Annual report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution

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ANNUAL REPORT

OF

THE BOARD OF REGENTS

OF THE

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,

THE OPERATIONS, EXPENDITURES, AND CONDITION OF THE INSTITUTION
FOR THE YEAR 1871.

WASHINGTON:
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE,
1313:

LETTER

FROM THE

SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,

TRANSMITTING
The annual report of the Smithsonian Institution for the year 1871.

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
Washington, April 15, 1872.
Sir: In behalf of the Board of Regents, I have the honor to submit
to the Congress of the United States the annual report of the opera-
tions, expenditures, and condition of the Smithsonian Institution for
the year 1871.
I have the honor to be, very respectfully, your obedient servant,
JOSEPH HENRY,
Secretary Smithsonian Institution.
Hon. 8. CoLFax,
President of the Senate.
Hon. J. G. BLAINE,
Speaker of the House of Representatives.

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION FOR 1871.

This document contains: 1. The programme of organization of the
Smithsonian Institution. 2. The annual report of the Secretary, giving
an account of the operations and condition of the establishment for the
year 1871, with the statistics of collections, exchanges, meteorology, &e.
3. The report of the executive committee, exhibiting the financial affairs
of the Institution, including a statement of the Smithson fund, the re-
ceipts and expenditures for the year 1871, and the estimates for 1872.
4. The proceedings of the Board of Regents. 5. A general appendix,
consisting principally of reports of lectures, translations from foreign
journals of articles not generally accessible, but of interest to meteor-
ologists, correspondents of the Institution, teachers, and others inter-
ested in the promotion of knowledge.

THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

ULYSSES S. GRANT....- President of the United States, ex-officio Presiding Officer of
the Institution.

SALMON P. CHASE ..... Chief Justice of the United States, Chancellor of the Insti-
tution, President of the Board of Regents.

JOSEPH HELENE Ys2-----< Secretary (or Director) of the Institution.

REGENTS OF THE INSTITUTION.

SasP; CHASE: - scot cagaic ese Chief Justice of the United States, President of the Board.
S. COLFAX ...--....--. --- Vice-President of the United States.
HENRY DD. COOKE ......2 Governor of the District of Columbia.

L. TRUMBULL ...-..-....-Member of the Senate of the United States.
GARRETT DAVIS:....---. Member of the Senate of the United States.
EL eEUAMIIG ENG Soc ee Seek Se Member of the Senate of the United States.
J. A. GARFIELD ..-....-.-- Member of the House of Representatives.
Tie ba ROMANS soe tees = Member of the House of Representatives.
Ree sn © ONS eee eee iclnie) <i o ae 5 Member of the House of Representatives.
W. B. ASTOR........---..-Citizen of New York.

TDs WOOLSDY=s25-<- <2. Citizen of Connecticut.

L. AGASSIZ ......-...---.-Citizen of Massachusetts.

PETER, PARKER: .26-- 5-0 Citizen of Washington.

JOHN MACLEAN .........- Citizen of New Jersey.

WILLIAM T. SHERMAN ..Citizen of Washington.

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS.
PETER PARKER. JOHN MACLEAN. WILLIAM T. SHERMAN.

MEMBERS EX OFFICIO OF THE INSTITUTION.

WEE Set GIRVAN Ts: 22 oe - ocois 2 os President of the United States.

ee CONG TEAXG 5 ccs eae erens « Vice-President of the United States.
SoBe CEASE 22.5 Sac cei Chief Justice of the United States.
Jee IS Higa set ea Sea Secretary of State.

G. S. BOUTWELL ...-..... Secretary of the Treasury.

W. W BELKNAP ....-....-Secretary of War.

Ga M. ROBMSON 2222-42. - Secretary of the Navy.

J: A. J. CRESWELL...:.- Postmaster General.

Ca DELAN Ostassacoocs <2 Secretary of the Interior.

GEO. H. WILLIAMS ...... Attorney General,

MoD; LEGGE EIR... ss. Cominissioner of Patents.

Es COOKE Hi asceencec sae Governor of the District of Columbia.

OFFICERS OF THE INSTITUTION.

JOSEPH HENRY, Secrerary,

Director of the Institution.

SPENCER F. BAIRD,

Assistant Secretary.

WILLIAM J. RHEES,
Chief Clerk.

DANIEL LEECH,
Corresponding Clerk.

CLARENCE B. YOUNG,

Book-keeper.

HERMANN DIEBITSCH,
Meteorological Clerk.

HENRY M. BANNISTER,
Museum Clerk.

EDWARD PALMER,
Curator of the Museum.

JANE A. TURNER,
Exchange Clerk.

SOLOMON G. BROWN,

Transportation Clerk.

JOSEPH HERRON,

Janitor of the Museum.

PROGRAMME OF ORGANIZATION

OF THE

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,

[PRESENTED IN THE FIRST ANNUAL REPORT OF THE SECRETARY, AND
ADOPTED BY THE BOARD OF REGENTS, DECEMBER 13, 1847.]

[NTE ODUeCrLON:

General considerations which should serve as a guide in adopting a Plan
of Organization.

1. WILL oF SmitrHson. The property is bequeathed to the United
States of America, “to found at Washington, under the name of the
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, an establishment for the increase and dif-
fusion of knowledge among men.”

2. The bequest is for the benefit of mankind. The Government of
the United States is merely a trustee to carry out the design of the
testator.

3. The Institution is not a national establishment, as is frequently
supposed, but the establishment of an individual, and is to bear and
perpetuate his name. |

4, The objects of the Institution are, 1st, to increase, and 2d, to dif-
fuse knowledge among men.

5. These two objects should not be confounded with one another.
The first is to enlarge the existing stock of knowledge by the addition
of new truths; and the second, to disseminate knowledge, thus increased,
among men.

6. The will makes no restriction in favor of any particular kind of
knowledge ; hence all branches are entitled to a share of attention.

7. Knowledge can be increased by different methods of facilitating
and promoting the discovery of new truths; and can be most exten-
Sively diffused among men by means of the press.

8. To effect the greatest amount of good, the organization should be
such as to enable the Institution to produce results, in the way of in-
creasing and diffusing knowledge, which cannot be produced either at
all or so efficiently by the existing institutions in our country.

8 PROGRAMME OF ORGANIZATION.

9. The organization should also be such as ean be adopted provis-
ionally ; can be easily reduced to practice ; receive modifications, or be
abandoned, in whole or in part, without a sacrifice of the funds.

10. In order to compensate in some measure for the loss of time ocea-
sioned by the delay of eight years in establishing the Institution, a
considerable portion of the interest which has acerued should be added
to the principal.

11. In proportion to the wide field of knowledge to be cultivated, the
funds are small. Economy should, therefore, be consulted in the con-
struction of the building; and not only the first cost of the edifice
should be considered, but also the continual expense of keeping it in
repair, and of the support of the establishment necessarily connected
with it. There should also be but few individuals permanently sup-
ported by the Institution.

12. The plan and dimensions of the building should be determined
by the plan of organization, and not the converse.

13, It should be recollected that mankind in general are to be bene-
fited by the bequest, and that, therefore, all unnecessary expenditure
on local objects would be a perversion of the trust.

14. Besides the foregoing considerations, deduced. immediately from
the will of Smithson, regard must be had to certain requirements of the
act of Congress establishing the Institution. These are, a library, a
museum, and a gallery of art, with a building on a liberal scale to con-
tain them.

SECTION I.

Plan of organization of the Institution in accordance with the foregoing
deductions from the will of Smithson.

TO INCREASE KNOWLEDGE. It is proposed—

1. To stimulate men of talent to make original researches, by offering
suitable rewards for memoirs containing new truths; and,

2. To appropriate annually a portion of the income for particular re-
searches, under the direction of suitable persons.

TO DIFFUSE KNOWLEDGE. It is proposed—

1. To publish a series of periodical reports on the progress of the
different branches of knowledge; and,

2. To publish occasionally separate treatises on subjects of general
interest.

DETAILS OF THE PLAN TO INCREASE KNOWLEDGE.
I. By stimulating researches.

1. Facilities afforded for the production of original memoirs on all
branches of knowledge.

PROGRAMME OF ORGANIZATION. 9

2. The memoirs thus obtained to be published in a series of volumes, in
a quarto form, and entitled Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge.

3. No memoir on subjects of physical science to be accepted for pub-
lication which does not furnish a positive addition to human knowledge,
resting on original research; and all unverified speculations to be re-
jected.

4. Each memoir presented to the Institution to be submitted for ex-
amination to a commission of persous of reputation for learning in the
branch to which the memoir pertains; and to be accepted for publica-
tion only in case the report of this commission is favorable.

5. The commission to be chosen by the officers of the Institution,
and the name of the author, as far as practicable, concealed, unless ¢
favorable decision is made.

6. The volumes of the memoirs to be exchanged for the transactions
of literary and scientific societies, and copies to be given to all the col-
leges and principal libraries in this country. One part of the remaining
copies may be offered for sale, and the other carefully preserved, to
form complete sets of the work, to supply the demand from new in-
stitutions.

7. An abstract, or popular account, of the contents of these memoirs
to be given to the public through the annual report of the Regents
to Congress.

Il. By appropriating a part of the income, annually, to special objects
of research, under the direction of suitable persons.

1. The objects, and the amount appropriated, to be recommended by
counselors of the Institution.

2. Appropriations in different years to different objects; so that in
course of time each branch of knowledge may receive a share.

3. The results obtained from these appropriations to be published,
with the memoirs before mentioned, in the volumes of the Smithsonian
Contributions to Knowledge.

4, Examples of objects for which appropriations may be made:

(1.) System of extended meteorological observations for solving the
problem of American storms.

(2.) Explorations in descriptive natural history, and geological, mag-
netical, and topographical surveys, to collect materials for the formation
of a physical atlas of the United States.

(3.) Solution of experimental problems, such as a new determina-
tion of the weight of the earth, of the velocity of electricity, and of
light ; chemical analyses of soils and plants; collection and publication
of scientific facts accumulated in the offices of Government.

(4.) Institution of statistical inquiries with reference to physical,
moral, and political subjects,

10 PROGRAMME OF ORGANIZATION.

(5.) Historical researches, and accurate surveys of places celebrated
in American history.

(6.) Ethnological researches, particularly with reference to the differ-
ent races of men in North America; also, explorations and accurate
surveys of the mounds and other remains of the ancient people of our
country.

DETAILS OF THE PLAN FOR DIFFUSING KNOWLEDGE.

I. By the publication of a series of reports, giving an account of the
new discoveries in science, and of the changes made from year to year
in all branches of knowledge not strictly professional.

1. These reports will diffuse a kind of knowledge generally interest-
ing, but which, at present, is inaccessible to the public. Some of the
reports may be published annually, others at longer intervals, as the
income of the Institution or the changes in the branches of knowledge
may indicate.

2. The reports are to be prepared by collaborators eminent in the dif-
ferent branches of knowledge.

3. Each collaborator to be furnished with the journals and publica-
tions, domestic and foreign, necessary to the compilation of his report;
to be paid a certain sum for his labors, and to be named on the title-
page of the report.

4. The reports to be published in separate parts, so that persons in-
terested in a particular branch can procure the parts relating to it with-
out purchasing the whole.

5. These reports may be presented to Congress, for partial distribu-
tion, the remaining copies to be given to literary and scientific insti-
tutions, and sold to individuals for a moderate price.

Il. By the publication of separate treatises on subjects of general interest.

1. These treatises may occasionally consist of valuable. memoirs,
translated from foreign languages, or of articles prepared under the
direction of the Institution, or procured by offering premiums for the
best exposition of a given subject.

2. The treatises should, in all cases, be submitted to a commission of
competent judges, previous to their publication.

3. As examples of these treatises, expositions may be obtained of the
present state of the several branches of knowledge mentioned in the
table of reports.

SECTION II.

Plan of organization, in accordance with the terms of the resolutions of
the Board of Regents providing for the two modes of increasing and
diffusing knowledge.

1. The act of Congress establishing the Institution contemplated the
formation of a library and a museum; and the Board of Regents, in-

PROGRAMME OF ORGANIZATION. 11

cluding these objects in the plan of organization, resolved to divide
the income into two equal parts.

2. One part to be appropriated to increase and diffuse knowledge by
means of publications and researches, agreeably to the scheme before
given. The other part to be appropriated to the formation of a library
and a collection of objects of nature and art.

3. These two plans are not incompatible with one another.

4, To carry out the plan before described, a library will be required,
consisting, Ist, of a complete collection of the transactions and pro-
ceedings of all the learned societies in the world; 2d, of the more im-
portant current periodical publications, and other works necessary in
preparing the periodical reports.

5. The Institution should make special collections, particularly of ob-
jects to illustrate and verify its own publications.

6. Also, a collection of instruments of research in all branches of ex-
perimental science.

7. With reference to the collection of books, other than those men-
tioned above, catalogues of all the different libraries in the United
States should be procured, in order that the valuable books first pur-
chased may be such as are not to be found in the United States.

8. Also, catalogues of memoirs, and of books and other materials,
should be collected for rendering the Institution a center of bibliograph-
ical knowledge, whence the student may be directed to any work which
he may require.

9. It is believed that the collections in natural history will increase
by donation as rapidly as the income of the Institution can make pro-
vision for their reception, and, therefore, it will seldom be necessary to
purchase articles of this kind.

10. Attempts should be made to secure for the gallery of art casts of
the most celebrated articles of ancient and modern sculpture.

11. The arts may be encouraged by providing aroom, free of expense,
for the exhibition of the objects of the Art-Union and other similar
societies.

12. A small appropriation should annually be made for models of an-
tiquities, such as those of the remains of ancient temples, &e.

13. For the present, or until the building is fully completed, besides
the Secretary no permanent assistant will be required, except one, to act
as librarian.

14, The Secretary, by the law of Congress, is alone responsible to the
Regents. He shall take charge of the building and property, keep a
record of proceedings, discharge the duties of librarian and keeper of
the museum, and may, with the consent of the Regents, employ assist-
ants.

15, The Secretary and his assistants, during the session of Congress,
will be required to illustrate new discoveries in science, and to exhibit

12 PROGRAMME OF ORGANIZATION.

new objects of art. Distinguished individuals should also be invited to
give lectures on subjects of general interest.

The foregoing programme was that of the general policy of the In-
stitution until 1866, when Congress took charge of the library, and since
an appropriation has been made by Government for the maintenance of
the museum the provisons of Section IL are no longer fully observed.

REPORT

OF

PROFESSOR JOSEPH HENRY,
SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,

Oso ede Si 1.

To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution :

GENTLEMEN: I have the honor to present herewith another annual
report, in which I am happy to inform you that the financial affairs of
the Institution intrusted to your care by the Government of the United
States are still in a favorable condition, and that its operations during
the year 1871 have continued to enlarge the bounds of human knowl-
edge and to facilitate the international exchange of scientific truths.

Finances.—The following is a general statement of the condition of
the Smithson fund at the beginning of the year 1872, as will be seen by
a reference to the report of the Executive Committee :

Total permanent Smithson fund in United States Treasury. $650, 000 00

In addition to the above there remains of the extra fund,
derived from savings, &c., in Virginia bonds, at par val-

ue, $88,125.20; now worth about..........---...---.- 35, 500 00
Cash balance in First National Bank ...........-..-.--- 16,315 02
Amount of congressional appropriation for the fiscal vear,

June 30, 1872, $10,000, one-half of which is available

SOWA LO 2ra tee ss ce als eta ole the wee a So iste Sees 5, 000 00

Total Smithson funds, January, 1872 -............ 706, 815 02

The Virginia stock, which in 1870 was $72,760, has been nominally
increased to $88,125.18 by the funding of the interest due, while the
marketable value of the whole has declined from $48,000 to $35,500.
This fall in the value of the Virginia stock has been due to the un-
settled policy of the State in regard to its public debt. It will be
recollected that all the other State stocks held by the Institution, in
which the savings from the income had been invested, were sold in
1867, and the proceeds, added, by an act of Congress, to the perma-
nent fund, forever deposited in the Treasury of the United States.
The Virginia stock was retained, with the confident expectation on the
part of the majority of the Board of Regents that its value would
increase. Not the slightest idea was entertained that Virginia, with

14 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

all her resources and a large amount of money in her treasury, would
hesitate to make provision for the payment of the interest on her bonds.
It is still confidently expected, from recent indications, that the value
of this stock will increase. I would, however, recommend that it be
disposed of as soon as may be, and the proceeds added to the perma-
nent fund.

In an institution of this kind no dependence ought to be placed upon
the contingency of the fluctuation of stocks. I may, perhaps, in this
connection, be allowed to mention the fact that, to meet the payments
on the building during its construction, it became my duty from time
to time to sell portions of the stock in which the building fund had
been invested. In doing this, by waiting a few days, in some cases a
considerable profit might have been made, and in other cases a loss
would have ensued. These fluctuations gave rise to considerable
anxiety and an unpleasant sense of responsibility, from which I was
relieved by adopting the rule always to sell on the day in which the
money was actually required. A similar policy has been adopted in
regard to the sale of the gold received as the semi-annual interest on
the permanent fund, which is always disposed of on the day in which
it is paid by the Treasury, and the proceeds placed to the credit of the
Smithson account in the First National Bank.

The income from the fund during the year, including the premium on
gold, was $43,192.50. The expenditures were as follows: viz, $9,052.41
for repairs, and reconstruction of the building, and furniture ; $11,502.64
for salaries and general expenses ; $15,431,93 for publications and re-
searches; $8,152.95 for museum; $4,455.36 for exchanges, ete. ; mak-
ing an aggregate of $48,355.29, indicating an apparent excess of,
expenditures over receipts of $5,162.79. But to balance this excess
there remained in the United States Treasury, as previously stated
$5,000 of the appropriation for the museum which had not been drawn.

3esides the foregoing, $20,000 were expended on the building, and
$4,976 for the care of the museum from appropriations by Congress, a
more detailed account of which will be found in a subsequent part of
this report.

As stated in the last report Congress has indicated its intention to
make appropriations for the independent support of the national mu-
seum, under the care of the Institution, and hence, in giving an account
of the operations of the whole establishment, it is proper to divide them
into two classes, those which relate to the legitimate objects of the
Smithsonian Institution and those which pertain to the care and exhi-
bition of the specimens of the national museum, In the following
- account we shall adopt this division.

OPERATIONS OF THE INSTITUTION.

Publications.—The publications of the Institution are of three classes
—the Contributions to Knowledge, the Miscellaneous Collections, and

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 15

the Annual Reports. The first consist of memoirs containing positive
additions to science resting on original research, and which are gener-
ally the result of investigations to which the Institution has in seme
way rendered assistance. The Miscellaneous Collections are composed
of works intended to facilitate the study of branches of natural his-
tory, meteorology, ete., and are designed especially to induce individuals
to engage in studies as specialties. The Annual Reports, beside an
account of the operations, expenditures, and condition of the Institu-
tion, contain translations from works not generally accessible to Amer-
ican students, reports of lectures, extracts from correspondence, &e.

During the past year the seventeenth volume of the Contributions has
been distributed. It consists of a single memoir, by Lewis H. Morgan,
esq., of 602 quarto pages, illustrated by thirteen plates, in three parts:
First, a descriptive system of relationship of the Aryan, Semitic, and
Uralian families; second, the classificatory system of the Ganowanian
family; and third, a classificatory system of the Turanian and Malayan
families. This volume has been distributed to institutions in this country
and abroad, and has met with approval as an important contribution to
the science of anthropology.

The paper on “The rain-fall in the United States,” referred to in the
last report, has been printed, but it was found necessary to make
additions and corrections, especially in the charts, which have pre-
vented its distribution to the present time.

A short paper by Professor William Ferrel, on “Converging series, ex-
pressing the ratio between the diameter and the circumference of a
circle,” which was read before the National Academy of Sciences, has
been printed during the past year, and will form part of the eighteenth
volume of the Contributions.

The papers of General J. G. Barnard, on “ Problems of rotary motion
presented by the gyroscope, the precession of the equinoxes, and the
pendulum ;” of Mr. J. N. Stockwell, on “ Secular variations in the orbits
of the eight principal planets ;” and of Dr. H. C. Wood, on “ Fresh-
water alge,” have been placed in the hands of the printers during the
past year, and will also form parts of the eighteenth volume of Contribu-
tions, to be issued in 1872.

Another paper in course of publication is by Professor William Hark-
ness, of the United States Naval Observatory. It contains the records
and discussions of a series of magnetic observations by the professor dur-
ing thecruise of the Monitor Monadnock, from Philadelphia to San Fran-
cisco, in 1865-’66, The investigation was undertaken because the vessel
was heavily armored and the voyage extended far into both hemispheres,
thus affording a favorable opportunity of submitting Poisson’s theory of
the deviations of compasses on iron ships to the test of rigorous observa-
tions, which had never been done before. The disturbing force acting on
a compass-needle is expressed as a function of the force of terrestrial mag-
netism, and of certain constants peculiar to the ship upon which the

16 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

compass is situated. Ifence, in addition to swinging the Monadnock, or,
in other words, turning its bow in succession to every point of the horizon
to determine the deviations of her compasses from the true north, it was
necessary to make observations on terrestrial magnetism on shore, and
these, in their turn, required the determination of time, latitude, and
azimuth. The memoir is divided into five sections: Ist, introduction;
2d, description of stations; 3d, astronomical observations; 4th, observa-
tions on terrestrial magnetism; 5th, observations on the magnetism of
the ship. The results obtained may be summed up as follows: The Jati-
tude of seven points was determined. The magnetic declination, incli-
nation, and horizontal force were obtained at seventeen stations, eleven
of which were in South America. The ship was swung, and the devia-
tions of all her compasses, seven in number, were observed and compared
with those deduced from theory at ten places so situated as to afford
very great changes in the terrestrial magnetic elements. For all these
compasses the co-efficients or quantities necessary to reduce Poisson’s
general equations were determined separately, with considerable accu-
racy. The agreement between theory and observation was found to
be sufficiently exact for the purposes of navigation, but not entirely
satisfactory in a scientific point of view. It appears from the results that
certain parts of the theory require further investigation; and from the
observations it is shown that when a vessel is swung for the first time
near where she was built it is impossible to make any reliable estimate
of the changes which the deviations of her compasses will undergo upon
a change of magnetic latitude.

The memoir of Dr. E. W. Hilgard, on “The geology of Lower Louisiana,
including the Petite Anse region,” mentioned in the last report, has been
received from the author, and the illustrations put in the hands of the
engraver.

The work of Professor 8. Newcomb, on “A new orbit of Uranus as
influenced by the perturbations of Neptune and other bodies,” is still in
progress. In the calculation of the tables for indicating the places
of Uranus, the assistance of Dr. Kampf, late of Germany, has been
secured at the expense of the Institution. The labors of Professor
Newcomb are gratuitously given for the advance of science.

The articles for the Miscellaneous Collections mentioned in the last
report, viz: DeSaussure’s ‘“ Monograph of hymenoptera,” Uhlev’s ‘* Mono-
graph of hemiptera,” and Watson’s “ Botany of the region west of the
Mississippi,” are still in the course of preparation, and some of them
will be published during the next year.

The “Arrangement of the families of Mollusks,” by Professor Theo-
dore Gill, described in the last report, has been published. It forms an
octavo pamphlet of 65 pages, and will be of importance in arranging
the specimens of the national museum, as well as those of other col-
lections in this country.

A fourth edition of the “ List of foreign institutions in correspondence

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. ~ 17

with the Smithsonian” is now in press, as well as a similar list, em-
bracing all the scientific, educational, and literary establishments in the
United States, prepared by Mr. Rhees, chief clerk of this Institution.

New editions of the following works were printed during the year:
Physical and meteorological tables, Catalogue of Smithsonian publica-
tions, Review of American Birds, Classification of coleoptera, Bibliog-
raphy of North American conchology, Researches on Hydrobiine,
Check lists of fossils, Instructions relative to shells, insects, tornadoes,
Museum miscellanea, Catalogue of birds, &c.

In addition to the above, the following new circulars of instructions
have been prepared and distributed :

Circular relative to observations on thunder-storms.

Circular relative to the construction of lightning-rods.

. Circular relative to collection of altitudes from railway and canal
explorations.

The Institution many years ago prepared and published lists of
words and phrases for collecting vocabularies of the several Indian lan-
guages of North America, which were distributed to officers of the Army,
missionaries, Government exploring parties, and private individuals,
and from these have been received over two hundred separate vocabu-
laries. These include the tribes of Oregon, Washington, California,
northwest coast, New Mexico, Arizona, and the prairies. They have all
been placed in the hands of George Gibbs, esq., for critical study and
revision, and after consultation with some of the principal philologists
of the country, it has been.concluded to publish them, as it were provis-
ionally, for distribution, as materials for ethnological and linguistic in-
vestigations. Mr. Gibbs has kindly undertaken to superintend the
printing, and it is proposed to put them to press immediately. They
will not only be of great use to the student of ethnology, but also be
of practical value to missionaries, teachers, and all who are brought
into intercourse with the aborigines of the country. No publication of
the Institution has been called for more frequently than that of the
Grammar and Dictionary of the Dakota language. Unfortunately, it
was published at an early period of the Institution, and was not stereo-
typed; otherwise we would long since have struck off a new edition.

The Report of the Institution for the year 1870 was printed, as here-
tofore, at the Government expense, and we are gratified to state
that a larger number of extra copies was ordered than of the pre-
vious year. The demand for these reports is, however, constantly
increasing; and we would renew the recommendation made before, that
Congress not only order a larger edition of the report for the coming
year, but that a new edition be printed from the stereotype plates of
previous volumes. In addition to the report of the Secretary, giving
an account of the operations, expenditures, &c., of the Institution, and
the proceedings of the Board of Regents, the report for 1870 contains

2s71

18 » REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

the following articles: A eulogy on Professor Alexander Dallas Bache,
late Superintendent of the Coast Survey, and president of the National
Academy of Sciences, prepared by Professor Henry at the request of
the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution; a lecture on
Switzerland, by Professor Bache, to illustrate his style, with notes, bring-
ing the subject down to the present time, by Jno. Hitz, esq., consul
general of that country; on a physical observatory, by Professor
Henry; memoirs of Arago, Sir John Herschel, Henry Gustavus Mag-
nus, Professor Chester Dewey; an original article on the nature
and origin of force, by W. B. Taylor, of the United States Patent-
Office; a discourse on induction and deduction, by Liebig; an address
on the relations of food to work and its bearing on medical practice
by Rey. Samuel Haughton, of Dublin; a lecture on hydrogen, by Dr. J.
E. Reynolds; a leeture on the identification of the artisan and artist, by
Cardinal Wiseman; the diamond and other precious stones, translated
from the French of M. Babinet; a large number of original communica-
tions on ethnology, physics, and meteorology.

The following are the rules which have been adopted for the distribu-
tion of the publications of the Smithsonian Institution :

1st. To learned societies of the first class which present complete
series of their publications to the Institution.

2d. To libraries of the first class which give in exchange their cata-
logues and other publications; or an equivalent, from their duplicate
volumes.

3d. To colleges of the first class which furnish meteorological observa-
tions, catalogues of their libraries and of their students, and all other
publications relative to their organization and history.

4th. To States and Territories, provided they give in return copies of
all documents published under their authority.

5th. To public libraries in this country, not included in any of the
foregoing classes, containing 10,000 volumes, and to smaller libraries
where a large district would be otherwise unsupplied.

6th. To institutions devoted exclusively to the promotion of particular
branches of knowledge are given such Smithsonian publications as
relate to their respective objects.

7th. The Reports are presented to the meteorological observers, to con-
tributors of valuable material to the library or collections, and to per-
sons engaged in special scientific research.

Eachanges.—The system of international exchanges has been largely
increased in extent and efficiency during the past year. The number of
foreign establishments to which the Smithsonian and other publications
are distributed, and from which returns are received, now amounts to
nearly two thousand. The system includes not only all the first-class
libraries, and societies of established reputation, but also a considerable
number of the minor institutions of the Old World. The following

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Lg

table exhibits the number of foreign institutions in each country with
which the Smithsonian is at present in correspondence:

SS WeUCIge ccna aso +s 1S J i a ee ee 11
INGE W Ony = ores rors ees 2 Be Me CA gos clea s Gee Ae ae Se 18
MERIAL 22 sas eabetees~ +04.5 Be NagN SU coors oa so ae ee ene are 36
ADOMENVATC: ©«.0ban ase tad's ss BO" AS tralah oo Soo te eeee ae ete ; 26
pares teri, 2a eee ee ngs eats 154 | New Zealand ............. dd
POI an ca eetns eee} =ye.cpoas. 5 6D | POlMCSIA < Ja 4.0% ois oe ames
Corny satects tea cee ae 573 | South America .... ..-...- a
Switzerland 2... 2-. +. .).sis0s Oo Ih WWOSt- INGICG Gin 205 Fas we 11
Ie Le eae hae oracle cio Ge (ESIC o,. es pe eee aetna ats 8
France. =<. 3: ee aT cL goes 190 | Central America .......... I
Me ee ere le ctatiacs pus Saha = 149 | British America .......... 27
BROT GEES Bec ee ke a aah arevess 2) Creer 5 eacwen sueua coca 5
Gs ere ee yeas ea oe af

Great Britain and Iveland .. 525 DOA s irosis wav sacie dine slo 1,937
GECCCE 25 242 Besa ee ee 6

During the year, 1,778 packages, containing many thousand different
articles, were transmitted to foreign countries. These packages filled
108 large boxes, having a cubical content of 772 feet and weighing
29,950 pounds, The parcels received at the Institution for parties in
this country, in addition to those for the Smithsonian library, numbered
3,952.

As in previous years, the Institution has received important aid from
various steamer and railroad lines in the way of free freights, without
which the expense of carrying on the system would be far beyond the
means at our command. Acknowledgment is again due for the liber-
ality of the following companies: Pacific Mail Steamship, Panama Rail-
road, Pacific Steam Navigation, New York and Mexican Steamship,
New York and Brazilian Line, North German Lloyds, Hamburg Ameri-
can Packet, French Transatlantic, Inman Line, Cunard Line, Anchor
Line, Union Pacific Railroad. The ‘ Adams Express Company also
continues its liberal policy in regard to freight for the Institution.

The advantages which result from the international scientific ex-
changes have become so apparent that establishments similar in this
respect to the Smithsonian are beginning to be formed in different parts
of Europe. <A central scientific bureau for the Netherlands has been
established in Amsterdam, the object of which is to receive and trans-
mit packages for different parts of the world, and in this country to
co-operate with the Smithsonian Institution.

The international exchange is not confined alone to the transactions
and proceedings of societies, but also includes scientific works of indi-
viduals. We frequently receive from persons abroad who can afford
the cost, copies of works to be gratuitously distributed among insti-
tutions and libraries in this country, and also scientific works from

20 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

persons in this country to be distributed abroad. In most cases the list
of distribution is made out by the party sending the copies, but some-
times the selection of recipients is left to the Institution. Among the
articles distributed in this way which we should have mentioned in the
last report, is the narrative of an exploration to Musardo, the capital of
the Western Mandigoes, through the country east of Liberia, by Benja-
min Anderson, a young man of pure negro blood. The narrative was
printed without correction from the original manuscript at the expense
of Mr. H. M. Schieffelin, of New York, and nearly the whole of the edi-
tion was presented to the Institution for distribution.

The labors of the Institution in the way of exchanges can scarcely be
too highly estimated. Whatever tends to enlarge the sympathies of
individuals and of nations, to render the progress of thought in each
country common to all, must serve an important end in advanc-
ing the world in intelligence and morality. The works which are re-
ceived through this system,by the several institutions of the United
States, contain the records of the advance of science in all foreign coun-
tries at the present day. They do not consist of ordinary books, but
special accounts of the actual increase of knowledge by the ‘human
family, or an account of that which constitutes the advance of man in
a higher and wider intellectual development.

To afford information as to the regulations adopted for transmitting
packages intended for exchange, a circular, of which the following is a
copy, has been widely distributed :

1. Every package, without exception, must be enveloped in strong
paper, and so secured as to bear separate transportation by express or
otherwise.

2. The address of the institution for which, or the individual for whom,
the parcel is intended must be written eae on the package, and the
name of the sender in one corner.

3. No single package must exceed the half of a cubic foot in bulk.

4, A detailed list of addresses of all the parcels sent, with their con-
tents, must accompany them.

5. No letter or other communication can be allowed in the ae,
excepting such as relates exclusively to the contents of the package.

6. All packages must be delivered in Washington free of freight and
other expenses.

Unless all these conditions are complied with the parcels are not for-
warded from the Institution; and on the failure to comply with the
first and second conditions, they are returned to the sender for correction.

The Institution recommends that every parcel should contain a blank
acknowledgment, to be signed by the recipient and returned through the
agent of the Institution, or, what is still better, directly by mail to the
sender. Should exchanges be desired for what is sent, the fact should be
explicitly stated on the accompanying circular. Much disappointment is
frequently expressed at the absence of any return in kind for transmis-

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 2

sions; but uniess these are specifically asked for they will fail in many
instances to be made. It will facilitate the labor of the Institution
very greatly if the number corresponding to the several addresses in
the Smithsonian printed catalogue be marked on the face of each
parcel; and for this purpose a copy of the work will be forwarded to
all who apply for it.

Specimens of natural history will not be received for transmission,
unless with a previous understanding as to their character and bulk.

Library.—The accessions to the library during the last, year from the
foreign exchanges have not been as large as they were the year before,
on account of the war between France and Germany.

The following is a statement of the books, maps, and charts received
by exchange in 1871, and which have been deposited in the National
Library in accordance with arrangements made several years ago,
and fully explained in previous reports:

Volumes:
AGO Ol IAL CCK Ger tare koh eci-c cmc cas aaa ene 277
RV GLY OOM CS Spe aera prior = sty ae av Sec ehaoeeasa9i 5 aie eahab eet 659
936
Parts of volumes:
CUDA GOGOl MAD OL of age a ieieta. nfo sins le -= Sy.tig Sie yereyarare reveal ss , 625
OCEAN OF TOCSY cre had es GS apie Sines swine SL Pm hs 1,156
- 1, (8
Pamphlets:
CUMALUO OU LATE OR. 2 ier ta dae nna helen tate che 6a 316
OCT Ot NOS ae SrA ahs wept dae ae Gera mar hoe 1, 482
1, 798
UVES UML) MUGS ate hoe lS 2 tat a acta 6 uhsreaatatawct we Ss 82
SICOUT Ue (Ce) 10) ds Fe ee a ae re 4, 597

The following are some of the larger foreign donations received by
the Smithsonian Institution in 1871:

From the Royal University of Norway, Christiania: 14 volumes, 37
pamphlets, and 3 charts,

Bergen Museum, Bergen, Norway: 11 volumes and 31 pamphlets.

Ivussian government, St. Petersburg: Engineering Journal, Artillery
Journal and Ordnance Magazine for 1870; Caucasian statistics, 1869 ;
Appendix to the Code of Laws, 1869.

Statistical bureau, Stockholm : Contributions to Swedish statistics, 26
parts, quarto.

Emperor of Germany: “‘ Preussen’s Schlésser und Residenzen,” vol. xi,
folio; and * Seriptores rerum Prussicarum,” vol. iv.

F. Vieweg & Son, Braunschweig: 42 volumes and 12 pamphlets.

A REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Pesth: 16 volumes and 63 parts,
reports transactions, Wc.

University of Pesth: 44 pamphlets, inaugural dissertations.

University of Leipsic: 104 pamphlets, inaugural dissertations.

University of Gottingen: 70 pamphlets, inaugural dissertations.

University of Bonn: 44 pamphlets, inaugural dissertations.

University of Konigsberg: 144 pamphlets, inaugural dissertations.

University of Wiirzburg: 80 pamphlets, inaugural dissertations.

Board of Admiralty, London: 7 volumes, 56 charts, and 10 pamphlets.

British Museum: Catalogue of Syriac manuscripts, part ii; catalogue
of prints; catalogue of satires, vol. i; hand list of birds, parts ii and iii.

Royal Society, London: Philosophical transactions, vol. 160, part i;
proceedings, 119-123; catalogue of scientific papers, vol. iv; Green-
wich magnetic and meteorological observations, 1868.

R. L. Simmonds, London: 18 volumes and 52 pamphlets.

Thomason College, Reurkee : 10 works on Civil Engineering.

Government Observatory, Sydney, Australia: Observations, 3 volumes
and 55 parts.

Grand Dueal Court Library, Karlsruhe: 5 volumes and 3 parts.

University of Pisa: 22 volumes and 40 pamphlets.

The Minister of Agriculture, Industry, and Commerce, Florence: 27
volumes and 41 pamphlets.

Royal Institution for the Encouragement of Natural Sciences, Tech-
nology, &c., Naples: Atti, second series, volumes i-vili ; quarto.

University of Chili, Santiago: 14 volumes and 5 pamphlets.

The value of the National Library still continues to be increased
in the number and character of the books which are annually added to
it, first by books purchased, second by the Smithsonian exchanges,
and third by the deposit of books in accordance with the copyright
law. As we have said in previous reports, the space for the accommo-
dation of this valuable library—now the largest in the United States—
is far too circumscribed even for the wants of the present time, without
regard to those of the future. It is, therefore, proper to keep the propo-
sition of a new and separate building constantly in mind. The neces-
sity for such a building is not alone confined to the better accommoda-
tion of the books, but also includes greater facilities for consulting
them by students, as well as by general readers, in the way of greater
seclusion in separate spaces, and the number of hours during which the
library is open. With a separate building, certain portions of it at
least might be accessible during the evening, which, perhaps, would be
of greater importance to Washington than a similar arrangement in
any other city, on account of the large number of educated men in the
various offices of the Government, who cannot avail themselves at other
hours of the great advantage which the library affords for the prose-
cution of study. '

It may be proper to add, in this connection, that the library now de-

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Zo

posited in the Army Medical Museum, numbering 20,000 volumes of
works relating to medical subjects, may be considered as part of the
great National Library, and is rapidly increasing in the number and
value of its contents by an annual appropriation from Congress.

In accordance with the original agreement the use of these books, as
well as those now in the Capitol, is free to the Smithsonian Institution,
and we may perhaps indulge the hope that the new building for the
library, which is now contemplated, will be erected on the Smithsonian
Grounds, perhaps as an extension of the present building.

As we have said, one source of the increase of the library is the copy-
right system. The number of these books would be increased, we think,
and their character greatly improved, if an international copyright law
were established, granting to the foreign author the same protection
that is afforded to our own citizens. For example, we would ask, what
would be the condition of the wool-grower if the manufacturer of cloth
in this country had the power to obtain surreptitiously all the wool that
he uses, paying nothing but for manufacturing the article? What
encouragement is there to an author to produce an original work on any
branch of science when the publisher can obtain one which will equally
well answer his purpose from a foreigner without paying anything? But
the question ought not to be decided on considerations even of this
character; it belongs to the province of justice and morality. The re-
sults of the labors of the mind, which form the basis of all human im-
provement, ought not to be appropriated without remuneration, any more
than the labors of the hand or of the machine.

Meteorology.—Yhe impression has prevailed since the establishment
of the meteorological system by the Government, under the direction of
the Signal-Corps, that the observations which have been so long made
under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution may now be discon-
tinued. This idea is, however, erroneous. The object of the operations
of the Signal-Service is principally one of immediate practical utility,
viz, that of predicting the condition of the weather for a day or more
in advance of the actual occurrence. This it is enabled to do by the
fact previously established, that, as a general rule, disturbances of the
atmosphere are propagated over a wide extent of the surface of the
earth in an easterly direction. Besides the number of stations neces-
sary for the practical predictions of the weather, a much more numer-
ous series of stations and long-continued observations are required for
determining the peculiarities of the climate, or for obtaining such infor-
mation as may satisfy the requirements of the scientist, the physician,
and the agriculturist. It is on this account that the more extended
observations established by the Institution, and which have now been
prosecuted for more than twenty years, are continued. It is true we
would be gratified if the charge of this system were transferred to the
Government, with more ample funds for its maintenance than can be
afforded from the income of the Institution. But so long as an arrange-

24 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

ment of this kind is not effected, it becomes the duty of the Institution
to continue the system with such improvements as the appropriation
which can be made on account of it will allow. During the past year
the number of stations has remained about the same, viz, 514, to which
a large number of additional rain-gauges have been distributed. Besides
these, meteorological observations are received from British America,
Central America, Mexico, Bermuda, and some of the West Indies.

The tables and deductions of rain-fall have been printed, and are
nearly ready for distribution.

The discussion of alf the observations relative to the winds made under
the direction of the Institution is still going on under the supervision
of Professor Coffin. Like his former work on the winds of the northern
hemisphere, it will consist mainly of abstracts of observations on the
relative frequency of the different winds, both at the surface of the earth
and in the higher regions, as indicated by the motion of the clouds, with
their resultant directions, and the monsoon influences by which they are
affected in the different seasons, or months of the year. Where data
could be obtained the actual transfer of the air in miles is also given.

Where the places of observation are sufficiently remote from each
other to admit of distinct delineation of the results, on maps of the scale
it is proposed to use, separate computations are made for each ; in other
cases they are grouped by districts. The work will embrace the follow-
ing material:

I. All the observations reported to the Smithsonian Institution from
the year 1854 to 1869, inclusive, with some others in the earlier years..

II. All those made at the United States military posts, and reported
to the Surgeon General, from the year 1822 to 1859 inclusive; and all
those from posts west of the Mississippi for the succeeding ten years,
up to the end of 1869.

III. All those at sea, collected at the United States Naval Observa-
tory, so far as they have been published; 7. e., over all the oceans be-
tween the parallels of latitude 60° north and south, except a compara-
tively small portion of the North Pacific lying between the meridians
150° east and 165° west from Greenwich; and a few additional obser-
vations south of Cape Horn.

IV. Those taken at sea, beyond these limits, by Arctic and Antarctic
explorers.

V. Those at several hundred stations in other parts of the globe.

This material, though very much more condensed than in his former
work, will still make a considerably larger volume.

In the discussion the whole surface of the earth is divided into zones
by parallels of latitude drawn 5° asunder, and observations in these zones
investigated in regular order from the North to the South Pole; com-
mencing with the observations in each at the 180th meridian from Green-
wich, and proceeding easterly to the same meridian again. Profes-
sor Coffin hopes to complete the tabular work in the course of two or

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 25

three months, when nothing will remain to be done but the mas and
some general deductions.

To defray the cost of the labor in the preparation of this work other
than that of Professor Coffin himself, an appropriation has been made
from the income of the Institution. The world will not only therefore
be indebted to the Institution for the publication of the work, but also
fer the collection of the material and a part of the expense of the redue-
tions.

I may mention that the previous publication by the Institution of the
Winds of North America has been largely made use of by the English
Board of Trade in constructing their wind-charts of the northern oceans,
and that the work now in process of preparation will be of especial value
for a Similar purpose.

The temperature observations are still in progress of reduction, two
computors being engaged upon the work. The progress of their labors
has, however, frequently been interrupted by calls from different por-
tions of the country for reports on the climate of different districts.

The following is an account of the present condition of oe part of
the general reductions:

The collection and tabulation, in the form of monthly and annual«
means, of all accessible observations of the atmospheric temperature of
the American continent and adjacent islands, have been completed to
the close of the year 1870, and extensive tables representing the daily
extremes, or the maximum and the minimum at the regular observing
hours, have been prepared.

An exhaustive discussion of all the observations available for the
investigation of the daily fluctuations of the temperature has been
made, and this part of the work is now ready for the printer.

The discussion of the annual fluctuations of the temperature has
been commenced and carried as far as the present state of other parts
of the discussion would permit.

The construction of a consolidated table giving the mean results,
from a series of years, for each month, season, and the year, at all of
the stations, which will probably exceed 2,500 in number, has been
begun and completed for that part of the continent lying north of the
United States, and also for several of the States. This is perhaps the
most laborious, as it is one of the most important parts of the dis-
cussion. In many of the large cities there are numerous series, made
by various observers, at different hours, all of which have to be br ought
together, corrected for daily variation, and combined to obtain the
final mean. To give some adequate idea of the time and labor involved
in the preparation of these tables, it may be mentioned that, in the State
of New York alone, there are about three hundred series, which are
derived from nearly two million individual observations.

The principal sources from which the general collection of results
has been derived, may be enumerated as follows:

*

26 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

1. The registers of the Smithsonian Institution, embracing upward
of three hundred large folio volumes.

2. The publications of the Institution, Patent-Office, Department of
Agriculture, and public documents.

3. All the published and unpublished records of the United States
Army, United States Lake Survey, and United States Coast Survey.

4, The large volume compiled by Dr. Hough, from the observations
made in connection with the New York University system, the records
made in connection with the Franklin Institute, and those obtained
from numerous observatories and other scientific institutions.

5. The immense collection of printed slips, pamphlets, manuscripts,
&c., in the possession of the Smithsonian Institution.

The work has been somewhat retarded by the collection and tabula-
tion of the rain-fall, to the end of 1870 for the Smithsonian stations,
and to the end of 1871 for the United States military posts.

Beside the discussion of the observations on temperature, rain, and
wind, there remain those relative to the pressure of the atmosphere, and
its humidity ; also those which are classed under the head of casual
phenomena, such as thunder-storms, tornadoes, auroras, meteors, early
and late frosts, progress of vegetation, opening and closing of rivers, &c.
These will be put in hand as soon as the funds of the Institution which
can be devoted to meteorology will permit the requisite expenditure.

Explorations and collections.—-As in previous reports, it is proper to
make a distinction between the collections of the Institution and the
specimens exhibited in the public museum. The former are collected
as a part of the operations of the Institution, to advance science and
promote general education; they are usually in great numbers, includ-
ing many duplicates of the same species. A type specimen of each
species and variety is deposited in the National Museum. The remain-
der are reserved for distribution to foreign establishments, and to
societies, colleges, and academies in this country, after they have been
submitted to scientific investigation and duly assorted and labeled.

At the last session of Congress an appropriation was made of $12,000
for the continuance of an exploration of the region of the Colorado of
the West and its tributaries, by Professor J. W. Powell, to be expended
under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution. The region here
mentioned is one of the most interesting in a geological point of view
of almost any in this or any other country. The Colorado of the West
and its tributaries traverse chasms in some places over a mile below the
general surface of the country, and present in different places at one
view sections of the principal members of the known geological for-
mations of the continent of North America. The region surveyed
lies between the 35th and 59th parallels of latitude, and the 109th
and 115th meridians of west longitude. It includes the headwaters
of the Uintah, the Price, the San Rafael, the Paira, the Kanab, and the
Virgin Rivers, the lower portion of the Grand, and a part of the

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 21

Colorado. In the year 1870 a general reconnaissance of the country
had been made, and several routes through it explored from Salt Lake
City to the Green and Colorado Rivers, and depositaries of supplies estab-
lished. The operations of Professor Powell and party under his com-
mand in 1871, consisted, first, in an exploration of the Green River from
the point where it is crossed by the track of the Union Pacific Railway
to its junction with the Grand, or where the union of these rivers forms
the Colorado of the West, and the exploration of this to the mouth of
the Paira; second, the establishment of a base-line in the valley of the
Kanab, from which a system of triangles was extended westward to the
valley of the Virgin River, southward and eastward to the Colorado,
and northward to the Paira; third, a geological survey of the region,
and the collection of a series of specimens of geology and mineralogy ;
fourth, an ethnological study of the Indians of the region, including
their mythology, manners and customs, means of subsistence, language,
&e., together with a full collection of all their implements and articles of
manufacture. The explorations and surveys of Professor Powell have
furnished additions to our knowledge of a portion of our public domain
previously but very imperfectly known, which, together with the extensive
series of specimens which he has added to the collections of the Institu-
tion and the National Museum, fully repay the appropriation which was
made from the national Treasury on this account. I have certified to
this effect to Congress, and respectfully commend the application of
Professor Powell for an additional appropriation to complete the survey.

The alleged decrease of the food-fishes of the coast and lakes of the
United States led to the passage of a law at the last session of Con-
gress, directing the President to appoint a commissioner of fish and fish-
eries, for the purpose of making inquiries upon the subject. Professor
Baird, assistant secretary of this Institution, whose attention has been
directed for some time both to the scientific and economical relation-
ships of the fishes, received the appointment, and proceeded in June
last to Wood’s Hole, a convenient point on the Massachusetts coast,
from which to prosecute his inquiries. With the aid of an appropria-
tion from Congress, and facilities afforded by various departments of
the Government, he was enabied to carry on an extended research
during a period of several months. In this work he had the special
co-operation of Professors Verrill and Smith, of Yale College, in the
investigation of the invertebrate fauna of the coast in its relation to the
food-fishes; of Professor Gill, of Washington, in the study of fishes
themselves; and of Professor Hyatt, of the Boston Society of Natural
History, Professor Jenks, of Middleborough, Dr. A. S. Packard, jr., of
Salem, and W. G. Farlow, of Cambridge, in other branches of the
investigation. Among other gentlemen interested in the researches, who
visited Wood’s Hole during the season, were Professor L. Agassiz, Pro-
fessor J. Gwyn Jeffreys, of England, Colonel Lyman, Professor D. C.
Eaton, Professor W. H. Brewer, Professor J. H. Trumbull, and Professor

28 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

W.D. Whitney. With this corps of helpers it was quite possible to
make a very thorough exploration of everything connected with the
general economical and natural history of the fauna of the waters on
the southern coast of New England; and while Professor Baird and
some of his party were engaged in visiting different parts of the coast and
taking testimony as to the actual condition of the fisheries, others of the
party were occupied in trawling, dredging, and in otherwise collecting
the various inhabitants of the sea.

A large amount of information was gathered which will have an impor-
tant bearing upon the objects of the commission, and of which Professor
Baird will present a reportin full to Congress atan early date. The inquir-
ies include numerous observations in regard to currents, temperatures,
distribution of life at different depths, &c. The collections made during
the exploration were very extensive, embracing a full series of all the
fishes of the coast, as well as of the invertebrates, from which sets will
be made up for distribution by the Institution. Among other results of
the expedition should be mentioned a series of nearly three hundred
photographs of a large size, representing all the fishes found, in their
various stages of growth, the whole constituting an almost unique col-
lection of portraits, and especially important as relating to the larger
fishes, like the sharks, rays, sturgeons, tunnys, sword-fish, &e.

Dr. Hayden, in the prosecution of his researches as United States
geologist for the Territories, gathered very large collections of miner-
als, skins of mammals and birds, eggs, &c., filling forty-five boxes,
illustrative of the natural history of Montana, and of the region about
the head-waters of the Yellowstone, a report of which he has presented
to the Secretary of the Interior. This exploration has excited a great
degree of interest on account of the wonderful series of geysers and
remarkable scenery, of which it has furnished an authentic description.
Indeed such has been the interest manifested in the Yellowstone dis-
trict that a proposition, originally made by Mr. Catlin as early as 1832,
has been revived and presented to Congress, to reserve the country
around these geysers as a public park. It is thought this proposition
will be adopted by the Government ; and if so, we doubt not that in
time the Yellowstone region will become a favorite resort for travelers
from every part of the world.

After reserving a full set of the specimens for the National Museum
the duplicates of Hayden’s collections will be made up into sets for dis-
tribution.

Among the persons to whom the obligations of the Institution are
particularly due for the magnitude and variety of contribution of speci-
mens we should mention Mrs. John M. McMinn. She gave the
valuable herbarium described in the last report, and has since pre-
sented the entire collection of objects of natural history belonging to
her late husband, who was for many years a correspondent of the In-
stitution. This gentleman had accumulated large numbers of minerals,

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 29

fossils, plants, &e., which filled twenty-six boxes, and were presented
to the Institution to be used as it might deem best for the interest of
science. Many of the specimens are duplicates, but are valuable as
material for distribution.

To Mr. George A. Boardman the Institution is indebted for extensive
collections of birds and skeletons from Florida, and also three complete
skeletons of the moose from Nova Scotia.

To his son, Mr. Charles A. Boardman, and to Mr. 8S. W. Smith we
owe acknowledgments for fine specimens of the moose and caribou.

Dr. Yarrow, assistant surgeon United States Army, Fort Macon,
North Carolina, has sent a large collection of skulls and skeletons of
the porpoises of the southern coast, as well as many Indian relies,
fishes, shells, &e.

From Professor Sumichrast we have received additional collections of
birds, reptiles, &c., illustrative of the natural history of Tehuantepec.
The name of this gentleman has frequently been mentioned in previous
reports as a large contributor to the Smithsonian Collections.

Captain Charles Bryant, in charge of the fur-seal islands of Alaska,
has contributed full series of skins, skulls, and skeletons of seals,
walrus, &c., abounding in that region.

To the Army Medica] Museum the Institution is indebted, as hereto-
fore, for numerous specimens in ethnology and natural history, in ac-
cordance with an arrangement made several years ago, by which, in
consideration of the transfer to it from the Institution of human crania,
all other objects of an anthropological character received by that mu-
seum were to be placed in the Smithsonian Collection.

Some interesting specimens have also been received from the Depart-
ment of Agriculture under a similar arrangement of exchange.

Dr. Destruges has contributed the skeleton of a sloth, and Mr. Henry
Hague that of a Guatemalan tapir; Professor Poey a skeleton, and Dr.
Gundlach a specimen in alcohol of solenodon, a rare insectivorous
mammal of Cuba; Mr. Hernberg and Colonel Gibson, skeletons of
buffalo; Mr. Isaac H. Taylor, of Boston, crania of South African mam-
mals; Captain Scammon, of the United States revenue-service, skulls
of whales and other cetaceans.

Although but few birds have been received, some valuable specimens
from Veragua were contributed by Mr. Salvin; from Brazil, by Mr.
Albuquerque; from Buenos Ayres, from the national museum under the
charge of Professor Baumeister; from Labrador, from C. G. Brewster.

Mr. Strachan Jones has furnished a number of eggs from the Lower
Slave Lake, and Mr. Charles R. Bree specimens of eggs of the Larus
gelastes from Turkey.

The reptiles received have been principally specimens gathered by
the naturalists of the Tehuantepec and Darien expedition.

Tine specimens of the celebrated Hozoon canadense have been re-

30 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

ceived from Mr. E. Billings, of Canada, and Dr. Josiah Curtis, of
Chelmsford, Massachusetts.

Mr. Brittan has contributed Permian fossils from Kansas; Mr. U. P.
Janes, a series of Ohio Lower Silurian fossils ; Mr. 8. A. Miller, fossils
from Ohio, and a fossil tree-trunk of the genus Psaronius; Mr. D. M.
Shafer, Lower Silurian fossiis.

Specimens of woods have been presented by Mr. George Davidson, of
the Coast Survey ; of birds, reptiles, and fishes, from Illinois, by Mr. R.
Ridgeway ; fishes, reptiles, and vertebrates, by W. H. Clarke, of the
Tehuantepec expedition.

As usual, the amount of material received from the Old World ismuch
less than that from our own continent, the most noteworthy being a col-
lection of specimens in alcohol, presented by the museum of Bergen, in
Norway.

Mr. Knudsen has sent a collection of human crania from the Sand-
wich Islands. The museum of Wellington, New Zealand, under the
charge of Dr. Hector, has presented casts of the eggs of the Dinornis
and Apteryx, with casts of -bones of the former animal, and various
ethnological objects.

To Mr. Genio Scott, and to Messrs. Middleton & Carman, of New
York, the Institution is indebted for specimens ot Cybiwm caballa, or
Cero, a food-fish but lately indicated as occurring on our coast. The
museum at Bergen has also supplied a number of fishes peculiar to the
coast of Norway.

All the specimens of ethnology and natural history, not at present on
exhibition in the public museum, are now stored in the west basement,
and the various operations connected with unpacking, labeling, clean-
ing, assorting, poisoning, etc., have been transferred to that part of the
building. The necessity of making this transfer in a limited space of
time involved considerable derangement of the specimens, and much time
has been occupied during the fall and winter in re-arranging them. This
work, however, is in great measure accomplished; and Professor
Baird, with assistants, is now occupied in assorting and classifying the
material for the purpose of selecting duplicates to be distributed for the
advance of science. Avery extensive distribution of specimens has been
made during the year, partly in the way of giving general series for
educational purposes to colleges, academies, and scientific institutions,
and partly in the way of exchanges with the principal museums at home
and abroad. The amount of work done in the distribution of specimens
will be shown in the following table :

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Distribution of duplicate specimens to the end of 1871.

Oo
fot

Distribution in 1871. Total to the end
of 1871.
Class.
Species. | Specim’s. | Species. | Specim’s.

mkeletons'and skull§seS-cc-o2 sessed sot. as ea 156 B25 827
MiatmMG1S' Jo tseece sce. seesces caccne sese 25 40 941 1, 822
SUN Sia aers see eee tee ao ate eiaiamiciaiocine 2 cor 410 477 22, 940 35, 428
REVtilesweaeeenae 2 sees iccecnceeee ete tt 100 100 1, 841 2,970
RSIS fea ee cains Siac ac concen sees oaen. 42 100 2,407 5,10
SOS lOle DIVOG assess 3 cer aie toclenic<ctc scones 151 304 6, 606 16, 698
Se see ecen ecto 5c cack 2, 534 3,000 | 83,712] 186,157
EU UCSee tetera Sra pehs tac ate clave erate isc. c lice eve¥ea)| inicio eeereime | eaieane ais < o 583 77
BTUISTACC UMS eee eetatertias = areata area re ice we a scree tee seine <llloie o aetenw cra 1, 078 2, 650
MERIT eMInVertebraves-cmcecitee scan cece see |siscamac ess lreecen cence 1, 838 Sele,
Plants and packages of seeds..........---- 3, 000 4, 000 18, 503 25, 063
HOSS IIs atew teters sya a ala traci oes ees ees 151 151 4,109 10,135
Mim eral Sram duTnOCKS os. -- 2 trae anse < sess 1, 000 1, 400 4, 630 9, 974
Hphnolosical:specimens 52... <2 ences <= 152 152 1, 295 1,342
NISC US meeps ere as seme ee ceeece ema arsia ccs 204 204 1, 836 3, 150
Diatomaceous earths.....---...-.+2------ 1 5d 29 623

HCO alle tte eh bores e actos At 7,881 10,139 | 152,743 308, 080

As heretofore, a great amount of labor has been expended in cata-
loguing the specimens received, their enumeration having been carried
forward from 164,700 to 169,750, the increase representing about the
average of the last ten years.

As in previous years, the collections of the Institution have been placed
freely at the service of naturalists in this country and Europe, and large
numbers of specimens are now in the hands of collaborators. Among
these may be mentioned Dr. Elliott Coues, assistant surgeon, United
States Army, who has undertaken a critical revision of a special family
of Rodents of North America. This group is very extensive, embracing
humerous genera and species differing entirely from the corresponding
families inthe Old World. The large amount of material we have placed
in the hands of Dr. Coues will enable him to solve many interesting
questions as to the geographical distribution and zodlogical affinities of
the family in question. Dr. Coues’ memoir on this group will be pub-
lished by the Institution, and series of type specimens will be distributed
to other museums. To Professor Cope have been intrusted, as before,
the collections of reptiles, and other material has been furnished to
Professor Leidy, Professor Marsh, Professor Agassiz, Dr. Stimpson, and
others. Type specimens of American birds have been sent to Messrs.
Selater, Salvin, and Dresser, of London, for use by them in the prepa-
ration of descriptive works.

Oo

2 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

In accordance with the same policy a few years ago the alcoholic in-
vertebrates were intrusted to Dr. Stimpson of the Chicago Academy
of Sciences for study and distribution into sets of duplicates. Unfor-
tunately, however, this collection, although deposited in a building
supposed to be fire-proof, was destroyed in the disastrous fire of 1871.
The misfortune was not alone confined to the loss of the specimens,
but included also the results of years of labor of Dr. Stimpson, the
great object of his scientifie life, the publication of which was looked
forward to with interest by all engaged in the study of natural history.

The ethnological specimens collected by the Institution to illustrate
the arts, manners, and customs of the present Indians and the more
ancient inhabitants of the American continent, are unsurpassed in
number and variety, and are constantly increased by special efforts
in the way of correspondence and small appropriations for explorations.
The greatest additions to the collections received during the past year
have been in this department, an account of some.of the more important
of which will be of interest.

From Captain C. I’, Hall, the intrepid explorer, now, we trust, success-
fully prosecuting his researches in northern Greenland, we have received
the entire series of relics of Sir John Franklin, obtained by Captain
Hall during his last visit to the north, as also the relics of the Fro-
bisher expedition, which wintered on Frobisher Bay several hundred
years ago. ‘To these were added a number of specimens illustrative of
the habits and manners of the Esquimaux, and showing their relation-
ship to, as well as their differences from, a correspending series belong-
ing to the Esquimaux of the Mackenzie’s River region, furnished to the
Institution by Mr. R. McFarlane and some of his colleagues of the Hud-
son’s Bay service.

From the northwest coast of North America specimens have been
furnished by Mr. George Gibbs, illustrating many points in the ethnol-
ogy of the savage tribes; and specimens of dresses from Mr. Jos. T.
Dyer.

Lieutenant Ring has sent specimens obtained from graves in Alaska
and in British Columbia. Dr. Yates, of California, has added to his
previous donations large Indian mortars and the ecrania obtained from
sundry mounds.

Dr. Palmer collected for the Institution a very interesting series of
stone implements from ancient ruins in Arizona, and Major Powell has
furnished a full series of the implements, utensils, dresses, &c., of the
Indians of the valley of the Colorado. Dr. Irwin, of the Army, has
also added to this series.

From Colorado Territory we have specimens from Dr. Berthoud, indi-
cating, in his opinion, an antiquity of the human race in that region
far beyond that usually ascribed to it.

Additions from New Mexico are represented by specimens of blankets
and other manufactures of the Navajo Indians; as also by a loom contain-

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. oo

ing a part of an unfinished blanket, showing the mode of weaving,
presented by Governor Arny.

A series of bone implements of remarkable character, and different
from any we had previously possessed, together with other interesting
objects from ancient graves in Michigan, have been presented by Dr.
Irwin.

Mr. Andrews has contributed stone implements and other objects
from Tennessee; Mr. J. Fisher, very interesting copper implements, and
Mr. Peter, stone objects from Kentucky. Rev. D. Thompson and Mr.
Clark-have furnished stone implements from Ohio. Mr. Hotchkiss, of
Louisiana, kas furnished a remarkable series of stone lances and knives,
some of them being of very great length and of beautiful finish. Mr.
Keenan, of Mississippi, has supplied a variety of Indian implements.

From Georgia we have an extensive collection made by the late Col-
onel Floyd, and kindly presented by his heirs through the mediation of
Colonel McAdoo; and from Messrs. W. and A. F. McKinley, a general
ethnological collection of great value. The accessions from Florida are
quite numerous, but the most important consist of a series of imple-
ments and crania from the mounds near Sarasota, presented by Mr. J.
G, Webb. Among these are broken fragments of skulls, completely
silicified, and quite unique in this respect. Rev. J. Fowler, of New
Bruuswick, has supplied a valuable collection gathered in his vicinity.
From Mexico we have received a collection of ancient vases of remark-
able beauty, deposited by Mrs. General Alfred Gibbs ; and another col-
lection of a similar character, presented by the Natural History Museum
of Mexico; as also some by Dr. Penatiel, one of its officers.

Mr. Riotte has furnished an interesting series of diminutive figures,
dressed to represent the costumes of the aborigines of Guatemala.

Dr. Flint, of Nicaragua, has sent various specimens of ancient pottery
obtained near Omatope, and similar articles have been received from
Dr. Van Patten, obtained in Costa Rica.

From Peru the most interesting accessions are two mummies from a
burial-place at Arica, accompanied by various articles, presented by
Mr. Henry Meiggs, the well-known railway engineer of South America.
From Brazil we have received a series of the bows and arrows used by
the natives of that country, and presented by Mr. Albuquerque.

Among the most important additions to the collections should be men-
tioned a large number of Lacustrian implements from Switzerland, from
Professor Pagenstecker, of Heidelberg, Mr. Messikomer, of Zurich, and
Professor Rutimeyer, of Basle. The latter gentleman has also added an
extensive series, properly identified and labeled, of the various kinds of
domestic animals used by the builders of the lake dwellings.

An interesting collection was presented by Mr. di Cesnola, United
States consul to Cyprus, embracing numerous specimens of pottery
obtained by him in his excavations in the site of the ancient Idalium.
Seme of these are believed to be purely Phoenician in their character,

3S TL

34 REPORT OF TIB SECRETARY.

and others of a later date, all of them characterized by great beauty and
size.

One of the most interesting additions to the department of ethnology
is the cast of the Tanis stone, on which is a trilingual inscription re-
cently obtained from some excavations made at Tanis, on the eastern or
Pelusiac branch of the Nile, and belonging to the museum of Egyp-
tian antiquities at Cairo. The original is a block six feet high, two and
a half feet broad, and a foot thick, with the top arched. One side is
occupied partly by hieroglyphic inscriptions, together with a Greek
translation of the same, while a portion of the left side is occupied with an
equivalent inscription in the Demotic character. This stone occupies ¢
position in Egyptology similar to that of the “‘ Rosetta stone,” except
that it is much more perfect, and will probably aid much in deciphering
the hieroglyphics. The cast was taken by the instrumentality of Dr.
Lansing for presentation to Monmouth College, Ilinois, but at his re-
quest and that of Mr. S. H. Scudder, and by permission of the authori-
ties of that college, it was sent to the Institution to be copied. Untor-
tunately, it was very much broken in the transit, and required patient
labor on the part of a skillful modeler to restore it to anything like its
original condition. When this is accomplished a mold and casts will
be taken, and the original sent to the college. In this connection we
may mention that the inscriptions on the stone have been carefully
studied by Dr. G. Seyffarth, an eminent Egyptologist, who visited
Washington for the purpose, and will present a paper on the subject to
the Institution, for publication.

Correspondence.—AS we lave said in previous reports, a very large
amount of labor is devoted to correspondence. Beside those relating
to the ordinary business of the establishment, hundreds of letters are
received during the year containing inquiries on various subjects on
which the writer desires information, and also many memoirs which are
presented for publication. Among the former a large number are re-
ceived from the five hundred meteorological observers who furnish, vol-
untarily, records of the weather, and who require frequent explanation
of special phenomena. Among the papers submitted for publication
are a large number containing speculations in reference to science which
in many instances exhibit great industry and profound thoaght on the
part of their authors, but which, nevertheless, cannot be considered as
positive additions to knowledge founded on original research, and which,
therefore, in accordance with the rules adopted by the Institution, can-
not be accepted for publication. On account of the wide diffusion of
elementary education in the United States, and the general taste for read-
ing amongall classes, there is no other part of the world, perhaps, in which
there exists a greater diffusion of elementary scientific knowledge, and,
perhaps, more activity of mind directed in the line of scientific thought.
Much, however, of this, from a want of proper training, and the means
of experiment and observation to verify deductions from a priori con-

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 30

ceptions, is unproductive of positive results. The Institution does not dis-
card antecedent speculations provided deductions from them are made in
the form of new results which are verified by actual phenomena. It is not
enough that anew hypothesis may give a general explanation of a class
of phenomena in order that it may be adopted ; it must do more than
this. It must point out new facts and phenomena which can be readily
exhibited by experiment or verified by observation. Such advances
have been made in physical science within the last two hundred years
that most of the phenomena which lie, as it were, on the face of nature,
have been studied and referred to general principles. In order, there-
fore, to make advances, in general physics, at least, apparatus, as well
as training in the use of it, is essential to scientific research; and as but
few, comparatively, possess the advantages of these, it rarely happens
that investigations of much importance result from the speculations of
the kind we have mentioned. In the line of mathematics, however,
which requires no extraneous aid, and of natural history, in the study
of which objects are everywhere presented, results of importance may
be derived from the labors of isolated individuals who have no other
assistance than books.

As a means of adult education, it may be remarked that from the
first the Institution has encouraged the establishment of lyceums and
scientific associations in all parts of the country, and as the number of
these has constantly increased, they have added to our correspondence,
and much more largely during the past year than during any one in the
history of the Institution.

Miscellaneous items—In 1863 Congress incorporated an association,
under the nameof the National Academy of Sciences, whieh should inves-
tigate, examine, experiment, and report upon any subject of science or
art on which information might be required by any department of Gov-
ernment. Though this society was in no way connected with the Smith-
sonian Institution in its inception and organization, yet it is accommo-
dated with rooms for its meetings in the Smithsonian building, and com-
munications which are adopted by it are accepted for publication by
the Institution.

A series of scientific inquiries has been referred to this society by

“different departments of Government, and the investigations in regard
to them have principally been made under direction of members of the
academy in this Institution. The organization of the scientific depart-
ment of the North Polar Expedition under Captain Hall was intrusted
by Congress to the National Academy, and the procuring of the instru-
ments and the organization of the scientifi¢ corps were principally
effected in connection with the Smithsonian Institution. A copy of
the scientific instructions will be found in the appendix to this report.

In the law organizing the Light-House Board it is declared that it
shall consist of two officers of the Army of high grade, two officers of
the Navy, and two civilians of scientific reputation, whose services

36 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

might be at the disposal of the President of the United States, to-
eether with an officer of the Navy to act as naval secretary, and an
officer of the Corps of Engineers of the Army, as engineer secretary.
From the commencement of the board to the present time, the mem-
bers from civil life have been the Superintendent of the Coast Survey
and the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. During the whole pe-
riod [ have oceupied the position of chairman of the committee on experi-
ments, and have, with the exception of the summer I was in Europe,
devoted my vacations to investigations relative to lighting-materials,
fog-signals, and other duties connected with the light-house service. In
October, 1871, on the retirement of Admiral Shubrick and the ordering
of Admiral Jenkins to the charge of the East India squadron, I, being the
oldest member, was elected chairman of the board. For the discharge
of the duties of this position, in addition to the time of my summer
vacation, I have made arrangements for devoting one day in each week.
It is proper to observe that my office as a member of the Light-House
Board, although one of much responsibility, and to which I have, during
the last eighteen years, devoted a large amount of labor, is accompanied
with no salary, the expense of traveling and subsistence being defrayed
by an allowance of ten cents per mile.

The services which have been rendered to the Government by the
Institution from its commencement to the present time are deserving
of recognition. They inelude not only those connected with the
National Academy, the Light-House Board, investigations now being
carried on relative to fishes, the care of the Government collections,
the organization of the natural history portions of the various exploring
expeditions, the series of investigations made during the war, but also an-
swers to the constant applications from members of Congress for infor-
mation on special subjects. In no case has the Secretary or his assistants
received any remuneration for labors thus performed.

In this connection I may mention that on the occasion of my visit to
Europe in the summer of 1870 I was honored by the President of the
United States with an appointment to represent this country at a meet-
ing of an international commission, invited by the late Emperor of
France, to consider the best means of multiplying copies for distribution
of the original meter preserved in the archives of the government at

aris. Unfortunately, before the time of meeting arrived, in August,

the Franco-German war commenced, preventing the attendance of a
number of commissioners who would otherwise have been present.
On this account it was resolved to permanently adopt no definite
proposition in regard to the meter, but merely to discuss the various
questions which might be connected with the general subject. The-
commission remained in session from the 8th to the 14th of August,
and adjourned to meet again at a more favorable season.

The Institution has taken much intérest in the historical phenomenon
of themovementin Japan in regard tothe adoption of western civilization.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. on

A full set of the publications of the Institution has been presented to the
University of Yedo, and arrangements made with it for obtaining meteoro-
logical observations and specimens of archeology and natural history.
A special request was made by the Institution in behalf of the Jap-
anese Minister, Mr. Mori, of the principal publishers of school-books in
the United States for such of their publications on education as they
might see fit to present for examination to the Japanese commission.
In response to this application acknowledgments are due, for liberal
donations, to the following publishers: D. Appleton & Co.; A. 38.
Barnes & Co.; Brewer & Tileston; E. H. Butler & Co.; Claxton,
Remsen & Haffelfinger; R. 8. Davis & Co.; Eldredge & Bro.; W.
S. Fortescue; Harper Bros.; Holt & Williams; Houghton & Co.;
Ivison, Blakeman, Taylor & Co.; J. B. Lippincott & Co.; Henry C.
Lea; G. & C. Merriam; Murphy & Co.; Oakley, Mason & Co.; J. W.
Schermerhorn & Co.; C. Scribner & Co.; Sheldon & Co.; Sower, Barnes
& Potts; Thompson, Bigelow & Brown; University Publishing Con-
pany; Wilson, Hinkle & Co.; Woolworth, Ainsworth & Co.

While the Smithsonian Institution occupies ground otherwise uncul-
tivated, it has been its policy from the begining to co-operate with all
other institutions in advancing science and promoting education. There
must always exist objects of importance for the promotion of which
appropriations cannot be immediately obtained . from Congress,
and which, without aid, cannot be properly prosecuted. In England
such objects to a limited extent are assisted by funds derived from
the subscription list of members of the British Association, and by an
annual grant from the government to the Royal Society. These appyo-
priations, though producing important results, are far from being ade-
quate to the solution of problems, the number and variety of which
are constantly increasing. When we consider the intimate connection
of a knowledge of abstract science with modern civilization, the etfect
which it has had in substituting the powers of nature for slave labor, in
the discovery of lawsaknowledgeof which enables man to predict, andin
many cases to control, the future, it must be evident that nothing can
better mark the high intelligence of a people than the facilities which they
afford and the means they provide for promoting investigations in this line.
It isa matter of surprise, however, that so imperfectly is the import-
ance of abstract science appreciated by the public generally, that un-
less it be immediately applied to some practical purpose in the arts it
is almost entirely disregarded.

NATIONAL MUSEUM.

An appropriation during the last two years has been made by Con-
gress of $20,000 for the reconstruction of parts of the building destroyed
by the fire, and the fitting up of rooms for the better accommodation of
the National Museum. This sum, together with about $9,000 from the

35 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

income of the Smithsonian fund, has been devoted during the past year
to this purpose.

With a view to the ultimate separation of the operations of the
Smithsonian Institution from the National Museum, arrangements have
been made for appropriating the east wing and range to the business
which may be considered as belonging exclusively to the essential
objects of the Institution, and devoting the main building, west wing,
and towers to the museum. For this purpose the large room on the
first floor of the east wing, which was formerly used as a museum-
laboratory and store-room, has been fitted up with bins and conven-
iences for assorting and packing the literary and scientific exchanges to
be sent to foreign countries. Preparation has also been made for re-
moving the chemical laboratory from the first flocr of the east range to
the space immediately below it in the basement, and for applying the
whole of the first floor of this part of the building to the business offices
of the Secretary and his assistants in the line of what are called the
active operations.

For the special accommodation of the museum the large room in the
west wing, formerly occupied by the library, has been prepared for the
reception of cases for mineralogical and geological specimens ; while the
great hall, 200 feet by 50, in the second story of the main building, has
been completed and is now ready to receive the cases for the anthro-
pological and other specimens.

Estimates are now before Congress for fitting up these rooms with
cases for the reception and display of the Government collections; and
it is hoped that, in the next report, we shall be able to chronicle the com-
mencement, if not the completion, of the work.

The changes consequent upon the extension of the museum mentioned
made are-arrangement necessary of the greater part of the basement so
as to obtain additional security against fire, and greater convenience for the
storage of fuel, packing-boxes, and specimens. A floor was laid through
the basement, and new passage-ways opened, furnishing better access
from one extreme of the building to the other. In introducing the fire-
proof floor into the west wing, advantage was taken of the opportunity
to increase the height of the room below it, and to convert it and the
adjoining rooms in the west range into laboratories and store-rooms for
natural history.

Furthermore, for better security, the fire-proofing of the floors of the
four towers on the corners of the main building has been commenced.
The rooms in the towers furnish studies and dormitories for the inves-
tigators in the line of natural history who resort to the Institution,
especially during the winter, to enjoy the use of the library and the
collections for special researches.

The Norman style of architecture adopted for the Smithsonian build-
ing produces a picturesque effect, and, on this account, the edifice has
been much admired. It is, however, as I h«ve frequently before

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 39

remarked, one of the most expensive buildings in proportion to its in-
terior capacity which could have well been devised; expensive not only
in its first construction, but also in the repairs which are continually
required to protect it from the influence of the weather, which is obvi-
ous when the number of projections, towers, and exposed angles is
considered.

The building, which from the first has been a drain on the Smithson
funds, still requires an appropriation for heating-apparatus, and for
annual repairs, which, in justice to the bequest, we trust willbe provided
by Congress.

For defraying the expenses of the care and exhibition of the National
Museum, Congress has annually, for the last two years, appropriated
$10,000. Although this appropriation was more than double that of
previous years, stillit fell short of the actual expenditure. The amount
ot items chargeable to the museum during the past year, independent
of the rent which might have been charged for the rooms occupied, or
for repairs of the building, was a little more than $13,000. Deducting
from this sum the $10,000 appropriated by Congress, and there re-
remains $3,000, which was paid from the income of the Smithson fund.

A statement of this deficiency has been presented to Congress, and
we trust that the sum of $15,000 will be appropriated for the same
purpose for the ensuing fiscal year.

By the completion of the large room in the second story and the
appropriation of the west wing and connecting range to the same pur-
pose, the space allotted to the museum in the Smithson building has
been increased to about threefold. It is proposed, as was stated in the
last report, to devote the room in the west wing to specimens of geology
and mineralogy, and the large room in the second story to specimens of
archeology and paleontology. As preparatory to the fitting up of
these rooms, a series of designs has been prepared at the expense of
the Institution by B. Waterhouse Hawkins, the well-known restorer of
the ancient animals which illustrate the paleontology of the Sydenham
Palace, near London.

A commencement has also been made in the furnishing of the large
room with casts of some of the larger extinct animals.

The cast of a skeleton of the Megatherium cuvieri, generously pre-
sented by Professor H. A. Ward, of Rochester, has been set up in the
middle of the room. This gigantic fossil was first made known to
the scientific world in 1789. It was discovered on the banks of the
river Luxan, near the city of Buenos Ayres, and was subsequently
transmitted to Madrid. The original bones, of which this specimen is
a copy, were found in the same Pampean deposit, between the years
1831 and 1838, and belong partly to the Hunterian Museum of the Royal
College of Surgeons, and partly to the British Museum. Cuvier, who gave
it its generic title, thought it combined the character of the sloth,

AO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

ant-eater, and armadillo, Professor Owen has, however, shown that the
Megatherium was a “ ground-sloth,” feeding on the foliage of trees,
which it uprooted by its great strength. The extreme length of the
mounted skeleton is 17 feet; its height from the pedestal to the top
of the spinous process of the first dorsal vertebra is 10 feet 6 inches.
The length of the skull is 30 inches; the circumference of the skeleton
at the eighth rib is 11 feet.

Also in association with the Megatherium a cast has been placed in the
same room of the Colossochelys atlas, a gigantic tortoise, a restoration
from fragments discovered in the Miocene strata of the Sewalik Hills,
India, and now in the museum of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. It is
8 feet 2 inches in length by 5 feet 10 in width.

In addition to this, there has been set up a cast of the Glyptodon, a
representative in Pleistocene times of the armadillos of South Amer-
ica, the original of which was found in 1846, near Montevideo, on the
banks of the Luxan. It was presented by order of the Dictator Rosas
to Vice-Admiral Dupolet, who gave it to the museum of his native city,
Dijon, France, where it is still preserved.

The two last-mentioned specimens were purchased from Professor
Ward.

The basis of the national museum is the collection of specimens
of the United States exploring expedition under Captain, now Ad-
miral, Wilkes, originally deposited in the Patent Office. It was trans-
ferred to the Institution in 1858, and since then has been very much
increased by the type specimens from upward of fifty subse-
quent expeditions of the General Government, and contributions re-
sulting from the operations of the institution. The character of the
museum will be properly exhibited for the first time after the various
articles are displayed in the new rooms now in preparation for their
reception. The museum is especially rich in specimens to illustrate
the subject of anthropology; and it is proposed to bring these as far as
possible together in the new room in the second story, and to arrange
them so as to exhibit their connection and to illustrate the gradual pro-
egress of the development of the arts of civilized life.

At present a portion of the large room in the second story is used
for the exhibition of the cartoons or original sketches made by the cel-
ebrated Indian traveler and explorer Mr. George Catlin. The object
of this exhibition is to induce the Government to purchase the whole
collection of Indian paintings, including sketches and portraits, the re-
sult of the labors of upward of forty years of this enthusiastic and
indefatigable student of Indian life. The entire collection, which com-
prises about twelve hundred paintings and sketches, was offered by My.
Catlin to the Government in 1846, and its purchase was advocated by
Mr. Webster, Mr. Poinsett, General Cass, and other statesmen, as well
as by the principal artists and scholars of the country. A report
recommending its purchase was made by the Joint Committee on the

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Al

Library of Congress, but, owing to the absorption of publie attention
by the Mexican war, no appropriation was made for the purpose.
Mr. Catlin made no further efforts at the time, but exhibited his
pictures in Europe, where, on account of an unfortunate speculation
into which he was led in London, claims were brought against them
which he had not the means to satisfy. -At this crisis, fortunately, Mr.
Joseph Harrison, of Philadelphia, a gentleman of wealth and_ patriot-
ism, desiring to save the collection for our country, advanced the means
for paying off the claims against the pictures and shipped them to Phil-
adelphia, where they have since remained unredeemed. Mr. Catlin,
however, retained possession of the cartoons, and has since enriched
them with a large number of illustrations of the ethnology of South
America, Whatever may be thought of these paintings from an
artistic point of view, they are certainly of great value as faithful
representations of the person, features, manners, customs, implements,
superstitions, festivals, and everything which relates to the ethno-
logical characteristics of the primitive inhabitants of our country. We
think that there is a general public sentiment in favor of granting
the moderate appropriation asked for by My. Catlin, and we trust that
Congress will not fail at the next session to act in accordance with this
feeling. It is the only general collection of the kind in existence, and
any one who has given thought to the subject cannot but sympathize
with Mr. Catlin, who, in his old age and after a life of hard labor and
the devotion of all that he possessed in the world to its formation, is
now anxious to obtain the means to redeem the portion of his collection
retained as security for the payment of claiins against him, for the
means to enable him to finish the sketches that are still incomplete,
and to secure the whole from dispersion through their purchase by the
Government.
Respectfully submitted.
JOSEPH HENRY.
WASHINGTON, January, 1872.

APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY,

Table showing the entries in the record-books of the Smithsonian Museum at the end of the
years 1870 and 1571.

: Up to the end | Up to the end
ee of 1370. of 1871.

Siceletomsral CSU Sis says oye ore clay es ietarela ete etetereatetatenaieye yar 11, 512 12, 059
Vira TMM Serer stor tse vals tare ave at r= na ratin terre tea ere 9,773 9, 849
ABSIT S eee oie are ates a peie gee ta el arate eee ete totes 61, 150 61, 250

IRE UML CS ers case alepen oa arn feel mfale telat ep ata la teehee aaa ar 7, 535 7,536
PESTS CS tee a ai late aye ee ae fat = ease eae eet 7, 897 7,983
WSR Semper ele fee ae ees ote bate orm g rere cia roche i aire tiie 15, 671 15, 986
(CONISIRGEINS i Aeeoe be soes puoe concuone Soconeeeone Jet Sone 1, 287 1, 287
PTGS Benya nate asi ea nia alee terete lace eerie eee 22, 345 24, 792
RANI UES fe nae eat etal etartene eter aerate te nat lel felarern tate aioe 2,730 2, 730
PAGE ECS fe = eee see re iatepa tet! te ee otny oliatotere ce fae iota == fei t= atte = 100 100
OSS teenie saree ese Sele see eer cocci Cie aie 7, 380 7, 697
NNN Tera SS See eae ele ate ce no ao ele el atmne net otot erate ale felat atlas leita 7, 154 7, 160
HGhmolocical SpeelmMeNs'= - 272.) =— t= = = iia == toi 10,000 - 10, 931
ITEMS eee ey yara teers sree agate en ere ate eee tote eee ieee 175 390

RODIN As ole eK cts te is Race oeeeey eee 164, 709 169, 75

Motalientriesiduring) the tyean.2 ys ccisn eleva soe ree eee eee eee ee OAL

Approximate table of distribution of duplicate specimens to the end of 1871.

Distribution to the Distribution in Total.
end of 1870. 1871.
Class. | :

Species. | Specimens.! Species. Specimens.) Species. | Specimens.

Skeletons and skulls. 214 671 111 156 325 827
MiammimiailS: <= eye eee 916 1, 782 25 40 941 1, 822

Parals = tc. poe oe ees OS 34, 951 410 477 | 22,940 35, 428
Menbiles ~.. 22). 27 Se ee 2, 870 100 100 | 1,841 2.970
hes -\-— . > > -s pee al Pe aOO Syn 42 100 | 2,477 5, 311
Eegs of birds........| 6,455 16, 394 151 304 | 6,606 16, 698
Miells-c2-. 2 ose 2c. | SES IVOM, Wesea 575) See 3,000 | 83,712 186, 157

MVAGTATES: <..<..1'2<j= <2 583 MSc. oae | Woes 583 778
Crustaceans.....-...| 1,078 25650! |. Sas cose Meeeweseeee 1, 078 2, 650
Marine invertebrates. 1, 838 blo |e seeeeee eevee iterate 1, 838 5, 152
Plants and packages /

Ofseedse.l..0- 52. |) LO;,003 21,063 | 3,000 4,000 | 18,503 25, 063
Hossils!.5- = 3) ODS 9, 984 151 151 4,109 103 135

Minerals and rocks.-. 3, 630 8, 574 1, 000 1, 400 4, 630 9, 974
Ethnological — speci-

MIGNESS. Sere ce
Insects. .- -.

1, 143 1, 190 152 152 | 1,295 1, 342
1, 632 2, 946 204 204 | 1,236 3, 150
3

Diatomaceous earths- 28 56> 1 | 55 29 623
: lee : Nbc BOP t's
Totali.ceer. fae! 144,862 | 297,941 | 7,881 10,139 | 152, 743 308, U80

- ADDITIONS TO THE COLLECTIONS. A3

ADDITIONS TO THE COLLECTIONS OF THE SMITHSONIAN
INSTITUTION IN 1871.

Agricultural Department.—(See Mechiing.)

Albuquerque, F., Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil_—Bow and arrows of
South American Indians.

Allard, C. T., Parkinsons Landing, Illinois.-—Micaceous slate and
copper pyrites, Illinois.

Alvarado, Sr. Don. J. J—Specimen of stalactite, from Costa Riea.

Andrew, G., Knoxville, Tennessee—Indian relics and shells, from Ten-
nessee,

Army Medical Museum, Washington, D. C._—Ethnological specimens
from Arizona and Colorado. (See also Irwin, Dr. B. J. D.; Weeds, Dr.
J. Fs; Otis, Dr. G. A.; and White, Dr. C. B.)

Arny, Hon. W. M .F.—Ethnological specimens, from New Mexico.

Baird, Professor S. 2.—Forty-seven boxes general collections, Wood’s
Hole, Massachusetts.

Baird, Mrs. S. F., Washington, D. C.—Fire-bag of Indians of Hudson
Bay Territory ; skeleton of domestic turkey, Washington, D. C.

Beardslee, Com. I. A.—Young tlying-fishes in alcohol, Atlantic Ocean.

Bergen Museum, Bergen, Norway.—Box of natural-history collections.

Berthoud, B. L., Golden City, Colorado,—Indian relics &¢., from Crow
Creek, Colorado.

Billings, E., Montreal, Canada.—Specimens of Hozoon canadense and
cast of trilobite, from Canada.

Bland, Thomas, New York.—Box of shells.

Bliss, B. K. & Co., New York.—Palmetto fiber, from South Carolina.

Boardman, G. A., Calais, Maine-—Specimens of birds, fishes, and skel-
etons, from Florida; skeletons of moose, from Maine.

Boardman Charles A., and S. W. Smith—Skin of moose, from
Nova Scotia.

Bree, Dr. C. R.—Kges of Larus gelastes, from Kustridge Turkey.

Brewster, C. G., Boston, Massachusetts Specimens of birds.

Brittan, H., Thayer, Kansas.—Box of Permian fossils.

Bryant, Captain. Charles. —Skulls, skeletons, and skins of fur-seal, and
walrus, and one box dried plants, from Saint Paul Island, Behring Sea.

Burr, C. 8., Alliance, Ohio.—Box of fossil plants.

Burroughs, John, Washington, D. C.—Nest and egg of Dendroica coerules-
cens, from Delaware County, New York.

Burrows, Mrs.—German horn, and small shoes made at Saint Helena.

Butcher, M., Prince Edward Island.—Stone axe. (Sent through Rey.
J. Fowler.)

Carpenter, Dr. P. P.—Box of shells from west coast of North America.

Carpenter, W L., Mill Creek, Wyoming Territory.—Larva of insect
(borer) in wood.

44 ADDITIONS TO THE COLLECTIONS.

Cesnola, General L. P. di, United States Consul.—Ancient Phoenician
pottery, from the site of the ancient Idalium, Island of Cyprus.

Chalmers, R., Konchibougonack, New Brunswick.—Arrrow-heads. (Sent
by Rev. J. Fowler.)

Choate, Isaac B., Gorham, Maine—Specimens of minerals, ancient
pottery and arrow-heads, &e.

Christ, R. Nazareth, Pennsylvania.—Birds’ eggs, from various localities.

Clarke, John, Bowling Green, Ohio.—Indian stone relics from Ohio.

Clarke, W. I, Washington, D. C—Alcoholic collections of fishes,
reptiles, and invertebrates from the Isthmus of Darien.

Clough, A., Fort Reynolds, Colorado.—Box of specimens of natural
history from Colorado.

Colonial Museum, Wellington, New Zealand, (Dr. J. Hector.)
eges of Dinornis and Apteryx, and ethnological specimens.

Constable, Major A. G.—Skeleton of mouse.

Cortelyou, J. Gardner, Somerset County, New Jersey.—Indian stone
implements.

Coues, Dr. Elliott, United States Army.—Four specimens of albino
birds.

Crane, E. H., Burr Oak, Michigan.—Insects and small batrachian.

