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U.S.Alrem
Coast Ey. Res Che

MR 79-1
CAD -AGS FEI)

An Annotated Bibliography on Detached

Breakwaters and Artificial Headlands

by John R. Lesnik

MISCELLANEOUS REPORT NO. 79.-1
FEBRUARY 1979

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AN ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY ON DETACHED Miscellaneous Report

BREAKWATERS AND ARTIFICIAL HEADLANDS

7. AUTHOR(s) 8. CONTRACT OR GRANT NUMBER(s)
John R. Lesnik

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Annotated bibliography Detached breakwaters
Artificial headlands Ocean engineering

| ABSTRACT (Continue on reverse side if necessary and identify by block number)

This annotated bibliography is presented to assist in the development
of reliable design procedures for detached breakwaters. The references
deal with topics which can be usefully applied to the design problem although
Many are not limited solely to the subject of detached breakwaters. Papers
on wave diffraction, reflection, transmission, and overtopping are also
included.

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SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF THIS PAGE (Wren Data Entered)

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PREFACE

This report provides coastal engineers a bibliography of references
which could potentially be applied to the design of detached breakwaters.
The bibliography is published under the coastal construction research
program of the U.S. Army Coastal Engineering Research Center.

The report was prepared by John R. Lesnik, Hydraulic Engineer, under
the general supervision of R.A. Jachowski, Chief, Coastal Design Criteria
Branch.

The author gratefully acknowledges the following people who made
contributions to this effort: F. Biesel, Directeur Scientifique, Labora-
toire Central d'Hydraulique de France; S.Y. Chew, Housing and Development
Board, Republic of Singapore; D.P. Dodge, Public Works Canada, Vancouver,
B.C.; I. Fried, Civil and Marine Engineering Co., Ltd., Haifa, Israel;
O.T. Magoon, U.S. Army Engineer Division, South Pacific; M. Porraz, Con-
trol de Erosion, S.A., Mexico City, Mexico; R. Silvester, University of
Western Australia.

Comments on this publication are invited.

Approved for publication in accordance with Public Law 166, 79th
Congress, approved 31 July 1945, as supplemented by Public Law 172, 88th
Congress, approved 7 November 1963.

OHN H. COUSINS
Colonel, Corps of Engineers
Commander and Director

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION .

SUBJECT AND LOCATION HEADINGS .
1. Subject Headings
2. Locations.

ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY.

SUBJECT HEADING INDEX .

LOCATION INDEX.

ele

AN ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
ON DETACHED BREAKWATERS AND ARTIFICIAL HEADLANDS

by
John R. Lesntk

I. INTRODUCTION

In recent years there has been a growing awareness of the potential
use of detached breakwaters for shore stabilization. However, lack of
design experience with these structures has hindered their widespread
application in beach erosion projects. Engineers are often uncertain
about how to approach the design problem because of the many unknowns
involved. In addition, there are few existing structures that can be
studied to provide prototype data.

This annotated bibliography is presented to assist in the develop-
ment of reliable design procedures for detached breakwaters. The refer-
ences deal with topics which can be usefully applied to the design problem
although many are not limited solely to the subject of detached break-
waters. For instance, the wave dissipation characteristics of submerged
breakwaters are discussed in several papers. An understanding of these
characteristics would be necessary for the design of some detached break-
waters. Papers on wave diffraction, reflection, transmission, and over-
topping are also included. The bibliography is not comprehensive in
these areas but an attempt has been made to identify some significant
works with potential applications.

Several papers describe the use of detached breakwaters as sand traps
for navigation projects. Although this use does not fall within the
realm of shore protection, these structures do affect the coastal pro-
cesses in the same way as shore protection breakwaters.

In compiling this bibliography a decision had to be made concerning
exactly what constitutes a detached breakwater. The usual shore-parallel
structures obviously fit this category but there are other types of con-
struction which could be included. Among these are T-groins where the
length of breakwater section is much longer than the groin, submerged
Sills of timber, steel-sheet piling, rubble or other materials, and arti-
ficial headlands used to form crenulate-shaped bays.

The bibliography includes several foreign language papers that have
been independently translated. These translations are in the U.S. Army
Coastal Engineering Research Center (CERC) library; however, the accuracy
of the translations has not been verified. Some foreign language papers
were not translated but keywords were deduced from identifiable figures,
photos, and illustrations within the text.

Copies of some references were not reviewed but were included in the
bibliography because of their titles. Abstracts and keywords are not
given for these publications.

SUBJECT AND LOCATION HEADINGS

As an aid to the user the references are keyworded by subject headings

and, if appropriate, by geographical location.

Alphabetical indexes by

subject headings and locations are in Sections IV and V.

1. Subject Headings.

Accretion

Aesthetics

Akmon armor unit

Armor stability

Armor units

Artificial headlands
Beach fill

Bibliography

Bolsacreto ® concrete bag
Compartmented breakwater
Composite structures
Concrete blocks
Concrete structures
Construction procedures
Continuous breakwater
Crenulate-shaped bay
Currents

Design guidelines
Detached breakwater
‘Downdrift beaches
Economic analysis
Environmental concerns

22 Locatuonse

Australia
Kirra Beach-Queensland

Brazil
Ceara

California
Channel Islands
Imperial Beach
Newport Beach
Santa Monica
Venice

Canada
High Park-Toronto

Cyprus
Kiti Beach
Larnaca

Denmark
Arnager
Hundested
Snogebaek

Foundation design
Gabions

Grout-filled bags
Hexaleg blocks

Hollow tetrahedron
Hydraulic model (two-dimensional)
Hydraulic model (three-dimensional)
Impermeable breakwater
Littoral transport
Local scour

Movable bed

Numerical model
Offshore island
Perched beach
Permeable breakwater
Pile arrays

Recreation

Rubble mound

Sand mound

Sand tracer study

Sand trap

Sandbags

Sediment gradations

Florida
Broward County Beach
Palm Beach
Singer Island

France
Anse des Huttes
Arros
Beaulieu
La Bocca
La Bravette
Carnon
La Croisette
Ete
Golfe Juan
Grau du Roi
La Gravette
Mourillon Beach-Toulon
Pen Bron
Pointe de Grave
Port Canto
Prado Beach-Marseilles
La Rague
Sablettes-Menton
Toulon

Sediment sizes
Segmented breakwater
Ship hulls
Shipwrecks
Steel-sheet piling
Structural dimensions
Structural stability
Structure settlement
Submerged breakwater
Tetrapods

Timber bulkhead
Tombolo

Tribars

Vertical breakwater
Wave attenuation
Wave diffraction
Wave overtopping
Wave pressure

Wave reflection

Wave refraction

Wave setup

Wave transmission

Hawaii
Ala Wai Peninsula
Haleiwa Beach
Kaimu Beach
Magic Island
Waikiki
Illinois
Chicago
Lincoln Park-Chicago
India
Cochin
Visakhapatnam
Vypeen

Israel
Achziv
Bat-yam
Caesarea
Carmel Beach
Manshiah-Tel-Aviv
Nahariya
Netanya
Tel Baruch-Tel-Aviv
Tel-Aviv

Italy Japan--Continued Monaco

Bagnoli Kanzaki Larvotto Beach-Monte Carlo
Ceriale Kineichiyo
Chiavari, Kitaebisu Morocco
Corroglio Maizuru Agadir
Lido of Rome Maji
Ligure Miyazu New Jersey
Loano Nakahama Asbury Park
Ostia Neya Sandy Hook
Porto S. Giorgio Niigata
Posillipe Niishiki Beach Nicaragua
Salerno Nishikihama Paso de Caballos
Sanremo Nishikinohama-Kaizuka Ohio
Taggia Onejime Lakeview Park-Lorain
Vecchio Seppu
Viserba Shinmatsubara-Okagakicho Puerto Rico
Toban San Juan
Japan Toyama Bay
Aomori Zenigamezawa Singapore
Atsumi
Fuya Massachussetts South Africa
Hakahama Dennis Shore Durban
Hamada Vineyard Haven
Ishiji Winthrop Beach Sri Lanka
Ishizaki
Iwafune Mexico U.S.S.R.
Kaike Salina Cruz Crimea
Kaizaka Odessa

III. ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. ADACHI, S., and KOAI, A., “Experimental Studies on Shoaling of Harbor
Areas,'' Proceedings of the Fifth Conference on Coastal Engineering in
Japan, Japan Society of Civil Engineers, 1958, pp, 81-86 (in Japa-
nese--translation available in CERC library).

Keywords: Accretion, Detached breakwater, Hydraulic model (three-
dimensional), Littoral transport, Tombolo

This paper presents an experimental study of changes of the shore-
line in a sheltered area behind a detached breakwater constructed at
right angles to the direction of the incident waves.

2. ADACHI, S., SAWARAGI, T., and OGO, A., ''The Effects of Coastal Struc-
tures on the Littoral Sand Drifts," Coastal Engineering tn Japan,
Tokyo, Japan, Vol. 2, 1959, pp. 85-98.

Keywords: Detached breakwater, Hydraulic model (three-dimensional),
Japan (Miyazu), Littoral transport, Movable bed, Tombolo, Wave
diffraction, Wave refraction

This report discusses the estimated shoreline deformation of sand
beaches by the variation of longshore current velocity when an offshore
breakwater is constructed. The developing and stabilized forms of tom-

bolos resulting from the construction of an offshore breakwater are ex-
perimentally analyzed in terms of the influence of the breakwater length,
water depth at the structure, and the deepwater wave steepness. These
basic experimental results are used to estimate formation of shorelines
at the Miyazu coast, Kyoto Prefecture, where an offshore breakwater is
planned.

3. ANONYMOUS, "A Round-Table Discussion of Shore and Beach Protection,"
Shore and Beach, Vol. 2, No. 4, Oct. 1934, pp. 139-140.

Keywords: Accretion, Detached breakwater, New Jersey (Sandy Hook),
Shipwrecks, Tombolo

Two instances of detached breakwaters formed from shipwrecks are
recounted. In 1876, a 600-foot-long French liner grounded in about 28
feet of water at Low Moot and formed a tombolo out to the hull before
it was removed. The Kate Harding, which grounded near Sandy Hook, New
Jersey, around 1894, also formed a tombolo.

4, ANONYMOUS, "The Burning of the Minnie A. Catne,"' Shore and Beach,
WOls G5 ROs Ge: wiulyy IGAO, oo YH, ale

Keywords: Accretion, California (Santa Monica), Detached breakwater,
Downdrift beaches, Littoral transport, Shipwrecks, Tombolo

The grounding of the Minnte A. Catne, an 880-ton, four-masted
schooner, on the Malibu coast on 24 September 1939, is discussed. The
hull acted as a detached breakwater and formed a tombolo. Because
erosion occurred on the downdrift beaches, the wooden hull was burned
on 22 December 1939, thereby reestablishing natural conditions.

S. AVERIN, V.Z., and SIDORCHUK, V.N., "The Effect of Permeability of
Breakwaters on the Suppression of Waves," Wave Mechanics and Circu-
lating Flow, Academy of Sciences of Ukrainian SSR, No. 2, 1967,
pp. 49-52.

Keywords: Composite structures, Concrete structures, Detached break-
water, Hydraulic model (two-dimensional), Rubble mound, Wave
attenuation, Wave transmission

A series of model tests identified the wave dissipation character-
istics of various types of permeable and impermeable breakwaters, The
impermeable breakwaters had 2 on 1 slopes on the seaward side and either
a 2 on 1 slope or a vertical wall on the landward side; the permeable
breakwaters had 2 on 1 rubble slopes, A curve was developed which shows
the transmitted wave heights for both types of structures as a function
of the incident wave conditions.

6. BEACH EROSION BOARD, ''Beach Erosion Control Study, Winthrop Beach,

Massachussetts,'' H. Doc. 764, 80th Cong., U.S. Army, Corps of Engi-
neers, Washington, D.C., Sept. 1947.

Keywords: Accretion, Downdrift beaches, Littoral transport, Massachusetts
(Winthrop Beach), Rubble mound, Segmented breakwater, Struc-
tural dimensions, Wave attenuation

The existing Winthrop Shore Drive Seawall at Winthrop, Massachusetts,
was found to provide inadequate protection to the developed area behind
it except for the part which lies in the lee of the offshore breakwater
constructed opposite the south part of Winthrop Beach in 1931-1933 by the
Massachusetts Department of Public Works. To prevent further erosion,
stabilize and improve the beach, and protect the existing Winthrop Drive
Seawall, the study recommended placement of 385,000 cubic yards of sand-
fill, construction of eight stone groins with an aggregate length of 3,400
feet, and raising the top elevation of the existing seawall 2 feet for a
length of 3,200 feet.

7. BEACH EROSION BOARD, ''Beach Erosion Control Study, Illinois Shore of
Lake Michigan," H. Doc. 28, 83d Cong., lst sess,, U.S. Army, Corps
of Engineers, Washington, D.C., Oct. 1952.

Keywords; Economic analysis, Illinois (Chicago), Littoral transport,
Rubble mound, Steel-sheet piling, Submerged breakwater

Report recommends the placement of beach fills to be retained by
submerged breakwaters as one solution to beach erosion problems along
Lake Michigan. The breakwaters would be constructed of steel-sheet
piling or rubble mound.

8. BEACH EROSION BOARD, "Beach Erosion Control Study, Point Mugu to San
RedrosBreakwater.. Ho DOG. 277.650 Cong. 2dusess. U.S. Army... \Coasps
of Engineers, Washington, D.C., Nov. 1953.

Keywords: Accretion, California (Santa Monica and Venice), Detached
breakwater, Downdrift beaches, Littoral transport, Structural
dimensions, Wave diffraction

This report reviewed masterplans, prepared by local authorities, of
shoreline improvement projects to determine the most suitable means of
providing shoreline stability. The effects of existing structures on
the shoreline and the effect of proposed shoreline improvements on exist-
ing flood control outlet works were also studied, The history of shore-
line changes associated with the Santa Monica and Venice detached break-
waters is outlined.

9. BEACH EROSION BOARD, "Beach Erosion Control Study, Haleiwa Beach,
Oahu, Hawaii," H. Doc. 107, 89th Cong., lst sess., U.S. Army, Corps
of Engineers, Washington, D.C., Feb. 1963.

Keywords: Armor stability, Beach fill, Detached breakwater, Economic

analysis, Hawaii (Haleiwa Beach), Littoral transport, Rubble
mound, Structural dimensions

This report describes the causes of beach erosion at Haleiwa Beach.
The recommended plan of restoration includes a beach fill, detached
breakwater, and one groin.

10. BERRIOLO, G., and SIRITO, G., Sptagge e Portt Turistiet (Beaches
and Marinas), Ulrico Hoepli, Editore, Milan, 1972 (in Italian).

Keywords: Accretion, Detached breakwater, Italy (Ceriale, Ligure, Loano,
Porto S. Giorgio, Sanremo, and Viserba), Offshore island, Seg-
mented breakwater, Tombolo, Wave diffraction

Textbook discusses Italian experiences with coastal structures, par-
ticularly detached breakwaters and artificial offshore islands used for
shore protection, and includes various photos and figures.

11. BERRIOLO, G., and SIRITO, G., "Essais Sur Modele Reduit de L'Action
de Guides Submerges Sur le Movement Littoral du Sable," Bulletin
of Permanent Internattonal Assoctatton of Navigation Congresses,
Vol; Tl No. 15), 197s supp. 9) -99) GnyRrenchy)

Keywords: Hydraulic model (three-dimensional), Littoral transport,
Movable bed, Offshore island

Report discusses a series of model experiments on an expedient for
controlling littoral draft, developed at Grenoble, France, This expe-
dient is formed by thin, underwater separating walls properly fixed in
the sandy sea bottom, The experiments considered two possible applica-
tions in placing the separating walls normal or parallel to the bottom
contour lines. Interesting results were obtained in both cases,

12. BERRIOLO, G., and SIRITO, G., "Le Cause Determinanti della Situazione
di Erosione della Coste Dell'Alto Tirreno e Cenni Sui Possibili In-
terventi," L'Ingegnere, Vol. 51, No. 3, Mar. 1976, pp. 81-98 (in
Italian).

Keywords: Detached breakwater, Italy, Offshore island

13. BERRIOLO, G., GALLARETO, E., and SIRITO, G., Le Nostre Sptagge,
Sttuazotne e Provvedtmentt Necessart (Our Beaches, The Situation
and the Necessary Improvements), Ente provinciale per il tourismo
di Savona, 1968 (in Italian).

Keywords: Accretion, Detached breakwater, Italy (Loano), Segmented
breakwater, Tombolo

14. BERRIOLO, G., GALLARETO, E., and SIRITO, G., Studio per tl Migltora-
mento ed Ineremento Deglt Arentli, Ente provinciale per il tourismo
di Imperia, 1968 (in Italian).

Keywords: Accretion, Detached breakwater, Italy (Loano, Taggia, and
Vecchio), Segmented breakwater

15. BIXBY, W.H., ''Notes on the Pointe de Grave, River Gironde, France,
and the Works for the Protection of its Shore Against Encroachments
of the Sea," U.S. Army, Engineer Department, Washington, D.C., 1881,

Keywords: Accretion, Armor stability, France (Anse des Huttes and Pointe
de Grave), Rubble mound, Segmented breakwater, Structural di-
mensions, Wave attenuation

Notes discuss Pointe de Grave, located at the mouth of the Gironde
River in France. From 1817 to 1830, the point eroded about 15 meters
per year; from 1830 to 1842, the rate increased to 30 meters per year,

In spite of stabilization attempts by the government, the rate increased
to 48 meters per year from 1842 to 1846, Beginning in 1854, a segmented,
detached, rubble-mound breakwater was constructed about 150 meters from
shore. The breakwater extended 1,300 meters with a crest elevation of
1.5 meters below the high water line (HWL). The breakwater successfully
protected the beach at Anse des Huttes and caused a considerable accre-
tion of littoral materials in its lee.

16. BLUE, F.L., Jr., and JOHNSON, J.W., "Diffraction of Water Waves
Passing Through a Breakwater Gap,'' Report HE-116-299, Department
of Engineering, Fluid Mechanics Laboratory, University of California,
Berkeley, Calif., Mar. 1949,

Keywords: Hydraulic model (three-dimensional), Wave diffraction

This investigation experimentally identified wave patterns and
comparative wave heights due to diffraction of water waves entering a
gap in a breakwater normal to the incident wave direction in water of
uniform depth, and compared these results with approximate theoretical
solutions. Both deepwater and shallow-water waves were studied. Oblique
incidence and varying depths were not investigated, but approximate
methods of considering their effect are suggested. The results verified
the general form of the wave diffraction theory for breakwater gaps with
gap-width and wavelength ratios as small as 1.41 in water depths as small
as 0.14 wavelength. The theory and computation methods considered in the
investigation form a usable basis for estimating the effect on diffrac-
tion of waves at a breakwater gap.

17. BONNEFILLE, R., and ALLEN, H., "Study of Mourillon Beach," Report
T373, Laboratoire National d'Hydraulique, Electricite de France,
1964.

Keywords: France (Mourillon Beach-Toulon)

18. BRATER, E.F., et al., "The Michigan Demonstration Erosion Control
Program in 1976," Technical Report No, 55, Michigan Sea Grant Pro-
gram, Coastal Zone Laboratory, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor,
Mich., Feb. 1977.

Keywords: Hydraulic model (three-dimensional), Movable bed, Submerged
breakwater, Wave attenuation

A series of small-scale laboratory experiments was:conducted to test
the effectiveness of three methods of protection against bluff erosion:
groins with and without sandfill and a parallel seawall 20 feet (proto-
type) from shore. A submerged sill with height equal to 0.4 dg was
also tested. Results are presented in graphical form,

19. BREBNER, A., and KENNEDY, R.J., "Littoral Drift in Lake Ontario
Harbors," Annual Meeting of the Engineering Institute of Canada,
June 1959.

Keywords: Accretion, Canada (High Park-Toronto), Littoral transport,
Segmented breakwater

The littoral drift problem for the north shore of Lake Ontario is
examined. Sources of littoral material are identified and the mecha-
nisms of their movement are reviewed. Remedial measures for erosion
problems, such as groins and beach fills, are discussed, The report
includes a photo of the use of detached breakwaters at High Park, Toronto.
Necessary considerations for harbor construction and operation are also
presented.

20. BRISTOW, R.C., “Cochin Harbour Works," Proceedings of the Institution
of Ctvtl Engineers, Vol. 230, Pt. II, 1929-1930, pp, 40-71.

Keywords: Accretion, India (Cochin and Vypeen), Segmented breakwater,
Structural dimensions

The construction of a deepwater port at Cochin is discussed, Part
of that work involved the use of segmented breakwaters for stabilizing
eroding shores at Vypeen. The performance of the breakwaters was satis-
factory and after 8 years the erosion problem was claimed to have been
completely solved.

21. BRUNO, R.O., and GABLE, C.G., "Longshore Transport at a Total Lit-
toral Barrier," Proceedings of the 15th Conference on Coastal Engt-
neering, American Society of Civil Engineers, 1976, pp. 1203-1222
(also Reprint 77-6, U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers, Coastal Engineer-
ing Research Center, Fort Belvoir, Va., NTIS AD A042 473).

Keywords: Accretion, California (Channel Islands), Detached breakwater,
Littoral transport, Sand trap

An analysis of longshore transport at a littoral barrier is pre-
sented. Channel Islands Harbor, California, was selected as the study
site because its offshore breakwater and jetties form a unique complete
littoral barrier. Repetitive surveys accurately determined that long-
shore transport rates in one direction ranged from 160,000 to 1,284,000
cubic meters per year. Using visual observations of surf parameters, the
range of longshore wave thrust was computed as 145 to 1,988 newtons per
meter. A comparison was made of the relation of wave thrust and longshore
sediment transport. This study indicates that in an environment of high

transport, nearly twice as much transport is predicted under correspond-
ing wave thrust as that of the data summarized in CERC's Shore Protection
Manual.

22. BRUNO, R,O., WATTS, G.M,, and GABLE, C,G., "Sediments Impounded by.
an Offshore Breakwater,'' Coastal Sediments 77, Fourth Annual Sympo-
stum of the Waterways, Port, Coastal and Ocean Divtston, American
Society of Civil Engineers, 1977, pp. 1006-1025 (also Reprint 78-8,
U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research Center,
Fort Belvoir, Va., NTIS AD A051 577).

