waters are reviewed, with emphasis on the
estuaries of the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic coast of the United States.
Each bay, sound, or estuary is an individual case with regard to salinity
and should be appraised by biologists acquainted with the local fauna and
flora to minimize and possibly even enhance their biotic potential in connec-
tion with salinity changes related to engineering projects.

57. GUNTER, G., CHRISTMAS, J.Y., and KILLEBREW, R., "Some Relations of
Salinity to Population Distributions of Motile Estuarine Organisms, with
Special Reference to Penaeid Shrimp," Ecology, Vol. 45, No. 1, 1964,
pp. 181-185.

The types of shrimp species in coastal waters change with wet and dry
years and also with wet and dry seasons as salinities either rise or fall. In
waters of the northern gulf coast of the United States, the lower salinity
limits of the commercial shrimp are: white shrimp (Penaeus fluviatilis), 0.42
part per thousand; brown shrimp (P. aztecus), 0.80 part per thousand; and
pink shrimp (P. duorarum), 2.50 parts per thousand. The south Florida waters
have very few white shrimp. The brown and pink shrimp are found in these
waters and in waters with lower salinity. Investigations have shown that
young white shrimp are most abundant in waters with salinities lower than 10
parts per thousand; brown shrimp are most abundant at salinities of 10 to
20 parts per thousand; and pink shrimp are most abundant at salinities of
18 parts per thousand and above. Commercial catch statistics show that the
greatest amount of white shrimp are produced in the low salinity waters of
Louisiana, the greatest amount of brown shrimp in the saltier bays of Texas,
and the greatest amount of pink shrimp around the southern Florida islands where
the salinities are oceanic. Three lines of evidence--lower salinity limits,
abundance at various salinities by count, and commercial production from areas
of different salinities--all indicate that the three commercial shrimp of the
south Atlantic and gulf coasts of the United States may be ranked in order of
adaptation or "preference" to salinity in the younger stages as low, inter-
mediate, and high for the white, brown, and pink shrimp, respectively. Addi-
tionally, pink shrimp have been found in the hypersaline Laguna Madre at
salinities of 65 parts per thousand; the other two species have not been
found above 45 parts per thousand. This indicates that salinity is a limiting
factor to the distribution and abundance of shallow-water penaeid shrimp.

58. GUSTAFSON, J.F., "Ecological Effects of Dredged Borrow Pits," World
Dredging and Marine Construction, Vol. 8, No. 10, Sept. 1972, pp. 44-48.

Various studies on the effects of suspended sediment, dredge spoil, and
borrow pits are reviewed, and a defense of the industry and criticisms of the
studies are presented. The typical daily resuspension of bottom material by
tides, currents, and winds dwarfs any of man's present activities, such as
local dredging. Dredged borrow pits are examples of ecological enhancement
and show the healing capacity of nature and the low detrimental effects of most
dredge spoils. It is recommended that the industry improve its techniques to

22

reduce environmental damage and support studies to demonstrate the benefits of
dredging.

59. HALES, L.S., and CALDER, D.R., "A Study of Fish and Shellfish Migration
Across the Weir of Weir-Jetty, Murrells Inlet, South Carolina," Summary
Report, Marine Resources Research Institute, South Carolina Wildlife and
Marine Resources Department, Charleston, S.C., 1979.

The weir jetty system currently under construction at Murrells Inlet,
South Carolina, embodies a unique new concept in the design of such structures
and is one of several comparable jetty projects planned as navigational improve-
ments in other coastal areas of the United States. One of the major environ-
mental concerns in the construction of a jetty is its influence on the movement
of aquatic species to and from estuarine nursery grounds. Jetties may have a
significant impact on the migration of fishes and motile invertebrates, such
as crabs and shrimp, into estuaries thereby affecting the commercial and
recreational fisheries of an area. Because the weir section is underwater dur-
ing a part of the tidal cycle, this jetty design conceivably presents less of
a barrier to nektonic and planktonic species entering and leaving an inlet than
a typical nonweir jetty. This report describes a study designed to monitor the
movement of planktonic and nektonic species across a weir during periods of
high tide.

60. HANSEN, D.R., and MUNCY, R.J., "Effects of Stream Channelization on Fishes
and Bottom Fauna in the Little Sioux River, Iowa,'' Project No. A-035-IA,
Iowa State Water Resources Research, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa,
June 1971.

Differences in certain physical factors, bottom fauna, and fish popula-
tions were evaluated in channelized and unchannelized parts of the Little
Sioux River, Iowa, during 1969-71.

Composition of bottom fauna was similar in the two sections. Coloniza-
tion of macroinvertebrates on artificial substrates suggested a lack of suit-
able attachment areas in the channelized section. The higher numbers of drift
organisms in the channelized section were further evidence of this; the numbers
of fish species were greater in the unchannelized section.

Unbaited hoopnet catches in the unchannelized section revealed the presence
of more large channel catfish, the most important game species, than in the
channelized section. Hoopnet catches and primacord explosive samples collected
greater numbers of smaller channel catfish (less than 254 millimeters) in the
channelized section during late summer and early fall. Because of a possible
downstream movement from the unchannelized section into the channelized section,
suggested by movement studies and similar growth rates, drastic differences in
standing crops of fish were not measurable in comparisons of the two areas.

61. HARPER, D.E., "Effects of Siltation and Turbidity on the Benthos and
Nektons," Environmental Impact Assessment of Shell Dredging in San Antonio
Bay, Texas, Vol. V, App. D5, Texas A & M Research Foundation, Sept. 1973,
pp. 114-123.

8)

During dredging the average number of benthos was reduced compared with
predredging samples. However, when the dredging stopped, the fauna in the
affected area began to recover, aided by recruitment during the winter. At
the time of the postdredging survey, there were about half as many individuals
in the dredged area as in the control area. This indicates that recovery of
benthos can occur quickly.

In winter the average number of nekton and their biomass were higher in
turbid water than in clear water, while in summer the average number of nekton
(and presumably the biomass) were similar in both turbid and clear water.
Furthermore, only 1 of 12 dominant species in the experimental trawls appeared
to be repelled by turbid water and this species may not actually be respond-
ing to the silt. The data indicate that the mud plume from an operating dredge
is not repellent to nektonic organisms and may be beneficial by providing pro-
tection against predators.

62. HASTINGS, R.W., "The Origin and Seasonality of the Fish Fauna on a New
Jetty in the Northeastern Gulf of Mexico," unpublished Ph.D. Disserta-
tion, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Fla., 1972.

A 2.5-year study was conducted of successional and seasonal changes of
fish fauna around a newly constructed jetty at East Pass, Choctawhatchee Bay,
Florida. Information was obtained by diving observations and specimen collec-
tion. Observations were also made and compared with older jetty habitats.

The jetties were colonized soon after construction by species common to the
area originally, by species from other habitat areas such as offshore reefs,
and by tropical species carried by currents.

63. HEADRICK, M.R., “Effects of Stream Channelization on Fish Populations in
the Buena Vista Marsh, Portage County, Wisconsin," Wisconsin Cooperative
Fishery Research Unit, Fish and Wildlife Service, Office of Biological
Services, Steven Point, Wis., Sept. 1976.

Fish populations from ditches 6 to 8 years old and 52 to 62 years old
within the Portage County Drainage District were compared with populations in
adjacent parts of natural streams. Two study areas were selected: an up-
stream zone of plentiful brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalts) and a downstream
zone in marginal trout waters where white suckers (Catostomus commersont)
were numerous. Each area included a new ditch, an old ditch, and a natural
stream, all with similar discharge. Estimates of the annual production,
population, and biomass of brook trout and white sucker, and the total
catch records for other fish species were derived from electrofishing samples
in June, August, and September 1974 and April, May, July, and September 1975.
A creel survey was conducted during the 1975 trout season.

64. HELFRICH, P., "An Assessment of the Expected Impact of a Dredging Project
for Pala Lagoon, American Samoa," UNIH 1-SEAGRANT-TR-76-02, University
of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii, Oct. 1975.

Dredging of the harbor at Pala Lagoon in American Samoa would have detri-
mental environmental effects. Altering of the sill near the lagoon entrance
would affect the biota. It also was concluded that the flow of raw sewage
into Pala Lagoon could be dangerous to persons swimming in and collecting sea-
food from the lagoon.

24

65. HENEGAN, D.L., and HARMON, K.W., "A Review of References to Channelization
and Its Enyironmental Impact," Stream Channelization; A Sympostum, Special
Publication No. 2, American Fisheries Society, Dec. 1971, pp. 79-83.

References to stream channelization and its environmental impacts are not
easy to locate. Few such studies find their way into the formal literature.
This report provides the references that are available.

66. HERBICH, J.B., "Environmental Effects of Dredging," Proceedings of the
Fifth World Dredging Conference, June 1973, pp. 699-719.

This paper summarizes the present state-of-the-art of the effects of dredg-
ing on the environment. The possible advantageous effects include: removal of
polluted bottom sediment for storage or treatment, change in flow patterns,
reoxygenation of sediments and the water columns, and resuspension of nutrients.|
The possible deleterious effects include: removal or burial of habitats,
change in the flow pattern, resuspension of polluted bottom sediments, and
a possible barrier to the movement of marine life.

67. HILLMAN, R.E., "Effects of Dredging on Marine Ecology," World Dredging and
Marine Constructton, Vol. 7, No. 7, June 1971, pp. 25-27.

Several techniques for collecting samples for the assessment of the impact
of dredging on the environment are discussed. Techniques for data sampling
before, during, and after dredging will pinpoint the ecological effects of dredg-
ing on aquatic organisms. These techniques are utilized with the goal of pro-
ducing data suitable for use in constructing mathematical models that stimulate
events occurring in nature and give the models predictive capability.

68. HIRSCH, N.D., DiSALVO, L.H., and PEDDICORD, R., "Effects of Dredging and
Disposal on Aquatic Organisms ,"Vicksburg, Miss., Technical Report DS-78-5.
Dredged Matertal Research Program, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment
Station, Vicksburg, Miss., 1978.

This report synthesizes data from the U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers' Dredged
Material Research Program (Task 1D) that investigated the direct and indirect
effects of dredging and the disposal of dredged material on aquatic organisms.
Direct effects of dredging and disposal are restricted to the immediate area of
operation. They include the removal of organisms at dredging sites and the
burial of organisms at disposal sites. Data indicate that the recovery of dis-
turbed sites occurs over periods of weeks, months, or years. Possible mecha-
nisms of recolonization inciude lateral and vertical migration of organisms and
larval recruitment. Disturbed sites may be recolonized by opportunistic species,
which are not normally the dominant species occurring at nearby undisturbed sites.

Most organisms studied were relatively insensitive to the effects of sedi-
ment suspension in the water. Dredging-induced turbidity is probably not of
major environmental concern in most cases, but may be an esthetic problem.

The formation of fluid mud due to dredging and disposal is a poorly understood
process and is of probable environmental concern. Available data indicate
that suspensions of highly contaminated sediments have a greater potential for
adverse effects than uncontaminated or lightly contaminated sediments.

Bioavailability of sediment-absorbed heavy metals is low. The release of

25

sediment-associated heavy metals and their uptake into organism tissues have
been found to be the exception rather than the rule. Research results suggest
that there is little or no correlation between the bulk sediment content of
heavy metals and the environmental impact. Oil and grease residues, like the
heavy metals, seem tightly bound to sediment particles and accumulation of these
residues by organisms is minimal.

69. HOESE, H.D., “Effects of Higher than Normal Salinities on Salt Marshes,"
Contrtbuttons tn Martine Setence, University of Texas, Austin, Tex.,
Vol. 12, July 1967, pp. 249-261.

Salt marshes exist in a variety of salinity conditions including: (a)
where salinity seldom falls below 30 parts per thousand, (b) where waters
may become fresh at times, and (c) where salinity may exceed 40 parts per
thousand. Most, however, exist in waters between about 10 to 30 parts per
thousand. Increasing salinity may move the salt-brackish-freshwater boundaries
landward as has occurred in Louisiana.

Increase in salinity allows many high salinity organisms to invade land-
ward, which may cause immediate harm to fisheries. The effects of rising
salinities are unknown for all salt marsh animals and plants and may differ.
Also, as salinity rises there are changes in other important factors that vary
among salt marshes. There is little proof that primary productivity will
increase with rising salinity, but it may follow different channels, TheU.S.
Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico salt marsh system is based on Spartina alterntflora
and would probably be destroyed if salinity approached 50 parts per thousand.
The effects of lower salinities are much less certain and require intensive
study.

70. HOESE, H.D., ''Fauna of the Aransas Pass Inlet, Texas: III Diel and
Seasonai Variations in Trawlable Organisms of the Adjacent Area,"'
The Texas Journal of Setence, Vol. XX, No. 1, May 1968, pp. 33-60.

This study had three objectives: (a) to study catch variations during a
24-hour period each season, (b) to compare these seasonal changes with day-
time monthly collections of invertebrates, and (c) to estimate the growth of
organisms taken in the bay. The first objective was undertaken to determine
the diel occurrence in relation to seasonal life stages and environmental
conditions. The second objective was undertaken to equate diel differences
with previous trawl collections made during the day so that more realistic
population measurements could be derived. Four 24-hour trawl samples consist-
ing of 10-minute trawls every hour were conducted on 20-21 October 1964, and 8-9
February, 29-30 April, and 18-19 August 1965 in the Aransas Bay. One 24-hour
trawl sample, consisting of a 10-minute trawl every 6 hours, was conducted at
6 and 9 fathoms in the Gulf of Mexico on 12-13 November 1965. Seasonal trawl
collections were made from February 1964 through January 1965 at 3, 6, 9, 12,
and 15 fathoms in the Gulf of Mexico and at the station in Aransas Bay that
was sampled for diel differences.

71. HOHN, M.H., "The Use of Diatom Populations as a Measure of Water Quality
in Selected Areas of Galveston and Chocolate Bays, Texas," Publications of
the Institute of Marine Setence, Vol. 6, University of Texas, Austin, Tex.,
1959, pp. 206-212.

26

Analyses have been made of the diatom populations from several areas in
Chocolate and Galveston Bays, Texas. The results of these analyses were com-
pared with the results of concurrent biological surveys. A chi-square test
indicated the Catherwood Diatometer developed random, reproducible samples of
diatoms. The drastic change in the shape of the diatom curve in polluted
environments was correlated with a similar change in the species diversity.
The structure of the diatom flora was the same as that previously found in
Chesapeake Bay, Maryland, under similar ecological and chemical conditions.

72. HOPKINS, S.H., "Use of the Clam Rangta cuneata as an Indicator of Eco-
logical Effects of Salinity Changes is Brackish Coastal Waters," Report
to the Office of the Chief of Engineers, U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers,
Washington D.C., Jan. 1973.

The clam Rangia cuneata lives in the low salinity brackish zone of tidal
rivers and bays from Maryland to Texas (and Mexico). In this zone, where the
clam may make up 99 percent of the benthic biomass, it is a key species in the
ecosystem, converting algae and plant debris to meat used by many fishes, crus-
taceans, wild fowls and man. It is also an important commercial species worth
tens of millions of dollars annually for shell and meat.

Because the clam requires variable salinity between 2 and 10 parts per
thousand for successful reproduction, it can be used as an indicator of salin-
ity and of the ecological effects of salinity changes. Measurements of a large
sample of the population will show whether recruitment is occurring, and how
often. The Corps' Mermenteau project in Louisiana is used as an example to
show how this information can be applied in the management of a coastal engi-
neering project.

73. HUGHES, D.A., "Orientations of Migrating Pink. Shrimp," Wattonal Geographic
Soctety Research Reports: 1966 Projects, P.H. Oehser, ed., National
Geographic Society, Washington, D.C., 1966, pp. 127-129.