Curtis, Dr. Joseph.—Oolite from Florida, and Hozoon canadense in
chelmsfordite, Chelmsford, Massachusetts.

Curtis, Rev. M. A., Hillsborough, North Carolina.—Specimen of Meno-
poma alieghaniense. :

Darling, Major, United States Army.—Specimen of pedunculated cir-
rhiped in alcohol.

Davidson, Professor George-—Specimens of woods from Alaska.

De Castro, Dieyo.—Specimen of six-legged cat.

Destruge, A., Guayaquil, Hcuador.—Skeleton of Bradypus tridactylus.

Dickinson, E., Springfield, Massachusetts—Dirds’ eggs from Springfield,
Massachusetts.

Doane, Lieutenant G. C., United States Army.—Box of minerals, &c.,
from Yellowstone Lake, Montana Territory.

Dodge, General.—Specimen of oolitic limestone, Oxford, Tama County,
Towa.

Dodge, S. C., Chattanooga, Tennessee—Stone axe from Lookout Mount-
ain, Tennessee.

Dodt, Colonel Helenus, (through Dr. E. Palmer.)\— Helma,” or work-
bag of Mohave Indians, Arizona.

Driver, G. W., Washington, D. C_—Specimen of Echeneis from Lower
Potomac.

Dunn, A., Salnon River, New Brunswick.—Stone axe and chisel. (Sent
through Rev. J. Fowler.)

Dyer, Joseph T., Washington, D. C.—Ethnological specimens, dresses,
&c., Alaska.

Eby, J. W., Indian Bureau.—Minerals and photographs, Utah.

Casts of

ADDITIONS TO THE COLLECTIONS. 45

Edmunds, Mrs. Geo. F., Washington, D. C.—Thirty-one specimens
tropical birds.

Hdwards, W. H., Coalburgh, West Virginia.—Box of bird-skins.

Emmet, Dr. T. A., New York—Box of bird-skins from Central
America.

Filer, O. L., New Harmony, Utah.—Indian stone arrow head.

Fithiam, Thomas, United States consul—Book perforated by ants,
Saint Helena.

Fish, William C., East Harwich, Massachusetts—Flint chips and
arrow heads.

Fisher, Professor D., United States Naval Academy.—Shells in alcohol
from Milwaukee, Wisconsin.

Fisher, J., Lexington, Kentucky.—Ethnologieal specimens, copper and
stone, from mounds near Lexington, Kentucky.

Flint, Earl, Granada, Nicaragua.—Box of seeds and ethnological
specimens, Ometepec Island, Nicarauga.

Floyd, General T. C., Georgia, Heirs of —Indian stone implements, &c.

Ford, T. 8., Columbia, Mississippi.—Stone hatchet from Mississippi.

Fowler, Rev. J., Bass River, New Brunswick.—Indian relics and shells
from Nova Scotia and New Brunswick.

Fuller, J. F., Salado, Texas.—Specimen of arrow-head from Texas.

Furnas, R. W., Brownville, Nebraska.—Specimen of radiating fibrous
gypsum.

Gentry, J. P., Paducah, Kentucky.—Specimen of clay.

Gibbons, J. S., Lewes, Delaware.—Section of pine trunk bored by
teredo. _—

Gibbs, Mrs. Alfred, New York.—Ethnological specimens. (Deposited.)

Gibbs, George, New York.—Box of Indian relics, California. Ethnolog-
ical specimens from northwest coast.

Gibson, Colonel G., United States Army.—Skeleton of buffalo, Fort
Hayes, Kansas.

Glasco, J. M., Gilmer, Texas.—Specimens of Indian pottery.

Goeller, C. L., Milledgeville, Georgia.—Specimen of supposed tin ore,
Jefferson County, Tennessee.

Green, H. A., Atco, New Jersey.—Specimens of fossils and minerals
from New Jersey.

Green, H. N., Boston Station, Kentucky.—Weathered fossils from
Kentucky.

Greer, Colonel James, Dayton, Ohio.—Artesian borings, Indian stone
implements, and specimen of meteorite, from Ohio,

Gundlach, Dr. J., Havana—Specimen of Solenodon enbanus in alcohol.

Gurley, William, Danville, Illinois.—Box of fresh-water shells from
Central Illinois.

Hague, Henry.—Skeleton of tapir and box of natural history collec-
tions from Guatemala.

Hall, Captain C. F.—Collection of relics of Franklin and Frobisher
expeditions, and ethnological specimens from Arctic America.

AG ADDITIONS TO THE COLLECTIONS.

Hancock, BE. M., Waukon, Towa.—Box of minerals, fossils, and natural
history collections.

Hayden, Dr. F. V. United States Geologist Extensive general collec-
tious in geology, ethnology, and natural history, from the western
Territories, (45 boxes.)

Hayes, Dr. I. I., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.—Bird-skins from Green-
Jand.

Heiligbrodt, L., Austin, Texas.—Bird’s eggs, and Indian arrow-heads.

Hemphill, H., Oakland, California.—Box of shells from California.

Henry, Professor Joseph—Diatoms, W&e., from hot springs of Cali-
fornia.

Hershey, David, Spring Garden, Pennsylvania.—Prismatic quartz erys-
tal.

Hilgert, Henry, Santa Fé, New Mexico.—Nest of swallows from Albu-
querque, New Mexico.

Hough, F. B., Lowville, New York.—Box of birds’ nests and eggs from
Northern New York.

Hotchkiss, Mr., Shreveport, Lowisiana.—Flint implements, pottery,
&e., from near Shreveport.

Huggins, Liewtenant.—Skeleton of Callorhinus ursinus, Alaska.

Hurlburt, General 8. A., United States minister to New Granada.—Skins
and skeletons of mountain tapir, Tolima, New Granada.

Irwin, Dr. B. J. D., United States Army, Fort Wayne, Michiqai.—Box
of alcoholic vertebrates, Indian relics, &e., from Arizona. (Through
Army Medical Museum.)

James, U. P., Cincinnati, Ohio.—Lower Silurian fossils, (46 species,)
from Ohio.

Jeffreys, J. Gwyn, London, England.—Brachiopods from the North
Atlantic.

Jones, Dr. Joseph, New Orleans, Louisiana.—Specimen of prepared
wood.

Jones, Strachan, Goderich, Canada.—Box of birds’ nests and eggs from
Lesser Slave Lake, Hudson Bay Territory.

June, L. W., Wellington, Ohio.—Indian stone relics from Ohio.

Keenan, T. J. R., Brookhaven, Mississippi.—Two boxes ethnological
and natural history specimens.

Kidder, Dr. F., Leesburgh, Florida.—Specimens of pearl-bearing unios.

Knudsen, Valdimar, Kanui, Hawaiian Islands.—Skulls of ancient Sand-
wich Islanders.

Lesher, W. T., Youngwomanstown, Pennsylvania.—Indian arrow-heads,
&e.

Lewis, George H., Atlantic City, Montana Territory.—Fragment of
fossil turtle.

Limpert, W. J., Groveport, Ohio.—Specimen of Sphyropicus varius.

Luce, Jason, West Tisbury, Massachusetts—Specimens of rare fishes
from Martha’s Vineyard.

ADDITIONS TO THE COLLECTIONS. AT

Macintosh, I., Welford, New Brunswich.—Arrow-heads. (Sent by Rey.
J. Fowler.)

Mactier, W. L., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.—Eges of Bulimus hemas-
toma.

Maguire, J. C., Washington, D. C_—Indian slate hatchet. (Deposited.)

Manzano, Dr. D. J., (through Dr. A. Schott..\—Human skull carved in
fossil wood from Yucatan.

Mathews, Dr. Washington, United States Army.—Eges of Archibutco
Jerrugineus, with head, wings, and feet of parent, from Dakota Territory.

McAdoo, W. G.—Stone dise from East Tennessee.

McCoy, John, Black River, New Brunswick.—Arrow-heads. (Sent by
Rev. J. Fowler.)

McKinley, W. and A. T., Milledgeville, Georgia.—Box of flint implements
and ancient pottery, Oconee River, Georgia.

McMinn, Mrs. J—Twenty-six boxes geological, mineralogical, and bo-
tanical specimens, the collections of the late John M, McMinn.

McNaughton, R., Mumford, New York.—Caleareous tufa from Monroe
County, New York.

Mechling, Mrs. F. FE. D., (through Agricultural Department.)—Speci-
mens of reptiles, fishes, birds, &c., from Belize, British Honduras.

Meiggs, Henry, Lima, Peru.u—Two boxes Peruvian mummies.

Meigs, General M. C., Quartermaster General United States Army.—
Skin of Phoca pealii, from Alaska, and Indian relics from Montana ;
minerals Galena, fluor spar, &c.) from Rosiclare, Illinois.

Merriam, C. Hart, White Plains, New York.—Birds’ eggs and nests
from New York.

Merritt, J. C., Farmingdale, New York.—Arrow-heads from Long Island,
New York.

Miller, F., West Farmington, Ohio—Box of fossils.

Miller, J. Imbrie—Splinter of calcined wood, Oogun Camp, Central
India.

Miller, S. A., Cincinnati, Ohio—Fossil wood, Lower Silurian fossils,
and Indian relics from Ohio.

Morrison, E. H., Newark, New Jersey—South African birds’ eggs.

Munn, Dr. C. E., United States Army.—Package of diatoms from Fort
Wadsworth, Dakota Territory.

Museo Publico, Buenos Ayres.—Box of birds, mammals, &c., from the
Argentine Republic.

National Museum of Mexico.—Ancient pottery from Mexico.

Orton, Professor Edward, Yellow Springs, Ohio.—Box of fossils from
Ohio.

Otis, Dr. G. A., Army Medical Museum.—Painted scapula of Buffalo.

Packard, Dr. A. 8., Salem, Massachusetts—Eges of fish from Salem
Harbor.

Pagenstecker, Professor, Heidelberg.—Box of Swiss pre-historic relies
from Lake Dwellings.

48 ADDITIONS TO THE COLLECTIONS.

Palmer, Dr. E., Washington, D. C.—Seven boxes and one bale general
collections from Arizona; two boxes skulls of cetaceans from Wellfleet,
Massachusetts.

Penafiel, Dr. Antonio, City of Mexico.—Ancient pottery from Mexico.

Pence, J. B., Frankfort, Indiana.—Meteoric dust from surface of snow.

Peter, Dr. R., Lexington, Kentucky.—Indian stone relics from Kentucky.

Peters, Henry, New Smyrna, Llorida—kLgegs of Ortyx virginianus.

Petton, W. T., New York.—Creosotized wood from New York Creosotize
ing Works, 157 Broadway.

Poey, Professor Felipe, Havana.—Skeleton of Solenodon cubanus.

Pourtales, Count L. IF. De.—Series of brachiopods from deep-sea
dredgings in Gulf Stream.

Powell, Mr. Joseph, United States consul, Port Stanley —Horn of wild ox
from Falkland Islands.

Powell, Major J. W., Normal, Illinois —Two boxes and one bale of Ute
clothing and implements, Colorado.

Ridgway k.—Birds and reptiles from Mount Carmel, Hlinois.

Ring, Lieutenant F. M., United States Army.—Two boxes Indian relies
from Alaska.

Riotte, Sr. Pedro.—Twenty-seven dressed figures made by Indians of
Guatemala, and representing native costumes of that country.

Rutimeyer, Professor.—Lacustrine antiquities, bones, &c., Switzerland.

Salt Lake Museum.—Two boxes minerals, fossils, and ethnological speci-
mens, Utah.

Salvin, O., and Sclater, P. L., London.—Specimens of birds from Ve-
ragua, Columbia.

Sartorius, Dr. C., Huatasco, Mexico.—Box of specimens of natural his-
tory: box of living plants from Mexico.

Scammon, Captain C. M., United States Revenue Marine.—Nondescript
baleen and parasites from cetaceans, North Pacifie; baleen of hump-
back; skull and baleen of small whale from Puget Sound; general col-
lections from Northwest coast.

Schenck, Dr. J., Mount Carmel, IUinois.—Specimen of salamander from
Southern [linois.

Schott, Dr. A., Georgetown, D. C.—Two arrows of Papago Indians of
Sonora.

Schlucker, P. I’., Baltimore.—Specimen of asbestos from Maryland.

Schuber, N., Panama.—Head of Peruvian mummy and specimens of
ancient pottery from Peru.

Scott, Genio C., New York.—Fishes preserved in ice. (Cybium eaballa.)

Scroggins, S. R., Baltimore, Maryland.—Specimens of fish. (Megalops
thrissoides. )

Sears, Joseph C., East Dennis, Massachusetts—Indian grooved stone
pestle.

Schaffer, D. M., Cincinnati, Ohio—Lower Silurian fossils from Ohio.

Shirley, James, Welford, Kent County, New Brunswick.—Stone chisel.
(sent by Rey. James Fowler.)

ADDITIONS TO THE COLLECTIONS. AS

Smith, H. H., San Francisco, California.—Seed vessels of lily.

Spear, Dr., United States Canal survey of the Isthmus of Tehwantepec.—
Three boxes of general collections, Tehuantepec.

Squier, LE. G., New York:.—Specimens of pottery from near Lima, Peru.

Stearns, Rk. HL. C., Petaluma, California.—Box of birds’ nests and
eggs, &e.

Stephens, T. H., Jacksonville, Florida.—Skuli of alligator and skins of
gars, Florida.

Sterling, Dr. E., Cleveland, Ohio.—Cast of roe of muskelonge from
Saginaw River, Michigan; casts of fresh-water fish.

Sternberg, C. M., Fort Harker, Kansas.—Skeleton of bufialo.

Sumichrast, Dr. F.—Two boxes natural history specimens from Mexico.

Taylor, George, Washington, D. C.—Uead of Rhynehops nigra, Cape
May, New Jersey.

Taylor, Isaac H., Boston, Massachusetts —One box skulls, South Afri-
ean mammals. (Through G. 8. Boardman.)

Thompson, Rev. D., Milnersville, Ohio —Box of ethnological specimens,
fossils, &e.

Thompson, J. H., New Bedford, Massachusetts —Box containing three
fish.

Tilton, B. M., Chilmark, Massachusetts—Specimen of Biepharis, in
alcohol.

Treat, Mrs. M., Vineland, New Jersey.—Specimen of living serpent.

Turner, Lucian, Mount Carmel, [llinois.—Fishes from Southern Hlinois.

Turner, Samuel, Mount Carmel, Illinois —Birds from Wabash County,
Jilinois.

University of Christiania.—Sparagmite from Norway.

University of Louisiana, Baton Rouge—Two boxes of Indian stone
relics. (Deposited.)

Van Patten, Dr.—Ancient pottery from Costa Rica.

Vaux, William S., Philadelphia.—ithnological specimens, casts, &e.

Verstenikoff, A., Saint Paul Island, Alaska Territory.—Skull of fox.

Vortisch, Rev. L.—Ethnological specimens, Satow, Germany.

Wallace, President D, A., Monmouth College, Illinois.—Cast of inserip-
tion faces of the Tanis stone, received from Dr. Lansing, Alexandria,
Egypt.

Wallace, John.—Specimen of musk-deer in the flesh; skull of giraffe.

Ward, Professor H,. A., Rochester, New York.—Casts of megatherium,
glyptodon, and colossochelys.

Webb, J. G., Sarasota Bay, Florida.—Box of ethnological and natural
history collections.

Webster, Professor H. E., Schenectady, New York.—Box of marine
invertebrates, &e.

Weeds, Dr. J. F.—Ethnological specimens from New Mexico. (Through
Army Medical Museum.)

White, Dr. C. B.—Specimen of Podiceps cornutus from Fort Schuyler,

New York. (Through Army Medical Museum.)
48 71

50 ADDITIONS TO THE COLLECTIONS.

Wilson, L., Astoria, Oregon.—Specimen of beetles in alcohol.

Wright, J. W. A., Turlock, California.—Arrow-heads from San Joaquin
Valley, California.

Yager, W. £., Oneonta, New York.—Reptiles in carbolic-acid solution.

Yarrow, Dr. H. C., Fort Macon, North Carolina.—Specimens of fish,
cetaceans, and Indian relics from North Carolina.

Yates, Dr. L. F.—Human cranium and box of pine cones from Cali-
fornia.

Zeledon, José C., Washington, D. C.—Twelve card photographs of
Indians of Guatemala; miniature carvings by the same.

Unknown.—Box of corals, &c.; specimen of symplocarpus, Whatcom,
Washington Territory; specimen of dark marble, Jefferson County,
West Virginia; specimens of fish.

LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC EXCHANGES.

Table showing the statistics of the Smithsonian exchanges in 1871.

Agent and country.

RoyaL SwEDISH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES,
Stockholm :
PWedelibesc cos 2 S22 Sets ce em coe ce

ROYAL. UNIVERSITY OF NORWAY, Christiania:
INORWags meson coc ieeiee See acs cio a oe

Roya DANISH SOCIETY OF SCIENCES, Copen-

hagen:
WENN ee seer ao. + 2c eee eaten
GOLAN esa ee eas oe agk es a eerie

L. Watkins & Co., Saint Petersburg:
INUSSIQie Losses Ace eerste sere ee ea

FREDERICK MULLER, dmsterdam :
TO WO eee Sites == ete oo aa aie a, sface a mek
Belpenimys 5-525 8.225 tee Sect shes. 52

Dr. FELIX FLUGEL, Leipsic:
Genmany seccsess a Bae eee Sa eka
Neel andes eee ends ete Stas dae
Switzerland .:...-...5..---..-.-..2.-.

GustTavE BOossaNGE, Paris:
RAN COk a saioee ac claain os Soe Sees ee ee

REALE ISTITUTO LOMBARDI DI SCIENZE E
LETTERE, Milan:
AU greta rete stcrescta s,s desi che acta

Royat ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, Lisbon :
OMUU Cae ee anos Bae Sade feta

RoyaL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF MADRID:
Saltese Sere aes eee abe accel

WILLIAM Westry, London :
Great Britain and Ireland........ 2...

UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE:
AUStraliiane sees sees es ovis. cates sere

PARLIAMENTARY LiBrary, Wellington :
New Zealands 2.05522. <.5. 2 ec ee

Rest of the world ...................
Grand totais sme sees e 2. eee oe

J iY DQ
ey o ow 2 D
I va Gy is ey RB ie: aS
1 og | eul Vs o 8
38 Be |=s| Ss £5
ear a a M4 o ep
a a 4 = ‘3.
Zi 7 aa) =
18 41 8 24 900
22 39 2 16 600
|
25 44 2 16 600
a oro ol, Lee
26 ACAI oe, eee eee
93 160 4 32 1, 200
52 93 1 8 300
95 105 2 16 600
147 $e 1A ee ee
145 477 | 28 924 8, 400
46 64 2 16 600
492 dB) eo es is
132 147 ‘i 48 1, 800
109 120 8 64 2, 400
19 20 1 8 300
7 | 9 1 8 300
259 | 332 | 23 184 6, 900
18 20 1 8 300
7 8 1 8 300
90 9 | 23 | 92 3, 450
1,432 | 1,778 | 103 772 | 28,950

52

LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC EXCHANGES.

Packages received by the Smithsonian Institution from parties in America,
Jor foreign distribution, in 1871.

Address.

ALBANY, NEW YORK.

Albany Institute.......-...-
New York State Library...-....-.-.-
Professor James Hall

BOGOTA, COLOMBIA.
Society of Naturalists...-- Ee Sees
BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS.
American Academy of Arts and Sci-
Board of State Charities...-......-
Boston Society of Natural History-.
Massachusetts Historical Society . --
Perkins Institution for Blind..---.
Mrs. Julia Ward Howe....-..- cites
BROOKLYN, NEW YORK.
SO OUbiIN OY. sia) se cciefetteteieeie Seer
BURLINGTON, NEW JERSEY.

Wie Grp SMM CV poco: ja;'S an ere ae ste eee sic
CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS.
Museum of Comparative Zoology. --
Professor Asa Gray
Counts. F. Pourtales..--.- 2... -.2.
Professor J. D. Whitney
COLUMBUS, OHIO.

Ohio State Board of Agriculture ..-.
DORCHESTER, MASSACHUSETTS.
DPPH PArvisisc oo eee see e a eee’
FORT M’HENRY, MARYLAND.

Dre lott Coues s..<-. escice cesses
FOUNTAINDALE, ILLINOIS.
MMS ABCD DMs — mole i stern iteeei eee e
GEORGETOWN, DIST. OF COLUMBIA.
Georgetown College ..-..........-.

INDIANAPOLIS, INDIANA.

Indiana Institute for Educating the
Deaf and Dumb....... Wagener ates

No. of
packages.

163
228
296

95
i40

1, 345

Ole 09

227

43

| Professor G. Hinrichs

39 |

Address.

IOWA CITY, IOWA.

Dri Ci vAngWiLUtO Saale nw cia cee ete
JANESVILLE, WISCONSIN.

Wisconsin Institution for Educating
the Blind Ces ass seo a0s cee eee

KEYTESVILLE, MISSOURI.
John CyiVeateh 2-6 ess son ecenee
LIBERTY, VIRGINIA.
Ay Fi (Curtissecmecceemen cr nee
MONTREAL, CANADA.

Natural History Society...-....--.
Hy. Billings) acces ee oer eee
PabcCarpenter ccs eos eee eee

NEW BEDFORD, MASSACHUSETTS,

J. H. Thomson

NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT.

American Journal of Science and

APB ool ise beet wee coe eestor
Connecticut Academy of Arts and

SCIENGOS che oe eon eee oe
Professor:J:) Ds Danae eens aece seas
Sod Smith=20 ease eee ee eee eee
Professor A. E. Verrill

NEWPORT, VERMONT.

Orleans County Society of Natural
Sciences: -\-c2 52) eee ceeeemees
!

NEW YORK, NEW YORK.

American Institute ..--..=---..-.-
Anthropological Institute of New

Works otcesssesce ewes oleae
Argentine censul
Lyceum of Natural History. ...-.-.
J. Maunsell Schieffelin............

OXFORD, MISSISSIPPI.
BW tel amd ose eee see
PAXTON, ILLINOIS.

TON; Hasselquint (2 -2-. -ssseeoee =

No. of
packages.

[]
met et 09

24

_
~

Noaro

C2

137

300
40

17

500

LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC EXCHANGES.

Packages received from parties in America, &c.—Continued.

53

g

S =p

Address. 64

s
a
PEORIA, ILLINOIS.
Dr. EF: Brendel...-.- aise Seite yeie isiae 2
PHILADELPHIA, PENNSYLVANIA.

Academy of Natural Sciences ...... 178

American Philosophical Society ----} 291

Director of the Mint... -.-.-.---< 6

House Of Memire o. 6226 bonnie aac al

Wagner Free Institute of Sciences..| 264

eve Ha tn beadlomascssce juan seca 4

Henry C.. Careyce.c2 ce. eater fare 1

Bee ep etalon cease cer are sical Ss 30

Dre SAAC We aiaa eae oo ss csahae cele 4

VERO AU eet ores 1

PORTLAND, MAINE.
Portland Society of Natural History.) 63
POTTSVILLE, PENNSYLVANIA.
EW eS DCatOb ec. se 2 cei Salsa se se'5 « 86 |
QUEBEC.
Literary and Historical Society --.-| 26

SACRAMENTO, CALIFORNIA.

California Institution for the Deaf
and Dumb...... ee ee 25
California State Board of Health... i

SAINT LOUIS, MISSOURI.

Dr. G. Engelmann .....:.-.--.----- 1
SAINT PAUL, MINNESOTA.

Minnesota Historical Society ..---. | 10
SALEM, MASSACHUSETTS.

Essex Institute.................-..| 218

Peabody Academy of Science ..-..-.. 101

Address.

SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA.
yb Ca Stealns aa esc. oe een
SPRINGFIELD, ILLINOIS.

A. H. Worthen

SPRINGFIELD, MASSACHUSETTS,

S. C. S. Southworth..........

TORONTO, CANADA.

Canadian Institute ......---

TRENTON, NEW JERSEY,
OME etched cit trea yeep ates Sere ee
UTICA, NEW YORK.

E. Jewett

WASHINGTON, D. C.

Board of Indian Commissioners. -.
Bureau of Statistics.......4..----.
Wensusmoedliss, sessee. shee ee nee
Clinio-pathological Society.....-..
Department of Agriculture........
General Land-Office..-.......----.
Nautical Almanac Office.........--
Navy Department
Office of Chief of Engineers ......
Quartermaster General’s Office....
United States Coast Survey Office.
United States Congress -.......--.
United States Naval Observatory .-
United States Patent Office
Treasury Department....--..-----
Dr. Cleveland Abbe.--..-..----.--
We Dalle. 20 cscs sae secre
Drak. Vi daydenk. -...semasees sce
H...B, Meek =. cs2= dans Seton ates
is. Poescheys-5 3.8 eee senses eee
C7 Hi. REN Dae. eacmeiaceecsce sees
Rie MGSO Waly =o siatas o252 Sosesoe es
Unknown

LOLA seer eee = te eee

No. of
packages.

we
Cr

Cr

16

7,73

54

LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC EXCHANGES.

Packages received by the Smithsonian Institution from Europe in 1871 for
distribution in America.

Address.

ALBANY, NEW YORK.

Regents of New York State Uni-
VOLSIDY meee ieee ecto e tice asisess
Albany sin stivuue sea. sce ean < <'sreo-
Board of State Charities. .......-..-
DudleyjObservatory ..---<----.2..-
New York State Agricultural So-
CLOVE ee ase a eteenaooee
New York State Cabinet of Natural
US HOM Wes oh eee iommtoeanle ons see
New York State Hommopathie So-
CIS beds sete set ess Beaateeeaos =
New York State Library...-...-.-..
Inspectors of the Penitentiary. -- --
Inspectors of the State Prisons of
ING WanvOTkee2 at cp tmeiceecioces sets
Hon.Francis Barlow.<s--- 322: --+-
ProLessori ames Halll s-22 2 ec sec
Professor’J, Wo Hough... 22052 cn.

ALLEGHENY CITY, PENNSYLVANIA.

Observatory -..-

AMHERST, MASSACHUSETTS.

Amberss College: 2-24 .-22 o5-- >=
Geological Survey of Massachusetts.
Professor: 1). 8. snellis: 32/2 cclnao- ans
Professor &. Tuckerman: <2 22552 -5-

ANNAPOLIS, MARYLAND.

SbalveplUibranyc sess. Sea sere
United States Naval Academy..--..

ANN ARBOR, MICHIGAN.
Observatory.set222 see ee ee doce
University of Michigan........-..-
rs EM reesés.2222. Sao s 20 coe eee =
Drs (Cs Watsons 3532 2e ese a dass
Professor <A’. Winchell.- 2-=2 (2-222--

APPLETON, WISCONSIN.
Lawrence University ....-...-.....
ATHENS, GEORGIA.
University. of Georgia. ............

ATHENS, ILLINOIs.
Professor Elibu Hall@.-.-..........
ATHENS, OHIO.

University or Ohioy-i2-. sec se ae.

No. of
packages.

Cm sO

or

29
Rae

oo
Sete

we We Or

WOR

Address.

AUGUSTA, MAINE.

Commissioner of Fisheries......--
Maine Lunatic Hospital.----.-- i

AUSTIN,

Mri Storehtas coe. oc ee eee

NEVADA.

AUSTIN, TEXAS.

Judge Julius Schultze....-. ....--

BALDWIN CITY, KANSAS.

Baker University.- ..---.cas tess
BALTIMORE, MARYLAND.
American Journal of Dental Sci-

Maryland Historical Society .-.---
Mercantile hibrary2sscss2 ce se.cose
Mumnicipalliitys s=-.o ce sacle
Peabody Institute -.-. ~--.--....--
University of Maryland...-.. ....
AM (Carters icisce sass ey cece Seer
P. R. Ubler

BLOOMINGTON, INDIANA.

Indiana State University. ...-...-
Professor D. Kirkwood...--- eee

BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS.

American Academy of Arts and Sci-

CL GOS eee cinje os ceca cin wejseleisiatc(= siwim =

| American Christian Examiner. .-...-
| American Social Science Association

American Statistical Association - -

| American Unitarian Association. --

AtHONCUMinc +2 soc oeoeeeeeee

Board of State Charities..-....---
Boston Christian Register.----- --
Boston Medical and Surgical Jour-

Mallee nl. S skeet eee esi ac See

Boston Society of Natural History-
Directors of Publie Institutions...
Gynecological Society..-. ®---.--
Inspectors of Massachusetts State

PVSONS2-<42 sto c s 35 oo eee
Massachusetts Historical Society --.
Massachusetts Society for Preven-

tion of Cruelty to Animals-.. ----
Municipality =..c=- <-s. soeaeeeeee
New England Historic, Genealog-

ICAL SOCIObY. -o2-. Shoe eee
North American Review..-. --.---
Public Library

No. of

packages.

revo

Were Wer Ot

—

114

_
~2

LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC EXCHANGES.

Packages received from Europe, &e.—Continued.

Address.

Boston, Mass.—Continued.

Society for the Development of Min-
6ral Resources. case. ci- xieicereie ccs
DB labee LN DTALVsec mers ale se eae
Seem V Viet Lees Teele miele eiete er re
Ser De AN Gigs Seen seieey ee ts cmt = ae
yee tied Gilat eevee eran area iret inne are
DV Tes eM et) ea ee pe ites Shae hal
Professor Wolcott Gibbs...-..-....
Yep ree Vichy, Ore tereeieeista stare ris
Dr: Albert Ordway .-.--. .--.:---.:
Professor H.C. Pickering. .....--..
Wi Bs ROCEIS (cei s- 22 oe ots <es
7A EB Moye fay (olla ee ae
ep SanGtOVG see ccs ee ceo. wo ee a es
Bee secudderasccsece =f =2 5-22 2eSe0
Charles A. Stearns........---.....-
WrpHe SbONGlAs secs. ac oe ee
Professor W. Watson.... -
RobertC. Winthrop..22 25. 22-2. <5
BKOOKLINE, MASSACHUSETTS.
Ore Thy loymancoces.oe- aco tos fom
BROOKLYN, NEW YORK.

Grty, Bibrary sees, sac. <6 e cen oe

Collegiate and Poiytechnic Institute)

BRUNSWICK, MAINE.

WSO WALOINE COMET ee eee cae ==
Historical Society of Maine..-.....

BUFFALO, NEW YORK.
Buffalo Historical Society....-.....
Medical and Surgical Journal .-.- -.
Natural History Society ........-.--.

BURLINGTON, IOWA.
Mae Wncstrom..2 2 s-..0.2-%2--%..
BURLINGTON,

Wir Ge PING aoe Ssic) awrnie is sciee oc

NEW JERSEY.
BURLINGTON, VERMONT.
University of Vermont.... ........
CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS.
American Association for Advance-

ment of Science........ 2.2.2...

Astronomical Journal.....:.-......
Harvard College... dscicct seccce os

Harvard College Observatory......

ey

o
3
iS

N

Bee ee DD LD

ft

mon

co
“1 Ot

wm

Rr 1D

SU esiVia TCO l-e- oo) cca ee Ge

Dr. Charles Wright....-......-----

Address.

CAMBRIDGE, Mass.—Continued.

Museum of Comparative Zoology -
SAGER PAGS Zia, Sofas a sia oieege
Professor L. Agassiz...-......--..
Johni@.wAnthOny ss cose osce eee
Dr: Brown-Sequard...... .-.----=-«-
Professor’ Jis, Ps Cooke. <2. 20e22-
Professor: Walerreli- 4 s22.---
Dre -As Goulds cen cas epeccs once
Professor Asa Gray..---- ..-------
Dr. Herman Haren. 5-2... i2 2222
Wray QIICS ect tone © Soc ae ie ae
Professor J. Lovering..........:--
WreGe le Maackoc css. sesso sehes

PD ee et APG ee oy py a eee ee
Professor B. Peirce..-.-- ..---..---
L. F. De Pourtales..-....
Professor W. A. Rogers:22.--2.---
Dr. F. Steindachner
Professor J. D. Whitney ..--..-..--|
Professor J. Winlock.. 2.2.22... --

ere e ee eee

CARLISLE, PENNSYLVANIA.

Dickinson College......-..-.--..-
Society of Literature............-

CENTREVILLE, CALIFORNIA.
Dr. Lorenzo C. Yates........-.....-
CHAPEL HILL, TEXAS.

Soule University ..-........---.--
CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA.
Elliott Society of Natural History.
Library Company

Society Library «=~ 22 2. sees ee
South Carolina Historical Society -

CHARLOTTESVILLE, VIRGINIA.
University of Virginia......-...--

CHICAGO, ILLINOIS.

Chicago Board of Trade... -.
Dearborn Observatory......------ |
Medical Times.
Municipality
Young Men’s Association Library...
Professor T. H. Safford.....-.-.----

Dr. W. Stimpson

55

No. of
packages.

Or =
ROWS

—
Dit ee TR Re

*
~

_
re OS et 00 Ree te ee

e

Cm et re OR

56

LITERARY: AND SCIENTIFIC EXCHANGES.

Packages received from Europe, &c.—Continued.

Address.

CINCINNATI, OHIO,

American Medical College. ---------
Astronomical Society. ...----------
Astronomical Observatory -..------
Dental Register.......-.---+--+----
Historical and Philosophical Society

OOM OMe oso seal aise a iepsteeietsic
Mercantile Library.----.+.--------
Minniteipallatiys spoil ates stenioer ain wtepl- rare
Ohio Mechanics’ Institute.....---- -

CLEVELAND, OHIO.
Cleveland University.-..--~--=--2<

CLINTON, NEW YORK.

Litchfield Observatory... .----------
Protessor C. H.F. Peters. ...,-...--===-

COALBURGH, WEST VIRGINIA.

WUE SR OWiatdS coast cece sees

COLUMBIA, MISSOURI,

Geological Survey of Missouri. .-.- -
Missouri University
reW CLs wallow cccetrisetctremte ce

COLUMBIA, SOUTH CAROLINA.

South Carolina College -....2--5.2-

COLUMBUS, OHIO.

Ohio State Board of Agriculture. --
bate doibraryy cere ee oe
Leo Lesquereux..---..------------
Dr OW oss pullivambie = cope cen.
CONCORD, NEW HAMPSHIRE.
New Hampshire Historical Society - -
State Lunatic Asylum.......-....-
Warden of New Hampshire State
BTIBON ee 3 ate eee ee eee
CREDIT, CANADA.
Rey. Crd osmbethune’. i so. as2sec's
CROW WING, MINNESOTA.
MINaN CISUOLENZ eae essa ssinieei ois

DAVENPORT, IOWA,

Public Library 2-225...

No. of
ackages.

f

to

BPE OHH

we vo

aw >

me <3 Oo OD

wD
So &p
Address. .
Ora
Az
=
DECORAH, IOWA.
Lutherani@ollese: 5 5-s--2 2 jets tet 2
DELAWARE, OHIO. .
Wesleyan University .....-.--.-.-- 1
DES MOINES, IOWA.
Governor of the State of Iowa. .--- 4
Sbabetbibraryycs<c 2. -ceclere eet aeers 5
DETROIT, MICHIGAN.
Inspector of Detroit House of Cor-
TOC HON Ae eee eer eieaniae 1
Michigan State Agricultural Soci-
eby .----- ----++----2 +--+ Fosaan 13
WU. Reichéertiets2o-ereeer oo. rer 1
DORCHESTER, MASSACHUSETTS.
Dr diwards Varviss 22s. sce'cers 16
EAST GREENWICH, NEW YORK.
INS Mths ee era eer ieecmic 1
EASTON, PENNSYLVANIA.
Lafayette Collese <.....-2=----¢2 1
Professor) EL. Comin ys. aareeeraiee t= 6
ELMIRA, NEW YORK.
Elmira Academy of Sciences... ---- 2
ERIE, PENNSYLVANIA.
Rev. LG. Olmstead 2-2-2 ees 2
EVANSTON, ILLINOIS.
Northwestern University .----.--- 4
FARMINGTON, CONNECTICUT.
Eidward Nortontess-ss-- se —> 6 =e 1
FORT M’HENRY, MARYLAND.
Dr wlliotiiCoucssses.--- - = ser 14
FOUNTAINDALE, ILLINOIS.
M:'S.Bebbissees- <i set aceca eee 2
FRANKFORT, KENTUCKY.
1 || Geological Survey of Kentucky ---. 5.

LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC EXCHANGES.

Packages received from Europe, &e.—Continued.

57

Address.

FREDERICTON, NEW BRUNSWICK,

Legislative Library .-.-<--..--2..-
University of New Brunswick... -...

DISTRICT OF COLUM-
BIA.

GEORGETOWN,

Georgetown College.
Dr. Arthur

HALIFAX, NOVA SCOTIA.

Nova Scotian Institute of Natural

MGIGNCES! 22 -- eee eo hoe oe wee
Me HOTTOS) Ses ve ince aoe oo ee
Professor Lawson ..-..-..-.--
John R. Willis ....-.-.----- we de

HAMPDEN SIDNEY, VIRGINIA.
Hampden Sidney College. ....-...-.
HANOVER, NEW HAMPSHIRE.

Dartmouth College..............--
Ae PAR O UNOS Serres wyterors Sri alae Sib oad

HARRISBURGH, PENNSYLVANIA.
Medical Society of the State of Peun-
Sylvanas. 2 5. a. - =< BS Asa, Sore
bate Library ..--s.-52.s22420--22.
HARTFORD, CONNECTICUT.
Connecticut State Agricultural So-
ciety . 3
Hartford Historical Society.....--.
Young Men’s Institute-....-.......-
HILLSBOROUGH, NORTH CAROLINA,
rower MA COPIS 2 s250cc2c scl nce
HOBOKEN, NEW JERSEY.
Stevens’ Institute of Technology...
HONOLULU, HAWAIIAN ISLANDS.
W. Harper Pease....
INDIANAPOLIS, INDIANA.

Geological Survey of Indiana.-.--

Indiana Historical Society.........
Indiana Institute for the Blind._-.
Prato: Library... .-~<iscscscseee eo
en COKs< -.55 Sess ee ao 2

No. of
packages,

Schott...-.....--.----e!

fod et et OD)

ee

Nd

ww

Oe

| Wisconsin Institution for Educating

|

Cumberland University...........

Address.

INMANSVILLE, WISCONSIN.
Wisconsin Scandinavian Society...
IOWA CITY, IOWA.
Geological Survey of Iowa........
lowa State University.---<.+2-222
Professor G. Hinrichs....-.-......
DriCuA; White: 3-22. 2.220 855 n |

ITHACA, NEW YORK.

Cornell Collese 25.2... ccec. esd |

Professor F. E. Loomis......---.-. |

JANESVILLE, WISCONSIN.

GHG BUN noes Soe ee ee
KNOXVILLE, TENNESSEE.
LEXINGTON, KENTUCKY.

Transylvania University..........
Professor J. H. Clarke............

LITTLE ROCK, ARKANSAS.

Governor of the State of Arkansas.
Literary Institute of Arkansas....
State Library
State University ......-.........-

LOUISVILLE, KENTUCKY.

Historical Society of Kentucky...

Municipality. i<..200.. 020. 2gesee
Ttichmond and Louisville Medical

Journal.:..-..-..-.-.. qe eee
University of Louisville..........

LOWVILLE, NEW YORK.
Franklin B. Hough....-.- entero ee
MADISON, WISCONSIN.
Skandinaviske, Presse-Forening.. .

State Historical oe of Wiscon-
sin ofertamiee oe as Heats oS aici

ae eee ce wits easter a Saeieuee

MANCHESTER, NEW HAMPSHIRE,

City Library .:.--.....- pee erase

No. of
packages,

~

=e

a

= hs

pod ject

iat
vo

58 LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC. EXCHANGES.

Packages received from Europe &c.—Continued.

Address.

MARQUETTE, MICHIGAN.
Bishop Ignatius Maak.....-.....--
MARYSVILLE, CALIFORNIA.

Dr Es Le VVAUIN Ses eye s'=-cya' aaa tesa
MEADVILLE, PENNSYLVANIA.

Observatory of Allegheny College- .|
iProtessornlianGleyic® con msec.

MILWAUKEE, WISCONSIN.

No. of
packages.

be eet

German Academy of Natural
SCICENCES! mates ctesec se nece cassie =
epAc psu pHa eho exes ne ticfeieieia'=(s o4ai4

MONTPELIER, VERMONT.

Historical and Antiquarian Society -
State Library, c.cocs scene Ses ans aee

MONTREAL, CANADA.

Entomological Society of Montreal. .
(Geological Survey of Canada. ...--.
Historical Society :22.: 22 2: 5-4-2
KaneistCollemer ta. 100 set ccc elec
McGill: Collecer sie be cee tense

OS ON

—
COU pat fet ed ed

°

Natural History Society .........-.
IB So illan wane ee res oe eS ee sein sarees
DrskeeCarpenter sc. soccies atene
Professor J. W. Dawson. -.-- wissen
Drelasterry sunt. .sesee cose ae see
DIE Werk OCA esos ceases os ears
DrC.smallwoodtecsecoss 22-25 see

NASHUA, NEW HAMPSHIRE.
Dr BK Sbmersonweeeoo oe ee eee
NASHVILLE, TENNESSEE.

Geological Survey of Tennessee. - --
WMI CLBLOY vas aes se ciee or oeteiee eee

NEENAH, WISCONSIN.

Scandinavian Library Association - -
Scandinavian Literary Society. ..--

NEGAUNEE, MICHIGAN.
Major HB Brooks-\. 42 s.8cccee et
NEW BEDFORD, MASSACHUSETTS.
John HeMhomesonweses srs eee soe

NEW BRUNSWICK, NEW JERSEY.

Geological Survey of New Jersey- -.|

ew
Wa

.
~

et be
eH Dw Lt

~

_

eo

Address.

New Brunswick, N.J.—Cont’d.
Rutgers: Oollere =... 5. sssencee
Protessor George H. Cook....-.....
Professor John C. Smock..--......

NEW COELN, WISCONSIN.

APA AB TIEN Rae cjoe rs rece c chee eee

NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT.

American Journal of Science and
EATS eres anes ee eioiots isha ta oicteee eee
American Oriental Society ......--
Connecticut Academy of Arts and
Sclencesieteaneso= Gos e eee eee
Yale Collegveceaassactetecee ee sees
Professor G: J.-Brush.:-2 3: 3.. 2-2+
Professor.J. oD sDananeeeen eee
George Gibbse-=2 so.-- seers
Professor Ey, Wuoomiseee esac eee
Professor: ©. S.Lymanses-seseree
Professor ©:.C. Marshseceoee esas
Professor H. A. Newton..--..,.....
Professor 3; Silliman. o. se eeeeeee
Sidney: J. Smithy assssceee es cee
Professor A. E. Verrill........-...-.

NEW LONDON, CONNECTICUT.
Young Men’s Christian Association -
NEW ORLEANS, LOUISIANA.

Municipality .-- .-.c.-tnteunetee
New Orleans Academy of Natural
SCIENCES |. ick Gee Se eee eee

NEWPORT, RHODE ISLAND.

Mechanics’ Library...22-.2---.- ..

NEWPORT, VERMONT.

| Orleans County Society of Natural

SCIONCES Sone ee cereer ere ieee

NEW YORK, N. Y.

American Bureau of Mines......--

American Christian Commission... -
American Geographical and Statis-
tical (SOcietypeeeetese ce - he- cece
American Institute....-....-- oe
American Journal of Mining...--.
American Museum of Natural His-
LOLS palviatcielesietne = win io/sieincinis see rete
Anthropological Institute of New
Yorkremse ese soca
Astor diuabrary.\...-. oe eee eee
Columbia\ College. 22 22eaaemereee
Cooper;Union<: 4. -see eee eee
Eclectic Medical College........--
Journal gf Psychological Medicine.

No. of
packages.

|

Roe

31

14
50
21
1)
17

5 e
ERE WwOo

<1

LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC EXCHANGES. 59

Packages received from Europe, &e—Continued.

‘Sto | ‘S &
Address. ca i Address. Ce
Ae || Ag
Sy Ss
| ca
New Yors, N. Y.—Continued. | OTTAWA, ILLINOIS.
Lyceum of Natural History........| 72 || Ottawa Academy of Natural Sci-
Medical Gazette.....-...-.--..----. 2 GNCES yea ye es 2 ee eee S
Medical Journal...-. ees see 1
Medical Record...:..-..------.---+- 1 OXFORD, MISSISSIPPI.
Mercantile Library Association .... - 4
Metropolitan Board of Health... --- 2) || fucene: Wakiiloard:.s-. 3.25.2. 3
Microscopical Society.--..----.---- 1
IMENIACAP RULE: o cre arciatsaimaieiareraiciciaietos/= = I PAXTON, ILLINOIS.
New York Academy of Medicine.... 1 || T.N.H ate
2 Reape : | ON. classelquimt!..27.c5-4.- 2oce =e 1
New York Christian Inquirer.-..-. 1 1
New York Historical Society. .-.--.-- 5 : seats
: : : cha PENN YAN, NEW YORK.
Numismatic and Archeological So- | 1 : .
CIOUY) see ti eee alee wiesiece wie cig aime 1 |i ¢ Tee 2
ae | amMuUel Es Wriehtoss.c-s2 os-aee= ‘
School of Mines... ......-<+-+---- fa Bah oe = ;
Secretary of American Prison Asso- | PEORIA, ILLINOIS.
CRE LOY ete tata athe ean oh tay aeta arate LP line
MOCIObY WIDTALy <cacice So sce cease | 9 |) Dri. Brendeél.23..--.-tsg2- 2) eee 1
United States Sanitary Commission. 15
Wintiversibyessc- occ: mee ecto ee-= Seem 3 PHILADELPHIA, PENNSYLVANIA.
Ore Ae annals... hs 1
Professor Baller s5 2-6 occ senses) 1 || Academy of Natural Sciences.... - 144
Mhomas Bland 3238 %52%os tse wos se 1 || American Entomological Society -. 11
Dr. Carrington Bolton ..-.-....-..-- | 2 || American Journal of Conchology-. 4
Professor C. F. Chandler......-.--- 3 | American Pharmaceutical Associa-
Captain J. M. Dow...........---.. | 2 GLO se eee ee ee ee 35
WOM He Drapenc— c= -scm Ss oceb eke ee 3 || American Philosophical Society- -- 103
Protessor DT. Eeleston3. 222-22. 2... | 1 | Boardof Inspectors of County Pris-
PAB TL OM Steere se sc cick asieysicisis wise Sak 5 ONS ae seen ae ss sk ee yee 1
Pe CT rte ceetnn Seo cetanayalocre sx | | Central High School...........---. 3
Captain John Eriesson......-..-..-| 2 | Curator of “Birds, Philade Iphia Mu-
Professor Hermann Filiigel........-- 1 SCUM sce cece ema ae ees eee 1
WreGescneidt soc... son nce-- ste as alle Dental WOsmoOsicss amg ee seine eee 2
enrysGrinnell 2. 222 ices csc so oecie ne 6 || Dental Enquirer... ....:.........-- J
rem Chanles Ovi con. st2ac ase ee ce e| G4) Dental Mines <2. == sees aee aes 2
Dr James ©. Kimball... 2.2.22. 5 | 4 || Franklin Institute: --... 2.226555: 29
Dre. Je KUAPP 6 oa 2 25 sel e es 1 || Historical Society of Pennsylvania 13
Dr. James Knight ..............--- | 1 || Jefferson Medical College .-..-.-.- 2
George N. Lawrence. -....-.-.-.-.-- 5 || Library Company ..-.....-------. 4
Professor 8S. F. B. Morse..........-- 1 || Medical and Surgical Reporter. --- 2
Dir. . NEW DEITY 220.15. 260.5 250 8 | Medical> Times. .....22255--e4seees 6
Wes. C. Nott-.<... ..-..< eer By ss 2 || Mercantile Library ..........-.... 1
Baron R. Ostensacken ..---...----- | 2 || Municipality .---..- cate e oem aa 2
Dr. Martyn Paine..-.......-.....-.-| 2 || North American Medico-Chirurgical
Messrs. Parker & Douglas. Fes 3 ROVIOW csoe 252 see ccs e ee. i
Alfred" Pell: .- =. 2..-.--22..0.--.| 1 || Numismatic and Antiquarian So-
ProfessorA. Poey.....-....5--...-| 2 CLEUI ee ae ee oe ee 1
Professor R. Pumpelly.........----- 5 || Observatory of Girard College... .- 5
Dro Re Wiettaymond...2s..-0.-2..-- | 3 | Pennsylvania Institution for Blind. 1
Professor. O. M. Rood ........---..- 1 || Pennsylvania Society for Preven-
Lewis M. Rutherford ............-- 1 || tion of Cruelty to Animals...--- 1
Ele M. Schiefitin .. Be Rs A ht 19), Publie*schooler.- 5-502... ceoc one 2
Ue Gre SO MCLE ee rs Ness Bec es 4 | Society for Alleviating Miseries of
Piel, TeMamipiee oo). eisai - 2: | 1.) Pablie Prigons--..-.-<- sSeclees 2
a Co iheakener ss earn. 22272 ol o2 0 f: | 1 || Superintendent of State Peniten-
r. John Torrey... ..- He eee See see yt eee 1
eee Vie oe eect. :
Dr. Luther Vosse.:2.:...62 0-2. -<-- | Dh ey 6 Neat ae ieee 1
eae WV INES ies, < Sa. 5s Sane tk ke Le 1 || Wagner Free Institute of Science. . a
| sy > Beadle 4
NORTHAMPTON, MASSACHUSETTS. | bon ee Beat Ag ae ar 9
>: Jeweeree ee ewes eee ec ones
State Lunatic Asylum............. il Tani C Carey .o0.o: acscee 2-2 sess. 6s | 3

60

LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC EXCHANGES.

Packages received from Europe, &e.—Continued.

Address.

PHILADELLPHIA, Pa.—Continued.

MAO USSI: 3. ocean ieee Deena cine
Pliny Hark Chase-cesek ---22iesicae
rb, A. Comnadysaccrecescetiners cee
Professor BH. Di Cope. 2. 9 2<ss25 212:
Dr. Bennett Dowler, 2.--).-s5..2 522%.
Dr. Fs A..Genth.-. =...
USO ALO inc ciaar sch ecee seeks
PPR SSE ALOe sis:0 seins ese sitol sis @ se ee
DriGe A VHOrn vcs Ain~ st osc ete

MIS AAG MICS +.ja'-.02 5 qsieiciias,-eee est
DralinWer Conte: ...2.c<i0. sees ees
Professor J. Leidy
a RGOSLOY esce eee sees ote eee
Jonnson.D. Thandae eects <a
Bs Siyman:. .. 1.5. os2/5-
Ahomas Meehan. )s-ia2 tescl-scrlsccn-
epAne CIOS a.rac tanec eee naratnes see
Web PRaLkens se jo cisco een
Thomas Stewardson, jr....--.-.. .---
GeorrouWeelnyOMayeveale sere silat
Professor, WiaONer.-.ciso-einaeoseecee
Drs Horatio Woods jr is sea. sassecs

PHGENIXVILLE, PENNSYLVANIA.

CharlésiM. Wheatley ~.- <= 2.2 5-522

PITTSFIELD, MASSACHUSETTS,
Wuibrary Association.....0.2.0. 2% 2.
PITTSBURGH, PENNSYLVANIA.
Professor 6.0L. Langley ...2.2c. 5 tic
PORTLAND, MAINE.
Legislature of Maine .-.-.-:.-..7--
Portland Society of Natural His-

BODY, < << c'mon icinielolstaratniavola Se low nek clei
POUGHKEEPSIE, NEW YORK.
Miss Maria Mitchell. .2-..52.-..552%
PRINCETON, NEW JERSEY.
College of New Jersey .----.-..----
Horticultural Society. ..-2-<.2:--:
Pharmaceutical Society. .-..--...---

Professor 8. Alexander.....--....:.
Professor A. Guyot

s
PROVIDENCE, RHODE ISLAND.

AL HeN eM. see oes hos eee
Brow. UWMEVeLSlby sees eee eee
Rhode Island Historical Society - --- -

z
SB &0
Ore
Asx
=

ay
—

1

Re ol

Ne RR OW ©

OM Re Pe

WR RRR OR ww

Address.

No. of
packages.

PROVIDENCE, It. I.—Continued.

Professor An Caswellii2c...22 see 2
DrvbawineViaSnows. 222 Sa ae eee 4

QUEBEC, CANADA.

Legislative Library. .-.......--.-.- 1
Literary and Historical Society .---! wal
ObservatOryece = sos se. eer 2
| Lieutenant E. D. Ashe.....--. ..-- | 1
M. Joly de Lotbiniére--..--..---.-. 1
Abbé Provanche 3-222 cscs. | L
RALEIGH, NORTH CAROLINA.
Professor Wir@; Merriiosesis- see 5
RICHMOND, VIRGINIA.
Historical Society of Virginia. -.-. 1
Stateduibrary: 2222 <enc.- s2.2s¢eeseeis 1
20 SEL Wy DMO! oc evesioee steamers 1
SACRAMENTO, CALIFORNIA.
Dr. Thomas! M. Logan ....-..22-—- 1
SAINT ANTHONY, MINNESOTA.
University of Minnesota......--.-- 1
SAINT JOHN, NEW BRUNSWICK.
Mechanics’ Institute .... .:-:.2.--- 1
Natural History Society .-..---.--- 5
SAINT LOUIS, MISSOURI.

Humboldt Medical College..-. .--- 1
Medical Archives of Saint Louis- --| 1
Medical and Surgical Journal. ---- 4
Missouri Dental Journal. .-..--.---. 3
Municipality ..-------------.----- 1
Public School Library.----- -----.| 1
Saint Louis Academy of Sciences.-| 84
Universityisess-ereeeene ae =e 4
Dr: Lows) Bauers-seo-e=-' as ee 1
Dr. Louis Engelman:..- .. 2... #:--- 1
Wouisa Wan ee eee sce cere os eae 1
Charles V. Riley...--------.-.---- | 2
| MauricesShusterier cc. <-ee taeeees| 1

|

|

SAINT PAUL, MINNESOTA. }
Minnesota Historical Society. -- --- | 6

| Northwestern Medical and Surgi-

cali Journals 2.4.5 .cee nemo 1
JH OOS tase a see ee 7

LITERARY AND

SCIENTIFIC EXCHANGES.

Packages received from Europe, &ce—Continued.

61

a | 2
3 & | ‘3 0
Address. aS Address. | ges
A S A z
SALEM, MASSACHUSETTS. WASHINGTON, D. C.—Continued.
Hissex Institute: j222sssescees osenae 57 || Argentine Legation: -....2..-2 sss: 1
Peabody Academy of Science..-.-.. 40 || Board of Indian Commissioners. .. 1
eI ACK ALC) a[lsesecees n= sali =c.c)-- 21 || Bureau of Navigation............. 7
ee Wiee IPUbM AM 2 Set a.ss ote wele tee Scio 1 || Bureau of Statistics ...........2.. | 38
Wi NV CBU sin sical ccguiies come os oi] WOnStiss BUTEAW onc. a<tnaas veue se | 5
Columbia Institution for the Deat |
SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH. i andl umibscaescee cmseco- esc ~ ee | il
| Commissioner of Agriculture...... | 1
University s-0 a. se Se eateeee 1 || Department of Agriculture See | 148
| Department of Education.....--.. | 2
SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA. | Engineer Bureau ....... eee ee | 6
| General Land-Office...... ........ 9
California Academy of Natural Sci- Government Insane Asylum...--. - 1
SLIGO eee See ene eee 30 || Howard University......-... see t
Mercantile Library Association. ---. 3 || Hydrographic Office.......--..-.. 18
MinIcipality, - 22 oss scc. sacs oes 1 |) Interior Department... --.....-..-. 2
Professor H. N. Bolander......--... 1 || Library of Congress.-.-.....- 26
bees erp OlaQnall its. 6:2 see oda aes 2 | Medical Society of the District of
Wir Ga Cooper. 92+. x2s2 fee en oe 2 ColUm Dias. sc cicecc uc cte Soc 1
Peete GO. SUGARS cases oeee coon eos] Ay) Mumicipality <ascns2 toe eclere .| 1
Navy Department....-.---....... 2
SCHENECTADY, NEW YORK. | National Academy of Science... .... 39
| Ordnance Bureau........----. 2... ie
Professor H. E. Webster -..-----.-. 1 || Secretary of the Navy...--........ 1
lepecretary Of Walks. -<.- .ac<6 222% 4
SING SING, NEW YORK. Nero mel @ fiCGe oat ee eee | 1
| State Department... .:..--..----.. 4
Dra Ge Je MiShen scecce scence neem 3 || Surgeon General’s Office.... ...... 93
| Surv ey of North American Lakes. - 1
SOUTH BETHLEHEM, PENNSYLVANIA. Treasurv Department.... ..---.-- { 2
United States Coast Survey......- 48
Professor A. M. Mayer ......------. 1 | United States Naval Observatory . 75
| | United States Patent-Office..._-. 140
SPRINGFIELD, ILLINOIS. United States Revenue Departinent 1
Tin he TV aace Iz
Geological Survey of Illinois. ...-.. 1 Pees Eee ponte Seats 3
Mllinois State Agricultural Society . Da en oe are cae sae 1
Illinois State University ......._...| i || Young Men’s Christian Association -
Professor A H. Worthen........... 7 || Professor Cleveland Abbe......--. II
General H. L. Abbot.----. ...---- 1
Pre ae ee rs. Co Alexander: 2.2.2 ose i
Bae ae a | Professor 8. F. Baird... --. eee 45
Botanical Society of Toronto. ....-. | WileGaMeBachee- 2.244550 ee eee 1
Canadian Institute ......-.22.-.2.. 15) Dro. M. Bamnister.2.. .25-2. 2.4. | 2
Literary and Historical Socie ligase 1 || General J. G. Barnard .......-...- i
Observatory Se ne ene ae eh ee cei 5 || Professor W. P. Blake......... 3
drmity College.......--. s..s.5--- 1 || Professor J. H. C. Coffin.........-. 2
MEO RS ie ed ea Bhd ee ane oss le tet As Craver meme poe. f oe ae 1
iD. Ke Witter. oe... oon oes ee ane LH WV) oP OD) alle ae yee ne verepee seus one sa 10
CsA WD avASees ite ace es, «oes i
TUSCALOOSA, ALABAMA. | Miss Dorothea Dix...... -........ 1
| General W: H. Emory.... ....-.-- 2
University of Alabama.............! Deb rub Movremane secs cise sa coe ots 2
Wis QMHOLCO ne aeee aeereni eae eos er 1
UTICA, NEW YORK. | General: C) Prémonte- -.-. -- 2.2: 3
| Edw. M. Gallaudet.... -----.----- 1
American Journal of Insanity....-. Si Baten Gerolte <0. 2o25.0~- 7 Saceee 1
MErotessomm be Ollie she so -5-2 ae ee ‘ 38
* WASHINGTON, D. C. [DirBe V.. Rlay en... sock: oncmeeeer 15
| derOtessOr J. ELODTY .o- 5-48) soe te a3 20
American Nautical Almanac Office. . Bil ep Bet UnG 6.2/8 be, 20,a2 cidoceae av scats 2

62 LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC EXCHANGES,

Packages received from Europe, &e.—Continued.

Address. Address.

packages,

No. of

No. of
packages.

ASHINGTON, D. C.—Continued.
RVASHING Came WEST POINT, NEW YORK.

Y SER D2. 5 Soe eee pe tea tn DS 5k || 3 :

Ae | | Professor W. H. C. Bartlett... ..
General A. A. Humphreys-.-.....--- |

JO pls ye see Sane AAA One ae aera cel WILLIAMSBURGH, VIRGINIA.
JoOnGMennediy = ta222-, s<ssaraia sie | |

Adininal Weel seen on-set lsitiecs B scel | Virginia Eastern Lunatic Asylum.
pees Jee. MeChesney-. etic!

F. ae Are Bete ges ee Oe | s WILLIAMSTOWN, MASSACHUSETTS.

Brigadier General A. J. Myers..-.- --

WR WOH WWM HOR Re Re WR Be ww

Professor SNe womb. 525) ste. S2 | Williams College...--..----------
WraCrG Parry: vs 2s50' ssid secs 5 |
MP Oesche . 2 /.-4.522.2 5-8 yssieee eee | | WILMINGTON, DELAWARE,
Wir RHeOse Soh oc faces eee aoe4 28
MamiralaSands<..2-=-2,ceee ee sce vos || Agricultural Society of Wilmington)
Professor G. C. Schaeifer. ......-.. || Wilmington Institute...... -- eect
ORAS Schott: 225-26, Maceo saat e
HenryeUike see. eee ss See ee tn tk tee eo att
iiadatenant Colonel Woodward..-. - Hee OE NON oe an
OPES VOUND Es =a etey fin. eae
Kings Collecese tec ares eee

WATERBURY, CONNECTICUT. |

Brownson Waibrary ss ece oss 1 WORCESTER, MASSACHUSETTS.

WATERVILLE, MAINE. ; : 2 :
; F American Antiquarian Society ---
Waterville College...... .isse62--8 Li Hréee Pablicwbibrany:. soos ese ose.

MotaleadaressessoL aNStitmtlone sh... oe os wt estelarcs 26,% ae oe ea ore wee ere ee eee
MotiulisaAdaresses Or ANALVICUAISe. oo cot fede Seen. beeen De eeee Soars

Total number of parcels tounstitutions.< -2- 3). ..2n. = sacten seme eese ae ean =
Total numberof parcels to dndividualss-22s-\2 2. <2 nc -cte= ==) clo eels la

ie i

LIST OF METEOROLOGICAL STATIONS AND OBSERVERS OF THE

SMITHSO-

NIAN INSTITUTION FOR THE YEAR 1871,

Name of observer.

BRITISH AMERICA.

«

Address.

Olnit Henry Amease. s5sccc i aneee eae ce Harbor Grace, Newfoundland.
NOE Tare yet) Oe ent sPasenorecier to eee note St. John’s, Newfoundland.
reeine: Processor i. Eo. coco cle cose sec Acadia College, Woliville, Nova Scotia.
ONESs Wis WLALOII esccise. pecieawinciceoonsecce Clifton, Ontario.
MTITLO Glin Geeta peer Sie eee eel sees nok Saint John, New Brunswick.
UO WaALb, JAMES st... 2 so eens caso ee Winnipeg, Manitoba.

MEXICO.
PURCOMUS OT MO ey ance oc lceysects teers eer Mirador, Vera Cruz.

ALABAMA,
PMI SOM My tenEL, dupeem ace ery ope eo ee Carlowville, Dallas County.
PNT O MY; (iret Wie ans = rpele oh ani ta ise elas ah clo oe Huntsville, Madison County. :
Fahs, Dr. C., and Miss R. Deans -...---..--| Selma, Dallas County.
MEMMIMCS TY Ot Ke ee ects eco. ciara sae fiarete Coatopa, Sumter County.
Pevers, Dr, Thomas Mic. es.os ssc as cn Moulton, Lawrence County.
ESEUT ES (sea et liecrer rape cei Aare A eel 2 Re Ns 2 Elyton, Jefferson County.
MiG ywalOn gels eee cere oe aa.ce 2s of. .c (Seri Havana, Hale County.
aN ONY ctl cere ota eeote aad eee ee oo c Mobile, Baldwin County.

ALASKA,

Bryant, Charles.

ISOO Delve aes eee re Sao ome cae bier
A COMOn Wiese cen coo es tcc cece eee
Maron, JOSEPH Es a. cess mccues cocci e— lane
McClung, C. L
LOTTE XO 5) Oa ee ee
Wihtte; Charles... -s ... 2. c20..0.220.c.4- 2s

CALIFORNIA.

Ames, Mary E. Pulsifer...... ...... .....-
Barnes, G. W
Bae peti sate tema coe ables ela ds
Canfield, Dr. C, A
RUCHey Oy Whee ona Ss ec ae cic eiecse nase
Compton, Dr. A. J
Naval Hospital -........-2....2-2.-2.--
Whornton, Dro W. W....-.-<:.-----<-

ay
a ed

COLORADO.

Byers, W.N
BerOtG a Clk ce Seg ee Sib ae ais cke eects
Davies, George W....

Merriam, A. M
Nettleton, E. S$

Sitka, Saint Paul Island.

Mineral Springs, Hempstead County.
Clarksville, Johnson County.
Pocahontas, Randolph County.
Fayetteville, Washington County.
Helena, Phillips County.
Washington, Hempstead County.

Indian Valley, Plumas County.
San Diego, San Diego County.
Visalia, Tulare County.
Monterey, Monterey County.
Chico, Butte County.
Watsonville, Santa Cruz County.
Benicia, Solano County.

Cahto, Mendocino County.

Denver, Arapahoe County.

Fountain, El] Paso County.

Golden City, (Jarvis College,) Jefferson
County.

Templeton’s Gap, El Paso County.

Colorado Springs, El Paso County.

64 METEOROLOGICAL STATIONS AND OBSERVERS.

List of meteorological stations and observers for the year 1871—Continued.

Name of observer. | Address.
‘
CONNECTICUT.
t
Alcott, William P.....-.--.-.------------ North Greenwich, Fairfield County.
PMG WS, Li. ate iientesetetem ene = == eae ee Southington, Hartford County.
Rockwell, Charlotter-. .-- + -----. 22-2. =--- Colebrook, Litchfield County.
Ward, H. ‘Ds A., and John Johnston. ...--- Middletown, (Wesleyan University,) Mid-
dlesex County.
Ve omansy Wii Ggirer cite alors oe tere niece elimi Columbia, Tolland County.

DAKOTA.

Dorsey, Rev. J. Owen .2.+--.----- -------- Ponka Agency, Todd County.
DELAWARE.
Bateman, J. Hi ..5-.2 2 .- 22 200s ose e223 Dover, Kent County.
PGMA REL. 2 oe segs Selma = Sei el= nam Milford, Kent County.
FLORIDA
PG WOOO Gu) We cos ce see Sen chiace cece smite Saint Augustine, Saint John’s Couey
Baldwin, Dr. A. S8....-. 22) =-.0--- s2---- -- Jacksonvi ille, Duval County.
SABE PEI Soceisincis ce wiere semieeiee @ mie slain reiniaiae Ocala, Marion County.
Meecher, Rev. C2252 1-25) (eo ccetecints inne Newport, Waculla County.
Chamberlain, Si New -- 2) eee saea-i-te se] Mosquito Inlet, Volusia County.
ON Os Ros eee neces ae stemee.e aejeiteee react New Smnyrna, Volusia County.
Powell, Charles P ss:-.)<5 asset -% oo eis = = Bicalata, Saint John’s County.
Robinson, General G. D...----.---------- .| Pilatka, ‘Pumam County.
‘Mhrallss:Geore ose cepa ren Welborn, Suwanee ( ounty.
White, W. 'P..-.. 2... nee ea nies ce onsen Tampa, Hillsborough County.
GEORGIA
BS aUIKOP sR). =o sec sera e cree tee cine icicas Saint Mary’s, Camden County.
@uther JoOvn ies. demece scenes are Quitman, Brooks County.
ADECCO: Ee, Oo SOU tons cecil an prise cata Atlanta, Fulton County.
MTU er mel Mi, a8 oe ate aietewieielierms eraininiat oe = Berne, Camden County.
HolliheldcoratioN s.25- isees <2 sce cee Sandersville, Washington County.
Nic ClutehenmseAt yee itacie.4cnele ate te eerie Lafayette, Walker County.
SAN TOL poet ey -eestaionse aie cee be tae teste as Pentield, Greene County.
ILLINOIS
INdams; Wi Ele. soem cise eves nie.c [se laein inicio Elmore, Peoria County.
Aldrich, VeLLy -.a- see reese a= wee ac ni Tiskilwa, Bureau County.
owman, Me Biss Joes coe creme eke eoleeint a= si Andalusia, Rock Island County.
Iyrendel; Pi ccc. etnn sole eereeieee om eas a Peoria, Peoria County.
LOO KO8 0 Ses ote selena eee eee Chicago, Cook County.
Garey, Daniel at p< 2/2 ste e= sie loete eto = Rochelle, Ogle County.
@hase;, Dr. D2 v.22 cee ameniainn t= Louisville, Clay County.
Caechrane ad wei sek 5S eee eee eee | Havana, Mason County.
Wadleya Dy ----.2c8 2236 etseew =a Decatur, Macon County.
Duncan, Rev. A.--..-..-.-.--------------| Mount Sterling, Brown County.
Finley, Dr. T :..--.-.----------------"---| Bana, Christian County.
Gramesly;| Chesca oe earic-s geccmnslssem =n on Charleston, Coles County.
Grant, J. and Miss M .......--.-----+----- Manchester, Scott County.
Hearne, ME less ecco ny= sete aman genae Quiney, Adams County.
IOUT) Wis bi esas ania er ==> sinlioe im Sentra _ Mattoon, Coles County.
BPAINGN J) Wiese te se emiaats sme ee ee ae ae er Marengo, McHenry County.
Jozete, Dre Cy. eat saat tole m lovin inject Waterloo, Monroe County.
Langguth, Ji Gee sae ass a. 2 sere Chicago, Cook County.
Livingston, PEOLESSOL WW -pe ee ese es eae Galesburgh, (Lombard University,) Knox
County.
Marcy; Professorj@2-"- ta. aesee = oem == Evanston, (Northwestern University,)

Cook Coynty.

St ——

METEOROLOGICAL STATIONS AND OBSERVERS.

65

List of meteorological stations and observers for the year 1871—Continued.

Name of observer.

ILLinoris—Continued.

Mead, 8. B
IVIOSSSG Seles cersina ce ences ce teniecin ows sie ropetolse
Murray, Peter
Wshorn, Mthanesssst csccceccsccdoodeces =
Patterson; Hi; Neves ccc. saad oot. cseced conc
Phelps, E. 8. and Miss L. E
Putter, A
Spaulding, A., and Mrs. E. D
Spencer, W. C
AVALOS Ey See S o Sc losmicisyse Plate ancl cies anix's

wees tee eee wees
eee e ewe sete ere ecco eee eee ens oe eee
i

INDIANA.

Alden, Thomas E
Andrew, F. G
Applegate, J. A.,
Boerner, C.G
Chappelsmith, J
MOTI IVVin incls arses ceeceese cece Gacc cecs
GTOSICIs At es ccs eee c mele sence ot eee
ACUBUIS, Uies Wi cso caiccaswec ni scea tcc. ctee st
Dawson, W

ee ee ee
eee et tee eee eee eee tee eee eee ewe
i
ee te ee cee mee ee eee eee eee were

WoushMmage; reds Mis Sots sscetstes ato cee
Mallow, T. H
McCoy, Dr. Seand: Migss-soc0c caccctce does
MichTeMinys Bs H)sscclstscitenia a> salcceotaecee
Robertson, R.S
PS DIUGLED MD pai ciate < aerctevaje, 2 siain:aisielaivicyceimal anim «
Sutton, ve See eee eecee es -aee oaict eee

eee eee cee eee wees coe e cose eee

eee eee cote es cee eee core eeee

IOWA.

NG AIMS PETES tcc cisimecisec ciwiewccces <neee.
Ashby, M. V
IBA COCK WH) Sac wan Sa a cvae Saisie = sieare Seuicr wows
IVAN, MTS. JA, ease sivcece Ge sed aotesies
Wollin; Professor Ass is:22. Gdeusencens sect

Dickinson, J. P
TEENS WVOLU Meta) cserscie omica cic sialsy eo stSeiccs.
eS AS be! oss 0s8e~ oc po accel deeels'e loc
FLOR WTA SA <2 15,5. e lois ce stew ealeses
Mansfield, A.A.......-.-.-

eet meee tee eee cee eee et eee ees

Marshall, pe S5P tsa ee ate ss es SIS
McClintock, EF
McCready, D

Maller, I. and) Remi 3 cogese oct otoees oes.
Nelson, Ds Bewteccetis use Saceeee Seo 20s
Parvin, Professor Di Ssssses.ssccce .-tecece
oss, EAS sles. Maa susie 2 cob e,dede ase
Russell, A. M
Boeidon, D.(S jajsedes yore wai euick x5 Sac
Brith, Ruts. o2s'2- cas cesied ctcicitidecicc'e
SCE ACOD Es. o.nae chee esan Sdooes eee
Talbot, Benjamin
Townsend, N

es

weet ete eee ee wes eee ee

Address.

Augusta, Hancock County.
Belvidere, Boone County.

New Manchester, Scott County.
Hennepin, Putnam County.
Oquawka, Henderson County.
Wyanet, Bureau County.
Mattoon, Coles County.
Aurora, Kane County.

Dubois, Washington County.
Warsaw, Hancock County.

Rising Sun, Ohio County.
Laporte, Laporte County.
Mount Carmel, Franklin County.
Vevay, Switzerland County.
New Harmony, Posey County.
Beech Grove, Rush County.
Laconia, Harrison County.
Warsaw, Kosciusko County.
Spiceland, Henry County.
Knightstown, Rush County.
Indianapolis, Marion County.
Livonia, Washington County.
Rensselaer, Jasper County.
Bloomington, (Univ’y,) Monroe County.
Columbia City, Whitley County.
Merom, Sullivan County.

Fort Wayne, Allen County.
Kentland, Newton County.
Aurora, Dearborn County.
Warsaw, Kosciusko County.
Annapolis, Parke Connty.

Ames, Story County.

Afton, Union County.

Boonesborough, Boone County.

Fontanelle, Adair County.

Mount Vernon, Linn County.

Webster City, Hamilton County.

Guttenberg, Clayton County.

Clinton, Clinton County.

Lemars, Plymouth County.

Dubuque, Dubuque County.

Mount Pleasant, (University,) Henry
County.

Cresco, Howard County.

West Union, Fayette County.

Fort Madison, Lee County.

Grant City, Sac County.

Sac City, Sac County.

Iowa City, (University,) Johnson County.

Durant, Cedar County.

West Branch, Cedar County.

Davenport, Scott County.

Monticello, Jones County.

Logan, Harrison County.

Council Bluff, Pottawattomie County.

Towa Falls, Hardin County.

66 METEOROLOGICAL

STATIONS AND OBSERVERS.

List of meteorological stations and observers for the ycar 1871—Continued.

Name of observer.

Address.

Towa—Continued.

Wadey, H
Warne, Dr. G
Warren, J. H
Wheaton, Mrs. D. B
Walter, IDK USSecete sector wlojcleisc i Sec eines we =
Woodworth, §

i

KANSAS.

Adams HIM eSt sos to sina ae wrote Seveeiaetoeete
Beckwith, W
Cotton, J. M
Daniels, P
Fogle, D
Horn, Dr: H.\B.,
Hoskinson, R. M
Ingraham & Hyland
Lamb, Dr. W. M
Mudge, Professor B. F

eee eee wee ee wee te eee wee eee
wee we tee eee eee eee eee ewe eee ces
eee wee we wee ee ee ee tee ew meee eee es
ee ee ee ee
ee
ee ee
Se
ee ee

Parker, J. D
Richardson, sAs! Grasses escyes o- pe eee ease
Shoemaker, J.G
Snow, Professor F. Bu
Stayman, Dri)
Walrad, iD
Walters, Dr. J
Woodworth, A

see ene eee eee meee ee eww ewe
ry
ee ee
ee

wee eee eee ee ee tee we ee owes

KENTUCKY.
BEATLY: Onn ns-scicieteeclocted stele steers ae cate iat
Horr, Edw. W
Martin, Dr. S. D
Shriver, Howard

LOUISIANA.

Cleland, Rev. T. H
@ollins, Hi. 'C2-23:
Foster, Captain R. W
Moore, Dr. Jos. L

i

HMeraaldieMis C2 oh tokebios tee mecc meee
Gardiner, Reskles
Guptill, G. W
Haskell, Willabe
Mayo, ED sere se .cninipcicen=ccecisteconceeee
IMOOnO; VAS pe see cn tebe otsceic ele Soe eee
Moulton: J.vPasscateiecsinss coteioee eee ee
Parker, Jin Dosen ee
Pitman, Edwin
Reynolds, Henry
Smith, TED ee cic ore erento ete ctsciom ars ocr Sere
nippy. Oscar! Hees eae ae pee ae eee oe lee eee
Wentworth, B. C

Rockford, Floyd County.
Independence, Buchanan County.
Algona, Kossuth County.
Independence, Buchanan County.
Woodbine, Harrison County.
Boweu’s Prairie, Jones County.

Williamstown, Jefferson County.

Olathe, Johnson County.

Williamstown, Jefferson County.

Crawfordsville, Crawford County.

Williamsburgh, Franklin County.

Atchison, Atchison County.

Burlingame, Osage County.

Baxter Springs, Cherokee County.

Douglas, Butler County.

Manhattan, (Agricultural College,) Riley
County.

Burlington, Coffey County.

Plum Grove, Butler County.

Leroy, Coffee County.

Lawrence, (Univ’y,) Douglas County.

Leavenworth, Leavenworth County.

Paola, Miami County.

Holton, Jackson County.

Council Grove, Morris County.

Danville, Boyle County,
Blandville, Ballard County.
Pine Grove, Clarke County.
Arcadia, Lincoln County.
Springdale, Jefferson County.

Delhi, Richland Parish.
Ponchatoula, Tangipahoa Parish.
New Orleans, Orleans Parish

| Shreveport, Caddo Parish.

| Montville, Waldo County.

Montville, Waldo County.
Houlton, Aroostook County.
Orono, Penobscot County.
Gardiner, Kennebec County.
Cornish, York County.
Bucksport, Hancock County.
Brewer Village, Penobscot County.
Lisbon, Androscoggin County.
Standish, Cumberland County.
Mount Desert, Hancock County.
Barnard, Piscataquis County.
East Wilton, Franklin County.
Norway, Oxford County.
Surry, Hancock County.
' Montville, Waldo County.

:

METEOROLOGICAL STATIONS AND OBSERVERS.

67

List of meteorological stations and observers for the year 1871—Continued.

Name of observer.

Address.

Matine— Continued.

West, Silas.........
Walllumn Ben si. cesses - 2 oerSen 6 ee see

MARYLAND.

CCUTUISSis Gr Gee eee e ces eile cca tice
Deval DISS WH ees ean sreacle oe 1. erieateaco =
Elliott, J. F
COOMA Veep Lee taarctetat sina cine ies
Manse we Cis besa ate =) oapaiciectsea cles tatecic este
Hanshew, J. K..
Jourdan, Protessor ©. Eic2<2:35 2-<m ciic. 2 -.-

Mc Cormicks JieO sacsteeaSe «cic Se alein de Seine
Naval Hospital. 2 sole scte sieccssjesieteneciers
Shepherd, H. M
pS Tay Oleae ise ligarse care cao? oes ete cte eyaio
Stephenson, Rev. James, and others. ..----.
WallenteyvALex- fo .so82c, coca cease coe cook

MASSACHUSETTS,

BACON Wieaets aaa cree Se cists Sassen aes
Bixby, ain Ee epee eterer te cpeet nots Mel = 62 3 Seana
ald wellgie Heese eco 22 8S aces th
Cunningham, Geore eaves. ins sepie soe Sai
Dewhurst, Rev. E..

Hopkins, Professor A., and Frederic Marcy.

VEG TIGL ATID a ae Asem eran eft ern cies, eee
Metcalf, Dr. J.G
Morrill, D. T., M. Bemis, and D. Ce

INASOMpEILONs Temeeanismermee cme ccicccicseeeee
SN GISOM, GEL. MM sercrereicicaie ye ecicte mai ayaysee Oe cus
Newcomb, G.S8........ -
perry MIs Ss, Elec cn2cee. chan c\cnizinSe.s.nclclee
OGM AMY Sete sae fain ccicnc Seiaw cio es Gaieie nee
Hell ProtessOr HicS .ci-as0-2 asaces fence een
PNCCLO MING Vie At, rep ieca en capecieiacooeane eee
RECT oh Sete tea Roa vnaiione Seiwa neee bs

MICHIGAN,

ullangee Ries. -c iawn Nea eeecinces ou ce cis
HS PDE Wits o-222 28s wace sae h ceca
ELT OOM SEW selers csv nlaleaeie sc tic es c.cScim cares
IolimeseMrgebiar Sic cic. oe tome. tae So een Shae
lowell eee e. sheets to ote oe stents
Kedzie, Professor. C2... 2..+.------

NOY! PEOIESSOR Aah clas) sececs'sesedeess<
Mapes, H. H.--2: Ble esa eta recta < Psiciele ber sicis eras
PEAUUISON. ELA suse sete oe ois c ews ot woes
HERO, Ie Wits shae cate teste esc wade ies
SOU NCC Ee) NG ta ae re ed
Southworth, Bal WP ye eta eg a
Streng, L. Bic ed Reto misn ee sa ote:
Dee By fo. ates tae eee suse Ss

Cornish, York County.
West Waterville, Kennebee County.

Fallston, Harford County.
San’s Cree sk, Carroll County.

Saint Inigoes, Saint Mary’s ‘County.
Annapolis, Anne Arundel County.
Linwod, Carroll County.

Frederick, Frederick County.

Emmittsburgh, (Mount Saint Mary’s Col-
lege,) F rederick County.

Ww oodlawn, Cecil County.

Annapolis, ‘Anne Arundel County.

Ellicott City, Howard County.

Cumberland, Alleghany County.

Saint Inigoes, Saint Mary’s Counts

Woodstoe "k, (College,) Baltimore County.

Richmond, Berkshire County.

West Newton, Middlesex County.

Newburyport, Essex County.

Lunenburg, Worcester County.

Hinsdale, Berkshire County.

Lawrence, Essex County.

Hoosae Tunnel, Berkshire County.

New Bedford, Bristol County.

Williamstow ny (Williams College,) Berk-
shire County.

Topsfield, Essex County.

Mendon, Worcester County.

W orcester, (Lunatic Hospital,) Worcester
County.

North Billerica, Middlesex County.

Georgetown, Essex County.

Kingston, Plymouth County.

Cambridge, Middlesex County.

New Bedford, Bristol County.

Amherst, (College,) Hampshire County.

Milton, Norfolk County.

New Bedford, Bristol County,

Litchfield, Litchfield County.
Ontonagon, Outonagon County.
Detroit, Wayne County...
Grand Rapids, Kent County.
Macon, Lenawee County.
Lansing, (Agricultura] College,) Ingham
County
Olivet, (College, ) Eaton County.
Kalamazoo, Kalamazoo County.
Muskegon, Muskegon County.
Alpena, Alpena County.
Northport, Leelenau County.
Coldwater, Branch County.
Grand Rapids, Kent County.
Battle Creek, Calhoun County.

68

METEOROLOGICAL STATIONS AND OBSERVERS.

List of meteorological stations and observers for the year 1871—Continued.

Name of observer.

Address.

MicuicaN—Continued.
Whelpley, Miss H., and Thomas .-.--.-.---
Whittledey;:S! ij. 5e 2s Saceineie si eeyseels
WASOD) AW sce ceeeesesicinis mica oceieee ie cisimice
Winchell, Professor;jand Mrs: JN. Hi... .2-

MINNESOTA.

Cheney; Walliamee ence soe score cee e
McMahon nor wi se oe cts ccsaremcetsne erie
PAaKOrsOM PEN Ao ete sateen see cena eee

Gos e@harlesae =a et secloscmee eee see eieeeys
Wids worth Wei ecccs cameseeeee oe seer
Witeland" Cee eee eae snncincicts sajsite c= ciate sie
IVVALINGOES* de Wren eaicete aie seis celaisicate sisleyaie
Woodbury; /C. Wieand C. Bie ssc oo.
Moune. TM <= ete ie eter ecto niee aaa

MISSISSIPPI.

BOW COM Wit Ancetn ioc ys/a0 ceeimeie las cre =" olan
Colemanw hes ceckesoeos saree eee seee
Mlorer WO rp wWisecteisy aces tesa cisoe seas
VaACkSODs hn Sse eo cesete es ceeosee eae eeiscc
Jennings Wrasse soesc sasece tec eerecor
Keenan, (MOSS Welch seiciviele sane enn nine
Lull, James S., and John F. Tarrant
: Payne, John s Rs Mate srasaeleie mace cet fae
Robinson; GV a ee cace oon eacn eee ehaeroe

MISSOURI.

1a IES diseBocciosboomnScomcdecroHsrsesae
Coltrane, T. W
IDG AYA IN 6 edlegusseaneuppood.ceaceaseesas
Hendler AM ee as ocia cision efexecleinte aieVemis\ai a= =
TVALEISMVWy clues clo ns Selden sleeiseinametes
JONES NOspiyee ee nee setnosinie seiere cio eeaetols
Kaucher sw ilitaimnces cle aee see sqcsleatos ee
Miantin; HHOLkeG eee otalseicies -yetaiet atneniell(\ sa
MeCord, Re Hi ccs pee nee ssn = ann
Ruggles,
AUIS DULY. a Os Wise steloeiseteieretsateietae eleleie itor
Smith, John M..
Stuntebec k, Rev. ¥. ., and A. Av erbeck..

MONTANA.

Goddard, E. N..-.-.. -
Minesinger, J Mo 5s. sobiectnceee Sok cheer
Stuart, Gramville'.- s., 5235-5 .s2-- So aatinn s

NEBRASKA.

Caldwell, Mrs7 Be pBit gasc0<-ij- 2. .saunee ee
Dunn, Walliam®: <2 cesses in cistais 0} oat orators
Hamilton, RevssWreee = 4s sete tee oe eine
Selitz, Charles <sj-testes i Goreterice weenie esas
Smith, 1b. Hi... 3529 fans, 25 atk eee
roman, GeorgeiS. sisctelets tee oaiaiee te Salm
AAMC Piso cnc secon} cetiewes, Sut we eeciecice

Monroe, Monroe County.

Copper Falls, Keweenaw County.
Benzonia, Benzie County.

Ann Arbor, Washtenaw County.

Minneapolis, Hennepin County.
Leech Lake, Cass County.
Saint Paul, Ramsey County.
Sylvan Park, Becker County.
Afton, Washington County.
New Ulm, Brown County.
Litchtield, Meeker County.
Beaver Bay, Lake County.
Beaver, Winona County.
Sibley, Sibley County.
Koniska, McLeod County.

Philadelphla, Neshoba County.
Holly Springs, Marshall County.
Marion, Lauderdale County.
Clinton, (College,) Hinds County.
Baldwin, Lee County.
Brookhaven, Lawrence County.
Columbus, Lowndes County.
Grenada, Yalabusha County.
Enterprise, Jasper County.

Nevada, Vernon County.

Cave Spring, Greene County.

Jefferson City, Cole County.

Allenton, Saint Louis County.

Mount Vernon, Lawrence County.

Keytesville, Chariton County.

Oregon, Holt County.

Corning, Holt County.

Willard, Greene County.

Rolla, Phelps County.

Kansas City, Jackson County.

Hematite, Jefferson County.

Saint Louis, (University,) Saint Louis
County.

Virginia City, Madison Connty.
Missoula, Missoula County.
Deer Lodge City, Deer Lodge County.

Bellevue, Sarpy County.

Emerson, Otoe County.

Omaha Agency, Burt County.

De Soto, Washington County.

New Castle, Dixon County.

Santee Agency, L’Eau qui Court County.
Nebraska | City, Otoe County.

METEOROLOGICAL STATIONS AND OBSERVERS. 69

List of meteorological stations and observers for the year 1871—Continued.
Name of observer. Address.

NEW HAMPSHIRE.

brewster, Aliredeaeectiasceste) sos sesSaeee Tamworth, Carroll County.

Brown, Branch 2 2o)escn, wesc scoces csccecce Stratford, Coos County.

Colby, cAlireds-sees ses 24 co 2-2 aecsee ..| Gottstown Center, Hillsborough County.
Couch, ih: Dae dae sere sece s ce sate eete ce Contoocookville, Merrimack County.
PUUNUIN CON, otic a .as) 2a.046/<c Seen se a Hanover, Coos County.

Hurlin, Reve W o2.cn20.2 s2e65-0<2--5-5--) SOUth Antrim, Hillsborough County.
TKaddery Ei: Deaeeeess sees voscee cise.) Whitetield, Coos County.
OCG Se setae eee eis ee se ae ise ees Shelburne, Coos County.

NEW JERSEY.

Beans, Thomas J......-....---.----------| Moorestown, Burlington County.
Brooks, William ......-..- -.-.--.-----..-| Paterson, Passaic County.

Chandler Wr, Werdlsc sete io nase eee South Orange, Essex County.
OOK EMR so seictex. ojo Sh ok Se aie area; Trenton, Mercer County.
BlSmiIn gs, Jie sic sac state.ate cbse seisese es sesiae Readington, Hunterdon County.
Gtvelehly (Nga es eek a ein ae eee oe ons Atco, Camden County.

Howard, Thomas DT, jr... si2-cescece oes Jersey City, Hudson County.
pore POT Dae sa. ele ae antes cee Vineland, Cumberland County.
INOUE AS Bi Sareea mine <.on) isin eee New Germantown, Hunterdon County.
geulom ery gMITS sce) oy hw en ere aye a tos re. eee Rio Grande, Cape May County.
Ree retayay Elen Goa Se ai tee a (ete, tees oeea tt Solem eyes Allowaystown, Salem County.
pheppard, MissiRiC. 2.22251. .-<cesc sees Greenwich, Cumberland County.
Whitehead Wil o23scc ose css ener decue. Newark, Essex County.

NEW YORK.

ACA Cem Was eR eemmee ee eeien ta Hector, Schuyler County.

ALDTON SE, and WOVE; oO. Gieaeacs) Ses cieee Jamestown, Chautanqua County.
ACen pene ae ieee eee esos ee ool Garrisons, Suonam County.
BANTET OC) Cltg eh ears Sa eaten epee ee, tte coe Angelica, Allegany County.

Daler, Gilbert db) s52ce ste So cscreccrcttnc omc Himrods, Yates County.

Barrett, A. J..--2.- Bat ea eto Seino nialoiei Sey orate Lowville, Lewis County.