Keywords: Accretion, California (Channel Islands), Detached breakwater,
Littoral transport, Sand trap, Sediment: gradations

This paper discusses patterns of sediment deposition behind an off-
shore breakwater at Channel Islands Harbor, California, Data were col-
lected to determine if the deposition observed agrees with that predicted
before construction. Both the geometry and size distribution of the de-
position sediment are examined. Three-dimensional computer plots illus-
trate filling patterns. Sediment-size and sorting distribution which
occur during filling are investigated. The data were used to evaluate
predicted versus actual filling patterns, and sediment distribution in
the impoundment area.

23. CAMANZI, A., and STRONGOLI, G., Untitled Report to SII-QI (New
Designs of Breakwaters with Vertical Sides and of Structures with
Sloping Faces: (a) for Port Protection, (b) for Shore Protection),
XVIIIth International Navigatton Congress, Rome, 1953, pp, 111-150
(in French).

Keywords: Accretion, Design guidelines, Detached breakwater, Italy
(Bagnoli, Lido of Rome, Loano, and Ostia), Littoral transport,
Rubble mound, Structural dimensions, Tombolo, Wave attenuation

This report deals, in part, with the use of detached breakwaters for
shore protection in Italy. Segmented breakwaters have been built for
this purpose at the Lido of Rome, Loano, and Bagnoli, Design considera-
tions are presented, based on the experience with these structures.

24. CAREY, A.E., "The Sanding Up of Tidal Harbours," Proceedings of
the Institution of Civil Engineers, Vol. 156, Pt. II, 1903-1904,
pp. 215-302.

Keywords; Accretion, Brazil (Ceara), Construction procedures, Currents,
Detached breakwater, Downdrift beaches, Littoral transport,
Wave attenuation

The paper includes case histories of several notable harbor con-
structions in the late 19th century. Discussed in detail is the example
of Ceara, Brazil, where a detached breakwater connected to shore by an
open viaduct was constructed in 1885. The harbor quickly shoaled and

had to be abandoned. Further discussion gives an interesting insight to
the understanding of littoral processes as it then existed,

25. CASSIDY, W.F., ''The Trend Toward Dual Purpose Inlet Control," Shore
and Beach, Vol. 29, No. 4, Oct. 1961, pp, 22-26.

Keywords: Accretion, California (Channel Islands), Detached breakwater,
Littoral transport, Sand trap

The relationship between littoral barriers formed by improved inlets
and the adjacent beaches is examined. The need for bypassing is estab-
lished and present trends in bypassing techniques are discussed. Special
note is given to the sand trap method used at Ventura County Harbor (Chan-
nel Islands) in southern California. This sand trap is formed by a de-
tached breakwater protecting a jettied entrance,

26. CHATHAM, C.E., Jr., DAVIDSON, D.D., and WHALIN, R.W., "Study of Beach
Widening by the Perched Beach Concept, Santa Monica Bay, California,"

Technical Report H-73-8, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Sta-
tion, Vicksburg, Miss., June 1973.

Keywords: Beach fill, California (Santa Monica), Currents, Hydraulic
model (two-dimensional), Hydraulic model (three-dimensional),
Littoral transport, Movable bed, Perched beach, Rubble mound,
Submerged breakwater

Hydraulic model studies were conducted at the U.S. Army Engineer
Waterways Experiment Station to determine the technical feasibility and
optimum design factors of the perched beach concept for widening an exist-
ing beach along part of the Santa Monica Bay coastline. The following
three models were studied: (a) An undistorted, three-dimensional, fixed-
bed model (scale 1:100) was used to determine the effect of the perched
beach on rip currents; (b) a distorted-scale (1:100 horizontal, 1:50 ver-
tical), two-dimensional, movable-bed model was used to estimate the amount
of sand which might be lost seaward over the toe structure due to normal
and storm wave actions and to determine the optimim crown elevation of the
submerged structure and the length of stone riprap apron required to re-
duce the seaward migration of sand to a minimum; and (c) an undistorted,
two-dimensional model (scale 1:30) was used to determine the structural
design of the proposed rubble-mound toe structure for various depths,

The report describes the testing and results up to the premature termina-
tion of the model studies.

27. CHEW. S.Y., "Processes and Beach Development Between Headland Break- °
waters, South-East Coast of Singapore," Masters Thesis, University
of Singapore, 1976 (available in CERC library).

Keywords: Artificial headlands, Crenulate-shaped bay, Sand tracer study,
Sediment gradations, Sediment sizes, Singapore

An analysis of the beach development around the Singapore headland
breakwaters is presented. Among the processes studied are: sediment-
size changes, size and sorting relationships, beach profile changes, bay
shape changes, sand movement by sand tracer studies, alongshore variation
of maximum beach heights, offshore topographic changes, and the stages of
beach development.

28. CHEW. S.Y., WONG, P.P., and CHIN, K.K., "Beach Development Between
Headland Breakwaters," Proceedings of the 14th Conference on Coastal
Engtneering, American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. II, 1974, pp.
1399-1418,

Keywords: Artificial headlands, Beach fill, Construction procedures,
Crenulate-shaped bay, Currents, Gabions, Rubble mound, Sedi-
ment sizes, Singapore, Structural dimensions

Breakwaters in a series are used to protect newly reclaimed land
along the southeast coast of Singapore, acting as headlands for the for-
mation of sand beaches. The development of these beaches occurs under
conditions of low-energy waves, a predominant wave direction from the
southeast, and an east-west littoral drift. The characteristics and
development of three beaches over a l-year period are presented. Surveys
of the reclaimed land show various beach types between the headland break-
waters. A relationship exists between berm orientation and the headland
breakwater orientation. Beach stability is tentatively indicated by the
formation of a wide berm.

29. CIVIL AND MARINE ENGINEERING COMPANY, LTD., Company Brochure, Con-
sulting Engineers, Haifa, Israel, undated (circa 1976).

Keywords: Beach fill, Cyprus (Kiti Beach and Larnaca), Detached break-
water, Israel (Caesarea, Carmel Beach, Manshiah-Tel-Aviv,
Nahariya, and Netanya), Segmented breakwater, Tombolo

A company brochure outlining the capabilities and past achievements
of the Civil and Marine Engineering Company. Photos and brief descrip-
tions of detached breakwater projects at Tel-Aviv Jaffa, Nahariya, Carmel
Beach (Haifa), and Netanya are presented.

30. CORINTO PORT AUTHORITY, REPUBLIC OF NICARAGUA, "Design of Coastal
Protection at Paso de Caballos, Corinto Island, Nicaragua, Using
Bolsacreto ®," Control de Erosion, Soto, Oees IO7Zs

Keywords : Bolsacreto ® concrete bag, Detached breakwater, Grout-filled
bags, Hydraulic model (two-dimensional), Nicaragua (Paso de
Caballos)

The report presents a solution to the shore erosion problem at Paso
de Caballos by using Bolsacreto ® elements to form a detached breakwater.
The weight of the elements was determined from standard design methods,
and a series of two-dimensional laboratory tests was conducted to verify
the stability of the structure.

31. CORNEJO VELAZCO, J., and CADENA CALZADA, J,, "Contribucion al Estudio
de Formacion de Tombolos," Proceedings of the Fourth Congreso Nacton-
al de Hidraultea, Mexico, 1976 (in Spanish--translation available in
CERC library).

Keywords: Accretion, Detached breakwater, Hydraulic model (three-
dimensional), Littoral transport, Movable bed, Tombolo

The use of a tombolo in controlling littoral transport on a beach
has many advantages; however, there must be a clear understanding of the
mechanisms of its formation. Using physical model experiments, the param-
eters involved in the formation of a tombolo were considered and a number
of practical laws governing the development of tombolos were established,

32. COX, D.C., GERRITSEN, F., and LEE, T.T., "Proposed Improvement of
Kaimu Beach, Hawaii," Proceedings of the 15th Conference on Coastal
Engineering, American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. II, 1976, pp.
1552-1571.

Keywords: Aesthetics, Beach fill, Environmental concerns, Hawaii (Kaimu
Beach), Recreation, Submerged breakwater

This paper discusses the proposed plans to improve Kaimu Beach,
Hawaii. The beach, which is famous for its jet black color, has been
receding for at least a century. The plans called for an enlargement of
the beach and protection by an offshore breakwater. Although the advan-
tages of a larger beach area and the improvement of swimming conditions
are acknowledged, a serious question is raised as to whether the project
would result in an overall improvement.

532 | CURREN),)G. Re. and? CHATHAM, (C2E 4, Jr-ey imperial» Beach.= Calattornaag
Design of Structures for Beach Erosion Control," Technical Report
H-77-15, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg,
Miss., Aug. 1977.

Keywords: California (Imperial Beach), Compartmented breakwater, Contin-
uous breakwater, Currents, Hydraulic model (three-dimensional),
Littoral transport, Segmented breakwater, Structural dimen-
sions, Submerged breakwater

A 1:75-scale (undistorted) hydraulic model, reproducing approximately
2.6 miles of shoreline and sufficient offshore area to permit generation
of the required test waves, was used to investigate the arrangement and
design of alternative proposed structures to prevent erosion of the Imper-
ial Beach shoreline. The proposed structures consisted of (a) continuous
breakwaters at the -15- and -10-foot contours, (b) segmented breakwaters
at the -15- and -5-foot contours, (c) stepped breakwaters at the -10- and
-5-foot contours, (d) a system of five groins, and (e) a system of nine
groins. A 115-foot-long wave generator, crushed coal tracer material,
and an automated data acquisition and control system (ADACS) were used
during model operation. Test results are given,

34. DELAGE, G., "L'Utilisation d'un Brise-Lames Pour La Defence d'Une
Plage'"' (Breakwaters Used for Beach Protection), Proceedings of the
Fifth Conference on Coastal Engineering, American Society of Civil
Engineers, 1954, pp. 479-494 (in French).

Keywords: Accretion, Currents, Detached breakwater, Hydraulic model
(two-dimensional), Hydraulic model (three-dimensional), Lit-
toral transport, Submerged breakwater, Wave attenuation, Wave
transmission

This study consists of two parts. The first part discusses the
effect of the presence of a breakwater on the profile of a beach, The
tests were preceded by a study of the kind of disturbance arising behind
a breakwater, which causes the occurrence of harmonics of the incident
wave, The different types of breaking over the structure resulting from
the characteristics of the incident wave and the layout of the structure
were also observed; three typical types were noted: a horizontal jet of
water, a descending jet, and partial breaking.

The second part discusses the layout of an immersed breakwater in-
tended for local beach protection. The characteristics of the protection
were studied to find the most favorable compromise between the protection
desired and the danger of erosion. The influence of the duration of wave
action from different directions plays an important part in determining
the characteristics of the structure.

35. DICK, T.M., and BREBNER, A., ''Solid and Submerged Breakwaters,"'
Proceedings of the 11th Conference on Coastal Engineering, American
Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. II, 1968, pp, 1141-1158,

Keywords: Hydraulic model (two-dimensional), Impermeable breakwater,
Permeable breakwater, Submerged breakwater, Wave reflection,
Wave transmission

This paper reexamines the behavior of thin and rectangular solid
submerged breakwaters. Dean's theory is found to be correct for a thin
barrier in infinitely deep water. An empirical and theoretical relation-
ship for the reflection coefficient of a thin breakwater across the wave
number spectrum is proposed. Rectangular solid breakwaters have a maxi-
mum reflection when the incident wave has the same period as a standing
wave on top of the breakwater and with a wavelength equal to the crest
width. A submerged permeable breakwater for depths of submergence great-
er than 5 percent of the total depth transmits less wave energy than the
solid over a certain frequency range. The minimum is transmitted when
the criterion above for solid breakwaters is also met. Both permeable
and solid rectangular breakwaters cause a substantial loss in wave energy
and at least 50 percent of the incident energy is lost to turbulence. A
substantial proportion, 30 to 60 percent, of the energy transmitted is
transferred to higher frequencies than the incident wave.

36. DISKIN, M.H., VAJDA, M.L., and AMIR, I,, "Piling-Up Behind Low and
Submerged Permeable Breakwaters,'' Journal of the Waterways and Har-
bors Diviston, Vol. 96, No. WW2, May 1970, pp. 359-372. Discussions
by M.R. Gourlay, Feb. 1971, pp. 219-222; R.A. Dalrymple and R.G.:Dean,
May 1971, pp. 423-427; Closure, Feb. 1972, pp. 74-78.

Keywords: Detached breakwater, Hydraulic model (two-dimensional),
Submerged breakwater, Wave setup

Wave setup was experimentally studied using two trapezoidal break-
water sections. Maximum setup values were observed when the breakwaters
protruded above the mean water level a distance equal to 50 to 90 percent
of the incident deepwater wave height. The amount of setup decreased for
lower structures.

37. DOLAN, R.,, 'Coastal Problems in Israel,' ESN-29-4, European Scienti-
fic Notes, Office of Naval Research, London, Apr. 1975, pp. 164-166,

Keywords: Detached breakwater, Israel

Report briefly describes shoreline erosion problems in Israel, The
use of detached breakwaters is mentioned.

38. EATON, R.O., "Some Examples of Large Scale Shore Protection Pro-
jects," Shore and Beach, Vol. 27, No. 1, June 1959, pp. 8-13.

Keywords: Accretion, California (Santa Monica), Detached breakwater,
Downdrift beaches, Littoral transport

The shore erosion problems experienced in the Los Angeles area and
the Santa Monica offshore breakwater and its effect on adjacent shores
are discussed. Case histories are also briefly outlined for Playa del
Rey, Ballona Creek, and Redondo Beach,

39. EVANS, D.V., "Water Wave Transmission Through Barriers with Small
Gaps," Journal of Engineering Mathemattes, Vol. 11, No, 1, Jan. 1977,
pp. 1-10.

40. FEVE, M., Untitled Report to SII-S4 (Coastal Regime. Carriage of
Material by Swell and Currents. Model Studies and In Situ Observa-
tions. Influence of Port Structures. Coastal Defense Works.
Breakwaters), XXIId International Navtgation Congress, Paris, 1969,
pp. 63-109 (in French).

Keywords: Compartmented breakwater, France (Mourillon Beach-Toulon) ,
Submerged breakwater

The report describes French research dealing with sediment transport
by waves and currents including the initiation of transport, beach pro-
files, and scale effects. Also considered were methods of determining
transport direction and quantities using heavy minerals, limestone content,

grain-size parameters, radioactive tracers, experimental groins, and
repetitive beach surveys, The use of alveole or compartmented detached
breakwaters at Mourillon Beach, Toulon is described,

41. FISCHER, J.A., and LU, B.T.D., "Evaluation of Offshore Breakwater
Stability Under Wave Action," Proceedings of the Offshore Technology
Conference, Vol. 3, 1975, pp. 579-590.

Keywords: Armor stability, Detached breakwater, Foundation design,
Structural stability

Attacking storm waves affect the overall design of any offshore
breakwater used as a protective structure. This paper describes the
methods and considerations required to evaluate the stability of an off-
shore breakwater under design storm wave action. The following storm
wave effects are of concern:

(a) The possibility of wave forces physically causing
damage to the breakwater embankment materials;

(b) the stability of the breakwater against horizontal
sliding;

(d) the effect of continuing storm waves on the strength
and stability of the foundation soils.

The procedures described in this paper are part of the necessary
stability considerations in the design of a breakwater to protect a float-
ing nuclear generating plant (FNP). Although developed for a floating
nuclear powerplant, the concepts presented are considered applicable to
the stability evaluation of any major offshore breakwater-foundation soil
system. They also represent an advance in the state-of-the-art of stabil-
ity analyses for offshore structures.

42. (a) FLORES LIRA, M.A., and MAZA, A.J.A., "New Type of Structures for
Littoral Drift Control," Proceedings of the 14th Congress of the
Internattonal Assoctatton for Hydraulte Research, Vol. 4, 1971,
pp. 177-182.

(b) FLORES LIRA, M.A., and MAZA, A,J.A., "Estudio de estructuras
para el control del arrastre litoral'" (Study of Structures for
the Control of Coastal Erosion), Coastal Engineering tn Mexico,
Proceedings of the Fourth Latin-Amertcan Congress of Hydrology,
1971 (in Spanish--translation available in CERC library).

Keywords: Accretion, Detached breakwater, Hydraulic model (three-
dimensional), Littoral transport, Movable bed, Tombolo

When continuous wave action strikes the beach at an angle, trans-
port of the beach material occurs along the entire length of the lit-
toral. On occasion, this may cause serious problems in some maritime
structures or in natural river mouths such as silting of harbors, the
formation of sandbars in river mouths and inlets, To avoid or at least
reduce this type of problem, the Hydraulic Laboratory of the Secretaria
de Recursos Hidraulicos executed a series of studies to find a structure
that may permit a control on the longshore transport produced by wave
action. Based on these studies, a new type of structure was developed
and tested on hydraulic models; the structure permits the accumulation
of littoral material in volumes up to 30 times as large as the volume
retained by conventional breakwaters and spur dikes or jetties. This
paper deals with the definition of the size of breakwaters depending on
wave characteristics and the slope of the beach. The experiments lead-
ing to the recommendations given in the paper were conducted on estuaries
with and without sediment transport.

43. FOSTER, D.N., "Breakwater Stability: Kirra Beach," Technical Report
No. 72/13, Water Research Laboratory, University of New South Wales,
New South Wales, Australia, 1972.

Keywords: Armor stability, Australia (Kirra Beach-Queensland) ,
Foundation design, Hydraulic model (two-dimensional),
Local scour, Rubble mound, Wave overtopping, Wave reflec-
tion, Wave transmission

Model tests have been undertaken to investigate the stability, wave
transmission, and wave overtopping for the proposed offshore breakwater
at Kirra Beach, Gold Coast, Queensland. The results indicate that the
breakwater will be effective under all wave conditions, Some damage
which will require maintenance occurs when high waves are superimposed
on high storm surge.

44. FRIED, I., ''New Coastal Works at Nahariya (Israel) - Beach Protection
and Development," The Dock and Harbour Authority, Vol. XLV, No, 532,
Feb, 1965, pp. 323-326.

Keywords: Accretion, Armor stability, Compartmented breakwater, Currents,
Gabions, Israel (Nahariya), Local scour, Recreation, Rubble
mound, Segmented breakwater, Structural dimensions

The coastal installation at Nahariya, which consists of a low break-
water and a central groin, proved successful from the stability viewpoint
and for the purpose of creating a stretch of protected sandy beach and
foreshore. Two shallow-water basins, protected from wave action and easily
accessible to bathers, were formed in the lee of the breakwater; these
basins also served as terminals for small craft and cruising launches dur-
ing the summer season, thus supplying additional attraction to vacationers.

The rubble-mound breakwater has withstood storm wave onslaughts and
requires only slight periodical maintenance, mainly at the heads, Its

inner slope, protected by a gabionade, has also proved to be stable,
The concrete cap on top of the breakwater has not shown any signs of
subsidence during the past 4 years. Moreover, considerable quantities
of valuable sand are being extracted from the central area each year,

45. FRIED, I., "Protection by Means of Offshore Breakwaters,"' Proceed-
ings of the 15th Conference on Coastal Engineering, American Society
of Civil Engineers, Vol. Il, 1976, ‘pp. W407-N424'.

Keywords: Compartmented breakwater, Hydraulic model (three-dimensional),
Israel (Tel Baruch-Tel-Aviv), Littoral transport, Movable
bed, Recreation, Segmented breakwater, Structural dimensions,
Tombolo

Many factors are involved in the reproduction of natural sedimento-
logical processes in a wave basin with a movable bed, and a misinterpre-
tation of some of them may lead to erroneous conclusions, The exact
definition of the sedimentological time-scale is less important than the
reproduction of the seabed configuration or representation of sand grain
particles and wave spectra.

Little is known about the exact full-scale sedimentation processes
in the prototype. However, it is assumed that the formation of tombolos
in the lee of offshore breakwaters results mainly from the interception
of littoral drift. Some of the sand enters directly into the shadow zone
behind the breakwater; other sand particles bypass the breakwater on the
seaward side and are then directed by diffraction into the shadow zone.
The accelerated sedimentological process in the model reproduces the nat-
ural development of tombolo formation in the prototype, which, in order
to reach a state of equilibrium, requires a considerable period of time.

46. GELINEAU, V., "Evolution in Design and Construction of Coast Pro-
tection Works in the United States,'' Shore and Beach, Vol. 3, No. 2,
Apr. 1935, pp. 53-58.

Keywords: Accretion, Downdrift beaches, Littoral transport, New Jersey
(Asbury Park), Shipwrecks, Tombolo

Report describes the grounding of the ship, Morro Castle at Asbury
Park, New Jersey, in 1934. Because of its final position parallel to
shore, it acted as a detached breakwater and resulted in the rapid growth
of a tombolo.

47. GODA, Y., YOSHIMURA, T., and ITO, M., "Reflection and Diffraction of
Water Waves by an Insular Breakwater," Report of the Port and Harbor
Research Instttute, Yokosuka, Japan, Vol. 10, No, 2, 1971, pp. 4-51
(in Japanese).

Keywords: Detached breakwater, Hydraulic model (three-dimensional)
Wave diffraction, Wave reflection

Although insular breakwaters are often constructed in harbors, the
interaction between an insular breakwater and water waves has not been
clearly defined. This report presents the exact solution of wave reflec-
tion and diffraction by a vertical, elliptical cylinder with a series of
Mathieu functions. The solution coincides with the solution for a circu-
lar cylinder when the circle is taken as an asympotic figure of an ellipse,
The exact solution for a straight insular breakwater is derived from the
deformation of the elliptical cylinder into a plate of infinitesimal
thickness, Wave height ratios of scattered waves to incident waves have
been calculated near insular breakwaters, and the application limit of
the approximate solution is determined from the comparison between the
exact and the approximate solutions.

48. GRANGE, M.A., Untitled Report to SII-CI (Protective Works Adopted
to Limit Erosion Along the Open Coast; How They Work. Reference to
Model Experiments), XVIIth Internattonal Navtgatton Congress, Lisbon,
1949, pp. 63-74 (in French).

