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Public Document No. 31 


TWENTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT 


OF THE 


“MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL 
EXPERIMENT STATION, 


PART L,, 


Berne Part Ill. or tHe FortTY-SEVENTH ANNUAL REPORT 
OF THE MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. 


JANUARY, 1910. 


BOSTON: 
WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS, 
18 Post OFFICE SQUARE. 
1910. 


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APPROVED BY ae i! 


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THE STATE BoaRD OF PUBLICATION, 


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TWENTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT 


OF THE 


MASSACHUSETTS 
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 


PART I. 
DETAILED REPORT OF THE EXPERIMENT STATION. 


226796. 


INTRODUCTION. 


In accordance with the provisions of the amended act rela- 
tive to the publication of the reports of the Massachusetts Agri- 
cultural College, passed by the Legislature of 1909, the report 
of the experiment station, which is a department of the college, 
is presented in two parts. Part I. will contain the formal: re- 
ports of the director, treasurer and heads of the departments, 
and papers of a technical character giving the results of investi- 
gations carried on in the station. This will be sent to agricul- 
tural colleges and experiment stations and to workers in these ° 
institutions, as well as to libraries. Part I. will be published 
also in connection with the report of the Secretary of the State 
Board of Agriculture, and will reach the general public through 
that channel. Part II. will contain papers of a popular char- 
acter, and will be sent to persons on our general mailing list. 


WM. P. BROOKS, 


Director. 


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CONTENTS. 


PART I. 
PAGE 
Station organization, er 2 | 
MECEGQIPCELOE 0 06. CU wCtC(‘“ SC ltC lC Celt ete:té«C@WMdSCW 
Changes in staff, nee ae | tally 26S ee uy 
Buildings, : Pier. klk eG 
Station activities, . ees fe lll CLG 
Publications during 1909, Mes ee ah LD 
Publications available for free fieeubanon, ee et a 20 
ICE Cte sl Ct té‘«<C 
Lectures and demonstrations, . : Mee yah its Se io 
Seetiameoieaiidlyses, . . . . . «. « «. . 28 
Control work, .. Saar ey, ee ks. Tee 
Memenrite- req COWS, . =< . . «- =. «es». 25 
Mailing lists, mo «, i no as we gO 
Asparagus substation, Cord re in) my pi 
MeCeMeeRDETIMENtS, . . . «.  «. « « « 2F 
MeGiMee experiments, . . . =. .« . . . a 
Memeeeemrrimenis; | 2. lll le ll ll CD 
Memeeemeremosiabions, - . . =. .«. . . . « 28 
Meemiecrexperments, . . -. . . .«. . «. al 
MMe ikeasurer, . . . . . =. . «. « « 4 
MeGMEGEEMCSPTICUILUTISt, . . . . .« . . «. . 86 
MuemCMaisy, /- Cw wt wt tC ti‘ ettC«CSG 
1. Correspondence, .. io EO 
2. Numerical summary of Bone in ‘He chemical nen See a 
3. Résumé of work of the research section, . ; a TAY, 
4, Work in animal nutrition, ; : : : atts 
5. Résumé of work of the fertilizer nea ; : Pek 
(a) Fertilizers licensed, .. ; ‘ ie ae vee, eames? oo) 
Weeremiizerscollected, . .  . . « « »« . 49 
(c) Fertilizers analyzed, ae Sag ae a wiod 
(d) Trade values of es er tedionts: hla ya ee eee 
(ec) Summary of analyses and guarantees, . .. . . 52 
iomeommercial shortages; . . =.. . ww, . »~« O8 
Semmerides OC ferizer,, of ews eles Us| OO 
ome mmrxed fertilizers, |  . ok ce Cl 
(HoNirogencompounds, =. 2 «lacs « oF 
(2) Potash compounds, ES I ae ee a 
(3) Phosphoric acid compounds, 58 


(<) Miscellaneous fertilizers, soils and by-products es ee 
ATPL SS Sy aR I Ss Ia C's gaa i? 


fe CONTENTS. 


Report of the chemist — Con. 
6. Résumé of work of the feed and dairy section, 
(a) The feed law, 


(1) Low-grade nase: oer shouts be saa usin ects 


true names, 

(2) Protein v. carbohy inate 

(3) Weight of feed stuffs, 

(4) Uniform feed law, 

(b) The dairy law, 

(1) Examination of nnd 

(2) Testing glassware, 

(3) Inspection of Babcock aces 
Creameries, 
Milk depots, . 


(c) Milk, cream and feeds sent for pone exam 


(d) Analysis of drinking water, 
(e) Miscellaneous, : ; 
(f) Testing of pure-bred cows, 
Report of the botanists, 
Diseases more or less common Me crops ieee the wane 
Shade-tree troubles, 
Report of the entomologists, 
Thomas slag. A short historical review, 
Composition of the slag, 
Manurial value of slag eae 
Methods for determining availability and adultaeaciaene 
Chemical combination of phosphoric acid in slag, 
The use of phosphatic slag, 
Quantity of slag per acre, 


Effect of Porto Rico molasses on digestibility of hay ana of hay an 


concentrates, . 
I. Introduction, 


II. Experiments at the aut ee ‘Exper Stasioe, 


General summary, 
General conclusions, 
Observations at the saiiaa: 
Data of the experiments, 
Stability of butter fat samples, 
Physical changes, 
Chemical changes, 
Action of heat, 
Additional notes for ere in fat aes sis, 
Volumetric determination of copper, 
Reading the Babcock test, 
Introduction, 
Observations at this ston: 
Conclusions. 


PAGE 


59 
60 


61 
61 
62 
62 
63 
63 
64 
64 
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66 
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69 
69 
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SO 
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82 

82 

84 
102 
105 
108 
110 
132 
133 
134 
138 
139 
140 
142 
142 
143 
145 


CONTENTS. 


The use of the Zeiss immersion refractometer in the detection of 
watered milk, 
Malnutrition, : 
Calico or mosaic isease a Be dniber and ilo: 
Notes on the occurrence of fungous spores on onion seed, 
Plant breeding studies in peas, 
Character of variation in peas, 
Differences in variability, 
Correlation coefficients, 
Correlation of characters, > 
Heredity in peas, ia ee Se 
Coefficients of Rpiedity.. 
Prepotency, 
The Ben Davis group of ae 
Description of varieties, 
Variation in apples, 
Variation in the college Sehard: 
(a) From different trees, . 
(b) From different parts of the roe 
Climatic variations, aa 
Discussion of the variation, 
Variability of the different lots, 
Causes of the variation, 
Summary, 
Fumigation dosage, 
I. Tomatoes, 
Introduction, ete 
Comments and Pee isione. Be ads 
II. Cucumbers, 
Introduction, 
Comments and general conclusions, 


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MASSACHUSETTS 
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION 


OF THE 


MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, 


AMHERST, MASS. 


TWENTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT. 


iPAET [. 
ORGANIZATION. 
Committee on Experiment Department. 
CHARLES H. Preston, Chairman. THE PRESIDENT OF THE COLLEGE, er 
J. Lewis ELLSwortuH. officio. 
ArtTHouR H. POLLARD. THE DIRECTOR OF THE STATION, ex 
CHARLES E. WARD. officio. 


Harowp L. Frost. 


Station Staff. 

CHARLES A. GOESSMANN, Ph.D., LL.D., Honorary Director and Expert Consulting Chemist, 
40 North Pleasant Street. 

Wiuu1aM P. Brooks, Ph.D., Director and Agriculturist, Massachusetts Agricultural College. 

JoserH B. LinpsEy, Ph.D., Vice-Director and Chemist, 47 Lincoln Avenue. 

GEORGE E. Strong, Ph.D., Botanist and Vegetable Pathologist, Mt. Pleasant. 

CHARLES H. FERNALD, Ph.D., Entomologist, 3 Hallock Street. 

James B. Paice, D.V.Sc., Veterinarian, 42 Lincoln Avenue. 

Frank A. Wauau, M.Sc., Horticulturist, Massachusetts Agricultural College. 

JoHN E. OsTRANDER, C.E., Meteorologist, 33 North Prospect Street. 

Henry T. Fernavp, Ph.D., Associate Entomologist, 44 Amity Street. 

Epwarp B. Ho.uanp, M.Sc., Associate Chemist, 28 North Prospect Street. 

Henri D. Haskins, B.Se., Chemist (Fertilizer Control), 89 Pleasant Street. 

Puiuip H. Smiru, B.Se., Chemist (Food and Dairy Control), 102 Main Street. 

Frep C. Sears, M.Sc., Pomologist, Mt. Pleasant. 

Henry J. FRANKLIN, Ph.D., Assistant Entomologist (Cranberry Investigations), 56 Pleasant 
Street. 

Erwin S. Futron, B.Sc., Assistant Agriculturist, North Amherst. 

Epwin F. GaskiLu, B.Sc., Second Assistant Agriculturist, R. J. Goldberg’s, North Pleasant 
Street. 

GeorceE H. Capmany, B.Sc., Assistant Botanist, Fearing Street. 

Jas. C. REED, B.Sc., Assistant Chemist. 

JacosB K. SHaw, M.S., Assistant Horticulturist. 


12 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 1910. 


JosernH F. Merritt, B.Sc., Assistant Chemist, 32 North Prospect Street. 

Cart D. KENNEDY, B.Sc., Assistant Chemist, 88 Pleasant Street. 

Joun N. Summers, Assistant Entomologist, 66 Pleasant Street. 

Frep C. KENNEY, Treasurer, Mount Pleasant. 

Cuarurs R. GREEN, B.Agr., Librarian, Mount Pleasant. 

Ross J. Brown, Secretary to the Director, Draper Hall, Massachusetts Agricultural College. 

James T. Howarp, Inspector, Feed and Dairy Division, North Amherst. 

Roy F. Gasxr1u, Assistant in Animal Nutrition, Massachusetts Agricultural College. 

C. M. Damon, Observer, 20 South College, Massachusetts Agricultural College. 

Jessie V. Crocker, Stenographer, Department of Botany and Vegetable Pathology, Sunderland. 

Harriet Coss, Stenographer, Department of Plant and Animal Chemistry, 35 East Pleasant 
Street. 

BripiE E. O’DoNnNELL, Stenographer, Department of Entomology, Hadley. 


REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR. 


The work of the station during the past year has followed 
the usual lines. There has been some increase in the amount 
of research work. This has been made possible by the increase 
in the amount received from the Adams fund for the current 
year. Especial attention is called to the fact that immediate 
results cannot in most cases be expected from such fundamental 
scientific investigations as are allowed under the Adams fund. 
A number of important problems are receiving most careful 
investigation and study. Among them, the more important 
are the following : — 


Studies in milk secretion. 

Molasses and digestion depression. 

Why arsenicals burn foliage. 

Plant breeding, and subsidiary thereto, variation in garden peas and 
apples. 

Determination of physiological constants. 

Investigation to determine the economic importance of digger wasps 
in relation to agriculture. 

Studies of pyrallide and tortricide. 

Experiments to determine the plant food requirements of asparagus. 

Cranberry investigations to determine plant food requirements. 

Relations of climate to plants in health and disease. 

Cranberry insect work. 


In some of the investigations, results, from which practical 
lessons which seem to be of importance even now, have been 
obtained; but no one of them has yet been carried to comple- 
tion, and most of them are of such a nature that long and 
patient research will undoubtedly be essential before the funda- 
mental laws which determine the results can be determined. 


14 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


Particular attention is called to the fact that the passage 
of the Adams act has not in the slightest degree increased the 
amount of station funds available for more popular and directly 
practical station work. Indeed, in one direction the passage of 
the Adams act has imposed an additional tax upon other station 
funds, for the act provides that the expense of publication of the 
results of Adams fund research work cannot be paid from that 
fund. Such expense must be borne by other station funds. 
There has been no change in the amount of such funds available 
to this station, with the exception of an addition of $500 made 
about seven years ago, during the past twenty-one years. Mean- 
while, there have been constantly increasing demands upon the 
station for work of various kinds, while there has inevitably been 
a tendency to broaden the scope of such experiments as are al- 
ready carried on under these funds. The fertilizer control work, 
moreover, now encroaches upon ordinary station funds. The 
costs of the collection of samples, analytical work and the publi- 
cation of the bulletin now considerably exceed the amount of 
license fees received. This topic will be more fully discussed 
later in the report, but is mentioned here simply to emphasize 
the fact that available station resources are not sufficient to 
cover the costs of such additions to our work as are called for. 
Poultry men, tobacco growers and cranberry growers, particu- 
larly, are urging the experiment station to undertake experi- 
ments for the promotion of these industries. Every possible 
economy has been used in the expenditure of station funds. <A 
small amount has been made available for co-operative experi- 
ments with tobacco, and some work with cranberries wall be un- 
dertaken during the coming year. The possibilities, however, of 
carrying on such work as the men engaged in these industries 
would like to see undertaken are comparatively small. The de- 
mands upon the station during the past twenty-one years have 
ereatly increased, and they have never increased at a more rapid 
rate than within the past year. It would seem to be quite time, 
therefore, to ask for increased funds to provide for the growth 
in station work which the times demand. 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 15 


CHANGES IN STAFF. 


There has been no change in the heads of departments in the 
station staff during the past year. ‘This fact has been favorable 
to station efficiency, although in this connection it may not be out 
of place to point out the fact that the rapid growth of the college 
has imposed much additional work upon the educational side 
upon most heads of departments in the station. This fact has 
necessarily reduced the time and energy available for station 
work, and the further growth of the college will force upon those 
responsible for station management a careful consideration of 
the question whether there should not be connected with the 
station a larger number of men who have had such training and 
experience, and who possess such natural ability, that they are 
competent, without immediate supervision, to originate and carry 
on investigations of the highest order. 

The chemical research work of the station suffered a serious 
break in the resignation of Dr. R. D. MacLaurin. The place 
left vacant by his resignation has not been filled, but an addi- 
tional assistant in chemistry is now employed, thus making it 
possible to push chemical research investigations which are in 
progress under Mr. Holland more rapidly than it has been pos- 
sible to do heretofore. 

The connection of Mr. F. A. Johnson with the experiments 
pertaining to cranberry insects has ceased during the past year. 
The station, however, has been fortunate in once more obtaining 
the services of Henry J. Franklin, Ph.D., for entomological 
work. Dr. Franklin will devote a large share of his time to cran- 
berry insects, but will be placed in local charge of other experi- 
mental work with cranberries in the cranberry district. He will 
be available also for other entomological investigations as time 
permits. 

Mr. P. V. Goldsmith has resigned during the past year to 
accept a more lucrative position as a sugar chemist. The two 
new assistants in chemistry are J. F. Merrill, B.Sc., and Carl 


D. Kennedy, B.Sc. 


ames EXPERIMENT STATION. (Jan. 


BUILDINGS. 


No important new buildings have been erected during the past 
year. We have, however, put up, by use of ordinary station 
funds, three portable brooder houses. These houses are of the 
Cornell University pattern. They are heated by gasoline and 
each will accommodate 200 chickens. 

Extensive improvements have been made in the old station 
barn and stables. <A large part of the old floor in the main 
barn has been torn out and a concrete floor put in its place. 
A cellar 25 by 56 feet in size has been made under the stables. 
This will provide greatly needed additional room for winter 
storage of fruits and vegetables. The old stable partitions and 
fittings have been removed, and a solid concrete floor has been 
laid over the old plank floor, while new stall partitions and 
fittings will take the place of the old. These improvements 
have been carried out with funds appropriated by the last Legis- 
lature. 

Particular attention is called to the fact that additional room 
must be provided in our chemical laboratory. The provision 
of such room is made imperative by the demands made upon us 
for research work, the rooms upon one side of the laboratory 
being used in the fertilizer control and those on the other side in 
the feed and dairy control work. These rooms are fairly suffi- 
cient for the control work; but they do not provide either the 
space or the conditions essential for chemical research work. In 
spite of all possible efforts to prevent such results it is mevitable 
that the analytical work connected with the examination of fer- 
tilizers and feeds will sometimes load the air with fumes which 
might vitiate absolutely the research work going on, and this 
might mean a tremendous loss of time and the sacrifice of the 
results of much skilled work. To undertake to carry on re- 
search work under such risks must, of course, be extremely un- 
satisfactory ; but even could such risks be avoided, the working 
conditions in a laboratory where control work is being prose- 
cuted are not favorable to research work. Research work re- 
quires undisturbed quiet. In the presence of numerous men en- 
gaged in ordinary routine chemical work there must necessarily 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 17 


be a certain amount of movement and confusion. Research 
work side by side with routine control work cannot therefore be 
made to give the best results. 

Plans for the provision of accommodations needed for re- 
search work have received the careful attention of the members 
of the station staff most concerned. It will be necessary, in 
order to carry out plans which will be at all adequate to our 
needs, to secure a special appropriation from the Legislature. 


Station ACTIVITIES. 


Station activities have embraced work along all the different 
lines mentioned in our last annual report. These lines are 
experiment, research, dissemination of information and con- 
trol work. As already pointed out, there has been little change 
in the amount of practical experimental work during the year. 
Research work has been somewhat increased, as has also been 
pointed out. In the lines of work which come under the head 
of dissemination of information there has been comparatively 
little change during the year, although some heads of depart- 
ments have called attention to the fact that, since the organiza- 
tion of an extension department in the college, there is a shght 
decrease in the number of calls for information coming to the 
station. This has been noticeable chiefly in the number of 
letters of inquiry. It must be regarded as desirable, from the 
standpoint of station efficiency, that the members of the station 
staff should be relieved as far as may seem possible of the neces- 
sity of doing routine extension work. Such relief will mean 
more time and energy for investigational work, which must be 
regarded as the most important function of the experiment 
station. 

The amount of control work during the past year has been 
greater than in any previous year. The increase has been due 
chiefly to the fact that a greater number of samples of fertilizers 
have been collected and a greater number of analyses of fertili- 
zers carried out. 

Attention is called to the fact that three of our neighboring 
_ New England States have seed laws. These laws must tend to 
prevent to some extent the sale of inferior seed in these States, 


18 ~ EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


and it would seem probable that since there must always be a 
certain amount of such seed, there will be increased probability 
that it will seek a market in those States not having seed laws. 
This, it seems likely, will mean an increase in the amount of in- 
ferior seed brought into Massachusetts for sale. The laws in 
our neighboring States have not yet been long in effect, and 
the tendency to which I have referred has not yet shown itself. 
Should it seem, however, that Massachusetts is becoming a 
dumping ground for inferior seed, it will clearly be the part of 
wisdom to endeavor to secure the enactment of a law for the 
protection of honest dealers (who, it is believed, are in a large 
majority in the State) and of the buyers and users of farm and 
garden seeds. 

The investigation carried on by Dr. Burton N. Gates and 
the correspondence of the experiment station have made it per- 
fectly apparent that both European and American foul brood 
are common among bees in various parts of the State. The ex- 
istence of this disease threatens an industry which is already of 
considerable importance, and which might, with great advantage 
to our citizens, receive much greater attention. The passage 
of an act providing for an inspector of apiaries would be most 
desirable. The work of this inspector would be largely and no 
doubt chiefly educational. These diseases can be eradicated or 
controlled. Many beekeepers would no doubt undertake to rid 
their apiaries of disease could they be shown how to do the work. 
Under existing conditions, however, a beekeeper unfortunate 
enough to have either of the varieties of foul brood would have 
little encouragement to rid his apiary of the disease for the rea- 
son that he must anticipate re-infection from the apiaries of 
beekeepers who should neglect to carry out remedial treatment 
with the thoroughness essential to success. The inspector of 
apiaries, therefore, must be given authority to compel remedial 
treatment, or, if other measures fail, to destroy infected colonies. 
New York and Connecticut now have laws providing for such 
work as has been indicated, and it is quite time that Massa- 
chusetts also should enact such a law. 

It seems probable that a national law covering the manufac- 
ture and sale of insecticides and fungicides will be enacted by 
the Congress now in session. Such a law has been under joint 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 19 


consideration by the Bureau of Entomology of the Department 
of Agriculture, a committee of Economic Entomologists and 
prominent manufacturers. A law was introduced into the 
last Congress, and has now been brought into such form that 
it seems to be fairly satisfactory to all interests involved. This 
law, of course, can be effective in the States only in governing 
interstate transactions, but since practically all manufacturers of 
insecticides and fungicides do an interstate business, the passage 
of the national law will probably prove effective in controlling 
the manufacture and trade in these materials. 


PusiicaTions purine 1909. 

The new plan for the publication of the annual report of the 
station referred to in my last report became effective for the 
first time during the past year. Under this plan a larger pro- 
portion of the material published by the station will appear in 
the annual report than has been customary heretofore. Thus, 
for example, the two parts of the annual report for 1909 make 
a total of 300 pages, whereas the annual report for 1908 in- 
cluded 172 pages only. The amount of matter to be published 
in bulletin form is reduced by the change just referred to, and 
the number of such publications during the past year has been 
considerably less than in 1908. The total number of printed 
pages, including both bulletins and reports is, however, the same 
for the two years. 

The amount of circular matter sent out is also practically the 
same, namely, 30 pages in 1909 and 32 pages in 1908. A full 
list of the publications for the year follows: — 


Publications during 1909. 
Annual report : — 
Parts I. and II. 300 pages. 
Bulletins : — 
No. 128. Inspection of Commercial Feed Stuffs, P. H. Smith and 
P. V. Goldsmith. 56 pages. 
No. 129. Beekeeping in Massachusetts, Burton N. Gates. 32 pages. 
No. 130. A Summary of Meteorological Observations, J. E. Ostrander. 
28 pages. 
Circulars : — 
No. 20. The Use of Lime in Massachusetts Agriculture, Wm. P. 
Brooks. 6 pages. 


20 | EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


No. 21. The Control of Onion Smut, G. E. Stone. 2 pages. 

No. 22. Poultry Manures, their Treatment and Use, Wm. P. Brooks. 
4 pages. 

No. 23. <A Parasite of the Asparagus Beetle, H. T. Fernald. 4 pages. 

No. 24. An Act to provide for the Protection of Dairymen. The 
Babeock Test, J. B. Lindsey. 8 pages. 

No. 25. Cottonseed Meal, J. B. Lindsey. 8 pages. 


PusuicaTions AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION. 


Bulletins : — 

No. 33. Glossary of Fodder Terms. 

No. 41. Use of Tubereulin. 

No. 68. Fertilizer Analyses. 

No. 76. The Imported Elm-leaf Beetle. 

No. 83. Fertilizer Analyses. 

No. 84. Fertilizer Analyses. 

No. 89. Fertilizer Analyses. 

No. 90. Fertilizer Analyses. 

No. 103. Fertilizer Analyses. 

No. 113. Fertilizer Analyses. 

No. 115. Cranberry Insects. 

No. 117. Trade Values, and Fertilizer and Soil Analyses, 

No. 121. Seed Separation and Germination. 

No. 123. Fungicides, Insecticides and Spraying Directions. 

No. 124. Bee Diseases in Massachusetts. 

No. 125. Shade Trees. . 

No. 126. Insects Injurious to Cranberries, and how to fight them. 

No. 127. Inspection of Commercial Fertilizers. 

No. 129. Beekeeping in Massachusetts. 

No. 130. Meteorological Summary — Twenty Years. 

Technical Bulletin No. 2. The Graft Union. 

Technical Bulletin No. 3. The Blossom End Rot of Tomatoes. 

Index to bulletins and annual reports of the Hatch Experiment Sta- 
tion previous to June, 1895. 

Index to reports and bulletins, 1888-1907. 

Annual reports: — 

Annual reports of the station for the following years are available: 
10th (1898), 11th (1899), 12th (1900), 13th (1901), 14th 
(1902), 15th (1903), 16th (1904), 17th (1905), 20th 
(1908), and 21st, Parts I. and II. (1909). 


Of some few other bulletins and reports we have a very limited 
supply. These will be furnished only in order to complete sets 
for libraries. 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 21 


Examination of the above list makes it apparent that rela- 
tively few of our earlier bulletins can now be furnished. The 
publications printed by the station during the early years of its 
existence were naturally issued in comparatively small editions. 
The demand was limited. The growth of interest in improved 
methods in agriculture was not fully anticipated. It is now 
apparent that it would have been well had many of our bulletins 
and reports, which are of a character to make their contents of 
some permanent value, — even if only for purposes of library 
reference, — been issued in larger numbers. Many institutions, 
especially those devoted to agricultural education, and hundreds 
of individuals, are now vainly seeking to complete files of sta- 
tion publications. We cannot recall the past. Its mistakes are 
irremediable; but we should heed its lessons. The growth of 
interest in such matters as station reports and bulletins treat 
will continue, and the rate of such growth will be more rapid in 
the future than in the past. It would clearly seem unwise to 
figure our editions too close to present demand, and yet to this 
- course we seem to be compelled on account of the pressure upon 
station funds, made greater by the last grant from the federal 
government, —the Adams fund, —since this fund provides 
means for increased research, while the act granting it expressly 
stipulates that no part of the fund shall be used in meeting the 
costs of publication of results. These costs are, therefore, an in- 
creased burden on funds already fully utilized in meeting the 
expenses of other lines of work. 

It may be urged that under the conditions above outlined the 
amount of work in other lines should be decreased, but this is an 
alternative which the demands of the times render most diffi- 
cult, and which I believe would be decidedly unwise. We are 
under constant pressure to undertake more experimental work 
and in new lines. The various special agricultural interests 
urge us to more fully recognize them. Poultrymen, asparagus 
growers, cranberry growers, tobacco growers, hothouse men and 
many others have their special problems, which they look to us, 
and rightly, to help them solve. We need more funds then, 
rather than less, for our experimental work, and hence the neces- 
sity of a more generous provision for publication, The size 


22 EXPERIMENT STATION, [Jan. 


of our editions should be increased, but under existing appro- 
priations this is impossible. 

A committee of the American Association ia Agricultural 
Colleges and Experiment Stations, after a most careful study of 
the whole subject of station publications, has recently made a 
report strongly urging, among other things, that, with a view to 
making provision for future demands, station publications 
should be electrotyped when issued. The adoption of this course 
now does not seem to me to be our most pressing necessity, but 
some such provision in the near future will no doubt be de- 
sirable. 

The demand for general bulletins of information, referred to 
at some length in my last report, shows no sign of abatement. 
On the contrary, it is ever increasing. The information which 
may be furnished by such bulletins is greatly needed. Could 
it be placed in the hands of persons calling for it, marked im- 
provement in agricultural methods might be confidently antici- 
pated. I believe, however, that this demand should be chiefly 
met by private enterprise. Certainly it cannot be met by the 
station without special provision to cover its costs. Meeting it, 
however, would seem to be in the nature of extension rather 
than experimental work, and therefore, under the modern 
conception of respective functions, perhaps belongs rather to the 
college than to the station. 


Letters or Inquiry. 

The number of letters of inquiry annually received in the 
different departments of the experiment station continues to in- 
crease. During the past year the total number of such letters 
received and answered was 6,500. Attention to these letters con- 
sumes a very considerable proportion of the time and energy of 
members of the station staff, thus materially curtailing the 
amount of attention which can be given to investigation. The 
numerous letters of acknowledgment received from corre- 
spondents receiving suggestions and advice make it apparent 
that the assistance which the station is able to render by an- 
swering these letters is appreciated. The amount of work of 
this character which the public will call upon the Massachu- 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 23 


setts Agricultural Experiment Station to do is sure to increase. 
This line of work is highly important and useful, and it would 
seem to be the part of wisdom to make special provision for it 
in order that station workers may be more free to devote them- 
selves to investigation. 


LEcTURES AND DEMONSTRATIONS. 


Members of the station staff have been frequently called upon 
during the past year to deliver public lectures and to conduct 
demonstrations. The number of lectures and demonstrations 
given during the year was 56, while a large number of invita- 
tions to accept such engagements were, of necessity, declined. 
Work of this character makes heavy inroads upon the time of 
station workers, for it involves in the long run the use of much 
time in travel and in preparation. In so far, however, as sta- 
tion men have special knowledge of certain subjects, it seems 
desirable that they should address a reasonable number of im- 
portant meetings, since in this way the results of the work of the 
station are carried to the public, while the lecturer on his part 
is brought into closer and wholesome touch with the public 
which he aims to serve. 


MisceLLtanreous ANALYSES. 
The chemist reports the usual large number of miscellaneous 
analyses. Work of this character done during the year may be 
summarized as follows : — 


Water, . : : - ; ‘ é F : ; 99 
Milk, : : : : P ; ‘ , , Slits fo) 
Cream, . : ; : P ‘ ‘ ; : peas 
Feed stuffs, . : : : : : , 98 
Fertilizers and peailings arene : : : a aoe 
Soils, : i ; ‘ : ; ‘ : ; 42 
Miscellaneous epetam ces ; , ‘ : : : 45 


This summary includes simply the analytical work carried 
out for individuals. The results of these analyses are of interest 
in most cases only to the persons sending in the material. It is 
recognized that this work has its value; but investigational work 


24 | EXPERIMENT STATION, [Jan. 


is of wider interest and of greater value. It has been our policy, 
therefore, and must continue to be our policy, to confine work 
of this kind to relatively narrow limits. Should we comply 
with all requests for work of this character, it is probable that 
the time of all the chemists at present employed would be very 
largely occupied in this work. 

The most marked increase in demands for private analytical 
work is for soil analyses. There appears to be a widespread mis- 
conception as to the probable value to the individual of a chemi- 
eal analysis of his soils. This subject was rather fully discussed 
in my last annual report; but it seems wise once more to repeat 
that the results of such analysis do not constitute a satisfactory 
basis for determining either the crop adaptation or the manurial 
requirements in the great majority of cases. No accurate count 
has been made, but it is believed that the number of requests for 
such analyses made during the past year has been at least 300. 
To have made this number of complete analyses would have re- 
quired the continuous services of two chemists for a year; while 
to have determined simply the leading fertilizer elements must 
have required the full time of one chemist. 

The leading soil types found in the State have already been 
analyzed repeatedly in most cases. Fertilizer requirements ap- 
pear to be determined in the majority of instances more largely 
by the crop than by peculiarities in the chemical composition of 
the soil. It is particularly pointed out, therefore, that corre- 
spondents need only to state the type of soil, the character of the 
subsoil, the recent manurial treatment and the crop in order to 
give us a basis for suggestions in relation to the selection of fer- 
tilizers. Samples of soil, if sent, will not usually be analyzed, 
unless the type of soil or the conditions which have affected it ap- 
pear to be of unusual character. 


ControLt Work. 


The amount of work connected with the execution of the fer- 
tilizer and feed laws increases from year to year. During the 
past year 1,042 samples of fertilizers have been examined in ac- 
cordance with the requirements of the fertilizer law, and 946 
samples of cattle feeds have been analyzed. Conditions as affect- 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 25 


ing the trade in feed stuffs have been on the whole satisfactory. 
The fertilizer inspection has, however, resulted in the discovery 
of a larger number of fertilizers not equal to guarantee than has 
been found in any previous year. It has not been thought best 
to make any prosecutions during the past year ; but the particular 
attention of dealers is called to the fact that such conditions as 
existed this year must not continue, and that prosecutions will 
undoubtedly be necessary should serious shortages again occur. 
Details of the inspection work will be found in the report of the 
chemist. 


Trestinc PuRE-BRED Cows. 


Attention was called in the last report to the fact that a small 
increase in the scale of charges for testing pure-bred cows had 
been found necessary. There was at first some criticism of the 
station for making such an increase, but it is believed that the 
necessity for it was made clear to parties interested in the work. 
The new scale of charges now excites no opposition, while the 
amount of such work steadily increases. The fact that its re- 
sults are profitable to the parties concerned is made sufficiently 
apparent by the fact that the number of cows offered for test 
continues to increase. The present scale of charges is believed 
to be sufficient to fairly cover the cost, and it must, therefore, 
be regarded as satisfactory both to the interested public and to 
the station. 


Mariuina Lists. 


During the past year we have undertaken, by correspondence 
with postmasters throughout the State, to revise our general 
mailing list. The last revision was made two years ago; but 
as the result of the revision now in progress we have cancelled 
1,441 addresses because of death or removal as reported by the 
postmasters, Postmasters have also reported over 2,000 changes 
in address. Before these changes are made, we shall address 
the individuals concerned, and shall re-enter them under new 
addresses only in those cases in which they reply to the postal 
card inquiry. It seems probable that the total number of ad- 
dresses dropped from our list as the result of the revision will be 
at least 2,500. The facts stated make it apparent that post- 
masters do not as a rule comply with the postal regulations af- 


26 7 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


fecting station publications, and return them in the event of non- 
delivery. These facts make it very apparent also that frequent - 
revision of mailing lists is a necessity if wasteful distribution 
of reports and bulletins is to be avoided. ‘There is little doubt 
that our lists for other States and for foreign countries also need 
revision, and this work will be undertaken as soon as conditions 
make it possible. 

The extent to which our general publications circulate is made 
apparent by the following statement of the numbers in our 
lists: — 


Residents of Massachusetts, . ; : é : . 13,098 
Residents of other States, . : F - : 2 
Residents of foreign countries, . : ; : = 196 
Newspapers, : : ; : : : a 512 
Libraries, . . ; ‘ ‘ : : : . 288 
Exchanges, . : : : : : ; : ‘ 112 


The number of additions to our general mailing lists on direct 
application of the parties concerned during the past year has 
been 1,500. 

In addition to the above lists, our publications are sent to 
those on the general Washington list, which includes members 
of the faculties and station staffs in agricultural colleges and 
experiment stations. The total number of addresses on this 
list is 2,350. 

We use also the following special mailing lists : — 


Cranberry growers, ; : : : 2 ‘ . 1,424 
Beekeepers, . : P : ‘ : : ; . 2,475 
Meteorological, ‘ ; ‘ ‘ . : é < | Se 


ASPARAGUS SUBSTATION, CoNcorRD. 

The work at this substation has made very satisfactory prog- 
ress. All details connected with the local execution of plans 
for planting, fertilization and culture have been, as heretofore, 
faithfully and skillfully looked after by Mr. Charles W. Pres- 
cott, from whom the land in use has been leased, and to whom 
the work has from the first been indebted for many valuable 
suggestions and services characterized by most unusual enthusi- 
asm and devotion. 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 27 


No new lines of work have been undertaken. Our principal 
investigations, it will be remembered, are of two general classes, 
— breeding experiments and fertilizer experiments. 

Breeding Experiments. — During the past year good prog- 
ress has been made in these experiments, which have for their 
object the production of more rust-resistant types of asparagus, 
which shall at the same time possess desirable market char- 
acteristics. The number of varieties in the experimental plots 
at the present time is 65. Mr. J. B. Norton, who began obser- 
vations in Concord last year, has devoted practically all of his 
time during the past season to the asparagus breeding experi- 
ments. It will be remembered that in this work we enjoy the co- 
operation of the United States Department of Agriculture, and 
Dr. B. T. Galloway, Chief of the Bureau of Plant Industry, 
under whose direct charge work of this description comes, 
has definitely assigned Mr. Norton to take local charge of the 
work in Concord. Mr. Norton succeeded during the past season 
in making numerous promising selections and a large number 
of artificial fertilizations. Some of the seed resulting from this 
work will be planted in Washington, and a close preliminary 
study of the plants produced will be made there during the 
coming winter. It is hoped to shorten the time needed for 
testing the value of different types by following this course. 
Those which seem promising will be taken to Concord for fur- 
ther testing and observation. It is a pleasure to testify to 
the enthusiasm and faithful industry of Mr. Norton, who, be- 
sides devoting himself to the breeding experiments, has proved 
very helpful in taking observations and making records on the 
fertilizer experiments as well. An exhaustive chemical study 
of the roots as affected by the varying fertilizer treatment is 
now in progress and appears to promise results of importance 
and great value. 

Fertilizer Hxperiments. — The conditions in the fertilizer 
plots continue to be highly satisfactory. There was, it is true, 
considerable rust, as was the case almost everywhere in Con- 
cord last fall; but it did not begin as early in the fertilizer plots 
as in many beds in the district, and it is believed that the injury 
was not serious. No differences in the extent of rust injury 


28 EXPERIMENT STATION. (Jan. 


which could be attributed to variations in fertilizer treatment 
could be detected. Cutting continued longer this year than last. 
The first cutting was on May 7, and the last on June 6. The 
quality of the product was especially good, as was perhaps only 
natural on a vigorous new bed. ‘There were considerable dif- 
ferences in yield on the different plots; but the product will not 
be reported at this time, as it is not clear that the differences 
recorded were connected with varying fertilizer treatment. The 
preparation of the entire area, as was pointed out last year, was 
so thorough that the growth even on the plots receiving least fer- 
tilizer is still unusually vigorous. 

Tent Hxpervments. — The fact was reported last year that 
it is the plan to conduct experiments for the purpose of deter- 
mining the influence of tent shade as affecting (1) yield; (2) 
quality of product; (3) extent of injury from rust. It was, 
however, found that conditions in the different plots of the old 
asparagus bed, in which this work was begun, were not suffi- 
ciently uniform to warrant the continuance of the work on that 
bed. During the past season, however, a new bed has been set 
for the purpose of continuing these experiments. 


CRANBERRY SUBSTATIONS. 


It will be remembered that our cranberry work follows two 
principal lines of inquiry relating (1) to the fertilizer require- 
ments of the crop; (2) to the insect enemies of cranberries. 

The only work done in connection with insects during the past 
year has been of a preliminary nature, as during the early part 
of the season we did not enjoy the services of an entomologist who 
could be assigned to this work. The station, however, has been 
fortunate in concluding an engagement with Dr. Franklin, who 
conducted insect work which gave such valuable results two or 
three years ago. Dr. Franklin returns to this experiment 
station as an assistant in entomology; but it is our expectation 
that he will be put in local charge of all our experimental work 
with cranberries, although he will, as heretofore when con- 
nected with the station, devote his time principally to a study 
of insects in their relations to the crop. Dr. Franklin was un- 
able to take up this work earlier than October 1, but he spent sev- 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 29 


eral weeks in the cranberry sections of the State laying plans and 
making preparations for the work of another year. 

The past year has been characterized by a significant develop- 
ment in the relations of cranberry growers to our work. As a 
result of extended correspondence and conference, a committee 
representing the Cape Cod Cranberry Growers’ Association came 
to the decision to solicit contributions towards the financial sup- 
port of experimental work with cranberries. The committee 
prepared a circular letter asking for pro rata contributions, 
and this letter, in printed form, was sent to all known cran- 
berry growers in the State. This letter follows: — 


To the Cranberry Growers of Massachusetts. 


_A legislative committee appointed by the Cape Cod Cranberry 
Growers’ Association has conferred with Messrs. Brooks, Preston and 
Damon of the State Experimental Station, and finds them heartily 
in sympathy with a plan for a substation to be located in the cranberry- 
erowing district. They are willing to help us in every way if we will 
help ourselves by bearing a reasonable proportion of the expense. As 
cranberry growing is limited to certain areas, they do not feel justified 
in asking the State to bear the whole burden. 

Such a station would investigate cranberry insects and their parasites, 
giving particular attention to the ravages of the fruit worm. It would 
also consider the various diseases of the cranberry, and would deter- 
mine the best methods of spraying and flooding. Systematic experi- 
ments with fertilizers would be carried on with relation to their effect 
on the color, quantity, size and keeping qualities of the fruit, and to 
determine their retentive values in the soil. The propagation of new 
varieties, the destruction of weeds and mosses and the study of climatic 
conditions, with the probable assistance of the United States Weather 
Bureau, would all be included in this work. The station would, in 
short, be here to serve us. 

We have every reason to believe that, by acting promptly, we can 
secure the services of Mr. Henry J. Franklin for this undertaking. 
Most of the growers are familiar with the earnest, conscientious investi- 
gations which he made during his connection with the Amherst station. 
His bulletin, “ How to fight cranberry insects,” and the mounted speci- 
mens which he prepared for us, prove his ability. - 

If every grower will contribute one cent for each barrel of berries 
that he shipped last year, we believe that, with the co-operation of the 
station, the necessary funds can be raised. If you are willing to con- 
tribute that amount, will you please fill in the enclosed postal card. 
We do not want the money now, and shall not ask for it unless a 


30 | EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


sufficient amount is pledged to insure the success of the plan. <A 
prompt answer will be greatly appreciated. 


A large number of growers responded favorably, and the 
total amount of money pledged toward the support of experi- 
mental work as a result of this movement was about $1,000. 

It is with especial satisfaction that this action on the part 
of cranberry growers and its results are reported, for it is 
believed that this policy of self-help on the part of special in- 
terests has much to commend it. These interests may fairly 
be asked to contribute to the support of work especially de- 
signed to benefit them; but this is by no means the only reason 
for the approval of this policy. It means a greater interest on 
the part of the growers in the work which is going on, for 
human nature is so constituted that what costs something is 
valued more highly than that which is a free gift. This policy 
means, moreover, closer co-operation, wholesome supervision and 
helpful criticism. It is to be hoped that the results of this initial 
movement in the direction of private support of experimental 
work on the part of special interests will so commend themselves 
to cranberry growers that not alone will they be inclined to con- 
tinue a measure of support, but that other special interests, 
recognizing the advantages of the system, may be led to adopt 
a similar plan of co-operation. 

It must be at once recognized that, in order that the experi- 
ments contemplated in the interests of cranberry producers may 
be carried on under satisfactory conditions, it will be necessary 
to control a moderate area of cranberry land and the buildings 
necessary for handling the crop, and to provide moderate labora- 
tory accommodations. Unless the work can be located in per- 
manent quarters, fully under the control of the experiment 
station, it cannot possibly be prosecuted in a satisfactory man- 
ner. Two methods of acquiring control of such property as 
is needed are to be considered: (1) the needed land and 
buildings might be leased for a number of years; (2) the 
needed property might be acquired by purchase. The second 
of the two plans would seem to possess considerable advantages 
as compared with the first. Cranberry land ordinarily returns 
so large an income that the rental which would undoubtedly 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 31 


be expected by an owner would be large. Moreover, questions 
of possible damage to the property as a result of experimental 
work might arise, which would be difficult to settle in a satis- 
factory manner. Should the second plan be adopted there 
is little doubt that the net income derived from the crops pro- 
duced would be sufficient to constitute a material contribution 
to the funds available to pay the costs of experimental work. 
If, therefore, the needed property can be purchased at a satis- 
factory price, the methods of support of experimental work 
would be largely settled. It would seem, therefore, to be ex- 
tremely desirable either that growers unite in the purchase of 
the property to be placed at the disposal of the station, or that 
the State be asked to appropriate money for the purpose. It is 
quite impossible that the cost either of leasing the needed prop- 
erty or of purchasing it should be met by the use of ordinary 
station funds. Such funds are quite inadequate in amount to 
meet so large an added expenditure. 

The co-operation of the United States government in certain 
lines of investigation has been asked for, and we are already 
assured of material assistance in the study of plant diseases and 
the climatic conditions which affect the crop. 

Fertilizer Experiments. — The fertilizer experiments at Red 
Brook Bog, lying at Waquoit, have been continued. This in- 
cludes 33 plots of one-twentieth of an acre which are subjected 
to varying fertilizer treatment. The use of fertilizers has been 
so planned that the results must ultimately afford a valuable 
basis for determining what should be the composition of cran- 
berry fertilizers. It is recognized, of course, that conditions 
vary in different bogs, and that no one formula can ‘possibly 
be the best under all conditions. Our object is to learn if 
possible the specific effects of different fertilizer elements. 
When these are understood, it will be possible to adapt the fer- 
tilizer to meet varying conditions in different bogs. 

Most of the plots in our experiment gave a fairly good crop 
in 1909, but, owing to a misunderstanding on the part of men 
employed in harvesting the fruit upon portions of the bog out- 
side the fertilizer plots, the product from a few of the plots 
was mixed, and a complete record of results would be impos- 


32 : EXPERIMENT STATION. (Jan. 


sible. There were, moreover, a few plots in which considerable 
damage was done by insects. The results, therefore, are not 
to be reported in detail at this time, but the following conclu- 
sions seem to be fully warranted as the result of observations 
and records so far made. 

1. The use of some fertilizer will clearly prove profitable 
on many bogs. The average product on the no-fertilizer plots 
(7 in number) in our experiments this year was 7.5 bushels per 
plot, or at the rate of 150 bushels per acre. The average prod- 
uct on the fertilizer plots (19 in number) was 13.4 bushels per 
plot, or at the rate of 268 bushels per acre. The average prod- 
uct on the 10 plots to which a complete fertilizer was applied 
was at the rate of 306.5 bushels per acre. A complete fertilizer 
was made up by the mixture of nitrate of soda, acid phosphate 
and a potash salt. 

2. The use of nitrate of soda greatly promotes the growth 
of vines, and seems also to be favorable to fruitfulness. Even 
with the smallest quantity of nitrate used in our experiments 
(at the rate of 200 pounds per acre) the growth of the vines has 
been very luxuriant, —so luxuriant that the fruit, although 
abundant, was poorly colored and probably inferior in keeping 
qualities. The vine growth was so rank that another year the 
rate at which nitrate is used will be greatly reduced. Jt is be- 
licved that nitrate in excess of 100 pounds per acre will seldom 
be necessary. 

3. The influence of high-grade sulfate of potash appears to 
be decidedly favorable. It promotes fruitfulness, good color 
and high quality. The highest yield obtained on any of the 
plots (22% bushels, which is at the rate of 450 bushels per 
acre) was produced where the maximum quantity of sulfate of 
potash was used in connection with a moderate amount of ni- 
_trate of soda and acid phosphate. The total fertilizer applica- 
tion to this plot was at the rates per acre: — 


Pounds. 
Nitrate of soda, 3 : d : : ; : .- 200 
Acid phosphate, : : 3 ; ‘ : . 400 


High-grade sulfate of Seen : 5 ; : ; . 400 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 33 


4, Phosphoric acid appears in these experiments to have 
less effect than either of the other fertilizers employed, though 
it appears probable that when applied in soluble form, such as 
acid phosphate, it will be likely to promote early ripening, and 
will be favorable to fruit of relatively high color. 


WM. P. BROOKS, 


Director. 


34 | EXPERIMENT STATION. (Jan. 


REPORT OF THE TREASURER. 


ANNUAL REPORT 


Or Frrep C. Kenney, TREASURER OF THE MASSACHUSETTS AGRICUL- 
TURAL EXPERIMENT STATION OF THE MASSACHUSETTS AGRICUL- 
TURAL COLLEGE, 


For the Year ending June 80, 1909. 


The United States Appropriations, 1908-09. 


| Hatch Fund. | Adams Fund. 


Dr. 

To receipts from the Treasurer of the United 
States, as per appropriations for fiscal year 
ended June 30, 1909, under acts of Congress 
approved March 2, 1887 (Hatch Fund), and 


March 16, 1906 (Adams fund), . . ~ .{| $15,000 00 | $11,000 00 
Cr. 

By salaries, . : 3 Roa nie 3 ; . | $12,734 18 | $8,163 08 
labor, Peete =A ie 7 oe eee Ieee 479 84 1,004 41 
publications, Age sO A Seek ele 6 50 = 
postage and stationery, poets se ee 103 23 46 75 
freight and express, eee wee 21 48 32 20 
heat, light, water and power, 3 : : 103 88 230 76 
chemical Supplies; z-. : SR rae 91 64 338 80 
seeds, plants and ames supplies, + age 362 92 302 75 
fertilizers, ‘ : : , ; : 254 53 260 48 
feeding stuffs, se tn eee ee 241 28 _ 
library, . ae 143 04 24 85 
tools, implements and machinery, PT age - = 
furniture and TERCRIVOR, wel sip) sino eee nas 244 00 50 CO 
Science apparatus, <8 ER yee ee 113 03 513 04 
live stock, : : 3 ; y : : 10 25 _ 
traveling expenses, 2 Del een 20 dl 26 
contingent expenses, ‘ : : : 15 00 - 
buildings and land, i hehe hore 75 00 1 62 


$15,000 00 | $11,000 00. 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 


State Appropriation, 1908-09. 


To balance on hand, : ; 2 $7,029.52 
Cash received from State Treasurer, : : . 13,500 00 
from fertilizer fees, . : 2 : 5,210 00 

from farm products, . : ; 2,087 57 

from miscellaneous sources, . . 4,825 17 

Cash paid for salaries, 5 eee | 6 SS:616 19 
for labor, . : : ; : , : 8,155 03 

for publications, : SS 1,837 45 

for postage and stationery, : : ‘ 992 11 

for freight and express, . =. . . 853 48 

for heat, light, water and power, . : 423 66 

for chemical supplies, . : 336 41 

for seeds, plants and sundry supplies 1,670 95 

for fertilizers, : : . 586 10 

for feeding stuffs, Pee eee eee a, LS O2 

for library, ; ; 318 71 

for tools, implements and machinery, 10 07 

for furniture and PUREUBES) oe ek 337 47 

for seientiic apparatus,: -. . . 566 61 
peerocke yy Py ; 12 00 
fopifaveime expenses, . .  . «+ 1,882 73 

for contingent expenses, : ; 95 00 
fieemumamesandiand, . . . . 604 77 
re : Pe 10,006 50 


30 


$33,452 26 


$33,452 26 


36 } EXPERIMENT STATION. (Jan. 


REPORT OF THE AGRICULTURIST. 


DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


WM. P. BROOKS, AGRICULTURIST, E. S. FULTON, E. F. GASKILL, ASSISTANTS. 


The work in the department of agriculture in the experiment 
station has followed the usual lines during the past year. The 
most important investigations in progress have reference to 
what in general may be denominated fertility problems. They 
are designed to throw hght upon various questions connected 
with the selection, use and methods of application of manures 
and commercial fertilizers. A considerable number of the ex- 
periments in progress has already continued for a number of 
years, and the results are becoming increasingly valuable, as they 
afford, with the passage of the years, surer indications as to the 
ultimate effects to be expected. The number of field plots on 
the station grounds used in the experiments the past year was 
351. 

Pot experiments have been continued and have been designed 
chiefly to throw light upon the relative values of different ma- 
terials which may be used, respectively, as sources of nitrogen, 
phosphoric acid and potash. Tests of this character afford the 
surest indications as to the relative availability of different ma- 
terials. The principal crops used in this work are Japanese 
barnyard millet, soy beans and dwarf Essex rape. We have 
used 3846 pots during the past year. In some phases of our 
work, mainly as a check upon field results, we use closed plots, 
and the number of these in use the past season was 167. 

The experiments in progress will not be taken up in detail in 
this report ; but attention is called to some of the more striking 
results. 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 37 


I. The experiments on Field A, which have for their object 
the determination of the relative value, as sources of nitrogen, of 
some of the leading materials which may be used to furnish that 
element, have been continued. These experiments were begun 
in 1890. The crops grown in order of their succession have 
been: oats, rye, soy beans, oats, soy beans, oats, soy beans, oats, | 
oats, clover, potatoes, soy beans, potatoes, soy beans, potatoes, 
oats and peas, corn and clover for the last two years. These two 
crops have been considerably mixed with grass, The best crop 
of the year was produced where dried blood was used as a source 
of nitrogen, but the crop produced upon nitrate of soda was 
practically the same. On the basis of 100 for nitrate of soda, 
the relative standing of the different nitrogen fertilizers and 
the no-nitrogen plots (total yield) was as follows: — 


Per Cent. 
Nitrate of soda, . : : : : . : . 100.00 
Dried blood, . : E ‘ : : ? ‘ - 100.50 
Sulfate of ammonia, . : : : : : sip eae k4: 
Barnyard manure, ‘ ‘ : - : : Sy foe 
No nitrogen, : ‘ . A : : . 12,34 


The relative standing of the different materials for the twenty 
years during which the experiments have continued is as fol- 
lows : — 


Per Cent. 
Nitrate of soda, . ; ! ‘ ; : : . 100.00 
Barnyard manure, : : : “ : . . 94.05 
Dried blood, . : ; ; ; ; : : Se eeOera 
Sulfate of ammonia, . ; : ‘ : : . 86.47 
No nitrogen, ; ; : ; ; : :  ROR9D 


On the basis of increase in crop as compared with the no- 
nitrogen plots the average of the twenty years shows the fol- 
lowing relative standing: — 


Per Cent. 
Nitrate of soda, . : ; ; : : ; . 100.00 
Barnyard manure, A : : : : F ay deco. 
Dried blood, . } ‘ 2 : . ‘ ; uae GA by 
Sulfate of ammonia, . ; : ’ é E 1 1/53.36 


It will be seen that the nitrate of soda has given a much 
larger average increase in crop than any of the other materials, 


38 ; EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


There would seem to be little doubt, therefore, that this ma- 
terial must be regarded as one of the most satisfactory of the 
nitrogen fertilizers, and since it can usually be purchased at 
a lower average cost per unit of nitrogen than other fertilizers 
containing that element, it would seem to be the part of wisdom 
to use it as largely as soil and crop conditions will permit. 

II. The experiments on Field B, for determining the rela- 
tive value for different crops of the muriate and high-grade sul- 
fate of potash when used in equal amounts, have been con- 
tinued. These experiments began in 1892. Five pairs of plots 
are under comparison. Up to 1899 the potash salts were used 
in quantities (varying in different years, but always in equal 
amounts on the two members of pairs of plots) ranging from 
350 to 400 pounds per acre. Since 1900 the quantity used has 
been uniform on all the plots, and at the rate of 250 pounds per 
acre annually. In connection with the potash we have used the 
same amount of fine ground bone annually for each plot through- 
out the entire period of the experiment. The rate of application 
of the bone is 600 pounds per acre. The season of 1909 is the 
eighteenth year of these experiments. The crops during that 
year were corn on two pairs of plots, asparagus and rhubarb oe- 
cupying each a portion of one pair of plots, raspberries and 
blackberries each occupying a portion of one pair, carrots on one 
pair of plots and cabbages on the other. The yield of berries 
was very small, on account of serious winterkilling. This was 
less on the sulfate of potash than on the muriate. On both pairs 
of plots occupied by corn the sulfate gave a heavier yield of 
erain, while the muriate gave a larger yield of stover. The dif- 
ference in favor of the grain amounted to about 5 bushels. The 
difference in stover in favor of the muriate was at the rate of 
about 600 pounds per acre. The asparagus gave much the 
heavier crop on the muriate, at the rate of 6,002 pounds per 
acre on that salt against 3,257 pounds on the sulfate. The 
rhubarb gave a crop at the rate of 22,786 pounds per acre of 
stalks on the muriate and 28,349 pounds on the sulfate. The 
carrots gave a better yield on the sulfate, at the rate of 822.4 
bushels per acre against 799.1 bushels on the muriate. The 
cabbages gave much the larger yield of hard heads on the sul- 
fate, the figures being at the following rates per acre: — 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 39 


Pounds. 


Muriate of potash : — 
Hard heads, . : ; ‘ F ; ; . 17,466 


Soft heads, : a 6,878 
High-grade sulfate of potash: — 

Hard heads, . ; 2 : : : ; . 21,966 

Soft heads, . : : s : ; : . 2,434 


Jit. In Field C we have under comparison for use in 
connection with manure three different materials used as a 
source of nitrogen, — sulfate of ammonia, nitrate of soda and 
dried blood, —and the two potash salts, muriate and high- 
erade sulfate, each salt being used with each of the three 
nitrogen fertilizers and in connection with a liberal applica- 
tion of dissolved bone black, the same on all plots. The com- 
parison of these different fertilizers in this field was begun 
in 1891, but up to the year 1898 they were used without 
manure. Since that time all plots receive annually a dressing 
of stable manure, at the rate of 30 tons per acre. A large 
variety of crops has been grown in this field. The crops the 
“past year were asparagus, rhubarb, cauliflower and onions. 
Rhubarb and ecauliflowers have given the heavier yields on 
sulfate of ammonia as a source of nitrogen; but both asparagus 
and onions have given smaller yields on this material than 
on either of the other nitrogen fertilizers. Nitrate of soda gave 
a yield’ of asparagus about 25 per cent. greater than sul- 
fate of ammonia, while for onions the difference in favor of 
the nitrate of soda was in much greater proportion. With 
muriate as the source of potash, the yield of No. 1 onions on 
the different nitrogen fertilizers was at the following rates per 


aclLe. 
Bushels. 
Sulfate of ammonia, . ‘ : : ; s aa" Ooe 
Nitrate of soda, . : ; : athe : +) HOGOEE 
Dried blood, . : : : F : : : a Slate 


With sulfate of potash as the source of potash the. rate of 
yield of No. 1 onions per acre for the different nitrogen fer- 
tilizers was as follows: — 


Bushels. 
Sulfate of ammonia, . F : ‘ ‘ ; . 412.0 
Nitrate of soda, . ‘ ; : P : : ee f0e0 


Dried blood, . ; : : ; : : : One 


40 EXPERIMENT STATION. (Jan. 


The average yields on the different potash salts were at the 
following rates per acre: — 


Bushels, 
Muriate of potash: — 
No. 1 onions, : : : : ; P . 480.10 
Pickling onions, . ; ‘ : ; i . | iin 
Sulfate of potash : — 
No. 1 onions, ‘ ; : : : : - 907.70 
Pickling onions, . : é ; : ; .. oie 


For rhubarb the muriate of potash gave the larger crop, at 
the rate per acre of 77,400 pounds, against 64,828.7 pounds on 
the sulfate. 

The cauliflowers gave the better crop on the sulfate, the rates 
per acre being as follows: — 


Pounds. 


Muriate of potash, ; : ‘ ' : : . 24,695 
Sulfate of potash, ‘ ‘ ; . ‘ i . 30,691 


The asparagus gave the better yield on the sulfate, but the 
difference was small, The rates per acre were as follows: — 


Pounds, 
Muriate of potash, . : ; . : : . 2 0nie 
Sulfate of potash, ; ‘ : : , ‘ « Ta 


The results with onions and with cauliflowers are the most 
striking, and are in close agreement with results previously 
obtained. The cauliflower, like the cabbage, seems to be more 
certain to give a satisfactory crop on the sulfate than on the 
muriate on soils fairly retentive of moisture. 

The erops on the plot in this field, where manure is used 
without fertilizers, are in most cases still nearly as good as on 
the plots where fertilizers are used in addition to the manure; 
but we would again point out that the history of this plot and 
its manurial treatment previous to its inclusion in this field 
were different from those of the other plots. Nevertheless, 
the fact that the crops on this plot still compare so favorably 
with those on the plots where fertilizer also is used raises the 
question whether the latter is a benefit. 

IV. In the experiments comparing the different potash 
salts, which were begun in 1898, and in which these salts are 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 41 


used in quantities to furnish equal actual potash per acre 
annually, the crop the past year was hay, mixed timothy, red 
top and clovers. The average yield of the no-potash plots was 
at the following rates per acre: — 


Pounds. 
Pay, . . ; : A ; - : : . 5,744 
Rowen, : ; , ; : ; ‘ F : 680 


The ‘average yield of all the potash plots, 35 in number, was 
at the following rates per acre: — 


Pounds, 
ay.) « ‘ : : : ‘ 3 : é . 6,412.6 
Rowen, : : ; 2 : : : : . 1,555.4 


It will be noticed that the increase in the yield of hay was 
not very large, and that the yield without the potash was for 
both crops slightly in excess of 3 tons per acre. The rowen 
crop on the potash plots is much greater than on the no-potash 
plots because of the larger proportion of clover. The most 
- striking result of the experiments, indeed, is the comparative 
failure of clover on the plots to which no potash was applied, 
and its great inferiority on the five plots to which kainit is 
annually applied. On these plots, and especially on the plots 
to which the kainit is applied, the yield of timothy was re- 
markably heavy, the proportion of this grass being much 
greater than on plots to which the other potash salts are applied. 

V. In the field where ten of the leading materials which 
may be used as sources of phosphoric acid have been under com- 
parison since 1897, the crop during the past year was soy 
beans. The phosphates used in this experiment are applied in 
connection with equal and liberal quantities of nitrogen and 
potash in available forms, at such rates as will furnish equal 
actual phosphoric acid per acre. The average yield of the three 
no-phosphate plots was at the rate of 6,668 pounds, or 27.8 
bushels per acre. The average yield on the ten phosphatic 
fertilizers was at the rate of 1,835.2 pounds, or 30.6 bushels. 
The average increase on the phosphate plots as compared with 
the no-phosphate was at the rate of 167.2 pounds per acre. 
The highest increase, at the rate of 296 pounds per acre, was 
produced on the steamed bone meal. This increase is at the 


42 EWXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


rate of 17.7 per cent. There was not a very wide difference 
between the crops produced on the different phosphates, and the 
most striking result of the experiment is the fact that the crop 
where no phosphate has been apphed during the past thirteen 
years is nearly equal to the crops produced on the best of the 
phosphate plots. On the same plots last year, cabbage being 
the crop, the increase on the best phosphatic material of the 
year, bone meal, was 667 per cent. of the average crop pro- 
duced on the no-phosphate plots. These facts serve to empha- 
size the point which I have previously many times referred to, 
that in considering the plant-food requirements of soils it is 
of the first importance that the crop be taken into consideration. 
For the successful cultivation of the cabbage on this soil a 
rapidly available form of phosphoric acid is essential; but for 
the soy bean, the application of phosphoric acid seems to have 
been relatively unimportant. 

VI. The crop on the south corn acre, where manure at 
the rate of 6 cords to the acre annually has been under com- 
parison since 1890 with an application per acre at the rate of 
4 cords of manure and 160 pounds of high-grade sulfate of pot- 
ash, during the past year was hay, mixed timothy, red top and 
clovers. The plots to which the large applications of manure 
alone have been made were materially larger than on the com- 
bination of a lesser amount of manure and potash. The fol- 
lowing are the average rates per acre: — 


Pounds. 
Manure alone: — 


Hay, : : ‘ : : : : : . 4,930 
Rowen, ‘ 530 
Manure and potash: — | 
Hay, ‘ : : 5 ; : : : . 3,670 
Rowen, . ‘ ; : : : : ; . 490 


The rowen crops of the past season were exceptionally small, 
on account of a very marked deficiency in rainfall. It is 
apparent, however, that although the combination of the lesser 
amount of manure and potash substantially equals the larger 
amount of manure for corn, which is grown in alternate two- 
year rotations with hay, it is not equal for the production of hay. 

VII. On the north corn acre, where the combination of 
fertilizer materials rich in potash is under comparison with 


—.. 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 43 


a combination of similar materials in different proportions, 
and furnishing less potash and much more phosphoric acid, 
the crop the past year was hay, mixed timothy, red top and 
clovers. This experiment was begun in 1891, and for the 
past fourteen years corn and hay, two years each, have reg- 
ularly alternated. Owing to the very dry summer the field 
was cut but once. The average yields were at the following 
Fates per acre: — 


Pounds. 
On the fertilizer combination rich in phosphorie acid 
. and relatively poor in potash, . ; : . 5,094 
On the fertilizer combination richer in satah and 
poorer in phosphorie acid, . ; 3 ‘ ; 2 Oo a0) 


The proportion of clover in the plots receiving the combina- 
tion richer in potash is noticeably greater than on the other 
plots. The combination richer in potash in these experiments 
has shown itself substantially equal to the other combination 
‘for the production of corn, and superior for the production of 
hay. 

VIII. The experiments for the production of hay, by using 
in rotation as top-dressing barnyard manure, wood ashes and 
a mixture of bone meal and potash, have been continued dur- 
ing the past year in the nine-acre field where these experi- 
ments have been under progress since 1893. The average yield 
on the entire area during the past year was at the rate of 5,036 
pounds of hay. The yields on the different materials used in 
top-dressing were at the following rates per acre : — 


Pounds. 
Barnyard manure, . ‘ : ‘ : ‘ : . 5,394 
Wood ashes, . é 2 : : s . 4,708 
Fine ground bone and Fatale ; : d ; 145,460 


The average yields to date under the different systems of 
top-dressing have been at the following rates per acre: — 


Pounds. 
Barnyard manure, . ; : : : : : ap kale 
Wood ashes, . : d : , s ey 500 
Fine ground bone and meer. , : : ‘ . 6,164 


The average yield of the nine acres, from 1893 to 1909 in- 
clusive, has been at the rate of 6,150 pounds per acre. The 


a EXPERIMENT STATION, (Jan. 


average of the past year, it will be seen, is materially below 
the long-time average, a fact undoubtedly due to the deficiency 
of summer rainfall, previously referred to. 

IX. In the experiments comparing winter application of 
manure with spring application of an equal quantity, put into 
large heaps in the field in the winter and spread in the spring, 
the crop this year has been hay, mixed timothy, red top and 
clovers. The two systems of applying manure are under com- 
parison on five pairs of plots, and the experiment has been in 
progress since 1899, The average crops of the past season 
were at the following rates per acre: — 


Pounds. 
Winter application of manure: — 
Hay, : ‘ ; ; ; ; : . 1,045.0 
Rowen, : 3 : ; - : - P 460.6 
Spring application of manure: — 
Hay,'.-% ; ‘ ‘ : ‘ : . . 6,482.0 
Rowen, _ j ; , ; : ; : 659.2 


It will be noted that the winter application has given a 
larger crop of hay, but that the manure applied in the spring 
has given a heavier yield of rowen. If we combine the hay and 
rowen crops, the average yields have been at the following 
rates per acre: — 


Pounds. 
Winter application of manure, . : : . fovea 
Spring application of manure, . : : : .  ¢ASt2 


The field in which these experiments are located slopes con- 
siderably in a direction running lengthwise with the plots. 
The superiority of the results obtained where the manure is 
applied in winter becomes more strikingly evident when it 
is remembered that by following this system the labor cost is 
materially less than under the other, since when the manure is 
applied in the spring it must be handled twice. 

X. The leading feature of the poultry experiments during 
the past year has been the continuation of the experiments 
comparing the dry with the moist-mash system of feeding. We 
have carried through six experiments, three during the winter 
and three during the summer, using in these experiments six 
different flocks of fowls. The results have been similar to those 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 45 


obtained last year. In the majority of the experiments the 
fowls receiving the moist mash have produced a greater num- 
ber of eggs. The moist-mash feed has seemed to be superior to 
the dry feed in four out of the six experiments, and the num- 
ber of eggs in most of these experiments has been materially 
greater than the number produced under the dry system of feed- 
ing. In the two experiments in which the dry system gave the 
greater number of eggs, the differences were relatively small. 
Averaging the six experiments, the results are as follows: — 


Number of Eggs daily per 100 Hens. 
Moist mash, , : : : ; ; 36.3 
Dry feeds, a ‘ ‘ : . : : < . 345 


46 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


REPORT OF THE CHEMIST. 


JOSEPH B. LINDSEY. 


DEPARTMENT OF PLANT AND ANIMAL CHEMISTRY. 


Research section: Epwarp B. Hotuanp, Ropert D. MacLaurin.’ 

Fertilizer section: Henri D. Haskins in charge. 

Feed and dairy section: Puitie H. SmrruH in charge. 

Assistant chemists: LEwELL S. WALKER, JAMES C. ReeEp, Puiu V. 
GoLtpsMiTH, C. D. KENNEpy.’ 

Assistant in animal nutrition: Roy F. Gaskr1u, 

Inspector: JAMES T. Howarp." 

Clerks and stenographers: Harriet M. Coss, Atice M. Howarp. 


In the following pages is given a brief outline of the work 
carried on by the department for the year ending Dee. 1, 1909. 


1. CorRESPONDENCE. 

The number of letters sent out during the year ending Decem- 
ber 1, on the basis of stamps used, has been 5,641, some 841 
more than in the preceding year. Comparatively few stamps 
are used for packages. The correspondence divides itself 
principally into (a) answering letters of inquiry, (b) the ex- 
ecution of the fertilizer and feed laws, (c) testing of cows, 
and (d) in the ordering of supplies. 


1 Resigned Sept. 1, 1909. 3 From October, 1909. 
2 Resigned Dec. 1, 1909. : 4 From April 1, 1909. 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 47 


9. NumericaL SuMMARY oF Work IN THE CHEMICAL LABO- 
RATORY. 


From Dee. 1, 1908, to Dee. 1, 1909, there have been re- 
ceived and examined 99 samples of water, 389 of milk, 2,933 
of cream, 98 of feed stuffs, 234 of fertilizers and fertilizer 
materials, 42 of soils and 45 miscellaneous. In connection with 
experiments made by this and other departments of the station, 
there have been examined 191 samples of milk, 157 of cattle 
feeds, 58 of fertilizers, 26 of soils and 534 of agricultural 
plants. There have also been collected and examined 1,042 
samples of fertilizer in accordance with the requirements of 
the fertilizer law, and 946 samples of cattle feeds in accordance 
with the requirements of the feed law. The total for the year 
has been 6,794. This summary does not include work done 
by the research division. 

In addition to the above, 25 candidates have been examined 
and given certificates to operate Babcock machines, and 4,071 
‘ pieces of Babcock glassware have been tested for accuracy of 
graduation, of which 43, or 1.06 per cent., were inaccurate. 


3. Resumé or Worx or THE Researcu SECTION. 

The research work was carried on jointly by Mr. EK. B. Hol- 
land and Dr. R. D. MacLaurin. Mr. Holland has given atten- 
tion particularly to a study of methods for the determination 
of insoluble acids in butter fats, and has co-operated with the 
entomological department relative to the burning of foliage 
by insecticides. Quite satisfactory progress has been made in 
both of these lines of work, but they are not sufficiently ad- 
vanced to warrant any detailed publication. A paper on the 
stability of butter fat, prepared by Mr. Holland, appears else- 
where in this report. | 

Work on the constitution of fats and the chemistry of fat 
formation has been suspended by the resignation of Dr. Mac- 
Laurin. Dr. MacLaurin devoted substantially a year to the 
study of this subject, and has signified to the writer his inten- 
tion of preparing his work for publication. 


48 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


4. Worx 1n AntmaL NvutTRITION. 


Work to note the effect of molasses on the digestibility of the 
ration with which it is fed has been sufficiently advanced to 
warrant a paper on the subject, which appears elsewhere in 
this report. 

Experiments on the most suitable varieties of corn for the silo 
have been in progress for a number of years. The results 
show that such varieties as the Leaming, Pride of the North, 
Rustler White Dent, Longfellow and Sanford White are more 
suitable for this latitude than Early Mastodon, Improved White 
Cap, Brewer’s Dent, Wing’s White Cap and Eureka. We have 
noted the degree of maturity by September 15, the yield of dry 
matter, the proportion of dry matter in stocks, ears, husks and 
leaves, as well as the degree of digestibility of most of the sev-_ 
eral varieties. The excess in yield of green material from the 
latter varieties consists largely of water. In case the coarse 
dents are field cured, the stalks will not cure out well, and as 
late as the middle of November contain a much larger amount 
of water than the smaller varieties. The detailed report of this 
experiment will probably be ready for publication in another 
year. 

Digestion tests with alfalfa and red clover at the same stages 
of growth have been completed, but a large amount of labora- 
tory work in connection with the samples still remains to 
be done before the final results can be obtained. 


5. Resumé oF Work oF THE FERTILIZER SECTION. 

Mr. H. D. Haskins, in charge, presents the following re- 
Pork. 

The activities of the fertilizer division have been confined 
chiefly to the fertilizer control work and the examination of 
fertilizers, soils, refuse by-products, ete., forwarded by farmers 
and others interested in agriculture. The results of the year’s 
work would indicate that a larger number of private formulas 
and home-mixed fertilizers had been used by the Massachu- 
setts farmers than ever before. The work of the collection and 
inspection of licensed fertilizers has also increased during the 
year. <A larger number of fertilizers was licensed this year 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 49 


than during the past season, and the collection and analysis 
of samples reach the highest number ever attained during the 
history of fertilizer inspection work in Massachusetts. 