This study determines the movements of postlarvae and juvenile pink shrimp
within inshore waters where there are distinct ebbtides and floodtides. F4iéld
sampling indicates that postlarvae entering the estuaries are caught almost
exclusively in floodtides and juveniles leaving the estuaries are caught pre-
dominantly in ebbtides. The mechanism causing this discrimination between tides
and the utilization of the tides by the shrimp were examined. Early experiments
on this project yielded negative results when the "preference" of postlarvae for
waters of different salinity and ionic constitution was tested in a Y-maze situa-
tion.

The behavior of postlarvae and juveniles was observed in the laboratory
within currents of water, the "quality" of which was altered during the experi-
ments. Preliminary results showed that salinity changes affect the levels of
‘activity and the direction of swimming with respect to the current of both
postlarvae and juveniles.

74. HUGHES, D.A., "On the Mechanisms Underlying Tide-Associated Movements of
Penaeus duorarum (Burkenroad) ,"' Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations, Fisheries Report, Vol. 3, No. 57, 1967, pp. 867-874.

Postlarval shrimp move inshore in floodtides while juveniles move in ebb-
tides. This appears to be caused by the postlarvae and juveniles response to

ON

changes in salinity. Juveniles are positively rheotactic within a current of
water. However, when the salinity of that water is decreased, downstream
swimming ensues. There is evidence that the responsiveness of juveniles to
decreases in salinity is under rhythmic control. The postlarvae respond to a
decrease in salinity by dropping to the substrate, where they remain inactive
and evade displacement by the ebbtide. When the salinity increases (floodtide)
they become active in the water column and are displaced inshore.

The apparent dependence of tide-associated movements on changes in salinity
is indicated by the extent of rainfall in the vicinity of "nursery" areas and
the commercial catch of the following year.

75. HURME, A.K., "Rubble-Mound Structures as Artificial Reefs," Proceedings
of the Spectalty Conference on Coastal Structures 79, American Society
of Civil Engineers, Vol. 2, Mar. 1979, pp. 1042-1051 (also Reprint 79-4,
U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research Center, Fort
Belvoir, Va., Aug. 1979, NTIS AO73277).

Structures armored with rubble can have a positive effect on coastal ecol-
ogy by functioning as artificial reefs, particularly when they are placed in
areas with a barren bottom. The desirable qualities of these reef structures
are frequently overlooked. Many people think of rubble groins, jetties, and
breakwaters as desirable places to fish, but do not realize that the structures
themselves have a major influence on the success of their fishing.

Creating fishing reefs through the placement of solid materials in coastal
waters has a long history of success and has helped support a fishery that
contributes millions of dollars to coastal recreation. Rubble-mound structures
(constructed by the U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers) are ideal artificial reefs.
They are built of natural stone and have many varying sized cracks and crevices
exposed to the entire water column so they can be colonized by the greatest
diversity of reef dwellers. Most potential environmental problems can be over-
come by careful planning and site selection. Although benefits appear great,
quantifying them is a difficult task. From both the standpoint of biomass and
sport-fishing success, rubble-mound reefs are biologically highly productive.

76. HUTTON, R.F., "The Ecology of Boca Ciega Bay With Special Reference to
Dredging and Filling Operations," Technical Series, Vol. 17, No. 1,
Florida State Board of Conservation, Tallahassee, Fla., 1956.

The study shows that the proposed "furen fill" and the proposed "green
fill" would seriously damage the sports and commércial fishing in the Boca
Ciega Bay area. The bay provides protected animal habitats, breeding, and
feeding grounds for marine animals. The greatest variety and number of animals
occur in areas where attached turtle grass is abundant. Dredging and filling
operations on submerged banks of turtle grass are harmful to the associated
plant life and destroy feeding and breeding grounds. There is some evidence
that dredging operations, under certain conditions, may be beneficial to filter
feeders such as some echinoderms, ascidians, and sponges.

77. INGLE, R.M., "Studies on the Effects of Dredging Operations Upon Fish and

Shellfish," Technical Series No. 5, Florida State Board of Conservation,
Division of Oyster Culture, Tallahassee, Fla., Oct. 1952.

28

Scalefish and mobile crustacea were not damaged within 23 to 46 meters of
an active dredge. In the immediate vicinity of the dredge, large mud particles
damaged the bottom, but the effect did not extend beyond 366 meters. (Controlled
dredging is suggested as the method whereby local conditions, spatial and tem-
poral, are considered. Shellfish did not suffer damage when they were suspended
from the dredge itself. Sediment transport is considered in detail. Because of
water currents, fine particles would probably not remain on oyster reefs long
enough to cause mortality of oysters.

78. IPPEN, A.T., "Saltwater, Freshwater Relationships in Tidal Channels,"
Proceedings of the Second Annual Conference on American Water Resources,
Nov. 1966, pp. 47-55.

The interaction of tidal currents and riverflow in estuaries and tidal
canals has been subject to extensive analytical studies. The most important
engineering conclusions concerning salinity intrusion into tidal channels as a
result of density differences between saltwater and freshwater are reviewed.
Changes in the salinity environment and associated shoaling patterns due to
man's interference are now predictable in recent research.

79. JAMES, W.P., et al., "Environmental Considerations Relating to Operation and
Maintenance of the Texas Gulf Intracoastal Waterway," Sea Grant Report
TAMU-SG-78-204, Texas A&M University, College Station, Tex., Nov. 1977.

This study identifies potentially adverse environmental factors other
than dredging associated with the operation and maintenance of the Texas
Gulf of Mexico Intracoastal Waterway. Field sampling was conducted to
ascertain the background water and sediment quality. A numerical model
study was done to analyze the flow between Galveston Bay and Sabine Lake.
Satellite imagery was used in the lower Laguna Madre to study the circulation
patterns and sedimentation rates.

80. JOHNSON, G.F., and DeWIT, L.A., "Ecological Effects of an Artificial Island,
Rincon Island, Punta Gorda, California," MR 78-3, U.S. Army, Corps of Engi-
neers, Coastal Engineering Research Center, Fort Belvoir, Va., Sept. 1978.

This study documents marine ecological conditions at Rincon Island,
located approximately 0.8 kilometer offshore between Ventura and Santa Barbara,
California. The island was constructed between 1957 and 1958 to serve as
a permanent platform for oil and gas production.

81. JOHNSON, R.K., “Hydrographic and Ecological Effects of Enlargement of
the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal. Appendix I. Production and Distribution
of Fish Eggs and Larvae in C and D Canal," Report No. NRI-REF-72-16,
University of Maryland, National Resources Institute, Solomons, Md.,
Sept. 1973.

The Chesapeake and Delaware (C and D) Canal connecting the Delaware
River estuary with the Chesapeake Bay is one of the more important spawning
and nursery areas for striped bass in the Chesapeake Bay region. Eggs,
larvae, and juveniles of 20 species of fishes and young fishes of varying (by
season) species are found in the canal area throughout the year. An analysis
of data resulting from 2 years of sampling effort has revealed this area to be

29

a low salinity nursery area for fish species that spawn in fresh, brackish,
or marine waters. An analysis of all available data failed to indicate if
hydraulic effects of the canal enlargement, presently underway, will be

detrimental to the reproduction of any species of fish utilizing this area.

82. JUNE, F.C., and CHAMBERLIN, J.L., "The Role of the Estuary in the Life
History and Biology of the Atlantic Mehaden," Proceedings of the 11th
Annual Session of the Gulf and Carribean Fish Institute, 1959, pp. 41-45.

This summary of findings is from a 6-year study of Indian River, Dela-
ware, and 34 other east coast estuaries on the relationship between the
estuaries and the life history of the Atlantic menhaden. Food availablilty,
salinity, soil quality, and water temperature are all characteristics of the
estuaries that govern the distribution, development, growth, and emigration
of the fish. Problems in studying the estuaries are discussed.

83. KAPLAN, E.H., WELKER, J.R., and KRAUS, M.G., ''Some Effects of Dredging
on Populations of Macrobenthic Organisms," Fishery Bulletin, Vol. 72,
No. 2, 1974, pp. 445-480.

Populations of epifauna and infauna were studied from 10 months before to
11 months after a navigation channel was dredged through a small, shallow lagoon.
Current velocities and sedimentation patterns were changed due to an altered
distribution of tidal currents, although flushing time was not appreciably
altered. Values of certain particulate and dissolved nutrients changed after
dredging, but no correlation was observed between animal populations and
fluctuations in nutrients. Productivity of the study area was calculated at
89.87 grams per square meter per year before dredging and 31.18 grams per
Square meter per year after dredging. Productivity figures for the mixed
peripheral marsh were calculated and the annual loss due to replacement of
10.87 hectare of marsh by spoil areas was estimated at 49,487 kilograms.
Altered land usage patterns tended to fix this loss on a permanent basis.

84. KAPLAN, E.H., "Some Factors Affecting the Colonization of a Dredged
Channel," Marine Biology, Vol. 32, No. 2, Sept. 1975, pp. 193-204.

Standing crop, population size, and species diversity of the macrobenthic
organisms in an estuarine channel were studied before and after dredging. A
new suction corer, which sampled an area 0.1 square meter to a depth of 30
centimeters, was used to insure the inclusion of large, deep-dwelling animals.
Eleven months after dredging, the biomass and the number of species and
specimens had not recovered to predredging levels. Colonization began with
relatively large, mobile forms such as the polychaete Werets succinea and the
crab Neopanope texana. Stations in silt and mud regions recovered more
slowly than those in sandier sediments. The previously abundant polychaetes
Notomastus latericeus and Clymenella torquata had virtually disappeared. Only
relatively uncommon lamellibranches such as Tellina agilts, Lyonsta hyalina,
and Mulinta lateralts increased after dredging. Distribution of sediment
types changed as the result of modified tidal velocities in the channel. Mud
and silt were removed by the dredge, exposing the sand underneath, and sandy
stations became muddier as the result of lowered current velocities. Marked
changes in species composition reflected this change in sediment character.

30

85. KEITH, J.M., and SKJEI, R.E., "Engineering and Ecological Evaluation of
Artificial Island Design, Rincon Island, Punta Gorda, California,"
T™-43, U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research
Center, Fort Belvoir, Va., Mar. 1974.

Rincon Island is a manmade offshore island composed of armor rock and
tetrapod revetments enclosing a sand core. An evaluation after 14 years
showed: no damage by waves, littoral transport has been unaffected, little
subsidence has occurred; and a thriving community of marine organisms has
developed.

86. KING, B.D., III, "Study of Migratory Pattern of Fish and Shellfish Through
a Natural Pass," Technical Series No. 9, Texas Parks and Wildlife Depart-
ment, Austin, Tex., 1971.

The movements of commercially important species of fish and crustaceans
through Cedar Bayou Inlet, Texas, were monitored to determine the spatial dis-
tribution and seasonality of each species and to identify environmental factors
that cause or affect movements between oceanic and estuarine waters. The species
studied included the brown shrimp, pink shrimp, white shrimp, blue crab, red
drum, southern flounder, sheepshead, and spotted sea trout.

Data concerning the seasonal abundance and vertical and horizontal distribu-
tion of each species are presented, and the results of a statistical analysis of
correlated environmental variables are discussed.

87. KOHLENSTEIN, L.C., "On the Proportion of the Chesapeake Bay Stock of Striped
Bass that Migrate into the Coastal Fishery," Proceedings of Session on
Advances in Striped Bass Life History and Populatton Dynamics, 108th
Annual Meeting, American Fisheries Society, Aug. 1978.

Past observations of year-class patterns and racial characteristics have
indicated that the Chesapeake Bay spawning grounds provide the principal support
of the coastal striped bass fishery. However, past tagging studies indicate
that only a few percent of the striped bass leave the bay. These observations
are contradictory since a few percent of the Chesapeake Bay stock could not
support the majority of the coastal fisheries.

The present work includes a reexamination of the tagging studies conducted
during the 1957-61 period by the Chesapeake Biological Laboratory in the Potomac
River. The studies examined age-specific sex ratios at several positions in the
Potomac River during the spawning season. The analysis indicates that few young
males leave the bay and that approximately one-half of the 3-year-old females
migrate to coastal waters.

88. KOMAR, P.D., and TERICH, T.A., "Changes Due to Jetties at Tillamook Bay,
Oregon," Proceedings of the 15th Conference on Coastal Engineering, ASCE,
American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. II, July 1976, pp. 1791-1811.

Bayocean Spit, separating Tillamook Bay from the Pacific Ocean on the north
Oregon coast, underwent severe erosion following construction of a north jetty
at the bay entrance in 1914-17. The shoreline north of the north jetty advanced
seaward by about 600 meters. This pattern of erosion and deposition following
jetty construction has generally been interpreted as the jetty blocking the north
to south net littoral drift in the area. A study of the shoreline changes and

31

patterns of erosion and deposition following jetty construction disagreed with
the earlier study and it was concluded that the changes resulted from local re-
arrangements of the beach due to the disrupted equilibrium following jetty con-
struction, but at the same time maintaining an overall condition of zero net
littoral drift. Thus, severe coastal erosion can result from jetty construc-
tion, even in areas of zero net littoral drift.

A new south jetty has been recently completed. This jetty has resulted in
further realinement of the shoreline with accretion and shoreline advance
immediately south of the south jetty. This provides further evidence that
a zero net littoral drift exists in the area.

89. KUENZLER, E.J., et al., "Water Quality in North Carolina Plains Streams and
Effects of Channelization,'’ Report No. 127, University of North Carolina,
Water Resources Research Institute, Chapel Hill, N.C., Oct. 1977.

A study was made of the physical and chemical characteristics of seven
small Coastal Plain streams in eastern North Carolina. Three natural streams
were compared with four streams that had been channelized to reduce agricultural
losses caused by flooding. Two or three sampling stations were established on
each stream. Some stations on natural streams were essentially pristine, but
others received point-source inputs of livestock farm wastes. The natural
streams had broad flood plains and low stream velocities, even during flood
stages. Freshets occurred in all seasons, but high discharge and concomitant
flooding of natural swamps were usually greatest during the winter and spring.
The waters of channelized streams, however, were restricted; they attained
higher velocities, carried greater particulate loads, and were more turbid than
natural streams. Some channelized streams were enriched by sewage, by live-
stock wastes, or by agricultural fertilizer.

90. KUTKUHN, J.H., COOK, H.L., and BAXTER, K.N., “Distribution and Density of
Prejuvenile Penaeus Shrimp in Galveston Entrance and the Nearby Gulf
of Mexico (Texas),'" Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations Fisheries Report No. 57, Vol. 3, 1967, pp. 1075-1099.

In early 1959 the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries began a study to deter-
mine when, from what direction, at what stage of development, under what condi-
tions, and in what quantity prejuvenile shrimp of the commercially important
Penaeus enter the extensive Galveston (Texas) estuary. The findings were to
aid in circumscribing offshore spawning areas and thereby provide information
on the degree to which the progeny of shrimp reproducing in each area are
nurtured in specific estuaries bordering the northern Gulf of Mexico.

An analysis of more than 3,000 samples collected systematically during a
l-year period revealed the following: the frequency of sampling, although
high, was insufficient to trace the rapid onshore movement of recently hatched
broods of Penaeus; the gross horizontal distribution of Penaeus larvae and
postlarvae in the gulf and vertical distribution of postlarvae in the Galves-
ton entrance changed markedly from season to season; Penaeus larvae rarely
occurred within 10 kilometers of shore and were not bottom dwellers; Penaeus
postlarvae did not frequent the bottom in winter and otherwise were usually
more abundant at middepths than at the bottom. For estimating density of
prejuvenile penaeids, the study's sampling scheme was relatively efficient
in controlling spatial variation, but comparatively inefficient in accounting
for wide temporal variation in organism abundance.

S)(2

91. KYTE, M.H., AVERILL, P., and HENDERSHOTT, T., "The Impact of the Hydraulic
Escalator Shellfish Harvester on an Intertidal Soft-Shell Clam Flat in
the Harruseeket River, Maine," Project NOAA - NMFS-3-170-R, Main State
Department of Marine Resources, Augusta, Me., Mar. 1975.