Keywords; Accretion, Compartmented breakwater, France (Anse des Huttes,
Arros, and Pointe de Grave)

This paper refers to a report on the principles adopted for protec-
tion of coasts against erosion and practical considerations for construc-
tion of such works, presented by M. Kauffman at the Congress of Venice
in 1931. The conclusions of that report remain valid. The paper dis-
cusses several works created on French coasts:

(a) Prefabricated, reinforced concrete structures built
on the channel coasts;

(b) the replacement of framework structures by masonry
structures in Normandy, especially at St. Valery en Caux;

(c) the use of openwork groins of reinforced concrete
stakes, braced longitudinally and transversally by wooden
joists, in the Basse-Camarague region on the Mediterranean
coast; and

(d) the construction of a groin made of natural rock
blocks at Hendaye.

The second part of the paper is a historical survey of the works
undertaken during the last 100 years around the Pointe de Grave, which
borders the outlet of the Gironde to the south.

49. GRANT, U.S,, and SHEPARD, F.P,, "Shallow-Water Sediment-Shifting
Processes Along the Southern California Coast," Proceedings of the
Stxth Pactfte Setenttfte Congress, Vol. 2, 1939, pp, 801-805.

Keywords: California (Santa Monica), Littoral transport, Sediment
sizes

From several years of qualitative and quantitative study of the
shore processes effective along the southern California coast, wave
turbulence was found to be the most important factor in making sediment
with a grain size larger than 125 micrometers (0.125 millimeter) avail-
able for transportation along the coast, In the certain constricted
tidal inlets, at the shoulders of submarine platforms, and at the sum-
mits of submarine ridges and divides, currents are sufficiently acceler-
ated at times to transport sand of a substantial grain size, but the
magnitude of such sediment shifting is probably inconsequential compared
to that which occurs along most beaches and the adjacent sea floor, This
paper briefly discusses where and how littoral drifting occurs in this
region and gives an example of the relative effectiveness of the various
transporting processes as illustrated by the changes which occurred in
and near the Santa Monica breakwater.

50. HABER, D., "Velocity Field and Wave Regime Behind a Low Detached
Breakwater," Thesis, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology,
Haifa, Israel, 1970.

51. HAFERKORN, H.E., Sand Movement, Beaches and Kindred Subjects: A
Bibltography, The Engineer School, Fort Humphreys, Va., 1930.

Keywords: Accretion, Bibliography, Detached breakwater, Littoral
transport

An annotated bibliography containing numerous references on the
effects of offshore breakwaters on littoral processes.

52. HAFERKORN, H.E., Breakwaters: A Bibliography, Engineer School
Library, Army War College, Washington, D.C., May 1932.

Keywords: Accretion, Bibliography, Detached breakwater, Littoral
transport

An annotated bibliography that deals primarily with breakwaters
constructed for navigation purposes. Many of the citations have shore
protection applications. Keywords are also provided,

53. HALE, R.K., "Symposium of Coast Protection Problems," Shore and
Beach, Vol. 3, No. 3, July 1935, pp. 94-95,

Keywords: Accretion, Detached breakwater, Massachusetts (Dennis Shore,
Vineyard Haven, and Winthrop Beach), Segmented breakwater

The construction of three offshore breakwaters in Massachusetts is
discussed. The Winthrop Beach breakwaters were constructed for shore
protection between 1933 and 1935. At Dennis Shore, a harbor of refuge,
a detached breakwater completed earlier had totally shoaled by 1935, A
detached breakwater constructed at Vineyard Haven caused the shoreline
to advance 300 to 400 feet.

54. HALE, R.K., "Shore Protective Work at Winthrop, Massachusetts,"
Shore and Beach, Vol. 6, No. 3, July 1938, pp, 92-95 (also appears
in Ctvtl Engtneering, Vol, 8, No, 6, June 1938, pp, 388-390).

Keywords: Accretion, Downdrift beaches, Massachusetts (Winthrop Beach),
Segmented breakwater

The history of the shoreline development at Winthrop, Massachusetts,
is discussed. Before construction of a segmented detached breakwater
between 1933 and 1935, the beaches were primarily shingle and badly
eroded. Between 1931 and 1937, there was a net accretion of 50,000 cubic
yards of sand in the area behind the breakwater.

55. HALL, W.C., "A Model Study of the Effect of Submerged Breakwaters on
Wave Action," TM-1, U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers, Beach Erosion
Board, Washington, D.C.,. May 1940.

Keywords: Florida (Palm Beach), Hawaii (Waikiki), Hydraulic model
(two-dimensional), Illinois (Lincoln Park-Chicago), Steel-
sheet piling, Submerged breakwater, Timber bulkhead, Wave
attenuation

This was a general model study to determine the effect, under varied
conditions, of underwater sills upon wave heights and the power of waves,
General conclusions regarding shape and effectiveness of such structures
are presented.

56. HALL, W.C., "Beach Protection Measures," The Milttary Engineer,
Vol. 34, No. 200, June 1942, pp. 292-296 (also appears in Shore
and Beach, Vol. 10, No. 2, Oct. 1942, pp. 60-66).

Keywords: Florida (Palm Beach), Hawaii (Waikiki), Illinois (Lincoln
Park-Chicago), Submerged breakwater

The following elements of beach protection are discussed: beach
erosion studies, sources of beach sand, causes of erosion, restoration
methods, protective structures, typical problems, and recreational areas,
Among the structures described are submerged, shore-parallel sills used
for shore protection at Honolulu, Chicago, and Palm Beach,

57. HAMADA, T., "Several Problems Concerning the Beach Erosion at
Niigata,'' Disaster and Countermeasure, Tokyo, Japan, Aug. 1956.

58. HANDIN, J.W., and LUDWICK, J.C., "Accretion of Beach Sand Behind a.
Detached Breakwater,'' TM-16, U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers, Beach
Erosion Board, Washington, D.C., May 1950.

Keywords: Accretion, California (Santa Monica), Detached breakwater,
Littoral transport, Sediment sizes, Structural dimensions,
Wave attenuation, Wave diffraction, Wave refraction

The problem of sand transport by a longshore current is clarified
by observing the effect of a breakwater on the current, Sand samples
were collected on a network from the beaches near the breakwater at
Santa Monica, California, The distribution of median grain sizes indi-
cates a reduction of the competence of the longshore current, The his-
tory of shoreline changes discloses an accompanying reduction in the
capacity of the current. A decrease in transporting power of the long-
shore current is correlated with a decrease of Q, the littoral drift
factor; Q can probably be used as a qualitative measure of the sand-
transporting power of longshore currents.

The history of accretion indicates that a shoreline changes position
in a direction toward equilibrium with respect to the forces acting on a
beach. Given enough time, it is probable that the breakwater will become
connected to the mainland.

59. HARUTA, T., "'Recent Coastal Processes in Niigata Prefecture," Coastal
Engtneering in Japan, Tokyo, Japan, Vol. IV, 1961, pp. 73-83.

Keywords: Accretion, Detached breakwater, Downdrift beaches, Japan
(Fuya, Hakahama, Ishiji, Iwafune, Kitaebisu, Nakahama, and
Neya), Littoral transport, Structural dimensions, Tombolo

The exposure of the coast of Niigata Prefecture to the winter mon-
soon of the Sea of Japan, which has the predominant direction from north-
west to north, is the most important factor affecting the beach erosion
er sand transport on this coast. Most of the coast has sandy beaches
nourished by sediment from rivers. There are some harbors and a number
of small fishery ports. The construction of breakwaters, groins, or
jetties in the harbors or ports caused certain changes in the patterns
of waves, currents, and littoral transport; thus, beach erosion or sand
deposition occurred in many parts of the coast. This paper presents
several examples of such coastal processes with a description of the
protection works applied.

60. HASHIMOTO, H., "A Model to Predict the Influence of Erosion on
Neighboring Beaches Due to Detached Breakwaters,"' Proceedings of
the 21st Conference on Coastal Engineering tn Japan, Japan Society
of Civil Engineers, 1974, pp. 181-186 (in Japanese).

61. HASHIMOTO, H., "Application of a Beach Deformation Model to Fuji
Coast," Proceedings of the 23d Conference on Coastal Engineering
tn Japan, Japan Society of Civil Engineers, 1976, pp, 218-222
(in Japanese).

62. HASHIMOTO, H., and UDA, T., "A Method of Numerical Prediction of
Nearshore Currents and its Applications," Proceedings of the 21st
Conference on Coastal Engineering tn Japan, Japan Society of Civil
Engineers, 1974, pp. 355-360 (in Japanese).

29)

63. HAYASHI, T., HATTORI, M., and SHIRAI, M., ''Closely Spaced Pile
Breakwater as a Protection Structure Against Beach Erosion,"' Pro-
ceedings of the 11th Conference on Coastal Engineering, American
Society of Civil Engineers, Vol, 1, 1968, pp, 606-621,

Keywords: Hydraulic model (two-dimensional), Local scour, Pile arrays,
Wave reflection, Wave transmission

A theory for wave transmission and reflection at a closely spaced
pile breakwater was developed, using the shallow-water wave theory of
small amplitude. An experiment on the hydraulic characteristics of the
breakwater was conducted in a two-dimensional wave flume, The agreement
between the theory and the experiment is good with respect to the co-
efficients of transmission and reflection of waves, and also to the
shoreward velocity of the jet discharged from a space between two adja-
cent piles.

An experiment was also conducted on the local scouring at the foot
of the closely spaced pile breakwater. The maximum scouring depth at
the foot of the breakwater relates closely to the velocity ratio of the
jet to the mean fall velocity of bed material, The relationship between
the maximum scouring depth and the power of the jet is discussed.

64. HAYASHI, T., KANO, T., and SHIRAI, M., "Hydraulic Research on the
Closely Spaced Pile Breakwater,'' Proceedings of the 10th Conference
en Coastal Engineering, American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol.
2, 1966, pp. 873-884.

Keywords: Hydraulic model (two-dimensional), Pile arrays, Wave attenua-
tion, Wave reflection, Wave transmission

Hydraulic properties of a row of closely spaced circular piles as
a breakwater have been studied both theoretically and experimentally,
A theory is presented for the transmission of waves past the breakwater
and also for the thrust and bending moment exerted by the waves on each
pile in the breakwater. A laboratory experiment was conducted on a
model structure. Close agreement is shown in the comparison between
the theory and the experiment with respect to the transmission coeffi-
cient and the bending moment distribution.

65. HAYES, M.O., HUBBARD, D.K., and FITZGERALD, D,M., "Investigation
of Beach Erosion Problems at Revere, Winthrop and Nantasket Beaches,
Massachusetts,"' Contract No. 2229, Metropolitan District Commission,
Boston, Mass., Oct. 1973.

Keywords: Accretion, Massachusetts (Winthrop Beach), Sediment gradations,
Segmented breakwater

Over the past 15 years. the beaches in Boston Harbor have undergone
intensive erosion, particularly the popular sandy beaches of Revere,
Nantasket, and Winthrop. This project was undertaken to gain a better
understanding of the natural processes that cause this erosion and to
consider ways to accommodate the natural processes in dealing with the
problem. The study is a combination of short-term studies designed to

provide basic data on wave action, tides and tidal currents, and wind
action for comparison with those processes acting on other Massachusetts
beaches previously studied.

66. HERRON, W.J., Jr., and HARRIS, R.L., "New Methods of Conserving
Beach Sand,"' Shore and Beach, Vol. 30, No. 1, Apr. 1962, pp, 34-37.

Keywords: Accretion, California (Newport Beach), Detached breakwater,
Littoral transport

Since the 1940's, the beaches between the Surfside Beach Colony and
Newport submarine canyon have experienced progressive erosion caused by
the loss of sand supply to the beach because of flood control reservoirs
and the improper placement of harbor structures on the shore, The most
economical proposed solution for this problem would require construction
of a 2,600-foot-long detached breakwater to act as a sand trap on the
24-foot contour immediately updrift of the Newport canyon. At 5-year
intervals, 1,500,000 cubic yards would be dredged from this sand trap
and backpassed to renourish updrift beaches.

67. HERRON, W.J., Jr., and HARRIS, R.L., "Littoral Bypassing and Beach
Restoration in the Vicinity of Port Hueneme, California," Proceedings
of the 10th Conference on Coastal Engineering, American Society of
Civil Engineers, Vol. 1, 1966, pp. 651-675.

Keywords: Accretion, Armor stability, California (Channel Islands),
Detached breakwater, Downdrift beaches, Littoral transport,
Rubble mound, Structural dimensions, Wave diffraction

The construction of Port Hueneme Harbor, California, in 1940, re-
sulted in an average annual erosion of 1,200,000 cubic yards from the
shoreline downcoast of the harbor. The cause was diversion by the north
jetty of the harbor of littoral sand movement into the Hueneme canyon.

A sand-bypass system was established in 1960-61 by the construction, 1
mile upcoast, of Channel Islands Harbor fronted by a 2,300-foot-long
offshore breakwater located in the 30-foot depth contour. The break-
water serves a dual function of sheltering the harbor entrance and
acting as a littoral sand trap. Three cycles of biennial littoral sand
bypassing were successfully completed. Comparison of the design of the
structure with the impounding characteristics experienced during the
three cycles indicates that the dimensions and capacity of a sand trap
formed by an offshore breakwater can be based on the diffraction patterns
of prevailing wave trains at the two ends of the structure and is inde-
pendent of the depth and dimensions of the entrapment area.

68. HIRANANDANI, M.G., COLE, C.V., and PENDSE, Y.D,, ''Strengthening
Breakwater at Visakhapatnam," Journal of the Waterways and Harbors
Divtston, Vol. 88, No. WW3, Aug. 1962, pp. 139-158. Discussions
by R.Q. Palmer, May 1963, pp. 93-96; L. Barailler and L. Greslou,
May 1963, pp. 96-98.

Keywords: Armor stability, Armor units, Concrete blocks, Construction
procedures, Economic analysis, Foundation design, Hydraulic
model (two-dimensional), India (Visakhapatnam), Local scour,
Rubble mound, Ship hulls, Structural dimensions, Tetrapods,
Tribars, Wave overtopping

The island breakwater at Visakhapatnam, consisting of two scuttled
ships filled with small stones, was protected by 2- to 6-ton stones on
the weather and lee sides. However, the weather side was damaged by
storms, exposing the ships' plates to wave action, thus warranting ac-
tion for reinforcing the breakwater. Tests were conducted in a wave
flume with various types of armor units, such as stones, tetrapods, and
tribars, to evolve a suitable protective layer for the breakwater and to
study the relative merits of various armor units,

69. HO, S.K., "Crenulate Shaped Bays," Thesis No. 346, Asian Institute
of Technology, Bangkok, Thailand, 1971.

Keywords: Artificial headlands, Crenulate-shaped bay, Hydraulic model
(three-dimensional), Littoral transport, Movable bed, Numeri-
cal model, Wave diffraction, Wave refraction

Where headlands are spaced along a sedimentary coast, the shoreline
between the headlands assumes a crenulate shape, If the most persistent
or predominant waves have a resultant direction which is oblique to the
headland alinement, a shape is gradually reached which is in equilibrium
with the waves. The eventual development of such an equilibrium-shaped
bay, starting with an initial straight-line coast, was studied by means
of a model in which wave directions and heights were the sole variables.
The curved part of the equilibrium-shaped coastline was then analyzed by
fitting log-spiral curves.

A typical prototype bay in fully developed condition, derived from
hydrographic charts, was analyzed by computer to verify that diffraction
and refraction combined to form the log-spiral part of the coastline.

70. HOM-MA, M., and HORIKAWA, K., "Experimental Study of a Submerged
Breakwater (2nd Report) - Mechanism of Its Slumping and Maintenance
Measures of the Structure," Proceedings of the Sixth Conference on
Coastal Engineering tn Japan, Japan Society of Civil Engineers,
1959, pp. 114-120 (in Japanese).

Keywords: Hydraulic model (two-dimensional), Local scour, Structure
settlement:., Submerged breakwater

71. HOM-MA, M., and HORIKAWA, K., ''Coastal Protection Works and Related
Problems in Japan," Proceedings of the Seventh Conference on Coastal
Engineering, American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol, 2, 1960,
pp. 904-930.

Keywords: Compartmented breakwater, Japan (Kaike, Niigata, and Toban),
Littoral transport, Submerged breakwater

This paper introduces the general factors affecting the coastal
problems in Japan and discusses the patterns with which some of these
factors were linked to produce particular coastal problems, The efforts
and contributions made by the Japanese engineers to solve such problems
are discussed. The coastal protection works and practices are presented
with some representative examples.

72. HOM-MA, M., and HORIKAWA, K., "A Study on Submerged Breakwaters,"
Coastal Engineering tn Japan, Tokyo, Japan, Vol, IV, 1961, pp. 85-
102.

Keywords: Accretion, Compartmented breakwater, Concrete structures,
Foundation design, Hydraulic model (two-dimensional), Japan
(Niigata), Local scour, Movable bed, Structure settlement,
Submerged breakwater, Tetrapods, Wave overtopping, Wave
transmission

The functions and maintenance devices of submerged breakwaters,
using tetrapods, were studied through the comparison of experimental
results and field data from the Niigata west coast. Since one of the
most important functions of a submerged breakwater is the damping action,
the structure has played an important role in protecting the Niigata west
coast. The slump of the structure, which was overlooked at the early
stage of construction, has become an important and difficult problem.

73. HOM-MA, M., and SAKOU, T., ''An Experimental Study on the Submerged
Breakwater ,"' Coastal Engineering in Japan, Tokyo, Japan, Vol. 2,
1959, pp. 103-109.

Keywords: Accretion, Hydraulic model (two-dimensional), Local scour,
Movable bed, Submerged breakwater, Vertical breakwater

The two principle functions of a submerged breakwater are (a) to
attenuate waves by causing premature breaking and partial reflection,
and (b) to bar seaward movement of bed materials in the surf zone, Most
studies of these functions deal with the effects of the height, shape,
width, location, etc., of the breakwater on the transformation of passing
waves. However, the effect on the sand movement and deformation of the
beach due to the existence of the breakwater has not been sufficiently
studied. This study presents the basic information needed to predict the
possible change in beach profiles after the construction of a breakwater
and to estimate the amount of scour around the structure. This was
accomplished with a study of the two-dimensional deformation of a beach
in an experimental wave flume.

74. HORIKAWA, K., and KOIZUMI, C., ''An Experimental Study on the Func-
tion of an Offshore Breakwater,'' Proceedings of the 29th Annual
Convention, Japan Society of Civil Engineers, 1974, pp, 85-87.

75. HORIKAWA, K., and SONU, C., "Experimental Study of a Submerged
Breakwater," Proceedings of the 12th Annual Convention, Japan
Society of Civil Engineers, June 1957.

76. HORTON, D.F., "An Engineer Looks at Waikiki Beach," Bulletin of
the Beach Eroston Board, Vol. 2, No. 2, Apr. 1948, pp. 1-7.

Keywords: Accretion, Beach fill, Compartmented breakwater, Concrete
structures, Hawaii (Waikiki), Littoral transport, Structural
dimensions, Submerged breakwater

This report describes an inspection of Waikiki Beach during Decem-
ber 1947. The inspection was made prior to developing a study program
for a cooperative study of erosion at the beach, Some of the features
noted are described and illustrated.

77. HORTON, D.F., "Shore Effects of Coastal Structures,'' The Military
Engtneer, Vol. XL, No. 275, Sept. 1948, pp. 402-405.

Keywords: Accretion, California (Santa Monica), Detached breakwater,
Downdrift beaches, Massachusetts (Winthrop Beach), Segmented
breakwater, Structural dimensions

This report discusses the natural forces and the structures, such
as jetties, that affect coastal inlets and the adjacent shorelines,
The design of navigation improvements on ocean coasts requires consid-
eration of the natural forces and the effect of proposed structures on
adjacent shorelines.

78. HOSOI, M., and TOMINAGA, M., "Wave Height Reduction by Offshore
Breakwaters ,'' Proceedings of the Stxth Conference on Coastal Engi-
neering tn Japan, Japan Society of Civil Engineers, 1959, pp, 121-
123 (in Japanese).

Keywords: Hydraulic model (two-dimensional), Submerged breakwater,
Wave attenuation, Wave transmission

Offshore breakwaters are structures built away from the beach, par-
allel to the shoreline, for shore protection. The effectiveness of such
structures has become widely recognized. In designing offshore break-
waters, various complex factors such as the choice of height, width,
location and structure suitable for the intended use, and preventive
measures against settling, must be considered. This report presents
experimental results of the effect of offshore breakwaters in reducing
wave heights.

79. HOTTA, S., and MARUI, N., "Local Scour and Current Around a Porous
Breakwater ,'' Proceedings of the 15th Conference on Coastal Engtneer-
ing, American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 2, 1976, pp. 1590-
1604.

Keywords: Currents, Detached breakwater, Hydraulic model (two-dimen-
sional), Local scour, Movable bed, Wave attenuation, Wave
setup, Wave transmission

Scour at the foot of vertical homogeneous crib-style walls, which
were used as models for detached breakwaters, and the rise of mean water
level in the shoreside region of the breakwaters were experimentally
investigated. The results were compared to some field data.

80. INCE, S., and JAMIESON, W.W., "Field and Model Studies for Visakha-
patnam Harbor." Proceedings of the 14th Conference on Coastal
Engineering, American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol, 2, 1974,
pp. 1503-1523.

Keywords: Accretion, Currents, Detached breakwater, Downdrift beaches,
Hydraulic model (three-dimensional), India (Visakhapatnam) ,
Littoral transport, Movable bed, Ship hulls

Model studies and analyses of oceanographic and littoral drift data
were undertaken to advise Howe India (Private) Ltd. on littoral drift,
siltation, and shore erosion problems to be encountered during and after
the construction of Visakhapatnam outer harbor project. Distorted fixed-
and movable-bed models with a horizontal scale of 1:300 and a vertical
scale of 1:80 were calibrated to reproduce the integrated net effect of
an average southwest and northeast monsoon season. Experiments were
conducted to assess and predict seasonal changes resulting from the
construction of breakwaters under normal and extreme conditions, Recom-
mendations were made concerning breakwater and sand-trap location, shore
protection, dredging, and disposal of dredged material,

81. INGLE, J.C., Jr., "Tracing Beach Sand Movement by Means of Floures-
cent Dyed Sand,'' Shore and Beach, Vol. 30, No, 4, Oct. 1962, pp, 31-
36.

Keywords: California (Santa Monica), Currents, Detached breakwater,
Littoral transport, Sand tracer study

Sand tracer studies were conducted at five locations along the
southern California coast (Goleta Point, Trancas, Santa Monica, Hunting-
ton, and LaJolla). Tests were conducted at 4- to 6-week intervals at
each site for 1 year. Additional tests were conducted on the prograding
shoreline behind the detached breakwater at Santa Monica, Contour maps
of tracer movements are given for each significant test.