(a) Fertilizers licensed. 

During the year 431 distinct brands of fertilizers and agri- 
cultural chemicals have been licensed in Massachusetts.  Li- 
censes have been secured during the year by 78 manufacturers, 
importers and dealers, counting each branch of the American 
Agricultural Chemical Company as a separate company. Two 
more licenses were issued and 22 more brands were licensed than 
for 1908. The brands licensed this year may be classed as 
follows 


Complete fertilizers, . ‘ : ; : . 306 
Fertilizers furnishing potash aid Rcohunic acid, g 
Ground bone, tankage and dry ground fish, . ‘ a Ok 
Agricultural chemicals and organic compounds furnish- 
ing nitrogen, . : : : é : ; ‘ selen(SD) 
Total, : : ; : : : ‘ : - 43h 


(b) Fertilizers collected. 

An effort was made during the season to cover a larger terri- 
tory than heretofore, and to procure, so far as possible, repre- 
sentatives of every brand of goods sold in the State. As a 
general rule, fertilizers cannot be found plentifully in the open 
markets in Massachusetts until after April 1. Some of the 
fertilizer is used on early crops by the 15th or 20th of April, 
and by May 1 considerable of the fertilizer is in the ground. 
Our collecting season being relatively short, an extra man was 
delegated to gather samples during that portion of the season 
when the fertilizer was found most plentiful. The samples 
were in all cases taken by an authorized agent from the ex- 
periment station. Mr. James T. Howard, the assistant usually 
delegated to this work, assisted by Mr. C. W. Gaskill, covered 
the eastern portion of the State, while Mr. E. C. Hall looked 
after the collection in the Connecticut Valley and the central 
portion of the State. Samples were taken from over 280 
different agents, and over 110 different towns were visited. 


50 HXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


The total number of samples collected was 1,042, represent- 
ing 458 distinct brands, — being 418 more samples than during 
the preceding year. Wherever possible an analysis has been 
made of a composite made up of equal weights of the same brand 
collected in various parts of the State. Samples have been 
taken with the usual care and discrimination, the collecting 
agents being instructed to sample at least 10 per cent. of the 
number of packages of each brand, and never less than five 
bags, without making a special note of the fact on the guarantee 
slip which is sent to the laboratory with each sample taken. 


(c) Fertilizers analyzed. 
The following analyses have been made in connection with 
the inspection of licensed fertilizers : — 


Complete fertilizers, . : : ‘ 5 ; s . 384 
Ground bone, tankage and fish, : F ; : : Ae 
Materials furnishing phosphoric acid, potash and lime, 
such as ashes, i; ; ; : : . : . fe 
Nitrogen compounds, such as nitrate of soda, sulfate of 
ammonia, blood, castor pomace, cottonseed meal and 


linseed meal, : : ‘ : : : : . auGs 
Potash compounds, . : : : ; : : . wee 
Phosphorie acid compounds, . ; ; ‘ ‘ 3 oi 


In addition to the above, 33 samples of fertilizer have been 
analyzed that were not licensed but which were goods manu- 
factured for private use. These goods were sampled officially 
by our collecting agents from stock in the possession of the 
consumer. This makes a total of 613 analyses which have been 
made during the season of 1909. 

In some instances, where the results of analysis of a com- 
posite sample showed a brand to be seriously deficient in plant 
food, a new sample has been prepared for analysis from each 
original sample taken, and separate analyses have been made. 
This was done to ascertain if the shortage was general, or con- 
fined to one or more lots of the same brand. Thirty-five such 
complete analyses were made during the season from 13 com- 
posite samples; 172 more analyses have been made than during 
the previous year, | 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. ol 


(d) Trade Values of Fertilizing Ingredients. 


CENTS PER POUND. 


1909. 1908. 


Nitrogen: — 
In ammonia salts, . : ‘ 3 : 2 A 2 F ‘ 4 iif 17% 
In nitrates, 2 161% 1814 
Organic nitrogen in dry and fine ground fish, “meat, blood anda in ‘high- 
grade mixed fertilizers, . : y : : : : 19 20% 
Organic nitrogen in fine bone and tankage,! , : ; 2 : 19 201% 
Organic nitrogen in coarse bone and tankage,!_—. : : : : 14 15 


Phosphoric acid: — 
Soluble in water, 
Soluble in ammonium citrate ‘(reverted ‘phosphoric acid), 
In fine ground bone and tankage,! - ; : 
In coarse bone and tankage,! 
In cottonseed meal, linseed meal, castor pomace and ashes, 
Insoluble (in neutral citrate of ammonia solution) in mixed fertilizers, 


nt \ bent 
RONDO 


bo oo co ww oe = 


Potash: — 
As sulphate free from chlorides, 
As carbonate, . 
As muriate (chloride), 


H= 00 O1 
H= 00 Or 


The above schedule of trade values was adopted at a meeting 
of the station directors and chemists from the New England 
_and New Jersey experiment stations, which was held in March, 
1909. They represent the average cash pound cost, at retail, 
of the three essential elements of plant food in thei various 
forms, as furnished by chemicals and unmixed raw materials, 
in the large markets during the six months preceding March 
1, 1909. The trade values for nitrogen and phosphorie acid 
are somewhat lower than for the previous year. 

The following table shows the average comparative commer- 
eial values, the retail cash prices and the percentages of differ- 
ence of the licensed complete fertilizers analyzed in Massa- 
chusetts during the-season of 1908 and 1909: 


Commercial | Retail Cash : Percentages 

YEAR. Values. Prices. Difference. of Difference. 
19O8% )+. A é : ; ; $25 81 36 20 $10 39 40.25 
19095 . : : a. 5 : 22 19 34 62 12 43 56.01 


It must be remembered that the “ commercial values ” repre- 
sent the retail price of the raw or unmixed materials, and that 


1 Fine and medium bone are separated by a sieve having circular openings one-fiftieth of 
an inch in diameter, the valuation of the bone being based upon the degree of fineness, 


52 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


the manufacturer cannot sell mixed fertilizers at these figures. 
He must obtain an advance sufficient to cover costs of manufac- 
ture, bagging, agencies, credits, etc. The above differences 
do not represent his profits. These are much smaller, and 
are probably not excessive in the case of reliable firms. It is 
probable, however, that the cash buyer of high-grade unmixed 
goods can secure needed plant food in that form at a cost con- 
siderably lower than in licensed complete fertilizers, and that 
by intelligent selection he can procure materials from which 
can be made home mixtures at least equally effective with such 
fertilizers. 


(ec) Summary of Analyses and Guarantees. 


MANUFACTURER. 


Three Elements 
equal to Guarantee. 
Elements below 


Number with Three 
Guarantee. 


Elements below 


Number with Two 
Guarantee. 


Element below 


Guarantee in Com- 
Guarantee. 


mercial Value. 


n 
a2] 
q 
s 
al 
= 
a 
Be 
3 
54 
i 


Number with One 


Number with All 
Number equal to 


W. H. Abbott, 

American Agricultural Chemical Company, ; 
Armour Fertilizer Works, : : 
Baltimore Pulverizing Company, : 

Beach Soap Company, . 

Berkshire Fertilizer Company, 

Bowker Fertilizer Company, . 

Joseph Breck & Son, 

Buffalo Fertilizer Company, . : 
Coe-Mortimer Company, ‘ 

Eastern Chemical Company, 

Essex Fertilizer Company, 

R. & J. Farquhar & Co., ; 

Hubbard Fertilizer Company, 

Jordan Marsh Company, 

Listers Agricultural Chemical Works, 

James E. McGovern, d 

Mapes Formula and Peruvian Guano Company. a 
National Fertilizer Company, ‘ ‘ 
Natural Guano Company, 

New England Fertilizer Company, 

Olds & Whipple, 

Parmenter & Polsey, 

R. T. Prentiss, 

Pulverized Manure Company, 

W. W. Rawson & Co., 

Rogers Manufacturing Company, | 

Rogers & Hubbard Com pany, 

Ross Brothers Company, 

N. Roy & Son, 

Sanderson Fertilizer and Chemical Com pany, 
M. L. Shoemaker & Co., Ltd., . 
Swift’s Lowell Fertilizer Company, 
Whitman & Pratt Rendering Company, 
Wilcox Fertilizer Works, ; 

A. H. Wood & Co., 


w 


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—" 
LOnnnNrnoaenwNoodre |] 1 ADRK woN! NN! WOOK ONWN OHNO obs 


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WAND DAH WODNWWADDHR NNR NTR WORE KEK ODOWEOEPNOOW 


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(a) Vis | Ge fo) (RS) RSS| Coal Fn] (le Pe =< ol LTV] Eo sa 7 2) (eT CT RT fx i) VS) (St Yat Cat Wen (CR) Vo iy Ya 


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1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 53 


The above table shows : — 

1. That 296 distinct brands of complete licensed fertilizers 
were collected and analyzed. 

2. That 138 brands (46.6 per cent. of the whole number 
analyzed) fell below the manufacturer’s guarantee in one or 
more elements. 

3. That 106 brands were deficient in one element. 

4, That 30 brands were deficient in two elements. 

5. That 2 brands were deficient in all three elements. In 
this connection it might be added that 80 brands were found 
deficient in nitrogen, 63 in potash and 28 in phosphoric acid. 

6. That 45 out of the 296 brands analyzed (over 15 per cent. 
of the total number) showed a commercial shortage. The term 


> means that the brands in question did 


“commercial shortage ’ 
not show the quantity and value of plant feod guaranteed, 
although the excess of any element of plant food was figured in 
full value to offset the deficiencies. 

7. That certain manufacturers are either extremely careless 
in mixing or else they do not allow a sufficient margin for 
variation in the composition of crude stock. In other words, 
they try to have their goods run too close to the minimum 
guarantee. : 
(f) Commercial Shortages. 

The following table has been prepared to show the commer- 
cial shortages in the mixed fertilizers for the season of 1909, 
also to furnish a comparison with the previous year : — 


Commercial Shortages. 


NUMBER OF BRANDS. 


COST. 
1909. 1998. 
Over $4 per ton, ; : ; 2 ; : : ; : 4 = 
Between $3 and $4 per ton, j : j ‘ : A ‘ 2 3 
Between $2 and $3 per ton, ; : ae ie 4 ; ; 5 1 
Between $1 and $2 per ton, : : ; : : : : 14 i 
Under $1, not less than 25 cents, A : 4 : : F 35 Not given. 


The season of 1909 shows the largest number of deficiencies 
and commercial shortages which has probably ever occurred 


54 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


in this State. The largest number occurring are below $1 per 
ton, and yet many of the deficiencies are very serious, running 
1 per cent. or over below the minimum guarantee. In the table 
of shortages, in all cases where an excess of plant food has 
occurred the commercial value of the excess has been used to 
offset the commercial shortage resulting from a deficiency in 
some of the other elements. This practice is certainly ex- 
tremely fair to the manufacturer. We should not lose sight of 
the fact, however, that serious deficiencies or excesses change 
the essential character of a fertilizer. A prosecution in every 
case this year must, from necessity, have contained a certain 
element of unfairness, as some of the cases of the most serious 
deficiencies occurred where the licensee was not the manufac- 
turer, and was, therefore, not directly responsible for the ecompo- 
sition of the goods, which were manufactured by parties outside 
of the State. Therefore no prosecutions have been made for 
shortages. It seemed wise, after a careful review of the situa- 
tion, to take up the matter with each manufacturer separately, 
and endeavor to secure an adjustment that would be as favorable 
as possible to the consumer. It is obviously not possible, how- 
ever, to follow such a method year after year. All manufac- 
turers whose goods have fallen seriously below their guarantees 
have been advised, and all others are hereby informed, that 
such conditions cannot continue to exist, and that another sea- 
son it will be necessary to prosecute violators of the statute. 


(g) Grades of Fertilizer. 
The 323 brands of complete fertilizers may be divided into 
three groups: — 


Low-grade fertilizers, having a commercial value of $18 


or less per ton, . : ‘ 5 ; 83 
Medium-grade fertilizers, havi ing a seeueneel eae of 

between $18 and $24 per ton, F ‘ .. £22 
High-grade fertilizers, having a commercial pale of over 

$24 per ton, . 4 ; é ; : : , ~ Js 


The following table has been compiled for the purpose of 


making a study of the three grades of goods: — 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 55 


o . 

AVERAGE CoMPosITION. = 8 

. o . Ay a q 

S 2 ! 0 ; |oge 8 to gj 5 

eetieties | 2 ie2* | = Ee | @ 

GRADE OF A a Pa Pe | 8 (S32 = 8 aa a 

al b=) A <$ Sg ea "3 g ns 

FERTILIZER. = .o2| & |€2as a © 

eis rs tems! os iq es| & = Sie ieee 

H S =| R''S| 8 lav a o o oF f& 

© ® Ce oa| © Io gd ‘S on on DQ 5, rs| 

a |S los Pse|/ 0 |asss)| §& é eg | 3 

E} 5 Rep les | & | ZAR 2 2 mS es 

a iy eae | a a la < < rs ay 
High, . é 5 -| 118 | 36.53]| 3.94 | 7.62 | 8.00) 19.56 || $27 63 | $39 05 | $11 42 | 41.33 
Medium, . : - | 122 | 37.77|| 2.61 | 8.10 | 5.34] 16.05 || 20 69 33 85 13 16 | 63.61 
Low, - : . 83 | 25.70}| 1.80 | 7.35 | 3.06] 12.21 15 32 29 51 14 19 | 92.62 


———e 


The above table shows : — 

1. That the per cent. of nitrogen and potash is much higher 
in the high-grade goods than in the medium or low grade. 

2. That with about a 32 per cent. advance in price over the 
low-grade fertilizers, the high-grade furnished more than 60 per 
cent. increase in available plant food. 

3. With about 32 per cent. advance in price over the low- 
grade goods, the high-grade furnished over 80 per cent. increase 
in commercial value. 

4, A ton of the average high-grade fertilizer furnishes about 
43 pounds more of nitrogen, 54 pounds more of available 
phosphorie acid and 99 pounds more of actual potash than does 
a ton of the low-grade goods. 

5. The average high-grade fertilizer costs 1514 per cent. 
more than the medium-grade article; it furnishes about 22 per 
cent. more plant food and has about 35.5 per cent. greater 
commercial value. 

6. The medium-grade fertilizers cost about 15 per cent. more 
than the low-grade and furnish over 35 per cent. greater com- 
mercial value. 

7. The percentage of difference between cost and valuation in 
low-grade goods is more than double that for high-grade fer- 
tilizers. 


56 EXPERIMENT STATION, [Jan. 


Table showing the Pound Cost of Nitrogen, Potash and the Various 
Forms of Phosphoric Acid in the Three Grades of Fertilizer. 


Low-grade Medium-grade High-grade 


Fertilizer Fertilizer Fertilizer 

(Cents). (Cents). (Cents). 
Nitrogen, 5 : - : : ; Sol 36.60 31.08 26.85 
Potash (ag muriate), . : : : : 9.63 8.18 7.07 
Soluble phosphoric acid, em 6.54 5.65 
Reverted phosphoric acid, 6.74 5.73 4.95 
Insoluble phosphoric acid, . 3.85 8.27 2.83 


The above table shows : — 

1. That nitrogen has cost 9.75 eents more per pound, avail- 
able phosphoric acid about 2 cents more per pound and potash 
2.56 cents more per pound in the average low-grade fertilizer 
than in the average high-grade goods. 

2. That nitrogen has cost 4.23 cents, the available phosphoric 
acid over °4 of a cent and the potash 1.11 cents more per pound 
in the average medium-grade fertilizer than in the average high- 
erade goods. 

3. That every conclusion which can be drawn from the above 
table emphasizes the fact that the farmer cannot afford to pur- 
chase low-grade fertilizers. 


(h) Unmixed Fertilizers. 

Ground Bones. — Twenty-nine samples of ground bone have 
been analyzed during the inspection of 1909. Eleven of the 
brands have been found deficient in phosphoric acid and 8 in 
nitrogen; 8 brands had a commercial shortage ranging from a 
few cents to $2.95 per ton. The average retail cash price for 
bone has been $30.39 per ton, the average valuation $26.09 
and the percentage difference 16.57. 

Tankage. — Nine samples of tankage have been analyzed 
and show the usual variations in composition; only 1, however, 
has shown a serious shortage in nitrogen, and 4 tested low in 
phosphoric acid. There were no commercial shortages. The 
average retail cash price was $30.18, the average valuation 
$29.86 aud the percentage difference 1.07. The average cost 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 57 


of nitrogen per pound in this material has been 17.1 cents in 
fine tankage and 15 cents in coarse tankage. 

Dissolved Bone. — Three samples of dissolved bone have been 
analyzed, only 1 of which was found deficient in plant food. 
No commercial shortages were found. The average retail cash 
price was $26.67, the average valuation $20.69 and the percent- 
age difference 28.90. 

Dry Ground Fish.-— Twenty samples of dry ground fish 
have been examined, of which 9 were found deficient im nitro- 
gen and only 1 in phosphoric acid. Six brands showed a com- 
mercial shortage ranging from a few cents to $1.89 per ton. 
The average retail cash price was $58.96, the average valua- 
tion $36.13 and the percentage difference 7.83. Nitrogen. from 
dry fish has cost, on the average, 25.88 cents per pound. 

Wood Ashes. — Thirteen samples of ashes have been ana- 
lyzed, of which 3 were found deficient in phosphoric acid and 6 
in potash. Six of these samples showed a commercial short- 
age ranging from 52 cents to $1.10 per ton. 


(1) Nitrogen Compounds. 

Sulfate of Ammonia. — Three samples have been analyzed 
and found well up to the guarantee. The average cost of nitro- 
gen per pound in this form has been 17.53 cents. 

Nitrate of Soda. — Thirteen samples have been analyzed, 
only 2 being found deficient in nitrogen. The average cost of 
nitrogen per pound in form of nitrate of soda has been 17.11 
cents. 

Dried Blood. —— Two samples of this material were examined 
and found deficient in nitrogen; each contained sufficient phos- 
phoric acid, however, so that there was no commercial shortage. 
The average cost of nitrogen from blood has been 25.57 cents 
per pound. 

Castor Pomace. — Four samples of castor pomace have been 
analyzed, 1 sample only being found deficient in nitrogen, and 
this equivalent to $2.36 per ton. The average cost of nitrogen 
in this form has been 23.67 cents per pound. 

Linseed Meal. — Three samples of flax meal have been tested 
and the nitrogen guarantee has been maintained in each in- 


58 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


stance. The nitrogen from this source has cost, on the average, 
26.47 cents per pound. . 

Cottonseed Meal. — Forty-three samples of cottonseed meal 
have been examined. This has been the product from six com- 
panies which have licensed this material to be sold as a fertilizer 
in Massachusetts during the past year. This material, like 
the castor pomace and linseed meal, is bought largely as a 
nitrogen source for tobacco. Seventeen out of the 43 samples 
analyzed show a nitrogen shortage ranging from a few cents to 
$2.39 per ton. Nitrogen from cottonseed meal has cost, on the 
average, 23.61 cents per pound. 


(2) Potash Compounds. 


Carbonate of Potash. — Three samples have been analyzed 
and all of them were found to be of good quality. . Potash in 
this form has cost, on the average, 7.68 cents per pound. 

High-grade Sulfate of Potash.—-Nine samples have been 
analyzed and the potash guarantee was maintained in all but 
3 of them. The pound of potash has cost in this form, on the 
average, 5.03 cents. | 

Potash-magnesia Sulfate. — Six samples have been analyzed 
and in every case the potash guarantee has been maintained. 
The pound of actual potash has cost in this form 5.41 cents. 

Muriate of Potash. — Thirteen samples have been examined 
and only 2 samples have shown a potash shortage, amounting to 
a few cents per ton in value. The pound of actual potash in 
form of muriate has cost, on the average, 4.18 cents. 

Kainit. —'Three samples have been analyzed, all testing 
over the minimum guarantee in potash. The average pound 
eost of potash from kainit has been 6.13 cents. 


(3) Phosphoric Acid Compounds. 


Dissolved Bone Black. — Three samples have been examined 
and all were found of good quality. The pound of available 
phosphoric acid from this source has cost, on the average, 7.41 
cents. 


Acid Phosphate. — Seven samples have been analyzed and 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. - 59 


the available phosphoric acid guarantee was maintained in all 
but 1 instanee. The pound of available phosphoric acid from 
this source has cost, on the average, 5.69 cents. 

Basie Slag Phosphate. —Six samples have been examined 
and the available phosphoric acid in all but 1 sample has run 
somewhat under the amount guaranteed. There has been a 
commercial shortage in only one instance, however, as the de- 
ficiency was made up by an excess of insoluble phosphoric acid. 
The pound of available phosphoric acid (by Wagner’s method ) 
from slag has cost, on the average, 5.79 cents. 


(1) Miscellaneous Fertilizers, Soils and By-products for Free 
Analysis. 

As in the past, free analyses have been made for farmers and 
others interested in agriculture so far as our time and facil- 
ties would warrant. Work of this nature, however, has been 
done when it would not conflict with the official inspection of 
commercial fertilizers. Including the materials which have been 
tested for the various departments of the experiment station, 
385 analyses have been made. ‘They may be grouped as fol- 
lows: 292 fertilizers and by-products used as fertilizers, 68 
soils and 25 samples of miscellaneous materials. Information 
has been furnished each applicant at the time the results of 
analyses were reported as to the best method of using ferti- 
lizer materials, also as to their average commercial value. In- 
formation has also been furnished with soil analyses as to the 
best method of treating the soil, also as regards the fertiliza- 
tion of the same. Both the fertilizer materials and soil samples 
have been taken according to instructions furnished from this 
office, and are therefore in all cases representative samples. 
These analyses do not appear in our fertilizer bulletin. 

The fertilizer section has, as in past years, been active in co- 
operative work with the Association of Official Agricultural 
Chemists, and also with the fertilizer branch of the American 
Chemical Society. 


60 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


6. Rétsumk or Work or tHe Frep AND Datry SECTION. 


Mr. P. H. Smith, in charge, submits the following report : — 


(a) The Feed Law. 


During the past year 946 samples of feed stuffs offered for 
sale in the Massachusetts markets were collected by the official 
inspector. These have been examined, and the results are being 
brought together for publication in bulletin form, 

Practically no misrepresentation was detected, although in 
a number of instances feed stuffs lacked the guarantee and other 
information required by the statute. Wherever dealers appeared 
to be particularly careless in this respect the matter was put into 
the hands of an attorney for settlement, but thus far in every 
case a satisfactory agreement has been made without resorting 
to the courts. In the future it is the intention to prosecute 
where dealers cannot be brought by less drastic means to com- 
ply with the law. The requirements of the Massachusetts law 
are simple and explicit, and afford protection to the reputable 
dealer as well as to the consumer, therefore the continued 
evasion of the law by a few dealers is inexcusable and should 
not be tolerated. 

The extent to which the national pure food law aids in pre- 
venting adulteration and misrepresentation where feeds enter 
into interstate commerce is perhaps not known and appreciated 
as it should be. State officials and others in close touch with 
the work can see that its effects are far reaching and of great 
assistance to those engaged in local control work. 

Cottonseed meal, usually one of the cheapest sources of protein 
for the Massachusetts dairyman, has for the past season been 
quite satisfactory in quality. The results thus far obtained 
for new meal indicate that, on account of the short cotton erop 
of the present season, conditions will be much the same as for 
the season of 1906-07. In spite of the excessively high price 
many dealers have sold short, and considerable slightly inferior 
meal is being offered. This may be accounted for in part by 
the poor quality of the seed, but it is felt, in some instances at 
least, that hulls and linters are intentionally added. 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 61 


(1) Low-grade By-products should be sold under their True 
Names. 


On account of our increasing population and prevailing high 
prices, it 1s becoming more and more necessary to utilize all 
by-products having any substantial food value in the feeding of 
our domestic animals. While screenings, weed seeds, oat hulls, 
corn cobs, cottonseed hulls and other low-grade material may 
contain some nutriment, the foregoing statement should not be 
taken to indicate that a compounded feed containing one or 
more of these materials, together with some high-grade con- 
centrate, is just as valuable as the high-grade concentrate it- 
self. Where such a mixture is offered at its face value, and 
no misrepresentation attempted, it is certainly a legitimate 
article of trade, and should be so recognized. The writer firmly 
believes, however, that, in order that the consumer may purchase 
intelligently, the ingredients going to make up a compounded 
feed should be stated on each package, but no legislation 
‘absolutely prohibiting the sale of low-grade material should be 
enacted unless it can be shown that certain kinds of material are 
poisonous or injurious to the animal. 

The molasses feeds, of which there is an increasing number, 
form an excellent outlet for certain kinds of low-grade mate- 
rial, — especially screenings, — the molasses rendering them 
more palatable. Most of the manufacturers now grind the grain 
screenings before using them as a constituent of these feeds. 

There are various feeds now offered which contain more or 
less ground alfalfa. It is believed that feeders cannot afford 
to pay grain prices for alfalfa hay, even when fine ground; it 
is decidedly more economical to purchase the high-grade con- 
centrates unmixed, and to depend upon home-grown English 
hay, alfalfa, clover hay and corn silage as sources of roughage. 


(2) Protein v. Carbohydrates. 

Many manufacturers claim that the experiment stations 
place too much emphasis upon the value of protein and too. 
little emphasis upon the value of carbohydrates. This station 
has never questioned the value and necessity of liberal amounts 
of carbohydrates in the ration. The question is rather an 


62 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


economic one, especially for the New Kngland feeder, who, 
under our climatic conditions, can easily raise a sufficient quan- 
tity of carbohydrates and must depend largely upon purchased 
protein to balance or round out the ration, particularly in the 
feeding of dairy animals. 


(3) Wetght of Feed Stuffs. 

Up to this time we have paid but little attention to the weight 
of feed stuffs. Data recently brought together show that while 
the feed law states eaplicitly that the net weight of each pack- 
age should be stated, the practice has been, except in a few 
instances, to state gross weight as net. When feed stuffs sold 
for $15 a ton and less, the difference in value between net, 
and gross weight of sacked feeds amounted to comparatively 


” ig much 


little, but at the present time the. “ value difference 
ereater. In a few instances what appear to be a deliberate at- 
tempt to give short weight was noted, and consumers should 


be on their guard against such deception. 


(4) Umform Feed Law. 

It was the writer’s pleasure to attend, during September, a 
conference between a committee of the American Feed Manu- 
facturers’ Association and State control officials, held at Wash- 
ington, in the interests of a uniform feed stuffs law. The 
decision of the conference was that such a law should be as 
simple as possible, and that a buyer of any feed stuffs should 
be informed of the following points: — 

1. The number of net pounds in the package. 

2. Name, brand or trademark. 

3. Name and principal address of the manufacturer or jobber 
responsible for placing the commodity on the market. 

4. Its chemical analysis expressed in the following terms: 
(a) minimum percentage of crude protein, (b) minimum per- 
centage of crude fat, and (c) maximum percentage of crude 
fiber. 

5. If a compound or mixed feed, the specific name of each 
ingredient therein. 

The Massachusetts law does not require a guarantee of fiber 
or a statement of ingredients in a compounded feed, and it is 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 63 


felt that if the present law could be amended to contain these 
statements it would be materially strengthened. 


(b) The Dairy Law. 
The work required by this act is divided into three natural 
subdivisions: (1) the examination of candidates, (2) the test- 
ing of glassware, and (3) the inspection of machines. 


(1) Examination of Candidates. 

During the past year 25 candidates have been examined for 
proficiency in Babcock testing. Of these, 14 were students at 
the ten weeks’ winter course and 3 were students in the regular 
college course; the other 8 held positions in different parts of 
the State. All candidates were at least fairly proficient and 
capable of doing good work. At the last session of the Legis- 
lature, section 4 of the dairy law (chapter 202 of the Acts of 
1901) was so amended as to give the director of the experiment 
station power to revoke the certificate of an operator providing 
it is found that he is not doing satisfactory work. Following 
is the section as amended : — 


Section 4.’ No person shall, either by himself or in the employ of 
any other person, firm or corporation, manipulate the Babcock test 
or any other test, whether mechanical or chemical, for the purpose 
of measuring the butter fat contained in milk or eream as a basis for 
determining the value of such milk or cream, or of butter or cheese 
made from the same, without first obtaining a certificate from the di- 
rector of the Massachusetts* agricultural experiment station that he 
or she is competent to perform such work. Rules governing applica- 
tions for such certificates and the granting of the same shall be estab- 
lished by the said director. The fee for issuing the said certificate 
shall in no ease exceed two dollars, shall be paid by the applicant to 
the said director, and shall be used in meeting the expenses incurred 
under this act. If the duly authorized inspector finds an operator who, 
after receiving his certificate of competency, is not, in the judgment 
of the inspector, correctly manipulating the Babcock or other test 
used as a basis for determining the value of milk and cream, or who 
is using dirty, untested or otherwise unsatisfactory glassware, he shall 
immediately report the case in writing to the director of the station. 
The director shall at once notify said operator in writing and give him 


1 See chapter 425, Acts of 1909. 
2 Massachusetts substituted for Hatch. See chapter 66, Acts of 1907, 


64 EXPERIMENT STATION. (Jan. 


not less than thirty days to make the necessary improvements. At the 
expiration of that time the director may order a second inspection, 
the cost of which shall be borne by the operator or by the person, 
firm or corporation employing him, and if the required improvement 
has not been made, the director is empowered to notify in writing 
said operator, or the person, firm or corporation employing him, that 
his certificate of competency is revoked. In ease of any subsequent 
violation the said director may revoke the certificate of competency 
without giving the notice aforesaid. 


(2) Testing Glassware. 

During the past year 4,071 pieces of glassware were examined, 
of which 43 pieces, or 1.06 per cent., were inaccurate. Follow- 
ing is a summary of the work for the nine years that the law 
has been in force: — 


Number of 


: Number of . Percentage 
YEAR. : Pieces 
: Pieces tested. Céndemunt Condemned. 

1901, Te OT oe Rr re 5,041 291 5.77 
1902, A = : : , : : 2 2,344 56 2.40 
1903, - - 5 - 4 A : - 2,240 57 2.54 
1904, sie ade a5) ee TE, oR ata ae 2,026 200 9.87 
1905, = A 5 A : A - 1,665 197 11.83 
1906, 5 5 2 5 ; A ; : 2,457 763 31.05 
1907, 4 3 : A A 5 A A 3,082 204 6.62 
1908, ae shal Gy Overmars St oat! yy a 2,713 33 1.22 
1909, 3 ; : ; ‘ ‘ . ‘ 4,071 43 1.06 

Totals, ‘ ‘ 3 : F ; E 25,639 1,844 7.19! 


The passage of this law has prevented 1,844 pieces of in- 
accurately graduated glassware, representing 7.19 per cent., of 
the entire number tested, from coming into use. 


(3) Inspection of Babcock Machines. 

In 1901, at the time of the first annual inspection, there were 
in Massachusetts 40 creameries and milk depots using the 
Babcock test as a basis for fixing the value of milk and cream. 
Owing to the increasing demand for milk, many creameries 
have either suspended operations or have been bought up by 


OOO 


1 Average. 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 65 


the large Boston milk companies, so that at the present inspec- 
tion (November, 1909) but 29 places were visited, of which 16 
were creameries, 11 milk depots, 1 city milk inspector and 1 
chemical laboratory. Ten of the creameries were co-operative 
and 6 proprietary. The 11 milk depots were in every case 
proprietary. Twenty-nine machines were inspected, of which 
2 were condemned, but on second inspection a few weeks later 
they were found to have been put in good condition. Those in 
use are 11 Facile, 8 Agos, 6 Electrical, 38 Wizard and 1 
Twentieth Century. The glassware, as a whole, was clean, and 
so far as noted was Massachusetts tested. It 1s believed, on 
account of worn bearings and carelessness in keeping them clean 
and well oiled, that an excess of steam is necessary in many 
eases to give the required speed. Care should be taken to see 
that steam machines do not overheat the tests, which should be 
read between 120° and 140° F. 

The creameries and milk depots which pay by the test are 
as follows: — 


Creameries. 
LocaTION. Name. President or Manager. 
. Amherst, Amherst, W.A. Pease, manager. 
. Ashfield, . Ashfield Co-operative, . Wm. Hunter, manager. 


. Belchertown, . 
. Brimfield, . 


. Cheshire, . : 


Belchertown Co-operative, . | G. B. Jackson, manager. 


Crystal Brook, F. N. Lawrence, proprietor. 


Greylock Co-operative, Carl Williams, manager. 


eo ot @® OF O&O NW 


. Cummington, Cummington Co-operative, . | W. E. Partridge, manager. 
. Egremont, . Egremont Co-operative, E. A. Tyrrell, manager. 
. Easthampton, Hampton Co-operative, W.S. Wilcox, manager. 
. Heath, 3 Cold Spring, . F. E. Stetson, manager. 


10. Hinsdale, . Hinsdale Creamery Com- 


any. 


W.O. Solomon, proprietor. 


11. Monterey, . 


. New Salem, 


p 
Berkshire Co-operative, 


New Salem Co-operative, 


F. A. Campbell, manager. 


W. A. Moore, president. 


13. North Brook field, North Brookfield, . H. A. Richardson, propri- 
14. Northfield, Northfield Co-operative, o.C. Stearns, manager. 

15. Shelburne, Shelburne Co-operative, Ira Barnard, manager. 

16. Wyben Springs, ayes Springs Co-opera- | C. H. Kelso, manager. 


lve. 


66 


EXPERIMENT STATION. 


Milk Depots. 


[Jan. 


LocATION. Name. President or Manager. 

1. Boston, D. W. Whiting & Sons, Geo. Whiting, manager. 

2. Boston, H. P. Hood & Sons, W.N. Brown, manager. 

3. Boston, . : ; - | Boston Dairy Company, W. A. Graustein, president. 
4. Boston, F ; . - | Walker-Gordon Laboratory, | M. B. Small, manager. 

5. Boston, . - : - | Oak Grove Farm, .« Alden Brothers, proprietors. 
6. Cambridge, C. Brigham Company, J. R. Blair, manager. 

7. Cheshire, . Ormsby Farms, W. E. Penniman, manager. 
8. Dorchester, Elm Farm Milk Company, . J. H. Knapp, manager. 

9. Sheffield, Willow Brook Dairy, G. W. Patterson, manager. 
10. Southboro, Deerfoot Farm Dairy, .« S. H. Howes, manager. | 
11. Springfield, Tait Brothers, Tait Brothers, proprietors. 
12. Springfield, Emerson Laboratory, .- II. C. Emerson, proprietor. 
13. Springfield, Milk inspector, Stephen C. Downs. 


Attention is ealled to the article on the ‘‘ Babeock Test,” 
published in Cireular No. 24 of this station, and to the article 
on ‘* Reading the Babcock Test,” printed elsewhere in this 
report. 


(c) Milk, Cream and Feeds sent for Free Hxamination. 


The experiment station will analyze samples of milk, cream 
and feeds sent for examination in so far as the time and re- 
sources at its command permit, and in addition will furnish 
such information as is likely to prove of value in interpreting 
the results of such analysis. Under the dairy law the station 
has the right to charge the cost of the analyses of milk and 
cream; charges, however, are not made unless the number of 
analyses required is considerable. Only in exceptional cases 
should material intended for free chemical examination be 
sent except by previous arrangement. Upon application full 
instructions for sampling and directions for shipping will be 
furnished, which will often obviate the necessity of sending 
another sample in place of the one improperly taken. 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 67 


(d) Analysis of Drinking Water. 

Since the establishment of the station in 1882, sanitary 
analyses of drinking water have been carried out for parties 
within the State. Beginning Jan. 1, 1903, free analyses were 
discontinued, and a charge of $3 a sample made. ‘The reason 
for this change was the fact that many parties abused the privi- 
lege, and also because work of this character interfered with 
legitimate experiment station work. The above charge must be 
paid when the sample of water is sent. During the year 91 
samples have been tested and the results promptly reported. 

In order to secure an analysis application must first be 
made, whereupon a suitably encased glass jar, together with full 
instructions for collecting and forwarding the sample, will be 
forwarded by express. An analysis of water sent in shippers’ 
jars will not be undertaken, neither will bacteriological nor 
mineral analyses be made. The object in offering to make an 
examination of water is to enable the citizens of the State, de- 
- pending upon wells and springs, to ascertain at a minimum ex- 
pense whether their supply is free from such objectionable 
matter as is likely to gain entrance from sink, barn or privy. 
Such an examination is referred to as a sanitary analysis. 

Lead pipe should never be employed for carrying drinking 
water; in case it 1s in use it should be removed at once, and 
galvanized iron or iron coated with asphaltum substituted. 
Lead is a poison and after it has entered the system it is elim1- 
nated only with the greatest difficulty. 


(ce) Miscellaneous. 

In addition to the work already deseribed, this division has 
conducted investigations and made other analyses as follows :-— 

1. It has co-operated with the Official Dairy Instructors 
and Investigators Association in a study of the Babcock test, 
the results of which are published elsewhere in this report. 

2. It has made an investigation on the use of the Zeiss im- 
mersion refractometer in the detection of watered milk, the 
results of which are likewise published in the present report. 

3. It has co-operated with the Association of Official Agri- 


68 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


cultural Chemists in a study of methods for the determination 
of the various ingredients in condensed milk. 

4. It has co-operated with the Association of Official Agri- 
cultural Chemists in a study of methods for the determination 
of total nitrogen. 

5. In connection with the experimental work of this and other 
departments of the experiment station, this division has made 
partial analyses of 191 samples of milk, 157 samples of cattle 
feeds and 520 samples of agricultural plants. 


(f) Testing of Pure-bred Cows. 


The work of testing cows for the various cattle associations 
has increased considerably during the past year. At the pres- 
ent time two men are kept on the road a greater part of the 
time on work in connection with the Jersey, Guernsey and 
Ayrshire tests. The rules of the above associations require the 
presence of a supervisor once each month at the farms where 
animals are on test. The milk yields noted by the supervisors 
at their monthly visits are used in checking up the records re- 
ported by the owners to the several cattle clubs. The Babcock 
tests obtained at that time are likewise reported and used as a 
basis for computing the butter-fat yield for that month. 

The Holstein-Friesian tests are of much shorter duration, 
usually seven or thirty days, and require the presence of a super- 
visor during the entire test. These tests give rather irregular 
employment to a number of men during the winter months. On 
account of the uncertainty of the work such men are difficult 
to obtain, but thus far it has not been necessary for the experi- 
ment station to refuse an application. 

During the past year 1 seven-day and 33 yearly Guernsey, 
5 seven-day and 66 yearly Jersey, and 8 yearly Ayrshire tests 
have been completed. For the Holstein-Friesian association 
77 seven-day, 3 fourteen-day, 8 thirty-day and 1 sixty-day tests 
have been completed. There are now on test for yearly records 
80 Jerseys, 29 Guernseys, 9 Ayrshires and 1 Holstein. 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. | 69 


REPORT OF THE BOTANISTS. 


G. E. STONE; G. H. CHAPMAN, ASSISTANT. 


The routine work of the botanist for the past year has been 
similar to that of other years. Correspondence relating to 
various diseases and special problems has occupied much time, 
and investigations of various problems have been taken up. 

In carrying out the details connected with the routine work 
and investigations we have had the assistance of Mr. G. H. 
Chapman, and in the keeping of records, seed testing and cor- 
respondence, Miss J. V. Crocker has been of much assistance. 
Mr. R. D. Whitmarsh, who is pursuing graduate studies at 
the college, has aided materially in the diagnosis of diseases 
and in other ways about the laboratory. 


Diseases Moret on Less Common To Crops puURING THE YEAR. 


The season of 1909 was exceptionally dry, like that of 1908, 
and vegetation suffered materially. Some rain fell in the 
early spring months, but the average precipitation was below 
the normal. The summer was remarkably free from thunder- 
storms. The growing season opened later than usual and 
vegetation was a week or two behind throughout the whole 
season, some crops not maturing as well as in other seasons. 

Little or no winter injury was observed to vegetation, but 
late frosts in the spring affected asparagus in some loeali- 
ties. The injury was in some respects similar to a trouble 
which has been previously reported on as being associated with 
a fungus (Fusariwm). 

Some cases were noted of defoliation of apple trees by 
frost blisters, caused by the effects of late spring frosts. 

Besides the usual number of fungous diseases commonly met 
with, the following may be mentioned as being more or less 
abundant, and worthy of note for other reasons. . 


ee EXPERIMENT STATION, (Jan. 


The past season has been a favorable one for rusts in gen- 
eral. Apple rust (Puccinia), which is seldom present, was 
more or less abundant, as in the season of 1908, and affected 
both folage and fruit. Certain varieties seemed to be 
more susceptible than others. Some bad cases of bean rust 
(Uromyces) were noted here and there. This rust, like the 
one on the apple, is seldom troublesome with us. Hawthorns 
were affected more severely than usual with rust, resulting in 
some damage to nursery stock. The wild species of hawthorn 
is seldom immune to rust, but there is usually no complaint of 
nursery stock rusting. Quince rust (Gymnosporangiun ), which 
is always to be found, was more abundant than usual. Some 
severe cases of rust (Phragmidium) were also noted on the rose, 
and powdery mildew (Spherotheca) was quite prevalent. 

Peach leaf curl (/xoascus) was occasionally observed, but 
was not troublesome. 

A bacterial wilt of the eggplant, which is more common in 
the south, was reported once or twice. 

One severe case of beet scab (Odspora) was also observed. 
In this particular case the soil had been limed, which sub- 
stantiates the fact that liming the soil increases scab materially. 
While with us the beet is not so susceptible to scab as the potato, 
eare should be taken not to plant beets where seab is abund- 
ant, and special precautions should be taken in applying lime 
to the soil. 

Potatoes were generally free from troubles, but some eases 
of Rhizoctonia were observed; also a bacterial rot of the tuber. 

Dropsical swelling of pear twigs, a more or less unusual 
trouble, was reported at different times, and the Baldwin fruit 
spot, which appears to be more common in dry than wet sea- 
sons, has been quite prevalent. 

The leaf spot of apple (Phyllosticta) was very abundant 
early in the season and caused considerable defoliation. 

More or less severe injury has resulted to peach and plum 


4 


trees the last year or two from what is known as “ gum- 


mosis.”” This disease is apparently caused, at least in many 


“mumiied ” fruit affeeted with 


‘ases, by leaving the old 
Monilia on the trees over winter. ‘These “ mummied ” plums, 


contaminated with fungi, come in contact with the branches and 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 71 


eause “ gummosis.”” This trouble is now being studied in the 


laboratory and field. 

The blossem-end rot of tomatoes, a dry-season disease, was 
quite common, causing considerable injury. <A liberal supply 
of soil moisture during the period of setting fruit is the best 
remedy for this trouble. 

The downy mildew of the cucumber and melon (Plasmo- 
para) occurred as usual during August and September, affect- 
ing both out-of-door crops and those under glass, while An- 
thracnose (Colletotrichum) was not so destructive as in some 
seasons. 

The leaf spot caused by Alternaria was quite general on the 
foliage and fruit of the muskmelon and watermelon, but a 
large field of rust-resistant melons was found on September 7 
to be absolutely free from any blight. Since spraying melons 
for blight has proved to be of little value, it is desirable to use 
types which are immune to the blight. The best method of 
erowing melons in this climate consists in selecting an early, 
sandy soil, with warm exposure. The soil should be thoroughly 
tilled, and the plants set out early, blight-resisting varieties be- 
ing used. A location as free as possible from frequent dews 
should be selected, and manure in the hills is superior to ferti- 
lizers, since it gives the plant better soil conditions. It is best 
to start the plants early in pots or strawberry boxes under 
glass, and transplant to the open field. Native muskmelons 
are far superior to the half-matured imported product, and a 
ready market awaits the successful grower. 


SHADE-TREE TROUBLES. 

The rainfall during the early spring months revived vege- 
tation in general from the effects of the severe drought of the 
preceding season. This stimulated trees and shrubs to assume 
a healthy appearance and produce a good crop of foliage. The 
succeeding months, however, were very dry, and considerable 
defoliation of shade and fruit trees occurred in June and July. 
The long period of drought resulted in a premature colora- 
tion of the foliage, and consequent early defoliation. 

Occasional high winds, with lack of soil moisture, caused 
sun scorch, particularly to maples. Some of the defoliation, 


72 EXPERIMENT STATION, (Jan. 


particularly that of the elm, was caused by squirrels, and some 
was due to a natural shedding of the twigs. Dothidella ulmi, 
a leaf-spot fungus occasionally found on elms, was unusually 
abundant rather early in the season, and this was also re- 
sponsible for much loss of foliage. ) 

The Italian poplar was more severely affected with the rust 
(Melampsora) than usual, and the twigs and leaves of the ash 
suffered from a similar fungus to an unusual extent. Horse- 
chestnut foliage was badly affected with a leaf spot (Phyllo- 
sticta), and a black spot (Rhytisma) more or less common 
every year on the white maple was unusually abundant. It was 
more common on the white maple than usual, and the leaves 
of the red maple were literally covered with it. | 

Ivy (Ampelopsis) was affected with a leaf spot. In some 
localities quite a few maple trees were killed by sun seald, while 
others were scalded only on their southern exposure. Following 
this outbreak of sun seald, Nectria, a fungus of saprophytic 
habit, developed freely. 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. (6 


REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGISTS. 


C. H. FERNALD; H. T. FERNALD, J. N. SUMMERS. 


The work of the department of entomology during the year 
1909 has differed little from that of preceding years. Corre- 
spondence, as usual, has required much time, and many inquiries 
involve considerable investigation where some of the less fa- 
miliar insects are concerned. This has been particularly true 
during the past season, the number of insects concerned having 
been larger than usual, thotigh serious injury from their attacks 
has been rather conspicuously absent. 

Experimental work in some subjects has been continued from 
previous years, while in others it has been temporarily sus- 
pended. The construction of the new entomological building has 
necessitated giving up the use of the present greenhouse, as this 
was liable to removal to its new site at any time, and when this 
should occur any experiments under glass would necessarily 
come to an end. For this reason further tests of the resistance 
of muskmelons to fumigation have been discontinued for the 
present, but it should be possible to resume them another year. 
Studies on the number and relative importance of the different 
broods of the codling moth have been continued, but the orchard 
in which these have been made thus far has now been taken for 
other uses, and has been so treated that it is no longer available 
for this purpose. Unless another orchard, under conditions 
suitable for the work, can be obtained, this line of investigation 
will, therefore, have to be dropped, although in order to reach 
satisfactory results it should be continued for at least four or 
five years more. 

Experiments on methods for the control of the cabbage maggot 
have been repeated again, but without satisfactory results, the 
maggots, though more abundant than during the two years pre- 


74 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


ceding, being still too searce to give results which could be con- 
sidered entirely trustworthy. 

Observation of the dates of appearance of the young of our 
common seales have been continued, adding the records of an- 
other year to those already in hand. This work will also need 
to be continued for a number of years in order to provide data 
of sufficient value for general use. | 

The experiments for the control of the onion thrips have 
proceeded far enough to show that spraying the onions after this 
insect has appeared on them is, at best, only a partial remedy. 
One of the results of the work of this pest is to curl the leaves of 
the onion, and the insects at once gather on the inner side of the 
curled surface, so that many of them cannot be reached by the 
spray, though those which are reached in this way are destroyed. 
A study of the life history of these insects shows that they pass 
the winter at the top of the ground in protected places, such 
as are furnished by dead grass around the onion fields, in rub- 
bish heaps and similar places; and a few attempts to destroy 
them by burning over the grass and rubbish around the fields 
have been followed by a reduction in the abundance of the insect 
the next spring. This method of control has not as yet been 
tested long enough to prove that the result was actually due to 
the treatment rather than to merely natural causes, but, in any 
case, it seems to be the most promising way we have yet found 
to check this insect, and it should be repeated until its value has 
been fully determined. 

Perhaps the most important entomological event of the year 
at the station was the discovery of an egg parasite of the common 
asparagus beetle, which was found actively at work about the 
first of June. Observations on this insect, its habits and life 
history, have been published as Circular No. 23 of the station, 
and also in the “ Journal of Economic Entomology.” 

The control of wire worms, attacking seed corn in the ground 
soon after it has been planted, is important, as these pests, 
when abundant, often necessitate the replanting of many acres. 
Experiments to prevent the attacks of this insect have been 
earried on by Mr. Ralph H. Whiteomb of Amherst, and his 
ingenuity has discovered that when the corn, when planted, has 
been covered with tar as a repellant for crows, as is quite gener- 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 75 


ally done in this locality, and then treated with a mixture of 
Paris green and dust until a greenish color is perceptible, it will 
not be eaten by wire worms. These experiments will be repeated 
the coming year. 

Within the last twenty years Massachusetts has been invaded 
by several injurious insects which naturally belong farther 
south. Among these may be mentioned the elm-leaf beetle, San 
José scale, common asparagus beetle and the twelve-spotted 
asparagus beetle. How far north these pests can spread and be 
injurious is as yet unknown, but it is certain that there are 
limits to this spread, and for at least some of those named it 
seems quite certain that these limits may probably be found 
within this State. It is not a particular degree of latitude 
which marks the barrier to their further spread northward, but 
rather climatic conditions, and these are modified by elevation. 
In other words, the limiting lines of distribution appear to be 
isothermal in their nature, though their exact character is as yet 
unsettled. It may be the average winter temperature, the mini- 
“mum winter temperature or some other factor which settles 
whether an insect shall be a pest at any given place near its 
northern limit. In any case, the determination of this cause, 
end the resulting conclusion that an insect will or will not 
become injurious at a given place, will be of much importance. 
As an example of this it may be stated that such evidence as is 
now available, though as yet too little to be conclusive, suggests 
the belief that in Massachusetts the elm-leaf beetle will not be 
likely to be of much importance in those parts of the State 
which are more than a thousand feet above sea level, except, 
perhaps, near the southern edge of the State, where the altitude 
is to some extent offset by the more southern latitude. To work 
out problems of this nature fuller meteorological data are needed, 
as well as more observations of the distribution of the insects 
themselves, and studies of this kind have been in progress for 
several years, and will be continued. 

Parasitism as one of nature’s methods for the control of in- 
jurious forms has long been recognized. It has been utilized 
in numerous cases by man, who has conveyed parasites from one 
country to another to attack their hosts, which have already been 
by accident thus transferred. Perhaps the most gigantic experi- 


76 EXPERIMENT STATION, [Jan. 


ment of this kind is that now being conducted by the Bureau of 
Entomology of the United States Department of Agriculture 
and those in charge of the gypsy moth work in Massachusetts, in 
importing from the old world the parasitic and other enemies of 
the gypsy and brown-tail moths, in the hope that they may be- 
come established in this country and bring these pests under 
control. 

No one seems to know, however, how effective parasites really 
are; conceding their importance, we have only the most general 
statements on the subject, and almost the only paper giving 
more than these is a short one by Dr. L. O. Howard, entitled 
“A Study of Insect Parasitism.”’ 

It would seem most desirable to substitute statistics for guess- 
work on a subject so important as this, and therefore the scope 
of parasitism by the insects of a restricted group, the conditions 
favoring and checking it, and all the factors entering into the 
problem have been taken up for prolonged study, and it is hoped 
that tangible results may in time replace the vague generaliza- 
tions on this subject which, thus far, are all that have been 
available. 

Investigations on spraying have been continued since the last 
report, but with disappointing results. As was stated last year, 
the first step was to obtain pure spraying materials, and it was 
supposed that these were available, as reliable manufacturers 
offered them as such. To be certain, however, these were ana- 
lyzed, and the results showed that the materials were not as 
pure as was necessary for the purpose, making it necessary to 
make these materials at the station. This has held up the work 
to some extent, for while considerable time was spent in applying 
the materials to various plants, and watching the results, the 
later discovery of the unreliability of the materials used has 
made valueless the experimental work done with them. New 
spraying materials made here must, therefore, be obtained to 
use in these experiments, in order to obtain the results needed 
as a basis for the study of the commercial materials which is to 
follow, and at present the work is at a standstill till these ma- 
terials can be prepared. It is expected, however, that they will 
be available for use during the coming summer. 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. V7 


THOMAS SLAG. A SHORT HISTORICAL 
REVIEW. 


BY J. B. LINDSEY. 


Thomas slag, or basic phosphatic slag, is a by-product in the 
modern method of steel manufacture from ores containing notice- 
able quantities of phosphorus. The process of removing the 
phosphorus from the ore was discovered by the English en- 
gineers Gilchrist and Thomas, and, briefly stated, consists in 
adding to the so-called converter containing the molten ore a 
definite quantity of freshly burnt lime, which, after a powerful 
reaction, is found to be united with the phosphorus, and swims 
upon the surface of the molten steel in the form of a slag. 


CoMPOSITION OF THE SLAG. 
The composition of the Thomas or Belgian slag varies accord- 
ing to the character of the ore and the success of the process for 


removing the impurities. The following figures show such vari- 
ations :t — 


Per Cent. 
Phosphoric aeid, ‘ . é . : F See L283 
Silicie acid, : ‘ : : ‘ : . : rp a 
Caleium oxide (lime), ; 3 : : : ft PUSSY 
Ferrous and ferric oxides, ; : ‘ : é 62.25 
Protoxide of manganese, : : ; : L6 
Alanmiiia, : ; ; : : F ‘ mn ieeoer 
Magnesia, . ; : : , : : P : 2-8 
Sulphur, . ; 4 ; : : j 4 Se | eee 


More or less metallic iron is enclosed in the coarse slag which 


is generally thoroughly removed from the ground material by 
the magnet. 


1 Agricultur Chemie von Adolf Mayer, II Band, 2te Abtl., 6 Auflage pp. 138, 139. 


78 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


ManvriaL VALUE oF SLAG RECOGNIZED. 

The manurial value of the slag was not recognized for a long 
time ; finally experiments revealed that a considerable portion of 
its phosphoric acid was soluble in dilute citric and carbonic 
acids, which led to successful field experiments. The only prep- 
aration of the slag for fertilizing purposes, when its value was 
first recognized, consisted in having it finely ground in espe- 
cially prepared mills, so that 75 per cent. would pass through a 
sieve with perforations of .17 millimeter diameter. This re- 
quirement was suggested by M. Fleischer, who used the slag 
with much suecess In improving the condition of marsh and 
meadow lands. 


Merruops For DETERMINING AVAILABILITY AND ADULTERATION. 

Previous to 1890, by means of pot experiments as well as by 
laboratory investigations, Wagner demonstrated that the phos- 
phorie acid in different slags of the same degree of fineness 
varied in its availability from 30 to 90 or more per cent., and, 
further, that many brands were adulterated with Belgian or 
other insoluble mineral phosphates. 

The previous method, therefore, of determining the value of a 
slag by the percentage of total phosphoric acid present and the 
degree of fineness, was of secondary importance. 

In order to detect adulteration with mineral phosphates, 
Wagner originally used a dilute solution of citrate of ammonia 
and free citric acids.! The phosphorie acid in all of the mineral 
phosphates was sparingly soluble in such a reagent, while an 
unadulterated high-grade slag gave up 80 to 90 parts of its phos- 
phorie acid. Further investigations on various soils with many 
brands of slag made it clear that the results obtained from pot ex- 
periments corresponded quite well with those secured by means 
of the citric acid solution. This may be illustrated as follows :— 


1 Chemiker Zeitung No. 63, 1895; also Diingungsfragen Heft I., p. 16, von P. Wagner, 
1896. 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 79 


Phosphoric Acid avail- | Phosphoric Acid avail- 
BRAND OF SLAG. able in Citric Acid able in Pot 
Solution. Experiments. 
orb - - - 3 : - - - 100 100 
2; 85 80 
3, 81 72 
4, 72 72 
5; 73 66 
6, 76 63 
as 39 40 
8, 48 38 
2g, 42 38 
10, 45 dl 
ine 38 30 


Results similar to the above were secured by Maercker,’ who 
stated that “the results removed all doubt that the citrate solu- 
bility and plant experiments were so nearly proportioned that 
one had the same right to value the slag according to its content 
of phosphoric acid soluble in citrate solution as to value a super- 
phosphate by its content of water soluble phosphorie acid.” 

As a result of these investigations, the union of German ex- 
periment stations, at its mecting at Kiel in September, 1896, 
adopted the method of determining the relative value of the 
slag according? to its phosphoric acid solubility in a 2 per cent. 
citric acid solution, and did away with the previous standard 
of total phosphoric acid and fineness. 

Wagner as well as Maercker repeatedly called attention to the 
fact that experiments both in the laboratory and with plants 
gave positive evidence that those slags of like phosphoric acid 
content which were richest in silicic acid gave the best results. 
G. Hoyermann, working independently, came to similar. con- 
clusions. At the present time, according to Wagner, practically 
all of the iron works treat the molten slag as it flows from the 
converter with hot quartz sand, with the result that the avail- 


1 Landw. Presse 1895, No. 82. 
2 Method slightly modified from the original. Present method described in Konig’s 


ee landwirtschaftlich und gewerblich wichtiger Stoffe. Dritte Auflage, pp. 173, 
74, 


80 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


ability of the phosphoric acid is improved from 10 to 30 per 
cent.! 


CHEMICAL COMBINATION OF PHospuorIc AcID IN SLAG. 


The form in which the phosphoric acid exists in the slag has 
never been fully explained. It was formerly supposed that it 
was combined with hme as a tetra-calcium phosphate, and that 
this latter compound, being less stable than tri-caleium phos- 
phate, under the influence of dilute acids became easily available 
to the plants by being decomposed into the calcium salt of the 
dissolving acid and bi-calcium phosphate. The tetra-lime phos- 
phate, however, has never been made artificially,? although it 
has been recognized by the aid of the microscope in the slag, 
and exists as a mineral under the name of isoklas. 

More recent investigations having shown, as already indicated, 
that those slags richest in silicic acid of like phosphoric acid 
content gave the best results, the conclusion followed that a part 
of the hme must be in the form of lime silicate. It is now 
generally held, especially by Wagner,® that the phosphoric acid 
is combined in the slag as a double salt of tri-calcium phosphate 
and calcium silicate, and that in this form the roots are able to 
utilize it. It is also believed probable that some of the phos- 
phorie acid is more or less united with iron as a basie iron 
phosphate. 


Tuer Usr or PHospHatic Siac. 


Basic slag has been shown to work especially well upon sour 
marsh and meadow lands, upon porous, well-aired soils rich in 
humus, as well as upon sandy soils deficient in lime. 

When a rapid development of the crop is not desired, the slag 
may be used exclusively in place of acid phosphate. On the 
other hand, in cases when it is feared that the crop will not 
mature early enough, upon heavy, cold land and in high alti- 
tudes, where the season is short, acid phosphate should be given 
the preference. 


1 Already cited, p. 28; also, Anwendung Kiinstlicher Diingemittel, vierte Auflage von 
Wagner, pp 74, 75. 

2 Hilgenstock: Jahresber. Chem. Technologie, 1887, p. 282, after Adolf Mayer, already 
cited, 

3 Wagner, already cited. 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 81 


The phosphoric acid in slag is comparable in its quickness of 
action to nitrogen in barnyard manure, tankage and green crops ; 
and the phosphoric acid in acid phosphate to the action of nitro- 
gen in nitrate of soda. A combination of slag and sulfate of 
potash (500 pounds slag and 150 pounds potash) has been 
found to work especially well upon grass land, and to be very 
favorable to the development of clover. 


QuaNnTITY oF SLAG PER ACRE. 


If the soil is particularly deficient in phosphoric acid, one can 
use as high as from 800 to 900 pounds of slag to the acre, plowed 
in and supplemented with 200 pounds of acid phosphate in the 
hill or drill. 

If, on the contrary, the soil is naturally rich in phosphoric 
acid, or has been made so by large additions of slag for a series 
of years (1,000 or more pounds yearly), then it is necessary 
only to replace from year to year the amount removed by the 
crop. In such cases Maercker states that one part of phosphoric 
acid in basic slag is as valuable as an equal amount in acid 
phosphate. 


82 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 
EFFECT OF PORTO RICO MOLASSES ON DI- 


GESTIBILITY OF HAY AND OF HAY AnD 
CONCENTRATES. 


BY J. B. LINDSEY AND P. H. SMITH. 


I. INTRODUCTION. 


In New England, cane molasses brought in tank steamers 
from Porto Rico has been freely offered for a number of years at 
from 12 to 15 cents a gallon of 12 pounds in barrel lots. The 
material is dark in color but quite satisfactory in quality. It 
has been found to contain from 20 to 28 per cent. of water 
(average 24 per cent.), about 3 per cent. of protein (largely as 
amids), 6 to 7 per cent. of ash, and the balance of sugars and 
allied substances. The following analyses made at this station 
represent the composition of three different samples of Porto 
Rico molasses : — 


1904. 1905. 1906. 
Sample. Sample. Sample. 
Water, 24.40 28.50 24.98 
Ash, ois? 6.04 b.57 
\ ‘ Albuminoids, .- 1.24 -96 - 
Crude Protein, ave, NALS dies | 3.17 186 | 2.82 3 2.19 


Cane sugar, 
Invert sugar. . 
ndetermined, 


29.72 
Extract Matter, 25.03 65.30 
10.55 


100.00 


36.26 37.86 
19.38 > 62.64 20.48 ¢ 67.26 
7.00 8.92 


100.00 


100.00 


It may be remarked that two analyses of the ash have shown 


traces of phosphoric acid and 38.66 and 4.84 per cent. of potash, 
the latter being by far the most predominant ash constituent. 
Beet molasses has been shown to contain rather more ash than 
cane molasses. 


1910.) PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 83 


It can be assumed with safety that molasses, being soluble in 
water, is easily digested and assimilated when fed in reasonable 
amounts. If fed in excess it is likely to affect adversely the 
heart and kidneys, and to appear undigested in the urine.’ It 
is a well-known fact that the addition of starch, sugar and 
similar substances causes a distinct depression in the digesti- 
bility of the material with which they are fed.? Various reasons 
have been advanced to account for this depression, which has as 
yet not been definitely proved. In ease of beet molasses, Kell- 
ner * has shown an average digestion depression of 9 per cent., 
and he states that the value of beet molasses for cattle and sheep 
consists in its 55 per cent. of digestible carbohydrates (1,100 
pounds to the ton). 

Lehmann,* as a result of three digestion experiments (nine 
single trials) with sheep, obtained an average digestion depres- 
sion of 11 per cent., which he deducts from the 71 per cent. of 
total organic matter in beet molasses, thus securing 60 per cent., 
or 1,200 pounds, of digestible organic matter to the ton. 

Grandeau and Aleken have shown that molasses when fed to 
horses also causes a noticeable digestion depression. Alquier and 
Drouineau, in reviewing the work of both French and German 
investigators, state that in case of horses the addition of 3 pounds 
of molasses per 1,000 pounds live weight caused a depression of 
4.5 per cent., while with ruminants the feeding of 4 pounds of 
molasses per 1,000 pounds live weight produced an average de- 
pression of only 3 per cent. in the digestibility of the foods with 
which it was fed.° 

Patterson ° reported, in case of two steers, when molasses con- 
stituted some 12 per cent. of the total dry matter of the ration, 
an improvement of 24 per cent. in the digestibility of the hay. 
Molasses fed to four steers in combination with hay and grain, 
and comprising 14 per cent. of the total dry matter of the ration, 
improved the condition of the hay and grain ration 14.5 per 
cent. (coefficients of digestibility of the dry matter of the hay 

1 Kellner, Arbeiten der D. Landw. Ges. 152 Heft., 1909, p. 16. 

2 Kellner, Die Ernahrung Landw. Nutzthiere, fiinfte Auflage 1909, pp. 50, 51. Numerous 
references are cited by Kellner. 

3 Landw. Verssuchs. 53 Bd., pp. 220 and 283, 234, 304 and 342, 343; 55 Bd., p. 384. 

4 Landw. Jahrbiicher, Vol. XXV., Erginzungsband IT., 1896. 


5 Ann. Sci. Agron., 2 série, 1904, Tome 1, pp. 249-254. 
6 Molasses Feeds, Bulletin 117, Maryland Experiment Station. 


84 EXPERIMENT STATION, [Jan. 


and grain without molasses, 55.1 per cent.; with molasses, 63.1 
per cent.). Patterson’s results are quite the opposite of all 
previous work along this line. 


II. EXPERIMENTS AT THE MASSACHUSETTS EXPERIMENT 
STATION. 

Experiments relative to the effect of Porto Rico molasses on 
digestibility have been in progress at intervals at this station 
since 1905. Different amounts of molasses have been added to 
a basal ration of hay, of hay and corn meal, and particularly of 
hay and gluten feed. The experiments made during the winter 
of 1905 and 1906 have been published in detail.t The numerous 
other experiments are here reported for the first time. 

Sheep were employed in all cases; in Series XI. and XII. 
grade Southdown wethers were used, and in Series XIII. and 
XIV. one and two year old Shropshires were employed. 

The hay was cut in 2-inch lengths before being fed, and was 
largely Kentucky blue grass, with an admixture of some clover 
and sweet vernal grass. The gluten feed represented the dried 
residue of Indian corn (Zea mais) in the manufacture of corn- 
starch, and consisted of the hulls and glutinous part of the corn, 
together with that portion of the starch and broken germs which 
could be removed by mechanical means. It was free from any 
indication of decomposition. The corn meal consisted of the 
ground corn kernels. 

The sheep were fed twice daily, — about 7 o’clock in the 
morning and 5 in the afternoon. The molasses was mixed with 
about its weight of water and sprinkled over the hay, or was 
mixed with the grain and eaten without the addition of water. 
The food was given in galvanized-iron pans which fitted closely 
into the wooden stalls in which the sheep were confined.? 
Particles of cut hay that were thrown out of the box were care- 
fully brushed up and returned. Any waste remaining at the 
end of the period was preserved and analyzed. Water in gal- 
vanized-iron boxes was always before the sheep. The feces 
were collected twice daily, preserved in wide-mouth — glass- 

1 Nineteenth report of the Hatch Experiment Station, pp. 126-149. 


2 Illustrated in eleventh report of the Massachusetts State Experiment Station, 1893, 
p- 148. 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 85 


stoppered bottles and taken to the laboratory every twenty-four 
hours. The daily sample was poured upon a newspaper, well 
mixed and an aliquot part (usually 40) weighed into a erystal- 
lization dish and dried at 60° C. After this drying was com- 
pleted the samples were allowed to stand at ordinary temperature 
for a number of days, and were reweighed, mixed, ground, placed 
in glass-stoppered bottles and eventually analyzed. Nitrogen 
was determined in the dry sample but not in the fresh feces, as 
is frequently done at the present time. The entire period lasted 
fourteen days, seven of which were preliminary, the feces being 
collected during the last seven. The sheep were kept in roomy 
stalls during the first three days, and then harnessed and placed 
in the digestion stalls for the last eleven days of the trial. 

The results of the different experiments are first presented, 
together with a discussion of the same. The full data follows 
the discussion. 


A. Hay anp Motassss. 
Summary of Results. 


SERIES XII., Pertop III. 


[800 grams hay, 100 grams molasses and 10 grams of salt.] 


(a) Coefficients for Molasses. 


| Dry Matter. Ash. Crude Protein. | Extract Matter. 
Old Sheep IT., . . . . 69.05 - ~ 87.26 
Old Sheep III., 100.99 41.31 80.29 101.58 


From the above coefficients it would appear that Sheep IT. 
digested only 69 per cent. of the total dry matter of the molasses, 
while Sheep III. digested the entire amount fed. It can, how- 
ever, be safely assumed that molasses, being quite soluble in 
water, is easily digested and entirely resorbed in the digestion 
tract. Only minute traces of reducing substances have been 
recognized in the feces. 


86 EXPERIMENT STATION. (Jan. 


(b) Depression noted (Grams). 


Old Sheep IT. 


Crude 
Protein. 


Extract 
Matter. 


Dry 


Matter. Ash. 


Fiber. Fat. 


Digested of 800 grams hay when fed alone, | 476.72 | 23.31 | 53.52 | 179.27 | 208.31 | 10.67 
Digested of 800 grams hay piper 100 Brame 


molasses, . : : - | 527.44'| 23.17 | 51.88 | 177.82 | 265.30) 9227 
Minus 100 grams molasses fe0, assumed to 

be all digested, . . . . . 73.45 5.35 2.79 = 65.31 aa 
Remains for 800 grams hay pecan when : 

fed with molasses, ° - - | 453.99 | 17.82 | 49.09 | 177.82 | 199.99 | 9.97 
Difference or depression, . . ° . |—22.73 |—5.49 | —4.48 | —1.45 | —8.89)1—aea0 


Old Sheep III. 


Digested of 800 grams hay when fed alone, | 476.72 | 23.31 | 53.52 | 179.27 | 208.31 | 10.67 
Digested of 800 eran Age Dias 100 ed 


molasses, . 550.90 | 25.52 | 55.76 | 184.40 | 274.65 | 10.56 
Minus 100 grams melee si assumed i 

be all digested, . ° . 73.45 | 5.35 2.79 - 65.31 - 
Remains for 800 grams hay digested ibe! 

fed with molasses, . ° ° - 477.45 | 20.17 | 52.97 | 184.40 | 209.34 | 10.56 
Difference or depression, . : . -| +.-73 |—2.14 | —.55 | +5.13 | +1.03 | —.11 


When the hay was fed by itself the nutritive ratio of the 


ky 


7.7, and when fed with molasses, 


digestible ingredients was 1: 7. 
1:9; molasses constituted 9.5 per cent. of the dry matter of the 
hay-molasses ration. In case of Sheep II. the 100 grams of 
molasses created a very marked depression in the digestibility of 
the several ingredients of the hay, namely, 21.09 (22.73) grams 
of dry matter, equal to 4.7 per cent. In case of Sheep III. 
there appears to have been a very slight gain in the digestibility 
of the hay. 
SERIES XIII., Periop I. 
[600 grams hay, 100 grams Porto Rico molasses, 10 grams salt. ] 


(a) Coefficients for Molasses. 


| Dry Matter. | Ash. Crude Protein. | Extract Matter. 
Sheep ie ; ; r : 5 99.77 48.08 52.40 102.01 
Sheep II, a : - : : 96.34 47.36 23.65 100.66 


——- ee | | | 


Average, - A . . . 98.06 47.70 38.03 101.34 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 87 


(b) Depression noted (Grams). 
Sheep I. 


Dry | Crude | : | extract 
<a Ash. | Fiber. kes Fat. 


Digested of 600 grams hay when fed alone, | 354.34 | 18.07 | 40.41 | 110.27 | 178.99 | 6.54 
Digested of 600 grams ne Pee ao grams 


molasses, .- . : - | 427.10 | 20.89 | 42.16 | 113.00 | 243.99 | 7.05 
Minus 100 grams molasses, all digested, .| 72.93 | 5.87 3.34 - 63.72 - 
Remains for 600 grams hay Set men 

fed with molasses, . - | 854.17 | 15.02 | 38.82 | 113.00 | 180.27 | 7.05 
Difference,  . . . . é : -| —.17 |—3.05 | —1.59 | +2.73 | +1.28 | +.51 

Sheep II. 