A hydraulic escalator shellfish harvester originally developed by Fletcher
Banks in Maryland has been the basis of a significant fishery on Mya arenarta,
the soft-shell clam, for the last 20 years in the Chesapeake Bay. The similar-
ity to actual dredging has caused much concern to be expressed over the impact
of the harvester on the stocks of clams and on the associated biota and environ-
ment. An attempt was made to establish an escalator harvester fishery in Maine.
The rather alarming appearance of a turbidity plume and the harvesting scars
prompted the initiation of an impact study. The report details that study.

The development, impact study, and fishery history are briefly reviewed. The
impact study performed in Maine was specifically located in an area character-
ized by a silt-clay mudflat.

92. LEATHEM, W., "Effect on Spoil Disposal or Benthic Communities Near the
Mouth of Delaware Bay," Marine Pollution Bulletin, Vol. 4, No. 8, Aug.
1973, pp. 122-125.

Hydrualic dredging and spoil disposal behind the inner breakwater in
Delaware Bay had an impact at distances over several kilometers from the site
of operations. While the dissolved oxygen and the density of animals fell in
the areas immediately affected, the total impact of this operation appears to
have been small. There might have been some recruitment of animals to the
spoil areas after the operations. The greatest damage to benthic macroinver-
tebrates occurred in the dredging and dump sites, which demonstrated signifi-
cant changes in community structure due to reduced numbers. However, oxygen
saturation returned to predredging values within 3 months, indicating that
potential damage to the benthos was probably negligible.

93. LEHMAN, E.J., "Dredging: Biological Effects," Czitatton, National Technical
Information Service, Springfield, Va., Dec. 1979.

This is a citation of federally funded research covering the relationship
of dredging to biology in estuaries, marshes, harbors, channels, and waterways.
Some of the topics include the wildlife habitat of dredge spoil sites, eco-
system studies, and the detrimental effects of dredge material.

94. LEVINGS, C.D., “Consequences of Training Walls and Jetties for Aquatic
Habitats at Two British Columbia Estuaries," Coastal Engtneertng, Vol. 4,
Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1980, pp. 111-136.

The effects of training walls and river channelization on macroinverte-
brates and their habitats were studied at the Squamish and Fraser River estu-
aries in southwestern British Columbia. A similar, but undisturbed estuary,
the Homathko, was also examined. Training walls deflected freshwater from
sectors of the Fraser and Squamish estuaries, whereas the Homathko salinity
distributions were uniform across the delta front. At the Squamish estuary,
the training wall has allowed penetration of a salt wedge into a former river
channel; the flow of water in culverts through the wall has only a local miti-
gative effect. Erosion is continuing in the trained part of the Squamish River,
but important intertidal habitats behind the wall have remained unchanged for
6 to 7 years. Sediments stabilized or redistributed by river channelization

33

at Squamish have been rapidly colonized by invertebrates. To assist in the
design of programs to monitor the environmental effects, a table showing the
time scale of various impacts is presented.

95. LIMOGES, L.D., "In Tampa Bay: Dredge Fill Replaces Estuaries," World
Dredging and Marine Constructton, Vol. 12, No. 12, Nov. 1976, pp. 10-14.

A shallow-water bay and a marshy shoreline impeded Tampa Bay's develop-
ment. The two most utilized methods of modifying the bay's environment are
dredging and filling, generally within the limits of the bay itself or its
marshy shoreline. The utilization of fill in Tampa Bay has stimulated con-
troversy among developers, preservationists, public officials, and the general
public.

96. LINDALL, W.N., Jr., "Alterations of Estuaries of South Florida: A Threat
to Its Fish Resources," Marine Fishertes Review, Vol. 35, No. 10, 1973,
pp. 26-33.

Based on unpublished data from 1966 to 1970, about 85 percent of the
commercial fish and shellfish caught in south Florida consist of estuarine-
dependent species. The annual harvest of these species averaged more than
36 million pounds. It is estimated that the majority of the species taken by
anglers are estuarine dependent and are responsible for about $575 million of
the State's annual tourist industry. Man's alterations of the estuaries are
threatening these fish resources. Some of the major alterations, reduction
of freshwater runoff, domestic and industrial pollution, pesticide contami-
nation, thermal addition, dredging, and filling are discussed.

97. LINDALL, W.N., HALL, J.R., and SALOMON, C.H., "Fishes, Macroinverte-
brates, and Hydrological Conditions of Upland Canals in Tampa Bay,
Florida,” Fishery Bulletin; Vol. 7, No. 1, 1973, pp. 155-163.

Faced with statutory restraints that prohibit dredging and filling of
estuarine bottoms, coastal developers have turned to alternate methods of
providing waterfront property for homesites. One method, recently used in
Tampa Bay, Florida, is the construction of access canals that lead from open
water to upland acreage. This paper presents biological and hydrological data
from new upland canals together with some comparative data from older upland
and bay-fill canals. In all types of presently engineered canals, stratified,
stagnant water causes low levels of dissolved oxygen in the summer months,
resulting in mortality or emigration among resident organisms. Means of
alleviating the problems are discussed.

98. LONGWORTH, C.R., and FERGUSON, N.J., "Ecological and Environmental
Aspects of Dredging and Port Construction," SEATEC 77: ‘The Dredging
and Constructton of Ports for Developing Countrtes, Singapore, Intel
Press, Ltd., 1977.

This paper discusses the general planning and environmental considerations
associated with dredging and port works, including appropriate examples . As a
practical approach to planning, economic considerations are an important part of
both environmental and engineering problems.

34

99. MACKIN, J.G., "Canal Dredging and Silting in Louisiana Bays," Publications
of the Institute of Martine Sctence, Vol. 8, University of Texas, Austin,
Tex., 1962, pp. 262-312.

The effects of dredging on oysters were studied in the shallow bays of
Louisiana and discussed relative to the normally high turbidities of an erod-
ing marsh area. Data were taken from unpublished reports of the Texas A & M
Research Foundation. Three case histories of dredging were followed: a hy-
draulic dredge depositing a spoil island, a clam dredge operating in a canal,
and a hydraulic dredge depositing in a half-fan circle. Turbidities beyond
a few hundred meters of the dredges did not exceed the natural levels and
experiments showed no harmful effects on the oysters that were tested.

Experiments indicate that dead oysters did not consume oxygen during
decomposition at rates much greater than live oysters. The oxygen demand of
sediments dispersed in dredging was relatively less than that of surface sedi-
ments. Oxygen depletion with dredging in Louisiana marshes was found to be a
relatively minor factor not responsible for mortality.

Cores were compared microscopically in control areas, in areas receiving
light silt from dredging, and in areas of heavy silt deposit in spoil deposi-
tion. Soft silt conditions affecting the distribution of oyster reefs were
traced to marsh erosion, disintegration, and subsidence, with cores unmistak-
ably different from those in spoil deposits.

100. MANNING, J.H., "The Maryland Soft Shell Clam Industry and Its Effects
on Tidewater Resources,'' Research Study Report 11, Maryland Department
of Resources and Education, Annapolis, Md., 1957.

Hydraulic clam dredging results in: (a) Displacement and deposition of
measurable quantities of sediment up to about 23 meters downcurrent from the
dredged area; (b) essentially the complete mortality of oysters within the
dredged area; (c) significant mortality of oysters 8 meters downstream from
the dredged area; (d) possible mortality of oyster spat up to 23 meters
downcurrent; and (e) no mortality of oysters or spat at distances greater than
23 meters from the dredged area. Effective revegetation of commercially pro-
ductive clam bottoms is not to be expected because dredging intervals will be
'too frequent to permit repopulation by plants.

101. MARSH, J.A., Jr., and GORDON, G.D., 'Marine Environmental Effects of
Dredging and Power-Plant Construction in Piti Bay and Piti Channel,
Guam,'"’ Technical Report 8, Guam College Marine Laboratory, Agana, Guan,
May 1974.

Effects of construction activities in Tepungan Channel and the adjacent
reef flats of West Piti Bay were investigated with the use of a telethermome-
ter, sampling programs, and dye tracer studies. The major long-term environ-
mental effect caused by the dredging and construction activities was the inad-
vertent damage to the coral community in the western end of Piti Bay. The
coral community has now been replaced by an algae-echinoderm community. The
outlook for eventual restoration of the original coral community is uncertain.
The biological community in the newly enlarged channel itself is rather sparse.
Water turbidities on the Piti reef flats have returned more or less to normal.
No evidence was found that operations of the Piti plant or construction activi-

35

ties for the Cabras Island plant were affecting levels of dissolved oxygen,
phosphorous, nitrate, nitrite, salinity, or pH in the outfall areas.

102. MARSHALL, A.R., "Dredging and Filling," Proceedings of the Marsh and
Estuary Management Sympostum, Louisiana State University, 1968, pp. 107-
113.

The direct and indirect effects of dredging and filling on the fish and
wildlife resources of Florida's estuarine and freshwater habitats are dis-
cussed. The problems discussed include: direct destruction of swamp marsh
and bay bottom habitat in the immediate project area; destruction of spawning
and nursery habitat by siltation; reduction of light penetration in the water;
creation of anerobic bottom conditions; and reduction of nutrient outflow from
Tampa Bay, Biscayne Bay, Indian River, and the St. Johns River illustrate
the impacts of these operations on Florida's fish and wildlife resources.

103. MASSEY, L.L., et al., "Bibliography of Coastal. Residential Canals with
Selected Annotations," Sea Grant Publication MASGP-76-003, Mississippi
- Alabama Sea Grant Consortium, 1976.

Bibliographic references are presented that relate to coastal resi-
dential canals directly or that indirectly address ecological and geological
topics concerning the adverse effects of coastal canals. The bibliographic
section is followed by selected annotations of articles published in open
journals, which report ecological investigations conducted within existing
canals.

104. MAY, E.B., "Environmental Effects of Hydraulic Dredging in Estuaries,"
Alabama Marine Resources Bulletin, Apr. 1973, pp. 1-85.

Hydraulic channel and shell dredging and open-water spoil disposal have
little significant immediate effect on the water quality in Alabama estuaries.
Most of the sediment discharge by dredges settles rapidly and is transported
by gravity along the bottom as a separate flocculated layer and potentially
harmful components of the mud are not dissolved in the water. There is a
limited, temporary reduction in benthic organisms in areas affected by
dredging. Spoil piles from channel dredges can indirectly affect the ecology
and the usefulness of estuaries by interfering with water circulation thereby
altering salinity. The basic hydrological concepts that determine the effects
of dredging should apply in other areas. Extensive regulations apparently
are not necessary to protect the water quality in open-water dredging situa-
tions, but spoil disposal practices from channel dredges must be reconsidered
and new disposal plans developed.

105. MAY, E.B., “Effects on Water Quality When Dredging a Polluted Harbor Using
Confined Spoil Disposal," Alabama Marine Resources Bulletin, No. 10, May
1974, pp. 1-7.

Dredging a polluted harbor using confined spoil disposal did not degrade
the water quality. The quality of water returned to the waterway was better
than that in the stream before or during dredging due to an increase in the
dissolved oxygen and the removal of solids and hydrogen sulfide. There was
no significant increase in trace elements.

36

106. McCALL, P.L., "Community Patterns and Adaptive Strategies of the
Infaunal Benthos of Long Island Sound," Journal of Marine Research,
Volu35. Now 2eiMay 19774 pp. 220-266.

This study examines the importance of disturbances of the sea floor,
which result in the local mortality of infaunal benthos, as a cause for
spatial and temporal faunal changes commonly observed in nearshore benthic
communities. The role of disturbance in ecological succession was examined
by in situ experiments in central Long Island Sound.

Differences in the distribution and abundance of benthic organisms in
central Long Island Sound may be explained in terms of two different adaptive
strategies--opportunistic or equilibrium. The relative opportunism of the
Long Island Sound benthos is closely related to the mobility and living and
feeding position to the substratum. Sedentary animals and those living or
feeding close to the sediment-water interface are more likely to be opportun-
istic and less predictable in space and time. Mobile animals and those living
or retreating deep into the sediment are more likely to be equilibristic, and
generally tend to have populations that are more predictable in space and
time.

107. McCAULEY, J.E., and BELLA, D.A., "Environmental Considerations for
Estuarine Dredging Operations," Proceedings of the World Dredging
Conference IV, 1972, pp. 457-482.

A conceptual model of estuarine benthic systems is described. The model
includes a look at the organic and inorganic deposits found in estuarine areas;
the plant and animal life, including filter and deposit feeders; food webs;
and suspended particles and transport mechanisms. The range of man's impact
on estuarine benthic systems is also surveyed. Particular emphasis is placed
on the role of dredging operations as they affect changes in organic deposi-
tion, turbidity, tidelands, and estuarine hydrodynamics. The limits of current
knowledge on the possible adverse effects of operations such as dredging seem
to make it advisable to preserve estuarine systems in a relatively undeveloped
state. Such preservation would allow the continued study of estuarine eco-
systems in their natural state and would reduce the probability of widespread
irreversible damage.

108. McCAULEY, J.E., PARR, R.A., and HANCOCK, D.R., "Benthic Infauna and
Maintenance Dredging: A Case Study," Water Search, Vol. 11, Pergamon
Press, Oxford, England, 1977, pp. 233-242.

Studies of a small maintenance dredging operation in Coos Bay, Oregon,
showed that significant decreases of benthic infaunal abundance immediately
after dredging extended at least 100 meters from the site of the actual dredg-
ing. The infauna readjusted to predredging conditions within 28 days in the
dredged area and within 14 days in the adjacent areas. At the spoil site a
similar decrease was followed by a 2-week recovery period. The authors suggest
that an area subjected to maintenance dredging is also subjected to frequent
disturbances from ship movements and other harbor activities, and that the
infauna is well adapted to this; thus, maintenance dredging is a relatively
normal event and should not be expected to have catastrophic effects.

37

109. McCLEAVE, J.D., "Rhythmic Aspects of Estuarine Migration of Hatchery—
Reared Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar) Smolts," Journal of Fisheries
Biology, Vol. 12, No. 6, June 1978, pp. 559-570.

Seasonal, diel and tidal rhythmic activities of hatchery-reared Atlantic
salmon (Salmo salar) smolts migrating through a large estuary were studied by
ultrasonic tracking of 46 individuals during two seasons. Prior to 10 May
each year most smolts were inactive and remained nearshore in shallow water.
After 10 May nearly all smolts moved away from the release point into
swift water and made rapid seaward progress. Initiation of migration each
year occurred when the river and hatchery water temperatures rose above 9°
Celsius. Migration in the estuary was largely passive drift, and as a result
there were distinct tidal rhythms of groundspeed (swimming) and net seaward
travel. There were no diel rhythms in groundspeed or net seaward travel.

110. MENZEL, R.W., "Effect of Man's Activities on Estuarine Fisheries," Under-
water Naturalist, Vol. 7, No. 2, 1971, pp. 19-31.

The function and the importance of an estuary are discussed. Adverse
effects by man as the result of dredging and filling, damming of rivers, and
pollution are also discussed. Emphasis is placed on the adverse effects on
oysters, shrimp, spotted sea trout, and striped bass.

111. MIDDLE ATLANTIC COASTAL FISHERIES CENTER, "An Environmental Survey of
Effects of Dredging and Spoil Disposal, New London, Connecticut," In-
formal Report No. 107, U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service, Highlands,
N.J., Apr. 1976.