82. INMAN, D.L., and FRAUTSCHY, J.D., "Littoral Processes and the Devel-
opment of Shorelines,"' Proceedings of the Santa Barbara Spectalty
Conference on Coastal Engineering, American Society of Civil Engi-
neers, Oct. 1965, pp. 511-536.

Keywords: Accretion, California (Venice), Detached breakwater, Littoral
transport, Structural dimensions, Tombolo

Basic principles of the nature of beaches and processes that act to

modify them are considered for the present coastal development demands,
A working hypothesis is developed that applies the principle of the

conservation of mass to the mechanics of granular-fluid media. This
hypothesis appears to have general application to transport processes
in the littoral zone.

83. IWASAKI, T., and NUMATA, A,, "Experimental Studies on Wave Transmis-
sion of a Permeable Breakwater Constructed by Artificial Blocks,"
Coastal Engineering tn Japan, Tokyo, Japan, Vol. 13, 1970, pp, 25-29.

Keywords: Hydraulic model (two-dimensional), Permeable breakwater,
Wave attenuation, Wave transmission

When a breakwater is composed of artificial blocks, waves can pass
easily through it. However, wave energy is dissipated and the wave
height is decreased. This paper deals with the transmission rate of
wave height, i.e., the ratio of the transmitted wave height H; to the
incident wave height H-, and the rate of energy dissipation. It was
found by experiments that H;¢/H; depends only on incident wave steepness
for the breakwater when the crest height above the stillwater level h
is larger than H;. However, when h, is smaller than H;, H}/H; de-
pends on both the incident wave steepness and the Reynolds number defined
by Unarhe/v, where Ung, is the maximum horizontal velocity at the
stillwater level. The energy dissipation is expressed as a function of
the incident wave steepness, but its expression is different for the
above two cases.

84. JAPAN MINISTRY OF TRANSPORT, PORT AND HARBOR BUREAU, ''Kowan Kozobutsu
Sekkei Kijun' (Design Standard for Port and Harbor Structures), Sept.
1968, pp. 11-13 (in Japanese).

Keywords: Local scour, Vertical b.eakwater

85. JAPAN SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS, Destgn Manual for Shore Protectton,
Sec. 3, June 1957, pp. 199-219 (in Japanese).

Keywords: Accretion, Armor units, California (Santa Monica), Composite
structures, Concrete structures, Detached breakwater, Down-
drift beaches, Foundation design, Italy (Loano and Posillipe),
Littoral transport, Local scour, Permeable breakwater, Rubble
mound, Segmented breakwater, Structural dimensions, Structure
settlement, Submerged breakwater, Tombolo, Wave attenuation,
Wave diffraction, Wave overtopping, Wave transmission

Various aspects of the design of detached breakwaters are discussed.
Among these are the spacing, length, crest height, and offshore distance.
Construction precautions are outlined and descriptions are given of the
various structural types that can be used. Two design examples are pro-
vided for a vertical concrete structure and a rubble-mound structure.

86. JAPAN SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS, Katgan Hozen Shisetsu Sekket
Benran (Handbook for Coastal Protection and Facility Designs),
Tokyo, Japan, July 1969, pp. 102-106, 241-249 (in Japanese).

Keywords: Accretion, Beach fill, Concrete structures, Design guidelines,
Foundation design, Japan (Niigata and Nishikihama), Littoral
transport, Structure settlement, Submerged breakwater, Wave
attenuation, Wave transmission

This general coastal engineering handbook offers advice on the
positioning and height of detached breakwaters. Case histories are
studied of installations near Niigata and at Nishikihama, Japan.

87. JOHNSON, A.G., "Beach Protection and Development Around Los Angeles,"
Shore and Beach, Vol. 3, No. 4, Oct. 1935, pp. 110-112.

Keywords: Accretion, California (Santa Monica and Venice), Detached
breakwater, Downdrift beaches, Littoral transport, Structural
dimensions

The natural topography and meteorological conditions of the shore-
line of Santa Monica Bay are discussed. Serious erosion problems were
caused by the construction of detached breakwaters at Venice in 1905 and
Santa Monica in 1934.

88. JOHNSON, A.G., "A Report on Erosion of the Beaches in the Venice
District,'' Department of Public Works, City of Los Angeles, Los
Angeles, Calif., Apr. 1940.

Keywords: Accretion, California (Santa Monica and Venice), Downdrift
beaches, Littoral transport, Sediment gradations, Shipwrecks,
Structural dimensions

The Bureau of Engineering, City of Los Angeles, has prepared studies
of beach protection and development for the past 10 years. Many surveys
have been made along most of the shore of Santa Monica Bay, in part with
the cooperation of the County Surveyor and the City Engineer of Santa
Monica. Reports, as long as 6 years ago, predicted the present severe
erosion of the beaches at Venice, and a program was outlined which, if
carried out, would not only have prevented the erosion, but would have
added considerably to the width of the beaches.

This report evaluates the natural conditions that affect the beaches,
discusses the effect of the various structures which have been constructed
along the beaches, and outlines the steps necessary and the costs to pre-
vent further erosion, and the possibilities of development of the Venice
beaches.

89. JOHNSON, A.G., "A Report on Protection and Development of the Beaches
in the Westgate Addition and the Santa Monica Canyon Addition,"
Department of Public Works, City of Los Angeles, Los Angeles, Calif.,
Aug. 1940.

Keywords: Accretion, Beach fill, California (Santa Monica and Venice),

Detached breakwater, Downdrift beaches, Littoral transport,
Ship hulls, Structural dimensions, Submerged breakwater

This report discusses the development of a stretch of beach along
the shore of the Santa Monica Bay by artificial widening. The report
takes into consideration the source of the sand on these beaches, the
movement of sand along the beaches, the effects of the ocean waves and
currents, the tides, natural and artificial obstructions along the shore,
and rainfall, erosion and flood conditions in the tributary watersheds.
Much of the data on waves, currents, tides, winds, sand movement, and
rainfall and flood conditions in the tributary watersheds, contained in
the April 1940 report on Venice Beach, are pertinent to this report, and
are repeated herein with the necessary modifications.

90. JOHNSON, A.G., "Southern California Beach Erosion - Problems Aggra-
vated by Unwise Man-Made Structures and Lack of Centralized Control,"
Shore and Beach, Vol. 8, No. 4, Oct. 1940, pp. 106-109, 120.

Keywords: Accretion, California (Santa Monica), Detached breakwater,
Downdrift beaches, Littoral transport

This article discusses new shore structures and further erosion,
emphasizing the necessity for proper planning, and the preservation and
development of shorefronts in the interests of an entire area, not just
one locality.

91. JOHNSON, A.G., "Beach Protection - Erosion, Pollution Mar Shores,"
Western Constructton News, Vol. 18, No. 6, June 1943, pp. 259-262,
279.

Keywords: Accretion, California (Santa Monica and Venice), Detached
breakwater, Downdrift beaches, Littoral transport, Structural
dimensions

The most difficult problem in shoreline planning is that of beach
erosion, largely caused by haphazard and ill-advised developments by
local coastal communities. Control of pollution by oil and sewage is
also troublesome. The need for a greater extent of publicly owned ocean
frontage has been recognized for years, and is largely a matter of financ-
ing. Development and improvement of public ocean frontage is also largely
a matter of financing, plus proper planning. This article presents a
brief outline of most of these problems.

‘92. JOHNSON, A.G., "The Beaches Are Born Again,' Western City, Vol. 22,
No. 5, May 1946, pp. 24-31.

Keywords: Accretion, California (Santa Monica), Detached breakwater,
Downdrift beaches, Littoral transport

In the May 1940 issue of Western City, an article by this writer
entitled "The Vanishing Beaches of Southern California" described the
serious beach erosion which had been caused by construction of break-
waters and jetties along the southern California coastline, particularly
at Santa Barbara, Santa Monica, Venice, Redondo Beach, and Long Beach.

This article describes the progress that has been made in the intervening
6 years toward correcting the beach erosion problems and evolving long
range, coordinated plans for the best use of the shoreline.

93. JOHNSON, J.W., 'Model Studies Made at the University of California,
River and Harbor Laboratory," Transacttons of the .American Geophys-
teal Union, Vol. 29, 1948, pp. 107-116.

Keywords: Accretion, California (Santa Monica), Detached breakwater,
Downdrift beaches, Hydraulic model (three-dimensional),
Littoral transport

Since establishment of the River and Harbor Hydraulic Laboratory at
the University of California at Berkeley, approximately 10 years ago,
numerous model studies have been made in connection with a variety of
engineering problems. Some of the data obtained in the model studies had
not been published previously. This paper briefly describes a few of the
important investigations.

94. JOHNSON, J.W., 'Dynamics of Nearshore Sediment Movement,'' Bulletin
of the Amertcan Assoctation of Petroleum Geologists, Vol. 40, No. 9,
Sept. 1956, pp. 2211-2232.

Keywords: Accretion, California (Santa Monica), Detached breakwater,
Downdrift beaches, Littoral transport

Considerable research on the basic mechanics of shoreline processes
has been done over the last 15 years by geologists and engineers. Much
of this research was done during World War II, but in more recent years
numerous investigations have been made in connection with the qualitative
and quantitative effects of shoreline structures on nearshore sediment
movement. This paper summarizes some of the more important investigations
that have been made on the many phases of this phenomenon.

95. JOHNSON, J.W., "The Littoral Drift Problem at Shoreline Harbors,"
Journal of the Waterways and Harbors Divtston, Vol. 83, No. WWI,
Apr. 1957, pp. 1211-1--1211-37. Discussion by R. Silvester, Jan.
1958, pp. 13-17; Closure, May 1958, pp. 3-9.

Keywords: Accretion, Brazil (Ceara), California (Channel Islands and
Santa Monica), Detached breakwater, Downdrift beaches, Littoral
transport

A harbor which fronts directly on an open shoreline and has a rela-
tively small flow into and out of it is defined as a shoreline harbor.
The littoral drift, which occurs along the shoreline, causes certain de-
sign, construction, and maintenance problems. This paper summarizes some
of these basic considerations in generalized terms and presents a few
case histories of typical shoreline harbors for which operational infor-
mation extending over a long period of years is available.

96. JOHNSON, J.W., "Lessons in Coastal Engineering Gained from Califor-
nia Projects," Sympostum on Coastal Engineering, Stellenbosch, South
Africa, June 1969.

Keywords: Accretion, California (Channel Islands and Santa Monica),
Detached breakwater, Downdrift beaches, Littoral transport,
Structural dimensions

Experience gained at coastal engineering projects on the California
coast has led to a better understanding of littoral processes. Detached
breakwaters, constructed earlier at Santa Barbara and Santa Monica, have
had disastrous effects on the downdrift beaches. Lessons learned from
these projects have been applied to the Channel Islands-Port Hueneme area
where a detached breakwater serves as a sand trap. Material dredged from
this trap is bypassed to beaches downdrift of Port Hueneme.

97. JOHNSON, J.W., FUCHS, R.A., and MORISON, J.R., 'The Damping Action
of Submerged Breakwaters,"' Transacttons of the Amertcan Geophystcal
Unton, Vol. 32, 1951, pp. 704-718.

Keywords: Hydraulic model (two-dimensional), Submerged breakwater,
Wave attenuation, Wave reflection, Wave transmission

The results of an experimental investigation on the damping action
of submerged rectangular breakwaters are presented. The experimental
data are compared with published theories. A new theory is presented
which compares more favorably with the experiments than the previous
theories. Also given is a summary of the published theoretical and
experimental information on the damping action of trapezoidal and tri-
angular breakwaters, reefs of various configurations, and plane barriers
of various orientations.

98. JORDAAN, J.M., Jr., "Study of Durban Harbor Silting and Beach Ero-
sion," Proceedings of the 12th Conference on Coastal Engineering,
American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 2, 1970, pp. 1097-1116.

Keywords: Accretion, Hydraulic model (three-dimensional), Littoral
transport, Movable bed, Segmented breakwater, South Africa
(Durban), Structural dimensions

A 1:300 vertical, 1:100 horizontal scale model of 7 miles of coast-
line, including the major area of the port limits and the inner harbor,
was constructed to study combined wave, tide, and wind action on transport
of sand along the coast. The model study attributed the cause of beach
erosion to the existence of an offshore shoal produced by the localized
dumping of sand dredged from the harbor approaches. This shoal caused
selective wave action along the coastline, which was reproduced to scale
in the model. Wind and tidal action had a major effect on the redistribu-
tion of sand on the beaches as modeled but a minor effect on the perma-
nence of the harbor entrance channel. The model study was conducted by
the South African Council for Scientific and Industrial Research for the
South African Railways and the City Council of Durban.

99. KABELAC, O.W., 'Model Tests of Coastal Protective Structures in
USSR," Journal of the Waterways and Harbors Diviston, Vol. 89,
No. WW1, Feb. 1963, pp. 21-34.

Keywords: Hydraulic model (two-dimensional), Submerged breakwater,
Wave attenuation, Wave reflection, Wave transmission

Model tests of underwater coastal protective structures that were
performed by A.I. Lyzlov in the laboratory of the Institute of Engineers
of Maritime Fleet in Odessa are presented and results are compared with
natural conditions. The tests are based on the Froude similarity princi-
ple. The results are compared with those of preceding investigations of
coastal phenomena by members of the Institute of Oceanology: B.A. Popov,
N.A. Aybulatov, E.N. Egorov, and others. These model studies are part
of an extensive Soviet program of coastal research and engineering, initi-
ated in 1955 by the Oceanographic Commission of the Academy of Sciences,
U.S.S.R.

100. KATAYANA, T., IRIE, I., and KAWAKAMI, T., ''Performance of Offshore
Breakwaters of the Niigata Coast,'' Coastal Engineering tn Japan,
Vol. 17, 1974, pp. 129-139.

Keywords: Accretion, Compartmented breakwater, Continuous breakwater,
Currents, Detached breakwater, Hydraulic model (two-dimen-
sional), Japan (Niigata), Littoral transport, Local scour,
Permeable breakwater, Rubble mound, Structural dimensions,
Structure settlement, Submerged breakwater, Tetrapods, Wave
attenuation, Wave overtopping, Wave reflection, Wave setup,
Wave transmission

This paper reviews the effect of offshore breakwaters on the
Niigata coast utilizing survey maps collected over 20 years. The off-
shore breakwaters have been found to be successful in checking the beach
erosion onshore of these structures in spite of steady erosion of the
seabed offshore.

101. KAWAGUCHI, T., and SUGU, M., "Study of the Arrangement of Detached
Breakwaters ,'' Proceedings of the 19th Conference on Coastal Engt-
neering in Japan, Japan Society of Civil Engineers, 1972, pp. 77-81.

102. KUBO, T., and YAMAMOTO, T., ''An Experimental Research of the Section
of Submerged Barrier for Protection of Beach Erosion," Journal of
the Japan Soctety of Civil Engineers, Vol. 39, No. 10, Oct. 1954,
pp. 54-59 (in Japanese).

Keywords: Hydraulic model (two-dimensional), Submerged breakwater,
Wave attenuation, Wave transmission

Submerged barriers, which are constructed for shore protection,

must have a dampening effect on incident waves. Model tests on several
types of barrier sections were performed to determine the section of the

3) if

barrier which is effective for damping action. A barrier with a wave
deflector was found especially effective for high steepness waves.

103. KUBO, M., et al., "Changes in a Beach Caused by Detached Break-
waters," Proceedings of the 23d Conference on Coastal Engineering
tn Japan, Japan Society of Civil Engineers, 1976, pp. 223-228
(in Japanese).

Keywords: Accretion, Detached breakwater, Segmented breakwater, Tombolo

104. KURODA, S., "The Coastal Protection Works in the Port of Niigata,"
Report to SII-QI (New Designs of Breakwaters with Vertical Sides
and of Structures with Sloping Faces: (a) for Port Protection,
(b) for Shore Protection), XVIIIth International Navigation Con-
gress, Rome, 1953, pp. 151-167.

Keywords: Accretion, Concrete structures, Currents, Detached breakwater,
Foundation design, Gabions, Japan (Niigata), Littoral trans-
port, Local scour, Permeable breakwater, Structural dimensions,
Structural stability, Structure settlement, Submerged break-
water, Wave pressure

The shoreline near the Shinano River at Niigata has retreated as
much as 10 meters per year for the last 25 years. This has necessitated
the development of a system of combined protective works instead of indi-
vidual structures placed in an uncoordinated manner. Because of unsatis-
factory performance of groins, prototype tests on detached submerged
breakwaters were conducted using gabionlike, wire-cage breakwaters, hollow
concrete structures, and cellular concrete caissons filled with rock.
Results of these tests are presented.

105. LABORATOIRE CENTRAL D'HYDRAULIQUE DE FRANCE , "Plages et Littoraux
Artificiels" (Artificial Beaches and Littorals), 1972.

Keywords: Beach fill, Compartmented breakwater, Currents, Detached
breakwater, Downdrift beaches, Environmental concerns,
France (Beaulieu, La Bocca, La Bravette, Carnon, La Croisette,
Ete, Golfe Juan, Grau du Roi, La Gravette, Mourillon Beach-
Toulon, Pen Bron, Pointe de Grave, Port Canto, Prado Beach-
Marseilles, La Rague, and Sablettes-Menton), Hydraulic model
(three-dimensional), Littoral transport, Monaco (Larvotto
Beach-Monte Carlo), Morocco (Agadir), Movable bed, Sediment
sizes, Structural dimensions, Submerged breakwater, Tombolo,
Wave attenuation, Wave diffraction

A manual dealing with the engineering considerations involved in
creating and retaining sand beaches. Littoral processes are reviewed
and possible structural alternatives to be used in conjunction with or
without beach fills are described. These structures include groins,
T-groins, alveolar (compartmented) beaches, diffraction cones, and de-
tached breakwaters. Numerous case histories are illustrated.

106. LARSEN, 0.J.F., "Large Scale Coastal Protection or (Headland Pro-
tection) ,'' Noble Engineering Company, Newport Beach, Calif., May
1960.

Keywords: Artificial headlands, Economic analysis, Littoral transport,
Wave diffraction, Wave refraction

The present way of maintaining the beaches by artificial supply of
material should include an investigation of the possibility of decreasing,
without adverse effects, the transport of material away from the beaches.
An idea of coastal protection called "Headland Protection" is presented.
This is a systematic, possibly improved, application of the principle
after which most coastlines are more or less protected naturally. The
economical feasibility depends on measures to decrease the costs involved
in construction of structures in deeper water. Two different ideas for
.such measures are presented. A research program is also suggested.

107. LE BLOND, P.H., 'On the Formation of Spiral Beaches," Proceedings
of the 18th Conference on Coastal Engineering, American Society of
Civil Engineers, Vol. 2, 1972, pp. 1331-1345.

Keywords: Crenulate-shaped bay, Currents, Littoral transport, Numerical
model

The theory of wave-induced longshore currents is applied to prob-
lems of beach erosion. An erosion equation is derived, relating the
local erosion (or deposition) rate to the form of the beach and to the
characteristics of the incoming wave field. A numerical integration
technique of the erosion equation is discussed. A specific example, that
of a linear coastline which has gradually eroded into a spiral-shaped
beach in the lee of a headland, is examined.

108. LEEDS, C.T., "Shore Protection at Venice, California," Professtonal
Memotrs, U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers, Washington, D.C., Vol. 8,
No. 27, 1916, pp. 42-58.

Keywords: Accretion, California (Venice), Currents, Detached breakwater,
Downdrift beaches, Environmental concerns, Littoral transport,
Segmented breakwater, Wave attenuation

The problem of beach erosion at Venice is examined and structural
solutions are suggested. The historical causes for the problem are out-
lined and existing structures which have worsened the situation are
identified. Of particular interest is the Windward Avenue pier which
is protected by a detached breakwater. Segmented, detached breakwaters
were rejected as a possible solution because of aésthetic and economic
reasons. Groins and a seawall were selected as the best engineering
alternative.

109. LEPETIT, J.P., and MOREAU, S., "Study of an Artificial Island,"

Proceedings of the 15th Conference on Coastal Engineering, American
Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 4, 1976, pp. 3526-3535.

Keywords: Accretion, Currents, Downdrift beaches, Environmental concerns,
Hydraulic model (three-dimensional), Littoral transport, Numer-
ical model, Offshore island, Tombolo, Wave attenuation, Wave
diffraction, Wave refraction

The location of large surface industrial zones along seashores
often competes with other coastal activities, such as recreational pur-
suits, fishing, nature reserves, etc. The construction of an artificial
island, near the shore, poses many problems particularly with its impact
on the environment. The results of a study examining this aspect include
(a) the influence of the island on local wave climate or swell, consequent
shoreline changes, tidal currents, and the resulting evolution of the
sandy seabed; and (b) the dispersion of industrial effluents.

The effect of the island on swell and on shore stability and the
calculation of pollutant dispersion are approached by the use of mathe-
matical models; the effect of the island on tidal currents is analyzed
on a reduced-scale physical model.

110. LEYPOLDT, H., ''Shoreline Formation by Currents," Shore and Beach,
Vol. 9, No. 1, Jan. 1941, pp. 14-17, 29-31. Discussions by
M.P. O'Brien, Apr. 1941, p. 46; O.F. Evans, Apr. 1941, pp. 46-47;
Closure, Apr. 1942, p. 21.

Keywords: Accretion, California (Santa Monica), Crenulate-shaped bay,
Currents, Downdrift beaches, Littoral transport, Shipwrecks,
Tombolo

Littoral oceanic currents induce eddy currents in the lee of
promontories, either natural or artificial, and thereby shape the shore-
line to some form of the logarithmic spiral, r = e®°. Construction of
jetties or breakwaters extending into the currents causes the spiral
shoreline to form, resulting in beach erosion and prograding. The severe
erosion of southern California beaches is discussed. Beach changes are
independent of size of sand, beach slopes, depths in the foreshore, pre-
vailing winds, or other causes, except for currents--littoral, eddy, or
estuarial.

111. LIU, P.L.F., and MEI, C.C., "Effects of a Breakwater on Nearshore
Currents Due to Breaking Waves,"' Report No. 192, Ralph M. Parsons
Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Mass.,
Sept. 1974.