Digested of 600 grams hay when fed alone, | 354.54 | 18.07 | 40.41 | 110.27 | 178.99 | 6.54 


Digested of 600 Sous hay pins 100 prane 
molasses, . 424.60 | 20.85 | 41.20 | 112.62 | 248.13 | 6.79 


Minus 100 grams molasses, all digested, 4) (PSE) bined 3.34 - 63.72 - 


Remains for 600 grams hay Reed’ when 
fed with molasses, . = =|) o0l~46 |) 14°98 | 37-86 | 112-62) V79.41 | 6.79 


Difference, . A ° : ° - - | —2.67 |—3.09 | —2.55 | 42.35 | +.42 | +.25 


The nutritive ratio of the hay when fed by itself was 1: 7.5, 
and of the molasses-hay ration, 1: 8.6; the dry matter of the 
molasses constituted some 12 per cent. of the dry matter of the 
hay-molasses ration. A slight depression only is noted, being 
rather more pronounced in case of Sheep II. The depression 
falls upon the ash and protein. An apparent slight improvement 
in digestibility is noted in case of the fiber and extract matter. 
Sheep I. gained 3 pounds in live weight, and Sheep II. main- 
tained equilibrium. 

Series XI., Perrop III. 
[800 grams hay, 150 grams molasses and 10 grams galt. ] 


(a) Coefficients for Molasses. 


| Dry Matter. Ash. Crude Protein. | Extract Matter. 
Paige Sheep IV., . 6 - 107.09 92.16 40.43 102.76 


Paige Sheep V., . : : - 90.93 80.02 10.17 95.80 


1 Already published in nineteenth report of this station, p. 145. 


The coefficients indicate that in one case the molasses de- 
pressed the digestibility of the hay and in one ease it actually 
improved it. 


88 EXPERIMENT STATION. (Jan. 


(b) Depression noted (Grams). 


Dry Crude Extract 
| Matter. Ash. Protein. Fiber. Matter. Fat. 
Paige Sheep DV . . . +7.60 —.71 —2.52 +8.03 -+2.60 -+-.42 
Paige Sheep V., . < - | —9.73 —1.81 —3.80 —.04 —3.95 +.19 


The nutritive ratio of the hay ration was as 1: 9.9, and of the 
hay-molasses ration, 1: 10.7; molasses constituted 13.2 per cent. 
of the dry matter of the total ration. In this case the results are 
contradictory, in one case increasing and in the other depressing 
the digestibility of the hay. Each sheep lost 2 pounds in weight 
during the seven days. 


Series XIITI., Pertop ITI. 


[600 grams hay, 200 grams molasses, 10 grams salt. ] 


(a) Coefficients for Molasses. 


Dry Matter. | Ash. | crude Protein. | Extract Matter. 


Sheep I, . . . . . : 88.96 59.34 21.57 94.76 
Sheep IT, : . ° . ° 74.67 52.41 - 89.72 


(b) Depression noted (Grams). 
Sheep I. 


Crude 


Protein. 
a 


Extract 


| Dry 
Matter. Fat. 


| Matter. Ash. 


Fiber. 


Digested of 600 grams hay when fed alone, | 357.06 | 18.22 | 40.72 | 111.13 | 180.37 | 6.60 
Digested of 600 Brems hay pine 200 erame 


molasses, .- ° - | 486.81 | 26.24 | 42.20 | 111.76 | 300.89 | 6.75 
Minus 200 grams molasses, aesummed to be 
all digested, ° . “ ° - | 145.86 | 11.83 6.86 - 127.18 - 
Remains for 600 grams hay digested when 
fed with molasses, . 4 4 6 - | 340.95 | 13.41 | 35.34 | 111.76 | 178.71 | 6.75 
Difference or depression, . A : - |—16.11 |—4.81 | —5.38 |} -+.63 | —6.66 | +.15 
Sheep II. 


Digested of 600 grams hay when fed alone, | 357.06 | 18.22 | 40.72 | 111.13 | 180.37 | 6.60 


Digested of 600 grome BBY pine 209 Brains 
molasses, + - | 465.99 | 24.42 | 40.71 | 100.14 | 294.48 | 6.25 


Minus 200 grams molasses, pee i be 
all digested, ° . ° - | 145.86 | 11.83 6.86 - 127.18 ~ 


Remains for 600 grams hay Nation ween 
fed with molasses, ° - | 320.18 | 12.59 | 383.85-] 100.14 | 167.30 25 


Difference or depression, ° - : - |—36.96 |—5.63 | —6.87 |—10.99 |—13.07 | —.35 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 89 


The nutritive ratio of the hay when fed alone was 1:7.5, 
and of the hay-molasses ration, 1: 10.1; molasses constituted 
21.4 per cent. of the dry matter of the hay ration. The digestion 
depression is very noticeable, especially with Sheep Il. The 
average depression for both sheep was 13.56 grams of dry 
matter and 10.63 grams of organic matter per 100 grams of 
molasses. The total average depression was equivalent to 18.2 
per cent. of the dry matter of the molasses consumed. The 
feeding of 200 grams of molasses caused an average loss of 7.4 
per cent. in the digestibility of the hay. No particular change 
was noted in the live weight of either animal. 


Series XI., Pertop IV." 


[800 grams hay, 250 grams molasses, 10 grams salt.]} 


(a) Coefficients for Molasses. 


| Dry Matter. | Ash. Crude Protein. | Extract Matter. 
_Paige Sheep IV., . : . , 91.89 47.38 - 95.35 
Paige Sheep V.,_ . , : : 88.21 57.54 - 95.30 


(b) Depression noted (Grams). 
Average, Sheep, IV. and V. 


Dry 


Crude | | Extract 
Matice: Fiber. Fat. 


Ash. | protein. | Matter. 


Digested of 800 grams hay when fed alone, | 404.56 | 23.19 | 32.51 | 152.44 | 208.07 | 8.03 
Digested of 800 Baws scat Pee aot erate 


molasses, .- 566.92 | 31.20 32.04 | 186.99 | 358.65 | 8.06 
Minus 250 grams molasses, all digested, .| 180.30 | 15.24 7.10 - 157.96 - 
Remains for 800 grams hay Csceted en 

fed with molasses, . 386.62 | 15.96 | 24.94 | 186.99 | 200.69 | 8.06 
Difference or depression, . : - - |—17.94 |—7.23 | —7.57 | +4.55 | —7.38 | +.03 


The nutritive ratio of the hay-molasses ration was 1: 11.2, 
and molasses constituted 20.6 per cent. of the dry matter of the 
total ration. The results show that 17.94 (17.60) grams less 
hay were digested when 250 grams of molasses were fed than 
when the hay was fed by itself; or 100 grams of molasses caused 


1 Already reported, loco citato, pp. 146, 147. 


90 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


a depression in the hay of 7.2 (7.02) grams of dry matter and 
4.1 grams of organic matter. The depression was equivalent to 
9.9 per cent. of the dry matter of the molasses fed. The total 
molasses likewise caused a loss of 4.4 per cent. in the digesti- 
bility of the dry matter of the hay. 


General Summary. 
In the table below the results of the several experiments with 
hay and molasses are brought together for comparison. The 
results of one experiment by Kellner are also stated. 


DEPRESSION PER Deussdet Gai 
Per Cent.||100 Grams Fresh P tall nM Percentage or <a 
Nutri- | Molasses || Monasses FED. Pore et Loss in alia 
RATION. tive in Dry. | = ee 'M i 13, Digestibil - Live 
Ratio. |Matter of|| Dry | Organic ea . Apap ity of Weich t 
Ration. || Matter | Matter || yoit ci Hay. Pp sa 
(Grams).|(Grams). hia da (Pounds). 
800 grams hay, . . - - —21.09 |-—15.60 - - —1.0 
100 grams molasses, . 139.0 9.50 || +3.36 | -++5.50 ~ -- 
600 grams hay, . : ~ = —0.12 2.93 - - +3.0 
100 grams molasses, . 1:8.6 12.0 —2.62 0.47 - - 
600 grams hay, . 3 - ~ +5.21 | -+6.90 - - —2.0 
150 grams molasses, .| 1:10.7 13.2 —6.27 | —5.07 - - —2.0 
600 grams hay, . si - - —8.04 | —5.63 - - —.75 
200 grams molasses, .| 1:10.1 21.4 ||—18.45 | —15.64 8.2 7.4 +1.25 
800 grams hay, . : - - - - - - +4.50 
250 grams molasses, .| 1:11.2 20.6 —7.10 | —4.10! 9.9 4.4 -+3.00 
800 grams hay,? . ; - - - - - - - 
100 grams molasses, .| 1: 9.3 9.2 - —14.4 22.43 3.4 


The nutritive ratio of the different lots of hay varied from 
1: 7.5 to 1: 9.9; the addition of different amounts of molasses 
naturally widened the ratio, variations being noted of from 
1: 8.6 to 1:11.2. So far as one is able to judge, the different 
ratios were without effect on depression. Our own experiments 
indicate that when cane molasses constituted from 10 to 13 per 
cent. of the dry matter of the total ration it was without pro- 
nouneed effect on the digestibility of the hay. In case of one 
trial with one sheep the depression was very marked, but in the 
other five single trials with different sheep the influence was 
slight, or one trial was contradictory of the other. The same 


1 Average, two sheep. 
2 Kellner’s results in Landw. Vers., 55 Bd. S. 384. 
8 Organic matter of molasses fed. 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. OL 


results hardly hold true in case of Kellner’s trial with two 
sheep, in which beet molasses composed 9.2 per cent of the dry 
matter of the ration. Here one notes a depression of 14.4 grams 
of organic matter per 100 grams of molasses. The two sheep 
gave closely agreeing results. 

In our own ease, when molasses composed some 20 per cent. of 
a hay-molasses ration the depression was quite noticeable, aver- 
aging in ease of four single trials with four different sheep 10.14 
erams of digestible dry matter and 7.37 grams of digestible 
organic matter for each 100 grams of molasses fed. These latter 
trials show a loss or depression equivalent to from 9.9 to 18.2 
per cent. of the dry matter of the molasses fed; or, otherwise 
expressed, the molasses caused a loss of from 4.4 to 7.4 per cent. 
in the digestibility of the hay. The feeding of 20 per cent. of 
cane molasses did not cause as great a depression as did the 
feeding of 9.2 per cent. of beet molasses (Kellner’s results). It 
is doubtful, however, if these varying results are due to the 

different kinds of molasses. 

In experiments of this sort one is obliged to take into account 
individuality, the effect of food upon different individuals, as 
well as the condition of the animal at the time of the trial. 
Positive conclusions cannot be drawn unless the evidence is 
very pronounced. Why it is that two animals, both apparently 
in good condition, should give contrary results it is difficult to 
explain. Thus, in the above table note that molasses appeared 
to have caused a depression of 21.09 grams dry matter with one 
sheep and an increase of 3.36 grams with another; also, in 
another case 100 grams of molasses caused an increase of 5.21 
grams and in another case a decrease of 6.27 grams in the diges- 
tibility of the hay. 


B. Hay, Corn Meat anp Mo asses. 


Two experiments were conducted in each case with two sheep, 
using 100 and 200 grams of molasses. Unfortunately, in each 
experiment one of the sheep suffered from indigestion and did 
not complete the trial. 


92 EXPERIMENT STATION, [Jan. 


Summary of Results. 
SERIES XITI., Pertop VI. 


[500 grams hay, 150 grams corn meal, 100 grams molasses, 10 grams salt.] 


(a) Coefficients for Molasses. 


| Dry Matter. | Ash. | Protein. Extract Matter. 


Sheep Ill., . _ : : | 85.20 | 78.60 


19.24 | 91.29 


(b) Depression noted (Grams). 


| Dry | crude : Extract 
lcrats Ash. kc Fiber. Fes: Fat. 
Digested of hay and corn meal wien fed 
without molasses, . ° ° - | 407.18 | 15.67 42.30 | 89.07 | 249.23 | 10.94 
Digested of hay and corn meal ib Be 
grams molasses, . : = r 469.12 | 20.37 42.96 | 87.99 | 307.01 | 10.74 
Minus 100 grams molasses, all digested, .| 72.70} 5.98 3.43 - 63.69 - 
Remains for hay and corn meal eens 
when fed with molasses, . 5 : 396.42 | 14.389 | 39.53 | 87.99 | 243.72 | 10.79 
Difference or depression, . ; : - |—10.76 |—1.28 | —2.77 | —1.08 | —5.51 | —.15 


The nutritive ratio of the hay and corn-meal ration was 
1: 8.6, and of the hay-corn-meal-molasses ration, 1: 9.7; molasses 
constituted 11 per cent. of the dry matter of the total ration. 
The depression observed is 10.79 (10.76) grams of dry matter 
and 9.51 grams of organic matter per 100 grams of molasses. 


SERIES XITI., Periop VIII. 


[500 grams hay, 150 grams corn meal, 200 grams molasses, 10 grams salt. ] 


(a) Coefficients for Molasses. 


| Dry Matter. Ash. Crude Protein. | Extract Matter. 


Sheep II., ° . . . | 75.26 | 23.11 | 60.44 | 84.90 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 93 


(b) Depression noted (Grams). 


Dry | Crude < Extract | 
Matter. Ash. poe Fiber. Matter. | Fat. 
Digested of hay and corn ate when oe 
without molasses, . . ° 414.44 | 12.97 | 21.90 | 110.60 | 258.01 | 10.94 
Digested of hay and corn esa plus 200 
grams molasses, . ; : - 423.99 | 22.83 | 26.04 | 98.41 | 365.67 | 11.02 
Minus 200 grams molasses, all digested, . | 145.56 | 11.89 6.85 - 126.21 - 
Remains for hay and corn meal misested 
when fed with molasses, . c 378.43 | 10.94 | 19.19} 98.41 |} 238.86 | 11.02 
Difference or depression, . - “ - |—36.01 |—2.03 | —2.71 |—12.19 |—19.15 | +.08 


Molasses constituted 20 per cent. of the dry matter of the total 
ration; the nutritive ratio of the hay-corn-meal ration was 
1: 17.9, and of the hay-corn-meal-molasses ration 1: 18.4.1 The 
depression was very noticeable, being 18 grams of dry matter 
and 17 grams of organic matter per 100 grams of molasses. 


C. Hay, Gururen Freep anp Mo.tasszs. 


Numerous experiments were carried out to note the effect of 
different amounts of molasses upon a combination of hay and 
gluten feed, the latter being a rich protein concentrate. Hay, 
gluten feed and molasses is a much more suitable ration than 
is one composed only of hay and molasses, or of hay, corn meal 
and molasses. 

In calculating the depression caused by the molasses, the 
digestibility of the hay-gluten-feed ration was first determined. 
The amount of molasses fed was assumed to be all digested and 
was deducted from the total amount digested of the hay-gluten- 
feed-molasses ration, the remainder being the hay and gluten 
feed digested when fed with the molasses. The difference be- 
tween the hay-gluten-feed digested when fed without the molasses 


1 A new lot of hay was used in this experiment; it contained only 7.19 per cent. of pro- 
tein, as against 12.24 per cent. in the hay used to secure the coefficients for the digestibility 
of the hay and corn meal, and which were applied to the hay-corn-meal and 100 grams 
molasses ration. The low protein content of the hay accounts for the very wide nutritive 
ratio of the present hay-corn-meal-molasses ration. The coefficients of the hay-corn-meal 
ration, applied in case of the present experiment, were those obtained with the hay having 
the high protein content. Had an experiment been made with the low protein hay-corn- 
meal ration it is possible the coefficients might have been lower than the ones actually used, 
in which case a less depression wou!'d have been obtained than the one actually found. 


94 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


and when fed with the molasses shows the depression exerted by 
the latter. The coefficients of digestibility for the hay and for 
the hay-gluten-feed rations will be found in a table with the other 
data. 


Summary of Results. 
SERIES XIV., Periop VI. 
[500 grams hay, 150 grams gluten feed, 50 grams molasses, 10 grams salt. } 


(a) Coefficients for Molasses. 


Dry Matter. | Ash. Crude Protein. | Extract Matter. 
Sheep IIl., . : a ‘ : 38.19 ~ - 66.03 
SheepIV., .- . : : ; 9.73 - = 33.47 


(b) Depression noted (Grams). 


Dry | Crude : Extract 
Matter. | Ash. Protein. Fiber. Matter. Fat. 
Sheep III., F ; é . | —23.13 —4.10 —4.26 —4.83 | —10.90 —.33 
Sheep IV., ; : : - | —33.78 —3.44 —5.48 —7.26 | —19.77 —.26 
(c) Average, Sheep III. and IV. (Grams). 
Dry Crude F Extract 
Matter. Beh. Protein. Fiber. Matter. Fat. 
| 
Digested of 500 grams English hay and 150 
grams gluten aged aren red without 
molasses, . 4 . | 409.17 | 16.27 | 48.74 | 103.26 | 232.16 | 10.16 
Digested of hay and gluten a ane 50 
grams molasses, .- . {| 418.14 | 15.56 | 46.55 | 97.21 | 248.96 | 9.87 
Minus 50 grams molasses, all digested, 2 37.42 3.06 2-23 - S2ale - 
Remains for hay and gluten feed cheese 
when fed with molasses, . 380.71 | 12.50 | 44.32 | 97.21 | 216.83 | 9.87 
Difference or depression, . : : . |—28.46 |—4.32 | —4.42 | —6.05 |—18.49 | —.30 


The nutritive ratio of the hay-gluten-feed ration was 1: 7.3, 
of the hay-gluten-feed-molasses ration, 1:8. The rather wide 
ratio of the hay-gluten-feed ration was due to the low protein 
content of the hay. Molasses constituted only 6 per cent. of the 
dry matter of the total ration. The average depression was 
59.72 (56.92) grams of dry matter and 52.18 (49.32) grams 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 95 


of organic matter per 100 grams of fresh molasses fed, and 
equaled about 76 per cent. of the dry matter of the molasses fed. 
The feeding of 50 grams of molasses caused an apparent de- 
pression, or loss of 6.9 per cent. in the digestibility of the hay- 
gluten-feed-ration. The cause of this excessive depression for so 
small an amount of molasses is not clear. The sheep substan- 
tially maintained their weight during the experiment. 


Series XIV., PeErtop VII. 
[500 grams hay, 150 grams gluten feed, 100 grams molasses, 10 grams salt. ] 


(a) Coefficients for Molasses. 


| Dry Matter. | Ash. Crude Protein. | Extract Matter. 
sheepitr,  - - : - = 66.37 19.61 - 86.02 
Sheep IV., . . : : : | 42.92 34.36 - 65.48 


(b) Depression noted (Grams). 


: Dry Crude - Extract , 
Matter. Ash. Protein. Fiber. Matter. Fat. 
Sheep III., ie 4 Eee 4006. |b --6.08) |. 6.78 | 9508 +18 
Sheep IV., e : = | —42.96 —4.01 —5.83 | —11.97 | —22.29 —.40 
(c) Average, Sheep III. and IV. (Grams). 
Dry | | Crude : | Extract 
agra —— ee cae iiber ee | Fat. 
Digested of 500 hay and 150 grams oe 
feed when fed without molasses,__- 411.92 | 16.36 | 49.29 | 103.69 | 233.77 | 10.25 
Digested of hay and zyaion sped Bins ha 
grams molasses, . . 453.04 | 18.04 | 47.85 | 94.34 | 282.69 | 10.14 
Minus 100 grams meer aseee around t to be 
all digested, . ° Sl) Zsez400/ ho! trl 4.51 ~ 64.58 ~ 
Remains for hay and gluten he egpeied 
when fed with molasses, . - | 877.78 | 11.87 | 43.84 | 94.34 | 218.11 | 10.14 


Difference or depression, . : ; . |—34.14 |—4.49 | —5.95 | —9.35 |—15.66 | —.11 


The nutritive ratio of the hay-gluten-feed ration was 1: 7.3, 
and of the hay-gluten-feed-molasses ration, 1: 8.6; molasses con- 
stituted 11.3 per cent. of the dry matter of the total ration. The 
average depression found was 35.56 (34.14) grams of dry 


96 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


matter and 31.07 grams of organic matter per 100 grams of 
molasses, and is equivalent to 47 per cent. of the molasses fed. 
The feeding of 100 grams of molasses caused a loss of 8.3 per 
cent. in the digestibility of the hay-gluten-feed ration. Sheep 
IV. showed considerably more depression than Sheep III.; the 
former sheep lost 42 pound and the latter gained 2 pounds in 
weight during the seven days of the trial. 


Series XIIJ., Periop V. 
[600 grams hay, 200 grams gluten feed, 100 grams molasses, 10 grams galt. ] 


(a) Coefficients for Molasses. 


| Dry Matter. Ash. Crude Protein. | Extract Matter. 
Paige Sheep IV., . . 5 = 52.27 51.30 - 70.31 
Paige Sheep V., . : 4 : 48.88 77.53 - 69.70 
Average, - : - - 50.58 64.42 - 70.01 


(b) Depression noted (Grams). 


Dry Crude : Extract 
Matter. eae Protein. | Fiber. Matter. Fat. 
Paige SheepIV., . . .| —37.14 | —2.35 —6.91 —T.75 —19.83 —.35 
Paige Sheep V., : : -| —35.39 | —1.44 —7.06 —8.16 —19.53 +.76 


(c) Average, Sheep IV. and V. (Grams). 


Dry 
Matter. 


Crude 
Protein. 


Aah. Extract Fat. 


Fiber. Matter! 


Digested of 600 grams hay and 200 grams 
gluten feed when fed without molasses, . | 515.72 | 15.39 | 82.23 | 145.12 | 262.16 | 10.87 


Digested of hay and giuicn feed plus 100 
grams molasses, . . | 552.83 | 18.83 | 78.03 | 137.16 | 307.72 | 11.08 


Minus 100 grams molasses, all digested, .| 73.37] 5.34 2.79 - 65.24 - 


Remains for hay and gluten feed tigested 
when fed with molasses, . b : 479.46 | 13.49 | 75.24 | 137.16 | 242.48 | 11.08 


Difference or depression, . ° ‘ - |—86.26 |—1.90 | —6.99 | —7.96 |—19.68 | +-.21 


The nutritive ratio of the hay-gluten-feed ration was 1: 5.2, 
and of the hay-gluten-feed-molasses ration, 1:6; molasses re- 
presented 9.4 per cent. of the dry matter of the total ration. 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 97 


The average depression was 36.32 grams of dry matter and 
34.42 grams of organic matter per 100 grams of molasses fed, 
and equaled 50 per cent. of the dry matter of the molasses fed. 
The feeding of 100 grams of molasses caused a depression, or 
loss of 7 per cent. in the digestibility of the hay-gluten-feed 
ration. 

Both sheep were in good condition during the experiment; 
Sheep IV. showed an apparent gain of 4 pounds and Sheep V. a 
loss of 3.5 pounds. Such variations would hardly be expected. 


SrerRIES XIV., Pertop IX. 
[500 grams hay, 150 grams gluten feed, 150 grams molasses, 10 grams salt. ] 


(a) Coefficients for Molasses. 


Dry Matter. Ash. Crude Protein. | Extract Matter. 


a eC 7 56.63 | 30.24 | = | 76.86 


Extract 
za Fat. 
Digested of 500 grams hay and 150 grams 


gluten feed when fed without molasses, . | 423.47 | 16.91 |} 49.53 | 107.16 | 241.60 | 9.90 


(b) Depression noted (Grams). 


Dry Crude 
Ash Protein. 


Fiber. 


Matter. 


Digested of hay and gluten feed plus 150 
grams molasses, . . ° ° 2 - | 487.01 | 19.75 | 44.90 | 97.32 | 315.49 | 9.55 


Minus 150 grams molasses, all digested, . | 112.20] 9.39 6.68 - 96.13 - 


Remains for hay and gluten feed digested 


when fed with molasses, . . 374.81 | 10.36 | 38.22} 97.32 | 219.36 | 9.55 


Difference or depression, . : : . |—48.66 |—6.55 |—11.31 | —9.84 |—22.24 | —.35 


The nutritive ratio of the hay-gluten-feed ration was as 1: 7.5, 
and of the hay-gluten-feed-molasses ration, 1: 9.7; molasses com- 
posed 16 per cent. of the dry matter of the ration. The depres- 
sion noted was 33.52 grams of dry matter and 29.16 grams of 
organic matter per 100 grams of molasses fed, and is likewise 
equivalent to practically 45 per cent. of the dry matter of the 
molasses consumed. The feeding of 150 grams of molasses 
caused a loss of 11.9 per cent. in the digestibility of the hay- 
gluten-feed ration. This sheep made a gain of 5 pounds in one 
week according to our weights. 


98 "EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


Series XIV., Periop IV. 


[500 grams hay, 150 grams gluten feed, 200 grams molasses, 10 grams salt. ] 


(a) Coefficients for Molasses. 


| Dry Matter. | Ash. Crude Protein. | Extract Matter. 
Sheep III, . : : : - 77.58 47.22 24.19 88.30 
Sheep IV., - : : - 74.18 48.27 1.05 85.21 


(b) Depression noted (Grams). 


Dry Crude as Extract 
Matter. Ash. Protein. Fiber. Matter. _ 
Sheep III., - - : - | —33.41 —6.55 —6.52 —6.46 | —14.98 —.18 
Sheep IV., : : - - | —38.47 —6.42 —8.51 —6.00 | —18.93 —.04 
(c) Average, Sheep III. and IV. (Grams). 
Dry Crude : Extract 
Matter. a Protein. Fiber. Matter. Has. 


Digested of 500 grams hay and 150 grams 
gluten feed when fed without molasses, . | 408.00 | 16.23 | 48.55 | 103.02 | 231.48 | 10.13 


Digested of hay and elutes foed pias 200 


grams molasses, .- 521.08 | 22.16 | 49.64 | 96.79 | 342.53 | 9.97 
Minus 200 grams molasses, all digested, . | 149.02 | 12.41 8.60 ~ 128.0] - 
Remains for hay and gluten ‘eed Mecated 

when fed with molasses, - | 372.06 | 9.75 | 41.04] 96.72 | 214.52] 9.97 
Difference or depression, . . : - |—35.94 |—6.48 | —7.51 | —6.23 |—16.96 | —.16 


The ratio of the hay-gluten-feed-molasses ration was as 1: 9.3, 
against 1: 7.4 in case of the hay-gluten-feed ration, and 20.4 
per cent. of the dry matter of the entire ration consisted of 
molasses. The depression was 18.67 (17.97) grams of dry 
matter and 15.43 (14.73) grams of organic matter per 100 
grams of molasses, which was equal to 25 per cent. of the dry 
matter of the molasses fed. The feeding of 200 grams of 
molasses caused a loss or depression of 7.60 per cent. in the 
digestibility of the 650 grams of hay-gluten-feed ration. Sheep 
IIT. lost 2 pounds and Sheep IV. 8.5 pounds in live weight 
during the trial, 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 99 


Series XIJ., Pertop VII. 


[600 grams English hay, 200 grams gluten feed, 200 grams molasses, 10 grams salt. ] 


(a) Coefficients for Molasses. 


Dry Matter. | Ash. | Crude Protein. | Extract Matter. 
Paige Sheep IV., . - - - 76.78 76.59 - | 85.72 
Earecueep Vi. =< . = «. 73.71 81.06 7 | 84.21 


(b) Depression noted (Grams). 


Dry Crude : Extract 
Matter. ne Protein. ESS Matter. Hake 
Sheep IV.,, - - : - | —34.18 —2.51 —7.66 —6.19 | —18.70 +.94 
Sheep V., - F . : - | —38.70 —2.03 —6.70 | —10.55 | —20.67 +1.30 
(c) Average, Sheep IV. and V. (Grams). 
Dry Crude : Extract 
Matter. acs aad Fiber. | vatter. Hat 


Digested of 600 grams hay and 200 grams 
gluten feed when fed without molasses, . | 517.35 | 15.43 | 82.53 | 145.51 | 262.94 | 10.91 


Digested of hay and aiaten’ oe pine 200 


grams molasses, . 628.13 | 23.88 | 80.94 | 137.14 | 374.17 | 12.03 
Minus 200 grams molasses, all digested, . | 147.22 | 10.72 5.59 - 130.91 - 
Remains for hay and epiien pepe paitcn: fee 

with molasses, . : 480-91 | 13.16 | 75.35 } 137.14 | 243.26 | 12.03 
Difference or depression, - - ° - |—36.44 |—2.27 | —7.18 | —8.37 |—19.68 |41.12 


The nutritive ratio of the hay and gluten-feed ration was 
1: 5.2, and with the addition of 200 grams molasses, 1: 6.7; mo- 
lasses composed 17.2 per cent. of the dry matter of the total ra- 
tion. The depression observed was 18.2 grams of dry matter and 
17.05 grams of organic matter per 100 grams of molasses fed, 
and is equivalent to 25 per cent. of the dry matter of the molasses 
fed. The feeding of 200 grams of molasses caused a loss of 
7 per cent. in the digestibility of the hay-gluten-feed ration. 
Both sheep lost in weight during the experiment, Sheep IV. 
losing 4 pounds and Sheep V. 5 pounds. This is not what would 
be expected from animals receiving more than a maintenance 


100 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


ration. Sheep IV. passed through the experiment in good con- 
dition. Sheep V. began to show signs of indigestion shortly 
after the beginning of the period proper, and the disturbance 
. became so pronounced that the experiment was discontinued 
at the end of the sixth day. The results show that he digested a 
little less than Sheep IV. 

This and the trial immediately preceding show similar re- 
sults; namely, an equal depression and a loss in weight, in spite 
of the fact that the several animals were receiving more than a 
maintenance ration. 


SERIES XI., Pertop VIII. 


[600 grams hay, 200 grams gluten feed, 250 grams molasses, 10 grams salt. ] 


(a) Coefficients for Molasses. 


| Dry Matter. | Ash. Extract Matter. 


PaieeiSheep TV. -o( Riad) ate Oe 76.50 64.12 86.93 
Paipe'sheep V., 2 Sa ee 72.53 65.25 84.80 
Average, 3 ; = - : 74.52 64.59 85.87 


(b) Depression noted (Grams). 


Dry : - Extract 
Matcor: ss, ot Fiber. pe Fat. 
Digested of hay and gluten feed a see 

without molasses, 5 . 524.97 | 18.75 | 81.88 | 148.40 
Digested of hay ane. pluton feed pe 

molasses, - 660.31 | 29.58 | 79.47 | 139.96 
Minus 250 grams molasses Fed, aeeaee to 

be all digested, . : . | 181.68 | 16.75 7.16 - 
Hay and gluten feed chested hen ied 

with molasses, |. 478.63 | 12.83 | 72.31 | 139.96 
Difference or depression, . rs c . |—46.34 |—5.92 | —9.57 | —8.44 JH 


The nutritive ratio of the hay-gluten-feed ration was 1: 5.3, 
and of the hay-gluten-feed-molasses ration, 1: 7.1; molasses con- 
stituted 20.2 per cent. of the dry matter of the total ration. The 
average depression for both sheep was 18.5 grams of dry matter 
and 16.1 grams of organic matter per 100 grams of molasses, 
and equals 25.5 per cent. of the dry matter of the molasses fed. 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 101 


The feeding of 250 grams of molasses caused a loss of 8.8 per 
cent. in the digestibility of the hay-gluten-feed ration. Hach 
sheep lost 3 pounds in live weight during the seven days. 


Series XII., Pertop XI. 
[600 grams English hay, 200 grams gluten feed, 250 grams molasses, 10 grams galt.] 


(a) Coefficients for Molasses. 


Dry Matter. | Ash. Crude Protein. | Extract Matter. 


Young Sheep IL., . : 5 ° | 70.10 | 39.63 | - | 82.92 


‘ Extract 
Fiber. Matton: Fat. 


(b) Depression noted (Grams). 


Dry 


Matter. Ash. |Protein. 


Digested of 600 grams English hay and 200 
rams gluten a saa itt Ekeus mo- 


asses, . . - - | 498.12 | 15.47 | 74.29 | 139.31 | 256.86 | 11.84 
Digested of hay and giuet rere plus ant 
grams molasses, . 628.12 | 20.82 | 71.91 | 131.24 | 393.59 | 10.56 
Minus 250 grams molasses, all digested, . | 185.45 | 13.50 7.05 - 164.90 - 
Remains for hay and gluten aed pected 
when fed with molasses, . 449.67 | 7.32 | 64.86 | 131.24 | 228.69 | 10.56 


Difference or depression, . : : - |—55.45 |—8.15 | —9.43 | —8.07 |—28.17 |—1.28 


The ratio of the hay-gluten-feed-molasses ration was as 1: 7.6, 
and of the hay-gluten-feed ration 1: 5.7; molasses constituted 
20.4 per cent. of the dry matter of the total ration. The depres- 
sion observed was 22 (22.2) grams of dry matter and 18.8 (19) 
grams of organic matter for each 100 grams of molasses fed, 
and was equivalent to about 30 per cent. of the dry matter of the 
molasses. The feeding of 250 grams of molasses caused a loss 
of 11.1 per cent. in the digestibility of the hay and gluten feed. 
The sheep passed through the trial in good condition, and 
neither gained nor lost in live weight. 


Series XII., Prertop X. 
[600 grams English hay, 200 grams gluten feed, 300 grams molasses, 10 grams salt. ] 


(a) Coefficients for Molasses. 


Dry Matter. | Ash. Crude Protein. | Extract Matter. 


Paige Sheep IV., . : | 87.09 | 74.25 | - | 92.60 


102 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


(b) Depression noted (Grams). 


Dry 


Extract 
Matter. Fat. 


Matter. 


Digested of 600 grams English hay and 200 
rams gluten feed when fed without mo- 


asses, « : , ‘ . : : - | 523.59 | 15.63 | 83.44 | 147.41 | 266.00 | 11.04 
Digested of hay and pee teed pie 300 

grams molasses, . 715.92 | 27.57 | 82.21 | 146.52 | 447.82 | 11.80 
Minus 300 grams molasses, all digested, . | 220.83 | 16.08 8.39 - 196.36 - 
Remains for hay and gluten feed Cigeeted 

when fed with molasses, . : ‘ 495.09 | 11.49 | 73.82 | 146.52 | 251.46 | 11.80 
Difference or depression, . : - |—28.50 |—4.14 | —9.62 | —.89 |—14.54 | +.76 


The nutritive ratio of the hay-gluten-feed ration was as 1: 5.2, 
and of the hay-gluten-feed-molasses ration, 1: 7.6; molasses con- 
stituted some 23.5 per cent. of the dry matter of the total ration. 
The depression was 9.48 grams of dry matter and 8.1 grams of 
organic matter for each 100 grams of molasses fed, and was 
equivalent to 13 per cent. of the dry matter of the molasses. The 
feeding of 300 grams of molasses caused a loss of 5.4 per cent. 
in the digestibility of the hay-gluten-feed ration. The sheep 
kept in good condition during the experiment, but showed an 
apparent loss in live weight of 8 pounds. This is believed to be 
an error, although in a general way it confirms the results of 
previous trials, which indicate that when molasses constitutes 
more than 15 per cent. of the dry matter of the total ration a 
loss of live weight results, although more than a maintenance 
ration is being fed. 


GENERAL SUMMARY. 
Effect of Molasses upon Digestibility of Hay and Gluten Feed. 
In the following table an attempt has been made to summarize 
the principal results of feeding different amounts of molasses 
upon the digestibility of a ration composed of hay and gluten 


feed. The results obtained by Lehmann! and by Garland? are 
also appended. 


1 Loco citato. 
2 Berichte des landw. Institutes der Univ. Halle, XV. Heft, pp, 23-25. 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 103 


Our Own Results. 


44 || DepREssION PER|| SY ae 2 
ne 100 Grams As Ag rape 
or MOLASSES FED. n & A> Ls 
Z 20 a me apo aS 
= ~ i rm oe ge Pe = 
E sg 3 eg} Goo} ae 
RATION. FA ie Paes z. am = o Bi OS 
Pe ited coe | 228 | os 
os Opa] ae | Es eae) gee oe 
oO — 
3 BA: || Po HO BSA] E85] Be 
vA ov QA o) a) Ay 6) 
| 
500 grams hay, . f—1.00 
150 grams gluten, 1:8.0 6.0 59.72 52.18 76.0 6.9 50 
50 grams molasses, . re 
500 grams hay, . _— 50 
150 grams gluten, _ 1:3.6 | 11.3 || 35.56 | 31.07 47.0 8.3 { me 
100 grams molasses, . ; 
600 grams hay, . +400 
200 grams gluten, 1:6.0 9.4 || 36.32 | 34.42 50.0 7.0 ee 
100 grams molasses, . : 
500 grams hay, . 
150 grams gluten, TVET 16.0 33.50 29.16 45.0 11.9 +5.00 


150 grams molasses, 


Se ee a ee ee eee ee a, SE 
_— 
© 
w 
bo 
Oo 
_ 


500 grams hay, . { —2.00 
150 grams gluten, . 18.67 15.43 25.0 7.6 \ 3°50 
200 grams molasses, . ; 

~ 600 grams hay, . —4 00 
200stama gluten, . 1:6.7 | 17.2 || 18.20 | 17.05 || 25.0 7.0 me 
200 grams molasses, . ° 
600 grams hay, . —3 00 
200 grams gluten, 1:7.1 | 20.2 || 18.56 | 16.1 25.5 8.8 (ets 
250 grams molasses, . ; 
690 grams hay, . 
200 grams gluten, 1:76 20.4 22.0 18.8 30.0 Dl - 
250 grams molasses, . 
600 grams hay, . 
200 grams gluten, . Le feG 23.5 9.5 8.1 13.0 5.4 —8.00 
300 grams molasses, . 


500 grams hay, . s 
300 grams cottonseed meal, 
200 grams molasses, . 


1:3.3 18.01 19.75 22.2 28.51 8.2 = 


500 grams hay, . 


300 grams palm-nut cake, . 1:9.5 24.01 8.8 11.6 15.0! 6.1 - 
300 grams molasses, . 

500 grams hay, . 

300 grams cottonseed meal, 1:4.4 32.01 7.0 7.4 9.51 6.0 - 


ee pee ae ee, 


400 grams molasses, . 


Garland’s Results. 


476 grams hay and grain, . } ea 11.0 - 13.8 16.7 - 


68 grams molasses, . 


| 
| 


1 Estimated, assuming that the molasses contained 78 per cent. of dry matter, the hay 88 per 
cent. and the concentrates 92 per cent. 


104 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


The nutritive ratio of the two hay and gluten-feed rations 
with which the molasses was fed varied from 1: 5.5 to 1: 7.5, 
hence the nutrients may be considered satisfactorily propor- 
tioned. After the addition of the molasses the rations were 
widened from 1:6 to 1: 9.7; most of them could not be consid- 
ered unduly wide. In two of the three experiments reported by 
Lehmann the rations were quite narrow, due to the presence of 
so much cottonseed meal. So far as one is able to judge, the 
width of the ration did not bear any direct relation to the 
depression observed. In all of the experiments reported mo- 
lasses constituted from 6 per cent. to approximately 32 per cent. 
of the dry matter of the total ration. 

It is noted that when molasses made up from 9 to 16 per 
cent. of the dry matter of the ration, the depression averaged 
32.1 grams of organic matter per 100 grams of fresh molasses ; 
when molasses composed about 20 per cent. of the dry matter of 
the ration, in case of eight single trials, it averaged approxi- 
mately 15.5 grams of organic matter per 100 grams of molasses. 
The average of all of our experiments, excepting the first, show 
a depression of 21.8 grams of organic matter per 100 grams of 
fresh molasses. LLehmann’s experiments show that when beet 
molasses composed 18 per cent. of the dry matter of the ration, 
the depression was 22.2 grams of organic matter per 100 grams 
of molasses. This depression decreased to 7.4 grams of organic 
matter per 100 grams of molasses when molasses composed some 
30 per cent. of the dry matter of the ration. 

Results of a similar character are secured when one calculates 
the depression on the basis of the percentage of the dry matter 
of the molasses fed. When it composed 9 to 16 per cent. of the 
dry matter of the total ration, the depression or loss was equiva- 
lent to nearly 50 per cent. of the amount fed. When, however, 
20 per cent. of the dry matter of the total ration consisted of 
molasses, the depression equaled only 24 per cent. In case of 
Lehmann’s results, the depression decreased from 28.5 to 9.5 
per cent. 

The percentage loss in digestibility of the feeds with which 
the molasses was fed proved to be reasonably constant. The 
average percentage loss in case of twelve experiments, including 
nine of our own and three of Lehmann’s, was 7.86. In most 


— 1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 105 


cases the variations do not depart widely from this average. ‘The 
smaller amounts of molasses in most cases caused practically as 
much absolute depression as the larger amounts. 

The amount of hay and gluten-feed fed to the different sheep 
was probably a little less than a maintenance ration; this was 
intended in order that, when from 100 to 800 grams of molasses 
were added, the total amount would not be more than the animal 
could consume. 

With molasses composing 6 to 11.3 per cent. of the dry matter 
of the ration, one notes, on the whole, comparatively little change 
in the live weight, but when this was increased to some 20 per 
cent., the live weight of each sheep shows a pronounced decrease 
in almost every case, although the total ration was certainly in 
excess of maintenance requirements. The reason for this loss 
in weight cannot be explained. Occasional qualitative tests for 
sugar in the feeces were made with negative results. The urine 
was not collected, but it is believed that sugar would not have 
thus escaped unassimilated. The loss of digestible material 
through depression hardly seems sufficient to account for it. A 
possible explanation les in the fact that each sheep was given 
2,500 grams of water daily, usually considered a hberal allow- 
ance. In most of the cases showing a loss in weight the sheep 
drank the entire amount, but the attendant, contrary to instruc- 
tions, failed to supply more. It may be that the molasses in- 
duced an increased thirst, and required more water for its 
complete metabolism than was supplied, and the intake of water 
being relatively less than the outgo caused a temporary loss of 
weight. In one case, however, where the 2,500 grams of water 
were entirely consumed, the sheep neither gained nor lost in 
weight. It is to be regretted, however, that this oversight 
occurred. 


GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 


(a) Hay and Molasses. 


1. Our own experiments indicate that molasses had relatively 
little effect in depressing the digestibility of the hay when the 
amount fed did not exceed 10 to 13 per cent. of the dry matter of 
the total ration. 


106 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


2. When molasses composed 20 per cent. of the dry matter of 
the total ration, the depression averaged 7.37 grams of organic 
matter per 100 grams of fresh molasses, and the molasses caused 
substantially a loss of 6 per cent. in the digestibility of the hay. 


(b) Hay, Corn Meal and Molasses. 


3. In case of two single trials the depression was from 9.5 to 
17 grams of organic matter per 100 grams of molasses. 


(c) Hay, Gluten Feed and Molasses. 


4. When relatively small amounts of molasses were fed the 
depression was higher per 100 grams of molasses than when 
relatively large amounts were fed. 

5. When relatively small amounts of molasses were fed the 
loss expressed in dry matter as percentage of molasses fed was 
higher than when relatively large amounts of molasses were con- 
sumed. | 

6. The feeding of small amounts of molasses have in most 
cases caused as much depression of the feeds with which they 
were fed as large amounts, the loss averaging substantially 8 
per cemt: 

Why molasses seemed to exert less depression on the hay than 
on a ration composed of hay and a concentrate is difficult of 
explanation. 


D. The Cause of the Depression produced by Molasses. 


Our own numerous experiments, as well as those of other in- 
vestigators, have shown that molasses exerts a distinct depression 
upon those feed stuffs with which it is fed. This depression 
appears to vary, depending upon the character of the feed, the 
amount of molasses fed and the individuality and condition of 
the animal. The addition of considerable amounts cf sugar 
and starch have been shown to produce similar results.1 

The cause or causes of this depression have never been fully 
demonstrated. Kellner? offers a partial explanation substan- 
tially as follows: — 


1 See the numerous experiments of Henneberg and Stohmann, Kiihn and Fleischer, E. 
Wolff, ete., in the Journal fiir Landw. and in the Landw. Versuchssta. 
2 Loco citato, fiinfte Auflage, pp. 50, 51. 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 107 


(a) The cause or partial cause of the depression of the pro- 
teid matter is due to the increased excretion of metabolic by- 
products in the feces. It has been definitely proved that for 
every 100 grams of digested dry matter there is excreted .4 to 
.5 of a gram of nitrogen, or 2.5 to 3.1 grams of protein, hence the 
additional carbohydrates increase the digestible dry matter and 
cause the excess excretion of metabolic nitrogen, which is calcu- 
lated as undigested nitrogen. 

(b) According to Hirschler * an increase of the carbohydrates 
or of lactic acid in the ration checks the action of putrefactive 
bacteria, 7.c., those acting upon the proteid matter, and G. 
Gothwald ? has confirmed this for herbivorous animals. 

(c) It being known that the easily soluble and digestible 
carbohydrates are large yielders of lactic and butyric acids in 
the processes of digestion, it seems at least possible that it is these 
acids, when present in sufficient quantities, which check the 
further action of the micro-organisms, and prevents their attack- 
ing the more difficult digestible carbohydrates, such as the fiber, 
pentosans, gums, ete. 

Alquier and Drouineau ® state that in case of ruminants the 
depression is caused because the food remains for a long time 
in the digestive tract, and is subjected to the action of various 
micro-organisms. ‘These organisms follow the line of the least 
resistance, and attack the sugars and other soluble carbohydrates, 
leaving the cellulose, ligno-cellulose and pentosans, which they 
would attack and dissolve more freely were the soluble carbo- 
hydrates not present in excess ; hence the depression falls largely 
upon these latter compounds. 

It is further explained that in case of the horse the action 
of molasses in causing the depression is not due primarily to the 
action of micro-organisms for the reason that the food remains 
so short a time in the intestines, but to the alkaline salts, — 
potash and soda,— which cause an increased action of the 
intestines (peristalsis). Grandeau’s work is cited, in which, 
in an average of four trials with four different horses the first 
feeces appeared sixteen hours after the feeding of molasses, while 

1 Zeitschrift fiir physiol. Chem. 10 Bd. 1886, p. 306; also 39 Bd. p. 99; Abs. from Kellner. 


2 Journal fiir Landw. 39 Jahrgang, 1888, p. 325. 
3 Ann. de Sci. Agron. 2 Serie, 1904. Tome I., pp. 252-258. 


108 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


twenty-seven hours elapsed before the first faeces from a normal 
ration were excreted. 


OBSERVATIONS AT THIS STATION. 


In order to note the effect of molasses in increasing peristalsis, 
thereby causing a less complete digestion of the food, a number 
of observations were made using lampblack as an indicator. 

October 21, at 4 p.w., Sheep ITI., receiving hay, gluten feed, 
salt and 200 grams of molasses, was fed in addition 10 grams of 
Jampblack. The first indication in the feeces appeared at 1 p.m. 
on the following day, — twenty-one hours after feeding. The 
lampblack could be observed in the feces until 4 p.m. of October 
25, — some four days thereafter. 

October 27, at 4 p.m., and October 28, at 7 a.m., Sheep IT., 
receiving a ration of hay, gluten feed and salt, was given in 
addition a total of 10 grams of lampblack. Indications of the 
lampblack first appeared at 2 p.m. on the following day, Octo- 
ber 28,—twenty hours after the first feeding. At the same 
time Sheep IV., receiving hay, gluten feed, salt and 200 grams 
of molasses, was given in addition 15 grams of lampblack, which 
first appeared in the feces at 4 p.m. of the following day, — 
twenty-two hours later. 

November 6, at 5 p.m., and November 7, at 7 a.m., Sheep I., 
receiving a ration of hay, gluten feed and salt, was fed in addi- 
tion with 10 grams of lampblack, which first appeared in the 
feces at noon on November 7,— nineteen hours later. This 
lampblack was noticed in the feces until noon of November 12, 
nearly six days (one hundred and thirty-nine hours) after the 
first was given, 

November 6, at 5 p.m., and November 7, at 7 a.m., Sheep IV., 
receiving a ration of hay, gluten feed, salt and 200 grams of 
molasses, was given in addition a total of 15 grams of lampblack. 
It first appeared at 7 a.m., November 7,— fourteen hours later, 
— and disappeared at 7 a.m., November 12, — one hundred and 
thirty-four hours later. 

November 7, at 4 p.m., and November 8, at 7 a.m., Sheep IT., 
receiving a ration of hay, gluten feed and salt, was given in 
addition 10 grams of lampblack. The first indication of lamp- 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 109 


black was at 7.30 A.M., November 8, — fifteen and a half hours 
later, — and it had entirely disappeared from the feces on 
November 13, at 4 p.m., — six days later. 

November 7, at 4 p.m., and November 8, at 7 a.m., Sheep III., 
receiving hay, gluten feed, salt and 200 grams of molasses, re- 
ceived in addition a total of 15 grams of lampblack. The first 
colored feeces were noted November 8, at 2 p.M., — twenty-two 
hours later, —and the color disappeared November 13, at 


4 p.m., — after a lapse of six days. 
The above data placed in tabular form are as follows : — 


Molasses Normal Molasses 
Ration. Ration. Ration. 
Lampblack Lampblack Lampblack 


appeared disappeared | disappeared 


Normal 

Ration. 

Lam pblack 
appeared 


Suerep NuMBER. 


(Hours). (Hours). (Hours). (Hours). 

oe - . 2 20.0 = = = 

ne - 4 : : 19.0 = 139.0 = 

| . . : . : 15.5 = 144.0 = 

\ ° ° . - ; = 22.0 - = 
et . : ; : = 21.0 = 96 
i . - - - : - 14.0 = 134 
LS ‘ : : : : - 22.0 - 144 

Average, : : 5 - ek Pr Man: ee er at ee i ie. 


It is evident that these results do not show sufficient varia- 
tion to warrant a conclusion that the molasses exerted any 
peristaltic action. It is to be admitted that the lampblack did 
not prove as sharp an indicator as was desired. It is intended 
to make additional observations of a similar character, using 
another indicator, and also to continue our inquiry relative to 
the cause of the depression. 


EXPERIMENT. STATION. [Jan. 


110 


Sa a a a a a 
2 99 'Gg = c6°S 1E°8 . . . . . . ‘sosst[Our Ooty 00g | * . ° . . . . . . “XT "AIX 
2 18°68 - 66° ge | eee ee ed eee ee er Onsen fe Pe a ea 8 TTA | CARE 
2 18°68 is C'S 818 . . . . . . ‘sassBlOur ool yy 0j10g . . . ° . . . . . oe "ALS 
. 06°68 = 1L°¢ Oey ee ee we Reem Onno | fe tt) ct gempa Us wee ts 
Ig'F FE '9¢ 18°L @'1Z Shee er eee ee er es peep Uaninjelice LE STA “TA mt DEE | eae 
LEG 6L°6S Gé°0€ LOL 689 F j E . : : : : fay qsTsaiy | : ; p ee Le SL EE | ee 
6 Z 10° 0¢ #9 °ZE SLL Bie |, eee Me ar ON eee Ix | ATS 
0 STS Sn SSS Se ee EE eee ee ee ee eee ee ee Se ee 
— ZI “18 Se TZ F iis g . . . . . - ‘SassB[OUI Ooly 010g . . . . . . . . . TAT “Tide 
Pin CQ 18 = CLF eZ" 8 . . . . . . ‘sass Our Ooly 03.10 g ° . . . . . . . . “TA *TITX 
= 6I “18 ae OL F Te 8 . . . . . . ‘SasselOul Ooly 0110g . . . . ° . . . . SOR aT ahip'e 
e. LE° 18 = QC F co’ 8 . . . . . . ‘sosst [OUI ory 0}10g . . . . ° . . ey "TTX 
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"qe arene *I9ql ft “UIa}O01g “UsSV *spoo,7 *spollog ‘Salugg 


[10938 AIq |] 
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“SENGAWIGdd XY CHL FO VIV(T 


111 


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29's 10° LF #9 '1Z GF OT Tem jf oF FUE tf fgassejour pue peey ueyn]a ‘Avy | = *AT ‘TIA TIX 
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[-soqgeyy £1q] 


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1910.] 


[Jan. 


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112 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 


113 


Dry Matter Determinations made at Time of weighing out the Different 


Foods, and Dry Matter in Air-dry Feces (Per Cent.). 


SERIEs. Period. Flea oa Bperish cauien Molasses. 
Si: | VI. IV. 88.35 a ye 
x. | 0%. V. 89.77 é | ‘ 
<x by V IV. 88.65 S af 
io ; V Vv. 88.65 a B 
+i. VI II. 88.97 & = 
as VI III.! 88.97 2 é 
er. He Ea IV. 88.55 90.03 z 
pe UF Var V. 88.55 90.03 z 
<1... III IV. 88.15 2 71.49 
<r, III V. 88.15 u 71.49 
XI. IV IV. 87.22 Z 72.12 
3, IV V. 87.22 = 72.12 
XI., She MITT IV. 88.92 92.02 7267 
XI. ye evay V 88.92 92.02 72.67 
XII, ; IV IV. 87.50 - 89.88 
Xs:. ‘ IV V. 87.50 a 89.88 
xn. Li ORLY. TL.¥:| 90.65 91.13 < 
xi, III 1st 87 . 80 a 73.45 
xt. Ill ‘ace. 87.80 = 73.45 
XII., : V Ty: 87.85 89.68 73.37 
ail. ; V V 87.85 89 68 73.37 
<1. eo VEE IV 88.07 90.14 73 61 
XIl., ce, WORE V 88 07 90.14 73, 61 
- xi. IV 89 25 90.87 73.61 
xi. XI ILY.| 90.57 89.98 74.18 


Dry Matter Determinations made at Time of weighing out the Different 
Foods, and Dry Matter in Air-dry Feces (Per Cent.). 


: Sheep English Gluten 
SERIES. Period. Renee Hay Head: Molasses. 
3/00 ee Vi: ie 90.07 - - - 
SEED 2 Vi iM 90.07 - - = 
5/1 tas IV. III. 89.65 - 89.32 ~ 
XT. Wade IQ 89.12 - 90.36 - 
XL; I. I 88 . 62 - - 72.93 
>, 0 0 ie lt ae 88 . 62 - - 72.93 
XE: III. 1b 89.30 - - 72.93 
UT oli. Jl 89.30 - - 72.93 
Xo: VI. III. 90.10 - 90. 64 72.70 
DQ 0 VIII. Il. 89.05 - 90.24 72.78 
XIV., XT: rE: 90. 05 = = = 
XIV; XI. II. 90.05 s = = 
xiv, iit. i 88.42 90.75 = 2 
XIV., Ul cE 88.42 90.75 = = 
RIV, V Il. 89.45 91.15 = - 
XIv., 4 IV. 89.45 91.15 Z = 
XIV, IV re 89.27 91.00 L 74.51 
Vics IV IV. 89.27 91.00 - 74.51 
DOTY. s VI Ill. 89.47 91.52 - 74.84 
XIV., VI IV. 89 .47 91.52 - 74.84 
XIV., VII eT, 89.72 93.24 - 75.26 
CLV. ; VII IV. 89.72 93 . 24 - 75.26 
XIV., Ix IV. 90.25 91.27 ~ 74.80 


Feces. 


1 Old sheep. 


114 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


Average Daily Amount of Manure execreted and Water drunk (Grams). 


Manure. 
excreted 
daily. 


Sheep 
Number. 


tenth 


Feed or Ration. Manure 


Serres. | Periods. 


x Wi. DV: English hay, . : : : 678 $2.15 1,138 
dF IX. Vs English hay, . : : ; 699 31.41 1,924 
XI. Vic TV: English hay, ; ° é : 610 26.11 1,781 
<ul V. Ve English hay, . : : : 623 27.02 1,642 
XI. VI. INE English hay, . : : ; 613 26.21 1,694 
Xi VI. III. English hay, . ‘ : : 608 28.80 1,544 
XI. VII. TV. English hay, ‘ ; A : 460 20.82 1,498 
xa: VII. V. English hay, E a : 459 20.01 1,318 
XI. III. EVE Hay and molasses, - : : 674 31.10 1,725 
le Tite Ve Hay and molasses, . ; : 745 32.86 1,995 
2G TV. Vic Hay and molasses, . Z : 738 33.34 2,114 
>a G IV. V. Hay and molasses, 855 34.12 2,014 
XI. VILE IV. Hay, gluten feed and molasses, 635 25 .84 1,843 
xa VIII. Wie Hay, gluten feed and molasses, 655 25 .86 1,953 
DIS EV. EVs Hay and gluten feed, : ; 455 40.701 | 1,382 
2G Ue Vic Vi Hay and gluten feed, : ; 639 41.721 1351 
SGU XLV II. Y.| Hay and gluten feed, ‘ : 1,020 23.86 2,436 
Ole?) VEUE- ile Hay and molasses, . : ; 628 26.99 1,836 
> GU 106 & ETS Hay and molasses, . : 581 24.41 1,927 
XU. Vie TV. Hay, gluten feed and molasses, 593 24.70 2,071 
XII. Vis V. Hay, gluten feed and molasses, 688 24.97 1,786 
XII. VII. EV. Hay, gluten feed and molasses, 683 24.26 1,770 
XII. VII. WE Hay, gluten feed and molasses, 862 24 .82 2,167 
XII. Xe IV. Hay, gluten feed and molasses, 743 23.46 2,429 
xO xa II. Y.| Hay, gluten feed and molasses, 945 29.90 2,500 
Xone Ve 1 English hay, . : : : 508 21.91 2,214 
GUE Ve WE English hay, . : ; ; 531 23 .02 2,193 
XIII. Vi 100% Hay and corn meal, ; : 516 18.91 2,500 
XIII. VII. 100 Hay and corn meal, : : 442 17.64 2,369 
XCEL. if lf Hay and molasses, . : ; 468 19.02 1,631 
XIII. 1 TT. Hay and molasses, . ‘ ; 450 19.29 1,649 
> Guge III. if Hay and molasses, . : , 528 20.79 1,414 
SIGE E ATIC pf Hay and molasses, . ; 620 23 .02 1,536 
XIII. VI. III. Hay, corn meal and molasses, . 588 20.36 2,150 
SUE VIII. Tt. Hay, corn meal and molasses, . 526 21.59 2,159 
XIV. Pxale 1¢ English hay, . : : : 633 24.55 2,292 
XIV. XT. 10 English hay, . : 5 : 722 26.62 2,251 
XIV. DT. i: Hay and gluten feed, - : 389 1720 2,246 
XIV. UT iO Hay and gluten feed, ; 451 19.84 2,407 
xi Ve PET. Hay and gluten feed, ; ; 469 19.64 2,385 
XIV. We IV. Hay and gluten feed, 378 17.90 1,639 
DeLV. VE Ill. Hay, gluten feed and molasses, 560 23 .81 2,470 
XIV. Vic i i\ife Hay, gluten feed and molasses, 508 21.81 2,450 
xO Wil: INGE Hay, gluten feed and molasses, 591 22.36 2,212 
XIV. VI. EV. Hay, gluten feed and molasses, 455 21.00 1,269 
XIV. Wi III. Hay, gluten feed and molasses, 744 22.79 2,464 
XIV. VII. TV. Hay, gluten feed and molasses, 513 22.15 2,338 
XIV. DS IV. Hay, gluten feed and molasses, 827 22.85 2,089 


eee eeeeeneneeed 
OO OOOeeeOOSeeeeeeeeeeeeeee—S—— es 


1 One-fifth of sample. 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 115 


Weight of Animals at Beginning and End of Period (Pounds). 


Gain or 


Sheep 
Loss. 


Number. 


SeERIEs. | Period. Feed or Ration. 


XIII. V Me English hay, +3.75 
XIII. V IE English hay, - 
ELE 1a" ie Hay and corn meal, . + .50 
SENET: VII Ite Hay and corn meal, . - 
SOHur I Te Hay and molasses, +3.00 
XIII. I ii Hay and molasses, - 
NTT. III E Hay and molasses, —.75 
XIII. III 1 Hay and molasses, 2 +1.25 
XIII. VI INGE Hay, corn meal and molasses, ; 

XIII. VIII 


TT. Hay, corn meal and molasses, . 


xX. VI. ENG English hay, . : 2 : 156 .00 155.50 —.50 
Da EX. Vic English hay, . K ‘ 2 133.25 137.75 | +4.50 
> Gis V IV English hay, . : c . 142.00 144.00 | +2.00 
OL: V V English hay, 5 3 Fi . 122.00 121.50 — .50 
DAE VI DE English hay, 154.00 150.00 | —4.00 
XS. VI III English hay, : 146.50 145.00 | —1.50 
XT. VII lig Hay and gluten feed, 141.50 141.00 —.50 
dA ie VII V. Hay and gluten feed, 118.50 120.00 | +1.50 
4 ie III IV Hay and molasses, 144.00 142.00 | —2.00 
>a III V Hay and molasses, 124.00 122.00 | —2.00 
DG IV IV Hay and molasses, 145.50 150.00 | +4.50 
elt EV We Hay and molasses, 122.50 125.50 | +3.00 
bale VIII IV Hay, gluten feed and molasses, 145.00 142.00 | —3.00 
XI VIII Vv Hay, gluten feed and molasses, 125.50 122.50 | —3.00 
121.50 119.00 | —2.50 
XII. IV A Hay and gluten feed, 110.50 108.50 | —2.00 
2, Gie XIV II.Y.| Hay and gluten feed, 94.50 91.50 | —3.00 
XRT: LE iid Hay and molasses, 108 .00 107.00 | —1.00 
XII. 1H TEE. Hay and molasses, . : 125.00 125.00 - 
XII. V Vi. Hay, gluten feed and molasses, 121.00 125.50 | +4.50 
XII. V V; Hay, gluten feed and molasses, 115.50 112.00 | —3.50 
xT. VII IV. Hay, gluten feed and molasses, 127.00 123.00 | —4.00 
xT. VII V. Hay, gluten feed and molasses, 115.00 110.00 | —5.00 
OUT. x HAY Hay, gluten feed and molasses, 128.00 120.00 | —8.00 
XII. XI II. Y.| Hay, gluten feed and molasses, 95 .50 95.50 ~ 


XIV. XI li English hay, . : - : 90.00 88.50 | —1.50 
XIV. XI 101 English hay, . ‘ : i 90.50 88.50 | —2.00 
XIV. III If Hay and gluten feed, A : 91.25 91.00 —.25 
XIV. III II. Hay and gluten feed, . 5 87.25 86.25 | —1.00 
LV. V 10805 Hay and gluten feed, A 5 92.25 88.00 | —4.25 
XIV. V IV. Hay and gluten feed, 95.00 93.00 | —2.00 
XIV. IV iNQi Hay, gluten feed and molasses, 93 .50 91.50 | —2.00 
XIV. IV IV. Hay, gluten feed and molasses, | 101.00 97.50 | —3.50 
XIV. VI U0) 0 Hay, gluten feed and molasses, 88.50 87.50 | —1.00 
XIV. VI IV. Hay, gluten feed and molasses, 96.50 96.00 —.50 
XIV. VII i. Hay, gluten feed and molasses, 85 .50 87.50 | +2.00 
XIV. VII IV. Hay, gluten feed and molasses, 101.00 101.50 + .50 


JOW A Hay, gluten feed and molasses, 95.50 100.25 


XII. IV. x | ww. | ty. [Hayandetucenteea, . .| 150 | 119.00 |—250 Hay and gluten feed, 


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116 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 117 


Calculation of Coefficients. 


Series X., Period VI., Sheep IV. 
English Hay. 


Dairy ReEcorp. 


800 grams English hay fed, 


Nitro- 
MuTy,..| Ash. |Protein.| Fiber. | 22free | wat, 
Matter. 


706.80 55.27 60.50 228.65 344.57 17.81 


321.50 grams manure excreted, : 300.12 34.84 29.71 92.02 134.78 8.76 


Grams digested, 


Per cent. digested, 


406.68 | 20.43 | 30.79 | 136.63 | 209.79 | 9.05 
57.54 | 36.96 | 50.89 | 59.76 | 60.88 | 50.81 


Nutritive ratio of ration, 1: 11.9. 


800 grams English hay fed, 


Series X., Period IX., Sheep V. 


English Hay. 


718.16 59.97 63.20 -| 229.02 349.17 16.80 


314.13 grams manure excreted, . | 298.67 33.54 27.60 95.37 132.88 9.29 


_Grams digested, 


Per cent. digested, 


419.49 26.43 35.60 133.65 216.29 7.51 
58.41 44.07 56.33 58.36 61.94 44.70 


Average per cent. for both sheep, . 57.98 40.52 53.61 59.06 61.41 47.76 


800 grams English hay fed, 


Series XI., Period V., Sheep IV. 
English Hay. 


709 . 20 47 .87 86.74 237.23 316.80 20.57 


261.10 grams manure excreted, 4 240.79 26.92 33.95 58.27 111.34 10.31 


Grams digested, 
Per cent. digested, 


860 grams English hay fed, 


468.41 20.95 52.79 178.96 205 . 46 10.26 
66.05 43.76 60.86 75.44 64.85 49.88 


Series XI., Period V., Sheep V. 
English Hay. 


709.20 47.87 86.74 237 .23 316.80 20.57 


270.20 grams manure excreted, : 248 .96 26.12 32.79 66.00 113.87 10.18 


Grams digested, 
Per cent. digested, 


Average per cent. for both sheep, . 65.48 44.60 61.53 73.81 64.46 50.20 


Average nutritive ratio of rations for two sheep, 1: 7.5. 


118 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


Series XI., Period VI., Sheep II. 
English Hay. 


N ore 
gen-free 
Extract Fat. 
Matter. 


Damy Rzcorp. Dry |: ashe pistons ee 


900 grams English hay fed, . . | 800.73 54.05 
262.10 grams manure excreted, wal Ceedooly: 26.48 
Grams digested, ; ‘ ; =| 9055, 66 27.57 
Per cent. digested, . F é ‘ 69.38 51.01 


97 .93 267.84 357.69 23.22 
36.04 58.82 113.44 10.40 
61.89 209.02 244.25 12.82 
63.20 78.04 68.29 55.21 


Series XI., Period VI., Sheep ITI. 
English Hay. 


900 grams English hay fed, , . | 800.73 54.05 97.93 267.84 357.69 23.22 


288 grams manure excreted, . . | 269.34 28.47 37.79 68.17 123.20 her. 
Grams digested, -. 9 . «=| 531.80 | 25.58 60.14 | 190,67.) Gauanennmeee 
Per cent. digested, . - ° : 66.36 47.33 61.41 74.55 65.56 49.53 
Average per cent. for both sheep, . 67.87 49.17 62.31 76.30 66.39 LEB TE 


Average nutritive ratio of rations for two sheep, 1: 7.7. 


Series XI., Period VII., Sheep IV. 
Hay and Gluten Feed. 


600 grams English hay fed, . . | 531.30 35.86 64.98 177.72 237 .33 15.41 
200 grams gluten feed fed, é . | 180.06 3.01 44.98 13.00 114.05 5.02 
Amount consumed,. - +. | ¥11,368 | 88.87 | 100.06 | 190.72 | /aad-aaey ee 
208.20 grams manure excreted, . | 194.60 20.53 29 .83 43.49 91.85 8.89 
Grams digested, “ - 5 . | 516.76 18 .34 | 80.13 | 147 .23 259 .53 11.54 


Per cent. hay and gluten feed di- 72.64. 47.19 72.87 77.19 73.86 56.40 
gested. 


Series XI., Period VII., Sheep V. 
Hay and Gluten Feed. 


190.72 351.38 20.43 
42.78 87.74 8.69 


Grams digested, A . ° . | 524.05 18.96 81.77 147.94 263.64 11.74 


Per cent. hay and gluten feed di- 73.67 48.78 74.36 17.57 75.03 57.46 
gested. 


Amount consumed as above, . al aul etd 38.87 | 109.96 
200.10 grams manure excreted, Sl See ow 19.91 28.19 


a 
Average nutritive ratio of rations for two sheep, 1: 5.4. 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 119 


Series XI., Period III., Sheep IV. 


Porto Rico Molasses. 


Nitro- 
Daity Recorp. : . | Protein. ; gone? Fat. 
Matter. 
800 grams English hay fed, . - | ¢05.20 57.83 61.28 226.65 342.45 17.00 
150 grams molasses fed, . i .| 107.24 9.06 4.23 - 93.95 - 
Amount consumed, . 3 : . | 812.44 ~ 66.89 65.51 226.65 436.40 17.00 
311 grams manure excreted, . a I) 288273 35.11 30.95 84.66 129.55 8.46 
Gramsdigested, . . . .| 523.71 | 31.78 | 34.56 | 141.89 | 300.85 | 8.54. 
Minus hay digested, . ; .| 408.87 23 .43 32.85 133.86 210.30 8.12 
Molasses digested (grams) , ; : 114.84 8.85 Lal 8.03 96.55 42 
Per cent. digested, . : : .| 107.09 92.16 40.43 - 102.76 ~ 


Series XI., Period III., Sheep V. 


Porto Rico Molasses. 


Amount consumed as above, . .| 812.44 66.89 65.51 226.65 436.40 17.00 
328.60 grams manure excreted, . | 3806.06 36.21 S2e2o 92.83 136.10 8.69 
Grams digested, . . . .| 506.38 | 30.68 | 33.28 | 133.82 | 300.30 | 8.31 
Minus hay digested, ° ‘ .| 408.87 23.43 32.85 133.86 210.30 8.12 
Molasses digested (grams), g : 97.51 1.25 43 A - 90.00. .19 
Per cent. digested, . 3 3 ‘ 90.93 80.02 Oe aley - 95.80 - 

Average per cent. for both sheep, . 99.01 86.09 25.30 - 99 28 - 


Average nutritive ratio of rations for two sheep, 1: 13.6. 


Series XI., Period IV., Sheep IV. 


Porto Rico Molasses. 


697.76 57.22 60.64 
180.30 15.24 7.10 
. | 878.06 72.46 67.74 
307.83 42.05 35.31 
. | 570.23 30.41 32.43 
404.56 23.19 32.51 


. | 165.67 7.22 08 
91.89 47 .38 - 


800 grams English hay fed, 
250 grams molasses fed, 
Amount consumed, . 

333.40 grams manure excreted, 
Grams digested, 

Minus hay digested, 


Molasses digested (grams), 


Per cent. digested, 


120 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


Series XI., Period IV., Sheep. V. 


Porto Rico Molasses. 


itro- 
Dairy Recorp. Mery... | Ash. | Protein.| Fiber. genie Fat. 
Matter. 
Amount consumed as above, . . | 878.06 72.46 67.74 224.26 496.78 16.82 
341.2 grams manure excreted, . .| 314.45 40.47 36.13 91.03 138.17 8.65 
Grams digested, : 4 : a | obo TOL 31 99" | Tare | 133.23 358.61 guage 
Minus hay digested, ; : .| 404.56 23.19 321 132.44 208 .07 8 03 
Molasses digested (grams) , ; : 159.05 8.80 Cased ee ~ 180.6aN errs 
Per cent. digested, . " , F 88.21 57.74 - - 95.30 - 
Average per cent. for both sheep, . 90.05 52.56 - - 95.33 - 
Average nutritive ratio of rations for two sheep, 1: 16. 
Series XI., Period VIII., Sheep IV. 
Porto Rico Molasses. 
600 grams English hay fed, : . | 533.52 36.91 65.25 178. 46 238 .32 15.47 
200 grams gluten feed fed, : : 184.04 3.07 45 .97 13.29 116.57 5.138 
250 grams molasses fed, . : . | 181.68 16.75 7.16 - LEY fehl - 
Amount consumed, . ; : . | 899.24 "5. “118.38 "191.75 4 512.66 ~ 20.60 
258.40 grams manure excreted, . | 239.02 26.65 39.10 50.82 113.39 9.06 
Grams digested, : é : . | 660.22 29.18 79.28 140.93 399.27 11.54 
Minus hay and gluten feed digested,} 521.24 18.44 81.05 - 262.12 - 
Molasses digested (grams), . .| 138.98 | io74 | = | [9 | Gey 
Per cent. digested, . ; ; : 76.50 64.12 - - 86.93 - 
Series XI., Period VIII., Sheep V. 
Porto Rico Molasses. 