The Middle Atlantic Coastal Fisheries Center presented comparative data
on benthic macrofauna populations of June 1974 versus June 1975, and October
1974 versus October 1975. At a station representing the original disposal
point, significant decreases (according to 95 percent confidence limits)
were found between June 1974 and June 1975 in the number of individuals (N),
number of species (S) and Shannon-Weaver species diversity (H'). Significant
decreases in the number of individuals were also found at stations located
0.5 nautical mile southeast and northwest of the disposal buoy, and at a control
station 2 nautical miles northwest of the buoy; there was a significant increase
in the number of individuals at a station 1 nautical mile west-northwest of the
disposal buoy. No species had systematic increases or decreases which might
dictate their use as indicators of spoiling impacts. Changes in the number
of species between June 1974 and June 1975 were slightly smaller than those for
the number of individuals, though patterns of change for the two parameters
were identical.

Preliminary comparisons of October 1974 versus October 1975 samples again
revealed apparently random, rather than spoil-related, changes outside of the
spoil pile itself. Recolonization of the spoils was well underway by October
1975; the number of individuals, species, and the Shannon-Weaver species diver-
sity index were all significantly higher than values that had been found in the
fresh spoils a year earlier. Amphipod crustaceans were the most abundant of
the colonizing forms because they had been in the predisposal sediments. Re-
appearance of these species may imply that (a) the dominant benthos can tolerate
the spoil materials, (b) an eventual return to a near natural assemblage can
be expected on the spoil piles, and (c) the tubes of these organisms may aid
in stabilizing the spoil against erosion. It is also noteworthy that communi-
ties of the amphipods, which are known to be very important in the diets of the

38

area's finfish, have apparently not been altered at stations where large
amounts of spoil are not present.

112. MORTON, J.W., ‘Ecological Impacts of Dredging and Dredge Spoil Disposal:
A Literature Review,'' M.S. Thesis, Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y.,
1976.

A comprehensive review of literature on the physical, chemical, and bio-
logical impacts of dredging and spoil disposal in estuaries and the identifi-
cation of alternative spoil disposal methods is presented. Although direct
burial and habitat destruction are the most obvious biological impacts of
dredging and dumping, these impacts can be minimized by careful timing and
placement of the dredging and disposal operations. A critical problem requir-
ing further study is the uptake, accumulation, and recycling of contaminants
associated with polluted dredge spoils by marsh vegetation, phytoplankton,
zooplankton, benthos, and fish.

113. MORTON, J.W., "Ecological Effects of Dredging and Dredge Spoil Disposal:
A Literature Review," Technical Papers of the Untted States Fish and
Wildltfe Service, No. 94, 1977.

This study is a comprehensive review of the literature on the physical,
chemical, and biological effects of dredging and spoil disposal in estuaries
and identifies alternative spoil disposal methods. The specific objectives
were to identify the most critical problems relating to dredging and spoil
disposal and to summarize the progress made to date.

An important physical effect of dredging and open-water spoil disposal
is the alternation of circulation patterns. A second important effect is the
uncontrolled redistribution of sediments. Changes in the chemistry of the
sediments at the dredging and disposal sites and of the water overlying these
areas are likely to result from dredging and dumping. Although direct burial
of organisms and destruction of the habitat are the two obvious biological
effects of dredging and dumping, the effects can be reduced by careful timing
of the dredging and placement of the spoil.

114. MORRIS, L.A., et al., "Effects of Main Stem Impoundments and Channelization
Upon the Limnology of the Missouri River, Nebraska," Transactions of the
Amertean Fishery Soctety, Vol. 97, No. 4, Oct. 1968, pp. 380-388.

Rigid control has been imposed on the Missouri River by impounding more
than one-half of the upper 1,500 miles and by channeling most of the remaining
river within permanent, narrow banks. These controls have caused environmental
changes in the lower Missouri River of adjacent, unchannelized and channelized
sections of river below the main stem impoundments. Impoundments have regulated
flow discharges and improved the downstream water quality. In addition, the
impoundments have contributed a limnetic cladoceran, Leptodora kindtt, to the
drift and have affected the distribution of benthos through the modification
of turbidity.

Channelization of the river has reduced both the size and variety of the
aquatic habitat by destroying key productive areas. The average standing
crops of benthos were similar in the unchannelized and channelized river, but
the benthic area was reduced 67 percent by channelization. There was little

39

similarity between the organisms of the drift and benthos; however, there was
similarity between the organisms in the drift and the aufwuchs.

115. MURAWSKI, W.S., "A Study of Submerged Dredged Holes in New Jersey Estuar-
ies with Respect to Their Fitness as Finfish Habitat," Miscellaneous
Report, No. 2M, New Jersey Department of Conservation and Economic
Development, Trenton, N.J., Oct. 1969.

Thirty-eight submerged dredged holes located in a New Jersey estuary
were examined to determine their fitness as a finfish habitat. Twenty-one
of the holes had dissolved oxygen or hydrogen sulfide conditions that would
not sustain healthy aquatic life. Twenty of the holes lacked benthic animals.
Reasons for the stagnant dredged holes were: (a) too great a depth in rela-
tion to natural estuary depths, (b) intrusion of poor quality ground water,
(c) high accumulation of detritus in the dredged holes, and (d) lack of mix-
ing by wind because of a sheltering shoreline.

116. NICHOLS, M.M., "Effect of Channel Deepening on Salinity in the James
Estuary," Proceedings of the 11th Conference on Coastal Engineering,
American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 2, 1969, pp. 1439-1441.

The effect of a 3 meter channel deepening on the salinity distribution
and net flow was studied in the James Estuary to predict estuarine-wide changes
that might disturb the natural conditions favorable to oyster production. A
hydraulic model was employed to determine the physical changes. The potential
biological consequences were evaluated by integrating the model data with
corollary field and laboratory observations.

117. NYBAKKEN, J., and STEPHENSON, M., "Effects of Engineering Activities on
the Ecology of Pismo Clams," MP 8-75, U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers,
Coastal Engineering Research Center, Fort Belvoir, Va., Sept. 1975.

Three aspects of the ecology of Pismo clams (7¢vela stultorum) were
investigated in Monterey Bay, California: distribution, reproduction cycle,
and age and growth. Pismo clam populations were found to be restricted to bay
areas betweem the Salinas River and Santa Cruz. The highest densities recorded
were intertidal; subtidal clam beds were few and with low densities. Most clams
appeared randomly dispersed and different size classes did not show a vertical
separation. The presence and absence of clams were shown to be correlated with
the beach slope and grain size. Pismo clams mature in their second year in
Monterey Bay, and the primary spawning time is in September and October. The
growth rate is more rapid in young clams and varies throughout the year in all
size classes, but is most rapid in the summer and fall.

118. O'CONNOR, J.M., NEUMANN, D.A., and SHERK, J.A., Jr., "Lethal Effects
of Suspended Sediments on Estuarine Fish," TP 76-20, U.S. Army, Corps of
Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research Center, Fort Belvoir, Va.,

Dec. 1976.

This study provides base-line information for preproject decisionmaking
based on the anticipated concentration of suspended sediments at the project
site and the effect of various lengths of exposure on estuarine fish of differ-
ent life-history stages and habitat preference.

40

119. O'CONNOR, J.M., NEUMANN, D.A., and SHERK, J.A., Jr., 'Sublethal Effects of
Suspended Sediments on Estuarine Fish," TP 77-3, U.S. Army, Corps of
Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research Center, Fort Belvoir, Va., Feb.
1977.

The objective of this study was to determine the effects, if any, of sub-
lethal concentrations of suspended materials on the fish in estuarine systems.
The suspensions were of natural sediment, obtained from the Patuxent River
estuary, Maryland, or commercially available fuller's earth.

120. O'CONNER, J.M., and SHERK, J.A., Jr., "The Responses of Some Estuarine
Organisms to Suspended Solids," Proceedings of the Seventh Dredging
Semtnar, Center for Dredging Studies, Texas A & M University, College
Station, Tex., Sept. 1975, pp. 215-234.

Potential environmental hazards from dredging may be estimated accurately
by knowing, prior to operation, the particle-size distribution of the material
to be dredged and the volume of material to be removed; the sufficient physical
characteristics of the area to estimate accurately the settling time and aerial
dilution of the finest particles to be resuspended; and the biota of the af-
fected area--phytoplankton, zooplankton, fish and benthos--and their ecology.

This study shows that suspended solids have a significant effect on pri-
mary productivity, zooplankton feeding rates, fish survival, and the physio-
logical state of fishes. The effects of suspended sediments on phytoplankton
and zooplankton appeared to be related to particle concentrations rather than
to particle size.

It was concluded that dredging and spoiling operations are capable of
producing suspended-solid concentrations capable of affecting the natural
function of organisms and ecosystems as a whole.

121. ODUM, H.T., "Productivity Measurements in Texas Turtle Grass and the
Effects of Dredging an Intracoastal Channel," Publtcatton of the Instt-
tute of Marine Sctenee, University of Texas, Austin, Tex., Vol. 9, 1963,
pp. 48-53.

Benthic chlorophyll a and diurnal oxygen productivity were measured in
turtlegrass beds containing Thalassta testudtum and Diplanthera wrighttt in
Redish Bay, Texas, both before and after the dredging of an intracoastal canal.
Moderate values of photosynthesis (2 to 8 grams of oxygen per square meter
per day) were observed in the spring of 1959 following a period of shading by
turbid dredge waters, but exceptionally high values (12 to 38 grams per square
meter per day) were recorded the following spring in those areas not smothered
with silt. Chlorophyll a averaged 0.0338 gram per square meter in 1959, but
increased to 0.68 gram per square meter the following summer.

122. OLIVER, J.S., and SLATTERY, P.N., "Effects of Dredging and Disposal on
Some Benthos at Monterey Bay, California,'’ TP 76-15, U.S. Army, Corps of
Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research Center, Fort Belvoir, Va.,

Oct. 1976.

The specific objectives of this study were to document: (a) natural
temporal variations in benthic assemblages and changes related to substrate

4|

stability, (b) the initial effects of dredging and subsequent recolonization,
(c) the effects of disposal of dredged material on the benthos and subsequent
recovery of the fauna, and (d) the role of fauna distribution and reproductive
abilities on the recovery or recolonization of disturbed areas. Experimental
burial and dredging were conducted. The results suggest that the underwater
disposal of dredged material should be made in unstable areas, if possible.
Also, the ultimate recovery or recolonization of a dredged area or a disposal
area depends on the timing of the action in relation to the reproductive
cycles and distributive abilities of the benthic organisms present in and
around the area.

123. ORTOLANO, L., and HILL, W.W., "An Analysis of Environmental Statements
for Corps of Engineers Water Projects," Report No. 72-3, Institute of
Water Resources, Washington, D.C., 1972.

This study presents the results of an intensive analysis of 234 Corps
of Engineers Environmental Impact Statements prepared according to Section
102(2)(C) of the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA). The analysis includes
a detailed catalog and summary of impacts included in the statement for: proj-
ects on coastal waters, including dredging, spoil disposal, breakwaters,
jetties and groins, revetments, dikes and barriers; and projects on inland
waters including channelization, dams and reservoirs, levees, dredging spoil
disposal, construction and other miscellaneous structures and activities. In
addition, the analysis catalogs and summarizes the impacts of various project
purposes. A summary of the coverage of other points required by Section
102(2)(C) of NEPA is also included. The proper role of environmental statements
is suggested and, within that context, an assessment of the 134 statements
is rendered, together with suggestions for improvement.

124. PARR, R.A., "Harbor Dredging and Benthic Infauna; A Case Study," unpub-
lished M.S. Thesis, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oreg., 1973.

This study of the localized effects of a small dredging operation on the
benthic invertebrate community in the shipping channel of Coos Bay, Oregon, was
designed (a) to measure the extent of the physical removal of benthic macro-
fauna and meiofauna by hopper dredging, (b) to record the subsequent benthic
response effects of midchannel spoiling, and (c) to monitor the rate and pattern
of biological readjustments in the affected areas. Samples were taken before
and after dredging. Faunal abundance, taxa composition, species diversity,
and qualitative sediment characteristics were studied. Immediate declines in
faunal abundance were temporary and readjusted to predredging levels within
28 days. Temporary increases in diversity reflected changes in the relative
abundance of taxa arising from siltation and burial of organisms. Following
readjustment, populations increased in all areas except the dredge channel.
Localized population declines are hypothesized to have resulted from the unsuit-
ability of newly exposed sediment for settlement of pelagic larvae. It is also
hypothesized that periodic disruption of the sediment surface by small-scale
maintenance dredging may have less direct effect on the benthic community than
the daily presence of heavy shipping and industrial and domestic pollution.

125. PEDDICORD, R., and McFARLAND, V., "Effects of Suspended Dredged Material
on the Commercial Crab, Cancer magister,"' Proceedings of the Spectalty
Conference on Dredging and Its Environmental Effects, Mobile, Ala., Jan.
1976, pp. 633-644.

42

The impact of suspended sediment on juvenile Cancer magister, the
commercial crab of the central and northern Pacific coast of the United
States, was evaluated. Suspended-sediment concentrations covered a wide
range, with a maximum not exceeding the highest concentration documented
for dredging operations, Death was selected as the primary measured response
to establish the outer limits of tolerance. Only crabs 30 to 40 millimeters
in carapace width were studied. The absence of death in some cases does not
imply that the animals were not affected or that other life stages might not
have been killed.

126. PEQUEGNAT, W.E., "Meiobenthos Ecosystems as Indicators of the Effects of
Dredging," Hstuartne Research, Vol. 2, 1975, pp. 573-583.

Critical data for assessing the long-term effects of marine dredging
activities on the benthos are analyzed. Meiobenthos constituents respond
definitely and for prolonged periods to mass sediment disruptions as evidenced
by changes in generation time, numbers, and diversity. Amelioration of these
responses may prove to be a true indicator of habitat reconstruction, in part
because of the close relationship of meiobenthos with sediment properties and
their intrinsic short-cycle properties. It was concluded that an investigation
of the significance of the response difference between the macrobenthos and
meiobenthos is needed.

127. PFITZENMEYER, H.T., "Hydrographic and Ecological Effects of Enlargement
of the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal. Appendix III. Benthos of Mary-
land Waters In and Near C and D Canal," Report No. NRI-REF-73-113,
University of Maryland, National Resources Institute, Solomons, Md.,
Sept. 1973.

This study was undertaken to determine the seasonal occurrence and
biomass of species of benthic invertebrates inhabiting the C and D Canal and
Elk River. This information was used to assess the effects of enlargement
of the canal.

128. PFITZENMEYER, H.T., "The Effects of Shallow-Water Channel Dredging on
the Community of Benthic Animals and Plants: Phase I. Survey of Pre-
viously Dredged Areas and Observation on the Physical and Biological
Effects,'' Report No. 75-69, University of Maryland, Center for Environ-
mental and Estuarine Studies, Solomons, Md., 1975.

This study was designed as a preliminary investigation into the effects
of shallow-water channel dredging on the community of benthic animals and
plants. The objective of this phase was to determine through quantitative
means whether differences in the biota could be measured between channels and
corresponding reference areas. The physical qualities of the sediments at
each sampling station were also analyzed. No major damage was found to the
populations of benthic invertebrates in channels 2 to 4 years after dredging,
though no rooted vegetation was found in dredged areas.

129. PFITZENMEYER, H.T., "The Effects of Shallow-Water Channel Dredging on
the Community of Benthic Animals and Plants: Phase II. A Study of

43

Immediate Effects and Rates of Recovery," Report No. UMCEES 76-23cBL,
University of Maryland, Center for Environmental and Estuarine Studies,
Solomons, Md., 1977.

This report discusses the first half of an ongoing project to assess
the effects of dredging in shallow-water tributaries of the Chesapeake Bay.
It outlines the establishment of sampling stations and the taking of initial
samples at two sites--Horn Point and Lewis Creek. An analysis of sediment
and organic carbon samples obtained is presented in tabular form. A list of
species of benthic invertebrates found at the two study sites is also included.

130. PISAPIA, R.C., "Biological Implications of Dredge Holes," unpublished
report. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Annapolis, Md.