Barrows, CaptaimsS.soccecigcs ne cacene onan South Trenton, Oneida County.
IBALULO UME ae Bee esaten. oe ee ome cesese St Vermillion, Oswego County.
Brownell, Wit Ave. soe seis -otese seccue-s~-| Fairfield, Herkimer County.
Bussing, JW, and D. Sics..2.- <scsc055-- Minaville, Montgomery County.
Olarkey BU Wh.e-m405 aaere Soe ote oe om aaesie Lockport, Niagara County.
Cooley, Professor J. S......... .-..--- ---.| Fort Edward, Washington County.
Edwards, D.......-........ -------------| Little Genesee, Allegany County.
Candinert Jetheteeadas'- sansa s a6 nS cny eis. Newburgh, Orange County.
Godttrays MabPetert sq dims t ese 8 hoes. os Carlton, Orleans County.

ETON MMe pee See ie yen lal tro acre ciahfooie te Depauville, Jefferson County.
Himcwenvord. WG, Piso. patoweaattcckcecls Rochester, Monroe County.
HWeIMBiTeet, JNO, Wesecs wacces oc coee ase Troy, Rensselaer County.
Hendincks. Ds Bei .0 fe ocues tue cceecence Kingston, Ulster County.

ROW OU tice: Bo Soc ois 6:Siels oiaterarmr necro arene Nichols, Tioga County.

Les ub os CG ANY [eC ea ee ee North Argyle, Washington County.
IngalsvenG@ eee 2s wo uacd mic scene cd Sone South Hartford, Washington County.
UTiSh RG Vem Walle isos = ose ro) sie 6 troeen ae cw Lowville, Lewis County.

ViGS.s Wire een ec Butfalo, Erie County.

Jones, W. Martine. 5.2. .ccc2s ccc ce cee oe. Suspension Bridge.

Johnsons REVISo Wee.s coc. coe sce cece eco ss Newark Valley, Tioga County.
Ieese iG: bests seraisieas Ssose coe eeebice 3 Cooperstown, Otsego County.

Thee, Weslio A. Sol5 204 82.2 s2e sss <----«--| Canton, Saint. Lawrence County,
NYG heed ed Barapa eR Flatbush, Kings County.

IMAL Ort, IP Res ss SI os hm spice ara Brooklyn, Kings County.

Maleolm, W. 8 .-2....:2.-.----..---.-----| Oswego, Oswego County.

70

METEOROLOGICAL STATIONS AND OBSERVERS.

List of meteorological stations and observers for the year 1871—Continued.

Name of observer.

New YorK—Continued.

MeNutt, Randolphiscecerrciss. <1 siete ce
Merritt, Jno. (C.5 jlsssescisecicj= + 3
Miller; J: Dewatteecere seis. ees isciton cise
Morris; Missi tere cme ciisciscionecttiosicsees
Morris, Professor) On Wiss: scste =o cee siciciee
Naval ELospiballtyaecien tents) )5 crest cil sateeree
Partrick} JpyMisa vices sochccretboctcse nce
ROG; SanfordsWrs see. oi-'-\snicieisin sweeten es
Russell eee ciciaac.ce iene cise secre eeierecee
DAWVOD Git sac ccinccctest cose esceeeouceee
Smith, E. A., and daughters.... ..--. nee
Soule MProfessor W qn cicic cine wisi assieeeme eeies
Spooner OryS cee ssaee wera cisieie sa cemecicioce
ROW PTIA ES; Dee ca tcleic sjeiciscise's/eieisioers sia
Willis, O. R., and daughters...... .....-.+
Wooster, C. A..... sabre eusleeteoisistetaheces
ale WialteriD) tects stose sicatectetielciiemione
Young, J.

NORTH CAROLINA.

‘Adams: ProfessOnsh. Wi dccic o:< ste = eteci-l-m cies
ANTISON (Uh. Wests eo ee Seer pa ctete wears seieteictersrcl
AIS CONS ME GiWatick scjemstem cic ote wisteiemintericisteresl=
‘Austin, Robert E22 soc sqchscccssmssete
Beall SR Pieris ce tne Sateinac tots cieteniosia
IBGULON tA Avs sic cies sctsieoe, civisioiic. eiceeeie icicle
GRECNE ele asin ictee tt wineneni- nee powenimoeaete
Famna (Georg ous cic: a stcicms'ceis o5 <ie,e.eies'si=
VAT GLY; Tle hs Bice yo teicisinievera cloroteia she/he
A ATTEL M OA: ieee ne oe ate eee et rer eloto erate
EM CKS; (Dr. Woe tees otisicinnic.s iste cate sielecinss
HLOWanrd.)S,, cAjesatsindtec Som ameiiehe teieeieke Lee
Karon tha) csccc= acacia cesJtecescisiscscee
Lawrence, G.
Murdochs Wakls= clon cvctee.tec atic c snie ereeie
INOrHeet host cetectscccclsemecciscemeioese
sherwood; Jmoy Me. 26 <.<5.<'oni sasdeles getcisat

OHIO.

Ballantine, W
Barringer, W
Bineman, Ll. J. anchor ples emcee cet
Boras, (O%.o2 2
Clarke, J
CranesG. Wiisccoushe ese eemieetyee eaters
Doyle Joseph) Bi j24(s- 3.3. eeas eae ee eae
UMN KS es ode Se epee ele cten see erento
HOTVISS PE) icyatre Meio S oloaw es etoceceei cect
Hammitt, Jno. W
HaNpP erin Ge OWis sic .ct apes cstaweimeacewsl Steere
Maywood, Protesson Ji. ccc-.secemeeneeeee
RLOLLI GK Wee sm >, wis joes) comin ee we emelesenees
Hunting donyiGa Ci rand.D. Kosta eeece
HElyidesG: As Severe el istorii ny thee iainteyateem tote
Irwin, Dr. A.
Marsh, Mrs: M. Miseect coos s-c-+ semceer
Mathews; J. McDeceo. scree onesieeeeee
Mefarland, Professor R. W
McCune, Dr. James... x
Morton, Dr. (George. secs cancicenc =e tesine

Se en ee er

Address.

Warrensburgh, Warren County.
Farmingdale, Queens County.

Fort Edward, Washington County.

| Throg’s Neck, Westchester County.

| New York, New York County.

New York, New York County.

North Volney, Oswego County.
Middleburgh, Schoharie County.
Gouverneur, Saint Lawrence County.
Fairfield, Herkimer County.

Moriches, Suffolk County.

Cazenovia, (Seminary,) Madison County.
Oneida, Madison County.

Waterburgh, Tompkins County.

White Plains, Westchester County.
North Hammond, Saint Lawrence County.
Houseville, Lewis County.

West Day, Saratoga County.

Goldsborough, Wayne County.
Statesville, Iredell County.
Asheville, Buncombe County.
Tarborough, Edgecombe County.
Lenoir, Caldwell County.
Edenton, Chowan County
Bakersville, Mitchell County.
Charlotte, (Mint,) Mecklenburgh County.
Asheville, Buncombe County.
Weldon, Halifax County

Oxford, Granville County.
Greensborough, Guilford County.
Albemarle, Stanley County.
Fayetteville, Cumberland County.
Raleigh, Wake County.
Tarborough, Edgecombe County.
Fayettev ille, Cumberland County.

Sago, Muskingum County.
Bellefontaine, “Logan County.
Pennsville, Morgan County.

North Fairtie ‘ld, “Huron County.
Bowling Green, Wood County.
Bethel, Clermont County.
Steubenville, Jefferson County.
Gambier, Knox County.
Painsville, Lake County.

College Hill, Hamilton ‘County.
Cincinnati, Hamilton County.
Westerville, (Univ’y,) Franklin County.
Oberlin, Lorain County.

Kelley’s Island, Erie County.
Cleveland, Cuyahoga County.
Farmer, Defiance County.

Ripley, Huron County.
Hillsborough, Highland County.
Oxford, (Miami Univ’y,) Butler County,
Mount Gilead, Morrow County.
North Bass Island, Ottawa County.

METEOROLOGICAL STATIONS AND OBSERVERS.

iw

List of meteorological stations and observers for the year 1871—Continued.

Name of observer.

Address.

Oxn1o—Continued.

Miiller, Dr. R
NOU eH OM aS ee eee ete ne ee ae era
WS Oya Tec ete te leat ee ellsimraiaictonaistare <'—
Petten ger. 1 MCh ee ce ac cwcieiwiecin == <2 -
Beha i ss hvan Cee eee erie ee ts dokenie eae
WPOWOGK REV Wine noe eleciseeiewnc sor coe oe
Rodgers, Alexander P...-... s.s-0s ve-0s2--
SAWP DLV el eemieetaciel sae a =o senate cleieiein =
Shields Ise cee = esse ce es aselee seins
Shreve, C. R., and Martha
DMG My Oop desea ase lee sis comin isece eo =
Dintthy Ars Crijeess cs cosc we ccwe san. oss

UU elle CaeAteee eee We teas a tee a sent
PRhompson whe. Do 22a se ccicwiciccsoec cece
BRM OT glee A re esiare 2 oie erence argo srotsisicra toerore
White, J. H

AWalllkaimSOnsrewhcre.c se cins acre ee creneie meres
Walliams; Professor Mi G..2s.ce.--s-- 52.
IVVAIROT eta alee cre oioets aeece seca cisies ao

OREGON.

Oxer, H. A., and J.S
Pearce, Thomas
Wilson, Louis

PENNSYLVANIA.

Albree, C. and George
IBGMUIG Ya tin gl wena tan tame ietercic.s tate cam sea
Black, Samuel A
Cook, Dr. W. H
Corson, M. H
Cummings, J
UUTUIS SPA Wie > So crcte incre aace agodee ae ne FG
Darlinoton), Losses scicc o<s- 3 s-02 sist 2s
Day, Theodore
eichiteBb pecs sisson occas aclass.ceee fs
GMOS Ey ena cis choi = ware Sie lsvsiecialve ced) Seysin oe ete
Grathwohl, John
TAM CO yp eee septs eae ecseia sae ees eae ee
NOLL emeriaje cae e coat neater enc
OMe Wri alice cee, coe Stsecice. 1 oie cvansie- cis
MD DAs rs vALeN 55. 608 oeaceea.cas cca k
James, Professor C. 8S
PGHOGISMIW iy Alsce nae. ce case on, vo chace scecyencle
Kirkpatrick, J. A
Kohler, E

wees eee eee ete eee ee ee

ee
Se
Se ee

eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee

er
ee
ee i ee ey

MarsdenOmrsvelsosctentooctscu eee seccice oe
Martin, Dr, George
McConnell, E.M.
Meehan, T te ree eee oe esa! San
Naval Hospital
Packard, D. P
IRECLOT AD ee ae eee setae ae ses be ie tienis
Raser, J. Heyl
PISO EG oats arene tere encore eretaict cle ealcsnne
SMUD DI. Wo eceees aaades See? ei Tees ©
Spencer, Miss Anna

es

Carthagena, Mercer County.
Sandusky, Erie County.
Jacksonburgh, Butler County.
Berea, Cuyahoga County.
Cincinnati, Hamilton County.
Salem, Columbiana County.

Gallipolis, Gallia County.

Savannah, Ashland County.

Cincinnati, Hamilton County.

Martin’s Ferry, Belmont County.

Hudson, Summit County.

Kenton, Hardin County.

Adams’ Mills, Muskingum County.

New Birmingham, Guernsey County.

Marion, Marion County.

Cincinnati, (Mount Auburn Ladies’ Insti-
tute,) Hamilton County.

Williamsport, Pickaway County.

Urbana, (University,) Champaign County.

Wooster, Wayne County.

Portland, Multnomah County.
Eola, Polk County.
Astoria, Clatsop County.

| Pittsburgh, Allegheny County.

Tioga, Tioga County.
Harrisburgh, Dauphin County.
Carlisle, Cumberland County.
Plymouth Meeting, Montgomery County.
Tarentum, Alleghany County.
Cc atawissa, Schuylkill County.
Parkersville, Chester County.
Dyberry, Wayue County.
Alleghany City, Alleghany County.
Grampian Hilis, Clearfield County.
Byee s, Pike County.

Fallsington, Buck’s County.
Hazleton, Luzerne County.
Mount Joy, Lancaster County.
Brownsville, Fayette County.
Lewisburgh, Union County.
Westchester, Chester County.
Philadelphia, Philadelphia County.
Egypt, Lehigh County.
Mount Roe ky Cumberland County.
Ephrata, Lancaster County.
York Sulphur Springs, Adams County.
| West C hester, Chester County.

| New Castle, Lawrence County.
| Germantown, Philadelphia County.
| Philadelphia, Philadelphia County.

--| Greenville, Mercer County.

Johnstown, Cambria County.

teading, Berks County.

Factoryville, Luzerne County.
Cannonsburg, (Col.,) Washington County.
' Horsham, Montgomery County.

19

a METEOROLOGICAL STATIONS AND OBSERVERS.

List of meteorological stations and observers for the year 1871—Continued,

Name of observer.

PENNSYLV ANIA—Continued.

SOT, Wis ELS oo eae alee neateer sete elo or entet

Stocker J. Di scce heme eee seater tome
Soup ide Mia, ce ateeiae eee ence ce meee
Maylor, Johns seeweeee seeeeeces ns or serie
MRavlor; TeV. Uberbyeer «alert letolss --/oie elztekeete =
Molman, Rev. Mis Ave <perciehniana\-iv ose eleisi>
MTN OL, Chitose teers sence em seieienicl=eeietesieteie
Walker WSC Mesa at. tints/dcjo te Steinsterseiee rer

RHODE ISLAND.

Barbermwepaccac= sacelbeewesimacs seer

SOUTH CAROLINIA.

Gornish Revi Jcebcect ceecocosseeciaicbetcin te
Gibbon; ardnekyjene 2 J- estes sista sa see - =
Retiy, Chanlesit=specesiecies --1= oreeiee ae eee

TENNESSEE.

iBaneroLe, Reve ©. dibs tcjcces ceisre eieteee
Callvoun ePesb eeesmecieeaccm sss cee eiee es
MODI ASS IS nase Wisorenineteciaieisehe- ici eee
uraniklin gOrs Wrekin sts ecm ter stosres smile
Grigsby, William “soe en cena cies aeceen-
Nee wis; @ saHu. a areeeientcte lace oe iste cise
avn PELOLeSSOl Jai Kel scioinicietw oie ie esse teem
Stewart, Professor W .<<2<.-2-.-- -cese~--

BVM NOD, ele e aici relate nie tapeio ele eiele) ote = ieta = |

FAI OELSON VON. j0 6 Ho s/ cee cele we Saisie tere
BAX COR WMUSSeBie eas cs cree cfejeete Sm rane eteramets
MD AVIS PATMNUE) pee yee we ataiow lo = ele aleve teleleleinee
DICUSAMN) iJ soo see setae n telas aisfawnie aeeekionees
KR ASCOs ey Mita alates pisicicis = leven ier eiefojaeioicintoss
LEA tO, Mi set setohe csietae steel o cis eiesl sieiaee
eon, GeOLeeuN weccce cece onic ecleeiee
Miartin: ANON cmpc cree seteiers ele eleh inicio siefoiniois
OUubersen, JE esc tesaisee ocr neeee Soe
IMIPSON; EY aciew ree co eileem times = eesieiae
Vianie Nostrand (J) avn <scteeteletolsee eels seeeee

BGS. occ. ee ee eee
White, Dr. A. C

MB aM OC KK waters sichs.c k's bis ae Sete ee ee
Ford, A. C., and Charles Vieweg- ..-- -- mete

VERMONT.

Barto, D. Cand Wipbicnse. cee seecieeces
Cuvune HS AC cea peeeeene see ace cae eer
Maton: iH., andi Ae were s se seer sees
Gilmour, A. H. J
Kennedy, J. C

Address.

Ephrata, Lancaster County.
Hamlintown, Wayne County.
Greensburgh, Westmoreland County.
Connellsville, Fayette County.
Beaver, Beaver County.

Franklin, Venango County.
Germantown, Philadelphia County.
Fountaindale, Adams County.

Newport, Newport County.

Aiken, Barnwell County.
Hacienda Saluda, Greenville County.
Gowdeysville, Union County.

Lookout Mountain, Hamilton County.
Austin, Wilson County.

Greeneville, Greene County.
Lagrange, Fayette County.

Trenton, Gibson County.
Elizabethtown, Carter County.
Knoxville, (University,) Knox County.

County.
Clearmont, Warren County.

Clarksville, Red River County.
Houston, Harris County.

Deloraine, Hunt County.

Blutf, Fayette County.

Gilmer, Upshur County.

Lavaca, Calhoun County.

Clear Creek Station, Galveston County.
Clarksville, Red River County.

San Antonio, Bexar County.

Oakland, Texas County.

Travis County.
Sand Fly, Burleson County.

| Clinton, De Witt County.

| Coalville, Sammit County.

Camp Douglas, Salt Lake County.
Harrisburgh, Washington County.
Salt Lake City, Salt Lake County.

Panton, Addison County.
Lunenburgh, Essex County.
Woodstock, Windsor County.
Saint Albans, Franklin County.
South Troy, Orleans County.

Clarksville,(Stewart College,)Montgomery

Austin, (Institution for Deaf and Dumb,)

i ee

METEOROLOGICAL STATIONS AND OBSERVERS.

9°
Jv

7

List of meteorological stations and observers for the year 1871—Continued.

Name of observer.

Address.

VERMONT— Continued.

Paine, C.S
helps! Samuel Bre Sees. cei oe msc -
Robinson, Geo. W
Wild, Rev. E. P
Williams, Rev. R. G

ewe eee oe ee eee eet eee e sees
i
ee ee es

Wing, Minerva E

o>)

VIRGINIA.

ION Ce tener eta aot aeeelss alee csc ae
IBOwmaniGs Avsoaecescneccaeses Bete Sa ae
Brown, Rev. James A
Campbell, Professor J. L
Chamberlin, Mrs. 8. E
Clarke, Dr. James T, and Miss Bell Clarke.
AC ONC eres Cheer iret = = pene
Gillingham, C
Horne, Captain D. B
Jones B. W
Martin, W. A
Meriwether, C. J
Moore, C. Rk
Naval Hospital
Payne, D
Robey, Randolph
Sherman, J. M
Tayloe, E. T
Thrift, Miss L. R
Townsend, Emma C
Williams, F
Williams, H. C

ee ee ry
eee reece rene ceoseee

ee

eee eee ee ee ee wee ee eee eee eee oe
ee
ee ee
eer eer cece ee ewes we ee eee we ewe
wet ee ee mee ewe eee ew eee ew wees
tee tee we ee tee eee we we ee ee eee eee
eee eee eee eee eee eee ee ee wee
wees tet eee coe ees coe er eee eee eee eee
eee eee coe eee wees eee we ooee
wee eee te wee ew eee eee ee ee ee owes
ee er
=e Pewee teeters teste we ee ee ee
ee ee ee
ee er ey

WASHINGTON TERRITORY.

McCall, C
Sampson, Alex. M
Whitcomb, Thomas M

ec te ee et ce wm eee ee ee ee ee eee eee wee
ee

WEST VIRGINIA.

Owen, Benjamin
Rofte, C.. L

WISCONSIN.

BeICMMG ONGC Or. ound pak stiecjac oles aah. 22
IBYCGC Melireplperrner hapsicts Sc) Neto) 2 Seon cy5 Sie ethos
WUTUISM VER Witte oe clceenc ers Saees calscee acc
Daniells, Professor W. W
De Lyser, John
Wuncams Jlrs se, soe s.ccnccels cee nea le=c
Foye, Professor J. C
Wanphams, TAC MUD) eo cccic cosas once cen
Liips, Jacob and Miss C
CAC et. Cp sain oa nateieee tesa Se «= cove ce 3
MW Danoghoe;, Js 54 coe ceca hetsasea dec ceca
Pegler, Rev. G.
HINGS SE ee. so cie ae lee Neia nse aca

East Bethel, Windsor County.

Norwich, Windsor County.

Mount Anthony, Beunington County.

Craftsbury, Orleans County.

Castleton, (Normal School,) Rutland
County.

| Charlotte, Chittenden County.

Zuni Station, Isle of Wight County.
Vienna, Fairfax County.

Wytheville, Wythe County.
Lexington, Rockbridge County.
Waterford, Loudon County.

Mount Solon, Augusta County.
Staunton, Augusta County.

Mount Vernon Township, Fairfax County,
Cedar Hill, Albemarle County.
Bacon’s Castle, Surry County.
Piedmont Station, Fanquier County.
Lynchburgh, Bedford County.
Johnsontown, Northampton County.
Norfolk, Norfolk County.

Markham Station, Fauquier County.
Vienna, Fairfax County.

Hampton, Elizabeth City County.
Comorn, King George County.
Fairfax Court-House, Fairfax County.
Capeville, Northampton County.
Piedmont, Fauquier County.
Vienna, Fairfax County.

Cathlamet, Wahkiakum County,
Port Angelos, Clallam County.
Union Ridge, Clarke County.

Weston, Lewis County.
Cabell C. H., Cabell County.

Beloit, Rock County.

Embarras, Waupaca County.
Rocky Run, Columbia County.
Madison, (University,) Dane County.
Hingham, Sheboygan County.
New Lisbon, Juneau County.
Appleton, Outagamie County.
Milwaukee, Milwaukee County.
Manitowoc, Manitowoc County
Waupaca, Waupaca County.
Mosinee, Marathon County.
Tunnel City, Monroe County.
Edgerton, Rock County.

74 METEOROLOGICAL STATIONS AND OBSERVERS.

List of meteorological stations and observers for the year 1871—Continued.

Name of observer. Address,
Spauldin oy). sss. ease meee e paisa Wautoma, Waushara County.
MateeAndrow sos. cece cas seeeateere cesses Bayfield, Bayfield County.
Wisite; MC sete saeeeeeerisceac. + seme cee Baraboo, Sauk County.
Whi bin oI Werkivcoesmemeste ate = te ee eieete = Geneva, Wabash County.
Wirlo hb Avie Sete sites scl ints slfeclereee Sturgeon Bay, Door County.

WYOMING TERRITORY.

Pierce, Dieses c Uae cscies seco eeecee Laramie City, Albany County.

METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL. 15

ADDITIONAL METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL RECEIVED IN
1871 AND KEPT IN THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

Albree, G., Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.—Record of weather and indica-
tions.

Andrews, Luman, Southington, Connecticut.—Chart of auroras seen
October 14, 1870.

Ballou, Nahum E., Sandwich, Illinois.—Monthly abstracts of tempera-
ture and rain-fall observations.

Annual abstract for 1871.

Barnard, A. D., San Buenaventura, California.—Account of northern
light seen June 17, 1871.

Barnes, G. W., San Diego, California.—Notes of observations made on
a trip to the mountains.

Barraud, A. L., Pacquette’s Ferry, Lowa.—Observations of tempera-
ture and state of weather at 7 a. m., 12 m., and 8 p. m.

Bissey, Charles E., Iowa State Agricultural College, Ames, Iowa.—Ac-
count of aurora seen June 17.

Bland, T., New York.—Meteorological observations in Barbadoes
October, 1871.

Boerner, Charles G., Vevay, Indiana.—Observations of August shower
of meteors.

Branly, E. H., Amesville, Ohio.— Account of weather and crops.

Bryant, A. F., Fontanelle, Towa.—Account of wind-storm.

Buchner, H. F., Muco, Creek Nation.—Thermometrie observations for
1861 and 1871 at 7 a. m., 2 and 7 p. m.

Burras, O., North Fairfield, Ohio.—Account of the great tornado of
July 16.

Busby, D. Benjamin, Pomaria, South Carolina.—Report of observations
of wind and rain-fall, for November, 1871.

Carlton, A. Y., Stoutville, Camden County, Missouri.icRegister of tem-
perature and direction of wind from November 13 to November 30,
S71.

Central Park, New York.—Weekly abstract of barometric and thermo-
metric observations at 7 a. m.,2 p. m., and 9 p. m., and of the direction,
force, and velocity of wind, and amount of cloud and rain.

Chase, Pliny E.—Monthly and annual rain-curves at Lisbon.

Chazaro, M. M., San Juan.—Observaciones meteorologicas en Octobre,
1S7h.

Clarke, John.—W eather predictions for August.

Clemson, Thomas G.—Climate of South Carolina.

Cochrane, J.—Account of tornado near Mason City.

Cockrell, Thomas J., Natchez, Mississippi.—Daily record of height of
barometer and thermometer, 6 a. m., 12 m., and 6 p. m., and direction
of wind. (Newspaper slips.)

76 METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL.

Cunningham, G. A., Lunenburgh, Massachusetts——Monthly rain-table
from 1841 to 1868 and monthly means of temperature from 1838 to 1868.

Curle, T. J—Observations in support of theory that anvil-shaped
clouds always indicate rain.

Davison, C. B., Wayland, Michigan—W eather report.

Doton, Hosea, Woodstock, Vermont.—Sketch of mountains around
Killington, Vermont.

Edwards, Daniel, Little Genesee, New York.—Account of the weather
during August.

Engineers, Battalion of, Willet’s Point, New York Harbor.—Horary
curves—barometer, thermometer, psychrometer.

Ewing, Charles G., San Francisco, California.—Monthly report of
barometric, thermometric, psychrometric, and rain-fall observations at
8.30 a.m. (Newspaper slips.)

Table showing quantities of rain falling in each month from 1865 to
1870.

Fogle, D., Williamsburgh, Kansas.—Observations of temperature and
rain-fall, 7 a. m., 2 and 9 p. m.

Foster, R. W., New Orleans, Louisiana.—W eather notes for Greenville,
during October, 1869.

Gatchell, H. T. F.—Climate of Colorado Springs.

Gleason, William, Arion, Maine.—Meteorological record for July,
(temperature and wind observations at noon.)

Grady, B. F., Jr.—Condensed meteorological observations for August.

Grant, W. T.—Diagram of thermometrical observations.

Green, H, A., Atco, New Jersey.—Register of observations of tempera-
ture at Atco, New Jersey, May, 1871. Thermometric observations from
November, 1870, to March, 1871.

Greethurst, Joseph, Enterprise—Monthly report of weather and crops.

Hannah, S. W., Washburn, Missouri.—Report of rain-fall in March,
April, and May.

Higgins, F. W., Detroit, Michigan.—Table showing highest and
lowest range of the thermometer, mean monthly temperature, highest
and lowest daily mean in each month, amount of rain and melted snow,
monthly mean of cloudiness, prevailing winds, &e., at Woodmere Cem-
etery, near Detroit, Michigan, during the year 1871.

Howard, Thomas T., Jr., Jersey City, New Jersey.—General remarks to
accompany meteorological reports.

Quarterly report of meteorogical observations at Jersey City, New
Jersey.

Synopsis of meteorological register.

Hyland, W., Cherokee County, Kansas.—Monthly weather report.

Hough, G. W.—Description of automatic registering and printing ba-
rometer.

Jackson, George L., Vandalia, Illinois.—Account of cold.

James, J. W., Riley, [llinois—Summary of meteorological observ ations
for the year 1871.

METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL. 77

Jewell, J. G., M. D., Consul at Singapore.—Copy of Sarawak Gazette
containing report of temperature and rain-fall on the Quop estate in
Sarawak for 1870.

Keutgen, C., Jr., Staten Island, New York.—Meteorological observa-
ions, for the year 1871.

Synopses of meteorological observations.

King, Thomas D., Montreal, Canada.—Monthly register of thermom-
etric and barometric observations.

King, William, Newton Falls, Ohio—Temperature observations at 7 a.
m., 2 and 9 p. m., and diagram of same.

Langguth, J. G., Jr., Chicago, Illinois —Account of hail-storm.

Lapham, I. A., Milwaukee, Wisconsin.—Dates of closing and opening
of Milwaukee River from 1836 to 1871, and account of Wisconsin
meteoric iron. (Newspaper slip.)

Leoni, George N., Clear Lake, Galveston County, Texas.—Result of
meteorological observations for July, 1871.

Lewis, George H., Atlantic, Wyoming Territory.—Mouthly report of tem-
perature and rain-fall.

Logan, Thomas M., Santa Barbara.—Temperature, vital statistics, &c.,
of Santa Barbara, (‘Santa Barbara as a sanitarium,” in Scientific Press.)

Mailler, I. P., Brooklyn, New York.—Account of the earthquake on
June 19, 1871, (newspaper extract.)

Mapes, Henry H., Oshtomo, Michigan.—Monthly weather notes.

Martin, Allen.—Meteorological observations for July, 1871.

McCall, C., Olympia.—Account of rain-storm.

McCord, R. H., Springfield, Missouri—Acount of rain-storm June 5,
1871.

Mills, George.—“ How it feels to be struck by lightning.”

Moss, G. B., Belvidere, Illinois—Monthly abstracts of register.

Abstract of register for the years 1868, 1869, 1870, 1871.

Mueller, Dr. R., Carthagena, Ohio—Monthly record of casual phenom-
ena, &c. Appendix to register.

Noll, Arthur B., New Germantown, New Jersey.—Monthly reports of
range of barometer.

Odell, Fletcher, Gorham, New Hampshire-—Weather notes from April
to October, 1871.

Owen, Benjamin, Weston, Lewis County, West Virginia.—Monthly ob-
servations of temperature at 7 a. m., 2 p. m., and 9 p. m.

Palmer, Dr. E.—Scrap-book containing meteorological observations
for points in Nebraska.

Pastorelli & Co.—Description of storm rain-gauge, designed by G. J.
Symons, for observation of rate of fall.

Patterson, A. B., Saint Paul, Minnesota.—Monthly meteorological notes
(newspaper slip.)

Payne, John K., Knoxville, Tennessee.—Account of weather and crops,
July and August, 1871.

78 METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL.

Peelor, D., Johnstown, Pennsylvania.—Table giving temperature of the
earth at depth of 1 foot, from April, 1869, to April, 1871, inclusive.

Pettersen, Fred., San Antonio, Texas.—Diagram representing the
relative frequency of the different winds, according to observations
made during three years.

Mean temperature and rain-fall at San Antonio de Bexar, 1868, 1869,
1870, 1871.

Platt, Luciano, San Salvador.—Observaciones meteorologicas hechas
en el laboratorio de la faculdad de medecina de San Salvador durante
la semana nona de 1871. Semana segunda.

Poole, Henry, Glace Bay, Cape Breton, Nova Scotia.—Meteorological
register kept during the years 1867, 1868, 1869, 1870, 1871.

Redding, Thomas B., Newcastle, Indiana.—Account of aurora seen
June 18.

Reed, Lyman, New York.—Lunar monthly weather predictions.

Sartwell, H. P., Penn Yan, New York.—Register of meteorological
observations. (Prepared for Yates County Whig.)

Seltz, Charles, De Soto, Nebraska.—Account of storm of July 28, 1871.
(Newspaper slip.)

Account of rain-storm in Omaha.

Shepherd, Smiley, Hennepin, Illinois—Monthly abstract of thermome-
tric observations.

Signal-Office, Washington, D. C.—Daily weather maps, 7.35 a.m.; daily
weather bulletins, 4.35 p. m.

Barograms for November, 1871.

Sisson, Rodman, Abington, Pennsylvania.—Account of a violent hail
and wind storm, and account of a terrible tornado at Hopbottom, July
9, 1872.

Account of auroral display of October 16, 1871.

Table showing mean temperature of each year from 1864 to 1870,
inclusive.

Slade, Elisha, Somerset, Massachusetts.—Monthly report of observa-
tions of maximum, minimum, and mean temperature, direction of wind,
and state of weather.

Mean temperature third and fourth quarters 1871.

Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C—Diagrams from recording
barometer and thermometer.

Snow, F. H., Lawrence, Kansas—Summary of meteorological observa-
tions for the year 1871.

Barometric, thermometric, and psychrometric observations, 7 a. m., 2
p. m., 9p. m.; direction of wind, amount of rain, force of vapor, &c.

Stephenson, James, Saint Inigoes, Maryland.—Weather notes for April,
1871.

Steineman, U., Eckhart Mine, Alleghany County, Maryland.—Rain-fall
observations, 1864 to 1868, inclusive.

Sutton, FE. H.—Diagram of meteorological observations.

METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL. 79

Sternberg, George M.—Description of improved anemometer.

Tayloe, Edward.—W eather report.

Tennent, Thomas, San Francisco, California.—Rain-fall for parts of
1849-1850.

Truman, George S., Santee Agency, Nebraska.—Monthly report of tem-
perature, direction of wind, and state of weather.

Diagrams of parhelia, November 22, 1871.

Turner, Ernest, Germantown, Pennsyivania.—Effect of lightning in
West Philadelphia during storm of July 11, 1871.

Wadsworth, H. L., Litchfield, Minnesota.—Diagram of halo seen from
Litchfield, December 27, at 9. p. m.

Walton, F. P., Muscatine, Iowa.—Condensed report for 1871.

Webb, John G., Little Sarasta, Southern Florida.—N otes on two cyclones
in August, 1871.

Whitcomb, Thomas M., Union Ridge, Clarke County, Washington Ter-
ritory.—Aurora observed July 21, 1871.

White, J. H., Cincinnati, Ohio.—Summary of meteorological observa-
tions for the year 1571, made at the Mount Auburn Young Ladies’
Institute. |

Whitehead, W. A., Newark, New Jersey.—Yearly meteorological report
for 1871.

Wilbur, Benjamin F., West Waterville, Maine.—Rain-fall in August,
1ST:

Williams, H. C., Vienna, Virginia.—Synopsis of observations made
by Franklin Williams, of Piedmont, Fauquier County, Virginia.

Williams, R. G., Castleton, Vermont.—Diagrams exhibiting compari-
son of Mason’s and Boehlen’s and Staehlen’s hygrometers.

Wing, Minerva E., West Charlotte, Vermont.—Account of sunrise-phe-
nomena.

Record of periodic phenomena at West Charlotte, Vermont.

Weekly meteorological records, (newspaper-slips.)

— Witter, D. K., Woodbine, Iowa.—Account of the weather.
| Wright, 7. W. A.—Rain-table and remarks on climate for a portion of
San Joaquin Valley, California.

80 METEOROLOGICAL ARTICLES.

METEOROLOGICAL ARTICLES RECEIVED BY THE INSTITU-
TION AND DEPOSITED IN THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS,

1871.
AURORAS.

Aurore boréale et autres phénomeénes météorologiques observés en
Piémont le 3 janvier 1870.

Aurora polare osservata in Piemonte nel 5 Aprile 1870. P. Fran-
cesco Denza.

Le aurore boreali e la loro origine cosmica. Professor G. B. Donati.

Auroral belt of October 24, 25, 1870.. American Journal of Science
and Art, vol. i, pp. 73, 126.

Aurore boréale du 9 novembre. Observations faites 4 Brest, par M.
Tarry. Comptes-rendus hebdomadaires des séances de Vacadémie
des sciences, tome Ixviii, No. 21.

Aurores boréales observées 4 Venddme en 1870. E.Renon. Comptes-
rendus hebdomadaires des séances de V’académie des sciences, tome
Ixxii, No. 10.

Observations on the variation of the magnetic declination in connec-
tion with the aurora of October 14, 1870, by Alfred M. Mayer. Ameri-
can Journal of Science and Art, vol. i, p. 77.

Observations sur les relations qui existent entre les apparitions des
aurores boréales et les variations de température. Ch. Sainte Claire De-
ville. Comptes-rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l’académie des
sciences, tome Ixxii, No. 13.

Recent auroral displays in the United States. American Journal of
Science and Art, vol. i, p. 309.

Relation of auroras to gravitation-currents, by Pliny E. Chase. Amer-
ican Journal of Science and Art, vol. ii, p. 3511.

Sur les aurores boréales des 9, 18 et 23 avril vues en Italie. L. P.
Denza. Comptes-rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l’académie des
sciences, tome Ixxiii, No. 1.

Sur V’aurore boréale du 9 avril 1861, observée & Angers. A. Cheux.
Comptes-rendus hebdomadaires des séances de ’académie des sciences,
tome Ixii, No. 24.

Sur Vaurore boréale observée en Italie le 12 février 1871. P. Denza.
Comptes-rendus hebdomadaires des séances de ’académie des sciences,
tome Ixxii, No. 15.

Note concernant une aurore boréale et divers autres phénoménes mé-
téorologiques observés en Piémont Je 19 juillet 1869. Mémoires de
Vacadémie des sciences de Vinstitut de France, tome Ixx.

EARTHQUAKES.

Earthquake in New Jersey, Delaware, &c. American Journal of Sci-
ence and Art, vol. ii, p. 388.

METEOROLOGICAL ARTICLES. Sl]

On the supposed earthquake-wave, by Mr. Ellery. Transactions and
proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria, vol. ix.

Osservatione sul terremoto del 26 Agosto 1869 pel’ Palmieri. MRen-
diconti dell’ academia delle scienze fisiche e matematiche, Sept. 1869.

Aleuni osservazioni in proposito de terremoti di sannicandro. Ren-
diconti dell’ academia delle scienze fisiche e matematiche, Sept. 1869.
Palmieri.

Tremblement de terre & Douai le 25 janvier 1867. Bulletin agricole
de Varrondissement de Douai, années 1866—67—68~'69,

Note sur les tremblements de terre en 1868, avec suppléments pour les
années antérieures. Alexis Perrey.

Sur les tremblemeuts de terre et les éruptions voleanigues dans l’ar-
chipel Hawaien en 1868. Par M. Alexis Perrey.

Los ecos de una tempestad seismica. WVargasia. Boletin de ciencias
fisicas y naturales de Caracas, No. 5, 1868. <A. Rojos.

ELECTRICITY.

Notice sur la production successive d’éclairs identiques, aux mémes
lieux de Vatmospheére, pendant Vorage du 2 juillet 1871, par M. Mon-
tigny. Bulletin de Vacadémie royale des sciences, des lettres et des
beaux arts de Belgique, No. 8.

Mémoire sur lorigine céleste de Vélectricité atmosphérique. Comptes-
rendus hebdomadaires des séances de Vacadémie des sciences, tome
ixxi, No. 23.

FORESTS, INFLUENCE OF, ON CLIMATES.

Annual report and transactions of the Adelaide Philosophical Society
for the year ending September 30, 1871. Dr. Schomburgh.

De la température de Vair hors bois et sous bois. Des quantités
@eau tombées prés et loin des bois. Par MM. Becquerel et fils. Mé-
moires de V’académie des sciences de Vinstitut de France, tome xxxv. |

GENERAL METEOROLOGY.

Suggestions on a uniform system of meteorological observations.
Utrecht, 1872.

American weather-notes. Pliny E. Chase. American Journal of Sci-
ence and Art, vol. ii, p. 68.

Symptoémes du temps, déterminés par l’étude des régions supérieures
de Vatmosphére. Comptes-rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'aca-
démie des sciences, tome lxxii, No. 13.

Zeitschrift der dsterreichischen Gesellschaft fiir Meteorologie. Redi-
girt von Dr. C. Jelinek und Dr. J. Hahn. Wien, 1879.

Fisica del globo. G. Boccardo. Geneva, 1868.

Verschiedene gesammelte Notizen. Hagenback. Verhand!ungen der
naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Basel, fiinfter Theil, drittes Hett.

Repertorium fiir Meteorologie. Herausgegeben von der kaiserlichen
Akademie der Wissenschaften. Band ii, Heft i.

68 71

82 METEOROLOGICAL ARTICLES.

Sur la loi d’évolution similaire des phénoménes météorologiques. <A,
Poéy. Comptes-rendus hebdomadaires des séances de Vacadémie des
sciences, tome Ixxiii, No. 14.

HAIL.

Salzhagel vom St. Gotthard. Vierteljahrsschrift der naturforschen-
den Gesellschaft in Ziirich.

Sur la gréle tombée le 22 mai 1870, par M. Trecul. Mémoires de
Pacadémie des sciences de Vinstitut de France, tome Ixx.

Mémoire sur les zones @orages 4 gréle dans les départements d’Eure-
et-Loir et Loir-et-Cher. Mémoires de ’académie des sciences de Vinstitut
impérial de France, tome xxxv.

La bourrasque du 11 juillet et les orages 4 gréle dans Vest de la France.
Guyot. Comptes-rendus hebdomadaires des séances de Vacadémie des
sciences, tome Ixxiii, No. 5.

HALOS.

Halo lunaire vu de deux stations différentes. W. De Fonvielle. Comp-
tes-rendus hebdomadaires des séaneces de V’académie des sciences, tome
Ixxti, No. 9.

Unusual exhibition of halos. American Journal of Science and Art,
vol. i, p. 150.

INSTRUMENTS.

A barometer without mercury. Journal of the Franklin Institute,
vol. 62, p. 81.

Notes on aneroid-barometers and on a method of obtaining their errors.
Ellery. Transactions and proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria,
VOL, 1X.

“Tide-gauge for cold climates. American Journal of Science and Art,
vol. li, p. 67. J. M. Batchelder.

Description @’un météorographe enregistreur, construit pour Yobser-
vatoire @Upsal. Dr. A.G. Theorell.

Ueber die Leistungen eines an der k. k. Centralanstalt fiir Meteo-
rologie befindlichen registrirenden Thermometers. Von Dr. C. Jelinek.

Ein Barometer ohne Quecksilber. Aus der Natur, neue Folge, 46. Band.

Formel fiir barometrische H6henmessung. Verhandlungen der natur-
forschenden Gesellschaft in Basel, fiinfter Theil, drittes Heft.

Fiillung von Barometerréhren ohne Kochen. Aus der Natur, neue
Folge, 46. Band.

Ueber eine Methode zur Fiilhung der Barometerréhren. Archiv der
Mathematik und Physik, dreiundfiinfzigster Theil, viertes Heft.

Descrizioni dell’ igrotermografo del R. osservatorio di Modena del Prof.
Domenico Ragona: Annuario della societa dei naturalisti in Modena,
anno V.

Seat aie

METEOROLOGICAL ARTICLES. a

On a new instrument for recording minute variations of atmospheric
pressure. Whitehouse Wildman. Proceedings of the Royal Society,
vol. xix, No. 129.

LOCAL METEOROLOGY.
EUROPE.
AUSTRIA.

Zeitschrift der 6sterreichischen Gesellschaft fiir Meteorologie. Redi-
girt von Dr. C. Jelinek und Dr. J. Hahn. Wien, 1870, 1871.

Materyaly do klimatografil galicyi zebrane przéz sekcye meteorolo-
giezna komisgi fizyografiezny nauk Krakow kok 1870. C.K. Towarzetwa.

Ueber die tagliche und jibrliche Periode der relativen Feuchtigkeit,
Wien, Sitzungsberichte der kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften.
Oct. 1870. Woiittek.

BELGIUM.

Observations des phénomenes périodiques pendant Vannée 1869.
(Extrait du tome xxix des Mémoires de Vacadémie royale de Belgique.)
Annales météorologiques de Vobservatoire royal de Bruxelles, par A.
Quetelet, 1869.
; DENMARK.

Aarsberething fra det kongelige Landhusholdningselskabs meteo-
rologiske Komite for 1868 and 1869.

ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND.

London.— Quarterly weather-reports of the Meteorological Office, April
to September, 1870.

Remarks on the weather during the quarter ending June 30, 1871, by
James Glaisher.

Proceedings of the Meteorological Society, June, 1871.

Oxford.—Results of astronomical and meteorological observations at
Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford, for the year 1868, by Robert Main. Ox-
ford, 1871.

Brighton.—The climate of Brighton, by Samuel Barker, Edwin Row-
ley, and Fredk. Ernest Sawyer. (Reprinted from the Brighton Daily
News, June, 1871.)

Cornwall.—Meteorological notes for 1870. Journa! of the Royal Insti-
tution of Cornwall, April, 1871.

Scotland.—Journal of the Scottish Meteorological Society, with tables,
1871.

er

FRANCE.

Note sur le service météorologique de ’observatoire de Paris. Comp-
_ tes-rendus hebdomadaires des séances de académie des sciences, tome
Ixxii, No. 8. Delaunay.
Note sur Vhiver de 1870-71. Comptes-rendus hebdomadaires des
séances de Vacadémie des sciences, tome Ixxii, No. 10.

84 METEOROLOGICAL ARTICLES.

Sur le froid du 9 décembre 1871. Comptes-rendus hebdomadaires
des séances de l’académie des sciences, tome Ixxiii, No. 24.

Sur les froids de décembre 1871. Comptes-rendus hebdomadaires
des séances de ’académie des sciences, tome Ixxiii, No. 25.

Des retours périodiques de certains phénoménes en mai, aotit et no-
vembre 1868, février 1869. Mémoires de Vacadémie des sciences de
Vinstitut de France, tome xxxv. Ch. Sainte Claire Deville.

Observations sur le froid de 9 décembre en divers points de la France.
Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de Vacadémie des sciences,
tome Ixxiii, No. 25.

Observations sur “les relations qui existent entre les apparitions des
aurores boréales et les variations de température. Comptes-rendus heb-
domadaires des séances de Vacadémie des sciences, tome Ixxti, No. 13.

Sur la précocité du froid en 1871. Comptes-rendus hebdomadaires
des séances de Vacadémie des sciences, tome Ixxii, No. 24.

Sur le froid de décembre 1870, et sur la période des grands hivers
signalée, par M. Renon. Comptes-rendus hebdomadaires des séances
de ’académie des sciences, tome Ixxii, No. 1.

Sur les caractéres de Vhiver 1870-71, et sur la comparaison de la tem-
pérature moyenne & Vobservatoire de Paris et & Vobservatoire météo-
rologique central de Montsouris. Comptes-rendus hebdomadaires des
séances de l’académie des sciences, tome Ixxii, No. 13.

Sur les froids du 18 mai et des premiers jours de juin. Comptes-ren-
dus hebdomadaires des séances.de lacadémie des sciences, tome 1xxii,
No. 23.

Balan.—Odservations météorologiques faites par M. Doumet, jan.—juin
1869. Annales de la societé Vhorticulture d’Allier, tome cinquiéme.

Colmar.—Observations météorologiques faites a Vécole normale de
Colmar pendant année 1869. Relevé dressé par M. Ambruster. Bulle-
tin de la société d’histoire naturelle de Colmar, 1870.

Paris.—Bulletin météorologique de l’observatoire de Paris. Comptes-
rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l’académie des sciences, tome 1xii,
No. 6.

The same. Tome l]xxiii, Nos. 1, 6,10, 14, 18, 19, 22.

Annuaire de la société météorologique de France, 1868.

Montpellier.—L’hiver de 187071 dans le Jardin des plantes de Mont-
pellier. Ch. Martins. Comptes-rendus hebdomadaires des séances de
lacadémie des sciences, tome Ixxii, No. 18.

Montsouris.—Bulletin de Vobservatoire central de Montsouris. June
to December, 1870, and 1871 complete.

Nouvelles météorologiques. Publiées sous les auspices de la société
météorologique de France et de Vobservatoire météorologique central
de Montsouris. Oct. Nov. Dee. 1870.

Le Mans.—Observatious météorologiques, par D. Bonhomet. Bulletin
de la société Vagriculture, sciences et arts.

Tours.—Observations météorologiques faites par M. De Tastes. An-

METEOROLOGICAL ARTICLES. SD

nales de la société d’agriculture, sciences, arts et belles-lettres du dé-
partement d’Indre-et-Loire.

Observations météorologiques des mois @aotit et septembre. Annales
de la société Vagriculture, sciences, arts et belles-lettres du département
d’Indre-et-Loire. Cent-dixiéme année, tome 1.

Alsace.—Essais sur le climat de l’Alsace et des Vosges. Chas. Grad.

‘Bulletin de Ja société Whistoire naturelle de Colmar, 1870.

Introduction & Vétude météorologique de l’Alsace, par G. A. Hirn.
Bulletin de la société Vhistoire naturelle de Colmar, 1870.

Lyons.—Commission météorologique de Lyon, 1869, 26° année.

Douai.—Observations météorologiques, par M. Offret. Mémoires de
la société impériale @agriculture, de sciences et darts, scant & Douai,
deuxieme série, tome ix, 1866-67.

Etudes de météorologie. Mémoires de la société impériale Wagri-
culture, de sciences et darts, séant a Douai, deuxiéme série, tome viii,
1865-'65.

RKenon.—Sur les caractéres de Vhiver 1870, 1871. Comptes-rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de Pacadémie des sciences, tome Ixxii, No. 25.

Salicis.—Sur un phénomeéne météorologique observe & Houlgate (pres
Dives) le 7 sept. 1871. Comptes-rendus hebdomadaires des séances de
Vacadémie des sciences, tome Ixxiii, No. 11.

GERMANY.

Resultate aus den meteorologischen Beobachtungen angestellt an den
fiinfundzwanzig kéniglich-siichsischen Stationen im Jahre 1868 und 1869.
Bearbeitet von Dr. C. Brubns, Dresden.

Meteorologische Beobachtungen angestellt auf der Leipziger Stern-
warte im Jabre 1870. Zehnter Jahresbericht des Vereins von Freunden
der Erdkunde zu Leipzig, 1870. C. Bruhns.

Diirkheim.—Meteorologische Station zu Diirkheim. xxviii. und xxix.
Jahresbericht der Pollichia.

Rostock.—Meteorologische Beobachtungen. Festschrift fiir die 44.
Versammlung deutscher Naturforscher und Aerzte, Rostock, 1871.

Meissen.—Zusammenstellung der Monats- und Jahresmittel aus den
zu Meissen im Jahre 1871 angestellten tiiglich dreimaligen meteorolo-
gischen Beobachtungen.

Posen.—Das Klima von Posen. Resultate der meteorologischen Beo-
bachtungen auf der kdéniglich-meteorologischen station zu Posen in den
Jahren 1848 bis 1865. Dr. Albert Magener. Posen, 1868.

Ueber die tigliche und jiihrliche Periode der relativen Feuchtigkeit
in Wien. Wittek. Aus dem Ixii. Bde. d. Sitzb. d. k. Akad. d. Wissen-
sch., ii. Abth., Oct.-Heft, Jahrg. 1870.

Gorlite.—Meteorologische Beobachtungen vom 1. Dec. 1866 bis 30.
Nov. 1870, von R. Peck. Abhandlungen der naturforschenden Gesell-
schaft zu Gorlitz, vierzehnter Band.

Leipzig.—Meteorologische Beobachtungen angestelit auf der Leipziger

86 METEOROLOGICAL ARTICLES. 7

Sternwarte im Jahre 1870, von C. Bruhns. Zehnter Jahresbericht des
Vereins von Freunden der Erdkunde.

ITALY.

Milan.—Osservazioni meteorologiche. Effemeridi astronomiche di
Milano per Vanno 1871. Publicate dal direttore del reale osservatorio
di Brera.

Modena.—Meteorografia del’ autonno 1869 in Modena del Ing. Anni-
bale Ricco. Annuario della societa dei naturalisti in Modena, anno v.

Moncalieri—Bulletino meteorologico dell’ osservatorio del real collegio

Jarlo Alberto, vol. ili, 1867-68.

The same. 1869-70.

Naples.—Specola reale di Napoli a 149™°t sul mare osservatione meteo-
riche fatte dal astronomo assistente, T. Briosch. Rendiconti dell acade- ©
mia delle scienze fisiche e matematiche.

Palermo.—Bulletino meteorologico del R. osservatorio di Palermo. G.
Jacciatore.

Padova.—Meteorologia Italia, delle leggi del clima di Padova. Fran-
cesco Zantedeschi. Commentari dell’ ataneo di Brescia per gli anni 1865,
1866, 1867.

Turin.—Bulletino meteorologico ed astronomico del regio osservatorio
delli universita di Torino, 1869.

Osservazioni meteorologiche di Decembre 1871. Rendiconti reale isti-
tuto Lombardo di scienze e lettere, vol. iv, p. 779.

Ancona.—Meteorologia anconitana dal 1 Dec. 1863 al 30 Noy. 1868.
IF. De Bosis.

Sulla organizzioni del servizio meteorologico nei porti di mare del
regno d'Italia.

NETHERLANDS.

Nederlandsch met. Jaarboek voor 1869, utgegeven door het koninklijk
nederlandsch meteorologische Instituut. [2 vols.] Utrecht, 1870.

NORWAY.

Mémoire sur les orages en Norvége, par M. Mohn. Mémoires de
‘académie des sciences de institut de France :
Vacadémie des es de l’institut de France, tome xxxv
servations des orages en Norvége pend: année 9, par M.
Observations des ges en N ge pendant Vannée 1869, par M
in. smoires de Vacadémie des sciences insti ‘ance
Mohn. Mé as de Vacadémie des sciences de Vinstitut de France,
tome Ixx.
PORTUGAL.

Lisbon.—Annaes do observatorio do Infante a Luiz, 1865, 766, 67, 68,
69, and 770. ;
RUSSIA.

Annales de l’observatoire physique central de Russie. Publi¢ées par
H. Wild. Années 1867 et 1868.

METEOROLOGICAL ARTICLES. 87

Dorpat.—Meteorologische Beobachtungen angestellt in Dorpat im
Jahre 1866-1870.

St. Petersburg.—Jahresbericht des physikalischen Centralobgervato-
riums fiir 1870. Von H. Wild.

Repertorium fiir Meteorologie. Herausgegeben von der kaiserlichen
Akademie der Wissenschaften. Redigirt von Dr. H. Wild. Band ii,
Heft i.

Moscow.—Observations météorologiques faites & Vinstitut des arpen-
teurs de Moscou par J. Weinberg, juillet & décembre 1870. Bulletin de
la société impériale des naturalistes de Moscou, 1871.

SPAIN.

Madrid.—Observaciones meteorologicas efectuadas en el observatorio

de Madrid, Dec. 1867-Nov. 1868. Madrid, 1869.

Resumen de las observaciones meteorologicas efectuadas en el penin-
sula, Dec. 1866. Madrid, 1869. Dec. 1867—Nov. 1868. Madrid, 1870

SWEDEN.

Upsal.— Bulletin meteorologique mensuel de Pobservatoire de Puniver-
sité d’Upsal, vol. i, 1-5; vol. ii, 1-6, 7-12; vol. iii, 1-6.

SWITZERLAND.

Schweitzerische meteorologische Beobachtungen. Deec., 1869; Jan.,
Feb., Aug., Sept., Dec., 1870; Jan., Feb., March, June, July, 1871.

Neuchdtel.—_Résumé ae observations Seioraiber aes faites & Neu-
chatel dans le 18™ siecle, de Vannée 1760 a 1800. Bulletin de la société
des sciences naturelles de Neuchatel, tome ix, premier cahier. Ch. Kopp.

NORTH AMERICA.
CANADA.

Toronto Magnetic Observatory.—General Meteorological Register for
1870.

Meteorological tables for Toronté. Canadian Journal of Science, Lit-
erature and History.

Le naturaliste canadien.

NOVA SCOTIA.

Halifax.—Diurnal and annual variations of temperature at Halifax,
Nova Scotia, from bi-hourly observations by T. Allison, M. A., during
the three years 186769. G.T. Kingston. Canadian Journal of Sei-
ence, Literature and History, May, 1871.

UNITED STATES.

Lower California.—‘La Baja California.” Observaciones meteorologicas
hechas en el puerto de La Paz por José Fidel, Pujol socio corresponsal

88 METEOROLOGICAL ARTICLES.

de las sociedades di geographica y estadistica y historiea natural. Jan-
uary to December, 1870.

District of Columbia, Washington.—Astronomical and meteorological
observations, United States Naval Observatory.

Georgia, climatology—Health and profit as found in the hilly pine-
region of Georgia and South Carolina. §. EH. Habersham, M. D.

Maine, Orono.—Meteorological register for 1870. M. C. Fernald.

teport of the College of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts, Orono,
Maine.

South Carolina.—Aiken, by Amory Coffin, M. D., and W. H. Ged-
dings, M. D.

New York.—Report of the director of the meteorological observatory.
First annual report of the board of commissioners of the department
of public parks.

Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.—Meteorological data. Journal of the
Franklin Institute, vol. 62, p. 224.

A. general abstract of meteorological phenomena for 1868. Journal
of the Franklin Institute, February, 1869.

Comparison of meteorological phenomena of 1868 with those of 1867
and the last 17 years. Journal of the Franklin Institute, February,
1869.

Comparison of meteorological phenomena of December, 1868, with
those of December, 1867, and of the same month for eighteen years.
Journal of the Franklin Institute, February, 1869.

New Hampshire, Mount Washington.—Meteorological observations.
American Journal of Science and Art, vol. i, p. 149.

WEST INDIES.

Trinidad.—On weather. G. Webbe. Proceedings of the Scientific
Association of Trinidad.
SOUTH AMERICA.

Contributions to our knowledge of the meteorology of Cape Horn
and the west coast of South America? London, 1871.

Caracas.—Cuadros meteorologicos. Vargasia. Boletin de ciencias
fisicas y naturales de Caracas, No. 1-3, 1868. A. Aveledo.

Estrellas cadentes de Noviembre 1869. Vargasia. Boletin de la so-
ciedad de ciencias fisicas y naturales de Caracas, No. 7.

Observaciones meteorologicas en Caracas, afio de 1869. Vargasia.
Boletin de ciencias fisicas y naturales de Caracas, No. 5, 1868. No. 7.

AUSTRALIA.

New South Wales.—Abstract of meteorological observations made in
New South Wales during the years 1865-66.
Abstract of meteorological observations made in New South Wales
up to the end of 1869, with remarks on the climate, by H. C. Russell.
*

METEOROLOGICAL ARTICLES,

PD

9

Results of meteorological observations made in New South Wales
during 1870, under the direction of H. C. Russell.
Meteorological observations made at the government observatory,

Sydney, under the direction of George R. Smalley, 1867—68—69~70.
Meteorological observations made at the government observatory,
Sydney, for April, May, and June, 1871, by H. C. Russell.

NEW ZEALAND.

Meteorological report for 1870, including returns for 1869 and ab-
stracts for previous years, by James Hector.

ASTA,

India, Caleutta.x—Abstract of the results of the hourly meteorological
observations taken at the surveyor general’s office, Caleutta. Proceed-
ings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. .

Meteorological observations, July and August, 1871. Proceedings ot
the Asiatic Society of Bengal, No. ix, September, 1871.

Report on the meteorology of the Punjab for the year 1870, by A. Neil.
Lahore, 1571.

AFRICA.

Suez.—Recherches sur le climat de Visthme de Suez, par M. Rayet.
Mémoires de ’académie des sciences de Vinstitut de France, tome xxxy.
*
MAGNETISM.

Contributions to terrestrial magnetism, No. xii. The magnetic survey
of the British Islands reduced to the epoch 1842-45, by General Sir Ed-
ward Sabine. Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of Lon-
don for the year 1870, vol. 160, part ii.

Magnetic observations made during a voyage to the north of Europe,
and the coasts of the Arctic Sea, in the summer of 1870. By Captain
Ivan Belavenetz. Proceedings of the Royal Society, vol. xix, No. 127.

Note sur la variation diurne lunaire et sur la variation séculaire de
la déclinaison magnétique. M. Brown. Comptes-rendus hebdomadaires
des séances de l’académie des sciences, tome Ixxiii, No. 2.

Observations des déclinaisons de Vaiguille aimantée faites a Vobserva-
toire de la marine & Toulon depuis année 1866 4 Th. 30m. du matin.
Comptes-rendus hebdomadaires des séances de ’académie des sciences,
tome Ixxiil, No. 15.

Observations magnétiques de 1870. D. Miiller. Comptes-rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de Vacadémie des sciences, tome Ixxiii,
ING:.9!

Results of seven years’ observations of the dip and horizontal force
at Stonyhurst College observatory, from April, 1863, to March, 1870.
Proceedings of the Royal Society, vol. xix.

90 METEOROLOGICAL ARTICLES.

Magnetical observations made at Stonyhurst College observatory from
April, 1863, to March, 1870, by Rev. S. J. Perry.

Halley's Magnetic Chart.—(Photographie copy of the original in the

library of the British Museum.)
| Observations on the variation of the magnetic declination in con-
‘nection with the aurora of October 14, 1870. Alfred M. Mayer. Ameri-
-ean Journal of Science and Art, vol. i, p. 77.
Note sur la variation diurne lunaire et sur la variation séculaire de la
'déclinaison magnétique. Brown. Comptes-rendus hebdomadaires des
séances de Vacadémie des sciences, tome Ixiii, No. 2.

Note sur les indications de Vaiguille aimantée a Vapproche dune
tempéte. Fortin. Comptes-rendus hebdomadaires des séances de ’acadeé
mie des sciences, tome Ixxiii, No. 3.

Records of the magnetic observations made at the Kew Observatory,
No. IV. Analysis of the principal disturbances shown by the horizon-
tal and vertical foree magnetometers of the Kew Observatory, from 1859
to 1864, by General Sir Edward Sabine.

Osservazioni della declinazioni magnetica. A. de Gasparis. Rendi-
conti dell’ academia della scienze fisiche e matematiche, June, 1869.

MAGNETIC AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS.

Results of the magnetical and meteorological observations made at
the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, England, 1869.

Stonyhurst College observatory. Results of meteorological and mag-
netical observations, 1870.

Observations made at the magnetical and meteorological observatory
at Trinity College, Dublin, vol. ii, 1844~50. Dublin, 1869. Humphrey
Lloyd.

Observaciones magneticas y meteorologicas hechas per los alumnos
del colegio de Belen. Habana, 1871.

Magnetische und meteorologische Beobachtungne auf der k. k.
Sternwarte zu Prag im Jahre 1870.

Beobachtungen an der k. k. Centralanstalt fiir Meteorologie und
Erdmagnetismus, July, December, 1870.

Jahrbiicher der k. k. Centralanstalt fiir Meteorologie und Erdmagne-
tismus. Neue Folge, v. Band, Jahrgang 1868. Carl Jelinek und Carl
Fritsch. VI. Band, Jahrgang 1869.

METEORS.

Le stelle cadenti, dei periode di Noviembre 1868 ed Agosta 1569, osser-
vate in Piemonte ed in altre contrade d'Italia. P. Francesco Denza.

Norme per le osservazioni delli meteore luminose.

Observations of luminous meteors, Royal Observatory, Greenwich,
1871.

Osservazioni delle meteore luminose nel 1871~72.

Sopra gli aeroliti, caduti il giorno 29 Feb. 1868, nel territorio di

»

METEOROLOGICAL ARTICLES. 91

Villanova e motta dei conti. Memoria dei professori Agostino, Goiran,
Antonio, Bertolio, Arturo, Zannetto, Luigi, Masso.

Aerolito en la hacienda de la Conception municipalidad de Allende,
estado de Chihuahua. Boletiu dela sociedad de geografia y estadistic:
de la Republicana Mexicana, segunda epoca, tomo iii, Nos. 8, 9, 10.

Composition of the meteoric stone that fell near Searsmont, Maine,
May 21, 1871, by J. L. Smith, American Journal of Science and Art,
1871, p. 200.

Der Ainsa-Tueson Meteoreisenring in Washington und die Rotation
der Meteoriten in ihrem Zuge. Sitzungsberichte der kaiserlichen Aka-
demie der Wissenschaften, April 1870. V. Haidinger.

Der Meteorit in Kriihenbere. G. Neumayer xxviil. und xxix. Jahres-
bericht der Pollichia.

Der Meteorit von Lodran. Sitzungsberichte der kaiserlichen Akade-
mie der Wissenschaften, April 1870.

_Die Meteorite. Aus der Natur, neve Folge, 46. Band.

‘Mode du rupture de l’astre d’ou dérivent les météorites. St. Meunier.
Comptes-rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'académie des sciences,
tome Ixxii, No. 5.

Nachrichten iiber den Meteoritenfall bei Murzuk in December 1869.
Sitzungsberichte der kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Juni
1870.

Situation astronomique du globe dou dérivent les météorites. St.
Meunier. Comptes-rendus hebdomadaires des séances de Vacadémie des
sciences, tome Ixxii, No. 8.

Structure du globe dot proviennent les météorites. St. Meunier.
Comptes-rendus hebdomadaires des séances de Vacadémie des sciences,
tome Ixxii, No. 4.

Sur un bolide obseryé a Tours le 17 mars 1871. Comptes-rendus heb-
domadaires des séanges de Vacadémie des sciences, tome Ixxii, No, 24.
A. Buffault.

Etoiles filantes du mois d’aott. Comptes-rendus hebdomadaires des
séances de l’académie des sciences, tome lxxiii, No. 8. .

Le bolide du 15 juillet. Comptes-rendus hebdomadaires des séanees
de ’académie des sciences, tome Ixxiii, No. 3.

Mémoire sur la direction des étoiles filantes. Comptes-rendus heb-
domadaires des séances de Vacadémie des sciences, tome Ixxili, No. 2.

Observation d'un bolide faite, a Pobservatoire de Marseilles le 1° aotit.
Coggia. Comptes-rendus hebdomadaires des séances de Vacadémie des
sciences, tome lxxiii, No. 6.

Observation relative & la dénomination de bolide donnée au météore
recemment observé par M. Coggia. Elie De Beaumont. Comptes-ren;
dus hebdomadaires des séances de ’académie des sciences, tome 1xxiii,
INOe, Ta

Bolides observés en Italie pendant le mois de juillet. Denza. Comp-
tes-rendus hebdomadaires des séances de Vacadémie des sciences, tome
Ixxiii, No. 6.

92 METEOROLOGICAL ARTICLES.

Sur les bolides du 11 aoft 1871 et du 24 juin 1870. P. Guyot.
Comptes-rendus hebdomadaires des séances de V’académie des sciences,
tome Ixxili, No 8.

On a meteor seen at Alexandria, Egypt. American Journal of Science
and Art, vol. ii, p. 474. Beverly Kennon.

Bolide observé le 4 aotit 1871 a Trémont, pres Tournus. Lemosy.
Comptesrendus hebdomadaires des séances de Vacadémie des sciences,
tome Ixxiil, No. 6.

Observation du bolide du 17 mars, faite 4 Nerac. Lespiault. Comptes-
rendus hebdomadaires des séances de Vacadémie des sciences, tome
XX, NOs oo:

Diverses séries Vobservations @’étoiles filantes. Le Verrier. Comptes-
rendus hebdomadaires des séances de Vacadémie des sciences, tome
exis NO. WL:

Observations de Vessaim d’étoiles filantes du mois d’aotit, faites pen-
dant les nuits des 9, 10 et 11 aotit 1871, dans un grand nombre de
stations correspondantes. Comptes-rendus hebdomadaires des séances
de Vacadémie des sciences, tome Ixxiii, No. 7.

Observation de Vessaim d’étoiles filantes de novembre dans les sta-
tions de Vassociation scientifique de France. Comptes-rendus hebdo-
madaires des séances de V’académie des sciences, tome Ixiii, No. 15.

Observation du bolide du 17 mars, faite a Castillon sur Dordogne.
Paquenei. Comptes-rendus hebdomadaires des séances de V’académie
des sciences, tome Ixxii, No. 15.

Observation du bolide du 17 mars, faite & Trenois. Vanquelin.
Comptes-rendus hebdomadaires des séances de ’académie des sciences,
tome Ixxii, No. 13.

Rapport sur les effets du météore du 26 janvier 1846. Bulletin de la
société Vémulation du département de ’Allier, tome 1°.

Remarkable meteor, by R. H. Thurston. American Journal of Science
and Art, vol. ii, p. 63.

Shooting-stars of August 10 and 11. American Journal of Science
and Art, vol. ii, p. 227.

Sur un bolide observé au Semaphore du eap Sicié le 14 juin 1871,
Sagols. Comptes-rendus hebdomadaires des séances de Vacadémie des
sciences, tome Ixxii, No. 24.

Sur un météore remarquable observé dans la nuit du 19 oct. 1871.
M. Chapelas. Comptes-rendus hebdomadaires des séances de Vacadé-
mie des sciences, tome Lxxiii, No. 15.

Meteor seen at Wilmington, North Carolina. American Journal of
Science and Art, vol. ii, p. 227.

Meteors of November 13 and 14, 1870. American Journal of Science
and Art, vol. i, p. 30.

November meteors in 1871, by H. A: Newton. American Journal of
Science and Art, vol. ii, p. 470.

Estrellas cadentes de Noviembre 1869. A. Aveledo. Vargasia. Bole-
tin de la sociedad de ciencias fisicas y naturalestde Caracas, No. 7.

METEOROLOGICAL ARTICLES. 93

Meteorografia dell autonno 1869 in Modena. <Annibale Ricco. An-
nuario della societa dei naturalisti in Modena, anno V.

Observation du bolide du 17 mars, faite a Castillon sur Dordogne.
Paquenée. Comptes-rendus hebdomadaires des séances de Vacadémie
des sciences, tome Ixxii, No. 15.

OCEAN CURRENTS AND TIDES.

Currents of air and ocean. Bb. H. Babbage. Annual report and
transactions of the Adelaide Philosophical Society for the year ending
September 50, 1871.

Etudes sur Vorigine des courants (air principaux, par M. Lartique.
Comptes-rendus hebdomadaires des séances de Vacadémie ces sciences,
tome Ixili, No. 2.

Ocean-currents, by J. Croll. American Journal of Science and Art,
vol. ii, p. 140.

Sketch of anew theory of oceanic tides, based upon examination of
the causes assigned to exceptional tidal waves. J. W. Bilby. Trans-
actions and proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria, vol. 9.

Sur extension du Gulf-stream dans le nord et sur la température des
mers, par Ch. Grad. Comptes-rendus hebdomadaires des séances de
Vacadémie des sciences, tome Ixxiii, No. 2.

OZONE.

Esperienze ozonometriche fatte nel laboratorio chemico dell’ univer-
sita di Pisa sotto la direzione del Prof. S. De Lucas.

Note relative a la nature de Vozone. M. Pigeon. Comptes-rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de Vacadémie des sciences, tome Ixxiii, No. 3.

PRESSURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE.

Barometrical measurements in Ecuador by W. Reiss and A. Stubel.
American Journal of Science and Art, 1871, p. 267.

Sul movimento straordinario del barometrografo della R. specola di
Napoli. A.de Gasparis. Rendiconti dell’ academia delle scienze fisiche e
matematiche. August, 1867.

Recherches expérimentales sur V’influence que les changements dans
la pression barométrique exercent sur les phénoménes de la vie. P.
Bert. Comptes-rendus hebdomadaires des séances de Vacadémie des
sciences, tome Ixxili, No. 3 and No. 8.

Note sur les relations simples entre la pression de la vapeur aqueuse
et la température. Duperray. Comptes-rendus hebdomadaires des

92

séances de Vacadémie des sciences, tome Ixxii, No. 23.
RAIN.

Cyclical rain-falls at Lisbon. Proceedings of the American Philo-
sophical Society, vol. xii, July—Dec., 1871.

94 METEOROLOGICAL ARTICLES.

Monthly rain-fall at San Francisco, Journal of the Franklin Insti-
tute, March, 1872. P. E. Chase.

Summary of rain and melted snow for the winter 1870-71. Canada.

Some observations on the rain-fall at Adelaide, Australia. Annual
report and transactions of the Adelaide Philosophical Society for the
year ending September 30, 1871.

Fall of rain at Hilo, Hawaii. American Journal of Science and Art,
vol. i, p. 232.

Sur le régime pluvial de ?Allemagne septentrionale et de la Russie
WEurope. Comptes-rendus hebdomadaires des séances de Yacadémie
des sciences, tome Ixxii, No. 24.

Observations pluviométriques dans le Loiret en 1867 et 1868. Me-
moires de l’académie des sciences de Vinstitut de France, tome xxxv.

Sur le régime pluvial de Algérie, d’aprés les observations de Vad-
ministration des ponts et chaussées. V. Raulin. Mémoires de laca-
démie des sciences de Vinstitut de France, tome xxxv.

Sur le régime pluvial de Asie septentrionale et orientale. V. Raulin.
Comptes-rendus hebdomadaires des séances de ’académie des sciences,
tome Ixxiii, No. 4.

Artificial production of rain. American Journal.of Science and Art,
vol. ii, p. 315.

Mémoire sur les pluies, par M. Beequerel. Mémoires de Vacadémie
des sciences de Vinstitut impérial de France, tome xxxv.

Ménioire sur les quantités eau tombées prés et loin des bois, par M
Beequerel. Mémoires de Vacadémie des sciences de Vinstitut impérial
de France, tome xxxv.

On rain-falls, by Pliny E. Chase. American Journal of Science and
Art, vol. il, p. 69.

Sur les pluies de poussiére et les pluies de sang, par M. Tarry.
Mémoires de Vacadémie des sciences de Vinstitut de France, tome xx.

SNOW.

a

Observations relatives aux chutes de neige 4 Montréal, (Canada,) et a
Stykisholm, ({slande.) Buchan. Mémoires de ’académie des sciences
de institut de France, tome xxxv.

Sur les circonstances météorologiques qui ont accompagné la chute de
neige du i6 mars 1870. Comptes-rendus hebdomadaires des séances
de Vacadémie des sciences, tome Ixxii, No. 12.

Chute de neige extracrdinaire a Collimére, (Pyrénées orientales.) |
Naudin. Mémoires de Vacadémie des sciences de Vinstitut de France,
tome Ixx.

Influence of snow-covering on climate. A. Wojeikof. American Jour-
nal of Science and Art, vol. ii, p. 64.

De Vinfluence de la neige sur la température du sol a diverses pro-
fondeurs, selon quwil est gazonné ou dénudé. Becquerel. Comptes-rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de Vacadémie des sciences, tome 1xxiii,
No. 25. .

,

METEOROLOGICAL ARTICLES. 95
SOLAR HEAT.

Actinometrical observations made at Dehra and Mussoorie, in India,
October and November, 1869. Proceedings of the Royal Society, vol. xix,
No. 125.

Temperature of solar radiation as measured by the black-bulb ther-
mometer, by Mr. Ellery. Transactions and proceedings of the Royal
Society of Victoria, vol. ix, Melbourne, 1869.

The daily motion of a brick tower caused by solar heat. C. G. Rock-
wood. American Journal of Science and Art, 1871, p. 177.

STORMS AND TORNADOES.

Sur un orage quia éclaté le 29 mai, aux environs d@’Alais, France,
par M. Bourgoyne. Mémoires de Vacadémie des sciences de Vinstitut
de France, tome Ixx.

Note sur des phénoménes singuliers observés en Ecosse pendant les
périodes orageuses du 18 juin et du 5 juillet 1871. Comptes-rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de Pacadémie des sciences, tome Ixxiii, No. 2.

Stormenes Love. Christiania, 1868.

Det norske meteorologische Instituts Storm-Atias. Af H. Moba.
Christiania, 1870.

Norsk meteorologisch aarbog for 1869. Christiania, 1870.

Mémoire sur les orages en Norvége. Mohn. Mémoires de Vacadé-
mie des sciences de Vinstitut de France, tome xxxy.

Observations des orages en Norvége pendant V’année 1869. Mémoires
de ’académie des sciences de Vinstitut de France, tome Ixx.

Ueber die jiihrliche Vertheilung der Gewittertage, nach den Beobach-
tupgen an den meteorologischen Stationen Oesterreichs und Ungarns.
Sitzungsberichte der kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften, May
1870.

Tornadoes, by H.S. Whitfield. American Journal of Science and Art,
vol. ii, p. 96.

Note sur des phénoménes singuliers observés en Ecosse pendant les
périodes orageuses du 18 juin et du 5 juillet 1871. M. W. de Fonvielle.
Comptes-rendus hebdomadaires des séances de V’académie des sciences;
tome Ixiii, No. 2.

Guide des ouragans. F. R. Roux. Revue maritime et coloniale, tome
xxxi, nov. 1871.

La bourrasque du 11 juillet 1871. Chapelas. Comptes-rendus heb-
domadaires des séances de Vacadémie des sciences, tome Ixxiii, No. 3.

TELEGRAPHIC WEATHER-REPORTS.

Systems of weather-telegraphy, by C. Abbe. American Journal of
Science, vol. ii, p. 81.

Signal-service weather-reports, by Pliny E. Chase. Journal of the
Franklin Institute, vol. 62, p. 278.

96 METEOROLOGICAL ARTICLES.
TEMPERATURE.

Mémoire sur la distribution de la chaleur et de ses variations depuis
le sol jusqu’a trente-six métres au-dessous. Mémoires de lV’académie
des sciences de Vinstitut impérial de France, tome xxxy.

Mémoire sur la distribution de la chaleur au-dessous du sol. Mémoires
de Vacadémie des sciences de linstitut impérial de France, tome xxxv.

Mémoire sur la température des sols couverts de bas végétaux ou
dénudés. Comptes-rendus hebdomadaires des séances de Vacadémie
des sciences, tome xxiii, No. 20.

Sur les caractéres de Vhiver 187071, et sur la comparaison de la tem-
pérature moyenne a Vobservatoire de Paris et a Vobservatoire météoro-
logique central de Montsouris. Ch. Sainte Claire Deville. Comptes-ren-
dus hebdomadaires des séances de Vacadémie des sciences, tome xxii,
No. 13. nt

Sur le froid de la nuit du 17 au 18 mai. Comptes-rendus hebdoma-
daires des séances de l’académie des sciences, tome Ixxii, No. 25.

Quelques nouveaux documents sur le froid anormal observé dans la
nuit du17 au 18 mai. De Biseau. Comptes-rendus hebdomadaires des
séances de ’académie des sciences, tome Ixxili, No. 6.

Sur le froid des premiers jours de juin 1871. H. Bardy. Comptes-
rendus hebdomadaires des séances de Vacadémie des sciences, tome
Ixxii, No. 25.

Sur les précautions a prendre pour la détermination de la température
dun lien. Comptes-rendus hebdomadaires des séances de Vacadémie
des sciences, tome Ixxii, No. 12.

Mémoire sur la température sous bois et hors des bois. Mémoires de
Vacadémie des sciences de V’institut impérial de France, tome xxxv.

Sur les températures observées & Montsouris pendant le mois de
février 1871. Comptes-rendus hebdomadaires des séances de ’académie
des sciences, tome ]xxii, No. 10.

Water unfrozen at 18°. DBouissingault. American Journal of Sci-
ence and Art, vol. ii, p. 304.

On the temperature of the interior of the earth, as indicated by obser-
rations made during the construction of the great tunnel through the
Alps. D. T. Ansted. Proceedings of the Royal Society, vol. xix, No. 129.

Die Temperatur-Verhiiltnisse und die mit der Héhe zunehmende Tem-
peratur in der Schicht des Luftmeeres, welche die Erdoberfliiche
unmittelbar beriihrt. Von Prof. Dr. Prestel.

Die Wiirmeabnahme mit der Hohe an der Erdoberfliche und ihre jiihr-
liche Periode, von Dr. J. Hann.

Observations to accompany and elucidate the diagram of mean tem-
perature for ten years at the Albion mines, Nova Scotia. Henry Poole.

Diurnal and annual variations of temperature at Halifax, Nova Scotia,
from bi-hourly observations by F. Allison, M. A., during the three years
1867-69. G. T. Kingston. Canadian Journal of Science, Literature
and History, May, 1871.

METEOROLOGICAL ARTICLES. ot

Ueber den jihrlichen Gang der Temperatur zu Klagenfurt, Triest und
Arvavaralza. C. Jelinek. Aus dem lxii. Bde. d. Sitz. d. k. Akademie d.
Wissensch., ii. Abth., Juni-Heft, Jahrg. 1870.

On an approximately decennial variation of the temperature at the ob-
servatory at the Cape of Good Hope between the years 1841 and 1870,
viewed in connection with the variation of the solar spots, E. J. Stone.
Proceedings of the Royal Society, vol. xix.

Sur les froids de mai et juin 1871, et sur les froids tardifs. Comptes-
rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l’académie des sciences, tome 1xxii,
No. 24.

Temperature at great depths. Journal of the Franklin Institute, vol.
Ia, Daoet.

Sur le froid du 9 décembre. Edw. Delaunay. Comptes-rendus heb-
domadaires des séances de Pacadémie des sciences, tome Ixxili, No. 25.

Sur le froid du 9 décembre 1871. Delaunay. Sur la précocité du
froid en 1871. Ch. Sainte Claire Deville. Comptes-rendus hebdoma-
daires des séances de ’académie des sciences, tome Ixxiii, No. 24.

Sur les froids de décembre 1871. M. Delaunay. Comptes-rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de l’académie des sciences, tome Ixxiii, No.
25.

Sur le froid de décembre 1870 et sur la période des grands hivers si-
gnalée par M. Renon. Ch. Sainte Claire Deville. Comptes-rendus heb.
domadaires des séances de l’académie des sciences, tome Ixxii, No. 1.

VOLCANOES.

Eruption of the voleano of Colima, Mexico, by C. Sartorius. American
Journal of Science and Art, vol. ii, p. 381.
Volcano of Kilauea. American Journal of Science and Art, vol. ii.
pp. 76, 404,
WINDS.

On the general circulation and distribution of the atmosphere. J. D.
Everett. [Reprint from the Philosophical Magazine for September, 1871.]

Untersuchungen iiber die Winde der nérdlichen Hemisphiire und ihre
klimatologische Bedeutung. J. Hann. Zweiter Theil. Der Sommer.
Sitzb. der k. Akad. d. Wissensch., lxiv. Band, ii. Abth., Oct.-Heft.,
Jahrg. 1871.

Die Wirmeabnahme mit der Hohe an der Erdoberfliiche und ilre
jiihrliche Periode. J. Hann. .

Etudes sur Vorigine des courants (air principaux. Lartique. Comptes-
rendus hebdomadaires des séances de Vacadémie des sciences, tome
TAs, IN O:/2;

Force and direction of wind. F. E. Loomis. American Journal of
Science and Art, vol. ii, p. 231.

Sur les mouvements généraux de Vatmosphére. Peslin. Mémoires
de V’académie des sciences de Vinstitut de France, tome Ixix.

(STL

98 METEOROLOGICAL ARTICLES.

, 2

Atlas des mouvements généraux de Vatmosphere. Rédigé par ’obser-
vatoire impérial de Paris, sur les documents fournis par les observa-
toires et les marines de la France et de Vétranger. Publié sous les
auspices du ministre de V’instruction publique et avee le concours de
Vassociation scientifique de France. Année 1865, juillet, aott, sep-
tembre, octobre, novembre, décembre.

ZODIACAL LIGHT.

Observation de la lumiere zodiacale le 20 février 1871. Flammarion,
Comptes-rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l’académie des sciences,
tome Ixxii, No. 9.

Sur la lumiére zodiacale observée 4 Angers le 19 février 1871, by A.
Cheux. Comptes-rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l’académie des
sciences, tome Ixxii, No. 24.

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE,

The Executive Committee of the Board of Regents respectfully submit
the following report in relation to the funds of the Institution, the
receipts and expenditures for the year 1871, and the estimates for the
year 1872:

Statement of the fund at the beginning of the year 1872.

The amount originally received as the bequest of James

Smithson, of England, deposited in the Treasury of the

United States, in accordance with the act of Congress

of Ancust 10; 1846 ........6.% aaah evra hanes alana asics $515, 169 00
The residuary legacy of Smithson, received in 1865, deposited

in the Treasury of the United States, in accordance with

the act of Congress of February 8, 1867 ...... ........ 26,210 63
otal DeGuess OLISMINSON. . 6-252 cero) ater ones oe danconie O41, 379 63

Amount deposited in the Treasury of the United States,
as authorized by act of Congress of February 8, 1867,
derived from savings of income and increase in value of
investments ........... See ene eee ees aout 108, 620 37

Total permanent Smithson fund in the Treasury of the
United States, bearing interest at 6 per cent., payable
Sela i bth OMe ate wo can Scale awe cores Cakes $650, 000 00
In addition to the above, there remains of the extra fund
derived from savings, &e., in Virginia bonds, at par value

$88,125.20, now valued at..... eee are ee ee ieee 30, 500 00
The cash balance in First National Bank,
SE CPMIENUeRV OE Metso es ic cists hain tang gem aoa, 3s 2 $16,515 02

Amount of congressional appropriation for
the fiscal year ending June 30, 1872, $10,000,

one-half of whieh available January, 1872.. 5, 000 00
————_ 21, 315 02
Total of Smithson funds January, 1872..........-. $706, 815 02

The interest due on the Virginia bonds, instead of being paid, has
been funded by the State, and has thus increased the amount of the
bonds from $72,760, as stated in the last report, to $88,125.18, as given
in the foregoing statement. The market value of this stock, which was

100 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

given last year at $48,000, has fallen, during 1871, to $35,500, on account

of the uncertain policy of the State.

The balance at the beginning of the year 1872, viz, $21,315.02, is
very nearly the same as that at the beginning of the year 1871, which
was $21,477.81. This balance is not invested as a part of the perma-
nent fund, because it is required in order to pay cash for bills as they

become due, and previous to receiving the semi-annual income.

Statement of receipts from the Smithson fund for 1871.

Interest on $650,000, at 6 per cent.in gold .............. $59, 000 60
Premium on gold, June and December, 123 and 8f....... 4,192 50
Metal. EOCEIPUS Ho oas.ce +l a ae ee ene cae nes Be 43,192 50
Statement of expenditures from the Smithson fund for 1871.
BUILDING.
Reconstruction of parts destroyed by fire, and

OP ANUS att rone yaaa legstsl aiarBntoteeumtaterateln tars ep aiate eters $8, 827 12

PH UPNIGULO AMO CULOS.<).7..0/c'je 1p) ois 2 5 Se Felyaterarel= 205 20
$9, 032 41

GENERAL EXPENSES.

Meetings of the boards a2. 2ae. <1 Se eet, = $127 12

imehines the building Js... sci. = - 45.4 Si satire 267 15

Roane the WUllaie 2 i. ik a ssreies ihe eee ee ae 79 69

POSLATS e554 Slash ceieie ote atte rte oes che ere repeat 448 76

DuanOueRy ~ Le TST eee Tee sive ames 452 55

Tnewmentals ... 02-56%: sina Sctecavenabals tata shetatehabe d04 75

Salariesaud cleric Mine *: S52 se See tires © Soc arate 9,572 62
11, 302 64

PUBLICATIONS AND RESEARCHES.

Smithsonian Contributions, quarto........-... $9,753 68

Miscellaneous collections, octavo .............- 608 12

epOris, OChAVO 22.,..3 2500" oe ee eee eee Reel 739 48

Meteorology, computations, rain-gauges, &e... 2, 000 55

Apparatus for researches”... - =. se - -caccceree 744 03

Explorations, natural history, and archeology. 1,301 07

WECUURESIE!: «.<.. .'- 552 eS eee eee 285 00
15, 431 93

MUSEUM, LIBRARY, AND EXCHANGES.

Museum, in addition to the sum drawn from the
appropriation by Congress, ($4,976)... -. .s-- $8,132 95

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 101

Literary and scientific exchanges through agen-
cies in London, Paris, Leipsic, Amsterdam,

MVM ea OG Gar as (area meet «x 2ec ese lsc<, a's, 5: '> ----- $4,201 50

Purchase of books and periodicals............ 253 86

Total expenditures, (repayments having been de-
COUN (WU er re ay eter. 5 Be, Soe dices le, kia a he « =,s 5.2 sks $48, 355 2

From the above statement, it appears that the expenditures were
$5,162.79 in excess of the receipts; but to meet this deficiency, $5,000
of the congressional appropriation for the museum, as was stated before,
is still in the Treasury of the United States. Had this sum been drawn
during the year, it would have been deducted from the $8,152.95 charged
to the musewmn.

During the past year the Institution has advanced money for the pay-
ment of freight on specimens and articles directed to its care, and for
fitting out the expedition toward the north pole. It has also sold pub-
lications, old and useless material, and meteorological instruments, the
payments for which have been deducted from the several items of the
previous accounts of expenditures, as follows:

From the museum, for repayments for freight.............. $592 92
From exchanges, for repayments on expense of literary and
BEIGMUIC(OMCHAN SES 25622540. see oes coe 2 Sessare Smreseaere sie 945 17
From explorations, forrepayments onaccountof Hall’s expedi-
tion toward thenorth pole, &...............0ccscee-eee 522 27
From Smithsonian contributions and miscellaneous collee-
tions, for sales of publications ..-............0..0sse000 525 70
Building and incidentals general, repayments for old mate-
rial, postage refunded, &¢...2........2..2+00--%: ae te 622 59
Apparatus—sale of meteorological apparatus ...........--- 40 00
Total repayments and miscellaneous credits.......--. J, 248 65

Appropriations and expenditures from Congress on account of the museum
and care of the Government collections,

In addition to the receipts from the Smithson fund, the following
amounts have been received :
From appropriation by Congress for fitting up halls for

COMC CUO erred rare: Soria ss ls oN eiam Defeat senate eds $20, 000 00
From appropriation by Congress for annual care of collee-

tions, being part of the $10,000 appropriated for the fiscal

year ending June 30, 1871, ($5,024 having been drawn

ACNE Veal: oA) ete cect dibs sd <o0 Bee@eaia se aian-cicee xs.< 4,976 00

24, 976 00

102 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

The appropriation of $20,000 was expended, under the direction of
the Secretary of the Interior, and accounted for to that Department, in
ceiling, flooring, plastering, and painting the large hall in the upper
story of the main building, repairing the roof, fire-proofing the west
wing, and fitting up the basement of the same for the preparation of
specimens and storage.

The appropriation of $4,976 was expended for salaries, taxidermy,
labor, &c., in preserving the Government collections, and was accounted
for to the Interior Department.

The estimates for the year 1872 are as follows:

RECEIPTS. |

From mterest on the permanent fonds xc2..8 . Js. . 5 8: Je $39, 000 00
Probable premium on gold, 10 per cent’... ... 6... 02 ~. 3, 900 00

42,900 00

APPROPRIATIONS.

ETS Teo CAND OLN ef eid g hgh ees ronan al chiagShni ct Sagatrale oye aithanes oh chat eee s $5, 000 00
HOT SONeTAVOXDCUSES eo. coin slslagera/a aioe ante Syslog roe 10, 000 00
Hor publications and reséarches)..22...-. 2s ssas nas eee . 20,000 00
IOUT C RCN:AMP CS a 2 Sroka a2 este apencrercials slice othe ait RUMeRE ae Se ae 5, 000 60
EOL OOOKS ANG -APPALALUS «sien. «oo cve.s Sle ms cue Suse reset ee 900 00
For museum, additional to Congress appropriation .....-- 2,000 00

42,900 00

The Executive Committee have examined seven hundred and fifty-
seven receipted vouchers for payments made during the four quarters
of the year 1871, both from the Smithson fund and the appropriations
from Congress. In every voucher the approval of the Secretary of the
Institution is given, and the certificate of an authorized agent of the
Institution is appended, setting forth that the materials and property
and services rendered were for the Institution, and to be applied to the
purposes stated.