Amount consumed as above, . a || ee) edit 55.83 | 118.38 191.75 512.66 20.60 
258.60 grams manure excreted, . | 238.84 25 . 84 38.72 52276 112.61 8.91 
Grams digested, <  . + | 600.40-| 29199 | 79.66 | 198.90 | 400.080) Gmmeen 
Minus hay and gluten feed digested,| 528.63 19.06 82.70 - 266.27 - 
Molasses digested (grams), é Pea ee ai 10.93 a geccaaes = ~ 133.78 a 
Per cent. digested, . 5 ‘ : 72.53 65.25 - - 84.80 - 
Average per cent. for both sheep, . 74.52 64.69 - - 85.87 - 


Average nutritive ratio of rations for two sheep, 1; 7.1. 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 121 


Series XII., Period IV., Sheep IV. 
Gluten Feed and Hay. 


Nitro- 
Dairy Recorp. ae . | Protein.| Fiber. pee Fat. 

Matter. 
600 grams English hay, . ; : 525.00 35.44 64.21 175.61 234.52 15.23 
200 grams gluten feed, . : | W976 2.75 47.13 11.32 113.88 4.67 
Amount consumed, . : : . | 704.76 ~ 38.19 111.34 186.93 348. 40 19.90 
Minus 203.52 grams manure excreted, 188. 24 23.10 29.18 40.75 86.53 8.68 
Grams digested, . : : . | 516.52 wy 82.16 146.18 261.87 11.22 


Per cent. gluten feed and hay di- 73.29 39.51 73.79 78.20 75.16 56.38 
gested. 


Series XII., Period IV., Sheep V. 
Gluten Feed and Hay. 


Amount consumed as above, . ; 704.76 38.19 | 111.34 186.93 348 . 40 19.90 
_ Minus 208.62 grams manureexcreted, | 192.41 22.61 29 28 43.93 87.16 9.43 
Grams digested, A ~ F 5 512.35 15.58 82.06 143.00 261.24 10.47 


Per ig gluten feed and hay di- 72.70 40.80 73.70 76.50 74.98 52.61 
gested. 
Average per cent. for both sheep, . 73.00 40.16 73.75 77.35 75.07 54.50 


Series XII., Period XIV., Sheep II. (Young.) 
Gluten Feed and Hay. 


550 grams English hay, . . .| 498.58 | 33.65 | 60.98 | 166.78 | 292.72 | 14.46 
950 grams elutenfeed, . . .| 227.83 | 3.49 | 59.74 | 14.35 | 144.33 | 5.92 
Amount consumed,. . . .| 726.41 | 37.14 | 120.72, | 181.13 | 367.05 | 20.38 
238.64 grams manure excreted, 5 | ee A PW) Li 41.80 50.47 102.79 8.57 
Gempdeeted, © . . .|' 500.21 | 14.57 | 78.92 | 130.66 | 264.26 | 11.91 
Minus hay digested, ; : eile 328266 17.48 37.80 121.53 144.01 7.84 
Gluten feed digested (grams), . : 171.55 eae 41.12 9.13 120.25 3.97 


Per cent. hay and gluten feed di- 68.86 39.23 65.37 72.14 72.00 57.95 
gested. 


122 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


Series XII., Period III., Sheep II. (Old). 


Porto Rico Molasses. ‘A 
Nitro- 
DaiLy ReEcorpb. BF a . | Protein.  sirinae 
Matter. 
800 grams English hay, . ; . | 702.40 47.41 85.90 234.95 313.76 20.37 
100 grams Porto Rico molasses, ; 73.45 5.35 - 2.79 - 65.31 - 
Amount consumed, . : : 3 775.85 52.76 88.69 234.95 379.07 20.37 
Minus 269.86 grams manure excreted, | 248.41 29.59 36.81 57.13 113.77 11.10 
Grams digested, . . . «| 527.44 | 23.17 | 51.88 | 177/82)| OnBOnhmUE 
Minus hay digested, 5 . » aT 6n02 23.31 53.52 179.27 208.31 10.67 
Molasses digested (grams), : : 50.72 RET —1.64 —1.45 56.99 | —1.40 
Per cent. digested, . - 5 ‘ 69.05 ~ - = 87.26 - 


Series XII., Period III., Sheep III. 


Porto Rico Molasses. - 


Amount consumed as above, . . | 775.85 52.76 88 .69 
Minus 244.09 grams manure excreted, 224.95 27.24 32.93 
Grams digested, ; : : . | 550.90 | 25.52 55.76 
Minus hay digested, ‘ ; “ 476.72 23.31 


Molasses digested (grams), 5 ‘ 74.18 22) 
Per cent. digested, . ; x : 100.99 41.31 


Series XII., Period V., Sheep IV. (Paige). 
Porto Rico Molasses. 


600 grams English hay, . . . | 527.10 176.31 235.46 15.29 
200 grams gluten feed, . ‘ 4 179.36 11.30 113.62 4.66 
100 grams Porto Rico molasses, ; 73.300 - 65.24 S 
Amount consumed,. . . «| 779.88 187.61 | 414.32 | 19.95 
246.97 grams manure excreted, By ee2oaG 48.65 106.40 9.05 
Grams digested, . . . ..| 554.07 138.96 | 307.92 | 10.90 
Minus hay and gluten feed digested, | 515.72 145.12 262.05 10.87 
Molasses digested (grams), : . 38.35 —6.16 45.87 .03 
Per cent. digested, . ; > : 62.27 — 70.31 e 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 123 


Series XII., Period V., Sheep V. 


Porto Rico Molasses. 


Dry 


Dairy ReEcorpD: Matter. 


Amount consumed as above, . . | 779.83 
249.67 grams manure excreted, Eile eeenee 
Grams digested, e ‘ 3 ai) OoL 68 
Minus hay and gluten feed digested, | 515.72 
Molasses digested (grams), . : 35.86 
Per cent. digested, . - - - 48.88 
Average per cent. for two sheep, : 50.58 


Series XII., Period VII., Sheep IV. (Paige). 


Porto Rico Molasses. 


600 grams English hay, . : . | 528.42 35.67 64.63 176.76 236.05 T5po2 
200 grams gluten feed, . . | 180.28 2.76 47.27 11.36 114.21 4.69 
200 grams Porto Rico molasses, . 147.22 10.72 5.59 ~ 130.91 - 

Amount consumed, . ‘ 5 - | 8d5.92 : 49.15 | 117.49 188.12 481.17 20.01 
242.64 grams manure excreted, - | 220.00 Zool 37.03 48 .80 106.02 8.16 


Grams digested, 3 2 - | 630.39 23. 64 80.46 139.32 375.15 11.85 
Minus hay and gluten feed digested, | 517.35 15.43 82.53 145.51 262.94 10.91 


Molasses digested (grams), 5 . 113.04 8 21 | —2.07 —6.19 112.21 94 
Per cent. digested, . : ‘i 3 76.78 76.59 = ~ 85.72 - 


Series XII., Period VII., Sheep V. 


Porto Rico Molasses. 


Amount consumed as above, . - || 855.92 49.15 | 117.49 188.12 481.17 20.01 
248.17 grams manure excreted, - 230.05 25.03 36.07 53.16 107.99 7.80 
Grams digested, - : : : 625.87 24.12 81.42 134.96 373.18 12.21 
Minus hay and gluten feed digested, | 517.35 15.43 82.53 145.51 262 .94 10.91 
Molasses digested (grams), 3 . | 108.52 8.69 ee —10.55 110.24 1.30 
Per cent. digested, . 7 f ; 73.71 81.06 - - 84.21 - 


Average per cent. for two sheep, . 75.25 78.83 | - - 84.97 - 


124 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


Series XII., Period X., Sheep IV. (Paige). 


Porto Rico Molasses. 


Datty Recorp. Men ,,| Ash. | Protein.| Fiber. sails Fat. 
Matter. 

600 grams English hay, . : . | 535.50 36.15 65.49 179.12 239.21 15.53 
200 grams gluten feed, A . | 181.74 2.78 47.65 11.45 115.13 4.73 
300 grams Porto Rico molasses, : 220.83 16.08 8.39 = 196.35 - 
Amount consumed,. . .  .| 938.07 | 55.01 | 121.53 | 190.57 | 550.70 | 20.26 
237.57 grams manure excreted, ‘ 222.15 27.44 39.32 44.05 102.88 8.46 
Grams digested, . . . .| 715.92 | 27.57 | 82.21 | 146.52 | 447.82 | 11.80. 
Minus hay and gluten feed digested, 523.59 15.63 83.44 147.41 266.00 11.04 
Molasses digested (grams), ; 2 LOZe33 11.94 = aw —.89 181.82 oe eee 
Per cent. digested, . : ‘ ; 87.09 74.25 - - 92.60 ~ 


Series XII., Period XI., Sheep II. (Young). 


Porto Rico Molasses. 


600 grams English hay, . F . | 543.42 36.68 66.46 181.77 242.75 15.76 
200 grams gluten feed, . : . | 179.96 2.75 47.19 11.34 114.00 4.68 
250 grams Porto Rico molasses, : 185.45 13.50 7.05 - 164.90 - 
Amount consumed, . : : . | 908.83 52.93 120.70 193.11 521.65 20.44 
299.04 grams manure excreted, : 280.71 32.11 48.79 61.87 128.06 9.88 
Grams digested, . . . .| 628.12 | 20.82 | 71.91 | 131.24 | 303.59 | 10.56. 
Minus hay and gluten feed digested, 498.12 15.47 74.29: 139.31 256.86 11.84 
Molasses digested (grams), : : ~ 430.00 sae | —3.38 j —8.07 136.73 —.28 
Per cent. digested, . : ; 5 70.10 39.63 - - 82.92 - 


Series XIII., Period V., Sheep I. 
English Hay. 


700 grams English hay, . : . | 630.49 40.73 Hilt 184.36 312.03 16.20 
Minus 219.10 grams manure excreted, | 205.19 19.12 29 .22 49.96 98.51 8.37 
Grams digested, ; : : . | 425.30 21.61 47.95 134.40 213.52 7.83 


Per cent. digested, . ; 2 ; 67.46 53.06 62.14 72.90 68 .43 48 .33 


1910. ] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 125 


Series XIII., Period V., Sheep II. 


English Hay. 
Nitro- 
DaiLty ReEcorRD. Wee Ash. | Protein.| Fiber. poe Fat. 
Matter. 
700 grams English hay, . : , 630.49 40.73 Citheal th 184.36 16.20 
Minus 230.19 grams manure excreted, 215.57 19.47 29.30 Sieas 8.52 
Grams digested, ; F : : 414.92 21.26 47.87 127.13 7.68 
Per cent. digested, . ‘ ! ; 65.81 52.20 62.03 68.96 67.61 47.41 
Average per cent. fortwosheep, . 66.64 52.63 62.09 70.93 68 .02 47.87 
Series XIII., Period IV., Sheep III. 
English Hay, Corn Meal. 
500 grams English hay, . é : 448 .25 28.96 54.87 131.07 221.84 11.52 
150 grams corn meal, : ; P 133.98 2.12 14.00 2.81 108.82 6.23 
Amount consumed, . : ‘ . 582.23 31.08 68.87 133.88 330. 66 17.75 
189.06 grams manure excreted, : 177.98 15.50 26.86 45.28 83.45 6.89 
Grams digested, 5 - z ; 404.25 15.58 42.01 88.60 247.21 10.86 
Per cent. digested, . : ; } 69.43 50.13 61.00 66.18 74.76 61.12 
Series XIII., Period VII., Sheep II. 
English Hay, Corn Meal. 
| 
509 grams English hay, . ‘ : 445.60 28.65 32.04 151.86 222.00 11.05 
150 grams corn meal, ‘ ; ; 135.54 2.14 14.16 2.85 110.09 6.30 
Amount consumed, . . R : 581.14 30.79 46.20 154.71 332.09 17.35 
176.37 grams manure excreted, ‘ 166.33 17.81 24.28 44.01 73.82 6.40 
Grams digested, : 2 : : 414.81 12.98 21.92 110.70 258 . 27 10.95 
Per cent. digested, . : : F 71.38 42.16 47.45 7A) BS Te stl 63.11 


Series XIII., Period I., Sheep I. 


Porto Rico Molasses. 


600 grams English hay, . °-. : 531.72 34.34 65.08 155.47 263.15 13.67 
100 grams Porto Rico molasses, : 72.93 5.87 3.34 - 63.72 - 

Amount consumed, . : ; . | 604.65 40.21 68 .42 155.47 326.87 13 .67 
Minus 190.20 grams manure excreted, UL ta 19.32 26.26 42.47 82.88 6.62 
Grams digested, C : c : 427.10 20.89 42.16 113.00 243.99 7.05 
Minus hay digested, : ‘ . | 354.34 18.07 40.41 110.27 178.99 6.54 
Molasses digested (grams), ‘ ; 72.76 2.82 175s 2.73 65.00 ate 


Per cent. digested, : ; P 99.77 48.04 52.40 ~ 102.01 - 


126 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


Series XIII., Period I.; Sheep II. 
Porto Rico Molasses. 


Nitro- 
Damy Recorp. . | Protein.| Fiber. | #¢n-free 


Extract 
Matter. 


Amount consumed as above, . . | 604.65 40.21 68 . 42 155.47 326.87 13.67 
Minus 192.90 grams manure excreted, 180.05 19.36 27.22 42.85 83.74 6.88 
Grams digested, . . . «| 424.60 | 20.85 | 41.20 | 112.62 | 243.13 | 6.79 
Minus hay digested, : : . | 354.34 18.07 40.41 110.27 178.99 6.54 
Molasses digested (grams), 5 i 70.26 2.78 * 19 2.35 rs 125 
Per cent. digested, . _ a : 96.34 47.36 23.65 ~ 100.66 - 


Average per cent. fortwosheep, . 98.06 47.70 38.03 - 101.34 


Series XIII., Period III., Sheep I. 
Porto Rico Molasses. 


600 grams English hay, . : . | 535.80 34.61 65.58 156.67 265.17 13.78 
200 grams Porto Rico molasses, : 145 .86 11.83 6.86 = 127.18 - 

Amount consumed,. . . .| 681.66 | 46.44 | 72.44 | 156.67 | 392.35 | 13.78 
Minus 207 .86grams manureexcreted, | 194.85 21.20 30.24 44.91 91.46 7.03 
Grams digested, . . .  .| 486.81 | 25.24 | 42.20 | 111.76 | 300.89 | 6.75 
Minus hay digested, 5 : . | 357.06 18.22 40.72 111.13 180.37 6.60 
Molasses digested (grams), . . | 420.780 | “7.02 1 "cae, gam eS 
Per cent. digested, . . ‘ : 88 .96 59.34 Pall ayy - 94.76 - 


Series XIII., Period III., Sheep II. 


Porto Rico Molasses. 


Amount consumed as above, . A 681.66 46.44 72.44 13.78 
Minus 230.24grams manure excreted, 215.67 22.02 31.73 1.08 
Grams digested, F 4 5 . | 465.99 24.42 40.71 6.25 
Minus hay digested, ; . . | 357.06 18.22 40.72 6.60 
“Molasses digested (grams), . ..| 108.93 | 6.20 | OL 35 
Per cent. digested, . ; ‘ : 74.67 52.41 - - 

Average per cent. for two sheep, 3 81.82 55.88 21.571 - 


1 One sheep. 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 127 


Series XIII., Period VI., Sheep ITI. 


Porto Rico Molasses. 


Nitro- 


Darty Recorp. era Protein.| Fiber. eae Fat. 
Matter. 
500 grams English hay, . : : 450.50 29.10 55.14 131.73 222.95 11.58 
150 grams corn meal, : ‘ : 135.96 papas 14.21 2.86 110.43 6.32 
100 grams Porto Rico molasses, : 72.70 5.98 3.43 - 63.29 - 
Amount consumed, . - P . | 659.16 37.23 72.78 134.59 396 .67 17.90 
203.60 grams manure excreted, : 190.04 16.86 29 .82 46 60 89.66 7.11 
Grams Recsiod, : ‘ , . | 469.12 20.37 42.96 87.99 307.01 10.79 
Minus hay and corn meal digested, . 407.18 15.67 42.30 89.07 249 .23 10.94 
Molasses digested (grams), ~ ; 61.94 4.70 .66 - 57.78 - 
Per cent. digested, . , : . 85.20 78.60 19.24 - 91.29 - 
Series XIII., Period VIII., Sheep II. 
Porto Rico Molasses. 

500 grams English hay, . : .| 445.25 28 .63 32.01 151.74 221 .82 11.04 
150 grams corn meal, : = st 35.06 2.14 14.15 2.84 109.94 6.29 
200 grams Porto Rico molasses, .| 145.56 11.89 6.85 - 126.81 - 
Amount consumed, . ‘ ; , 726.17 | 42.66 53.01 154.58 458 .57 3 17/33) 
Minus 215.89grams manureexcreted, | 202.18 19.83 26.97 56.17 92.90 6.31 
Grams digested, ‘ 5 % . | 523.99 22.83 26.04 98. 41 ‘ ~ 365 ; 67 11.02 
Minus hay and corn meal digested, .| 414.44 12.97 21.90 110.60 258.01 10.94 
Molasses digested (grams), 3 : 409.55 | a 9.86 4.14 Lae: 107.66 | et 
Per cent. digested, . ‘ é é 75.26 Doi 60.44 ~ 84.90 - 


Series XIV., Period XI., Sheep I. 
English Hay. 


700 grams English hay, . ‘ .| 630.35 44.82 48 .85 205.74 315.24 15.70 
245.46 grams manure excreted, . | 229.28 25 .59 24.42 63.69 107.56 8.02 
Grams digested, ; : : -| 401.07 19. 23 24.43 142.05 207.68 7.68 


Per cent. digested, . - : ; 63.63 42.91 50.01 69.04 65.88 48 .92 


128 


HXPERIMENT STATION. 


Series XIV., Period XI., Sheep II. 


English Hay. 


[Jan. 


Daity Recorp. 


700 grams English hay, 

266.16 grams manure excreted, 
Grams digested, 

Per cent. digested, 


Average per cent. for both sheep, 


Dry 
Matter. 


630.35 
248.83 


381.52 


60.53 
62.08 


48 .85 
25.31 
23.54 
48.19 
49.10 


Protein. 


Fiber. 


Series XIV., Period III., Sheep I. 
Gluten Feed and Hay. 


500 grams English hay, 
150 grams gluten feed, 
Amount consumed, . 
Minus172.09 grams manure excreted, 
Grams hay and gluten feed digested, 


Per cent. hay and gluten feed di- 
gested. 


442.10 
136.13 


.| 578.23 


160.27 


417.96 
72.28 


30.15 
5.61 


35.76 
18.45 


17.31 
48.41 


33.91 
37.05 


70.96 
21.65 
49.31 
69.49 


134.21 
10.63 
144.84 
37.90 


106.94 


73.83 


Series XIV., Period III., Sheep II. 


Amount consumed as above, 

Minus 198.37 grams manure excreted, 
Grams hay and gluten feed digested, 
Per cent. hay and gluten feed di- 


gested. 
Average per cent. for both sheep, 


578.23 
184.70 

~ 393.53 
63.06 


70.17 


35.76 
21.17 


14.59 
40.80 
44.61 


Gluten Feed and Hay. 


70.96 
23.81 
47.15 
66.45 
67.97 


144.84 

46.30 
98.54 

61.13 


67.48 


Series XIV., Period V., Sheep III. 
Gluten Feed and Hay. 


500 grams English hay, 
150 grams gluten feed, 
Amount consumed, . 
Minus 196.35 grams manure excreted, 
Grams hay and gluten feed digested, 


Per cent. hay and gluten feed di- 
gested. 


447.25 30.50 
136.73 5.63 

: 583.98 36.13 
184.88 20.13 
399.10 16.00 

68 .34 44.20 


34.30 
37.22 

71.52 
24.25 


47.27 
66.09 


135.74 
10.68 


146.42 


46.74 


99.68 
68 .08 


Nitro- 
gen-free 
Extract 
Matter. 


315.24 
116.08 
199.16 
63.18 
64.53 


233 .35 
76.97 
310.32 
76.80 


233.52 
75.25 


310.32 
87.08 

293.24 
71.94 


73.60 


236.11 
77.31 
313.42 
87.25 


226.17 
72.16 


Fat. 


15.70 
7.91 
7.79 
49.62 
49.27 


10.48 
5.87 
16.35 
5.47 
10.88 
66.54 


16.35 

6.34 
10.01 
61.22 
63.88 


10.60 
5.89 

16.49 
6.51 


9.98 
60.52 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 129 


Series XIV., Period V., Sheep IV. 
Gluten Feed and Hay. 


Nitro- 
Darmy Recorp. hee Ash. | Protein.| Fiber. eee Fat. 
Matter. 
Amount consumed as above, . . | 583.98 36.13 (gay 146.42 313.42 16.49 


Minus 179.00 grams manure excreted, | 163.36 19.36 21.74 39.76 76.27 6.23 


Grams hay and gluten feed digested, | 420.62 16.77 49.78 106.66 237.15 10.26 


Per cent. hay and gluten feed di- 72.03 46.42 69.60 72.85 75.67 62.22 
gested. 


Average per cent. for both sheep, . 70.19 45.31 67.85 70.47 73.92 61.37 
Series XIV., Period IV., Sheep III. 
Porto Rico. Molasses. 
500 grams English hay, . : .| 446.35 30.44 34.24 135.47 235 . 62 10.58 
150 grams gluten feed, . 5 .| 136.50 5.62 37.16 10.66 77.18 5.88 
200 grams molasses, . : ‘ . | 149.02 12.41 8.60 - 128.01 - 
-Amount consumed, . : : Al) VBUAe 48.47 ~ 80.00 146.13 440.81 16.46 
238.06 grams manure excreted, 2) 219792 26.74 30. 80 8} Pee 102.56 6.60 
Grams digested, F ‘ ‘ : % 511.95 21.73 49.20 92.91 338.25 9.86 
Minus hay and gluten feed digested, | 396.34 15.87 47.12 99.37 225) 22 10.04 
Molasses digested (grams), : SL hier 5.86 2.08 —6.46 113.03 Ris 
Per cent. digested, . ; ‘ : (Ms :) 47 22 24.19 ~ 88.30 ~ 
Series XIV., Period IV., Sheep IV. 
Porto Rico Molasses. 

Amount consumed as above, . a || CELE 48 .47 80.00 146.13 440.81 16.46 
218.07 grams manure excreted, . | 201.67 25 .89 29.93 45.46 94.00 6.39 
Grams digested, : ; : . | 580.20 22.58 : 50.07. 100.67 346.81 10.07 
Minus hay and gluten feed digested, | 419.65 16.59 49.98 106.67 237.73 10.21 
Molasses digested (grams), ‘ .| 110.55 5.99 ; .09 " Zeiooe ~ 109.08 —.14 
Per cent. digested, . ‘ : c 74.18 48.27 1.05 - 85.21 - 


Average per cent. for both sheep, . 75.88 47.75 12.62 ~ 86.76 - 


130 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


Series XIV., Period VI., Sheep III. 


Porto Rico Molasses. 


Nitro- 
DaiLy Recorp. xe | Ash. | Protein.| Fiber. eth Fat. 
Matter. 
500 grams English hay, y f 447.25 30.50 34.30 135.74 236.11 10.60 
150 grams gluten feed, . ; A 137.28 5.65 BY MBY | 10.72 77.62 5.92 
50 grams molasses, . . ; . 37.42 3.06 B20 ~ 32.13 ~ 
Amount consumed, . : : - 621.95 39.21 73.90 146.46 345.86 ~ 16.52, 
223.6 grams manure excreted, . > | 210.18 24.34 28 .63 51.70 98.74 6.77 
Grams digested, . . . .| 411.77 | 14.87 | 45.27 | 94.76 | 247.12 | 9.75. 
Minus hay and gluten feed digested, | 397.48 15.91 47.30 99.59 225.89 10.08 
Molasses digested (grams), ¢ : 14190 faeed 2.03 eae: 94.93 er 
Per cent. digested, . . ; : 38.19 - - - 66.08 - 
Series XIV., Period VI., Sheep IV. 
Porto Rico Molasses. 
Amount consumed as above, . : 621.95 39.21 73.90 146.46 345.86 16.52 
210.03 grams manure excreted, : 197.45 22.96 26.08 46.80 95.07 6.54 
Grams digested, : ‘ ‘ : 424.50 Piss "47.82 99.66 ~ 250. 79 9.98 
Minus hay and gluten feed digested, | 420.86 16.63 50.17 106.92 238.43 10.24 
Molasses digested (grams), : : Tee haeo a ae e 36 ae 
Per cent. digested, . . : : 9.73 ~ - - 38.47 - 
Average per cent. for both sheep, . 23.96 - - - 52.28 - 
Series XIV., Period VII., Sheep III. 
Porto Rico Molasses. 

500 grams English hay, . : . | 448.60 30.59 34.41 136.15 236.82 10.63 
150 grams gluten feed, . ¢ . | 139.86 5.r6 | 338.07 10.92 79.08 6.03 
100 grams molasses, ; : 75.26 6.17 4.51 - 64.58 - 
Amount consumed, . : : i ~ 663.72 42.52 76. 99 447.07, 380.48 16.66. 
227.90 grams manure excreted, | 213763 25.32 30.72 53.79 97.48 6.32 
Grams digested, ; ‘ : : 450.09 17.20 46.27 93.28 283 .00 10.34 
Minus hay and gluten feed digested, | 400.15 15.99 47.84 100.01 227 .45 10.16 
Molasses digested (grams), : ; 49.94 1.21 erase f —6.73 — §B.8B es 


Per cent. digested, . . , : 66.37 19.61 - - 86.02 - 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 


Series XIV., Period VII., Sheep IV. 


Porto Rico Molasses. 


131 


Daity REcorD. Pc Ash. | Protein.| Fiber. 
Amount consumed as above, . = | ~OGa.02 42.52 76.99 147.07 
221.48 grams manure excreted, aie 200.80 23. 64 27.57 51.68 
Grams digested, f : é .| 465.99 18.88 49.42 95.39 


Minus hay and gluten feed digested, | 423.69 16.72 50.74 107.36 


Molasses digested (grams), : : 32.30 2.12 | —1.32 | —-11.97 
Per cent. digested, . ; : , 42 .92 34.36 - ~ 
Average per cent. for both sheep, . 54.65 26.99 - - 


Series XIV., Period IX., Sheep IV. 


Porto Rico Molasses. 


Nitro- 
gen-free 
Extract 
Matter. 


Fat. 


380.48 16.66 
98.11 6.73 


282.37 9.93 
240.08 10.33 


42.29 —.40 
65.48 = 
75.75 = 


79.66 | 5.28 
Geis) f= 

414.02 | 15.97 
98.53 | 6.42 


500 grams English hay, . : .| 451.25 30.77 34.61 136.95 
_ 150 grams gluten feed, . : .| 136.90 5.98 36.14 9.84 
150 grams molasses, . : SP a2520 9.39 6.68 ~ 
Amount consumed, . ees . | 700.35 Cag ter 77.43 146.79 
228.51 grams manure excreted, a lie 213. 34 26.39 | 3o2.08 49.47 
Gramsdigested, . . . .| 487.01 | 19.75 | 44.90 | 97.32 
Minus hay and gluten feed digested, 423 .47 16.91 | 49.53 107.16 


Molasses digested (grams), : : 63.54 2.84 | —4.63 —9.84 
Per cent. digested, . ; : : 56.63 30.24 - - 


241.60 9.90 


73.89 —.35 
76.86 = 


132 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


STABILITY OF BUTTER-FAT SAMPLES.’ 


BY E. B. HOLLAND, M.SC. 


In the examination of butter fat, the question of stability is 
one of prime importance. Should appreciable changes take 
place in the samples, results would be vitiated and deductions 
as to the effect of feed would be of questionable value. That 
oils and fats are readily acted upon by a number of agents has 
been long recognized, but whether butter-fat samples as ordi- 
narily treated would be sufficiently changed as to affect analytical 
results 1s uncertain, though quite probable from the nature of the 
substance. ‘To secure definite information on the subject it was 
necessary to carry out several experiments, of which a descrip- 
tion with data follows. 

The object of the first experiment was to determine the action 
of air, light and moisture, respectively, at the same temperature, 
upon butter fat. Heat as an independent factor could not be 
studied at that time as it would have increased the work to a 
point beyond which it could have been handled, but the action 
of heat was noted more particularly in another experiment. 
About ten pounds of butter fat were prepared by melting 
fresh butter and filtering the supernatant fat through paper 
in a jacketed funnel. Two-ounce bottles, 73 in number, were 
filled with the melted fat and placed in the north window of 
the station creamery building in March, 1908. These bottles 
were divided into seven sets, four of which were closed with a 
glass stopper and sealed with ceresin to practically eliminate the 
oxidizing action of the air, and the remainder simply protected 
by a single thickness of unbleached cotton cloth tied over the 
top, which readily permitted circulation of the air. One set of 


1 This work was undertaken jointly with Dr. R. D. MacLaurin, but owing to the resignation 
of Dr. MacLaurin it has been completed and prepared for publication by Mr. Holland. 


1910.] ~ PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 135 


the sealed bottles was guarded from light ' and from moisture, 
and served as a check. Two sets of both closed and open bottles 
had 1 eubie centimeter of water added, one set of each being 
exposed to north and east light (not sun) and one set protected 
from light. Another set of both closed and open bottles was 
exposed to the light. From these various combinations it was 
thought deductions might be drawn as to the relative action of 
air, light and moisture upon butter fat. 

The fat was of fair average composition, as shown by the 
analytical results : — 


Saponification number, . : : : ‘ . 232.47 
Acid number, . : ; ; ; ‘ ; : 1.48 
Reichert-Meissl number, . : : ; . 29.84 
Mean molecular weight of volatile Node A ; a 96-90 
Insoluble acids (per cent.), ‘ : : ; a, Loo: 
Mean molecular weight of insoluble acids, . ‘ . 2093.08 
Iodine number, . : : ; : é . 28.40 
Melting point (Wiley Pao. : : : Bre ype Syke OF 
Refractive index, 40° C., . : : : : ‘ 1.4525 
Valenta test, . : ; : : : ; 5 ABOU oC: 


One or two samples were drawn from every series in June 
and December, 1908, and March and October, 1909, melted, 
filtered and analyzed. The testing in June, 1908, was more or 
less unsatisfactory, especially the iodine number, because of the 
high temperature prevailing, and what deductions may be offered 
will be based largely upon the remaining data, which represents 
periods of six, twelve and eighteen months. 


PuHyYsIcaAL CHANGES. 


The original fat, when melted, gave a transparent oil of a 
pronounced yellow color and a slight but characteristic odor. 
On standing, the color gradually faded. This, however, was far 
from uniform, even with members of the same series. The 
checks were very irregular, varying at the end of the test from 
yellow to almost white; with moisture the color was less intense, 
with hght similar, and with moisture and light rather better 


1 Tn providing for the circulation of air, a little diffused light reached the samples. 


134 EXPERIMENT STATION. [ Jan. 


than the checks. Light, in the absence of air, did not accelerate 
loss of color. 

Air induced the most uniform destruction of color. As the 
air always carried more or less moisture, it was impossible to 
differentiate as to the effect of light and added moisture. The 
most notable change was obtained from the combined action of 
all three factors. 

The sealed samples were porous, and developed a slight odor, 
unlike that of the original fat. The open samples were more 
like tallow, both in appearance and odor. Old samples contain- 
ing added water were turbid on melting, and required consider- 
able time to settle clear. 


CHEMICAL CHANGES. 


As decomposition of fats and oil seems to progress along two 
fairly well-defined lines, that of hydrolysis and that of oxidation, 
only such determinations were planned as would readily serve 
to measure these changes; acid and saponification numbers for 
the former, and iodine number for the latter. Too much must 
not be expected of these determinations for so complex a re- 
action, but they are at least indicative. If the decomposition 
became extensive, other tests would be warranted. 

As shown by Table 1, added moisture, in the absence of air, 
had no appreciable hydrolytic action in excess of the check. 
Light alone, and with moisture present, preserved the original 
fat practically unchanged for eighteen months while the check 
manifested a noticeable breaking down. Moist air increased 
hydrolysis, both light and added water intensified the reaction. 
Lewkowitsch states that dry air without light has no action on 
oils and fats, and his explanation will be presented later. 

Aldehydes were produced in both open and closed samples, 
as shown by the brown color of the saponification test (October, 
1909), except in the sealed samples exposed to light. 


135 


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1910.] 


‘waqunny uouvofuodyyg — "TT aIaV, 


EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


136 


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"‘LIQUNAT aUIPOT —'Z AIAV, 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 137 


In the absence of air, added moisture appeared to have no 
effect as compared with the check on the unsaturated compounds, 
while light both with and without moisture prevented oxidation 
to some extent as measured by the iodine number (Table 2). 
The experiments of Ritsert + proved that light, in the absolute 
exclusion of air, could not produce rancidity, but the preserving 
action here noted is a peculiar feature worthy of further study. 

Moist air increased the oxidation of the fat, with light and 
added moisture contributing factors. Light in the presence of 
moist air was destructive, a marked contrast to its action when 
air was excluded. 

The hypothesis of Lewkowitsch,? supported by the investiga- 
tions of Geitel? and Duclaux,* offers an explanation of the 
probable changes that take place in the development of rancidity 
in oils and fats. The initial change he ascribes to the action 
of moisture in the presence of fat-splitting enzymes. The free 
fatty acids resulting from the hydrolysis are oxidized by the air 
in the presence of light. Ritsert* asserts that oxygen and light 
- must act simultaneously, neither of the agents alone being able 
to produce rancidity. 

On the basis of the above assumption the hydrolysis of the 
check samples must have been due to traces of moisture in the 
fat and in the air between fat and stopper, and the oxidation to 
the air and a very limited amount of diffused light. This may 
be possible, as the changes were not, in themselves, excessive, 
though rather out of proportion to the conditions prevailing. It 
fails, however, to explain why similar samples in the light gave 
less rather than equal or greater changes under conditions which 
naturally should have been more favorable. The changes in the 
open samples were not wholly in accord with the theory. Light 
was a factor in oxidation, as was to be expected, but also in 
hydrolysis, which is difficult to explain. With many points in- 
decisive and others unconsidered, the prime object of the experi- 
ment has been attained in showing that filtered butter-fat 
samples of normal acidity can be satisfactorily preserved in well- 
stoppered bottles. The action of high temperatures and sunlight 

1 Untersuchungen tiber d. Ranzigwerden der Fette. Inaug. Dissert. Berlin, 1890. 
2 Chemical Technology and Analysis of Oils, Fats and Waxes, 3d Edition, Vol. I., pp. 23, 24. 


3 Journ. f. prakt. Chemie, 1897 (55), 448. 
4 Annales de l'Institut Pasteur, 1887; Compt. rend. 102, 1077. 


138 EXPERIMENT STATION. (Jan. 


should, of course, be avoided. As to the specific action of air, 
hght and moisture, the experiment should be considered only 
preliminary, pointing the way for further work under “ control ” 
conditions. 

Action or Hrat. 


The object of the second experiment was to ascertain what 
changes might take place upon heating butter fat several days 
at 50° C. Fresh samples were prepared. After heating a 
sample twenty-four hours in a water bath, varying amounts were 
weighed for saponification, acid and iodine numbers; similar 
portions were withdrawn at the-end of forty-eight hours, and 
again after seventy-two hours’ heating. 

The analysis of the check sample and of the heated fat are 


presented in the following table: — 


Saponifica- Acid Ether Todine. 
tion Number. Number. Number. 
Number. 


Check, : : ‘ ‘ : : 233 .07 .84 232.23 28.18 
Heated twenty-four hours, , j 233.99 74 233.25 28.10 
Heated forty-eight hours, . : 233.30 81 232.49 28.17 
Heated seventy-two hours, 5 : 233.62 .83 232.79 28.16 


The results indicate a slight difference between the two 
samples in spite of careful mixing, as shown by the saponifica- 
tion and acid numbers. Heating gave a very slight increase in 
acid number, otherwise no change is noticeable. It seems evi- 
dent, therefore, that any reasonable heating of butter fat at a 
temperature not exceeding 50° C. would have little appreciable 
effect upon analytical results. 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 139 


ADDITIONAL NOTES FOR METHODS IN 
FAT ANALYSIS.’ | 


BY E. B. HOLLAND, M.SC. 


In the titration of saponification and acid numbers of the 
fat, and neutralization number of the insoluble acids, 1 cubic 
centimeter of indicator should be used. This has been our prac- 
tice for some years, though not so stated in the methods, and 
gives a more definite end point, especially in the case of acid 
number. The writer has also noted the rather ambiguous state- 
ments relative to desired temperature for the above titrations. 
A temperature of 40° to 45° C. has proved very satisfactory. 
It is sufficiently high to maintain the soaps and fatty acids in 
solution and yet not destroy the sensitiveness of the indicator. 
Slight saponification may take place in the determination of 
acid number, but the error is less than the opposite fault of too 
ereat chilling. 

Sulfuric acid is preferable to hydrochloric for the decompo- 
sition of the soap in the determination of insoluble acids; 150 
cubic centimeters of water together with 5 cubic centimeters of 
sulfuric acid (1—4) clears the solution rapidly with little appar- 
ent action on the fatty acids. 

The variable results in iodine number at a high temperature 
are evidently due to volatilization of iodine and not -to a second- 
ary reaction. Moistening of the cork stopper with potassium 
iodide solution will reduce the loss, but not prevent it, if the 
temperature exceeds 10° to 15° C. 


1 Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station, twenty-first report (1909), pp. 120-138. 


140 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


VOLUMETRIC DETERMINATION OF COPPER. 


BY E. B. HOLLAND, M.SC. 


The co-operation of the laboratory in the experiments con- 
ducted by other departments of the station has often rendered 
necessary quantitative determinations of reducing sugar, sucrose, 
lactose and starch in a variety of products. The final step in 
every case is the determination of the cuprous oxide precipi- 
tated from Allihn’s solution by the reducing action of the sugar. 
After a considerable study of different methods of filtration, 
and various ways of determining the amount of precipitate as 
copper, cuprous and cupric oxides, the following method was 
adopted, having proved highly satisfactory if reasonable atten- 
tion is paid to details. It might be said, further, that as such 
work often has to be done at odd times, it is desirable to main- 
tain a supply of sugar tubes,” and only to titrate when there are 
a number of tests on hand. By exercising a little care the same 
tubes can be used repeatedly without change of felt. 

The process consists of heating an aliquot part of the sugar 
solution with the mixed Allihn’s solution (30 cubic centimeters 
of ‘‘ white,” 30 cubic centimeters of ‘ blue” and 60 cubic centi- 
meters of water) and filtering by aid of suction through a sugar 
tube with an asbestos felt supported by glass wool. The cuprous 
precipitate is transferred to the tube, washed with hot water 
until free from alkali and then with alcohol. The copper is 
dissolved in 5 cubic centimeters of concentrated nitric acid, 
thoroughly washed with hot water, and the filtrate run into an 
Erlenmeyer flask by means of suction. The solution is evapo- 
rated to small volume to expel excess of acid, and afterwards 
diluted with 60 cubie centimeters of water. Too great concen- 
tration should be avoided, as it often results in the precipi- 


1 An adaptation of the Low zinc-acetate method. 
2 Himer and Amend, No. 8268. 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 141 


tation of a very insoluble form of copper and the loss of the 
determination. Twenty-five cubic centimeters of a saturated 
solution of zine acetate and 20 cubic centimeters of potassium 
iodide (165 grams to 1,000 cubic centimeters) are added, and 
the free iodine titrated with N/10 sodium thiosulfate solution 
(24.83 grams per liter). The thiosulfate is run in gradually, 
with constant shaking, until the brownish yellow color (iodine) 
has been largely destroyed; then 2 cubic centimeters of starch 
paste (1 gram to 200 cubic centimeters) are added and the 
titration continued until the blue particles have entirely disap- 
peared. Towards the end of the reaction the flask should be 
stoppered and shaken thoroughly. 

The copper equivalent of the thiosulfate is determined by 
diluting 25 cubic centimeters of a standard copper solution with 
water, evaporating and titrating exactly as in the test. The 
standard solution is prepared by dissolving 10 grams of pure 
dry metallic copper in 200 cubic centimeters of concentrated 
nitric acid, and making up to a liter with water at 20° C. The 
solution should be analyzed gravimetrically, and will keep almost 
indefinitely. From this data the reducing action of the sugar 
solution can be readily calculated in terms of copper, and by 
conversion tables the corresponding amount of sugar. The 
method has been more recently applied to the determination of 
copper in Paris green and arsenite of copper, and found equally 
satisfactory. The copper is precipitated from a hydrochloric 
acid solution in the presence of sodium acetate with a slight 
excess of sodium hydrate. The resulting cuprous oxide is trans- 
ferred to a sugar tube and determined as above. While the 
first reading of this method might give the impression that it 
was rather difficult, in reality it is extremely simple, can be 
carried out rapidly and the titration is very sensitive. 


142 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


READING THE BABCOCK TEST, 


BY (Eee SS Neler. 


INTRODUCTION. 


During the summer of 1909 an investigation was undertaken 
to determine the best method of reading the column of fat in 
the manipulation of the Babcock test. 

Babcock * in his first description of the test advocates reading 
“the divisions which mark the highest and lowest limits of the 
fat,” which would, of course, include the upper and lower 
meniscus. Subsequent experiments proved that such a practice 
gave too high results, especially for cream tests in cases where 30 
and 50 per cent. 6-inch Connecticut cream bottles were used, 
and the method of reading to the bottom of the upper meniscus 
became quite prevalent in certain sections of the country. This 
station has held, however, that until recognized authorities ad- 
vocated this method, it was better to hold to the original method, 
in order that results of different chemists and creamery men 
might be comparative. It was not, therefore, until 1908, when 
a widely used text-book? recommended omitting the upper 
meniscus from the reading, that it was considered by the Mas- 
sachusetts experiment station. 

An objection to reading tests to the bottom of the upper menis- 
cus is founded upon the fact that the depth of the meniscus is in- 
fluenced by several factors, including diameter of the neck of the 
bottle, color and clearness of the fat column and different light 
effects. Different persons conscientiously attempting to read 
the same test correctly may vary considerably in their results. 
In order to eliminate this error Eckles * recommends the use of 


1 Bulletin 24, Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station. 
2 Testing Milk and its Products, Farrington and Woll. 
3 Chicago Dairy Produce, July, 1908. 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 143 


amyl aleohol, — colored a bright red by fuchsin or any common 
red dye, —a small quantity of which is dropped on top of the 
fat column at the completion of the test. Being lighter than 
butter fat it floats upon the fat, doing away with the meniscus 
and giving a sharply defined line between alcohol and fat. Far- 
rington,! at the suggestion of Babcock, recommends ethyl alcohol 
saturated with butter fat, which is used in the same manner as 
the amyl alcohol. ‘‘ The fat-saturated alcohol is prepared by 
adding about a teaspoonful of butter fat to 6 ounces of alcohol 
in a bottle. Warm and shake the bottle until the alcohol has 
dissolved all the fat possible; some of it will be left undissolved 
at the bottom of the bottle.” Butter fat at the temperature 
when usually read has a specific gravity of 0.9. It is necessary 
to have the alcohol reasonably pure, otherwise there is a pos- 
sibility of its being heavier than the butter fat, in which case it 
would pass through the fat column instead of floating on top. 
Kthyl alcohol containing 42 per cent. water has approximately 
the same specific gravity as butter fat. 


OBSERVATIONS AT THIS STATION. 

Sixinch test bottles having as wide a diversity in size of neck 
as could be brought together were used. These bottles were 
earefully cleaned, and before using were washed out with ether 
to remove all traces of fat. Pure butter fat was then weighed 
into the bottles on a delicate balance, and enough hot water 
added to make up to 18 grams. The bottles were then placed in 
a Babcock tester and whirled three times, five, three and two 
minutes, respectively, as for the regular test. Readings includ- 
ing and without the upper: meniscus were taken immediately ; 
alcohol according to the Farrington method was then added and 
readings again taken. The theoretical readings were then 
computed and the results compared. Following is the tabulated 
data: — 


EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


144 


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1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 145 


The results reported were all made with 6-inch bottles, because 
we were attempting to find the most accurate method for read- 
ing tests made under conditions existing at the experiment 
station laboratory. It would have been quite instructive to have 
been able to run more tests, using the 9-inch bottles, which 
require a special machine on account of the longer neck. 


CoNCLUSIONS. 


1. With one exception the readings taken to the top of the 
upper meniscus were too high, the amount of error being in most 
cases proportional to the diameter of the bottle neck. 

2. Where the readings were taken to the bottom of the upper 
meniscus the results were much more uniform. In several 
cases, however, there was considerable variation, due very likely 
to the difficulty of determining accurately the lowest point of 
the upper meniscus. 

3. The alcohol method, where used, showed more concordant 
results, especially for the 10 and 30 per cent. bottles. The 
difference between these results and the theoretical test was no 
greater than might be expected between duplicate tests by the 
gravimetric method. The tests made in the 50 per cent. bottles 
varied materially, which might reasonably be attributed to the 
difficulty of reading these bottles accurately on account of the 
large diameter of the neck. 


It was suggested that the method might give somewhat dif- 
ferent results if a mixture of a definite amount of butter fat and 
skim milk was used in place of butter fat and water, the former 
mixture more closely resembling milk or cream. In order to 
test this point butter fat was weighed into several 10 and 30 
per cent. thoroughly cleaned bottles, together with sufficient 
separator skim milk (which had been previously tested) to make 
the contents of the bottles weigh 18 grams. Sulfuric acid was 
then added and the test completed as usual. The results are as 
follows : — 


EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


146 


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1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 147 


As in the former trials, reading to the top of the meniscus 
gave high results, proportional in most cases to the diameter 
of the graduated neck; reading to the bottom of the meniscus 
gave results more nearly corresponding to theory, while the re- 
sults with the aleohol method were quite uniform and consistent. 
The high results obtained by attempting to read to the bottom of 
the meniscus in the case of the three cream bottles was due to 
the cloudiness of the fat, which made an accurate reading diffi- 
cult, if not impossible. 

Webster and Gray,! as a result of experiment, recommend 
the following procedure, in reading cream tests: “ Read from 
the bottom to the extreme top of fat column, then read the depth 
of the meniscus and deduct four-fifths of it from previous read- 
ing,” 

Hunziker ? advocates reading to the bottom of the upper 
meniscus and adding one-third of meniscus to reading in cream 
tests. 

The introduction of any factor in reading the test tends 
toward making the method more complicated, and one unac- 
quainted with its scientific aspects may discredit it entirely. 
With our present knowledge, and pending further investigation, 
the writer would advocate reading the tests made in 10 per 
cent. milk bottles from the bottom to the extreme top of the 
fat column, including the meniscus, as is now generally prac- 
ticed; while for 30 per cent., 6-inch Connecticut cream bottles 
the reading should be taken from the extreme bottom of the fat 
column to the bottom of the upper meniscus, preferably by the 
use of alcohol, as described either by Eckles or Farrington. 


1 Bulletin 58, Bureau of Animal Industry, United States Department of Agriculture. 
2 Report read before annual meeting of Official Dairy Instructors and Investigators Associa- 
tion, at Milwaukee, 1909. 


148 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


THE USE OF THE ZEISS IMMERSION RE- 
FRACTOMETER IN THE DETECTION OF 
WATERED MILK. 


BY P. H. SMITH AND J. C. REED. 


The campaign before the 1910 session of the Massachusetts 
Legislature, for a change in the milk standard, brought promi- 
nently to the public mind the question as to whether slightly 
watered milk might be detected and differentiated from normal 
low-grade milk by methods available to the analytical chemist. 
In addition to the relative proportion of solids and fat, the index 
of refraction of the milk serum, as determined by the Zeiss 1m- 
mersion refractometer, has been advocated as a valuable aid in 
the detection of added water. The details of this method were 
perfected by Leach and Lythgoe * who claim, after careful inves- 
tigation, that “if a milk serum is found with a refraction lower 
than 389, it is safe to allege that the sample was fraudulently 
watered, especially if, in addition to this, the solids not fat stand 
below 7.3 per cent.” 

In order to obtain further hight on the subject we have made 
a complete analysis of the milk from three herds, together with 
the analysis of several samples systematically skimmed and 
watered. The analytical methods used were those advocated by 
the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, while for deter- 
mining the refractive index the procedure given by Leach 2 was 
adopted. The results follow in tabular form: — 


1 Thirty-fifth annual report, Massachusetts State Board of Health ,1903, p .483; Journal Amer- 
ican Chemical Society, 1904, 26: 1195. 
2 Food Inspection and Analysis, Leach, p. 765, published by John Wiley & Sons, New York. 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 81. 149 


Northampton State Hospital (Holsteins). 


ic a maps g 
o |moe a i es FI 

q as . by ~ N . 4 

6 |ALs S o = |e S eer 5 

Sees ese te i= | |} a [Pal 8 

oO qd 

NUMBER. ‘ 38 w EB 3 8 2 i 3 ee es 

i: & 25 zs ir Paes | 8 Oa 

o4)6a = a ae leases ee oe Vs 

GS | Se 3 3 Pees |) ee a | se | 2 

QA ° wo) SS @ 

Pe alec a el ae le | a a | a 
i 3 26 1.0305 | 11.74 | 3.70 | 8.04 | 2.98 70 | 4.36 | 41.12 
25 5 27 eOS20n alae e24e||oeD0) | 8.74. | a. 15 .67 | 4.92 | 40.00 
oe 8 24 TOZTSy 11-99) 350) | 8249 || 3.16 67 | 4.66 | 43.00 

4, 6 27 TPOSOON M2 ean on 90) "8.43: |) 2297 5 || Gb 7Al - 

Hp 8 26 120350) 137395)". 10) |, 9229) 73" Oi 76 | 4.62 - 
6, 3 23 PWOSTos Ela 20|oe40) | Sioa) o208 66 | 4.58 | 42.32 
dis 4 28 1.0320 | 11.96 | 3.60 | 8.36 | 2.60 (65) |) JDL | 43) eH) 

8, 9 23 12OSTOR) 195) |) 3705) 8.25 |3.08 .69 | 4.50 - 

9, 6 27 1.0330 | 13.07 | 4.50 | 8.57 | 3.39 .68 | 4.50 - 

10, 3 35 1.0300 | 12.61 | 4.60 | 8.01 | 3.10 .75 | 4.16 - 

phe 5 29 1.0330 | 12.89 | 4.00 | 8.89 | 3.25 .67 | 4.97 - 

12, 3 24 1.0325 | 12.69 | 3.70 | 8.99 | 3.23 .66 | 5.10 - 
13, 6 26 1.0300 | 11.64 | 3.60 | 8.04 | 2.98 66 | 4.40 | 41.26 

14, 6 30 OBB) || We ire |] Biot) | oeie Ni eiaala 72 | 4.54 - 

15; 1 34 1.0330 | 12.70 | 4.10 | 8.60 | 3.22 BOM OS - 
16, 1 65 1203008 11263) 3360) 8203 |) 2.78 68 | 4.57 | 41.18 

Ve 9 21 1.0325 | 18.18 | 4.10 | 9.08 | 3.46 .67 | 4.95 - 

18, 6 27 1.0310 | 12.21 | 3.70 | 8.51 | 3.10 71 | 4.70 - 
19, 6 23 1.0305 | 11.80 | 3.60 | 8.20 | 3.30 67 | 4.23 | 41.85 

74V6 5 27 1.0335 | 13.15 | 4.20 | 8.95 | 3.49 50) 4183 - 


150 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


Massachusetts Agricultural College Herd. 


He ~'S o> o 3 3 
z \caal & ee : 
FE Ae 5 © is ARS a = te x 
a |,%s| & | 2" 7, 1 
No. BREED. “4 2G =| 2 & |e Re 3 8 
5. /e8e| 3 | 5s | *slac] 8 [*d] 2 
SalEBs| a | & ga] 2 |us] 8 
palace] & | 2 gO] | BE) 
A <q HH = < 1) oe] 
1 | Jersey, : : P , 3 24 | 14.68 | 5.70 | 8.98 | 3.71 71 | 4.56 | 44.30 
2 | Jersey, 3 : : ai] “UZ 13 | 15.28 | 6.10 | 9.18 | 4.00 77 | 4.41 | 44.56 
3 | Jersey grade, . ; : 8 13 | 14.19 | 5.70 | 8.49 | 3.34] ~.755)-4. 400 eaearo 
4 | Guernsey grade, ; ; 2 267) WOR2T 6 a10N | RO Ta sce 73 | 4.66 | 44.39 
5 | Guernsey grade, 2 : 4 23 | 18.14 | 4.50 | 8.64 | 3.18 15 | 4.71 | 44.10 
6 | Ayrshire, . : : S| al) 5 | 14.75 | 5.45 | 9.35 | 4.42 .85 | 4.08 | 44.45 
7 | Ayrshire, . - é ; 3 41 | 12.04 | 4.20 | 7.84] 2.81 69 | 4.34 | 41.65 
8 | Ayrshire, . : : «4 20 9 | 12.75 | 4.60 | 8.16 | 3.72 69 | 3.74 | 41.70 
9 | Ayrshire, . ; : a a 13 | 13.77 | 4.85 | 8.92 | 3.50 74 | 4.68 | 45.15 
10 | Ayrshire, . ‘ : ; 2 20 | 13.70 | 4.90 | 8.80 | 3.32 | .69 | 4.79 | 45.60 
11 | Ayrshire grade, . : : 1 36 | 14.11 | 5.55 | 8.56 | 3.60] .72 | 4.24 | 43.05 
12 | Ayrshire grade, . ri , 1 38 | 12.56 | 4.10 | 8.46 | 3.03 .69 | 4.74 | 44.27 
13 | Ayrshire grade, . ; : 1 43 | 12.46 | 4.00 | 8.46 | 3.04] .71 | 4.71 | 48.59 
14 | Ayrshire grade, . 2 33 | 13.39 | 5.05 | 8.34] 3.03 | .71 | 4.60 | 44.14 
15 | Ayrshire grade, . : : 5 23 | 12.16 | 4.00 | 8.16 | 2.85 | .69 | 4.62 | 43.26 
16 | Ayrshire grade, . 5 7 24 | 13.75 | 5.10 | 8.65 | 3.63 | .70-| 4.32 | 43.28 
17 | Ayrshire grade, . : ; - 17 | 12.37 | 3.50 | 8.87 | 3.27] .69| 4.91 | 44.11 
18 | Holstein, . : , : 7 22 | 13.02 | 4.35 | 8.67 | 3.34] .70] 4.63 | 43.84 
19 | Holstein, . : ; aS 5 | 13.43 | 4.40 | 9.03 | 3.85 | .82 | 4.36 | 43.88 
20 | Holstein, . 5 : : 1 46 | 11.58 | 3.75 | 7.83 | 2.97 | .74]| 4.12 | 42.08 
21 | Holstein, . : : : 6 29 | 13.98 | 4.80) 9.18 | 3.95 | .73 | 4.50 | 44.65 
22 | Holstein, . : ; ; 9 9 | 14.85 | 5.50 | 9.35 | 4.00] .74 | 4.61 | 45.15 
23 | Holstein grade, : : - 22 | 13.62 | 4.80 | 8.82 | 3.63 (2 | 4.47 | 41205 
24 | Holstein grade, : : 5 43 | 12.19 | 3.80} 8.39 | 3.10) .72 | 4.57 | 43.30 
25 | Shorthorn grade, . ; 3 33 | 12.32 | 3.90 | 8.42 | 3.12 | .67 | 4.63 | 43.60 
26 | Mixed herd, . F : = - | 12.77 | 4.10 | 8.67 | 3.17) .72 | 4.78) 43.22 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 151 


Miscellaneous Analyses. 


A >S > 5 3 8 
Ons >= Ay Ay q 
n = q.2 q ~- Y- o 
4g 3.279 = Yon) 3 
a lees S moi eS . | . 
° 2d ® Sy Je) rae) Ie So) la) 
S AES a x a | & > 
MILK FROM — =a Poi ee ee hs o ae5 ne a 
See eres rs js} C128) e | Ss 
A jaed| 6 | 8 Be sO eel 
24 }ov g ed AY we a be 3 a 
RS |SES| 3 | 2 Bel a | Sa) e 8 
2 — oy 
Zw \< Be | By a hy aan (oa ae 
1 College herd, F - - Leite Ae LON S267 td. L7 (2| 48) | 43222 - 
2 College herd, ‘ - - 11.76 | 3.70 | 8.06 | 2.99 69 | 4.38 | 41.62 - 
3 College herd, , - - 11.49 | 3.69 | 7.80 | 2.85 .65 | 4.30 | 40.08 - 
4 | College herd, F - — | 10.22 | 3.28 | 6.94 | 2.54 | .58 | 3.82 | 37.35 - 
5 | College herd, : - — | 11.06 | 3.30 | 7.76 | 2.88} .63 | 4.25 | 40.10 - 
6 Holstein grade, . 5 43 12.04 | 3.60 | 8.44 | 3.11 .71 | 4.62 | 42.90 - 
7 | Holstein grade, . ~ — | 10.84 | 3.24 | 7.60 | 2.80 | .64 | 4.16 | 39.80 - 
8 | Holstein grade, . - ~ 9.63 | 2.88 | 6.75 | 2.49 POM mOO) | adeno - 
9 | Ayrshire grade, . - 17 | 12.97 | 4.40 | 8.57 | 3.07 | .69 | 4.81 | 43.52 - 
10 | Ayrshire grade, . - el lOvson || s202 1 6.86) | 2.46 |) sDo: | 3.850] 0.02 - 
11 | Holstein, 1 110 SES Ze oUN nota 2.69) i vadliehald aoe 97 ||) 1. 0300 
12 | Jersey-Holstein, 7 19 15.51 | 6:50 | 9.01 | 3.87 U7 | 4.37 | 44.20 | 1.0340 
13 | Jersey-Holstein, ~ =| Lde41 5.00) 8-41 3256 | 270) || 4.15) 42505) || 1.0315 
Notes. 
No. 2. Same as No. 1, with 5 per cent. water and 5 per cent. skim milk added. 
No. 3. Same as No. 1, with 10 per cent. water added. 
No. 4. Same as No. 1, with 20 per cent. water added. 
No. 5. Same as No. 1, with 10 per cent. water and 10 per cent. skim milk added. 
No. 7. Same as No. 6, with 10 per cent. water added. 


No. 8. Same as No. 6, with 20 per cent. water added. 

No. 10. Same as No. 9, with 20 per cent. water added. 

No. 11. Pure-bred cow on forced test. 

No. 13. One liter of No. 12 allowed to stand in cylinder over night, 20 per cent. of the cream 
(by volume) removed and 10 per cent. of water added. 


152 EXPERIMENT STATION. (Jan. 


Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station Herd. 


8 as be = 5 
= ra ea aes a & 
pf a3 Pa 
8 Au er. 10 be 8 ‘ 
2 | 32/2 |°2 |= 7 
ogr 23 | “ a 
No. BREED. “ 26 4 a 3 2 i ne 
g 2.8 s mie © 
hm a ors RM P< fa on . a 
ox | Koo ¢ 2 3 | ee 6 
a. | aes] 28 | = | 38 | 88] & 
2 2.04 2 ro) 3 = 3 
Zt a & | & é ee 
1 | Jersey, 5 5.40 9.21 3.94 45.32 
2 | Jersey, 5 6.20 8.45 3.06 44.04 
3 | Jersey, 3 5.30 8.73 — 44.18 
4 | Jersey high grade, 4 5.85 8.97 3.88 44.20 
5 | Jersey high grade, 5 6.40 9.18 4.00 44.60 
6 | Jersey high grade, 4 5.55 8.36 3.31 42.75 
7 | Jersey-Ayrshire, 5 4.85 8.95 3.63 44.25 
8 | Jersey-Holstein, 7 6.55 9.03 3.81 44.25 
9 | Holstein grade, 6 4.30 8.54 3.44 43.55 
10 | Holstein grade, 6 5.05 8.76 3.44 44.11 
11 | Holstein grade, 6 4.45 8.86 3.50 44.25 


The results secured and tabulated above justify the following 
tentative conclusions: | 


1. The serum of a milk of known purity is not likely to have 
a refractive index below 40. 

2. It seems probable that the refractive index depends, to 
an extent, upon the stage of lactation of the cow, being highest 
in the advanced stages, when the animal is giving but little milk. 
More data are needed, however, to confirm this statement. 

3. Rich milk, containing 4 per cent. or more of fat, has a 
tendency to give a higher index of refraction than thin milk 
(less than 4 per cent. fat). This rule, however, does not always 
hold true. 

4. Many milks, especially those produced by Jerseys and 
Guernseys and their grades, can be adulterated with 10 per 
cent. of water, or 5 per cent. of water and 5 per cent. of skim 
milk, and escape detection by means of the index of refraction. 
In ease of very rich milk, ¢.e., pure milk containing 6 per cent. 
of fat, it may be possible to add 20 per cent. of water, or 10 per 


‘ 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 3i. 153 


cent. of water and 10 per cent. of skim milk, without positively 
detecting its presence by the aid of the refractometer. 

5. It is believed that the Zeiss refractometer will prove very 
helpful in the detection of added water in milk. The evidence 
furnished, however, must be considered in connection with that 
secured by direct chemical analysis. 

It is beheved that the percentage of ash in milk is likely to 
prove fully as helpful in many eases as the index of refraction 
in detecting the presence of added water. Mixed milk falling 
substantially below .70 per cent. of ash must be regarded with 
suspicion, and that testing below .65 per cent. of ash as watered. 

The impression held by some milk inspectors and producers, 
that the immersion refractometer will detect very small amounts 
of added water, is erroneous. Such an impression, firmly fixed 
in the minds of unscrupulous producers and dealers might have 
a salutary effect, but it is not justified by results in actual 
practice. 


154 EXPERIMENT STATION. (Jan. 


MALNUTRITION. 


BY G. E. STONE. 


Malnutrition is a term referring to certain pathological con- 
ditions in a plant which result from the improper use of plant 
foods. It may occur from a lack of plant foods of any kind, or 
starvation; or it may result from an excess of some particular 
plant food. 

An increasing number of troubles has been called to our 
attention the past five or six years which have been found to be 
typical cases of malnutrition, induced by an excess of some par- 
ticular substance in the soil. By far the larger number occur 
in greenhouses, being found chiefly in the houses of growers 
of limited skill and experience in handling greenhouse crops. 
These troubles all originate from an injudicious use of com- 
mercial fertilizers, or from applying certain manures to crops 
in excess of what they can stand. 

The symptoms of malnutrition, as might be expected, are 
more or less specific, the nature of the response depending not 
only on the crop but also on the nature and amount of plant 
food used. Identical stimuli may produce different effects upon 
different individuals, or plants remotely related to one another 
may react similarly. The reaction of the plant to stimuli is 
dependent more upon its individuality than upon the nature of 
the stimulus which might give rise to any series of responses ; 1n 
other words, the principal factor determining the nature of the 
reaction is more a property of the individual than one associated 
with the stimulus. 

In some cases an excess of fertilizers causes burning of the 
roots, which results in the death of the plant, but these are not 
necessarily cases of malnutrition, since by the rapid and more 
or less complete destruction of the root system little or none of 
the substances is absorbed. Burning and collapse of the root 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 155 


system also have been observed where an excessive amount of 
muriate or carbonate of potash had been applied, and an excess 
of tannin, such as is found in the sawdust from certain trees, 
will cause the roots of plants to turn yellow and eventually die. 

The effects of chemical substances on roots are not always 
the same, although ultimate death may follow their use. Certain 
chemical substances, on coming into contact with the roots, may 
merely cause plasmolysis of the cells. The immediate result 
here may not be death of the cells, but if the cells remain in a 
state of plasmolysis for any length of time, the collapse of the 
plant follows. 

Any substance in the soil which affects the osmotic tension or 
turgidity of the cell would naturally prevent root absorption, 
and if the plant was transpiring very freely it would sooner or 
later wilt and collapse. On the other hand, a large number of 
chemical substances act as direct poisons to the protoplasm, kill- 
ing it the moment of contact. 

By far the largest number of cases of malnutrition which have 
been brought to our notice are found in greenhouse plants, al- 
though outdoor crops are by no means wholly free from it. Con- 
ditions in a greenhouse are entirely different from those out- 
of-doors. The frequent rainfalls, together with the action of 
frosts in winter, naturally hasten the process of leaching, and 
soil in the field which might become abnormal from injudicious 
fertilizing is kept in a normal condition. In the greenhouse 
the leaching is not so thorough, since the water and plant food 
are usually confined to the surface in a concentrated form. 
Moreover, in the greenhouse new supplies of plant food are being 
constantly added, and in the end do harm. When the soil is 
treated with hot water or steam, as is often the case, additional 
soluble food becomes available, which, in a soil already rich, is 
likely to produce ideal conditions for malnutrition. It would 
appear from the results of our experiments and observations that 
by far the greater amount of trouble from malnutrition comes 
from excess of nitrates in the soil. 

Some years ago a potted specimen of a Johnsonian lily which 
had a number of eruptions or blisters on its leaves was called 
to our attention. These reddish blisters, on careful examination, 
showed no evidence of the presence of fungi or insects. The 


156 _ EXPERIMENT STATION. (Jan. 


cells in the vicinity of the blisters, however, indicated that they 
had been greatly stimulated. This had resulted in excessive cell 
division, causing rupturing and a ragged, wounded appearance 
of the tissue. An experiment with perfectly healthy lilies was 
made, in which the plants were liberally fertilized with Chili 
saltpeter, and in a short time we obtained practically the same 
characteristics, that is, the blisters or eruptions. Blisters de- 
veloped on a cyclamen were also observed, and were shown to be 
due to an excessive use of nitrate of soda. 

Many cases of injury from overwatering and forcing have 
come to our attention in connection with such plants as carna- 
tions, tomatoes, ete. 

The effects of nitrates on plants have long been known, and 
instances are mentioned by Czapek. Cases have been brought to 
our attention several times where tomato plants have been af- 
fected by the excessive use of fertilizers, and tests of the foliage 
for nitrates revealed an excess in the leaves. The tomato leaves 
in such cases had a curled and crinkled appearance, caused by 
the contorted vascular bundles or veins. A somewhat similar 
contortion of the foliage has been observed by us in soy beans 
when grown under certain conditions. These symptoms have 
been occasionally found in the field as well as in plants growing 
in pots in the greenhouse, and analyses have revealed an excess 
of nitrates in the foliage. 

Greenhouse cucumbers are more susceptible to injury from 
manures and fertilizers than any crop known to us, and produce 
more cases of malnutrition than any of the others grown under 
glass. The condition of the soil which will destroy a crop of 
cucumbers will not, however, affect lettuce or tomato plants, 
while a rose or carnation plant might appear underfed in such 
a soil. 

From a long experience in growing cucumbers under glass, 
as well as years of experimenting with this crop, and annual 
observations on a large number of commercial houses in the 
State, we are convinced that it is not safe for the ordinary 
grower to apply commercial fertilizers to a crop of this kind. 
Commercial fertilizers undoubtedly could be used on cucumbers, 
but would have to be used very sparingly, and only with the 
advice of the expert. 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 157 


The best soil for cucumbers is composed of loam, decomposed 
sod and horse manure. No other manure of any kind is neces- 
sary, and should not be applied except sparingly, and as for 
commercial fertilizers, none should be used except ground bone 
and wood ashes, and it is questionable whether these are of any 
value. Cucumbers require a porous soil, and this is furnished 
by the sod and horse manure. When growing in solid beds the 
crop can be treated with horse manure if necessary to furnish 
underground heat, but trenching of the horse manure should be 
at least eight inches or one foot below the surface. 

Malnutrition in cucumbers is characterized by a rolling of 
the foliage, producing a convexity of the upper surface of the 
leaf. The edges or margins of the leaf may or may not be 
slightly burned or dead, but this symptom is often associated with 
malnutrition. This latter condition may also be caused by a 
lack of root absorption and excessive transpiration. In extreme 
eases, besides the more or less severe curling of the leaves, the 
vascular bundles or veins become badly contorted, the leaves 
arrested in growth and the apex of the stem curled up into a 
mass; and plants once in this condition may remain so for 
weeks. There is, however, a certain amount of plasticity in 
cucumber plants, as in all others, and they sometimes succeed in 
adapting themselves to extreme conditions, and showing some 
attempt to recover or outgrow these symptoms. In very severe 
cases, such as were found to be associated with a rich soil to 
which had been added an excessive amount of pulverized sheep 
manure, and which had received the hot-water treatment, the 
fruit becomes mottled and irregular in shape, the surface often 
presenting excrescences or tubercular growths. 

We have had occasion to observe a large number of cases of 
malnutrition in greenhouses in this as well as in other States, 
and a few of the conditions which produce it may be mentioned 
here. It should be pointed out that practically all greenhouse 
growers of cucumbers start with a well-manured soil composed 
of sod, loam and horse manure. A soil prepared in this way is 
suitable, without the addition of anything else for the normal 
production of cucumbers, and even if well supplied with horse 
manure it is not likely to produce cases of malnutrition. There 
is, to be sure, much difference in horse manure, some being much 


158 EXPERIMENT STATION, [Jan. 


more concentrated than others, but we have grown cucumbers in 
boxes in soil to which 75 per cent. of horse manure had been 
added without producing any abnormal symptoms. Excessive 
use of horse manure, especially if it is too strong, may cause 
symptoms of malnutrition, but no trouble should be caused by 
a careful use of this manure each year. Constant watering of 
cucumber plants with liquid fertilizer or manure of any kind will 
cause malnutrition, and the addition of pig or cow manure to the 
horse manure, or the use of either alone, is very likely to produce 
it. We have frequently observed trouble from the use of pig 
manure mixed with horse manure, and Professor Whetzel of 
‘ornell University has called our attention to the injury caused 
by this combination in New York State. In one particular case 
the plants, in addition to being treated with horse manure con- 
taining considerable amounts of pig manure, were watered fre- 
quently with a strong decoction of these manures. 

Some of the most severe cases of malnutrition we have ob- 
served resulted from the use of hen manure worked into soil 
already provided with an abundance of plant food, such as 
would be obtained from a constant use of horse manure. In 
practically all the instances which have come to our notice 
where hen manure had been applied rather freely, symptoms of 
malnutrition have followed. 