This paper discusses the environments in holes resulting from dredging
activities. Holes significantly deeper than the surrounding bottom can be-
come traps for sediments, organic materials, and pollutants. A number of
examples are cited to demonstrate the types of accumulations in dredge holes
and their adverse biological impacts. Recommendations to reduce the impacts
of dredge holes are provided.

131. POMEROY, W.M., and STOCKNER, J.G., "Effects of Environmental Distur-
bance on the Distribution and Primary Production of Benthic Algae on
a British Columbia Estuary," Journal of the Fishery Research Board of
Canada, Vol. 33, No. 5, May 1976, pp. 1175-1187.

Construction of a river training dike at Squamish, British, Columbia,
has resulted in strong salinity, water transparency, and sedimentation gradi-
ents across the estuary face that have significantly affected the distribu-
tion and primary production of benthic algae. The estuary west of the dike
is now a very unstable habitat for algal colonization and growth because of
heavy sedimentation and salinities less than 3 parts per thousand during
river freshets. At other times of the year, a salinity range of up to
25 parts per thousand is common over a tidal cycle so algae in this area are
generally strongly euryhaline. The eastern part of the estuary has a more
stable benthic environment; lower sedimentation and higher salinity result
in greater species diversity, biomass, and primary production. Algae tend
to be weakly euryhaline, with optimum salinities between 15 and 30 parts
per thousand. Recent intrusion of Fucus vestculosus strongly indicates that
the eastern estuary is developing into a more marine habitat.

132. PULLEN, E.J., and TRENT, W.L., "White Shrimp Emigration in Relation to
Size, Sex, Temperature and Salinity," Food and Agriculture Organization
of the United Nations Fisheries Report, Vol. 3, No. 57, 1969, pp. 1001-
1014.

This study was conducted on juvenile and subadult white shrimp, Penaeus
settferus (Linnaeus), emigrating from Galveston Bay, Texas, to the Gulf of
Mexico. Surface, midwater, and bottom tows were made with a 3-meter otter
trawl on ebbtides from 1 August 1966 to 27 January 1967, usually during the
day. Five peaks of emigration occurred from 19 October to 25 December, coin-
ciding with water temperatures between 19° and 8° Celsius in the tidal pass.
The catch increased significantly from the surface to the bottom of the water
column. Sharp drops in water temperature appeared to stimulate shrimp emi-
gration. The mean lengths of shrimp caught were similar between water depths

44

and sexes on a given sampling date, but decreased with the progress of the
season and decreasing temperature; there was no obvious relation between
length and salinity. Of the 2,964 white shrimp caught in the tidal pass,
55.1 percent were females, but the sex ratio was not significantly different
from 1:1.

133. REES, C., ''The Ecological Impact of Dredging Operations," SEATEC 77:
The Dredging and Construction of Ports for Developing Countries,
Stngapore, Intel Press, Ltd., 1977.

Dredging, embracing mineral recovery, navigation, and beach nourishment
operations usually have physical, chemical, and biological repercussions.
Major physiochemical problems arise when dredging radically changes the
coastal sediment budget, sediment supply to the coast, and nearshore wave
refraction and diffraction patterns. Serious damage to some biological
communities may be anticipated since coastal zones are often highly produc-
tive and responsible for sustaining sizable commercial fisheries.

134. REES, W.H., "Effects of Stream Dredging on Young Silver Salmon,
Orcorhynchus Kisutch and Bottom Fauna," Fishery Research Paper No. 2,
Washington Department of Fisheries, Olympia, Wash., Mar. 1959, pp. 53-65.

A program was begun in July 1952 and terminated in August 1953 to
measure how dredging and stream channeling affect fish and bottom organisms
in Little Bear Creek, northeast of Seattle. Random bottom samples were taken
periodically in test and control areas to measure population changes in food
organisms. Dredging in September 1952 eliminated 97 percent of the bottom
organisms in the test area. The dredged area had a reduced fauna for 5
months and then began to recover in February 1953. It had recovered complete-
ly by July 1953. The stomach contents of young silver salmon yielded more
dipterous larvae than other bottom organisms, even during periods when
production of diptera was low. The author estimated that immediately after
dredging in September 1952 the zero group silver salmon decreased 69 percent
and the trout fingerlings 81 percent.

135. REID, G.K., "Ecological Investigations in a Disturbed Texas Coastal
Estuary," The Texas Journal of Setence, Vol. 8, No. 3, Sept. 1956,
pp- 296-327.

Rollover Pass, a cut through Bolivar Peninsula on the gulf coast of
eastern Texas, was constructed in January 1955 and introduced gulf waters of
high salinity into the upper part of East Bay. A study of some of the hydro-
graphic and biologic aspects was made in June and July 1954, prior to the
construction of the pass. The present study was concerned with determining
what changes occurred in the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics
of the bay following the excavation of the pass. Field investigations,
carried on from 7 June to 30 June 1955, noted marked differences between
the salinity in June 1954 and June 1955 in East Bay. The number of species
of fishes in 1955 (51 species ) was nearly the same as for 1954 (50 species) ;
however, 9 species recorded in 1954 were not noted in 1955. Ten species
were found in 1955 that were not caught in 1954, and some of these were marine
species whose presence reflected the increased salinity in the bay. Three
species of shrimps were found in the bay during the 1955 study. The brown
shrimp was less abundant and the white shrimp was more abundant than in
1954. The sea bob, not caught in 1954, was taken in 1955.

45

136. REID, G.K., "Biologic and Hydrographic Adjustment in a Disturbed Gulf
Coast Estuary," Limnology and Oceanography, Vol. 2, No. 3, May 1957,
pp. 198-212.

East Bay, an arm of the Galveston Bay system of Texas, was studied dur-
ing the summers of 1954, 1955, and 1956. The first was made with the Bay in its
natural state, the second investigation followed the excavation of a pass (Roll-
over Pass) that permitted considerable interchange between the Gulf of Mexico
and East Bay, and the third study was subsequent to partial blocking of the Pass.

Evidence from salinity distribution and fluctuations in population density
of the dominant fish and shrimp species suggests a rapid physical and biological
reversion toward the natural condition, following the blocking of the pass. In
addition, the presence or absence of certain fish and shrimp forms was correlated
with changes in the bay.

137. REISH, D.J., “Effect of Pollution on Marine Life," Industrial Wastes,
Vol. 2, Sept.-Oct. 1957, pp. 114-118.

A physical, chemical, and biological description was made before and
after dredging in a polluted region of Los Angeles Port Harbor. The organic
carbon content of the substrate varied from 0.6 to 10.7 percent. At the
stations within the dredged area the organic carbon increased with respect
to time. The effect of dredging on bottom—dwelling animals is summarized.
The number of species increased shortly after dredging; however, the number
decreased with each successive survey.

138. REISH, D.J., "A Study of Benthic Fauna in a Recently Constructed Boat
Harbor in Southern California,"' Ecology, Vol. 42, No. 1, 1961, pp. 84-91.

A periodic quantitative study was made in a newly dredged marine boat
harbor to determine if the subtidal benthic faunal succession occurred on the
bottom. Polychaetes, mollusks, crustaceans, and nemerteans were the important
groups collected. A peak in the number of species and specimens was recorded
about 2 years after the seawater was first let in. The population decreased
markedly in the following year. Various explanations for the reduction in the
number of specimens are offered. There was no evidence of succession.

139. REISH, D.J., "Discussion of the Myttlus caltfornitanus Community on Newly
Constructed Rock Jetties in Southern California (Mollusca:Bivalvia) ,"
The Veliger, Vol. 7,-No. 2, 1969, pp. 99-101.

The growth and development of the California sea mussel (Myttlus californ-
tanus) community on newly constructed rock jetties was studied in Ventura and
Playa Del Rey marinas. Organisms were collected periodically over a 2-year
period from three sites on the inside of the south jetty of the Ventura County
marina and from one site at Playa Del Rey. Data collected indicated that green
alga (Ulva dactyltfera) was the earliest macroscopic inhabitant, regardless of
the time of year the rocks were initially exposed to seawater. Myttlus caltfor-
ntanus settled on the rocks during the spring months. The number of specimens
and species of plants and animals associated with the population of Mytilus
caltforntanus was larger and more diverse during the summer months and smaller
and less diverse during the winter months. The population of Mytilus caltfor-
ntanus disappeared from the inside of the south jetty at Ventura County Marina
after 2 years, but was still present at the end of the north jetty. This was
ascribed to the presence of a sandy beach along the oceanside of the jetty,

46

which created an unsuitable habitat for the mussel. After 2 years a population
of M. californianus was still present on the jetties at Playa Del Rey marina.
The difference in population of M. caltfornianus at the two marinas was not
explained.

140. REYNOLDS, T.D., HANN, R.W., Jr., and PRIEBE, W.F., "Benthic Oxygen Demands
of Houston Ship Channel Sediments," Sea Grant Publication TAMU-SG-73-204,
Texas A & M University, College Station, Tex., 1973.

This research was to determine the benthic oxygen demand of the sediment
deposits in the Houston ship channel for use in modeling. The scope of the
study included: (a) collection of bottom samples; (b) determining the char-
acteristics of the sludge, such as biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), heavy
metals, etc.; (c) use of galvanic oxygen cells in determining the oxygen
uptake rates in grams of oxygen per hour per square meter, or other units;

(d) determination of the benthic demands at different temperatures to obtain
a demand versus temperature correlation; and (e) the determination of mixing
effects.

141. RINGO, R.D., "Distribution and Abundance of Postlarval and Early Juvenile
Stages of the Brown Shrimp in Galveston Bay, Texas," Proceedings of
the 18th Annual Conference of the Southeastern Association of Game and
Fish Commisstoners, Oct. 1964.

The early life history of the brown shrimp (Penceus aztecus)in Galveston
Bay was investigated during 1963 and 1964. Postlarvae, after entering from the
gulf, were most abundant in the channels and deeper waters as they moved into
the upper reaches of the estuary. In each season of study, they were observed
to spread throughout the estuary and become concentrated in surrounding marshes
and bayous within about 2 weeks of the first entry. After spending 2 to 4
weeks in these peripheral areas, where they grew rapidly, the young shrimp,
now juveniles, once again dispersed throughout the estuary before eventually
returning to the gulf. Observations also indicated that the estuarine life
history phase of the brown shrimp is quite variable, with its duration probably
being related in large measure to the prevailing water temperature.

142. RITCHIC, D.E., Jr., and KOO, T.S., "Hydrographic and Ecological Effects
of Enlargement of the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal. Appendix VIII.
Fish Movements, Maryland Study," Report No. NRI-REF-74-42, University
of Maryland, National Resources Institute, Solomons, Md., Sept. 1973.

A summary is given of the results of a massive fish tagging operation
in the C and D Canal region in 1971-73. Direct evidence was found that fish
either move within or migrate back and forth through the canal.

143. ROGERS, R.M., and DARNELL, R.M., "The Effects of Shell Dredging on the
Distribution of Meiobenthic Organisms in San Antonio Bay, Texas,"
Envtronmental Impact Assessment of Shell Dredging in San Antonto Bay,
Texas, Vol. III, App. BIO-B, Texas A & M Research Foundation, College
Station, Tex., Sept. 1973, pp. 159-167.

The present study has demonstrated that dredge cuts reduce the population
of meiobenthic animals to about one-third of their former levels and that
recovery is only above 80 percent complete more than a decade later. The
study has further pointed to the fact that modification of the particle struc-
ture of the sediments is probably the prime causative factor, Once a new
dredge cut is made, it is gradually filled with waterborne suspended matter

47

of which the finer material (the clay fraction) is predominant. Silt and sand
accumulate more slowly, and the fine particle bottom is less consolidated.

144. ROSE, C.D., "Mortality of Market-Sized Oysters Crossostrea virgintca
in the Vicinity of a Dredging Operation," Chesapeake Science, Vol. 14,
No. 2, June 1973, pp. 135-138.

The average mortality of market-sized oysters collected at seven sampling
stations within 595 meters of a spoil bank crossing an oyster lease was 57 percent
as compared with an average mortality of 17 percent on the remainder of the lease.
Sediment commonly covered oysters taken from the affected area. Theoretical mor-
tality (mortality that would have been produced by sedimentation resulting from
dredging operations if other mortality-inducing factors had been inoperative) was
estimated to be 48 percent.

145. ROSENBERG, R., "Effects of Dredging Operations on Estuarine Benthic Macro-
fauna," Marine Pollution Bulletin, Vol. 8, No. 5, May 1977, pp. 102-104.

Dredging operations in a Swedish estuary reduced the number and diversity
of benthic species. The larval recruitment in the vicinity of the dredged area
was strongly affected. An overall increase in concentrations of mercury, cadmium,
zinc, copper, lead, and nickel was recorded in benthic fauna. One and a half
years after termination of dredging, the benthic community structure was nearly
restored and high concentrations of heavy metals had decreased considerably.

146. SHANLAR, N.J., and MASCH, F.D., "Influence of Tidal Inlets on Salinity
and Related Phenomena in Estuaries," Technical Report HYD 16-7001,
Hydraulic Engineering Laboratory, University of Texas, Austin, Tex.,
Mar. 1970.

This study presents mathematical hydrodynamic and salinity transport
models applicable to the analysis of the effects of tidal inlets on bays and
estuaries having the typical morphology encountered in the U.S. coastal regions
of the Gulf of Mexico. The practical utility of these models has been demon-
strated.

147. SHERK, J.A., Jr., O'CONNOR, J.M. and NEUMANN, D.A., "Effects of Suspended
Solids on Selected Estuarine Plankton,'' MR 76-1, U.S. Army, Corps of Engi-
neers, Coastal Engineering Research Center, Fort Belvoir, Va., Jan. 1976.

A 3-year laboratory study identified biological components of selected
populations of estuarine organisms most sensitive to the effects of different
suspended sediments.

148. SIMMONS, E.G., and HOESE, H.D., "Studies on the Hydrography and Fish
Migration of Cedar Bayou, A Natural Tidal Inlet on the Central Texas
Coast," Publtcattons of the Institute of Marine Sctence, University of
Texas, Austin, Tex., Vol. 6, 1959, pp. 56-80.

Cedar Bayou Pass, a natural tidal inlet on the Texas coast, was the
subject of studies in 1950-51 and 1957-58. In 1950-51, when the pass was
open, it was utilized extensively by fishes, crabs, and shrimp as a passage-
way to and from the Gulf of Mexico. Most movement was nocturnal and more fish
moved to the gulf than to the bay. The fish taken in the largest numbers was
the Atlantic croaker, which migrated gulfward during the summer months. Sea
trout were frequently captured but these were normally following schools of
shrimp. An outward movement of the southern flounder was intense during the

48

fall months, but an expected heavy migration of redfish and black drum did not
occur. In 1957-58 when the pass was closed, many of the same species were found.
These normally appeared at a later date than when the pass was open. Many typical
gulf species were not present in 1958.

It is suggested that discharge from the Guadalupe River, together with
northern storms, is responsible for maintaining this inlet, which is prone to
close during periods of drought.

149. SLEIGHT, H., III, “Effects of Suspended Marine Sediments on Selected Com-
mercially-Valuable Fishes and Shellfish of Massachusetts," Proceedings of
the Seventh Annual Offshore Technology Conference, Vol. 1, 1975, pp. 133-
141.

As part of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts' research into the environ-
mental effects of offshore sand and gravel mining, acute bioassays were per-
formed on several commercially valuable marine fish and shellfish utilizing
various levels of suspended, fine-grained marine sediment. The species tested
displayed a remarkable tolerance for short-term exposures to the levels of
suspended sediments that they might encounter in the dredge plume of an offshore
sand and gravel mining operation.

150. SLOTTA, L.S., et al., "Effects of Hopper Dredging and In-Channel Spoiling
(October 4, 1972) in Coos Bay, Oregon,'' Interdisciplinary Studies of the
Oregon State University School of Engineering and School of Oceanography,
Corvallis, Oreg., July 1973.