Keywords: Accretion, Currents, Detached breakwater, Littoral transport,
Numerical model, Tombolo, Wave diffraction, Wave refraction

This study provides a semiempirical theory of nearshore currents
due to breaking waves in the presence of (a) a shore-connected breakwater
or (b) an offshore breakwater. The effects of diffraction and refraction
by shoaling waters are studied. Sample results for stream functions and
mean sea levels are plotted for various beach profiles or incidence angles.

For the offshore breakwater, the predicted current pattern is consistent

with available laboratory observations and the known tendency of tombolo

formation. For the shore-connected breakwater, the computed flow pattern
exhibits cells in both down-wave and up-wave regions.

112. LIU, P.L.F., and MEI, C.C., "Water Motion on a Beach in the Presence
of a Breakwater, 1. Waves, 2. Mean Currents," Journal of Geophysical
Research, Vol. 81, No. 18, June 1976, pp. 3079-3094.

Keywords: Accretion, Currents, Detached breakwater, Littoral transport,
Numerical model, Tombolo, Wave diffraction, Wave refraction

For a long breakwater on a slowly varying bottom, an asymptotic
theory is given which accounts for the combined effects of refraction
and Fresnel diffraction of water waves. Numerical examples are given
for an offshore breakwater and an isolated jetty.

A semiempirical theory of breaking-induced mean currents on a beach
is developed to study the combined effects of refraction and diffraction.
With the omission of convective inertia and lateral turbulent diffusion,
the resulting averaged equations are solved by finite differences. The
case of an offshore breakwater is studied in detail, and the predicted
current pattern is consistent with laboratory observations and the known
tendency of tombolo formation near sandy beaches. Numerical results for
an isolated breakwater extending from the shore are also presented.

113. LO GATTO, D., "Construction of Ports on Sandy Shores,'' Report to
SII-Q3, XIth International Navigation Congress, Saint Petersburg,
U.S.S.R., 1908.

Keywords: Accretion, Detached breakwater, Downdrift beaches, Italy
(Chiavari and Salerno), Littoral transport, Segmented break-
water, Tombolo

The construction of ports on sandy coasts presents serious prob-
lems to the designer. Provision must be made for dealing with the
littoral materials moving down the coast. Port structures can be either
perpendicular to shore as jetties or parallel to shore as detached break-
waters. Detached breakwaters at Salerno and Chiavari have been used to
protect eroding shorelines where the use of groins had previously failed.
The placement of harbor structures must be planned to eliminate or reduce
required maintenance dredging. To achieve this end, the idea of a "neu-
tral axis" is presented. Seaward of the neutral axis no material can be
moved to the shore.

114. LOGACHEV, L.A., LYZLOV, L.A., and MIROSHNICHENKO, V.G., Untitled
report to SII-S2 (Means of Controlling Littoral Drift to Protect
Beaches, Dunes, Estuaries, and Harbor Entrances. Establishment of
Artificial Beaches), XXIIId International Navigation Congress,
Ottawa, 1973, pp. 259-275.

Keywords: Beach fill, Concrete structures, Continuous breakwater, Cur-
rents, Foundation design, Hydraulic model (two-dimensional),
Structural dimensions, Structural stability, Submerged break-
water, U.S.S.R. (Crimea and Odessa), Wave attenuation, Wave
pressure, Wave setup

The knowledge of the nature of currents in the coastal zone is
important for the successful completion of many design problems. The
choice of approach channel tracks and the drifting of those channels are
typical problems that require an understanding of coastal currents. Arti-
ficial beaches have been maintained along the Black Sea coast through the
use of submerged, concrete breakwaters constructed parallel to shore.
Design considerations are outlined.

115. LONGUET-HIGGINS, M.S., "On the Trapping of Wave Energy Round
Islands," Journal of Flutd Mechanics, Vol. 29, Pt. 4, Sept. 1967,
pp. 781-821.

Keywords: Offshore island, Wave setup

Islands can trap long-wave energy in a way similar to the capture
of a particle of an atomic nucleus. The frequencies of the captured
waves form a discrete set and are determined by the shape of the island
and the contours of the surrounding seabed. If the depth at great dis-
tances tends to a constant value, the trapped modes leak some energy to
infinity, though the consequent rate of decay may be exceedingly small.
The initial energy of the trapped modes may be absorbed from incident
radiation of the same frequency or from a sharp pulse. The particular
example of a rectilinear pulse incident on a circular island is discussed
in some detail.

116. LONGUET-HIGGINS, M.S., "On the Wave-Induced Difference in Mean Sea
Level Between the Two Sides of a Submerged Breakwater," Journal of
Marine Research, Vol. 25, No. 2, Feb. 1967, pp. 148-153.

Keywords: Submerged breakwater, Wave reflection, Wave setup, Wave
transmission

Simple formulas are derived for the difference in mean level
between the two sides of a submerged breakwater when waves are incident
at an arbitrary angle. The formulas apply also to waves undergoing re-
fraction due to changes in depth and to waves in open channel transitions.

117. LYZLOV, L.A., "Experimental Investigations of Various Types of
Coastal Protective Underwater Breakwaters,'' Trudy Okeanograficheskoi
Komissii, Vol. 12, 1961.

118. LYZLOV, L.A., "Sea Submerged Breakwaters,'' Transportnoe Stroitstvo,
No. 5, 1962, pp. 42-44 (in Russian).

Keywords: Concrete structures, Submerged breakwater

119. LYZLOV, L.A., "Calculation of Underwater Coast Reinforcement Break-
waters for Wave Damping,'' Trudy Akademiianauk, Estonskoi, U.S.S.R.,
1966.

120. LYZLOV, L.A., "Design of Submerged Shore-Protection Breakwaters
for Wave Suppression," Transactions of the Setenttfie Coordinating
Sesston, Oceanographic Commission of the Academy of Sciences,
U.S.S.R., 1966.

121. MAGOON, 0.T., "Offshore Breakwaters at Winthrop Beach, Massachu-
setts, Shore and Beach, Vol. 44, No. 3, Oct. 1976, p. 34. Discus-
Sionuby Pass ROSeN WAP 977, up seo7 3, Closure) JApri) 11977) pa) Si

Keywords: Accretion, Massachusetts (Winthrop Beach), Segmented break-
water, Structural dimensions, Tombolo

Paper gives a brief history of the segmented detached breakwaters
at Winthrop Beach.

122. MAGOON, O.T., and EDGE, B.L., "Stabilization of Shorelines by Use
of Artificial Headlands and Enclosed Beaches,'' Coastal Zone '78,
OTSE Epp.) 1567-15710.

Keywords: Artificial headlands, Compartmented breakwater, Crenulate-
shaped bay, Detached breakwater

Paper presents a brief overview of the current use of coastal
structures, particularly enclosed beaches, detached breakwaters, and
artificial headlands.

123. MANOHAR, M., "Sediment Movement at South Indian Ports,'' Proceedings
of the Sixth Conference on Coastal Engineering, American Society
of Civil Engineers, Vol. 1, 1957, pp. 359-405.

Keywords: Accretion, Currents, Detached breakwater, Downdrift beaches,
India (Visakhapatnam), Littoral transport, Sand trap, Ship
hulls, Structural dimensions, Structure settlement

The mechanism of littoral transport is examined along with the
effect of structures on the littoral environment. The case histories
of several harbors are outlined. Visakhapatnam harbor has been improved
using a detached breakwater which acts as a sand trap to impound the
northerly moving littoral drift. The detached breakwater was formed by
sinking two ships and armoring them with rubble.

124. MARCONSULT/STUDIO VOLTA, "Interventi di Costruzione e Ricostruzione
di Spiagge in Liguria" (Beach Construction and Reconstruction Opera-
tions in Liguria), La Martna Mercantile, Vol. 29, No. 3, Mar. 1976,
pp. 11-17 (in Italian--translation available in CERC library).

Keywords: Beach fill, Italy (Amelia, Ceriale, Imperia, Ligure, and
Loano), Offshore island

This study examines several case histories in which artificial off-
shore islands, or island platforms, were used to stabilize eroding beaches
in Italy, along with beach fills.

125. MARKLE, D.G., and CARVER, R.D., "Breakwater Stability Study,
Imperial Beach, California,'' Technical Report H-77-22, U.S. Army
Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Miss., Dec. 1977.

Keywords: Armor stability, California (Imperial Beach), Hydraulic model
(two-dimensional), Rubble mound, Structural stability, Sub-
merged breakwater, Wave overtopping

A 1:16-scale, undistorted hydraulic model was tested to determine
stable rubble sections to protect a beach fill at Imperial Beach. Four
adequate plans were selected out of 21 tested for structure sites at the
-5 and -10 mean lower low water contours. One plan at each site was for
a continuous high-sill structure and the other was for an alternating
high- and low-sill structure.

126. MASHIMA, Y., "Stable Configuration of Coast Line," Coastal Engineer-
tng in Japan, Tokyo, Japan, Vol. 4, 1961, pp. 47-59.

Keywords: Crenulate-shaped bay, Littoral transport

The beach prism consists of many kinds of materials ranging from
soft clays to durable rocks. These are arranged according to the severity
of the local wave climate. If the coastal material is uniform, the
shoreline will maintain a stable configuration and slope. Capes, head-
lands, or strong groins resist wave action and influence neighboring
coastlines. They are the fixed points on the configuration of the shore-
line. Between the adjoining fixed points, the beach materials are usually
uniform so that the coast maintains its shoreline configuration and slope.
The supply of materials around these fixed points will be related to the
depth adjacent to the fixed points and to the approaching directions of
the coastlines. This report describes the configurations of the coast-
line between fixed points.

127. MINIKIN, R.R., ‘Fundamentals of Coast Erosion and Defence," Pro-
ceedings of the Fifth Conference on Coastal Engineering, American
Society of Civil Engineers, 1954, pp. 448-470.

Keywords: Accretion, Armor stability, Compartmented breakwater, Con-
struction procedures, Detached breakwater, France (Anse des
Huttes, Arros, and Pointe de Grave), Italy (Chiavari), Littor-
al transport, Rubble mound, Segmented breakwater, Structural
dimensions, Wave attenuation

The difficulties of hydrodynamic studies are too well known to
emphasize except to underline the fact that most popular quantitative
formulas are of a semiempirical nature. This paper briefly examines
beach behaviour subjected to complex sea action, and the reasons and the
remedies usually proposed, or executed, for given conditions in various
countries.

128. MONTEFUSCO, L., ''The Diffraction of a Plane Wave By an Isolated
Breakwater ,'' Meccanteca (Journal of the Italian Association of
Theoretical and Applied Mechanics), Vol. 3, 1968, pp. 156-166.

Keywords: Detached breakwater, Wave diffraction

The diffraction of a plane wave incident on an isolated breakwater
was studied, and the exact solution of the problem is briefly reported.
A general method involving energies is used to determine comparative
importance of the terms in the series which appear in the solution.
Numerical calculations were done for 12 different cases, with the wave-
length of the incident wave comparable to the length of the breakwater.

129.. MORISON, J.R., "Model Study of Wave Action on Underwater Barriers,"
Report No. HE-116-304, Fluid Mechanics Laboratory, University of
California, Berkeley, Calif., July 1949.

Keywords: Hydraulic model (two-dimensional), Submerged breakwater,
Wave attenuation, Wave transmission

The results of experiments in connection with submerged barriers
in the path of model waves indicate that the most effective position of
the barrier would be in shallow water of d/H = 2.0 to 2.5; i.e., directly
at the breaking point. Indications are that the most effective heights
of the barrier are more than two-thirds of the water depth. This condi-
tion gives less than a wave height of water over the barrier. From the
standpoint of the waves, the relatively long-period waves have more
transmission than do shorter waves, How far this analogy of model waves
can be carried with regard to ocean waves has not been demonstrated.

130. MORROW, C.T., "Diffraction of Ocean Waves About a Breakwater,"'
Journal of the Waterways and Harbors Divtston, Vol. 92, No. WW3,
Aug. 1966, pp. 25-44. Discussions by J. Miles and W. Munk, Feb.
1967, p. 111; R.E. Loudon and J.W. Dunham, May 1967, pp. 266-270;
Closure, Nov. 1967, pp. 237-240.

Keywords: Detached breakwater, Wave diffraction

The diffraction about the end of a one-arm or detached breakwater
is analyzed here in such a way as to yield the total wave power enter-
ing the mouth and measure the performance of a breakwater-marina system.
A formula, derived from the Kirchhoff theory of diffraction, is used to
obtain the total wave power entering the marina mouth. A comparison is
made of the overall performances of the marina with and without the
breakwater.

131. NAGAI, S., and KUBO, N., ''Studies on Detached Breakwaters,'' Proceed-
ings of the 17th Conference on Coastal Engineering itn Japan, 1970,
pp. 317-322 (in Japanese).

Keywords: Accretion, Compartmented breakwater, Continuous breakwater,
Currents, Hydraulic model (three-dimensional), Littoral
transport, Movable bed, Segmented breakwater, Tombolo,

Wave attenuation

The two major purposes of an offshore breakwater are to prevent
erosion and to protect structures on the shore. Studies on offshore
breakwaters have included experiments in two dimensions, monitoring of
existing breakwaters, and determinations of transmitted wave heights on
submerged breakwaters. There are few studies on the three-dimensional
effects of offshore breakwaters on shore processes.

This study determines the design and positioning of offshore break-
waters not only to prevent shore erosion, but to promote an accumulation
of littoral material to lessen the nearshore slope and to maximize the
area of the sandy beach. The model chosen for the study was Kasumi Bay,
northern Hyogo Prefecture, facing the Sea of Japan. Waves on this coast
occur mainly during the winter, caused by seasonal winds. When winter
storms pass through, the coast is subjected to continuous waves with
heights of several meters for periods of 2 to 3 days.

132. NAGAI, S., and SEO, G., "Constructions of Small Commercial and
Fishery Harbours on Sandy Coasts in Japan,'' Report to SII-S2
(Means of Controlling Littoral Drift to Protect Beaches, Dunes,
Estuaries, and Harbor Entrances. Establishment of Artificial
Beaches) , XXIIId Internattonal Navtgatton Congress, Ottawa, 1973,
pp. 97-119.

Keywords: Accretion, Hydraulic model (three-dimensional), Japan (Seppu),
Littoral transport, Sand trap, Tombolo

This report discusses Japanese fishery, one of Japan's primary
industries. Subjects of discussion include: Japan's geographical and
environmental conditions, the outline of the fishing industry and fishing
ports, a general idea of the fishing port construction on Japanese sandy
beaches, and two fishing ports as examples in recent constructions with
littoral drift problems and their countermeasures.

133. NAKAMURA, M., SHIRAISHI, H., and SASAKI, Y., "Wave Damping Effect
of Submerged Dike," Proceedings of the 10th Conference on Coastal
Engtneering, American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 1, 1966,
pp. 254-267 (also appeared in Proceedings of the 18th Conference
on Coastal Engineering tn Japan, 1966, pp. 76-79).

Keywords: Hydraulic model (two-dimensional), Submerged breakwater,
Wave attenuation, Wave transmission

Wave energy is dissipated by a submerged breakwater when waves
break on the structure. Some of the remaining energy is dissipated by
reflection and friction on the crown of the submerged breakwater and
some is transmitted shoreward. In previously published reports, the

transmission coefficient has been obtained mainly by the observation of
wave reflection from the submerged structure. The theoretical analysis
of wave breaking is very difficult because of its complexity. However,
the wave energy dissipation by a submerged breakwater is maximized by
inducing the wave breaking on the structure.

This report mainly deals with energy dissipation due to breaking
on a submerged breakwater and offers experimental data for practical use.
To investigate the scale effect of the experimental results, a comparison
between experimental data and field data is presented.

134. NANCE, T.F., and HIROTA, P.M., "Magic Island . . . Ten Years After,"
Shore and Beach, Vol. 42, No. 2, Oct. 1974, pp. 19-22.

Keywords: Armor Stability, Beach fill, Environmental concerns, Hawaii
(Ala Wai Peninsula, Magic Island, and Waikiki), Littoral
transport, Rubble mound, Segmented breakwater, Structural
dimensions, Wave diffraction, Wave overtopping

In 1964 the Ala Wai Peninsula was completed as the first phase of
the Magic Island complex. The rest of the project was never constructed
because of environmental objections. The project utilizes a series of
detached breakwaters to retain a recreational beach. The performance of
the project after 10 years is evaluated.

135. NATAL' CHISHIN, G.D., "Determination of Wave Forces on Submerged
Shore Protection Breakwaters in Shallow Waters," Gidrotekhnicheskoe
Strottel'stvo, No. 4, Apr. 1974, pp. 42-44 (in Russian--trans lation
available in CERC library).

Keywords: Concrete structures, Hydraulic model (two-dimensional),
Structural stability, Submerged breakwater, U.S.S.R. (Odessa),
Wave attenuation, Wave pressure, Wave setup

The use of submerged concrete breakwaters has become widespread
in the Odessa region of the Black Sea coast. Investigations were made
and results are presented on the wave suppression effect, wave pressures,
wave setup, and maximum bed velocities to be used for design of these
structures.

136. NIHON TETRAPOD CORPORATION, 'Nihon No Uni To Riku" (Sea and Land of
Japan), Tokyo, Japan, 1976.

Keywords: Armor units, Detached breakwater, Japan (Hamada, Nishikinohama-
Kaizuka, and Shinmatsubara-Okagakicho), Segmented breakwater,
Structural dimensions, Tetrapods

A company brochure with illustrations of coastal projects in Japan.

Numerous color photos, maps, and figures are included, Several detached
breakwater installations are presented.

137. O'ROURKE, J.J., "Discussion on Beach Erosion Studies,'' Transacttons
of the American Soetety of Civtl Engtneers, Vol. 105, 1940, pp. 895-
898.

Keywords: Beach fill, Compartmented breakwater, Illinois (Lincoln Park-
Chicago), Structural dimensions, Wave attenuation

Unusually high Lake Michigan levels in 1929 caused erosion and
destruction of parts of Outer Drive in Chicago as it passed through
Lincoln Park. In 1930, a series of groins were constructed to protect
this section of beach. They were ineffective because of a lack of lit-
toral transport in this area. Submerged bulkheads were constructed in
1939 to retain a bathing beach fill. Their effectiveness is assessed.

138. OSADA, T., "Variation of Shorelines in the Vicinity of Harbors in
Niigata Prefecture,'' Proceedings of the Fifth Conference on Coastal
Engineering tn Japan, Japan Society of Civil Engineers, 1958, pp.
123-136 (in Japanese).

Keywords: Detached breakwater, Segmented breakwater

139. OZAKI, A., 'On the Effect of an Offshore Breakwater on the Mainte-
nance of a Harbor Constructed on a Sandy Beach," Proceedings of
the Ninth Conference on Coastal Engineering, American Society of
Civil Engineers, 1964, pp. 323-345.

Keywords: Accretion, Currents, Detached breakwater, Hydraulic model
(three-dimensional), Japan (Seppu), Littoral transport,
Movable bed, Sand trap

This paper describes an experimental attempt to prevent the rapid
blocking of a harbor entrance caused by littoral transport in the summer
period. This work was conducted at Seppu, a fishing harbor constructed
on a sandy beach in Hokkaido, Japan. This investigation was originally
sponsored by the Harbor Section of the Hokkaido Prefectural Office. One
of the top priority objectives, at that time, was to determine the effi-
ciency of two jetties constructed on the updrift side to counter the
littoral transport. Detailed observations, including preliminary model
experiments, were made from 1961 to 1963 on the general aspects (i.e.,
condition and phenomena) of the coast. Meterological data were also
compiled.

Based on the above, this paper suggests the utilization of natural
forces, i.e., waves, offshore currents, etc., by constructing an offshore
breakwater to curb the blockage of the harbor mouth.

140. PALA, F. and D'ARRIGO, A., Untitled report to SII-Q2 (Protection of

Coasts Against the Sea, With or Without Preponderating Coastal Drift
of Materials), XVth Internattonal Navtgatton Congress, Venice, 1931.

Keywords: Accretion, Detached breakwater, Italy (Posillipe and Salerno),
Segmented breakwater

Italian uses of detached breakwaters for shore protection are
discussed. Segmented structures at Salerno and a single detached break-
water at Posillipe have been effective. The growth of tombolos is
apparent at both locations.

141. PERAINO, J., et al., "Features of Various Offshore Structures,"
MP 3-75, U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research
Center, Fort Belvoir, Va., Apr. 1975.

Keywords: Accretion, Aesthetics, Armor stability, Beach fill, California
(Venice), Detached breakwater, Downdrift beaches, Littoral
transport, Massachusetts (Winthrop Beach), Rubble mound, Seg-
mented breakwater, Structural dimensions, Tombolo

The classification and identification of some existing offshore
structures are presented as a means of comparison for various structures
from the technical, environmental, and economic aspects. A bibliography
follows each structure description.

142. PERLIN, M., ''Predicting Beach Planforms in the Lee of a Breakwater,"
Proceedings of the Coastal Structure '79 Spectalty Conference, Ameri-
can Society of Civil Engineers, 1979, pp. 792-808.

Keywords: Accretion, Detached breakwater, Numerical model, Tombolo

A numerical model is developed which predicts beach planforms in
the lee of a shore-parallel structure. Diffraction and refraction are
included in the implicit finite-difference scheme. Three physical models
and several dimensionless cases are presented.

143. RAMAN, H., JOTHI SHANKAR, N., and DATTATRI, J., ''Submerged Break-
waters ,'' Journal of the Central Board of Irrigation and Power,
New Delhi, India, Vol. 34, No. 2, Apr. 1977, pp.205-212.

Keywords: Submerged breakwaters, Wave attenuation

The mechanism of the damping action of a submerged breakwater and
a critical evaluation of the various theoretical and experimental studies
regarding submerged breakwaters are presented.

144. RAO, S.A.R., SOMAYAJULU, S.K., and SHANMUGHAM, A.T,, Untitled report
to SII-S2 (Means of Controlling Littoral Drift to Protect Beaches,
Dunes, Estuaries, and Harbor Entrances. Establishment of Artificial
Beaches), XXIIId Internattonal Navigatton Congress, Ottawa, 1973,
pp. 83-96.

Keywords: Accretion, Downdrift beaches, India (Visakhapatnam), Littoral
transport, Sand trap, Segmented breakwater, Ship hulls

This paper presents a study of the sand drift pattern along the
east coast of India with particular reference to harbor structures and

the protection measures adopted to restore the waterways and adjoining
beaches.