A more recent tendency among cucumber growers is to make 
use of dried, pulverized sheep manure, either alone or in combi- 
nation with cow manure. ‘Two cases of malnutrition in cucum- 
ber houses have recently been brought to our attention, one ex- 
tremely severe and the other more or less so. These were caused 
by the use of pulverized sheep manure and various fertilizers. 
One grower, having some 2,800 feet in length of houses, applied 
3 tons of pulverized sheep and cow manure, with the result that 
the whole crop died. This house had been used for some years 
without changing the soil, and had received every year probably 
from 30 to 60 tons per acre of horse manure. The soil was 
naturally in good condition, and had plenty of plant food with- 
out the addition of the sheep manure. The malnutrition symp- 
toms were so marked on this crop that even the young seedlings 
were affected. In addition to this the hot-water treatment was 
used, which only served to aggravate the trouble. 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT—No. 31. . 159 


We have recently seen another case in which the plants in 
a range of houses about 1,800 feet in length were more or less 
affected. Besides the application of horse manure for a num- 
ber of years, the houses had been treated with cow manure, va- 
rious kinds of phosphates, nitrate of soda, lime, hen manure 
and pulverized sheep manure, as well as hot water. Different 
types of greenhouses were represented in this establishment, and 
the houses were also of different ages. The older houses, which 
had been manured and fertilized the most heavily, were decidedly 
the worst. The new houses, where less manure and fertilizer 
had been applied, were least affected. In the older houses it 
had become almost impossible to grow good crops of cucumbers, 
but fairly goods crops were growing in the new houses. ‘These 
houses had been used occasionally for growing other crops, 
like tomatoes and radishes, which were not affected in any way. 
This practice of rotation is beneficial, and has a tendency to 
make the soil more suitable for cucumber growing. 

The extensive use of nitrate of soda is responsible for many 
cases of malnutrition. We have demonstrated by experiments 
that potted plants of cucumbers watered with potassium or 
sodium nitrate will wilt in the sunshine more quickly than those 
treated with water alone. Nitrate of soda, when used in green- 
houses, often acts by preventing root absorption. As a conse- 
quence of this reduction of the root absorptive capacity of the 
plant, particularly when the house is warm and dry and trans- 
piration very active, the leaf edges of the cucumber wilt and die, 
which causes a rolling of the leaf or convexity of the upper 
surface. 

Wetting down the soil with hot water, or steaming it, as al- 
ready pointed out, is favorable to malnutrition, for the reason 
that a considerable amount of plant food already in the soil is 
by this practice made more available. This is shown by the 
greatly increased growth of plants in such soil, and the in- 
creased number of bacteria present. 

In the growing of greenhouse crops of all kinds, manure is ex- 
tensively used. For example, lettuce has been grown for forty 
years in soil which has been repeatedly manured with horse 
‘ manure and straw, and no indications of malnutrition caused 
by this extensive manuring have ever been noticed. It is gen- 


160 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


erally considered that the older a lettuce soil, the better it is for 
this crop, but if commercial fertilizers are employed indiscrimi- 
nately in a lettuce house already well supplied with plant food, 
the chances are that a case of malnutrition will result. 

Roses, carnations and violets require a rich soil, and a con- 
siderable amount of manure is used by floriculturists in their 
soil. Cases of malnutrition are prevented here by never grow- 
ing these crops in the same soil more than one year, the benches 
being refilled with fresh soil each year. <A typical rose soil is 
composed of one-third loam, one-third pulverized sod and one- 
third cow manure. In addition to this, the plants are watered 
once a week with a strong hquid manure. Cases of malnutri- 
tion with this treatment seldom if ever occur with roses. 

A few years ago an experiment was conducted in one of our 
houses devoted exclusively to the growing of American Beauty 
roses. The soil was prepared as described above, and liquid 
manure was applied freely once a week or oftener. The first 
year the roses did well, and for the purpose of experiment we 
attempted to grow a new crop of roses in the same soil which 
had been used the previous year. The soil was partially ren- 
ovated by the addition of new sod and some cow manure, and 
besides this it received its customary application of quid cow 
manure. ‘The plants had not been in the soil many weeks, how- 
ever, before they commenced to die, and it was not unusual for 
a number to die in a single week. The results of this experi- 
ment were only what was expected, but a careful examination of 
the plants was made which showed them to be free from patho- 
genic organisms. The roots, however, were in a bad state, their 
condition showing plainly what was the matter. Since it was 
thought that this experiment had then proceeded far enough, 
we decided to flood the beds with water, and make analyses of 
the percolate which came through the bottom of the beds. The 
beds were flooded for two hours each, and the water that came 
through first was, as might naturally be expected, highly colored, 
while that which came through later was clearer. The last 
percolate, after two hours’ drenching, was remarkably clear. 
Samples of this water were collected at intervals of every fifteen 
minutes, and chemical tests for acids and other substances were 
made. The results of the analyses were quite surprising, and 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 161 


it was difficult to conceive of any plant hving under such con- 
ditions. After the soil had been drenched and the injurious 
substances washed out, not a single death occurred among the 
plants. 

The question was put to a number of florists, through a leading 
florists’ journal, why they changed their soil in growing roses, 
carnations and other plants. None of the growers gave a satis- 
factory reply ; they simply knew from experience that it was not 
practicable to attempt to grow these crops in the same soil two 
consecutive seasons. An analysis of the percolated water showed 
such large amounts of soluble compounds that it is not surpris- 
ing that the plants failed to grow. 

One occasionally finds instances of what appear to be typical 
cases of malnutrition in the suckers on stumps of trees on cut-off 
woodland. Different species of trees develop different symptoms 
in their leaves when growing from the stumps. In some cases 
the leaves are abnormally large, and in others they are highly 
colored and more or less contorted or malformed. Here we have 
an instance of a small amount of foliage being supphed with food 
from a root system which formerly supported a large tree, and 
this excess of food supply causes, as it were, congestion. Chem- 
ical analyses of these abnormal leaves, made by Mr. G. H. Chap- 
man in our laboratory, show them to be unusually rich in ni- 
trates. A feature often observed by us in connection with these 
growths, but which may possibly be of no significance whatso- 
ever, is their greater susceptibility to attacks of aphids. It is 
not improbable, however, that their abnormal chemical condition 
would affect their natural immunity to attacks from aphids 
and other insects. 

From the nature of the conditions causing malnutrition, a 
remedy is not difficult to find. It is first essential, of course, 
to be careful in the use of manures and fertilizers. If the soil 
in a house has become unfit for use from the injudicious applica- 
tion of manures and fertilizers, subsoiling may be done to good 
advantage. Washing out the soil thoroughly, as previously 
described in our experiments with roses, would also prove helpful 
in some cases, but it should be pointed out that there is more 
danger in a soggy soil to cucumber roots than those of roses. If 
leaching out has to be done when the plants are in the soil, it 


162 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


should be done only in sunshiny weather, when the soil will dry 
out quickly, so that its original porosity can be regained by culti- 
vating. It is always best to use any such treatment as this, if 
possible, when there are no plants in the soil. 

Another succesful treatment consists in covering the surface 
of the soil with two or three inches of loam. We have fre- 
quently seen this done with the best results. New roots have 
quickly formed in the loam, and these have supplied the plant 
with food proper to its development. 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31._ 163 


CALICO OR MOSAIC DISEASE OF CUCUMBER 
AND MELON. 


BY G. E. STONE. 


For a number of years our attention has been called to mot- 
tled cucumber leaves occasionally found in greenhouses. . This 
trouble has the same characteristics as the so-called “‘ calico ” on 
tobacco, or “‘ mosaic disease,”’ as it is often termed. It also oc- 
casionally occurs on other plants. 

A case of calico was noticed on melon plants grown under 
glass in the department’s conservatory the past summer. Only 
four plants were affected, and there was no evidence of contagion 
or infection. This disease, so far as is known, is not associated 
with pathogenic organisms, and little is known concerning it. 

The trouble is characterized by a mottled or spotted appearance 
of the foliage, and the whole plant appears abnormal. The 
plants were growing in soil well enriched with horse manure, and 
in all cases the laterals were kept pruned, and the affected 
plants topped. A similar spotting and mottling occurred on 
pruned tomato plants, and was more abundant when the plants 
were topped than when the laterals were pruned. 

A study of this peculiar and little known trouble is now being 
made by Mr. G. H. Chapman of this department. 


164 EXPERIMENT STATION, [Jan. 


NOTES ON THE OCCURRENCE OF FUNGOUS 
SPORES ON ONION SEED. 


BY GEORGE H. CHAPMAN, 


It has been found in the seed separation and germination work 
in this department that spores of various fungi are often found 
on market seeds. This has been especially noticed in the germi- 
nation work, for in many cases, no matter how carefully the 
germinating dishes were sterilized and the tests carried on, some 
of the samples would mold much worse than others. It was also 
thought that in the case of onion seed the spores of onion smut 
might be carried from one locality to another, and thus spread 
the disease in that way. 

Under the direction of the head of this department several 
samples of onion seed were examined during the past year and 
the different kinds of spores present noted. The method of ex- 
amination was as follows: — 

A representative sample of the lot was taken, and then of 
this sample about 15 grams were shaken up with warm, dis- 
tilled water for ten minutes. The supernatant lquid was then 
drawn off in a pipette and drops placed on a shde for examina- 
tion. Several examinations of each sample were made and the 
different kinds of spores found were noted. This method of de- 
taching the spores may be open to objections, but it is thought 
that enough of the spores are detached to give an idea of the 
different kinds present. 

In all, ten different samples of seed were examined, and in two, 
onion smut spores were found in small quantity. It has been 
the generally accepted opinion that the smut spores do not occur 
on the seed, but this idea is probably due to the fact that only 
in very few cases do these spores appear to be present. From 
our results we are forced to conclude that onion smut spores may 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 165 


be found on seed and may thus be transferred from one locality 
to another. They were also found last season by Dr. G. E. 
Stone of this department. 

As stated above, in ten samples of seed, two were found to 
contain spores of onion smut, and in addition nearly all con- 
tained mold spores, such as Penicillium (blue mold), Mucor 
(bread mold), ete. These mold spores may to a certain extent 
be on the seed before it is gathered, but the probabilities are 
that the seed becomes contaminated after gathering, during the 
cleaning and drying processes, and results from improper drying 
and cleaning or dampness in the storehouse. Other spores and 
pollen grains were found which were in no way associated 
directly with onion diseases. These are perfectly harmless and 
come from various sources. Among these may be mentioned 
various conidia and rust spores which do not have the onion for 
a host. 

Among the spores found which cause diseases of the onion 
were Urocystis cepule (Frost) (onion smut), Macrosporium 
Porrt (Ellis) (brown mold) and Pcronospora Schleidenina 
(D By) (downy mildew). The spores of these fungi do not, of 
course, inhibit the germination of the seed. 

The presence of smut spores and others is objectionable in the 
seed since the ones just mentioned are capable of causing infec- 
tion to the crop, and the molds cause the molding of the seed, 
thus lessening the vitality of the seed and sometimes killing it 
during a germination test. 

Macrosporvum Porrt, the so-called brown or black mold, affects 
seed onions. Peronospora (downy mildew) spores were found 
in many cases, and this disease has occasionally caused some 
trouble in Connecticut and elsewhere. This disease, like the 
preceding one, is confined to seed onions, the fungus penetrating 
the tissue in all directions, causing a yellow, sickly looking 
growth, eventually killing the plant. The summer spores, or 
conidia, are very short lived, however, and do not retain their 
vitality for any length of time, but the odspores or resting spores 
are capable of propagating the disease from year to year. 

The kinds of spores found in each sample are shown in the 
following table. 


EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


166 


*serods 4snxy | ° : = * ‘guesqy || ° : Se ILORCH Ves |is : * “Queso g s * “quesqy 
*BIPIUOD | * ¢ ; * ‘loony ‘uIMTyOINTT || * : * “Quesqy | ° . * ‘quesqy | ° : > ‘guesqy 
‘uajod ‘erpruoo ‘sarods ysny | ° Z * *uintyoingy ‘uINIT[IorUeg || * - * ‘queselg | ° : * ‘queselg é : ‘MOT 
‘uejod ‘seiods ysny | * ‘zoony_ ‘untyIormeg ‘umrjoing || * : * “‘guesqy | ° ‘ * “queselg ; * “quesqy 
“BIpIuoo ‘UeT[Og | ° ‘ : ‘ao1v0s ‘UINIT]IO1Ueg || ‘yuBpunqe ‘yueseIg | ‘JuUBpUuNnqe ‘jJUeSeIg 2 * ‘yuesqy 
“ue][od ‘eipruoy | ‘yuepunqgs ‘ulntyoiny ‘umMiyyroiueg || * ‘ * “uesqy | * : > Malviyfe py |) = : * ‘quesqy 
“uejod ‘serods ysny | * is * “uInty[rordeg || * , o JUSS iy. |i : * ‘ueselg | * : * “quesqy 
‘ugT[Og | * 7 : : : ame 1) -10 hs al : * “queselg | - i * "‘guesqy | * 7 * “quesqy 
*sel0dsojyneaL‘SIpltuoo Snore, | * : 5 ‘1oony ‘UINIT[lordeg || * * “queselg | ° z * “\uesel gq * “yuesqy 
‘uaT]Og | ° * *urntjoIngy ‘aIMiy[lorded || * . * ‘quesqy | ° 7 * “Quosolg ‘Moy AIOA 
*solodg 10440 “SPIO *(B10ds0uoleg) *( umn 10ds0108 F,) *(w[ndeo siysA001( ) 

Moplt AUMOG PIOW UMog ynulg UOlUG 

‘NOING OL SQOIXON sauodg 


‘SHUOdg SQOIXON-NON 


“aaGaNON FIdNVS 


‘paag uolug uo punof sasodgy bumoyg 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 167 


No attempt has been made to specifically identify many of 
these spores as that is not within the scope of this experiment. 

By disinfecting and sterilizing the seed used for germination 
tests, and also for planting, it is believed that much of this ex- 
cessive molding may be prevented. Work of this character is 
being carried on in this laboratory. Some favorable results have 
been obtained, but these have not been verified sufficiently to 
warrant publication at present. 


168 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


PLANT BREEDING STUDIES IN PEAS. 


BY F. A. WAUGH. AND J. K, SHAW, 


The department of horticulture has had various plant-breeding 
investigations under way for several years. ‘These have in- 
cluded studies in variation, correlation and heredity in peas. 
Two reports on this general subject have already been made. 
The year 1909 has enabled us to collect a large amount of ad- 
ditional data, the most interesting of which are here presented. 


CHARACTER OF VARIATION IN PEAS. 


At the beginning of these experiments, a commercial strain of 
Nott’s Excelsior was made the basis of study. The same strain 
has been maintained till the present time, so that we may now 
discover whether or not the range and character of variation have 
changed. In looking over the figures, it must be remembered 
that absolute figures have been greatly affected by the nature of 
the growing season. Thus, in 1908, with severe drought on- 
naturally dry land, the size of plants and all other measurements 
fell very low. With this in mind we may profitably study the 
following table, giving statistics of variation for three years : — 


1 Massachusetts experiment station report, 20, p. 171 (1908), and Massachusetts experiment 
station report, 21, p. 167 (1909). 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 169 


Variation in Peas — Nott’s Excelsior. Series I. 


1907 | 1908. | 1909 
| 
Number of vines measured, ‘ A 5 ; : 179 225 1,770 
Length of vine (centimeters): — : 
Minimum, 2 é : - : s 20.00 19.00 6.00 
Maximum, Z Z : ‘ : : 88.00 61.00 83.00 
Range, . ; y = - - = - : 68.00 42.00 77.00 
Average, . < : p - - : - : 54.70 38 . 22 45.90 
Number of pods per vine: — 
Minimum, ze j P é 3 £ P 1.00 1.00 1.00 
Maximum, A 5 ; 3 - 4 : : 13.00 12.00 37.00 
Range, . : ° : . : ° ; - 12.00 11.00 | 36.00 
Average, . 3 e A - : = . : 4.68 3.91 6.74 
Number of peas per pate — | 
Minimum, 3 | - ~ - 
Maximum, é : - 5 * 5 ; 9.00 8.00 9.00 
Range, . : : : a : 4 é : 9.00 8.00 9.00 
Average, . ‘ 5 < ; a ; : 3.46 3.44 - 
Length of pod ee): _— 
Minimum, ‘ 2.00 2.00 ~ 
Maximum, 9.50 8.00 = 
Range, . 7.50 6.00 - 
Average, . 6.88 6.10 - 


DIFFERENCES IN VARIABILITY. 


As was shown in our last report, there are great differences in 
variability to be seen in different strains, even within the same 
variety. The progeny of nine different parents, all belonging 
to the same variety, was compared in this respect. These same 
strains may now be compared again, bringing into comparison 
the progeny grown in another year’s crop. In the following 
table CV stands for “ coefficient of variability,” which is simply 
a mathematical function showing the relative variability of the 
various strains. It is secured by dividing the standard deviation 
by the mean. The larger the figure the greater the variability 
indicated. 


170 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


Comparison of Variability — Nott’s Excelsior. 


CV. RANK. 
1908. 1909. 1908. 1909. 
Vine length: — 
Strain A, . ‘ ~ : : A ‘ 12.1 22.4 4 4 
Strain 6.) 5 i 4 i ; ; 14.1 25.4 5 8 
Strain C, . 2 : ‘ : : : 11.8 16.5 3 1 
Strain D, . : é é i 5 : 15.8 23.9 8 ff 
Strain EK, . : ; ‘ : : 20.2 27.8 9 9 
Strain G, . : A 3 ‘ a . 14.7 21.4 6 3 
Strain H, . ; x 2 H . : tae 22.8 7 5 
Strain J, : é ‘ ‘ ‘ . F 10.1 23 1 2 6 
ptrain KK): ; 3 . f é ; 8.8 19.9 1 2 
Pods per vine: — 
Strain A, 2ono 43.7 8 3 
Strain B, 10.1 45.7 6 6 
Strain C, 52.1 50.2 9 7 
Strain D, 8.1 45.1 4 5 
Strain E, OF 50.8 5 8 
Strain G, 16.7 38.1 7 1 
Strain H, 8.0 44.6 3 4 
Strain J, 6.3 41.4 1 2 
Strain kK, 7.4 57.5 Z 9 
Total peas per plant: — 
Strain A, . i : - - ; . 40.6 49.3 6 5 
Strainels ee 5 ; 4 5 A : PB In il 54.1 1 8 
Strain C, . : : : : : 49.0 51.6 9 6 
Strain D, . ; : ‘ A ; ; 41.7 41.1 7 1 
Strain E, . 2 2 i - * : 46.2 52.1 8 7 
Strain G, . : a : ‘ k ; 31.3 45.9 4 3 
Strain H, . . 5 ‘ ‘. : ‘ 40.2 46.5 5 4 
Strain. oe ‘é - 2 F : ; 23.9 45.6 2 2 
Strain Kk, . : . : ; ‘ Patel 57.8 3 9 


Three interesting facts appear from this table: — 

1. The plants were markedly more variable in 1909 than in 
1908. This appears in all characters, and there is hardly a 
single exception to the rule. On the surface, it would seem 
that the dry season and unfavorable conditions of 1908 decreased 
the amount of variation, while the comparatively strong growth 
of 1909 increased the amount of variation. 

2. The amount of variation is less and the fluctuations less 
in the case of vine length than in pods per vine or peas per vine. 
In other words, the vegetative characters seem to be more stable 
than reproductive characters. 

3. There is a manifest (though not very strong) tendency to 
transmit the quality of variability (or stability). In a number 
of instances the strains which were most variable in 1908 were 
the most variable in 1909, and those which were most stable one 
year were most stable the next. Out of the 27 comparisons made 
in the foregoing table, 11 show a decided correspondence, while 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 381. Lat 


only 6 show decided shift. Counting the disagreements in rank 
by units, the results are as follows: — 


In vine lengths, ; 3 : ‘ : ; ese at pel) 
In pods per vine, . : ‘ A ‘ ‘ ‘ oe aeu 
In peas per plant, . : : : : : A bees) 


These figures indicate once more the relative stability of the 
vegetative character — vine length — as discussed in paragraph 
2 above. 


CoRRELATION OF CHARACTERS. 


In former reports, some figures have been given on correlation 
of character, particularly between the average number of peas 
per pod and the number of pods per vine. It might be supposed 
that the vines bearing the largest number of pods would have the 
smallest pods with fewest peas. The general fact seems to be the 
contrary, — a fact which is of considerable practical importance 
in the development of prolific strains and varieties. 

This year we have fresh figures at hand for three separate 
eroups. Series I. consists of a number of strains of Nott’s Ex- 
celsior, all having the same origin. They are, in fact, the same 
plants spoken of as Strain A, Strain B, ete., in the experi- 
ments reported herewith, p. 170, — the whole series being com- 
bined for the purposes of this computation. Series II. is the 
group of Nott’s Excelsior from which the progenitors of Series 
I. were selected in 1907. Series III. is a strain of Earliest of 
All which we have had under study for two years. 

Taking this material, therefore, and computing the correla- 
tion coefficients (in which complete correlation equals + 1 and 
no correlation equals 0), we get the following results : — 


Correlation Coefficient.’ 


Series I. (Nott’s Excelsior), : : . —.0081 + .0012 
Series II. (Nott’s Excelsior), . : 2 13002220095 
Series IIT. (Earliest of All), : , » + .3200 + .0120 


1Tt is probable that the coefficient of Series III. most nearly represents the true correlation, 
and the lower coefficient for Series I. and possibly Series II. is due to rather strict selection that 
has been practiced, Series I. being the second generation from 10 selected plants. See Pearson, 
Phil. Transactions A, Vol. 193, p. 278; also Rietz, Biometrika, Vol. VII., p. 106. 


172 ‘EXPERIMENT STATION. (Jan. 


In Series I. no relation between number of pods and peas per 
pod is shown. In Series II. there is exhibited a distinct ten- 
deney toward the production of the largest and fullest pods on 
those plants which produce at the same time the largest num- 
ber of pods; and this tendency becomes fairly emphatic in 
Series ITT. 

HeErReEvDITy 1n Pras. 


One of the prime objects in this series of experiments has been 
the study of heredity. We have wanted to know in what degree 
the various characters were transmitted in peas. Some figures 
in this field were published last year.’ The figures this year are 
still more interesting, especially when compared with last year’s 
results. 

The reader may know that heredity is now commonly caleu- 
lated by a mathematical formula which gives results theoretically 
varying between + 1 and — 1 (practically between + 1 and 0). 
Ordinary inheritance, in which parental characters are trans- 
mitted in the usual degree, will show a coefficient of +.25 to 
+.40. Larger coefficients are rare; lower coefficients are sur- 
prisingly frequent. Taking our peas in Series I. (omitting 
Strain C on account of its abnormal character), we secure the 
following heredity coefficients from the crop of 1909: — 


Coefficients of Heredity. 


Vine length, : : ; : : . +.2483 + .0164 
Pods per vine, . : . : » - .0792 == 00r7 
Total peas per vine, . : . ; . + .0544 = .0018 


Here it will be seen that vine length is transmitted much more 
fully than either of the other characters. This fact is apparently 
closely related to the one mentioned above (p. 170). The vegeta- 
tive character is more stable and is more perfectly transmitted 
than the reproductive characters. 


PREPOTENCY. 


In all old-time discussions of heredity, much was made of 
prepotency. Though this word and the idea have to a large 
extent been submerged in recent discussions of plant breeding, 


1 Massachusetts Experiment Station Report, 21, p. 171 (1909). 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 173 


the idea is still sound and the word still holds. Moreover, the 
facts are of great practical importance to the actual breeder. 

The question is, Does one individual transmit its characters 
more perfectly and surely than another? In order to answer 
this question, it was found necessary to adopt a new method of 
ealculating coefficients of heredity, explained in the article re- 
ferred to.t The study of the material which we then had in 
hand seemed to give a positive answer to the main question. 
Apparently, certain individuals did show decided superiority 
over others in their ability to transmit their characters to their 
offspring. This conclusion seems to be confirmed with all the 
other material which we have been able to study, and it would 
be very interesting to see the same method — or some improve- 
ment of it —applied to other plants and animals. For the 
present, the most interesting feature of our experiment lies in 
a comparison of the prepotency of parent and offspring, — in 
an attempt to answer the question whether prepotency is in- 
_herited or not. 

In the following tables we will present first the figures show- 
ing the inheritance of vine length, then those dealing with pods 
per vine, and finally those dealing with total peas per vine. In 
each case we present first the coefficients of heredity (computed 
as shown in the footnote), followed by figures denoting the rank 
of the several strains in each comparison. The designations 
f;, f2 and fs will be understood at once by students of threm- 
matology. They refer to the three generations of peas com- 
pared: fs represents the crop of 1909, f2 represents their parents 
(crop of 1908), while f1 represents the grandparents, with which 
this experiment began. 


MWibids p.l(2.. Lhe formula is: C= aS 
o 
C = coefficient of heredity. 
o =standard deviation. 
D = difference between the numerical value of the parent character and the 
mean of the same character in the progeny. 


This we have been calling ‘‘ Waugh’s formula,” for the sake of a distinctive name. 


174 EXPERIMENT STATION, [Jan. 


Coefficients of Heredity — (Prepotency). 
Vine Length. 


COEFFICIENTS. RANK. 
fy ‘ fo fo fz fy HY fg fy i fo fo + f fy Fy fy 
Strain A, 5 6 , ; .0068 .0383 .0028 z 3 9 
Strain B, : : ; ; 5 .0085 .0183 0065 <3 6 4 
Strain C, é : 2 > : .0106 .0079 0244 2 9 1 
Strain D, : : - ; . .0086 .0090 .0093 4 8 3 
Strain EH, c ‘ é : , .0042 0265 .0031 9 4 8 
Strain G, x ; 2 4 : .0061 .0260 0045 8 5 6 
Strain H, 7 ‘ A P , .0071 .0158 .0054 6 7 5 
Strain J, ; a . : : .0095 .0596 .0042 3 2 7 
Strain k, é : : : ; .0250 .0707 .0126 1 1 2 
Pods per Vine, 
Strain A, “ : ‘ - 2 145 .193 .076 7 a 7 
Strain B, : F : . ; O11 .210 .222 9 4 4 
Strain C, : 3 5 F ; .104 .023 047 8 9 9 
Strain D, 4 P ; : , .512 .093 1.562 4 8 1 
Strain E, : : ; ‘ ; 3.003 .144 .387 3 6 3 
Strain G, ; ; , A F ByAf .350 .145 6 1 5 
Strain H, ; ; , z 5 .490 .279 .075 5 2 8 
Strain J, ; 5 ; a , D000 . 262 2002 2 3 2 
Strain K, : : : : : 14.285 121 135 1 7 6 
Total Peas per Vine. 
Strain A, ; i : ; 5 .007 .010 .006 8 4 6 
Strain B, 5 5 5 ; : -027 .012 .221 3 2 2 
Strain C, 4 : A 5 ; .006 .001 .002 9 9 9 
Strain D, F é : ; p .013 .006 .068 5 6 3 
Strain E, ; : : A i -016 .006 1.000 4 8 1 
Strain G, , F ‘ P : .008 .009 .005 6 if 7 
Strain H, 3 2 z ‘ ; .007 .012 .004 i 3 8 
Strain J, . ; K : .027 .012 .021 iD 1 4 
Strain K, : ; . A : .068 .008 .013 1 5 5 


It can hardly be claimed that these figures show any fixed 
lines in prepotency. Certain individuals are plainly relatively 
prepotent with respect to certain characters, though not always 
with respect to other characters. While the figures do not show 
any striking inheritance or prepotency, there are a few instances 
wherein such inheritance may be strongly suspected. Certain 
points will bear statement at least. 

1. In the transmission of vine length, Strain K is notably 
prepotent, while Strain E is notably deficient. 

2. In the transmission of pods per vine and total peas per 
vine (reproductive characters representing fecundity), Strain 
C is remarkably defective. This is curious from the fact that 
Strain OC is notably the most prolific one in the experiment. 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 175 


3. In the transmission of pods per vine, Strain J leads by 
a good margin; while in the transmission of total peas per vine, 
Strains B and J stand equal. 

4. Strain K, which in last year’s comparison stood first in 
every column, now, in the whole comparison, ranks first in the 
transmission of vine length, seventh in pods per vine and third 
in total peas. 

It seems fair to conclude, in general terms, that a careful study 
of prepotency will sometimes reveal tendencies sufficiently 
strong and trustworthy to be useful to the practical plant breeder. 


176 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan, 


THE BEN DAVIS GROUP OF APPLES.’ 


BY J. .K. SHAW. 


It is generally agreed by pomologists that the most feasible 
and satisfactory method of classifying varieties of- fruits is by 
segregating them in groups typified by more or less well-known 
sorts, each differing in considerable degree from the type of the 
neighboring groups. Many writers speak of the Ben Davis 
group, but so far as is known to the present writer the only real 
attempt to single out the members of this group is that given by 
Hedrick, Bul. 275 of the New York State Experiment Station. 

Starting with the group as given here as a foundation, a 
somewhat thorough examination of all available literature and 
suggestions from several men, authorities in systematic pomol- 
ogy, gave a list of forty varieties which were considered as can- 
didates for this group. In order to decide, with some feeling 
of certainty, just which of these properly belong here would 
require much longer time and more material than has been avail- 
able. The personal study of material was necessarily limited 
to the fruit with nearly every variety, and with many of the 
varieties it was impossible to obtain specimens, making it neces- 
sary to rely upon printed descriptions and the opinions of others, 
and everything of this kind available has been carefully con- 
sidered. 

As a result of this study the following varieties are believed 
to belong here, and are separately considered and described in 
this paper: — 


1 This article is a condensation of a part of a thesis presented to the faculty and trustees of the 
Massachusetts Agricultural College for the degree of M.S. The work was done under the direction 
of Prof. F. C. Sears, and special thanks are due him and to Prof. F. A. Waugh for advice and en- 
couragement in the work; also to many horticulturists, fruit growers and others who have sup- 
plied information regarding the different varieties. 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. Lc 


Arkansas Beauty. Flat Ben Davis. 
Arkansas Belle. Gano. ' 
Ben Davis. Improved Ben Davis. 
Ben Hur. Nordhaussan. 

Black Ben Davis. Ostrakavis. 

Coffelt. Paris. 

Cole Davis. Shackleford. 

Hicke. Shirley. 

Ktris. Sweet Ben Davis. 
Extra. White Ben Davis. 


Many of these are of minor importance, and doubtless some 
are not propagated and will soon disappear from cultivation. 
Almost without exception they are of southern origin and best 
adapted to growing under southern conditions. When grown 
north of the southern Missouri and Ohio valleys they are in- 
ferior in quality, though fairly hardy and bearing good crops. 

The fruit is generally roundish conic in form, nearly regular, 
with regular cavity and basin, the latter generally more or less 
abrupt. In color, greenish yellow, usually overspread with 
bright red, more or less striped. The flesh is generally white 
and firm, of medium or coarse texture. They are of only 
moderately good quality but long keepers and good shippers. 
With one exception they are more or less acid in flavor, generally 
a mild subacid. A notable characteristic common to all varic- 
ties examined was the presence of a pistil point or the persistent 
base of the pistil, a character rarely found in apples not belong- 
ing to this group. 


DrscrIPTION OF VARIETIES. 


Arkansas Beauty. 


I have not seen this apple and have been able to learn little 
about it. Stinson gives the following description and notes con- 
cerning it: — 


Size, medium to large; form, roundish, slightly inclined to conieal; 
stem, very long and rather slender; cavity, small, smooth; basin, small; 
core, open, with a peculiar marking of a white growth or downy sub- 
stance in seed cavities; color, skin yellow, striped with two shades of 
red, rather dull in color, giving it a brownish-red appearance; flesh, 


178 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


yellow, fine grained, subacid and very good, juicy. It is grown to 
same extent in a few sections of the State; it is probably more grown 
in Johnson County than elsewhere. It has not proved valuable. 


Arkansas Belle. 


This variety very closely resembles the Gano, and it has been 
claimed that the two are identical. A letter from Mr. D. 
Branchecomb of Rhea, Ark., states that he planted the seed from 
- which grew the original tree. It does not seem to have been 
much planted and probably will not be, as it does not appear 
that it is In any way superior to the Gano. 


Ben Davis. 


The place of origin of this variety has always been in doubt. 
Downing, in “ Fruits and Fruit Trees of America,” edition of 
1857, says it is supposed to have come from Todd County, Ky., ' 
but in the edition of 1872 he says that the origin is unknown. 
It has been attributed to. Virginia, North Carolina, New York, 
Missouri, Kentucky and Tennessee. The statements giving New 
York and Missouri origins are without doubt erroneous. Those 
attributing it to North Carolina and Virginia are to the effect 
that the trees or scions were taken from one or the other of these 
States to Kentucky, from whence it was disseminated. So far 
as the writer is aware, there is no record of its occurrence in 
either of these States except as introduced from outside nurs- 
eries. It is extremely probable that the apple originated or at 
least was first propagated from scions in either Kentucky or 
Tennessee. The late Wm. M. Howsley of Kansas gives the 
following account of its origin: — 


In the year 1789, Wm. Davis and John D. Hill emigrated to Ken- 
tucky and settled in that part of Logan County now ealled Butler 
County. They located near Capt. Ben Davis, the brother of Wm. Davis 
and the brother-in-law of Hill. A few years afterward, Hill returned 
to Virginia on business, and when he returned to Kentucky he brought 
some apple grafts with him. Hill and Wm. Davis raised fruit from 
these grafts. Capt. Ben Davis, finding the apple a desirable one, grafted 
the same for himself, as well as raised a young nursery of it. These 
were sold throughout the country. For want of knowing any other 
name, the people called it the Ben Davis apple. The Davis family, 
however, called it the Virginia Pippin.* 


— 


1 Watts, Bulletin Tennessee Experiment Station, IX., 1, p. 7. 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 179 


Mr. J. C. Hodges of Morristown, Tenn., thinks it is a Ten- 
nessee apple, and gives the following story of its origin: — 


During most of the first half of the present century, and up to 1860 
or thereabouts, there lived on Nolichucky River, within this (Hamblin) 
county, a wealthy farmer whose name was Ben Davis. His son, R. A. 
Davis, resides now at White Pine, Jefferson County, Tenn. On the 
farm owned by Ben Davis originated the apple in question. From the 
original tree others were propagated, and for many years before the 
death of Ben Davis he raised and harvested large quantities of these 
apples. The house of Ben Davis was on the great stock route from 
Kentucky to the Carolinas. Many drovers made it a point to stop 
with him in going and returning to the south. It was his custom to 
supply their saddle bags with these apples, especially on their return 
trips. There was no name of the apple known to them, so they called 
it the Ben Davis. Grafts or scions were taken to Kentucky, and the 
apple was propagated and disseminated there before it was in Ten- 
nessee. I have obtained these facts on personal inquiry from the sons 
of Ben Davis, above mentioned. And besides, these facts are well 
known in the neighborhood among the older people.’ 


The writer has made considerable effort to follow up both of 
these accounts and to ascertain if either one is the true history 
of the variety. 

Concerning the Kentucky account, Mr. Ben McKenney of 
Maquon, IIl., states that the Ben Davis mentioned, who was his 
grandfather, lived at Berry’s Lick, Butler County, Ky., and that 
it was from a neighbor of his, Nat Porter by name, that Dr. 
Housely obtained the account above given. Ben Davis was a 
nurseryman as well as a farmer and introduced several other 
varieties. 

Concerning the Tennessee account, a letter from Mr. Hodges 
expresses the conviction that this is the true origin of the variety. 
It is stated by a daughter of this Ben Davis, who is not con- 
nected with the Kentuckian of the same name, that the original 
tree, which was well known to her, was destroyed in 1860, and 
that it was eighteen years old at the time. This would seem 
to indicate that this was not the original Ben Davis tree, as 
the variety was well known over Kentucky, southern Indiana and 
Illinois at about this time. Mr. Hodges, however, expresses the 


belief that this particular tree was a sprout from the original, 


ee ee ee ea 
1 Watts, Bulletin Tennessee Experiment Station, IBXe Tepes 


180 EXPERIMENT STATION, [Jan. 


which would seem reasonable, for Ben Davis dicd in 1852 at the 
age of fifty-six, or soon after the earliest date at which this tree 
could have borne, and in this case he could not have been con- 
cerned with the growth and distribution of the fruit, as it seems 
beyond question that he was. The writer has attempted to 
learn the facts about this, but thus far without success. 

It would seem possible that the apple originated in Tennessee, 
as related by Mr. Hodges, and that the fruit, carried by the 
drovers into IXentucky, came to the notice of the Kentucky Ben 
Davis, who lived on the route which would be traveled, and, be- 
ing a nurseryman, he was attracted by the fruit and took steps 
to secure scions, by which he propagated and disseminated: the 
variety. If this is true, however, it is hard to explain why the 
apple was called the Virginia Pippin. 

Another possible explanation is that the apple may have 
“ originated ” twice, or, to put it in another way, two varieties 
appeared, one in Kentucky and the other in Tennessee, and both 
were called the Ben Davis and resembled each other so closely 
as to be confused; or it is even possible that the two were dis- 
tinct, and that one of them was not the Ben Davis we now know 
at all. A third possibility is that it first appeared in Kentucky, 
and that the Tennessee tree was a graft derived from it. 

That both the accounts are true in the main, at least, is not 
doubted by the writer, and the Tennessee story is vouched for by 
several people of prominence and reliability residing in that 
neighborhood. It is hkewise evident that the whole truth is not 
set forth. 

Wherever the place of origin may have been, the variety was 
first brought to public notice from Kentucky. The first pub- 
lished notice of it seems to have been in the ‘‘ Horticulturist ” 
for 1856, and Downing describes it in the “ Fruits and Fruit 
Trees of America,” edition of 1857, as received from Mr. J. 8. 
Downer of Elkton, Ky. From this time on the mention of it in 
pomological publications is frequent. At the time when Down- 
ing deseribed it it was spread over Kentucky, southern Indiana 
and Illinois, and was known in Missouri. Jt is stated by 
Ezekiel Honsinger of Burnt Prairie, Ill, that his father 
grafted the Ben Davis in White County, IIl., about 1825, ob- 
taining the scions from a neighbor, Mr. Funkhouser, and he 


ee a : 4 
fe — os | 
Sf 


ise 
einer 


. . 2 
DISTRIBUTION OF THE BEN DAVIS. ; $ 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 181 


from Mr. Newman, who brought them from Kentucky before 
1820. Here is explained how the variety obtained the names 
Funkhouser and Newman. A nursery was established in this 
neighborhood in 1839, and was instrumental in disseminating 
the variety far and wide. i 

With the rise of commercial orcharding in this region, after 
the civil war, the variety attained“widespread favor, and it may 
justly claim the firstplace among commercial varieties, taking 
the country as a whole. No other commercial variety is so 
widely planted, and none succeeds so well under such widely 
varying conditions. It is a sure, abundant bearer, the tree 1s 
vigorous, reasonably healthy, a good grower in the nursery, and 
comes into bearing early, and the fine appearance and excellent 
shipping and keeping qualities of the fruit are well known. 
That it is of excellent quality as a dessert fruit no one will 
contend, but much of its evil reputation in this way comes 
through its being grown in localities where it should never have 
been planted. When well grown, near the region of its origin, it 
is not of poor quality; when grown in the colder north, it does 
not have time to fully develop, and is most decidedly an in- 
ferior apple. 

An attempt was made by means of library research and by 
correspondence to learn something of the limits of culture of 
the Ben Davis. The map shown herewith shows approximately 
the northern limit of the variety, and also what may be spoken 
of as the Ben Davis belt, where this is easily the leading com- 
mercial sort. It will be noted that the limit of hardiness is a 
ttle north of the isotherm of an absolute minimum temperature 
of — 30° F., indicating that a temperature of between 30° and 
35° below zero is likely to kill the trees. In the Rocky Moun- 
tains the limit of hardiness is indicated only in a general way, 
as it here depends largely on altitude, and would be difficult to 
accurately define. 

It is interesting to note the coincidence of the limits of 
the Ben Davis belt with the normal surface temperature for 
July of 75° on the north, and, more especially, for 80° on the 
south. In as much as the line showing the limits of the belt is 
intended to show where it is actually grown, and not where it is 
possible to grow it well, it is probable that it would succeed 


182 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


equally well farther to the southeast in the mountains of north- 
ern Georgia and Alabama, and thus its southern limit of success- 
ful growth conform more closely to this isotherm than is in- 
dicated. 

Ever sifice the Ben Davis became known, fifty or more years 
ago, there has been much unfavorable comment on its quality, 
and many have predicted its speedy disappearance from the 
orchard and market. All the while the Ben Davis trees have 
borne full crops and have filled the owner’s pocket in years when 
other sorts were delinquent in these most important qualities 
of a commercial apple. During the past season (1908-09) 
reply posteards were sent to over 225 nurserymen in the United 
States and Canada asking the following questions : — 


How do your sales of Ben Davis compare with those of other va- 
rieties ? 

In what States are your sales of Ben Davis increasing, and how 
rapidly? 

In what States are they decreasing, and how rapidly? 

In what States are they practically stationary ? 

Is it being replaced by other varieties, and if so, what ones? 


One hundred and thirty-one of these cards were returned. <A 
few gave no definite reples, owing to various reasons, but from 
the great majority the following facts are gleaned : — 


Number reporting increased sales, : é : Re ei: 
Number reporting decreased sales, __. ; : : ae 
Number reporting no change, . : p : : + S28 


From the replies to the question as to what varieties are re- 
placing the Ben Davis the following summary is made : — 


Number Number 

of Times of Times 

mentioned. mentioned. 

Jonathan, : ; : . 26 | Baldwin, 5 
Gano, fis: ; f : . 19 | Esopus enlenize 2, 5 
Winesap, j 17 | McIntosh, 4 
Arkansas (Mam. Blk. Twig), 15 | Newtown Pippin, 4 
Grimes Golden, . , . 12 | Delicious, 3 
York Imperial, : ; . 12 | Wagner, 3 
Rome Beauty, : ‘ . 9 | Missouri Pippin, 2 
Stayman Winesap, . : . 71 Oldenburg, 2 
Northern Spy, f ; . 6 | Paragon, 2 
Stark, . : ; ; . 6 | Wealthy, 2 


Arkansas Black, . ; : Ant 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 183 


And the following, once each; Aiken, Black Ben Davis, 
Blenheim, Belleflower, Cox Orange, Fameuse, Gates, Ingram, 
Janet, Kinnaird, Maiden Blush, Oliver, Red Russett, Salome, 
Transparent and Winter Banana. 

It is evident that, on the whole, the sales of nursery trees of 
this variety are decreasing, and with some nurserymen with con- 
siderable rapidity. One firm reports a falling off of one-half in 
three years, another of 90 per cent. in five years and another of 
50 per cent. decrease this year. One says, ‘‘ We formerly grew 
as many as of all others; now 5 per cent.” <A few say they 
have ceased to propagate it. None report any marked increase 
in sales. ‘The firms reporting an increase are largely in New 
York, and a few in Canada and some parts of the south. 
Among the large nurserymen in the Ben Davis belt, the report 
is almost unanimous that there is a falling off, and often a large 
one. West of the great plains it is planted hardly at all. In 
some parts of Maine and in southern Ontario and the Georgian 
Bay district it seems to be slightly on the increase. In the 
northwest prairie States it has not proved hardy and has been 
discarded. 

The variety mentioned the most times as replacing the Ben 
Davis is Jonathan, which is of much better quality, and of the 
others that are taking its place in the Ben Davis belt, York, 
Winesap and Grimes Golden are notably better. In the north- 
east Stark is coming in and the McIntosh is gaining in 
popularity. In the northwest the Northwestern Greening is 
increasing, and in New York and Ontario the Spy is frequently 
mentioned. In the Pacific northwest it is scarcely planted at all, 
and many of the bearing trees are being worked over to other 
sorts, such as Jonathan, Gano, Rome Beauty, Newtown Pippin 
and Esopus. 

On the strength of this inquiry the writer ventures to predict 
that the long-looked-for decadence of the Ben Davis is at hand, 
and that twenty-five years hence it will have become a variety of 
minor importance. 


Description of Fruit.’ — Size, below medium to large, fairly uniform; 
form, roundish to roundish econie or oblong, base broad and flattened 


1 Descriptions are original where not otherwise noted. This description is intended to include 
all forms of the variety as grown in the United States and Canada. 


184 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


to narrow and rounded, apex rounded to sharp conie, fairly regular, 
slightly compressed, fairly equal sides, fairly uniform in any given 
locality; color, clear greenish yellow, covered with dull pinkish red to 
bright or deep red, 50 fer cent. to 90 per cent. mottled, splashed and 
striped, deepening almost to blush on sunny side; bloom, medium, 
greasy or waxy; skin, medium thick, rather tough, smooth and shining; 
dots, inconspicuous, few to medium, small to medium, roundish, whitish 
to yellowish or russet, scattered, slightly raised; cavity, shallow to very 
deep, medium to very wide, flaring to abrupt, acute to acuminate, 
fairly regular, filled with russet; stem, short to very long, medium to 
slender, curved, brownish red, smooth; basin, very shallow to very 
deep, medium to very wide, generally abrupt, round obtuse, almost 
always very regular; calyx, closed to partly open, medium size, pu- 
beseent; segments, medium size, long, pointed, reflexed; tube, very 
short to very long, medium width, conie or funnel form, median sta- 
mens, pistil point present; core, axile to very abaxile, medium or below, 
central, turbinate to oval, with clasping core lines; cells, closed to open, 
medium in size, symmetrical to asymmetrical; carpels, roundish to 
obovate, emarginate, usually slightly slit, medium coneave; seeds, few 
to medium, fairly plump, medium in size, brownish red, oval, pointed; 
axis, straight, rather short to very long; flesh, white, sometimes slightly 
tinged with yellowish, rather coarse, generally very firm, medium juicy 
to dry; flavor, mild subacid, often slightly aromatic, sometimes rather 
flat, sometimes slightly astringent; quality, poor to good. 


Ben Hur. 


This a comparatively new sort, offered by Stark Brothers of 
Louisiana, Mo., who state that it originated in Perry County, 
Ind., and that it is a eross of the Ben Davis and Rome Beauty. 
Prof. J. C. Whitten writes me, “ From the characters of both 
fruit and tree, I should unhesitatingly put Ben Hur in the Ben 
Davis type.” Stark Brothers describe it as follows: — 


Tree, a strong, thrifty grower, young bearer, productive; fruit, fully 
as large or larger than Ben Davis, brilliantly striped and splashed with 
red; flesh, tender, fine grained, juicy, highly flavored, excellent. 


Black Ben Davis. 


This variety is said to have originated near Fayetteville, Ark., 
about the year 1880. An earnest controversy has arisen as to 
whether it is identical with the Gano. A number of samples of 
apples were received under these two names and examined with 
some care. It was easy to distinguish two types of apples, but 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 185 


they were connected by intermediate forms in such a way as to 
render it difficult to say whether two distinct varieties were 
represented or not. The most striking difference was in color, 
this varying from a distinctly striped apple to those with a clear 
blush, with no sign of stripes, a rather remarkable variation to 
appear in a single variety, but which exists in the McIntosh. 
It was evident that if the varieties were really distinct the names 
were confused, for the apples that were the most typical of the 
Black Ben Davis were called Gano; and of another sample, con- 
sisting of two apples, one would be called Gano and the other 
Black Ben Davis. In addition to examining these apples, the 
writer has consulted all the available literature on this point, and 
after considering everything with care, is, on the whole, in- 
clined to the opinion that these are two distinct varieties, and 
describes them accordingly. 


Description of Fruit.— Size, below medium to above, not uniform; 
form, round conic, almost regular, slightly compressed, generally with 
~ unequal sides, rounded base and round coni¢ apex; color, bright greenish 
yellow, covered with rich, dark red, 20 per cent. to 95 per cent., blushed 
and mottled, sometimes showing slight tendency to striping; bloom, 
medium to heavy, waxy; skin, medium thick, rather tough, smooth and 
shining; dots, inconspicuous, medium in number, small, round, gray, 
seattering, scarcely raised; cavity, medium in depth and breadth, sloping, 
acute, nearly regular, slightly compressed, partly filled with greenish 
russet; stem, long, very slender, curved, brownish red, smooth; basin, 
rather shallow, medium, generally abrupt, nearly regular, slightly com- 
pressed; calyx, closed or partly open, medium, pubescent; segments, 
medium, reflexed; tube, short, medium width, conic, medium stamens, 
pistil point present; core, axile, large, central, turbinate, core lines 
meeting or clasping; cells, closed, medium; ecarpels, broad oval, emar- 
ginate, smooth, medium coneavity; seeds, few to medium, plump, medium 
size, medium brown, oval, medium pointed; axis, medium to rather 
long, straight; flesh, white, firm, medium coarse, rather dry; flavor, sub- 
acid; quality, good. Described from six specimens received from the 
New York Experiment Station. 


Coffelt. 
_ This apple originated with Wyatt Coffelt of Bentonville, Ark., 
and is said by Henthorn to be a seedling of the Red Limbertwig, 
though Beach says that some nursery catalogues state that it is 
a seedling of the Ben Davis. As received from the New York 


186 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


Experiment Station, it strongly resembles the Ben Davis. It 
has been planted to a limited extent in Arkansas, but it does 
not appear that it is superior to others of this group. 


Description of Fruit. — Size, small, uniform; form, roundish oblate, 
nearly regular, slightly unequal sides, rounded base and roundish, 
shghtly conie apex, uniform; color, yellowish green, covered with rather 
dull deep red, 65 per cent. to 95 per cent., mottled, more or less ob- 
seurely splashed, deepening almost to blush on sunny side; bloom, 
medium, waxy; skin, rather thick, medium texture, fairly smooth and 
bright; dots, more or less conspicuous, few to many, medium size, 
angular, russet, slightly raised; cavity, rather shallow, wide, flaring, 
broad acute, nearly regular, sometimes partly filled with russet; stem, 
long, slender, inclined, brownish red, smooth; basin, shallow, broad, 
flaring, flat obtuse, pentangular; calyx, open, medium size, slightly 
pubescent; segments, medium size, long, pointed, reflexed, separate at 
base; tube, medium in length and breadth, funnel form, medium sta- 
mens, pistil point present; core, axile, small, central, oval, clasping 
core lines; cells, closed, small, symmetrical; carpels, obvate, emarginate, 
smooth, coneavity medium; seeds, few, plump, medium size, medium 
brown, oval; axis, medium, straight; flesh, white, slightly yellowish, a 
little tinged with green, fine, medium firm, moderately juicy; flavor, 
mild subacid, almost sweetish; quality, good. Described from specimens 
received from the New York Experiment Station. 


Cole Davis. 


This variety originated with S. T. Cole of Lincoln, Ark., about 
a dozen years ago, the original tree appearing in an orchard of 
Ben Davis. According to Mr. Cole the apple was of higher 
eolor than the Ben Davis, but otherwise much the same. It was 
propagated for a time by the Stark Brothers, but so far as known 
is not now offered for sale. 


Ficke. 


Concerning this variety the writer has been able to learn but 
little. Specimens received from the New York Experiment 
Station resemble the Ben Davis, and Hedrick groups it here. 
Ragan gives its origin as Nebraska. 


Description of Fruit. — Size, small, uniform; form, roundish, regular, 
slightly compressed, nearly equal sides, rounded base and apex, uniform ; 
color, bright greenish yellow covered with bright, rather deep red, 50 
per cent. to 85 per ecent., striped, splashed and mottled, deepening 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 187 


almost to blush on sunny side; bloom, heavy, waxy; skin, rather thin, 
medium texture, smooth and bright; dots, inconspicuous, few to medium, 
rather small, roundish, light gray, general, very slightly raised; cavity, 
rather shallow, medium width, sloping, acute approaching obtuse, nearly 
regular, partly filled with russet; stem, long, slender, inclined or curved, 
brownish red, smooth; basin, shallow, medium width, abrupt, somewhat 
ribbed and plaited; calyx, closed or partly open, medium size, pubescent ; 
segments, medium size, medium long, pointed, reflexed; tube, rather 
short, medium, conic, medium stamens, pistil point present; core, abaxile, 
medium size, central or distant, broad oval, shghtly clasping core lines; 
cells, open, medium size, asymmetrical; carpels, obovate, emarginate, 
slightly slit, concavity medium; seeds, medium in number, plump, me- 
dium size or above, dark brown, oval, more or less straight on one side; 
axis, rather short, straight; flesh, whitish, shghtly tinged with yellowish 
green, fine, medium firm, medium juicy; flavor, subacid to slightly acid; 
quality good. Appears to resemble Coffelt. Described from specimens 
received from the New York Experiment Station. 


Eitris. 


According to Professor Stinson, this variety was first fruited 
near Bentonville, in the orchard of A. K. Etris, the trees coming 
from the nursery of John Breathwait, about fifteen years ago. 
It is not generally disseminated, but is considerably grown in 
the county of its origin. It is quite possible that it is identical 
with Gano. 


Extra. 


An apple was offered by Stark Brothers under this name about 
ten years ago, described as being larger and higher colored than 
Ben Davis. It is not now sold. It may have been a distinct 
or a special strain of Ben Davis. 


Flat Ben Davis. 


A distinct strain of the Ben Davis was observed by the writer 
in 1909 growing in an orchard in Monmouth, Me. It differed 
from the usual type in being larger and decidedly more oblate in 
form. The striping seemed to be coarser and more distinct than 
on neighboring trees of the common type. The tree also differed 
in being more open and apparently of rather less vigorous growth. 
There were several trees in this and a neighboring orchard. It 


appears to be in no way markedly superior to the ordinary Ben 
Davis. 


188 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


Gano. 


The exact origin of this variety is not perfectly clear. It is 
said to have been grown by Mr. Ely Jacks, in Howard County, 
Mo., in 1840, and to have been somewhat disseminated in that 
vicinity. It was first brought to general notice in 1884, when it 
was exhibited before the Missouri Horticultural Society, and 
about this time it was named Gano, for Mr. W. G. Gano who was 
concerned with its introduction. Mr. Gano states that the orig- 
inal tree came from a lot of Ben Davis, and was planted in the 
orchard under the supposition that it was of that variety, but on 
fruiting it proved to be different. Prof. S. A. Beach advances 
the theory that it is a bud sport of the Ben Davis.’ He thinks 
that it is improbable that a seedling stock should prove to be so 
hike the Ben Davis, the variety supposedly worked on the stock. 
If, however the Gano originated as a bud sport in the same way 
that Red Gravenstein has originated from Gravenstein, and 
Collamer Twenty Ounce from the original Twenty Ounce, then 
the fact that the Gano appeared under propagation in a lot of 
Ben Davis apple trees is easily and naturally accounted for. 

As compared with the Ben Davis, it is a little smaller, not 
quite as prolific a bearer, considerably higher colored, perhaps 
slightly better in quality, and sells for a little more per barrel. 
It takes second place in importance in this group, and is being 
planted in the southwest in place of the Ben Davis to a con- 
siderable extent, but has been planted but ttle in a commercial 
way elsewhere. 


Description of Fruit. — Size, medium, uniform; form, roundish, more 
or less conic, nearly regular, slightly compressed, nearly equal sides, 
rounded base, apex round or conic, not very uniform; color, clear 
greenish yellow covered with deep rich red, 15 per cent. to 70 per cent., 
mottled, blushed and striped, always blushed on sunny side, slightly 
russet; bloom, rather light, waxy; skin, rather thick, medium tough, 
smooth and shining’; dots, inconspicuous, few, medium size, roundish, 
gray, scattering, slightly raised; cavity, medium in depth and breadth, 
sloping, acute, fairly regular, filled with greenish russet; stem, long, 
slender, straight, brownish red, smooth; basin, shallow, medium width, 
steep to abrupt, ribbed and plaited; calyx, closed or partly open, me- 
dium or above, pubescent; segments, medium to large, long, pointed, 


1 Personal letter from 8. A. Beach. 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 189 


reflexed; tube, short to medium, medium breadth, conic basal stamens, 
pistil point present; core, axile, medium size, central, turbinate, core 
lines meeting; cells, nearly closed, medium or above, asymmetrical; car- 
pels, slightly obovate, strongly emarginate, nearly smooth, concavity 
variable; seeds, medium in number, plump, medium size, oval or angular, 
rather short; axis, medium, straight; flesh, white, slightly tinged with 
greenish yellow, firm, medium texture, medium juicy; flavor, mild sub- 
acid, very slightly astringent; quality, good. Described from specimens 
received from the New York Experiment Station. 


Improved Ben Davis. 


It is stated in the report of the [linois Horticultural Society 
for 1899, p. 89, that on several occasions an Improved Ben Davis 
has been brought to the attention of the society. It is rather 
probable that these were simply superior strains of the Ben 
Davis and not a distinct variety. So far as known, no variety 
of this name is being propagated. 


Nordhaussan. 


Scions of this sort were sent to the Division of Pomology at 
Washington by Mr. John Gabler of Springfield, Mo., in 1896, 
and by them distributed to various State experiment stations, 
including that of Massachusetts. Professor Waugh informs me 
that in both tree and fruit it resembled the Ben Davis. This 
tree was destroyed some few years ago, and I have not been able 
to secure either specimens or any further information concerning 
it. So far as known it is not offered for sale at the present time. 


Ostrakavis. 
A cross of the Ostrakoff and Ben Davis, originated at the 


Towa Experiment Station. Distributed only for trial and not 
considered to be of value. 


Description of Fruit.’ — Fruit medium or below, conical, regular, sur- 
face oily; color, yellow, with faint bronze blush; cavity, regular, deep, 
obtuse, with faint trace of russet; basin, wide, very shallow, minutely 
wrinkled; core, wide open, meeting; cells, large, roomy, ovate, slit; tube 
funnel shaped; stamens, median; seeds, twelve, large, plump; flesh, 
white, sweet. Season probably late fall or early winter. Interesting as 
showing that a cross of two sour apples may produce a sweet apple. 


a 
1 From S. D. Bulletin, 76, p. 80, 


190 EXPERIMENT STATION. (Jan. 


Paris. 
Reported by Mr. L. A. Goodman as a new apple of the Ben 
Davis family, sent by Mr. Ambrose of Paris, Mo., to the meeting 
of the Missouri Horticultural Society. 


Shackleford. 


This variety is first mentioned in the report of the Illinois 
Horticultural Society for 1883, at which time it appears to 
have been known in southern Illinois and adjacent parts of Mis- 
sourl. Beach says that it originated near Athens, Mo. It has 
been planted considerably in the southwest, but has not attained 
great favor as a commercial sort. It is generally of rather poor 
color and is said to be a straggling grower. It does not appear 
to be in any way superior to the Ben Davis and in some qualities 
it is inferior. 


Description of Fruit.— Size, medium, uniform; form, roundish ob- 
late, slightly conic, nearly regular, slightly compressed, sides generally 
nearly equal, base rounded, apex round conic, uniform; color, clear 
waxy greenish yellow covered with bright red, 10 per cent. to 50 per 
cent., splashed mottled and short striped, deeper on sunny side of some 
specimens; bloom, light, waxy; skin, rather thick, medium texture, 
smooth, and fairly bright; dots, very inconspicuous, few to medium, 
very small, round, gray russet or greenish, scattering, even or sub- 
merged; cavity, rather shallow, medium width, sloping to flaring, nearly 
obtuse, nearly regular, markings none; stem, medium long, slender, 
straight or inclined, brownish red, smooth; basin, medium in depth and 
breadth, abrupt, truncate conic, fairly regular, sometimes slightly ribbed 
and plaited; calyx, closed, medium size, pubescent; segments, large, 
broad, pointed, reflexed; tube, short, medium width, conic, stamens 
median, pistil point present; core, abaxile, small, central, broad oval, 
core lines meeting; cells, partly open, medium size, symmetrical; carpels, 
oblong, emarginate, slit, concavity medium; seeds, medium in number 
and size, plump, medium brown, oval, medium long, pointed; axis, 
medium in length, straight; flesh, greenish ‘white, medium firm, rather 
coarse, fairly juicy; flavor, brisk subacid; quality, good. Described 
from specimens received from the Ontario Agricultural College. 


Shirley. 
Mr. T. V. Munson of Dennison, Tex., gives the following 
history of this variety. 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 19 


This apple was found growing in two old orchards, namely the A. 
Alkire orchard, some four miles west of Dennison, Tex., and the Alex. 
Shirley orchard, some five miles southeast of Dennison. The writer saw 
these trees in said orchards about the year 1880, and made diligent 
inquiry as to their origin, but neither Mr. Alkire nor Mr. Shirley (both 
now deceased some years) knew from whence they came. I presume 
they came from some local Texas or Louisiana nursery that passed out 
of existence soon and left no history of the variety. The orchards were 
planted before railreads were built into Texas. There was a small 
nursery at Paris, Tex., and another at Clarksville, farther east, and one 
at Shreveport, La., the latter conducted by G. W. Storer, the others 
by a Mr. Walker at Clarksville and his son, J. Q. A. Walker, at Paris, 
Tex. These nurseries were the first in Texas and sold trees all through 
north Texas. They handled only southern varieties. The elder Walker 
came to Texas from Tennessee about the year 1838. 

In 1880 or 1881 I sent samples of the apples to Charles Downing, 
with whom I corresponded often for a number of years. Mr. Downing 
could not identify it. As the apple was a sure and prolific bearer, a 
large, handsome, salable fruit of fine keeping qualities, I began propa- 
gating and advertising it over twenty-five years ago. Mr. Shirley sold 
- the apple in Dennison and Sherman markets, where it acquired the name 
Shirley apple or sometimes Shirley Keeper. I described it in my eat- 
alogue as Shirley, which name it has retained ever since. - 

In tree and fruit it resembles York Imperial more than any other 
‘variety. It was the first to point out before the public this similarity; 
but the two are distinct. The Shirley is better in tree and fruit, some- 
what larger and brighter, and in quality a little better.’ 


As grown in Texas this apple resembles the York Imperial, 
but the specimens received from the New York Experiment 
Station are clearly of the Ben Davis type. The trees were re- 
ceived from Mr. Munson and the apples were identified by Mr. 
Munson as the Shirley. 


Description of Fruit. — Size, small, uniform; form, roundish oblate, 
nearly regular, often slightly compressed, nearly equal sides, base 
rounded, apex rounded or slightly conic, quite uniform; color, clear 
greenish yellow covered with bright medium red, 40 per cent. to 80 
per cent., mottled, splashed and striped, deepening almost to blush on 
sunny side; bloom, scant, waxy; skin, medium thick, rather tough, 
smooth and bright; dots, inconspicuous, medium in number, small, 
roundish, light gray, generally slightly raised; cavity, medium in depth, 
rather wide, flaring, broad acute, nearly regular, generally without 
markings; stem, long, slender, straight or inclined, brownish red, smooth ; 


1 Personal letter from Mr. T. V. Munson. 


192 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


basin, medium in depth and width, abrupt, truncate conic, smooth and 
nearly regular; calyx, closed or partly open, rather small, pubescent; 
segments, medium, short, pointed, reflexed; tube, long, medium in 
breadth, funnel form, stamens median or basal, pistil point present; 
core, abaxile, medium to small, central, oval turbinate, core lines clasp- 
ing; cells, closed, rather small, symmetrical; carpels, roundish to obo- 
vate, emarginate, smooth, concavity medium; seeds, medium to many, 
plump medium brown, irregular or oval, obtuse; axis, medium straight; 
flesh, white, slightly tinged with yellowish green, firm, moderately 
coarse, medium juicy; flavor, brisk subacid; quality, good. Described 
from nine specimens received from the New York Experiment Station. 


Sweet Ben Davis. 

Concerning this variety, Heiges makes the following state- 
ment in the report of the pomologist for 1895. The apples were 
from Prof. John T. Stinson of Fayetteville, Ark., who pre- 
sumably furnished the facts of origin, ete. 


Originated about 1870 on farm of Garret Williams in Madison 
county, Ark. The tree resembles Ben Davis in shape, wood and leaf, 
and is nearly as good a bearer. The fruit ripens about two weeks 
earlier than Ben Davis. Roundish, truncated, slightly oblique, slightly 
unequal; large, smooth, except for a few russet knobs; greenish yellow, 
washed with pale red, striped and splashed with crimson; dots, numerous ° 
brown; cavity, large, regular, deep, abrupt furrowed and russet netted; 
calyx segments, short, wide, converging or slightly reflexed; eye, large, 
partially open; skin, thick, tough; core, large, roundish, clasping, nearly 
closed; seeds, numerous, large, angular, brown; flesh, whitish satiny, 
juicy; sweet; good; season, winter. 


White Ben Davis. 

Professor Stinson says that this apple has been found in sev- 
eral orchards in Missouri. I do not know that it has been much 
disseminated or that it is now offered for sale. 

It has been said that a list of forty varieties was under con-— 
sideration. Only twenty are given as belonging to this group. 
Of the remaining ones the following varieties, that have by va- 
rious writers been more or less clearly and definitely assigned to 
this group, are considered to properly belong elsewhere: — 
Beach. Loy. 


Dickenson, Rutledge. 


Gill (Gill Beauty). Wallace Howard. 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 193 


Regarding the following the writer is in some doubt, owing to 
lack of opportunity for sufficient study, but considers it probable 
that they do not belong to this group: — 


Breckinridge. Hastings Red. 
Chicago. Highfill. 
Collins (Champion). King David. 
Florence. Marion Red. 
Givens. 


The remainder of the forty are accounted for as synonyms. 

In deciding whether or not any variety should be admitted 
to a place in the Ben Davis group as here given, the intention 
has been to be conservative. The study of varieties of fruits by 
groups has only recently begun and the writer feels that in con- 
stituting these groups it is best to include in any group under 
consideration only such varieties as seem beyond doubt to belong 
there, even if there are strays left that do not seem to belong any- 
where. If any of these odd varieties are of great importance 
they will in time become the central types of new groups, while 
if only of minor account they may as well be left by themselves. 

It is to be understood that the foregoing is not final, but of the 
nature of a report of progress. In order to be conclusive the 
study of the fruit in some cases and of the tree characters in 
many cases is necessary. It is hoped, however, that it may 
prove a contribution of some value on this subject and a basis for 
further study. 


194 EXPERIMENT STATION, [Jan. 


VARIATION IN APPLES.’ 


BY J. K. SHAW. 


It is safe to assume that the Ben Davis is the most widely 
cultivated of any commercial variety of apples in America. «It 
is known in almost every apple-growing section. It is therefore 
grown under a great variety of conditions of climate, from the 
short hot summers and long cold winters of Quebec to opposite 
conditions in Arkansas and Texas. It also flourishes in a great 
variety of soil conditions. Moreover, it seems to be in itself 
more variable than other sorts, and responds in a greater degree 
to varying environment than do most other varieties. 

These considerations led to its selection as a variety for the 
study of variation in apples, and the results of two years’ in- 
vestigation are here reported. The matter is presented under 
two headings, (1) the variation in size and form as grown in the 
Clark orchard of the Massachusetts Agricultural College, and 
(2) the variation in form, quality and other characters when 
grown under widely varying conditions of climate and soil in 
the United States and Canada. 


VARIATION IN THE COLLEGE ORCHARD. 


In the fall of 1908 the product of four trees in the college 
orchard was picked separately and divided each into four lots, 
comprising the product of the upper south, lower south, upper 
north and lower north quarters of the trees. These were studied 
with reference to size and form. This arrangement gave op- 
portunity for two comparisons: (a) from different trees, (bd) 
from different parts of the trees. 


1 Work on this subject was begun by the writer in 1907 as a part of the requirements for the 
degree of M.S. by the Massachusetts Agricultural College, and was continued and extended in 
1908. It was done under the direction of Prof. F. C. Sears, to whom the thanks of the writer are 
extended for encouragement and suggestions, and also to Prof. F. A. Waugh, who has aided in 
many ways. Assistanceand suggestions have also been received from many horticulturists and 
fruit growers from various parts of the country. It is impossible to name them here, but the 
debt to all is gratefully acknowledged. 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 195 


(a) From Different Trees. 

Table 1 shows the means,! standard deviations and coefficents 
of variability, with their probable errors, in the size and form 
of the apples from each of the four trees. It 1s evident that 
there are differences in both size and form. 


TABLE 1. 
S1zE.? Form. 
Coefii- Coeffi- | Num- 
Stand- : Standard 

Mean. | ard De- conto Mean. Devia- gent oe Piece 

viation. ability. tion. ability. ples. 

Tree 2, 71.02.14 | 6.16+.10 | 8.67+.14 || 1.1422+.0014 | .0576+.0009 | 3.04+.88 864 
Tree 3, 68.80.15 | 5.31+.10 | 7.72+.16 || 1.1399+.0016 | .0543+.0011 | 4.73+.09 567 
Tree 5, 68.35.13 | 5.55+.08 | 8.12+.13 || 1.1666+.0019 | .0626+.0013 | 3.76.08 469 
Tree 7, 72.80+.18 | 6.45+.13 | 8.86+.17 || 1.1716+.0019 | .0578+.0013 | 3.37+.07 423 
70.23.08 | 5.95.06 | 8.47+.08 || 1.1515 .0008 | .0589+.0006 | 5.29.05 2,321 


There seems to be little or no relation between the size of the 
apples and the yield. Trees 2 and 7 produced the larger apples, 


SERA Aas 
Bea N! | | 
CHAS SEGRE 
PLLA EN 
Je 7 Aaa SER 
eerie eta hel 


Seema. | 
maf) -EAANG 


belt | =, 


Fie. 1. 


and one of these gave the highest yield of all and the other the 
lowest, less than half as many. ‘There are seen to be slight 


1 For the method of making these calculations, see p. 198. 
2 All measurements are in millimeters. 


196 EXPERIMENT STATION. (Jan. 


differences in the variability in size of apples from the different 
trees. 

More striking are the differences in mean index of form, 
though the variability of form is less than that of size. The 
difference in form of the apples from Trees 3 and 7 is shown 
graphically in Fig. 1. These differences in form were per- 
ceptible to the eye, and there were also differences in color, 
apples from Tree 5 being higher colored than the others. 

These differences may be attributed to bud variation or to the 
influence of the stock, for the trees were near each other, and, 
so far as could be seen, on exactly similar soils. In passing it 
may be suggested that this method offers means of throwing 
light on these two disputed questions, namely, bud variation and 
the mutual influence of stock and scion. 


(b) From Different Parts of the Trees. 


The results of computations of the apples from different parts 
of the tree are shown in Table 2. It appears from this that 
apples from the top of the tree are a little larger than those 
from the lower branches and also slightly more variable. In 
form the differences in both mean and standard deviation are 
slight, those from the lower branches being a little longer than 
those from the top of the tree. The most important thing about 
this table is that it serves to bring out the greater differences 
in the products of the individual trees. 


TABLE 2: 


Size. Form. 
Stand: [Cera Standard | Cocffi-. 
Mean. | ard De- eee Mean. ae Ware 
viation. ability. tion. ability. 


Upper south, . | 70.93.18 | 6.40.13 | 9.02+.19 |} 1.1643+.0017 | .0593+ .0012 | 3.61+.07 
Lower south, . | 69.24.14 | 5.68+.10 | 8.20+.14 || 1.1512+.0015 | .0619+.0011 | 4.19+.07 
Upper north, . | 71.27.20 | 6.14+.15 | 8.47+.19 || 1.1553+ .0020 | .0607+ .0014 | 3.91.08 
Lower north, . | 69.79.12 | 4.96+.08 | 7.11.12 || 1.1406+.0016 | .0644+ .0011 | 4.58.07 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 197 


CLIMATIC VARIATIONS. 