The quarterly accounts-current, bank-book, check-book, and ledger
have also been examined and found correct, showing a balance in bank
December 51, 1871, of $16,515.02.

Respectfully submitted.

PETER PARKER,
JOHN MACLEAN,
HBrecutive Committee.*
MARCH 13, 1872.

* Major General W. T. Sherman, member of committee, absent, in Europe.

JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS
OF

TRE BOARD OF REGENTS
OF THE

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

WASHINGTON, D. C., January 25, 1872.

A meeting of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution
was held this day in the Regents’ room, at 7 o’clock p.m. Present:
Hon. H. Hamlin, Hon. L. Trumbull, Hon. G. Davis, Hon. L. P. Poland,
Hon. 8. 8. Cox, Hon. P. Parker, Hon. H. D. Cooke, and Prefessor Henry,
the Secretary.

Mr. Hamlin was called to the chair.

The Secretary stated that an act of Congress had substituted the
governor of the District of Columbia as an ex-officio Regent, in place of
the mayor of Washington, the latter office having ceased to exist.
Governor Cooke was then introduced as a member of the Board.

Dr. Parker, from the Executive Committee, presented a preliminary
statement of accounts.

On motion of Mr. Trumbull, the report was accepted.

The Secretary made a statement relative to the Virginia stocks held
by the Institution. It had been deemed advisable that the registered
stock should be converted into coupon bonds, because the coupons were
receivable for taxes, and the State had not paid interest on its stock for
several years. The transfer had therefore been made for the Institution
by Riggs & Co. :

On motion of Judge Poland, the Secretary was directed to deposit the
Virginia coupon bonds, now in Riggs’ Bank, in the Treasury of the
United States for safe-keeping.

The Secretary gave an account of the improvements made in the build-
ing during the past year.

A communication from Dr. C. H. F. Peters, of the observatory at
Clinton, New York, was read, asking the Institution to defray the expense
and act as the medium of communicating discoveries of planets, comets,
ete., by ocean telegraph.

The Secretary stated that he had applied to the ocean telegraph com-
pany for the free transmission of astronomical discoveries, but had not
received a reply.

Several of the Regents expressed the opinion that the Institution

104 PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS.

should have the franking privilege, to enable it to distribute scientific
reports, &e., to libraries and other institutions of the country.

The Secretary stated that a stable had recently been erected on the
grounds, with the approval of General Babcock, Commissioner of Public
Buildings. This was necessary for the use of the Institution, though
the horse and carriage used by the Secretary had been purchased by
himself.

On motion of Mr. Trumbull, the action of the Secretary was approved.

A claim, presented by T. R. Peale, esq., of Washington, for a portrait
of Washington, painted by his father, Charles Wilson Peale, now in the
Smithsonian museum, was referred to the Executive Committee.

A communication was presented from Henry O’Rielly, relative to the
discovery of the electro-magnetic telegraph, which, on motion of Mr.
Davis, was read, and ordered to be placed in the archives of the Insti-
tution.

Adjourned to meet at the call of the Secretary.

MARCH 28, 1872.

A meeting of the Board was called for this evening at 7 o’clock. Pres-
ent: Hon. 8. P. Chase, Chancellor of the Institution ; Hon. L. P. Poland,
Hon. J. A. Garfield, Hon. P. Parker, and Prof. Henry, the Secretary.

On account of a night session of the Senate, the Vice-President, Hon.
Mr. Colfax, and Senators Trumbull and Hamlin were prevented from
attending the meeting.

No quorum being present, adjourned to meet at the call of the Secre-
tary.

APRIL 3, 1872.

A meeting of the Board of Regents was held at 7 o’clock at the Insti-
tution. Present: Vice-President Colfax, Hon. H. Hamlin, Hon. L. Trum-
bull, Hon. L. P. Poland, Hon. P. Parker, Hon. H. D. Cooke, and Prof.
Henry, Secretary.

Mr. Colfax was called to the chair.

The minutes of the previous meeting were read and approved.

Dr. Parker, in behalf of the Executive Committee, presented the re-
port of the committee, which was read, and, on motion of Mr. Hamlin,
accepted.

Dr. Parker stated that the Virginia coupon bonds which had been
received from the State had no seal affixed to them. In regard to this,
the Secretary presented the following communication from Jos. Mayo,
jr., treasurer of Virginia:

COMMONWEALTH OF VIRGINIA, TREASURER’S OFFICE,

Richmond, March 30, 1872.

The following coupon bonds Nos. 11521 to 11578, both inclusive, for
$1,000 each ; No. 1380 for $500, and Nos. 4191 and 4192 for $100 each, of

PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS. 105

Virginia consolidated debt, exchanged December 9, 1871, for the Smith-
sonian Institution, and standing in its name on the books of this office,
were regularly issued and are good and valid. The omission of the State
seal upon them was an Iinadvertance, which will be corrected whenever
the bonds are returned for the purpose. In fact the seal is not necessary
to give validity to the bonds, though it is customary to place it upon
them.
Very respectfully, yours,
JOS. MAYO,
Treasurer of Virginia.

On motion of Mr, Hamlin, it was

Resolved, That the Secretary return the bonds to Richmond for the
purpose of having the State seal affixed to them.

The Secretary gave an account of Major Powell’s expedition, which
was authorized by Congress at its last session and had by law been
placed under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution. He stated
that he had addressed a communication to Congress recommending
an additional appropriation for continuing the survey.

The Secretary stated that, for many years, harmonious relations had
existed between the Institution and the Department of Agriculture for
co-operation in advancing the science of meteorology. The blanks had
been furnished and distributed by that Department, and the observers
sent their returns to the Commissioner, saving a large item of expense
in the way of postage. The monthly summaries of observations of rain,
temperature, ete., had been published in the monthly reports of the
Department, and had done much to encourage and stimulate the ob-
servers and to furnish valuable data for agricultural and scientific pur-
poses. Judge Watts, the present Commissioner, had recently decided,
however, to discontinue this publication, and this was an additional
reason why the Institution should have the franking privilege. The
Institution had a large number of computers at work in reducing and
discussing all the meteorological observations it had collected during the
last twenty years, and would soon publish the results.

The Secretary presented his annual report for the year 1871, which
was read, and, on motion of Mr, Trumbull, accepted.

A communication from F. O. J. Smith, esq., of Portland, relative to
the electro-magnetic telegraph, was presented to the Board, and ordered
to be placed in the archives.

The board then adjourned sine die.

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GENERAL APPENDIX

SMITHSONIAN REPORT FOR 1871.

The object of this appendix is to illustrate the operations of the
Institution by reports of lectures and extracts from correspondence, as
well as to furnish information of a character suited especially to the
meteorological observers and other persons interested in the promotion
of knowledge.

MEMOIR OF SIR JOHN FREDERICK WILLIAM HERSCHEL.
By N.S. DopDGE.

About the year 1760, as Dr. Miller, the organist, better known, per-
haps, as the historian of Doncaster, England, was dining at Pontefract
with the officers of the Durham militia, one of them told him that they
had a young German in their band who was an excellent performer on
the violin, and if he would step into another room he might judge for
himself. The invitation was gladly accepted, and Miller heard a solo
of Giardini’s executed in a manner that surprised him. Learning after-
ward that the engagement of the young musician was only from month
to month, he invited him to leave the band and come and live with him.
“Tama single man,” he said, “and we doubtless shall be happy to-
gether; beside, your merit will soon entitle you to a more eligible situ-
ation.” The offer was accepted as frankly as it was made; and the sat-
isfaction with which the old organist always plumed himself upon this
act of generous feeling is not surprising, since the German hautboy-
player turned out at last to be Herschel the astronomer.

The Jew Snetzler, a famous organ-builder a hundred years and more
ago, was at this time setting up a new organ for the parish church of
Halifax. Herschel, at Dr. Miller’s advice, became one of the seven can-
didates for the place of organist. They drew lots how they were to per-
form in succession. Herschel drew the third. The second fell to Dr.
Wainwright, of Manchester, whose rapid execution astonished the
judges. ‘I was standing in the middle aisle with Herschel,” wrote Dr.
Miller, ‘and I said to him, ‘ What chance have you to follow this man?
He replied, ‘I don’t know; I am sure fingers will not do” He ascended
the organ-loft, however, and produced from the instrument so uncom-
mon a fullness, such a volume of slow, solemn harmony, that I could
not account for the effect. After a short extempore eftusion, he finished
with the old Hundredth Psalm tune, which he played better than his
opponent. ‘Ay, ay,’ cried old Snetzler, ‘ tish is very goot ; I vill luf tish
man, for he gives my piphes room for to spheak’” Having afterward asked
Mr. Herschel by what means he produced so uncommon an effect, he
replied, “I told you fingers would not do;” and taking two pieces of
lead from his pocket, “ One of these,” he said, “I placed on the lowest
key of the organ and the other on the octayveabove ; thus, by accommo-
dating the harmony, I produced the effect of four hands instead of two.”

In 1780, twenty years after this, when Miller talked of his friend Her-
schel’s great fame, and of his sister, Caroline Herschel, who, when her
brother was asleep, amused herself in sweeping the sky with his twenty-

EEO SIR JOHN FREDERICK WILLIAM HERSCHEL.

feet reflector and searching for comets, the kind-hearted old man used to
wish that the science of acoustics had been advanced in the same degree
as the science of optics, ‘ For,” he said, “had William constructed audi-
‘tory tubes of proportionate power to his great telescope, who knows
but we might have been enabled to hear the music of the spheres! ”
From this date, fourscore and twelve years ago, until the present time,
no name among modern scientific men has attained a higher rank than
that of Herschel. Ninety volumes of the Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society have been enriched with papers bearing the well-
known signature. Genius, though often hereditary, is quite as often
wayward. It not unfrequently skips a generation. It descends some-
times to daughters. It reappears in other cases, after being dormant
in children and grandchildren, in a fourth or fifth step of descent. But
with the two Herschels the transmission was immediate. The original
circumstances of the two great philosophers were indeed widely differ-
ent. Sir William, the father, by genius and application succeeded in rising
from obscurity to the proud position of the first astronomer of the age.
His son, Sir John Herschel, had the advantage of the highest university
training. But both were gifted with extraordinary talents, keen scien-
tific tastes, and those great mathematical powers which so materially
assist in abstruse inquiries. In the case of the subject of this memoir,
the combination of high education with an extraordinary natural talent
for communicating his thoughts in an attractive manner, has been one
of the means of making him the most distinguished philosopher of the
nineteenth century.

John Frederick William Herschel was born at Slough, March 7, 1792.
His father was already famous. People came from distant lands to see
the great telescope. There are traditions about the wonder with which
mail-travelers used to stare, in passing, at the mechanism by which the
monster tube was used. A thousand stories of its revelations passed
current among the vulgar. The astronomer let nobody use his forty-foot
telescope, but the fame of it could not be hidden. It went through all
the civilized world. And it was under the shadow of that mysterious
erection that this only child of the house—born when his father, then of
twoscore and twelve years, was absorbed alike in the fame he had
achieved and the wonders he was every night discovering ; reared in
infancy with an uncle who spent his days in adjusting instruments, and
an aunt whose nights were devoted to discovering new comets in the
heavens ; without a boy’s associations and playmates, ina house kept quiet
all the day that the star-watchers might sleep; and wandering through
rooms whose silence no sports were permitted to disturb and no youth-
ful buoyancy to interrupt—it was here that he passed his boyhood.
Twelve years before the boy’s birth the ‘Observations of the periodical
star Mira Ceti,” read before the Royal Society, had established his
father’s position among scientific men, and one year later his discovery
of Uranus brought him into the foremost rank of astronomical observers.

. !

SIR JOHN FREDERICK WILLIAM HERSCHEL. Piel

Amid such a childhood, separated from boys of his own age, suppressed in
every demonstration which youthful spirits naturally give to feeling,
without the school antagonisms that teach a lad his real worth, or the
school rivalries that lead him to rate his fellow according to the plucky
boyhood he exhibits, at the form or on the play-ground, in the dormi-
tory or at the sparring-match, it is strange that the boy did not grow
up full of eccentricities. His detractors—and even he, the gentlest of
nen, Was not without them—say that he did. But there was in him,
from first to last, no lack of manliness, no insincerity, no jealousy, no
indifference even to rival merit. And then the man’s life-long and con-
spicuous veneration for his father is perhaps the best proof of a happy
childhood and youth. No want pinched the household; warm affection
existed between the parents; the boy was the idol of a fond aunt and a
fonder uncle; and it must have been from a happy home that he went
to Eton.

At the usual period of life young Herschel entered St. John’s Col-
lege, Cambridge, from which he graduated B. A. in 1813, as senior
wrangler, having for his competitors the late Dr. Peacock, Dean of Ely,
who was second wrangler, and the late Rev. Fearon Fallows, formerly
astronomer at the Cape of Good Hope, as third wrangler. The names
of several other men of mark appear in the honor-list as contemporary
students, such as Professor Mill, Dr. Robinson, Master of the Temple,
and Bishop Carr, of Bombay. Mr. Herschel had no sooner attained
his degree than he forwarded a mathematical paper to the Royal Society,
‘*On aremarkable application of Cotes’s Theorem.” This was published
in the Philosophical Transactions. In the same year he was elected a
Fellow of the Royal Society, and though barely past his majority be-
came at once an active member.

The early researches of Herschel were confined to pure mathematies.
For papers on this subject, published in the Philosophical Transactions,
the Copley medal was awarded him in 1821. In 1822 he turned his
attention to ‘‘observing” astronomy, that practical branch which
descended to him as a hereditary duty. This occupation led him to
associate with others in forming a special society for the general ad-
vancement of astronomical science. A few years previous to the death
of his father, in consequence of the improvement in astronomical tele-
scopes, amateur observers sprang up, who took great interest in the delin-
eation of the heavens. It was considered an epoch favorable to the
formation of a body that should be exclusively devoted to the encourage-
ment of astronomy ; and Mr. Herschel drew up an address which forms
the first publication of the present Royal Astronomical Society.

All the while, hdwever, the imagination of the young philosopher
was dwelling on the last discovery of his father—the binary stars.
It was a secret, won from the unknown, that opened a new view
into the universe. The boy was scarcely in adolescence, the father
passing into old age, when the constitution of the nebule was an-

112 SIR JOHN FREDERICK WILLIAM HERSCHEL.

nounced. It was the great achievment of the one; it was the first
dictate to the young manhood of the other. Three years of conversa-
tion and thought passed away, when the son, then twenty-four, took
from his father, then seventy-eight, the work of examining the double
stars. The old man’s end of life was gained. What of nobility was in
him had descended right royally. In the space of five years the young
astronomer had mapped 580 double and triple stars, obtained by above
10,000 separate measurements. The record of these observations was
acknowledged by the French Academy of Sciences in bestowing their
astronomical medal, and followed by a similar reward in England. This
occurred in 1824. The old astronomer had foreseen the honors which his
son would win, but did not live to rejoice in them. Sir William had died
two years before. With his death came great changes to the pleasant
family at Slough. The good mother survived, indeed, but the strange,
ancient household was broken up. ‘The aunt, who had watched the clock
and catalogued the stars up to the last, returned to her old home in Ger-
many. The cheerful old uncle had desisted from mechanical adjustments
only when apoplexy felled him at his work, and the young inheritor of
all the honors was left to perform his task alone.

To those who have had no experience in continuous astronomical
observations there can be no conception of its anxious toil. Money
cannot repay it, nor honors, nor fame. In the pursuit day must be
turned into night, society abandoned, the round of home comforts
broken in upon, intercourse with friends and neighbors discontinued ;
and the astronomical observer, quitting all the amenities of life, finds
his compensation in the brotherhood of the stars. This self-sacrifice
young Herschel made. The objects to observe required a calm atmos-
phere. The best time for this is between midnight and sun-rise. This
continuous night-work requires health. Herschel felt the severity of it.
‘“‘Should I be fortunate enough,” he writes, when he was but thirty years
old, “to bring this work to a conclusion, I shall then joyfully yield up
a subject on which I have bestowed a large portion of my time, and
expended much of my health and strength, to others who will hereafter,
by the aid of those masterpieces of workmanship which modern art
places at their disposal, pursue with comparative ease and convenience
an inquiry which has presented to myself difficulties such as at one
period had almost compelled me to abandon it in despair.”

In 1831 Mr. Herschel received the honor of knighthood from the
hands of King William, in acknowledgment of his eminent scientific
services.

In 1833 he was awarded the royal medal of the Royal Society for his
paper “On the investigation of the orbits of revolving double stars.”
The Duke of Sussex then said of him, “ Sir John Herschel has devoted
himself for many years, as much from filial piety, perhaps, as from in-
clination, to the examination of those remote regions of the universe
into which his illustrious father first penetrated, and which he trans-

SIR JOHN FREDERICK WILLIAM HERSCHEL. Lt

mitted to his son as a hereditary possession, with which the name of
Herschel must be associated for all ages. He bas subjected the whole
sphere of the heavens within his observation toarepeated and systematic
serutiny. Hehasdetermined the position and described the character of
themostremarkable of thenebule. Hehas observed and registered many
thousand distances and angles of position of double stars, and has shown,
from comparison of his own with other observations, that many of them
form systems whose variations of position are subject to invariable laws.
He has succeeded, by a happy combination of graphical construction
with numerical calculations, in determining the relative elements of the
orbjts which some of them describe round each other, and in forming
tables of their motions; and he has thus demonstrated that the laws of
gravitation, which are exhibited, as it were, in miniature in our own
planetary system, prevail also in the most distant regions of space—a
memorable conclusion, justly entitled, by the generality of its character,
to be considered as forming an epoch in the history of astronomy, and
presenting one of the most magnificent examples of the simplicity and
universality of those fundamental laws of nature by which their great
Author has shown that he is the same to day and forever, here and
every where.”

It is impossible to give any analysis of the results of the numerous
researches which oceupied the time of Sir Jobn Herschel at the various
periods of his life. From a rough and evidently incomplete list of his
papers it would appear that out of seventy, twenty-eight are on astronom-
ival subjects, thirteen on optics, ten on pure mathematics, eight on
geology, and eleven on miscellaneous science.

There are, however, two of his astronomical works to which we may
fittingly refer here, since they furnish a key which unlocks much of Sir
John’s personal history. These are, first, his ‘Catalogue of nebule
and clusters,” published in the Philosophical Transactions for the year
1833, for which the gold medals of the Royal Society and the Astro-
nomical Society were awarded; and, second, “ Results deduced from
observations made at the Cape of Good Hope.” For this latter work he
received the Copley medal for the second time from the Royal Society,
and an honorary testimonia! from the Astronomical Society.

The interest which Sir John Herschel always exhibited in the minute
details of nebule and double stars must be considered as the result of his
association with his illustrious father. M. Arago, in his admirable and
exhaustive biographical notice of Sir William Herschel, translated from
the French, and published recently in the report of the Smithsonian
Institution, refers gracefully to this fact. Sir John’s early familiarity
with his father’s instruments, in familiarity with which he may be said to
have grown up, and with their necessary use in making observations,
had its influence doubtless in the same direction. Hence, probably, the
reason why so long a period of his observing time was devoted to this

_ Section of astronomical research. One of his first communications to the
Cased

a

114 SIR JOHN FREDERICK WILLIAM HERSCHEL. op

memoirs of the Astronomical Society is an account of the great nebule
of Andromeda and Orion, accompanied by an admirable engraving of
the latter. From 1825 to 1833 nearly all his astronomical energies were
given to this kindof observation. The catalogue of nebule and clusters,
previously mentioned, contains a list of more than twenty-five hundred
of both; their right ascensions and declinations determined ; the char-
acter of their general appearance recorded; and those which present an
unusual constitution, or an extraordinary shape, (of which there are
nearly one hundred,) are drawn with a precision, delicacy, and taste
worthy of the most accomplished artist. The astronomer royal, on pre-
senting the gold medal of the Astronomical Society to Captain Smyth,
on behalf of Sir John Herschel, who was then residin g at the Cape of
Good Hope, remarks: ‘‘That one of the most important parts of this
work is the division containing the engraved representations of the most
remarkable nebule. The peculiarities they represent cannot be described
by words nor by numerical expressions. These drawings contain that
which is conspicuous and distinctive to the eye, and that which will en-
able the eyes of future observers to examine whether secular variation
is pereeptible. They are, in fact, the most distinct and most certain
records of the state of a nebulz at a given time.”

The second series of investigations to which it is desired here to draw
especial attention, is that described in the unique volume entitled “ Re-
sults of Astronomical Observations made during the years 1834-1833,
at the Cape of Good Hope; being the completion of a telescopic survey
of the whole surface of the visible heaveus.” After the publication of
the catalogue of nebule in 1833, Sir John Herschel determined to
undertake a voyage to South Africa, for the purpose of continuing his
researches in another hemisphere under anew heaven. He had the
same plan in view and the same instruments. It had been irksome to
his honored father, and was alike fretful to his own spirit, that the
clouded sky of England allowed free sweep of the great telescope along
the path of the stars at arate so niggardly. Hardly more than thirty
hours in thrice that number of nights were the mysteries of the great
vault exposed to his search. He resolved, therefore, to seek a clearer at-
mosphere and a wider field of inquiry. The southern extremity of Africa,
where was an English colony, in which seclusion could be found without
loss of ‘means of communication with the philosophic world, and an un-
clouded sky bending above a healthy climate, seemed to offer the
ereatest advantages. He consequently fixed upon the Cape of Good
Hope as the most fitting place fora protracted residence away from Eng-
land, and the broadest field for thorough researches.

Sir John Herschel embarked at Portsmouth, in company with his
family, on the 15th ef November, 1833, and arrived safely at Table Bay
on the 18th of January, 1834, after a pleasant voyage, diversified by
few nautical incidents.

No one knew so well as the great astronomer of whom we write, even

SIR JOHN FREDERICK WILLIAM HERSCHEL. fi

before, while recumbent on the deck of the vessel that was bearing
him through the tropic zone, he watched for hours together the shift-
ing panorama of the star fretted vault, how the moon appeared brighter,
fairer, and better defined through a more transparent atmosphere ;
how the planets seemed to be other orbs; how the stars, long watched
in a northern sky, drooped toward the horizon, and were at length
looked for in vain; how orbs, which, to his former vision, had modestly
moved along the southern outskirts of visible creation, now marched
majestically overhead, each
“Walking the heavens like a thing of life,”

while new and strange bodies ascended high and higher, until the old
earth had passed away and a new heaven was aloft; nor how the Via
Lactea, in the neighborhood of the Centaur and the Cross, coupled
with profuse collections of nebulz and asteroids, stars and constella-
tions, makes the southern sky the most magnificent star-view from any
part of earth. Like the sources of the Nile to the untraveled geogra-
pher, or the ice-cliffs of Greenland to the student of arctic voyages, he
knew well what a personal inspection would place before him, and
though the civilized world rang with applause at his sacrifice of home
and its comforts, and country and its honors, for the sake of science,
yet true philosophers knew that the compensation, present and future,
far outweighed the loss.

After a temporary residence at Wilterfreiden, he engaged a suitable
mansion, bearing the name of Feldhausen, about four miles from Cape
Town—a spot full of rural beauty, within sight of lofty hills, and situa-
ted on the last of the terraced slopes by which Table Mountain lets
itself down to the lowlands and meadows near the sea. In this place,
removed from all the noise of traffic and exposure to intrusion, surrounded
on all sides by a grove of planted trees, he caused a suitable building
to be erected for the equatorial, while the 20-foot reflector was mounted
in the open air.

The observatory at Feldhausen was situated in south latitude 33° 58/
50” 56, and longitude 22° 46’ 9” 11 east from Greenwich. Its altitude
was 142 feet above the level of the sea in Table Bay. During the erec-
tion of his instruments, Sir John resided at Welterfreiden, and so quickly
were his plans completed, that on the 22d of February, 1834, he was
enabled to gratify his curiosity by viewing, with his 20-foot reflector.
9 Crucis, the interesting nebula about 7 Argus, and ou the evening of
the 5th of March to begin a regular series of observations.

After erecting his observatory and determining its geographical posi-
tion, the attention of Sir John was directed to the fitting up of the
telescope with which his observations were to be made. He had carried
out with him three specula, one of which was made by his father, and
used by him in his-20-foot sweeps; another was made by Sir John him-
self, under his father’s inspection and instructions, and the other, of the
very same metal as the last, was ground and figured by himself alone.

116 SIR JOHN FREDERICK WILLIAM HERSCHEL.

They had each a clear diameter of 184 inches of polished surface, and
were all equally reflective when freshly polished, and perfectly similar
in their performance. The operation of re-polishing, which was more
frequently required than in England, was performed by himself with
the requisite apparatus, which he also brought from England.

Although Sir John Herschel never exhibited—as indeed he had no
occasion to do—the wonderful mechanical genius of his father, he never-
theless fully understood all the former’s methods of preparing and treating
specula. When it was stated ata meeting of the British Association in
1842, that Lord Ross had attained such skill in the treatment of metallic
specula that he could dismount the mirror of his large telescope,
repolish it, and replace it the same day, Sir John four years previously
had written to Arago these words: “By following my father’s rules
minutely and using his apparatus, I have succeeded in a single day,
without the least assistance, in polishing completely three Newtonian
mirrors of nineteen-inch aperture.”

In the use of reflecting specula of considerable weight, it is of the
utmost importance that the metal shouid be supported in its case so as
not to suffer any change of figure from its own weight. Sir John found
that a speculum was totally useless by allowing it to rest horizontally
on three metallic points at its circumference. The image of every con-
siderable star became triangular, throwing out long flaming causties at
the angles. Having on one occasion supported the speculum simply
againsta flat board, inclined atan angle of about 45°, he found that its per-
formance was tolerably good; but on stretching a thin pack-thread verti-
cally down the middle of the board, so as to bring the weight of the metal
to rest upon the thread, the images of the stars were lengthened hori-
zontally “to a preposterous extent, and all distinct vision utterly de-
stroyed by the division of the mirror into two lobes, each retaining
something of its parabolic figure, separated by a vertical band in a state
of distortion, and of no figure at all!” The method which Sir John
found the best was the following: Between the mirror and the back of
the case he interposed six or seven folds of thick woolen baize, of
uniform thickness and texture, stitched together at their edges. The
metal, when laid flat on this bed, was shaken so as to be concentric
with the rim of the case, and two supports, composed of several strips
of similar baize, were introduced so as to occupy about 30° each, and
to leave an are of about 40° unoceupied opposite the point which was
to be lowermost in the tube. ‘When the case is raised into an inclined
position, and slightly shaken, the mirror takes its own free bearing on
these supports, and preserves its figure. It is essential, however, to
the successful application of this method that many thicknesses of the
baize should be employed, by which only the effect of flexure in the
wooden back of the case can be eliminated.”

This simple plan, adopted by Sir John Herschel, is mentioned to
show how mechanical genius aided him, as it did his father before

SIR JOHN FREDERICK WILLIAM HERSCHEL. 117

him, in overcoming what had seemed to be insurmountable difficulties.
The ingenious method by which Lord Ross afforded an equable support
to a large speculum, and which is now generally adopted, was then
unknown to him.

The labors of Sir John Herschel in South Africa were chiefly confined
to different subjects of observation. Stellar astronomy, however,
occupied his principal attention. Two of the most celebrated ne-
bule—that in the sword-handle of Orion and that surrounding the
variable star Eta Argus, as well as portions of the Milky Way, he de-
lineated with particular care. The published drawings of these objects
are acknowledged by all astronomers to be the most perfect represent-
ations of these beautiful ornaments of the southern sky. The nebula
of Orion, magnificent as it is north of the equator, comes out in much
grander detail in the southern hemisphere, where its great elevation in
the heavens renders it comparatively free from the ill effects of an
impure atmosphere. During the cooler months at the Cape of Good
Hope, from May to October inclusive, and more especially in June and
July, the finest opportunities for delicate astronomical observation oc-
curred, and were quite equal to the observer’s most sanguine ex-
pectations. Sir John remarks that the state of the atmosphere
in these months was habitually good, and imperfect vision rather the
exception than the rule. The best nights, when the stars were most
steady, always occurred after the heavy rains had ceased for a day or
two, when “the tranquillity of the images and sharpness of vision was
such that hardly any limit was set to magnifying power, but what the
aberrations of the specula necessitated.”

Upon occasions like these Sir John found that optical phenomena of
extraordinary splendor were produced by viewing a bright star through
diaphragms of card-board or zine, pierced in regular patterns of circular
holes by machinery. These phenomena, arising from the interferences
of the intromitted rays, and produced less perfectly in a moderate state
of the air, surprised and delighted every one. A result of a more
interesting kind was obtained when the aperture of the telescope had the
form of an equilateral triangle, the center of which coincided with the
center of the speculum. When close double stars were viewed with the
telescope, having a diaphragm of this form, the discs of the two stars,
which are exact circles, are reduced to about a third of their size, and
possess a clearness and perfection almost incredible. These dises, how-
ever, are accompanied with six luminous radiations running from them
at angles of 60°, forming straight, delicate, and brilliant lines, like
illuminated threads, reaching far beyond the sea of view, and capable
of being followed like real appendages to the star, long after the orb
itself had left the field.

Another optical phenomenon, arising from a peculiar condition of the
atmosphere, is described as ‘‘nebulous haze.” The effect of it was to
encircle every star of the ninth magnitude and upward with a faint

118 SIR JOHN FREDERICK WILLIAM HERSCHEL.

sphere of light of an extent proportioned to the brightness of the star.
This phenomenon presented itself very suddenly in a perfectly clear
sky, free from suspicion of mist or cloud, and disappeared as suddenly
after the lapse of about a hundred seconds. Sir John Herschel stated
that similar nebulous affections occurred in England, but with less fre-
quency of coming and going. Heat first suspected that the phenomena
arose from dew upon the eye-piece; but repeated observations satisfied
him that they were atmospheric.

Under the favorable circumstances in which he was now placed, the
opportunity of studying the grand nebula in the sword-handle of Orion
was eagerly embraced. He had himself delineated this remarkable
object in 1824. Four representations of it, differing essentially from his,
had been subsequently published, and it therefore became of the deepest
interest to discover the causes of these discrepancies, and to ascertain
whether in form or light a change had taken place. The splendid draw-
ing of this nebula, twelve inches square, is viewed with mute admiration.
The mysterious assemblage of suns and systems which it sets before the
observer is at first almost overlooked in his wonder at the patience and
skill of the artist astronomer. No fewer than one hundred and fifty
stars are accurately depicted, and the faint luminosity shades away on
the picture, as in the heavens, into the dark sky. That this marvelous
thing of beauty, having no relation to the stars which bespangle it and
no union with the stars themselves, has recently undergone or is under-
going great and rapid changes, Sir John did not believe. He writes:
‘Comparing my only drawings made at epochs (1824 and 1837) differ-
ing by thirteen years, the disagreements, though confessedly great, are
not more so than I am disposed to attribute to inexperience in such
delineations, (which are really difficult) at an early period; to the far
greater care, pains and time, bestowed upon the later drawings; and,
above all, to the advantage of local situation, and the very great superi-
ority in respect both of light and defining power in the telescope at the
latter, over what it possessed at the former epoch, the reasons of which
I have already mentioned. These circumstances render it impossible to
bring the figures into comparison, except in points which cannot be in-
fluenced by such causes. Now there is only one such particular on which
Lam at all inclined to insist as evidence of change, viz: in respect of the
Situation and form of the ‘nebula oblongata,’ which my figure of 1824
represents as a tolerably regular oval. Comparing this with its present
appearance, it seems hardly possible to avoid the conclusion of some sensible
alteration having taken place. No observer now, I think, looking ever so
cursorily at this point of detail, would represent the broken, curved, and
unsymmetrical nebula in question as it is represented in the earlier of
the two figures, and to suppose it seen as in 1837, and yet drawn in 1824,
would argue more negligence than I can believe myself fairly chargeable
with.”

The magnificent Catalogue of Nebule and Clusters of Stars in the

SIR JOHN FREDERICK WILLIAM HERSCHEL. 119°

Southern Hemisphere, comprehending 4.015, was reduced, arranged, and
executed by Sir John’s own hands, and appears like the work of a life-
time.

In treating of the Magellanic clouds, two fine eye-sketches are given,
“drawn without telescopic aid, when seated at a table in the open air,
in the absence of the moon, and with no more light than was absolutely
necessary for executing a drawing at all.” He was compelled to this
method in consequence of his attempts to represent other than very
small portions of the Nubecula Major in the telescope, having been com-
pletely baffled by the perplexity of its details.

On the 25th of October, 1837, Sir John was fortunate enough to ob-
tain a view of the anxiously expected comet of Dr. Halley. In the fifth
chapter of the ‘‘ Astronomical Observations” he has given the results of
his notice of this singular member of oursolar system. Thirteen draw-
ings illustrate the comet. We have it as it appeared night after night.
On the 1st of November he describes its nucleus as small, bright, and
highly condensed, shielded on the side next the sun by a narrow cres-
cent of vivid, nebulous light, the front presenting an outline nearly cir-
cular, and having an amplitude of 90° from horn to horn. Four days
afterward it had the common appearance of a comet, with its nucleus and
slightly diverging tail; but on its return from the sun, on the 26th of
January, it assumed a new and surprising appearance. Its head was
sharply terminated “ likea ground-glass lamp-shade, and within this head
was seen a vividly luminous nucleus, as ifa miniature comet, perfect in
itself, possessing head and tail, and considerably exceeding the surround-
ing head in intensity of light ;” in fact,a comet within a comet. As the
nights followed each other, and the stranger advanced across the heav-
ens, its increase in dimensions was so rapid “that it might be said it
was almost seen to grow.” On the 26th the nucleus appeared as a star
of the tenth magnitude, furred and nebulous, and more than double in
size within twenty-four hours. On the 28th, upon looking through the
20-foot reflector, Sir John exclaimed, “ Most astonishing! The comais all
but gone, and there are long irregular tails everywhere.” The nucleus
was then a sharp point, like one of Jupitev’s satellites in a thick fog of
hazy light—no well defined disk could be raised upon it—and its body
was Clearly discernable from itscoma. ‘ I can hardly doubt,” he writes,
‘“‘ that this comet was fairly evaporated in perihelio by the sun’s ents
resolved into transparent vapor, and is now in process of rapid conden-
sation and reprecipitation on the nucleus.”

Sir John concludes his ‘astronomical observations” by notices of
the solar spots, and conjectures of their causes. Thirteen figures, delin-
eated from magnified images formed on a screen by means of a 7-foot
achromatic refractor, are given in a single plate. Oneof these spots
occupied an area equal to 3,786,000,000 square miles. Of one huge spot
he makes no measurement. of satpiiien not one tenth in size, he says,
“Its black center would have allowed the globe of our earth to drop

120 SIR JOHN FREDERICK WILLIAM EERSCHEL.

through it, leaving a thousand miles clear of contact.on all sides of
that tremendons gulf” Of his theories of the causes of these vast
spots on the surface of the sun no mention need here be made. Galileo,
Kepler, Huygens, Kant, Lambert, and others, each gave their views upon
these recondite phenomena. Sir John Herschel gave his as his father
had done before him. Others are giving, and others still, perhaps as
accurate observers and logical reasoners as eitherof the two, will give
theirs. The world can afford to wait. Astronomy advances. It may
be, in the distant future, that the mysterious center around which our
sun and his worlds revolve may be detected and afford a solution for
other mysteries as well as these. The greatest astronomer is equipped
for no more than a Sabbath-day’s journey. Mountain-tops rise to his
view as he moves along, and peaks of precipices disappear beyond the
horizon which he leaves behind, but the Canaan he seeks to explore is
still a terra incognita.

The work from which we have taken the foregoing, entitled “ Results
of Astronomical Observations made during the years 1834,~35~36~37,
and —38, at the Cape of Good Hope, being the completion of a tele-
scopic survey of the whole surface of the visible heavens, commenced in
1825,” which occupies seven chapters, extending over four hundred and
fifty pages, and illustrated by seventeen beautifully executed plates,
would doubtless have appeared in a series of unconnected memoirs
among the transactions of the Royal or Astronomical Societies, had it
not been for the munificence of the late Duke of Northumberland, who
gave a large sum forits publication as a single and separate work. The
following are the subjects which are treated in the volume:

CHAPTER I. On the nebule and clusters of stars in the southern
hemisphere.

CHAPTER II. On the double stars in the southern hemisphere.

CHAPTER III, On astronomy, or the numerical expression of the
apparent magnitude of stars.

CHAPTER IV. Of the distribution of stars, and of the constitution of
the galaxy or milky way in the southern hemisphere.

CHAPTER V. Observations on Halley’s comet, with remarks on its
physical condition and that of comets in general. e

CHAPTER VI. Observations on the satellites of saturn.

CHAPTER VII. Observations on the solar spots.

Here let us turn back fora moment to fix our attention upon the author
of these marvelous works. The father, Sir William Herschel, had been
notonly a great astronomer, but a fortunate man. He was fortunate in
having George the Third for a patron. Again he was fortunate in having
Arago for a biographer, who, while complete master of his subject, was
superior to envy and»a lover of true greatness. But thrice fortunate
was he in transmitting his name and fame to one, who, with the amplest
intellectual resources of an accomplished scholar and philosopher,
cherished the characteristic boldness of his predecessor’s spirit, and

SIR JOHN FREDERICK WILLIAM HERSCHEL. 124

upheld that liberty of conjecture whichis the mainspring of sagacity. It
is rare that the parent’s purple of intellect falls upon the child. By no
culture however skillful, and no anxieties however earnest, can we trans-
mit to our successors the qualities or the capacities of the mind. In lofty
destinies father and son are rarely associated ; and in the few cases where
a joint commission has issued to them, it has generally been to work in
different spheres, or at different levels. In the universe of mind a double
star is more rare than its prototype in the firmament, and when it does
appear we watch its phases and mutations with corresponding interest.
The case of the two Herschels is a remarkable one, and appears an excep-
tion to the general law. The father, however, was not called to the sur-
vey of the heavens, till he had passed the middle period of life, and it
was but a just arrangement that the son, in his youth and manhood,
should continue the labors of his sire. As has been eloquently said,
‘The records of astronomy do not emblazon a more glorious day than
that in which the semi-diurnal are of the father was succeeded by the
semi-diurnal are of the son. No sooner had the evening luminary disap-
peared, amid the gorgeous magnificence of the west, than the morning
star arose bright and cloudless in its appointed course.” When it is
considered that these two men, father and son, have carefully examined
the whole starry firmament with 20-foot telescopes—instruments of
which, in their present state of perfection, the elder Herschel may be
said to have been the inventor—and that they have made known to us
thousands of the most interesting phenomena, if is hardly an exaggera-
tion to say that the science of moderate siderial astronomy rests chiefly
on their labors.

It is worthy of remark, in connection with Sir John Herschel’s labors
at the Cape of Good Hope, that his residence was productive of benefits
to meteorology as well as to astronomy. While occupied there, he sug-
gested a plan of having meteorological observations made simultaneous-
ly at different places—a plan subsequently developed at greater length
in his Instructions for making and registering meteorological observations
at various stations in Southern Africa, published under official authority
in 1844, The result has been the almost universal adoption of a simi-
lar plan in Europe and the United States.

The record of the site of the 20-foot reflector at Feldhausen, South
Africa, has been preserved. No sooner had Sir John embarked for Eng-
land, than his numerous friends at the Cape raised by subscription a
sufficient sum to erect a granite obelisk on the spot. There, in the quiet
dell, surrounded by trees, at the foot of Table Mountain, stands an
enduring memorial, not only of ‘the pleasing and grateful recollections
of years spent in agreeable society, cheerful occupations, and unalloyed
happiness,” as he gracefully expressed it, but of the discovery of thou-
sands of nebula and double stars in the remote regions of the sidereal
firmament.

Sir John Herschel returned to England in May, 1838. London re-

122 SIR JOHN FREDERICK WILLIAM HERSCHEL.

ceived him with enthusiasm. The whole scientific world joined in
the acclamation. He was entertained at a great public dinner. At
the meeting of the British Association, at Newcastle, he was honored as
the principal guest. The Crown made him a baronet. Oxford conferred
upon him the highest university honor; and Scotland, not to be behind,
elected him lord rector of Marischal College at Aberdeen. Without
doubt, the Duke of Sussex having vacated the office, he might have
been elected president of the Royal Society, and the British Govern-
ment proposed to reimburse all his four years’ pecuniary outlays; but
he declined them both. His motives for his long expatriation had not
been money, nor pleasure, nor health, nor fame, but increase and diffu-
sion of knowledge among men. That object he had gained the means
of reaching, and his largest ambition was satisfied.

Sir John was the author of the articles on‘‘ Isoperimetrical Problems,”
and of ‘ Meteorology,” and “ Physical Geography,” in tho Hneyclopadia
Britannica, (the last two of which have been republished separately,) and
also of several articles on scientific subjects in the Edinburg snd Quarterly
Reviews, which were collected and published in a separate form in 1857,
together with some of his lectures. He contributed besides to “Good
Words” some popular papers on the wonders of the universe; and, two
or three years before he died, he gave to the world, in the pages of
“Cornhill Magazine,” a poetical version of part of the Inferno of Dante.
He was also one of the many sexegenarian translators of Homer’s Iliad.

Sir John Herschel was either an honorary or corresponding member
of the academies of Vienna, St. Petersburg, Gottingen, Turin, Bologna,
Bruxelles, Nuremberg, Copenhagen, Stockholm, Prague, Warsaw, and
Naples, as well as of almost all other scientific associations existing in
Europe and America, Asia, and the southern hemisphere. To his other
honors was added that of ‘Chevalier of Merit,” founded by Frederick
the Great, and given at the recommendation of the Academy of Sciences
at Berlin.

We have hitherto confined our remarks to the principal original
researches of Sir John Herschel, which are doubtless the most striking
to the man of science; but still there can be no question that his popular
reputation has arisen chiefly from his two well-known works, ‘A pre-
liminary discourse on the study of natural philosophy” and ‘“ Outlines
of astronomy,” both of which contain internal evidence of his great
attainments in almost every department of human knowledge, and of his
high powers as a philosophical writer. We give a short extract from
each of these works as examples of his style. Upon their contents it is
not possible to enter here.

In the “Preliminary discourse,” writing upon a subject with which
he was more intimately acquainted than any man had ever been in the
past, or was in the present, he says:

‘Among the most remarkable of the celestial objects are the revolving
double stars, or stars which, to the naked eye, or to inferior telescopes, ap-

SIR JOHN FREDERICK WILLIAM HERSCHEL. £23

pear single, but if examined with high magnifying powers are found to
consist of two individuals placed almost close together, and which, when
sarefully watched, are (many of them) found to revolve in regular
elliptic orbits about each other, and, so far as we have yet been able to
ascertain, to obey the same laws which regulate the planetary move-
ments. There is nothing calculated to give a grander idea of the seale
on which the sidereal heavens are constructed than these beautiful sys-
tems. When we see such magnificent bodies united in pairs, undoubt-
ediy by the same bond of mutual gravitation which holds together our
own system, and sweeping over their enormous orbits in periods com-
prehending many centuries, we admit at once that they must be acecom-
plishing ends in creation which will remain forever unknown to man;
and that we have here attained a point in science where the human
intellect is compelled to acknowledge its weakness, and to feel that no
onception the wildest imagination can form will bear the least com-
parison with the intrinsic greatness of the subject.”

Eloquently and nobly said; and yet not more eloquent and noble
are the thoughts themselves, or the language that clothes the thoughts,
in the passages we have quoted, than are others to be found on almost
every page of the volume.

In the other volume alluded to, “The outlines of astronomy,” a work
clustered with brilliant thoughts thick as the stars which stud the mid-
night heavens, he writes:

“There is no science which, more than astronomy, draws more largely
on that intellectual liberality which is ready to adopt whatever is
demonstrated, or concede whatever is rendered highly probable, how-
ever new and uncommon the points of view may be in which objects the
most familiar may thereby become placed. Almost all its conclusions
stand in open and striking contradiction with those of superficial and vul-
gar observations, and with what appears to every one, until he has under-
stood and weighed the proofs to the contrary, the most positive evidence
of his senses. Thus the earth on which he stands, and which has served
for ages as the unshaken foundation of the firmest structures, either of art
or of nature, is divested by the astronomer of its attribute of fixity, and
conceived by him as turning swiftly on its center, and at the same time
moving onwards through space with great rapidity. The sun and the
moon, which appear to untaught eyes round bodies of no very consid-
erable size, become enlarged in his imagination into vast globes; the
one approaching in magnitude to earth itself, the other immensely sur-
passing it. The planets, which appear only as stars somewhat brighter
than the rest, are to him spacious, elaborate, and habitable worlds, sev-
eral of them much greater, and far more curiously furnished, than the
earth he inhabits, as there are also others less so ; andthe stars themselves,
properly so-called, which, to ordinary apprehension, present only lucid
sparks or brilliant atoms, are to him suns of various and transcendent
glory, effulgent centers of life and light to myriads of unseen worlds.

124 SIR JOHN FREDERICK WILLIAM HERSCHEL.

So that when, after dilating his thoughts to comprehend the grandeur
of those ideas his calculations have called up, and exhausting his imag-
ination and the powers of his language to devise similes and inetaphors
illustrative of the immensity of the scale on which his universe is con-
_ Structed, he shrinks back to his native sphere, he finds it in comparison
a mere point; so lost, even in the minute system to which it belongs,
as to be invisible and unsuspected from some of its principal and re-
moter members.”

In the year 1851 Sir John Herschel accepted the appointment of
master of the mint. This office, once held by Sir Isaac Newton, had
degenerated into a place for politicians. Irrespective of qualification,
the existing ministry had been accustomed for more than a hundred
years to give it to the member of the House of Commons who had
served them best. From the date of Herschel’s acceptance of the office
its political character ceased. He brought to the duties of the position
the same thorough search, conscientious dealing, and indefatigable in-
dustry that characterized his life. He abolished old charters, did away
with antiquated indentures, and refused to renew contracts for meltings
and coinages. His work was so thorough that it is still styled by the
employés at the mint the “ revolution of 751.” Like all innovations, it
caused alarm. <A faction grew up in opposition. Members of Parlia-
ment and of the ministry took sides against his plans; but that firmness
for the right which never yielded, and that gentleness toward opponents
which never lost its equipoise, ultimately achieved success. The ‘trial
plates”—he called them “fiducial pieces’—which had been used for
centuries, were abandoned; standard tables for the qualities of the
precious metals were prepared ; the conventional purity of British coin—
gold as 916.6 and silver as 925—was settled; and the mathematical coin-
cidence of the result of the pyx with the legal standard, established
the correct result of the assays.

The subject of our memoir, however, was not made for office-work.
Though present at his labors throughout every day, and with papers
spread before him, revising and calculating his work far into the hours
of every night, the toil was not congenial. Bodily infirmity followed.
He was unable to work. His friends became alarmed. For himself he
had not sought the place. Nature still needed his interpretations, and
he desired to be at liberty to pass his last days in her domain. He
therefore resigned his office as master of the mint in 1855, and betook
himself to the well-earned repose of a veteran of science.

His mind, upon the recovery of his health, resumed its wonted activity,
and though passing his life in comparative retirement at Collingwood,
he prepared and published his catalogue of nebule and star-clusters.
This splendid work was presented to the Royal Society on November
19, 1863, and contains all the nebule and clusters which had been any-
where described, and identified in position sufficiently to warrant their
inclusion. The number of objects comprised init is 5,078, including all

SIR JOHN FREDERICK WILLIAM HERSCHEL. 125

observed by Sir William Herschel, Sir John Herschel, the Earl of Rosse,
and others. This truly noble undertaking will ever remain a monument
of the energy and perseverance of Sir John Herschel, who at an age
past three score and ten years found time and inclination to arrange and
republish the great astronomical work of the century.

From the rank which Sir John Herschel held among scientific men,
his services were in almost constant demand on committees, boards, and
royal commissions, whose object was the attainment of information for
the advancement of science. For many years he was one of the “ vis-
itors” to inspect annually the Royal Observatory. To him was made
the annual report of the Astronomer-Royal on the efficiency of that
establishment, and he was an important member of the royal com-
mission appointed to prepare new standards of length and weight in lieu
of those destroyed by fire in 1835. As member of the council, and one
of. the secretaries of the Royal Society, he was one of its leading mem-
bers for years. In 1830, on the resignation of the presidency by the
late Mr. Davis Gilbert, a strong effort was made to elect Sir Jobn
Herschel to the vacant chair, in opposition to the Duke of Sussex, on
the ground that his appointment would be peculiarly acceptable to men
of science in Europe. But a commoner, however great, has in England
little chance of success when a royal duke is his rival. There were
special reasons which influenced a large number of the fellows to sup-
port a member of the royal family, and the duke was elected. In the
Royal Astronomical Society Sir John filled the office of president for
six years, and in 1845 he presided over the meeting of the British Asso-
ciation.

It was the peculiar privilege—let us say in the conclusion of this part
of our memoir—of Sir John Herschel, or peculiar gift, if the phrase be
preferred, to combine with his special studies a breadth of view and
power of expression that made him the Homer of science. Take, for
example, what he has said of the vast practical importance of scientific
knowledge, ‘“‘As showing us how to avoid impossibilities, in securing us
from important mistakes when attempting what is in itself possible by
means either inadequate or actually opposed to the end in view; in
enabling us to accomplish our ends in the easiest, shortest, most eco-
nomical and most effectual manner; and in inducing us to attempt and
enabling us to accomplish objects which, but for such knowledge, we
would never have thought of undertaking.”

Or again, ‘The character of the true philosopher is to hope all things
not impossible, and to believe all things not unreasonable. When once
embarked on any physical research, it is impossible for any one to pre-
dict where it will ultimately lead him. The true answer of science is that
which again is at once the parallel and the illustration of the language
of the apostle, “The mysteries of knowledge, which in other ages were
not made known unto the sons of men, are now revealed, and will be
still more revealed to those whom God has chosen.”

126 SIR JOHN FREDERICK WILLIAM HERSCHEL.

Or still again, ‘“‘The students of science are as messengers from Heaven
to earth to make such stupendous announcements, that they may claim
to be listened to when they repeat in every variety of urgent instance,
that these are not the last announcements they have to communicate ;
that there are yet behind, to search out and to declare, not only secrets
of nature which shall increase the wealth and power of men, but truths
which shall ennoble the age and country in which they are divulged,
and, by dilating the intellect, react upon the moral character of man-
kind.”

We have called Sir John Herschel the Homer of science because he
was its highest poet. It is the poet’s function to move the soul—rous-
ing the emotions, animating the affections, and inspiring the imagina-
tion; and all this Herschel did on almost every page of his writings. It
is true that he avoids all fanciful representations of the facts of nature
just as he eschews the meagerness of literal narration, but he has drawn
beautiful pictures of nature’s doings—so beautiful that they have dis-
posed two generations to find their recreation and joy in science.

There is, besides, poetry of no mean order in such a life as that of Sir
John Herschel—a life wholly given to lofty, unselfish aims—a life of
labor, working, as he expresses it, “like a working-bee” to the very end,
reserving his almost only indignation for that spirit of idleness and
Juxury which spends life but does not use it.

There is a passage in one of Sir John’s popular addresses that fur-
nishes so admirable an insight to his own character, that itis worth trans-
cribing. Speaking of the advantages of a taste for reading, he says:
“Give a man this, and you place him in contact with the best society
in every period of history—with the wisest, wittiest, tenderest, bravest,
and purest of characters who have adorned humanity ; you mike him a
denizen with all nations, a contemporary of allages. It is hardly possible
but the character should take a higher and better tone from the con-
stant habit of associating with thinkers above the average of humanity.
It is morally impossible but that the manners should take a tinge of
good breeding from having before one’s eyes the ways in which the best
bred and the best informed men have talked and acted.”

No word he ever spoke, no sentence he ever wrote, so exactly depicts
himself. He was in the utmost degree a well-bred man, not from gentle
birth and careful training, not from scholarly pursuits and polite society,
not from association with persons of rank and intimacy with men of
taste and thought, not even from his loving nature and noble aspira-
tions—not from all these together, so much as from the lofty ideal he
cherished from boyhood to old age of perfect manhood. The upright
form grew bent with passing years, the firm footstep staggered, the
hand that poised instruments so accurately that well-nigh impossible
angles of space could be measured to a hair’s breadth became tremu-
lous, the lines of thought on his face deepened into wrinkles, the
strageling, grizzled hair turned to snow-like whiteness, and the absent

SIR JOHN FREDERICK WILLIAM HERSCHEL. 12%

expression of the eyes grew more thoughtful, but the air and manner,
and bearing and address of the well-bred man never left him. He
received criticisms upon his own speculations with the same equanimity
that he pointed out the errors of his opponents. His action in discus-
Sion was never violent, nor his voice loud. He readily acknowledged a
tault, and still more readily apologized for a wrong. To the capacity of
the young, whether in May-day sports or Christmas gambols, even when.
past his fourthscore year, he was as yielding as he was stern against
any inroad upon morals or violation of truth. He never lost his equi-
poise, was never betrayed into anger, shrank from injustice to others as
if the pain to be endured were his own, looked beneath the rough exte-
rior of many who approached him for honest motives, and, more than
most of the best and wisest of our race, night have said truly:
“Write me as one who loves his fellow-men.”

Sir John Herschel’s life-long contemplation of the infinite in number
and magnitude, exalting and hallowing his mind, was exhibited in its
effects upon his character, The truths he had learned from the stars
were converted into principles of action. Lofty thoughts promoted noble
deeds. “Surely,” he himself had said in a yet higher mood of the same
vein of thought as that of the last passage quoted, ‘Surely, if the worst
of men were transported to Paradise for only half an hour amongst the
company of the great and good, he would come back converted.”

There is one feature in Sir John Herschel’s character of which some
delineation cannot be omitted in any approximately correct picture of his
long life. - It is his filial piety. In a soul full of the gentlest feelings,
his love for his father while the veteran lingered on the stage of life.
and his reverence for the great and good man’s memory after his de-
parture, constituted the strongest sentiment. Perhaps there is no other
instance in all history where filial affection became for so long a time
the ruling motive ofa life. The son was born for a successor in the line
of chemistry to Sir Humphrey Davy and arival to Michael Faraday ; for
his father’s sake he became an astronomer. His tastes led him into dis-
coveries of the properties of hyposulphate salts and the actinic relations
of light; his reverence for his illustrious sire determined him to complete,
to the abandonment of every favorite pursuit, what the latter had so
nobly begun. The pursuit of astronomy was neither the voluntary choice
nor the principal bias of his intellectual life. His inborn aptitude lay in
another direction. Uneontrollable circumstances determined his career,
and these were framed out of impressions of the happy home of his
childhood. He became a great astronomer, not through the promptings
of natural taste but by the dictates of filial piety. And no man was
ever more emphatically, in thought and work, in hostility to error and
search after truth, the son of his father. Over the two the eulogy of
David over Saul and Jonathan might be fitly pronounced.

“They were lovely and pleasant in their lives,
And in their death they were not divided :

They were swifter than eagles; they were stronger than lions.”
»

128 SIR JOHN FREDERICK WILLIAM HERSCHEL.

This deep reverence for his father’s memory, and this high apprecia-
tion of the value of his discoveries—neither undeserved nor overrated—
possessed Sir John Herschel to the last. His “idolatry” of the great
telescope by which the sidereal heavens had been first unveiled to
human sight has been called ‘“* weak in sentiment and dubious in taste.”
Arago did not so regard the means by which its remains were pre-
served, nor do other philosophers who hold the heart to be ever
superior to the intellect. On the 1st of January, 1840, Sir John Her-
schel and his family, the old servants among the number, assembled at
Slough. The metal tube had been placed horizontally in the meridian.
At noon they walked in procession around the instrument, entered the
capacious cylinder, seated themselves on benches previously prepared,
sung a requiem, and then, ranging themselves around that—ceall it
a piece of metal if you will—which had been the means of opening the
star-world to human sight, witnessed its hermetical sealing. “I know
not,” says Arago, ‘“‘ whether those persons who can only appreciate
things from the peculiar point of view from which they have been
accustomed to look, may think there was something strange in several
of the details of this ceremony; I affirm, however, that the whole world
will applaud the pious feeling which actuated Sir John Herschel, and
that all the friends of science will thank him for having consecrated the
humble garden where his father achieved such immortal labors by a
monument more expressive in its simplicity than pyramids or statues.”

The true place of Sir John Herschel among the great lights of his age
eannot be accurately fixed until this generation shall have passed away.
The feelings, prejudices, and partialities of contemporaneous life warp
correct judgment. Proximity is unfavorable to true appreciation. No
one knew this better than Biot, when he replied, in answer to the ques-
tion, ‘* Whom of all the philosophers of Europe do you regard as the
most worthy successor of Laplace?” ‘If I did not love him so much, I
should unhesitatingly say Sir John Herschel.” Indeed, through his
long confinement and protracted old age, the seekers after scientific
truth not only in the English universities, but over all Europe, in their
difficulties, anticipations, and successes, betook themselves to the aged
philosopher of Collingwood.

Of the work done by the Herschels, father and son, during a period
of almost one hundred years, it is fitting that something be said in the
conclusion of this memoir. That work is not in general correctly un-
derstood. The labors of the elder Herschel are indeed associated in the
public mind with those of his son, but the real end and aim of those
labors, the qualities which characterized the labors of each, and the
steps by which the two men moved on, each like a star in its orbit,

‘“ Making no haste and taking no rest,”

towards the grand consummation, it is only necessary to peruse the
obituary notices which appeared upon his death to see are wholly mis-
understood, even by men of intelligence.

»]

SIR JOHN FREDERICK WILLIAM HERSCHEL. 129

The.real work of the Herschels, then, that to which all their labors
were directed, was the survey of those regions of space which lie beyond the
range of the unaided vision. Other work they did which well deserves
attention. Sir William Herschel, in particular, left papers describing
observations of the planets, careful studies of the sun’s surface, and
researches into a variety of other subjects of interest. But all the
work thus recorded was regarded by him rather as affording practice
whereby he might acquire a mastery over his instruments than as a work
to which he cared to devote his powers. Even the discovery of a planet
traveling outside the path of Saturn—although, in popular estimation,
this discovery is regarded as the most note-worthy achievement of Her-
schel’s life—was in reality but an almost accicental result of his real
work among the star-depths. It was, in truth, such an accident as he
may be said to have rendered a certainty. No man can apply the pow-
ers of telescopes, larger than any before constructed, to scrutinize as he
did every portion of the celestial depths, without being rewarded by
some such discovery. He never swept the star-depths for an hour with-
out meeting multitudes of hitherto unknown orbs, far mightier than the
massive bulk of Uranus. These discoveries pass unrecorded save nu-
merically, but they tended to the solution of the noblest problem which
men have yet attempted to master. It was the same with the son. All
discoveries, all studies, were subordinated to this one purpose, a know!-
edge of the construction of the heavens.

In the pursuit of this single end it is not strange that the great pio-
neer of star-observers should have formed opinions from time to time
which he afterwards abandoned as unsupported by facts. In his paper,
printed in the Philosophical Transactions of 1785, Sir William Herschel
had said, ‘*I have now viewed and gauged the milky way in almost
every direction, and find it composed of stars whose number constantly
increases and decreases in proportion to its apparent brightness to the
naked eye. That this shining zone is a most extensive stratum of stars
of various sizes admits no longer of the least doubt, and that our sun
is actually one of the heavenly bodies belonging to it is evident.” In
the plate accompanying this paper, our sun makes one of innumerable
stars, all comparable with each other in magnitude, and distributed with
approach to uniformity.

In 1802, after his telescope had been asking seven years longer the
secret of the skies, writing of our sun, magnificent as its system is, as
only a single individual of the insulated stars, he says: “To this may
be added that the stars we consider as insulated are also surrounded by
a magnificent collection of innumerable stars called the milky way.
For, though our sun and all the stars we see may truly be said to be
in the plane of the milky way, yet I am now convinced by a long in-
spection that the milky way itself consists of stars differently scattered
from those which are immediately about us.”

Similar changes of opinion in regard to the nature of double stars,
Osi TL

130 SIR JOHN FREDERICK WILLIAM HERSCHEL.

to the constitution of the vast star system, and to the nature of the
nebule, occurred, as he modified the principle of interpreting his ob-
servations. In 1811 he writes: “I find that by arranging the nebulee
in certain successive, regular order, they may be viewed in a new light,
which cannot be indifferent to an inquiring mind.” He now expressed
the opinion that these mebule did not consist of multitudes of stars,
but of some self-luminous substance of exceeding tenuity. He recog-
nized the existence of this luminous vapor amidst large tracts of the
heavens, and regarded it as lying within the limits of the galaxy. Nay
more, he believed this vaporous matter to be the material from which
the stars were made. According to this view, vast as has been the age
of our galaxy, it has not completely formed itself into compact bodies.
For many years he had held that all the nebula are composed of stars.
He now believed that some nebule were not of a starry nature; that a
luminous matter existed in the universe in an elemental state; that
the globular nebulz were the earliest formed and most advanced in
growth; and that this vaporous or luminous matter lay within the line
of the milky way, and formed part and parcel of its constitution.

This new view taken by Sir William Herschel of the construction of
the heavens, whether as respects exteusion in space or duration in time,
is singularly impressive. It implies indeed an enormous diminution of
dimensions. It reduces the supposed countless millions of stars around
Orion to chaotie vapor. It contracts distances, so far beyond our star-
system as not to be separately discerned by the most powerful glass,
into spaces midway only between us and our galaxy. In reducing these
distances many hundred times, this theory reduced the vastness of the
objects many million times. But, on the other hand, it showed the
milky way to be a more wonderful scheme than had ever been sup-
posed. Vast as has been the period of its existence it had not yet
entirely shaped itself into stars; over the regions where it extends,
enormous masses of nebulous matter are still condensing into suns, and
it becomes to the imagination a stupendous laboratory where systems of
worlds have been produced and countless suns have had their genesis.

Despite the ingenuity of illustration and incontestable force of reason-
ing by which Sir William Herschel sought to establish this bold hyyoth-
esis, it has not won general favor since his day. Observation seems
conclusively to show that the greater the optical power of the telescope
the more certain is the evidence that the nebule are aggregations of
stars. Sir John Herschel, too, with his usual reverential caution about
controverting his father’s dicta, seems to entertain this last opinion.
‘It may very reasonably be doubted,” he wrote, ‘ whether there is any
essential physical distinction between clusters of stars and those nebule
which my father regarded as composed of ashining nebulous fluid, and
whether such distinction as there is be anything else than one of degree,
arising merely from the excessive minuteness and multitude of the stars
of which the latter compared with the former consist.”

SIR JOHN FREDERICK WILLIAM HERSCHEL. 131

In the course of that stupendous work which has already been pomted
out—the work of surveying those regions of space too distant to be seen
by the naked eye—it would be a greater marvel than all their united dis-
coveries had the Herschels never found occasion to change their views
and remodel their theories. They did this, both father and son, once
and again. ‘If it should be remarked,” wrote Sir William Herschel in
1811, “that in this new arrangement [ am not entirely consistent with
what I have already in former papers said on the nature of some objects
that have come under my observation, [I must freely confess that, by
continuing my sweeps of the heavens, my opinion of the arrangement
of stars and their magnitudes, and of some other particulars, has un-
dergone a gradual change; and, indeed, when the novelty of the subject
is considered, we cannot be surprised that many things, formerly taken
for granted, should on examination prove to be different from what they
were generally but incautiously supposed to be. For instance, an equal
scattering of the stars may be admitted in certain calculations; but
when we examine the milky way, or the closely compressed clusters of
stars, this supposed equality of scattering must be given up. We may
also have surmised nebule to be no other than clusters of stars dis-
euised by their very great distance, but a longer experience and better
acquaintance with the nature of nebule will not allow a general adimis-
sion of such a principle, although undoubtedly a cluster of stars may
assume a nebulous appearance when it is too remote for us to discern
the stars of which it is composed.” In facet, M. Arago’s memoir of Sir
William Herschel, as well as the numerous papers of himself and Sir
John Herschel, which appeared from time to time, during more than
three-quarters of a century, in the Transactions of the Royal Society
and the Astronomical Society, show not only that the former modified his
theories, gradually, indeed, but not infrequently, in accordance with
newly-discovered facts, but also that Sir John Herschel’s discoveries,
though considerably in advance of the points reached by his father, but
lying, nevertheless, strictly in the direction along which the elder had
been progressing, led to the same result. Sir William modified his views
about unequal double stars, concluding that the fainter orb is physically
associated with the brighter one, instead of being far beyond it. He
modified his views as to star-groups, regarding at last the masses of the
milky way as aggregations of stars instead of depths extending into
space. He had come to regard many star-clusters as part and parcel of
the milky way; large numbers of nebula as vaporous luminous masses ;
and galaxies external to our system, as he once believed, a portion of
the heavens with which he was familiar. Neither father nor son ever
regretted to see hypotheses, though never so dearly cherished, pass
beyond the field of controversy into the domain of the known.

Let us now turn to another consideration of Sir John Herschel—still
necessarily but less closely, perhaps, connecting him with his father—
the consideration of his character as a theorist in astronomy. As an

hoe SIR JOHN FREDERICK WILLIAM: HERSCHEL.

astronomical observer he was undeniably facile princeps, not merely
among the astronomers of his own country, but among all his astro-
nomical contemporaries. His mastery extended over the widest range.
In his general knowledge of the science of astronmy he was unap-
ropached ; in the mathmetical department of the science he was proficient
above most; in his knowledge of the details of observatory-work he
Was surpassed by none; and as a gauger of the heavens by the largest
telescopes he dwarfs into insignificance all the observational work ac-
complished by astronomers living or dead. He went over the whole
range of his father’s work through the northern skies, and then coi-
pleted the survey of the heavens that bend over the southern hemis-
phere. He alone could boast that no part of the celestial depths had
escaped his scrutiny. As an interpreter of nature, he was unrivaled;
as an expounder of astronomical truths he had no living peer, and as
a theorist he commanded universal attention and compelled large as-
sent..

In order to be clearly understood as to the meaning attached to the
words “ astronomical theorist,” let us quote a passage from one of the
papers of Sir William Herschel. It is taken from that noble essay con-
tributed to the Transactions of the Royal Society, in which he first pre-
sented his ideas respecting the constitution of the celestial depths.

* First let me mention,” he says, “ that if we should hope to make
any progress in investigations of a delicate nature, we ought to avoid
two opposite extremes, of which I can hardly say which is the most dan-
gerous. If we indulge a fanciful imagination snd build worlds of our
own, we must not wonder at our going wide from the path of truth and
nature ; but these will vanish like the Cartsian vortices that soon gave
way when better theories were offered. On the other hand, if we add
observation to observation, without attempting to draw, not only certain
conclusions, but also conjectural views from them, we offend against the
very end for which only observations ought to be made.”

Sir John Herschel has also described the quality primarily requisite
in a theorist. “As a first preparation,” the paper goes on to say, ‘‘ he
must loosen his hold on all crude and hastily-adopted notions, and must
strengthen himself by something like an effort and a resolve for the un-
prejudiced admission of any conclusion which shall appear to be supported
by careful observation and logical argument, even should it prove of a
nature adverse to notions he may have previously formed for himself,
or taken up, without examination, on the credit of others. Such an ef-
fort is, in fact, a commencement of that intellectual discipline which
forms one of the most important-.ends of all science. It is the first
movement of approach towards that state of mental purity which alone
can fit us fora full and steady perception of moral beauty as well as
physical adaptation. It is the ‘euphrasy and rue’ with which we must
‘purge our sight’ before we can receive and contemplate as they are
the lineaments of truth and nature.” .

SIR JOHN FREDERICK WILLIAM HERSCHEL. 135

These principles Sir John Herschel strictly observed. He approached
every subject on which he proposed to theorize with “enforced mental
purity.” He divested himself of prejudice. Previous views, precon-
ceived notions, pride of opinion were cast aside. Like a child, he went to
Nature’s school to learn what’she had to teach. When he entered on
his astronomical labors, double stars were supposed to be two stars seen
accidentally in the same direction, and his father had propounded the
grandest views respecting galaxies beyond our own. Sir John Her-
schel must have regarded these two theories with great favor, for they
were associated with the name of his father. Notwithstanding this, Sir
John devoted twenty-one years—eight in resurveying the fields of
space which had been swept by his father’s telescope, four in observa-
tion of the southern heavens, and nine in reducing his work to form
—in order to confirm or overturn, as facts might warrant, these hypo-
theses of his father. From him we now know that double stars are not
stars seen accidentally in the same direction, but are star-couples, asso-
ciated by the mighty bond of common gravity. We also know that the
second hypothesis did not bear the crucial test to which it was subjected.
Other theories, indeed, of the elder Herschel, in their important feat-
ures, were confirmed. It is not of that, however, that we speak, but
of the conscientious honesty and philosophic spirit with which the son
reviewed and continued his father’s work, forever setting scientific
truth higher than filial reverence.

Sir John Herschel was most sagacious in the interpretation of facts.
Take, for example, his examination of the Magellanic clouds, those two
curious patches on the southern celestial vault. He mapped their out-
lines, pictured their minute stars, and colored and shaded their star-
cloudlets. At this point others might have stopped. There was an
array of interesting objects in certain regions of the heavens. What
more could he say? But Sir John Herschel was not thus satisfied. He
reasoned from the globular shape of the Magellanic clouds to the dis-
tance of the star-cloudlets within them, thence to the scale on which
they were formed, and thus deduced the most important conclusion,
perhaps, ever arrived at in astronomy by abstract reasoning, to wit, that
all the orders of star-cloudlets belong to our own system.

Again, Sir John Herschel was deeply impressed with the existence of
analogies throughout the whole range of creation. In a private letter
written to Richard A. Procter, as late as 1869, we find him saying:
‘An opinion which the structure of the Magellanic clouds has often
suggested to me, has been strongly recalled by what you say of the
inclusion of every variety of nebulous form within our galaxy, viz, that
if such be the case, that is, if these forms belong to the galactic system,
then that system includes within itself miniatures of itself on an almost
infinitely reduced scale, and what evidence then have we that there
exists @ universe beyond, unless a sort of argument from analogy, that
the galaxy, with all its contents, may be but one of these miniatures of

134 SIR JOHN FREDERICK WILLIAM HERSCHEL.

that vast universe, and so on an infinitum, and that in that universe there
may exist multitudes of other systems on a. seale as vast as our galaxy,
the analogues of those other nebulous and clustering forms which are
not miniatures of our galaxy?”

As an illustration of his power of tracing the chain that binds cause
and effect, we may refer to a passage in his Treaties on Astronomy.
Tracing the connection between the central luminary of our system and
terrestrial phenomena, Sir John remarks that ‘‘the sun’s rays are the
ultimate source of almost every motion that takes place on the surface of
the earth.. By its heat are produced the winds and those disturbances on
the electric equilibrium of the atmosphere which give rise to the
phenomena of lightning, and probably also to those of terrestrial
magnetism and the aurora. By their vivifying action vegetables are
enabled to draw support from inorganic matter, and become in their
turn the support of animals and man, and the sources of those great
deposits of dynamical efficiency which are laid up for human use in our
coal strata. By them the waters of the sea are made to circulate in
vapors through the air and irrigate the land, producing springs and
rivers. By them are produced all disturbances of the chemical equi-
librium of the elements of nature, which by a series of compositions and
decompositions give rise to new products and originate transfers of
material. Even the slow degradation of the solid constituents of the
surface, in which its chief geological changes consist, is almost entirely
due, on the one hand to the abrasion of wind and rain, and the alterna-
tion of heat and frost, and on the other hand to the continual beating
of sea-waves, the result of solar radiation.”

He was an admirable expounder of scientific principles. His style of
writing is perhaps cumbrous, and his sentences are often long and in-
volved. But the thought he would express, like a thread of silver
running through a web of purple, is always clear. The popular taste for
astronomical studies is due to his writings more than to those of all other
men.

He, of all others, held mastery over pride of self-opinion. His own
errors he admitted instantly they were discovered. Upon theories of
others he worked as fairly and patiently as upon his own. He never
struggled for a known error nor declined to accept aproventruth. With
untiring patience, observing skill, and ingenious device, he sought earn-
estly to detect falsehood in his own opinions, and to discover truth in the
opinions of others. It is said that he had a feeble grasp upon facts ; that
while his father clung with vise-like grip to the sure and the known, he
at times allowed them to slip from his grasp. ‘If so, it were a grievous
fault.” But so few are the instances—not above two or three—cited by
those who allege this, so unimportant are the facts named, so apparent is
the motive, unconscious it may be to themselves, of the theorizers who
urge the objection, that it would seem probable that his opinions upon the
facts had been misinterpreted or his statements of them misunderstood.

SIR JOHN FREDERICK WILLIAM HERSCHEL. 135

Even if this blemish exists, it is but as a spot upon the sun. It argues
no more than that in one particular the son was second to the father.
But without more satisfactory evidence we prefer to range ourselves
among the doubters, and to be among the number of those who believe
that Sir John Herschel’s reasoning was never in a single instance marred
by a forgotten fact.

In the contemplation of the work of the two Herschels, let us remark
in conclusion, and what that work has revealed to us, the mind stands
appalled. Reason shrinks before the specter of boundless creation.
Tf our sun and all his planets, primary and secondary, are in rapid
motion round an invisible focus—if from that mysterious center no ray
of light has ever reached our globe, then the buried relics of primeval
life have taught us less of man’s brief tenure on this terrestrial paradise
than we learn from the lesson of the stars. The one may date back
unnumbered centuries, the other declares that from the origin of the
human race to its far distant future the system to which it belongs will
have described but an infinitesimal are of an immeasurable cirele in
which it is destined to revolve.

He married Margaret Brodie, daughter of Dr. Stewart, in 1829; she
and a numerous family survive him. Two of his sons are already very
favorably known in the realm of science, and their father lived to see
one of them selected by the council for election to the Royal Society.
Another son has an important professorship in the north of England.
The eldest son, the present Sir William Herschel, occupies, with dis-
tinguished merit, a very important post in the civil service of Bengal.

Herschel’s whole life, like the lives of Newton and Faraday, confutes
the assertion, and ought to remove the suspicion, that a profound study
of nature is unfavorable to a sincere acceptance of the Christian faith.
Surrounded by an affectionate family, of which he was long spared to
be the pride, the guide, and the life, John Herschel died, as he had lived,
in the unostentatious exercise of a devout, yet simple, faith.

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JOSEPH FOURTER.

BIOGRAPHY READ BEFORE THE FRENCH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, BY M. ARAGO.

GENTLEMEN: In former times one Academician differed from another
only in the number, the nature, and the brilliancy of his discoveries.
Their lives, thrown in some respects into the same mold, consisted of
events little worthy of remark. A boyhood more or less studious; pro-
gress sometimes slow, sometimes rapid; inclinations thwarted by capri-
cious or shortsighted parents; inadequacy of means, the privations which
it introduces in its train; thirty years of a laborious professorship and
difficult studies—such were the elements from which the admirable tal-
ents of the early secretaries of the Academy were enabled to execute
those portraits so piquant, so lively, and so varied, which form one of
the principal ornaments of your learned collections.

In the present day, biographies are less confined in their object. The
convulsions which France has experienced in emancipating herself from
the swaddling-clothes of routine, of superstition, and of privilege, have
cast into the storms of political life citizens of all ages, of all conditions,
and of all characters. Thus has the Academy of Sciences figured during
forty years in the devouring arena, wherein might and right have alter-
nately seized the supreme power by a glorious sacrifice of combatants
and victims!

Recall to mind, for example, the immortal National Assembly. You
will find at its head a modest Academician, a pattern of all the private
virtues, the unfortunate Bailly, who, in the different phases of his politi-
cal life, knew how to reconcile a passionate affection for his country with
a moderation which his most cruel enemies themselves have been com-
pelled to admire.

When, at a later period, coalesced Europe launched against France a
million of soldiers; when it became necessary to organize for the crisis
fourteen armies, it was the ingenious author of the Lssat sur les Machines
and of the Géométrie des Positions who directed this gigantic operation.
It was again Carnot, our honorable colleague, who presided over the
incomparable campaign of seventeen months, during which French
troops, novices in the profession of arms, gained eight pitched battles,
were victorious in one hundred and forty combats, occupied one hun-
dred and sixteen fortified places, and two hundred and thirty forts or
redoubts, enriched our arsenals with four thousand cannon and seventy
thousand muskets, took a hundred thousand prisoners, and adorned
the dome of the Invalids with ninety flags. During the same time

13 JOSEPH FOURIER.

the Chaptals, the Fourcroys, the Monges, the Berthollets, rushed also
to the defense of French independence, some of them extracting from
our soil, by prodigies of industry, the very last atoms of saltpeter
which it contained; others transforming, by the aid of new and rapid
methods, the bells of the towns, villages, and smallest hamlets into a
formidable artillery, which our enemies supposed, as indeed they had a
right to suppose, we were deprived of. At the voice of his country in
danger, another Academician, the young and learned Meunier, readily
renounced the seductive pursuits of the laboratory; he went to distin-
guish himself upon the ramparts of Koénigstein, to contribute as a hero
to the long defense of Mayence, and met his death, at the age of forty
years only, after having attained the highest position in a garrison
wherein shone the Aubert-Dubayets, the Beaupuys, the Haxos, the
Klebers.

How could I forget here the last secretary of the original Academy ?
Follow him into a celebrated assembly, into that convention, the sanguin-
ary delirium of which we might almost be inclined to pardon, when we
call to mind how gloriously terrible it was to the enemies of our inde-
pendence, and you will always see the illustrious Condorcet occupied
exclusively with the great interests of reason and humanity. You will
hear him denounce the shameful brigandage which for two centuries
laid waste the African continent by a system of corruption ; demand in
a tone of profound conviction that the code be purified of the frightful
stain of capital punishment, which renders the error of the judge for-
ever irreparable. He is the official organ of the Assembly on every occa-
sion when it is necessary to address soldiers, citizens, political parties,
or foreign nations in language worthy of France; he is not the tactician
of any party; he incessantly entreats all of them to occupy their atten-
tion less with their own interests and a little more with public mat-
ters; he replies, finally, to unjust reproaches of weakness by acts which
leave him the only alternative of the poison cup or the seaffold.

The French Revolution thus threw the learned geometer, whose dis-
coveries | am about to celebrate, far away from the route which destiny
appeared to have traced out for him. In ordinary times it would be
about Dom * Joseph Fourier that the secretary of the Academy would
have deemed it his duty to have occupied your attention. It would be
the tranquil, the retired life of a Benedictine which he would have
unfolded to you. The life of our colleague, on the contrary, will be agi-
tated and full of perils; it will pass into the fierce contentions of the
forum and amid the hazards of war; it will be a prey to all the anxieties
which accompany a difficult administration. We shall find this life inti-
mately associated with the great events of our age. Let us hasten to
add, that it will be always worthy and honorable, and that the personal
qualities of the man of science will enhance the brilliancy of his dis-
coveries.

*An abbreviation of Dominus, equivalent tothe English prefix Reverend.—Translator.

JOSEPH FOURIER. too

Fourier was born at Auxerre on the 21st of March, 1768. is father,
like that of the illustrious geometer Lambert, was a tailor. This cir-
cumstance would formerly have occupied a large place in the éloge of
our learned colleague; thanks to the progress of enlightened ideas, I
may mention the circumstance as a fact of no importance: nobody, in
effect, thinks in the present day, nobody even pretends to think, that
genius is the privilege of rank or fortune.

Fourier became an orphan at the age of eight years. A lady who
had remarked the amiability of his manners and his precocious natural
abilities, recommended him to the bishop of Auxerre. Through the
influence of this prelate, Fourier was admitted into the military school
which was conducted at that time by the Benedictines of the Convent
of St. Mark. There he prosecuted his literary studies with surprising
rapidity and success. Many sermons very much applauded at Paris in
the mouth of high dignitaries of the church were emanations from the
pen of the schoolboy of twelve years of age. It would be impossible in
the present day to trace those first compositions of the youth Fourier,
since, while divulging the plagiarism, he had the discretion never to
name those who profited by it.

At thirteen years Fourier had the petulence, the noisy vivacity of
most young people of the same age; but his character changed all at
once, and as if by enchantment, as soon as he was initiated in the first
principles of mathematics, that is to say, as soon as he became sensible
of his real vocation, The hours prescribed for study no longer sufficed
to gratify his insatiable curiosity. Ends of candles carefully collected
in the kitchen, the corridors and the refectory of the college, and placed
on a hearth concealed by a screen, served during the night to illuminate
the solitary studies by which Fourier prepared himself for those labors
which were destined, a few years afterward, to adorn his name and his
country.

In a military school directed by monks, the minds of the pupils neces-
sarily waver only between two careers in life—the church and the sword.
Like Descartes, Fourier wished to be a soldier; like that philosopher,
he would doubtless have found the life of a garrison very wearisome.
But he was not permitted to make the experiment. His demand to
undergo the examination for the artillery, although strongly supported
by our illustrious colleague Legendre, was rejected with a severity of
expression of which you may judge yourselves: ‘“ Fourier,” replied the
minister, ‘not being noble, could not enter the artillery, although he
were a second Newton.”

Gentlemen, there is in the strict enforcement of regulations, even
when they are most absurd, something respectable, which I have a
pleasure in recognizing; in the present instance nothing could soften
the odious character of the minister’s words. It is not true in reality
that no one could formerly enter into the artillery who did not possess
a title of nobility: a certain fortune frequently supplied the want of

140 JOSEPH FOURIER.

parchments. Thus it was not a something undefinable, which, by the
way, our ancestors, the Franks, had not yet invented, that was wanting
to young Fourier, but rather an income of a few hundred livres, which
the men who were then placed at the head of the country would have
refused to acknowledge the genius of Newton as a just equivalent for!
Treasure up these facts, gentlemen; they form an admirable illustration
of the immense advances which Heance has made during the last forty
years. Posterity, moreover, will see in this, not the excuse, but the
explanation of some of those sanguinary dissensions which stained our
first revolution.

Fourier, not having been enabled to gird on the sword, assumed the
habit of a Benedictine, and repaired to the Abbey of St. Benoit-sur-Loire,
where he intended to pass the period of his novitiate. He had not yet
taken any vows when, in 1789, every mind was captivated, with beauti-
fully seductive ideas relative to the social regeneration of France.
Fourier now renounced the profession of the church; but this cireum-
stance did not prevent his former masters from appointing him to the
principal chair of mathematics in the military school of Auxerre, and
bestowing upon him numerous tokensof a lively and sincere affection. I
venture to assert that no event in the life of our colleague affords a more
striking proof of the goodness of his natural disposition and the amia-
bility of his manners. It would be necessary not to know the human
heart to suppose that the monks of St. Benoit did not feel some chagrin
upon finding themselves so abruptly abandoned, to imagine especially
that they should give up without lively regret the glory which the order
might have expected from the ingenious colleague who had just escaped
from them.

Fourier responded worthily to the confidence of which he had just
become the object. When his colleagues were indisposed, the titular
professor of mathematics occupied in turns the chairs of rhetoric, of
history, and of philosophy; and whatever might be the subject of his
lectures, he diffused among an audience which listened to him with de-
light the treasures of a varied and profound erudition, adorned with all
the brillianey which the most elegant diction could impart to them.

About the close of the year 1789, Fourier repaired to Paris and read
before the Academy of Sciences a memoir on the resolution of numerical
equations of all degrees. This work of his early youth our colleague, so
to speak, never lost sight of. He explained it at Paris to the pupils of
the Polytechnic School; he developed it upon the banks of the Nile in
presence of the Institute of Egypt ; at Grenoble, from the year 1802, it was
his favorite subject of conversation with the professors of the Central
School and of the faculty of sciences. This finally contained the elements
of the work which Fourier was engaged in seeing through the press when
death put an end to his career.

A scientific subject does not occupy so much space in the life of a man
of science of the first rank without being important and difficult.

JOSEPH FOURIER. 14)

The subject of algebraic analysis above mentioned, which Fourier had
studied with a perseverance so remarkable, is not an exception to this
rule. It offers itself in a great number of applications of calculation to
the movements of the heavenly bodies, or to the physies of terres-
trial bodies, and in general in the problems which lead to equations of
a high degree. As soon as he wishes to quit the domain of abstract re-
lations, the calculator has occasion to employ the roots of these equa-
tions; thus the art of discovering them by the aid of a uniform method,
either exactly or by approximation, did not fail at an early period to
excite the attention of geometers.

An observant eye perceives already some traces of their efforts in the
writings of the mathematicians of the Alexandrian school. ‘These traces,
it must be acknowledged, are so slight and so imperfect that we should
truly be justified in referring the crigin of this branch of analysis only
to the excellent labors of our countryman Vieta. Descartes, to whom
we render very impertect justice when we content ourselves with saying
that he taught us much when he taught us to doubt, occupied his atten-
tion also for a short time with this problem, and left upon it the indelible
impress of his powerful mind. Hudde gave for a particular but very
important case rales to which nothing has since been added. . Rolle, of
the Academy of Sciences, devoted to this one subject his entire life.
Among our neighbors on the other side of the channel, Harriot, Newton,
Maclaurin, Stirling, Waring—I may say all the illustrious geometers
which England produced in the last century—made it also the subject of
their researches. Some years afterward the names of Daniel Bernoulli,
of Euler, and of Fontaine came to be added to so many great names.
Finally, Lagrange in his turn embarked in the same career, and at the
very commencement of his researches he succeeded in substituting for
the imperfect, although very ingenious, essays of his predecessors, a
complete method which was free from every objection. From that
instant the dignity of science was satisfied; but in such a case it would
not be permitted to say with the poet—

“Le temps ne fait rien 4 Vaffaire.”

Now, although the processes invented by Lagrange, simple in princi-
ple and applicable to every case, have theoretically the merit of leading
to the result with certainty, still, on the other hand, they demand eal-
culations of a most repulsive length. It remained then to perfect the
practical part of the question: it was necessary to devise the means of
shortening the route without depriving it in any degree of its certainty.
Such was the principal object of the researches of Fourier, and this he
has attained to a great extent.

Descartes had already found, in the order according to which the
signs of the different terms of any numerical equation whatever succeed
each other, the means of deciding, for example, how many real positive
roots this equation may have. Fourier advanced a step further: he

142 JOSEPH FOURIER.

discovered a method for determining what number of the equally posi-
tive roots of every equation may be found included between two given
quantities. Here certain calculations become necessary, but they are
very simple, and whatever be the precision desired, they lead without
any trouble to the solutions sought for.

I doubt whether it were possible to cite a single scientifie discovery
of any importance which has not excited discussions of priority. The
new method of Fourier for solving numerical equations is in this respect
amply comprised within the common law. We ought, however, to ac-
knowledge that the theorem which serves as the basis of this method

yas first published by M. Budan; that according to a rule which the
principal academies of Europe have solemnly sanctioned, and from which
the historian of the sciences dares not deviate without falling into arbi-
trary assumptions and confusion, M. Budan ought to be considered as
the inventor. I will assert with equal assurance that it would be im-
possible to refuse to Fourier the merit of having attained the same ob-
ject by his own efforts. I even regret that, in order to establish rights
which nobody has contested, he deemed it necessary to have recourse
to the certificates of early pupils of the Polytechnic School or profes-
sors of the University. Since our colleague had the modesty to suppose
that his simple declaration would not be sufficient, why (and the argu-
ment would have had much weight) did he not remark in what respect
his demonstration differed from that of his competitor?—an admirable
demonstration, in effect, and one so impregnated with the elements of
the question, that a young geometer, M. Sturm, has just employed it to
establish the truth of the beautiful theorem by the aid of which he de-
termines not the simple limits, but the exact number of roots of any
equation whatever which are comprised between two given quantities.

We had just left Fourier at Paris, submitting to the Academy of Sci-
ences the analytical memoir of which 1 have just given a general view.
Upon his return to Auxerre, the young geometer found the town, the
surrounding country, and even the school to which he belonged, occu-
pied intensely with the great questions relative to the dignity of human
nature, philosophy, and politics, which were then discussed by the ora-
tors of the different parties of the National Assembly. Fourier aban-
doned himself also to this movement of the human mind. Heembraced
with enthusiasm the principles, of the Revolution, and he ardently asso-
ciated himself with everything grand, just, and generous which the pop-
ular impulse offered, His patriotism made him accept the most difficult
missions. We may assert, that never, even when his life was at stake,
did he truckle to the base, covetous, and sanguinary passions which dis-
played themselves on all sides.

A member of the popular society of Auxerre, Fourier exercised there
an almost irresistible ascendency. One day—all Burgundy has pre-
served the remembrance of it—on the occasion of a levy of three bun-
dred thousand men, he made the words honor, country, glory, ring so

JOSEPH FOURIER. 143

eloquently, he induced so many voluntary enrollments, that the ballot
was not deemed necessary. At the command of the orator the contin-
gent assigned to the chief town of the Yonne formed in order, assembled
together within the very enclosure of the Assembly, and marched forth-
with to the frontier. Unfortunately these struggles of the forum, in
which so many noble lives then exercised themselves, were far from
having always a real importance. Ridiculous, absurd, and burlesque
notions injured incessantly the inspirations of a pure, sincere, and en-
lightened patriotism. The popular society of Auxerre would furnish us,
in case of necessity, with more than one example of those lamentable
contrasts. Thus [ might say that in the very same apartment wherein
Fourier knew how to excite the honorable sentiments which I have with
pleasure recalled to mind, he had on another occasion to contend with
a certain orator, perhaps of good intentions, but assuredly a bad astron-
omer, who wishing to escape, said he, from the good pleasure of munici-
pal rulers, proposed that the names of the north, east, south, and west
quarters should be assigned by lot to the different parts of the town of
Auxerre.