The chemical, physical, and biological effects associated with the dredg-
ing and disposal methods of a hopper dredge were studied. Field investigations
and subsequent laboratory analyses were organized to evaluate the nature and
magnitude of environmental changes resuliing from dredging activities on 4 Octo-
ber 1972 at Coos Bay, Oregon. Assessment methods and evaluation techniques are
discussed, and postdredging conditions are compared with a predredging base line.

151. SLOTTA, L.S. et al., "An Examination of Some Physical and Biological
Impacts of Dredging in Estuaries,'' RANN GRANT Gl 34346, Oregon State
University, National Sciences Foundation, Corvallis, Oreg., Dec. 1974.

This research was focused on four major topics: (a) The effects of
dredging on estuarine systems, (b) the system properties of estuaries, (c) the
ways in which estuarine research can be used effectively by user groups, and
(d) the development of concepts and techniques for monitoring impacts of dredg-
ing and other alterations to estuaries. Emphasis has been placed on benthic
rather than pelagic systems because changes in the sediments are less transitory
than those in the overlying water and because dredging, by its nature, involves
the estuarine bottom.

Specific examples include the study of the concepts of estuarine stability
that has led to specific questions about the role of subtidal clam populations,
probable impacts of dredging, and the role of activities such as marine traffic.

152. SMITH, G.F., "Observations on the Effects of Dredging to Subtidal
Communities at Keystone Harbor Whidbey Island, Washington," Huxley
College of Environmental Studies, Western Washington State College,
Bellingham, Wash., 1976.

This report presents the results of observations on the effects of dredging
on subtidal communities at Keystone Harbor on Whidbey Island, Washington. Main-

49

tenance dredging of the harbor entrance was carried out from 26 January to 20
February 1976 using a hydraulic pipeline. The dredged material was placed along
a 213-meter section of beach between the harbor's protective breakwater and an
abandoned wharf. Observations of three subtidal regions were made before, dur-
ing, and after the completion of dredging using scuba equipment. The breakwater,
abandoned wharf, and nearshore bottom between these two structures were observed.
Turbidity, sedimentation, mortality, and behavioral effects of dredging on
organisms were observed. Only the inner areas of the breakwater showed signs of
sedimentation and no behavioral effects or mortalities were observed due to its
presence. Sedimentation in this area had little effect on the settling of lar-
val invertebrates or the growth of new algae. It was assumed that all sediment on
the breakwater would disperse over time and all effects were short-term, as no
sediment was found prior to the 1976 dredging.

153. SMITH, R.W., et al., "Hydrographic and Ecological Effects of Enlargement
of the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal, Appendix IX, Delaware Fish Migra-
tion," Final Report, University of Maryland, National Resources Institute,
Solomons, Md., 1973.

Tag and recapture data are given in the different fish species that used
the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal in migrations and movement during the period
1971 to 1973.

154. SNYDER, G.R., "Effects of Dredging on Aquatic Organisms with Special
Application to Areas Adjacent to the Northeastern Pacific Ocean,"
Marine Fishertes Revtew, Vol. 38, No. 11, Nov. 1976, pp. 34-38.

Dredging can be accomplished by using one of three processes of dredging:
hydraulic, mechanical, or a combination of the two. Several types of impacts
on aquatic organisms from these three dredging processes are discussed, includ-
ing the mechanical effects, turbidity, and other miscellaneous effects.

155. SOLLITT, C.K., and CRANE, S.D., "Physical Changes in Estuarine Sediments
Accompanying Channel Dredging," Proceedings of the 14th Conference on
Coastal Engineering, American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 2, June 1974,
pp. 1289-1303.

The physical characteristics of estuarine sediments provide useful informa-
tion about sediment sources, the nature of bottom surface stresses, and sediment
transport mechanisms. Changes in sediment composition and state are also useful
indicators for estimating the effects of unnatural stresses on dependent chemical
and biological activities. In this study, the changes in several sediment prop-
erties have been monitored for an isolated estuarine dredging project.

156. SOLOMON, D.J., "Migration of Smolts of Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar L.)
and Sea Trout (Salmo truta L.) in a Chalkstream," Environmental Btology
of Fishes, Vol. 3, No. 2, June 1978, pp. 223-229.

The migration of smolts in the River Piddle, Dorset, was studied over 3
years in relation to factors that could influence downstream movement. The
river originates mostly from ground-water springs, resulting in stable flows
and low turbidity, except in rainy weather. Fish were intercepted at the tidal
limit in a fixed trap-net and measurements of water temperature, discharge,
turbidity, barometric pressure, rainfall, and solar radiation were taken nearby.
The slightly increased turbidity and discharge following heavy rain initiated
major movements during 2 (nights) of the 55 days studied. At other times large-
scale movements took place during sunny, warm afternoons. Both solar radiation

50

and water temperature were correlated with intensity and timing of movement.
The pattern of migration was different from that reported on other rivers,
reflecting the relatively stable flow regime of the chalk stream.

157. SOULE, D.F., "Marine Studies of San Pedro Bay, California: Part II:
Potential Effects of Dredging on the Biota of Outer Los Angeles Harbor,"
University of Southern California, Institute of Marine and Coastal Studies,
Los Angeles, Calif., 1976.

Specific investigations discussed in this report are: the potential
ecological effects of hydraulic dredging in Los Angeles Harbor; resuspended-
sediment elutriate studies on the northern anchovy (Engraulis mordax); the
effects of Los Angeles Harbor sediment elutriate on the California killfish
(Fundulus parvipinnis) and white croaker (Genyonemus lineatus); the toxicity
and heavy metals in three species of crustacea from the harbor sediments; the
bioassay and heavy metal uptake investigations of resuspended sediment on two
species of polychaetous annelids; biomass and recolonization studies in the
outer Los Angeles Harbor; and the water quality evaluation of dredged material
disposal from Los Angeles Harbor.

158. ST. AMANT, L.S., "A Discussion of the Effects of Shell Dredging on the
Ecosystems of Northern Gulf of Mexico Embayments," Sympostum on Ocean
Mining, OSM II, World Dredging Conference Association, 1973, pp. 139-149.

Shell dredging on the coast of Louisiana has not caused serious effects
on the overall fishery, because disturbances associated with dredging are
highly localized and confined to within several hundred yards of the operating
dredge. The local disturbance to free-swimming marine life appears to be transi-
tory and disappears within a few hours after the dredging ceases. Dredging
can be demonstrated to have a direct physical effect on live oyster reefs by
direct destruction or severe siltation if allowed to operate in or very
near such reefs. Benthic organisms in the path of the dredge will obviously
be severely disturbed or destroyed, but these short-lived, rapidly reproducing
animals tend to repopulate the area within a reasonable length of time after
dredging is completed. Dredging can be conducted without harm to the fish
and shellfish industries if it is properly regulated and supervised.

159. STERN, E.M., and STICKLE, W.B., "Effects of Turbidity and Suspended
Material in Aquatic Environments: Literature Review,'' Technical Report
D-78-21, Dredged Material Research Program, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways
Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Miss., June 1978.

This literature reviews the effects of turbidity and suspended material
in aquatic environments covering the following subjects: definitions, units of
measure and methods of measurement; origins; and the effects on aquatic environ-
ments.

The literature indicates that turbidity and suspended solids conditions
typically created by most dredging and disposal operations are of short duration
and are unlikely to produce severe or irreversible ecological effects. The
possible exceptions to this generalization are coral reefs and other communities
that are especially sensitive to turbidity. Any possible effects of turbidity
and suspended material in aquatic environments may be minimized further by
careful selection of disposal sites keying operations to seasonal cycles in
biological activity and special consideration to areas that serve as nursery
grounds.

5 |

160. STICKNEY, R.R., 'Length-weight Relationships for Several Fishes and
Invertebrates in Georgia Coastal Waters with Condition Factors for Fish
Species,"' Technical Report Series No. 72-3, Georgia Marine Science Center,

University System of Georgia, Skidaway Island, Ga., Apr. 1972.

This project, in part, involved determination of the effects, if any,
of dredging of the Intracoastal Waterway in Georgia on estuarine organisms.
Emphasis was placed on fishes and macroinvertebrates as obtained through otter
trawling. The data were partially analyzed by several computer programs; length-
weight relationships and condition factors were included. The current report pre-
sents length-weight data for several fishes and invertebrates and also the condition
factors for those fish for which length-weight relationships were obtained.

161. STICKNEY, R.R., "Effects of Intracoastal Waterway Dredging on Ichthyofauna
and Benthic Macroinvertebrates,'' Technical Report Series No. 72-4, Georgia
Marine Science Center, University System of Georgia, Skidaway Island, Ga.,
July 1972.

Collections of fishes and invertebrates made by otter trawl from November
1970 through December 1971 from stations within the Georgia coastal estuarine
system were evaluated in terms of effects of hydraulic dredging activities
associated with the Intracoastal Waterway on the biota collected. The patterns
of seasonal occurrence. and dominance of specific organisms appeared to be con-
sistent regardless of whether or not dredging had occurred in the area sampled.
Variability among the stations seemed to be associated with natural hydrographic
and physiographic characteristics, as well as sampling variability. Some changes
in the population structure or standing crop may have been associated with the
dredging, but these effects were transient, lasting no longer than 1 or 2
months following dredging.

162. STICKNEY, R.R., "Effects of Hydraulic Dredging on Estuarine Animals
Studied," World Dredging and Marine Construction, Vol. 9, No. 9, July
1973, pp. 34-37.

This study focused on the immediate and long-term effects of hydraulic
dredging on two estuarine communities of animals. The evidence obtained from
the studies indicates no gross or long-term effects of the Atlantic Intracoastal
Waterway (AIWW) dredging on fishes and macroinvertebrates. Maintenance dredging
of the AIWW is not comparable with dredging of polluted and possibly toxic
sediments.

163. STOCKLEY, C., "Salmon Migrants and Shellfish Habitat in Relation to
Marinas, Breakwaters, Bulkheads and Land Fills in the Columbia River
and Coastal Bays,'' Washington Department of Fisheries, Olympia, Wash.,
unpublished, 1974.

This paper describes possible adverse effects on water quality and fish
and shellfish habitats as a result of marinas, breakwaters, bulkheads, and
landfills at a number of locations on the lower Columbia River and several
Washington coastal bays. The main concern was water quality deterioration and
predator buildup as factors that affect juvenile migrating salmon. Recommenda-
tions for design criteria of future structures are made that will alleviate
these adverse effects.

164. STUART, T.A., ''The Influence of Drainage Works, Levees, Dykes, Dredging,
etc., on the Aquatic Environment and Stocks," Proceedings of the Inter-

52

nattonal Unton for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources Technical
Meeting, Athens, Greece, Vol. 4, 1957, pp. 337-345.

This paper deals primarily with the dangers to salmonid stocks, their
food supplies, shelter, and access to and from spawning grounds following drain-
age activities. Both beneficial and deleterious effects of drainage activities
are examined and compared with conditions obtained in natural waters. The
possibility of combining the desirable features of both systems with a view
toward conservation and improvement of stocks in artificial channels is
discussed. Suggestions are made and experiments described that would achieve
this result without interference, but possibly with benefit to other legiti-
mate uses of land and water. No conclusions were made pending results of
continuing studies.

165. SULLIVAN, B., and HANCOCK, D.R., "Zooplankton and Dredging: Literature
Review and Suggestions for Research,'' NSF RANN GRANT Gl 34346, App. 6-1,
Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oreg., Dec. 1974, pp. 199-209.

This report includes a theoretical discussion of the reasons to suspect
dredging effects on zooplankton and a review of the available evidence to
make judgments on including zooplankton in future dredging research proposals.
It describes zooplankton biology that might be influenced by dredging and
reviews the literature that relates to these areas.

166. SYKES, J.E., and HALL, J.R., "Comparative Distribution of Mollusks in
Dredged and Undredged Portions of an Estuary, with a Systematic List of
Species," Fishery Bulletin, Vol. 68, No. 2, Feb. 1971, pp. 299-306.

A survey of benthic mollusks in Boca Ciega Bay, Florida, showed a smaller
number and variety of species in the soft sediments in dredged canals than in
the predominantly sand and shell sediments in undredged areas. Samples con-
tained an average of 60.5 live mollusks and 3.8 species in undredged areas
and 1.1 individuals and 0.6 species in dredged canals. A list of mollusks
collected in this survey and in past studies included in an appendix.

167. TANNER, S.H., and PULLEN, E.J., "Hurricane Barrier Environmental
Planning in Texas," Journal of the Waterways, Harbors and Coastal
Engineering Diviston, Vol. 99, No. WW4, Nov. 1973, pp. 459-470.

Major environmental factors involved in planning coastal flood barrier
systems along the Texas coast are present in this paper. The intent is to
highlight important environmental aspects to be considered when planning a
protective system. This paper is not a treatise on the complexities of
design and construction of such a system. In this paper environmental aspects
are categorized: (a) ecological--man's habitat; (b) cultural--man's heritage;
and (c) esthetic--man's sensory perception of the environment.

168. TANNER, S.J., and JUNSON, J.B., "A Preliminary Check-List of the Marine
Algae of the Moss Landing Jetty, an Annotated Floristic Compilation,"
Technical Publication 73-7, Moss Landing Marine Laboratories, Moss
Landing, Calif., May 1973.

This checklist represents a summary of floristic data collected over a

period of 9 months (September 1971 to July 1972) in connection with a study of
the jetty at Moss Landing, California. It provides a list of algal species

3S)

present, but does not represent a compilation of ecological data, although
some passages are on an ecological nature. This study establishes a basic
flora on which ecological analysis may begin.

169. TARPLER, W.H., Jr., LAUDER, D.E., and WILSON, A.J., "Evaluation of the
Effects of Channelization on Fish Populations in North Carolina Coastal
Plains Streams,'’ Hearing, 92d Cong., lst Sess., 1971, pp. 188-201.

This study was designed to determine the degree of damage to fish
populations resulting from channelization and to determine the rate of recovery
if the damage was significant. The study points out the detrimental effects
stream channelization has on fish populations and on the flora and bottom
fauna of streams. The study also indicates that following channelization,
and with no channel maintenance or further alternations of the streambed,
banks, forest canopy, or aquatic vegetation, nature can restore a stream and
its fish population to a stage reasonably near its natural condition over
a period of approximately 15 years.

170. TARVER, J.W., and DUGAS, R.J., "A Study of the Clam, Rangia cuneata, in
Lake Pontchartrain and Lake Maurepas, Louisiana," Report No. IWIFC-Tech-
nical Bulletin 5, Louisiana Wildlife and Fisheries Commission, Division
of Oysters, Water Bottoms, and Seafoods, New Orleans, La., Feb. 1973.

Samples of Rangia cuneata were taken by using a Peterson grab and modified
oyster dredge throughout Lakes Pontchartrain and Maurepas to determine the
occurrence, distribution, and density of clam populations. Hydrological,
sedimentological, and plankton samples were analyzed in an effort to determine
some of the factors affecting the distribution, density, and growth of AR.
euneata. Mortality and the effects of dredging operations on the environment
are briefly discussed. Annual shell production and overfishing factors are
discussed and recommendations to the industry are also proposed.

171. TAYLOR, J.L., HALL, J.R., and SALOMAN, C.H., "Mollusks and Benthic Environ-
ments in Hillsborough Bay, Florida," Fishery Bulletin, Vol. 68, No. 2,
Apr. 1970, pp. 191-202.

Analysis of benthic mollusks and sediments at 45 stations showed that
the diversity and abundance of mollusks was affected by bottom conditions,
which were influenced in varying degrees by domestic and industrial pollution
and dredging. Nineteen stations had no living mollusks, 18 stations had one
or more of the four mollusk species that were predominant, and 8 stations had
mollusks well represented by numerous species and large numbers of individuals.
Stations with no living mollusks were termed unhealthy; others were designated
marginal or healthy on the basis of the mollusks present. From station data,
isopleths connecting similar areas indicated that 42 percent of the bay bottom
was unhealthy, 36 percent marginal, and 22 percent healthy. Infrequent occur-
rence of the American oyster (Crassostrea virgintea) further suggests that the
major part of Hillsborough Bay was ‘seriously contaminated. An appendix has a
checklist of the 64 species of mollusks collected in the bay.