The variations in the college orchard are comparatively slight 
when compared with those observed when apples from widely 
separated localities are compared. This variation has been 
often observed and noted, but so far as the writer knows there 
has been no attempt to study systematically and record it. The 
work here reported is a beginning. The study is based on a 
careful examination and measurement of twenty lots of apples 
of the crop of 1907 and of twenty-five of the crop of 1908, re- 
ceived from growers in different localities in the United States 
and Canada. These lots were generally about a bushel each. 
The numbers are given in Table 8. An attempt was made to se- 
cure apples from the same orchards both years, but on account 
of crop failures and other reasons this was unsuccessful in a few 
eases. In addition to these, several smaller samples have been 
received from other localities which, while not large enough for 
the same sort of study, serve to indicate the gradual variation 
of the variety when passing from one region to another. In the 
following pages the variation of form, size, quality and other 
characters are separately taken up and considered. 


DiIscussION OF THE VARIATION. 


Form. 


The most important character studied was that of form, and 
the variation of this was nothing short of remarkable. One 
familiar with the variety in a certain locality would hardly 
recognize it as grown perhaps not more than one or two hun- 
dred miles away. Much time was given to the study of this, 
and careful measurements of more than 9,000 apples from the 
different localities were made and calculated by statistical 
methods. 

The different lots may be grouped in four classes as regards 
the general form, as follows: — 

1. The oblong conic, more or less ribbed form from the 
Maine seacoast and Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island. 

2. The round conic type from the north central and north- 
eastern United States and southern Canada, from as far south 


198 EXPERIMENT STATION, [Jan. 1910. 


as Pennsylvania and possibly farther in the mountain regions, 
and from the Pacific coast. | 

3. The oblate or oblate conic type from the Delaware penin- 
sula and the valley of the Ohio and its tributaries. 

4, The roundish oblate form from the Ozarks and from 
Colorado. | 

The outlines of specimens representing these four types are 
shown in Fig. 2. Each of these types seems to be pretty con- 
stant in the localities given, and they gradually shade into each 
other in passing from one region to the next. These differences 
in form are closely related with certain other characters which 
are discussed later. 

Coming now to the mathematical expression of the form of the 
apples, the method was as follows. Each apple was carefully 
measured, ascertaining in millimeters its greatest transverse and 
longitudinal diameters, and the figures recorded. Then the 
transverse diameter of each apple was divided by its greatest lon- 
gitudinal diameter. The number resulting from this caleula- 
tion was taken as representing the form of the apple, and is 
called the index or coefficient of form. If the index is 1 the 
diameters are equal; if it is less than 1 the apple is longer than 
broad, and if more than 1 it is broader than long. The ealeu- 
lation of this index for a large number of apples gives an array 
of numbers representing the forms of the apples measured 
which may be dealt with by statistical methods.? 

Calculating the means of the several arrays representing the 
different lots of apples measured gives the interesting and sig- 
nificant figures shown in Table 3. Translated into simple 
language these figures mean that in Port Williams, N. S., for 
example, the average Ben Davis apple of the crop of 1907 was 
about 1.0196 larger in transverse diameter than in longitudinal 
diameter, and, as shown by the probable error, the chances are 
even that this figure is not over .0035 of the transverse diameter 
away from the truth. This average apple is nearly as long as 
broad, and to one familiar with this sort of measurement indi- 
cates an apple that may be correctly described as oblong. 


1 For these methods see C. B. Davenport, ‘Statistical Methods,” or ‘‘ Principles of Breeding,” 
by E. Davenport. 


NOVA SCOTIA 


e 


« 


ARKANSAS 


Fic. 2.—Typical Forms of the Ben Davis. 


Nova Scotia, the oblong form. Ontario, the round conic form. West Virginia, the oblate 
form. Arkansas, the roundish form. 


HXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


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1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 201 


At the other extreme stands the lot from West Virginia, with 
an index of 1.2272 + .0035. The average apple grown under 
exactly those conditions under which these apples grew has a 
cross diameter about 1.2272 times larger than the longitudinal 
diameter, and we know that the chances are even that this figure 
is not more than .0035 of the transverse diameter out of the 
way. Stating this last in another way, it means that the chances 
are even that the true index of form is not less than 1.2257 nor 
more than 1.2307. 

The third column of Table 3 gives the standard deviation 
with its probable error, which gives a measure of variability for 
each lot. This is affected by the selection or want of selection, 
as the case might be, of the person sending the apples, some 
growers sending the apples just as they came from the trees and 
some selecting them more or less, and doubtless throwing out 
many specimens which were off type, thus reducing the amount 
of variation in that lot. Several tests showed that the amount 
_ of variability among the larger apples and smaller apples of a 
given lot was about the same, and this was also true of the mean 
index of form. It is believed, however, that this selection has 
not greatly modified the figures, and that the mean indexes of 
form are scarcely affected at all. 

The fourth column gives the coefficient of variability and its 
probable error. This is an abstract number giving, in per- 
centages of the means, the variability of each lot of apples, and 
enables one to compare the variability in form with that of any 
other character of the apples, or any character which can be 
measured and expressed by this method. 

The variation in form is shown graphically in the diagrams in 
plates I. to V. These are based on the same measurements as 
the mathematical calculations, each lot being reduced to the basis 
of 200 apples for the sake of uniformity. Many of them are 
somewhat irregular, owing to the small numbers of specimens 
measured. The ordinate representing the index of form of 
1.1300 is in each case made heavier in order to furnish a stand- 
ard for comparison, this ordinate being near the average of all 
apples measured. The shape and relative position of these dia- 
grams show strikingly the differences in variability and in mean 
index of form of the various lots of apples. 


202 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


Considering the diagrams and the figures given in the table, 
we find that in the extreme northeast the Ben Davis is much 
elongated, and as we go south and west it becomes less elongated 
and more flattened, till we reach West Virginia and Kentucky, 
where it becomes a decidedly oblate apple. In the Ozarks it is 
a little longer, and in southern California still longer, and in 
British Columbia it is almost as much elongated as in Nova 
Scotia and neighboring regions. This noticeable elongation of 
the apples from Belleville, Ont., as compared with those from 
Guelph, is significant, as Belleville is located not far from the 
north shore of Lake Erie, while Guelph is some miles inland. 
The same influence is perhaps shown in the Vermont lot, though 
the figures for those of Quebec and Massachusetts, which serve to 
bring this out, are themselves in some degree exceptions to the 
general rule that the apples are longer as one goes north. 
Nevertheless, it seems reasonable to conclude that, beginning in 
the southern Allegheny mountains and in southern California, 
and going north, the apples become more elongated, and that 
this elongation is much more pronounced in the vicinity of large 
bodies of water, either salt or fresh. 

The comparison of apples from the same orchard both years 
shows reasonably close agreement in most cases. Several, how- 
ever, are quite different. It will be noted that these are among 
the extremes of form. The maritime provinces and the Pacific 
coast, that furnished extremely long apples in 1907, gave shorter 
ones in 1908, and the extremely flattened ones from West Vir- 
ginia were longer. On the other hand, those near the average 
form show very slight differences. Professor Sears states that 
in Nova Scotia there are two types of Ben Davis that differ much 
in both tree and fruit. The fruit of one generally approaches 
an oblong form, while the other is more conic. Most of the 
Nova Scotia apples of 1907 were of the former type, while those 
of 1908 were more like the latter. The same would apply in 
some degree to those from Prince Edward Island. Both lots 
were the run of the orchard, no selection whatever being made. 
It is possible that the difference in the forms of these apples in 
the two years may be due to their representing these different 
types. 

The apples from Quebee are flatter than those from farther 


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1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 203 


south, and those from Arkansas longer than those from farther 
north. This suggests the possibility that near the northern and 
southern extremes of distribution the general rule of elonga- 
tion, as one goes north, is reversed, and that in the extreme 
north they are a little flatter than they are a little farther south, 
and at the extreme south they become slightly elongated. More 
data are needed to decide this question. 

With a feeling that much could be learned by a more detailed 
study of the apples along the coast and ad jacent region of New 
England and the maritime provinces, a special effort was made 
in the past season to secure’ apples from this section. These 
show the elongation towards the seacoast and northward, but 
among those from Maine the figures are not as harmonious as 
might be wished. Sangerville is farthest inland and New 
Gloucester nearest the coast,and they give the flattest and second 
longest apples, respectively; but the localities between do not 
show the gradual change in form that might be expected. 
These differences, however, are not large, and selection of the 
sample and local influences may account for it. More informa- 
tion is needed to clear this up. 


VARIABILITY OF THE DIFFERENT Lots. 


An examination of the measures of variability of the different 
lots, bearing in mind the selection or want of selection of the 
shippers, indicates a somewhat greater variability in northern 


localities. This is shown both years, but is more pronounced in 
1908. 


Size. 

The size of the apples was in many cases dependent largely 
on the selection practiced by the grower in making up the lots 
for shipment. Some were carefully selected and others were 
the run of the orchard. Any figures on size are, therefore, likely 
to be of little value. It is doubtless true that the apple attains 
a larger size in the south than in the extreme north. The sea- 
son of 1907 was cold in the north and dry in the southwest, and 
may account for the inferior size of the apples from these re- 
gions. The season of 1908 was warmer in the north, and it 
appears that the apples were larger. Table 4 shows the results 


EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


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1910.| PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 205 


of measuring a few lots from the same orchard both seasons, 
where it appears, from correspondence with the growers, safe 
to make comparisons. For comparison the average monthly 
mean temperatures for the growing season March to September, 
inclusive, for the different towns or some near-by station are 
given. It appears safe to infer that in any given orchard the 
size of the apple is governed largely by the temperature, but this 
by no means holds in different localities. 


Flesh. 


The whiteness of flesh which is characteristic of the variety 
was always maintained in considerable degree ; those from Colo- 
rado were notably white of flesh. The less mature specimens 
had a greenish tinge, which, as the fruit ripened, gave way to 
a slight yellowish. | 

The firmness of the flesh likewise gradually gave way with 
ripening. The Colorado and in less degree the California lots 
~ were less firm and more of a spongy texture. Those from 
California carried well, but those from Colorado were soft 
enough to bruise quite badly, though this appeared to not seri- 
ously injure their keeping qualities, as the bruises showed a 
tendency to dry out rather than to decay. 

The juiciness.and quality were found to be variable. The 
_ apples were generally more juicy in the south, and of notably 
better quality. Northern-grown fruit was dry, flat, hard, and 
in some cases noticeably astringent, and these undesirable quali- 
ties did not entirely disappear with ripening. 

In an attempt to learn something of the real nature of this, 
and of the general quality of the flesh, some chemical work was 
done.’ Owing to a lack of time this was not as complete as 
might be wished, but the results, as far as they go, are inter- 
esting. 

The methods used in this work may be briefly described as 
follows. One or two small slices, reaching to the core, were 
cut from three or more carefully selected apples, and dried in a 
water bath at 90° to 98° C. for about thirty-six hours. The 
weight of the residue gave the amount of dry matter. This 
dry residue, after cooling, was ground in a mortar until it 


1 For the opportunity to do this and for many suggestions as to methods, etc., the writer is in- 
debted to the chemical department of the college. 


206 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


would pass through a very fine sieve, and this fine powder used 
for the other work. The “ insoluble matter” was determined 
by digesting 1 gram with about 200 cubic centimeters distilled 
water at room temperature, filtering through a tared filter paper 
and drying. The filtrate was titrated with n/5 alkali, using 
phenolphthalein as an indicator, and calculated as malice acid. 
For crude fiber the methods of the Association of Official Agri- 
cultural Chemists were followed, except that the sample was 
not previously extracted with ether. 

The results of this work are shown in Table 5. From this 
table it appears that there is slight variation in the water con- 
tent of these apples, those from Arkansas and Oklahoma having 
a little lower water content that those from the north. There 
is nothing in this column to account for the observed differences 
in juiciness and quality. 


TABLE 5.—: Chemical Determinations (Per Cent.). 


In OrrGINAL SUBSISTENCE. Ere 
APPLES M— 5 
wf water |e, [Sable | ial | Grade | Ste | ane | Sa 
Matter. Malic. || Matter. 4 

Prince Edward Island, | 84.9 15.1 11.13 3.97 1.07 1.03 26.3 7.15 
Nova Scotia, oy ees 14.6 ay 3.39 1S 23.9 7.75 
Maine, 84.6 15.4 - - - .70 ~ - 
Quebec, 84.2 15.8 11.80 4.00 - ~ 25.3 - 
Vermont, 84.0 16.0 - - - .76 ~ - 
Guelph, Ont., 83.6 GHA eelomon 2.89 - - t5 ~ 
Belleville, Ont., . 83.6 16.4 - ~ - - - - 
Pennsylvania, 85.8 14.2 - - - .70 = = 
Massachusetts, 85.2 14.8 11.52 3.26 .99 73 22.0 6.68 
Connecticut, 84.2 15.8 - - - = = = 
Delaware, 84.3 15.7 ~ - - .79 = = 
West Virginia, 84.8 15.2 12.00 3.21 .80 19 21.1 5.28 
Kentucky, 84.7 15.3 12.58 2.74 - - 17.9 - 
Indiana, 83.2 16.8 = = - 76 - - 
Bentonville, Ark., 82.4 17.6 - - 93 - - 5.29 
Fayetteville, Ark., 81.2 18.8 - ~ 1.03 65 - 5.52 
Oklahoma, . 82.6 17.4 14.30 3.04 = . 66 17.6 - 
Colorado, 84.8 15.2 12.82 2.39 1.00 - 15.7 - 
California, . 83.2 16.8 13.88 2.94 - 63 17.5 - 
British Columbia, 84.5 15.5 - - - - - - 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 207 


The constituents of apples, soluble in water, include the 
sugars, acids and doubtless some others of minor importance. 
These are lowest in Nova Scotia and highest in Oklahoma, and 
samples from intermediate points are generally between these 
figures in so far at least as determined. 

The percentage of insoluble matter, which consists of pectin, 
cellulose and possibly starch and allied substances, are in gen- 
eral inversely proportional to those of soluble matter, being 
highest in the north and lower in the more southern part of 
the range of the variety. 

Color. 

The body color was, as a rule, closely correlated with the 
degree of ripeness of the fruit, the riper the apple the more 
yellowish in color. Aside from this, no variation was noted. 
The depth of overcolor was closely correlated with latitude, 
the farther north the deeper the color, and the variation was 
from a pale pinkish red in Arkansas to a deep crimson in the 
extreme north. The amount of overcolor did not seem to be 
dependent on latitude but was probably controlled largely by 
local conditions. The overcolor was especially good on the 
Pacific coast apples and on those from Colorado, Pennsylvania 
and Indiana, though in case of the last it was rather dull. The 
disposition of the color showed no striking variation. The 
mottling ran together into a blush on highly colored specimens, 
and there were always more or less stripes and splashes present. 
Probably all the russet that appeared was caused by Bordeaux 
mixture. 


Bloom. 

The amount of bloom seemed to be rather less in the north 
than in the south and on the Pacific coast. The nature of the 
bloom, whether waxy or greasy, seemed to depend largely on the 
maturity of the fruit. 


Skin. 

The skin was generally thicker in the south and west than 
in the northern localities. The texture did not vary greatly. 
The surface of the fruit varied much, but this seemed to be 
brought about by local conditions, and most of the roughness 


208 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


was due to Bordeaux mixture. The specially dull rough sur- 
face of the Massachusetts specimens was probably due to a 
heavy application of nitrate of soda the previous year. 


Dots. 


The size and color of the dots was variable, but the number 
and form were quite constant, and they were always very slightly 
raised above the surface of the apple. They are generally very 
small in the extreme north and become quite constantly larger 
as one goes south, being largest in the southwest and in Colorado. 
Almost all specimens showed some dots with russet and some 
without. Aside from this they are generally hghter in the north 
and more gray or yellowish toward the south. 


Cavity. 

The variation in the size of the cavity was marked. It was 
small and very shallow in the extreme northeast, of medium 
depth in the central and south central States and very deep in 
the Ozarks and in Colorado and California. It was very nar- 
row in the Ozarks and generally wide in other localities. In 
cross-section there was little significant variation except that the 
cavity was generally more smooth and regular in southern- 
grown specimens. 


Stem. 


The stem presented little of interest. It was extremely vari- 
able in length and size, but the variation was nearly as great 
between specimens of almost any one lot as between those of 
different lots. The variability was perhaps greater in northern- 
grown apples than in those grown farther south. 


Basin. 


The remarks concerning the variation of the cavity will 
apply almost as well to the basin. A noticeable variation was 
the tendency towards a five-crowned fruit in Nova Scotia and 
to a less degree in neighboring regions. This was also seen in 
some degree in specimens from British Columbia, but was less 
pronounced. This tendency towards a pentagonal form ex- 
tends more or less to the whole apple, giving somewhat of a 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 209 


pentagonal outline to the fruit as a whole. In the more south- 
ern localities, and particularly in the Ozarks and neighboring 
regions, the basin is remarkably smooth and regular and the 
sides abrupt, which make the basin one of the surest means of 
identifying specimens of this variety that may chance to be 
off type. 

Calyx. 

The calyx was generally more or less distorted by handling, 
and it was difficult to make very much out of it. The most 
striking thing about it was that in the small, poorly developed 
specimens it was nearly always closed, while in large, well-grown 
specimens it was at least partly open and sometimes a little 
separate at the base. 


Calyx Tube. 


The calyx tube was extremely variable, being sometimes very 
short, not more than one-fourth as long as wide, as in some of 
the Quebec specimens, and sometimes extremely long, extending 
almost to the cells, as in some of those from Arkansas and 
Colorado. This variability lay mostly in what may be called 
the stem of the funnel, this being very long in some apples and 
varying all the way to complete suppression, leaving a conical 
tube, in others. As a rule it was longer in the fully developed 
specimens and short in the poorly developed apples from north- 
ern regions. 

Core. 


The variation of the core closely followed that of the general 
form of the apple. In the elongated specimens it approached 
an oval form, and in the roundish and oblate apples it was 
turbinate. Likewise, in the elongated specimens it was usually 
abaxile, often strongly so, and-in the more oblate ones it became 
axile or nearly so. The size as compared with that of the 
whole fruit varied but little, being possibly a little larger in the 
ill-developed apples, and it was always central and the core lines 
generally clasping. 

Cells. 


The variation of the cells very closely followed that of other 
parts of the core, being wide open and asymmetrical in the 
northern-grown apples and closed and symmetrical in those from 


210 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


the south. It was most open and asymmetrical in the larger 
apples. The carpels were never tufted but often were a little 
slit, especially in those from the north; they varied consider- 
ably in form, following pretty closely the general form of the 
apple. The concavity of the carpels was chiefly dependent on 
the development of the seeds. 


Seeds. 


The seeds showed little variation worthy of note. The num- 
ber was somewhat variable; they were usually plump and of 
medium size. ‘The color varied with the degree of maturity of 
the fruit, being generally lighter in poorly developed, northern- 
grown specimens. 


CAUSES OF THE VARIATION. 
The most interesting and significant variation is found (1) 
in the form of the apple and its parts, both external and in- 
ternal; (2) in size, and (8) in the quality of the flesh. The 


variation in color is that usually found, being darker in the 
higher latitudes. 


Form. 


It appears beyond question that, speaking generally, and 
possibly excluding the extremes of distribution, Ben Davis 
apples become gradually more elongated as one goes from its 
Southern range northward, and this elongation is much more 
pronounced near large bodies of water. This is probably some- 
what affected by local influences, but in general it appears to 
hold. That these differences are caused by climate, and not by 
different soils, sites, fertilizers or methods of cultivation, the 
writer has no doubt. Just what factor or factors of climate 
bring this change about is not so clear. It would seem probable 
that humidity has something to do with it, but the writer has 
been unable thus far to secure conclusive evidence on this point. 
The available records of humidity have been unsatisfactory, and 
more exact knowledge of this at the stations where the apples 
are grown and more data on their variation are needed. It is 
also possible that temperature may have an influence, either 
direct or through its influence on humidity. 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 381. 211 


It is entirely possible that other factors enter in, but a care- 
ful consideration of latitude, altitude, amount and intensity of 
sunlight, rainfall and other considerations fail to show anything 
that can be demonstrated as having any constant effect. To 
determine just what the cause is will require much patient 
investigation. 


Size. 

The size of the apples appears to be largely governed in any 
locality by the summer temperature. This is shown by the 
larger apples in the warmer season of 1908. In only two cases 
has a higher temperature failed to produce larger apples, and in 
one case the apples are larger while the temperature remains 
the same. The other eight comparisons in Table 4 show a 
higher temperature and larger apples. It may also be noted that 
a comparatively low temperature in the north produces as large 
or larger apples than a much higher temperature farther south. 
It is of course to be understood that methods of cultivation have 
an effect on size sometimes greater than temperature, and this 
fact, together with some possible selection on the part of the 
shipper, probably accounts for the above exception to the gen- 
eral rule. 


Flesh. 


During the winter of 1907 careful notes were kept on the 
quality of the apples from the different localities. In the judg- 
ment of the writer the various lots would rank in quality about 
in the following order with a notable difference between 9 and 
. 


Degrees F. Degrees F-. 
1. Colorado, : : . 63-0 | It. Connecticut, . : 3 4 DOs 
2. Indiana, : ; . 63.2 | 12. Pennsylvania, 3 eerOce) 
3. Bentonville, Ark., . ._ >= 13. Massachusetts, : = 109 
4. Oklahoma, . 5 . 68.9 | 14. Guelph, Ont., : gUsTtE. 
5. Lineoln, Ark., : . 69,0) 15: {Nova Seotia,, . : . 00.4 
GeCalitornia, . : . 65.9 | 16. British Columbia, . GEES) 
meicentucky, . ‘ sy G0:5. 4. U7. Mame. ; ; > Ha:8 
8. West Virginia, . . 60.4 | 18. Prince Edward and 48.9 
9. Delaware, : ; . 61.8 | 19. Vermont, 5 ; . oa.0 


pt 
S 


. Belleville, Ont.,  . . 02.4 | 20. Quebec, . ‘ ; ~ 40.9 


212 EXPERIMENT STATION, [Jan. 


Accompanying the list is given the average monthly mean 
temperatures for the growing season of 1907, March to Septem- 
ber, inclusive, as compiled from the records of the United States 
Weather Bureau and Canadian Meteorological Service. 

It appears from this that an average monthly mean tempera- 
ture for the growing season of at least 60° is required for the 
satisfactory development of the Ben Davis apple, and if grown 
where a lower temperature prevails the product is likely to be 
inferior. 

That the poor quality of these northern-grown apples, as 
shown by their acidity, and dry, tasteless flesh, is due to lack of 
sufficient heat to fully develop the fruit is indicated by the 
results of certain work of the Bureau of Chemistry of the 
United States Department of Agriculture on the development of 
the Ben Davis, where is shown the constant increase of sugars 
and decrease of acids with the development of the apples. It is 
also shown that the tannin which is present in the partially 
developed apples gradually disappears, and it is doubtless this 
substance that gives the apples their astringent taste. 


Summary. 

1. Apples vary greatly in response to the widely varying 
conditions of soil, and, more especially, climate, in the apple 
regions of North America. The Ben Davis variety seems to be 
especially variable. 

2. This variability may be accurately measured and studied 
by means of statistical methods. 

3. The most striking variation is in the external form of 
the apples, and this is accompanied by corresponding changes of 
the internal structure. 

4. The cause of this variation is some factor or factors of 
climate, which are closely related to latitude and the proximity 
of large bodies of water. It is probable that humidity or tem- 
perature, or both, may be the controlling factors. 

5. The differences in warmth of different growing seasons 
definitely affect the size of the apples for that season. 

6. The most favorable temperature for development in size 


1 Bureau of Chemistry, Bulletin 94, p. 44. 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 213 


varies with the locality. It is lower in the north than in the 
south. 

7. The cause of the variation in quality is chiefly the varying 
amount of heat prevalent during the growing season. 

8. In order to develop satisfactorily in quality the Ben Davis 
should have an average monthly mean temperature of not 
less than 60° F. for the growing season, March to September, 
inclusive. 


214 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


FUMIGATION DOSAGE. 


I.. TOMATOES, 


BY W. V. TOWER, B.S. 


INTRODUCTION. 


BY H. T. FERNALD. 

Tomatoes are extensively grown in Massachusetts in green- 
houses. Unfortunately, they are subject to the attacks of sev- 
eral kinds of insects which under glass seem to be more than 
ordinarily destructive. The most important of these enemies 
are the greenhouse white fly (Aleyrodes vaporariorum West. ) 
and thrips, and as these are most successfully controlled by 
fumigation with hydrocyanie acid gas, this treatment should be 
familiar to tomato growers. Unfortunately, however, this is not 
the case, many growers seeming to be afraid to use it for fear 
that when the gas is generated in sufficient quantity to destroy 
the insects it will also injure the plants. 

The amount of hydrocyanic acid gas to which tomato plants 
can be exposed without injury, under varying conditions of 
hight, temperature, humidity, age, variety, ete., has never been 
investigated, so that there has hitherto been some reason for 
this fear. To determine, therefore, just what tomato plants 
could withstand in the way of treatment, under all conditions 
likely to be met with in commercial work, the experiments 
which follow were planned by the writer and were carried out 
in the greenhouse of the department of entomology of the Massa- 
chusetts Agricultural Experiment Station during the winter of 
1905-06, by Mr. W. V. Tower, then a graduate student in en- 
tomology at the Massachusetts Agricultural College. The ex- 
periments had just been completed when Mr. Tower accepted an 
appointment in Puerto Rico and was obliged to leave before the 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 215 


results were ready for publication. It is therefore desirable, 
for the sake of placing responsibility, to state that the experi- 
ments were planned largely by the writer, assisted to some ex- 
tent by Mr. Tower; that the entire care of the plants, the fumi- 
gations and the observation of the results were the work of Mr. 
Tower; while most of the conclusions and the duty of editing 
the work for publication have fallen upon the writer. In fact, 
the original work herein contained should be regarded as Mr. 
Tower’s, while for the planning of the experiments and the 
editorial work the writer should be held responsible. 

Three varieties of tomato — Livingston, Lorillard and Free- 
dom — were selected, these being the ones most generally raised 
under glass in Massachusetts. Two plants of each varicty were 
used in each test. In the tabulations which follow, factors 
common to the entire set are given before the tabulation itself. 
The abbreviations indicating the results are as follows: — 


B, burned. N, normal (uninjured). 
BB, badly burned. SB, shghtly burned. 
BC, burned and leaves curling. SI, slightly injured. 
BI, badly injured. TI, temporarily injured. 
C, leaves curling. TK, top killed. 
I, injured. VBI, very badly injured. 
K, killed. 


Wilted leaves are the first indication of injury. If this 1s 
not too severe they gradually become normal again. Curled 
leaves indicate more serious effects, but plants thus affected fre- 
quently become normal later. 

The fumigation in all cases was with 98 per cent. to 99 per 
cent. potassic cyanide, the proportions of the cyanide, acid and 
water used being 1, 2, 4. The column marked “ Time of ex- 
posure ” gives the time at which the treatment began. Temper- 
atures are given by the Fahrenheit scale. 

The first two sets of experiments were carried on in direct 
sunlight. In the first set periods of ten, twenty, thirty, forty- 
five minutes’ and one hour’s exposure quickly showed that it was 
not necessary to make any long exposures with the greater 
strength of cyanide, and, accordingly, exposures of ten, twenty 
and thirty minutes only were made, even the shortest of these 
being too severe a treatment for the plants. 


216 EKXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


EXpeRIMENT I. 


Day Exposures with Direct Sunlight. — 

First four sets treated March 14; fifth set treated December 
14, 

Fumigation with .005 gram KCN per cubie foot; plants six 
weeks old; humidity for first four sets, 65°; for fifth set, 60° ; 
amount of sunlight (March 14) for first four sets, four hours; 
for fifth set (December 14), five hours; plants of first four sets, 
watered the morning of the test; of the fifth the day before; all 
sets dry when treated; conclusions drawn five days after treat- 
ment with the first three sets, eight days afterward with the 
fourth set and about three weeks afterward with the fifth set. 
The sunlight was not as strong for the fifth set as for the others, 
it being December, while the other tests were in March. 


Ser NuMBERs. 


1 | 2 3 es | 5 
Time of exposure, . Dae. - : 2.28 3.00 3.30 4.10 8.30 
Length of exposure, : - : : 10 m. 20 m. 30 m. 45 m Lh. 
Temperature of house (degrees), . = 68 65 6314 65 67 
Livingston, : . : < : B BB BB BB VBI 
Lorillard, . . . . . : . N B SB BC VBI 
Freedom, .- : : : - : : | B , 5 BB BC VBI 


EXPERIMENT II. 


Day Exposures with Direct Sunlight. 

First two sets treated December 14; third set March 14. 

Fumigation with ‘01 gram KCN per cubic foot; plants six 
weeks old; humidity, 79°; amount of sunlight for first two sets 
five hours; for third set four hours; all plants watered at 8.30 
A.M. the day of the test, but dry when treated; one plant of 
each variety placed under a bench in the house for fourteen to 
nineteen hours before treatment; conclusions drawn after three 
weeks for the first and second sets and after one week for the 
third set. 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 217 


Set NUMBERS. 


1 2 3 

Time of exposure, . - . - : = : - : 11.20 12.00 1.45 

Lerigth of exposure, . - - : : - - - - 10 m. 20 m. 30 m. 
Temperature of house (degrees), . - - - = : 70 70 71 
Livingston normal, . : - - “ - - : : K K BI 
Livingston under bench, . I K K 
- Lorillard normal, K K BI 
Lorillard under bench, . . “ A - A : - K K BI 
Freedom normal, K i BI 
Freedom under bench, 4 2 = : : 3 - 2 K K BI 


This experiment would seem to indicate that the plants placed 
under the benches before treatment were not benefited in this 
way. 


EXPErrRIMEnNT III. 


Cloudy Day Exposures, December 19. 
Fumigation with .02 gram KCN per cubic foot; plants six 
weeks old; humidity not taken till 8 p.m., when it was 81°; 
good sunlight for four days before the test and for two hours in 
the morning that day; all plants watered at 8.30 a.m. the day 
of the test, but dry when treated ; half the plants of each variety 
were sprinkled just before the test; conclusions drawn after 


seventeen days’ observation. It was dusk when the fourth set 
was fumigated. 


SSS SSS SSS SPSS 


Set NuMBERS. 


1 2 3 A 
Time of exposure, . ; - : Z : : 2.45 3.15 4.00 5.00 
Length of exposure, is : : 5 : - 10 m. 20 m. 30 m. 45m. 
Temperature of house (degrees), . - é - 68 67 65 65 
Livingston normal, . : - : : : : LY my IME TI 
Livingston sprinkled, ; - : : - - AME TY TI AMt 
Lorillard normal, . - - . : - : AME I JU I 
Lorillard sprinkled, . : - - : . SI I AU K 
Freedom normal, . Peon ke . ° : : i | I cE I 
Freedom sprinkled, . : : 2 - : 5 I 1 K TK 


218 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


In addition to the effects noted, the sprinkled plants de- 
veloped white spots. where the drops of water stood, and in 
general were in worse condition than the others. 


EXPERIMENT LY. 


Day Exposures during Rain, Snowstorm and Cloudy Weather, 
January 12 and 13. 

Fumigation with .02 gram KCN per cubic foot; plants nine 
weeks old; set 1 treated during a rainstorm; sets 2 and 3 during 
a snowstorm and set 4 during cloudy weather ; no direct sunlight 
either day; plants of set 1 watered the day before the test; the 
others, the morning of the test, but dry when treated ; conclusions 
drawn after three days for the first set; after six days for the 
second and after nine days for the third and fourth sets. 


Set NuMBERS. 


1 | 2 3 | 4 
Time of exposure, . 5 - ¢ ; : - | 10.30 9.00 11.00 1.15 
Length of exposure, : 5 - z 5 1.30 m.} 1.30 m. Ich. eh: 
Temperature of house (degrees), . - 6D 65 55 68 
Humidity before (degrees), . : ; é ae iy 55 65 57 
Humidity after (degrees), 5 : 5 : - | 80 84 82 80 
Livingston, 5 : : . - - : 5 || J BI BI I 
Lorillard, . 3 7 : ; : : : sales BI BI I 
Freedom, . : : 5 - = 5 5 3) this BI BI I 


EXPERIMENT V. 
Night Exposures, December 18. 

Fumigation with .005 gram KON per cubic foot; plants six 
weeks old ; house humidity, 60° ; six hours of sunlight the day of 
treatment, but cloudy the previous week ; weather cloudy during 
the treatment of the first three sets; moonlight during the other 
two; treatment began on set 1 as soon as it was really dark; 
plants watered at 9 a.m., dry when treated; half the plants of 
each variety had been placed under benches for thirty hours 
before treatment; conclusions drawn three weeks after treat- 
ment. 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 219 


Set NUMBERS. 


1 | 2 | 3 4 5 
Time of exposure, . - A - : 5.25 7-10 8.00 9.00 10.00 
Length of exposure, - - - - 10 m, 20 m. 30 m. 45m. lh 
Temperature of house (degrees), . : 66 66 66 65 65 
Livingston normal, . - : ; = N | N N SI SI 
Livingston under bench, . - : - N | N N N SI 
Lorillard normal, . ° : - : Ni N N SI SI 
Lorillard under bench, . ; : 4 N N N SI N 
Freedom normal, . . : : - N N SI SI SI 
Freedom under bench, . - - - N N N N N 


In this experiment it would seem that plants which had been 
shaded for a time before the treatment, by being placed under 
the benches, were at a shght advantage. 


Experiment VI. 
Night Exposures, December 14. 


Fumigation with .01 gram KCN per eubie foot; plants six 
weeks old; house humidity, 79°; five hours of sunlight the day 
of treatment; dark during treatment. of first two sets, moon- 
hght during the last three; treatment began on set 1 as soon as 
it was really dark; plants watered at 8.30 a.., dry when 
treated; half the plants of each variety had been placed under 
the bench for twenty-four hours before treatment; conclusions 
drawn three weeks after the treatment. 


Set NuMBERs. 


1 2 3 4 5 
Time of exposure, . - - - - 5.20 7.20 8.30 9.30 10.45 
Length of exposure, : : . A 10 m. 20 m. 30 m. 45 m. i hy 
Temperature of house (degrees), - - | 55 58 62 60 58 
Livingston normal, . - - - . | C dt C C K 
Livingston under bench, . - - 22 | N N N C BI 
Lorillardnormal, . . . . .| N Cc c Cc K 
Lorillard under bench, . : 2 : N N N | N I 
Freedom normal, . 7 A - z N C Cc | K K 

N | N BI 


Freedom under bench, . - 5 “ | N N 


220 EXPERIMENT STATION. (Jan. 


EXPERIMENT VII. 


Night Exposures, December 15 and March 15. 


Fumigation with .015 gram KCN per cubic foot; plants six 
weeks old; house humidity, 83°; dusk during treatment of first 
set, cloudy during second and third sets, starlight during the 
last three sets; plants watered at 8 a.m.; half of each variety 
sprinkled before treatment, the others dry; conclusions drawn 
one week after treatment for set 5, three weeks after treat- 
ment for the others. 


Set NuMBERs. 


1 | 2 | 3 A | 5 | 6 
Time of exposure, : . : ; - 4.45 5.45 7-20 8.30 7-30 9.55 
Length of exposure, 10m.| 20m.|} 30m.| 45m. lh. 2h. 
Temperature of house (degrees), 65 65 64 65 58 65 
Livingston normal, SI N SI Cc Cc K 
Livingston sprinkled, N SI SI C C K 
Lorillard normal, SI SI SI Cc Cc K 
Lorillard sprinkled, | N | sI SI c c K 
Freedom normal, N sI SL C C K 
Freedom sprinkled, . | N SI SI C Cc K 


The sprinkled plants showed spots on the leaves where the 
drops of water stood, as a result of the treatment; otherwise 
little difference in the two lots was noticeable. 


ExpPrRIMENT VIII. 


Night Exposures, January 8. 

Fumigation with .015 gram KCN per cubic foot; plants 
eight weeks old; house humidity, 84°; amount of sunlight 
that day, four hours; plants watered at 10 a.m., dry when 
treated; night cloudy during the treatment; conclusions drawn 
after one week. 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 291 


Ser NUMBERS. 


1 2 
Time ofexposure, . : “ : - . : | 8.30 9.30 
Length of exposure, . = : 3 - - - 30 m. 45m. 
Temperature of house (degrees), . - : : 58 65 
Livingston, . : : : - - - : : SI SI 
Lorillard, . ; : : 4 ° : 2 - SI SI 
Freedom, . > s : ° A - : SI SI 


EXPERIMENT IX. 


Night Exposures, January 9. 

Fumigation with .015 gram KCN per cubic foot; plants 
eight weeks old; house humidity, 49°; amount of sunlight 
that day, six hours; plants watered at 8 a.m., dry when treated ; 
treatment during moonlight; conclusions drawn after one week. 


Set NuMBERS. 


1 2 3 
Time ofexposure, . : A ° ‘ ° . . . 5.15 7.00 8.30 
Length ofexposure,. . es ke : - : 30 m. 45 m. ih: 
Temperature of house (degrees), . - 5 o - . 58 68 65 
Livingston, = . : oe : : - : : SI SI C 
ee SI SI C 
C 


Freedom, . 2 . ° : = 4 A j : ; SI SI 


EXPERIMENT X. 


Night Exposures, January 31. 


Fumigation with .015 gram KCN per cubic foot; plants 
eleven weeks old, rather weak, tall and spindling; amount of 
sunlight that day, one hour; plants watered at 8.30 a.m., dry 
when treated; moonlight during the treatment; conclusions 
drawn after four days. 


222 HXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


SET NUMBERS, 


1 2 
Time of exposure, ; ; ; ; ; ; : 5.30 7.30 
Length of exposure, . : - : : ‘ : 114 h. Zhe 
Temperature of house (degrees), . - 4 - 62 62 
Humidity before (degrees), F = : : : 58 62 
Humidity after (degrees), 5 : : : 76 76 
Livingston, . C I 
Lorillard, . : ; : : - : : - C I 
Freedom, . . : : : : ; ° : C I 


ExprertmMent XI. 
Night Exposures, December 16. 


Fumigation with .02 gram ICN per cubic foot; plants six 
weeks old; house humidity, 63°; amount of sunlight that day, 
four hours; plants watered at 9.30 a.m., dry when treated, 
except that half of the plants of each variety were sprinkled 
just before the treatment; first set treated at dusk, other sets 
treated in starlight ; conclusions drawn after three weeks 


Set NuMBERS. 


Time of exposure, . . : : 4.30 5.40 7.05 8.20 9.50 
Length of exposure, = : : - 10 m. 20 m. 30 m. 45 m. iki nh 
Temperature of house (degrees), - 2 68 60 65 66 64 
Livingston normal, . : 4 : - N N Cc BI BI 
Livingston sprinkled, : . - : SI N C BL BI 
Lorillard normal, . : ; 3 ‘ N N C BI Kk 
Lorillard sprinkled, - - “ : N N C K kK 
Freedom normal, . : : - : SI N C K K 
Freedom sprinkled, . - 5 - SI N Cc K K 


The sprinkled plants developed spots on the leaves where 
the drops of water stood during the treatment. 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 223 


EXPERIMENT XII. 


Night Hxposures, January 10. 

Fumigation with .02 gram KCN per cubic foot; plants nine 
weeks old; house humidity, 61°; amount of sunlight that day, 
four hours; plants watered at 8 a.m., dry when treated; sets 
treated in moonlight; conclusions drawn after five days. 


Set NUMBERS. 


1 | 2 3 | SY 
Time of exposure, 7.15 8.15 9.15 5.05 
Length of exposure, .- - - - : c 5 20 m. 30m. 45 m lh. 
Temperature of house (degrees), . A < : 65 67 67 65 
Livingston, N SI C C 
Lorillard, . “ F - : - - ; : SI SI C I 
Freedom, . 5 : - ° 2 : 4 : SI SI I 1 


ExprrimMrnt XIII. 


Night Hxposures, January 12 and 18. 


Fumigation with .02 gram KCN per cubic foot; plants nine 
weeks old; weather cloudy the day of treatment of first two 
sets, clear the day of treatment of the third set; plants watered 
at 8.30 to 9 a.m., dry when treated; first set treated at dusk, 
the other two in starlight; conclusions drawn after five days. 


Set NUMBERS. 


1 2 3 
Time of exposure, 5.30 7.30 7.25 
Length of exposure, . 14% h 2h. 2h 
Temperature of house (degrees), 60 62 65 
IIumidity before (degrees), .- A : 6 : : : 65 65 46 
Humidity after (degrees), 80 80 U1 
Livingston, SI BI BI 
Lorillard, SI BI BI 
TI BI BI 


Freedom, 


294 EXPERIMENT STATION, [Jan. 


EXxpERIMENT XIV. 


Night Exposures, December 18. 


Fumigation with .04 gram KCN per cubic foot; plants six 
weeks old; house humidity, 82°; eight hours of sunlight the 
day of treatment; plants watered at 8.15 a.m., dry when 
treated; clear, starlight night during the treatment; set 4 
fumigated twenty-five minutes, aired and then treated ten 
minutes longer; conclusions drawn after two and a half weeks. 


Set NumBERs. 


1 | 2 8 | 4 
Time of exposure, . - : ° 4 . ° 8.00 9.00 10.00 5.05 
Length of exposure, 5 5 - A . . 10m. 15 m. 20 m. 35 m. 
Temperature of house (degrees), . 68 70 68 68 
Livingston, d . : . 3 : ‘ ° N C C C 
Lorillard, . . . 5 5 ‘ . 5 ; if SI pe C 
Freedom, . : 5 - 5 5 2 “ 5 Ty C K K 


The Freedom plants in sets 3 and 4 were weak and not in 
good condition. 


ExprRIMent XV. 
Night Exposures, January 11. 
Fumigation with .04 gram KCN per cubic foot; plants nine 
weeks old; house humidity, 73° six hours of sunlight the day 
of treatment; plants watered at 8 a.m., dry when treated ; first 


three sets treated in dim moonlight, set 4 at dusk; conclusions 
drawn after four days. 


SET NUMBERS. 


Time of exposure, . 2 5 F c 5 : 7.05 8.00 9.30 5.00 
Length of exposure, . ° 0 5 é 20 m. 30 m. 45m. Lh, 
Temperature of house (degrees), . cd : . 65 65 65 60 
Livingston, . : : . ; . . : SI SI SI BI 
Lorillard, . > : - A 5 ; - A SI SI SI BI 


Freedom, . : . : . ° . . . SI SI SI BI 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 225 


EXPERIMENT XVI. 


Night Exposures for Temperature and Humidity, February 26, 
27, 28, March 5, 6. 

Fumigation with .01 gram KCN per cubic foot; plants about 
seven weeks old; first two sets treated in starlight, third and 
fourth on a cloudy night, fifth and sixth in starlight, seventh 
and eighth in moonlight, ninth and tenth in a darkened box 
at night; plants watered at 8.30 a.m., dry when treated; all 
the plants vigorous; conclusions drawn after nine days. 


Set NuMBERs. 


1 2 | 3 | A | S 6 Zé 8 9 10 
Time of exposure, : - | 7-15) 8.15) 7.00) 8.15) 7.00) 8.20) 7.15)10.00} 7.00} 9.30 
Length ofexposure, . - | 45m.} 45m.) 45m.| Lh.) lh| 2h.| 2h.| 2h. 2h.| 2h. 
High temperature (degrees), | 68 64 = - ~ - - 67 - 63 
Low temperature (degrees), - - 58 55 58 56 57 - | 52144] - 


Humidity before (degrees), | 45 58 50 55 | 50 51 52 70 | 45 60 


Humidity after (degrees), . | 65 75 64 67 | 74 63 59 80 | 65 i 
Livingston, . ‘ ° - | SE SI SI SI C C C C C 
ees Ge) SE) USE) 6U}SI)6CUITK T+} I (Oe ia | C 
meee Gail. (SE. |.SI | SI 1 gay od C | | C 


CoMMENTS AND ConcLUSIONS. 
BY H. T. FERNALD. 


The experiments were planned so that only one factor should 
vary at a time. It quickly became evident, however, that many 
of the factors were beyond control, and therefore entire cer- 
tainty as to the cause of differences in results could not always 
be obtained. Thus, the treatment itself had the effect of in- 
creasing the humidity of the fumigator, and sometimes this 
change was quite considerable. 

Morrill’s experiments on the white fly (Technical Bulletin 
No. 1, Hatch Experiment Station, Massachusetts, p. 50, 1903 
indicated that fumigation with from .007 gram to .01 gram 
KCN per cubic foot for three hours should control most stages 
of this insect, and that three such treatments at intervals of 


226 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


about twelve days would probably clear an infested house. 
Hinds’s experiments on Thrips (Bulletin No, 67, Hatch Experi- 
ment Station, Massachusetts, p. 11, 1900), though less complete, 
indicate that these insects would probably be also controlled by 
this treatment. 

An examination of the first two experiments given in this 
paper shows at once that under the conditions stated serious 
injury or the destruction of the plants would result long before 
the above-named insects were killed, and a comparison of the 
data in Experiments II., V. and VI. indicates that daylight 
treatment was, at least in part, responsible for this. Fumiga- 
tion in cloudy weather, as shown in Experiment III., sustains 
this view, the injury being less than with plants treated in 
sunlight. Experiment IV. gives the results of treatment during 
rain and snowstorms with longer exposure, showing that even 
in bad weather daylhght treatment is unsafe. 

Comparison of the experiments carried on at night is also 
suggestive. Those treatments which were made on moonlight 
nights were always more injurious than those made in starlight, 
while slightly better results were obtained on cloudy nights. 
From the data at hand it would seem probable that the safest 
treatment for the plants would be on a cloudy night following 
a dark day; and the night experiments with plants which had 
been kept under the benches for a day or so before treatment, 
thus giving them partial shade, sustain this view. 

The results of variation in temperature of the house during 
fumigation were by no means as noticeable as had been antici- 
pated; indeed, as a result of these tests it would seem to make 
little difference whether treatment should be given in a warm 
or a cool house. Much the same can be said of humidity, 
though here it would appear probable that with high humidity 
— 75 degrees or over — there is more chance of injury than 
would be the case where the humidity is rather low. 

It may be stated as a general conclusion that prolonged ex- 
posures to weak strengths of the gas are more lable to cause 
injury to the plants than are shorter exposures to greater 
strengths. As this does not entirely meet Morrill’s directions 
for the control of the white fly, which would come under the 
head of prolonged exposure to a rather weak strength of gas, 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 227 


it would seem desirable to determine whether short exposures 
to greater strengths would be effective against the insects. 
Until this is determined it is probable that the best treatment 
for the white fly on tomato plants is to fumigate them with a 
strength of .015 gram of KCN per cubic foot for a period of 
from forty-five minutes to one hour, on a dark — moonlight, 
or perfectly cloudy — night, in a house where the humidity is 
below 70 degrees at the beginning of the treatment. Fumiga- 
tion in this way will probably slightly injure the plants and 
may cause curling of the leaves; but the injury will be less 
than would be that caused by the insects if there were no treat- 
ment given, and three such treatments at intervals of twelve 
days should not prove serious to the plants, while they should 
reduce the white fly to a negligible quantity for quite a period, 
— probably until after the crop has been gathered from the 
plants concerned. 


Il. CUCUMBERS. 


BY CHARLES W. HOOKER, PH.D. 


INTRODUCTION. 
BY H. T. FERNALD. 

The experiments on cucumbers which follow were made dur- 
ing the year 1907 by Dr. Charles W. Hooker as a portion of 
his graduate work at the Massachusetts Agricultural College. 
More time being available for the purpose than was the case 
with the tomato tests, it was possible to make the tests more 
exhaustive, but the gencral ideas were the same for both series 
of experiments. 

The two most common varieties of cucumber grown under 
glass in Massachusetts were used, viz., Rawson’s Hothouse and 
White Spine. The latter variety seemed, on the whole, to 
produce the better plants. Two plants of each variety were 
used for each test. 

The supervision of this work fell upon the writer of this 


228 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


introduction, but the work itself, the daily care and observa- 
tions were made by Dr. Hooker, and the conclusions drawn are 
mainly his. For some editorial work on all the parts the writer 
is responsible. Abbreviations indicating the results are the 
same as those used for the tomato, which are explained on 
page 215, All the plants used were watered the day of the 
experiment, but their leaves were dry in all cases unless other- 
wise noted. 


EXPERIMENT I. 


Day Exposures with Direct Sunlight, April 4. 
Fumigation with .01 gram KCN per cubic foot; plants nine 
days old; amount of sunlight the day of treatment, ten hours; 
conclusions drawn after three days. 


Set NuMBERS. 


1 | 2 3 4 | 5 
ec eee 
Time of exposure, . : : : - 9.00 9.25 10.00 10.50 12.00 
Length of exposure, c “ c 10 m. 20 m. 30 m. 45 m. lh. 
Temperature (degrees), . 5 : . 94 94 108 107 115 
Humidity (degrees), : “ 5 , 47 40 41 45 47 

 WhiteSpine- sl ae oe ae N BB B B BB 
Hothouse, . 5 - és A - . N BB VBI BB BB 


It is evident that, under these conditions, treatment long 
enough to be of any value against insects would seriously in- 
jure the plants. 


Exprertment IT. 
Cloudy Day Exposures, May 6, 7. 
Fumigation with .01 gram KCN per cubic foot; plants 
of sets 1 to 5, ten days old; of set 6, séventeen days old; no 


sunlight the day of treatment; conclusions drawn after one 
week. 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 229 


Set NuMBERS. 


Time of exposure, 10.40 


1 
Length of exposure, - 10m.| 20m.{| 380m.| 45m. Lh. 2h. 


Temperature (degrees), 59 59 60 62 69 67 
Humidity (degrees), . 70 &4. 90 85 81 98 
White Spine, N N N N N N 
Hothouse, N N N N N N 


A comparison of the last two experiments shows how much 
less sensitive cucumbers are in cloudy weather. 


ExpEeriImMent III. 


Cloudy Day Exposures with Older Plants, April 26, 29, 
| May 8, 16. 

Fumigation with .01 gram KCN per eubie foot; sunlight 

‘a portion of each day, but not during treatment; plants watered 

the day before the treatment; conclusions drawn after one week. 


Set NuMBERS. 


1 | 2 | 3 SY 5) | 6 | re 

Age of plants (days), . . 45 45 48 48 48 31 41 
Date of treatment, . . | April 26) April 26) April 29; April 29} April 29} May 8 | May 16 
Time of exposure, ‘ : 8.30 8.55 8.05 8.45 | 9.45 9.00 | 9.30 
Length of exposure, . : 10 m. 20 m. 30 m, Ab mm. |) 1 ht 2h. 216 h. 
Temperature (degrees), - 70 75 73 73 72 te Gil 
Humidity (degrees), . 4 73 76 74 79 79 94 98 
White Spine,. _. : : N N N N N N K 
Hothouse, é A = ; N N N N N N K 


EXPERIMENT LV. 


Cloudy Day Exposures with Stronger Fumigation, May 23, 27. 

Fumigation with .015 gram KCN per cubic foot; plants 
of first two sets sixteen days old, fumigated May 23; of the 
other sets twenty days old, fumigated May 27; amount of sun- 


230 EXPERIMENT STATION. (Jan. 


light the day of fumigating first two sets, seven hours; on day 
of fumigating the other three sets, none; conclusions drawn after 
one week. 


SET NuMBERS. 


1 | 2 3 a | | 5 
Time of exposure, . 5 “ “ : 8.40 9.15 8.25 9.30 2.30 - 
Length of exposure, : : ; 20 m. 30m. 45m. ah. 11% h. 
Temperature (degrees), . 3 4 56 vel 60 61 60 
Ilumidity (degrees), > , : : 86 78 95 92 89 
White Spine, . bs : ° . ; N N N SB SB 
Hothouse, . : é : - . : N N N SB SB 


EXPERIMENT V. 
Cloudy Day Exposures with Older Plants, April 30, May 8, 6. 
Fumigation with .015 gram KCN per cubic foot; amount 
of sunlight April 30, six hours; May 3, seven hours; May 6, 
none; plants of sets 2 and 5 watered the day before treatment; 
conclusions drawn after one week. 


SET NUMBERS. 


1 | 2. 3 z | 5 
Age of plants (days), - . - : 38 41 41 41 44 
Date of treatment, . : : - . | April 30} May3 | May3 May 3 May 6 
Time of exposure, . A : 4 9.30 8.00 8.35 10.00 8.15 
Length of exposure, : 5 c . 10 m. 20 m. 30 m. 45 m. he 
Temperature (degrees), . 6 : A 73 65 72 57 59 
Humidity (degrees), 5 - ; 5 80 97 97 93 90 
White Spine, . ; : ‘ : ; N N SB 3 SB SB 
Hothouse, . . ; 4 : 4 N N N SB SB 


ExprErRIMENT VI, 


Cloudy Day Exposures with Stronger Fumigation, May 16. 

Fumigation with .02 gram ICN per cubic foot; plants 
nine days old; amount of sunlight the day of treatment, four 
hours; plants watered the day before treatment; conclusions 
drawn after one week. 


1910. ] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 81. 231 


SET NUMBERS. 


Time of exposure, . . . - - 3 51 8.30 10.10 
Length of exposure, . . ° : © = - 10 m. 45 m. 
Temperature (degrees), . - : - : 69 76 
Humidity (degrees), s : : : c : 91 83 
White Spine, K 
Hothouse, . K 


EXPERIMENT VII. 


Cloudy Day Exposures with Older Plants, May 8. 
Fumigation with .02 gram KCN per cubic foot; plants 
forty-seven days old; amount of sunlight the day of treatment, 


eight hours; plants watered the day before treatment; conclu- 
sions drawn after one week. 


Set NuMBERS. 


1 2 3 ft 5) 
Time of exposure, . . ° . 8.25 2.35 | 9.15 10.00 11.00 
Length of exposure, - - - : 10 m. 20 m. 30 m. 45 m. eh 
Temperature (degrees), . . 5 7 63 64 66 63 63 
Humidity (degrees), 7 - - 5 90 84 88 91 87 
White Spine, . : : - : : Ni Ni N SB SB 
Hothouse, .- . : “ Z 4 : N N N SB SB 


Experiment VIII. 
Moonlight Night Exposures, March 20. 


Fumigation with .01 gram KCN per eubic foot; plants 
eight days old; amount of sunlight the day of treatment, nine 
and a half hours; conclusions drawn after one week. 


232 EXPERIMENT STATION. (Jan. 


Time of exposure, 


Length of exposure, ih. 
Temperature (degrees), .« 65 
Humidity (degrees), 51 
White Spine, . SI 
Hothouse, . N 


EXPERIMENT LX. 


Moonlight Night Exposures with Stronger Fumigation, March 
20, 21. 


Fumigation with .015 gram KCN per cubic foot; plants 
eight days old; amount of sunlight the day of treatment of the 
first three sets, nine and a half hours; of the last two sets, 
eleven hours; slightly hazy the evening the first three sets were 
treated; conclusions drawn after two weeks. 


SET NUMBERS. 


Time of exposure, 

Length of exposure, 

Temperature (degrees), . 
Humidity (degrees) 

White Spine, . . . ; . 


Hothouse, .- 


EXPERIMENT X. 


Moonlight Night Exposures with Stronger Fumigation, March 
21, 22. 

Fumigation with .02 gram KCN per cubic foot; plants 
nine days old; amount of sunlight the day of treatment of first 
four sets, eleven hours; of fifth set, five and a half hours; con- 
clusions drawn after two weeks. 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 233 


Set NuMBERS. 


1 | 2 
Time of exposure, . - = : 8.30 | 9.15 
Length of exposure, ° . ° ° 10 m. 20 m. 
Temperature (degrees), . - - - 69 68 
Humidity (degrees), . - = : 51 54 
White Spine, . - : : - - N N 
Hothouse, .- - ae : - N N 


A comparison of the last three experiments would indicate 
that, under these conditions, an increase of .005 gram KCN 
was about equivalent to fifteen minutes’ exposure. 


Expertment XI. 
Starlight Night Exposures, April 3. 
Fumigation with .01 gram KCN per cubic foot; plants 


eleven days old; amount of sunlight the day of treatment, 
twelve hours; conclusions drawn after one week. 


Set NuMBERS. 


Time of exposure, 

Length of exposure, . . - ° ° ° ° 
Temperature (degrees), 

Humidity (degrees), . . ° ° . . . . 
White Spine, . . . . ‘ . . 


Hothouse, . = - 5 - A ~ : : 


Experiment XII. 
Starlight Night Exposures with Older Plants, May 21, 23, 24, 
1907; May 4, 14, 1908. 


Fumigation with .01 gram KCN per cubic foot; conclusions 
drawn after one week. 


254 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


Ser NuMBERS. 


1 | 2 | 3 | 5 | 6 | rf 
Date of treatment, - : - |May 21 |May 21] May 23 |May 24| May 4| May 4| May 14 
Age of plants (days), . : 5 ale! 14 16 18 13 20 25 
Time of exposure, : ° -| 7.35 9.00 8.00 7.30 9.20 7.15 7.15 
Length of exposure, . 5 ot 2g ho te | 184en. |) eee 1% h.| 2h. 2h. 
Temperature (degrees), : - | 56 56 55 57 61 65 69 
Iiumidity (degrees), . ° - | 90 $l 80 76 100 96 94 
White Spine, . ~ : . Steel N N N SB SB N 
Hothouse, : 5 - 4 sl NI N N N N SB N 


ExpERIMENT XIII. 


Starlight Night Exposures with Still Older Plants, April 15, 
October 7, November 4. 


Fumigation with .01 gram KCN per cubic foot; plants 
of first five sets, five weeks old; of the sixth and seventh sets, 
four weeks; of the eighth and ninth sets, thirty-two days; con- 
clusions drawn after one week. 


SET NUMBERS. 


1 2 | 3 | z 5) 6 | 7 8 9 
Time of exposure, . : - | 7-10] 7.35) 8.10) 8.55) 9.55| 6.30 | 8.15 6.30] 8.45 
Length of exposure, . - - |10m./ 20 m.| 30 m.| 45m.} 1h.|] 1% h.| 134 h.| 2h. | 21% h. 
Temperature (degrees), . - | 63 63 59 60 62 =|61 66 5653 
Humidity (degrees), . 5 - | 70 71 76 70 76 ~=|50 80 79 = |84 
White Spine, . ° . ~-|N N N N N N N N N 
Hothouse, . N N N N N N N N N 


EXPERIMENT XIV. 


Starlight Night Exposures with Old Plants, May 20, 23, 31, 
June 75.17. 
Fumigation with .01 gram KCN per cubic foot; entire 
ereenhouse full of plants used in each exposure; conclusions 
drawn after one week. 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 235 


Set NUMBERS. 


1 2 3 fl | 5 
Age of plants (days), - - 5 : 69 72 80 87 97 
Time ofexposure, . 2 : - : 8.10 8.15 8.20 8.00 8.00 
Length of exposure, : - - - 1she 11% h. 134 h. 3h. 3h. 
Temperature (degrees), . : A = 63 63 62 62 - 
Amount of sunlight for day, . 5 2 10h. 3.8 h. 2.7 h. 6.8 h. 12h. 
White spine, . - - - - : N SB SB SB SB 
Hothouse, .- : ; . : < : N SB SB SB SB 


EXPERIMENT XV. 


Starlight Night Exposures with Stronger Funugation, April 11. 


Fumigation with .015 gram KCN per cubic foot; plants 
nineteen days old; amount of sunlight the day of treatment, 
eleven and a half hours; conclusions drawn after one week. 


Set NuMBERS. 


1 2 3 
Time ofexposure, . : . - - < - : : 7.00 7.45 8.45 
Length of exposure, . ° é - : é 5 : 30 m. 45m, 1h. 
Temperature (degrees), . - ° - “ < - - 70 69 69 
Humidity (degrees), . - é - . : 5 : 59 63 63 
White spine, - 4 - - : 5 < - : c N N N 
Hiothouse, . . : - < : - 5 5 - N N N 


ExpPreRIMENT XVI. 


Starlight Night Exposures with Older Plants or Longer Ex- 
posures. 
Fumigation with .015 gram KCN per cubic foot; amount 


of sunlight May 13, nearly twelve hours; not taken on the other 
days; conclusions drawn after one week. 


236 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


Ser NuMBERS. 


24 24 


Date of treatment, .|May 13 |May 13 


Age of plants (days), 


May 13 |Nov.11|Nov.11|Nov.12/Nov. 12 
10.00 | 6.30 | 8.15 6.30} 8.45 
lh. | 32h.) 1% h.| 2h-} 116 h. 


Time of exposure, . 4025 7.50 8.25 
Length of exposure,}| 10m.| 20m.| 30m. 


Temperature (de- 


grees), 70 65 62 58 63 63 60  |60 
IWumidity (degrees), | 75 73 73 72 79 81 pe eh i 
White Spine, . Fe a. N N N N N SB |SB 
Hothouse, . : ai ON N SB 


EXPERIMENT XVII. 


Starlight Night Exposures with Still Older Plants, May 1. 


Fumigation with .015 gram KCN per eubie foot; plants 
five weeks old; amount of sunlight the day of treatment, 8.7 
hours; conclusions drawn after one week. 


SET NuMBERs. 


1 | 2 3 4 | 5 
Time of exposure, . - - - - 7.00 7.25 8.00 4.45 9.45 
Length of exposure, : - - 2 10 m. 20m. 30m. 45 m. hi 
Temperature (degrees), - . : 5 60 56 56 54 53 
Humidity (degrees), . ° : 5 90 87 90 82 87 
White Spine, . : : 3 5 - N N N N N 
Hothouse, . . ° - ° - - N, N N N N 


Experiment XVIII. 
Starlight Night Exposures with Old Plants, May 14. 


Fumigation with .015 gram KCN per cubic foot; plants 
seven weeks old; amount of sunlight the day of treatment, 
11.5 hours; conclusions drawn after one week. 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 237 


Set NuMBERs. 


I | 2 3 | 4 5 
Time ofexposure, . - : - - 7.15 7.30 8.10 8.55 9.55 
Length of exposure, - - “ . 10 m. 20 m. 30 m. 45 m. deh? 
Temperature (degrees), . - : : 68 65 60 59 59 
Humidity (degrees), : - - : 78 71 83 84 84 
White Spine, N N N N N 
Hothouse, - - - 3 - “| - N N N N N 


EXPERIMENT XIX. 


Starlight Night Exposures with Stronger Fumigation, May 17. 


Fumigation with .02 gram KCN per cubic foot; plants 
ten days old;. amount of sunlight the day of treatment, 2.3 
hours; night slightly hazy, with the moon in the first quarter ; 
conclusions drawn after one week. 


Ser NuMBERsS. 


1 2 3 4 5 
Time of exposure, . . : - : 7-20 7.40 8.10 8.55 9.45 
Length of exposure, . . . < 10 m. 20 m. 30m. 45 m. lh. 
Temperature (degrees), . ; : - 58 58 ays} 60 60 
Humidity (degrees), : - ; - 71 71 88 } 86 86 
White Spine, . ; : ; ~ N N N BB BB 
Hothouse, . - = - : : - N N N BB BB 


EXPERIMENT XX. 


Starlight Night Exposures with Older Plants, April 18. 


Fumigation with .02 gram KCN per cubie foot; plants 
thirty-seven days old; amount of sunlight the day of treatment, 
twelve hours; slightly cloudy just at the beginning of the ex- 
periment; conclusions drawn after one week. 


238 HWXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


Set Numbers. 


1 | 2 
Time of exposure, . A = - : : 5 7.00 8.25 
Length of exposure, . . A fs : ° . 20 m. 30 m. 
Temperature (degrees), . A“ ; r ° 5 65 63 
Ifumidity (degrees), . : ; : . - 71 71 
White Spine, . : : : - ° : : N N 
Hothouse, . ° - : “ - : - : SB SB 


EXPERIMENT X XI. 


Starlight Night Hxposures with Stronger Fumigation, May 
20, June 4. 

Fumigation with .08 gram KCN per cubic foot; plants 
of first three sets, three weeks old, treated May 20; of last 
two sets, twenty-six days old, treated June 4; amount of sun- 
heht May 20, 10 hours; June 4, 6.6 hours; small amount of 


moonlight during sets 1 and 4; conclusions drawn after one 
week. 


Ser NUMBERS. 


1 | 2 3 4 5 
Time ofexposure, . : - : : 7.35 8.55 9.50 8.00 9.00 
Length of exposure, 5 : ° - 10m. 20 m. 30 m. 45 m. lh. 
Temperature (degrees), . 4 ° 56 54 52 65 62 
Humidity (degrees), : , : A 75 88 82 83 80 
White Spine, . A ° : : : SB SB B BB B 
ITothouse, . c ; : : : SB SB B B B 


EXPERIMENT X XII, 


Starlight Night Exposures with Older Plants, May 28. 


Fumigation with .03 gram KCN per cubic foot; plants 
thirty-two days old; amount of sunlight the day of treatment, 
3.8 hours; conclusions drawn after one week. 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 239 


Ser NUMBERS. 


1 | 2 | 3 4 | 5) 
EE eee 
Time ofexposure, . : 4 : . 7.30 clits: 8.30 anu 10.10 
Length of exposure, ‘ 3 - 10m. 20 m. 30 m. 45 m. lh. 
Temperature (degrees), .- : : 5 54 50 52 54 55 
Humidity (degrees), : : 5 A 90 95 85 89 83 
White Spine, . 2 P : 5 : N SB SB BB BB 
Hothouse, . . < : : . 5 N SB SB BB BB 


Experiment X XIII. 
Starlight Night Exposures with Strong Fumigation, April 22. 
Fumigation with .04 gram KCN per cubic foot; plants 
five weeks old; amount of sunlight the day of treatment, 11.5 
hours; small amount of moonlight during the first three sets; 
moon and stars nearly obscured during the last two sets; con- 
clusions drawn after one week. 


Ser NuMBERS. 
1 | 2 3 4 | 5 


Time of exposure, . A : - . 7-00 2d 8.00 8.45 9.45 
Length of exposure, A A - o [lcs ate 20 m. 30 m. 45 m. Lh. 
Temperature (degrees), . . . . 81 68 67 65 65 
Humidity (degrees), : ~ - - 63 72 78 78 72 
White Spine, . - ; - . N N BB BB BB 
Hothouse, . : : 2 - ° c SB B BB BB BB 


ExprrimMent XXIV. 
Cloudy Night Exposures, April 8. 
Fumigation with .01 gram KCN per cubic foot; plants 


two weeks old; amount of sunlight the day of treatment one- 
half hour; conclusions drawn after one week. 


240 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


Ser NuMBERs. 


1 2 3 
Time of exposure, . A * - ‘ - = : : 7.05 7.50 8.50 
Length of exposure, . : : ° : ‘ - - ° 30m. 45m. ih. 
Temperature (degrees), . ° . : : - : ° 69 66 65 
Humidity (degrees), . 2 ; : . ° . ° . 63 70 60 
White Spine, . : ; , ° ; ° . - : N N N 


Hothouse, . : : : : : - “ : : : N N N 


EXPERIMENT X XV, 


Cloudy Night Exposures with Plants of Various Ages, May 6, 
Nov. 19, 1907; April 27, 1908. 
Fumigation with .01 gram KCN per eubiec foot; no sun- 
hight any of the days when treatment was given; conclusions 
drawn after one week. 


SET NUMBERS. 


! 

1 | 2 | 3 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 
Age of plant(days), . : eile LO 10 10 10 10 33 16 
Time of exposure, . - : : 7.00 7-25 8.00 8.45 9.45 | 9.10 7.00 
Length of exposure, . - -| 10m.| 20m.{ 30m.}| 45m. LR: 11h. 2h. 
Temperature (degrees), | 57 56 54 56 57 69 75 
Humidity (degrees), . 5 27) OL 89 91 88 88 72 91 
White Spine, . : - : aT ON, N N N N N BB 
Hothouse, : : : - Sia | N N N N N BB 

ExpertMEnT X XVI. 


Cloudy Night Exposures with Stronger Fumigation, May 10, 
1907; April 27, 1908. 

Fumigation with .015 gram KCN per eubie foot; plants 
of first five sets, two weeks old; of sixth set, sixteen days old; 
amount of sunlight the day of treatment of the first five sets, 
7.4 hours; not taken for the sixth set; conclusions drawn after 
one week. 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 241 


SET NUMBERS. 


1 | 2 | 3 4 | d | 6 
Time of exposure, : : : - ie10 7.40 8.15 9.00 | 10.00 9.10 
Length of exposure, . . . : -}| 10m.} 20m.} 30m.| 45m. Lh. Oils 
Temperature (degrees), . : - a ieGa 61 57 57 55 72 
Humidity (degrees), . - - “ sh ee 77 83 78 84 93 
White Spine, - : = . = - N N N N SI BB 
Hothouse, . : - - - = N N N N SI BB 

EXPERIMENT X XVII. 


Cloudy Night Exposures with Older Plants, April 16. 


Fumigation with .015 gram KCN per eubie foot; plants 
five weeks old; amount of sunlight the day of treatment, 11.5 
hours; conclusions drawn after one week. 


Set NUMBERS. 


1 | 2 3 4 | 5 
Time of exposure, . - - : - 7-00 7.25 8.00 8.45 9.45 
Length 7 . ° - 5 10 m. 20 m. 30 m. 45 m. lh. 
Temperature (degrees), . - - 4 71 71 72 74 76 
Humidity (degrees), ° : - ° 55 60 63 68 68 
White Spine, . . ° . . - N N N N N 
Hothouse, . - - 4 : é : N N N N SB 


EXPERIMENT XXVITI. 


Cloudy Night Exposures with Plants of Various Ages, April 
25, May 13, 28. 
Fumigation with .015 gram KCN per cubic foot; dim moon- 


light during treatment of the first three sets; conclusions drawn 
after one week. 


242 EXPEKRIMENT STATION. (Jan. 


Set NuMBERS. 


1 | 2 3 A | . 
Date of treatment, . - 3 - - | April 25 | April 25 | April 25| May 28 | May 13 
Time of exposure, . . . 5 8.00 8.45 9.45 8.00 7.20 
Length of exposure, “ 5 : * 30 m. 45m. he 1% h. 2h. 
Temperature (degrees), .« : 5 - 81 81 78 68 69 
Humidity (degrees), : : . : 62 66 68 93 92 
White Spine, . . ‘ ; ; : N N SB SB BB 
Hothouse, . : . : 4 < . N B SB SB BB 


ExperRIMEenT X XIX. 
Cloudy Night Hxposures with Stronger Fumigation, May 15, 
Nov. 12, 1907; May 18, 1908, 


Fumigation with .02 gram KON per cubic foot; conclu- 
sions drawn after one week. 


SET NuMBERS. 


1 | 2 | 3 A 3 6 7 i | 8 | 9 

Date of treatment, . - |May 16|May 16)May16|May16 Nov.13\Nov.13 Noy.13|May 13} Nov. 19 
Age of plants (days), .| 9 9 9 9 17 17 17 20 23 
Time of exposure, . -| 7.45} 8.10] 8.50) 9.40] 6.30 | 7.45 | 9.30 9.30 | 6.30 
Length of exposure, -| 10m.|/ 20m.| 30m.| 45m.| Lh. | 1% h. 184 h.| 2h. 214 h. 
Temperature (degrees), . | 66 63 63 61 58 58 56 66 71 
Humidity (degrees), - |. 99 90 91 95 74 56 76 95 73 
White Spine, . : eal) ae N N N N N N K BB 
Hothouse, . . wil oN N N N N N N K BB 


EXPERIMENT XXX. 