Literature, the fine arts, and the sciences appeared for a moment to
flourish under the auspicious influence of the French Revolution. Ob-
serve, for example, with what grandeur of conception the reformation
of weights and measures was planned; what geometers, what astrono-
mers, What eminent philosophers presided over every department of this
noble undertaking! Alas! frightful revolutions in the interior of the
country soon saddened this magnificent spectacle. The sciences could
not prosper in the midst of the desperate contest of factions. They
would have blushed to owe any obligations to the men of blood, whose
blind passions immolated a Saron, a Bailly, and a Lavoisiére.

A few months after the 9th Thermidor, the convention being desirous
of diffusing throughout the country ideas of order, civilization, and in-
ternal prosperity, resolved upon organizing a system of public instrue-
tion, but a difficulty arose in finding professors. The members of the
corps of instruction had become officers of artillery, of engineering, or
of the staff, and were combating the enemies of France at tie frontiers.
Fortunately at this epoch of intellectual exaltation, nothing seemed im-
possible. Professors were wanting: it was resolved without delay to
create some, and the normal school sprung into existence. Fifteen hun-
dred citizens of all ages, dispatched from the principal district towns,
assembled together, not to study in all their ramifications the different
branches of human knowledge, but in order to learn the art of teaching
under the greatest masters.

Fourier was one of these fifteen hundred pupils. It will, no doubt,
excite some surprise that he was elected at St. Florentine, and that
Auxerre appeared insensible to the honor of being represented at Paris
by the most illustrious of her children. But this indifference will be
readily understood. The elaborate scaffolding of calumny which it has

144 JOSEPH FOURIER.

served to support will fall to the ground as soon as I recall to mind,
that after the 9th Thermidor the capital, and especially the provinces,
became a prey to a blind and disorderly reaction, as all political reac-
tions invariably are; that crime (the crime of having changed opinions—
it was nothing less hideous) usurped the place of justice; that excellent
citizens; that pure, moderate, and conscientious patriots were daily
massacred by hired bands of assassins in presence of whom the inhabit-
ants remained mute with fear. Such are, gentlemen, the formidable
influences which for a moment deprived Fourier of the suffrages of his
countrymen ; and caricatured, as a partisan of Robespierre, the individ-
ual whom St. Just, making allusion to his sweet and persuasive elo-
quence, styled a patriot in music ; who was so often thrown into prison
by the Decemvirs; who, at the very height of the reign of terror, offered
before the revolutionary tribunal the assistance of his admirable talents to
the mother of Marshal Davoust, accused of the crime of having at that
unrelenting epoch sent some money to the emigrants; who had the in-
credible boldness to shut up at the inn of Tonnerre an agent of the com-
mittee of public safety, into the secret of whose mission he penetrated,
and thus obtained time to warn an honorable citizen that he was about
to be arrested; who, finally, attaching himself personally to the san-
guinary proconsul before whom every one trembled in Yonne, made him
pass for a madman, and obtained his recall! You see, gentlemen, some
of the acts of patriotism, of devotion, and of humanity which signalized
the early years of Fourier. They were, you have seen, repaid with in-
gratitude. But ought we, in reality, to be astonished at it? To expect
gratitude from the man who cannot make an avowal of his feelings with-
out danger would be to shut one’s eyes to the frailty of human nature
and to expose one’s self to frequent disappointments.

In the normal school of the convention, discussion from time to time
sueceeded ordinary lectures. On those days an interchange of charac-
ters was effected: the pupils interrogated the professors. Some words
pronounced by Fourier at one of those curious and useful meetings suf-
ficed to attract attention toward him. Accordingly, as soon as a ne-
cessity was felt to create masters of conference, all eyes were turned to-
ward the pupil of St. Florentine. The precision, the clearness, and the
elegance of his lectures soon procured for him the unanimous applause
of the fastidious and numerous audience which was confided to him.

When he attained the height of his scientific and literary glory,
Fourier used to look back with pleasure upon the year 1794, and upon
the sublime efforts which the French nation then made for the purpose
of organizing a corps of public instruction. If he had ventured, the title
of pupil of the original normal school would have been beyond doubt that
which he would have assumed by way of preference. Gentlemen, that
school perished of cold, of wretchedness, and of hunger, and not, what-
ever people may say, from certain defects of organization, which time and
reflection would have easily rectified. Notwithstanding its short exist-

JOSEPH FOURIER. 145

ence, it imparted to scientific studies quite a new direction, which has
been productive of the most important results. In supporting this
opinion at some length, I shall acquit myself of a task which Fourier
would certainly have imposed upon me, if he could have suspected that
with just and eloquent eulogiums of his character and his labors there
should mingle within the walls of this apartment, and even emanate
from the mouth of one of his successors, sharp critiques of his beloved
normal school.

It is to the normal school that we must inevitably ascend if we would
desire to ascertain the earliest public teaching of descriptive geometry,
that fine creation of the genius of Monge. It is from this source that it
has passed almost without modification to the Polytechnic School, to
founderies, to manufactories, and the most humble workshops.

The establishment of the Normal School accordingly indicates the com-
mencement of a veritable revolution in the study of pure mathematics ;
with it demonstrations, methods, and important theories, buried in
academical collections, appeared for the first time before the pupils, and
encouraged them to recast upon new bases the works destined for
instruction.

With some rare exceptions, the philosophers engaged in the cultiva-
tion of science constituted formerly in France a class totally distinct
from that of the professors. By appointing the first geometers, the first
philosophers, and the first naturalists of the world to be professors, the
convention threw new luster upon the profession of teaching, the ad-
vantageous influence of which is felt in the present day. In the opinion
of the public at large, a title which a Lagrange, a Laplace, a Monge, a
Berthollet, had borne, became a proper match to the finest titles. If
under the empire, the Polytechnic School counted among its active pro-
fessors councilors of state, ministers, and the president of the senate,
you must look for the explanation of this fact in the impulse given by
the Normal School.

You see in the ancient great colleges professors concealed in some
degree behind their portfolios, reading as from a pulpit, amid the indif-
ference and inattention of their pupils, discourses prepared beforehand
with great labor, and which reappear every year in the same form.
Nothing of this kind existed at the Normal School; oral lessons alone
were there permitted. The authorities even went so far as to require of
the illustrious savants appointed to the task of instruction the formal
promise never to recite any lectures which they might have learned by
heart. From that time the chair has become a tribune where the pro-
fessor, identified, so to speak, with his audience, sees in their looks,
in their gestures, in their countenance, sometimes the necessity for pro-
ceeding at greater speed, sometimes, on the contrary, the necessity of
retracing his steps, of awakening the attention by some incidental ob-
servations, of clothing in a new form the thought which, when first
expressed, had left some doubts in the minds of his audience. And do

10s 71

146 JOSEPH FOURIER.

not suppose that the beautiful impromptu lectures with which the amphi-
theater of the Normal School resounded remained unknown to the
public. Short-hand writers paid by the State reported them. The
sheets, after being revised by the professors, were sent to the fifteen
hundred pupils, tothe members of convention, to the consuls and agents
of the republic in foreign countries, to all governors of districts. There
was in this something certainly of profusion compared with the parsi-
monious and mean habits of our time. Nobody, however, would concur
in this reproach, however slight it may appear, if I were permitted to
point out in this very apartment an illustrious Academician, whose.
mathematical genius was awakened by the lectures of the Normal School
in an obscure district town.

The necessity of demonstrating the important services, ignored in the
present day, for which the dissemination of the sciences is indebted to
the first Normal School, has inducod me to dwell at greater length on the
subject than I intended. I hope to be pardoned; the example in any
case will not be contagious. Eulogiums of the past, you know, gentle-
men, are no longer fashionable. Everything which is said, everything
which is printed, induces us to suppose that the world is the creation of
yesterday. This opinion, which allows to each a part more or less
brilliant in the cosmogonie drama, is under the safeguard of too many

vanities to have anything to fear from the efforts of logic.

I have already stated that the brilliant success of Fourier at the Nor-
mal School assigned to him a distinguished place among the persons
whom nature has endowed in the highest degree with the talent of pub-
lic tuition. Accordingly, he was not forgotten by the founders of the
Polytechnic School. Attached to that celebrated establishment, first
with the title of superintendent of lectures on fortification, afterward
appointed to deliver a course of lectures on analysis, Fourier has left
there a venerated name, and the reputation of a professor distinguished
by clearness, method, and erudition; I shall add even the reputation of
a professor full of grace, for our colleague has proved that this kind of
merit may not be foreign to the teaching of mathematics.

The lectures of Fourier have not been collected together. The Jour-
nal of the Polytechnic School contains only one paper by him, a memoir
upon the “ Principle of virtual velocities.” This memoir, which prob-
ably had served for the text of a leoture, shows that the secret of our
celebrated professor’s great success consisted in the combination of
abstract truths, of interesting applications, and of historical details
little known, and derived, a thing so rare in our days, from original
sources.

We have now arrived at the epoch when the peace of Leoben brought
back to the metropolis the principal ornaments of our armies. Then
the professors and the pupils of the Polytechnic School had sometimes
the distinguished honor of sitting in their amphitheaters beside Gen-
erals Desaix and Bonaparte. Everything indicated to them then an

JOSEPH FOURIER. 147

active participation in the events which each foresaw, and which in fact
were not long in occurring.

Notwithstanding the precarious condition of Europe, the Directory
decided upon denuding the country of its best troops, and launching
them upon an adventurous expedition. The five chiefs of the republic
were then desirous of removing from Paris the conqueror of Italy, of
thereby putting an end to the popular demonstrations of which he every-
where formed the object, and which sooner or later would become a real
danger.

On the other hand, the illustrious general did not dream merely of the mo-
mentary conquestof Egypt; he wished to restore to that country its ancient
splendor; he wished to extend its cultivation, to improve its system of
irrigation, to create new branches of industry, to open to commerce
numerous outlets, to stretch out a helping hand to the unfortunate in-
habitants, to rescue them from the galling yoke under which they had
groaned for ages—in a word, to bestow upon them without delay all the
benefits of European civilization. Designs of such magnitude could not
have been accomplished with the mere personnel of an ordinary army.
It was necessary to appeal to science, to literature, and to the fine arts ;
it was necessary to ask the codperation of several men of judgment and
of experience. Monge and Berthollet, both members of the Institute
and professors in the Polytechnic School, became, with a view to this
object, the principal recruiting aids to the chief of the expedition. Were
our-colleagues really acquainted with the object of this expedition? I
dare not reply in the affirmative; but I know at all events that they
were not permitted to divulge it. We are going to a distant country ;
we shall embark at Toulon; we shall be constantly with you; General
Bonaparte will command the army, such was in form and substance the
limited amount of confidential information which had been imperiously
traced out to them. Upon the faith of words so vague, with the chances
of a naval battle, with the English hulks in perspective, go in the pres-
ent day and endeavor to enroll a father of a family, a savant already
known by useful labors and placed in some honorable position, an artist
in possession of the esteem and confidence of the public, and I am much
mistaken if you obtain anything else than refusals ; but in 1798, France
had hardly emerged from a terrible crisis, during which her very ex-
istence was frequently at stake. Who, besides, had not encountered
imminent personal danger? Who had not seen with his own eyes enter-
prises of a truly desperate nature brought to a fortunate issue? Is any-
thing more wanted to explain that adventurous character, that absence
of all care for the morrow, which appears to have been one of the most
distinguishing features of the epoch of the Directory. Fourier accepted
then, without hesitation, the proposals which his colleagues brought to
him in the name of the commander-in-chief; he quitted the agreeable
duties of a professor of the Polytechnic School to go—he knew not where;
to do—he knew not what.

148 JOSEPH FOURIER.

Chance placed Fourier during the voyage in the vessel in which
Kleber sailed. The friendship which the philosopher and the warrior
vowed to each other from that moment was not without some influence
upon the events of which Egypt was the theater after the departure of
Napoleon.

He who signed his orders of the day, the ember of the Institute, Com-
mander-in-chief of the Army in the East, could not fail to place an academy
among the means of regenerating the ancient kingdom of the Pharaohs.
The valiant army which he commanded had barely conquered at Cairo,
on the occasion of the memorable battle of the Pyramids, when the In-
stitute of Egypt sprung into existence. It consisted of forty-eight mem-
bers, divided into four sections. Monge had the honor of being the
first president. As at Paris, Bonaparte belonged to the section of
mathematics. The situation of perpetual secretary, the filling up of
which was left to the free choice of the society, was unanimously assigned
to Fourier.

You have seen the celebrated geometer discharge the same duty at
the Academy of Sciences ; you have appreciated his liberality of mind,
his enlightened benevolence, his unvarying affability, his straightforward
and conciliatory disposition; add in imagination to so many rare quali-
ties the activity which youth, which health, can alone give, and you will
have again conjured into existence the secretary of the Institute of
Egypt; and yet the portrait which I have attempted to draw of him
would grow pale beside the original.

Upon the banks of the Nile, Fourier devoted himself to assiduous
researches on almost every branch of knowledge which the vast plan of
the Institute embraced. The Decade and the Courier of Egypt will
acquaint the reader with the titles of his different labors. I find
in these journals a memoir upon the general solution of algebraic
equations; researches on the methods of elimination; the demonstra-
tion of anew theorem of algebra; a memoir upon the indeterminate
analysis; studies on general mechanics; a technical and historical
work upon the aqueduct which conveys the waters of the Nile to the
Castle of Cairo; reflections upon the oases; the plan of statistical
researches to be undertaken with respect to the state of Egypt; pro-
gramme of an intended exploration of the site of ancient Memphis, and
of the whole extent of burying-places; a descriptive account of the
revolutions and manners of Egypt, from the time of its conquest by
Selim.

I find also in the Egyptian Decade, that, on the first complementary
day of the year VI, Fourier communicated to the Institute the descrip-
tion of a machine designed to promote irrigation, and which was to be
driven by the power of wind.

This work, so far removed from the ordinary current of the ideas of
our colleague, has not been printed. It would very naturally find a
place in a work of which the expedition to Egypt might again furnish

JOSEPH FOURIER. 149

the subject, notwithstanding the many beautiful publications which it
has already called into existence. It would be a description of the man-
ufactories of steel, of arms, of powder, of cloth, of machines, and of
instruments of every kind which our army had to prepare for the ocea-
sion. If, during our infancy, the expedients which Robinson Crusoe
practiced in order to escape from the romantic dangers which he had
incessantly to encounter, excite our interest in a lively degree, how, in
mature age, could we regard with indifference a handful of Frenchmen
thrown upon the inhospitable shores of Africa, without any possible
communication with the mother-country, obliged to contend at once
with the elements and with formidable armies, destitute of food, of
clothing, of arms, and of ammunition, and yet supplying every want by
the force of genius!

The long route which I have yet to traverse will hardly allow me to
add a few words relative to the administrative services of the illustrious
geometer. Appointed French commissioner at the Divan of Cairo, he
became the official medium between the general-in-chief and every
Egyptian who might have to complain of an attack against his person,
his property, his morals, his habits, or his creed. An invariable suavity
of manner, a scrupulous regard for prejudices to oppose which directly
would have been vain, an inflexible sentiment of justice, had given him
an ascendency over the Mussulman population, which the precepts of
the Koran could not lead any one to hope for, and which powerfully
contributed to the maintenance of friendly relations between the inhab-
itants of Cairo and the French soldiers. Fourier was especially held in
veneration by the Cheiks and the Ulémas. A single anecdote will serve
to show that this sentiment was the offspring of genuine gratitude.

The Emir Hadgey, or Prince of the Caravan, who had been nominated
by General Bonaparte upon his arrival in Cairo, escaped during the
campaign of Syria. There existed strong grounds at the time for sup-
posing that four Cheiks Ulémas had rendered themselves accomplices of
the treason. Upon his return to Egypt, Bonaparte confided the investi-
gation of this grave affair to Fourier. ‘Do not,” said he, “‘ submit half-
measures tome. You have to pronounce judgment upon high person-
ages: we must either cut off their heads or invite them to dinner.” On
the day following that on which this conversation took place, the four
Cheiks dined with the general-in-chief. By obeying the inspirations of
his heart, Fourier did not perform merely an act of humanity; it was,
moreover, one of excellent policy. Our learned colleague, M. Geoffroy
Saint-Hilaire, to whom I am indebted for this anecdote, has stated in
fact that Soleyman and Fayoumi, the principal of the Egyptian chiefs,
whose punishment, thanks to our colleague, was so happily transformed
into a banquet, seized every occasion of extolling among their country-
men the generosity of the French.

Fourier did not display less ability when our generals confided diplo-
matic missions to him. I¢ is to his tact and urbanity that our army is

150 JOSEPH FOURIER.

indebted for an offensive and defensive treaty of alliance with Mourad
Bey. Justly proud of this result, Fourier omitted to make known the
details of the negotiation. This is deeply to be regretted, for the pleni-
potentiary of Mourad was a woman, the same Sitty Nefigah whom Kle-
ber bas immortalized by proclaiming her beneficence, her noble character,
in the bulletin of Heliopolis. and who, moreover, was already celebrated
from one extremity of Asia to the other, in consequence of the bloody
revolutions which her unparalleled beauty bad excited among the
Mamelukes.

The incomparable victory which Kleber gained over the army of the
Grand Vizier did not damp the energy of the janissaries, who had seized
upon Cairo while the war was raging at Heliopolis. They defended
themselves from house to house with heroic courage. The besieged had
to choose between the entire destruction of the city and an honorable
capitulation. The latter alternative was adopted. Fourier, charged,
as usual, with the negotiations, conducted them to a favorable issue ;
but on this occasion the treaty was not discussed, agreed to, and signed
within the mysterious precincts of a harem, upon downy couches, under
the shade of balmy groves. The preliminary discussions were held in
a house half ruined by bullets and grape-shot, in the center of the
quarter of which the insurgents valiantly disputed the possession with
our soldiers, before even it would have been possible to agree to the
basis of a treaty of a few hours. Accordingly, when Fourier was pre-
paring to celebrate the welcome of the Turkish commissioner conform-
ably to oriental usages, a great number of musket-shots were fired from
the house in front, and a ball passed through the coffee-pot which he
was holding in his hand. Without calling in question the bravery of
any person, do you not think, gentlemen, that if diplomatists were usu-
ally placed in equally perilous positions, the public would have less rea-
son to complain of their proverbial slowness ?

In order to exhibit, under one point of view, the various administrative
duties of our indefatigable colleague, I should have to show him to you
on board the English fleet, at the instant of the capitulation of Menou,
stipulating for certain guarantees in favor of the members of the Insti-
tute of Egypt; but services of no less importance and of a different nature
demand also our attention. They will even compel us to retrace our
steps, to ascend even to the epoch of glorious memory when Desaix
achieved the conquest of Upper Egypt, as much by the sagacity, the
moderation, and the inflexible justice of all his acts, as by the rapidity
and boldness of his military operations. Bonaparte then appointed two
numerous commissions to proceed to explore in those remote regions a
multitude of monuments of which the moderns hardly suspected the
existence, Fourier and Costas were the commandants of these com-
missions. I say the commandants, for a sufficiently imposing military
force had been assigned to them; since it was frequently after a combat
with the wandering tribes of Arabs that the astronomer found in the

JOSEPH FOURIER. 151
movements of the heavenly bodies the elements of a future geographical
map; that the naturalist collected unknown plants, determined the
geological constitution of the soil, occupied himself with troublesome
dissections; that the antiquary measured the dimensions of edifices; that
he attempted to take a faithful sketch of the fantastic images with which
everything was covered in that singular country, from the smallest
pieces of furniture, from the simple toys of children, to those prodigious
palaces, to those immense facades, beside which the vastest of modern
constructions would hardly attract a look. |

The two learned commissions studied with scrupulous care the mag-
nificent temple of the ancient Tentyris, and especially the series of
astronomical signs which have excited in our days such lively discus-
sions; the remarkable monuments of the mysterious and sacred Isle of
Elephantine; the ruins of Thebes, with her hundred gates, before which
(and yet they are nothing but ruins) our whole army halted, ina state of
astonishment, to applaud.

Fourier also presided in Upper Egypt over these memorable works,
when the commander-in-chief suddenly quitted Alexandria, and returned
to France with his principal friends.. Those persons then were very
much mistaken who, upon not finding our colleague on board the frigate
Muiron, beside Monge and Berthollet, imagined that Bonaparte did not
appreciate his eminent qualities. If Fourier was not a passenger, this
arose from the circumstance of his having been a hundred leagues from
the Mediterranean when the Muiron set sail. The explanation contains
nothing striking, but it is true. In any case, the friendly feeling of
Kleber toward the secretary of the Institute of Egypt, the influence which
he justly granted to him on a multitude of delicate occasions, amply
compensated him for an unjust omission.

I arrive, gentlemen, at the epoch so suggestive of painful recollec-
tions, when the Agas of the janissaries, who had fled into Syria, having
despaired of vanquishing our troops so admirably commanded by the
honorable arms of the soldier, had recourse to the dagger of the assassin.
You are aware that a young fanatic, whose imagination had been
wrought up to a high state of excitement in the mosques by a month of
prayers and abstinence, aimed a mortal blow at the hero of Heliopolis at
the instant when he was listening, without suspicion, and with his usual
kindness, to a recital of pretended grievances, and was promising redress.

This sad misfortune plunged our colony into profound grief. The
Egyptians themselves mingled their tears with those of the French
soldiers. By a delicacy of feeling which we should be wrong in sup-
posing the Mahometans not to be capable of, they did not then omit,
they have not since omitted, to remark, that the assassin and his three
accomplices were not born on the banks of the Nile.

The army, to mitigate its grief, desired that the funeral of Kleber
should be celebrated with great pomp. It wished, also, that on that
solemn day some person should recount the long series of brilliant

2 JOSEPH FOURIER.

actions which will transmit the name of the illustrious general to the
remotest posterity. By unanimous consent this honorable and perilous
mission was confided to Fourier.

There are very few individuals, gentlemen, who have not seen the
brilliant dreams of their youth wrecked one after the other against the
sad realities of mature age. Fourier was one of those few exceptions.

In effect, transport yourselves mentally back to the year 1789, and
consider what would be the future prospects of the humble convert of St.

senoit-sur-Loire. No doubt, asmall share of literary glory ; the favor of
being heard occasionally in the churches of the metropolis; the satis-
faction of being appointed to eulogize such or such a public personage.
Well, nine years have hardly passed aud you find him at the head of
the Institute of Egypt, and he is the oracle, the idol, of a society which
counted among its members Bonaparte, Berthollet, Monge, Malus,
Geoffroy St. Hilaire, Conté, &c.; and the generals rely upon him for
overcoming apparently insurmountable difficulties, and the army of the
East, itself so rich in adornments of all kinds, would desire no other
interpreter when it is necessary to recount the lofty deeds of the hero
which it had just lost.

It was upon the breach of a bastion which our troops had recently
taken by assault, in sight of the most majestic of rivers, of the mag-
nificent valley which it fertilizes, of the frightful desert of Lybia, of the
colossal pyramids of Gizeh; it was in presence of twenty populations
of different origins which Cairo unites together in its vast basin; in
presence of the most valiant soldiers that had ever set foot on a land,
wherein, however, the names of Alexander and of Cesar still resound ;
it was in the midst of everything which could move the heart, excite
the ideas, or exalt the imagination, that Fourier unfolded the noble
life of Kleber. The orator was listened to with religious silence; but
soon, addressing himself with a gesture of his hand to the soldiers
ranged in battle-array before him, he exclaims: ‘‘Ah, how many of you
would have aspired to the honor of throwing yourselves between Kleber
and his assassin! I call you to witness, intrepid cavalry, who rushed
to save him upon the heights of Koraim, and dispelled in an instant
the multitude of enemies who had surrounded him!” At these words
an electric tremor thrills throughout the whole army, the colors droop,
the ranks close, the arms come into collision, a deep sigh escapes from
some ten thousand breasts torn by the saber and the bullet, and the
voice of the orator is drowned amid sobs.

A few months after, upon the same bastion, before the same soldiers,
Fourier celebrated with no less eloquence the exploits, the virtues, of
the general whom the people conquered in Africa saluted with the name
so flattering of Just Sultan, and who sacrificed his life at Marengo to
secure the triumph of the French arms.

Fourier quitted Egypt only with the last wreck of the army, in virtue
of the capitulation signed by Menou. On hig return to France the

JOSEPH FOURIER. 153

object of his most constant solicitude was to illustrate the memorable
expedition of which he had been one of the most active and most useful
members. The idea of collecting together the varied labors of all his
colleagues incontestably belongs to him. I find the proof of this in a
letter still unpublished, which he wroteto Kleber from Thebes on the 20th
Vendémiaire, inthe year VI. No public act in which mention is made
of this great literary monument is of an earlier date. The Institute of
Cairo having adopted the project of a Work upon Egypt as early as the
month of Frimaire, in the year VIII, confided to Fourier the task of
uniting together the scattered elements of it, of making them consistent
with each other, and drawing up the general introduction.

This introduction was published under the title of Historical Preface.
Fontanes saw in it the graces of Athens and the wisdom of Egypt united
together. What could Ladd to such an eulogium? I shall say only
that there are to be found there, in a few pages, the principal features
of the government of the Pharaohs, and the results of the subjection
of ancient Egypt by the kings of Persia, the Ptolemies, the successors
of Augustus, the emperors of Byzantium, the first Caliphs, the cele-
brated Saladin, the Mamelukes, and the Ottoman princes. The different
phases of our adventurous expedition are there characterized with the
greatest care. JTourier carries his scruples to so great a length as to
attempt to prove that it was just. I have said only so far as to attempt,
for in that case there might have been something to deduct from the
second part of the eulogium of Fontanes. If, in 1797, our countryman
experienced at Cairo or at Alexandria outrages and extortions which
the Grand Seignior either would not or could not repress, one may in all
rigor admit that France ought to have exacted justice to herself; that
she had the right to send a powerful army to bring the Turkish eustom-
house officers to reason. But this is far from maintaining that the Divan
of Constantinople ought to have favored the French expedition; that
our conquest was about to restore to him, in some sort, Egypt and Syria;
that the capture of Alexandria and the battle of the Pyramids would
enhance the luster of the Ottoman name! However, the public hastened
to acquit Fourier of what appears hazarded in this small part of his
beautiful work. The origin of it has been sought for in political exi-
gencies. Let us be brief; behind certain sophisms the hand of the orig-
inal commander-in-chief of the army of the East was suspected to be
seen !

Napoleon then would appear to have participated, by his instructions,
by his counsels, or, if we choose, by his imperative orders, in the com-
position of the essay of Fourier. What was not long ago nothing more
than a plausible conjecture has now become an incontestable fact.
Thanks to the courtesy of M. Champollion-Figeac, I held in my hands,
within the last few days, some parts of the first proof-sheets of the his-
torical preface. These proofs were sent to the Emperor, who wished to
make himself acquainted with them at leisure before reading them with

154 JOSEPH FOURIER.

Fourier. They are covered witb marginal notes, and the additions which
they have occasioned amount to almost a third of the original discourse.
Upon these pages, as in the definitive work given to the. public, one
remarks a complete absence of proper names; the only exception is
in the case of the three generals-in-chief. Thus Fourier had imposed
upon himself the reserve which certain vanities had blamed so severely.
IT shall add that nowhere throughout the precious proof-sheets of M.
Champollion do we perceive traces of the miserable feelings of jealousy
which have been attributed to Napoleon. It is true that upon pointing
out with his finger the word illustrious applied to Kleber, the Emperor
said to our colleague, “‘Some one has directed my attention to this
epithet ;” but, after a short pause, he added, “It is desirable that you
should leave it, for it is just and well deserved.” These words, gentle-
men, honored the monarch still less than they branded with disgrace
the some one whom I regret not being able to designate in more definite
terms; one of those vile courtiers whose whole life is occupied in spying out
the frailties, the evil passions of their masters, in order to make them
subservient in conducting themselves to honors and fortune!

Fourier had no sooner returned to Europe than he was named (Jan-
uary 2d, 1802) prefect of the department of V’Isere. The ancient Dau-
phiny was then a prey to ardent political dissensions. The republicans,
the partisans of the emigrants, those who had ranged themselves under
the banners of the consular government, formed so many distinct castes,
between whom all reconciliation appeared impossible. Well, gentle-
men, this impossibility Fourier achieved. His first care was to cause
the Hotel of the Prefecture to be considered as neutral ground, where
each might show himself without even the appearance of a concession.
Curiosity alone at first brought the people there, but the people returned ;
for in France they seldom desert the saloons wherein are to be found a
polished and benevolent host, witty without being ridiculous, and
learned without being pedantic. What had been divulged of the opin-
ions of our colleague, respecting the anti-biblican antiquity of the Egyp-
tian monuments, inspired the religious classes especially with lively
apprehensions ; they were very adroitly informed that the new prefect
counted a saint in his family; that the blessed Pierre Fourier, who
established the religious sisters of the Congregation of Notre-Dame, was
his grand-unele, and this cireumstance effected a reconciliation which
the unalterable respect of the first magistrate of Grenoble for all con-
scientious opinions cemented every day more and more.

As soon as he was assured of a truce with the political and religious
parties, Fourier was enabled to devote himself exclusively to the duties
of his office. These duties did not consist with him in heaping up old
papers to no advantage. He took personal cognizance of the projects
which were submitted to him; he was the indefatigable promoter of all
those which narrow-minded persons sought to stifle in their birth; we
may include in this last class the superb road from Grenoble to Turin

~

JOSEPH FOURIER. 155

by Mount Genevre, which the events of 1814 have so unfortunately
interrupted, and especially the drainage of the marshes of Bourgoin.

These marshes, which Louis XIV had given to Marshal Turenne,
were a focus of infection to the thirty-seven communes, the lands of
which were partially covered by them. Tourier directed personally
the topographic operations which established the possibility of drainage.
With these documents in his hand he went from village to village—I
might almost say from house to house—to fix the sacrifice which each
family ought to impose upon itself for the general interest. By tact
and perseverance, taking ‘the ear of corn always in the right direction,”
thirty-seven municipal councils were induced to contribute to a common
fund, without which the projected operation would not even have been
commenced. Success crowned this rare perseverance. Rich harvests,
fat pastures, numerous flocks, a robust and happy population now
covered an immense territory, where formerly the traveler dared not
remain more than a few hours.

One of the predecessors of Fourier, in the situation of perpetual
secretary of the Academy of Sciences, deemed it his duty, on one
occasion, to beg an excuse for having given a detailed account of certain
researches of Leibnitz, which had not required great efforts of the
intellect: ‘“ We ought,” says he, ‘to be very much obliged to a man
such as he is, when he condescends, for the public good, to do some-
thing which does not partake of genius!” I cannot conceive the ground
of such scruples; in the present day the sciences are regarded from too
high a point of view, that we should hesitate in placing in the first rank
of the labors with which they are adorned those which diffuse comfort,
health, and happiness amidst the working population.

In presence of a part of the Academy of Inscriptions, in an apartment
wherein the name of hieroglyph has so often resounded, I cannot refrain
from alluding to the service which Fourier rendered to science by retain-
ing Champollion. The young professor of history of the faculty of
letters of Grenoble had just attained the twentieth year of his age.
Fate calls him to shoulder the musket. Fourier exempts him by investing
him with the title of pupil of the School of Oriental Languages which he
had borne at Paris. The minister of war learns that the pupil formerly
gave inhis resignation; he denounces the fraud, and dispatches a peremp-
tory order for his departure, which seems even to exclude all idea of
remonstrance. Fourier, however, is not discouraged ; his intercessions
are skillful and of a pressing nature; finally, he draws so animated a
portrait of the precocious talent of his young friend, that he succeeds in
wringing from the government an order of special exemption. It was
not easy, gentlemen, to obtain such success. At the same time, a con-
seript, a member of our Academy, succeeded in obtaining a revocation of
his order for departure only by declaring that he would follow on foot
in the costume of the Institute the contingent of the arrondissement of
Paris in which he was classed.

156 JOSEPH FOURIER.

The administrative duties of the prefect of l Isere hardly interrupted
the labors of the geometer and the manof letters. It is from Grenoble
that the principal writings of Fourier are dated ; it was at Grenoble that
he composed the Théorie Mathématique de la Chaleur, which forms his
principal title to the gratitude of the scientifie world.

I am far from being unconscious of the difficulty of analyzing that
admirable work, and yet I shall attempt to point out the successive
steps which he has achieved in the advancement of science. You will
listen to me, gentlemen, with indulgence, notwithstanding several minute
details which I shall have to recount, since I thereby fulfill the mission
with which you have honored me.

The ancients had a taste, let us say rather a passion, for the marvel-
ous, which caused them to forget even the sacred duties of gratitude.
Observe them, for example, grouping together the lofty deeds of a great
number of heroes, whose names they have not even deigned to preserve,
and investing the single personage of Hercules with them. The lapse
of ages has not rendered us wiser in this respect. In our own time the
public delight in blending fable with history. In every career of life,
in the pursuit of science especially, they enjoy a pleasure in creating
Herculeses. According to vulgar opinion, there is no astronomical dis-
covery which is not due to Herschel. The theory of the planetary
movements is identified with the name of Laplace; hardly is a passing
allusion made to the eminent labors of D’Alembert, of Clairaut, of Euler,
of Lagrange. Watt is the sole inventor of the steam-engine. Chaptal
has enriched the arts of chemistry with the totality of the fertile and
ingenious processes which constitute their prosperity. Even within this
apartment has not an eloquent voice lately asserted that, before Fourier,
the phenomenon of heat was hardly studied, that the celebrated geom-
eter had alone made more observations than all his predecessors put
together; that he had with almost a single effort invented a new science ?

Although he runs the risk of being less lively, the organ of the
Academy of Sciences cannot permit himself such bursts of enthusiasm,
He ought to bear in mind that the object of these solemnities is not
merely to celebrate the discoveries of Academicians ; that they are also
designed to encourage modest merit; that an observer, forgotten by his
contemporaries, is frequently supported in his laborious researches by
the thought that he will obtain a benevolent look from posterity. Let us
act, so far as it depends upon us, in such a manner that a hope so just, so
natural, may not be frustrated. Let us award a just, a brilliant homage
to those rare men whom nature has endowed with the precious privilege
of arranging a thousand isolated facts, of making seductive theories
spring from them; but let us not forget to state, that the seythe of the
reaper had cut the stalks before one had thought of uniting them into
sheaves !

Heat presents itself in natural phenomena, and in thease which are the
products of art, under two entirely distinct foyms, which Fourier has

JOSEPH FOURIER. 157

separately considered. I shall adopt the same division, commencing,
however, with radiant heat the historical analysis which I am about
to submit to you.

Nobody doubts that there is a physical distinction which is eminently
worthy of being studied between the ball of iron at the ordinary temper-
ature which may be handled at pleasure, and the ball of iron of the same
dimensions which the flame of a furnace has’very much heated, and
which we cannot touch without burning ourselves. This distinction,
according to the majority of physical inquirers, arises from a certain
quantity of an elastic imponderabie fluid, or at least a fluid which has
not been weighed, with which the second ball has combined during the
process of heating. The fluid which upon combining with cold bodies
renders them hot, has been designated by the name of heat or calorie.

Bodies unequally heated act upon each other even at great distances,
even through empty space, for the colder becomes more hot, and the hotter
becomes more cold; for after a certain time they indicate the same
degree of the thermometer, whatever may have been the difference of
their originaltemperatures. According to the hypotheses above explained,
there is but one way of conceiving this action at a distance: this is to
suppose that it operates by the aid of certain effluvia which traverse
space by passing from the hot body to the cold body ; that is, to admit
that a hot body emits in every direction rays of heat, as luminous bodies
emit rays of hght.

The effluvia, the radiating emanations by the aid of which two distant
bodies form a calorific Communication with each other, have been very
appropriately designated by the name of radiating calorie.

Whatever may be said to the contrary, radiating heat had already
been the object of important experiments before Fourier undertook his
labors. The celebrated Academicians of the Cimento found, nearly two
centuries ago, that this heat is reflected like light; that, as in the case
of light, a concave mirror concentrates it at the focus. Upon substi-
tuting balls of snow for heated bodies, they even went so far as to prove
that frigorific foci may be formed by way of reflection. Some years
afterward Mariotte, a member of this Academy, discovered that there
exist different kinds of radiating heat; that the heat with which rays
of light are accompanied traverses all transparent media as easily as
light does; while, again, the caloric which emanates from a strongly
heated, but opaque substance, as well as the rays of heat which are found
mingled with the luminous rays of a body moderately incandescent, are
almost entirely arrested in their passage through the most transparent
plate of glass!

This striking discovery, let us remark in passing, will show, notwith-
standing the ridicule of pretended savants, how happily inspired were
the workmen in founderies, who looked at the incandescent matter of
their furnaces only through a plate of ordinary glass, thinking by the

158 JOSEPH FOURIER.

aid of this artifice to arrest the heat which would have burned their
eyes.

In the experimental sciences, the epochs of the most brilliant progress
are almost always separated by long intervals of almost absolute repose.
Thus, after Mariotte, there elapsed more than a century without history
having to record any new property of radiating heat. Then, in close
succession, we find in the solar light obscure calorific rays, the existence
of which could admit of being established only with the thermometer,
and which may be completely separated from Juminous rays by the aid
of the prism; we discover, by the aid of terrestrial bodies, that the
emission of caloric rays, and consequently the cooling of those bodies,
is considerably retarded by the polish of the surfaces; that the color,
the nature, and the thickness of the outer coating of these same sur-
faces exercise also a manifest influence upon their emissive power.
Experience, finally, rectifying the vague predictions to which the most
enlightened minds abandon themselves with so little reserve, shows that
the calorific rays which emanate from the plane surface of a heated
body, have not:the same force, the same intensity in all directions; that
the maximum corresponds to the perpendicular emission, and the min-
imum to the emissions parallel to the surface.

Between these two extreme positions, how does the diminution of the
emissive power operate? Leslie first sought the solution of this import-
ant question. His observations seem to show that the intensities of
the radiating rays are proportional (it is necessary, gentlemen, that I
employ the scientific expression) to the sines of the angles which these
rays form with the heated surface. But the quantities upon which the
experimenter had to operate were too feeble; the uncertainties of the
thermometric estimations compared with the total effect were, on the
contrary, too great not to inspire astrong degree of distrust; well, gen-
tlemen, a problem before which all the processes, all the instruments of
modern physics, have remained powerless, Fourier bas completely solved
without the necessity of having recourse to any new experiment. He
has traced the law of the emission of caloric sought for, with a perspi-
euity which one cannot sufficiently admire, in the most ordinary pheno-
mena of temperature, in the phenomena which at first sight appeared
to be entirely independent of it.

Such is the privilege of genius; it perceives, it seizes relations where
vulgar eyes see only isolated facts.

Nobody doubts, and besides experiment has confirmed the fact, that
in all the points of a space terminated by any envelope maintained at a
constant temperature, we ought also to experience a constant tempera-
ture, and precisely that of the envelope. Now, Fourier has established
that if the calorific rays emitted were equally intense in all directions,
if the intensity did not vary proportionally to the sine of the angle of
emission, the temperature of a body situated in the inclosure would
depend on the place which it would occupy there; that the temperature

JOSEPH FOURIER. 159

of boiling water or of melting iron, for example, would exist in certain
points of a hollow envelope of glass! In all the vast domain of the
physical sciences we should be unable to find a more striking application
of the celebrated method of the reductio ad absurdum of which the
ancient mathematicians made use in order to demonstrate the abstract
truths of geometry.

I shall not quit this first part of the labors of Fourier without adding,
that he has not contented himself with demonstrating with so much
felicity the remarkable law which connects the comparative intensities
of the calorific rays, emanating under all angles from heated bodies ; he
has sought, moreover, the physical cause of this law, and he has found
it in a circumstance which his predecessors had entirely neglected. Let
us Suppose, Says he, that bodies emit heat not only from the molecules
of their surfaces, but also from the particles in the interior. Let us
suppose, moreover, that the heat of these latter particles cannot arrive
at the surface by traversing a certain thickness of matter without
undergoing some degree of absorption. Fourier has reduced these two
hypotheses to calculation, and he has hence deduced mathematically the
experimental law of the sines. After having resisted so radical a test,
the two hypotheses were found to be completely verified; they have
become laws of nature; they point out latent properties of calorie
which could only be discerned by the eye of the intellect.

In the second question treated by Fourier, heat presents itself under
anew form. ‘There is more difficulty in following its movements; but
the conclusions deduced from the theory are also more general and more
important.

Heat excited, concentrated into a certain point of a solid body, com.
municates itself by way of conduction, first to the particles nearest the
heated point, then gradually to all the regions of the body. Whence
the problem of which the following is the enunciation.

By what routes, and with what velocities, is the propagation of heat
effected in bodies of different forms and different natures subjected to
certain initial conditions ?

Fundamentally, the Academy of Sciences had already proposed this
problem as the subject of a prize as early as the year 1736. Then the
terms heat and caloric were not in use; it demanded the study of nature,
and the propagation OF FIRE! The word fire, thrown thus into the pro-
gramme without any other explanation, gave rise to a mistake of the
most singular kind. The majority of philosophers imagined that the
question was to explain in what way burning communicates itself, and
increases in‘a mass of combustible matter. Fifteen competitors pre-
sented themselves; three were crowned.

This competition was productive of very meager results. However, a
singular combination of circumstances and of proper names will render
the recollection of it lasting.

Has not the public a right to be surprised upon reading this academic

+

160 JOSEPH FOURIER.

declaration : ‘* The question affords no handle to geometry!” In matter
of inventions, to attempt to dive into the future is to prepare for one’s self
striking mistakes. One of the competitors, the great Euler, took these
words in their literal sense: the reveries with which his memoir abounds
are not compensated in this instance by any of those brilliant discover-
ies in analysis—I had almost said of those sublime inspirations—which
were so familiar to him. Fortunately Euler appended to his memoir a
supplement truly worthy of his genius. Father Lozeran de Fiese and
the Count of Créqui were rewarded with the high honor of seeing their
names inscribed beside that of the illustrious geometer, although it
would be impossible in the present day to discern in their memoirs any
kind of merit, not even that of politeness, for the courtier said rudely
to the Academy: “The question which you have raised interests only
the curiosity of mankind.”

Among the competitors less favorably treated, we preceive one of the
ereatest writers whom France has produced—the author of the Henriade.
The memoir of Voltaire was, no doubt, far from solving the problem
proposed; but it was at least distinguished by elegance, clearness, and
precision of language; I shall add, by a severe style of argument; for
if the author oceasionally arrives at questionable results, it is only when
he borrows false data from the chemistry and physics of the epoch,—
sciences which had just sprung into existence. Moreover, the anti-
Cartesian color of some of the parts of the memoir of Voltaire was eal-
culated to find little favor in a society where Cartesianism, with its
incomprehensible vortices, was everywhere held in high estimation.

We should have more difficulty in discovering the causes of the failure
of a fourth competitor, Madame the Marchioness du Chatelet, for she
also entered into the contest instituted by the Academy. ‘The work of
Emilia was not only an elegant portrait of all the properties of heat
known then to physical inquirers; there were remarked, moreover, in it
different projects of experiments, among the rest, one which Herschel
has since developed, and from which he has derived one of the principal
flowers of his brilliant scientific crown.

While such great names were occupied in discussing this question,
physical inquirers of a less ambitious stamp laid experimentally the solid
basis of a future mathematical theory of heat. Some established that
the same quantity of calorie does not elevate by the same number of
degrees equal weights of different substances, and thereby introduced
into the science the important notion of capacity. Others, by the aid of
observations no less certain, proved that heat, applied at the extremity
of a bar, is transmitted to the extreme parts with greater or less velocity
or intensity, according to the nature of the substance of which the bar
is composed: thus they suggested the original idea of conduetibility. The
same epoch, if I were not precluded from entering into too minute
details, would present to us interesting experiments. We should find
that it is not true that, at all degrees of the thermometer, the loss of

JOSEPH FOURIER. 161

heat of a body is proportional to the excess of its temperature above
that of the medium in which it is plunged; but I have been desirous of
showing you geometry penetrating, timidly at first, into questions of
the propagation of heat, and depositing there the first germs of its fer-
tile methods.

It is to Lambert, of Mulhouse, that we owe this first step. This inge-
nious geometer had proposed a very simple problem, which any person
may comprehend. A slender metallic bar is exposed at one of its ex-
tremities to the constant action of a certain focus of heat. The parts
nearest the focus are heated first. Gradually the heat communicates
itself to the more distant parts, and, after a short time, each point ae-
quires the maximum temperature which it can ever attain. Although
the experiment were to last a hundred years, the thermometric state of
the bar would not undergo any modification.

As might be reasonably expected, this maximum of heat is so much
less considerable as we recede from the focus. Is there any relation
between the final temperatures and the distances of the different parti-
cles of the bar from the extremity directly heated? Such a relation ex-
ists. It is very simple. Lambert investigated it by calculation, and
experience confirmed the results of theory.

In addition to the somewhat elementary question of the longitudinal
propagation of heat, there offered itself the more general but much more
difficult problem of the propagation of heat in a body of three dimen-
sions terminated by any surface whatever. This problem demanded the
aid of the higher analysis.. It was Fourier who first assigned the equa-
tions. It is to Fourier, also, that we owe certain theorems, by means of
which we may ascend from the differential equations to the integrals,
and push the solutions, in the majority of cases, to the final numerical
applications.

The first memoir of Fourier on the theory of heat dates from the year
1807. The Academy, to which it was communicated, being desirous of
inducing the author to extend and improve his researches, made the
question of the propagation of heat the subject of the great mathemati-
cal prize which was to be awarded in the beginning of the year 1812.
Fourier did, in effect, compete, and his memoir was crowned. But, alas!
as Fontenelle said, “in the country even of demonstrations, there are
to be found causes of dissension.” Some restrictions mingled with the
favorable judgment. The illustrious commissioners of the prize, La-
place, Lagrange, and Legendre, while acknowledging the novelty and
importance of the subject, while declaring that the real differential
equations of the propagation of heat were finally found, asserted that
they perceived difficulties in the way in which the author arrived at
them. They added that his processes of integration left something to be
desired, even on the score of rigor. They did not, however, support
their opinion by any arguments.

Fourier never admitted the validity of this decision. Even at the

PS 71

162 JOSEPH FOURIER:

close of his life he gave unmistakable evidence that he thought it un-
just, by causing his memoir to be printed in our volumes without chang-
ing a single word. Still, the doubts expressed by the commissioners of
the Academy reverted incessantly to his recollection. Fyrom the very
beginning they had poisoned the pleasure of his triumpit These first
impressions, added to a high susceptibility, explain how Fourier ended
by regarding with a certain degree of displeasure the efforts of those
geometers who endeavored to improve his theory. This, gentlemen,
was a very strange aberration of a mind of so elevated an order. Our
colleague had almost forgotten that it is not allotted to any person to
conduct a scientific question to a definitive termination, and that the
important labors of D’Alembert, Clairaut, Euler, Lagrange, and La-
place, while immortalizing their authors, have continually added new
luster to the imperishable glory of Newton. Let us act so that this ex-
ample may not be lost. While the civil law imposes upon the tribunes
the obligation to assign the motives of their judgments, the academies,
which are the tribunes of science, cannot have even a pretext to escape
from this obligation. Corporate bodies, as well as individuals, act
wisely when they reckon in every instance only upon the authority of
reason.

At any time the “Théorie Mathématique de la Chaleur” would have
excited a lively interest among men of reflection, since, upon the suppo-
sition of its being complete, it threw light upon the most minute pro-
cesses of the arts. In our own time the numerous points of affinity ex-
isting between it and the curious discoveries of the geologists have
made it, if | may use the expression, a work for the occasion. To point
out the intimate relation which exists between these two kinds of
researches would be to present the most important part of the discov-
eries of Fourier, and to show how happily our colleague, by one of
those inspirations reserved for genius, had chosen the subject of his
researches.

The parts of the earth’s crust which the geologists call the sediment-
ary formations were not formed all at once. The waters of the ocean,
on several former occasions, covered regions which are situated in the
present day in the center of the continent. There they deposited, in
thin horizontal strata, a series of rocks of different kinds. These rocks,
although superposed like the layers of stones of a wall, must not be con-
founded together. 'Their dissimilarities are palpable to the least prac-
ticed eye. It is necessary, also, to note this capital fact, that each
stratum has a well-defined limit; that no process of transition connects
it with the stratum which it supports. The ocean, the original source
of all these deposits, underwent then formerly enormous changes in its
chemical composition, to which it is no longer subject.

With some rare exceptions, resulting from local convulsions, the effects
of which are otherwise manifest, the order of antiquity of the successive
strata of rocks which form the exterior crust of the globe ought to be

JOSEPH FOURIER. 163

that of their superposition. The deepest have been formed at the most
remote epochs. The attentive study of these different envelopes may
aid us in ascending the stream of time, even beyond the most remote
epochs, and enlightening us with respect to those stupendous revolu-
tions which periodically overwhelmed continents beneath the waters of
the ocean, or again restored them to their former condition. Crystalline
rocks of granite upon which the sea has effected its original deposits
have never exhibited any remains of life. Traces of such are to be found
only in the sedimentary strata.

Life appears to have first exhibited itself on the earth in the form of
vegetables. The remains of vegetables are all that we meet with in the
most ancient strata deposited by the waters; still they belong to plants
of the simplest structure—to ferns, to species of rushes, to lycopodes.

AS we ascend into the upper strata, vegetation becomes more and
more complex. Tinally, near the surface, it resembles the vegetation
actually existing on the earth, with tbis characteristic circumstance.
however, which is well deserving attention, that certain vegetables
which grow only in southern climates—that the large palm-trees, for
example—are found in their fossil state in all latitudes, and even in the
center of the frozen regions of Siberia.

In the primitive world, these northern regions enjoyed then, in winter,
a temperature at least equal to that which is experienced in the present
day under the parallels where the great palms commence to appear ; at
Tobolsk, the inhabitants enjoyed the climate of Alicante or Algiers.

We shall deduce new proofs of this mysterious result from an atten-
tive examination of the size of plants.

There exist, in the present day, willow-grass or marshy rushes, ferns,
and lycopodes, in Europe as well as in the tropical regions; but they
are not met with in large dimensions, except in warm countries. Thus,
to compare together the dimensions of the same plants is, in reality, to
compare, in respect to temperature, the regions where they are pro-
duced. Well, place beside the fossil plants of our coal mines, I will not
say the analogous plants of Europe, but those which grow in the coun-
tries of South America, and which are most celebrated for the richness
of their vegetation, and you will find the former to be of incomparably
greater dimensions than the latter.

The fossil flora of France, England, Germany, and Scandinavia offer,
for example, ferns ninety feet high, the stalks being six feet in diameter
or eighteen feet in circumference.

The licopodes which, in the present day, whether in cold or temperate
climates, are creeping-plants, rising hardly to the height of a decimeter
above the soil; which, even at the equator, under the most favorable
circumstances, do not attain a height of more than one meter, had in
Europe, in the primitive world, an altitude of twenty-five meters.

One must be, blind to all reason not to find in these enormous dimen-

164 ,OSEPH FOURIER.

sions a new proof of the high temperature enjoyed by our country before
the last irruptions of the ocean.

The study of fossil animals is no less fertile in results. I should digress
from my subject if I were to examine here how the organization of
animals is developed upon the earth; what modifications, or more
strictly speaking, what complications it has undergone after each cata-
clysm, or if I even stopped to describe one of those ancient epochs
during which the earth, the sea, and the atmosphere had for inhabitants
cold-blooded reptiles of enormous dimensions; tortoises, with shells three
feet in diameter; lizards seventeen meters long; pterodactyles, veritable
flying dragons of such strange forms that they might be classed on
good grounds either among reptiles, among mammiferous animals, or
among birds. The object which I have proposed does not require that
I should enter into such details ; a single remark will suffice.

Among the bones contained in the strata nearest the present surface
of the earth are those of the hippopotamus, the rhinoceros, and the
elephant. These remains of animals of warm countries are to be found
in all latitudes. Travelers have discovered specimens of them even at
Melville Island, where the temperature descends, in the present day,
50° beneath zero. In Siberia they are found in such abundance as
to have become an article of commerce. Finally, upon the rocky
shores of the Arctic Ocean, there are to be found not merely fragments
of skeletons, but whole elephants still covered with their flesh and skin.

I should deceive myself very much, gentlemen, if I were to suppose
that each of you had not deduced from these remarkable facts a conelu-
sion no less remarkable, to which, indeed, the fossil flora had already
habituated us; namely, that as they have grown older the polar regions
of the earth have cooled down to a prodigious extent.

In the explanation of so curious a phenomenon, cosmologists have not
taken into account the existence of possible variations of the intensity
of the solar heat; and yet the stars, those distant suns, have not the
constant brightness which the common people attribute to them. Nay,
some of them have been observed to diminish in a sufliciently short
space of time to the hundredth part of their original brightness ; and
several have even totally disappeared. They have preferred to attrib-
ute everything to an internal or primitive heat with which the earth
was at some former epoch impregnated, and which is gradually being
dissipated in space.

Upon this hypothesis the inhabitants of the polar regions, although
deprived of the sight of the sun for whole months together, must have
evidently enjoyed, at very ancient epochs, a temperature equal to that
of the tropical regions, wherein exist elephants in the present day.

It is not, however, as an explanation of the existence of elephants in
Siberia that the idea of the intrinsic heat of the globe has entered for
the first time into science. Some savants had adopted it before the dis-
covery of those fossil animals. Thus, Descartes was of opinion that

JOSEPH FOURIER. — 165

originally (I cite his own words) the earth did not differ from the sun in
any other respect than in being smaller. Upon this hypothesis, then, it
ought to be considered aS an extinct sun.

Leibnitz conferred upon this hypothesis the honor of appropriating it
to himself. He attempted to deduce from it the mode of formation of
the different solid envelopes of which the earth consists. Buffon, also,
imparted to it the weight of his eloquent authority. According to that
great naturalist, the planets of our system are merely portions of the
sun, which the shock of a comet had detached from it some tens of thou-
sands of years ago.

In support of this igneous origin of the earth, Mairan and Buffon
cited already the high temperature of deep mines, and, among others,
those of the mines of Giromagny. It appears evident that if the earth
was formerly incandescent, we should not fail to meet in the interior
strata—that is to say, in those which ought to have cooled last—traces
of their primitive temperature. The observer who, upon penetrating
into the interior of the earth, did not find an increasing heat, might then
consider himself amply authorized to reject the hypothetical conceptions
of Descartes, of Mairan, of Leibnitz, and of Buffon. But has the con-
verse proposition the same certainty? Would not the torrents of heat,
which the sun has continued incessantly to launch for so many ages,
have diffused themselves into the mass of the earth, so as to produce
there a temperature increasing with the depth? This is a question of
high importance. Certain easily satisfied minds conscientiously sup-
posed that they had solved it, when they stated that the idea of a con-
stant temperature was by far the most natural; but woe to the sciences
if they thus included vague considerations, which escape all criticism,
among the motives for admitting and rejecting facts and theories! Fon-
tenelle, gentlemen, would have traced their horoscope in these words,
so well adapted for humbling our pride, and the truth of which the his-
tory of discoveries reveals in a thousand places: ‘When a thing may
be in two different ways, it is almost always that which appears at first ®
the least natural.”

Whatever importance these reflections may possess, I hasten to add
that, instead of the arguments of his predecessors, which have no real

value, Fourier has substituted proofs, demonstrations; and we know
what meaning such terms convey to the Academy of Sciences.

In all places of the earth, as soon as we descend to a certain depth,
the thermometer no longer experiences either diurnal or annual varia-
tion. It marks the same degree, and the same fraction of a degree, from
day to day, and from year to year. Such is the fact: what says theory ?

Let us suppose, for a moment, that the earth has constantly received
all its heat from the sun. Descend into its mass to a sufficient depth,
and you will find, with Fourier, by the aid of caleulation, a constant
temperature for each day of the year. You will recognize further, that
this solar temperature of the inferior strata varies from one climate to

166 JOSEPH FOURIER.

another; that in each country, finally, it ought to be always the same,
so long as we do not descend to depths which are too great relatively
to the earth’s radius.

Well, the phenomena of nature stand in manifest contradiction to this
result. The observations made in a multitude of mines, observations
of the temperature of hot springs coming from different depths, have
all given an increase of one degree of the centigrade for every twenty
or thirty meters of depth. Thus, there was some inaccuracy in the hy-
pothesis which we were discussing upon the footsteps of our colleague.
It is not true that the temperature of the terrestrial strata may be
attributed solely to the action of the solar rays.

This being established, the increase of heat which is observed in all
climates when we penetrate into the interior of the globe is the mani-
fest indication of an intrinsic heat. The earth, as Descartes and Leib-
nitz maintained it to be, but without being able to support their asser-
tions by any demonstrative reasoning,—thanks to a combination of the
observations of physical inquirers with the analytical calculations of
Fourier,—is an inecrusted sun, the high temperature of which may be
boldly invoked every time that the explanation of ancient geological
phenomena will require it.

After having established that there is in our earth an inherent heat—
a heat the source of which is not the sun, and which, if we may judge
of it by the rapid inerease which observation indicates, ought to be
already sufficiently intense at the depth of only seven or eight leagues
to hold in fusion all known substances—there arises the question, what
is its precise value at the surface of the earth; what weight are we td
attach to it in the determination of terrestrial temperatures ; what part
does it play in the phenomena of life ?

According to Mairan, Buffon, and Bailly, this part is immense. For
France, they estimate the heat which escapes from the interior of the
arth at twenty-nine times insummer, and four hundred times in winter,
the heat which comes to us from the sun. Thus, contrary to general
opinion, the heat of the body which illuminates us would form only a
very small part of that whose propitious influence we feel.

This idea was developed with ability and great eloquence in the
Memoirs of the Academy, in the Epoques sur la Nature of Buffon, in the
letters from Bailly to Voltaire upon the Origin of the Sciences and upon the
Atlantide. But the ingenious romance to which it has served as a base
has vanished like a shadow before the torch of mathematical science.

Fourier having discovered that the excess of the aggregate temper-
ature of the earth’s surface above that which would result from the sole
action of the solar rays has a determinate relation to the increase of
temperature at different depths, succeeded in deducing from the exper-
imental value of this increase a numerical determination of the excess
in question. This excess is the thermometric effect which the solar heat
produces at the surface. Now, instead of the large numbers adopted by

JOSEPH FOURIER. 167

Marian, Bailly, and Buffon, what has our colleague found? A thirtieth
of a degree; not more.

The surface of the earth, which originally was perhaps incandescent,
has cooled then in the course of ages so as hardly to preserve any
sensible trace of its primitive heat. However, at great depths, the
original heat is still enormous. Time will alter sensibly the internal
temperature; but at the surface (and the phenomena of the surface can
alone modify or compromise the existence of living beings) all the
changes are almost accomplished. The frightful freezing of the earth,
the epoch of which Buffon fixed at the instant when the central heat
would be totally dissipated, is then a pure dream. At the surface, the
earth is no longer impregnated except by the solar heat. So long as
the sun shall continue to preserve the same brightness, mankind will
find, from pole to pole, under each latitude, the climates which have
permitted them to live and to establish their residence. These, gentle-
men, are great, magnificent results. While recording them in the annals
of science, historians will not neglect to draw attention to this singular
peculiarity-—that the geometer, to whom we owe the first certain demon-
stration of the existence of a heat independent of a solar influence in
the interior of the earth, has annihilated the immense part which this
primitive heat was made to play in the explanation of the phenomena
of terrestial temperature.

Besides divesting the theory of climates of an error which occupied a
prominent place in science, supported as it was by the imposing authority
of Marian, of Bailly, and of Buffon, Fourier is entitled to the merit of
a still more striking achievement; he has introduced into this theory
a consideration which hitherto had been totally neglected; he has
pointed out the influence exercised by the temperature of the celestial
regions, amid which the earth describes its immense orb around the sun.

When we perceive, even under the equator, certain mountains covered
with eternal snow, upon observing the rapid diminution of temperature
which the strata of the atmosphere undergo during ascents in balloons,
meteorologists have supposed that, in the regions wherein the extreme
rarity of the air will always exclude the presence of mankind, and that
especially beyond the limits of the atmosphere, there ought to prevail a
prodigious intensity of cold. It was not merely by hundreds, it was by
thousands of degrees, that they had arbitrarily measured it. But, as
usual, the imagination (cette folie de la maison) had exceeded all reason-
able limits. The hundreds, the tens of thousands of degrees, have
dwindled down, after the rigorous researches of Fourier, to fifty or sixty
degrees only. Fifty to sixty degrees beneath zero, such is the temper-
ature which the radiation of heat from the stars has established in the
regions furrowed indefinitely by the planets of our system.

You recollect, gentlemen, with what delight Fourier used to converse
upon this subject. You know well that he thought himself sure of
having assigned the temperature of space within eight or ten degrees.

168 JOSEPH FOURIER.

By what fatality has it happened that the memoir, wherein, no doubt,
our colleague had recorded all the elements of that important determi-
nation, is not to be found? May that irreparable loss prove at least to
so many observers that, instead of pursuing obstinately an ideal perfec-
tion, which it is not allotted to man to attain, they will act wisely in
placing the public, as soon as possible, in the confidence of their labors?

I should have yet a long course to pursue if, after having pointed out
some of those problems of which the condition of science enabled ur
learned colleague to give numerical solutions, I were to analyze all those
which, still enveloped in general formule, await merely the data of
experience to assume a place among the most curious acquisitions of
modern physics. Time, which is not at my disposal, precludes me
from dwelling upon such developments. I should be guilty, however,
of an unpardonable omission if I did not state that, among the formule
of Fourier, there is one which serves to assign the value of the secular
cooling of the earth, and in which there is involved the number of cen-
turies which have elapsed since the origin of this cooling. The question
of the antiquity of the earth, including even the period of incandescence,
which has been so keenly discussed, is thus reduced to a thermometric
determination. Unfortunately this point of theory is subject to serious
difficulties. Besides, the thermometric determination, in consequence
of its excessive smallness, must be reserved for future ages.

I have just exhibited to you the scientific fruits of the leisure hours
of the prefect of V’Isere. Fourier still occupied this situation when
Napoleon arrived at Cannes. His conduct during this grave conjuncture
has been the object of a hundred false rumors. I shall then discharge
a duty by establishing the facts in all their truth, according to what I
have heard from our colleague’s own mouth.

Upon the news of the Emperor having disembarked, the principal
authorities of Grenoble assembled at the residence of the prefect.
There each individual explained ably, but especially, said Fourier, with
much detail, the difficulties which he perceived. As regards the means
of vanquishing them, the authorities seemed to be much less inventive.
Confidence in administrative eloquence was not yet worn out at that
epoch; it was resolved accordingly to have recourse to proclamations.
The commanding officer and the prefect presented each a project. The
assembly was discussing minutely the terms of them, when an officer of
the gensdarmes, an old soldier of the imperial armies, exclaimed rudely,
“ Gentlemen. be quick, otherwise all deliberation will become useless.
Believe me, I speak from experience; Napoleon always follows very
closely the couriers who announce his arrival.” Napoleon was in fact
close at hand. After a short moment of hesitation, two companies of
sappers, which had been dispatched to cut down a bridge, joined their
former commander. A battalion of infantry soon followed their example.
Finally, upon the very glacis of the fortress, in presence of the numerous
population which crowned the ramparts, the fifth regiment of the line to

JOSEPH FOURIER. 169

aman assumed the tricolor cockade, substituted for the white flag the
eagle—witness of twenty battles—which it had preserved, and departed
with shouts of Vive VEmpereur! After such a commencement, to
attempt to hold the country would have been an act of folly. General
Marchand eaused accordingly the gates of the city to be shut. He still
hoped, notwithstanding the evidently hostile disposition of the inhab-
itants, to sustain a siege with the sole assistance of the third regiment
of engineers, the fourth regiment of artillery, and some weak detach-
ments of infantry which had not abandoned him.

From that moment, the civil authority had disappeared. Fourier
thought then that he might quit Grenoble, and repair to Lyons, where
the princes had assembled together. At the second restoration, this
departure was imputed to him as a crime. He was very near being
brought before a court of assizes, or even a provost’s court. Certain
personages pretended that the presence of the prefect of the chief place
of VIstre might have conjured the storm; that the resistance might have
been more animated, better arranged. People forgot that nowhere, and
at Grenoble even less than anywhere else, was it possible to organize
even a pretext of resistance. Let us see then, finally, how this martial
city—the fall of which Fourier might have prevented by his mere pres-
ence—let us see how it was taken.” It is eight o’clock in the evening.
The inhabitants and the soldiers garrison the ramparts. Napoleon pre-
cedes his little troop by some steps; he advances even to the gate; he
knocks, (be not alarmed, gentlemen, it is not a battle which [ am about
todescribe,) he knocks with his snuff-box ! ** Who isthere?” cried the officer
of the guard. “It is the Emperor! Open!” “Sire, my duty forbids
me.” ‘Open, I tell you; I have no time to lose.” ‘But, sire, even
though I should open to you, I could not. The keys are in the posses-
sion of General Marchand.” “Go, then, and fetch them.” ‘TI am cer-
tain that he will refuse them to me.” “If the general refuse them, tell
him that I will dismiss him.”

These words petrified the soldiers. During the previous two days,
hundreds of proclamations designated Bonaparte as a wild beast which
it was necessary to seize without scruple; they ordered everybody to run
away from him, and yet this man threatened the general with depriva-
tion of his command! The single word dismissal effaced the faint line of
demarkation which separated for an instant the old soldiers from the
young reeruits ; one word established the whole garrison in the interest
of the Emperor.

The circumstances of the capture of Grenoble were not yet known
when Fourier arrived at Lyons. He brought thither the news of the
rapidadvance of Napoleon; that of the revolt of two companies of sappers,
of a regiment of infantry, and of the regiment commanded by Labé-
doyere. Moreover, he was a witness of the lively sympathy which the
country people along the whole route displayed in favor of the pro-
scribed exile of Elba.

170 JOSEPH FOURIER.

The Count d’Artois gave a very cold reception to the prefect and his
communications. He declared that the arrival of Napoleon at Grenoble
was impossible; that no alarm need be apprehended respecting the dis-
position of the country people. “As regards the facts,” said he to
Fourier, ‘‘ which would seem to have occurred in your presence at the
very gates of the city, with respect to the tricolored cockades substi-
tuted for the cockade of Henry IV, with respect to the eagles which you
say have replaced the white flag, I do not suspect your good faith, but
the uneasy state of your mind must have dazzled your eyes. Prefect,
return then without delay to Grenoble; you will answer for the city
with your head.”

You see, gentlemen, after having so long proclaimed the necessity of
telling the truth to princes, moralists will act wisely by inviting princes
to be good enough to listen to its language.

Fourier obeyed the order which had just been given him. The wheels
of his carriage had made only a few revolutions in the direction of
Grenoble, when he was arrested by hussars and conducted to the head-
quarters at Bourgoin. The Emperor, who was engaged in examining a
large chart with a pair of compasses, Said upon seeing him enter, “ Well,
prefect, you also have declared war against me?” “Sire, my oath of
allegiance made it my duty to do so!” “A duty you say? and do you
not see thatin Dauphiny nobody is of the same mind? Do not imagine,
however, that your plan of the campaign will frighten me much, It
only grieved me to see among my enemies an Egyptian, a man who had
eaten along with me the bread of the bivouac, an old friend!”

It is painful to add that to those kind words succeeded these also:
“ How, moreover, could you have forgotten, Monsieur Fourier, that I
have made you what you are?”

You will regret with me, gentlemen, that a timidity, which cireum-
stanees would otherwise easily explain, should have prevented our col-
league from at once emphatically protesting against this confusion,
which the powerful of the earth are constantly endeavoring to estab-
lish between the perishable bounties of which they are the dispensers
and the noble fruits of thought. Fourier was prefect and baron by the
favor of the Emperor; he was one of the glories of France by his own
genius.

On the 9th of March, Napoleon, in a moment of anger, ordered Four-
ier, by a mandate, dated from Grenoble, to quit the territory of the sev-
enth military division within five days, under pain of being arrested and
treated as an enemy of the country! On the following day our colleague
departed from the conference of Bourgoin, with the appointment of pre-
feet of the Rhone and the title of count, for the Emperor after his return
from Elba was again at his old practices.

These unexpected proofs of favor and confidence afforded little pleas-
ure to our colleague, but he dared not refuse them, although he per-

JOSEPH FOURIER. Per

ceived very distinctly the immense gravity of the events in which he
was led by the vicissitude of fortune to play a part.

‘“ What do you think of my enterprise?” said the Emperor to him on
the day of his departure from Lyons. ‘Sire,’ replied Fourier, ‘+ I am
of opinion that you will fail. Let buta fanatic meet you on your way,
and all is at an end.” ‘ Bah!” exclaimed Napoleon, “the Bourbons
have nobody on their side, not even a fanatic. In connection with this
circumstance, you have read in the. journals that they have excluded
me from the protection of the law. I shall be more indulgent on my
part; I shall content myself with excluding them from the Tuileries.”

Fourier held the appointment of prefect of the Rhone only till the
Istof May. It has been alleged that he was recalled, because he refused
to be accessory to the deeds of terrorism which the minister of the hun-
dred days enjoined him to execute. The Academy will always be
pleased when I collect together and place on record actions which,
while honoring its members, throw new luster around the entire body.
I even feel that in such a case I may be disposed to be somewhat cred-
ulous. On the present occasion, it was imperatively necessary to insti-
tute a most rigorous examination. If Fourier honored himself by
refusing to obey certain orders, what are we to think of the minister of
the interior from whom those orders emanated? Now, this minister, it
must not be forgotten, was also an Academician, illustrious by his mil-
itary services, distinguished by his mathematical works, esteemed and
cherished by all his colleagues. Well, I declare, gentlemen, with a sat:
isfaction which you will all share, that a most scrupulous investigation
of all the acts of the hundred days has not disclosed a trace of any-
thing which might detract from the feelings of admiration with which
the memory of Carnot is associated in your minds.

Upon quitting the prefecture of the Rhone, Fourier repaired to Paris.
The Emperor, who was then upon the eve of setting out to join the
army, perceiving him amid the crowd at the Tuileries, accosted him in
a friendly manner, informed him that Carnot would explain to him why
his displacement at Lyons had become indispensable, and promised to
attend to his interest as soon as military affairs would allow him some
leisure time. The second restoration found Fourier in the capital with-
out employment, and justly anxious with respect to the future. He,
who, during a period of fifteen years, administered the affairs of a great
department; who directed works of such an expensive nature; who, in
the affair of the marshes of Bourgoin, had to contract engagements for
so many millions, with private individuals, with the communes, and with
public companies, had not twenty thousand francs in his possession. This
honorable poverty, as well as the recollection of glorious and important
Services, was little calculated to make an impression wpon ministers influ-
enced by political passion, and subject to the capricious interference of
foreigners. A demand for a pension was accordingly repelled with
rudeness. be reassured, however, France will not have to blush for

Ee2 JOSEPH FOURIER.

having left in poverty one of her principal ornaments. The prefect of
Paris—I have committed a mistake, gentlemen; a proper name will not
be out of place here—M. Chabrol, learns that his old professor at the
Polytechnic School, that the perpetual secretary of the Institute of
Egypt, that the author of the Théorie Analytique de la Chaleur, was
reduced, in order to obtain the means of living, to give private lessons
at the residences of his pupils. The idea of this revolts him. He ac-
cordingly shows himself deaf to the clamors of party, and Fourier
receives from him the superior direction of the Bureau de la Statistique
of the Seine, with a salary of 6,000 franes. It has appeared to me,
gentlemen, that [ ought not to suppress these details. Science may show
herself grateful toward all those who give her support and protection,
when there is some danger in doing so, without fearing that the burden
should ever become too heavy.

Fourier responded worthily to the confidence reposed in him by M. de
Chabrol. The memoirs with which he enriched the interesting volumes
published by the prefecture of the Seine, will serve henceforth as a guide
to all those who have the good sense to see in statistics something else
than an indigestible mass of figures and tables.

The Academy of Sciences seized the first occasion which offered itself
to attach Fourier to its interests. On the 27th of May, 1816, he was
nominated afree Academician. This election was not confirmed. ‘The
solicitations and influence of the Dauphin, whom circumstances detained
at Paris, had almost disarmed the authorities, when a courtier exclaimed
that an amnesty was to be granted to the civil Labédoyére!* This
word—for during many ages past the poor human race has been gov-
erned by words—decided the fate of our colleague. Thanks to political
intrigue, the ministers of Louis XVIII decided that one of the most
learned men of France should not belong to the Academy ; that a citizen
who enjoyed the friendship of all the most distinguished persons in the
metropolis should be publicly stricken with disapprobation!

In our country the reign of absurdity does not last long. Accordingly
in 1817, when the Academy, without being discouraged by the ill suecess
of its first attempt, unanimously nominated Fourier to the place which
had just been vacant in the section of physics, the royal confirmation
was accorded without difficulty. I ought to add that soon afterward
the ruling authorities, whose repugnances were entirely dissipated,
frankly and unreservedly applauded the happy choice which you made
of the learned geometer to replace Delambre as perpetual secretary.
They even went so far as to offer him the directorship of the fine arts ; but
our colleague had the good sense to refuse the appointment.

Upon the death of Lémontey, the French Academy, where Laplace
and Cuvier already represented the sciences, called also Fourier into its
bosom. The literary titles of the most eloquent of the writers connected

* In allusion to the military traitor, Colonel Labédoyére, who was condemned to death
for espousing the cause of Napoleon.—TRANSLATOR. :

JOSEPH FOURIER. 12

with the work on Egypt were incontestable; they even were not con-
tested, and still this nomination excited violent discussions in the jour-
nals, which profoundly grieved our colleague. And yet, after all, was it
not a fit subject for discussion, whether these double nominations are
of any real utility? Might it not be maintained, without incurring the
reproach of paradox, that it extinguishes in youth an emulation which
we are bound by every consideration to encourage? Besides, with
double, triple, and quadruple Academicians, what would eventually
become of the justly boasted unity of the Institute? Without insisting
further on these remarks, the justness of which you will admit if I mis-
take not, I hasten to repeat that the academic titles of Fourier did not
form even the subject of a doubt. The applause which was lavished
upon the eloquent éloges of Delambre, of Bréguet, of Charles, and of
Herschel, would sufficiently evince that, if their author had not been
already one of the most distinguished members of the Academy of Sci-
ences, the public would have invited him to assume a place among the
judges of French literature.

Restored at length, after so many vicissitudes, to his favorite pursuits,
Fourier passed the last years of his life in retirement and in the dis-
charge of academic duties. Zo converse had become the half of his ex-
istence. Those who have been disposed to consider this the subject of
just reproach have, no doubt, forgotten that constant reflection is no
less imperiously forbidden to man than the abuse of physical powers.
Repose, in everything, recruits our frail machine; but, gentlemen, he
who desires repose may not obtain it. Interrogate your own recollee-
tions and say if, when you are pursuing a new truth, a walk, the in-
tercourse of society, or even sleep, have the privilege of distracting you
from the objects of your thoughts? The extremely shattered state of
Fourier’s health enjoined the most careful attention. Aftermany attempts,
he found only one means of escaping from the contentions of mind which
exhausted hun: this consisted in speaking aloud upon the events of his
life; upon his scientific labors, which were either in course of being
planned, or which were already terminated ; upon the acts of injustice
of which he had reason tocomplain. Every person must have remarked
how insignificant was the state which our gifted colleague assigned to
those who were in the habit of conversing with him; we are now ae-
quainted with the cause of this.

Fourier had preserved, in old age, the grace, the urbanity, the varied
knowledge which, a quarter of a century previously, had imparted so
great a charm to his lectures at the Polytechnic School. There was a
}Jeasure in hearing him relate the anecdote which the listener already |
knew by heart, even the events in which the individual had taken a
direct part. I happened to be a witness of the kind of fascination which
he exercised upon his audience, in connection with an incident which
deserves to be known, for it will prove that the word which I have just
employed is not in any wise exaggerated.

LA JOSEPH FOURIER.

We found ourselves seated at the same table. The guest from whom
I separated him was an old officer. Our colleague was informed of this,
and the question ‘‘ Have you been in Egypt?” served as a commence-
ment of a conversation between them. Thereply was in the affirmative.
Fourier hastened to add: ‘As regards myself, [ remained in that mag-
nificent country until the period of its complete evacuation. Although
foreign to the profession of arms, I have, in the midst of our soldiers,
fired against the insurgents of Cairo; I have had the honor of hearing
the cannon of Heliopolis.” Hence to give an account of the battle was
but a step. This step was soon made, and we were presented with four
battalions drawn up in squares in the plain of Quoubbeh, and maneuver-
ing, with admirable precision, conformably to the orders of the illustrious
geometer. My neighbor, with attentive ear, with immovable eyes, and
with outstretched neck, listened to this recital with the liveliest inter-
est. He did not lose a single syllable of it; one would have sworn that
he had for the first time heard of those memorable events. Gentlemen,
it is so delightful a task to please! After having remarked the effect
which he produced, Fourier reverted, with still greater detail, to the
principat fight of those great days: to the capture of the fortified vil-
lage of Mattaryeh, to the passage of two feeble columns of French
grenadiers across ditches heaped up with the dead and wounded of the
Ottomanarmy. ‘ Generals, ancient and modern, have sometimes spoken
of similar deeds of prowess,” exclaimed our colleague, “but it was in
the hyperboiie style of the bulletin; here the fact is materially true—
it is true like geometry. I feel conscious, however,” added he, ‘“ that
in order to induce you to believe it, all my assurances will not be more
than sufficient.”

“Do not be anxious upon this point,” replied the officer, who at that
moment seemed to awaken from along dream. ‘In case of necessity,
I might guarantee the accuracy of your statement. It was I who, at
the head of the grenadiers of the 13th and 85th semi-brigades, forced
the entrenchments of Mattaryeh, by passing over the dead bodies of
the janissaries.”

My neighbor was General Tarayre. You may imagine much better
than I ean express, the effect of the few words which had just escaped
from him. Fourier made a thousand excuses, while I reflected upon
the seductive influence, upon the power of language, which for more
than half an hour had robbed the celebrated general even of the recol-
lection of the part which he had played in the battle of giants he was
listening to,

The more our secretary had occasion to converse the greater repug-
nance he experienced to verbal discussions. Fourier cut short every
debate as soon as there presented itself a somewhat marked difference
of opinion, only to resume afterward the same subject upon the modest
pretext of making a small step in advance each time. Some one asked
Fontaine, a celebrated geometer of this Academy, how he occupied his

JOSEPH FOURIER. 175

thoughts in society, wherein he maintained an almost absolute silence.
‘*T observe,” he replied, ‘the vanity of mankind, to wound it as ocea-
sion offers.” If, like his predecessor, Fourier also studied the baser pas-
sions which contend for honors, riches, and power, it was not in order
to engage in hostilities with them; resolved never to compromise matters
with them, he yet so calculated his movements beforehand as not to
tind himself in their way. We perceive a wide difference between this
disposition and the ardent, impetuous character of the young orator of the
popular society of Auxerre. But what purpose would philosophy serve,
if it did not teach us to conquer our passions? It is not that oceasion-
ally the natural disposition of Fourier did not display itself in full relief.
“It is strange,” said one day a certain very influential personage of the
court of Charles X, whom Fourier’s servant would not allow to pass
beyond the antechamber of our colleague, “it is truly strange that
your master should be more difficult of access than a minister!” Fou-
rier heard the conversation, leaped out of his bed to which he was con-
fined by indisposition, opened the door of the chamber, and exclaimed,
face to face with the courtier, ‘Joseph, tell Monsieur, that if I was
minister, I should receive everybody, because it would be my duty to do
so; but being a private individual, I receive whomsoever I please, and
at what hour soever I please!” Disconeerted by the liveliness of the
retort, the great seignior did not utter one word in reply. We must
even believe that from that moment he resolved not to visit any but
ministers, for the plain man of science heard nothing more of him.

Fourier was endowed with a constitution which held forth a promise
of long life; but what can natural advantages avail against the anti-
hygienic habits which men arbitrarily acquire? In order to guard
against slight attacks of rheumatism, our colleague was in the habit of
clothing himself, even in the hottest season of the year, after a fashion
which is not practiced even by travelers condemned to spend the winter
amid the snows of the polar regions. ‘One would suppose me to be
corpulent,” he used to say occasionally with a smile; ‘be assured, how-
ever, that there is much to deduct from this opinion. If, after the
example of the Egyptian mummies, I was subjected to the operation of
disembowelment,—from which heaven preserve me,—the residue would
be found to be a very slender body.” I might add, selecting also my
comparison from the banks of the Nile, that in the apartments of Fou-
rier, Which were always of smali extent and intensely heated, even in
summer, the currents of air to which one was exposed resembled some-
times the terrible simoon, that burning wind of the desert, which the
caravans dread as much as the plague.

The prescriptions of medicine which, in the mouth of M. Larrey, were
blended with the anxieties of a long and constant friendship, failed to
induce a modification of this mortal régime. Fourier had already expe-
rienced, in Egypt and Grenoble, some attacks of aneurism of the heart.
At Paris it was impossible to be mistaken with respect to the primary

176 JOSEPH FOURIER.

cause of the frequent suffocations which he experienced. <A fall, how-
ever, which he sustained on the 4th of May, 1830, while descending a
flight of stairs, aggravated the malady to an extent beyond what could
have been ever feared. Our colleague, nothwithstanding pressing sol-
icitations, persisted in refusing to combat the most threatening symp-
toms, except by the aid of patience and a high temperature. On the
16th of May, 1830, about four o’clock in the evening, Fourier experienced
in his study a violent crisis, the serious nature of which he was far from
being sensible of; for, having thrown himself completely dressed upon
his bed, he requested M. Petit, a young doctor of his acquaintance, who
carefully attended him, not to go far away, in order, said he, that we
may presently converse together. But to these words succeeded soon
the cries, “ Quick, quick, some vinegar; I am fainting!” and one
of the men of science, who has shed the brightest gustan upon the Aca-
demy, had ceased to live.

Gentlemen, this cruel event is too recent that I should recall here the
grief which the Institute experienced upon losing one of its most
important members; and those obsequies, on the occasion of which so
many persons, usually divided by interests and opinions, united together
in one common feeling of admiration and regret, around the mortal
remains of Fourier; and the Polytechnic School swelling in a mass the
cortege, in order to render homage to one of its earliest, of its most
celebrated professors ; and the words which on the brink of the tomb
depicted so eloquently the profound mathematician, the elegant writer,
the upright administrator, the good citizen, the devoted friend. We
shall merely state that Fourier belonged to all the great learned societies
of the world, that they united with the most touching unanimity in the
mourning of the Academy, in the mourning of all France: a striking
testimony that the republic of letters is no longer, in the present day,
merely a vain name. What, then, was wanting to the memory of our
colleague? A more able successor than I have been, to exhibit in full
relief the different phases of a life so varied, so laborious, so gloriously
interlaced with the greatest events of the most HegaBIS epochs of
our history. Fortunately, the scientific discoveries of the illustrious
secretary had nothing to dread from the incompetency of the panegy-
rist. My object will have been completely attained if, notwithstanding
the imperfection of my sketches, each of you will have learned that the
progress of general physics, of terrestrial physics, and of geology will
daily multiply the fertile applications of the Théorie Analytique de la
Chaleur, and that this work will transmit the name of Fourier down to
the remotest posterity.

ON PROFESSOR THOMAS GRAHAM’S SCIENTIFIC WORK.*

By WILLIAM ODLING, M.B., F.R.S.,
Fullerian Professor of Chemistry, I. I.

The simple story of Mr. Graham’s life, though not without its measure
of interest, and certainly not without its lessons, is referred to in the
following pages only in illustration of the grander story of his work.
Thomas Graham was born in Glasgow, on the 21st December, 1805. He
entered as a student at the University of Glasgow, in 1819, with a view
to becoming ultimately a minister of the Established Church of Scot-
land. At that time the university chair of chemistry was filled by Dr.
Thomas Thomson,a man of very considerable mark, and one of the
most erudite and thoughtful chemists of his day. The chair of natural
philosophy was also filled by a man of much learning, Dr. Meikleham,
who appears to have taken a warm personal interest in the progress of
his since distinguished pupil. Under these masters, Mr. Graham ac-
guired a strong liking for experimental science, and a dislike to the
profession chosen for him by his father; who, for a time at least, seems
to have exerted the authority of a parent somewhat harshly, but quite
unavailingly, to effect the fulfillment of his own earnest wishes in the
matter.

After taking his degree of master of arts at Glasgow, in 1826, Mr.
Graham worked for nearly two years in the laboratory of the University
of Ediaburgh, under Dr. Hope. He then returned to Glasgow ; and,
while supporting himself by teaching, at first mathematics and after-
ward chemistry, yet found time to follow up the path of experimental
inquiry, on which he had already entered.

His first original paper appeared in the Annals of Philosophy for
1826, its author being at that time in his twenty-first year. It is inter-
esting to note that the subject of this communication, ‘On the absorp-
tion of gases by liquids,” forms part and parcel of that large subject of
spontaneous gas-movement with which Mr. Graham’s name is now so
inseparably associated ; and that, in a paper communicated to the Royal
Society just forty years later, he Sie of the liquefiability of gases by
chemical means, in language almost identical with that used in this ear-
lest of his published memoirs.

Having, in the interval, contributed several other papers to the scien-
tific journals, in the year 1829 he published in the Quarterly Journal
of Science—the journal, that is to say, of the Royal Institution—the
first of his papers relating specifically to the subject of gas-diffusion. It

* From the proceedings of the Royal Institution, London.

12 871

178 PROFESSOR THOMAS GRAHAM’S SCIENTIFIC WORK.

was entitled ‘A short account of experimental researches on the diffu-
sion of gases through each other, and their separation by mechanical
means.” In the same year, he became lecturer on chemistry at the
Mechanics’ Institute, Glasgow; and in the next year, 1830, achieved
the yet more decisive step of being appointed professor of chemistry at
the Andersonian University. By this appointment he was relieved from
anxiety on the score of living, and afforded, in a modest way, the means
of carrying out his experimental work.

In 1831 he read, before the Royal Society of Edinburgh, a paper “ On
the law of the diffusion of gases,” for which the Keith prize of the society
was shortly afterward awarded him. Although several of his earlier
papers, and especially that ‘On the diffusion of gases,” published in
the Quarterly Journal of Science, had given evidence of considerable

power, it was this paper—in which he established the now well-recog-’

nized law that the velocities of diffusion of different gases are inversely
as the square roots of their specific gravities—that constituted the first
of what may properly be considered his great contributions to the
progress of chemical science.

In 1835 he communicated a paper of searcely less importance, to the
Royal Society of London, entitled ‘‘ Researches on the arseniates, phos-
phates, and modifications of phosphoric acid.” It afforded further evi-
dence of Mr. Graham’s quiet, steady power of investigating phenomena,
and of his skill in interpreting results; or rather of his skill in setting
forth the results in all their simplicity, undistorted by the gloss of
preconceived notions, so as to make them render up their own in-
terpretation. It is difficult nowadays to realize the independence of
mind involved in Mr. Graham’s simple interpretation of the facts
presented to him in this research, by the light of the facts themselves,
irrespective of all traditional modes of viewing them. Their investiga-
tion let in a flood of light upon the chemistry of that day, and formed
a starting-point from which many of our most recent advances may be
directly traced. In this paper, Mr. Graham established the existence
of two new, and, at that time, wholly unanticipated classes of bodies,
namely, the class of polybasie acids and salts, and the class of so-called
anhydro acids and salts. The views of Graham on the polybasicity of
phosphoric acid were soon afterward applied by Liebig to tartaric
acid, and by Gerhardt to polybasic acids in general, as we now recog-
nize them. After a long interval, the idea of polybasicity was next ex-
tended to radicals and to metals by Williamson and myself successively ;
afterward to alcohols by Wurtz, and to ammonias by Hofmann. The
notion of anhydro-salts was extended by myself to the different classes
of silicates ; by Wurtz to the compounds intermediate between oxide of
ethylene and glycol; and by other chemists to many different series of
organic bodies.

The next most important of the researches completed by Mr. Gra-
ham while at Glasgow was the subject of a paper communicated to the

PROFESSOR THOMAS GRAHAM’S SCIENTIFIC WORK. 179

o~

Royal Society of Edinburgh, in 1835, “On water as a constituent of
salts,” and of a second paper communicated to the Royal Society of
London, in 1836, entitled “ Inquiries respecting the constitution of salts,
&e.,” for which latter a royal medal of the society was afterward
awarded. The subject of hydration had yielded him such a harvest of
results in .the case of phosphoric acid, that it was only natural he should
wish to pursue the inquiry further. Indeed, it is a curious illustration
of the persistency of the man that he never seems to have left out of
sight the subjects of his early labors. Almost all his subsequent
original work is but a development, in different directions, of his youth-
ful researches on gas-diffusion and water of hydration; and so com-
pletely did he bridge over the space intervening between these widely
remote subjects, that, with regard to several of his later investigations,
it is difficult to say whether they are most directly traceable to his primi-
tive work on the one subject or on the other.

In 1837, on the death of Dr. Edward Turner, Mr. Graham was ap-
pointed professor of chemistry at University College, London, then
called the University of London. On his acceptance of this appoint-
ment he began the publication of his well-known Elements of Chem-
istry, Which appeared in parts, at irregular intervals, between 1837 and
1841. Elementary works, written for the use of students, have neces-
sarily much in common; but the treatise of Mr. Graham, while giving
an admirably digested account of the most important individual sub-
stances, was specially distinguished by the character of the introductory
chapters, devoted to chemical physics, wherein was set forth one of
the most original and masterly statements of the first principles of chem-
istry that has ever been placed before the English student. ‘The
theory of the voltaic circle” had formed the subject of a paper com-
municated by Mr. Graham to the British Association in 1839; and the
account of the working of the battery, given in his Elements of Chem-
istry, and based on the above paper, will long be regarded as a model of
lucid scientific exposition.