172. TAYLOR, J.L., and SALOMAN, C.H., "Some Effects of Hydraulic Dredging and
Coastal Development in Boca Ciega Bay, Florida," Fishery Bulletin, Vol.
67, No. 2, Oct. 1968, pp. 213-241.

Filling of 1400 hectares of the bay by hydraulic dredging has reduced
the area of Boca Ciega Bay, Florida, by about 20 percent since 1950. An esti-
mate of the annual standing crop destroyed is 1 133 metric tons (798 kilograms per
hectare, dry whole weight) of seagrass and about 1 812 metric tons (1 277 kilo-
grams per hectare, dry weight) of associated infauna. In terms of annual pro-
duction, the loss of biological resources is far greater--minimum estimates are
25 841 metric tons of seagrass, 73 metric tons of fishery products, and 1 091
metric tons of infauna, exclusive of meiofauna. Natural areas remaining in the
bay support local and offshore fisheries and are of value for recreation, public
utilities, commerce, and industry. At an estimated value of $988 per hectare
per year, the worth of the estuarine area already eliminated is $1.4 million
annually. In addition, inestimable secondary losses occur, principally from
sedimentation, turbidity, and domestic sewage.

173. TAYLOR, M.H., et. al., "Hydrographic and Ecological Effects of Enlarge-
ment of the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal. Appendix IV. Benthos of
Delaware Waters in and Near C and D Canal," Final Report, University
of Maryland, National Resources Institute, Solomons, Md., Sept. 1973.

This report presents the test results of grab and dredge samples from 25
stations in the Delaware part of the C and D Canal system during 1971-72.
Patterns of distribution within the study area were identified. Possible effects
of the enlargement of the canal are discussed.

174. THORSEN, G., "Animal Migrations Through the Suez Canal in the Past, Recent
Years and the Future,'' Vie Milteu, Marine Biological Laboratory, Elsinore,
Denmark, Supp. Vol. 22, 1968-71, pp. 841-846.

From 1869 (completion of the Suez Canal) to 1929, only 15 valid species
migrated from the Red Sea to the Mediterranean and none vice versa. There were
extreme salinity differences, hypersalinity of the Bitter Lakes, and exceptionally
high summer temperatures. Nile waterflow and tidal currents previously served
as passage barriers, but dredging and deepening, salt dissolution, and construc-
tion of the Aswan High Dam facilitated migration with almost nine times more
Red Sea species passing the canal over the past 40 years than during the preced-
ing 60 years. Improved conditions for the passage of pelagic larvae increased
invasion of the eastern Mediterranean Basin by Red Sea biota.

175. TRAUTMAN, M.B., ''The Effects of Man-Made Modifications on the Fish Fauna
in Lost and Gordon Creeks, Ohio, Between 1887-1938," Ohto Journal of
Setence, Vol. 39, No. 5, Oct. 1939, vp. 275-288.

To demonstrate the deleterious effects of dredging, the author compares
seining results obtained in 1938 to those made in 1887. The physical changes of
various parts of the creeks due to dredging are discussed. The article also
deals with the impact of the dredging of creeks on fish species composition and
abundance.

176. TRENT, L., "Size of Brown Shrimp and Time of Emigration from the Galveston
Bay System, Texas," Proceedings of the Gulf and Cartbbean Fishertes Instt-
tute, 19th Annual Session, Nov. 1966, pp. 7-16.

A study was made to determine the time period of emigration, the vertical

distribution, and the size of the juvenile and subadult brown shrimp leaving the
Galveston Bay system, Texas, through the Bolivar Roads tidal pass to the Gulf of

55

Mexico. Samples were taken both day and night on ebbtides from 18 May to 1
August 1966.

Brown shrimp were caught throughout the sampling period. Two peaks
occurred--one in May and one in June. Estimates of the mean catch per unit
effort indicated that the shrimp were near the surface at night and near the

bottom during the day.

The mean lengths of the brown shrimp taken during the day and night with
bottom and surface trawls in the same sampling date were similar. The size of
the emigrating shrimp increased significantly as the season progressed.

177. TRENT, W.L., PULLEN, E.J., and MOORE, D., "Waterfront Housing Developments:
Their Effects on the Ecology of a Texas Estuarine Area," Fishing News, Ltd.,
Marine Pollution and Sea Life, Dec. 1972.

Studies were conducted during 1969 to compare the ecology of a natural
estuarine area (marsh and bay) with the ecology of an adjacent estuarine area
altered by channelization, bulkheading, and filling. In each area, hydrographic
factors, fishes, crustaceans, and benthic macroinvertebrates were sampled period-
ically from March to October. Setting, growth, and mortality rates of juvenile
oysters (Crassostrea virginica) were measured from February to October, and
phytoplankton productivity was determined from June to August.

Values of oxygen, nitrite, and kjeldahl nitrogen were significantly
higher in the natural area; total phosphorus was significantly higher in the
altered area. Although 64 species of fishes and crustaceans were collected
by trawl, 6 species comprised 88.8 percent of the total catch. Brevoortta
patronus, Anchoa mttehillt, and Mtcropogon undulatus were most abundant in the
altered area; Penaeus aztecus, P. settferus, and Letostomus xanthurus were
most abundant in the natural area. The setting rate of oyster spat was 14 times,
and the rate of growth of juvenile oysters was 1.8 times, greater in the natural
than in the altered area. Oyster mortality was significantly greater in the
altered area during the summer.

Gross production of phytoplankton in the surface waters averaged 2.24,
2.06, and 1.17 milligrams of carbon per liter per day in the altered, marsh,
and bay areas, respectively. In part of the altered area, extremely high
phytoplankton production, which caused low dissolved oxygen, reduced the abun-
dance of fishes and invertebrates in the summer.

178. TRENT, L., PULLEN, E.J., and PROCTOR, R., "Abundance of Macrocrustaceans
in a Natural Marsh and a Marsh Altered by Dredging, Bulkheading, and
Filling," Fishery Bulletin, Vol. 74, No. 1, Jan. 1976, pp. 195-200.

Indexes of abundance of macrocrustaceans from March to October 1969 in
West Bay, Texas, were determined for day and night and statistically compared
between (a) a natural marsh area, (b) upland and bayward canal areas of a hous-
ing development, and (c) an open bay area. Significance levels of 5 or 1 percent
were used in the statistical comparisons. Catches of brown shrimp, Penaeus
aztecus, white shrimp, P. settferus, blue crab, Callinectes saptdus, and
pink shrimp, P. duorarum, were significantly greater at night than during the
day at one or more stations in the marsh. More grass shrimp, Palaemonetes sp.,

56

were caught at night than during the day, but the differences were not statisti-
cally significant. Individuals of each species appeared to migrate into the
shallower areas of the marsh at night. At night, brown shrimp and blue crabs
were more abundant in the marsh and bayward canal areas than in the upland

canal and bay areas, white shrimp were more abundant in the marsh area than

in the other three areas, and pink shrimp were more abundant in the marsh than
in the upland and bayward canal areas. During the day, brown shrimp were more
abundant in the bayward canal area than in the upland canal and bay areas, while
pink shrimp were more abundant in the marsh area than in the upland canal area.
The generally lower catches of each species in the open bay and upland canal
areas, when compared with the marsh and bayward canal areas, were attributed

to: (a) Permanent loss of intertidal vegetation in the housing development;

(b) low abundance of detrital material and benthic macroinvertebrates in the
open bay and upland canal areas; and (c) eutrophic conditions in the upland
canal areas.

179. U.S. ARMY ENGINEER WATERWAYS EXPERIMENT STATION, "Effects of Dredging
and Disposal on Aquatic Organisms," EM 1110-2-5013, Corps of Engineers,
Washington, D.C., Nov. 1979.

This report describes research carried out under the U.S. Army Engineer
Waterways Experiment Station's Dredged Material Research Program. The objective
was to determine direct and indirect effects of dredging and disposal on aquatic
organisms. Dredging and disposal research were carried out in different loca-
tions throughout the United States.

180. U.S. ARMY ENGINEER DISTRICT, WILMINGTON, ''Oregon Inlet Larval Transport
Sensitivity Study,'' Wilmington, N.C., unpublished, 1980.

This report discusses the results of a physical model used to predict
the probable pathways followed by larval aquatic organisms that are transported
from the ocean through Oregon Inlet into Pamlico Sound, North Carolina. The
results should help evaluate construction of jetties at Oregon Inlet.

181. U.S. DEPARTMENT OF INTERIOR, "Effects on Fish Resources of Dredging and
Spoil Disposal in San Francisco and San Pablo, California," Special
Report, Government Printing Office, Washington D.C., Nov. 1970.

Field and laboratory studies were conducted during the period September
1967 to August 1969 to determine the effects that dredging and spoil disposal
would have on fish and wildlife environments in selected and representative
reaches of San Francisco and San Pablo Bays. These studies were restricted
to key indicator species.

Study results indicated that variables, such as rapidly fluctuating
salinities, influence the variety and size of the biological communities. The
effects of dredging and spoil disposal were not clearly apparent in certain
localities, such as deep channel areas near Mare Island and shallow parts
of San Pablo Bay. Data collected in more stable areas indicated dredging
and spoil disposal significantly reduced the number and species composition
of various benthic organisms, bottom associated invertebrates, and fishes.
While certain species were reestablished in a period of a few months after the
spoiling, the "general health" of the environment in this area, as measured by
the diversity of benthic organisms, was not restored during the study period.

S) Ti

182. U.S., NATIONAL MARINE FISHERIES SERVICE, "An Environmental Survey of
Effects of Dredging and Spoil Disposal, New London, Connecticut,"
Report No. MAF-Informal-49, Government Reports Announcement, Vol. 75,
WO> 25) Oeies IVS

The report considers activities and findings of several integrated
research projects designed to monitor the environmental effects of dredging
in the Thames River and dredge spoil disposal at the New London dumping ground.
The report addresses field activities conducted and results obtained. Univer-
sity of Connecticut completed three additional cruises in the Thames River to
investigate suspended material transport. Progress has been made toward select-
ing a circulation model for determining dredging-induced variations and toward
characterizing the average loads of suspended sediments during autumn. The
University of Connecticut report contains photos of spoils at the dump site
and evidence of past dumping. Scuba surveys conducted in late November and
early December found no major changes in the bottom conditions. The New York
Ocean Science Laboratory reports establish predisposal values for the physical
and chemical oceanography of the dump site and describe changes found in Sep-
tember and December, as well as effects of single dumping events at those times.
The report also presents predisposal concentrations of heavy metals in benthic
animals.

183. UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND, NATURAL RESOURCES INSTITUTE, "Hydraulic and
Ecological Effects of Enlargement of the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal,
Summary of Research Findings,'' Final Report No. CONTRIB-566, Solomons,
Md., Sept. 1973.

An estimate of the ecological effects of the enlargement of the Chesa-
peake and Delaware Canal from control dimensions of 8 meters by 76 meters to
11 meters by 137 meters is given. Serious constraints exist as the study was
initiated late in the process of canal enlargement and the time available for
the study was short. Specific subgoals were identified as objectives for the
described research program. These dealt with the salinity and flow patterns
of the canal; its value as a nursery for fish; the movements of fish through-
out the canal; and the populations of other organisms within it. In each
case, the effects of the enlargement were sought and the most advantageous
operation of the canal from various ecological points of view were considered.
Basically, all our studies can be grouped under two major headings: one deal-
ing with the hydrographic effects and the other with the ecological effects of
canal enlargement. Findings and results are discussed in detail in each of the
14 appendixes that cover a specific study..

184. VAUGHAN, R., and KIMBER, C., ''Maintenance Dredging Effects on Vegetation
Adjacent to the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway - Cedar Lakes Section," Sea
Grant Publication TAMU-SG-77-207, Texas A & M University, Geography Depart-
ment, College Station, Tex., June 1977.

The relationship of spoil deposition and bank erosion to habitat conditions
and vegetation is examined in six sites along the gulf Intracoastal Waterway
in Brazoria County, Texas. Fourteen mappable plant assemblages were identified
and verified in the field. Species frequencies are presented and compared with
environmental data collected along the same transects. Vegetation maps depict
the pattern of assemblages for each site.

58

Vegetation and habitat data from the individual sites indicate that soil
moisture is the limiting factor for both past and present plant growth. Deposi-
tion of spoil on the canal banks has led to less uniform and more dynamic condi-
tions of soil moisture and has increased the range of soil moisture potentials.
These effects are observable in the vegetation pattern. Alternatives for the
placement and management of spoil materials are presented that allow some
control over the distribution and composition of vegetation.

185. VENKATARAMIAH, A., LASKSMI, G.J., and GUNTER, G., "Studies on the Effects
of Salinity and Temperature on the Commercial Shrimp, Penaeus aztecus
Ives, with Special Regard to Survival Limits, Growth, Oxygen Consumption
and Ionic Regulation," Report H-74-2, Office of the Chief of Engineers,
U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers, Washington, D.C., 1974.

The distribution and abundance of most commercial and sports marine
fisheries species of the Middle Atlantic to Gulf Coast States are dependent on
estuarine areas. Some species such as the oyster Crassostrea virginica and
the clam Rangita cuneata spend their entire lives in the estuaries, while
several motile species use this habitat as a nursery ground. Species living
in low salinities avoid many enemies, parasites, and predators that do not
invade low salinity waters. The low salinity estuaries are essential to many
species, and they are certainly conducive to the normal development of the
young stages. It was observed that low salinity waters were essential for
the faster growth and better survival of young brown shrimp. The juvenile
shrimp in their estuarine life stage require low salinity and warm waters for
normal growth and survival, rather than high salinity and low temperature.

186. VENKATARAMIAH, A., et al., "Studies on the Time Course of Salinity and
Temperature Adaptation in the Commercial Brown Shrimp Penaeus aztecus
Ives," Report H-77-1, Office of the Chief of Engineers, U.S. Army, Corps
of Engineers, Washington, D.C., 1977.

The period of time it takes brown shrimp, Penaeus aztecus, to adapt to
changes in salinity and temperature was determined by analyses of certain
behaviscral and physiological responses, respiratory rates, and osmotic and
ionic regulation. In brown shrimp, salinity and temperature requirements are
shown to be size-dependent. The optima for subadult shrimp (95-millimeter mean
length) seem to exist above 10 parts per thousand, preferably between 15 and
25 parts per thousand, and below 25° Celsius. In contrast the juveniles (70-
millimeter mean length) in previous studies have shown preferences for salinities
lower than 17 parts per thousand and for temperatures slightly higher than 26°
Celsius. The possible existence of seasonal salinity and temperature optimal
rhythms is discussed in relation to the life cycle of brown shrimp.

187. VITTOR, B.A., "Effects of Channel Dredging on Biota of a Shallow Alabama
Estuary," Journal of Marine Sctence, Vol. 2, No. 3, Sept., 1974, pp. 111-
134.

Channel dredging had temporary and localized direct effects on turbidity
in D'Olive Bay. It had no effect on water temperature, dissolved oxygen, sa-
linity, or circulation. A late summer dike break caused a 2.8-hectare mudflow,
which significantly reduced primary productivity of pelagic algae, and destroyed
most submerged vegetation and benthic fauna. These effects persisted for at
least 8 months after the accident occurred. Most benthic animals in the channel

59

site were removed or destroyed during dredging. Eight months after dredging,
biomass at seven of the effected stations was 28 percent lower than at "control"
stations. Species diversity was not significantly different at effected and
uneffected locations. Channel dredging has had no long-term influence on
vertebrate wildlife populations in D'Olive Bay.