145. RAO, S.S., et al., "Island Breakwater at Visakhapatnam Port
(India) ,"" Report to SII-S1 (Breakwaters With Vertical and Sloping
Faces. Measurement of Waves. Study of Wave Forces. Methods of
Calculations), XXIst International Navigation Congress, Stockholm,
1965, pp. 77-92.

Keywords: Accretion, Armor stability, Armor units, Construction proce-
dures, Downdrift beaches, Hydraulic model (two-dimensional),
India (Visakhapatnam), Littoral transport, Rubble mound, Sand
trap, Segmented breakwater, Ship hulls, Structural dimensions,
Structure settlement, Tetrapods, Tribars, Wave pressure

The port of Visakhapatnam is protected from shoaling problems by
an offshore breakwater that acts as a sand trap and forms a sheltered
dredging basin. The breakwater is constructed of rubble armor over two
sunken ship hulls. The heavy wave conditions have necessitated extensive
rehabilitation efforts, the most recent of which was tested in a hydraulic
model.

146. REA, C.C., and KOMAR, P.D., "Computer Simulation Models of a Hooked
Beach Shoreline Configuration," Journal of Sedimentary Petrology,
Vol. 45, No. 4, Dec. 1975, pp. 866-872.

Keywords: Crenulate-shaped bay, Littoral transport, Numerical model,
Wave diffraction, Wave refraction

Computer simulation models are developed to investigate the forma-
tion of a hooked-beach shoreline shape in the lee of a rocky headland.
The modeling technique combines two one-dimensional cell systems alined
at right angles to each other so that beach erosion can proceed in two
directions. In the hooked part of the beach, the shape of the refracted-
diffracted wave front is an arbitrary function of the offshore wave
approach angle. The results indicate that the shape of the hooked beach
is dependent on the direction of wave approach, and the shape of the
refracted-diffracted wave front.

147. RIPLEY, H.C., ''Beach Erosion: Its Causes and Cure," Transactions
of the Amertean Soctety of Civil Engtneers, Vol. LXXXVII, 1924,
pp. 589-594. Discussions by C.W. Staniford, pp. 595-598; V.
Gelineau, pp. 598-601; E.J. Dent, pp. 601-604; M.C. Collins, pp.
604-605; C.S. Riche, pp. 605-606; and H.J. Sherman, pp. 606-608;
Closure, pp. 608-610.

Keywords: Accretion, Aesthetics, Brazil (Ceara), Concrete structures,
Currents, Detached breakwater, Downdrift beaches, France
(Anse des Huttes and Pointe de Grave), Littoral transport,
Structural dimensions, Submerged breakwater, Wave attenuation

This paper specifically explains the principal causes of beach
erosion and accretion and determines the principles which control these
actions. Two examples are given, one in France and the other in Brazil,
where works have been constructed that fully illustrate the principles
enumerated, confirming the conclusion.

148. SAKURAMOTO, H., HORIKAWA, K., and SASAKI, T., ''Prediction of Shore-
line Changes Due to Coastal Structures," Proceedings of the 32d
Annual Convention, Japan Society of Civil Engineers.

149. SASAKI, T., "Simulation on Shoreline and Nearshore Current,'' Pro-
ceedings of the Conference on Civil Engineering in the Oceans III,
American Society of Civil Engineers, 1975, pp. 179-196.

Keywords: Accretion, Currents, Detached breakwater, Downdrift beaches,
Littoral transport, Numerical model, Tombolo, Wave diffraction

Two simulation models on nearshore environments were developed.
The first model is for predicting shoreline deformation behind a detached
breakwater placed parallel to the shoreline, and the second is for simu-
lating currents in the nearshore zone under the influence of an arbitrary
bottom topography. The former model was tested by laboratory experiments
(Horikawa and Koizumi, 1974), and the latter was verified by field obser-
vations.

150. SASAKI, T., "A State-of-the-Art Summary of Techniques for the
Prediction of Beach Changes Due to a Breakwater," Report No. 1,
Nearshore Environment Research Center, Tokyo, 1976 (in Japanese).

151. SASAKI, T., and SAKURAMOTO, H., ''Field Verification of a Shoreline
Simulation Model," Proceedings of the Internattonal Conference on
Water Resources Engineering, Bangkok, Thailand, 1978.

Keywords: Detached breakwater, Littoral transport, Numerical model,
Tombolo, Wave diffraction

Several numerical treatments have been presented to predict shore-
line changes under natural conditions such as at river deltas and around
headlands, as well as the changes brought about by the erection of man-
made structures such as groins, jetties, and breakwaters. However, few
discussions concerning the validity of these models have been made except
those based on laboratory data. This paper presents a verification of
the shoreline simulation model of Sasaki (1975), using very precise field
data regarding the shoreline and wave conditions, particularly those on
wave direction. Satisfactory agreement is found for engineering purposes
in predicting shoreline changes near a breakwater.

152. SATO, N., and MITSUHASHI, H., "A Means of Preventing Filling of a
Harbor Entrance Along a Coast With Alongshore Sand Transport,"
Proceedings of the 16th Conference on Coastal Engineering tn Japan,
Japan Society of Civil Engineers, 1969, pp. 125-130 (in Japanese).

Keywords: Accretion, Currents, Detached breakwater, Hydraulic model
(three-dimensional), Littoral transport, Movable bed, Tombolo,
Wave attenuation

The article discusses experimental data for a harbor where offshore
dikes and training levees are combined to counteract filling of the harbor
entrance on a coast with longshore littoral transport. Included is an
experimental study of the possibility of preventing filling of the harbor
entrance through use of different harbor shapes.

153. SATO, S.I.I., and HORIE, T., "Study of Coastal Erosion of Inner
Bay," Report No. 28, Studies of the Eroston on the Coast of Toyama
Bay, Reports of Cooperative Research for Disaster Prevention,
National Research Center for Disaster Prevention, Japan, Feb. 1972,
pp. 87-112 (in Japanese).

Keywords: Accretion, Currents, Detached breakwater, Hydraulic model
(three-dimensional), Japan (Toyama Bay), Littoral transport,
Movable bed, Sand tracer study, Sediment gradations

Field observations and model experiments were conducted to clarify
the characteristics of erosion in Toyama Bay, one of the most eroded
coasts in Japan. Some countermeasures for preventing coastal erosion
are offered.

The results from observations of longshore current by floats and
of longshore drift by fluorescent tracers, topographic survey, sediment
analysis, nearshore scour measurements, and model experiments (in both
fixed and movable beds) are given. The characteristics of coastal ero-
sion in Toyama Bay were found to be well associated with the irregular
distributions of waves and longshore currents due to topographical com-
plexities.

154. SAUVAGE DE SAINT MARC, M.G., and VINCENT, M.G., "Transport Littoral
Formation de Fleches et de Tombolos" (Littoral Drift Formation of
Spits and Tombolos), Proceedings of the Ftfth Conference on Coastal
Engineering, American Society of Civil Engineers, 1954, pp. 296-328.

Keywords: Currents, Detached breakwater, Hydraulic model (three-
dimensional), Littoral transport, Movable bed, Tombolo

This paper is devoted to the study of phenomena connected with the
evolution of sandbanks (littoral spits and tombolos). These formations
are of interest to the engineer responsible for the construction of ports
on sandy coasts.

An attempt was made to determine the influence on littoral drift of
such factors as: wave characteristics, wave steepness, the inclination
of the wave crests breaking on the beach, and the nature of the beach
material. The formation of certain types of tombolos found in nature is
also described.

155. SAVILLE, T., Jr., and WATTS, G.M., Untitled report to SII-S4 (Coastal
Regime--Carriage of Material by Swell and Currents, Model Studies
and In-Situ Observations. Influence of Port Structures. Coastal
Defense Works. Breakwaters), XXIId Internattonal Navigation
Congress, Paris, 1969, pp. 249-271.

Keywords: Accretion, California (Channel Islands), Detached breakwater,
Downdrift beaches, Littoral transport, Sand trap

This paper discusses recent laboratory and field studies in the
United States which are considered pertinent to development of a better
understanding of the interaction of the beach and the littoral zones with
and without manmade structures.

156. SAXENA, P.C., VAIDYARAMAN, P.P., and SRINIVASAN, R., "Design and
Behavior of Sandtraps in Regions of High Littoral Drift," Proceed-
tings of the 15th Conference on Coastal Engineering, American Society
of Civil Engineers, Vol. 2, 1976, pp. 1377-1393.

Keywords: Accretion, Detached breakwater, Hydraulic model (three-
dimensional), India (Visakhapatnam), Littoral transport,
Movable bed, Sand trap

The use of sand traps to contain littoral transport at several
Indian ports is illustrated. The port of Visakhapatnam is served by a
sunken ship detached breakwater which has acted as a sand trap. Expan-
sion of the port facilities has required model testing and construction
of a new detached breakwater and sand trap seaward of the original one.

157. SHINOHARA, K., and TSUBAKI, T., "Model Study on the Change of
Shoreline of Sandy Beach by the Offshore Breakwater,'' Proceedings
of the 10th Conference on Coastal Engineering, American Society of
Civil Engineers, Vol. 1, 1966, pp. 550-563,

Keywords: Accretion, Detached breakwater, Hydraulic model (three-
dimensional), Littoral transport, Movable bed, Structural
dimensions, Tombolo, Wave diffraction

This paper presents the results of an experiment to clarify shore-
line changes caused by the construction of offshore breakwaters, the
amount of sand deposits within the region sheltered by the breakwater,
and sand movements on the beach as it deforms to an equilibrium profile.
Initial profiles were made by the waves of steepness, 6, = 0.0192 and
So = 0.0461, and then new equilibrium profiles were formed with waves of
the same steepness with an offshore breakwater present,

158. SHIRAISHI, N., NUMATA, A., and HASE, N., ''The Effect and Damage of

Submerged Breakwater in Niigata Coast,"' Coastal Engineering in Japan,

Vol. 3, 1960, pp. 89-99 (also appeared in Proceedings of the Fifth
Conference on Coastal Engineering in Japan, Japan Society of Civil
Engineers, 1958, pp. 189-195) (in Japanese).

2)8)

Keywords: Accretion, Armor units, Compartmented breakwater, Downdrift
beaches, Littoral transport, Local scour, Rubble mound, Struc-
ture settlement, Submerged breakwater, Wave attenuation, Wave
transmission

Beach erosion is a serious problem on the Niigata Coast where the
shoreline has receded more than 300 meters during the past 50 years.
This tendency was accelerated after the completion of a floodway on the
Shinano River which caused a considerable decrease of sediment supply
to this coast. A submerged breakwater was constructed about 500 meters
from the shoreline to protect the eroded coast. This paper discusses
the effect of the breakwater on wave transmission and on the deposition
of sand, using the results of field observations by the Office of Shinano
River Works, Niigata Prefecture.

159. SHIRDAN, L., Untitled report to SII-S1 (Breakwaters With Vertical
and Sloping Faces. Measurement of Waves. Study of Wave Forces.
Methods of Calculation), XXIst Internattonal Navigation Congress,
Stockholm, 1965, pp. 101-109.

Keywords: Accretion, Armor stability, Composite structures, Construction
procedures, Detached breakwater, Gabions, Israel (Nahariya and
Tel Baruch-Tel-Aviv), Local scour, Rubble mound, Structural
dimensions, Wave attenuation, Wave overtopping

Failures of low breakwaters are often induced by washouts of the
landward slopes by overtopping waves. A low breakwater at Nahariya,
Israel, was damaged on numerous occasions and a successful treatment
for the landward slope was not found until PVC-coated gabions were tried.
The results have been promising. The use of gabions on the landward slope
has been introduced into the design of a,similar structure at Tel Baruch.

160. SILVESTER, R., "Offshore Breakwaters,'' Journal of the Waterways and
Harbors Dtvtston, Vol. 83, No. WW3, Sept. 1957, pp. 1368-1--1368-15.

Keywords: Accretion, Detached breakwater, Hydraulic model (three-
dimensional), Littoral transport, Tombolo, Wave attenuation,
Wave diffraction

The determination of wave heights and patterns for waves diffracted
-by an infinitely long breakwater, or by a breakwater gap, has been based
on the theoretical solution for optical diffraction. Correct results
are obtainable at distances in the shadow zone many wavelengths from the
breakwater, but within an area of three wavelengths the results are
erroneous. Offshore breakwaters of limited length must be studied if
their use in preventing beach erosion is to be successful, The main
factor to be considered is the wave pattern close to the breakwater.
Model tests for wave patterns with two different lengths of breakwater
and waves of different steepnesses are described and results presented
in a form suitable for application.

161. SILVESTER, R., "Stabilization of Sedimentary Coastlines," Nature,
Vol. 188, No. 4749, Nov. 1960, pp. 467-469.

Keywords: Accretion, Artificial headlands, Crenulate-shaped bay,
Hydraulic model (three-dimensional), Littoral transport,
Movable bed, Tombolo

A sedimentary coastline with a predominant direction of swell tends
to develop crenulate-shaped bays between adjacent headlands. This has
been verified by model experiments described here. The use of artificial
headlands would stabilize eroding shorelines by promoting growth of min-
iature crenulate-shaped bays, providing wide beaches to protect backshore
areas.

162. SILVESTER, R., "Sediment Movement Around the Coastlines of the
World,'' Proceedings of the Conference on Civil Engineering Problems
Overseas, Institution of Civil Engineers, 1962, pp. 14-1--14-15.

Keywords: Artificial headlands, Crenulate-shaped bays, Hydraulic model
(three-dimensional), Littoral transport, Movable bed

Ocean waves and their action on beaches are discussed with emphasis
on the two classifications, storm and swell, and on the repetitive nature
of their occurrence. Discussion of beach processes explains the impor-
tance of the persistent swell in sediment movement.

A model investigation is described in which waves from an oblique
direction eroded a straight sedimentary coastline until a stable bay
shape was formed about fixed headlands, A similar shape was seen to
occur in nature as is observed, for example, on Admiralty Charts. The
orientation of these bays was related to the direction of the predominant
swell and hence of the net sediment movement along the coast. Sediment
movement for the coastlines of the world was determined from the Admiralty
Charts. The significance of such data for the design of maritime struc-
tures is discussed.

163. SILVESTER, R., ''Beach Profiles and Littoral Drift Assessment,"
La Houtlle Blanche, Grenoble, France, Vol. 24, No. 6, 1969, pp.
615-621.

Keywords: Artificial headlands, Crenulate-shaped bay, Littoral transport,
Sand tracer study, Wave refraction

Typical or standard beach profiles, if established for a given wave
climate and sediment characteristic, could be useful for measuring sta-
bility. The balance of volumes in a storm and swell profile would permit
the assessment of imminent beach degradation. The many formulas derived
for littoral current and littoral drift need attention as also the many
practical variables involved in their measurement, Greater cognizance
should be taken of sediment transport offshore from the surf zone,

164. SILVESTER, R., ''Coastal Defense,"' Proceedings of the Institutton
of Civil Engineers, Vol. 45, 1970, pp. 677-682.

Keywords: Accretion, Artificial headlands, Beach fill, Crenulate-shaped
bay, Littoral transport, Wave diffraction, Wave reflection,
Wave refraction

Coastal defense incorporates the results of sediment motion (erosion
or accretion) along the shore. Although much of this activity is in the
surf zone, the ultimate stability of the shoreline is determined by tend-
encies seaward of the zone. The effectiveness of groins depends on their
location within bays formed between headlands. Such naturally formed bays
indicate a beach control system by headland-type structures. The natural
bypassing of sediment across harbor and river mouths might be achieved by
promoting wave reflection. Short-crested waves could maintain the sedi-
ment in quasi-suspension during passage across the entrance channel.
Seawalls and revetments constructed on sedimentary coasts only aggravate
the erosion problem they are designed to mitigate, because of the influ-
ence of wave reflection. Hence, the influence of reflected waves in the
near and offshore zone is of great importance. Causes of erosion should
be determined before beach renourishment is undertaken on a large scale.
All factors combine in an estuary to produce siltation.

165. SILVESTER, R., "Growth of Crenulate Shaped Bays to Equilibrium,"
Journal of the Waterways and Harbors Dtviston, Vol. 96, No. WW2,
May 1970, pp. 275-287.

Keywords: Artificial headlands, Crenulate-shaped bay, Hydraulic model
(three-dimensional), Littoral transport, Movable bed, Sand
tracer study, Wave diffraction, Wave refraction

Crenulate-shaped bays are prominent coastal features. If sediment
supply is not available, an equilibrium shape is reached. The shape and
orientation of the bays is a function of the persistent swell. The final
shape is independent of scale and depends only on the wave approach angle.

166. SILVESTER, R., "Coastal Engineering, I - Generation, Propagation
and Influence of Waves,'' Developments tn Geotechnical Engineering,
Vol. 4A, Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, Amsterdam, The
Netherlands, 1974, pp. 217-260, 301-366.

Keywords: Pile arrays, Submerged breakwater, Wave diffraction, Wave
reflection, Wave refraction, Wave transmission

A textbook of coastal engineering with an emphasis on the needs of
the practicing design engineer. This volume concentrates on wave theory
and wave-related subjects such as diffraction, refraction, etc.

167. SILVESTER, R., ''Coastal Engineering, II - Sedimentation, Estuaries,
Tides, Effluents and Modeling," Developments in Geotechnical Engt-
neering, Vol. 4B, Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, Amsterdam,
The Netherlands, 1974, pp. 71-100, 127-148.

Keywords: Accretion, Artificial headlands, Beach fill, Crenulate-shaped
bay, Currents, Detached breakwater, Downdrift beaches, Hydrau-
lic model (three-dimensional), Littoral transport, Movable bed,
Wave diffraction, Wave reflection, Wave refraction

A textbook on coastal engineering with an emphasis on the needs of
the practicing design engineer. This volume deals mostly with shoreline
processes, coastal defense, and hydraulic modeling.

168. SILVESTER, R., "What Makes A Good Surfing Beach," Proceedings of
the Second Australtan Conference on Coastal and Ocean Engineering,
The Institution of Engineers, 1975, pp. 30-37.

Keywords: Crenulate-shaped bay, Recreation

From all aspects of surfing, a mildly sloped beach produces better
waves than a steeply sloped beach. The extra demand for board riding in
plunging breakers is for a reasonably slow-peeling rate, which requires
an extreme approach angle of breaking waves to bed contours. The crenu-
late-shaped bay, either as a natural or manmade feature, can supply the
variety of conditions demanded by the body or board surfer. Thus, sta-
bilization and recreation might be served by the same headland approach.

169. SILVESTER, R., "Comments to Article: Sands Protect Sea Walls at
Bournemouth Resort ,'' World Dredging and Marine Constructton, Vol.
12, No. 4, Mar. 1976, pp. 36-37.

Keywords: Artificial headlands, Beach fill, Crenulate-shaped bay,
Sandbags, Singapore, Structural dimensions

An appeal is made for consideration of the use of artificial head-
lands to form crenulate bays which would stabilize an eroding coast.
The headlands would protect a new beach fill and could be constructed
of massive polyethylene sandbags.

170. SILVESTER, R., "Headland Defense of Coasts," Proceedings of the
15th Conference on Coastal Engineering, American Society of Civil
Engineers, Vol. 2, 1976, pp. 1394-1406.

Keywords: Accretion, Aesthetics, Artificial headlands, Crenulate-shaped
bay, Design guidelines, Detached breakwater, Economic analysis,
Environmental concerns, Littoral transport, Sandbags, Struc-
tural dimensions, Tombolo

Crenulate-shaped bays are ubiquitous and constitute the largest
proportion of coastline length. The characteristics of stable bays
(i.e., no littoral drift) are known and realistic encroachment limits
can be defined. Allowances should be made for long-term changes in di-
rection of persistent swell and annual attack from multidirectional storm
waves. The exposure of a rock outcrop during an erosive sequence will
create a new fixed point on the coast and hence a new system of bays.

An existing nonstable bay can be prevented from indenting to its equili-
brium shape by the construction of one or more fixed points around its
periphery. Research should be conducted to minimize the cost of head-
lands which might start as offshore breakwaters, even mobile units.

171. SILVESTER, R., and HO, S.K., "Use of Crenulate Shaped Bays to
Stabilize Coasts,'' Proceedings of the 13th Conference on Coastal
Engineering, American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 2, 1972,
pp. 1347-1365.

Keywords: Artificial headlands, Crenulate-shaped bay, Design guidelines,
Gabions, Littoral transport, Recreation, Rubble mound, Sand
tracer study, Singapore, Structural dimensions, Wave diffrac-
tion, Wave refraction

Crenulate-shaped bays are common on coastal margins of oceans,
inland seas, or lakes where sedimentary beaches exist between headlands.
They have a particular orientation to the swell or resultant wave energy
vector, such that the straight tangent section is downcoast and the curved
part upcoast. The latter is a logarithmic spiral at all stages of devel-
opment of the bay. When fully stable, i.e., no littoral drift occurring,
the constant of the logspiral equation has a specific relationship to the
approach angle of the waves to the headland alinement. In this condition
it is known that diffraction and refraction are involved when waves sculp-
ture the curved beach in the lee of the upcoast headland. A further ratio
to identify stable bays appears to be the ratio of indentation length to
clearance between headlands. The application of crenulate-shaped bays to
stabilization of a reclaimed shoreline suffering strong littoral drift on
Singapore Island is described.

172. SILVESTER, R., and HO, S.K., ''New Approach to Coastal Defense,
Civtl Engineering, Vol. 44, No. 9, Sept. 1974, pp. 66-69. Discus-
sions by G.A Soucie, "Cape Hatteras, a Real Problem?" Nov. 1975,
pp. 62-63; C.W. Nelson, "Destroy Barrier Dunes,'' Nov. 1975, pp. 63-
64. Reply by R. Silvester, Nov. 1975, p. 64.

Keywords: Accretion, Aesthetics, Artificial headlands, Beach fill,
Construction procedures, Crenulate-shaped bay, Design guide-
lines, Environmental concerns, Gabions, Littoral transport,
Recreation, Rubble mound, Sandbags, Ship hulls, Singapore,
Structural dimensions, Tombolo

The standard structures for shore protection, seawalls and groins,
do not always perform as desired. They may fail to stop erosion of the
beach. Seawalls are sometimes undermined and fail, The concept of
“artificial headlands" appears generally to cost less and to perform
better. The idea was suggested by observation of natural headlands and
bays on the seacoasts of the world.

173. SILVESTER, R., and LIM, T.K., "Application of Wave Diffraction

Data,"' Proceedings of the 11th Conference on Coastal Engineertng,
American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 1, 1968, pp, 248-270.