In 1841 the now flourishing Chemical Society of London was founded ;
and though Mr. Graham had been, at that time, but four years in Lon-
don, such was the estimation in which he was held by his brother chem-
ists, that he was unanimously chosen asthe first president of the society.
The year 1844 is noticeable in another way. Wollaston and Davy had
been dead for some years. Faraday’s attention had been diverted from
chemistry to those other branches of experimental inquiry in which his
highest distinctions were achieved ; and, by the death of Dalton in this
year, Mr. Graham was left as the acknowledged first of English chem-
ists, as the not unworthy successor to the position of Black, Priestley,
Cavendish, Wollaston, Davy, and Dalton.

From the period of his appointment at University College, in 1837,
Mr. Graham’s time was fully occupied in teaching, in writing, in advising
on chemical manufactures, in investigating fiscal and other questions for

180 PROFESSOR THOMAS GRAHAM’S SCIEN1iFIC WORK.

the Government, and in the publication of various scientific metdirs,
several of them possessing a high degree of interest; but it was not till
1846 that he produced a research of any considerable magnitude. In
that year he presented to the Royal Society the first part of a paper
‘On the motion of gases,” the second part of which he supplied in 1849.
For this research Mr. Graham was awarded a second royal medal of
the society in 1850. The preliminary portion of the first part of the
paper related to an experimental demonstration of the law of the effu-
sion of gases, deduced from Torricelli’s theorem on the efflux of liquids
—a demonstration that was achieved by Mr. Graham with much inge-
nuity, and without his encountering any formidable difficulty. But the
greater portion of the first part, and whole of the second part, of this
most laborious paper were devoted to an investigation of the velocities
of transpiration of different gases through capillary tubes, with a view
to discover some general law by which their observed transpiration rates
might be associated with one another. Again and again, with charac-
teristic pertinacity, Mr. Graham returned to the investigation; but,
although much valuable information of an entirely novel character was
acquired—information having an important bearing on his subsequent
work—the problem itself remained, and yet remains, unsolved. Why,
for example, under an equal pressure, oxygen gas should pass through a
capillary tube at a slower rate than any other gas is a matter that. still
awaits interpretation.

Near the end of the same year, 1849, Mr. Graham communicated, also
to the Royal Society, a second less laborious, but in the novelty and
interest of its results more successful, paper “On the diffusion of
liquids.” It was made the Bakerian lecture for 1856, and was supple-
mented by further observations communicated to the society in 1850 and
1851. In his investigation of this subject, Mr. Graham applied to liquids
the exact method of inquiry which he had applied to gases just twenty
years before, in that earliest of his papers on the subject of gas-diffusion
published in the Quarterly Journal of Science; and he succeeded in
placing the subject of liquid-diffusion on about the same footing as that
to which he had raised the subject of gas‘diffusion prior to the discovery
of his numerical law.

In 1854 Mr. Graham communicated another paper to the Royal
Society, ‘‘ On osmotic force,” a subject intimately connected with that
of his last previous communication. This paper was also made the
Bakerian lecture for the year; but, altogether, the conclusions arrived
at were hardly in proportion to the very great labor expended on the
inquiry. In the next year, 1855, just five-and-twenty years after his ap-
pointment at the Andersonian University, Mr.Graham was made master
of the mint; and, as a consequence, resigned his professorship at Uni-
versity College. During the next five years he published no original
work.

Thus, at the beginning of the year 1861, My, Graham, then fifty-six

PROFESSOR THOMAS GRAHAM’S SCIENTIFIC WORK. 181

years of age, had produced, in addition to many less important com-
munications, five principal memoirs ; three of them in the highest degree
successful ; the other two less successful in proportion to the expendi-
ture of time and labor on them, but, nevertheless, of great originality
and value. The most brilliant period, however, of his scientific career
was to come. In the year 1861, and between then and his death in 1869,
Mr. Graham communicated four elaborate papers to the Royal Society,
three of them far exceeding in novelty, interest, and philosophic power
anything that he had before produced; and the other of them, relating
to a certain physical effect of that hydration of compounds, from the
consideration of which his attention could never wholly be withdrawn.
This least important paper, “On liquid transpiration in relation to
chemical composition,” was communicated to the Royal Society in 1861,
Of the three greater papers, that “ On liquid diffusion applied to anal-
ysis” was communicated also in 1861. For this paper more especially,
as well as for his Bakerian lectures “On the diffusion of liquids” and
“On osmotic force,” Mr. Graham received, in 13862, the Copley medal
of the Royal Society; and, in the same year, was also awarded the
Jecker prize of the Institute of France. Following in quick succession,
his paper “On the molecular mobility of gases” was presented to the
Royal Society in 1863; and that “On the absorption and dialytie
separation of gases by colloid septa,” in 1866. With regard to these
three great papers, two of them were each supplemented by a communi-
vation to the Chemical Society; while the third was supplemented by
four successive notes to the Koval Society, containing an account of
further discoveries on the same subject, hardly less remarkable than
those recorded in the original paper. The last of these supplementary
notes was communicated on June 10, 1869, but a few months before the
death, on September 13, of the indefatigable but physically broken-
down man.

In considering Mr. Graham as a chemical philosopher and lawgiver,
we find him characterized by a pertinacity of purpose peculiarly his
own. Wanting the more striking qualities by which his immediate pre-
decessors, Davy, Dalton, and Faraday, were severally distinguished, he
displayed a positive zeal for tedious quantitative work, and a wonder-
ful keen-sightedness in seizing the points which his innumerable deter-
minations of various kinds, conducted almost incessantly for a period of
forty years, successively unfolded. His work itself was essentially that
of detail, original in conception, simple in execution, laborious by its
quantity, and brilliant in the marvelous results to which it led. As
regards its simplicity of execution, scarcely any investigator of recent
times has been less a friend to the instrument-maker than Mr. Graham.
While availing himself, with much advantage, of appliances devised by
Bunsen, Poiseuille, Sprengel, and others, all the apparatus introduced
by himself was of the simplest character, and for the most part of labor-
atory construction.

if ROFESS af a x .
182 PROFESSOR THOMAS GRAHAM’S SCIENTIFIC WORK

Essentially inductive in his mode of thought, Mr. Graham developed
his leading ideas, one after another, directly from experiment, scarcely,
if at all, from the prevailing ideas of the time. As well observed by
Dr. Angus Smith, ‘he seemed to feel his way by his work.” His records
of work are usually, in a manner almost characteristic, preceded each by
a statement of the interpretation or conclusion whieh he formed; but
the records themselves are expressed in the most unbiased matter-of-
fact language. Singularly cautious in drawing his conclusions, he
announces them from the first with boldness, making no attempt to con-
vince, but leaving the reader to adopt them or not as he pleases.
Accordingly, in giving an account of his various researches, Mr. Gra-
ham rarely, if ever, deals with argument; but he states succinctly the
experiments he has made, the conclusions he has himself drawn, and
not unfrequently the almost daring speculations and generalizations on
which he has ventured. Some of these speculations, on the constitution
of matter, ave reproduced in his own words further on.

Mr. Graham was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1837; cor-
responding member of the Institute of France in 1847; and doctor of
civil law of Oxford in 1855.

The remaining pages of this abstract are devoted to an account of his
principal discoveries—the generalizations they suggested to him, and
the relations in which they stood to precedent knowledge.

I.

Modifications of phosphoric acid.—At the date of Mr. Graham’s inves-
tigation of this subject, when oxy-salts were usually represented as com-
pounds of anhydrous base with anhydrous acid, the point of greatest
importance, with regard to each class of salts, was held to be the ratio
borne by the oxygen of the base to the oxygen of the acid. Thus, in
the carbonates, this ratio was as 1 to 2; in the sulphates, as 1 to 3; and
in the nitrates, as 1 to 5. But with regard to the phosphates, taking
common phosphate of soda as a type of phosphates in general, there
was a difficulty. Dr. Thomson maintained that, in this salt, the ratio
of the oxygen of the base to the oxygen of the acid was as 1 to 2; and
his view was substantially supported by Sir Humphrey Davy. Berzelius
contended, however, that the ratio was as 1 to 24, or, to avoid the use
of fractions, as 2 to 5; but, notwithstanding the excellence of the
Swedish chemist’s proof, and its corroboration by the researches of
others, the simpler and, as it seemed, more harmonious view of Dr.
Thomson prevailed very generally in this country. Anyhow, those
phosphates in which the oxygen ratio was the same as that in phosphate
of soda were taken as the neutral salts. But phosphate of soda was
found to have the peculiar and quite inexplicable property of reacting
with nitrate of silver to throw down, as a yellow precipitate, a phosphate
of silver, in which the proportion of metallic base exceeded that in the
original phosphate of soda—the precipitation ef the basic salt being

PROFESSOR THOMAS GRAHAM’S SCIENTIFIC WORK. 183

accompanied correlatively by the formation of a strongly acid liquid
According to Berzelius, the ratio of the oxygen of the base to that of
the acid, in this yellow precipitate, was as 3 to 5.

In 1821 Mitscherlich, then working in Berzelius’s laboratory, obtained,
by treating ordinary phosphate of soda with aqueous phosphorie acid,
a new crystallizable phosphate of soda, in which the ratio of acid to
base was twice as great as that in the ordinary phosphate. This new
salt, which had a strongly acid reaction to test paper, he called the bi-
phosphate of soda. He observed that it was a hydrated salt, and that
while the ratio init of the oxygen of the base to the oxygen of the acid,

yas as 1 to 5, the ratio of the oxygen of the base to the oxygen of the
water was 1 to 2.

In 1827 Mr. Grahain’s fellow-townsman, and predecessor at the Me-
chanics’ Institute, Dr. Clark, discovered another new phosphate of soda,
in which the ratio of the oxygen of the base to the oxygen of the acid

vas identical with that in the ordinary phosphate, namely, as 2 to 5.
But whereas the ordinary phosphate crystallized with 25 proportions of
water, the new phosphate crystallized with only 10; and whereas the
ordinary phosphate gave a yellow precipitate with nitrate of silver and
a strongly acid supernatant liquid, the new phosphate gave a chalk-
white precipitate with nitrate of silver and a perfectly neutral superna-
tant liquid. This new phosphate, being formed by heating the common
phosphate to redness, was accordingly designated the pyrophosphate.
By dissolution in water and evaporation of the liquid, it could be ob-
tained in the 10-hydrated crystalline state; and by desiccation at a
sand-bath heat, the crystalline salt could be again rendered anhydrous.
With regard to the 25 proportions of water belonging to the ordinary
salt, Dr. Clark noticed that 24 proportions could be driven off by a sand-
bath heat, and that this moderate heat did not alter the nature of the
salt. He found that the 25th proportion of water, however, could only
be driven off by a full red heat; and that, simultaneously with its ex-
pulsion, the change in the nature of the salt was effected. But he care-
fully guarded himself against being supposed to think that the change
in properties of the salt was consequent upon an elimination of its
water. The driving off of water from salts being, as he justly remarked,
a common effect of heat, he regarded this effect as a concomitant only
of the peculiar effect of heat in altering the nature of the phosphate.

Other anomalies with regard to phosphoric acid and the phosphates
were also known to chemists; and, on referring now to standard chem-
ical works written before the year 1833, the whole subject of the phos-
phates will be seen to be in the greatest confusion. It was in this year
that Mr. Graham communicated his paper, entitled ‘Researches on the
arseniates, phosphates, and modifications of phosphoric acid,” to the
Royal Society.*

In the course of these researches he established the existence of a

c Philosophical Transactions, 1833, p. 253.

184 PROFESSOR THOMAS GRAHAM’S SCIENTIFIC WORK.

elass of soluble sub-phosphates analogous to the yellow insoluble phos-
phate of silver; and he showed, with great clearness, that in the three
classes of phosphates, namely, the sub-phosphates, the common phos-
phates, and the bi-phosphates, the ratio borne to the oxygen of the acid
by the other oxygen of the salt is the same, namely, as 3 to 5; only that,
in the three classes of salts, the non-acid oxygen is divided between
different proportions of metallic base and water, thus:

Sub-phosphate of/sodale = 225-2 Saami sciences ane == 3 NaO.POs.
Commoniphosphate of isodaie. «2 2ec. 2s eeee ees see HO.2Na0O.POs;.
Bi-phosphatevotyso@ay.22e 4 -yce oa Ne eter wrayer anmial= 2H 0. Na0cP Os.

He further pointed out that, to these three series of salts, there cor-
responded a definite phosphate of water, or,

Hydrated phosphoric acid..- << ci: -</222 ss cease ce conser SHO .EOr:

Compounds of one and the same anhydrous acid with one and the
same anhydrous base, in different proportions, had long been known;
but it was thus that Mr. Graham first established the notion of poly-
basic compounds—the notion of a class of hydrated acids having more
than one proportion of water replaceable by metallic oxide, and that
successively, so as to furnish more and more basic salts, all preserving,
as we should now say, the same type.

Mr. Graham further showed that Dr. Clark’s pyrophosphate of soda,
like the common phosphate, yielded an acid-salt or bi-phosphate; and
that these two compounds were related to a hydrated phosphoric acid
differing in composition and properties from the above-mentioned hy-
drate, and yielding, after neutralization with alkali, a white instead of
a yellow precipitate with nitrate of silver. This series of compounds
he expressed by the following formule :

Clark’s pyrophosphate of soda .....----. -------------- 2Na0.POs.
Acid or bi-pyrophosphate of soda...-.-...---.---------- HO.NaO. POs.
Hydrated pyrophosphoric acid .....-----------------+- Pls iO) Fal eG)

Lastly, Mr. Graham showed that when the bi-phosphate or bi-pyro-
phosphate of soda was ignited, there was left a new variety of phos-
phate, which he called the metaphosphate, having the same proportions
of soda and anhydrous phosphoric acid as the original compound, but
differing from it in several properties, more particularly in its inability
to furnish any acid salt. From this new phosphate he obtained the cor-
responding hydrated acid, and found it to be identical with that variety
of phosphoric acid then, and still, known as glacial phosphoric acid,
which had previously been noticed to possess the distinctive property
of causing a precipitate in solutions of albumen. This salt and acid
he represented as follows:

Metaphosphate of soda ....-. ..-.---- +--+ --- 222 eee ee eee NaO. POs.
Metaphosphoric acidw..--.--.--.-.----- ------ e+ ++ 2 ee eee -- EEO PIOs:

Speaking of the acid obtainable from, and by its neutralization recon-
verted into, the phosphate, pyrophosphate, and metaphosphate of soda
respectively, Mr.Grahamremarked: ‘The acid, when separated trom the

>

PROFESSOR THOMAS GRAHAM’S SCIENTIFIC WORK. 185

base, will possess and retain for some time the characters of its peculiar
modification. * * * But Isuspectthat the modifications of phosphoric
acid, when in what we would calla free state, are still in combination with
their usual proportion of base, and that that base is water. Thus the
three modifications of phosphoric evidence may be composed as follows :

IRBHOSPHOTIC ACP eeersic elses cicteis ncelacisace Sen's Secs ais cis aiece HELO Ores
Pyrophosphorice acid.....-... eee ete ae aceite ace eee 2H OE Or.
Meta plos pH OTlGral Cl Chae ats jaca lee toteleial= 1 lene yoo EL Ora Olas

or they are respectively a tri-phosphate, a bi-phosphate, and phosphate
of water.” These remarks be followed up by analytical evidence, show-
ing the existence of the three hydrates, each in its isolated state.

Just as in his demonstration of the relationship to one another of
sub-phosphate of soda, phosphate of soda, bi-phosphate of soda, and
common phosphoric acid, Mr. Graham originated the notion of polybasic
compounds, so, in his demonstration of the natare of the pyrophosphates
and metaphosphates, as bodies differing from the normal compounds
by an abstraction of water or metallic base, did he originate the notion
of anhydro-compounds—so did he discover, for the first time, an in-
stance of that relationship between bodies which is now known to pre-
vail most extensively among products of organic as well as of mineral
origin.

The different properties manifested by phosphoric acid, in its differ-
ent reputedly isomeric states, having been shown by Mr. Graham to be
dependent on a difference of hydration; that is to say, on a difference
of chemical composition, he was inclinéd to view the difference of prop-
erties observed in the case of other reputedly isomeric bodies as being
also dependent on a difference of composition, the difference occasionally
consisting in the presence of some minute disregarded impurity. Accord-
ingly he communicated to the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1834* a
paper “ On phosphureted hydrogen,” in which he showed that the spon-
taneously inflammable and non-spontaneously inflammable varieties of
the gas “ are not isomeric bodies, but that the peculiarities of the spon-
taneously inflammable species depend upon the presence of adventitious
matter,” removable in various ways, and existing but in very minute
proportion.t He further showed that the vapor of some acid of nitro-
gen, apparently “ nitrous acid, is capable of rendering phosphureted
hydrogen spontaneously inflammable when present to the extent of one
ten-thousandth part of the volume of the gas.” In connection with this
research may be mentioned Mr. Graham’s earlier experiments on the
influence of minute impurities in modifying the chemical behavior of
different substances. In some *“‘ Observations on the oxidation of phos-
phorus,” published in the Quarterly Journal of Science,t for 1829, he
showed that the presence of 71, of olefiant gas, and even 3455, by vol-

o0

*Edinburgh Royal Society Transactions, xiii, 1836, p. 88.
tIt was afterward isolated by P. Thenard.
$ Quarterly Journal Science, ii, 1829, p. 83.

186 PROFESSOR THOMAS GRAHAM’S SCIENTIFIC WORK.

ume, of turpentine vapor, in air under ordinary pressure, rendered it
incapable of effecting the slow oxidation of phosphorus. He also ob-
served and recorded the influence upon the oxidation of phosphorus of
various additions of gas and vapor to air, under different circumstances
of pressure and temperature.

LUE

Hydration of compounds.—In the earliest of Mr. Graham’s published
memoirs, that “ On the absorption of gases by liquids,”* he contended
that the dissolution of gases in water, at any rate of the more soluble
gases, is a chemical phenomenon, depending on their essential property
of liquefiability being brought into play by their reaction with the sol-
vent, that is to say by their hydration. The results of some further
work on the same subject he published under the title of ‘* Experiments
on the absorption of vapors by liquids.” t

In 1827 he gave to the Royal Society of Edinburgh “An account of the
formation of alcoholates, definite compounds of salts and alcohol analo-
gous to the hydrates.Ӣ In this paper, after a description of some ex-
periments on the desiccation of alcohol, he showed that anhydrous
chloride of calcium, nitrate of lime, nitrate of magnesia, chloride of zine,
and chloride of manganese have the property of uniting with alcohol, as
with water, to form definite compounds. The crystalline compound with
choride of zine, for instance, containing 15 per cent. of alcohol, he rep-
resented by the formula Zn Cl. 2 C,H;0; corresponding to the modern
formula Zn Cl,.2C,H,O.

In 1835 Mr. Graham communicated a paper, also to the Royal Society
of Edinburgh, “‘ On water as a constituent of salts.”§ In this paper he
showed more particularly that the so-called magnesian sulphates, crys-
tallizing usually with 7, 6, or 5 proportions of water, gave up all but the
last proportion of water at a moderate heat, but retained this last propor-
tion with great tenacity. The comparatively stable mono-hydrated salts,
mono-hydrated sulphate of zine, for instance, Zn O.S O;.H O, he re-
garded as the analogues of crystallizable sulphuric acid H O.S O03. HO.
He showed further that the firmly retained water of sulphate of zine,
for instance, differed from the firmly retained water of phosphate ot
soda, in not being basic, or replaceable, that is to say, by metallic oxide.
He conceived, however, that in the double sulphates, potassio-sulphate
of zinc, for instance, Zn O.S O;, KO.S Os, the water of the compound,
ZnO.8O;.H 0, was replaced by alkali-sulphate, and he accordingly
designated the water of this last, and of similar compounds, by the name
of saline or constitutional water.

In the following year, 1836, Mr. Graham communicated to the Royal

*Thomson, Annals of Philosophy, xii, 1826, p. 69.

+ Edinburgh Journal of Science, vill, 1828, p. 326.

{ Edinburgh Royal Society Transactions, xi, 1837, p. 175.
§ Ibid., xiii, 1836, p. 297. .

PROFESSOR THOMAS GRAHAM’S SCIENTIFIC WORK. 187

Society of London an elaborate paper, entitled ‘“‘ Inquiries respecting the
constitution of salts, of oxalates, nitrates, phosphates, sulphates, and
chlorides.”* In it are recorded careful analyses of very many salts,
more particularly in respect to their water of hydration ; with remarks
upon the greater or less tenacity with which the water is retained in
different instances. In this paper he put forward the notion that truly
basic salts are nevertheless neutral in constitution; and that the excess
of metallic base does not stand in the relation of a base to the anhy-
drous acid, but as a representative of the water of hydration of the
neutral salt. He illustrated this position by a comparison of the defi-
nite hydrate of nitric acid with other hydrated nitrates, thus:

Hrydrated@nitric acid, sp. or. 142 2225. ccc. cece ce wees HO. NO;.3HO.
Hivdrated Mitrabeor ZING: S226 cecasceee aes sone < ZnO.NO;.3H 0.
Hydrated nitrate of copper...-..---..----.-- See ae Cud'.NO;.3 HO:
asic Nitraver Ot COPPer-.cs-2ssses ecasse -osece scenes) LO. NO;.o CuO:

He contended that, in the last cupric salt, it is the water and not the
oxide of copper which acts as a base; and, in support of this view, he
remarked that if the water of the salt were water of hydration simply,
it ought, in presence of so large an excess of metallic base, to be very
readily expelled by heat; whereas it is actually inexpulsable by any
heat whatever, short of that effecting an entire decomposition of the
salt. Again, he pointed out that when the strongest nitric acid HO.NO;
is added, in no matter what excess, to oxide of copper, the basic salt is
alone produced, apparently by a direct addition of the oxide of copper
to the nitrate of water.

In 1841 Mr. Graham gave to the Chemical Society “An account of
experiments on the heat disengaged in combination.” + These experi-
ments included numerous determinations of the heat evolved in the
hydration of salts, and more particularly of the sulphates, including
sulphate of water, or hydrated sulphuric acid. Starting from oil of
vitriol HO.SO;, he found that each successive addition of a proportion
of water HO, evolved an additional, but successively smaller and smaller
increment of heat; and that, even after the addition of fifty propor-
tions of water to the acid, the further addition of water was yet followed
by a perceptible development of heat.

The relation of ether to alcohol being regarded as that of an oxide to
its hydrate, and expressed by the formule C,H;O, and C,H,;O0.HO,
the conversion of alcohol into ether became a matter of dehydration ;
and, accordingly, could not escape the examination of Mr. Graham,
who, in 1850, presented to the Chemical Society some ‘ Observations on
etherification.”; The process of manufacture consisting in the distil-
Jation of a mixture of alcohol with sulphuric acid, and being attended
by an intermediate production of sulphate of ether or sulphethylic acid,
the substitution of ether for the basic water of sulphuric acid at one

* Philosophical Transactions, 1837, p. 47.
t Chemical Society Memoirs, i, p. 106.
{Chemical Society Journal, iii, p. 24.

188 PROFESSOR THOMAS GRAHAM’S SCIENTIFIC WORK.

temperature, and the reverse substitution of water for the basic ether
of sulphethylic acid at a higher temperature, had been represented as
depending on the augmented elasticity of the ether vapor at the higher
temperature. Mr. Graham showed, however, that ether could be very
readily formed by heating the mixture of sulphuric acid and alcohol in
sealed tubes—that is, under conditions in which the augmentation of
volatility due to heat was pari passu counterbalanced by the diminution
of volatility due to pressure. Altogether, Mr. Graham supported the
contact theory of ether formation, as opposed to the then received re-
action theory; but several of his experiments afforded clear, though in-
deed supererogatory, support to the reaction theory soon afterward in-
troduced by Williamson.

In addition to the memoirs cited above, the question of hydration
formed an express or incidental subject of many other of Mr. Graham’s
investigations. It is noteworthy that, for him, osmosis becaine a me-
chanical effect of the hydration of the septum; that the interest attach-
ing to liquid-transpiration was the alteration in rate of passage conse-
quent on an altered bydration of the liquid; that the dialytic difference
between erystalloids and colloids depended on the dehydration of the
dialytic membrane by the former class of bodies only ; and similarly in
many other instances.

Tit.

Movements of liquids under pressure. Transpiration—That the ve-
locities with which different liquids, under the same pressure, issue
from a hole in the side or bottom of a vessel should be inversely as
the square roots of their respective specitic gravities is a proposition
deducible from well-known mechanical principles. As demonstrated,
however, by Dr. Poiseuille, this law is not applicable to the case of
liquids issuing under pressure through capillary tubes. In addition
to determining experimentally the laws of the passage of the same
liquid—that the velocity is directly as the pressure, inversely as the
length of the capillary, and directly as the fourth power of the
diameter, and that it is accelerated by elevation of temperature—
Dr. Poiseuille further showed that the rate of passage of different liquids
through capillary tubes is for the most part a special property of the
particular liquids; and that while the rate of passage of water, for
instance, is scarcely affected by the presence of certain salts in solution,
it is materially accelerated by the presence of chlorides and nitrates of
potassium and ammonium, and materially retarded by the presence of
alkalies. He also showed that while the rate of passage of absolute
aleohol is much below that of water, the rate of passage of aleohol
diluted with water in such proportion as to form the hydrate, H, C,0.
3 Aq, is not only much below that of alcohol, but also below that of
any other mixture of alcohol and water.

Some time after Dr. Poiseuille’s death Mr. Graham, starting from this’
last observation, took up the inquiry. Giving to the phenomenon itself

PROFESSOR THOMAS GRAHAM’S SCIENTIFIC WORK. 189

the name of “transpiration,” which he had previously applied to the
similar passage of gases through capillary tubes, he communicated
his results to the Royal Society in a paper “On liquid transpiration
in relation to chemical composition.”* The method he followed in his
experiments was precisely that of Dr. Poiseuille, and the principal
results at which he arrived are the following:

1. That dilution with water does not effect a pari passu alteration
in the transpiration velocity of certain liquids; but that dilution up to a
certain point, corresponding to the formation of a definite hydrate, not
unfrequently retards the transpiration velocity (or increases the trans-
piration time) to a maximum, from which the retardation gradually
diminishes with further dilution. This is well seen in the following
table, giving the transpiration times of certain liquids in their undi-
luted state, and also the maximum transpiration times observed with
the same liquids when diluted with aregularly increasing quantity of
water, the particular dilution causing the maximum retardation corre-
sponding in every case to the production of a definite hydrate:

Transpiration times.
Waterecs-c- <= gO eg cuadet seeee atesey 1. 000 1. 000 x Aq.
Sulphuric acid. HgS O¢..2. 22-6. swsve. -< Ji bol 77 H,S O4. Aq.
INTUTIC AEIM) Sess GIN Opes casey ese ner acta . 990 DelOs 2HNOs.3 Aq.
Acetic acid....- er Opi Ogseeass oasece seen 1. 280 2.704 H4C202.2 Aq.
Alcohol .--. ---. igi Cl O sere rete oe em eree 1.195 2.787 H,5C20.3 Aq.
IWiOOG-SDITIC cesta ClOR se waci saeces =H . 630 1. 802 H,C 0.3 Aq.
Acetone ......-- lg © tO) Set ech hee ete a ~401 1. 604 H,C3;0.6 Aq.

2. That the transpiration times of homologous liquids increase reg-
ularly with the complexity of the several molecules constituting terms
of the same series—certain first terms of the different series, however,
presenting some anomalies, as was, indeed, to be expected. The trans-
piration times of the fatty ethers are given below in illustration. Similar
results were obtained with the series of fatty acids and their correspond-

ing alcohols:
Transpiration times.

Wiratens fe see e se: Deis Oe LAR cd ae Ry Fag ome l,m ee I 1. 000
( Formie simi iar stn H (2 ¢ 3 Oz Bn ciate leere pala ciple tela teh ciel lois a! aveiciai sl aiatete eieral daltetats(an ate (nla . 511
| . ee
| Acetic,.....- PEeTterd Cea) oe esc cc rat Pe ee he a oy: es te aoe

A Anes e .

Ethers. ) Butysio.-.. His Cg Oa.-.-2. 2-2. 222-2 22ceee cece ener edec cone ener ee 750

\ Valerie: 323... H 14 C 7 Og Bc nes oh ates al aa Yetios a= (ail toteah tart atone testes teat oo ete oat At aa as nes eae Ged)

In this paper Mr. Graham also recorded the results of two very full
series of determinations of the transpiration rates of water at different
temperatures between 0° and 70°, and of two similar series of ex-
periments made with alcohol. The transpiration velocity of water was
found to increase uniformly from 0.559 at 0° to 1.000 at 20°, and thence

* Philosophical Transactions, 1861, p. 573.

190 PROFESSOR THOMAS GRAHAM’S SCIENTIFIC WORK.

to 2.350 at 70°; and correlatively the transpiration times were found to
decrease in the same proportion. The results obtained with alcohol
were precisely similar.

1A

Diffusion of liquids.—Mr. Graham’s early study of the spontaneous
movements of gases, so aS to mix with one another, naturally led him
to investigate the similarly occurring movements of liquids. His results
formed the subject of two papers communicated to the Royal Society,
one in 1849, “On the diffusion of liquids,”* and the other in 1861, “ On
liquid diffusion applied to analysis.”t In the series of experiments
described in the first of these papers and in two supplementary com-
munications an open. wide-mouthed vial, filled with a solution of some
salt or other substance, was placed in a jar of water; when, in course of
time, a portion of the dissolved salt, described as the diffusate, passed
gradually from the vial into the external water. By experimenting in
this manner, the amounts of diffusate yielded by different substances
were found to vary greatly. Thus, under precisely the same conditions,
common salt yielded twice as large a diffusate as Epsom salt, and this
latter twice as large a diffusate as gum-arabic. Every substance ex-
amined was in this way found to have its own rate of diffusibility in the
same liquid medium—the rate varying with the nature of the medium—
whether water or aleohol, for instance. It is noticeable that the method
of vial diffusion resorted to in these experiments is exactly similar to
that employed by Mr. Graham in his earliest experiments on the diffu-
sion of gases, published in the Quarterly Journal of Science for 1829.

in the series of experiments recorded in the paper “On liquid diffu-
sion applied to analysis,” the solution of the salt to be diffused, instead
of being placed in a vial, was conveyed by means of a pipette to the
bottom of a jar of water; when, in course of time, the dissolved salt
gradually rose from the bottom, through the superincumbent water, to
a height or extent proportional to its diffusibility. The results of this
method of jar-diffusion were found to bear out generally those attained
by the method of vial-diffusion ; while they further showed the absolute
rate or velocity of the diffusive movement. Thus, during a fourteen
days’ aqueous diffusion from 10 per cent. solutions of guin-arabie,
Epsom salt, and common salt respectively, the gum-arabic rose only
through ;7, of the superincumbent water, or to a height of 55.5 milli-
meters; the Epsom salt rose through the whole +4 of superinecumbent
water, or to a height of 111 millimeters; and the common salt not only
rose to the top, but would have risen much higher, seeing that the up-
permost or fourteenth statum of water, into which it had diffused, con-
tained about fifteen times as much salt as was contained in the upper-
most or fourteenth stratum of water into which the Epsom salt had
diffused.

* Philosophical Transactions, 1850, pp. 1, 805; 1851, p. 483.
tIbid., 1861, p. 183. .

PROFESSOR THOMAS GRAHAM’S SCIENTIFIC WORK. 191

But of all the results obtained, the most interesting, from their bear-
ing on various natural phenomena, were those on the partial separa-
tion of different compounds from one another, brought about by their
unequal diffusibility. Thus, with a solution of equal weights of com-
mon salt and gum-arabie placed in the diffusion-vial, for every 100 milli-
grams of salt, not more than 22.5 milligrams of gum were found to
pass into the external water; or a separation of the salt from the gum,
to this large extent, took place spontaneously by the excess of its own
proper diffusive movement. Again, when a solution, containing 5
per cent. of common salt and 5 per cent. of Glauber’s salt, was sub-
mitted for seven days to the process of jar-diffusion, the upper half, or
yz, Of superincumbent water was found to contain 380 milligrams of
common salt and only 53 milligrams of Glauber’s salt; or the ratio of
common salt to Glauber’s salt in the upper half of the liquid was as 100
to 14, the ratio in the original stratum of solution being as 100 to 100.
And not only a partial separation of mixed saits, but even a partial
decomposition of chemical compounds, was found to result from the pro-
cess of liquid diffusion. Thus the double sulphate of potassium and
hydrogen, when submitted to diffusion, underwent partial decomposi-
tion into the more diffusible sulphate of hydrogen and the less diffusible
sulphate of potassium; and, similarly, ordinary alum, a double sulphate
of aluminum and potassium, underwent partial decomposition into the
more diffusible sulphate of potassium, and the less diffusible sulphate of
aluminum. Strictly speaking, perhaps, the decomposition of the
original salts was not caused by, but only made evident by, the differ-
ence in diffusibility of the products.

As a general result of his experiments, Mr. Graham inferred that
liquid diffusibility is not associated in any definite way with chemical
composition or molecular weight. Thus he found the complex organic
bodies picric acid and sugar to have much the same diffusive rates as
common salt and Epsom salt respectively. Isomorphous compounds,
however, proved for the most part to be equi-diffusive; although the
groups of equi-diffusive substances habitually comprehended other than
those which were isomorphous.

Observing further that, in many cases, the diffusion-rates of different
equi-diffasive groups stood to one another in some simple numerical
relation, Mr. Graham remarked that, “In liquid diffusion we no longer
deal with chemical equivalents or the Daltonian atoms; but with masses
even more simply related to each other by weight.” We may suppose
that the chemical atoms “group together in such numbers as to form
new and larger molecules of equal weights for different substances,
or * * * of weights which appear to have a simple relation to each
other ;” and he inferred that the relative weights of these new molecules
would be inversely as the square roots of the observed diffusion rates of
the substances—that is inversely as the squares of their diffusion times.
Thus the squares of the times of equal diffusion of hydrate, nitrate, and

192 PROFESSOR THOMAS GRAHAM’S SCIENTIFIC WORK.

sulphate of potassium being 3, 6, and 12, the densities of their diffusion
molecules would be as the reciprocals of these numbers, or as 4, 2,and 1.

Lastly, in comparing highly diffusive substances on the one hand,
with feebly diffusive substances on the other, one broad dissimilarity
became apparent, namely, that highly diffusible substances affected the
crystalline state, while feebly diffusive substances were amorphous, and
characterized, in particular, by a capability of forming gelatinous
hydrates. Hence the distinction established by Mr. Graham between
highly diffusive bodies, or crystalloids, and feebly diffusive bodies, er
colloids. Compounds capable of existing both in the crystalline and
gelatinous states he found to be possessed of two distinct diffusive rates
corresponding respectively each to each.

V.

Dialysis and osmose.—The subject of dialysis was included in the paper
“On liquid diffusion applied to analysis,” referred to in the preceding
section; aud some further results were communicated in 1864 to the
chemical society, in a paper “‘On the properties of silicie acid and other
analogous colloidal substances.” *

In the course of his experiments on diffusion, Mr. Graham made the
curious discovery that highly diffusible crystalloid bodies were able to
diffuse readily, not only into free water, but also into water that was
already in a low form of combination, as in the substance of a soft solid,
such as jelly or membrane. Common salt, for instance, was found i
diffuse into a semi-solid mass of jelly almost as easily and as extensively
as into a similar bulk of free water; but the introduction of a gelatinous
substance, though not interfering a any appreciable degree with the
diffusion of a erystalloid, was found to arrest almost entirely the diffa-
sion of a colloid. The colloid, of but little tendency to diffuse into free
water, proved quite incapable of diffusing into water that was already
in a state of combination, however feeble. Hence, although the partial
separation: of a highly diffusible from a feebly diffusible substance might
be effected by the process of free diffusion into water, a much better
result was obtained by allowing the diffusion to take place into, or
through, the combined water of a soft solid such as a piece of membrane
or parchment-paper. In the process of dialysis, then, crystalloid and
colloid bodies, existing in solution together, are separated from one
another by pouring the mixed solution into a shallow tray of membrane
or parchment-paper, and letting the tray rest on the surface of a con-
siderable excess of water, once or twice renewed. By this means the
crystalloid, in process of time, diffuses completely away through the
membranous septum into the free water; but the colloid, being quite
incapable of permeating the membrane, however thin, is retained com-
pletely on the ee unable to reach the free water on the other side.

" ieieeaioal Society Teuenet xvii, b- 318.

PROFESSOR THOMAS GRAHAM ’S SCIENTIFIC WORK. 193

By means of the process of dialysis, Mr. Graham succeeded in obtain-
ing various colloid organic substances, such as tannin, albumen, gum,
caramel, &¢., in a very pure state; some of them, indeed, in a state of
purity exceeding any in which they had before been met with. But the
most curious results were obtained with different mineral substances,
usually thrown down from their dissolved salts in the state of gelatin-
ous or colloid precipitates. Most of these precipitates being soluble in
some or other crystalloid liquid, on submitting the so-produced solutions
to dialysis, the crystalloid constituents diffuse away, leaving the colloid
substances in pure aqueous solution. By proceeding in this manner,
Mr. Graham was able to obtain certain hydrated forms of silica, ferric
oxide, alumina, chrome, prussian-blue, stannic acid, titanic acid, tungstic
acid, molybdie acid, &c., &e., in the state of aqueous solution—these
bodies having never before been obtained in solution, save in presence
of strongly acid or alkaline compounds serving to dissolve them. Alto-
gether, the production of these colloid solutions of substances, such as
Silica and alumina—in their crystalline state, as quartz and corundum,
completely insoluble—threw an entirely new light upon the conditions of
aqueous solution.

The colloidal solutions, obtained as above, of substances usually crys-
talline, were found to be exceedingly unstable. Either spontaneously,
or on the addition of some or other crystalloid reagent, even in very
minute quantity, they pectized or became converted into solid jellies.
Hence Mr. Graham was led to speak of two colloidal states ; the peptous
or dissolved, and the pectous or gelatinized. In addition to their power
of gelatinizing, their mutability, their non-erystalline habit, and their
low diffasibility, substances in the colloid state were found to be further
characterized by their chemical inertness and by their high combining
weights. Thus the saturating power of colloid silica was only about
gig Of that of the ordinary acid.

In his supplementary paper communicated to the Chemical Society,
Mr. Graham showed how the pectous forms of different mineral colloids
could, in many cases, be reconverted into their peptous forms. He
further showed how the water of different peptous and pectous colloids
could be mechanically displaced by other liquids, as alcohol, glycerine,
sulphuric acid, &c. To the different classes of compounds so formed,
he gave distinctive names. Thus, the alcoholic solution and jelly, of
silicie acid for instance, he designated as the alcosol and aleogel respect-
ively.

Closely associated with the passage of different liquids through mem-
branes is the action known as endosmose, discovered by Dutrochet.
Mr. Graham’s principal results on this subject are recorded in a very
elaborate paper ‘On osmotic force,” communicated to the Royal Society
in 1854; * but a few further results and a statement of his final views
are contained in the paper, referred to immediately above, ‘On liquid

* Philosophical Transactions, 1854, p.177.
13 8 71

194. PROFESSOR THOMAS GRAHAM’S SCIENTIFIC WORK.

diffusion applied to analysis.” When the solution of a saline or other
compound is separated from an adjacent mass of water by a membra-
nous septum, a greater or less quantity of the water very commonly
passes through the septum into the solution; andif the solution be con-
tained in a vessel of suitable construction, having a broad membranous
base and a narrow upright stem, the water, in some cases, flows into the
vessel through the membrane, with a force sufficient to raise and sus-
tain a column of 20 inches or more of liquid in the stem. The problem
is to account for this flow; which, with acid fluids more particularly,
takes place in the reverse direction—i. ¢. from the solution into the
water.

In the course of his experiments Mr. Graham examined the osmotic
movement produced with liquids of most diverse character, employing
osmometers of animal membrane, albuminated calico, and baked earth-
enware. Wis results were, moreover, observed and recorded in very
great detail. As an illustration of these results, it may be mentioned
that with 1 per cent. solutions in the membranous osmometer, the liquid
rose in the stem 2 millimeters in the case of common salt, 20 millimeters
with chloride of calcium, 88 millimeters with chloride of nickel, 121
millimeters with chloride of mercury, 289 millimeters with proto-chloride
of tin, 351 millimeters with chloride of copper, and 540 millimeters with
chloride of aluminum. Mr. Graham showed, further, in opposition to
the views of Dutrochet, that the velocity of the osmotic flow was not
proportional to the quantity of salt or other substance originally con-
tained in the solution; and that the flow did not depend on capillarity,
as Dutrochet had inferred; or yet on diffusion, as some of his own
experiments might be thought to indicate. Eventually he was led to
the conclusion that osmose was essentially dependent on a chemical
action taking place between one or other of the separated liquids and
the material of the septum. He appears to have held somewhat
different views of the nature of this chemical action at different times,
and not to have considered it as being in all cases of the same character.

The following extracts, expressing his latest views on the subject, are
taken from the conclusion of his paper ‘“‘ On liquid diffusion applied to
analysis.”

‘“Tt now appears to me that the water movement in osmose is an affair
of hydration and of de-hydration in the substance of the membrane, or
other colloid septum, and that the diffusion of the saline solution placed
within the osmometer has little or nothing to do with the osmotic result
otherwise than as it affects the state of hydration of the septum. * * *
Placed in pure water, such colloids (as animal membrane) are hydrated
to a higher degree than they are in neutral saline solutions. Hence the
equilibrium of hydration is different on the two sides of the membrane
of an osmometer. The outer surface of the membrane being in contact
with pure water, tends to hydrate itself in a higher degree than the
inner surface does, the latter surface being supposed to be in contact

PROFESSOR THOMAS GRAHAM’S SCIENTIFIC WORK. 195

with a saline solution. When the full hydration of the outer surface
extends through the thickness of the membrane, and reaches the inner
surface, it there receives a check. The degree of hydration is lowered,
and the water must be given up by the inner layer of the membrane,
and it forms the osmose. * * * Far from promoting this separation of
water, the diffusion of the salt throughout the substance of the mem-
brane appears to impede osmose by equalizing the condition as to saline
matter of the membrane through its whole thickness. The advantage
which colloidal solutions have in inducing osmose, appears to depend in
part upon the low diffusibility of such solutions, and their want of power
to penetrate the colloidal septum.”

VI.

Movements of Gases under pressure. Effusion and transpiration.—
The mechanical law of the passage of different gases under the same
pressure througha mere perforation, as of the passage of different liquids,
being that the velocities are inversely as the square roots of the specific
gravities, Mr. Graham subjected this law to an experimental verification,
and made known his results in a paper communicated to the Royal
Society in 1846. The mode of experimenting was as follows: A jar
standing on the plate of an air-pump was kept vacuous by continued
exhaustion, and a measured quantity of gas allowed to find its way into
the jar through a minute aperture in a thin metallic plate. The admis-
sion of 60 cubic inches of dry air into the vacuous, or nearly vacuous
jar, being arranged to take place in about 1,000 seconds, the times of
passage of the same volume of air were found not to vary from each
other by more than two or three seconds in successive experiments.
Operating with different gases, the relative times of passage, or of “ effu-
sion,” as it was denominated by Mr. Graham, proved to be approxima-
tively identical with the square roots of the specific gravities of the several
gases ; or, in other words, their velocities of effusion were shown exper-
imentally to be inversely as the square roots of their specific gravities.
The rate of effusion of a mixed gas corresponded in most cases with the
calculated mean rate of its constituents; but the rates of effusion of the
light gases, marsh gas and hydrogen, were very disproportionately re-
tarded by the admixture with them, even toa small extent, of the heavier
gases, oxygen and nitrogen.

Passing from the study of the effusion of gases through a perforated
plate, Mr. Graham next submitted their “ transpiration” through a
capillary tube to a similarly conducted experimental inquiry. His re-
sults were communicated to the Royal Society in two very elaborate
papers, ‘On the motion of gases,” Parts I and II,* the first part con-
taining also his above-described results on the effusion of gases. With
® very short capillary, the relative rates of passage of different gases
were found to approximate to their relative rates of effusion ; but with

* Philosophical Transactions, 1846, p. 573; 1849, p. 349.

196 PROFESSOR THOMAS GRAHAM'S SCIENTIFIC WORK.

every elongation of the capillary, a constantly increasing deviation from
these rates was observed—the increase of the deviation, however,
becoming less and less considerable with each successive increment
of elongation, until, when the tube had acquired a certain length in
proportion to its diameter, a maximum deviation of the relative rates of
passage of the different gases from their relative rates of effusion was
arrived at. These ultimate rates of passage, unaffected in relation to
each other -by further elongation of the capillary, constitute the true
transpiration velocities of the different gases, as distinguished from their
velocities of effusion. Of all the gases experimented on, oxygen was
found to have the longest transpiration time, or slowest transpiration
velocity. In the following table its time of transpiration is taken as
unity, and the times ofa few other gases compared therewith. In other
columns are given the specific gravities of the same gases, referred to
the specific gravity of airas unity; and the square roots of their specific
eravities, which also express their relative times of effusion.

|

| Specific | vos Transpiration

| gravity. | gravity. | time.
apni oeri er Site A suiesiisl da chy. inion tart S069) Ally 20 GES 1h 437
INDATSNO ass eee ene e cteasre cies eioerss neice see ie ~ 559 | 747 =o
INTO C CIs ie isis el sles yo oopetieiciele snoeteleiasaia.e SOLS | . 985 877
Gees ee ee ence |) 0s ee aoe ne 4 1. 000
Carbonic gas | 1.529 | 1,236 | . 730

That gas transpiration has no direct relation to gas specific gravity is
shown by the transpiration times of oxygen and nitrogen exceeding the
transpiration times both of the much lighter hydrogen and marsh gas,
and of the much heavier carbonic gas. Again, ammonia, olefiant gas,
and cyanogen, with the different specific gravities .590, .978, and 1.806
respectively, have the almost identical transpiration times .511, .005,
and .506; or, approximatively, half the transpiration time of oxygen,
1.000. Nevertheless the transpiration times of oxygen and nitrogen are
directly as their specific gravities; and further, the specific gravities of
nitrogen, carbonic oxide, and nitric oxide being .971, .968, and 1.039,
their transpiration times are .877, .874, and .876 respectively. But then
olefiant gas, with the same specific gravity .978, has the much shorter
transpiration time .505; and similarly in other cases. Altogether the
discordance between transpiration and specific gravity is of greater fre-
quency than the accordance; but still the circumstance of gases having
the same, or about the same, specific gravity, having also the same, or
about the same, rate of transpiration, is of too frequent occurrence to
be merely accidental.

As arule, the observed transpiration rate of a mixture of gases cor-
responded with the calculated mean rate of its constituents; but the
transpiration rates of the light gases, hydrogen and marsh gas, were

PROFESSOR THOMAS GRAHAM’S SCIENTIFIC WORK. Le

found to be disproportionately retarded to a greater extent even than
their effusion rates by the admixture with them of heavier gases. Fur-
ther, by employing mixtures of gas and vapor, Mr. Graham extended
his inquiry so as to include a determination of the transpiration times
of several vapors; the results being calculated on the assumption
that the observed transpiration time of the mixture was the mean of
the transpiration times of the permanent gas and of the coercible vapor
experimented on. In this way the transpiration time of ether vapor,
sp. gr. 2.586, was shown to be identical with that of hydrogen gas, Sp.
gr. 0.069; and the transpiration time of carbonic sulphide vapor, sp. gr.
2.645, identical with that of sulphureted hydrogen gas, sp. gr. 1.191.

With respect to gas transpiration in general, the rates of transpira-
tion of different gases were found to be independent of the nature of
the material of the capillary; apparently from the capillary, of what
material soever, becoming lined with a film of gas, with which alone the
current of gas could come in contact; so that the friction was purely
intestine, and suggestive of a sort of viscosity in the gas itself. The
rate of passage was further shown to be inversely as the length of the
capillary ; and directly, in some high but undetermined ratio, as its di-
ameter. Lastly, the rate of “effusion” of a given volume of any par-
ticular gas being independent of pressure and temperature, the rate of
transpiration of a given volume of any particular gas was observed to
vary directly with its variation of density, whether the result of altera-
tion of pressure or of temperature ; 100 cubic inches of dense air, for
example, transpiring more rapidly than 100 cubic inches of tenuous air,
in proportion to the excess of density.

Speaking of the importance and fundamental nature of the physical
properties manifested by bodies in the gaseous state, and of the extent
of his own inquiries on gas-transpiration, Mr. Graham observed: “ It
was under this impression that I devoted an amount of time and atten-
tion to that class of constants (transpiration-velocities) which might
otherwise appear disproportionate to their value and the importance
of the subject. As the results, too, were entirely novel, and wholly un-
provided for in the received view of the gaseous constitution, of which
indeed they prove the incompleteness, it was the more necessary to
verify each fact with the greatest care.”

‘ VER:

Diffusion of gases—In 1801, Dalton, in an essay “On the constitu-
tion of mixed gases, and particularly of the atmosphere,” propounded
the now celebrated view that “where two elastic fluids denoted by A
and B are mixed together, there isno mutual repulsion among their par-
ticles; that is, the particles of A do not repel those of B, as they do one
another; consequently the pressure or whole weight upon any one par-
ticle arises solely from those of its own kind.” During the act of ad-
mixture, ‘the particles of A meeting with no repulsion from those of

198 PROFESSOR THOMAS GRAHAM'S SCIENTIFIC WORK.

B... . would instantaneously recede from each other as far as possible
under the circumstances, and consequently arrange themselves just as in
a void space.” At the beginning of 1803, in a supplementary paper
“On the tendency of elastic fluids to diffusion through each other,” he
made known the remarkable action of intermixture which takes place,
even in opposition to the influence of gravity, when any two gases are
allowed to communicate with each other. Thus, in a particular experi-
ment, he showed that when a vial of hydrogen is connected with a vial
of eapont gas by means of a narrow piece of tubing, so that the vial
of light hydrogen may be inverted over the other vial of heavy carbonic
gas, the heavy carbonic gas actually ascends through the light hydro-
gen, and the light hydrogen descends through the heavy carbonic gas
until the uniform admixture of the two gases with each other is effected.
The subject was afterward investigated by Berthelot, who, in a series of
experiments performed with great care, while opposing Dalton’s theo-
retical conclusions, corroborated his results, and indicated further the
high diffusiveness of hydrogen. Here it was that Mr. Graham took up
the inquiry. The first of his papers relating directly to the subject
of gas-diffusion appeared in the “ Quarterly Journal of Science” for
1829, under the title, “‘A short account of experimental researches
on the diffusion of gases through each other, and their separation by
mechanical means.”* The mode of proceeding adopted in these re-
searches was as follows: Each gas experimented on was allowed to
diffuse from a horizontally placed bottle through a narrow tube,
directed either upward or downward according as the gas was heavier
or lighter than air, so that the diffusion always had to take place in
opposition to the influence of gravity. The result was that equal
volumes of different gases escaped in very unequal times, the rapidity
of the escape having an inverse relation to the specific gravity of the
gas. Thus hydrogen was found to escape four or five times more
quickly than the twenty-two times heavier carbonic gas. Again, with
a mixture of two gases, the lightest or most difiusible of the two was
found to leave the bottle in largest proportion, so that a sort of mechani-
eal separation of gases could be effected by means of their unequal
diffusibility. Most of these last results were obtained by allowing the
gaseous mixture to diffuse into a limited atmosphere of some other
gas or vapor, capable of subsequent removal by absorption or condensa-
tion. ¢
But these methods of operating, by free or adiaphragmatie diffusion,
were soon abandoned by Mr. Graham for the more practicable method
of diffusion through porous septa. Once again, however, many years
afterward, in a paper “On the molecular mobility of gases,” to be more
fully considered presently, Mr. Graham made some additional and very
curious observations on the free diffusion of hydrogen and carbonic
gas into surrounding air, showing the absolute velocities of the molecu-

* Quarterly Journal of Science, ii, 1829, p. 83
J ? ?

PROFESSOR THOMAS GRAHAM’S SCIENTIFIC WORK. 199

lar movements in each of the two cases. <A glass cylinder, .57 meter
high, had the lowest tenth of its height filled with carbonic gas. Then,
after different intervals of time, the uppermost tenth of air in the
cylinder was drawn off and examined. In five minutes the carbonic
gas in this upper tenth of air amounted to .04, and in seven minutes
to 1.02 per cent.; or 1 per cent. of carbonic gas had diffused to the
distance of half a meter in seven minutes, being at the rate of 73 mil-
limeters per minute. Now, the conditions of this movement always
prevail in the air of the atmosphere, and, using the words of Mr. Graham,
“it is certainly most remarkable that in perfectly still air its molecules
should spontaneously alter their position, and move to a distance of
half a meter in any direction in the course of five or six minutes.”
By similar experiments made with an inverted cylinder, 1 per cent. of
hydrogen was found to diffuse downward at the rate of 350 millimeters
per minute, or about five times as rapidly as the carbonic gas diffused
upward.

With regard to Mr. Graham’s experiments on the diffusion of gases
through porous septa, his earliest results on this subject were communi-
cated to the Royal Society of Edinburgh, in a paper “ On the law of
the diffusion of gases,” already referred to as the first-born of what may
be considered his great papers.* Prior even to Dalton’s above-mentioned
experiments on free diffusion, Dr. Priestly, when transmitting different
gases through stoneware tubes surrounded by burning fuel, perceived
that the tubes were porous; and that not only was there an escape of
the gas, under pressure, from within the tube outward to the fire, but
that there was also a penetration of the exterior gases of the fire into
the tube, notwithstanding the superior pressure of the current of gas
passing through the tube.

Mr. Graham, however, appears to have had his attention originally
directed to the study of the transmission of gases through porous
diaphragms by the curious observations and experiments of Débereiner,
who, having occasion to collect and store some quantities of hydrogen
over water, accidentally made use of a fissured jar, and was surprised
to find that the water of the pneumatic trough rose in this jar to the
height of an inch and a half in twelve hours, and to not far short of
three inches in twenty-four hours. Having assured himself of the
constancy of the phenomenon, Débereiner attributed it to capillary
action, conceiving hydrogen to be alone attractable by, and, on account
of the assumed minuteness of its atoms, admissible through the fissure.
In repeating Doébereiner’s experiments, however, Mr. Graham soon
observed that the escape of hydrogen outward was always accompanied
by a penetration of air inward, the volume of air finding an entrance
through the fissure amounting to about one-fourth of the volume of
hydrogen making its escape; or the fissure proved permeable to the
grosser air as well as to the finer hydrogen. Having arrived at this

* Edinburgh Royal Society Transactions, xii, 1834, p. 222.

‘

200 PROFESSOR THOMAS GRAHAM’S SCIENTIFIC WORK.

point, he replaced the fissured jar by an instrument admitting of
much greater experimental precision. For the jar itself he substituted
a piece of glass tube about half an inch in diameter, and from eight to
fourteen inches long, and for the fissure in the jar he substituted a
plate of stucco serving to close one end of the tube. Operating with a
diffusion-tube of this kind standing in a jar of water, it was found, as
in Dalton’s experiments, that the two gases, say external air and internal
hydrogen, exhibited a powerful tendency to intermix or change places
with each other; but more than this, it was found that the air did not
exchange with its own volume of hydrogen, but instead with 3.8 times
its volume. Using the word diffusion-volume to express the bulks of
different gases exchanging thus with one another by the process of
diffusion, the diffusion-volume of hydrogen would be 3.8, that of air being
taken as 1. Similarly, it was ascertained that every gas has a diffusion-
volume which is peculiar to itself, and is indeed inversely as the square
root of its specific gravity; and since the unequal diffusion volumes of
different gases are consequences of their unequal diffusion velocities, it
follows that the relative velocities at which different gases diffuse into
one another, by virtue of their own inherent mobility, are identical with
those at which they effuse under pressure into a vacuum—a result quite
in accordance with, and indeed deducible from, Dalton’s aphorism. But
although the relative rates of effusion and diffusion are alike, it is
important, wrote Mr. Graham, in the later paper already quoted from,
“to observe that the phenomena of effusion and diffusion are distinct
and essentially different in their nature. The effusion movement affects
masses of gas, the diffusion movement affects molecules; and a gas is
usually carried by the former kind of impulse with a velocity many
thousand times as great as is demonstrated by the latter.”*

Thus the result arrived at by Mr. Graham, in his original paper, was
the enunciation of the now well-recognized law of the diffusion of gases ;
but some thirty years afterward, he again subjected the phenomena of
gas-diffusion to an elaborate experimental investigation—going over the
old and penetrating into new ground with an activity by no means im-
paired, and with intellectual powers largely expanded by increase of
years. His results were communicated to the Royal Society of London,
in a paper “On the molecular mobility of gases,” t and it is impossible
to read this and his original paper “On the law of the diffusion of
gases” together, without being struck by the great adyance in philo-
sophic grasp and breadth of view which had become developed in the long
interval between the publication of the two memoirs. These later ex-
periments on gas-diffusion were made principally with septa of com-
pressed graphite; and it will be well to preface their consideration by
Mr. Graham’s own introductory remarks. He observes: |
iP is ea wee | ee ee

*The motions of effusion under pressure, and of spontaneous diffusion, would appear
to be alike traceable to the elasticity of the gas itself, exerted under the conditions to
which it is exposed at the time.

t Philosophical Transactions, 1863, p. 385.

PROFESSOR THOMAS GRAHAM’S SCIENTIFIC WORK. 20%

‘The pores of artificial graphite appear to be really so minute thata
gas in mass cannot penetrate the plate at all. It seems that molecules
only can pass; and they may be supposed to pass wholly unimpeded by
friction, for the smallest pores that can be imagined to exist in graphite
must be tunnels in magnitude to the ultimate atoms of a gaseous body.
The sole motive agency appears to be that intestine movement of
molecules which is now generally recognized as an essential property of
the gaseous condition of matter.

‘¢ According to the physical hypothesis now generally received, a gas
is represented as consisting of solid and perfectly elastic spherical par-
ticles or atoms, which move in all directions, and are animated with dif-
ferent degrees of velocity in different gases. Confined in a vessel, the
moving particles are constantly impingingagainst its sides and occasion-
ally against each other, and this contact takes place without any Joss of
motion, owing to the perfect elasticity of the particles. If the contain-
ing vessel be porous, like a diffusiometer, then gas is projected through
the open channels, by the atomic motion described, and escapes. Simul-
taneously the external air is carried inward in the same manner, and
takes the place of the gas which leaves the vessel. To this atomic or
molecular movement is due the elastic force, with the power to resist
compression, possessed by gases. The molecular movement is accelera-
ted by heat and retarded by cold, the tension of the gas being
increased in the first instance and diminished in the second. Even
when the same gas is present both within and without the vessel, or is
in contact with both sides of our porous plate, the movement is sustained
without abatement—molecules continuing to enter and leave the vessel
in equal number, although nothing of the kind is indicated by change
of volume or otherwise. If the gases in communication be different, but
possess sensibly the same specific gravity and molecular velocity, as
nitrogen and carbonic oxide do, an interchange of molecules also takes
place without any change in volume. With gases opposed of unequal
density and molecular velocity, the permeation ceases of course to be
equal in both directions.”

One set of novel experiments recorded in the later paper, from which
the above remarks are extracted, had reference to the diffusion of single
gases through porous septa, into a vacuous or partially vacuous space.
The diffusion-tube was substantially the same as that formerly employed,
except in the circumstance of its being closed by a plate of compressed
graphite instead of by stucco, and in the further circumstance of the
tube itself being in some cases so far lengthened and otherwise modified
as to admit of the production within it of a barometric vacuum of com-
paratively large dimensions. The mode of experimenting was as fol-
lows: The short tubes, when employed, were filled with mercury, and
inverted in a mercurial trough. Then, by means of a very simple
arrangement, the gas under examination was allowed to sweep over the
surface of, and diffuse through, the graphite plate, so as to depress the

202 PROFESSOR THOMAS GRAHAM’S SCIENTIFIC WORK.

mercury within the tube until it stood at a height of 100 millimeters
only—that is, until the external pressure exceeded the internal pressure
by 100 millimeters only. Matters being in this state, the experiment
consisted in observing the number of seconds required for the admission
through the graphite septum, into the graduated tube, of a given
volume of gas—the mercury in the tube being kept throughout at the
constant height of 100 millimeters, by a gradual lifting up of the tube,
effected by a mechanical arrangement originally devised and employed
by Professor Bunsen. The long tubes were filled with mercury in a dif-
ferent manver; but the conduct of the experiments made with them
differed only from that of the experiments made with the short tubes, in
that the level of mercury in the long tubes was maintained throughout
at or near to the barometric height, so that the external gas diffused
into the tube under full atmospheric pressure. Experimenting in this
way, the relative times of permeation of equal volumes of different
gases were found to be almost identical with the square roots of the
specific gravities of the respective gases, as shown in the following
table :

|

Times of equal | Square roots of

diffusion. specific gravities.
|
Oxggen 2s 2scwies Sane sen sSehertas seit sani sane 1.9 | 1.0
INVA Re Seo seo lescie he eo cepee eal Bashan caer eiaae | 9501 9507
WarbONG, Cass. c-ipcmise opcisin ee eaeiime ipa esas Sea 1.1860 1.1760
WAV GLOVE. i500 sas onetee = caer wise Uniniclem's's: canin)slaws'sinin | £2505 2002

These results are of great value from the simplicity and constancy of
the conditions under which they were obtained, and from their close ac-
cordance with the induced law. By allowing the diffusion to take place
into a complete or partial vacuum, instead of into an atmosphere of
other gas, the results were not complicated with those of interdiffusion ;
and by employing a thin plate of highly compressed graphite, instead
of a comparatively thick plug of more porous stucco, the results were
not complicated with those of transpiration, as happened in some other-
wise admirable experiments of Professor Bunsen, which led that dis-
tinguished investigator to question at one time the accuracy of Mr. Gra-
ham’s law.

The absence of any transpiration of gas through the graphite wafer
was made evident by the want of any approximation, in the rates of
passage, to the characteristic rates of transpiration; and was conse-
quent on the impermeability of the exceedingly minute pores of the
graphite to any enforced bodily transmission of gas through them. It
may be as well to state this conclusion in Mr. Graham’s own words:

“The movement of gases through the graphite plate appears to be
solely due to their own proper molecular motion, quite unaided by trans-
piration. It seems to be the simplest possible exhibition of the mole-

PROFESSOR THOMAS GRAHAM’S SCIENTIFIC WORK. 203

cular or diffusive movement of gases. This pure result is to be ascribed
to the wonderfully fine (minute) porosity of the graphite. The intersti-
tial spaces appear to be sufficiently small to extinguish capillary trans-
piration entirely. The graphite plate is a pneumatic sieve which stops
all gaseous matter in mass, and permits molecules only to pass.”

By similarly conducted experiments, a determination was also made
of the difference of rate, if any, at which hydrogen diffuses through a
graphite plate into a vacuum and into atmospheric air. Thus, in one
minute of time, the following quantities of hydrogen passed through
the graphite plate, in the two cases respectively :

1.289 cubic centimeters into a vacuum.

1.243 cubic centimeters into air.
These numbers indicate a close approach to equality in the velocities of
passage into a vacuum and into a space of other gas—a yet closer equal-
ity being probably attainable by a modified form of experimenting.

The diffusion of hydrogen into air, as in the above-referred-to experi-
ment, is of course accompanied by a diffusion of air into hydrogen,
which had to be allowed for in calculating out the above result. More-
over, Mr. Graham made a special repetition of his early experiments on
interdiffusion, operating with dry instead of moist gas, substituting
mercury for water in the diffusion-tube, maintaining a constant pressure
by Bunsen’s mechanism instead.of by a pitcher of water, and using a
wafer of graphite instead of a plug of stucco as the porous diaphragm.
The theoretical exchange of hydrogen for air being 3.8 volumes for 1,
and that of hydrogen for oxygen being 4.0 volumes for one, the ex-
changing volumes actually found were 3.576 and 4.124 respectively.

teferring to the approximatively equally rapid passage of hydrogen
into a vacuous and aerial space, Mr. Graham remarks as follows on the
subject of interdiffusion :

‘‘ In fine, there can be little doubt left on the mind that the permea-
tion through the graphite plate into a vacuum, and the diffusion into a
gaseous atmosphere, through the same plate, are due to the same inher-
ent mobility of the gaseous molecule. They are the exhibition of this
movement in different circumstances. In interdiffusion we have two
gases moved simultaneously through the passages in opposite directions,
each gas under the influence of its own imherent force; while with gas
on one side of the plate, and a vacuum on the other side, we have a sin-
gle gas moving in one direction only. The latter case may be assimi-
lated to the former if the vacuum be supposed to represent an infinitely
light gas. It will not involve any error, therefore, to speak of both
movements as gaseous diffusion—the diffusion of gas into gas (double
diffusion) in the one case, and the diffusion of gas into a vacuum (single
diffusion) in the other. The inherent molecular mobility may also be
justly spoken of as the diffusibility or diffusive force of gases.

“ The diffusive mobility of the gaseous molecule is a property of mat-
ter, fundamental in its nature, and the source of many others. The rate

204 PROFESSOR THOMAS GRAHAM’S SCIENTIFIC WORK.

of diffusibility of any gas has been said to be regulated by its specific
gravity, the velocity of diffusion having been observed to vary inversely
as the square root of the density of the gas. This is true, but not in
the sense of the diffusibility being determined or caused by specific grav-
ity. The physical basis is the molecular mobility. The degree of mo-
tion which the molecule possesses regulates the volume which the gas
assumes, and is obviously one, if not the only, determining cause of the
peculiar specific gravity which the gas enjoys. If it were possible to
increase in a permanent manner the molecular motion of gas, its specific
gravity would be altered, and it would become a lighter gas. With the
density is also associated the equivalent weight of a gaseous element,
according to the doctrine of equal combining volumes.”

In addition to the above two sets of experiments, on the diffusion of
a single gas into a vacuum and on the diffusion of one gas into another,
a third set of experiments was made on the diffusion of one gas away
from another; or on the partial separation of mixed gases by the pro-
cess of atmolysis. The experiments on this subject were conducted in
several different ways, but the most striking results were obtained with
what Mr. Graham named his tube atmolyser. This instrument consists
of one or more lengths of ordinary tobacco-pipe, (conveying the current
of mixed gas,) surrounded by a glass tube maintained in a more or less
vacuous state by exhaustion with an air-pump. The most diffusible
constituent of the mixed gas passing away in largest proportion
through the porous material of the tobacco-pipe, the least diffusible con-
stituent becomes concentrated in the residue of gas passing along, and
finally delivered by the pipe. By this simple contrivance the proportion
of oxygen in ordinary air, transmitted by the tobacco-pipe, was increased
from below 21 up to 24.5 per cent., as a result of the small superior diffu-
sive velocity of nitrogen 1.01, over that of oxygen 0.95.

In experiments made with the far more unequally diffusive gases
oxygen and hydrogen, mixed in equal volumes, the proportion of oxy-
gen transmitted by the tobacco-pipe was increased from the original 50
per cent. to 90, and even in some cases, to 95 percent. Electrolytic gas,
consisting of 33.3 per cent. oxygen and 66.6 per cent. hydrogen, was
slowly transmitted through a single tobacco-pipe, in some experiments
inclosed in a vacuum, in others exposed to the air. In the vacuum ex-
periments the transmitted gas was found to consist of 90.7 per cent.
oxygen and 9.3 per cent. hydrogen. In the air experiments, the trans-
mitted gas was found to consist of 40.4 per cent. oxygen, 5.5 per cent.
hydrogen, and 54.1 per cent. air. In both cases it had lost its explosive
character, and acquired the property of re-inflaming a glowing splinter.

This paper of Mr. Graham’s ‘On the molecular mobility of gases” was
supplemented by a communication made to the Chemical Society in 1864,
entitled ‘Speculative ideas respecting the constitution of matter,” *
from which the following extracts are taken:

° OX A -
* Chemical Society Journal, xvii, p 368,

PROFESSOR THOMAS GRAHAM’S SCIENTIFIC WORK. 205

“Tt is conceivable that the various kinds of matter, now recognized as
different elementary substances, may possess one and the same ultimate
or atomic molecule existing in different conditions of movement. The
essential unity of matter is a hypothesis in harmony with the equal
action of gravity upon all bodies. We know the anxiety with which
this point was investigated by Newton, and the care he took to ascer-
tain that every kind of substance, ‘metals, stones, woods, grain, salts,
animal substances,’ &c¢., are similarly accelerated in falling, and are there-
fore equally heavy.

“Tn the condition of gas, matter is deprived of numerous and varying
properties, with which it appears invested when in the form of a liquid
or solid. The gas exhibits only a few grand and simple features. These
again may all be dependent upon atomic or molecular mobility. Letus
imagine one kind of substance only to.exist—ponderable matter; and
further, that matter is divisible into ultimate atoms, uniform in size and
weight. We shall then have one substance and acommon atom. With
the atom at rest the uniformity of matter would be perfect. But the
atom possesses always more or less motion, due, it must be assumed, to
a primordial impulse. This motion gives rise to volume. The more
rapid the movement the greater the space occupied by the atom, some-
what as the orbit of a planet widens with the degree of projectile velo-
city. Matter is thus made to differ only in being lighter or denser
matter. The specific motion of an atom being inalienable, light matter
is no longer convertible into heavy matter. In short, matter of different
density forms different substances—different inconvertible elements, as
they have been considered.

** But further, these more and less mobile, or light and heavy forms
of matter, have a singular relation connected with equality of volume.
Equal volumes of two of them can coalesce together, unite their move-
ment, and form a new atomic group, retaining the whole, the half, or
some simple proportion of the original movement and consequent
volume. This is chemical combination. It is directly an affair of
volume, and only indirectly connected with weight. Combining weights
are different, because the densities, atomic and molecular, are different.
The volume of combination is uniform, but the fluids measured vary in
density. This fixed combining measure—the metron of simple sub-
stances—weighs 1 for hydrogen, 16 for oxygen, and so on with the other
‘elements,’

“To the preceding statements respecting atomic and molecular mo-
bility, it remains to be added that the hypothesis admits of another
expression. As in the theory of light we have the alternative hypoth-
eses of emission and undulation, so in molecular mobility the motion
may be assumed to reside either in separate atoms and molecules, or in
a fluid medium caused to undulate. A special rate of vibration or pulsa-
tion originally imparted to a portion of the fluid medium enlivens that
portion of matter with an individual existence, and constitutes it a dis-
tinct substanee or element.

206 PROFESSOR THOMAS GRAHAM’S SCIENTIFIC WORK.

“Lastly, molecular or diffusive mobility has an obvious bearing upon
the communication of heat to gases by contact with liquid or solid sur-
faces. The impact of the gaseous molecule upon a surface possessing a
different temperature appears to be the condition for the transference of
heat, or the heat movement, from one to the other. Tbe more rapid the
molecular movement of the gas, the more frequent the contact with con-
sequent communication of heat. Hence, probably, the great cooling
power of hydrogen gas as compared with air or oxygen. The gases
named have the same specific heat for equal volumes, but a hot object
placed in hydrogen is really touched 3.8 times more frequently than it
would be if placed in air, and 4 times more frequently than it would be
if placed in an atmosphere of oxygen gas. Dalton had already ascribed
this peculiarity of hydrogen to the high ‘mobility’ of that gas. The
same molecular property of hydrogen recommends the application of
that gas in the air-engine, where the object is to alternately heat and
cool a confined volume of gas with rapidity.”

VIII.

Passage of gases through colloid septa.—In 1830, Dr. Mitchell, of Phila-
delphia, discovered a power in gases to penetrate thin sheet India
rubber; and, noticing the comparatively rapid transmission of carbonic
gas through the rubber, associated this observation with the further one
that a solid piece of India rubber is capable of absorbing its own volume
of carbonic gas, when left in contact with excess of the gas for a suffi-
cient length of time. By means of a suitable arrangement, Dr. Mitchell
found that various gases passed spontaneously through a caoutchoue
membrane into an atmosphere of ordinary air with different degrees of
velocity—that as much of ammonia gas was transmitted in 1 minute as
of carbonic gas in 54 minutes, as of hydrogen in 37$ minutes, and as of
oxygen in 1135 minutes. Soon after their publication, these results were
ably commented on and extended by Dr. Draper, of New York; and,
altogether, they attracted considerable attention in scientific circles.
One of Mr. Graham’s earliest observations—having reference to the
spontaneous passage of carbonic gas into a moist bladder of air, so as
ultimately to burst the bladder—had obviously a very close connection
with Dr. Mitchell’s results, and received from Mr. Graham in 1829 the
same explanation that in 1866 he gave to his own India rubber experi-
ments, the account of which he communicated to the Royal Society in a
paper “On the absorption and dialytie separation of gases by colloid
septa.” * In his experiments on the penetration of different gases,
through septa of India rubber, into a vacuum, Mr. Graham employed
a tube considerably exceeding in length the barometric column, open at
one end and closed at the other by a thin film of caoutchoue stretched
over a plate of highly porous stucco. On filling this tube with mercury,

* Philosophical Transactions, 1866, p. 399.

\

PROFESSOR THOMAS GRAHAM’S SCIENTIFIC WORK. 20T

:
and inverting it into a cup of mercury, a Torricellian vacuum was left
at the top, into which the external air, or any external gas experimented
on, gradually found its way by passage through the caoutchouce film, so
as to cause a depression of the mercurial column. By experiments made
in this manner, it was found that different gases penetrated the rubber,
and entered the vacuous space with the following relative velocities,
differing widely from the velocities of diffusion and transpiration of the
same gases given in the other two columns of the table:

Rates of passage Transpiration Diffusion

through caoutchoue. velocities. velocities.
NOP Gs etit ta ae nce ces ons 1. 00 1.14 On
Mar SHV Oa 8 Serene setae seen e's e' 2.15 1.81 1.34
COO CT eer ene esata siata asap rmrai ooo 1. 00 Ors
yO Cel merce eiatc aint /=5 >< 5. 50 2, 29 3. 80
COND OMICHOAS amis em cio eat= ere 13, 58 1.37 | 7 OL

Bearing in mind the partial separation of gases from one another at-
tainable by reason of their unequal diffusive velocities, the possibility
of effecting a similar separation of gases by reason of their unequal
velocities of transmission through India rubber was easily to be fore-
seen. For example, atmospheric air consisting of 20.8 volumes of oxy-
gen and 79.2 volumes of nitrogen, and the transmission velocities of
these two gases being respectively 2.55 and 1.0, it follows that the air
transmitted through India rubber into a vacuum should consist of 40
per cent. oxygen and 60 per cent. nitrogen, thus:

OV CCM s sot a ree ais soe oie) esse Sie isis se ys bao 20.8 X 2.55 = ll ( 40
Nitro potinasam A pase st tee eon Ao ee 79.2X1.0 = 79.20 ors 60

132.24 \j00

In subjecting this conclusion to the test of experiment, Mr. Graham
availed himself of Dr. Sprengel’s then newly invented mercurial pump
or exhauster, an instrument which also stood him in good stead in his
subsequent work, and to which he freely acknowledged his obliga-
tions. By a slight alteration in the pump, as originally constructed,
Mr. Graham made it serve not only for its original purpose of creating
and maintaining an almost perfect vacuum, but also for delivering pari
passu any gas penetrating into the vacuum through its caoutchoue or
other walls.

The cacutchouc films employed in these experiments were of various
kinds; but the most readily practicable and, on the whole, successful
results, were obtained with India-rubber varnished silk made up into a
flat bag, exposing on each side about 0.25 meter of square surface.
The interior of such a bag being in communication with the Sprengel
pump, the constituents of the external air were gradually sucked
through the walls of the bag and delivered by the turned-up fall-tube of

208 PROFESSOR THOMAS GRAHAM’S SCIENTIFIC WORK.

the pump. On examining the delivered gas, it was found to contain on
the average 41.6 per cent. of oxygen; and accordingly, to have the prop-
erty of re-inflaming a glowing splinter. Thus, by the simple suction of
atmospheric air through a caoutchoue film, the remarkable result was
arrived at of nearly doubling the proportion of oxygen in the volume
of air sucked through. Unfortunately for the practical application of
the process, the entire volume of air sucked through proved to be very
small, about 2.25 cubic centimeters per minute, per square meter of sur-
face, at 209 C. At 60° C., however, the passage of air through the rub-
ber was almost exactly three times as rapid as at 20°.

Instead of allowing the gases experimented on to pass through the
India rubber into a vacuous space, they were in some cases allowed to
pass into space already occupied with a different gas, somewhat as in
Dr. Mitchell’s original experiments; but the conditions of the action
were then more complex. The constituent gases of atmospheric air, for
instance, pass through an India-rubber septum into a space containing
sarbonie gas at the relative velocities with which they enter a vacuous
space; but throughout the experiment, not only are oxygen and nitro-
gen continually entering the space, but carbonic gas is continually, and
very rapidly, escaping from it. Eventually, by the rapid escape of ear-
bonie gas, the proportion or pressure of oxygen in the intermal space
comes to exceed that in the external air; whereupon a reverse trans-
mission, through the India rubber, of the excess of oxygen into the ex-
ternal air, at once begins. But by stepping the operation at an early
stage, and then absorbing the carbonic gas with caustic alkali, a residue
of hyperoxygenized air was left, capable, in some cases, of re-inflaming
a glowing splinter, and containing as much as 37.1 volumes of oxygen
to 62.9 volumes of nitrogen.

The interpretation given by their discoverer to the above results
was in accordance with his slowly-developed views on the relations of
eases and liquids to each other and to soft solids. Having satisfied
himself that the merest film of India rubber is quite devoid of porosity,
and that oxygen is at least twice as absorbable by India rubber as by
water at ordinary temperature, (the absorbability of its own volume of
earbonie gas by India rubber, as by water, having been noticed by Dr.
Mitchell,) Mr. Graham came to view the entire phenomenon as having
a very complex character, as consisting in a dissolution of the gas in
the soft India rubber; in a diffusion of the liquefied gas, as a liquid,
through the thickness of the India rubber; in an evaporation of the
liquefied gas from the internal surface of the India rubber; and lastly
in a diffusion of the evaporated gas into the internal space. Thus, in
reference to the remarks of Drs. Mitchell and Draper, he writes :
“These early speculations lose much of their fitness from not taking
into account the two considerations already alluded to, which appear
to be essential to the full comprehension of the phenomenon, namely,
that gases undergo liquefaction when absorbed by liquids and such

PROFESSOR THOMAS GRAHAM'S SCIENTIFIC WORK. 209

colloid substances as India rubber, and that their transmission through
liquid and colloid septa is then effected by the ageney of liquid and
not gaseous diffusion. Indeed, the complete suspension of the gaseous
function during the transit through colloid membrane cannot be kept
too much in view.” Mr. Graham seems thus to have recognized at
least three distinct modes of gas transmission through a solid or semi-
solid septum :

Ist. By a sufficient degree of pressure gases might be forced bodily,
i. é. in masses, through the minute channels of a porous septum; or, in
other words, might pass through such a septum by transpiration, of
course in the direction only of the preponderating total pressure.

2d. As the channels of a porous septum became more and more
minute, their resistance to the bodily transmission of gas would be-
come greater and greater, and the quantity of gas forced through them
less and less, until at length the septum would be absolutely im-
permeabie to transpiration under the particular pressure. But such
a septum, of which the individual capillary channels were so small
as to offer a frictional resistance to the passage of gas greater than
the available pressure could overcome, might nevertheless present a
considerable aggregate of interspace through which the diffusion proper
of gases, consequent on their innate molecular mobility, could take
place freely in both directions.

od, A septum might be quite free from pores, of any kind or degree
of minuteness, and so far be absolutely impermeable to the transmis-
sion of gas in the form of gas; but it might nevertheless permit a
considerable transmission of certain gases by reason of their prior
solution or liquefaction in the substance of the septum. And whereas
the mere passage of gas, by transpiration or diffusion through a porous
septum, would take place in thorough independence of the nature of the
material of the septum, in this last-considered action, the transmission
would take place by virtue of a sort of chemical affinity between the gas
and the material of the septum—the selective absorption of the gas by
the septum being a necessary antecedent of its transmission; whence
it might be said the gas was transmitted because it was first absorbed’
Of course in certain transmissions two, or all three, modes of action
might come into play simultaneously. :

TX.

Occlusion of gases by metals —The experiments of Deville and Troost
having made known the eurious fact of the permeability of ignited
homogeneous platinum and ignited homogeneous iron to hydrogen gas,
and given some indication also of the permeability of ignited iron to
carbonic oxide gas, Mr. Graham, in 1866, corroborated the results of
the French chemists in reference to platinum; but, modifying their
method by letting the hydrogen pass into a space kept vacuous by the
Sprengel pump, instead of into an atmosphere of other gas, assimilated

148 71

210 PROFESSOR THOMAS GRAHAM’S SCIENTIFIC WORK.

the process to that which he had employed in his India-rubber experi-
ments. The results he obtained were communicated to the Royal
Society, partly in the paper already referred to ‘‘ On the absorption and
separation of gases by colloid septa,” and partly in four supplementary
notices published in the proceedings of the society.* In carrying out
the investigation forming the subject of these several communications,
Mr. Graham had the advantage of being admirably seconded by his
assistant, Mr. W. Chandler Roberts, whose able and zealous co-opera-
tion he repeatedly acknowledged in the warmest terms. .

In the course of experiments made on the transmission of gases
through ignited metallic septa, a particular platinum tube, being ren-
dered vacuous, was found at all temperatures below redness to be quite
impermeable to hydrogen; whereas, at a red heat, it transmitted 100
cubic centimeters of hydrogen in half an hour, the quantities of oxygen,
nitrogen, marsh gas, and carbonic gas, transmitted under the same con-
ditions, not amounting to .0O1 cubie centimeter each in half an hour.
It was ascertained further that, with an ignited vacuous tube of
platinum surrounded by a current of ordinary coal-gas, (a variable
mixture of gases containing on the average about 45 per cent. of
marsh gas, 40 per cent. of hydrogen, and 15 per cent. of other gases
and vapors,) a transmission of pure hydrogen alone took place through
the heated metal. This property of selective transmission, manifested
by platinum, was so far analogous to the property of selective trans-
mission manifested by India-rubber, that whereas a septum of India
rubber transmitted the nitrogen of the air in a much smaller ratio
than the oxygen, the septum of ignited platinum transmitted the
other constituents of coal-gas in an infinitely smaller ratio than the
hydrogen. Hence the knowledge of the absorption by India rubber of
the gases which it most freely transmitted, suggested to Mr. Graham an
inquiry as to the possible absorption of hydrogen gas by platinum.
Accordingly platinum, in different forms, was heated to redness, and
then allowed to cool slowly in a continuous current of hydrogen.
The metal so treated, and after its free exposure to the air, was placed
in a porcelain tube, which was next made vacuous by the Sprengel
pump. During the production and maintenance of the vacuum, no
hydrogen was extracted from the metal at ordinary temperatures ;
or even during an hour’s exposure to the temperature of 220°; or yet
at a heat falling just short of redness. But at a dull red-heat and
upward, a quantity of hydrogen gas was given off amounting in
volume, measured cold, to as much, in some cases, as 5.5 times the
volume of the platinum. Thus was opened out to Mr. Graham the
subject of his last, and probably greatest discovery, the occlusion of
gases by metals. Very many metals were examined in their relations
to different gases, but the most interesting results were those obtained
with platinum as above described; and those obtained with silver, with
iron, and, above all, with palladium.
* Royal Society Proceedings, xv, p. 502; xvi, p. 422; xvii, p. 212, p. 500.

PROFESSOR THOMAS GRAHAM’S SCIENTIFIC WORK. 2tL

The characteristic property of silver, heated and cooled in different
atmospheres, proved to be its capability of absorbing and retaining, in
some cases, as much as seven times its volume of oxygen—its absorption
of hydrogen falling short of a single volume. Some silver-leaf, heated
and cooled in ordinary air, and subsequently heated in a vacnum, gave
off a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen gases containing 85 per cent. of
oxygen, or more than four times the proportion contained in theoriginal
air. This remarkable property of solid silver to effect the permanent
occlusion of oxygen gas, must be distinguished from the not less remark-
able and doubtless associated property of melted silver to effect the
temporary absorption of a yet larger volume of the same gas; which,
on the solidification of the metal, is discharged with the well-known
phenomenon of spitting.

Iron, though tolerably absorptive of hydrogen, was found to be
specially characterized by its absorption of carbonic oxide. What may
be called the natural gas of wrought iron, or the gas derived from the
forge in which it was heated, proved to consist chiefly of carbonic oxide,
and, in different experiments, was found to range from 7 to 12.5 times
the volume of the metal; so that, in the course of its preparation, iron
would appear to occlude upward of seven times its volume of carbonic
oxide, and to carry this gas about with it ever after. The absorbability
of carbonic oxide by iron has an obvicusly important bearing on the
theory of steel production by cementation. This process would appear
to consist in an absorption of carbonic oxide gasinto the substance of
the iron, and in a subsequent decomposition of the absorbed gas into
sarbon entering into combination with the metal, so as to effect its
acieration, and carbonic gas discharged from the surface of the metal, so
as to produce the well-known appearance of blistering. Nor is this the
only, or even the chief point of interest that was made out with regard to
iron; for the study of the behavior of telluric manufactured iron
naturally led Mr. Graham to the examination of sidereal. native iron,
that is to say, the iron of meteorites, and with the following result. A
portion of meteoriciron, from the Lenarto fall, when heated in vacuo, gave
off 2.85 times its volume of natural gas, of which the preponderating con-
stituent, to the extent of 85.7 per cent. of the total quantity, consisted
not of carbonic oxide, but of hydrogen, the carbonic oxide amounting
to only 4.5 per cent., and the remaining 9.8 per cent. consisting of nitro-
gen. The inference that the meteorite had been, at some time or other,
ignited in an atmosphere having hydrogen as its prevailing constituent,
seems irresistible; and judging from the volume of gas yielded by the
‘iron, the hydrogen atmosphere in which it was ignited must, in all prob-
ability, have been a highly condensed one; the charge of hydrogen
extracted being fully five times as great as it was found possible to im-
part to ordinary iron artificially.

But it was with palladium that Mr. Graham obtained his most extra-
ordinary results. This metal he found to have the property of trans-
mitting hydrogen with extreme facility, even at temperatures very far

FAP, PROFESSOR THOMAS GRAHAM'S SCIENTIFIC WORK.

short of redness. Coincidently, at temperatures even below those
requisite for transmission, palladium was found capable of absorbing
many hundred times its volume of hydrogen. Thus apiece of palladium-
foil maintained at a temperature of 90°-97° for three hours, and then
allowed to cool down during an hour and a half, while surrounded by a
continuous current of hydrogen gas, gave off, on being afterward heated
in vacuo, 643 times its volume of the gas, measured cold ; and even at
ordinary temperatures, it absorbed 376 times its volume of the gas, pro-
vided it had first been recently ignited in vacuo. In another experi-
ment, palladium sponge, heated to 200° in a current of hydrogen and
allowed to cool slowly therein, afterward yielded 686 times its volume
of the gas; while a piece of electrolytically deposited palladium heated
only to 100° in hydrogen, afterward yielded, upon ignition in vacuo, no
less than 982 times its volume of the gas. The lowness of the tempera-
ture at which, under favorable circumstances, the absorption of hydro-
gen by palladium could thus be effected, soon suggested other means of
bringing about the result. For example, a piece of palladium-foil was
placed in contact with a quantity of zinc undergoing solution in dilute
sulphurie acid; and, on subsequent examination, was found to have
absorbed 173 times its volume of hydrogen. Again, palladium, in the
forms of wire and foil, was made to act as the negative pole of a Bun-
_sen’s battery effecting the electrolysis of acidulated water; and in this
/ manner was found to absorb from 800 to 950 times its volume of hydre-
gen in different experiments.

Palladium being thus chargeable with hydrogen in three different
ways—namely, by being heated and cooled in an atmosphere of the gas ;
by being placed in contact with zine dissolving in acid, ¢@. e., with hydro-
gen in the act of evolution; and, lastly, by being made the negative
electrode of a battery—correlatively, the charged metal could be freed
from its occluded hydrogen by exposing it to an increase of temperature
in air or vacuo; by acting on it with ditterent feebly oxidizing mixtures ;
and by making it the positive electrode of a battery.

The palladium, when charged to its maximum, was frequently found
to give off a small proportion of its hydrogen, though with extreme
slowness, at ordinary temperatures, both into the atmosphere and into
a vacuum. But not until the temperature approached 100° was there
any appreciable gas-evolution ; which, above that point, took place with
a facility increasing with the temperature, so as to be both rapid and
complete at about 300°. Since, however, the transmission of hydrogen
through heated palladium is a phenomenon of simultaneous absorption
and evolution, it follows that the property of palladium to absorb hydro-
gen does not cease at 300°, or indeed at close upon the melting-point of
gold—the highest temperature at which Mr. Graham’s experiments on
transmission were conducted; but whereas the maximum absorption of
hydrogen by palladium takes place at comparatively low temperatures,
the velocity of transmission was observed to increase, in a rapid ratio,
with the increase of temperature, indefinitely.

_ PROFESSOR THOMAS GRAHAM’S SCIENTIFIC WORK. 2i3

As regards the removal of hydrogen from palladium by oxygenants,
the gas of the charged metal was found to manifest all the chemical
activity of hydrogen in the nascent state. Thus it reduced corrosive
sublimate to calomel, combined directly with free iodine, converted
ferrid into ferro cyanides, destroyed the color of permanganates, Xe.
Moreover, the spongy metal, charged with hydrogen and exposed to the
air, was apt to become suddenly hot, and so completely discharged, by
a spontaneous aerial oxidation of its absorbed gas into water ; while the
hydrogen of a piece of charged palladium wire was often capable of
being set fire to, and of burning continuously along the wire.

Lastly, the reversal of the position of the palladium plate in the
decomposing cell of the battery afforded a most ready means of com-
pletely extracting its hydrogen. Indeed, for some time after the rever-
sal, while hydrogen was being freely evolved from the negative pole, no
oxygen was observable on the surface of the palladium plate, now made
the positive pole, through its rapid oxygenation of the absorbed
hydrogen.