188. WAKEMAN, T.H., "The Biological Ramifications of Dredging and Disposal
Activities," Dredging: Environmental Effects and Technology," Proceed-
tings of the World Dredging Conference, July 1976, pp. 55-68.

This discussion concerns the environmental ramifications of dredging and
disposal activities in San Francisco Bay. The investigation examined the impact
that operations generated on water quality, sediment heavy metal release, and
benthic and pelagic organisms, both in terms of physical and chemical effects.
In the upper water column neither dredging nor disposal operations cause sig-
nificant changes in water quality. Plumes were observed, but these were gen-
erally of short duration and seldom contained high suspended-solid concentra-
tions. The physical impact of various particle concentrations with changes in
temperature and dissolved oxygen was investigated using several San Francisco
Bay benthic and pelagic species. In general, the results showed that the levels
observed in the field would not cause adverse effects on adult benthic species
at saturated oxygen and winter temperatures (10° Celsius). Effects were more
pronounced at higher temperatures and lower dissolved oxygen concentrations.
Pelagic species could be negatively impacted by the solids concentrations
found at disposal sites with increasing effects as temperature and dissolved
oxygen conditions became more adverse. Investigations of desorption phenomena
showed that cadmium, lead, zinc, and copper can be emitted from resuspended San
Francisco Bay sediments under oxygen-rich conditions. Biological investigations
showed that dissolved heavy metals ions can be accumulated during low salinity
periods and desorbed as the salinity increases. Heavy metals may be absorbed
and accumulated by organisms following dredging and disposal activities via
chemical reactions in the water column: causing increased ambient concentrations
or by ingesting and breaking down organic matter containing metals.

189. WAKEMAN, T.H., and FONG, C.C., "Biological Impacts of Dredge Material
Disposal in the San Francisco Bay," Proceedings of the Seventh Annual
Offshore Technology Conference, May 1975, pp. 93-102.

Studies were conducted to determine the effects of dredging and disposal
operations on the main ship channel across the San Francisco Bay. Disturbance
of a basically sandy substrate causes little ecological disruption of the
marine benthos. Organisms associated with such an environment have evolved
with an unstable substrate and are able to survive disturbances.

190. WATER AND AIR RESEARCH, INC., '"'A Study on the Effects of Maintenance
Dredging on Selected Ecological Parameters in Gulfport Harbor, Missis-—
sippi," Gainesville, Fla., July 1975.

This report assesses the environmental effects of maintenance dredging
in Mississippi Sound in 1974. Background conditions were measured before and
after dredging, and extensive monitoring was conducted during the dredging
operation. It was found that dredging had no significant or lasting effect
on any of the conditions evaluated in this investigation. Turbidities and
suspended solids were measured and the size and dispersion of the discharge

60

plume were defined. Distributions and levels of bacteria and heavy metals
were studied to measure their release from the sediments.

191. WELKER, B.D., "Movements of Marked Channel Catfish in the Little Sioux
River, Iowa," Transaction of the American Fishery Soctety, Vol. 96,
No. 3, July 1967, pp. 351-353.

Investigation of the movement of marked channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus
in relation to channelization was initiated in 1964 on the Little Sioux River.
The U.S., Army Corps of Engineers completed rechanneling the lower 56 kilo-
meters of the river in 1957. The study area included the lower 96 kilometers so
that movement could be studied in both straightened and unstraightened sections.
There was no major difference in the direction of catfish movement between the
straightened and unstraightened sections of the river. Disregarding local
movement, 23.7 percent of recaptures in the unstraightened area moved upstream,
69.6 percent moved downstream, and 6.7 percent were recaptured at their release
site. In the straightened section, 25.8 percent moved upstream, 39.8 percent
moved downstream, and 24.4 percent were recaptured at their release site.

192. WHITTEN, H.L., ROSENE, H.F., and HEDGPETH, J., "The Invertebrate Fauna
of Texas Coast Jetties; A Preliminary Survey," Publications of the
Institute of Marine Setence, Vol. 1, No. 2, University of Texas, Austin,
Tex., 1950, pp. 53-57.

An ecological survey of the marine invertebrate fauna was conducted on
the jetties of the Texas coast during June and July in 1938, 1939, and 1940.
The jetties studied are located at five tidal passes; these rocky areas con-
stitute a minor percentage of the total 644-kilometer-long Texas coast. This
study was confined primarily to the intertidal communities of the jetties.
There was a north-south change in the relative abundance of the major species
of jetty fauna related to salinity and wave action. The fauna on the jetty
represent a composite colonization from various habitats. A few species owe
their colonization to their free-living larvae.

193. WINDOM, H.L., "Environmental Aspects of Dredging in Estuaries," Journal
of the Waterways, Harbors and Coastal Engineering Diviston, Vol. 98,
No. WW4, 1972, pp. 475-487.

The chemical response of salt marsh estuarine sediments in the Intracoastal
Waterway to deposition of dredge materials was studied, along with the effect
of dredging and sediment deposition on water quality. Salt marsh plants were
destroyed by spoil deposition and the rate of reequilibration of marsh sediments
to their original state was dependent on the depth of dredge spoil deposit. In
natural and relatively unpolluted areas, dredging did not affect the water
quality.

194. WINDOM, H.L., "Environmental Aspects of Dredging and Filling," Proceedings
of the Seminar on Planning and Engineering in the Coastal Zone, Coastal
Plains Center for Marine Development Service, Seminar Series No. 2,
Wilmington, N.C., 1972, pp. 53-61.

Coastal zone alteration of habitats due to deposition of dredged material

and water quality impairment of the surrounding water during a dredging opera-—
tion are examined. Marsh areas that have been covered with spoil material will

61

return rapidly to their original chemical characteristics if proper consider-
ation is given to the depth of the spoil material deposited. With the proper
approach and using the proper criteria, natural and possibly artificial marsh
regeneration can be accelerated. In unpolluted areas where undiked spoil deposi-
tion techniques are used, no significant water quality impairment in marine
environments appears to have taken place in the general area of the dredging
activity, in relation to the parameters studied. Dredge spoil deposition using
diked confinement techniques is potentially more environmentally dangerous than
undiked techniques.

196. WONG, V.D., "Moss Landing Harbor, California: A Case History," Shore
and Beach, Vol. 38, No. 2, Oct. 1970, pp. 26-39.

The coastal environment is a delicate system of shore processes which
at best, only reaches a state of dynamic equilibrium. A manmade structure may
upset the natural balances, resulting in dramatic changes in the coastline.
This is a report on the construction and maintenance of the entrance channel
and protective jetties at Moss Landing Harbor, California, and the effects these
structures may have had on the nearby coastal environment. Basic shore processes
pertinent to the area before the construction of Moss Landing Harbor are de-
scribed. The problems at Moss Landing Harbor were not as great as initially
anticipated due to unique littoral current patterns and the presence of an
offshore canyon.

197. WORLD DREDGING CONFERENCE, "Dredging: Environmental Effects and Technol-
ogy," Proceedings of the Seventh World Dredging Conference, 1976.

These proceedings of Session 2 of the 1976 World Dredging Conference con-
tain 53 papers on the environmental effects and technology of dredging.

198. WRIGHT, T.D., "Aquatic Dredged Material Disposal Impacts," Dredged
Matertal Research Program, Technical Report DS-78-1, U.S. Army Engineer
Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Miss., Aug. 1978.

Studies of the impact of dredged material disposal in open-water systems
were conducted at five locations: New York (Eatons Neck), Ohio (Ashtabula
River), Texas (Galveston), Oregon (Columbia River), and Washington (Dunwamish
Waterway). The sites represented a variety of disposal practices, dredged
materials, and aquatic habitats. Disposal did not occur during the course of
Eatons Neck study, but did at the other four sites. This report summarizes
the findings of the investigations.

199. ZEIN-ELDIN, Z.P., "Effect of Salinity on Growth of Postlarval Penaeid
Shrimp," Biological Bulletin, Vol. 125, No. 1, Aug. 1963, pp. 188-196.

The effect of salinity on the growth and survival of postlarvae of white
shrimp, Penacus settferus, and grooved shrimp, P. aatecus or P. duorarum, has
been studied in the laboratory. The growth rate did not differ significantly
among shrimp held at 2, 5, 10, 25, or 40 parts per thousand. Survival was
generally excellent at all salinity levels tested, including 40 parts per
thousand. The results suggest that salinity, per se, does not limit growth
of young shrimp.

62

IV. SUBJECT INDEX

Subject (keyword) Reference Number

Alewife 6

Algae 131, 139, 168

American shad 6

Artificial reefs Ve

Assessment 64, 67, 167

Bass 5 37/

Benthos 75 tal, 20, Bi, 225° 885 OO, Ol, BS, G25 20O, Laos

12D. IDA 1G, NB, WB. 12. TS, WA, Was, WAS,
1G, 187) NGS wz

Bibliography 1@35 INA, Ikils}.) 158)

Biomass 75

Biota 64

Borrow pits 58

Breakwaters 163

Bulkheads ASy5 Aless,, ILCs)

Canals 53 V5 LO, Silo Gil, O75 MOB, L425 USS5 LIS, de, Led,
178, 183

Channelization 3. 26, 305, 35, 44, 46, 43, Sil; G05 63, G5, S95 M4,
WAO, WA, alGil, ios), ikvag tals UIC

Circulation 46

Clams 135 S52, 725 Oils daly, zo)

Colonization 25), DA, 625 USe G4

Construction 131

Coral 101

Crabs WE), 1S)

Crustacean 54 AL

Currents 83

Dams 110

Deposition 88

Diatoms 71

Dispersion 8

Disposal 8, 23, M4, 2i5 305 S75 08, BOS, tall, i, 1s}, te
IAS, WAA, MS, AV), ales WI, AK. Aus), NOS 5 Se 5 LYS

Dissolved oxygen 17

Distribution 555, S75 SO, ish

Dredged canals 1

Dredge holes IG. san, also), As)

Dredging Sia CAR 7 a Ube alsy malisye Malaya aly ia wales IC) eye Ye Ry Doles Alle

2, HO, St, 95, SQ, B75 38s )39, 20, Bh, 43, °49) 49; Sil,
52, 58, 60, 61, 63, 64, 66, 67, 68, 76, 77, 81, 83, 84,
IO, TM, 92. 3, 95, 96, 7, 98, 99, MOO, MOL, 1O®, 10s),
1A, NOB, RO, WI, DLO, MUL, MD, WS), MYA, INS, WG,
120, WL, IAD. 1A}, IMA. IDS, 1G, WH, IW, 129), 190;
ISS, 1A WS7, Wee, WAS, TAA, AS, 1AO, 150, ISn, 152,
154, 155, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 164, 165, 166,
169, L7O, U7, 172. 7S, A777, LPS, 17D) Wil, U2, Es,

IGA. WB7/, IS, 189, 190, Weil, LOS, UWA, WH, U7, wos
Dyke WSL, ALA, | Lz
Ecological survey 18
Effects 66, 167, 197

63

Keyword

Erosion
Estuaries
Fauna
Filling
Fish

Fish migration
Fish nursery
Flora

Food habits
Geographical area

Alabama
American somoa
British Columbia
California

Connecticut
Delaware
Florida

Guam

Georgia

Gulf coast
Israel
Louisiana
Maine
Maryland
Massachusetts
Mississippi
New York

North Carolina
Oregon
Pacific

Rhode Island
South Carolina
Texas

Virginia
Washington
Groins
Heavy metals
Herring
Housing development
Indicator
Inlet
Intracoastal Waterway
Invertebrates
Impacts

Reference Number

88

146, 147, 167

26, 56, 70, 192

G38) 7695 N96 co7 a LOZM HO

3.) Gl 718. 119 WONT sn S2Nn33) GO 4ieN ao See
59. 60,625 63, 75.177) 81, 82, 86.) 879 tl eemniomeaom
1420) 148) 149) (1153.57) 4 GON 169.) 197 5).0 Loleameltom

2, 59

4

56

40

104, 187
64

94

11, 43, 80, 84, 117, 1370-138) 1157, 168) 181s sommson
196

182

Bila! QL AVAp as “alfes)

4010, 29). 30052.°62) 76, 95.96. O72 NO2s moose
172

103

160, 161, 162,

14, 33
49

1141 OO),
91

Os Gp MOO, UO, WA, 138), 0S

13, 149

190

45, 106

De) DD DS) NO). IO

88, 108, 150

47, 125, 154

4l

O\6 Wik 22,150)

912) 1516. 18, 26. 27, 32, 34.) 35) 40s 142 ames
70, 71, 79, 86, 90, 135, 136, 140, 143, 148, 167, 176,
184, 192

158, 170

50, 152, 163
36, 37

S). 2S)
5,272) 31, 61, 68. 169. 84.) S891), 92 nS NnOOnmIOON
TO aMVAN Oy, MOS. Ahh, MNO. Ae TG, WG, WAG, 1.92.

64

Keywords

Impacts (continued)

Island
Jetties

Landfills

Levees

Life - History
Literature
Lobster
Macroinvertebrates
Marinas

Marsh

Migration

Model
Mortality
Mussel
Nektonic
Nutrients
Oxygen
Oyster
Penaeus

Perch
Phytoplankton
Piers

Pismo clam
Plankton
Plants
Pollution
Productivity
Recolonization
Recovery

Riprap

River discharge
Rubble structures
Salinity

Salmon

Sampling techniques
Scallop

Seagrass

Sediments

Shell dredging
Shellfish
Shoaling
Shrimp

TOS, BA. 1G)
1360 4s 150"
163, 166, 167,

Reference Number

1264) 1127 284130),
TST 1521S 4 55),
On, 172,179, LA,

Sth, GSE) AISVAG “D1SIG).
1S75 USE, UG. en.
Wi, L7G, AO. ea,

UEOL MIS, WE, MEE) WS), MOO, aes) TIGYAL ALO}, 109
80, 84

D, WW, Di, M2, PS, 8B) S37, 09, S04 Se), G2, Gay OA, 125,

139, 168, 178, 192, 196
163

2. OS, Wil, WES. ey
13

51

50, 138, 139

24, 69

D9, IO, 22,694, Chl, V2, ATS SO, WSs. VAs B25 BGs OR:
OP, NO, We, WAL SWANS TAR IGS IGG. aA 173, “SO.
46, 67, 116, 146

53, 144

14, 26, 28, 38, 02, 120
12, 18, 15, 16,018, 20, Ss, V7. 99), TO, WAZ
2, iO

iL
45, 120, 147

1B, 12S

1, 26, 99, 105, WO, 11, MHA, 19, Wey, Wy

hy, Gy MOS, MO, Mil, WHO MA MAS. TG, Gs S87,

14, 26, 9) 985 58, 46, 55, G4, S85 56, 57, Go, 72,
Ts Ta, WS, G2, CS. TGs 1G. GS, NIA. WBS, WAG, GS,
186, 199

19), AT, SO, U0), 194, 156, 169

6, G5 12,5 19, 15, 16, 194 77, WIS, WO, 120, WL, aA,
147, 149, 155

12, HA, 15. 1G. FAL

19, WJ, G4 ae)

78

\, NO, 82, B95 B44 22, Sr, WS, VA, O05 18% Iai, 176;
185, 186, 199

65

Keywords Reference Number

Siltation 61, 99

Spartina Daley ich

Stream 65

Substrate alae

Succession 23, 24

Temperature Xo, PAA BeyA hss ALSy25, 1Us}5)5! ALG)
Tidal pass 420 70), (On L321 335 MSS SOR aS a 6 4 CR a6
Tides Us UY

Tolerance 393.5 S55 DOs S75 akI5

Trace metals 28

Training wall 94

Transport 77, 180

Turbidity 7A. ALPZIL., AUSYS) 5 ALS)

Urchin 43

Vegetation 184

Water quality Sa Uy Wake Los

Zooplankton 29, 165

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