Cloudy Night Exposures with Older Plants, April 26. 


Fumigation with .02 gram KCN per cubic foot; plants 
five weeks old; amount of sunlight the day of treatment, five 
hours; conclusions drawn after one week. 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 243 


Set NUMBERS. 


1 | 2 3 4 | 3) 
Time of exposure, . : F . x 7.00 Tas 8.00 8.45 9.45 
Length of exposure, : ; - A 10m. 20 m. 30 m. 45 m. Jt. 
Temperature (degrees), . - é - 64 62 63 68 74 
Humidity (degrees), : 2 é 4 75 » 73 80 72 72 
White Spine, . 3 . : : ° N N N N N 
Hothouse, . - - - : 5 - N N N N N 


EXPERIMENT XXXII, 
Cloudy Night Exposures with Still Older Plants, May 9, 13. 
Fumigation with .02 gram KCN per cubic foot; plants 


of the first five sets, fifty-one days old; of sixth set, thirty-eight 
days old; conclusions drawn after one week. 


Set NUMBERS. 


1 | 2 | 3 fi | 5D | 6 
Time of exposure, : . : 2 . 7.00 7.25 8.15 8.55 9.55 9.30 
Length of exposure, . : A : - | 20m.) 20m. | 30m. | 45m. lh. 2h. 
Temperature (degrees), . - 5 i Gil 58 55 54 53 66 
Humidity (degrees), . 2 3 : ri |y teil 88 91 91 92 95 
White Spine, - = ; : - er N SI SB B K 
Hothouse, . ; > c - 2 S|] ast N SI SB B K 


ExperIMEent XXXII. 
Cloudy Night Exposures with Stronger Fumigation, May 27. 


Fumigation with .03 gram KCN per cubic foot; plants 
twenty days old; no sunlight the day of treatment; conclu- 
sions drawn after one week. 


SET NUMBERS. 


1 | 2 3 a 5) 
Time of exposure, 7.15 7.40 8.15 9.00 10.00 
Length of exposure, 10 m. 20 m. 30 m. 45 m. hs 
Temperature (degrees) 60 60 59 62 58 
Humidity (degrees), 95 95 94 85 88 
White Spine, N SB SB SB SB 


Hothouse, . 


244 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


EXPERIMENT XX XIII. 


Cloudy Night Exposures with Older Plants, April 19. 

Fumigation with .03 gram KCN per eubie foot; plants 
thirty-eight days old; amount of sunlight the day of treatment, 
four hours; conclusions drawn after one week. 


| Set NuMBERS. 


Time of exposure, . ° ; : ° 7.00 7-25 8.00 8.45 9.45 
Length of exposure, . : . - 10 m. 20 m. 30 m. 45m. lh. 
Temperature (degrees), .« - ‘ = 64 64 66 68 68 
Humidity (degrees), . ; . . 74 74 73 73 72 
White Spine, . ‘ 2 . é : SB N N N N 
Hothouse, . : E 2 : : - N N N SB N 


EXPERIMENT XXXIV. 
Cloudy Night Exposures with Strong Fumigation, March 23. 
Fumigation with .04 gram KCN per cubic foot; plants 


eleven days old; amount of sunlight the day of treatment, ten 
hours; conclusions drawn after two weeks. 


| Set NUMBERS. 


Time of exposure, 
Length of exposure, 
Temperature (degrees), .- 
Humidity (degrees), 
White Spine, 


Hothouse, - - - - 2 : 


EXPERIMENT XXXYV. 
Cloudy Night Exposures with Electric Inght, April 29. 


Conditions in this series of experiments were about like 
those of the preceding set, except that a 16 candle-power in- 
candescent bulb hanging near the fumigating box was left 
turned on during the exposures. 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 245 


Fumigation with .01 gram KCN per cubic foot; plants 
thirty-seven days old; amount of sunlight the day of treat- 
ment, 4.6 hours; conclusions drawn after one week. 


Set NuMBERS. 


Time of exposure, . ; “ = 7-00 7.25 8.00 8.45 9.45 
Length of exposure, : . . 7 10m. 20 m. 30m, 45 m. eles 
Temperature (degrees), . A : 72 70 72 68 67 
Humidity (degrees), = = - ‘ 55 58 78 82 82 
White Spine, . : : 3 - : N N SB BB BB 
Hothouse, - - - : - - - SB N N BB BB 


ExperrmMent XXXVI. 
Cloudy Night Exposures with Electric Light, Stronger Fumi- 
gation, May 2. 
Fumigation with .015 gram KCN per cubic foot; plants 


seven weeks old; amount of sunlight the day of treatment, 
8.2 hours; conclusions drawn after one week. 


Set NuMBERs. 


Time of exposure, 
Length of exposure, . 
Temperature (degrees), 
Humidity (degrees), - 
White Spine, 


Hothouse, .- 


ExprERIMENT XX XVII. 


Cloudy Night Exposures with Electric Inght, Still Stronger 
Funugation, May 7. 

Fumigation with .02 gram KCN per cubic foot; plants 
seven weeks old; amount of sunlight the day of treatment, 
3.1 hours; rather cloudy and with a heavy mist during the 
treatment of the first three sets; cloudy during the last two 
treatments; conclusions drawn after one week. 


246 EXPERIMENT STATION, [Jan. 


Time of exposure, . Aa. a - 7.00 Teo 8.00 8.45 9.45 
Length of exposure, . 5 : A 10m. 20 m, 30 m. 45m. neh 
Temperature (degrees), . 5 - 4 65 63 63 63 62 
Humidity (degrees), 4 4 “| : 72 84 84 86 86 
White Spine, . . : : ‘ . N SI SB BB BB 


Hothouse, . ° . : 5 = ; N SI SB BB BB 


Irom the last three experiments it is evident that even an 
electric hght near the plants which are being fumigated has 
an effect upon them, 


CoMMENTS AND GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 


BY C. W. HOOKER, 


1. Day fumigation in direct sunlight is unquestionably un- 
safe, as the plants are badly injured or killed. 

2. Fumigation on a cloudy day is unsafe at best, the plants 
being generally more or less injured. 

3. Fumigation on a bright moonlight night is also unsafe, 
often causing much burning of the foliage. 

4. The best results are obtained by fumigating on clear 
starlight nights, with little or no moonlight, and on dry, cloudy 
nights. 

5. A clear, dry evening without moonlight, with a tempera- 
ture in the house of from 55 degrees to 65 degrees, or a cloudy 
evening with the same temperature, offer the best conditions 
for fumigation. This should be followed by a thorough venti- 
lation for at least fifteen minutes, and the temperature should 
be kept rather low for twenty-four hours thereafter. 

6. A general survey of the experiments seems to indicate 
that a small amount of KCN with a longer exposure is pref- 
erable, to a large amount for a shorter exposure. 

7. Individual results obtained here and there in the course 
of these experiments which seem to contradict the others may, 
in general, be accounted for by the condition of the plants, 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 247 


which frequently, at least, in such cases were not as vigorous 
as the others, though this was avoided whenever possible. 

8. Comparison of the results of these experiments on cucum- 
bers with those of Mr. W. V. Tower on tomatoes shows that the 
former are much the hardier, successfully resisting more cya- 
nide and longer exposures. 


eS ae 
Lis alah ca nogiaghl = 
AOR ge cere ised er) 
lak Hyronea's liathin tee ih * 
rhe TY OF PEs ans imwit Wa Mhventia 
mere a! gree fi wie et M a 
ete eet! wats be Miele i. t. ailwinll 
wea oma 


Acid number, butter fat, 
Acid phosphate, quality of, 
Activities, station, 
Agriculturist, report of, 

Air, effect on butter fat, 
Alfalfa, ground, : 
Ammonia, sulfate, quality aa 
Analyses, miscellaneous, 
Animal nutrition, work in, 


Apiaries, law for inspection meaded, 


Apple leaf spot, occurrence of, 
Apple rust, occurrence of, 
Apples, Ben Davis group of, 


Ben Davis group, varieties in, 


Climatic variations, 


Description of varieties in Ben. Davis group in, 


Arkansas Beauty, 
Arkansas Belle, . 
Ben Davis, 


Different lots, eariabilicy of, 
Flesh of, cause of variation in, 
Form of, cause of variation in, 
Size of, cause of variation in, 


Variation in, . 

Variation in basin, 
Variation in bloom, 
Variation in calyx, 
Variation in calyx tube, . 
Variation in, causes of, 
Variation in cavity, 


Variation in chemical eoanpeeition, 


Variation in college orchard, 


Variation in color, . 
Variation in core, 
Variation in core cells, 


Variation in, discussion of, 


Variation in dots on, 
Variation in flesh, 
Variation in form, 


Variation in, from different Sart of the eee 


Variation in, from different trees, 


Variation in seeds, 
Variation in size, 
Variation in skin of, 
Variation on stem, 


Variation in, summary of ches sions and Eo alusions on, 


Asparagus beetle, egg parasite of, 


18 


176 
176 
197 
177 
LGC 
178 
178 
203 
211 
210 
211 
194 
208 
207 
209 
209 
210 
208 
206 
194 
207 
209 
209 
197 
208 
205 
197 
196 
195 
210 
203 
207 
208 
212 

74 


252 INDEX. 


Asparagus, breeding experiments with, 
Iertilizer experiments, 
Relative value of muriate and wiligne of surat for, 
Babeock machines, inspection of, 
Babcock test, conclusions on methods of edie 
Observations in reading, 
Reading the, 
Babcock testing, nee of sandidntes oor, 
Barnyard manure, average yield of hay on, 
Basic slag phosphate (meal), quality of, 
Bean rust, occurrence of, 
Beet scab, occurrence of, 
Ben Davis apple, description of fruit, 
Sales of, 
Ben Davis group of acples 
Ben Hur, : 
Black Ben Davis, 
Bone and potash, average yie ld of ths on, 
Botanist, report of the, 
Breeding experiments, asparagus, 
Buildings, construction and ina proveniaals 
Butter fat, acid number, 
Action of heat on, 
Chemical changes in, 
Composition of, 


Effect of air on, . : , 2 5 
Effect of light on, : 

Effect of moisture on, ©. ; é : . 
Ether number, . ; , d 


Iodine number, 

Physical changes in, 
Saponification number, 
Butter-fat samples, stability of, 
By-products, analysis of, 

Naming of, 


Cabbages, relative value of primate and sulfate of iotash or 


Sulfate and muriate of potash compared for, 
Calico or mosaic disease of cucumbers and melons, 
Carbonate of potash, quality of, 

Castor pomace, quality of, 

Chemical changes in butter fat, 

Chemical composition of apples from different iosatiies! 
Chemist, report of, 

Climatic variations in apples, 

Clover, effect of nitrogen fertilizers on, 


Influence of varying proportions’ of potash in fentilicers on, 


Co-efficients of heredity in peas, 

Coffelt, 

Cole Davis, 

Control work, 

Jopper, volumetric dcteviainntton of, 
Corn, varieties for ensilage, , : 
Correspondence, department of chemistry, 
Cottonseed meal (as foodstuff), quality of, 


184, 


183 
182 
176 
184 
187 


INDEX. 


Cottonseed meal, quality of, 
Cows, pure-bred, testing, 
Testing, 
Cranberries, influence of nitrate of soda on, 
Influence of phosphoric acid on, 
Influence of sulfate of potash on, 
Cranberry bog needed, 
Cranberry fertilizer experiments, 
Cranberry growers, co-operation of, 
Cream, free examination of, 
Creameries paying on basis of Babcock bade 
Crop diseases of the year, j 
Cucumber and melon, calico or mosaic disease of, 
Cucumber and melon leaf spot, occurrence of, 
Cucumbers, best soil for, 
Fumigation by day, direct camliahit. 
Fumigation cloudy days, 
Fumigation cloudy nights, 
Fumigation cloudy night with eee light, 
Yumigation experiments, conclusions based on, 
Fumigation experiments with, 
Fumigation moonlight nights, . 
Fumigation starlight nights, 
Injurious effect of pig manure for, 
Varieties used in fumigation experiments, 
Dairy law, execution of, 


Depression in digestibility by ib iedsen! pede to determine cause of, 


Digestibility co-efficients, molasses experiments, 
Digestion depression caused by molasses, 
Director, report of, 

Dissolved bone-black, eaitlity of, 

Dissolved bone, quality of, 

Dried blood, quality of, 

Egg plant, bacterial wilt, occurrence of, 


Eggs, relative number on moist mash aad dry feeds, 


Hicke, 
Elm-leaf beetle, digeabution of, 
Ensilage, varieties of corn for, 
Entomologists, report of, 
Ether number, butter fat, 
Etris, . 
Extra, : : F 
Feces in molasses Facsinicnis, eamnpaciion of, 
Fat analysis, notes on methods in, . : 
Feed and dairy division, miscellaneous analyses in, 
Feed and dairy section, résumé of work in, 
Feed law, execution of, 

Uniform, 2 5 ¢ 
Feeds, free examination of, 


Feedstuffs used in experiments with tolanees eoarpestace of, 


Weight of, ‘ 
Fertilizer experiments, asparagus, 
Cranberries, 
Fertilizer ingredients, ade aire of, 


110 
62 


254 INDEX. 


Fertilizer section, résumé of work in, : 

Tertilizers, analyzed, . ‘ . : : 
Collected, : ; P ; : : ‘ 
Commercial shortages in, ; ‘ . 
Commercial value of, compared with, retail prices, 
Different grades of, : d 
Guarantees compared with nodule of pee ae 
Licensed, , q ; 5 ‘ - 


Miscellaneous, analysis of, 
Superiority of high-grade, P 
The results of analyses and huerantces cemmcmmtet 


Unmixed, 
Fish, dry-ground, pankity fo ar 
Frosts, spring injury to asparagus, . : ° 
Fumigation dosage, : - 2 


Fumigation experiments mie ainaber 
Funds, need of additional, 

Iungicides, national law, : : 
Fungous spores, occurrence on onion seed, 
F'ungous spores on onion seed, species of, 
Gano, 

Glassware testing, 

Ground bones, quality at : 
Gummosis of peach and plum, occurrence of, 


Hay and gluten feed, effect of molasses upon digestibility of, 
Hay and molasses, summary of digestion experiments with, 


Hay, effect of molasses upon digestibility of, general conclusions, 


Effect of Porto Rico molasses on digestibility of, 
Influence of potash salts on yield of, 


Influence of varying proportions of potash on yield of, 


Manure compared with manure and potash for, 


Relative yield on manure, wood ashes and a combination 


potash, 


Winter compared with apne applisstian of manure for, 


Heat, action on butter fat, . 


Heredity in peas, 3 : ‘ 
High-grade sulfate of Sotdehe Gquelity of, ‘ : 
Improved Ben Davis, . : ° . 
Information, bulletins of, demand tok, s, Z 
Inquiry, letters of, , 3 : : 5 : 
Insects, new distribution of, . ‘ 4 . 
Insecticides, national law, : ; 3 , 
Iodine number, butter fat, . ; = . 
Kainit, quality of, F 5 2 5 . 
Laboratory work, summary of, . + . . 
Lectures and demonstrations, 4 5 ‘ 
Letters of inquiry, : ; . . ‘ . 
Light, effect on butter fat, . ; : 4 A 
Linseed meal, quality of, : 5 ‘ 4 ° 
Mailing lists, revision of, , ; . “ ‘ 
Malnutrition, common in greenhouses, . ; . 

General remedies for, : , A : . 

Hen manure a cause of, . ; : - ‘ 

Hot-water treatment of soil for, ‘ é . 


In suckers of stumps of trees, . ; 5 ; 
, 


of bone and 


138 
172 


189 


« Li,22 


18 
136 


22 
137 


25 
155 
161 
158 
159 
161 


INDEX. 


Malnutrition, common in greenhouses — Concluded. 
Nitrate of soda a cause of, 
Sheep manure a cause of, 
Symptoms of, 
Malnutrition of cucumbers, causes ae 
Rotation useful in preventing, 
Symptoms of, 
Malnutrition of plants, . ; ; é 
Manure, winter and spring application compared, 
Mash for laying hens, dry compared with moist, 
Methods in fat analysis, 
Milk depots paying on basis of Bahestk teat, 
Milk, free examination of, 
Molasses, cause of depression produced by 
Digestibility of, 
Effect on digestibility of hay ad corn Seal 


Effect on digestibility of hay and of hay and Conceuttates, 


Effect upon digestibility of hay and gluten feed, 


Effect upon digestibility of hay, general conclusions, . ; 
Experiments in feeding in combination with hay and corn meal, 
Experiments in feeding in connection with hay and gluten feed, 


102, 


Experiments to determine cause of depression in digestion produced by, 
Experiments to determine digestion depression caused by, general 


summary of, ; 
Experiments to determine Bect on digestibility, 
Injurious physiological effect of, 
Porto Rico, composition of, 


Molasses experiments, amount of manure eoocehed acid ae drunk in, 


Calculation of co-efficients in, 
Co-efficients of digestibility Siow ods in, 


Weight of animals used in, ‘ ; 
Molasses feeds, . : : 
Moisture, effect on butter fat, 

Mowings, topdressing, . . 


Muriate of potash, comparison with tieh: dtaide Taleb, 
Muriate of potash, quality of, 
Musk melon leaf spot, occurrence of, 
Nitrate of soda, influence on cranberries, 
Quality of, 
Nitrogen, cost in different shades ai feruieer, 
Nitrogen compounds, quality of, A 
Nitrogen fertilizers compared for garden crops, 
Tor onions, 
Relative efficiency of, 
Nordhaussan, 
Onions, potash salts for, 
Relative value of nitrogen fertilizers fon 
Onion seed, occurrence of fungous spores on, 
Species of fungous spores on, 


Onion thrips, : ; : ; : : 3 
Organization, 

Ostrakavis, . : : : : : 
Parasites of insects, quennlneas OL =. : < A 
Paris, . : P : : : - 
Peach leaf curl, occurrence of, é F - 2 


256 INDEX. 


PAGE 

Peas, character of variation in, ; : : : : % S a. aS 
Co-efficients of heredity in, : : ; ; ‘ : : copa ly 4 
Comparison of varieties in, : ; ri dae 
Correlation of character in, : , : : : ‘ ; joe a! 
Correlation of co-efficient in, . P : : : ; 2 Zamoae Wt | 
Differences in eas im,” 3 ; : : : - . 7s hee 
Heredity in, . 3 : : ; ; : Ma | 7 
Plant breeding, shadien in, : ; - : : ; : ¢ ee 
Prepotency in, : 5 : : : : ~ aes 
Phosphates, relative value of, dor cabbagett : ; : : : ; 41 
Yield of cabbages as affected by different, 2 : ; 41 
Phosphoric acid, comparison of different materials as sources of, ‘ : 41 
Cost in different grades of fertilizer, ; é : * : ‘ 56 
Influence on cranberries, : ; : : ; ; < ; 33 
Phosphoric acid compounds, . : ‘ , ' : : : : 58 
Phosphoric acid in slag, combination of, : ; ; ;: : : 80 
Physical changes in butter fat, . : . 133 
Plant breeding, studies in peas, ; ' é : ; : : . ee 
Potash compounds, : > 58 
Potash, cost in different erades of fertilize®: : ; : A : 56 
Relative value of muriate and high-grade sales OF, !s: : 4 : 38 
Sulfate of, influence on cranberries, . : : : - : : 32 
Sulfate and muriate compared for garden crops, bs , . 40 
Potash-magnesia sulfate, quality of, -. : . ae ‘ : 58 
Potash salts for cabbages, . : : : : - : ° - 40 
Potash salts for field crops, . : é : - 4 ° 4 2 40 
Potash salts for rhubarb, ; F ‘ F : : : : 40 
Pot experiments, agricultural denaninent - : . . ° 5 36 
Poultry experiments, . ‘ : : ; - ; A 44 
Prepotency in peas, ; 2 2 : - : = 2 A a ake 
Protein v. carbohydrates, : : : : s ; : : 61 
Publications available for distitbutions A ‘ “ < = ‘ : 20 
Publications during 1909, ; : ‘ : ‘ A : : 3 19 
Publications, edition of, too small, : : : : : : : 21 
Quince rust, occurrence of, . . : i : 70 
Refractometer, conclusions as to value in ruetectiae wiltenea acai : : ie 
Immersion, use of, in detection of watered milk, 4 : s 2 as 
Report of the agriculturist, . F . : : - ; . : 36 
Report of the botanist, ; ‘ : ; : : 3 “ : 69 
Report of the chemist, . ‘ z : . : - 2 : 46 
Report of the director, . : : : : . : - : : 13 
Report of the entomologists, . ‘ : : : : : ‘ : 73 
Report of the treasurer, : : s : 2 ; : : 34 
Research section, résumé of work in, : : : ‘ 47 
Rhubarb, relative value of muriate and duntaves of Dotas ton: ; : : 38 
Rhubarb, sulfate and muriate of potash compared for, . : ; 40 
Rose rust, occurrence of, i d : ‘ : ‘ : : ‘ 70 
Roses, soil for, . c ; ; : ad : mee 2, 
Saponification number, ‘rubber fat, : 3 : : : : : 135 
Seed corn, protection from wire worms, . . ° ‘ ‘ : : 74 
Seed law, need of, ; ; ; ; ; : ; : ; : eS 
Shackleford, : F ; F ; : : ; m ‘ : ae 
Shade tree troubles, . : ; : : : : : ‘ : 71 
Shirley, : 3 ; ; ; ; : . ' 230 


Silicie acid, effect of, in Powe or ore slag, . : ; : : : 79 


INDEX. 257 


PAGE 

Slag, basic, . ; , : : . ; 77 
Basic, combination of Piosohotie gota in, . - ; : ‘ 80 
Phosphatic or basic, quantity per acre, . : ; . < 3 81 
Thomas or basic, composition of, . ; ‘ ‘ . : é figs 
Thomas or basic, effect of silicic acid in, . : ‘ : : ; 79 
Thomas or basic, manurial value recognized, , 78 
Thomas or basic, methods for determining availability and naulberation, 78 

Soil analyses, demand for, . : 4 ; : ; : : : 24 
Soils, analysis of, ‘ 3 : : : é ‘ ‘ é 59 
Spraying poaferials, necessity fer pure, . : : , . < : 76 
Stability of butter-fat samples, ‘ ‘ : ‘ é a .. "1382 
Staff, changes in, . : : , a ; : : : ‘ , 15 
Station, 11 
Substations, asparagus, ‘Gencord, : ‘ : ; : : 4 : 26 
Cranberry fertilizers, : : : : F A : : : 31 
Cranberry, insect and general, : : : s é 6 , 28 
Sulfate of potash, comparison with muriate, . : : : - : 38 
Sweet Ben Davis, < e ‘ 5 “ ‘ 4 ‘ 5 a 192 
Tankage, quality of, . : : : : : : d : : 56 
Tent experiments, asparagus, : k ‘ : < , - 28 
Testing pure-bred cows, ; - : : ‘ ; : : . 25, 68 
Thomas slag, ; ; = : ‘ 5 : : : @ é ae 
Thrips, onion, : ; ; , ‘ : : 74 
Tomatoes, blossom-end rat, occurrence of, ; : : ‘ { ‘ 71 
Experiments in fumigation, varieties used in, . : , : . 215 
Fumigation by night, . : : 218, 224 
Fumigation by night, observations in Rtiempe Pattie ana Guniaaee 22D 
Fumigation during rain, snowstorm and cloudy weather, . . . 218 
Fumigation experiments, conclusions based on, é - , ~) 9225 
Fumigation in direct sunlight, ; ‘ : A ‘ ‘ ; 4 206 
Fumigation of, : : 3 : ; : ‘ : : . 214 
Fumigation on cloudy days, . : : : Z : § Bint soiled 
Trade value, fertilizers, : F ‘ A : : : : : 51 
Treasurer, report of, . ‘ : ; ; : : ; : , 34 
Variation in apples, , ‘ ; F , ; ‘ : . 194 
Volumetric determination Gf copper, : : : : d : » 140 
Water, drinking, analysis of, : . ; 4 : ; s : 67 
Water melon leaf spot, occurrence of, , : al 
Watered milk, conclusions relative to detection of, by use ‘of bohtaehorcter, 152 
Detection of, by use of refractometer, ‘ ‘ . : : 2h TAS 
White Ben Davis, : : ; : : : 192 
Wire worms, protection of hedd corn Sea - - : : : : 74 
Wood ashes, average yield of hay on, : ? ‘ ; . ‘ 43 


Quality of, . : : , ‘ : : 4 : 4 : 57 


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Public Document . No; sli 


TWENTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT 


OF THE 


MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL 
EXPERIMENT STATION. 


Parr 1... 


Being Part IV. or Tue ForRtTY-SEVENTH ANNUAL REPORT 
OF THE MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. 


JANUARY, 1910. 


BOSTON: 
WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS, 
18 Post OFFICE SQUARE. 
1910. 


_ APPROVED BY 
Tur State BoarD oF PUBLI 


TWENTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT 
MASSACHUSETTS 
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 


PART II. 
GENERAL REPORT OF THE EXPERIMENT STATION. 


CONTENTS. 


PART, I: 


Summary of leading conclusions, by the director, 
Manuring an apple orchard, 


Location and soil, 

Plan of the experiment, 
Fertilization, 

Care of the trees, 
Condition and size of the trees, 
Average circumference of the trees, 
Yields of fruit, 

Quality of the fruit, 

Results discussed, 

Cost of the fertilizers, ; 
How an orchard should be fertilized, 
Practical suggestions, 

Sod or tillage, 


Beet residues for farm stock, 


1. Dried beet pulp, ; 
Composition of the product, . 
Digestibility of the dried pulp, 


Dried pulp as a substitute for corn silage, . 
Beet pulp as a substitute for corn meal, 


2. Dried molasses beet pulp, 
Composition and digestibility, 
Molasses pulp for dairy stock, 

3. How beet residues should be fed, 


Daily grain rations containing dried beet residues, 
The place of dried beet residues in the farm economy, 


4. Beet leaves, 
Composition and digestibility, 
How to feed the leaves, . 


6 CONTENTS. 


The cost of producing market milk, 
Estimated cost of milk production per cow, . 
Cost of milk per quart, 
Food cost of milk produced by station beni 
Condimental and medicinal stock and poultry foods, . 
Basic or food ingredients, 4 a 
Nutritive and commercial values of the food ingredients, 
Character of medicinal ingredients, 
Quantity of medicinal ingredients, . 
Cost and selling price compared, 
Utility of these foods, 
Claims made by manufacturers, 
Do healthy animals need medicine, 
Treatment of sick animals, 
The utilization of peat in agriculture, 
Spraying injuries, 
Control of certain greenhouse diseases, 
Cucumbers and melons, 
Tomatoes, 
Lettuce, 
Chrysanthemums, 
Carnations, . 
Damping-off fungi, : 
Spraying experiments with calcium benzoate, 
Seed purity work, 1909, | 
Seed germination and separation, 
Sun scorch of the pine, 
Insects of the year, 


PAGE 


27 
28 
29 
29 
32 
32 
33 
33 
34 
30 
30 
36 
37 
37 
39 
46 
48 
49 
49 
dl 
dl 
52 
53 
55 
57 
61 
65 
70 


MASSACHUSETTS 
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION 


OF THE 


MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, 


AMUERST, MASS. 


TWENTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT. 
Part II. 


SUMMARY OF LEADING CONCLUSIONS. 


WM. P. BROOKS, DIRECTOR. 


The papers presented in this part of the report treat a wide 
variety of subjects. These will be found in the table of con- 
tents. Many of the articles are of such a character that it is 
impossible briefly to summarize them. The articles themselves 
are concise, and those interested in the subjects should refer to 
them. Some of the more important of the conclusions may be 
stated as follows: — 

1. A combination of fine-ground bone and low-grade sulfate 
of potash appears to constitute a satisfactory fertilizer for 
apple trees. The low-grade sulfate is much superior as a source 
of potash to the muriate, and basic slag meal seems likely to 
prove well adapted for use in the apple orchard as a source of 
lime and phosphoric acid. : 

2. Dried beet pulp at prevailing prices is not an economical 
food. The farmer should make it a rule to produce starchy 
or carbohydrate feeds, rather than to purchase them. 


8 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


3. Dried molasses beet pulp is a very palatable food for 
dairy stock. It seems to be nearly equal to corn meal in its 
value for such stock. 

4. Beet residues should be moistened before being fed; but 
while their use may occasionally be necessary, it should be the 
rule to buy foods rich in protein whenever it is necessary to 
supplement home-grown supplies. 

5. Beet leaves may be fed to dairy stock with fairly satis- 
factory results, and may be used either fresh or in the form of 
silage; but they should not be largely used as food for cows 
producing milk for infants. 

6. The factors which enter into the cost of milk are stated, 
and estimates based upon them show that the cost may be ex- 
pected to vary (according to the quantity of milk yielded by 
the cows) from 3.86 to 5.18 cents per quart. The food cost 
of milk produced at the station during two years has been from 
3 to 3.3 cents per quart. If other items of cost are added, it 
is believed that the total cost has amounted to a little more 
than 5 cents per quart, and that the cost of producing milk 
satisfactory in sanitary quality, and containing from 4 to 5 
per cent. of butter fat, will usually be found to amount to 
from 4 to 5 cents per quart. 

7. The extravagant claims made for the condimental and 
medicinal stock and poultry foods are not justified by the facts. 
They possess neither the food nor medicinal value claimed for 
them. It is pointed out that the healthy animal does not need 
medicine, and that medicines should rarely be used without the 
advice of a competent veterinarian. 

8. Figures showing the composition of peat are presented, 
and its value for composts, as an absorbent and for direct ap- 
plication to light soils is pointed out. 

9. Among the principal causes of injury from spraying the 
following are the most important: improper preparation of 
the spraying fluid and the meteorological conditions. Injury 
is more likely when spraying is carried on in damp, cloudy 
weather than in bright, sunny weather. 

10. Very many of the more serious greenhouse diseases ap- 
pear to be caused by faulty environment. The most skillful 
growers avoid most diseases by suitable attention to the composi- 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 9 


tion of the soil, temperature, light, ventilation, ete. Spraying 
is seldom necessary. 

11. Calcium benzoate proves ineffective as a spray for the 
prevention of rot in plums. 

12. Examination of a large number of commercial seeds 
shows that the percentage of impurities and weed seeds is rela- 
tively large. There appears to be danger that Massachusetts 
will become the dumping ground for inferior seeds, since most 
of the neighboring States have enacted seed laws. 

13. Further experiments confirm the favorable estimate 
earlier formed as to the beneficial effects of separation of seed 
for the removal of impurities and lhght and imperfect seeds 
on the germination, size and vigor of the young plants. 

14. Among the leading causes of sun scorch of the foliage 
of the white pine, frost injury to the feeding rootlets in winter, 
hot, dry weather and drying winds appear to be the most im- 
portant; although burning of the foliage is occasionally due to 
- the action of a fungus. The diseases affecting the pine do not 
appear to be as serious as has been often represented. 

15. Among the insects which were most prominent during 
the season of 1909 may be mentioned the elm-leaf beetle, San 
José scale and various kinds of plant lice. The article on 
“Insects of the Year” calls attention to the introduction of the 
leopard moth, which promises to be a serious pest, and to the 
continued spread of the brown-tail moth. It calls attention 
further to the discovery of an egg parasite of the asparagus 
beetle, which it is hoped will prove of great assistance in check- 
ing the ravages of that insect. 


WM. P. BROOKS, 


Director. 


10 EXPERIMENT STATION, (Jan. 


MANURING AN APPLE ORCHARD. 


BY WM. P. BROOKS, DIRECTOR. 


This article is based upon the results of experiments on the 
station grounds originally planned by Dr. C. A. Goessmann, 
when director of the old State Experiment Station. They have 
been in progress for twenty years. The leading results and 
conclusions only will be presented; but in order that readers 
may have a basis for judgment as to their significance and 
value, a brief statement of the conditions and plan of the ex- 
periment must be given. 


Location AND SOIL. 

The orchard is located on a moderate and fairly uniform 
slope, lying just to the west of a forest composed chiefly of 
chestnut and hemlock which covers the northerly part of Col- 
lege Hill. The soil is a strong and retentive gravelly loam, with 
fairly compact subsoil. It was originally somewhat overmoist 
in some places. In preparation for the orchard tile drains were 
put in to carry off the excess of water. In preparing the area 
for the trees a catch-water was placed at the head of the slope, 
so that the orchard is protected from surface wash from higher 
land. There can be no doubt that the moisture conditions are 
exceptionally favorable, for the water absorbed by the forest 
soil on higher levels to the east must constantly work through 
the soil downwards towards lower levels, thus furnishing a 
constant supply of moisture to the roots of the trees. 

The soil is of a character naturally well suited for apples, 
except that, in common with all the soils of this part of the 
State, it is naturally deficient in lime. It is, however, the type 
of soil commonly selected in almost all parts of the State as 
naturally well suited for fruit. 


1910.| PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 3l. 11 


PLAN OF THE EXPERIMENT. 


The area originally included in the experiment was con- 
siderably larger than that now occupied by the apple trees. 
Pears, plums and peaches as well as apples were planted, but 
neither of the first three fruits did well. A considerable nuin- 
ber of the trees died, and after a few years all were removed. 

The area devoted to apples is divided into five plots, all 
equal in area (about one-third acre). The plots were laid out 
and manures and fertilizers applied in accordance with the plan 
adopted one year before the trees were set, in 1889, during 
which year a hoed crop was cultivated. Each plot contains 
twelve trees, three each of Gravenstein, Baldwin, Roxbury Rus- 
set and Rhode Island Greening. The trees were ordinary 
nursery stock, two years old, when set in the spring of 1890. 


FERTILIZATION. 


Each plot has been continuously fertilized in the same way 
each year ‘since the date (1889) above mentioned. The annual 
rates per acre are as follows: — 


Plot. FERTILIZER. Pounds. 
1 Barnyard manure, . , - o : . : c : c 20,0001 
2 Wood ashes, C : - - é : é : : : : 2,000 
3 Nothing, . : - : : 3 5 : : : C c - 
‘Bone meal, . - - - é ot hoe 5 3 C 600 
j ( Muriate of potash, . ; c : t : : é é ; 200 
Bone meal, : 6 c 5 5 : f ‘ F é 5 600 
; Low-grade sulfate or potash (sulfate of potash magnesia), . 400 


All manures and fertilizers have invariably been applied 
broadcast in early spring. They were mixed with the soil so 
long as the orchard continued under cultivation, but since it 
has been in grass they have necessarily been left upon the sur- 
face. 


1 About 314 cords. 


12 EXPERIMENT STATION. (Jan. 


CARE OF THE TREES. 


The entire orchard was carefully cultivated for the first five 
years after the trees were set, the area between the trees being 
occupied by hoed crops. Since 1895 the orchard has been kept 
continuously in mixed sod, grasses and clovers, except that dur- 
ing the first few years after it was seeded small circles immedi- 
ately about the trunks of the trees were kept free from grass 
by hand culture. The product was cut, usually twice each 
season, made into hay and removed every year until 1902, 
when the trees first bore a large crop of fruit. 

In 1902 the first crop was made into hay and removed, but 
the second crop was cut and left upon the ground. This prac- 
tice has been followed annually since 1902. In seasons when 
rainfall is normal we cut over the orchard twice with the mow- 
ing machine; but during the past two seasons, which have been 
exceptionally dry, a single cutting has appeared to be sufficient. 
The orchard has been well cared for as regards pruning and 
spraying. The San José scale, however, obtained a foothold in 
it in 1901. It was discovered before serious damage had been 
done, and annual thorough spraying in spring with the lime 
and sulphur mixture has been sufficient to protect it from any 
serious injury from this pest. 


CoNDITION AND SIZE OF THE TREES. 


The trees have maintained for the most part a thoroughly 
healthy and normal growth. They have broad, low heads, well 
adapted for modern orchard methods. One tree has been lost 
in each of two plots, —a Gravenstein in plot 1 and a Russet 
in plot 4. These trees were promptly replaced, but the young 
trees have not yet come into bearing. The trees of all varieties 
exhibit considerable individual variations in size within each of 
the plots. To what these differences are due it is impossible 
to say. Possibly it may be attributed to differing individual 
characteristics in the trees themselves, for, as has been stated, 
they were ordinary nursery stock, and not known to have 
come in the case of any of the varieties from scions from the 
same parent tree. Variations in the amount of fruit produced 
would undoubtedly affect the growth of the trees, while it is 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT— No. 31. 13 


of course possible that variations in the soil are responsible for 
the differences in growth. In spite of the fact of these indi- 
vidual variations, the trees of any particular variety in a given 
plot exhibit a fair degree of uniformity, and the averages pre- 
sented below afford a good indication of the relative effects of 
the different systems of fertilization followed. 


AVERAGE CIRCUMFERENCE OF THE TREES. 


Autumn, 1909. 
Inches. 


Ct tt ( kt, (8 
eee kl wCC«;sSC88.B 
27.98 
en 
Ee ry A 


Yievps or F Rrvrr. 


As has been previously indicated, the first fairly full crop of 
fruit was produced in 1902. Since that date the amount of 
fruit in different years has varied quite widely. The Baldwins 
have usually exhibited a strong tendency to produce fruit only 
in alternate years, the other varieties producing more moder- 
ate crops, as a rule annually. The following tables exhibit the 
nature of the results : — 


Total Yield of All Trees to Date, including 1909. 


Plot. PouNDS OF FRUIT. | Equal to Barrels per Acre. 


| 
1 24,934 556.3 
2 12,841 286.6 
3 3,940 . 87.9 
4 14,453 322.6 
5 21,863 488.0 


14 EXPERIMENT STATION. (Jan. 


Total Yield to Date for Each Variety. 


GRAVENSTERINS. BALDWINS. RvssETs. | GREENINGS. 
PLOT. Pounds | Barrels | Pounds | Barrels Pounds | Barrels Pounds | Barrels 
per Plot. | per Acre. | per Plot. | per Acre. || per Plot. | per Acre. || per Plot. | per Acre. 
] 3,644.25 325.4 7,060.0 630.4 |} 6,190.00 552.8 8,185.0 730.8 
2 1,905.00 170.1 | 3,197.0 285.4 |) 3,827.00 341.7 3,893.5 347.6 
3 999.25 89.2 564.5 50.4 || 1,281.00 114.4 1,086.0 96.9 
4 3,578.25 319.5 | 1,962.5 175.2 || 5,272.75 470.8 3,674.5 328.1 
5 2,996.50 267.5 | 9,174.0 819.1 || 6,341.25 566.2 3,822.0 341.3 
Yields of Each Variety in 1909. 
GRAVENSTEINS. BALDWINS. RUSSETS. GREENINGS. 
PLOT. Pounds | Barrels Pounds | Barrels Pounds | Barrels Pounds | Barrels 
per Plot. | per Acre. |) per Plot. | per Acre. |} per Plot. | per Acre. || per Plot. | per Acre. 
i 1,179.75 105.3 2,590.0 231.3 || 1,719.00 153.5 2,157.0 192.6 
2 284.00 25.4 695.0 62.1 547.00 48.8 1,165.0 102.2 
3 223-7 19.9 132.0 11.8 90.00 8.0 140.0 12.5 
4 1,217.50 108.7 682.0 60.9 991.00 88.5 604.0 53.8 
5 1,189.50 106.2 2,443 .0 218.1 || 1,172.00 104.6 1,087.0 OTe 


Attention is called to the fact that while the total yield of 
fruit upon plot 5 is materially greater than on plot 4, the yield 
of Gravensteins on plot 5 is inferior to that on plot 4. This 
may be in part accounted for by the fact that the Gravenstein 
row in plot 5 stood on the southern edge of the plot and within 
a comparatively short distance of a well-grown forest. It is 
believed that these trees were somewhat injuriously affected 
for a few years; but in 1908 this forest was cut back to a sufli- 
cient distance from plot 5 so that it is believed that this influ- 
ence can no longer prove harmful. It will be noticed that in 
1909 the yield of Gravensteins on plots 4 and 5 was practically 
equal. 


Tuer Quairy oF THE FRUIT. 


In color and general attractiveness of appearance the fruit 
of the several plots has usually ranked in the following order: 
plots 2, 5, 4, 1 and 3. In the early years of the experiment 
the rank of the fruit in size was in the order: plots 5, 4, 1, 2 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 15 


and 3. At the present time the apples on plot 1 take a higher 
relative rank, and in all cases where the quantity of fruit is not 
excessive the apples on plot 1 are usually larger than on any 
of the other plots. 

A number of tests of keeping quality have been made, and 
in this respect the fruit has usually ranked in about the fol- 
lowing order: plots 5, 4, 1, 2 and 3. The relatively low rank of 
the fruit from plot 2 in keeping quality appears to be con- 
nected with the fact that this fruit comes to maturity earlier 
than that on the other manured or fertilized plots. It will be 
noted that the fruit from plot 2 ranks highest in appearance. 
This is due to its superiority in coloring. This in turn is un- 
doubtedly connected with the fact that the fruit is somewhat 
more mature. Such fruit might undoubtedly be kept if 
promptly put into cold storage; but in ordinary storage it is 
considerably inferior to the somewhat less thoroughly ripened 
fruit on the other manured plots. 

The fruit from plot 5 has almost invariably been much su- 
perior in appearance to that produced on plots 1 or 4. Here 
again there have been individual variations in the product of 
the different trees of the same variety on all of the different 
plots. There has, however, been no doubt as to the fact that 
on the whole the product of plot 5 has been considerably supe- 
rior in coler and general attractiveness as well as in firmness 
of flesh to the product from plot 4; while the product from plot 
1, which receives barnyard manure, ranks below either of the 
others in the qualities just mentioned. In general, the fruit 
produced on plot 5 shows a considerably brighter and clearer 
color than that on either plots 4 or 1. There can be no doubt 
that it would sell at a higher price in the general market than 
either of the others, although the difference between plots 4 and 
5 is considerably less than between plots 1 and 5. The product 
of the unmanured plot, 3, shows good color and in some cases 
is of fair size, but in general is too small to command the best 
prices. 

Tue REsuLTS DISCUSSED. 


The most significant result of the experiment is the superi- 
ority of plot 5 as compared with plot 4. Reference to the tables 
will show that the trees are much larger and that they produce 


16 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


a much greater amount of fruit. It will be noted that both 
have annually received equal amounts of bone meal, and, since 
muriate of potash contains practically double the amount of 
actual potash contained in the low-grade sulfate, and is applied 
in one-half the quantity of the latter, it will be seen that both 
have received annually practically equal amounts of actual 
potash (at the rate of 100 pounds per acre). These two plots, 
therefore, have received annually applications supplying equal 
amounts of the three most essential elements of plant food, — 
nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash. There is, however, one 
important difference in the applications made to the two plots. 
The low-grade sulfate of potash contains a large amount of 
magnesia; muriate does not supply this element. Whether the 
superior growth and fruitfulness of the trees on plot 5 is due 
to the magnesia supplied we cannot, unfortunately, feel cer- 
tain. We know, indeed, that magnesia is an essential element 
of plant food. It is, however, an element which ordinarily 
appears to be supplied in sufficient quantities from natural 
sources. It is of course possible that there may be a natural 
difference in the soil of the two plots, although this is not 
believed to have been the case; or that the sulphuric acid com- 
bination with potash (sulfate) is better suited to the trees than 
the hydrocholoric acid of the muriate. 

Experiments upon a larger scale to test the questions raised 
by the result of this experiment are now in progress. 

This experiment shows most decisively that apple trees must 
be fed to grow well and bear well. The inferior results ob- 
tained on plot 8, which has been unmanured throughout the 
entire period of the experiments, strikingly establishes this 
point. 

The manure used in this experiment is undoubtedly furnish- 
ing too large a proportion of nitrogen. The growth of the trees 
is rank; the foliage is heavy; the fruit is overgrown, coarse 
and inferior in color. Jn this particular experiment the com- 
bination of bone meal with low-grade sulfate of potash has 
produced results which, on the whole, must be regarded as the 
most satisfactory. 


1910. } PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 17 


Cost oF THE FERTILIZERS. 


The prices of the different materials used in this experiment 
have been subject to some variation from year to year. On the 
average the total cost has been at the rate of about $12 per acre 
for the materials applied to plots 2, 4 and 5. Barnyard manure, 
which is a home product, may be variously estimated. If pur- 
chased, the quantity applied would have cost somewhat more 
than either of the combinations of fertilizers employed. It 
may be that the cost of the fertilizers used in this experiment 
is excessive. For the twenty years it would, of course, amount 
to a large sum per acre; but in this connection it should be 
kept in mind that the crops produced (hoed crops and hay) up 
to the year 1902 were probably sufficient to cover the cost of 
the materials applied. The weights of hay were not at first 
taken ; but from 1897 to 1901 the total product of the five plots, 
1% acres, amounts to about 27 tons, which must have had a 
value, when standing, of at least $6 per ton, or a total value 
of $162. During these five years the value of the manure and 
fertilizers applied to the four plots amounted to about $28 an- 
nually, or $140 for the five years. On this basis the fertilizer 
cost appears to have been lower than the value of the hay crops. 
Certainly it will not be the opinion of those qualified to judge 
that the fertilizer cost is excessive for a bearing orchard. The 
product of single trees this year on each of the manured plots 
was worth more than the entire cost of the fertilizers applied 
per plot. 


How an Orcrarp SHOULD BE FERTILIZED. 


No one familiar with such matters will for a moment believe 
that any one selection of materials can always be best. Cer- 
tainly the writer is not disposed to claim that he knows what is 
_ the best selection of materials. The combination of bone meal 
with low-grade sulfate of potash in this experiment has produced 
satisfactory results. It seems likely that in many cases similar 
results would be obtained. It is the writer’s belief, however, 
supported not alone by his own work, but by results obtained 
by some well-known private growers, that on soils naturally 
deficient in lime, basic slag meal might wisely be used in place 


18 EXPERIMENT STATION, (Jan. 


of the whole or a part of the bone. It should be remembered, 
however, that the bone furnishes some nitrogen as well as phos- 
phate of ime, while basic slag meal contains no nitrogen. It 
does, however, supply lime in a considerably larger proportion 
than the bone, and this is likely to prove valuable on the class 
of soils under consideration. In some eases it might be ad- 
visable, in connection with basic slag meal and low-grade sulfate 
of potash, to give an occasional very light dressing of manure, 
to furnish nitrogen; although it is probable that by the intro- 
duction of a legume as a cover crop the necessary nitrogen may 
be obtained from the air. 


PracticaL SuGGESTIONS. 
For orchard top-dressing the following fertilizer formulas 
are recommended. In each case the amounts given are intended 
for an acre. 


Formula. | FERTILIZER. Pounds. 
No. 1 Bone meal, 3 : - : ; - 600-800 
bee Low-gr ade sulfate of potash, : - - - : 5 350-400 
Nige Basic slag meal, . 5 : : : 800-1,000 

ree Low -grade sulfate of ‘potash, 2 : - : ° 350-400 
No. 3 Basic slag meal, 3 : 5 3 ‘ 600-800 

ane Low-grade sulfate of “potash, ; . 2 5 : : 300-350 


The materials recommended should be mixed and applied 
in early spring. In the case of trees ten or more years of age 
the mixture should be applied broadcast, covering the entire 
surface, with the exception of circles about the trunks of the 
trees equal in diameter to one-third to one-half of the spread 
of the branches. There will be few feeding roots within such 
circles. The practice of piling manure or spreading fertilizers 
close to the trunks of trees is not to be recommended. Manure - 
in contact with the base of the trunk increases the probability 
of injury from insects or vermin, and neither manure nor fer- 
tilizer so placed is in position to exert its fullest influence in 
feeding the trees. 

Formula No. 1 is likely to prove most valuable on the 
lighter orchard soils. It supplies a little nitrogen, in which such 
soils are often deficient and which they have little capacity to 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. ots 


hold. If these soils are deficient also in lime, as is likely to be 
the case, an application at the rate of 1,500 to 2,000 pounds 
per acre before the trees are set, and a further application at the 
rate of 600 to 800 pounds per acre once in five or six years, will 
prove useful. 

Under this system clover will become abundant in the orchard 
kept in sod, while such cover crops as soy beans, vetches or 
clovers will thrive if tillage is practiced. Under either the sod 
or tillage system, therefore, a sufficient supply of nitrogen will 
be brought within the reach of the trees. 

Formula No. 2 will prove well suited for use on the medium 
or heavy soils. It supplies no nitrogen, but creates soil con- 
ditions peculiarly favorable for the coming in of clovers 
in the sod, or nitrogen-gathering cover crops in tilled orchards. 
Under these conditions it seems likely that sufficient nitrogen 
will be brought within reach of the trees. If, however, the 
growth of the trees is not satisfactory, a small amount of nitrate 
of soda, 100 to 125 pounds, may be added. 

Formula No. 3 differs from No. 2 only in supplying the 
slag and low-grade potash in smaller amounts. This formula is 
suggested for use in those cases where it is convenient and re- 
garded as desirable to employ some manure in the orchard. It 
is not the writer’s belief that it will usually pay to purchase 
manure for such use, but in so far as it is available as a home 
product its use in moderate quantities may be advisable. 
Manure, however, supplies nitrogen in relative excess for fruit 
trees. It seems wise, therefore, to supplement it with materials 
like slag meal and low-grade sulfate of potash, which will supply 
additional phosphoric acid, lime and potash. It is not the 
writer’s belief that it will usually be best to use manure in top- 
dressing orchards in annual amounts in excess of about 114 
cords per acre. 


Sop or TILvace. 

The fact that the orchard in which the experiments upon 
which this article is based have been tried has been kept in sod 
since 1895 should not be regarded as indicating that the sod 
system is held to be always superior to the tillage system. Both 
systems have their advocates. The question whether sod or 
tillage is better cannot be regarded as settled; indeed, as an 


20 EXPERIMENT STATION, [Jan. 


abstract question. it never will be settled. ach has earnest 
advocates; but the fact undoubtedly is that neither system is 
always best. The best must vary with conditions. Neither 
system possesses all the advantages. 

It is not proposed to enter upon a full discussion of the sub- 
ject here, but simply to present such statements as seem neces- 
sary to guard against misunderstanding. 

The experiments here reported do not directly bear upon the 
question. No comparison of the two systems has been made. 
It will be admitted that the trees in this orchard have made good 
growth and produced a fair amount of fruit. In estimating the 
significance of these facts the character of the soil must be 
kept in mind. It will be remembered that it is strong and re- 
tentive, and that the moisture conditions are good. Under such 
conditions, trees as well as grass find their need of water abun- 
dantly supplied. 

Whether or not the trees will be abundantly supplied with 
moisture must, in the writer’s judgment, determine in any par- 
ticular case whether an orchard should be kept in sod. On the 
lighter or gravelly soils there is always danger that the grasses 
will rob the trees of needed water. It 1s an easy matter to 
supply plant food both for grass and trees, but not so with water. 
On soils inclining to be dry the moisture must be carefully con- 
served for the trees, and such tillage as will maintain a dust 
mulch during the spring and early summer (Hale’s horse leg 
irrigation) is necessary for good results. 

It is of course true that allowing the grass and clovers to 
remain on the ground when cut, as has been the practice in our 
experiments, will provide a partial mulch which will help retain 
moisture in the orchard soil; but, even if this course be followed, 
there is danger of water shortage at critical times in orchards 
upon light or gravelly soils with subsoils of open texture, pro- 
vided they are kept in sod. This danger is much reduced if the 
grass produced in the orchard is gathered and spread under 
the trees, thus providing a heavy mulch; but, while this fact is 
everywhere admitted, a large proportion of the most progressive 
orchardists practice tillage in spring and early summer, sowing 
a cover crop in late summer to furnish organic matter and 
nitrogen, and in many cases to protect from injurious soil wash- 
ing during the late fall, winter and early spring rains. 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 81. 21 


BEET RESIDUES FOR FARM STOCK. 


BY J. B. LINDSEY. 


fy Dre Beet Pup. 

Dried beet pulp represents the residue in the manufacture of 
sugar from sugar beets. It is first run through presses to reduce 
its water content as much as possible, and then put into kilns 
where it is thoroughly dried by direct heat. 


Composition of the Product. 

The prepared product is very dry, coarse and of a grayish 
color. It contains substantially 9 to 12 per cent. of water, 
about 4 per cent. of ash, 8 per cent. of protein, 18 to 20 per 
cent. of fiber, 60 per cent. of extract matter and less than 1 per 
cent. of fat. The fiber is quite soft, being free from incrusting 
substance and hence quite digestible. 


Digestibility of the Dried Pulp. 

No digestion experiments made in this country are recorded. 
German experiments show it to have a digestibility of 77 per 
cent.; corn silage made from mature dent varieties shows an 
average digestibility of 66 per cent.; and corn meal 88 per cent. 


Dried Pulp as a Substitute for Corn Stilage. 

Wing! compared the wet pulp with corn silage, feeding 50 to 
100 pounds daily, together with 8 pounds of grain and 6 to 12 
pounds of hay, and concluded that the dry matter in the pulp 
was of equal value, pound for pound, with the dry matter found 
in the silage. The milk-producing value of wet beet pulp as it 


1 Bulletin, No. 183, Cornell Experiment Station. 


22 EXPERIMENT STATION. , [ Jan, 


comes from the factory ' is, pound for pound, about one-half that 
of corn silage. 

Billings * compared the dry pulp with corn silage, and con- 
cluded that the pulp ration gave 10.2 per cent. more milk than 
did the silage ration; but, because of the cost of the dried pulp, 
it was more economical to feed silage. In his trial the cows 
receiving the pulp ration lost in flesh. 

The fact must not be overlooked that the dried pulp is a ear- 
bohydrate, similar in chemical composition to corn silage and 
corn meal, It is believed that 5 tons of silage is substantially 
equivalent in feeding value to 1 ton of the dried pulp. Putting 
the value of the 5 tons of silage at $20, the ton of pulp should be 
bought for the same money, whereas its present cost is some $26. 
It is believed, under present conditions, not to be good economy 
for farmers to buy pulp to be used in place of home-grown corn 
silage, the farm being the place for the production of carbohy- 
drate food stuffs. 


Beet Pulp as a Substitute for Corn Meal. 


On the basis of digestible dry matter in dried pulp and corn 
meal, the former is worth 90 per cent. of the latter. According 
to IXellner the dried pulp has substantially 80 per cent. as much 
value as corn meal. 


2. Driep Moxrassses Beret Putp. 


Beet pulp, after it has been pressed to remove the excess of 
water, is mixed with residuum beet molasses and the mixture 
put into driers where it is thoroughly dried by direct heat. 
This product, similar to the plain pulp, is quite dry, coarse, 
and resembles in its appearance ordinary black tea. 


Composition and Digestibility. 
The molasses beet pulp does not vary much in the percentages 
of the several fodder groups from ordinary pulp. It usually 
tests shghtly higher in protein and ash and a little lower in fat. 


1 Only those living in the immediate vicinity of the factory can afford to use the wet 
pulp. Itis worth not over $2 a ton onthe farm. 
2 Bulletin, No. 189, New Jersey Experiment Station. 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 23 


The average of three analyses of molasses beet pulp made at 
this station is as follows: — 


Courosimioy. erie)” scmeutter vaat 
Water, . “ - - - - : - - 5 8.00 14.00 
eae, 5 - ; - . 4 - : 5.40 1.30 
Protein, ON eee 9.50 9.80 
Fiber, . : 2 : . 5 : 5 ‘ : 15.40 1.90 
Extract matter, . - A . . . 5 : 61.30 69.20 
ae ) Soar i ene 40 3.80 


The pulp differs from corn meal in having rather more of its 
protein in the form of amids, in containing more ash and less 
fat. Its carbohydrates are in the form of fiber, gums and sugar, 
while the carbohydrate of corn meal is practically all starch. 

Our own experiment! on the digestibility of the molasses 
beet pulp carried out with two sheep is the only one on record. 
Tt shows it to be 85 per cent. digestible, as against 77 per cent. 
for the plain pulp. These results, however, are hardly com- 
parable, as the latter figure represents the average of German 
experiments. In any case the molasses pulp has a high rela- 
tive digestibility, and is not very much inferior in this respect 
to corn meal. 


Molasses Pulp for Dairy Stock. 

Billings ? compared the dried molasses beet pulp with the 
plain dried pulp, and secured a trifle more milk with the 
former. He likewise compared it with hominy meal, and se- 
cured some 4 per cent. more milk as a result of its use. 

Our own experiment, made in 1903,! comparing it with 
corn meal, resulted in an increase of 5 per cent. of milk when 
the corn meal was used. It is believed, however, to be a satis- 
factory carbohydrate food, slightly superior in its nutritive 
effect, as well as in palatability, to the plain dried pulp. 


1 Bulletin 99, Hatch Experiment Station. 
2 Already cited. 


24 * EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


») 


3. How Brrt RESIDUES SHOULD BE FED. 


Dried beet pulp absorbs a great deal of water, and in ease it 
is fed dry, this absorption will take place in the mouth and 
stomach, and is likely to cause choking, indigestion and stomach 
irritation. It should be first moistened with two to three times 
its weight of water, and the dry grain mixed with it. 


Daily Grain Rations containing Dried Bect Residues. 


(a) Dairy Cows. . 
if. ED 
3 pounds distillers’ grains. 1.5 pounds gluten feed. 
4 pounds dried plain or molasses} 1.5 pounds cotton-seed meal. 
4 


pulp. 0 pounds dried beet pulp. 
it: Ty; 
2 pounds gluten feed. 2 pounds wheat bran. 
2 pounds flour middlings. 2 pounds ecotton-seed meal. 
3 pounds dried beet pulp. 4.05 pounds dried beet pulp. 


(b) To supplement Pasturage. — By weight one-half of 
dried beet pulp and one-half gluten feed; or one-third dried 
beet pulp, one-third gluten feed and one-third wheat bran; or 
two-thirds beet pulp and one-third distillers’ grains would prove 
desirable combinations (feed from 3 to 7 pounds daily depend- 
ing upon requirements). 

(c) For fattening Stock. — It should prove satisfactory for 
fattening beef animals, in the proportion, by weight, of two- 
thirds beet pulp and one-third cotton-seed meal. The material 
is hardly to be recommended for swine and horses. 


The Place of Dried Beet Residues in the Farm Heonomy. 


Farmers who are in position to produce their own feed cannot 
afford, as a rule, to purchase starchy feed stuffs; they should be 
produced upon the farm, in the form of corn, oats and barley. 
For milk production it is much more desirable to purchase 
materials rich in protein, such as cotton-seed and linseed meals, 
dried distillers’ and brewers’ grains, gluten feed, malt sprouts, 
fine middlings and even bran. These feed stuffs are not only 
very helpful in milk production, but likewise supply large 
amounts of nitrogen in the resulting manure. When the supply 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 25 


of home-grown corn is exhausted or limited, beet residues may 
be substituted for fattening stock and as one-third of the grain 
ration for dairy purposes. Milk producers who purchase all of 
their grain will find the dried pulp a satisfactory component 
(one-half) of the daily ration. 


4, Bret Leaves. 

Every autumn the station is in receipt of inquiries concern- 
ing the value of beet leaves for feeding purposes. In order 
to answer these inquiries the following information is sub- 
mitted : — 

Composition and Digestibility. 


The leaves have the following average composition :* — 


Per Cent. 
Water, . : z : : : , : : ; ; - Oo.30 
ee) 
Protein, d E - : : - : : : : ea. 0 
Fiber, . : : ‘ ‘ : ‘ ; : : : ae as 
‘Extract matter, . : : : : ‘ ; ‘ : «4.70 
as, . 3 : ; : ‘ : : : é : 40 


From the above analysis it is evident that the leaves contain 
a great deal of water and on the basis of dry matter are rela- 
tively rich in protein and ash and poor in fiber. The leaves 
contain 20 to 37.7 per cent. of their nitrogen in the form of 
amids. The ash contains a large amount of oxalic acid (3.5 
per cent. of the dry matter), and in the extract matter varying 
amounts of dextrose and lzvulose have been recognized. 

According to I. Lehmann,” sheep digest 61 per cent. of the 
crude protein, 52 per cent. of the fat and 75 per cent. of the 
extract matter. 


How to feed the Leaves. 


Beet leaves are best suited for dairy cows and for fattening 
cows and steers. They are less suited for young stock, swine, 
horses and sheep. Fed in too liberal quantities they have a 
decidedly laxative effect, and likewise cause indigestion. This 
is due to the oxalic acid and inorganic ash constituents. The 
same bacteria which in the paunch of the bovine produces lactic 


1 EK. Pott, Handbuch der Thier. Ernihrung, etc. Zweite Auflage, II. Bd. S. 201. 
2 See E. Pott, already cited, p. 202. 


26 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan, 


acid act to an extent upon the oxalic acid and partially decom- 
pose it. It is advisable to feed not over 50 pounds daily of the 
green leaves to dairy cows, together with dry hay and grain. In 
case of cows that are near to calving one-half of this amount is 
preferable. It is stated that dry cows and thin steers will take 
larger amounts without bad effect. 

German observers have found it helpful, in order to guard 
against the unfavorable action of the oxalic acid, to feed 1 ounce 
of precipitated chalk to every 50 pounds of leaves. It is not 
advisable to feed the leaves when the milk is intended for young 
children. Before feeding, the leaves should be made as free 
from soil as possible. This can in a measure be accomplished 
by shaking off the dirt with the aid of a fork, or by placing them 
in slatted drums or on sieves made of slats. It is not economical 
to wash them, as too much of the water-soluble nutrients is 
lost. 

Beet leaves may be ensiled, and thus treated have been found 
to be less laxative in their effect. The oxalic acid is also partly 
decomposed. The leaves should be allowed to wilt, freed from 
excessive earth or sand, and then placed in pits in the earth or 
in ordinary wooden silos and thoroughly tramped. Excess of 
moisture is to be avoided. In case of necessity the leaves may 
be placed in small piles, and will keep very well for from one to 
two weeks. The ensiled material contains approximately 76 
per cent. of water, and E. Wildt’ has shown it to have the fol- 
lowing percentages digestible: — 


Per Cent. 

Protein, . ‘ : . ; ; ; : ; : ‘ 265 
Wat, 3 : : ; : 2 : é : ‘ i : . 60 
Extract matter, . : . é F : ‘ ‘ ; : . 54 


It is not advisable to feed to cows over 25 pounds daily of 
the ensilage, together with hay, straw and grain. Larger 
amounts frequently act unfavorably on the animal, and are 
likely to produce a strong taste in the milk. German authorities 
are inclined to prefer the ensiled to the fresh leaves, especially 
if the latter are at all frosted or decayed. 


1 Loco citato, p. 207, 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 27 


THE COST OF PRODUCING MARKET MILK. 


BY J. B. LINDSEY. 


It is impossible to determine just how much it costs to pro- 
duce a definite amount of milk, as so many factors enter into 
the problem. Among such factors may be mentioned fertility 
of the farm, skill in management, kind of buildings and utensils 
employed, quality and care of dairy stock and care of the result- 
ing product. It is the belief of the writer that in the past 
a great deal of milk has been made and sold for less than 
the cost of production. In making an attempt to gain a tem- 
porary livelihood from dairying, many have sacrificed the fer- 
tility of their farms, employed the most primitive methods of 
housing and caring for the dairy stock, and the family has 
eared for the milk and for the dairy utensils without credit. 
Now that the health authorities are demanding better dairy 
methods, the dairyman is indeed confronted with a serious prob- 
lem, namely, how can he conform to these requirements, and 
produce milk at a reasonable profit? The writer sees no way out 
of the dilemma other than to.teach the public to appreciate the 
highly nutritious character of milk, and to educate it to pay a 
price commensurate with the increased cost of producing a 
reasonably sanitary article. An attempt has been made, in the 
figures which follow, to estimate the cost of producing a definite 
amount of milk containing 4 per cent. of butter fat, which will 
meet the ordinary requirements of the city boards of health. 
The figures per quart mean the wholesale price at the farm, and 
do not include profit to the producer, other than the fact that 
he sells all of his roughage and whatever grain he may produce 
upon his farm at market rates. If he cares for his own cattle, 
he is allowed a reasonable compensation. It would probably be 
no more than fair to add to the cost per quart 10 per cent. for 
actual profit. In order to determine the retail price to the con- 


28 EXPERIMENT STATION. 


[Jan. 


sumer, the cost of delivery to wholesale centers as well as the 


cost of retail distribution should be added. 


EstimatTep Cost or Mitx Propuction per Cow. 


Basis 20 Cows. 


1. Building for housing cow and feed (per cow), . 
Interest, taxes, depreciation, repairs and 


insurance, 10 per ie , : ‘ 
2. Value of cow, . : ; = : 
Interest and ane 6 per cent., . 5 ‘ 
Depreciation, 20 per cent., . ; ; ° 


3. Value of carpenter’s tools (per cow), 
Interest and depreciation, 15 per eent., 

4, Value of barn tools (per ecow,—farm seale, 
shovels, forks, trucks for grain, manure, 
ete.), . : , 

Interest and He peccha inn: 15 per cent., 

. Value of dairy implements (per Sou ee 
pails, seale, Babcock tester, strainers, hot 
water heater, cleaning brushes, ete.), 

Interest and depreciation, 15 per cent., 

6. Value of perishable tools and supplies (per cow, 
eards, brushes, record sheets, soap, salt, 
ice, bedding, bull service, veterinary, etc.), 

7. Value of food consumed for one year: — 

40 pounds of silage daily for 224 days (7144 
months), at $3.75 a ton, 
12 pounds of hay daily for 224 ae (71 
months), at $17 a ton, . 
8 pounds of grain daily for 224 aes (714 
months), at $32 a ton, . 
20 weeks’ pasturage, at 30 cents per ean : 
One-third cost of food (basis of winter feed- 
ing’) while at pasture, , 


On 


8. Care of cow and milk for one year, 


Credits. 
5 cords manure, . ; : : . . 
1 calf each year, . : t ‘ : : ; 


Net cost of one cow for one year, . ek 


$75 00 


34 


50 


1i 86 


89 25 
30 00 


$159 07 


22 00 


$137 07 


1910. ] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 29 


Cost oF Mink PER QUART. 


$137.07 — 2,660 quarts (6,000 pounds) = 5.15 cents per quart. 
137.07 — 2,930 quarts (6,500 pounds) = 4.68 cents per quart. 
137.07 — 3,100 quarts (7,000 pounds) = 4.42 cents per quart. 
137.07 — 3,330 quarts (7,500 pounds) = 4.12 cents per quart. 
137.07 — 3,550 quarts (8,000 pounds) = 3.86 cents per quart. 


It must be remembered that the above figures are intended 
only as an estimate. The value of the barn for housing 20 cows 
is estimated at $1,500; some may consider this a low estimate, 
others a high one. The cost of food for one year is intended for 
cows weighing from 1,000 to 1,200 pounds and producing at 
least 7,000 pounds of milk yearly. The food cost for smaller 
cows, weighing 750 to 900 pounds and producing 6,000 pounds 
of milk, would be $6 to $8 less. 

The care of the cow and the milk for one year has been 
estimated by different individuals at from $18 to $45. It is 
believed that $30 represents a fair average. 

It will be noted that the food is by far the largest cost item. 
Thus, the food is estimated at $89.25 and the other expenses 
at $47.82, after an allowance of $22 for manure and calf. 
Otherwise expressed, the housing and care of the animal and its 
products represents substantially 50 per cent. over the cost of 
food. The figures show that the cost of producing a quart of 
average milk varies from substantially 4 to 5.15 cents. 


Foop Cost or Miix PprRoDUCED BY STATION HERD. 


The station keeps from ten to twelve cows, mostly pure-bred 
or grade Jerseys, for the purpose of carrying out a variety of 
experiments in studying the value of different foods for milk 
production, and for noting the effect of foods upon the composi- 
tion of milk and butter fat. An exact record of the cost of the 
milk produced by this herd has been kept since 1895. In this 
connection a résumé of the record is presented for the years 
1907 and 1908. At this writing the 1909 cost has not been 
tabulated. 


30 EXPERIMENT STATION, [Jan. 


1907. 
No. Total Yield Per Cent. Per Cent. | Cost of Food Cost of 100 Cost of 1 
of Cows. (Pounds). Fat. Solids. consumed. P ne of onesie 
12 56,492.0 5.37 14.85 $766 O01 $1 44 3.2 
7 41,120.9 = - 547 35 - 3.0 


$932 74 
739 85 


12 64,238.6 


50,755.6 


During each year twelve cows were kept, but only seven and 
nine respectively remained during the entire year. The average 
yield per cow for the seven cows in 1907 was 5,874.4 pounds, 
the food cost per cow was $78.19 and the cost of a quart of milk 
3 and 3.2 cents. In 1908 the yield per cow in ease of nine cows 
was 5,639.5 pounds (2,564 quarts), the food cost per cow 
$82.21 and the food cost per quart of milk 3.3 cents. It will 
be remembered that these were grade and pure-bred Jerseys, 
producing 5 per cent. milk. Seven of the cows were pastured 
about two months each, 7.e., during the time they were dry. The 
remainder of the summer they, in common with the others which 
did not go to pasture, were fed hay, soiling crops and grain. 
It was obviously not possible for us to keep an exact record of 
the cost of care of cow and milk, for the reason that these ani- 
mals were not kept for producing market milk, but for experi- 
mental purposes. 

If to the yearly cost of food ($82.21) is added $47.82, rep- 
resenting the estimated cost of housing and caring for the 
animal and her product,? we have $130.03, which, divided by 
the number of quarts of milk produced (2,564), gives 5.07 
cents as the cost of one quart of 5 per cent. milk. Another way 
of getting at substantially the same result is to add 50 per cent. 
(representing the cost of housing and care) to 3.3 cents, the 
food cost of a quart, which makes 4.95 cents, or, in round num- 
bers, 5 cents. The general statement may be made that it is 


a rnc 


1 Kept during the entire year. 
2 $39.82 + $30 = $69.82 — $22 — $47.82. (See previous page.) 


—” 
+ 5A! 
i 


a 


>i ae 
Pur 
- an a oe 


LIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 31 


<3h oop 7 


vd 
a 


o2 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


CONDIMENTAL AND MEDICINAL STOCK 
AND POULTRY FOODS. 


BY J. B. LINDSEY. 


Several years ago the station made quite an exhaustive study 
of the composition of this class of feeds, and published its 
results in Bulletin No. 106, the edition of which has long since 
been exhausted. It is intended in what follows to give a résumé 
of the most important points made in the bulletin, in order to 
answer the frequent inquiries which come to the station con- 
cerning them. 

It is not thought advisable to publish in this connection the 
detailed composition of each brand as it was given in the bulle- 
tin, as it may have been modified to some extent since the exam- 
ination was made. It is believed, however, that the following 
statements will prove sufficient to enable every one to form a 
correct opinion concerning their general character, commercial 
value and utility. 


Basic on Foop INGREDIENTS. 


The chemist and microscopist have found these foods to con- 
sist principally of ordinary grains and concentrates, such as 
wheat by-products (bran and middlings) and corn meal. In 
some cases a few hundred pounds to the ton of linseed, cotton- 
seed and occasionally meat and bone meal have been added, 
obviously to increase the amount of protein; such mixtures con- 
tained from 10 to 20 per cent. of that nutrient. Occasionally 
the presence of considerable quantities of mustard hulls, cocoa 
shells and weed seeds are noted, used evidently as a filler. 