As regards the extent of the absorption of hydrogen by palladiun, it
was found, as already indicated, to vary considerably with the physical
state of the metal, whether fused, hammered, spongy, or electrolytically
deposited, for example. In one case, previously referred to, a specimen
of electrolytically deposited palladium, heated to 100°, and then slowly
cooled in a continuous current of hydrogen, was found to occlude 982.14
times its volume of the gas, measured cold. In this case the actual
weight of palladium experimented with was 1.0020 gram, and the
weight of hydrogen absorbed .0073 gram, being in the ratio of
99.277 per cent. of palladium and 0.723 per cent. of hydrogen. The
atomic weight of hydrogen being 1, and that of palladium 106.5, it is
observable that the ratio of the weights of the constituents of the charged
metal, hydrogen and palladium, approximates to the ratios of their
atomic weights.

In another experiment some palladium wire, drawn from a piece of
the fused metal, was charged electrolytically with 935.67 times its volume
of hydrogen. Some idea of these enormous absorptions of hydrogen may
be formed by remembering that water at mean temperature absorbs
only 782.7 times its volume of that most absorbable of the common gases,
ammonia,

A point of interest with regard to the different quantities of hydrogen
absorbable by palladium in its different states is the gradual diminution
in the absorptive power of any particular specimen of the metal with
each successive charge and discharge of gas in whatever way effected—
the absorptive power, however, being partially restorable by subjecting
the metal to a welding heat.

The density of palladium charged with eight or nine hundred times
its volume of hydrogen is perceptibly lowered. Owing, however, to a
continuous formation of bubbles of hydrogen on the surface of the

4

OTA PROFESSOR THOMAS GRAHAM'S SCIENTIFIC WORK. |

charged metal when immersed in water, there is a difficulty in taking
its exact density by comparing its respective weights in air and water
with one another. There is also a difficulty in determining the density
by direct measurement of the charged palladium when in the form of
wire; owing to the curious property of the wire, on being discharged,
of not merely returning to its original volume, but of undergoing a con-
siderable and permanent additional retraction. But in the case of cer-
tain alloys of platinum, silver, and gold with excess of palladium, while
the absorptive power of the constituent palladium is still manifested, the
excess of retraction on discharge of the wires does not occur; and the
specific gravities deducible from the mere increase in length of wires of
these alloys are found to accord approximatively with those deducible
from the increase in length of the pure palladium wire, not above its
original length, but above the length to which it retracts on discharge
of its absorbed gas. It would thus appear that, simultaneously with its
absorption of hydrogen, the pure palladium wire, unstably stretched by
the process of drawing, suffers two opposite actions; that is to say, it
undergoes a process of shortening by assuming a more stable condition
of cohesion, and a process of lengthening by the addition to it of other
matter—the lengthening due to the additional matter being the excess
of the length of the charged above that of the discharged wire. In a-
particular experiment illustrative of this peculiarity, a new platinum
wire took up a full charge of hydrogen electrolytically, namely, 956.3
volumes, and increased in length from 609.585 to 619.354 millimeters.
With the expulsion of the hydrogen afterward, the wire was perma- -
nently shortened to 600.115 millimeters. The sum of the two changes
taken together amounts to 19.239 millimeters, and represents the true
increase in the length of the wire due to the addition of hydrogen. It
corresponds to a linear expansion of 3.205 in 100, or to a cubical expan-
sion of 9.827 in 100. The original volume of the wire being .126 cubic
centimeter, the volume of the condensed hydrogen would accordingly
be .01238 cubic centimeter. Then, as the charged wire, on being heated-in
vacuo, evolved 120.5 cubic centimeters of hydrogen gas, weighing .0108
gram, the density of the absorbed hydrogen would be—

. 01080

872.

. 01238

Calculated from the mere increase in length of the charged wire above
that of the wire originally, the density of the absorbed hydrogen would
be 1.708. The following table gives the densities of condensed hydro-
gen in different experiments made with palladium wire, in which the
excess of retraction on discharge was allowed for as above; and also
the densities observed in experiments made with palladium alloys in
which the contraction on discharge took place to the original lengths of
the wires only:

PROFESSOR THOMAS GRAHAM’S SCIENTIFIC WORK. ZA

Density of condensed

When united with—
hydrogen.

iFen)l Wer Gln Tuna ieeee tore et Ne ete So ie aie SS Siate cic eae cia wise | 0.854 to 0.872
Pearman clo er GUNN ease sass oo tee oe oe mate ae ae | 0.7401 to 0.7545
VELEN TTC Olas nena Sere cle ce cme s soto eaters sae tes | O71. to 0575
PM ACUIN an sll Vieraaetaeesee rosa - ae ee eee oe scene es | 0.727 to 0.742

another metal, was large or small, the density of the occluded hydro-
gen was found to be substantially the same. That the excessive re-
traction of the palladium wire on the discharge of its absorbed hydro-
gen is not a mere effect of heat was shown by the charged wire under-
going a similar retraction when discharged electrolytically instead of by
ignition in vacuo; and also by the original wire not undergoing any
sensible retraction as a result of annealing. That the retraction is
merely in length was shown by the absence of any difference in specific
gravity between the original and the discharged wire. Very curiously,
the shortening of the wire, by successive chargings and dischargings
of hydrogen, would seem to be interminable. Thus the following ex-
pansions of a particular wire, caused by variable charges of hydrogen,
were followed, on expelling the hydrogen, by the contractions recorded
in the other column :

Elongation in | Retraction in

|
|
| millimeters. millimeters.

wo sed

: | |
HAMS TREMP OUMNEN tare cite a nat oae Aaeityeecitc es ce.nore cciel saree 9,77 9,70

: ‘ | ae ;

NCCOUCEXMeLIMENGem- 2. = sea naa bones tote. Sees Sook 5. 705 6.20
alinrdexperiment ices scec--- ocean et eee coc aan | 2.36 3. t4
OULTNESPOUIMENts sae 2) sec eass o-Sece aces cece aces 3. 482 4,95
23.99

The palladium wire, which originally measured 609.144 millimeters,
thus suffered, by four successive chargings and dischargings of hydro-
gen, an ultimate contraction of 23.99 millimeters, or a reduction of its
original length to the extent of nearly 4 per cent., each increment of
contraction below the original length usually exceeding the previous in-
crement of elongation above the original length of the wire. The alter-
nate expansion and contraction of palladium by its occlusion and evo-
lution of hydrogen is ingeniously shown by a contrivance of Mr.
Roberts, in which a slip of palladium-foil, varnished on one side, is made
to curl and uncurl itself, as it becomes alternately the negative and

positive electrode of a battery, or is alternately charged and discharged
of hydrogen on its free surface.

That hydrogen is the vapor of a highly volatile metal has frequently
been maintained on chemical grounds; and from a consideration of the
physical properties of his hydrogenized palladium, Mr. Graham was led

216 PROFESSOR THOMAS GRAHAM’S SCIENTIFIC WORK.

to regard it as atrue alloy of palladium with hydrogen, or rather hydro-
genium, in which the volatility of the latter metal was restrained by
the fixity of the former, and of which the metallic aspect was equally
due to both of its constituents. Although, indeed, the occlusion of up-
ward of 900 times its volume of hydrogen was found to lower the
tenacity and electric conductivity of palladium appreciably, still the
hydrogenized palladium remained possessed of a most characteristically
metallic tenacity and conductivity. Thus, the tenacity of the original
wire being taken as 100, the tenacity of the fully charged wire was
found to be 81.29; and the electric conductivity of the original wire
being 8.10, that of the hydrogenized wire was found to be 5.99. In fur-
ther support of the conclusion arrived at by Mr. Graham, as to the me-
tallic condition of the hydrogen occluded in palladium, he adduced his
singular discovery of its being possessed of magnetic properties, more
decided than those of palladium itself, a metal which Mr. Faraday had
shown to be “feebly but truly magnetic.” Operating with an electro-
magnet of very moderate strength, Mr. Graham found that while an ob-
long fragment of electrolytically deposited palladium was deflected from
the equatorial by 10° only, the same fragment of metal, charged with
604.6 times its volume of hydrogen, was deflected through 48°. Thus
did Mr. Graham supplement the idea of hydrogen as an invisible incon-
densable gas, by the idea of hydrogen as an opaque, lustrous, white
metal, having a specific gravity between 0.7 and 0.8, a well-marked
tenacity and conductivity, and a very decided magnetism.

ON THE RELATION OF THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES TO SCIENCE IN GENERAL.

Delivered before the University of Heidelberg, by Dr. Herman Helmholtz.

[Translated for the Smithsonian Institution, by Prof. C. F. Krorn.]

Our university renews, on the annual return of this day, her grateful re-
membrances of Charles Frederic, the enlightened prince who, at a time
when the whole established order of Europe was revolutionized, labored
most zealously and efficiently to improve the well-being and facilitate the
mental development of his people, and who clearly perceived that the
revival of this university would be one of the principal means for the
attainment of his benevolent object. Since it is my duty on this ocea-
sion to speak of our whole university as its representative, it is proper
to review the connection between the sciences and their study in gen-
eral, as far as may be possible, from the circumscribed point of view of
an individual observer.

It would seem indeed, to-day, as if the mutual relations of all sciences,
in virtue of which we unite them under the name of a wniversitas litter-
arum, had become looser than ever before. We see the scholars of our
times absorbed in a study of details of such immense magnitude that
even the most industrious cannot hope to master more than a small
portion of modern science. The linguist of the last three centuries
found sufficient occupation in the study of Greek and Latin, and it was
only for immediate practical purposes that a few modern Janguages
were learned. Now, comparative philology has set for itself no less a task
than to study all the languages of the human race, in order to deduce
from them the laws of the formation of language itself, and its votaries
have brought immense industry to bear upon this gigantic work. IHven
within classical philology they no longer confine themselves to the study
of those writings which, by their artistic finish, the clearness of their
thoughts, or the importance of their contents, have become the models
of the poetry and prose of all times; the philologists are aware that
every lost fragment of an ancient writer, every remark of a pedantic
grammarian or of a Byzantine court-poet, every broken tomb-stone of a
Roman official that is found in some remote corner of Hungary, Spain,
or Africa, may contain some information or proof of importance in its
proper place, and hence a large number of scholars are occupied in the
gigantic task of collecting and cataloguing all remnants of classic anti-
quity so that they may be ready for use. Add to this the study of his-
torical sources, the examination of parchments and papers accumulated
in states and towns, the collection of notes scattered through me-

218 ON THE RELATION OF THE

moirs, correspondences, and biographies, and the deciphering of the
hieroglyphics and cuneiform inscriptions; add again to these the contin-
ually and rapidly augmenting catalogues of minerals, plants, and animals,
living and antediluvian, and there will be unfolded before our eyes a
mass of scientific material sufficient to make us giddy. In all these
sciences, researches are pushed forward constantly in proportion to the
improvement of our means of observation, and there is no perceptible
limit. The zodlogist of the last century was generally satisfied with de-
scribing the teeth, fur, formation of the feet and other external charac-
teristics of ananimal. The anatomist, on the other hand, described the
anatomy of man alone, as far as he could gain a knowledge of it by
means of the knife, the saw, the chisel, or, perhaps, of injections into
the tissues. The study of human anatomy was even then considered
an extremely extensive and difficult branch of science. To-day we are no
longer content with what is so-called descriptive human anatomy, which,
although incorrectly, is considered as exhausted, but comparative anat-
omy, i. é., the anatomy of all animals, and miscroscopie anatomy, botir
sciences of unlimited scope, have been added and absorb the interest of
the observer.

The four elements of antiquity and of medieval alchemy have swelled
to sixty-four* in our modern chemistry ; the last three have been discov-
ered according to a method originating in our university, which leads us
to expect other similar discoveries. Not only, however, has the number
of the elements increased extraordinarily, but the methods for producing
complex compounds have been so greatly improved, that what is so-called
organic chemistry, which comprises only the combinations of carbon with
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and a few other elements, has already be-
come a separate science.

‘As many as the stars in heaven,” used to be the natural expression
for a pumber which exceeds all limits of our comprehension. Pliny
considered it an undertaking bordering on arrogance when Hipparchus
commenced to number the stars and determine their positions. Never-
theless, the catalogues of stars up to the seventeenth century, which
were made out without the use of telescopes, contained only from 1,000
to 1,500 stars of the first to the third magnitude. At present they are
engaged at the different observatories in extending these catalogues
down to the tenth magnitude, which will make a sum total of more than
200,000 fixed stars in the whole heavens; and these are all to be noted
down, measured, and their places determined. The immediate conse-
quence of these observations has been the discovery of many new planets.
Of these only six were known in 1781, while at present we know seventy-
five.t When we pass in review this gigantic activity in all branches of

* With Indium, recently discovered, sixty-five.

t In the latter part of November, 1864, the eighty-second of the asteroids, Alemene,
was discovered. Add to this the eight large planets, and the whole number of planets
known will amount to ninety. [1871, 120.] .

PHYSICAL SCIENCES TO SCIENCE IN GENERAL. 219

science, the rash projects of man are, indeed, apt to astonish and frighten
us, like the chorus in Antigone, when it exclaims,
“Much is surprising, but nought more surprising than man.”

Who ean overlook the whole, keep the connecting threads in his hand
and find his way through the labyrinth. The immediate and natural
consequence is that every investigator is forced to choose a field of
labor constantly becoming more circumscribed, and to confine himself
to a but imperfect acquaintance with the rest. We are now inclined to
laugh when we hear that in the seventeenth century Kepler was called
to Gritz to discharge the duties of the chair of mathematics and moral
science, or that at the beginning of the eighteenth century Boerhave
held at the same time the professorships of botany, chemistry, and clin-
ical medicine, which, of course, included also pharmacy. Now, we need
at least four and in many universities even seven or eight teachers for
all these branches. The same is the case in other departments of
science.

I have the more reason to consider the connection between the differ-
ent sciences here, because I confine myself to the circle of natural sciences,
which have latterly been accused of pursuing a course isolated from other
Sciences, correlated through mutual philological and historical studies,
and of having become estranged from them. This indeed has long
been perceptible, and seems to have been developed, or rather brought
to notice, under the influence of the philosophy of Hegel. At the end of the
last century, under the philosophy of vant, such a separation had not
been pronounced. His philosophy was on equal footing with the nat-
ural sciences, as Aant’s own labors in natural science demonstrate,
especially his cosmogonic hypotheses, based on Newton’s law of gravi-
tation, which was later generally received under the name of the theory
of Laplace. Kant’s critical philosophy was calculated only to investigate
the sources and basis of our knowledge, and to create a standard for the
intellectual labors of the different sciences. A law found «@ priori by
pure thought, could, according to his doctrine, become only a rule for a
method of thinking, and could not have any positive or real significance.
The philosophy of identity was bolder. It proceeded from the hypothesis
that the real world, that nature, and the life of man, were the result of the
thoughts of a creative mind, which mind was similar to that of man.
Accordingly, the human mind might undertake, even without the guid-
ance of external experience, to think over again the thoughts of the
Creator, and to find them again, through its own inner activity. In this
sense the philosophy of identity endeavored to construct @ priori the
material results of the other sciences. This might sueceed more or less
easily with respect to religion, law, political economy, language, art,
history, and, in short, in all sciences which are developed chiefly from a
psychological basis, and which are therefore classified under the name
of mental sciences. The state, the church, art and language, have for
their object the satisfaction of certain spiritual and mental wants of

220) ON THE RELATION OF THE

man. Although external obstacles, the forces of nature, accident,
rivalry of other men, frequently exert a disturbing influence, the endeavy-
ors of a human mind perseveringly pursuing its object must, in the end,
preponderate and triumph over planless hinderances. Under these cir-
cumstances it would not be impossible to lay out a priori the course of
development of mankind with regard to the above relations, especially
when the philosopher has already considerable empirical material at his
command with which he can combine his abstractions. Hegel was ma-
terially aided in his attempts to solve this question by the deep philo-
sophical insight into history and science which the philosophers and
poets of the immediately preceding time had gathered, and which he
needed only to arrange and combine to produce a system full of astonish-
ing discoveries. In this manner he succeeded in gaining the enthusias-
tic applause of the majority of the scholars of his time, and in exciting
fantastical hopes for the solution of the profoundest mysteries of
human life; the latter all the more because his system was veiled in
curiously abstract language, and was, perhaps, really understood and
appreciated only by a small number of his admirers.

The fact that the construction of the principal results of the mental
sciences was more or less successful, was, however, no proof of the cor-
rectness of the hypothesis of identity from which Hegel’s philosophy pro-
ceeded. On the contrary, the facts of nature would have been the
means of furnishing decisive proof. It was a matter of course that
traces of the activity of the human mind and of its stages of develop-
ment must be found in the mental sciences. If nature reflected the re-
sult of the thoughts of a similar creative mind, the comparatively sim-
pler forms and processes of nature could the more easily be arranged
into systems. But it was just at this point that the philosophy of iden-
tity failed, we may say, completely. The natural philosophy of Hegel,
to naturalists at least, appeared absolutely senseless. Among the many
excellent naturalists of that time there was not a single one who could
accept his ideas. But it was of the greatest importance to Hegel to
obtain the same appreciation here that he had found so abundantly in
the other sciences. He waged an unusually passionate and bitter contro-
versy, directed especially against Newton, the first and greatest repre-
sentative of scientific research. He taxed the naturalists with narrow-
mindedness, and they in their turn accused their opponent of absurdi-
ties. The naturalists began to lay stress upon the assertion that their
labors had been free from all philosophical influences, and soon many of
them, including even men of great eminence, condemned all philosophy,
not only as useless, but even as injurious vagaries. We cannot deny
that along with the unjust claims of the philosophy of Hegel, to subor-
dinate the other sciences, its just claims, to criticise the sources of
knowledge and determine a standard for intellectual labors, were thrown
overboard.

In the mental sciences the effect was different, although it finally led

PHYSICAL SCIENCES TO SCIENCE IN GENERAL. Dot

to the same result. In all branches of science relating to religion, the
state, law, art, and language, enthusiastic followers of Hegel arose,
each of whom sought to reform their branch according to his doctrine
and to gather rapidly in a speculative way the fruits, which until then
could only be obtained by means of slow and tedious labor. Thus it
was for atime that a sharp and well-defined antagonism existed between
the physical sciences on the one side and the mental sciences on the
other, and not infrequently was it denied that the former possessed the
characteristics of a science at all.

The bitterness which existed between the two did not, however, last
long. The physical sciences proved to every one, by a rapid series of
brilliant discoveries and applications, that they contained a healthy
germ of unusual productiveness. It was impossible not to esteem and
appreciate them. In the other departments of science, conscientious in-
vestigators of facts soon raised objections against the presumptous ica-
rus-flight of speculation. That these philosophical systems produced a
beneficial effect is however unmistakable; we cannot deny that since
the appearance of the works of Hegel and Schelling, the attention of
investigators of the different branches of mental sciences has been
directed more pointedly and more perseveringly to their intellectual im-
port and scope than in preceding times, and that therefore the results of
that philosophy have not been entirely in vain.

In a measure as the empirical investigation of facts became more
prominent in the other sciences, the contrast between them and the
physical sciences was diminished. Although this contrast had been
exaggerated through the influence of philosophy, we cannot deny that
it is founded upon the nature of things, and that it will assert its claims.
It lies partially in the kind of mental labor involved, and partially in the
subjects of the sciences, as their names, physical and mental sciences,
indicate. The physicist will find some difficulty in explaining a compli-
cated process of nature to a philologist or a lawyer. It would require
on their part abstractions from the appearance of the senses and dex-
terity in the use of geometrical and mechanical aids, in which they could
not easily follow him. Artists and theologians, on the other hand, would
perbaps find the naturalist too much inclined to mechanical and mate-
rial explanations, which would seem trivial to them, and which might
tend to suppress the warmth of their feeling and their enthusiasm. The
philologist and the historian, with whom the lawyer and the theologian
are intimately associated by their common philological and historical
studies, will find the physicist surprisingly indifferent to literary treas-
ures, more indifferent perhaps than is proper and good for the advance
of hisown science. It cannot be denied, finally, that the mental sciences
have to do directly with the dearest interests of the human mind, and
with its creations in the world, while the physical sciences work with
external matter, to which we may be indifferent, but we cannot neglect

D222. ON THE RELATION OF THE

because of their great practical utility, although they may not seem to
have any immediate effect in developing the mind.

Since the sciences have been separated into so many divisions and
subdivisions, since very appreciable contrasts have been developed
among them, and since no one man can comprehend the whole, or even
a considerable part of the whole, is there any use in keeping them to-
gether in the same institution? Is the union of the four faculties in one
university only aremnant of the usages of the middle ages? It has been
alleged that many external advantages are gained by sending students
ot medicine to the hospitals of large cities, students of natural sciences
to polytechnic schools, and by erecting special seminaries and schools
for theologians and lawyers. Let us hope that our German universities
may long be preserved from the influence of such an idea! That woulp
indeed tear asunder the connection between the different sciences, a
connection eminently important to scientific labor, and to the improve-
ment of the material products of that labor, as will be seen on a brief
consideration of the question.

Virst, as regards their formal relations, I would say that the union of
the different sciences is necessary to maintain a healthy equilibrium of
the mental powers. Every science exercises certain faculties of the
mind, and strengthens them by continual practice. But all one-sided
development has its dangers; it is detrimental to those faculties which
are less exercised, it limits our view of the whole, and leads us to over-
estimate our own labors. He who perceives that he can perform a cer-
tain kind of mental labor much better than other men, is too apt to
forget how many other things there are in which they surpass him.
Over-estimation of self—let no votary of science forget it—is the great-
est and worst enemy of all scientific labors. How many with great
talents have not,forgotten that criticism of self, so difficult and yet so
necessary to the scholar, or have become discouraged and lax in their
labors, because they considered dry, persevering work unworthy of
them, and were bent only on producing brilliant combinations and rev-
olutionizing discoveries! How many such men have not concluded a
melancholy life in an embittered and misanthropical state of mind, be-
cause they failed to obtain that appreciation from their fellow-men
which is gained only by work and success, and not by the self-compla-
cency of genius alone. The more isolated we are, the more we are
exposed to this danger; while, on the other hand, nothing is more con-
ducive to efficient mental labor than to be obliged to exert all our powers
to gain the appreciation of men whom we ourselves are constrained to
appreciate.

When we compare the kinds of mental activity required in different
branches of science, we shall find certain differences due to the sciences
themselves, although we cannot deny that every man of great talent
has a special individual tendency which fits him for his special branch.
Ii is only necessary to. compare the works of two investigators in inti-

PHYSICAL SCIENCES TO SCIENCE IN GENERAL. 220

mately related branches, to find that the greater the men, the more
decided is their mental individuality, and the less one would be able to
perform the works of the other. To-day we cannot, of course, go further
than to characterize the most general differences of intellectual work in
the different branches of science.

I have reminded you of the gigantic extent of the materials of our
sciences. It is clear that the greater their extent, the more neces-
sary it is to obtain a better and more accurate organization and arrange-
ment, in order not to become hopelessly lost in the labyrinth of learning.
The better the order and system, the greater may the accumulation of
details become without injuring the connection. Our time becomes all
the more profitable in working out details, because our predecessors
have taught us the organization of science.

This organization consists, in the first place, in an external mechan-
ical arrangement, as found in our catalogues, lexicons, registers, indexes,
literary reviews, yearly reports, digests of laws, systems of natural
history,ete. By the aid of these we gain only because all knowledge which
it is not necessary to keep constantly in mind can be found at any mo-
ment by those who need it.

By means of a good lexicon a student of a preparatory school ean
accomplish much in the study of the classics that must have proved
difficult to Hrasmus,in spite of life-long reading. Works of this kind
are, as it were, the scientific capital of mankind, with the interest of
which the business is carried on. We might compare them to capital
invested in lands. Like the earth, of which the lands are composed, the
knowledge contained in these catalogues, lexicons, and indexes looks
little inviting, and the ignorant cannot appreciate the labor and expense
lavished on these acres; the work of the plowman seems excessively
difficult, laborious, and tedious. Although, however, the work of the
lexicographer or of the compiler of systems of natural history requires
as Inuch perseverance and diligence as that of the plowman, it must not
be believed that it is of a subordinate or secondary nature, or that it is
as dry and mechanical as it looks afterward, when the catalogue lies
printed before us. Every single fact must be discovered by attentive
observation ; it must afterward be verified and compared, and the im-
portant must be separated from the wnimportant. None ean do this
but those who have a clear understanding of the object of the collection
and of the intellectual import of the science and its methods; and for
such men every single fact will be of peculiar interest in its relations to
the whole science. Otherwise such work would be the most intolerable
drudgery that could be imagined. That the progressive development
of science has its influence on these works «lso is seen in the faet that
new lexicons, new systems of natural history, new digests of laws, new
catalogues of stars, are constantly found necessary. They testify to the
progress of the methods and the organization of knowledge.

But our knowledge must not remain idle in the form of catalogues ;

224 ON THE RELATION OF THE

for the fact that we must have it about us in this form, black upon
white, proves that we have not mastered it intellectually. It is not suf-
ficient to be cognizant of facts; science results only from a knowledge
of their laws and causes. The logical elaboration of these facts consists
in collecting together those which are similar under one common head.
Thus are formed generic ideas, which take their place in our thinking.
We call them generic ideas when they comprise a number of existing
things, and laws when they comprise a series of phenomena or processes.
When I have discovered that all the mammalia, 7. e., all warm-blooded
animals which bring forth living young, breathe by means of lungs,
have two chambers of the heart and at least three auricular bones, I need
no longer remember these peculiarities separately for the ape, the horse,
the dog, or the whale. The general rule includes an immense number of
individual instances and represents them in the memory. The law of the
refraction of light does not only include all cases where rays fall, at
different angles, upon a smooth surface of water and show the result,
but all cases where rays of any color strike a surface of any kind of any
transparent substance. This law, therefore, includes such an endless
number of cases that it would have been absolutely impossible to retain
them all singly in the memory. Moreover, this law does not only in-
clude those cases which we or others have already observed, but we do
not hesitate to apply it to new cases, which have not yet been recog-
nized, to predict the effect of the refraction of light, and our expecta-
tions will not be disappointed. In the same manner, if we should find
an unknown mammal, that has never been anatomically dissected, we
might conclude almost with certainty that it had lungs, two heart-
chambers, and three or more auricular bones.

While we thus generalize the facts of our experience into classes and
laws, we not only reduce our knowledge to a form in which it is more
easily used and remembered, but we actually increase it, since we can
extend the rules and laws thus found to cases which may come to our
notice in future.

In the above examples the generalization of facts presents no diffi-
culty, and the whole process is obvious. But in complicated cases we
do not succeed so easily in separating the similar from the dissimilar, and
in forming clear, sharply defined ideas. Suppose we know a man to be
ambitious; we may predict, with tolerable certainty, that, if this man
be placed in certain conditions, he will follow the promptings of his
ambition and choose a certain course of action. But we can neither
define with certainty how an ambitious man is to be recognized, nor
how his ambition can be estimated, nor can we ascertain how great it
must be to lead him, under certain circumstances, to adopt a certain
line of action. We compare the observed actions of one man with those
of other men who have acted similarly in similar cases, and draw our
conclusion as to the result of future actions, without having either our
major or our minor premise clearly defined, and even without being

PHYSICAL SCIENCES TO SCIENCE IN GENERAL. 225

aware that our predictions are founded on the described comparison.
Our opinion, in such cases, proceeds from a certain psychological facet
and not from a conscious argument, although, in the main, the mental
process was the same as in the instance where we predicted that the
newly discovered mammal would have lungs.

The latter kind of induction, which cannot be carried out to the
complete form of a logical syllogism nor to the establishment of general
laws, plays a very great part in thelivesofmen. The whole development
of our sensations is based upon it, as can be proven by an investigation of
illusions. When, e. g., the nerves of our eye are disturbed by a blow, we
have a sensation of light, because, during our whole life, the optic nerve
had been affected only by light, and we had been accustomed to identify
the sensation of the optic nerve with the action of light, a habit which,
in the present case, leads us to an incorrect conclusion. The same kind
of induction plays the principal part in psychological processes, on ac-
count of the extreme complexity of the influences which determine the
formation of a man’s character or momentary state of mind. In fact,
by asserting that we are free agents, 7. e., that we have the power of
acting according to our own free will and choice, without being forced
by a strict, inevitable law, we deny the possibility of referring back at
least a part of the manifestations of our soul to an inflexible law.

We might call this kind of induction artistic induction, in contradis-
tinction to logical induction, which produces sharply defined, generai
conclusions; because it is pre-eminently apparent in the finest works of
art. It is an essential part of artistic talent to be able to reproduce
the external characteristics of a character or state of mind by means of
words, forms, colors, or sounds, and to comprehend instinctively the
operations of the soul without being guided by any tangible rule. On
the contrary, wherever we become aware that the artist has consciously
worked after general rules and abstractions, we find his production
commonplace and our admiration ceases immediately. The works of
great artists, however, depict to us characters and operations of the
mind with such vivacity, such profusion of individual traits, and such
convincing truthfulness, that they seem superior to real life, because
no disturbing influences have entered.

When we examine the sciences with regard to the manner in which con-
clusions must be drawn in each, we are struck by a fundamental differ-
ence between the natural and the mental sciences. In the natural
sciences, induction may usually be continued until we obtain decided
general rules and laws, while in the mental sciences deductions from
psychological tact preponderate. So in the historical. sciences, the
sources of facts must first be verified, and, when the facts are estab-
lished, the more difficulf and more important labor begins of investi-
gating the complicated and various motives of peoples and individuals.
Both must be done chiefly through psychological consideration. The

psychological sciences, in so far as they have to do with the explanation
15s 71

226 ON THE RELATION OF THE

and emendation of the texts transmitted to us, and with the history of
literature and art, require an intuitive perception of the sense of -an
author and of the secondary meaning of his words; they require a correct
appreciation, both of the individuality of the author and of the genius
of the language in which he wrote. All these are instances of artistic
and not of logical induction. We can only form our judgment, if a
large number of similar facts is ready in the memory to be quickly
brought into relation with the question before us. One of the first
requirements for this kind of studies is, therefore, a reliable and ready
memory. Indeed, many celebrated historians and philologists have ex-
cited the astonishment of their contemporaries by the power of their
memories. Of course, the mere memory would not suffice without the fac-
ulty of quickly perceiving analogies, or without a finely developed appre-
ciation of human emotions; and this latter requisite cannot, perhaps, be
acquired without a certain warmth of feeling or an interest in observing
the emotions of others. While our intercourse with our fellow-men in
every-day life must furnish the basis for these psychological reflections,
the study of history and art serves to supplement and enrich them, since
both show us men acting under unusual circumstances, and teach us
the whole extent of the powers that lie slumbering in our bosoms.

The above-mentioned sciences, with the exception of grammar, gen-
erally do not sueceed in obtaining strict universal laws. The laws of
grammar are established by the human will, although it may have been
unconsciously and without a premeditated plan, but developing as the
need of them was felt. They appear, therefore, to the learner of the
language as laws established by extraneous authority.

Intimately connected with philology are theology and jurisprudence,
whose preparatory and auxiliary studies in fact belong to the circle of
philological sciences. The general laws, which we find in both, are also
such as have been established by extraneous authority for our belief
and mode of action as regarded from a moral or judicial point of view,
and not laws like those of nature, which state the generalization of a
mass of facts. Like the application of a law of nature, however, to a
particular case, the application of a grammatical, legal, moral, or dogmat-
ical rule, is made in the form of a conscious logical syllogism. The
rule forms the major premise, and the minor premise must show
whether the case in point fulfills the requirements of the rule. The
solution of this latter process, as well in grammatical analysis for
explaining the sense of a sentence as in a legal consideration of the
truth of facts, the intentions of agents or the sense of their writings
must again be of a psychological nature. We cannot deny, however,
that both the syntaxof civilized languages and the system of our juris-
prudence, perfected by a practice of more than 2,000 years, have at-
tained so high a degree of logical finish and consistency that cases not
coming clearly under their laws are exceptional. Of course, there will
always be such cases, because human laws can never hope to become as

PHYSICAL SCIENCES TO SCIENCE IN GENERAL. 227

perfect and comprehensive as the laws of nature. In such cases we
have no other alternative but to divine the intention of the law-giver
from the analogy of the laws for similar cases.

Grammatical and legal studies have certain advantages for cultivat-
ing the mind, because they uniformly exercise its different faculties.
The education of the modern Europeans is, for this reason, based
especially upon the grammatical study of foreign languages. The
mother tongue and foreign languages, that are learned by practice alone,
do not exercise logical thought, although they may teach us artistic
beauty of expression. The two classical languages, Greek and Latin,
in common with most ancient and original languages, have the advantage
of an extremely artistic and logical development, and of full and dis-
tinct inflections, which clearly indicate the grammatical relation of
words and sentences. By long use languages become worn down,
grammatical forms are sacrificed for practical brevity and rapidity of
utterance, and the result is greater indistinetness. Thisis clearly seen by
comparing the modern European languages with the Latin. The wearing
down of inflections has proceeded furthest in English. This seems to
me to be the reason why modern languages are less fit for educational
purposes than the ancient.

As grammar is best adapted to the education of youth, so are jurid-
ical studies a means of culture for a maturer age, even where they are
not immediately necessary for practical use.

The extreme opposite of the philological and historical sciences, as
far as the kind of intellectual labor involved is concerned, is found in
the natural sciences. I do not mean to deny that, in many branches of
these sciences, an instinctive perception of analogies and a certain
artistic tact play a conspicuous part. In natural history it is, on the
contrary, left entirely to this tact, without a clearly definabie rule, to
determine what characteristics of species are important or unimportant
for purposes of classification, and what divisions of the animal or vege-
table kingdom are more natural than others. It is furthermore signifi-
cant that Goethe, i. e., an artist, has first suggested comparative ana-
tomical investigations of the analogies of the corresponding organs of
different animals, and also of the analogous metamorphosis of leaves
in the vegetable kingdom, thus determining materially the direction
which comparative anatomy has since taken. But even in these
branches, where we have to do with the effects of vital processes, as yet
not understood, we can generally forin comprehensive ideas and dis-
cover clear laws more easily than in cases where our judgment depends
upon an analysis of the actions of the soul. The peculiar scientific
character of the natural sciences appears most sharply defined in the
experimental and mathematical branches, especially in pure mathe-
matics.

The essential difference between these sciences, in my opinion, con-
sists in that it is comparatively easy in the latter to unite individual

228 ON THE RELATION OF THE

cases which have come under our observation or experience, under gen-
eral laws of absolute correctness and extensive application, while in the
former such generalization usually presents insurmountable difficulties.
Indeed, in mathematics, the general laws called axioms are so few, so
comprehensive, and so evident that they require no proof. The whole
of the pure mathematics is developed out of the following three axioms :

“Two magnitudes equal to a third are equal to each other.

‘“ Hquals added to equals produce equals.

‘“ Unequals added to equals produce unequals.”

The axioms of geometry and of theoretical mechanics are not more
numerous. These sciences are developed out of these few axioms by
employing every obtained conclusion in working out subsequent cases.
Arithmetic is not confined to the addition of a finite number of magni-
tudes, but teaches in higher analysis,even to add an infinite number of
magnitudes, which increase or decrease in value according to the most
varying laws; in other words, to solve problems which could never be
done by direct methods. Here we see the conscious logical operation of
our mind in its purest and most perfect form ; here we learn the whole
labor and great care with which it must proceed, the accuracy necessary
to determine the full value of discovered general laws, the diffieulty of
forming and understanding abstract ideas; but we also learn at the
same time to gain confidence in the certainty, scope, and fruitfulness of
such mental labors.

‘The latter becomes still more obvious in applied mathematical sciences,
especially in mathematical physics, to which must also be added phys-
ical astronomy. After Newton had once recognized, from the mechan-
ical analysis of the motions of planets, that between all ponderable matter
there exists an attraction, inversely proportional to the square of the dis-
tance, this simple law was sufficient for calculating with the greatest pre-
cision all the motions of the planets to the remotest periods of past or
future time, if we only have the place, velocity, and mass of the various
bodies of our system given for some point of time. We even recognize
the effects of the same force in the motions of double stars, whose dis-
tance from us is so great that their light is years in reaching us, and in
those whose distances have never been successfully measured.

This discovery of the law of gravitation and of its consequences is
the most wonderful effort of logical power of which the human mind has
ever been capable. I do not assert that no men possessing powers of
logical abstraction as great or greater than those of Newton or of the
other astronomers, who led the way to or developed his discovery, have
ever lived; but that there has never been a better opportunity than that
of solving the confused motions of the planets, which had before served
only to foster a belief in astrology among the uneducated, and which
were now brought under a law that was able to account for the slight-
est details of their motions.

Other branches of physics have also been déveloped according to the

PHYSICAL SCIENCES TO SCIENCE IN GENERAL. 229

above great model, especially optics, electricity, and magnetism. The ex-
perimental sciences have the advantage over the rest, that they can at
will vary the conditions under which a result takes place, and may thus
confine themselves to the observation of comparatively few character-
istic cases in order to determine the law. Its correctness must, of
course, be verified in more complicated cases. Thus the physical sciences
have advanced with comparative rapidity after the correct methods had
once been determined. They have not only enabled us to look back into
the distant past when the cosmical nebule were consolidated to stars
and became incandescent by the power of their aggregation; not only
to investigate the chemical constituents of the solar atmosphere—the
chemistry of the most distant fixed stars will probably soon become
known also*—but they have taught us to avail ourselves of the forces
of nature tor our own benefit.

From what has been said, it is sufficiently evident how different the
mental labor isin the two classes of sciences. The mathematician needs
no memory at all for individual facts, and the physicist but little. Sup-
positions based on the recollection of similar cases may be useful in
indicating the right direction, but they become valuable only when they
have led to a precise and marked law. There is no doubt that we have
to do in nature with unvarying laws. We must, therefore, work on
until we have discovered them. We must not rest until we have accom-
plished that; for it is then only that our knowledge obtains its triumphs
over time and space, and over the forces of nature. :

The solid work of conscious argument requires great perseverance and
care; it is generally slow, and is but rarely advanced by flashes of
genius. We find in it little of that readiness with which the memory of
the historian or philologer recalls past experiences. It is, indeed, the
essential condition of methodical progress of thought that the mind
must remain concentrated upon one point, undisturbed by side issues,
by wishes or hopes, and proceed only according to its own will and
determination. The celebrated logician, Stuart Mill, asserts as his con-
viction that the inductive sciences have done more in modern times for
the progress of logical methods than philosophy itself. “One great cause
of this may be, that in no department of knowledge is a mistake of
reasoning detected so easily by the erroneousness of the result as in
these sciences, where we can most readily compare the results of our
reasoning directly with the actual facts.

Although I have asserted that the natural sciences, and especially
their mathematical branches, have come nearer the accomplishment of
their scientific mission than the other sciences, I do not wish to be charged
with underrating the latter. If the natural sciences have attained

* Most interesting discoveries have already been made. They are found in the work
of W. Huggins and W. A. Miller, published April, 1864, in which the analysis of Alde-

baran and a Orion is given, and proof furnished that certain nebule are incandescen
globes of gas.

230 ON THE RELATION OF THE

greater perfection in their scientific form, the mental sciences have the
advantage that they have treated a richer subject, and one that is of
more intimate interest to man, namely, the human mind itself, with its
various desires and operations. They have the higher and more diffi-
cult task; butitis clear that the example of those branches of knowledge
which have advanced further by reason of their easier subject-matter,
must not be lost to them. They may learn methods from them and
derive encouragement from the abundant harvest of their results. I
believe, indeed, that our times have already learned much from the
natural sciences. The great respect for facts and accurate collections,
a certain distrust of appearances, the striving after the discovery of
unvarying laws which distinguish our times from former time, seem to
indicate such an influence.

How far mathematical studies, being the representatives of conscious
logical thought, should obtain a greater influence in our educational
systems, I will not here consider. That is mainly a question of time.
As science becomes more extended, system and organization must be
improved, and students will find themselves obliged to pass through a
severer course of thinking than grammar is able to afford. What I
have particularly noticed in my own experience with students who
pass from our grammar-schools to scientific and medical studies, is a
certain laxness in the application of strict universal laws. The gram-
matical rules to which they were accustomed are usually furnished with
long lists of exceptions; the students are, therefore, not used to trusting
the certainty of the legitimate consequence of a general law without
reserve. Secondly, I find them too much inclined to seek authorities
where they might be able to form an opinion of their own. In phi-
lological studies, the scholar who can rarely overlook the whole field,
and who frequently must depend upon an esthetic perception of
elegance of expression and of the genius of the language which require
long culture, will, even by the best teachers, be referred to authorities.
Both errors proceed from a certain sluggishness and an uncertainty of
thinking, which will disqualify the student for later scientific studies.
Mathematical studies are certainly the best remedy for both; in them
there is absolute certainty of inference, and there is no authority but
our own reason.

So much for the mutually supplementing tendencies of the mental
labors of different sciences. :

But the acquisition of knowledge is not the only object of man on
earth. Although the sciences awaken and develop the most subtle
powers of the human mind, yet he who studies only for the purpose of
knowing, dogs not fulfill his destiny on earth. We often see highly
gifted men who are by some fortune or misfortune placed in comfortable
circumstances, without ambition or energy for action, drag out a tedious
and unsatisfactory life, while they believe that they are carrying out
the object of their existence by increasing their knowledge and devel-

PHYSICAL SCIENCES TO SCIENCE IN GENERAL. Dol

oping their minds. Action alone ennobles a man’s life, and his aim must
therefore be either a practical application of his knowledge or an in-
crease of science itself. The latter is also conducive to the progress of
humanity, and this leads us to the consideration of the connection be-
tween the subjects of the sciences themselves.

Knowledge is power. No time demonstrates this more clearly than
our own. We learn how to make the forces of nature, as found in the
inorganic world, subservient to the needs of human life and the pur-
poses of the human mind. The application of steam has increased the
bodily power of man a thousand and even million fold; weaving and
spinning machines have relieved man of labor whose monotonous regu-
larity served only to stultify the mind. The intercourse of men with its
material and intellectual consequences, has increased to a point which
would never have been dreamed of when our parents were born. But
it is pot only by machines that human force is multiplied, and it is not
only on cast-steel rifled cannon, and iron-clad vessels, or on supplies of
provisions and money that the power of a nation depends, although
these things have so unequivocally asserted their influence, that even
the proudest and most unyielding absolute governments of our time
have been obliged to remove the shackles from industry and grant a
political voice to the laboring classes. It is also the political and judi-
cial organization of states, the moral discipline of individuals, which
produces the preponderance of the civilized nations over the uncivilized,
so that the latter are doomed to inevitable destruction if they cannot
acquire civilization. Here everything acts reciprocally. Where there
are no established laws, where the interests of the majority cannot as-
sert themselves, there can be no development of national wealth and
power. He alone can become a good soldier in whom a sense of honor
and independence have been developed under just laws, and not the
slave, who is subject to the whims of a capricious master.

For this reason every nation, from motives of self-preservation alone
and without considering more ideal requirements, has an interest in
fostering not only the natural sciences and their technical applications,
but also the political, legal, and moral sciences, with all their subserv-
ient historical and philological branches. No nation, wishing to pre-
serve her independence and influence, can afford to remain behind.
The civilized peoples of Europe are conscious of this. The public aid
given to universities, schools, and scientific institutions far exceeds all
that was done in this respect informer times. Wealso can boast again
this year of a liberal donation by our government.* I spoke in my in-
troduction of the increasing division and organization of scientific labor.
In fact, men of science form a kind of organized army, endeavoring, for
the good, and indeed mostly by the commission and at the expense of
the whole nation, to promote such knowledge as tends to the increase

* Means for erecting new buildings for scientific institutes, and smaller sums for hos-
pitals and geological collections.

232 ON THE RELATION OF THE

of industry, wealth, the comforts of life, and to the improvement of the
political organization and the moral development of her citizens. Of
course, we must not ask for immediate, apparent benefit, as the unedu-
eated are so apt to do. Everything that gives us information concern-
ing the forces of nature or the powers of the human mind is valuable,
and will ultimately prove useful, often when we least expect it. Who
could have thought when Galvani touched the thighs of frogs with dif-
ferent metals and saw them twitch, that eighty years later, Europe
would be traversed by wires, carrying news with the rapidity of light-
ning from Madrid to St. Petersburg by means of the same agency,
whose first indications that anatomist observed? Electric currents in
his and at first also in Volta’s hands, were of the feeblest kind, and
could only be perceived by the most delicate instruments. If their in-
vestigation had then been abandoned because it was unpromising, the
most important and interesting connection between the natural forces
would to-day be wanting. When young Galileo, while a student at Pisa,
observed a swinging lamp in church, and found by counting his pulse
that the duration of the oscillations was independent of the size of the
are, who could have foreseen that by means of this discovery we would
entail clocks measuring time with an accuracy then deemed impossible,
and which would enable the mariner, tossed by storms on the remotest
yaters of the earth, to determine his longitude?

He who expects an immediate practical benefit in his study of science,
may be pretty sure that his pursuit will be in vain. Perfect knowledge
and understanding of the action of the powers of nature and mind are
all that science can attain. The individual investigator must find suffi-
cient reward in the pleasure of making new discoveries, victories of
thought over refractory matter; in the esthetical beauty afforded by
well-ordered knowledge, where a perfect connection exists between all
its parts and the whole shows the controlling power of the mind; and
in the consciousness of having contributed to the ever-increasing stock
of knowledge on which the dominion of man over inimical force depends.
He cannot, indeed, expect always to find appreciation and reward ade-
quate to the value of his works. It is true that many a one to whose
memory a2 monument has been erected, would have been happy had he
received the tenth part of its cost in money during his lifetime. But we
must also remember that the value of scientific discovery is much more
readily and cheerfully appreciated by public opinion than formerly, and
that cases where authors of material scientific progress are allowed to
suffer want have become more and more rare; that, on the contrary, the
governments and people of Europe have recognized the duty of com-
pensating prominent men of science by corresponding positions or na-
tional rewards provided especially for the purpose.

The sciences have then a common cause: to make the mind rule the
world. While the mental sciences work directly to make intellectual
life richer and more interesting, to separate theypure from the impure,

PHYSICAL SCIENCES TO SCIENCE IN GENERAL. 200

the natural sciences labor indirectly toward the same goal, by endeavor-
ing to free man more and more from external necessities. Every single
investigator performs his part and chooses such tasks as are most suited
to his mental endowments and culture. But every one must rememn-
ber, also, that he is able to further the great work only in conjunction
with the rest, and that it is therefore his duty to make the results of
his labors as clear and as accessible to them as possible. Then he will
find assistance in others and they in him. The annals of science are
rich in proofs of such mutual relations between sciences apparently the
most remote. Historical chronology is based upon astronomical caleu-
lations of eclipses of the sun and moon, recorded in ancient histories.
Conversely, many important data in astronomy, such as the time of
revolution of many comets, are based upon old historic records. Lat-
terly, Briicke and other physiologists have found it possible to build up
a system of all articulate sounds of which the human organs of speech
are capable, and to base upon it suggestions for a universal alphabet
adapted to all human languages. Here, then, physiology has entered
the service of the science of language, and has furnished the explana-
tion of many curious changes of sound, which are determined not by
the law of euphony, as had been before supposed, but by a similarity
in the positions of the organs of speech. The science of language, in
return, throws light upon the ancient relationship, separation, and
migrations of tribes in prehistoric times and on the degree of civilization
to which they had attained before their separation; for the names of
those objects which they could name then, are found to be common in
later languages. Thus the study of language furnishes us with the
history of times of Which we have no historical documents. Let me
furthermore remind you of the assistance which anatomy can afford
the sculptor and the archeologist who examines ancient statues. If I
may be permitted to refer to some of my own latest works, I will men-
tion that it is possible to demonstrate the elements of our musical sys-
tem by the physics of sound and the physiology of its sensation, a
problem belonging entirely to wstheties. The physiology of the organs
of sense is most intimately connected with psychology, because it
proves results of psychological processes in the perceptions of sense
which do not come within the scope of conscious reflection, and must,
therefore, remain concealed from psychological self-observation.

I could only mention here the most striking examples of the mutual
relations of sciences and those which required the fewest words, and
was, therefore, obliged to choose those existing between the most
remote branches. But the influence which each science exercises over
the one nearest akin to it is, of course, much greater. It is self-evident;
it requires no illustration; you all know it from your own experience.

I therefore consider every individual as a laborer at a common great
work, touching the noblest interests of the whole human race; not as
one striving to satisfy his desire of knowledge, or his own advantage,

234 ON THE RELATION OF PHYSICAL SCIENCES, ETC.

or to shine by displaying his own abilities. The true scientist will not
want the reward of his own conscience nor the appreciation of his fel-
low-men. To keep alive the co-operation of all investigators and the
relations of all branches of science with each other and to their common
object is the great mission of universities; it is, therefore, necessary
that in them the four faculties should always go handinhand. We will
constantly endeavor, as far as in us lies, to labor in this great cause.

ALTERNATE GENERATION AND PARTHENOGENESIS IN THE ANIMAL KINGBOM.

Lecture delivered before the Vienna Society for the Diffusion of Scientific Knowledge,
by Dr. G. A. KORNNUBER.

Translated for the Smithsonian Institution.

Among the various questions whose scientific explanation is the
province of animal physiology, none has perhaps excited the interest
of the people, as well as of scholars, to a higher degree than the propa-
gation of organisms.

While in former times naturalists entertained the most various opin-
ions and hypotheses, or indulged in the most chimerical speculations,
modern science, armed with more perfect knowledge and greatly im-
proved instruments, and more familiar with methods of exact research,
has gradually succeeded in shedding some light on these mysterious
processes.

These processes in general consist in this, that certain bodily constitu-
ents are from time to time separated from individual beings, and are
developed into others of the same species. If the action of a second
animal substance is necessary on such separated germs, which then
show the characteristic structure of eggs, and are called ova, the process
is called sexual propagation or generation; but if the germ under favor-
able external circumstances may become a new being without such
action, this more simple though less general process is called unsex-
ual or agamic reproduction.

To the latter belongs a series of phenomena to which I have the honor
of directing your attention this evening; phenomena which have been
accurately studied and verified only within the last two decades. A
law has been established of the highest importance, not only to zodlogy
but to all natural science, which has been named that of “ Alternate
Generation and Parthenogenesis.”

It was the brilliant Danish naturalist Steenstrup who, in the cele-
brated essay on “Alternate Generation,” (Copenhagen, 1842,) first showed
the way that would lead to a satisfactory explanation of the complicated
phenomena attending the multiplication of the lower forms of animal
life.

By alternate generation, Steeustrup understood the power of an animal
of producing progeny differing from the mother, but itself capable of pro-
ducing young, which again return to the form and character of the first
parent; so that the daughter would not resemble the mother, but the
grandmother. Sometimes this return to the original form occurs only

236 ALTERNATE GENERATION AND

in the third, fourth, or yet further removed generations. The pecu-
liarity of this phenomenon not only consists in the alternation of different
progeny, but also in that of sexual and sexless reproduction. One gen-
eration may consist of sexually developed males and females, and bear
young from eggs, and the next may be sexless, and may bring forth
young by fission, by buds or germs. These animals capable of agamic
propagation were called nurses by Steenstrup, because it is their function
to provide for the alimentation and development of the sexual animals.
The number of sexless intermediate generations, as well as their degree
of development and organization, differs in different species. They
either possess provisory or temporary organs, and are therefore larve,
or they are fully developed individuals, and already show the construc-
tion and mode of life of the sexual animals. The sexless larve of
animals, such as butterflies, which undergo simple metamorphosis, are
distinguished from our nurses by their inability to multiply by agamic
reproduction; so that we may, according to Leuckart, consider alternate
generation with nurses as a metamorphosis combined with agamic repro-
duction.

Alternate generation, very aptly called metagenesis by R. Owen, was
first observed in the salpe, a kind of mollusks which are as remarkable
for their form as for their mode of life. They belong to the tunicata,
and are found in great numbers in the ocean, the Mediterranean, and in
ali southern seas. They swim about a little below the surface, and pre-
sent the appearance of oval or cylindrical bodies, clear as crystal, moving
about either isolated or united in long chains, by taking in water and
expelling it again.

Our German lyric poet, Chamisso, remarked, in his voyage around the
world, that the isolated salpz could not be members of a severed chain,
because they did not resemble the individuals of thelatter. He further-
more recognized that the solitary salpw always contained a progeny
reseinbling the chain, while the individuals of the latter contained a
foetus formed exactly like the solitary salpae. Chamisso published his
interesting observations in 1819, at Berlin, in an essay entitled De
animalibus quibusdam e classe vermium linneana, Fase. I. de Salpa, in
which he expressed the view that the solitary salpz proceeded from the
individuals of the chain and the latter from the solitary ones. Cha-
misso’s discovery was but little appreciated at first; it was even ridi-
culed as the vagary of a poet, until it was brilliantly defended by
Steenstrup in 1842, and confirmed and expanded later by the accurate
investigations of other zodlogists. We know now that the loosely con-
nected chain,is composed of hermaphrodite sexual animals, generating
an embryo usually from one egg only, which remains connected for a
time with the mother by means of a kind of placenta, and is nourished
by it until, having attained a considerable size, it escapes and forms the
solitary or isolated salpa—the only case of viviparity among the tuni-

vata. The solitary salpa then generates a chain of sexually developed

PARTHENOGENESIS IN THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. WS

individuals by gemmation from buds, which take the place of male
and female organs of generation, and thus represent their nurse.

Un the coasts of the North and Baltic Seas immense swarms of clear,
watery, bell-shaped creatures may be perceived in summer, swimming
slowly around below the calm surface of the water, with their convex
surface upward and their concave downward. These are the Aurelia
aurita, L., a species of acraspedote, or unfringed medusa, some of which
are male and some female, as is the case in all medusz. The sexual
organs are ruffle-like folds on the inner skin of four bags or folds in the
gastrical cavity, which open outward at the bottom of the stalk. By
simple ciliary motion the seed of the male passes into the bags of the
female and fecundates the eggs. These then pass out into the folds of
the tentacles, where they are developed to embryos, which are provided
with a very tender covering of cilia, and move about freely in the water
like infusoria. This phase of evolution was formerly considered as a
separate species, called planula. Soon, however, the cilia falls off, and
the animalcule, thus deprived of its locomotive organs, sinks to the
bottom, attaches itself to firm objects, and grows longer. In the free
end a cavity soon appears, which gradually increases and is developed
into a mouth, from which wart-like excrescences or papillee shoot out
and are afterward converted into tentacles. The animal has now the
appearance of a polypus; and it was, indeed, formerly so considered,
and called hydra tuba, After some time—perhaps months—a circular
depression is seen just below the crown of tentacles, followed by others
behind it. These depressions become deeper and deeper, and short
projections appear in their edges, which afterward also develop into
tentacles. The whole now bears a distant resemblance to the so-called
strobila, or fir-cone, or to a set of flat cups resting on a columnar foot,
the polypus. ‘The separate divisions of the strobila are the origin of
the future meduse. They develop more and more, one‘ after another,
separate from their pedestal, and afterwards attain their permanent
form, size, and maturity. They now turn the convex surface by which
they were attached, upward, while the mouth, which was before turned
up, now points downward. In the aurelia there is, therefore, an inter-
mediate or nurse generation during the polypus stage, in which the
animal is multiplied in an agamie way by gemmation and _ fission.
Each of the individuals so produced is again developed into a sexual
medusa.

In meduse of lower organization belonging to the hydroids, which
Gegenbauer has called craspedote, because their disk is provided with a
velum, a similar kind of alternate generation takes place, with the ex-
ception, however, that the polypoid nurse reaches a much more advanced
stage of independent development after leaving the ovum. It grows to
a Stalk of considerable size, and puts forth numerous polypus-buds. It
is only when the colony has attained a high degree of development that

238 ALTERNATE GENERATION AND —

the sexual animals are formed, which separate from the stalk, swim
about independently, and deposit their eggs in remote spots.

In other hydroids the nurse acquires a still greater importance. In
them, as in our sweet-water polypi, the sexual progeny appears only in
the shape of globular appendages, which are not capable of being
evolved into independent animals, but remain attached to the polypus-
stalk, and resemble organs for the production of the sexual secretions.

We may with Gegenbauer call this latter form of alternate generation
imperfect metagenesis. We see another remarkable instance of it in
the peculiar many-shaped colonies known as Siphonophore, which swim
about freely in the sea, and of which the vraya dipheys, Blaine, occurring
in the Atlantic and the Mediterranean, may serve as an example. From
the transparent ovum of this animal a ciliated larva is hatched. The
plastic material contained in the body of this larva or nurse is then differ-
entiated into a locomotory piece, (the posterior of the two swimming-
bells at the beginning of the stalk of a ripe colony,) and an appendage
which afterward becomes the second bell and the common stalk of the
whole colony. The individuals now bud forth from this stalk in a fixed
order, but do not separate. They remain so connected that their abdom-
inal cavities all open into the canal passing through the common stalk.
These individuals are not by any means formed alike, nor do they serve
the same physiological purpose. The principal of the division of labor,
which is carried out in the solitary animals so that their organs become
constantly more numerous and more perfect, is here applied in such a
manner that the various functions of animal life, motion, alimentation,
defense, and aggression, aS well as sexual reproduction, which is other-
wise confined to single individuals, are here distributed among all the
animals of the whole colony. In every tuft along the stalk, which some-
times numbers as many as fifty of them, we distinguish nourishers in the
form of trumpet-shaped appendages with orifices called suction-tubes ;
aggressors, in the form of long contraétile filaments or tentacles furnished
with microscopic weapons (nettle-cells) at their knobs; defenders, in
the form of stiff scales or helmets attached to the nourishers for pur-
poses of defense; reproducers, developed after all the rest, in the form of
‘acemous dizcious capsules swinging in small (special) swimming-bells.
By the alternate contraction and expansion of the bell-shaped seeimmers
at the upper end of the colony, (the base,) with which the smaller spe-
cial swimming-bells move in time, the whole colony is propelled through
the water.

In a few other species, the physalide and vellelide, the sexual ani-
mals separate from their nursing stalk and have a short, independent
existence like the medusa.

The alternate generation of some of the intestinal worms is attended
by the most wonderful and extraordinary circumstances. The most
curious opinions have prevailed until very lately about their origin and
reproduction. .

ene eal

PARTHENOGENESIS IN THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. 230

On account of their various wanderings through different animal
bodies, the trematodes, and more especially certain species of the genus
distoma, so called on account of two suckers or stomata on the flat part
of their bodies, are of peculiar interest. From the egg of the distoma
a ciliated embryo, resembling infusoria, is produced, which swims about
in the water, attaches itself to certain sweet-water snails, (Limnzeus,
Planorbis, &c.,) and penetrates into their bodies. There it grows, loses
its cilia, and develops a mouth and an alimentary tube. Its contents
aggregate into cellular heaps, which gradually assume a definite shape,
and are converted into small animals. These essentially possess the
structure of mature trematodes, but are sexless and have a tail-like ap-
pendage; they increase slowly in size and expand the worm which
contains them, and which seems to have no other function than to pro-
tect them and promote their development, 7. e., to act as their nurse.
When completely developed they pierce the envelope of their nurse
and move about freely in the body of the snail until they pass through
this also, and glide through the water with a winding motion by means
of their tail. In this form they had long been known to naturalists
under the name of cercaria, Nitz ; but their relation to the trematodes
was unknown until quite recently. The cerecaria afterward seeks a
new host among the many inhabitants of the water, (fish, mollusks,
crabs, insect-larvee, ete.,) penetrates them by means of its proboscis,
and there loses both its tail and the sting of its proboscis, as no longer
necessary to its new mode of living. It is now converted into a distoma.

If the animal finds all the conditions necessary to its perfect evolu-
tion in its new host, it continues to grow until it has attained maturity.
If this is not the case, it remains small and sexless, surrounds itself
with a transparent shell, which it secretes from the surface of its own
body, and remains in a state of rest and inactivity like a pupa until its
host is eaten up by a larger and stronger animal. Hence we find it in
the intestines, the gall-bladder, the biliary ducts, the kidneys, ete., of
higher animals, especially of ruminants, (in the liver of sheep, cattle,
goats, and deer;) also in asses, hogs, hares, etc., and in rare cases in
man. (Distoma hepaticum, L.; Distoma hematobium, Bilharz.* )

Sometimes it happens that the progeny of the worm-like nurse does
not immediately assume the form of the cercaria, but that of the mother.
In that case an intermediate generation of larve is produced, which
act as nurses of the cercaria, so that the worm resulting from the em-
bryo might be called the grand-nurse.

Thus the numerous and fertile multiplication of germs by means of
agamic reproduction counterbalances the difficulties and obstacles
which these animals have to encounter in their various migrations
through other organisms before they reach their perfect form.

Formerly the tape-corm was considered nothing more than a simple

* Zeitschrift fiir wissenschaftliche Zodlogie, 1853, vol. iv, pp. 53-76 and 454-456,

240 ALTERNATE GENERATION AND

animal having a head and an articulated body. Since Steenstrup’s
time, however, and especially through the more recent investigations of
v. Siebold and van Beneden, we know it to consist of a chain or colony
of differently-formed individuals. The larger posterior joints (the so-
called proglottides) represent the organs of generation, and contain
many thousand eggs in their ramified ovaries. In these, microscopic
embryos are developed, which are discharged when the ripe joints fall
off with the excrement of the host. The embryos do not then leave the
eggs at once, but remain in their envelopes, which are well fitted for re-
sisting putrefaction or chemical agents, until the eggs are accidentally
swallowed by some (usually an herbivorous) animal. In the intestines
of the latter’ the embryo forces its way through the egg-envelope,
softened by the digestive juices, pierces the intestinal walls and neigh-
boring tissues, until it reaches a vein and is carried by the blood to
more distant organs, in whose parenchyma it remains. After losing its
embryonic hooks, the tape-worm larva grows to a bladder of varying
size, along the walls of which numerous buds (the later “ heads”) arise
in such a manner that the hollow body of the tape-worm head extends
into the bladder. Such colonies were long known and considered as
different species of animals. When one of them gets into the intestines
of a larger animal, the head or bud provided with hooks and suckers
is turned inside out, the bladder is digested, and the joints of the tape-
worm (the real sexual, hermaphrodite individual) begin to grow behind
the head. The reproduction of the tape-worm, therefore, passes through
three different phases: The worm-like embryo or grand-nurse, the so-
called tape-worm head or nurse, and the mature sexual animal.

With the exception of the salpe, we have so far only considered cases
of metagenesis where the nurses are in the form of larvee. In the arthro-
pods, among the diptera, we also find such nursing larvee—an entirely
new and remarkable phenomenon first discovered in the fall of 1861 by
Nicholas Wagner, professor of zodlogy, in Kasan. It produced no small
excitement among zodlogists, and was the cause of so much astonishment
that v. Siebold himself designated it as hardly credible on receiving,
after some delay, Wagner’s essay in the “ Zeitschrift fiir wissenschaftliche
Zoologie,” 1863, vol. xiii, p. 513. Wagner could not then describe
clearly the insect-larva which he had recognized as capable of reproduc-
tion, and y. Siebold took it from the illustrations to be a cecydomyde
larva. Not long after, however, Dr. F. Meinert,* of Copenhagen, not
only fully confirmed his beautiful discovery, but extended it by proving
the different phases of development up to the imago, which Wagner t
had meanwhile also accurately investigated. Meinert calls it the mias-
tor metraloas, but according to the later researches of our excellent
dipterologist, Dr. Schiner, reported to the imperial zoological-botanical

* Zeitschrift fiir wissenschaftliche Zoologie, vol. xiv, p. 394.
t Vol. xv, p. 106. i

PARTHENOGENESIS IN THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. 2A

society in February, 1865, it hardly seems to differ from the genus
heteropeza Winnertz. Reproduction takes place by means of germs.
From seven to ten of these arise out of the accumulated plastic material
in the body of the “ mother-larva,” and develop to ‘ daughter-larvee.”
The former is thereby gradually destroyed, and the progeny tears her
skin and passes out. After three or five days the same process of
germination begins in the new larva, and this continues trom August
to June, when all the larvee of the last generation simultaneously pass
into the pupa state. After three or four days the perfect insect, a
small reddish-brown fly, emerges from the pupa. The correctness of
these observations was afterward verified by v. Ber and vy. Siebold,
and Professer Alexander Pagenstecher, of Heidelberg, observed the
same thing in another species and accurately described it.*

Metagenesis, with mature individuals as nurses, is exemplified among
the arthropods by the aphides. As early as the middle of the last cen-
tury, Charles Bonnett had already communicated exact observations on
the peculiar and remarkable mode of reproduction of the aphides, (plant-
lice.) These well-known enemies of our gardens and green-houses cover
the leaves, shoots, and branches of certain plants in thick swarms, and
defy all our exertions to get rid of them by their extreme fecundity.
During the summer there is a series of nine or ten generations of fully-
formed but sexless animals, or nurses, which bring forth living young
without fecundation, and even without the presence of the male. Em-
bryos are formed immediately from germs, which do not show the struc-
ture of true ova. They separate from peculiar tubes (germinal tubes)
and develop in the body of the mother. In autumn the next to the last
generation produces sexually-developed males and females, which really
cohabit. As in most insects, the male then perishes, while the female
lays eggs, which hibernate and produce a new race of nurses the following
spring. The anatomical examination of these animals, which was first
undertaken by v. Siebold, and afterwards confirmed by Leidig, shows
that the viviparous individuals are well developed, and resemble the
oviparous females of the last fall generation, but that they are sexless
nurses, becauses they lack the seed-bladder belonging to all female in-
sects, and are, therefore, incapable of receiving the male seed.

All the phenomena of alternate generation were also called ‘ Partheno
genesis” by the excellent English anatomist, Richard Owen, in 1849,t
and this name, although somewhat inappropriate, was generally received
on account of its euphony. When, however, the surprising discoveries
of the last few decades put in question the theory that “every true egg

* Zeitschrift fiir wissedschaftliche Zoologie, xiv, p. 400. Further investigation of
this subject is communicated by Leuckart, in Troschel’s Archiy., year XXXI, No. 3.

+ Traité d’Insectologie, tome I: Paris, 1845.

{On Parthenogenesis; a discourse introductory to the Hunterian Lectures on gen-
eration and development for 1849. Delivered at the Royal College of Surgeons of
England: London, 1849,

16s 71

242 ALTERNATE GENERATION AND

cannot be developed into a new individual, (animal or plant,) unless it
has been previously fructified by the action of the male seed,” it seemed
expedient to confine the term “parthenogenesis” to the new phenomena.
In this sense it was first used by the ingenious founder of this important
new theory, the distinguished zodlogist of the Munich University,
Karl Theodor v. Siebold, in his paper on “True Parthenogenesis in But-
terflies and Bees; an Essay on the Reproduction of Animals. Leipsie,
1856.”

Parthenogenesis or virginal generation, according to Siebold, com-
prises “those phenomena which demonstrate that true ova may be de-
veloped into new individuals without the fecundating intervention of
the male seed.”

There is no want of observations of former times according to which
the eggs of virgin insects were said to have produced new individuals,
but they were considered erroneous. Zodlogists doubted that they were
made with proper care, and attempted to explain them in different forced
ways, finally classing them under metagenesis. Among them are the
communications of De Geer on the psychides, and of Herold on the silk-
worms. In 1845 the celebrated apiculturist, K. Dzierzon, a Catholic
priest at Karlsmarkt, east of Brieg, in Prussian Silesia, emphatically
maintained in the * Bienenzeitung,” p. 113, that the eggs from which
the male bees or drones originate are produced and developed by the
sole inherent power of the mother bee without the action of male seed.
This view at first seemed simply incredible to apiarists; they supposed
that he had either deceived himself or intended to mystify others. But
when Dzierzon reiterated his statement he was severely attacked, and
the dispute continued for a long time.

Until 1852 Dzierzon stood alone against their attacks, but undaunted,
unconquered. He could fall back on the experience of many years.
ivery one knows that there are queens which produce only male pro-
geny or drones, and never lay an egg from which mature females,
queens, or stinted females, workers are developed; that there are others
which may lay female eggs for a time but afterward become like the
former, and that finally there are worker-bees which lay eggs, which
give birth only to male individuals.

Among the first-class Dzierzon frequently found bees whose wings
were lame. They were thus prevented from making their hymenial
flight from which they would otherwise have returned impregnated.
Other queens which laid male eggs from the beginning were hatched
either very early or very late in the year, at a time when there were
either no more or only very few drones left, so that their flight was in
vain. Queens which at first laid normal eggs and afterward produced
only drones were older individuals, whose stock of seed had become grad-
ually exhausted. Worker-bees, which sometimes lay eggs and never
have any other male progeny, have never been and are indeed incapa-
ble of being impregnated. From these facts Dzierzon concluded that

PARTHENOGENESIS IN THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. 243

impregnation was unnecessary to the production of drones. That in
common normal generation, where the queen returns impregnated from
her flight, the drones are developed from unfecundated eggs, 7. e., from
those through whose micropyles the spermatozoa have not penetrated, is
proved by Dzierzon from the following fact: After the introduction of
the Italian bee, (apis ligurica,) distinguished by the light color of its pos-
terior abdomen, all the young drones from an Italian queen and a German
father were true Italians, while the female progeny were clearly mixed.

The convincing truth of these facts and the logical conelusions drawn
from them at last brought such eminent bee-masters as Pastor Georg
Kleine, of Liiethorst, in Hanover, and August v. Berlepsch, of Seebach,
near Gotha, into Dzierzon’s camp; but they found no entrance as yet
into zodlogical science, because these practical men were unable to fur-
nish the proper scientific proof to physiologists, who either did not know
or purposely ignored these phenomena.

The important discovery of the micropyle of the insect-egg, made
almost simultaneously in 1854 by Meissner,* of Géttingen, and Leuckart,t
of Giessen, raised the hope of the apiculturists, and seemed to make it
probable that Dzierzou’s views would be proved by scientific men. At
the thirty-first meeting of German naturalists and physicians, held at
Gottingen in 1854, Pastor Kleine sueceeded in winning Professor
Leuckart for his cause just as the latter had demonstrated his beautiful
cliscoveries about the eggs of insects. Leuckart had never been able
to obtain any bee-eggs, and was then for the first time, according to
his own confession, initiated into the mysteries and problems of bee-life.

The first direct proof of the existence of real parthenogenesis was
furnished by Leuckart in the “ Bienenzeitung,” 1855, p. 127, where he
communicated the results of the microscopic examination of a queen-bee
sent him by Baron Berlepsch. This queen had been hatched in Sep-
tember, 1854, a time when no drones existed. ‘The next spring she had
filled fifteen hundred cells with male progeny. On dissection it became
evident that the queen had not been impregnated. She was a normally
formed female with seed-pouch and eggs; but instead of spermatic fila-
ments the former contained a perfectly clear liquid, devoid of granules
or cells, just as in the pupe of queens.

In order to establish Dzierzon’s view fully it still remained to be proved
that in impregnated queens laying normal eggs, the males are also
developed from unfecundated eggs. For this purpose Baron Berlepsch
invited Professor Leuckart to Seebach, where he could institute micro-
scopic investigations. Leuckart went there willingly, but he could not
obtain a definite result, in spite of all his long continued exertions. Ik.
Th. v. Siebold, who went to Seebach a few months later, by invitation
of Baron Berlepsch, and resumed Leuckart’s researches, was more suc-
cessful. He worked in vain for three days and declared that nothing

* Zeitschrift fiir wissenschaftliche, Zoologie, vi, 272.
t Archiv. fiir Anatomie u. Physiologie, 1855, p. 90.

244 ALTERNATE GENERATION AND

could be discovered by means of the microscope. He was to return
next morning, and the carriage was already before the door, when he
appeared before the baron and asked permission to remain one day
longer. He stated that he had been unable to sleep on account of his
rant of success, and that a new method had occurred to him, which he
desired to try.* This method syeceeded perfectly, and v. Siebold very
frequently saw seed-filaments (thirty-one times in fifty-two, and in two
of these cases mobile) in the interior of the bee-eggs. But these sperma-
tozoa were found exclusively in female eggs, and were entirely wanting
in the male.t We therefore owe to Siebold’s wonderful observations
and laborious experiments the definitive establishment of Dzierzon’s
theory that the drone-eggs are developed parthenogenetically without
impregnation by the male seed. This fact, abundantly confirmed by
many accurate and oft-repeated investigations, and also by Leuckart’s
valuable work,i must now be received as scientifically established.

When parthenogenetical reproduetion was thus undoubtedly proved
in bees, the above-mentioned more ancient statements were carefully
re-examined. In the Solenobia triquetrella and the Solenobia lichenella
belonging to the moth family, it was found that the females (which were
brought up from the caterpillar stage in a closed box) laid numerous
eggs soon after leaving the pup, and that these eggs produced small
caterpillars. V. Siebold dissected such moths before and after they
laid their eggs, and found their ovaries constituted exactly like those
of other female butterflies, but not a trace of male spermatozoa could
be discovered.§ The eggs could not therefore be impregnated, and
must undergo spontaneous development.

Of the remarkable apterous butterfly, Psyche helix, Siebold, whose cat-
erpillar makes a spiral bag, no one has yet been able to find the male,
although it has been sought for over fifteen years. And yet these fe-
males annually lay their eggs in the pupa envelope, which remains be-
hind in the caterpillar bag, and in the fall these produce the caterpillars.
On dissection, true eggs with micropyle, a seed-vessel, but always with-
out male spermatozoa, and a copulating pouch are found. These pecu-
liarities preclude the opinion that the psyche female is only a nurse.

V. Siebold and Schmid furthermore succeeded repeatedly in obtain-
ing caterpillars from the eggs of a virgin silkworm, and from those of
the Smerinthus, which became pupz and emerged as perfect male and
female insects.

A. Barthelemy || also confirms the existence of parthenogenesis in

+t True Parthenogenesis, ete., p. 111.

t Zur Kermntniss des Generations wechselsund der Parthenogenese, etc., Frankfort,
1858, p. 51.

§ Also Luckart, idem, p. 45.

\| Etudes et Considérations Générales sur la Parthénogénése, (Annales des Sciences
Naturales, XII, p 307.)

PARTHENOGENESIS IN THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. 2A5

Bombyx mori, and furnishes various proofs. He also observed the lay-
ing of unimpregnated eggs by other butterflies, which are hatched if
they belong to the first generation of the year, but never survive the
winter,

Jourdan* also observed true parthenogenesis in the silk-worm.

At the forty-seventh meeting of Swiss naturalists at Samaden, de
Filippi reported that healthy caterpillars were hatched from the eggs of
the Japanese silk-butterily, although they had certainly not been fe-
cundated, and mentioned a similar observation of Curtis on the Bombyx
atlas.

In certain species of coccides Leuckart (p. 56) also found partheno-
genetical generation. In the Lecanium and Aspidiotus, for instance, the

>

eggs are developed in tubes without being previously impregnated, and
the spermatozoa are entirely wanting. In the genus Chermes (Ch. abietis,
Kaltenb., Ch. laricis, Harling, Ch. picen, Ratzb., Phylloewra coccinea, Heyden)
of the piant-lice, having, according to Leuckart,t both a winter and a
winged summer generation, which latter was erroneously taken for
males by Ratzeburg, reproduction proceeds by means of eggs without
previous impregnation. Leuckart examined two hundred animals, and
never found males but always females, and they virgins. Males do not
seem to exist, or if they do, parthenogenetical reproduction seems to be
the rule. Less accurate observations of the same kind were made by
Dr. Ormerodt on the Vespa britannica, and by Stone§ on the Vespa
vulgaris.

Leuckart (pp. 105-107) has furthermore established the fact that in
all other sociable Hymenoptera, as the bumble-bee, the wasp, and the
ant, as well as in the bee, parthenogenesis prevails. Egg-laying work-
ers, Which are exceptional with bees, are the rule with these animals.
Future researches must decide whether their progeny is always male, as
Hubevr’s§ observations of bumble-bees seem to indicate. No doubt we
will also find parthenogenesis with many other insects, such as the ter-
mites and the gall-fly. In the gall-fly, a species of cynips, no male has
yet been discovered, but only females.

The experiments of Lievin and Zeuker, which demonstrated the
spontaneous development of the daphides, have been confirmed by J.
Lubbock. Millions of the females of these animals, which are scarcely
a line long, may be seen in summer moving about in cisterns and other
standing sweet waters. They multiply in rapidly succeeding genera-
tions by means of unimpregnated or summer eggs in a cavity between

* Compt. Rend., 1861, tome 53, p. 1093,

t Troschel’s Archives, vol. 25, p. 208. Schizoneura seems to have only an oviparous
fall generation.

t Zodlogist, 1859; and Entomol. Annual for 1860, p. 87.

§ Proceedings Entomological Society, 1859, p. 86; Smith in Entomol. Annual for
1861, p. 39.

| Transactions of Linn. Society, 1802, vol. 6, p. 288.

246 ALTERNATE GENERATION AND

the shell and the back of the animal, where they develop into individ-
uals exactly resembling the mother, and multiplying parthenogenetically
on separating from her. In the fall males are born, which eohabit with
the females and produce one or two darkly-colored winter-eggs, which
are surrounded by a second firm envelope called the ephippium, to pro-
tect them during their hibernation.

Although there can be no longer any doubt about the correctness of
these facts, which have been established by the repeated, careful, and
accurate observations of our most distinguished zodlogists, and although
the existence of parthenogenesis among a number of articulate animals
is proved beyond dispute, attempts are not wanting to render them sus-
picious, and represent them as unreliable. Every truth differing from
long cherished opinions is received slowly and with difficulty.

Tigri proposed, in a paper to the Paris Academy of Sciences,* to ex-
plain the parthenogenesis of the Bombyx mori by the supposition that
there is a double cocoon containing two individuals, a male and a female,
which might have copulated before leaving their shell. ‘This supposi-
tion would presuppose the most extraordinary carelessness on the part
of the above-mentioned observers. It amounts to charging them with
not being able to distinguish a double from a single cocoon, or with neg-
lecting to examine the organs of generation and determine the sex
of the individuals. Errors of so crude a nature would hardly be com-
mitted by men but little acquainted with methods of research, much less
by naturalists of high standing. ,

Schaum* states that he cannot receive the theory of the partheno-
genesis of insects, and thinks he can explain it away by an hypothesis
of Pringsheim. According to this the queen-bee, and the workers
which lay eggs, might be androgynous, and possess male organs of gen-
eration besides their ovaries. in all cases where the skillful anatomists,
v. Siebold and Leuckart, dissected such bees, there were no traces of
testicles, so that the above supposition remains without foundation.

The existence of hermaphrodite bees, which were observed by v. Sie-
bold in the apiaries of Mr. Engster, of Constanz, Bavaria,t cannot be
brought forward as a proof against parthenogenesis, but rather seems
to confirm it. It was observed that the pure worker-bees drove the
hermaphrodites out of the hive the moment they left their eggs, and did
not even suffer them to remain on the board outside. The hermaphro-
dites perished in a short time, and could never have reached the egg-
laying stage, even if eggs had afterward formed in their originally
empty ovaries. According to Pringsheim, every queen would have to
be an hermaphrodite; but in the lance-winged and drone-producing
queens, which were repeatedly examined by the above observers, no
trace of androgynism or of spermatozoa could be found.

*Compt. Rend., lv, 1862, p. 106.

t Berliner Entom. Zeitschrift, viii, p. 95.

tC. Th. v. Siebold on Androgynous Bees, Zeitschrift fiirgvissenschaftliche Zoologie,
vol. xiv, No. 1, and in the Eichstiidter Bienenzeitung, year xix, p. 223.

5

PARTHENOGENESIS IN THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. 2AT

Dybocosky also appeared against parthenogenesis in his inaugural dis-
sertation, ‘*de parthenogenesi;” but his objections are unfounded, and
evince neither thorough investigation nor satisfactory knowledge of the
subject. The same is the case with various other objections brought
forward by the opponents of parthenogenesis. None of them will stand
test.

The reliability of the theory is established beyond doubt by many
well-proved facts, and we may rejoice that we have thus gained a new
and highly important law for the explanation of the most wonderful
phenomena in the animal kingdom.

: aa a

edt
aaa:

ON THE PRESENT STATE OF OUR KNOWLEDGE OF CRYPTOGAMOUS PLANTS.

Lecture delivered before the Vienna Society for the Diffusion of Scientific Knowledge, by Hein-
rich Wilhelm Reichardt.

{Translated for the Smithsonian Institution, by Professor C. FP. Kroru.]

In the last few decades many leading botanists have given especial
attention to the study of cryptogamous plants, for they very properly
recognized the importance to their science which a more perfect knowl-
edge of the development, growth, and propagation, as well as of the strue-
ture, of these simplest of organism would be. Through the combined
labors of much talent, a large number of the most interesting dis-
coveries have been made. An entirely new basis for this department
of botany has been created, the previous views about seed-bearing
plants in many respects reformed, and a very general interest excited
in the subject. Tor this reason it seems proper for me to report to
this society, whose object is the diffusion of scientific knowledge, the
present state of our information with respect to the cryptogams.

It is evident that it is only possible to give a condensed view of the
most important facts, and to consider even these only in their general out-
lines, in the short time allotted to a lecture.

The eryptogams were almost wholly unknown to the ancients. Even
Theophrastus and Pedanius Dioskorides enumerate only twenty species
of them in their works. In the Middle Ages no progress was made in a
knowledge of them. Attention was only paid to a few species of crypto-
gams, to which were attributed medicinal or magical virtues. When,
with the revival of classical learning and the reformation, science also
received afresh impulse, when Brunfels rejected the traditions of the
old school and turned to the study of domestic plants and thereby cre-
ated anew basis for botanical research, botanists were too much occu-
pied with the observation of seminiferous plants to pay much attention
to the lower orders. It was not until the beginning of the eighteenth
century that two men appeared who actively took up the study of eryp-
togams, and who must therefore be considered as the founders of this
branch of the science. They are Antonio Micheli, superintendent of the
botanic garden at Florence, and Johann Jacob Dillenius, a German,
who later became superintendent of the botanie garden at Eltham,
and professor at the University of Oxford. [ cannot enter into a de-
tailed account of the labors of these two fathers of eryptogamic botany ;
let it suffice, therefore, to indicate that they represent the two chief
schools which still characterize the study of cryptogains to-day.

250 ON THE PRESENT STATE OF OUR.

Micheli was an excellent morphologist for his time, and made some very
interesting discoveries in his line; Dillenius, however, was principally
a Systematizer; he knew and described almost one thousand species
of algze, lichens, mosses, and ferns.

At last Carl von Linné appeared on the scene. He is known to every
man of culture as one of the greatest of botanists, and as a scholar who
reformed and influenced the whole study of natural history. He pro-
posed what is called the sexual system, under which he classified all known
plants ; he introduced the nomenclature now in use; he raised botany
to the dignity of a true science. Occupied as he was with the phanero-
gams, he found no time, and had, perhaps, no inclination to investigate
the cryptogams. He contented himself with dividing this, the twenty-
fourth class of his system, into the four orders of ferns, mosses, alge,
and fungi, and distributing among them the materials furnished by
Dillenius and Micheli. In his Species Plantarum he mentions about eight
hundred kinds of cryptogams, distributed among fifty genera. Linné’s
indirect influence on this class of plants is much more important, since
he laid down general laws which his successors were to apply in de-
tail. The following are some of the prominent men who e¢arried out
Linné’s ideas in the treatment of the cryptogams: Gmelin, Turner,

7aucher, Dillwyn, and especially Aghard the elder, devoted themselves
to the study of the alge. Erik Acharius laid the foundation for the
study of lichens, and was assisted by Florke, Wallroth, and Ernst
Meyer. Fungi were studied by Christian Persoon, with the assistance
of Schaeffer, Bulliard, Bolton, and Link. Johann Hedwig inaugurated
the study of mosses, and was seconded by Bridel, Schwigrichen, and for
exotic mosses, by the elder Hooker. Ferns were made a specialty by
Olaus Swartz, Willdenow, Kaulfuss, Schkuhr, Bernhardi, and others.
Hedwig must be considered by far the most ingenious and eminent
investigator of this period; he might properly be called the Linné of
cryptogams. His researches are read with preference. The Austrians
especially are proud of him as their fellow-countryman. It would occupy
too much time to describe the researches of Hedwig and the others,
and I must therefore deny myself that pleasure.

If we examine what was done in the investigation of cryptogams
during the period of the Linnéan systems, we shall find that the efforts
of botanists were chiefly directed to the discovery of new forms, to
make short diagnoses, and to classify them artificially according to
certain characteristics. Hedwig and the other authors of that time
furnish only a few though valuable data concerning their peculiarities,
formation, and anatomical structure. It was left to the most recent
epoch of botanical studies to unite these isolated materials into a
harmonic whole. In this epoch, comprising scarcely more than three
decades, botany, and especially the knowledge of cryptogams, has
made immense progress.

The representatives of Linné’s views had accumulated a mass of

KNOWLEDGE OF CRYPTOGAMOUS PLANTS. 251

comprehensively arranged material. Botanists, however, gradually be-
came conscious that their system should not be ouly an arrangement of
plants according to certain arbitrary characteristics, but that their
essential peculiarities and natural relations among themselves must be
considered in their classification; in other words, that they must estab-
lish a natural system. Jussieu made the first successful attempt to
build up such a system. Among the French, de Candolle, and among
the English, Robert Brown, the two Hookers, and Lindley perfected it.
In Germany, and especially in Austria, it found its most perfect ex-
pression in our genial and renowned compatriot, Professor Stephan
Endlicher, with whom must be mentioned his friends and colleagues,
Professors Fenz! and Unger, my highly-esteemed teachers.

The change which the natural system produced in the direction of
botanical research, ever made it more necessary to study out the laws
of the growth, formation, reproduction, and propagation of plants; to
find out with accuracy the relations existing between their different
organs, and to investigate the origin and development of the whole
plant and its separate parts, down to the most elementary organisms.
Thus morphology became a separate branch of botany through the
endeavors of Robert Brown, Roper, Alexander Braun, Schleiden,
Schacht, Hofmeister, and others.

Morphological studies naturally led to a more accurate consideration
of the structure and the processes of plant-life. The microscope had
meanwhile been greatly improved, and many botanists took up this
branch with predilection. In this way the anatomy and physiology of
plants reached a point, through the excellent labors of Hugo von Moh,
Unger, Nigeli, Schacht, and others, which had not before been thought
possible.

Excursions to all parts of the world were undertaken by courageous
investigators, who not only enriched the science with a great many new
forms, but rendered it possible to determine the laws of the distribution
of plants over the whole earth; so that Alexander von Humboldt was
enabled to produce a masterly sketch of botanical geography.

In a measure, as mutual intercourse was facilitated, more life was in-
fused into scientific research; a great number of scientific societies
and periodicals were established where the results of investigations
were deposited. So many of these publications appear now that it is
extremely difficult, if not impossible, to examine them all. During this
great progress of botany in general, the cryptogams were not neglected.
Indeed, many of the most thorough scholars made a_ specialty of
these simplest of organisms. The important discoveries became so
numerous in this department that it was entirely revolutionized.
I will endeavor to present to you a condensed view of the most im-
portant achievements. For this purpose the material has been divided
into five groups: algve, lichens, fungi, mosses, and ferns. In each of

D2, ON THE PRESENT STATE OF OUR

these I shall first consider the most important points of their morphol-
ogy and anatomy, and afterward their classification.

We will begin with the alge. The reform in their study was inan-
gurated by two works which appeared almost simultaneously, Kiitzing’s
Phycologia universalis and Nigeli’s latest alge systems. Kiitzing pre-
sents a view of his organographic and anatomical studies, and bases
upon them anew system of alg, illustrating it by means of plates.
The Species Algarum and the Tabule phycologice, containing a description
and picture of all species of alge, may be considered as supplements
to his great work. Kiitzing, no doubt, had greater facilities for the
study of alge than almost any other investigator. He was the first to
examine the separate organs and the structure of fuci, and to found
this branch of phycology. He broke up the classification of the old
genera, which contained a chaotic mass of the most different forms,
and separated them into natural groups. Unfortunately, Kiitzing re-
jected the usual nomenclature, and employed one of his own, thus mak-
ing his work very difficult to understand. In his classification he splits
up his material into too many untenable species, making it almost im-
possible to examine the whole.

Niigeli exerted a no less important influence on the study of the al-
ge. In his alge systems and in his work on one-celled alge, this
renowned anatomist shows his unsurpassed acuteness of observation in
his description of the structure and mode of life of those small organ-
isms which cannot be recognized with the unaided eye. He showedthat
the increase of the separated cells depends upon mathematically determ-
inable laws. These he developed for many species, and we may say that
he created a sure mathematical basis for the study of the alge. Since
laws, valid in the whole vegetable kingdom, can be educed most easily
from the alge, the simplest organisms, Niigeli’s researches are of great
value to the whole science of botany. Starting from his discovered
principles, Niigeli planned an alge system of his own; but here he was
less successful.

Beside these two principal works, a great number of large and small
dissertations have been published. Among these the following are
the most important: The works of Alexander Braun on the life and
development of microscopic forms, are worthy of being placed side by side
with those of Niigeli. In them, and especially in the classical work on
rejuvenation in the vegetable kingdom, he has produced real master-
pieces of short but very attractively written monographs, calculated to
excite the interest of every man of culture. Professor Cohn, another emi-
nent scholar, has given to the world a series of masterly and thorough
essays on the Volvocine, which had until then been classed as animals.
De Barry’s dissertation on the Conjugates does not fall short of the other
eSSays.

The brilliant discovery of the zodspores of algze was made by Pro-
fessor Unger, who observed the formation of these movable cells in

KNOWLEDGE OF! CRYPTOGAMOUS PLANTS. 253

the Vaucheria clavata DC, and proved that they possessed cilia as organs
ot locomotion, and that they germinated into a plant like the parent.
Many investigators have furnished further data concerning the
existence and the structure of these interesting bodies, but the
most complete researches were published by Thuret in his essay, ‘“ Sur
les zoospores des alges.” He had observed zoéspores in several hun-
dred species, and illustrated them in a masterly manner. We learn
from these investigations that the above spores are the unsexual organs
of reproduction in the algre, and may be compared to the buds of
higher plants.