Keywords: Hydraulic model (three-dimensional), Wave diffraction, Wave
reflection

By considering separately the two terms of the Sommerfield solution
of wave diffraction behind a semi-infinite breakwater, the influence of
the wave reflection from the structure can be evaluated. The diffraction
coefficient at any point can be obtained from a graph or table for full,
partial, or no reflection by the addition of two coefficients, Wave
heights were found to decrease consistently along the near-circular crests
for all distances from the breakwater tip. For a workable range of inci-
dent angle and distance from the breakwater, wave heights could be defined
by this arc distance from the shadow line expressed in wavelengths. These
relationships have been verified experimentally for all but the smallest
incident angle in proximity to the breakwater.

Several theoretical solutions for the breakwater gap are shown to
be very similar, diverging only for small incident angles. New parameters
are provided which greatly simplify the presentation of information. The
scatter of past experimental data precludes the verification of this
theory and indicates the need for further tests.

174. SIVARD, F.L., ''Building a Beach With an Offshore Sill, Singer
Island, Florida," Shore and Beach, Vol. 39, No. 1, Apr. 1971, pp.
42-44,

Keywords: Accretion, Compartmented breakwater, Construction procedures,
Florida (Singer Island), Littoral transport, Sandbags, Wave
attenuation

The use of a sill constructed parallel to the shoreline to assist
in building and stabilizing a beach is not new; however, this type of
structure has not been as accepted as groins, bulkheads, and seawalls.
This paper discusses the dramatic success of one particular installation
constructed of sandfilled nylon bags.

175. STIASSNIE, M., and DAGAN, G., "Wave Diffraction by Detached Break-
water,'' Journal of the Waterways, Harbors, and Coastal Engineering
Diviston, Vol. 98, No. WW2, May 1972, pp, 209-223. Discussion by
Y. Goda and T. Yoshimura, May 1973, pp, 285-288,

Keywords: Detached breakwater, Permeable breakwater, Wave diffraction

A thin barrier of finite length in water of finite depth and in-
finite extent is considered. An incident gravity wave, attacking an
obstacle from infinity, is diffracted and scattered by the thin barrier
(this represents a detached breakwater of large length to thickness ra-
tio). The potential wave energy (i.e., the wave height) in the region
surrounding the obstacle was computed. Maps of the state of the sea
near the barrier were used to evaluate the breakwater performance, there-
fore, improving the design. Computations are carried out for a monochro-
matic incident wave and an impervious obstacle. The solution is extended
to the cases of a pervious barrier and a random incident wave.

176. SUGAWARA, T., "Relationship Between the Height of Detached Break-
water and the Beach Profile," Proceedings of the 23d Conference on
Coastal Engineering in Japan, Japan Society of Civil Engineers,
1976, pp. 229-233 (in Japanese).

Keywords: Accretion, Detached breakwater

177. SUGIYAMA, M., ''Beach Erosion at Niigata West Coast ,'' Proceedings
of the Stxth Conference on Coastal Engineering in Japan, Japan
Society of Civil Engineers, 1959, pp. 36-44 (in Japanese).

Keywords: Currents, Japan (Niigata), Littoral transport

An analysis of the results obtained for winter surveys during fis-
cal years 1956, 1957, and 1958 on the problem of erosion and washout of
the Niigata coast is presented. The paper includes a description of the
data, and the mechanism of erosion and washout on the west coast of
Niigata, which was the main objective of the survey.

178. SWAN, B., "The Coast Erosion Hazard, Southwest Sri Lanka: A
Reconnaissance Study,'' No. 40, New England Research Series in
Applied Geography, Department of Geography, University of New
England, New Armidale, Australia, Dec. 1974.

Keywords: Detached breakwater, Sri Lanka

Coastal retreat due to erosion by the sea is experienced along
several segments of Sri Lanka's coastline. This report discusses the
erosion experienced on a section of the southwest coast, between Colombo
and Dondra Head. Here, dense human inhabitance compounds the gravity of
the problem as settlements, cultivable land, public installations, and
scenic tourist beaches are threatened by the sea,

179. TAKAHASHI, A., "The Wave Sheltering Effects for Fishing Harbors
Created by Using Offshore Breakwaters,'' Proceedings of the 17th
Conference on Coastal Engtneering in Japan, Japan Society of Civil
Engineers, 1970, pp. 91-96 (in Japanese).

Keywords: Hydraulic model (three-dimensional), Segmented breakwater,
Wave diffraction

180. TAKIUCHI, T., and ARAKI, H., "Coastal Erosion and the Secular
Change of Coastal Structures on the Coast of Toyama Bay (Final
Report) ,'' No. 28, Studtes on the Eroston of the Coast of Toyama
Bay (Report II), Reports of Cooperative Research for Disaster
Prevention, National Research Center for Disaster Prevention,
Science and Technology Agency, Tokyo, Feb, 1972 (in Japanese).

Keywords: Hexaleg blocks, Japan (Toyama Bay), Segmented breakwater,
Tombolo

A series of studies were conducted from 1968 to 1971 on the pro-
cess of erosion and the variation of function of coastal structures on
the coast of Toyama Bay. An analysis of the coastline changes which have
occurred during the past 10 years is made by comparing the shoreline plan
(scale: 1/5,000) drawn in 1957 with the plan made during the past 3 years
(1968-1971). The analysis revealed that the coastline on the east coast,
in particular, had receded by 50.0 to 70.0 meters. Research was conducted
to determine if there was a connection between the recession and the loca-
tion of rivers. Most of the recession occurred at the mouth of rivers.
Because of steep slopes at the mouth, most rivers flow rapidly into the
bay.

Based on the results of studies about the secular change of coastal
structures, types of shorelines and shore protection structures were
classified.

181. TANAKA, N., "Wave Damping and Beach Protection by a Submerged
Breakwater with a Wide Crest," Proceedings of the 23d Conference
on Coastal Engineering in Japan, Japan Society of Civil Engineers,
1976, pp. 152-170 (in Japanese).

Keywords: Submerged breakwater, Wave transmission

182. TAUMEN, J., "Enclosing Scheme for Bathing Beach Development ,"' Pro-
ceedings of the 15th Conference on Coastal Engineering, American
Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 2, 1976, pp. 1425-1438.

Keywords: Accretion, Compartmented breakwater, Environmental concerns,
Israel (Achziv and Bat-Yam), Littoral transport, Recreation,
Structural dimensions, Submerged breakwater, Wave attenuation

This paper presents a method for beach design which provides both
coastal protection for the beach and protection for the bathing public.
Reasons are given as to why the open sea foreshores are, in many cases,
unsuitable for recreation.

The method uses an enclosed submerged breakwater coupled with short
groins to provide a bathing beach with a safe swimming area and a con-
trolled sand plaza. Economical in execution and maintenance, the method
can be used for sandy or rocky coasts.

183. TOMINAGA, M., ''Field Observation of Wave Absorption by Offshore
Breakwaters ,"' Proceedings of the 18th Conference on Coastal Engt-
neering tn Japan, Japan Society of Civil Engineers, 1971, pp. 149-
154 (in Japanese).

184. TOMINAGA, M., and SAKAMOTO, T., ''Studies on Wave Deformation Due to
Permeable Coastal Structures (1) - On the Movement of Coastal Ground
Water and Wave Deformation Due to a Vertical Riprap Dike," Journal
of Research, Tokyo, Japan, Vol. 15, 1972, pp. 65-96,

Keywords: Hydraulic model (two-dimensional), Permeable breakwater,
Vertical breakwater, Wave reflection, Wave transmission

Wave motion through a permeable coastal structure such as a rip-
rap dike or a permeable breakwater is subject to resistance. If the
flow in a permeable structure is laminar, it is treated by considering
linear resistance. Such treatment is effective in the analysis of the
fluctuations of coastal ground water caused by the ebb and flow of tides,
and has produced satisfactory results in field tests for permeability
measurement.

If the flow is turbulent due to short-period waves such as wind
waves, the resistance is a function of Reynolds number. The analysis of
such a flow can be made by approximating the nonlinear resistance term
with a linear relationship. A typical example of nonlinear resistance,
the wave motion in a vertical riprap dike, was adopted and a theoretical
study was made on the ratios of wave transmission and reflection due to
the structure. Experiments were also conducted to determine transmission
and reflection characteristics of a riprap dike constructed in a wave
channel. The results of these experiments show a good fit between experi-
mental and theoretical values.

185. TOMINAGA, M., and SAKUMA, N., "Wave Overtopping on Coastal Dikes,"
Report of the Public Works Research Institute, Ministry of Construc-
tion, Tokyo, Japan, Vol. 143, Sept. 1972, pp. 59-94 (in Japanese).

Keywords: Concrete structures, Hydraulic model (two-dimensional),
Vertical breakwater, Wave overtopping

Wave overtopping of breakwaters has been investigated experimentally
to obtain data to be used in the design of the height of these structures.
Various models of breakwaters were set on a beach with a slope of 1:30,
and the volume of wave overtopping was measured. Wave overtopping on ver-
tical walls was studied in detail; the effects of the front slope, parapet
wall, and wind were determined by comparisons with the results of the ver-
tical wall tests.

The relationship between wave runup and wave overtopping was inves-
tigated, and a method of estimating wave overtopping was established.
The overtopping volume of the existing structure was calculated by this
method. It was found that wave absorbers should be placed seaward of
structures when the volume of wave overtopping is large.

186. TOURMEN, L., "The Creation of an Artificial Beach in Larvotto Bay-
Monte Carlo, Principality of Monaco," Proceedings of the 11th Con-
ference on Coastal Engineering, American Society of Civil Engineers,
Vol. 1, 1968, pp. 558-569.

Keywords: Beach fill, Compartmented breakwater, Monaco (Larvotto Beach-

Monte Carlo), Structural dimensions, Submerged breakwater,
Wave attenuation, Wave diffraction

One of the features of a recent Monaco Government modernization
scheme was an artificial beach in Larvotto Bay at Monte Carlo, which was
to offer first-class bathing and amenities matching the very high stand-
ard of urban development planned for the area. Most of the Monaco coast
is rocky and very steep, and the only places with a gradual slope down
to the sea were a few very inferior beaches the waves had formed with
widely varied materials from local builders' rubble dumps.

187. TOYOSHIMA, O., ''A Method for Constructing a Breakwater Away From
Shore," Proceedings of the 15th Conference on Coastal Engineering
in Japan, Japan Society of Civil Engineers, 1968, pp, 169-174
(in Japanese).

Keywords: Accretion, Detached breakwater, Foundation design, Segmented
breakwater

188. TOYOSHIMA, 0., "On the Height of Offshore Breakwaters," Proceed-
tings of the 16th Conference on Coastal Engineering in Japan, Japan
Society of Civil Engineers, 1969, pp. 247-252 (in Japanese).

Keywords: Foundation design, Segmented breakwater

189. TOYOSHIMA, O., "Statistical Considerations of Detached Breakwaters,"'
Proceedings of the 17th Conference on Coastal Engtneering tn Japan,
Japan Society of Civil Engineers, 1970, pp. 323-330 (in Japanese).

Keywords: Detached breakwater, Japan, Segmented breakwater

190. TOYOSHIMA, O., 'Detached Breakwaters,'' Coastal Engineering for the
Practicing Engineer: Eroston, Chapter 8, 1972, pp. 227-317 (in
Japanese).

Keywords: Accretion, Akmon armor units, Composite structure, Concrete
structures, Continuous breakwater, Design guidelines, Detached
breakwater, Downdrift beaches, Environmental concerns, Founda-
tion design, Hexaleg blocks, Hollow tetrahedron, Hydraulic
model (three-dimensional), Japan (Aomori, Atsumi, Ishizaki,
Kaizaka, Kanzaki, Kineichiyo, Maizuru, Maji, Niigata, Niishiki
Beach, Onejime, and Zenigamezawa), Littoral transport, Local
scour, Movable bed, Rubble mound, Segmented breakwater, Struc-
tural dimensions, Structure settlement, Submerged breakwater,
Tetrapods, Tombolo, Wave attenuation, Wave diffraction, Wave
setup, Wave transmission

The chapter gives a comprehensive look at beach erosion, its causes
and possible countermeasures, and examines in detail the use of detached
breakwaters. Topics discussed include wave attenuation effects and sand-
trapping mechanisms of these structures. The dimensions and effectiveness
of the existing detached breakwaters in Japan are listed in tabular form.
Design guidelines are given and case histories are described.

191. TOYOSHIMA, O., 'Design of a Detached Breakwater System," Proceedings
of the 14th Conference on Coastal Engtneeritng, American Society of
Civil Engineers, Vol. 2, 1974, pp. 1419-1431.

Keywords: Accretion, Armor units, Design guidelines, Detached break-
water, Environmental concerns, Hexaleg blocks, Japan (Ishizaki
and Niigata), Littoral transport, Segmented breakwater, Struc-
tural dimensions, Tombolo

As a countermeasure against beach erosion, a serious problem in
Japan, many preventive works, such as seawalls and groins, have been
constructed during the past 20 or more years. However, seawalls and
groins are not always effective in preventing beach erosion; in some
cases they accelerate erosion.

Based on the above, detached breakwater systems were tried as a
measure against beach erosion for the last 8 years, The purpose was
to develop sand deposition behind the structures. Several experimental
works were carried out and most of the tests were successful, The design
method of this system was based on the results of field investigations
conducted for more than 8 years.

192. (a) TOYOSHIMA, O., ''Changes of Sea Bed Due to Detached Breakwaters ,"'
Proceedings of the 15th Conference on Coastal Engineering,
American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 2, 1976, pp. 1572-
1583.

(b) TOYOSHIMA, O., "Countermeasure Against the Beach Erosion on
the Kaike Coast," Civil Engineering tn Japan, Japan Society of
CivalSEngineerssr Volye 1550 LOG mppi.. 20-517

Keywords: Accretion, Detached breakwater, Japan (Ishizaki and Kaike),
Littoral transport, Segmented breakwater, Structural dimen-
sions, Tombolo, Wave attenuation

The coastlines of the Japanese Island predominantly face the open
sea and are subject to attack by severe wave action. Beach erosion has
increased since the 1950's due to decreased sediment supply from rivers
and from interference with longshore sediment transport by manmade struc-
tures.

The shoreline at Kaike has receded about 200 meters since about
1920. Attempts to stabilize the beach using groins and seawalls was
largely unsuccessful during the period from 1947 to 1971. In September
1971, the first of a series of segmented, detached ‘breakwaters was con-
structed. These have caused the accretion of sediment and several tombo-
los have formed. The article describes the development of the Kaike
project and presents results of field surveys.

193. TRATMAN, E.E.R., "Submerged Barriers for Shore Protection,'' The
Engineer, Mar. 1940, pp. 226-228.

Keywords; Beach fill, Construction procedures, Illinois (Lincoln Park-
Chicago), Steel-sheet piling, Structural dimensions, Submerged
breakwater, Timber bulkhead, Wave attenuation

Severe beach erosion along the Lake Michigan shores at Chicago,
Illinois, was counteracted through the use of a submerged sill. The
timber structure had a crest elevation 3 feet below normal water level
and it successfully retained a beach fill,

194. U.S. ARMY ENGINEER DISTRICT, BUFFALO, "Cooperative Beach Erosion
Control Project at Lakeview Park, Lorain, Ohio, General Design
Memorandum, Phase II - Project Design,'' Buffalo, N.Y., June 1975.

Keywords: Accretion, Armor stability, Beach fill, Construction proce-
dures, Economic analysis, Environmental concerns, Foundation
design, Littoral transport, Ohio (Lakeview Park-Lorain),
Recreation, Rubble mound, Sediment gradations, Segmented
breakwater, Structural dimensions, Structural stability,
Wave attenuation, Wave diffraction, Wave overtopping, Wave
refraction, Wave transmission

This memorandum details the design of a beach fill at Lorain, Ohio.
The best alternative solution to stabilize the fill involved the construc-
tion of a three-segment, detached breakwater. The structures are situated
in accordance with a diffraction analysis discussed in this report. Other
design values are also determined.

195. U.S. ARMY ENGINEER DISTRICT, JACKSONVILLE, "Beach Erosion Control
Report on Cooperative Study of San Juan, Puerto Rico," Jacksonville,
Fla., Apr. 1961.

Keywords: Detached breakwater, Puerto Rico (San Juan)

An investigation of the causes and possible solutions of beach
erosion problems in the San Juan area is discussed, A detached break-
water for shore protection at the La Concha Hotel, San Juan, is mentioned.

196. U.S. ARMY ENGINEER DIVISION, PACIFIC OCEAN, "Hawaii Regional Inven-
tory of the National Shoreline Study," Honolulu, Hawaii, Aug. 1971.

Keywords: Beach fill, Detached breakwater, Hawaii (Haleiwa Beach)

A brief history is given of the erosion problems at Haleiwa Beach
which led to the construction of a detached breakwater in 1965.

197. U.S. ARMY ENGINEER DIVISION, PACIFIC OCEAN, "Water Resources
Development in Hawaii,'' Honolulu, Hawaii, Jan. 1975.
Keywords: Beach fill, Detached breakwater, Hawaii (Haleiwa Beach)

A brief history is given of the offshore breakwater used for shore
protection at Haleiwa Beach, Hawaii.

695

198. UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA, "Coastal Engineering Evaluation of Planned
Offshore Breakwater at Broward County Beach," Department of Coastal
and Oceanographic Engineering, Gainesville, Fla., June 1971.

Keywords: Accretion, Currents, Detached breakwater, Downdrift beaches,
Florida (Broward County Beach), Hydraulic model (three-
dimensional), Littoral transport, Segmented breakwater, Sub-
merged breakwater, Wave overtopping, Wave setup

Model tests to determine the quantity of littoral drift for various
crest elevations of an offshore breakwater at the Broward County Beach
were conducted. Wave heights on the lee side of the breakwater were
measured by theoretical and empirical methods, and the capacity of sand
transport for each breakwater height was determined. Four specific cases
were tested in detail: sand transport capacity without a breakwater
(i.e., the existing conditions) and sand transport with breakwater crest
elevations of +2, -2, and +0 feet above MSL. The range of wave heights
and water levels in the model tests covered the corresponding parameters
in nature.

199. UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN, "Bibliography on Beach Erosion and Related
Subjects,"’ Research Pub. No. 1, Department of Civil Engineering,
Lake Hydraulic Laboratory, 1950.

Keywords: Bibliography, Detached breakwater
A bibliography with abstracts.

200. VAJDA, M.L., DISKIN, M.H., and COHEN, A., "Manshiah Shore Develop-
ment, Breakwater and Seawall Model Investigation," Project No. 2926,
Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Hydraulic Laboratory, Haifa,
Feb. 1966.

Keywords: Accretion, Armor stability, Beach fill, Detached breakwater,
Hydraulic model (two-dimensional), Israel (Tel-Aviv), Local
scour, Movable bed, Rubble mound, Sediment sizes, Submerged
breakwater, Wave setup

Model studies of a seawall structure and of low and submerged break-
waters were carried out in the Hydraulics Laboratory of the Technion for
Hasmareng, Joint Consulting Engineers, for Manshiah Shore Development,
Tel-Aviv, on behalf of Achuzot Hachof Company Ltd. The object of the
studies was to determine experimentally the suitability of the various
shore protection structures proposed by Hasmareng engineers, as a part of
the feasibility study carried out by them for Achuzot Hachof Company, and
to recommend improvements.

201. VASCO COSTA, F., and FIUZA PERESTRELO, J., "Modification of the Sea
Bed With a View to Concentration and Dispersal of Sea Waves,'' The
Doek and Harbour Authority, London, Vol. 39, No. 460, Feb. 1959,
pp. 305-306.

Keywords: Wave attenuation, Wave refraction

If a submerged dam or raised area on the seabed is built, shaped
in plan like a prism, a wave traveling across it will undergo two devia-
tions: one when entering the prism and one when leaving it, just as with
a light ray passing through a prism of glass, In a similar way submerged
dams could be built having a plan the shape of a lens, thereby affecting
the wave orthogonals as glass lenses affect light rays.

202. VEDEL, P., 'Island Harbors and the Accumulation of Material Caused
by Detached Works,"' Transactions of the Amertcan Soctety of Civil
Engineers, 1905, pp. 139-158. Discussions by L.M. Haupt, pp. 351-
352; W.H. Hunter, pp. 354-355; A.E. Carey, pp. 380-381; Closure,
pp. 384-385.

Keywords: Accretion, Denmark (Arnager, Hundested, and Snogebaek), Design
guidelines, Littoral transport, Offshore island., Sediment sizes

An outline is given for a method of estimating (without a claim of
accuracy) approximate limits for accumulations which may form behind a
detached solid work, before a stable equilibrium is established, provided
the movement of material is due only to wave action. Such an estimate
will be necessary for forming an opinion of how far out from the shore a
given structure should be placed to ensure against its becoming land-
connected in time.

203. VERA-CRUZ, D., ''Ondas Na Rebentacao,'' Memoria No. 199, Laboratorio
Nacional de Engenharia Civil, Lisbon, 1962 (in Portuguese).

Keywords: Submerged breakwater, Wave attenuation

Laboratory tests for determining the height of reformed waves after
breaking on gentle slopes belonging to submerged obstacles are described.
The measured values of the ratio of the breaking depth to breaking wave
height are presented and compared with values already published. The
results tend to confirm the mathematical theories which consider solitary
waves to be the limiting case of an oscillatory wave,

204. VERGARA, M.A., and CORNEJO, J., ''Tombolo Formation Controlling
' Littoral Drift," Coastal Sediments '77, Fourth Annual Sympostum
of the Waterways, Port, Coastal and Ocean Divtston, American So-
ciety of Civil Engineers, Nov. 1977 (not published in proceedings).

Keywords: Detached breakwater, Hydraulic model (three-dimensional),
Littoral transport, Mexico (Salina Cruz), Movable bed, Ship
hulls, Tombolo

For controlling littoral drift, the location of a structure near
the shore which causes tombolo formation, is more effective than other
Systems more frequently used. An experimental study carried out in a
physical sedimentological model, using bakelite, was developed to find

tombolo formation limits, as well as accumulation percentages in total
or partial tombolo formation. Most of the parameters prevailing in tom-
bolo formation were varied--the length of the obstacle, the gap between
the beach and the obstacle, the angle formed between the long axis of
the structure and the incident wave, the wave height and its period.