The poultry foods more frequently reveal the presence of from 
10 to 50 per cent. of ground oyster shells or noticeable quantities 
of ground bone, which accounts for the exceptionally high ash 


percentage. 


1910.) PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 33 


Nutritive and Commercial Values of the Food Ingredients. 


It having been shown that the bulk of these foods is made up 
of ordinary ground grains and by-products, it must be evident 
to all that they cannot have a greater nutritive value than is 
to be found in the materials of which they are composed. The 
extravagant claims made by the manufacturers concerning their 
wonderful nutritive properties is in no way substantiated by 
the analytical results. It also must be clear that their com- 
mercial value from a nutritive standpoint cannot exceed 1 to 
14% cents a pound. Certainly no one would entertain the idea 
of purchasing these mixtures, at the prices asked, because of 
any particular nutritive value they may possess, 


CHARACTER OF MepICcINAL INGREDIENTS. 


In addition to the various cereals and by-products, these foods 
contain small quantities of a variety of substances, most of 
which possess simple medicinal qualities, to which it is under- 
stood is attributed the wonderful nutritive and curative 
properties claimed for them. The condition powders, so called, 
generally contain larger quantities of these medicines than the 
stock and poultry mixtures. The medicinal substances are de- 
scribed as follows: — 

Fenugreek and fennel are the ground seeds of plants grown 
in southern Europe, known botanically as Trigonella Foenum 
Grecum and Feniculum vulgare. They are aromatic sub- 
stances, used to excite the action of the stomach, thereby rehev- 
ing indigestion and gas, and also to impart an agreeable flavor. 
It was formerly believed that fenugreek increased the quantity 
and improved the quality of milk, but such ideas are now largely 
exploded. The quantity used is comparatively small. 

Amse or Aniseed (Pimpenella Anisum) is the seed of a plant 
cultivated in Spain and Malta. It has a pleasant warm taste 
and an agreeable odor, and is used for much the same purpose 
as fenugreek. 

Gentian, occasionally recognized, is the dried root of the plant 
known as Gentiana lutia, and is grown in central and southern 
Europe. It is very bitter, and is used as a stomach tonie, pro- 
moting an increased secretion of the gastric juice. 


34 EXPERIMENT STATION. .[Jan. 


Ginger is the powdered underground stem of Zingiber offi- 
cinale, grown principally in India and the West Indies. It 
stimulates the various membranes with which it comes in con- 
tact, and is used as an appetizer and to reduce the griping effects 
of purgatives. 

Pepper, the common black form, is obtained from the brown 
berries of an East India climbing plant, Piper nigrum. Cay- 
enne pepper consists of the dried ripe fruit of Capsicum fasti- 
guatum and annum. Both kinds are used as a stomachie and to 
increase the activity of the reproductive organs. 

Salt, of which many of the mixtures contained from 2 to 20 
per cent., was used as an appetizer. 

Sulfates of magnesia and soda, in the form of Epsom and 
Glaubers salts, are purgatives, and are frequently spoken of as 
** salts.” 

Saltpeter, nitrate of potash or niter, is used in medicine to 
excite the action of the kidneys and to reduce fever. 

Sodium bicarbonate is employed to neutralize an undue 
acidity of the stomach. 

Sulphur is used as a laxative, alterative, and as a stimulant 
of mucous surfaces. 

Iron found as the oxide — Venetian red or Princess metallic’ 
is not used medicinally, but is employed to color or disguise the 
real character of the food. Sulfate of iron used as a restorative 
and tonic was seldom identified. 

Charcoal. Its medicinal value consists in its ability to check 
fermentative changes, and to absorb undesirable gases. In most 
cases it appears to have been ground fine and mixed with the 
other ingredients to conceal their identity. 

Tumeric, the powdered root of an East Indian plant, the 
Ourcuma longa, is a stomachic, but is used principally as color- 
ing matter. 


Quantiry or MeproinaL INGREDIENTS. 

No attempt was made to determine the exact quantity of 
each of the several drugs employed. Most of the foods contained 
from 5 to 40 per cent. of ash. Ordinary grains and by-products 
rarely contain more than 5 per cent. of ash; the excess in the 


1 Dry paints. 


1910.] © PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 30 


present cases was made up of such mineral substances as oyster 
shells, bone, sand, common salt (2 to 20 per cent.), Epsom or 
Glaubers salts (about 5 per cent.), niter (1 or more per cent. ) 
and Venetian red. The vegetable drugs — fenugreek, fennel, 
anise, gentian, ginger and pepper — were employed in suffi- 
cient quantities to produce an agreeable odor and smart taste, 
probably in quantities varying from 5 to 10 per cent. of the 
whole mixture. In some cases the total quantity of mineral and 
vegetable drugs constituted from one-sixth to one-third of the 
mixture, while in other cases the amount of such substances was 
very much less. 


Cost AND SELLING PRICE COMPARED. 


None of the mineral drugs, excepting niter, cost much over 1 
cent a pound; the vegetable drugs vary in price from 3 to 12 
eents a pound, Judging from all the data at hand, the cost of 
the entire mixtures — grains and drugs — could rarely have 
exceeded 3 to 4 cents a pound. In many eases it could not have 
been more than 2 cents a pound. 

The initial cost of the condition powders is probably some- 
what greater than the ordinary stock foods. The retail prices of 
the latter vary from 6 to 25 cents a pound, depending on the 
brand and quantity purchased. Condition powders are much 
higher priced, varying from 30 cents to $1 a pound. Is it not 
strange that many are willing to pay extravagant prices for ma- 
terials possessing such ordinary feeding and medicinal values ? 
It is hoped that poultrymen have sufficient common sense to pur- 
chase bran, corn meal, salt, oyster shells, charcoal and meat 
scraps separately, rather than pay from 10 to 20 cents a pound 
for such mixtures put up in attractive packages, for which the 


manufacturers make the most astounding and unreasonable 
claims, 


Utinity oF Turse Foops. 


Their food value cannot be greater than the ordinary grains, 
of which they are largely composed. Their medicinal value de- 
pends largely upon the aromatic seeds and roots used as a tonic 
for the stomach, on charcoal as an absorbent and on the purga- 
tive effect of the Epsom or Glaubers salts. The quantity reecom- 


36 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


mended to be fed daily is usually so small (1 ounce or less) 
that very little if any effect can be expected unless the material 
is fed for a considerable length of time. While it is probably 
true that some of these stock foods may prove beneficial under 
certain conditions, it is also true that most of them are hetero- 
geneous mixtures, and evidently put together by parties quite 
ignorant of the principles of animal physiology, pathology and 
veterinary medicine. 


CLAIMS MADE BY MANUFACTURERS. 


The following are the principal claims made by one of the 
largest manufacturers of stock and poultry foods: — 

ITorses. — Gives greater speed endurance. Imparts new life 
and strength. Makes colts grow very rapidly and keeps brood 
mares and colts healthy. Guaranteed to save corn and oats. 
Makes horses fat, gives glossy coat and fine appearance. 

Cattle. — Increases the milk yield 15 to 25 per cent. and 
increases the richness of the milk. Removes taint from milk, 
eream and butter, and makes milk more healthful for human 
use. Such milk will convey some of the beautiful elements of 
the vegetable ingredients we use into the systems of your chil- 
dren, and they will be stronger to ward off disease. Makes 
calves grow as fast as new milk. Saves thirty days’ time in 
fattening cattle, and 15 to 25 per cent. of the grain usually re- 
quired. 

Hogs. — Cures and prevents hog cholera, and is the quickest 
hog grower ever discovered. Makes juicy and tender meat. 

Poultry. — It prevents disease and cures chicken cholera. 
It greatly increases egg production and makes chickens grow 
very rapidly. 

The amount advised to be fed daily to horses and eattle to 
accomplish these marvelous results is two-thirds of an ounce! 
The material costs 14 cents a pound in 25-pound lots. 

The Connecticut, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Virginia, 
Towa, South Dakota and Massachusetts stations have found this 
stock food to consist principally of wheat (bran and middlings), 
to which has been added fine charcoal, a bitter substance resem- 
bling gentian, cayenne and common salt. Another large manu- 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 37 


facturer makes essentially the same claims as above, and the 
material sells at 6 cents a pound in 25-pound lots. The same 
experiment stations found it to be composed largely of corn 
meal, with small quantities of fenugreek, gentian, charcoal and 
salt. 

Farmers, dairymen and poultrymen: What would be your 
opinion of any experiment station worker who would make such 
statements concerning the nutritive, medicinal or commercial 
value of corn meal, wheat bran, charcoal, gentian and salt? Do 
you think there is any humbug in the claims made by the manu- 
facturers of such goods? The question is left for you to decide. 
You may be the judge. 


Do Heattuy Anrmats nEED Mepictne ? 

Dr. Paige, the veterinarian at this college, very pointedly 
expresses the most advanced views of the profession when he 
says, ‘‘ Animals in a state of health do not need condition pow- 
ders or tonic foods. There is in the body of a healthy animal 
a condition of equilibrium of all body functions. The processes 
of digestion and assimilation are at their best. All that is re- 
quired to maintain this condition of balance is that the animal 
be kept under sanitary conditions, and receive a sufficient supply 
of healthful, nutritive food and pure water. While tonics may 
improve the appetite so that the animal will temporarily con- 
sume and digest more food, should this increased quantity of 
nutrients consumed not be appropriated by the tissues of the 
body, harm may result from thus overloading the lymphatic 
system, or from an increased action of the excreting organs.” 


TREATMENT OF Sick ANIMALS. 


The writer believes it unwise to give drugs to animals when 
it can possibly be avoided. Even such simple substances as 
“salts,” ginger, gentian and the like should be used as sparingly 
as possible. If an animal is out of condition, and it is believed 
a tonie will be helpful, try the following, suggested by Bartlett 
of the Maine station: “ pulverized gentian, 1 pound; pulverized 
ginger, 14 pound; pulverized saltpeter, 14 pound; pulverized 
iron sulfate, 144 pound. Mix and give one tablespoonful in the 


38 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


feed once a day for ten days, omit for three days, then give ten 
days more. Cost of the above, 20 cents a pound.” 

In exceptional cases, when skilled medical treatment appears 
absolutely necessary, it is far wiser to employ a reliable veteri- 
narian than to attempt home doctoring by the indiscriminate use 
of patent medicines or powders recommended to cure every- 
thing.* 

1 This bulletin does not decry the various veterinary medicines put up by pharmacists 


and veterinary surgeons for the use of stockmen. The claims made for them are, as a 
rule, quite reasonable, and they unquestionably have their proper sphere of usefulness. 


1910. ] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 39 


THE UTILIZATION OF PEAT IN 
AGRICULTURE. 


BY H. D. HASKINS. 


Peat is composed largely of partially decomposed vegetable 
matter. In its natural condition, when found in the swamp, it 
is very dark or nearly black in color and contains about 80 to 
90 per cent. of water. The limited use of peat dates back many 
years, before the introduction of the commercial fertilizer, but 
in the early history of its use little was known regarding its 
chemical composition. It was used as a supplement to farmyard 
manure and to improve the mechanical condition of light, sandy 
and gravelly soils. If we should measure the value of peat for 
agricultural purposes from the standard of a chemical analysis, 
the standard by which the worth of all commercial manurial 
substances is established, we would find that its greatest value 
hes in its organic nitrogen-containing constituents, which means 
the organic combinations commonly known as humus. 

During the past fifteen years there have been many analyses 
of peat made at this laboratory. These analyses, 55 in number, 
and representing products from every county in the State, have 
been averaged, and will serve to illustrate fairly well the chemi- 
cal composition of the peats found in Massachusetts. <A dis- 
crimination has been made between peat and muck samples; 
those containing a relatively high percentage of insoluble matter 
or ash, and which are commonly known as muck deposits, have 
been excluded from the average. 


Average Chemical Composition of 55 Samples of Peat made at the 
Massachusetts Experiment Station Laboratory. 

Moisture, . : ‘ : : : : : : : . -, 60.85 

Dry matter, . ; : : ° ° ° . - Sele Pager lbinrs 31155 


100.00 


40 EXPERIMENT STATION, [Jan. 


100 parts of dry matter contain : — 


Parts. 
Organic matter, . : : ; : : ‘< ° . - 58.00 
Nitrogen, . ; : ‘ 5 . : : . . : 2.19 


Ash... ; : % F , ; : 5 ; . eke 


100 parts of peat ashes contain, on the average: — 


Parts. 
Potassium oxide, ; ; ; , ; ; ; : : 44 
Phosphorie acid, . : : : 3 ‘ ; ; ; : 199 
Calcium oxide, : d : ; ; : ‘ 2.53 
Silicious material soluble in dilute hydrochlorie acid, . oho 


There can be only a very small agricultural commercial value 
to the mineral constituents found in peat, as may be seen by the 
small amount of potash, phosphoric acid and lime given in the 
average analyses. The greater part of the ashes of peat is com- 
posed of insoluble silicious material possessing little or no value 
as plant food. The commercial value of the potash, phosphoric 
acid and lime in 1 ton of peat ashes, provided they were all in a 
highly available form, which is probably not the case, would be 
less than $2. It might be mentioned in this connection that it 
would take 7,115 pounds of peat of the above composition to 
make 1 ton of ashes. If peat has any pronounced value as a 
fertilizer, therefore, it must he in the organic portion, — that 
portion which contains the humus and nitrogen, 

In selecting the most valuable peat for fertilizing purposes 
we would, therefore, choose the product which contains the smal- 
lest amount of mineral matter; in other words, that portion that 
appears to be purely organic vegetable matter. In this connec- 
tion a question suggests itself to the mind: is there any differ- 
ence in the availability of the nitrogen contained in peat taken 
from various depths? Upon first thought one would expect that 
the lower layers of peat would be in a more advanced state of 
decomposition, and its nitrogen would, therefore, be more.avail- 
able. Several years ago the writer was able to make an interest- 
ing experiment regarding the availability of the nitrogen in peat 
taken at various depths. The samples were procured from a 
deposit averaging about 5 feet deep. One sample was taken 
from the first 18 inches of the surface layer, the intermediate 
layer was sampled between 18 inches and 3 feet below the sur- 


Fa0.]-. PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 41 


face, and the lower layer was sampled at a depth of 3 feet. A 
fourth sample was procured from the same locality, but was 
taken from a pile of air-dried peat which had been excavated 
several months previous and had been allowed to he exposed to 
the oxidizing agencies incidental to the weathering process. 

The table of analyses has been prepared on the basis of 100 
parts of dry matter, the method used for the determination of 
the availability of the nitrogen being the alkaline permanganate 
method. 


Total Per Cent. of 
PEAT. | Nitrogen. Nitrogen Available. 
Weathered peat, . ‘ é : : : ‘ ‘ 1.72 28.4 
Top layer (first 18 inches), 2 - a) | Lye 5 2.29 28.3 
Intermediate layer (18 inches to 3 feet), . : : 1.83 26.2 


Lower layer (below 3 feet), : : = : : 1.25 23.2 


In ease of the samples examined it will be seen that the lower 
layers contained less nitrogen, which was probably rather less 
available than that in the upper layers. It may be seen, further, 
that the weathered peat, although showing a smaller nitrogen 
content than even the intermediate layer, apparently has a 
slightly higher availability. These results seem to me very sig- 
nificant. The weathered sample was a mixture of the peat 
taken from the same locality to a depth of from 4 to 5 feet, and 
yet we find that it leads in the availability of its nitrogen. This 
indicates the possible beneficial effect of the weathering or 
oxidizing process. 

It should not be understood that the above figures represent 
the actual amount of nitrogen in the peat that is immediately 
available as plant food. There is no certainty that laboratory 
methods accurately indicate availability. They are as yet arbi- 
trary, and much work needs to be done along the lines of vegeta- 
tion experiments before we can definitely say just how much of 
the nitrogen in any organic substance is available as plant food. 
The results, however, are comparative. 

Peat is found in such immense quantities and is so widely 
distributed throughout the country that it may not be out of 
place to give it a careful study from an economical standpoint. 


42 EXPERIMENT STATION. (Jan. 


We should realize that it is not the nitrogen alone that gives peat 
or any other organic manurial substance its superior value as a 
fertilizer. We depend upon these substances to furnish valuable 
crganic matter and humus, without which it is impossible to 
successfully grow a crop, even with the most concentrated 
mineral fertilizers. We depend upon these substances further 
to improve the mechanical condition of soils, to make the heavy 
compact clay soils more open and porous, and to make the light 
sandy soils more retentive of moisture, and to furnish condi- 
tions whereby the soluble plant food may be retained near the 
surface of the ground, within easy reach of the rootlets of grow- 
ing vegetation. We acknowledge the value of barnyard manure 
as a fertilizer, and yet a glance at its chemical analysis reveals 
only a small amount of nitrogen, potash and phosphoric acid. 
The average of 38 analyses of barnyard manure made at the 
Massachusetts experiment station shows only .42 per cent. of 
nitrogen, .53 per cent. of potash and .31 per cent of phosphoric 
acid. The calculated commercial value of the plant food con- 
tained in 1 ton of the average barnyard manure would be about 
$2. The agriculturist recognizes the value of the organic mat- 
ter furnishing humus, and expects and is willing to allow a ~ 
reasonable amount for the same. It is well known that peat 
carries a relatively high percentage of humus, and this fact, in 
no small degree, enhances the value of this material as a fer- 
tilizer. Aside from the consideration of the humus in peat it 
is of interest to study the value of peat as based upon its con- 
tent of nitrogen and the availability of this most expensive 
element of plant food. 

But little work has been done by the scientific agriculturist 
to establish the relative value of peat as a fertilizer. A few 
analyses have been made in various experiment stations, by the 
alkaline and neutral permanganate methods, which show the 
better grades of peat to have a nitrogen availability of 21.4 per 
cent. as compared with blood and fish having a nitrogen availa- 
bility of 65 per cent. or over, but this is only comparative. 
These figures do not actually show the true amount of nitrogen 
which is available; this can only be accomplished by vegetation 
experiments. The Massachusetts experiment station has for 
several years been carrying on such experiments by growing 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT—No. 81. 43 


millet in pots under conditions which can be absolutely con- 
trolled in every detail. The experiments in question were not 
instituted for the sole purpose of studying the availability of 
nitrogen in peat, but rather to make a detailed investigation 
regarding the availability of nitrogen from every well-known 
source, whether of a mineral or organic nature. The duplicate 
investigations were conducted in galvanized iron pots holding 
38.75 pounds of soil. Each pot was fertilized with an abun- 
dance of potash and phosphoric acid, and the same amount of 
nitrogen was applied in each instance (5.4 grams) a few days 
before planting the millet seed. Five millet plants were allowed 
to grow and reach maturity in each pot. Care and watering 
were so regulated as to maintain uniform conditions. The 
results for the year 1908 show that sulfate of ammonia leads, 
with a percentage increase over the nothing pots of 74.17 per 
eent. of seed and 91.03 per cent. of straw. The peat ranks low, 
giving an increase of only 5.44 per cent. seed and 10.58 per cent. 
straw. These results are, of course, not conclusive, as they show 
only one year’s investigation. 

It is claimed that garbage tankage of our large cities can be 
economically made into a fertilizer, commonly known to manu- 
facturers as base goods, by treating the tankage with sulphuric 
acid, the resulting product showing a high degree of availability 
of its nitrogen. The writer has successfully made a fertilizer 
from wool waste, the resulting product of which showed nearly 
100 per cent. of nitrogen availability. Some such process may 
be applied to peat, and it is not improbable that the time will 
come when the nitrogen in peat will be utilized as a source of 
plant food by treatment with strong mineral acids as in the 
manufacture of base goods. It is questionable, however, if it 
would be at present on account of the large variety of other more 
concentrated and easily accessible ammoniates, both animal and 
vegetable that may be used in this process. 

The use of commercial fertilizers is increasing enormously, 
and in a comparatively few years every source of plant food will 
be taxed to supply the demand for available ammoniates. As 
our western States become obliged to use more and more fertil- 
izer each year, attention must sooner or later be turned towards 
our immense peat deposits. 


44 EHXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


The present seems to be a period of investigation and dis- 
covery. The manufacture of cyanamid compounds from the 
nitrogen in the atmosphere has furnished a most valuable eco- 
nomical source of nitrogen. This fact may retard somewhat the 
development of our peat industry from an agricultural stand- 
point, although the fact that peat furnishes valuable humus 
directly, while the mineral forms of plant food can only furnish 
it indirectly by growing a green crop to be subsequently 
ploughed under, will always be an incentive to its use in the 
natural or modified condition. The manufacturers of commer- 
cial fertilizers have recognized the value of peat as a drier, an 
absorbent and a source of humus in which many chemical 
formulas are deficient, and some are already using peat as a 
drier, and to improve the mechanical condition of fertilizer 
mixtures. How far this can be done legally and still comply 
with the fertilizer laws of our various States is an open question. 
If the manufacturer does not count the nitrogen which the peat 
carries in his guaranteed composition, but simply uses the 
material to improve the physical condition of his goods, it would 
not be undesirable, but the practice would offer a chance to the 
unscrupulous manufacturer to load his fertilizer with low-grade 
ammoniates. 

There can be no question but what the nitrogen in dried peat 
has a much lower availability than the nitrogen in the high- 
grade animal and vegetable ammoniates, and for this reason its 
use as a source of nitrogen in mixed fertilizers must be excluded 
in order to comply with many State laws. 

It is, of course, desirable to utilize peat as a fertilizer on as 
large a commercial scale as is possible, and the introduction of 
some process whereby this material may be made available for 
extensive use will be welcomed. In the mean time, however, 
there is no reason why peat should not be utilized to improve 
the chemical and physical condition of soils. It is a well-known 
fact that dry peat is a most wonderful absorbent. Experience 
teaches us, however, that it is rather slowly decomposed. If 
we can compost peat, therefore, with something that is teeming 
with bacteria and is easily decomposed there is a gain in two 
ways. Jor instance, if air-dried peat is composted with manure 
from the horse stable, the manure aids in disintegrating the 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 45 


peat, while the peat retards the too rapid decomposition of the 
manure, at the same time absorbing any plant food in form of 
ammonia compounds or other soluble plant food elements that 
may be made available. This is a very practical and economical 
manner of utilizing peat, and it will be found that the resulting 
compost will prove a very valuable manure. It may be neces- 
sary to make a frequent application of lime to soils on which 
such a mixture is constantly used, and it may be found neces- 
sary, in some cases, to use lime in making the compost. 

The application of air-dried peat to hght sandy or gravelly 
soils often results in their material improvement. Such appli- 
eations can best be made by a manure spreader, and the peat 
may be applied to a depth of 2 inches. Freshly slaked lime 
should be used at the rate of 5 or 6 bushels to each cord of peat. 
The whole should be thoroughly harrowed into the soil and sub- 
sequently ploughed to a depth of from 4 to 5 inches. As an 
_ absorbent and deodorizer in the stable, dry peat has few equals. 

Many of our peat lands make our most productive soils when 
properly drained and reclaimed, and especially is this true when 
the crops selected are particularly adapted to that class of soils. 
Natural peat soils are deficient in available mineral plant food 
which has become washed out through successive years of leach- 
ing. Such soils, therefore, need an abundant application of 
potash, phosphoric acid and lime before they become productive. 


46 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


SPRAYING INJURIES. 


BY G. E. STONE. 


In recent years injury from spraying has become more com- 
mon; at least, it appears to be more noticeable than formerly. 
This injury is more prevalent some seasons than others, and it 
is known that certain crops can be treated at one time without 
being injured and at other times precisely the same treatment 
may be given with bad results. 

The causes underlying injury from spraying are complex and 
require attention from the best-equipped investigator. Already 
enough is known in some special cases concerning the nature of 
the injury to explain its occurrence at one time and not another. 
It is also well known that some plants are more susceptible to 
injury from spraying or fumigation than others, a wide range 
of susceptibility existing in plants. 

Investigations have shown that meteorological conditions have 
an important bearing on the problem, but the data which have 
been collected are not sufficient, either in kind or quantity, for 
practical use. 

Spraying injury to fruit and foliage has been noticeable the 
past season, especially on apple foliage. The fruit has also 
been injured to quite an extent by Bordeaux mixture, which 
causes the so-called “ russeting ” of the fruit. 

Some cases have come to our notice during the past year of 
burning of foliage by arsenate of lead, and our attention was 
called in one ease to the heavy loss of foliage on plum trees, due 
to spraying with this poison. It is well known that when spray- 
ing mixtures are not carefully prepared they are likely to cause 
burning, and in some of the cases observed by us it is not un- 
likely that the chemical nature of the arsenate of lead may have 
been responsible for the burning. A number of firms are now 
putting this on the market, and it is presumable that their 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 81. 47 


products vary considerably as regards chemical composition. It 
is imperative for manufacturers of spraying mixtures or other 
remedial substances used on plants to demonstrate that their 
products are thoroughly trustworthy before putting them on the 
market. It is true that a spraying mixture can be used on one 
crop safely and not on another. It is also known, as previously 
mentioned, that meteorological conditions play an important 
role in this connection. It is safer to spray when the sun shines 
than during cloudy weather, for severe injury has often been 
noticed from spraying with various fungicides and insecticides 
in cloudy periods when no injury would have occurred had the 
sun been shining. 

It is therefore important in spraying that attention should be 
given to the weather conditions, since if the spray is allowed 
to remain on the foliage in a moist condition for too long a time 
burning is lkely to result. On the other hand, if the sun is 
bright and the spray mixture dries on the foliage very quickly, 
no such injury is likely to occur. 

Burning of maple tree foliage has also been noticed as result- 
ing from spraying with arsenate of lead, at the rate of 13 pounds 
to 100 gallons of water, and our attention has been called to a 
number of cases of severe burning of beech trees sprayed with 
this after standard formulas. 


48 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


CONTROL OF CERTAIN GREENHOUSE 
DISEASES. 


BY G. E. STONE. 


One occasionally finds growers of greenhouse crops spraying 
for mildews and other diseases, and even contributors to the 
florists’ journals sometimes recommend such treatment, perhaps 
because they know of no other. One at least of the objections 
to the practice of extensive spraying is that it is too likely to 
be considered a universal remedy or panacea for all the diseases 
plants are heir to. Any one attempting to control the diseases of 
greenhouse crops by spraying is wasting his time, and has much 
to learn concerning the fundamental principles of pathology. 
The most skilled florists and market gardeners discovered the 
true cause of disease many years ago, not from any particular 
experiments, but from intelligent reasoning out of the problem. 

No one can long grow crops under glass before realizing that 
environment is a factor very largely under his control. He also 
discovers that many, if not all, of the blights with which he has 
to contend are caused by conditions of environment, and that if 
these conditions are modified properly the blights are checked. - 
Considerable skill is required to manage the greenhouse in such 
a way that blights may be controlled, but it has been accom- 
plished very successfully in many cases. In others, they are 
controlled to such an extent that only a minimum amount of 
damage occurs. 

The important factors to which the grower of greenhouse 
crops must pay attention are heat, light, moisture, circulation 
of the air, and the chemical and mechanical conditions of the 
soil, and a knowledge of their effects upon plant development 
enables him to grow healthy plants. The influence of moisture 
in the air is alone an important, perhaps the most important, 
factor in controlling disease, and is very plain in the case of out- 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 49 


door diseases also. In wet seasons certain diseases are common 
which may be entirely absent in dry seasons. The presence of 
dew, even in dry periods, may bring about infection by furnish- 
ing favorable conditions for spore germination. If the moisture 
conditions out of doors could be controlled as easily as they are 
‘imside, a very large percentage of so-called blights could be 
eliminated. 


CucuMBERS AND MeEtowns. 


Experiments made with melons and cucumbers, covering a 
period of many years, have demonstrated that by proper regula- 
tion of the moisture in well-ventilated houses Anthracnose 
(Colletotrichum), downy mildew (Plasmopara), Alternaria and 
powdery mildew (Hrysiphe) can be held absolutely in check. 

At the time some of our experiments were being carried on, 
melons which were growing out of doors, within a few feet of 
our greenhouse, were infected with all of the above diseases 
except powdery mildew, but not a trace of infection could be 
found from any of these diseases inside. During the many 
years we have grown cucumbers and melons under glass we have 
never had any infection from the above diseases except the pow- 
dery mildew, which was introduced into our house at one time 
and encouraged to spread for a special purpose. All of these 
diseases are more or less common each year in cucumber houses, 
and cause much injury. 

Downy mildew affects cucumbers during July and August, 
and Anthracnose in the spring. Most greenhouses growing cu- 
cumbers are kept too moist and are often poorly ventilated. 
There is no reason whatsoever why these crops cannot be grown 
without infection from the above-mentioned diseases. Experi- 
ence has shown us that in order to control blights it is necessary 
that the air moisture should be held down, and if syringing of | 
the foliage becomes necessary, it should be done only on bright, 
sunshiny mornings, when the foliage will dry off quickly, thus 
preventing the spores from germinating and affecting the crop. 


TOMATOES. 


There are a large number of troubles associated with tomatoes 
under glass which arise from improper handling of the crop. 


50 EXPERIMENT STATION. .  (ifiaty. 


The tomato leaf blight, caused by Cladosporium, often termed 
seab, can be perfectly controlled by paying attention to the air 
moisture and to details of syringing the foliage. The same 
attention to syringing, ventilation, etc., should be paid in the 
ease of tomatoes as with melons and cucumbers. 

When tomato plants are crowded, and there is an insufficient 
amount of light and circulation of the air, the lower leaves are 
frequently attacked by a leaf blight, known as Cylindrosporium, 
but this will give no trouble if the conditions are kept normal. 
This leaf blight occasionally occurs in commercial houses, 
although we have never had a trace of it in our many years’ 
experience in growing tomatoes under glass, both summer and 
winter. It is more common in winter, when the light is poor, 
than in the spring and summer. 

The blossom end rot of tomatoes is often a very troublesome 
disease and furnishes a good illustration of a trouble brought 
about by neglect of certain details necessary for the normal de- 
velopment of the crop. This disease is caused by bacteria, one 
or more fungous growths (Fusarium, Cladosporium, ete.) 
oceasionally accompanying the bacteria. Lack of water in the 
soil when the fruit is maturing, especially if the atmosphere 
of the house is more or less dry, will cause the rot, and a liberal 
supply of moisture, preferably supphed by irrigation, will pre- 
vent it. Moisture plays an important role here because a too 
dry-atmosphere causes the fruit to crack at the blossom end and 
become imperfectly developed, and infection follows, This rot 
is more common near steam pipes, where the air is drier, and 
in the spring, when the sunlight is more intense and prolonged, 
than during the late fall or winter. In the spring transpiration 
is more active, hence the necessity for more soil moisture and 
more attention to wetting down the house. Sunshine and trans- 
piration are important factors in causing the rot, and our 
experiments have shown that slight shading in the spring 
months is of great value in holding back the trouble. In our 
experiments in the greenhouse we obtained over 30 per cent. 
more blossom end rot on plants which were watered on the sur- 
face than on those subirrigated, and a very material decrease in 


the amount of rot occurred from the shading afforded by the 
plants. 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 51 


LETTUCE. 

Many years ago lettuce growers were troubled with a disease 
known as top-burn, and amateur growers have it to contend with 
at the present time. The disease is characterized by the margins 
of the young leaves becoming wilted and dying from a collapsing 
of the tissue. The older and more skilled lettuce growers early 
learned that the trouble was not associated with fungi, and it 
could be easily controlled by the adjustment of the day and night 
temperature to the conditions of the weather. It has been found 
that if the night temperatures are kept too high, — 50° or more 
in cloudy weather, — top-burn will follow, if the following day 
is clear and the day temperature reaches as high as 70° or 80°. 
By carefully maintaining low night temperatures, 40° or 45°, 
during cloudy periods, and holding the day temperature down, 
top-burn can be prevented. On the other hand, in bright, sun- 
shiny weather, higher day as well as night temperatures may 
be maintained without running the risk of getting top-burn. 

Lettuce as well as other indoor crops must be grown according 
to the weather, and as no two seasons are alike it follows that 
no two crops can be grown precisely alike. Every successful 
ereenhouse grower realizes this and handles his crop accord- 
ingly. 


CHRYSANTHEMUMS. 

The chrysanthemum is affected with three diseases, which can 
be controlled if attention is given to proper methods of culture. 

Leaf blight (Cylindrosporiwm), similar to that on the tomato, 
occasionally affects more or less badly the lower leaves of chrys- 
anthemum plants when grown to a single stem close together. 
This leaf spot, like the one on tomatoes, is caused by too close 
planting, which shuts out the hght and prevents the circulation 
of air. More open planting, or anything which would allow 
more light or freer access of air, will prevent it. 

The chrysanthemum rust, which once caused considerable 
alarm, can be prevented by paying attention to watering. Some 
greenhouse growers are often troubled with this rust, while 
others have never had the least indication of it. Even if two 
growers buy their stock from the same concern, and it is identi- 


52 EXPERIMENT STATION. | [Jan. 


cal as regards freedom from rust, one is likely to have it very 
severely and the other not at all, which proves that the method 
of handling the plant has everything to do with the occurrence 
of the rust. When plants are grown outside, as they occasionally 
are in summer, and are exposed to rains and dews, they are very 
likely to become infected, but when grown inside, and especial 
care given to watering the foliage, little rust is present. 

Powdery mildew (Hrysiphe), although occasionally seen on 
chrysanthemum foliage, has never been considered a serious 
trouble, and is seldom, if ever, severe enough to require treat- 
ment. Stem rot, occasionally caused by Fusartum, which is 
more likely to affect the weak stems on closely planted crops, is 
sometimes destructive, but the chrysanthemum is, as a rule, 
quite immune to stem rots, 


CARNATIONS. 


The principal troubles peculiar to the carnation are the stem 
rots, termed the wet and dry rot, and the rust. There are other 
troubles which are not serious, however, such as leaf spot 
(Septoria), purple joint, stigminose, ete., the latter being caused 
by insects. The breeding and selection of new varieties of car- 
nations has had a more important influence on the elimination 
of carnation diseases than anything else. Carnation rust, which 
a few years ago gave much uneasiness among the growers, 1s now 
fairly well handled by expert carnation men. Careful attention 
given to syringing the plants has been of great value in pre- 
venting the rust, as has also subirrigation, or applying the water 
below the surface. 

The stem rots are more recent troubles and are more difficult 
to handle. Wet rot, caused by a sterile fungus (Rhizoctonia) 
ean be easily controlled by sterilizing the soil with steam, and 
formalin is also good, being applied to the soil at the rate of 2 
pints to 50 gallons of water. It can be applied with any sprink- 
ling device. It is generally recommended that formalin be 
applied at intervals of a few hours, until the whole amount has 
been taken up by the soil, and frequent stirring of the soil is 
necessary. Since formalin is extremely poisonous to plants it 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 53 


is necessary to get it all out of the soil before planting, and the 
house must remain idle some days. One gallon of the solution 
of the strength given above to each square foot has been recom- 
mended. 

The dry rot, caused by Fusarium, is more difficult to handle, 
and the methods employed for the control of the wet rot appear 
to be of little use for this disease. Fusarvwm rots in general 
have increased during the last decade. In the case of carnations 
this is due possibly to the more extensive forcing common in 
recent years. Too extensive forcing, too close planting and 
shading have a tendency to weaken the stem, and undoubtedly 
render it more susceptible to attacks from fungi. On the other 
hand, low temperatures and exposure to the light harden the 
plant tissue, rendering it less susceptible to disease. There are 
authentic cases known where certain plants subject to stem rots, 
when transplanted and raised out of the ground slightly, become 
hardened and perfectly immune. 


Dampinc-orr Funct. 


There are two serious damping-off fungi which cause trouble 
to the greenhouse grower by affecting seedlings and cuttings. 
The damping fungus Botrytis is the most common, and affects 
plants in a low state of vitality. The Botrytis propagates freely 
by spores, and therefore does not yield to treatment by sterili- 
zation. The most healthy plants will become affected with the 
damping-off fungus if they remain in an abnormal condition for 
brief periods, and if cuttings are kept too moist or too warm, 
or lack sufficient light, they are likely to damp off. By paying 
close attention to cultural and sauitary conditions, damping-oft 
can almost always be prevented. 

Another damping-off fungus, known as Pythiwm deBaryanum, 
often gives considerable trouble to cucumber, tobacco and other 
seedlings when the conditions are not normal for their best 
development. Even sudden changes in the condition of the 
plant will cause the trouble. For example, when plants are 
taken from hotbeds where they have been forced too freely, and 
placed out of doors in damp, cold weather, they will damp off, 


54 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


and too much heat will cause the same thing in cucumber seed- 
lings. Attacks of this fungus are confined almost entirely to the 
seedlings, and when the plant grows out of the seedling stage it 
generally becomes immune. Pythiwm can be easily eliminated 
from a soil by sterilizing with steam.’ The formalin method of 
treatment, previously described, is beneficial. 


1 Ohio Circular No. 57, Obio Agricultural Experiment Station. 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. ay) 


SPRAYING EXPERIMENTS WITH CALCIUM 
BENZOATE. 


BY G. E. STONE. 


Calcium benzoate has been recommended by manufacturers 
and dealers for a few years past as being a fungicide of some 
value, and samples of this substance have frequently been sent 
to us for trial by the manufacturers, with directions as to its 
proper use. We have previously tested sodium benzoate, an 
allied compound, on potatoes, and the results are reported else- 
where.’ 

It was desired that a test be made of this substance for the 
control of plum rot (Monilia), the claim having been made that 
it would completely control the rot. If true, the calcium ben- 
zoate would prove of inestimable value to the fruit grower, and 
would find a ready market. 

In testing the material we selected half a dozen plum trees, 
leaving checks for comparison. The trees, which were laden 
with fruit and had always been susceptible to the rot, were given 
a very thorough spraying with the calcium benzoate, at the rate 
of 2 pounds to 50 gallons of water. The spray covered the 
foliage and fruit very thoroughly, and was applied at a favor- 
able time to control any rot which might subsequently appear. 
As the season was very dry, and no rains occurred during the 
period of experiment, none of the substance was washed off. 

Later in the season considerable rot was observed on both 
the sprayed and unsprayed trees, and a thorough examination 
showed absolutely no difference in the sprayed and unsprayed 
fruit as regards infection. We regard the experiment, there- 
fore, as being purely negative in its results. 


1 Annual Report Hatch Experiment Station, 1908, p. 128. 


56 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


Monilia rot of the plum and peach is a very difficult thing 
to control by spraying, and none of the spraying solutions or 
mixtures seems to have more than a partial effect. The best. 
methods of handling the rot, in the absence of any suitable 
spraying mixture, particularly where it appears late in the sea- 
son, on ripened fruit, consists in gathering the fruit just before 
it is mature and not allowing any overripe fruit to remain on 
the tree to become affected. When the rot occurs early in the 
season, as is sometimes the case, this method would be of little 
use, and spraying, even if only partially effective, might be 
resorted to tentatively. 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 81. o7 


SEED PURITY WORK, 1909. 


BY G. H. CHAPMAN. 


The testing of seeds for purity was not taken up at this sta- 
tion to any extent before 1908. In 1908 only about 12 samples 
of seed were sent in to this department for examination as to 
purity, but owing to other States having taken the matter up 
in a very decided manner, and some of them passing seed laws 
for the regulation of the sale of commercial seeds, the seedsmen 
and farmers of Massachusetts began to take interest in the 
matter. 

The seeds found in the Massachusetts market are in general 
of very good quality,. when purchased from well-known, reliable 
dealers, but since laws have been passed in other States suppres- 
sing the sale of impure seeds in those States, it has become 
customary with certain seedsmen to ship poor quality seeds out 
of the State, and place them for sale in States which have no 
such seed law. This has been brought to our attention more 
forcibly this year than ever in the past, and the farmers of this 
State are beginning to pay more attention to the matter, as is 
evidenced by the increased number of samples sent in for purity 
tests. In all, 100 samples have been examined this year, and it 
has been deemed advisable to make a report of the work done at 
this time. 

Most of the seeds examined were offered for sale by reliable 
dealers in this and other States, and such can be bought with 
reasonable assurance, as these dealers are, in the main, careful 
to offer only a good grade of seed, and usually advise the pur- 
chase of their best grades. This is not because it brings them 
in a larger profit, but because the best grade of seed is usually 
purer than other grades of the same seed offered by them at a 
lower price. It is to their advantage to offer a good article, as 
well as to the farmer’s advantage to buy a good article; but, as 


58 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


in any other business, if a man is not willing to pay the price 
of a first-class article he can be accommodated with something 
inferior, 

One great mistake which the farmer makes is the buying of 
seed from the small country stores, as it has been found in many 
cases during the past year that these seeds were improperly 
cleaned, or not cleaned at all. We therefore strongly advise 
purchasing seed from a reliable dealer rather than buying them 
haphazard anywhere. | 

The table gives briefly the results of the seed purity tests 
carried on this year. This table is practically self-explanatory, 
and gives briefly the different kinds of seed examined, with the 
maximum, minimum and average percentage of purity, as well 
as the kinds of weed seeds found and the number of samples 
in which these were found. The most common impurities in 
the different kinds of seed examined were plantain, ribegrass, 
sheep sorrel and dock. Dodder might be mentioned as being 
among the most noxious of seeds found in the clovers and 
alfalfa, but it was present in only a small percentage of the 
samples submitted for examination. 

In this table no mention has been made of the chaff, bits of 
stem and dirt which were found in the samples, as these were 
usually present only in small amounts. 

It is believed that it would be advisable for Massachusetts 
to draw up a seed law governing the sale of commercial seeds, 
but this should not be done without great deliberation and the 
utmost care, as it appears to us that many of the laws drawn up 
by other States are either harmful, or unjust to the seed dealer, 
or to the purchaser of commercial seed. At the present time 
nothing can be done about this, but it is hoped that in the near 
future the seed dealers and farmers will take up the matter, 
and that some law may be passed which will protect both the 
farmer and the dealer. Justice should be done to both parties, 
and we do not believe that it will be a difficult matter to draw 
up a law which will not only protect the buyer from purchasing 
impure seeds offered for sale in this State which are grown out- 
side of the State, and shipped in for sale, but would also protect 
the Massachusetts seed dealer as well. 

According to some of the laws in our neighboring States, 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 59 


Massachusetts might easily become the dumping ground for im- 
pure seeds which could not be sold by dealers in other States. 
This is inimical to the Massachusetts seed dealer as well as to 
the buyer, and it is evident that something must be done to safe- 
guard the interests of the farmer and the seed grower and 
dealer. 


Showing Results of Seed Purity Tests, 1909. 


KINnDs OF WEED SEEDS FOUND, AND NUMBER 


Per CENT. PuRITY. OF SAMPLES IN WHICH FOUND. 


Num- 
SEED. ber of 
Tests. | Maxi- 


i Harmless. 
saan. Noxious armle 


mum. age. 


Mini- | Aver- | 


Timothy, . 14 100.0 | 96.0 98.9 || Yellow daisy (1). Red clover (4). 
Plantain (7). Alsike clover (4). 
|| Dock (2). Redtop (6). 
Five-finger (2). 

Sheep sorrel (3). 

Pepper grass (2). 

Hawkweed (1). 

Ox-eye daisy (1). 

Switch grass (1). 

Lamb’s-quarters (2). 

Wild parsnip (1). 


Red clover, 24 100.0 | 82.7 97.6 Sheep sorrel (2). Timothy (13). 
Plantain (11). Alsike clover (7). 
Rib grass (10). White clover (6). 
Curled dock (5). Orchard grass (1). 
|| Sorrel (5). Redtop (4). 
Dodder (5). Alfalfa (2). 

Daisy (2). Fescue (1). 
Lamb’s-quarters (2). | Medic (1). 

Foxtail (6). 

Wild turnip (1), 

Switch grass (2). 

Medicago sp.? (3). 

Parsnip (5). 

Wild carrot (2). 

Tumble weed (2). 

Mallow i: 
Self-heal (1). 
Canada thistle (2). 
Dock (2). 
Lady’s-thumb (4). 
Smartweed (1). 
Witch grass (1). 
Pepper grass (1). 
Melilotus sp.? (1). 


Redtop, . 12 100.0 | 92.0 | 96.8 || Daisy (3). Timothy (6). 
Sorrel (2). Red clover (2). 
Plantain (4). 

Five-finger (3). 

Smartweed (1). 

Chickweed (1). 


Oats, . 2 i 98.6 | 98.6 98.6 - - Wheat (1). 
Barley (1). 


Alfalfa, 


1 
i=) 
< 
. 

So 
2) 
[e) 
i=) 


98.4 Medic (1). Red clover (4). 
Bitter dock (1). Timothy (1). 
Dodder (3). Old seed (1). 
Sweet clover (1). 

Gum plant (1). 

Medicago sp.? (1). 

Plantain (1). 

Bur clover (1). 

Switch grass (1). 

Rib grass (2). 

Mustard (1). 

Lamb’s-quarters (2). 


60 HXPERIMENT STATION. 


[Jan. 


Showing Results of Seed Purity Tests, 1909 — Con. 


Num- 
SEED. ber of 
Tests. | Maxi- | Mini- 
mum. mum. 
Alsike 14 99.5 | 91.0 
clover. 
W hite 6 99.0 84.0 
clover. 
Orchard 2 94.0 | 91.0 
grass. 
Agrostis, 2 99.8 - 
Kentucky 2 97.0 | 92.0 
blue grass. 
Meadow 10 100.0 | 97.0 
fescue. 
Alfalfa 2 99.0 98.0 
clover. 
Millet, . : 2 96.0 | 74.0 
Italian rye 1 99.0 - 
grass. 
Yellow 1 99.8 - 


oat grass. 


Per CENT. PurRItTy. 


Aver- 
age. 


97.4 


96.2 


49.9 


94.5 


KinDs OF WEED SEEDS FOUND, AND NUMBER 
OF SAMPLES IN WHICH FOUND. 


Noxious. 


Sorrel (7). 

Dock (2). 
Plantain (4). 
Switch grass°(2). 


Shepherd’s purse (1). 


Dodder (3). 
Daisy (2). 

Pepper grass (2). 
Field sorrel (1). 
Medicago sp.? (1). 
Chick weed (1). 
Five-finger (1). 
Rib grass (1). 
Crab grass (1). 
Corn-cockle (1). 


Plantain (2). 
Sheep sorrel (4). 


Dock (2). 
Plantain (2). 
Corn-cockle (1). 
Ox-eye pres (1). 
Sheep sorrel (1). 
Quack grass (1). 
Rib grass (1). 


Shepherd’s purse (2). 


Pepper grass (2). 
Plantain (1). 
Chickweed (1). 
Lamb’s-quarters. 


Dock (4). 
Lady’s-thumb (1). 
Foxtail (1). 
Mustard (3). 
Medicago sp.? (1). 


Dock (1). 

Bull thistle (1). 
Foxtail (1). 
Lamb’s-quarters (1). 


Ragweed (1). 
Yellow foxtail (1). 
Lady’s-thumb (1). 
Tumble weed (1). 


Lamb’s-quarters (1). 


Plantain (1). 
Barnyard grass (1). 


Curled dock. 
Tall buttercup. 


Curled dock (trace). 


Tall buttercup (trace). 


Harmless. 


Timothy (14). 
Red clover (6). 
Redtop (8). 
White clover (2). 


Timothy (1). 
Alsike clover (2). 
Henbane (1). 
Red clover (1). 


Timothy (1). 
Red clover (1). 
Redtop (1). 
Buttercup (1). 


Timothy (1). 
Old seed (1). 
Orchard grass (1). 


Clover (1). 
Timothy (1). 


Paspalum sp.? (1). 
Clover (1). 


a a 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 61 


SEED GERMINATION AND SEPARATION. 


BY G. E. STONE. 


The routine work in seed germination and separation has 
been carried on as in the past. Several methods were tried for 
the separation of mixtures of seeds, especially of grass seed, 
but work along these lines is not far enough advanced to warrant 
a report. 

The number of samples of seed sent in for germination far 
exceeded those of the preceding year (see Table I.), 273 samples 
of different seeds being received, 92 of which were onion. 
Onion seed for 1909 seemed better than that of the preceding 
year, and the average germination of all the seed samples seemed 
to be a little higher than for 1908. The tobacco seed, especially, 
gave a higher germination percentage than ever before. Large 
seeds produce large plants, and if this characteristic is inherited 
it might be supposed that selection and separation would ulti- 
mately result in a better strain of seed and better crops. 


TABLE I.— Records of Seed Germination, 1909. 


PER CENT. OF GERMINATION. 


Kiso oF Suzp. AN | eee 
; Highest. Lowest. 
Onion, . - : ; - 92 82.2 97 25 
Tobacco, - 4 ~ 8 93.6 oF 85 
Corn, 4 78.0 97 50 
Lettuce, : + : “ 15 60.8 100 - 
Pansy, - . ° : - 43 46.4 88 3 
se ger 69.0 85 25 
Miscellaneous, . - 5 108 69.0 100 - 
Total, Fie AG ete ie ee sie oe eS 


62 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


The work in seed separation also increased during the season 
of 1909 (see Table II.), the principal seeds separated being 
onion, tobacco and celery. This season about 1,440 pounds of 
onion seed were separated, against 720 in 1908, and 60 pounds 
of tobacco seed, against 56 pounds during 1908. In all, about 
1,500 pounds of seed have been separated for the growers during 
the past year, and indications point to a still larger increase in 
the amount of seed separated next season. 


TABLE II.— Records of Seed Separation, 1909. 


: Per Cent. 
No. of Weight Per Cent. of : 
KIND OF SEED. > 3 of Dis- 
| Samples. | (Pounds). Good Seed. ourded @uad 


Onion, . = 5 - 48 1,439.34 88.9 | 

Tobacco, : : A < 88 59.08 89.9 10.1 

Celery, . : - . : 7 3.27 89.4 10.6 
Total, » so. «| - MS. | aooleo) |) | ees 


The per cent. of onion seed discarded was only 11.1 for all 
the samples, showing that the seed offered in 1909 was on the 
whole of slightly better quality than that offered in 1908. The 
average per cent. of seed discarded for tobacco was also less than 
in the past, only 10.1 per cent. being taken out, against 14 per 
cent. in 1908. Of course, in a great many samples a much 
larger percentage was taken out than was absolutely necessary, 
as some of the growers specifically requested that a certain per- 
centage of the seed be blown. One grower, especially, asked that 
one-third of the seed be blown in order to insure practically 
perfect seed for planting. 

We are occasionally requested to test the germination of seed 
both before and after separation, and the results of a few such 
tests have been published at different times in our annual report. 

Table IIT. shows the results of tests made the past year. ‘Two 
hundred seed were used in each test. The average amount dis- 
carded was 7.09 per cent., and the average germination of the 
seed before being separated was 74.7 per cent. and after separa- 
tion 83.6 per cent., showing a gain of 8.9 per cent. as a result 
of separation. 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 381. 63 


TaBLe III.— Showing Increase in Germination of Seeds by 


Separation. 
PER CENT. OF GERMINATION. 
Kinp oF SEED. Fen ouks 
discarded. 
Before Separation. | After Separation. 
Onion, a hs x Yea 83.0 92.0 9.10 
Onion, - : - 3 4 85.0 85.0 7-60 
Onion, : ; - : - 25.0 30.0 13.00 
Onion, - : - - - 82.0 87.0 9.00 
Onion, > ga 80.0 94.0 5.00 
Onion, - - - - 5 82.0 96.0 3.30 
Onion, : - < - : 70.0 89.0 4.00 
Onion, 5 = : - - 91.0 93.0 9.00 
Onion, 75.0 7.0 3.80 
Average, Fis Fes eta heen yoo OT 


In some previous separations with onion seed, in which 7 
samples of seed were used and an average of 14 per cent. blown 
out, we obtained an increase of 9 per cent. in the germination. 

In Table IV. are shown the results of seed germination before 
separating, also the germination of the heavy and light seed. 
The average amount of seed discarded here was 8 per cent. The 
heavy seed showed an average increase of 5 per cent. in the ger- 
mination, while the light or discarded seed gave an average of 
only 57 per cent., or 28 per cent. less than the heavy seed. 


TaBLE IV.— Showing Increase in Germination of Seeds by 


Separation. 
PER CENT. OF GERMINATION. 
No. of Per Cent. 
KIND OF SEED. Experiment. Before AFTER SEPARATING. discandod: 
RepArAbine: Heavy. Light. 
Onion, 5 ; A i 85.0 88.0 56.5 8.58 
Onion, : : - 2 76.0 83.0 59.0 7.60 
Average, . : - 80.5 85.5 57.7 8.09 


In Table V. the per cent. of germination and the weight of 
celery seedlings are shown, the results being an average of two 
experiments. The amount discarded in this experiment was 15 


64 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


per cent., and the difference in the percentage of germination 
between the heavy and discarded seed was 32 per cent., while 
there was a gain of 68 per cent. in the germination of the heavy 
over the light.. 


TABLE V.— Showing Effects of Sced Separation on Germination. 


| Per Cent. of Germination. | Weight (Grams). | Per Cent. discarded. 
Heavy, . : 43.5 44 15 
Light, . 11.5 14 - 


It is becoming a recognized fact that under present conditions 
governing the sale of seed in Massachusetts and elsewhere sep- 
aration 1s necessary in order to produce the best results, being 
particularly valuable in the case of such seed as tobacco, onion, 
celery, radish, lettuce, ete., as often a great deal of light or old 
seed, which is absolutely worthless and only a “ makeweight,” 
is mixed with the seed offered for sale. The grower, however, 
is beginning to realize that he is sometimes imposed upon, so 
is more careful about the quality of seed which he buys, and is 
consulting the station more and more frequently about the prob- 
lems connected with the seed question and the growing of crops. 

The station is always glad to receive seed for separation or 
germination from people residing in the State, and will do all 
in its power to assist them in any way possible. From the 
eratifying increase in the number of samples sent in for both 
germination and separation it is believed that people in the 
State are realizing more and more the benefits resulting from 
the gratuitous work done for the people at this station. 

All samples of seed to be germinated or separated should be 
addressed to G. E. Stone, Massachusetts Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station, Amherst, Mass., and the express or freight on 
these seeds should be prepaid by the parties sending the seed. 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 65 


SUN SCORCH OF THE PINE. 


BY G. E. STONE. 


Much interest, accompanied by an unusual amount of alarm, 
has been felt since 1905 in the so-called ‘‘ pine blight,” and, as 
is customary where more or less conspicuous injury to trees 
occurs, exaggerated reports have been made concerning it. This 
blighting of the pine is not new to Massachusetts as we have 
noticed it for at least twenty-five years. About twelve years 
ago it was quite prevalent in the eastern part of the State, being 
noticed by us and reported by others. Prof. B. M. Watson of 
the Bussey Institute and others have recently called our atten- 
tion to a similar burning which occurred apparently at the same 
time. 

Sun scorch of conifers in general is of common occurrence. 
Pines growing in very dry situations are often sun scorched, and 
frequently show yellow, inferior foliage; the needles are some- 
times burned, and it is not unusual for fungi to attack the dead 
needles, but these fungi are never the primary cause of the 
trouble. This condition of the pines may be found here and 
there almost any season, but is more noticeable some seasons 
than others. 

The present pine blight dates back to the winter of 1902-03, 
when the conditions were such as to cause much injury to vegeta- 
tion in general. The following winter, that of 1903-04, was 
even more severe in its effects on vegetation, and caused exten- 
sive root killing of many trees and shrubs. The pine, as well 
as other trees, in many cases was killed outright, but the injury 
to the pine was largely confined to the smaller roots, or those 
less than *46 of an inch in diameter. It was not, however, until 
the very dry summer of 1905 that extensive burning was 
noticed, and this was very general throughout the State. The 
season of 1905 was the first to attract attention to this burning 


66 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


although in our annual report’ we had already mentioned the 
condition of the pine roots, and stated that we anticipated 
trouble if this condition continued. 

The blight was characterized by a burning of the needles, 
which was so severe in some cases as to cause the death of the 
tree; in others, burning was not so severe, affecting only parts 
of the tree, and in a large number of cases the trees recovered 
the following year (1906). In some cases the tips of the 
needles only were burned, while in others the whole leaf was 
involved. The branches bearing such leaves, and sometimes the 
whole tree would die. The trees which recovered in 1906, of 
which there were a large number, were not perfectly healthy 
as regards color or leaf development, but they were free from 
burning. Extensive burning occurred again during the summer 
of 1907, appearing simultaneously all over the State the latter 
part of July. It was much more noticeable than formerly, and 
occurred at a very dry period, when high winds were common, 
although the effects on the trees were not so disastrous. An ex- 
amination of the root system in 1907 showed that about 90 per 
cent. of the small feeding roots had collapsed, and the micorhiza 
on the roots appeared to suffer the same fate as the roots them- 
selves. The soil during part of the season was so dry that it 
was like powder. Many of the trees improved during the fall 
of 1907, and in 1908 they appeared much better. 

The principal burning during 1908 occurred on the young 
tips of the needles, before they had expanded, and was much less 
severe than in the preceding year. Many trees which burned 
previously appeared perfectly green in 1908, and an examina- 
tion of the root system showed that new feeding roots were 
forming. 

In all the burning of the foliage we have never discovered 
any indication of fungi on the needles at first, although after 
the leaves had been dead a few weeks different fungi were found, 
being purely secondary. In the summer of 1908 considerable 
Septoria occurred on the dead leaves, but there has been no 
indication of infection at any time since the blight’s appearance. 
TIundreds of instances may be noted where trees have remained 


1 Annual Report, Hatch Experiment Station, 1905, p. 9. 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 67 


perfectly healthy whose branches interlaced with those of 
blighted trees. 

The number of pine trees affected ie the so-called bight 
or sun scorch in Massachusetts is probably less than 1 per cent., 
and the number which have died is so insignificant that it is 
hardly worthy of mention. Most of the affected trees have 
periods of burning and periods of recovery. When new leaves 
form, the old, blighted leaves drop off ; consequently, when a new 
crop of foliage appears the tree no longer shows the effects of 
blight. Trees which have blighted once have almost invariably 
been affected again; in other words, blighting has been confined 
each year to certain trees. 

During the past five or six years the writer and his assistants 
have examined a great many hundreds of pine roots from differ- 
ent parts of the State, and have made many observations and 
notes on the affected trees. Sun scorch of the pine has been 
found to be associated with a very dry condition of the soil, aided 
by severe winds. The side of the tree corresponding with the 
direction of these winds is most severely affected, and many 
instances may be found to prove this assertion. Moreover, that 
part of a forest which is exposed to severe winds has shown 
the greatest amount of bight. There has been more blight of 
trees on the margins of forests than in the interior, and trees 
growing in the open under exceptional conditions seldom if ever 
blight. Small pines growing in the shade of older trees in the 
forest have proved to be more or less susceptible, but they have 
not been affected to such an extent by burning as by winter- 
killing of the roots. Pines growing under such conditions are 
not able to attain their best development in any season, and are 
more likely to die from any cause that would tend to weaken 
them than those growing in the open. 

For the past five or six years the white pine has been looking 
badly. It has been unusually susceptible to attacks of insects 
of one kind or another, the pine borer killing the leaders in 
many cases, and a black, securfy-lhke growth on the foliage, 
known as Scorias, has been more common than usual. Many 
trees which have shown no inclination to burn possess a poor 
root system which causes a yellow and sickly appearance of the 


68 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


foliage. These trees are also noticeable for their short needles 
and stunted growth. 

Besides the typical burning of the pine, troubles of a differ- 
ent nature have occasionally been observed. In the season of 
1906-07 there was considerable burning, caused by the fungus 
Phoma. This fungus attacked the young stems and branches, 
causing the death of the leaves. In this case the leaves die 
but remain on the branch. There was also a burning of pine 
foliage in the early spring months similar to that which occurs 
on arbor vitees and various conifers, generally known as sun 
seald. This has been more or less common the last year or two, 
and is confined to certain branches. The effects of burning 
from contact with drifting snow have also been noticed from 
time to time in certain localities, and serious burning has been 
noted on the foliage of the pitch pine, which, according to Mr. 
T. I. Jones, a graduate student who specialized in entomology, 
is due in part if not wholly to the work of insects. 

Occasional dying of the white and Scotch pines has been 
observed, and the Norway and other spruces have been dying to 
a greater extent than usual. 

It should be pointed out that reports of the so-called pine 
blight have been exaggerated even by those who should have 
known better. Fortunately this exaggeration has had slght 
effect on owners of woodland, and the planting of young pine is 
still going on in this State, owing to the excellent work of State 
Forester F. William Rane. 

Of all the trees peculiarly adapted to this region, the white 
pine stands at the head of the list, and it has been and is to-day 
one of the most valuable assets of our soil. So well adapted is 
this tree to our region, and so rapidly does it fill up old pastures 
and woodlands, that if Massachusetts should become deserted 
now, in one hundred and fifty years it would be densely covered 
with a magnificent growth of white pine. In the primeval — 
forests of the State, pine and hemlock constitute the principal 
trees, but the hemlock has disappeared to such an extent, owing 
to the modification of soil conditions, that it would take several 
centuries for it to regain its former pre-eminence. On the other 
hand, the white pine is such a cosmopolitan tree in this region, 
adapting itself to such a variety of conditions, that if left to 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 69 


itself to propagate it would form from 50 per cent. to 75 per 
cent. of the entire tree growth in this State in a comparatively 
short time. 

As to the treatment of the pine blight, in some cases spraying 
has been resorted to, with supposed beneficial results, but if 
such results followed spraying, it is very likely due, as Dr. G. P. 
Clinton of the New Haven station has pointed out, to the clog- 
ging of the stomata, which prevents excessive transpiration at 
a critical period. In the case of lawn pines, which are greatly 
prized, we have recommended as treatment for the blight mulch- 
ing the soil with horse manure well diluted with straw, and 
applying to the tree fertilizers, such as wood ashes, ground bone, 
pulverized sheep manure, ete. 


70 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


INSECTS OF THE YEAR. 


BY H. T. FERNALD. 


During the year 1909 insects were abundant, but no serious 
outbreak of any one species was noted. Average losses were the 
rule, and in some eases there was less destruction than usual. 

For several years the elm-leaf beetle (Galerucella luteola 
Mull.) has been increasing in abundance and attracting more 
attention. During 1909 its work was evident over quite a large 
part of the State, and this has led to attempts to control it by 
legislation. Under these circumstances an outline of its history 
in the State may not be out of place. 

Just when this insect reached Massachusetts is unknown, but - 
as it came from the south, and was found in Amherst in 1895, 
it is probable that it entered the State by the Connecticut valley 
a year or two earlier. At first it was not abundant enough to 
attract much attention, but by 1899 it had begun to be noticeable 
on the elms there, had also reached the eastern part of the State 
and was working northward. ‘Two years later it had become 
injuriously abundant in eastern Massachusetts, and in 1902 it 
was becoming a pest in the northeastern part of the State, though 
elsewhere its injuries seemed to be less, on the whole, than they 
had been the year before. 

The beetles appeared abundantly the spring of 1903 and laid 
many eggs. About the first of May, however, a prolonged 
drought began, lasting nearly eight weeks. During this period 
many of the egg masses failed to hatch, and some, at least, ap- 
peared to dry up, while in many cases where the eggs hatched 
the tiny grubs could be seen biting at the leaves hardened by 
the drought, but failing to make any impression on them. The 
mortality of these insects under the circumstances was enor- 
mous, and the amount of injury comparatively small. The fol- 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 71 


lowing winter — that of 1903-04 — was exceptionally cold, and 
in the spring of 1904 almost no elm-leaf beetles could be found. 

How far the unusually cold winter was responsible for this 
destruction it is impossible to say, but it seems certain that the 
spring drought, causing the failure of eggs to hatch, and the 


starvation of the newly hatched young, were important factors 


y 
in the destruction of this pest. 

Many towns and cities sprayed their trees for the elm-leaf 
beetle in 1903, and it seems to have been too generally supposed 
that this was the reason so few of these insects were found the 
following year. 

Since 1904 the elm-leaf beetle has been gradually increasing 
in abundance again, and in 1908 it had become so plenty as to 
cause considerable injury. In 1909 this was also the case, and 
a repetition of this may be expected each year hereafter, until 
some combination of natural or climatic conditions unfavorable 
to the insect shall appear. 

The question of controlling the elm-leaf beetle is important 
under these circumstances, and two lines of action seem possible. 
~ Cities and towns may spray their trees if they see fit to do so, 
holding the insect in check in this way. There are many parts 
of the State, particularly on the west and north, as far east as 
Ashby, perhaps, where it is not probable that this insect will 
ever do serious injury, unless it acquires greater resistance to 
eold than it now has. For this reason local treatment would 
seem particularly desirable. The difficulty would be that trees 
not on town streets, but on private grounds, and those in the 
fields and woods would not be reached in this way, and each 
year these would restock the street trees. The other method 
would be by State law requiring all elms to be sprayed. This 
would be impracticable of enforcement, however, for there are 
not enough people in the business to spray one one-hundredth of 
the trees, and it is impossible to spray elms without power 
sprayers, with any degree of success, during the period when 
spraying must be done. If the State should take up the work, 
it would mean the expenditure of about half a million of dollars 
annually, for the entire State, except the western and north- 
western portions, would need to be treated during a period of 
five weeks for it to be of any value, and this would require at 


72 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan. 


least fifty gangs of men and power pumps. Then, too, it must 
be remembered that the boundaries of Massachusetts are not 
impassible to these insects, and the work would have to be done 
every year. In other words, State treatment would mean an 
annual tax of about half a million dollars for this purpose, or 
else work of no lasting value and a waste of money. 

The oyster-shell scale (Lepidosaphes ulmi L.) and several 
others of our common seale insects have been the cause of some 
correspondence, but nothing new has developed about them. 
The San José scale (Aspidiotus perniciosus Coms.) is becoming 
more abundant in orchards and on ornamental shrubs and trees, 
and in some cases may be found in wooded areas. The desire 
for legislation has included this pest also, but there is little 
chance of any law being passed which will accomplish much 
against it. In the end, those persons who will treat their trees 
will save them, while those who do not will lose them, and the 
burden will fall where it should, upon those who neglect their 
property. 

The past spring was unusually favorable for the rapid in- 
crease of plant lice, and many kinds of them were extremely 
abundant. On the other hand, the cranberry fruit worm was 
very markedly less abundant than usual, losses by the attacks 
of this insect being much smaller than for several years. 

The leopard moth (Zeuzera pyrina L.) has increased in the 
region around Boston and is another menace to our shade trees. 
The gypsy moth (Porthetria dispar L.) has also increased, and, 
in spite of a disease which attacked the caterpillars in many 
places, killing large numbers of them, there is no question that 
the general condition of eastern Massachusetts as regards this 
insect is worse than ever before. | 

The brown-tail moth (Huproctis chrysorrhea L.) is spreading 
in the State, and nests have now been found as far west as 
Brookfield and Belchertown. It is only a question of a few 
years when the whole northeastern United States will be in- 
fested by this insect, in spite of all the laws and repressive meas- 
ures which have been adopted against it. 

The twelve-spotted asparagus beetle (Crioceris 12-punctata 
L.) has now been taken in Massachusetts. It was found fairly 
abundant at Concord and at Roslindale last summer, but has 


1910.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT —No. 31. 73 


not yet been reported in the Connecticut valley. -This pest 
passes its early stages in the asparagus berry. 

On the 2d of June, 1909, a Chalcid parasite was captured at 
Amherst, laying its eggs in the eggs of the common asparagus 
beetle (Crioceris asparagi L.). The parasite was quite abun- 
dant, and was later discovered at Concord. It proved to be a 
new species, and was described by Mr. J. C. Crawford of the 
United States National Museum as Tetrastichus asparagi. This 
insect has two and probably three broods a year, corresponding 
to those of the asparagus beetle, and, to judge from its work 
last summer, it promises to be quite effective in controlling its 
host. 


Ve” \Y 


INDEX. 


Apple orchard, care of trees, . - i : 
Condition and size of the trees, ‘ : ‘ 
Cost of fertilizers, . ; : : é : 
Fertilization of, . 5 4 4 A 
Location and soil, . / : . 

Manuring, . . : - : 


Plan of experiment, 

Quality of fruit, : ; : 

Yield of fruit, : : 
Apple orchard experiments, ocueston of Lane 
Apples, fertilization of, practical suggestions, 
Asparagus beetle, egg parasite of, 

Twelve-spotted, occurrence of, 
Beet leaves, composition and gad of, 

How to feed, 
Beet pulp, as substitute for corn Seal, 

Composition of, : 

Dried, as substitute for corn Betned: 

Dried, digestibility of, 
Beet residue, advice on feeding, 

For farm stock, 

For fattening stock, 

Place of, in farm economy, 

To supplement pasturage, 
Brown-tail moth, spread of, 
Calcium benzoate, spraying experiments wae, 
Carnations, control of diseases of, 
Chrysanthemums, control of diseases of, 2 +, 
Conclusions, leading, summary of, : 
Condimental and medicinal stock and poultry ods 
Condimental foods, claims of manufacturers, 

Character of medicinal ingredients of, 

Cost and selling price compared, 

Nutritive and commercial value of, 

Ingredients in, 
Condimental stock and Pettey foods, intility of, 
Control of certain greenhouse diseases, 
Cucumbers and melons, control of diseases of, 
Damping-off fungi, prevention of damage by, . 
Dried molasses beet pulp, 
Elm-leaf beetle, control of, 

History of, in Massachusetts, 
Farm stock, beet residues for, : : ‘ 
Fertilization of apple orchard, : ; - : 
Fertilizers used in apple orchard, cost of, ; 
Food cost of milk produced by station herd, . . 


Fruit in apple orchard, yields of, . - 2 : 


78 INDEX. 


Fruit, quality of, in apple orchard, 

Germination, increase in, due to separation, 
Results of tests, 

Greenhouse diseases, control of cer cal 

Gypsy moth, increase of, 

Insects of the year, 

Leopard moth, increase of, 

Lettuce, control of diseases of, 

Manuring an apple orchard, 

Market milk, cost of producing, 


Medicinal ingredients in condimental eee sk aa Outer Potala, 


Quantity of, . : 
Medicine, do healthy animals ead 
Milk, cost of, per quart, 

Produced by station herd, faoel cost oe 
Milk production per cow, estimated cost of, 


Molasses beet pulp, composition and digestibility of, 


For dairy stock, 

Nitrogen in peat, availability ‘ik 

Orchard, advice on use of fertilizers, 
Sod or tillage for, 

Oyster-shell scale, ; 

Peat, availability of nitrogen in, 
Chemical composition, average, 
Nitrogen in, : 

_ Use of, in sii ditiiees : ; : 
Utilization in agriculture, 
Pine, burning of foliage of, 
Sun scorch of, 
White, value of, 

San José scale, spread of, 

Seed germination and separation, 

Seed germination, effect and weight on, 

Seed law needed in Massachusetts, 

Seed purity tests, table of results, 

Seed purity work, | 

Separation of seeds, records of Cee 

Sick animals, treatment of, 

Sod or tillage for an orchard, 


Spraying experiments with calcium bonceate. , 


Spraying injuries, 


Stock and poultry foods, Eoneumeatal id raclianet 


Sun scorch of the pine, ‘ 

The cost of producing market mille. 
Tomatoes, control of diseases of, 

Trees in apple orchard, care of, 

Trees in orchard, condition and size of, 
Utilization of peat in agriculture, 


ahapnetes of, 


‘No. 81} 


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