Several observations on the nature of shoreline movement near
three old sunken ships on the coast of Salina Cruz, Oaxaca, Mexico, were
compared with the experimental results; these showed great similarity.
Comparative tests with groins and tombolos were made in the same model
to define the order of effectiveness.

205. VICHETPAN, N., "Equilibrium Shapes of Coastline in Plan," Masters
Thesis, Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok, Thailand, 1969.

Keywords: Crenulate-shaped bay, Hydraulic model (three-dimensional),
Littoral transport, Movable bed, Wave diffraction, Wave
refraction

If a straight sedimentary coastline with headlands suffers persis-
tent waves from an oblique direction and no replenishment is provided for
material removed downcoast, it will assume a crenulate shape which becomes
progressively more indented. Finally, a shape is reached which is in
equilibrium with the waves. The development of such equilibrium-shaped
bays was studied by means of a model in which wave direction and wave
periods were the sole variables. Thus, the wave height, water depth,
beach height, and sedimentary material were the same throughout.

The shape of the bay at various stages from straight line to fully
stable was measured after various wave durations, It was found that the
major curved part of the waterline was a logarithmic spiral, the constant
of which varied throughout. A consistent pattern was observed for this
constant for the three wave approach angles of 30°, 45°, and 60°, and the
three wave periods of 0.6, 1.0, and 1.4 seconds.

206. VISENTINI, M., PANCINI, G., and TEUSCHL, E,, Untitled report to
SII-CI (Protection Works Adopted to Limit Erosion Along the Open
Coast, How They Work, Reference to Model Experiments), XVIIth
International Navigatton Congress, Lisbon, Portugal, 1949, pp. 105-
134 (in French).

Keywords: Detached breakwater, Italy (Corroglio), Segmented breakwater,
Tombolo

This report discusses general considerations in the selection and
the construction of protective works on an open shore to prevent erosion
of alluvial beaches. The conditions that exist on the Venetian coastline
are discussed, taking into account the various protective works used to
protect the lagoons that lie behind the beaches, The causes of beach
erosion in Venetia are briefly recounted, as well as the localities where
such erosion is most marked. Other Italian beaches are also reviewed.

207. WADA, A., "On a Method Of Solution Of Diffraction Problems," Coastal
Engineering in Japan, Tokyo, Japan, Vol. 8, 1965, pp. 1-19.

Keywords: Detached breakwater, Wave diffraction

The technique presented here provides a significant extension of
the range of diffraction problems that can be solved by the use of a
Fourier transform; e.g., the problem of diffraction of sea waves by an
insular breakwater is treated. Approximate expressions, taking into
account the interaction between the edges, are derived. Some numerical
results are also presented in which the interaction solution significantly
improves the noninteraction approximation.

208. WADA, Y., NISHIMURA, H., and NIREI, Y., "Scour Around Breakwaters
and Erosion of Adjacent Beaches,"' Proceedings of the 17th Conference
on Coastal Engineering In Japan, Japan Society of Civil Engineers,
1970, pp. 311-316 (in Japanese).

209. WALKER, J.R., PALMER, R.Q., and DUNHAM, J.W,, "Breakwater Back
Slope Stability," Proceedings of Civil Engineering tn the Oceans
III, American Society of Civil Engineers, 1975, pp, 878-898.

Keywords: Armor stability, Armor units, Design guidelines, Hydraulic
model (two-dimensional), Local scour, Rubble mound, Wave
overtopping

This paper summarizes factors governing the stability of low-crest
breakwaters subjected to overtopping waves. Both model experiments and
prototype experience indicate that the backslope armor units of such
breakwaters may be more susceptible to damage than those on the seaward
slope. It is often desirable to lower the crest elevation to reduce the
first cost where partial protection from the incident waves is required.
Such applications occur in water intakes for powerplants, small-craft
harbor entrance channels, beach protection projects, and hard-surfaced
offshore fills.

210. WALTON, T.L., Jr., “Equilibrium Shores and Coastal Design," Coastal
Sediments '77, Fourth Annual Sympostum of the Waterways, Port,
Coastal and Ocean Diviston, American Society of Civil Engineers,
177 pp. Hele.

Keywords: Crenulate-shaped bay

Logarithmic spiral curves approximate equilibrium shoreline shapes
for areas of Florida's coast which are sheltered by natural reefs and
capes. However, the log spiral curve lacks physical justification for
describing the phenomena of an equilibrium coast, A model is postulated
for an equilibrium coast which uses a continuous wave height energy dis-
tribution from visual ship wave observations to predict the stable,
sheltered shoreline and is found to provide shoreline shapes similar to
the logarithmic spiral shape for sheltered coasts in Florida, The method

can also be used in the design of coastal structures for prediction of
erosion-accretion zones in stable areas,

211. WATTS, G.M., ''Field Inspection of Erosion Problems in India,"
Shore and Beach, Vol. 37, No. 2, Oct. 1968, pp. 34-60,

Keywords: Accretion, Detached breakwater, Downdrift beaches, India
(Visakhapatnam), Littoral transport, Sand trap, Ship hulls

Numerous coastal projects were inspected in October and November
1963, as a technical service to the Government of India, Visakhapatnam
harbor was visited on 20-21 September. An account is given of the his-
tory of the harbor and its maintenance operations, Special emphasis is
given to the detached breakwater sand trap.

212. WATTS, G.M., VALLIANOS, L., and JACHOWSKI, R.A., Untitled report
to SII-S2 (Means of Controlling Littoral Drift to Protect Beaches,
Dunes, Estuaries, and Harbor Entrances. Establishment of Artificial
Beaches) , XXIIId International Navigatton Congress, Ottawa, 1973,
pp. 233-257 (also Reprint 25-73, U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers,
Coastal Engineering Research Center, Fort Belvoir, Va., NTIS AD
A773 930).

Keywords: California (Channel Islands and Venice), Detached breakwater,
Illinois (Chicago), Littoral transport, Massachusetts (Winthrop
Beach), Sand trap, Segmented breakwater, Submerged breakwater

A summary of techniques used in the United States for controlling
littoral drift to stabilize beaches, dunes, and entrances to harbors and
estuaries is presented. The use of detached breakwaters for shore sta-
bilization and as sand traps for harbor entrances is discussed briefly.

213. WONG, P.P., ''Beach Formation Between Breakwaters, Southeast Coast
of Singapore," Journal of Troptcal Geography, Vol. 37, 1973, pp.
68-73.

214. YAMADA, S., "On the Beach Erosion at Niigata Coast," Proceedings
of the Second Conference on Coastal Engtneertng in Japan, Japan
Society of Civil Engineers, 1955, pp. 174-186 (in Japanese).

Keywords: Compartmented breakwater, Concrete structures, Foundation
design, Japan (Niigata)

215. YASSO, W.E., "Plan Geometry of Headland Bay Beaches," Technical
Report No. 7, Office of Naval Research, Geology Branch, Washington,
DaGig gear,

Keywords: Crenulate-shaped bay, Littoral transport, Sediment sizes,
Wave diffraction, Wave refraction

A headland-bay beach is defined as a beach lying in the lee of a
headland subjected to a predominant direction of wave attack, Such

beaches characteristically have a seaward-concave plan shape resulting
from erosion caused by refraction, diffraction, and reflection of waves
into the shadow zone behind the headland. Increasing radius of plan
curvature with distance from the headland suggested testing the logarith-
mic spiral, r = e9¢0t2, as an approximation to the shape of headland-bay
beaches. Four natural beaches were selected for testing goodness of fit
to the log-spiral approximation: Spiral Beach, Sandy Hook, New Jersey;
Halfmoon Bay Beach, California; and Drakes Beach and Limantour Spit Beach
lying along the Drakes Bay shoreline to the north of San Francisco, Cali-
fornia. Results range from excellent to good with the best fit being the
Spiral Beach curvature for which the mean squared error in length of the
log-spiral radius vector is only 0.82 foot squared.

216. ZENKOVITCH, V.P., "Formation of Accumulative Shore Forms in the Case
of Blocking of the Shore from Outside," Comptes Rendus (Doklady)
de 1'Academie des Sciences de 1'URSS, U.S.S,R., Vol. LIV, No. 4,
1946, pp. 317-319.

Keywords: Artificial headlands, Crenulate-shaped bay, Detached break-
water, Littoral transport, Ship hulls, Tombolo, Wave diffrac-
tion, Wave refraction

A discussion of the processes involved in the growth of tombolos
behind natural or manmade offshore structures.

217. ZWAMBORN, J.A., FROMME, G.A.W., and FITZPATRICK, J.B., ''Underwater
Mound for the Protection of Durban's Harbor," Proceedings of the
12th Conference on Coastal Engineering, Vol. 2, 1970, pp. 975-994.

Keywords: Hydraulic model (three-dimensional), Movable bed, Sand mound,
Sand tracer study, Sediment sizes, South Africa (Durban),
Submerged breakwater

The construction of an underwater mound of sand for the protection
and improvement of Durban's beaches has been recommended on the basis of
intensive investigations. These investigations included prototype meas-
urements of beach changes as related to recorded sea conditions, basic
scaling tests in which these beach changes were reproduced to scale in
movable-bed models, and tests of the proposed underwater mound in models,
using different scales in order to eliminate possible scale effects.

IV. SUBJECT HEADING INDEX
Accretion:

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59, ©5, 68; G75 V¥25 7, Wp 775 BO,° B25 5p Og 875° Sy
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LUO, LUM S MI, WLS sii NAS, WAV Ws. USA TS OST aah, ali ah
WS. We, IO, 152) 15S, USSa USG5 US5 USS. MSs Toy diols Veal s © UOT 5
UO, LIZ, WAG LOY UBAs 18/4 100s LONs dees Me. Ss A005: 20a Zia

Aesthetics
Bs NA Nay 5 M/O5 Ly2

Akmon armor unit
190

Armor stability
9S nl |
200, 209

NB AE BG,

Armor units
68,

Artificial headlands

Zip CO OO sl OO li227, a Lolly OZ melhor,
172, 216
Beach fill
Os As) (285 205) S25: 705° 855 8Oe
164, 167, 169, 172, 186, 193, 194, 196,
Bibliography
S52 999

Bolsacreto ® concrete bag
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56, 40, 20,0 AB, as,
150, TA, 182. TG, aia

71,

Composite structures
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Concrete blocks
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Construction procedures
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Crenulate-shaped bay
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Ay, IES Me NAS, SO, 164),

T6453) W652 1677," L6Skse,Opmeleples

LOS: 4114) 124. 154 Sipe
197, 200

11004 #105941 22) 1127 sais eos

183, 147, 185, N90, 214

193, 194

Wel, 1162, Wen Wy) 16S, 67,
216

Currents
Ye B55, 23, S85 Sy G4, 195 SO Sls WOR NOt, NOS, LO7 5 Woks,
LOO, WNOS Wii, WA, WI. WZs5 WS, Wo, Maly 5 WO, Weep NSS 5 S45 MOL
177, 198

Design guidelines
23, 865 LO, Mi, L725 W905 Ul, 202, ZoY

Detached breakwater

ilk Ons Se 4, Se 8, Qi, MO 2 wees a Mag eee 2 Ae D2 eae: SD)
ZA Site Orie no One MOL set S 4s MOO gt Oy Vie SOx ae PAD WAT MSM Oz,
535 S88, SOs COs O7%,° 775 3795 B05 (Sl, | 82, 265, S74. 9, Ws
91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 100, 103, 104, 105, 108, 111, 112, 113,
122, 123, 127, 128, 130, 136, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 147, 149, 151,
SZ S Se aS4 SSeS Oe Si SOR GON M67. LOR 7S) L7G edi78) 187);
189, 190, 191, 192, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200, 204, 206, 207, 211,

Downdrift beaches
4, 6, 3, 24, 88, @65 Sa, S95, Gl, V5 S05 855 B75 Bp
Som 9091, 8 92 8955, 29450 0958, 96, H05),) 108.) 1095 11054 1130123,
Wi, Wa NaS Maa, NAO, SS, S85 te75 WEO5 wes, Allo

Economic analysis
i 99), “68, 106, 170, 1194

Environmental concerns
32, 105, 108, 109, 134, 170, 172, 182, 190, 191, 194

Foundation design
41, 43, 68, 72, 85, 86, 104, 114, 187, 188, 190, 194, 214

Gabions
Zor 44 OA SOR M7 172

Grout-filled bags
30

Hexaleg blocks
180, 190, 191

Hollow tetrahedron
190

Hydraulic model (two-dimensional)
55 265 S05 S45 88, SO, 45, SS, O85 Gy Cp 705 Vea. Sp
73, UW, 885. 975 995 100, 102, lle, WS, 229, USS, USS, Ud, Ws),
185, 200, 209

Hydraulic model (three-dimensional)

ks By MT oo UG MS 6) BOG) Bib. (S85 Sy

42, 45,

47,

157, 160,

Dan
58,
89,

108,

144,

161,

192,

104,

80,
190,

68,

OO), 0,

IIL,

24,
59,
90,
109,
145,
162,
194,

158,

159,

98 ,
200,

105,
204,

85, 100,

OG OB, UOS5) WOO 5: WS, TSA5Y WO, USA, WSs 5 USA, MS,
162, 16S, Ne”s tvs, L795 W990, WS, 2045 B05) 27
Impermeable breakwater
35
Littoral transport
iy, 25 4\.: TN6), ies 8, 9) oR 9 821. C22),
Aix ly Sy SSS AS EAS aloe) AI). Sil 254 5
67), (69), eal S76) BSO, e8il, G82). G65) coon mor jue oor
92)" V935), $945 795), 196), 298), LOO!) 04s OSs L0G, S107;
DT 2 WS 2S) 26), 27) Sh SZ) S47 S95 aT
AT AOR Sh S27 aS Sr tS Ae tS Sy eeeS Oh ll Siem o Oo uel o Ole
UL NOS, Wer 5 U/O5 Weil, M725 WAls M75 USA, IO, Sil,
YY AVS ZOD, Zils Ales, ZilS5 Alo
Local scour
AW (AN SE Oy oe TOs Wop ue Pop Op) BES S55 WOO.
190, 200, 209
Movable bed
PDA ARE SUS Nac ASHem yy MOA CMA nS) SS Ma lien. 3 AS)
ILS UO SMIUSA LISS. sv NESS Sys Nols 162, NOf, LOZ,
ADS, ily
Numerical model
CO GO aL OS ee eT pe AZo Gr Sheol
Offshore island
NO, ails WA NOS) aa Pb AAO
Perched beach
26
Permeable breakwater
55) B35 S55 OO, WO ils 5 eke!
Pile arrays
O55 4h, AO
Recreation
CDA LVRS ANS) ass GAL A, Ie, le)
Rubble mound
5 6, es Qe lS) aun 2/ 5) ene Of 2 Operon 4 4 emu Ol ars
WAS, NA 6 NM MS SS MSZ IVS MIA, WOO, We. AV» 209

Sand mound
217

Sand tracer study
20, Bile ISS, los,

Sand trap
Die. 20h 25) 123%

Sandbags
NGOSE WO) 172), 174

Sediment gradations
22, Ol, @5,; 88,

Sediment sizes
27, 28, 49, 58,

Segmented breakwater
6s; 105) 13,7 14;
Tilin. 857 985, LOS:
144, 145, 179, 180,

Ship hulls
O83, BOs, Ge); LAS,

Shipwrecks
Srna, 465.9588),

Steel-sheet piling
U5. Sd_ LOS

Structural dimensions
6, 8, OQ, iS,

765 VW, 825° 835
IZ, W285 175, 1s,
172, 182, 186, 190,

Structural stability
41, 104, 114, 125,

Structure settlement
105, 725 B55 SO,

Submerged breakwater
Te alOe be ZOln 1 S2ys
UW, UW, WS, 85,
IS WAS AOR isis
198, 200, 203, 212,

165,

132,

158,

105,

1Se
108,
187,

144,

110

an7ane

217

SOR 4 ae 4a SSS lS Opel 22

194

200,

19,
NUS
188,

145,

192,

202,

20,
121,
189,

192,

DB.
89,
141,
193,

215,

29,
127s
190,

204,

217

3351 445; 455 53m S45 65,
T3L5 11545 71365 (1384 1405 14),
191, 192, 194, 198, 206, 212

211, 216

AAAS nS Om SO Pal amG oe
6, 8, 100, N04, 105, mA)
147, 157. 1S9 Moles siv0) sia

158, 190

A S508 SS, On ls YD
100 1024 1045 105.9 14s) Ion
16, IB, NG. MG, IO, OS,

Tetrapods
O59 725 LOO pr USO, WSs; 180

Timber bulkhead
55, 193

Tombolo
i 2 So Ase LOny 155) 235i,5) 295) Sas

42, 45, 46, SOnmesoe

85 10S), HOS, NOS TO ey Tle S ys 2A SUS S25 el lee 4 2 ee Oe
USI SS2), S45 S77) 160), Vols, 170), 172), 180s) 190, 19 1925 20452065

Tribars
68, 145

Vertical breakwater
Te O4) SA e S'S

Wave attenuation
oF Oy Ub, -185 255. 245 Sk, SS, “S38,
SO, 87, D5 1005 2025: UOS, WO, LOS), “shila.
W372 T4547 ee 1S2 29158 es 59RS60R 1744 82h
201, 203

Wave diffraction
Drie Boge lOR L6e mr AZM Sem Ont TOO maOoe
128, 130, 134, 146, 149, 151, 157, 160, 164,
iS WS Us6., WSO, 94s 205. 20M 21S 26

Wave overtopping
WS, 5 185° 5 WOO, MASS ded, Uses 35),

Wave pressure
104, 114, 135, 145

Wave refraction
Oy, 5 OO, UO, OS, Wail, WA, WA6, 1638,
gl AO. 2055 ZAlS, Ze

Wave setup
S959 795 MOO, til, WS, IO, WSS, wo, Ls,

Wave transmission

Ge SAME OL ais GS gaan 72h 78 19h
LOO 102 16 129" 55s see 66. 18t) 1184)

64) 77879979, SaSopmesoe
127) 1205 130% slSomeeIsse
186, 190, 192, 193, 194,

105, 106 109, die ener
165, 166, 167. d7ieeion

194, 198, 209

164, 166, 167, 173, 184

164, 165, 166, 167, 171,

200

A, 5, Boe Oy 9;
190, 194

V. LOCATION INDEX

Australia
Kirra Beach-Queensland: 43

Brazil
Ceara: 24, 95, 147

California: 110
Channel Islands: 21, 22, 25, 67, 95, 96, 155, 212
Imperial Beach: 33, 125
Newport Beach: 66
Santa Monica: 4, 8, 26, 38, 49, 58, 77, 81, 85, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91,
_ 825 955 B85 255 FO5 wo
Venice: 8, 82, 87, 88, 89, 91, 108, 141, 212

Canada
High Park-Toronto: 19

Cyprus
Kiti Beach: 29
Larnaca: 29

Denmark
Arnager: 202
Hundested: 202
Snogebaek: 202

Florida
Broward County Beach: 198
Palm Beach: 55, 56
Singer Island: 174

France _
Anse des Huttes: 15, 48, 127, 147
Arros: 48, 127
Beaulieu: 105
La Bocca: 105
La Bravette: 105
Carnon: 105
La Croisette: 105
Ete: 105
Golfe Juan: 105
Grau du Roi: 105
La Gravette: 105
Mourillon Beach-Toulon: 17, 40, 105
Pen Bron: 105
Pointe de Grave: 15, 48, 105, 127, 147
Port Canto: 105
Prado Beach-Marseilles: 105
La Rague: 105
Sablettes-Menton: 105

Hawaii
Ala Wai Peninsula: 134
Haleiwa Beach: 9, 196, 197
Kaimu Beach: 32
Magic Island: 134
Wasidkerkeia S'S SOM n/iOnmlod.

Illinois
Chilca corm eal2
Lincoln Park-Chicago: 55, 56, 137, 193
India
Cochin: 20
Visakhapatnam: 68, 80, 123, 144, 145, 156, 211
Vypeen: 20

Israel: 37
Achziv: 182
Bat-Yam: 182
Caesarea: 29
Carmel Beach: 29
Manshiah-Tel-Aviv: 29
Nahariya: 29, 44, 159
Netanya: 29
Tel Baruch-Tel-Aviv: 45, 159
Tel-Aviv: 200

Teavliye ss Ze 245206
Amelia: 124
Bagnoli: 23
Ceriale: 10, 124
Chiavari: 113, 127
Corroglio: 206
Imperia: 124
Lido of Rome: 23
Ligure: 10, 124
jKovnes 10, tS, Ws, 255 85, 124!
Ostia: 23
Porto S. Giorgio: 10
Posillipe: 85, 140
Salerno: 113, 140
Sanremo: 10
Taggia: 14
Vecchio: 14
Viserba: 10

Japan: 189
Aomori: 190
Atsumi: 190
Fuya: 59
Hakahama: 59
Hamada: 136
Eshagiae 59

Ishizaki: 190, 191, 192
Iwafune: 59

Japan--Cont

inued

Karke mdash 92
Kaizaka: 190
Kanzaki: 190
Kineichiyo: 190
Kitaebisu: 59
Maizuru: 190
Maji: 190
Miyazu: 2
Nakahama: 59
Neya: 59
Niigata: 71, 72,
Niishiki Beach:

Nishikihama: 86
Nishikinohama-Kaizuka: 136

Onejime:
Seppu: 1

190
8. 180

365 WOO, 04, Ue7 5 TOS LON, Ale
190

Shinmatsubara-Okagakicho: 136

Toban: 7

Toyama Bay: 153,
awa: 190

Zenigamez

Massachuset
Dennis Sh
Vineyard
Winthrop

Mexico

ore: 53
Haven:
Beach:

Salina Cruz: 204

Monaco

180

53
6, BS, BA, 6S, Wr, tal, Ia, oe

Larvotto Beach-Monte Carlo: 105, 186

Morocco
Agadir:

New Jersey

105

Asbury Park: 46

Sandy Hoo

Nicaragua
Paso de C

Ohio

kee 5

aballos:

Lakeview Park-Lorain: 194

Puerto Rico
San Juan:

Singapore:
South Afric
Durban:
Sri Lanka:
WoSoSal&e

Crimea:
Odessa:

195
DY. Os

a
Gsna2i7
178

114,
114, 135

WO), Wel, 7/2

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Full text of "An annotated bibliography on detached breakwaters and artificial headlands"

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