The interesting and instructive process of fructification in aleve has
been studied with equal accuracy. Although the great physicist,
Reaumur, had suspected the existence of organs of fructification in
fuci, Thuret was the first to prove it directly and scientifically. He
demonstrated that the small indentations on the surface of the Fucacee,
the so-called conceptacles, contained both the male and female organs
of fructification, (the antheridia and oogonia;) he observed the forma-
tion of antherozoids and the penetration of the spermatic filaments into
them; he explained how the spore was developed after fructification.
In fresh-water alge, Pringsheim first succeeded in directly proving
the existence of fructifying organs in the Vaucheria, Oedogonium, and
Coleochete. Cohn followed with his interesting observations of the
Sphaeroplea annulina and the Volvocine. These observations prove the
following mode of fructification in the algve: the so-called seed fila-
ments penetrate the membraneless mass of the antherozoids, which are
then surrounded by a cellular membrane and converted into stationary
spores. These are the direct opposites of zodspores, and may be com-
pared to the seeds of higher plants.

The results of this and many other researches have enabled us to
gain sufficient insight into the growth, reproduction, and propagation
of these plants, and it will be the task of coming investigators to con-
tinne the work on this basis.

If we now turn to the classification of the algw, we shall see that
excursions to the different seas of every zone have enlarged our ae-
quaintance with the forms of thisclass. Excursions to the Antarctic
and to the northern part of the Pacific Ocean have furnished us with
the grandest specimens of lichens, and have shown us that marine
vegetation does not reach its highest development in the tropical
oceans, but in the Arctic and Antarctic polar seas. Kiitzine’s and
Nageli’s contributions have already been mentioned. In the third sup-
plement to his Generibus Plantarum, Endlicher published, together with
Diessing, a systematic table of this class, distinguished by the happy
arrangement into families and genera. A very important work is
Species genera et ordines algarum, by Aghard the younger, which, al-
though it only contains the Fucoidee and Floridea, surpasses all other
publications in the original natural grouping of his materials, and by

254. ON THE PRESENT STATE OF OUR

happily keeping within bounds in his subdivisions. Besides Aghard’s
work, we must mention the publications of Harvey on the Antarctic
alge, the works of Postels and Ruprecht on the alge of the north
Pacific Ocean, and a number of monographs on single families or
floras. Leanonlyname the most important; toenumerate them all would
lead me too far: the works of Smith and Ralfs on the British Dia-
toms and Desmids, that of De Barry on Conjugate, the beautiful es-
says of A. Braun, and among the Austrians the excellent publications
of Grunow, especially on Diatoms. Finally, | must not forget to men-
tion that Dr. Rabenhorst has done much to promote the diffusion of
accurate knowledge concerning the species of cryptogamous plants by
his work on the Cryptogamiec Flora of Germany, and by his later publi-
cations, especially his dried collection of eryptogams.

The structure of the vegetative organs of the small but interesting
group of Characee was investigated by the interesting labors of Bischoff
and A. Braun. Thuret published important information concerning
the antheridia; Carl Miiller investigated fructification, and Pring-
sheim germination. Their classification was improved, especially by
A. Braun, from whose master hand we may expect a monograph of the
Characee.

If we now turn to the lichens, we will see that the views of the pe-
riod of Linné’s system long remained in credit, and that reform was
late and gradual. Consequently the number of eminent discoveries
in this department has been smaller, and its organography is still far
from being satisfactory. Speersehneider, it is true, has furnished us
with some valuable data coneerning the structure and manner of
growth of the thallus; but we are indebted for the most accurate in-
formation on this subject to Schwendener, who has published in two
dissertations the result of his investigations of shrubby and foliaceous
lichens. We know now that the thallus of lichens consists of three
different layers, an outer or envelope forming long fibrous cells, a middle or
gonidium composed of roundish cells filled with chlorophyll, and an
inner or pith of the same structure as the outer. The behavior of these
three layers, which was investigated particularly by Schwendener, fur-
nishes many points for classification. Kérber has published an excellent
dissertation on the gonidia or generating cells of lichens. He states that
these cells break through the envelope, become changed and converted
into the so-called soredia. These observations establish the fact that
the soredia are the organs of generation of lichens, and correspond to
the buds of higher plants.

Many have studied the bowl-shaped fruit or apothecium of lichens,
but the data are scattered through different works. Tulasne’s work,
“Sur VAppareil Reproducteur des Lichenes,” is of special importance,
since it proves that lichens have another kind of fruit, forming small
dents and containing minute, straight, and narrow cells. They are
called spermagonia, and are probably the male organs of fructification.

KNOWLEDGE OF CRYPTOGAMOUS PLANTS. 255

The process of fructification has hitherto been observed with certainty
by Karsten in the Coenogoniwm only.

The excellent works of Elias Fries and Wallroth, which date back to
the sway of Linné’s system, are still of great importance for purposes

of classification. Von Flotow has indirectly exerted great influence on
the study of lichens. His most prominent scholar, Kérber, has iInaugu-
rated a great reform in his two principal works, the Lichenes Germania
and the Parergis lichenologicis. He created a new system, resting upon
an anatomical and organographic basis, and made more natural and
sharply defined subdivisions. He was ably assisted in his work by our
compatriot Massalongo, whose tables are unfortunately incorrect. The
works of Mylander are of great value; his Synopsis Lichenwm comprises
all known species. Its publication is still continued. Hepp did much
to make the European species known by the description of his collee-
tions and the investigation of their spores. Finally, we must not pass
over the works of Krempelhuber, which are at present confined to do-
mestic species ; but this excellent scholar will soon have a more exten-
sive field of operation.

We now come to the largest and most interesting, but at the same
time the most difficult class of eryptogams—the fungi. Their sudden
appearance and growth, their ephemeral nature, and the multiplicity of
their forms, have always been a source of trouble to investigators, and
even the most indefatigable of modern mycologists have been able to
lift but partially the veil which hangs over the life and development of
these organisms.

Far ahead of its time in organography stands the work of Professor
Unger, on the exanthema of plants; for in it we find the first attempt
to describe the development of mildew-fungi. Although the leading
idea of the whole work, that these fungi were the diseased products of
the plants on which they are found, was not confirmed, the rich treasure
of new facts laid down in this beautiful work retains its full value.
Corda, another fellow-countryman, has also written on fungi, and dis-
covered many interesting forms in the fungi of mold. He was thus
enabled to gain some insight into the life and development of these
organisms. In his principal work, the ZJcones Fungorum, he represents
all forms of fungi known to him; but some of his observations have
unfortunately been hastily made and consequently inaccurate. But we
should not forget that Corda lived in unfavorable external circumstances;
that for along time he had not the means of procuring a microscope, and
that he finally met with a tragical death. The ship in which he had
gone to Texas in 1849 foundered on his return voyage to Europe, and
nothing has been heard of him since. The works of the Tulasne broth-
ers throw new light on many chapters of this branch of study. They
show that there exists a great difference between the fungi of mildew
and those of mold; that in the former not only spermogonia, but also
spores of different forms are produced, which had formerly been dis-

°

256 ' ON THE PRESENT STATE OF OUR

tributed among different genera. They also studied the interesting
process by which the germs and spores of the mildew-fungi are devel-
oped. In their classical dissertation, “ Sur VErgot de Seigle,” they
showed that the well-known black fungus, or germ, as well as all other
similar forms hitherto classed as Sclerotics, were not perfectly developed
organisms, but rather a peculiar kind of mycelium, analogous to the
tubers of higher plants. Itis from them that the fructifying fungi are
developed. In the great work, “ Pungi hypogei,” the above-mentioned
authors give us a more thorough acquaintance with truffles than their
predecessors, and, in their essays on the Ascomycetw, they lay before
us many interesting points about these organisms, proving that they
contain several kinds of spores, as well as spermogonia and spermatia.
In their principal work, the Selecta Fungorum carpologica, the Tulasne
brothers present to us a rich collection of observations, the introduction
to which is of especial interest because it furnishes a view of the results
of morphological researches. The tables are executed in a masterly
manner, and leave all similar productions far behind. In the same de-
partment the Germans are well represented by De Barry. He consid-
erably extended our knowledge of mildew-fung!, and was the first to
make experiments on the inoculation of their spores. He succeeded
in discovering the remarkable history of the development of mucus-
fungi. He showed that in them the mycelium is wanting, and that
from the germinating spore a peculiar body is formed, which is gradu-
ally converted into plasmodium, a substance without an analogue in the
vegetable kingdom, and finally into the perfect fungus. De Barry
studied the potato fungus, and proved the existence of zodspores in it,
and in others of the same family. Finally, he discovered the organs of
fructification of fungi in a parasite (Peronospora Alsinearum Casp.) living
on the Stellaria media. The results of his brilliant discovery were fully
confirmed by Pringsheim’s masterly observation of the Saprolegmia, in
which the latter also found zodspores and similar fructification. Cor-
responding results were found by Hofmeister in the fecundation of
truffles. According to these observations the fructification of fungi
takes place as follows: The antheridium touches the vogonium, one of
its processes penetrating an opening in the membrane of the latter and
discharging either seed, filaments, or its contents, which are commn-
nicated to the antherozoid. The latter, which before was membraneless,
is now surrounded with a cellular membrane, and becomes the station-
ary spore of the plant. Hoffman has made comprehensive researches
on the germination of the spores of fungi, and Pasteur’s excellent works
give us information on the part which fungi play in fermentation, by
proving that they are nothing more than common mold-fungi in a pe-
culiar stage of development. All these achievements, great as they
may seem, are nothing more than preparatory labors for the solution of
the organograpby of fungi, a great problem of the future.

The works of Elias Fries are the standard on the classHication of

:

¢

.

~

KNOWLEDGE OF CRYPTOGAMOUS PLANTS. 251

fungi. Since the publication of his Systema mycologicum, about forty
years ago, no work has appeared which includes all orders, genera, and
species of this class. Indeed, the works of Fries are so excellent that
they may be held up as models to all botanical authors. The writer, who
passed a third of his unusually long life in the woods, where he studied
fungi, acquired a wider experience than any other. He has grouped the
genera naturally, and described the species with true Linnéan precision.
His work is, therefore, the basis of all mycological studies. The other
authors contented themselves either with writing local floras or study-
ing single orders for the purpose of furnishing materials for a future
Systema mycologicum. Many excellent works of this kind have been pro-
duced, especially those of Leveillé, Bonorden, Fresenius, De Barry, and
the thorough treatises on exotic forms by Montaigne and Berkeley.

In the class of the mosses, the morphological studies of many thor-
ough scholars have progressed so far that these plants are now among
the most perfectly known. Mirbel has furnished interesting data on
the structure of the leaves and the development of the sporangia of the
Marchantia polymorpha. The works of Bischoff on liverworts, although
treating chiefly of classification, present a great many new observations
on the structure and development of the fruit. The excellent natura
history of liverworts by Nees von Esenbeck, to which I will revert again,
furnishes many important contributions to organography. A celebrated
essay of Hugo von Mohl on the spores of acrogens proves that four
spores are formed in every cell, analogous to the formation of pollen-
cells. Gottschee, finally, has published very thorough essays on the
structure and development of single groups of liverworts. All these
writings are left in the shade, however, as far as the organography of
ferns and mosses is concerned, by those of Hofmeister, the most prom-
ineut investigator of the subject. This excellent scholar has set him-
self the task of pursuing the development of the acrogens down to the
simpie cell, and he has succeeded in many eases. Through him we know
how the germ of mosses is formed and grows, how the stem is devel-
oped, and how the leaves appear and form. We not only understand
the structure of the antheridia perfectly, and know how the seed fila-
ments are formed, but we have aiso gained an insight into the structure
of the archegonia. We are able to follow exactly the process of fructi-
fication, and see how the complicated moss-fruit is developed after fruc-
tification by the archegonium, from the riccia, the most simple type, up
to the most highly-developed forms, according to one fundamental idea.
Hofmeister has illustrated all these discoveries with excellent drawings,
so that the study of his masterpiece, ‘Comparative investigations in
the development of the higher cryptogams,” is one of the most grate-
ful tasks, although it is a very laborious one, on account of the peculiar
manner in which it is written.

Hofmeister’s work is also the most important source for the morpho-

logical study of foliaceous mosses. Niigeli has determined the laws of
@ lias iL a

258 ON THE PRESENT STATE OF OUR

erowth of the vegetative organs with the same mastery as in his treatise
on the alex. Hugo von Mohl-explains in a very simple manner the
interesting phenomena attending the vegetation of peat-mosses in a
short but thorough essay on their perforated cells. Carl Miller explains
the remarkable existence of lamels on the leaves of the polytrichaces,
and Lantzius Beninga shows how the ripe capsule, the spores and the
peristome are developed. Schimper’s “ Recherches sur Vorganographie
des mousses” and the introduction of his “‘ Synopsis Muscorum europaco-
rum” are of great value; for, in both works, we not only find the results
of organographic researches gathered, but we also find them enriched
by numerous observations of his own.

Passing to the most important works on classification, we must grant
the first place to Nees von Esenbeck for his excellent natural history of

Juropean liverworts, since it is the foundation of our present views of
this branch of botany. He divides up the genera of his predecessors
in a very natural manner, and his descriptions of species are masterly.
His distinguishing characteristics are always sharply defined. The
prineiples applied with such excellent success on European species
were also brought to bear on exotics by Nees von Esenbeck, Gottschee,
and Lindenberg, who published together the Synopsis Hepaticarwn,
which is considered the standard work. Unfortunately, there are no
illustrations of all species of this class; for the best are still to be found
in “ British Jungermannie,” published 1820, or thereabouts, by Hooker.
Lindenberg endeavored to supply the deficiency by his Species Hepati-
carum, but after several excellent monographs of single genera had ap-
peared the publication ceased. Later ones were limited to the description
of new material or the better description of single genera. Among
them must be mentioned the excellent treatises of Gottschee, the Hepa-
tice Javanice of Van der Sande Lacosta, and the works of Montaigne,
Taylor, Mitten, and De Notaris.

The appearance of the Bryologia Europea exercised a reforming influ-
ence ou the study of the mosses. Several excellent scholars, with W.
Ph. Schimper at the head, determined to describe and depict all species
-of mosses known in Europe ina manner adequate to the demands of the
time. They mutually controlled their results for fifteen years, when the
work was completed in six stately volumes of more than six hundred
tables, and it now forms our basis for the study of these plants. In it
the genera were more naturally (although sometimes weakly) divided
and better arranged. In the deseription of the species, the organograph-
ieal and anatomical points, especially the reticulation of the leaves, were
for the first time considered. Excellent illustrations facilitate the recog-
nition of the species, and make it possible in some cases which had
before presented diffieulties. After the appearance of the Bryology,
Schimper published a fine monograph on the European peat-moss, and
amore general Synopsis Muscorum Europeorum. It is hoped that this
excellent-seholar will soon be able to realize his long-cherishéd plan, the

* .

*

os

‘ KNOWLEDGE OF CRYPTOGAMOUS PLANTS. 259

publication of a work on all the mosses, for we may well expect some-
thing excellent from him, The next author of importance is C. Miiller,
who published a synopsis of all known mosses, in two volumes. He de-
serves our thorough appreciation for his diligence in collecting the ex-
isting material. His views on system, however, are less happy. Led
by the consideration of certain characteristics, he often classifies very
different species together, and separates those closely related. Among
other writings on exotic mosses, we must mentioned Dozy and Molken-
boer’s “ Musciinediti Archipelagi Indici,” and their “ Bryologia Javanica,”
which was continued after their death by Van der Bosch, and Van der
Sande Lacosta. They follow the same plan as the “ Bryologia Europea,”
and are, therefore, of great value. The works of Sallivant, on the moss
flora of North America, and those of Wilson, Mitten, and Hampe, are
also of considerable importance.

In the last class, thatof the ferns, aseriesof the most important diseov-
eries Was inaugurated by Nigeli. He observed that the antheridia. or
male organs of fructification, were developed upon the prothallium,
which originates directly from the germinating spore. Count Lesezye
Suninski followed up his discovery by proving that the prothallium
contained also the archegonia or female organs. Through these two
brilliant discoveries new prospects were opened for the morphology of
ferns. We recognized that in this whole class of plans fructification was
effected on the small prothailium, and that the foliage, which we had been
accustomed to take for the whole plant, was developed only when fructifiea-
tion had taken place. Schacht, Mettenius, and especially Hotmeister,
deserve great credit for following up these discoveries. The brilliant re-
searches of the latter author in particular, have made known to us the
exact process of fecundation, and we now understand that the so-called
large and small spores of the selaginella and water-fern are nothing
more than the female and male organs of these plants. Hofmeister has
furthermore ascertained with unexampled acuteness the laws according
to which the leafy plant is developed from theimpregnated germ-vesicle
of the archegonium, and also how the stem grows, and how the fans are
formed. Although Hofmeister came to the erroneous conclusion that the
latter were not true leaves, but peculiarly transformed branches, the value
of the grand discoveries of this most original and thorough of all organo-
graphists of the acrogens remains unimpaired. Hugo von Mohl has
drawn a masterly picture of the structure of the stem ot tree-ferns, in
his classical desertation, which has since been developed more in detail,
partly by himself and partly by other authors. The most thorough in-
vestigation of the development of the indusium and sporangium are due
to Schacht.

Besides the older works of Kaulfuss and Kunze on the classifica-
tion of ferns, we must mention especially the numerous pteridographic
works of Hooker, which have considerably advanced our knowledge ot
the subject by their excellent illustrations, The works of K. B. Presl

«

260 PRESENT STATE OF KNOWLEDGE OF CRYPTOGAMOUS PLANTS.

are of great importance, and of especial interestto us Austrians. In his
** Tentamen Petridographie,” this thorough scholar has studied the retic-
ulation of ferns more accurately than any of his predecessors, intro-
duced new names, and endeavored to divide the class into more natural
genera. Although he sometimes goes too far in this direction, we cannot
but appreciate his earnestness, consistency, and extensive information.
Hée attempted to follow in Presl’s footsteps, but he was less successful,
and his works must be used with caution. Our most distinguished
pteridographist, Mettenius, successfully opposed the tendency to split
up the existing materialinto too many untenabie genera and species, in
his excellent work on the ferns of the Leipsic botanic garden, and in a
series of critical essays, which mostly appeared in the Senkeberg Mu-
seum. May this distinguished scholar indefatigably pursue and ulti-
mately attain his object! Moore deserves great credit for his very crit-
cal index of all ferns, for the introduction of many tropical specimens,
and for publishing (together with Newman) the first work in which na-
ture was successfully employed to print herself. Lowe’s “ British and
Exotic Ferns” is also a valuable illustrated work. Besides all these
there are many special publications on single speeies. The following
are among the most important: Milde’s Essays on the Equisetacez and
Domestic Ferns; Pres] Van der Bosch and Mettenius on Hymenophyllex;
Spring’s Monograph of the Lycopodiacee ; and A. Braun on Isoétee,
and Water-Ferns in General.

This then is a condensed review of the most important achievements
in eryptogamy within the last few decades. Taking them altogether,
we may say that this branch of botany has made more progress in this
period than in all preceding times, and that it has now indeed become
a science. The study of the cryptograms is no longer confined
to a few isolated scholars as formerly, but it is exciting general
interest, and many excellent investigators are making it their fa-
vorite subject. Morphology was not only founded, but even completed
and established for certain classes. Numerous and highly important
anatomical and physiological data have been furnished ; the classifica-
tion has in the last period been reformed in accordance with the latest
views, and various authors have endeavored to obtaina natural arrange-
ment of species, and have sueceeded in many cases.

Although much has been accomplished, much stillremains tobe done,
and we need the combined efforts of many. May, therefore, the interest
in cryptogamous plants ever become more general and lively, and may,
especially in Austria, many scholars and amateurs turn their attention
to this branch of botany! The most grateful results will surely reward
their exertions.

nea

RECENT RESEARCHES ON THE SECULAR VARIATIONS OF THE PLANETARY
ORBITS.*

By JOHN N. STOCKWELL.

The reciprocal gravitation of matter produces disturbances in the
motions of the heavenly bodies, causing them to deviate from the elliptic
paths which they would follow, if they were attracted only by the sun.

fhe determination of the amount by which the actual place of a planet
deviates from its true elliptic place at any time is called the problem
of planetary perturbation. ‘The analytical solution of this problem has
disclosed to mathematicians the fact that the inequalities in the motions
of the heavenly bodies are produced in two distinct ways. The first
is a direct disturbance in the elliptic motion of the body; and the second
is produced by reason of a variation of the elements of its elliptic motion.
The elements of the elliptic motion of a planet are six in number, vig:
the mean motion of the planet and its mean distance from the sun, the
eccentricity and inclination of its orbit, and the longitude of the node
and perihelion. The first two are invariable; the other four are subject
to both periodic and secular variations.

The inequalities in the planetary motions which are produced by the
direct action of the planets on each other, and depend for their amount
only on their distances and mutual configurations, are called periodic
inequalities, because they pass through a complete cycle of values in a
comparatively short period of time; while those depending on the varia-
tion of the elements of the elliptic motion are produced with extreme slow-
ness, and require an immense number of ages for their full development,
are called secular inequalities. The general theory of all the planetary
inequalities was completely developed by La Grange and La Place,
nearly a century ago; and the particular theory of each planet for the
periodic inequalities was given by La Place in the Mécanique Céleste.

The determination of the periodic inequalities of the planets has hith-
erto received more attention from astronomers than has been bestowed
upon the secular inequalities. This is owing in part to the immediate
requirements of astronomy, and also in part to the less intricate nature
of the problem. It is true that an approximate knowledge of the secu-
lar inequalities is necessary in the treatment of the periodic inequalities ;
but since the secular inequalities are produced with sueh extreme slow-
hess, most astronomers have been content with the supposition that
they are developed uniformly with the time. This supposition is suffi-

* Introduction to a memoir to be published in the “Smithsonian Contributions to
Knowledge.”

262 RECENT RESEARCHES ON THE

ciently near the truth to be admissible in most astronomical investiga-
tions during the comparatively short period of time over which astro-
nomical observations or human history extends; but since the values
of these variations are derived from the equations of the differential
variations of the elements at a particular epoch, it follows that they
afford us no knowledge respecting the ultimate condition of the plane-
tary system, or even a near approximation to its actual condition at a
time only comparatively remote from the epoch of the elements on which
they are founded. But aside from any considerations connected with
the immediate needs of practical astronomy, the study of the secular
inequalities is one of the most interesting and important departments of
physical science, because their indefinite continuance in the same direc-
tion would ultimately seriously affect the stability of the planetary
system. The demonstration that the secular inequalities of the planets
are not indefinitely progressive, but may be expressed analytically by a
series of terms depending on the sixes and cosines of angles which
increase uniformly with the time, is due to La Grange and La Place.
It therefore follows that the secular inequalities are periodic, and difier
from theordinary periodic inequalities only in the length of time required
to complete the cycle of their values. The amount by which the elements
of any planet may ultimately deviate from their mean values can only he
determined by the simultaneous integration of the differential equations
of these elements, which is equivalent to the summation of all the infi-
nitesimal variations arising from the disturbing forces of all the planets
of the system during the lapse of an infinite period of time.

The simultaneous integration of the equations which determine the
instantaneous variations of the elements of the orbits gives rise to a
complete equation in which the unknown quantity is raised to a power
denoted by the number of planets, whose mutual action is considered.
La Grange first showed that if any of the roots of this equation were
equal or imaginary, the finite expressions for the values of the elements
would contain terms involving ares of circles or exponential quantities,
without the functions of sine and cosine, and as these terms would
increase indefinitely with the time, they would finally render the orbits
so very eecentrical that the stability of the planetary system would be
destroyed. In order to determine whether the roots of the equation
were all real and unequal, he substituted the approximate values of the
elements and masses which were employed by astronomers at that time
in the algebraic equations, and then by determining the roots he
found them to be all real and unequal. It, therefore, followed, that for
the particular values of the masses employed by La Grange, the equa-
tions which determine the secular variations contain neither ares of a
circle nor exponential quantities, without the signs of sine and cosine ;
whence it follows that the elements of the orbits will perpetually oscil-
late about their mean values. This investigation was valuable as a
first attempt to fix the limits of the variations Of the planetary elements;

)
SECULAR VARIATIONS OF THE PLANETARY ORBITS. 263

but, being based upon values of the masses which were, to a certain
extent, gratuitously assumed, it was desirable that the important truths
which it indicated should be established independently of any conside-
rations of a hypothetic character. This magnificent generalization was
effected by La Place. He proved that, whatever be the relative masses
of the planets, the roots of the equations which determine the periods
of the seeular inequalities will all be real and unequal, provided the
bodies of the system are subjected to this one condition, that they all
revolve round the sun in the same direction. This condition being satisfied
by all the members of the solar system, it follows that the orbits of the
planets will never be very eccentrical or much inclined to each other by
reason of their mutual attraction. The important truths in relation to
the forms and positions of the planetary orbits are embodied in the two
following theorems by the author of the Mécanique Céleste: I. If the mass
of each planet be multiplied by the product of the square of the eccentricity
and square root of the mean distance, the sum of all these products will
always retain the same magnitude. II. If the mass of each planet be mul-
tiplicd by the product of the square of the inclination of the orbit and the
square root of the mean distance, the sum of these products will always
remain invariable. Now, these quantities being computed for a given
epoch, if their sum is found to be small, it follows from the preceding
theorenis that they will always remain so; consequently the eccentri-
cities and inclinations cannot increase indefinitely, but will always be
confined within narrow linits.

Tn order to calculate the limits of the variations of the elements with
precision, it is necessary to know the correct values of the masses of all
the planets. Unfortunately, this knowledge has not yet been attained.
The masses of several of the planets are found to be considerably difter-
ent from the values employed by La Grange in his investigations.
Besides, he only took into account the action of the six principal planets
which are within the orbit of Uranus. Consequently his solution afforded
only a first approximation to the limits of the secular variations of the
elements. -

The person who next undertook the computation of the secular ine-
qualities was Pontécoulant, who, about the year 1834, published the
third volume of his Theorie Analytique du Systéme du Monde. In this
work he has given the results of his solution of this intricate problem.
But the numerical values of the constants which he obtained are totally
erroneous on account of his failure to employ a sufficient number of
decimals in his computation. Our knowledge of the secular variations
of the planetary orbits was, therefore, not increased by his researches.

In 1839 Le Verrier had completed his computation of the secular ine-
qualities of the seven principal planets. This mathematician has givena
new and accurate determination of the constants on which the amount of
the secular inequalities depend; and has also given the coefiicients for
correcting the values of the constants for differential variations of the

‘

264 RECENT RESEARCHES ON THE

masses of the different planets. This investigation of Le Verrier’s has
been used as the groundwork of most of the subsequent corrections of
the planetary elements and masses, and deservedly holds the first rank
as authority concerning the secular variations of the planetary orbits.
But Le Verrier’s researches were far from being exhaustive, and he
failed to notice some curious and interesting relations of a permanent
character in the secular variations of the orbits of Jupiter, Saturn, and
Uranus. Besides, the planet Neptune had not then been discovered ;
and the action of this planet considerably modifies the secular inequali-
ties which wouid otherwise take place. We will now briefly glance at
the results of our own labors on the subject.

On the first examination of the works of those authors who had investi-
gated this problem, we perceived that the methods of reducing to num-
bers those analytical integrals which determine the secular variations
of the elements, were far from possessing that elegance and symmetry
of form which usually characterizes the formulas of astronomy. The
first step, therefore, was to devise a system of algebraic equations, by
means of which we should be enabled to obtain the values of the unknown
quantities with the smallest amount of labor. It was soon found to be
impracticable to deduce algebraic formulas for the constants, by the
elimination of eight unknown quantities from as many linear symmet-
rical equations, of sufficient simplicity to be used in the deduction of
exact results. It therefore became necessary to abandon the idea of a
direct solution of the equations, and to seek for the best approximative
method of obtaining rigorous values of the unknown quantities. This
we have accomplished as completely as could be desired, and by means
of the formulas which we have obtained, it is now possible to determine
the secular variations of the planetary elements, with less labor, perhaps,
than would be necessary for the accurate determination of a comet’s
orbit. The method and formulas are given in detail in a Alemoir on the
Secular Variations of the Elements of the Orbits of the Hight Principal
Planets, now being published in vol. XVIII, of the Smithsonian Contri-
butions to Knowledge.

After computing anew the numerical coefficients of the differential
equations of the elements, we have substituted them in these equations,
and have obtained, by means of successive approximations, the rigorous
values of the constants corresponding to the assumed masses and ele-
ments. The details of the computation are given in the memoir referred
to, and it is unnecessary to speak of them here. We shall, therefore,
only briefly allude to some of the conclusions to which our computa-
tions legitimately lead.

The object of our investigation has been the determination of the
numerical values of the secular changes of the elements of the planet-
ary orbits. These elements are four in number, viz: the eccentricities
and inclinations of the orbits, and the longitudes of the nodes and
perihelia. The questions that may legitimately arise in regard to the

———

SECULAR VARIATIONS OF THE PLANETARY ORBITS. 265

eccentricities and inclinations relate chiefly to their magnitudt at any
time; but we may also desire to know their rates of change at any time,
and the limits within which they will perpetually oscillate. In regard
to the nodes and perihelia, it is sometimes necessary to know their rela-
tive positions when referred to any plane and origin of codrdinates ;
and also their mean motions, together with the amount by which their
actual places can differ from their mean places. With respect to the

magnitudes and positions of the elements, together with their rates of

change, we may observe that our equations will give them for any

required epoch, by merely substituting in the formulas the interval of

time between the epoch required and that of the formulas, which is the
beginning of the year 1850. An extended tabulation of the variations
of the elements does not come within the scope of our work; and we
leave the computation of the elements for special epochs to those inves-
tigators who may need them in their researches. We shall here give
the limits between which the eccentricities and inclinations will always
oscillate, together with the mean motions of the perihelia and nodes
on the fixed ecliptic of 1850; and shall also give the inclinations and
nodes referred to the invariable plane of the planetary system.

For the planet Mercury, we find that the eccentricity is always included
within the limits 0.1214945 and 0.2517185. The mean motion of its
perihelion is 5.463803; and it performs a complete revolution in the
heavens in 257,197 years. The maximum inclination of his orbit to the
fixed ecliptic of 1850 is 10° 56/ 20”, and its minimum inclination is
3° 47/ 8”; while with respect to the invariable plane of the planetary
system, the limits of the inclination are 9° 10/ 41” and 49 44/27”, The
mean motion of the node of Mercury’s orbit on the ecliptie of 1850, and
on the invariable plane, is in both cases the same, and equal to 5.126172,
making a complete revolution in the interval of 252,823 years. The
amount by which the true place of the node ean differ from i mean
place on the ecliptic of 1850 is equal to 33° 8’, while on the invariable
plane this limit is only 18° 31’.

For the planet Venus, we find that the eccentricity always oscillates
between 0 and 0.0705329. Since the theoretical eccentricity of the orbit
of Venus is a vanishing element, it follows that the perihelion of her
orbit can have no mean motion, but may have any rate of motion, at
different times, between nothing and infinity, both direct and retrograde
The position of her perihelion cannot therefore be determined =n
given limits at any very remote epoch by the assumption of any par-
ticular value for the mean motion, but it must be determined by direct
computation from the finite formulas. The maximum inclination of her
orbit to the ecliptic of 1850 is 4° 51’, and to the invariable plane it is
3° 16.3; while the mean motion of her node on both planes is indeter-
minate, because the inferior limit of the inclination is in each case
equal to nothing.

A knowledge of the elements of the earth’s orbit is especially inter-

esting and important on account of the recent attempts to establish a

.

266 RECENT RESEARCHES ON THE

connection between geological phenomena and terrestrial temperatures,
in so far as the latter is modified by the variable eccentricity for her
orbit. The amount of light and heat received from the sun in the course
of a year depends to an important extent on the eccentricity of the
earth’s orbit; but the distribution of the same over the surface of the
earth depends on the relative position of the perihelion of the orbit
with respect to the equinoxes, and on the obliquity of the ecliptic to the
equator. These elements are subject to great and irregular variations;
but their laws can now be determined with as much precision as the
exigencies of science may require. We will now more carefully examine
these elements, and the consequences to which their variations give rise.

As we have already computed the eccentricity of the earth’s erbit at
intervals of 10,000 years, during a period of 2,000,000 years, by employ-
ing the constants which correspond to the assumed mass of the earth
increased by its twentieth part, we here give the elements correspond-
ing to this increased mass. We therefore find that the eccentricity of
the eartl’s orbit will always be included within the limits of 0 and
0.0695888 ; and it consequently follows that the mean motion of the peri-
helion is indeterminate, although the actual motion and position at any
time during a period of 2,000,000 years can be readily found by means
of the tabular value of that element. The eccentricity of the orbit at
any time can also be found by means of the same table.

The inclination of the apparent ecliptic to the fixed ecliptic of 1850,
is always less that 4° 41’; while its inclination to the invariable plane
of the planetary system always oscillates within the limits 0° 0! and
3° 6’. It is also evident that the mean motion of the node of the
apparent ecliptic on the fixed ecliptic of 1850, and also on the invariable
plane, is wholly indeterminate.

The mean value of the precession of the equinoxes on the fixed eclip.
tic, and also on the apparent ecliptic, in a Julian year, is equal to
50438239; whence it follows, that the equinoxes perform a complete
revolution in the heavens in the average interval of 25,694.8 years; but
on account of the secular inequalities in their motion, the time of revo-
lution is not always the same, but may differ from the mean time of
revolution by 281.2 years. We also find that if the place of the equinox
be computed for any time whatever, by using the mean value of preces-
sion, its place when thus determined can never differ from its true place
to a greater extent than 3° 56/ 26”, The maximum and minimum values
of precession in a Julian year are 52/.664080 and 48/’.212398, respect-
ively, and since the length of the tropical year depends on the annual
precession, it follows that the maximum variation of the tropical year
is equal to the mean time required for the earth to describe an are which
is equal to the maximum variation of precession. Now this latter quan-
tity being 4.451682, and the sidereal motion of the earth in a second of
time being 0.041067, it follows that the maximum variation of the tropi-
cal year is equal to 108.40 seconds of time. Inslike manner, if we take

SECULAR VARIATIONS OF THE PLANETARY ORBITS. 267

the difference between the present value of precession and the maximum
and minimum values of the same quantity, we shall find that the tropi-
cal year may be shorter than at present by 59.13 seconds, and longer
than at present by 49.27 seconds. We also find that the tropical year
is now shorter than in the time of Hipparchus, by 11.50 seconds.

The obliquity of the equator to the apparent ecliptic, and also to the
fixed ecliptic of 1850, has also been determined. ‘The variations of this
element tollow a law similar to that which governs the variation of pre-
cession, although the maximum values of the inequalities are consider-
ably smaller than those which affect this latter quantity. The mean

value of the obliquity of both the, apparent and fixed ecliptics to the
equator is 23°17/17”. The limits of the obliquity of the apparent ecliptic
to the equator are 24° 35/ 58” and 21° 58/ 36”; whence it follows that the
greatest and least declinations of the sun at the solstices can never differ.
from each other to any greater extent than 2° 37/22”, And here we may
mention a few, among the many happy consequences, which result from
the spheroidal form of the earth. Were the earth a perfect sphere there
would be no precession or change of obliquity arising from tie attraction
of the sun and moon; the equinoctial circle would form an invariable
plane in the heavens, about which the solar orbit would revolve with an
inclination varying to the extent of twelve degrees, and a motion equal
to the planetary precession of the equinoctial points. ‘The sun, when at
the solstices, would, at some periods of time, attain the decnaden of
29° 17’, for many thousands of years; and again, at other periods, only
to 17° 17/ . The seasons would be subject to vicissitudes depending on
the distance of the tropics from the equator, and the distribution of solar
light and heat on the surface of the earth would be so modified as essen-
tially to change the character of its vegetation, and the distribution of
its animal life. But the spheroidal form of the earth so modifies the
secular changes in the relative positions of the equator and ecliptic that
the inequalities of precession and obliquity are reduced to less than one-
quarter part of what they would otherwise be. The periods of the secular
changes, which, in the case of a spherical earth, would require nearly
two millions of years to pass through a complete cycle of values, are now
reduced to periods which vary between 26,000 and 53,000 years. The
secular motions which would take place in th 3 case of a spherical earth
are so modified by the actual condition of the terrestrial globe that
changes in the position of the equinox and equator are now produced in
a few centuries, which would otherwise require a period of many thou-
sands of years. This consideration is of much importance in the investi-
gation of the reputed antiquity and chronology of those ancient nations
which attained proficiency in the science of astronomy, and the records
of whose astronomical labors are the only remaining monument of a
highly intellectual people, of whose existence every other trace has long
since passed away. For it is evident that, if these changes were much
slower than they are, a much longer time would be required in order to
produce changes of sufficient magnitude to be detected by observation,

268 RECENT RESEARCHES ON THE

and we should be unable to estimate the interval between the epochs of
elements which differed by only a few thousand years, since they would
manifestly be so nearly identical with our own that the value of legitimate
conclusions would be greatly impaired by the unavoidable errors of the
observations on which they were based.

The duration of the different seasons is also greatly modified by the
eccentricity of the earth’s orbit. At present the sun is north of the
equator scareely 1864 days, and south of the same circle about 178? days ;
thus making a ditference of 73 days between the length of the summer
and winter at present. But when the eccentricity of the orbit is nearly
at its maximum, and its transverse axis also passes through the solstices,
both of which conditions have, in past ages, been fulfilled, the summer,
in one hemisphere, will have a period of 1982 days, and a winter of only
1664 days, while, in the other hemisphere, these conditions will be re-
versed; the winter having a period of 1983 days, and a summer of only
1664 days. The variations of the sun’s distance from the earth in the
course of a year, at such times, is also enormous, amounting to almost
one-seventh part of its mean distance—a quantity scarcely less than
13,000,000 of miles !

Passing now to the consideration of the elements of the planet Mars,
we find that the eccentricity of his orbit always oscillates within the
limits 0.018475 and 0.189655; and the mean motion of his perihelion is
17’.784456. The maximum inclination of his orbit to the fixed ecliptic
of 1850, and to the invariable plane of the planetary system, is 7° 28/ and
5° 56 respectively. The minimum inclination to both planes being
nothing, the mean motion of the node is indeterminate.

The secular variations of the orbits of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and
Neptune, present some curious and interesting relations. These four
planets compose a system by themselves, which is practically independ-
ent of the other planets of the system.

The maximum and minimum limits of the eccentricity of the orbits of
these four planets are as follows:

Maximum eccentricity. Minimum eccentricity.
PNUD GOL jap ienshese seers 006082742... 5): eee nes ses 0.0254928
SS UGUUET «. «ait tevet spe corse 0.0843289..... ee aR ore ctele 0,0125719
RATIOS 20 Ae acne ee O:0Mi9G52*-- 2. ee es eh eve 0.011 7576
Me WOUNG 2... <\ctemyeets ere O: 004 5066 oe ae eee ee oo ee 0.0055729

The maximum and minimum inclinations of their orbits to the invari-
able plane of the planetary system have the following values:

Maximum inclination. Minimum inclination.
sit UGE siepoken cies = s,s) 09-28 DOM cee eee sis eens 0° 14/ 23”
SEMOLLBM ist =< capensis to = 2 DQ BO i pa NACo erate | cheiate 5 cee eee 0 47 16
URAMUS is Aca hee ice is 1 WP LOR See Be he hice ho ae 0 54 25
Weptane;.;25 esse ee. OF 4i Zin Beate es oes eee eee 0 33 43

aaa _

SECULAR VARIATIONS OF THE PLANETARY ORBITS. 269

he perihelia and nodes of their orbits have the following mean mo-
tions in a Julian year of 3654 days:

Mean motion of perihelion, Mean motion of node on the
invariable plane.
Jupiter..... sect Sperone eV + 3”.716607.....- See Re or se — 25! 934567
SCULLEN I 3 aca easel tpt ZA Oa ore ee ys cheer eee —25 .934567
ROARS 25) Sen) een + 3 .716607.....- Bene ee cee ee — 2 .916082
INEDLUNG—... ostgs, 4 eee sc + 0 .616685........... Bee Seesar — 0 .661666

But the most curious relation developed by this investigation per-
tains to the relative motions and positions of the perihelia and nodes. of
the three planets Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus. These relations are ex-
pressed by the two following theorems:

I. The mean motion of Jupiter’s perihelion is exactly equal to the mean
motion of the perihelion of Uranus, and the mean longitudes of these peri-
helia differ by exactly 180°. Il. The mean motion of Jupiter's node on the
invariable plane is exactly equal to that of Saturn, and the mean longitudes
of these nodes differ by exactly 180°.

We also perceive that the mean motion of Saturn’s perihelion is very
nearly six times that of Jupiter and Uranus, and this latter quantity is
very nearly six times that of Neptune; or, more exactly, 985 times the mean
motion of Jupiter’s perihelion is equal to 163 times that of Saturn, and 440
times the mean motion of Neptune’s perihelion is equal to 73 times that of
Jupiter and Uranus. The perihelion of Saturn’s orbit performs a com-
plete revolution in the heavens in 57,700 years; the perihelia of Jupiter
and Uranus in 348,700 years; while that of Neptune requires no less
that 2,101,560 years to complete the circuit of the heavens. In like
manner the nodes of Jupiter and Saturn, on the invariable plane, perform
a complete revolution in 49,972 years; that of Uranus in 444,452 years;
while the node of Neptune requires 1,958,692 years to traverse the eir-
cuinference of the heavens. The motions of the nodes are retrograde
and those of the perihelia are direct; thus conforming to the same law
of variation as that which obtains in the corresponding elements of the
mooi’s motion.

We may here observe that the law which controls the motions and
positions of the perihelia of the orbits of Jupiter and Uranus is of the utmost
importance in relation to their mutual perturbations of Saturn’s orbit.
for, in the existing arrangement, the orbit of Saturn is affected only by
the difference of the perturbations by Jupiter and Uranus; whereas, if
the mean places of the perihelia of these two planets were the same,
instead of differing by 180°, the orbit of Saturn would be affected by the
sun of their disturbing forces. But notwithstanding this favoring con-
dition, the elements of Saturn’s orbit would be subject to very great
perturbations from the superior action of Jupiter, were it not for the
comparatively rapid motion of its perihelion; its equilibrium being main-
tained by the very actof perturbation. Indeed, the stability of Saturn’s
orbit depends to a very great extent upon the rapidly varying positions

270 RECENT RESEARCHES ON THE

of its transverse axis. For, if the motions of the perihelia of J upiter
and Saturn were very nearly the same, the action of Jupiter on the
eccentricity of Saturn’s orbit would be at its maximum value during
very long periods of time, and thereby produce great and permanent

changes in the value of that element. But, in the existing conditions, .

the rapid motion of Saturn’s orbit prevents such an accumulation of
perturbation, and any increase of eccentricity is soon changed into a
corresponding diminution. The same remark is also applicable to the
perturbations of the forms of the orbits of Jupiter and Uranus by the
disturbing action of Saturn; for the secular variations of Jupiter's
orbit depend almost entirely upon the influence of Saturn, because the
planet Neptune is too remote to produce much disturbance, and the
mean disturbing influence of Uranus on the eccentricity of Jupiter’s
orbit is identically equal to nothing, by reason of the relation which
always exists between the perihelia of their orbits. We may here observe
that the eccentricity of the orbit of Saturn always inereases, while that
of Jupiter diminishes, and vice versa.

The consequences which result from the mutual relations which always
exist between the nodes of Jupiter and Saturn, on the invariable plane
of the planetary system, are no less interesting or remarkable with re-
spect to the position of the orbit of Uranus than those which result
from the permanent relation between the perihelia of Jupiter and Uranus
are with respect to the form of the orbit of Saturn. The mean disturbing
force of Saturn on the inclination of the orbit of Uranus is about four
times that of Jupiter; but as these two planets always act on the inclina-
tions in opposite directions, it follows that the joint action of the two
planets is equivalent to the action of a single planet at the distance of
Saturn and having about three-fourths of his mass; so that the orbit of
Uranus might attain a considerable inclination from the superior action
of Saturn if allowed to accumulate during the lapse of an unlimitéd
time, at its maximum rate of variation depending on the action of this
planet. But such an accumulation of perturbation is rendered forever
impossible by reason of the comparatively rapid motion of the nodes of
Jupiter and Saturn, with respect to that of Uranus, on the invariable
plane. By reason of this rapid motion, the secular changes of the inclina-
tion of the orbit of Uranus pass through a complete cycle of values in
the period of 56,500 years. The corresponding cycle of perturbation in
the eccentricity of Saturn’s orbit is 69,140 years. It is the rapid
motion of the orbit with respect to the forces in the one case, and
the rapid motion of the forces with respect to the orbit, in the other,
that gives permanence of form and position to the orbits of Saturn and
Uranus.

The mean angular distanee between the perihelia of Jupiter and
Uranus is exactly 180°; but the conditions of the variations of these
elements are sufficiently elastic to allow of a considerable deviation on
such side of their mean positions. The perihelion of Jupiter may differ

SECULAR VARIATIONS OF THE PLANETARY ORBITS. 2k

from its mean place to the extent of 24° 10’, and that of Uranus to the
extent of 479 33’; and therefore the longitudes of the perihelia of these
two planets can differ from 180° to the extent of 71° 43’, The nearest
approach of the perihelia of these two planets, is, therefore, 108° 17’.

In like manner the longitudes of the nodes of Jupiter and Saturn, on
the invariable plane, can suffer considerable deviations from their mean
positions. The actual position of Jupiter’s node may differ from its
mean place to the extent of 19° 38’; while that of Saturn may deviate
from its mean place to the extent of 797’. It therefore follows that
their longitudes on the invariable plane can differ from 180° by only
26° 45’, Their nearest possible approach is 1539 15’, while their present
distance apart is 166° 27/,

The inequalities in the eccentricity of Neptune's orbit are very small
and the two principal ones have periods of 615,900 years, and 418,060
years, respectively. Strictly speaking, the periods of the secular inequali-
ties of the eccentricities and perihelia are the same for all the planets;
and the same remark is equally applicable to the nodes and inclinations.

jut the principal inequalities of the several planetary orbits are different,
unless they are connected by some permanent relation, similar to that
which exists between the perihelia of Jupiter and Uranus, or the nodes
of Jupiter and Saturn. Thus the principal inequalities affecting the
inclination of the orbits of Jupiter and Saturn have the same periods for
each planet, and these periods are, for the two prineipal inequalities,
01,280 years, and 56,303 years. In like manner the prineipal inequali-
ties in the eecentricities of Jupiter and Saturn depend on their mutual
attraction, and have a period of 69,141 years. The secular inequalities
of those orbits which have no vanishing elements are composed of terms,
of very different orders of magnitude; and it frequently happens that
two or three of these terms are greater than the sum of all the remaining
ones. In such cases the variation of the corresponding element very
approximately conforms to a much simpler law, and the maxima and
minima repeat themselves according to definite and well-defined
cycles. But with regard to the orbits of Venus, the Earth, and Mars,
the rigorous expressions of the eccentricities and inclinations are com-
posed of twenty-eight periodic terms, having coefficients of considerable
magnitude; and this circumstance renders the law of their variations
extremely intricate.

The method we have adopted for finding the coefficients of the cor.
rections of the constants, depending on finite variations of the different
planetary masses, consists in supposing that each planetary mass re-
ceives in succession a finite increment, and then finding the values of
all the constants corresponding to this increased mass in the same man-
ner as for the assumed masses. By this means we have a set of values
corresponding to the assumed masses, and another set corresponding to

i? RECENT RESEARCHES ON THE

a finite increment to each of the planetary masses. Then, taking the
ditference between the two sets of constants, and dividing by the incre-
ment which produced it, we get the coefficient of the variation of the
constants for any other finite increment of mass to the same planet; but,
on account of the importance of the earth’s mass, and the probable in-
accuracy of its assumed value, we have prepared separate solutions cor-
responding to the several increments of 35, 3), and 35 of its assumed
mass; and a comparison of the values which the different solutions give
for the superior limit of the eccentricity of, the earth’s orbit has sug-
gested the inquiry whether there may not be some unknown physical
relation between the masses and mean distances of the different planets.
The same peculiarity in the elements of the orbit of Venus is also found
to depend upon particular values of the mass of that planet. But with-
out entering into details in regard to the peculiarity referred to, we
here give the several values of the masses of these two planets which
we have employed in our computations, and the corresponding values
of the superior limit of the eccentricity of their orbits:

For the earth, maxi-

Mass. For Venus, maximum ¢’. Mass. pen
gn!
Mt 0. 070633 am se
mn’ mn tsa 0. 074872 my a bach

. VOTIEe

mi! o (1+-3'5) 0. 076075 my (1+55) :
my (1+4,) sent if 2, 0. 069649

9 20 0. 075029 mn (1-++-25) ee
ang (1+ 55) a ij 20 0. 062089
‘ 50 oI ne

0 20 | 0. 072098 mn o (143%)

These numbers show that if the mass of Venus were to be increased,
the superior limit of the eccentricity of her orbit would also increase
until it had attained a maximum value, after which a further increase
of her mass would diminish that limit; and the same remark is also
applicable to the eecentri¢ity of the earth’s orbit.

The above numbers indicate that the superior limit of the eccen-
tricity of the orbit of Venus is a maximum if the mass of that planet
is equal to m/(1+2;%*), or, if m/= 3,745 Of the sun’s mass; and the
superior limit of the Dente of the earth’s orbit : a maximum if
the earth’s mass is equal to m)(14+1-643), or, if m! =z 7¢l750 Of the sun’s
mass. But this value of the earth’s mass earenonds ay ‘ solar paral-
lax of 8.730, a value closely approximating to the recent determina-
tions of that element.

If, then, the mass of Venus is equal to z5,7;99, and the mass of the
earth is equal tO s;¢so9) it follows that the orbits of these two planets
will ultimately become more eccentric from the mutual attraction of the
other planets than they would for any other values of their respective
masses; and we may now inquire whether such coincidence between

“SECULAR VARIATIONS OF THE PLANETARY ORBITS. 213

the superior limits of the eccentricities and the masses of these two
planets has any physical significance, or is merely accidental.

Since the mean motions and mean distances of the planets are invari-
able, and independent of the eccentricities of the orbits, it would seem
that there could be no connection between these elements by means of
which the stability of the system might be secured or impaired; but a
more careful examination shows that, although the mean motions or
times of revolution of the planets are invariable, their actual velocities,
or the variation of their mean velocities, depends wholly on the eccen-
tricities; and were any of the planetary orbits to become extremely
elliptical, the velocity of the planet would be subject to great variations
of velocity, moving with very great rapidity when in perihelion, and
with extreme slowness when in the neighborhood of its aphelion; and
it is evident that when the planet was in this latter position a small for-
eign force acting upon it might so change its velocity as to completely
change the elements of its orbit, by causing it to fall upon the sun or
fly off into remoter space. A system of bodies moving in very eccen-
trical orbits is therefore one of manifest instability; and if it can also
be shown that a system of bodies moving in circular orbits is one of
unstable equilibrium, it would seem that, between the two supposed
conditions a system might exist which should possess a greater degree
of stability than either. The idea is thus suggested of the existence of
a system of bodies in which the masses of the different bodies are so
adjusted to their mean distances as to insure to the system a greater
degree of permanence than would be possible by any other distribution
of masses. The mathematical expression of a criterion for such distri-
bution of masses has not yet been fully developed; and the preceding
illustrations have been introduced here, more for the purpose of calling
the attention of mathematicians and astronomers to this interesting
problem than for any certain light we have yet been able to obtain in
regard to its solution.

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ON SOME METHODS OF INTERPOLATION APPLICABLE TO THE GRADUATION
OF IRREGULAR SERIES, SUCH AS TABLES OF MORTALITY, &., &e.

By Erastus L. DE Forest, M. A.,
Of Watertown, Connecticut.

[The portions of the following methods of interpolation comprising the formulas 2,
8, A, B,C, D, E, F, 11, 12, 13, 17, 19, 20, 21, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 30, 43, 44, 45, 46, 48, 49, and
50, were presented to the Smithsonian Institution for publication in the year 1868, The
method of constructing tables of mortality from two successive census enumerations
was first given in January, 1869, and the formulas 40, 41, 42, 53, 54, 55, 56, and 59,
in January, 1870.—J. H. ]

We have no analytical formula which expresses the law of mortality
with precision, and at the same time with such simplicity as to be prac-
tically useful. or all the purposes of life insurance and life annuities,
it is expressed by numerical series. The law is known to vary in dif-
ferent localities, and even in the same locality at different epochs. That
which prevails in any community, at a given period, can be ascertained
by enumerating the persons living at the various ages, and the deaths
which annually occur among them. Reduced to one of its usual forms,
it is expressed in a statistical table, showing, out of a certain number of
persons born, how many survive to complete each successive year of
their age. These numbers of the living form a diminishing series of
about one hundred terms, whose first differences are the numbers dying
during each year of age. We have reason to believe that a true law of
mortality is a continuous function of the age, free from sudden irregu-
larities, so that in a perfect table the second, third, &c., orders of differ-
ences of the series ought to go on continually diminishing, and each
order by itself ought to show a certain degree of regularity ; in other
words, the table should be well graduated. But, in point of fact,
all purely statistical tables are irregular, especially when the popula-
tion observed has been small, and every table of mortality now in use
has been graduated artificially. It was not strange that the Carlisle
table, derived from records of population and deaths in a single town,
should show many irregularities. They have been adjusted to some
extent, but very imperfectly. The Combined Experience table, also,
which was compiled from the records of seventeen British life insurance
offices, owes its better graduation to art rather than to nature. Farr’s
English life-table, No. 3, for males, derived from the census returns of
1541 and 1851, and from the registry of deaths in England and Wales

276 METHODS OF INTERPOLATION.

for the seventeen years from 1838 to 1854, though perhaps the best ex-
pression we have for the law of general mortality, is by no means well
graduated. In this case the population observed was so large that if
the tables had been formed directly from the enumeration of persons
living and persons dying in each single year of age, and if these obser-
rations could have been relied upon as accurate, any irregularities then
existing in the series might possibly have been thought to result trom
something peculiar in the law of life at certain ages. But it was neces-
sary to combine the single years of age into groups, owing to the impos-
sibility of ascertaining ages with precision. All persons were required
to give their exact ages at last birthday, but the reports state that
round numbers, such as 50, 60, &c., were disproportionately numerous,
showing that the ages were not always correctly given. In forming the
life-table No. 3 the years of age were grouped together into decennial
periods chiefly, and the whole term of life was then divided into five
unequal parts, so as to form a chain of sub-series, each of the fourth
order, and not continuous at their points of junction. We must con-
clude, then, that the great irregularities now found at certain points in
the series result from imperfect distribution, and not from any irregu-
larity in the true law of mortality.

A good system of distribution or adjustment, though not positively
essential in practice, is nevertheless desirable, first, because a judiciously
adjusted table probably comes nearer to the truth than an unadjusted
or ill-adjusted one; that is, nearer to what the statistics would show if
the population observed could be made indefinitely large, and if the
numbers for each year of age could be independently determined.
Secondly, if the primary table is well graduated, all the various series
of numbers derived from it, forming the usual “ commutation tables”
and tables of premiums and valuations of assurances and annuities,
will be well graduated also, and this will sometimes facilitate the
computation of such tables, because a part of the tabular numbers
can be accurately found by ordinary interpolation, and errors of com-
putation can be discovered by the method of differences. Many writers
on the law of mortality have treated of the subject of adjustment, as
may be seen in the pages of the London Journal of the Institute of
Actuaries and Assurance Magazine, and elsewhere. The rule of least
squares was used to adjust the American table given in the report of
the United States census of 1860, (See the Appendix on Average Rate
of Mortality, pages 518 and 524.) The series there given, however, is
not very thoroughly graduated, as can easily be shown by taking its
successive orders of differences. In England, the “law of Gompertz”
has been chiefly taken as a basis. But it is not necessary to adopt any
exclusive theory respecting the precise nature of that function which
expresses the law of mortality. The following system of distribution
and graduation is based upon principles which apply to any continuous
series of numbers, and is analogous to the ordinary methods of inter-

METHODS OF INTERPOLATION. QT

polation. It is not without interest when regarded from a purely
mathematical point of view. The general question as to how an
irregular series can be made regular is answered by means of the
obvious principle that, although single terms in a series may deviate
considerably from the normal standard, yet the arithmetical means of
successive groups of terms will be less fluctuating, because the errors
of the single terms which compose each group tend to compensate each
other, and also because the means of two groups which are partly com-
posed of the same terms must necessarily approximate toward each
other as the number of terms common to both is increased. In ordinary
interpolation, we proceed from some known single terms in a series to
find the values of other terms; in the present case, however, all single
terms are unreliable, and the problem is to determine the single terms in
a series when only the arithmetical means of some groups of terms are
given. To find expressions for the sum, and consequently the mean, of
the terms in any group, we shall make use of the known principle that, in
a continuous series whose law is given or assumed, the sum of a limited
number of terms can be regarded as a definite integral, which is the
ageregate of a succession of similar integrals corresponding to the terms
considered.*
FIRST METHOD OF ADJUSTMENT.
We know that when equidistant ordinates are drawn to the parabola—
y=A+ Be4+ Cx?

they form a series of the second order; that is, their second differences
are constant. Let ¢ represent the distance from one ordinate to another ;
the area of the curve included between two such ordinates will be—

' +e 5
ni hig’ dx =c [A+ Ba! 4+ O(a’? + 75 &)]

gl

where x is the abscissa corresponding to the middle ordinate of the
area. Since this area is a function of the second degree in 2’, it follows
that when values in arithmetical progression, such as 1, 2, 3, &e., are
assigned to a’, the resulting areas will form a series of the second order.

This being premised, let us assume any three areas, S;, S:, Ss, So situ-
ated that the middle ordinates of S,; and S; shall fall respectively to the
left and right of the middle ordinate of S,, which is taken as the axis of
Y. Let, nz, 3, be the portions of the axis of X which form the bases
of these areas, and let a, and a3 be the portions of the same axis inter-
cepted between the axis of Y and the middle ordinates of 8, and 8;
respectively. Then we have—

i ata dy — ny [A—Ba, + C(a?-+75nr)]

—a4—tm

+4
== r : "y dx=n,(A + 715Cn,’)
—t Nz

* See a note by M. Prouhet, appended to Vol. II of Sturm’s Cours d’ Analyse de V Ecole
Polytechnique.

METHODS OF INTERPOLATION. :

b>—
=I
co

Sf ; "y dzx—=n;{ A+ Ba,+C(ae+ j4n,°)]

—in;

Let S be a fourth area whose base is n, and let «# be the abscissa cor-
responding to its middle ordinate ; then—

s=f7,, y dan A+ Ba! +C(a!? + 75n)] « . « (1)

Eliminating A, B, C, from the above four equations employing P, Q, R,
as auxiliary letters, and dropping the accent from x’, we have—

P—=a,[a?+ 7),(u’—n2’)|—a[as’?+ 45(ne—n)]
Q=a, [a+ 7(wW—n,’)|+af[a?+,(n?—n,’)]
R=a,{a?+ js(m? —n’) |+ay[ae+ y(n? — 1”) ] > (2)

SG) Ga

This enables us to find the wees S of an area whose position only
is given, when the three other areas 8), S2, 83, are given both in magni-
tude and position.

Now let each of the four areas be divided by equidistant ordinates
into as many subdivisions as there are units in the bases 2;, 22, 3 and
n respectively, these bases being supposed to represent whole numbers,
and let a, a3, and # be each a whole number or a whole number and a
half, according as 2+ n», N2+Ns, and n2-+n are respectively even or odd;
then all the subdivisions of the areas will be so situated that the ab-
scissaS corresponding to their middle ordinates will be terms in an
arithmetical progression, and, consequently, the subdivisions themselves
will be terms in a series of the second order. We may regard these
subdivisions as representing not areas merely, but magnitudes of any
kind, and the areas Sj, S:, 83, and S being the sums of groups of sub-
divisions, we see that formula (2) enables us to find the sum 8 of any
group of consecutive terms in a series of the second order when the
sums S;, S:, Ss, of the terms in any other three groups in the series are
given. From the sums of the terms in each group their arithmetical
means are known, and vice versa, for 4, N2, 23, and n are given, and these
are the numbers of terms which the several groups contain. ‘The
groups may be entirely distinct, or they may overlap each other so that
some terms belong to two or more of them at once. The intervals be-
tween the middle point of the group S., and the middle points of the
groups 8;, S;, and S are a, a3, amd aw respectively ; the interval between
the middle points of any two consecutive terms being unity. We must
regard a and a3; as always positive, while « may be either positive or
negative. When x is made equal to unity, the ape gives the value
of a single term S by means of the sums Sj, 82, S3, of the three given
groups of terms. The results are exact when a sbiies taken is of the
second order, but if it follows some other law, or is irregular, approxi-
mate or adjusted values for S will be obtained,vand if the same groups

METHODS OF INTERPOLATION. Too

are constantly used as data, the single terms interpolated from them
will themselves form a series of the second order. Assuming any three
groups of terms in any given series, regular or irregular, we can con-
struct a new series of the second order, such that the arithmetical means
of the terms in the three corresponding groups in it shall be severally
equal to those in the given series.

In the special case in which the three groups are consecutive, and con-
tain n, terms each, taking formula (1), which expresses the sum 8 of any
n terms in a group, the abscissa of the middle point of the group being
x’, we may assign to wv’ its three values —n,, 0, and +7, in succession,
obtaining the three equations—

S,;=7, (A—B n+ 43 C n,’)
S.=7 (A+ )5 Cm’)
Ss=m (A+ Bay +750 me’)

These suffice to determine the three constants A, B,C; and dropping
the accent from «’ in (1), we have—

1 VO a es
A= 26 Si Ss Ss
re 2— (Sip °)
ud ‘
= 5 n 3(S3—S:)
a (A)

=5—[(Si+8:)—2 8]

Oe
2
S=n(A+ 55Cr’+Ba+C 2’)

This can be used in place of the more general formula (2), in all eases
where the three groups are consecutive and of equal extent.

We have here a means of approximating to the population living
within each single year of age when the statistics are given by decades
or other intervals of age, as is often the case in census reports. If we
take nj=10, and let wv represent what S becomes when n=1, then form-

ula (A) will reduce to—
i ee s090[ 866 S2—33(S; +8 3) +40(8;—S je+4(S i+ S3—2 S2)a \a “| ose (3)

If, for example, §,, S., S; are the numbers aged 30 and under 40, 40
and under 50, 50 and under 60, respectively, then giving « the values
— 4,+43,+3, &c., in succession, the resulting values of « will be the num-
bers aged 44 and under 45, 45 and under 46, 46 and under 47, Xe. If
instead of taking n=1 we take n=4 or n=4, then by assigning the
proper values to # we may find the population living within any desired
half-year or quarter of a year of age. (See Milne on Annuities, Vol. 1,
Ch. 3.) The same formula (3) enables us to distribute among the single
years of age the deaths which occur within any three consecutive de-
cades of age during a given period of time. If the population or deaths
were thus distributed within every decade by means of the totals for

280 METHODS OF INTERPOLATION.

that decade and the two others nearest to it, the result would be a chain
of sub-series of the second order extending throughout the term of life,
but not forming a well-graduated series, because in general it would
not be continuous at the points of junction between the decades. It
might, however, be made approximately continuous afterward by means
of the second method of adjustment, which will soon be explained. We
must observe, too, that at the ages before 20 or after 80 the population
and deaths vary so rapidly, that, in order to secure a good distribution
by these methods, the data for those ages ought to be given by intervals
of five years, or some other number less than a decade. In the ages of
infancy they should be given for each single year.

Reverting now to the general formula (2), we observe that the quan-
tities S 8 8: Ss, are the mean values of the ordinate within the

NM? Ny’ Ne’ N3

several areas, so that the formula enables us not only to interpolate the
arithmetical mean of a group of n terms in a series when the means of
the terms in three other groups are known, but also to interpolate the
mean value of a function within any interval 2 when its mean values
within three other intervals 2, %2, 23, are known; so that if we know
the mean annual rate of mortality for three consecutive decades of age,
we can find the mean rate for each single year of age by formula (3),
since S,, S., S;, are simply ten times the given mean rate for their
respective decades.

When any one of the intervals 71, 2, 2; or m is diminished, the mean
value of the ordinate within such interval will evidently approximate to
the value of the middle ordinate of the interval, and will become equal
to it at the limit, when the interval becomes zero. Hence, making »—0,

we have S for the ordinate corresponding to the abscissa a, and (2)
n
fee ce

Q
y= 1-= a Ne ie a ys y+ R Xz 23 2) (4)

When §;, 8:2, a denote the population living within given intervals of
age, the area y dv may be regarded as denoting the number living at
the ‘exact age indicated by a, and if the population is a stationary one—
that is, neither increasing nor diminishing, the product n/y will repre-
sent the number of persons who attain that exact age during the interval
of time »’; so that when the ages are grouped by decades, and we
have n— 0, formula (A) will give for the number of persons who annually
attain the age indicated by a, since n/ is unity,

Y¥=sdov [650 S, —25 (S; + 83) + 30 (Ss—S;)2 + 3 (S8i4+ S3;—282)a7] . (5)
For example, when §,, 82, 83, denote the population aged 30 and under
40, 40 and under 50, 50 and under 60, respectively, if we assign to # the
values —1, 0,41, &c., in succession, the resulting values of y will be the
numbers annually attaining the ages 44, 45, 46, &c. It has usually
been the practice to consider these numbers as being represented by

METHODS OF INTERPOLATION. " Q8i

the population living between the ages 434 and 444, 445 and 454, 454
and 464, &e., respectively, and a comparison of formulas (3) and (5)
shows arat the two sets of numbers would be almost identical, though

not precisely so. The difference between them is—

Y — U= aqhog (Z42— 81 — 5)

a number so small that it will not ordinarily affect the first five signiff.
cant figures of a result.

A considerably larger error is involved in the assumption that the
ratio of the deaths annually occurring within any decade of age to the
population living within such decade represents the annual rate of mor-
tality at the exact middle age of the decade. (Assur. Mag., Vol. EX, p. 125.)

Let 5), 82, 83, be the deaths, and 8), 82, Ss, the population, for any three
consecutive decades, then the deaths annually occurring at the exact
middle age of the middle decade are, by formula (5), making r=0,

y dx =51, [268; — (8,483) |dv
and the population living at the same age is,
Ydr= st, [26 8. — (8S; +8,)ldax
so that the annual rate of mortality at that exact age is,
an tt eee ee 2 6 ea
Yo 26S8.— (Si +8s3)
The difference between this and the assumed value ~ is sufficient to

i
alter the fourth significant figure of the quotient, and even the second
and third at the older ages, as can easily be verified by assigning to S;,
s,, &e., the numerical values for the various decades given by their log-
arithms in Table III of the Preface to the English Life Tables.

As regards the general accuracy of interpolations made by formula
(2), it must be noted that near the middle point of the middle interval
nm, the values obtained will be more accurate than they will be at its
extremities, and the accuracy attainable will diminish as we proceed out
of the middle interval into either of the lateral ones. This is analogous
to what we know to be the case with ordinary interpolations by second
differenees. And just asthe degree of accuracy is increased by taking
third differences into account, so here we can increase it by taking four
intervals instead of three. This will give a curve of the third degree,
which admits a point of inflexion, and is, therefore, better adapted than
the common parabola to represent the form of a series whose second
difference changes its sign.

Tor the sake of simplicity, let us assume that the four areas S;, S,, Ss,
S,, are symmetrically arranged with respect to the axis of Y, so that
the distances from the middle ordinates of S, and 8, to that axis shall
be each equal to a, and the corresponding distances for S, and S; each
equal to a, while the bases of the first and fourth areas are each equal
to n;, and those of the second and third are each equal to nm. Then taking

the curve—
y= A+ Bart Ca’? + Dz

282 METHODS OF INTERPOLATION.

we obtain the integral—
"e+ en

i Sa ¥ de=n[A+Br+C (x P44 nm) + Da (a?+in’)] . . (7)

which expresses the sum § of any 2 terms taken in a group, the abscissa
of the middle point of the group being x Substituting for n the four
values 2, 22, M2, 4, in succession, and for x the four corresponding val-
ues —d, —y, +4, and +a, we obtain the four equations—
S:= 7% [A — Ba+€ (a?+ yy? Day (a? +41’) |
=n, [A — Ba, +C (a? ae ) — Day (ao? + 4n,”) ‘
Bae Bag +C (a+ 7bie”) + Daz (et)? +4n.’)|
S,=m [A + Bay+ (a? ae *) + Da, (a?+A4n))|
These are sufficient to determine the four constants A, B, C, D, and,
arranging (7) according to the powers of 7, we have—
il (ee

2 1yNo 12(a? — ay”) +n —n,’

ae iE cae a?+n,’)(S;—S»2 ») = Ago 4 ay? + 2? >

2 Ayden Ny 4(aP?—a,’)+n—n?

6 Canes (S.+8 ) (8)

— Yi
NyNy 2(ay— a” yn? —Ny

9 c= (S,—S:)—aun, =)

~~ Cydia Ny 4 (a? —dy”) + ny? —n,”

S=n[(A+ 4,0 n*)+(B+4D n*)e+C a’ +D a7]

This formula enables us to interpolate the sum S of any» terms in a
group precisely as (2) does, but more accurately. It gives exact results
when the series taken is of an order not higher than ‘the third, and
approximate or adjusted ones in other cases. With any given series,
taking four groups of terms symmetrically situated on each side of a
middle point which becomes the origin of codrdinates, we can construct
a new series of the third order, such that the arithmetical means of the
terms in the four corresponding groups in it shall be equal to those in
the given series. -If the four groups are consecutive and contain 4
terms each, we have—

m=3m, dg=hny
and the constants reduce to—
1
AS oa! (S2+S8s)—(Sit5y)]
it
B=-— ne 3[ 1 5(S3—S82) — (Su—S))]

(B)
C=, See (Se+8s)]

o

1
=F pil (Ss Si) —3(Sa+ 82) |

METHODS OF INTERPOLATION. 285
.

+
When the sums §;, S2, S3, Sy, denote population living or deaths occur-
ring within four consecutive decades of age, and wu denotes the numbers
for a single year of age, then we have—
R= 10; Tec S=u
and consequently—

: DO ‘ 990/a ,
U=7 599g 983(S2+ Ss) —133(8:+-8,)]

+ aqyqpgl2997(8s— 82) —199(8,—8)) ,
au : je
+ aggl(Si+ 8.) — (S++ 8:)]
ae 0/24 a
+ 000! (81-81) —3 (83-82)

When the values of A, B, C, D, are substituted in the equation of the
curve, the number of persons who annually attain the age indicated by
« is expressed thus:

1 ma.
Y= ool (Bet 8s) — (Si +84 +7500! (S$) —(8.-8)] )

~ (10)
2 Pe)
re (S-+8.)—(Se+ $.)]+Gg900l(Ss —S 1)—3(S;—S.)] \

These last two formulas may be used instead of (3) and (5) when
greater accuracy is desired. It will be easy to obtain similar ones for
cases in which the ages of a population are taken by intervals of five,
twenty, or any other number of years.

Let us now assume five or more groups, with a curve of the geseral
form—

y=A4Bre4-Cves4De+Hau+Fk P+G +H av7+&e.
and, to make the case as simple as possible, let the groups be consecu-
tive and composed of n, terms each. The sum of any n terms in a
group will be—
etn

y dx

<n O(a? + an’) + D va? +n’) + (at va? + nt) )
HE (at an'v? + jn')+ Gao + srret+ Bont? + ohn)

(11)
+H a(ao+ inate’? + in’) + &e.]
which, arranged according to the powers of x, is—
S=nfA+ 750 v4 28 v'+7,G v4 (BID 747, F ft +2 8 nx )
+(C+3H 07+ 3.G ni)a?+ (D+ 2B + 55H n')as+ (H+5G n?)at > (12)
+(F+7H 1’)? +6 a+H a+ &e.]
If we assume only five groups, the series will be of the fourth order, the
constants F, G, &e., will be zero, and by substituting for # in formula
11) the five values —2n,,—2,, 0, +7, and +27,, in succession, and put-
’ 9 V5 ’ ) ’ ]
‘ting 2, for n, we shall obtain five equations by which to determine the
five constants as follows:

284 METHODS OF INTERPOLATION.

A= 7999 y,[2134 S:-+9(Si+8s)—116(8:+8,)]
paz) [648,-8,)—3(% 8)

Oxy gu sll2St 8) 28: (84+ 89] (0)
D=igaal( 8-28 —8)]

B=5, “A Sr+(Si+8))—4S48,)]

This, in connection with formula (12), enables us to express the
sum S of any group of ” terms in a series of the fourth order by means
of the sums §j, S2, Ss, Sy, Ss, of the terms in any five consecutive groups
of n, terms each. In case the given series is of a higher order than the
fourth, or irregular, we can find adjusted values for each term, and for
any given set of groups assumed these values will form a series of the
fourth order. If we take n;—10, formulas similar to (3) and (5) may be
obtained, by which to interpolate numbers for each single year when
statistics of population and mortality are given by decades of age.

Particular relations exist between the numerical coeflicients of S;, S:, &e.,
inthe values of the constants A, B, &e., in this and similar formulas. In
the expression for A, the factor + 2134 belongs to a single quantity S;, while
the factors +9 and —116 belong each to two quantities. So we have—

2134 + 2x9 — 2x116 = 1920
and 1920 is the numerical part of the denominator of the fraction out-
side the bracket. In the expression for B a different relation appears.
From the middle of the group S, to that of S, is a distance of two inter-
vals, while from §; to S; there are four intervals. We have accordingly—
2x34 — 4x5 = 48
and 48 is the numerical part of the denominator of the fraction without
the bracket. Similar relations are found in the expressions for C, D,
and H, except that the totals are equal to zero instead of to the denomi-
nator of the fraction.

Again, assuming six consecutive groups of equal extent, with a curve
of the fifth degree, whose origin of coordinates is at the point of division
between the third and fourth groups, and pursuing the same method as
before, we find that the six constants are—

i
A=Gpq 137 7(S3+-S,)+ (Sit- Se) —8(S2+8s)]

if
B= 79 p21245(Ss—8s) +2(Ss—81) + 29(8s—®)]

1
D2 ce [11(S;—82) —28(S,—S) —(Ss—80)]

36 n;4

(D)

1

B= 3g 70(2(Ss+S:)+ (Si + Ss) —3(82 + 85)]
1

P= 75 ,2110(S:—Ss) + (Ss—S1) —5(85—®e)

METHODS OF INTERPOLATION, 285

Tn like manner, assuming seven groups, with a curve of the sixth degree,
we find the seven constants—

C= 3549p al3435(S:-+8s)-+37(Si-+ S,)—6020 8,—462(8, +85)

1 7
= 107520 y, 121004 S.+-954(8:+ Ss) —7621 (85-485) —75(S+8;)]

1 ~ ;
pelea eee a O81) Aes sO)

ili

1 5
D355, [92(Ss—8:) —83(8;— 85) —7(S:—S)]

1 .
E=55 0 et S,+54(S.+ Sc)— T1(S3+8; )—5(S:+8,)]
Ae
P40) 7 61 5—Ss)-+ (S:—81) —4(Se—8)]
1

G— 720 ny >a 15(S3-+8s5)+ (Si+58;)—20 S,—6(S8.4 S.)]

So also with eight groups, and a curve of the seventh degree, the eight
constants are—

17640 14,
— 1 7
~ 6040 nel

1 no Fy, ~
=FB0 npl2%38Sst Se)-+ (Si+8,)—215(8,+8; )— 65(S, +8-;)]
va: |
~ 1440 1, T4400?

A=.) _111193(S,+8;) +609(S)-4+S,)—2919(S,-++ 8.) —63(8;+8,)]
175(Ss—S,)+119(S;—8,)—889(S¢—8,)—9(S;—81)]
7(Se—Ss3) + 7(S,—S8,) —1365(8; —S,)—

1
ea ny 5[11(Sy+85) +8(S.+8,) —18(S;-++85) —(8i+8,)]
f

F=Zy9 yf 7(Ss—8:) +11(S;—S8,) —41(8,—S,)—(S—8))]
1 ;
G= F770 n,19(8s+ Se) + (Si + S)—5(S, +85) —5(S. + S,)]
1
=50i0n 27 1(Ss—Sy)+(Ss:—S,)—35(8;—8,)—7(8;—S8,)]

In the same way we might determine the nine constants for a curve of
the eighth degree, and so on; for the operations required, though some-
what tedious, are always possible.* We have found, then, a very simple
and general method by which, when any m+1 consecutive groups of
— equal extent are assumed in a given series, a new series of the mth

* See formula (G) in Appendix I.

286 METHODS OF INTERPOLATION.

order can be constructed, such that the arithmetical means of the terms
in the m+1 corteepenainne groups in it will be severally equal to those
in the original series.

Let us now proceed to apply this method to the graduation of an
irregular rate of mortality. Column (a) in Table I shows the proba-
bility of dying within a year, at each age, from 20 to 79, as experi-
enced by the life insurance companies doing business in Massachu-
setts for seven years ending November 1, 1865, and given in the
commissioners’ report. The terms of the series are 100 times the quo-
tients arising from dividing the number of deaths in each year of age
by the number of years of life exposed to mortality at that age. For
example, the number 1.98 opposite the age 59 signifies that of the
insured persons who attained that age about 2 per cent. died within the
following year. The great irregularity of this series is apparent at a
glance. The observations on which it is based were not such as to give
it very high authority as a law of mortality, and it is introduced here
merely to illustrate the method of graduation. The rate which it
shows is too low throughout almost all the ages, owing mainly, no doubt,
to the recent selection of most of the lives observed. The life insurance
companies of America are of recent and very rapid growth, and in the
present case the average duration of the policies observed probably did
not much exceed, if it equaled, three years. It is well known that in
a class of persons aged fifty years, for instance, who have been recently
pronounced healthy by a medical examiner, the rate of mortality may
be expected to be lower than among another class of similar age,
whose examination was made ten, twenty, or thirty years earlier; for
some of the latter will have tonaanied disease in the mean time, hile
others, probably among the healthiest lives, will have surrendered their
policies or allowed them to lapse, thus deteriorating the average vitality
of the insured. The present rate, therefore, cannot be regarded as a
permanently reliable one. At the ages 20, 21, and 22, however, the rate
is too high. This may be merely accidental, owing to the fact that only
a small number of lives were observed at line ages.

In the first place, let us construct a representative series ofthe fourth
order. The sixty terms of series (a) form five groups of twelve terms
each ; their sums are—

Si Galo S2==9.06, S3; = 13.03, S4—=28.51, S5=87.84
and when we take—

m—=12, ds p=
formulas (C) and (12) give—
2432.081 Re iteres) 67.19 39.79 __ 12.445
=qeaae’? “B=aazy C=ieaae P= aay B= Gar

and consequently—

- METHODS OF INTERPOLATION. 287

TABLE I.

‘
Age. (a) (d) (ce) | Age. (a) ) (c)
| | ———
Desa ee 2 92 | 1.07937 PAGS 50 eee ee .97 | 1.07582 1. 09695
Oyen ee too. 90 . 97386 . 74606 || 51 ..-.2..- 1.01} 1.12001 1. 14758
OD 2 92 . 88650 . 76615 || 52....--- 1.06 |} 1.17063 1, 20202
Orie wes. | .67 . 81545 £77713 | 5Siac.ncue.| 1,32} 1, 22884 1. 26399
OA amc e-> gee 4 aerooe? |) . 78100. 5412.82 = 2 1.80 | 1.29589 | 1.33140
DE ee Ban .70 .71543 .77949 || 55 2.4 --- 1.21} 1.37314 1. 40629
OGM ee. . 67 . 68326 <204N0" || 56222. 1.33 | 1. 46206 1. 48989
ase .66 . 66105 .76605 || 57 ...----. 1.65] 1.56419 1. 58362
Deca wee a Pol s67 |) 464744"), 757231 58-2 ...2-~ 1.70} 1.68121 | 1.63910
tne eee .68 . 64119 FATTO: iO! 2st oc 1.98} 1.81487 1. 80815
B (ess oe ri . 64117 73887 || GO ..-.---. 2.09 | 1.96703 1. 94283
Big evens 80 . 64632 <PoUTs Sl ake ae. 2.08 | 2.13966 | 2.09546
ter ea . 68 . 65572 Sip eUh Abe at. es 1.89 | 2.33480 2, 26857
3) eee Aig . 60 . 66852 WOVAE ||| 63 22 sac aoe Od 2, 55463 2. 46499
BAU ha Fae LS . 68397 72020 || 64 .-..---- 2.50] 2.80139 9, 68782
Diy aeons (aes | .74 . 70145 Ge lise | Oome eeee 3.51 | 3.07746 2, 94044
315), ee ee ee . 72036 STOOL OG 2 ane oe 3.01 3. 38528 3, 22655
OTR. oe ae .65 . 74038 73361 || 67 ..22---- | 4,02] 3.72742 3. 55016
Pty: Mh Sie . 82 . 76106 74408 || 68 ....---- 4.26] 4.10655 3. 91561
ROP a. 285 . T8219 «75756 | 69 ......-- 3.3 4, 52541 4, 32758
AQ ESS 2a: 87 . 80368 ATTAND, | 70 set 6.80 | 4, 98688 4, 79112
A peat 3 S18 ners . 82535 eB | Wl ee cas 5.00 | 5, 49390 5, 31163
(Os Wee . 84 . 84740 . 81561 || 72....---- 6.84 | 6, 04955 5, 89490
Sree) Be. .79 . 86994 , 84062 || 73.....--- 6.14 | 6.65697 6.54713
AAs te .o4 . 89323 . 86838 || 74..-.---. 4.58 | 7.31943 7, 27489
Deke te ks 285 . 91762 . 89891 1°75 ..22 22. 4.50 | 8.04030 8, 08521
AG ieee. a 3: .97 . 94359 BOBVOA) Oe eee 7.53 | 8.82302 8, 98552
A eee Me . 92 . 97168 . 96849 || 77 .....--- ie 9, 67116 9, 98373
Ar saprene w Jan. 1.03 | 1.00256] 1.00783 || 78-:..-.--- 11.69 | 10.58839 | 11. 08818
AO eee se 00s e .96 | 1.03699 | 1.05053 | eee 15.88 | 11.57845 | 12. 30769
1]
1

U=1.055794-+ .03879144 2+ 002452280 x? + 0001599072 2°
+ 000004167508 a4

This is the equation of the new series. Since the origin of coérdinates
is at the middle point of the middle group, if we assign to w the values
—$,+4,+3, &c., the resulting values of w will be the terms belonging
to the ages 49, 50, 51, &e. When any five consecutive terms have been
computed in this way, and their four orders of differences are taken,
the rest of the series is readily constructed therefrom. The complete
series is given in column ()). 1t will be found that the sums of the terms
in the twelve-year groups 20-51, 32-43, &c., are identical with those in
series (a), and consequently the arithmetical means of the terms in these
groups are the same in the two series.

Next, let the required series be one of the fifth order. Taking six
groups of ten terms each, their sums are:

S,=7.61 S;= 8.95 S:
So 1.02 S4=14.02 Se=80.2 '
and using formula (D) we obtain the equation of the series—

w= 1.0732474-4+.04640701 2-+ 001969958 22-+ 00007920042 x
+.000004916667 2!-+ 0000001071667 2°

\

288 METHODS OF INTERPOLATION.

The origin of codrdinates is the same as in the previous case, being at
the point of division between the third and fourth groups. When any
six consecutive terms have been computed and their five orders of dif-
ferences are taken, the rest of the series is easily constructed. It is
given in column (c). The sums of the terms for the decades 20-29, 30-
39, &e., are the same as in the original series.

It may seem strange that the two series (b) and (c) should differ so
much as they do, especially at the earlier ages. There are two reasons
for it. In the first place, they are derived from two different sets of
groups; and as the original series is extremely irregular, the sums §,,
S., &c., must vary somewhat from, their normal value, and vary differ-
ently in the two series, thus affecting the values of all the single terms.
This source of error, however, can be very much diminished, if not
entirely removed, by making a preliminary adjustment by the second
method, as will be shown hereafter. In the second place, there is an
essential difference in the nature of the two series ()) and (ce). In (bd)
the general term w is expressed by a polynomial of the fourth degree
in vw When the two values +o and —@ are assigned to a, the result-
ing value of w will have the same sign in both cases, because the
highest power of # is an even one. But in the equation of series (¢) the
highest power of x is odd, so that the values r=+o and «= — qo will
give contrary signs to vu. In general, when a series of an even order,
such as (b), is extended indefinitely in both directions, its terms will go
on increasing algebraically at both extremities, or diminishing at both ;
but a series of an odd order like (c) will increase at one extremity and
diminish at the other. It is evident that the original series (a) tends to
increase at both ends, as also does (b), while (¢) diminishes at the earliest
ages and increases at the latest ones. This has a considerable effect on
the form of the series. In ()) there is a minimum of .64117 at the age
30, and no maximum at all, while (c) has its minimum of .72020 at the
age 34, and a maximum at 24. It appears that (b) represents (a) more
faithfully than (c) does, and in like manner we may presume that in this
‘ase a Series of the sixth order would be better than one of the seventh
order, and, in general, that if a given series tends to increase at both
ends, as any rate of mortality of this nature does, or to diminish at
both ends, its representative series ought to be of an even order, while
if it tends to increase at one end and diminish at the other, the new
series Should be made of an odd order. But there will be some excep-
tions to this rule, and of course, other things being equal, the greater ,
the number of groups taken, and the higher the order of the new series,
the more faithfully will the original one be represented by it.

SECOND METHOD OF ADJUSTMENT.

If in formula (2) we make n,. an odd number, and assume—

N3=N, A3=a,

>

METHODS OF INTERPOLATION. 289

and let w/ represent what S becomes when we take—

n=1, a0
then aw will be the middle term of the middle group S:, and the lateral
groups 8; and 8; will be similarly situated on each side of the middle
group and its middle term. We have then

Ny ae Si+8; 9
Shara, 2 a+ ne —ne [R= (re =|. C7)

This formula enables us to adjust the ite of any term in an irregular
series, by taking it as the middle term with an arbitrary number of ad-
jacent terms on each side of it, all together forming the middle group in
which the sum of the terms is S, and their number is nm, and taking two
other arbitrary groups, S; and Ss, containing n, terms each, and situated
one on each side of the middle term and equidistant from it. The dis-
tance from the middle point of the middle group to that of either lateral
group is a. The simplest case which can arise is where we take five
consecutive terMs, WU), We, Us, U4, Us, ANd assume the three middle ones as
the middle group and the first one and last one as the two lateral groups;

then

i= o, Mt, a,=2
and formula (13) gives, as the adjusted value of the middle term u,,
=,;),[4 S.—(S:+8s)] |

= YJ [4 (uot Us Uy) —(*1+ Us) | (
When seven terms are taken, five in the middle group and two in each
lateral one, so that the second and sixth terms belong to two groups
each, we have—

(14)

=, m=2, a=

>
Bb
or
ch
Se
@
mb
So
ee
5
=
—
~
.
dln

(15)
= Ff 138 (ug Uy + Us) +8 (a+ Ug) —5 (a+ U7) |

The accuracy of formulas (14) and (15) can easily be tested by trial with
any series of the second order, the adjusted value of the middle term
being in this case the same as its original value. A simple relation ex-
ists beween the numerical coefficients of uj, %w, &e. For example, in
formula (15) the coefficient +13 belongs to three terms, +8 to two,
and —®5 to two, and we have—
38x13 + 2x8 — 2x5=— 45

and 45 is the denominator of the fraction outside the bracket. The
numerical coefficients within the bracket may therefore be regarded as
the weights of the terms to which they belong, so that the weight of
each of the terms u3, wy, and uw; is 13, that of uw, and ug is 8, and that of
um, and u; is —d.

By varying the positions of the groups in formula (13), and the num-
19s 71

290 METHODS OF INTERPOLATION.

ber of terms in each, we might find an unlimited number of adjustment
formulas, but (14) and (15) will serve as specimens. Similar results can
also be arrived at by another method, which is very simple. We know
that in a series of the third or any lower order the fourth differences
are zero; that is, any five consecutive terms are connected by the
relation—
Us—4Uyt 6 Uzg—4 M+ U,=0

and, consequently, we have—

10 U3 =4 (dot Ug + Uy) — (Ui +Us),

U3 =p 4(to+ Ut Us)—(r+Us)] . . . (16)

This is identical with formula (14), which is thus shown to hold good and
to give exact results when applied to a series of the third order as well
as the second. It is therefore equally well adapted for graduating any
series, whether it has a point of inflexion or not. The same is true of
(15) and all other formulas derived from (13),

When applied to an irregular series, such formulas can be modified so
as to give adjusted values which will approximate to the original ones
more or less closely, as may be desired. Take, for instance, formula (16).
If we add ku; to both members of the equation next preceding, it will
stand—

(10+h)ujs=(4-+4) ty + 4(Ue+ Uy) — (4+ Us)

and hence we have—

1
oe rerepens ll net a) Us A (Ue Uy) — (* + Us) |

This formula differs from (16) in no respect except that the coefficient of
us; Within the bracket, and the denominator of the fraction without the
bracket, have both been increased by the same quantity k. Since k may
have any value whatever, we see that the weight of the middle term wy,
can be increased or diminished to any desired extent, the denominator
of the fraction without the bracket being increased or diminished by
the same amount. Thus if we desire that the weight of wu; shall be 9
instead of 4, the formula will stand—

U3 = FED Ug +4 (Mot U4)—(U+Us)] . . « (17)
In this way the value of each term in an adjusted series can be made to
depend on, and approximate to, that of the corresponding term in the
original series to any extent that may be required, and, of course, the
closer this approximation, the more nearly will the form of the new
series resemble that of the original one.

When more than five terms are to be included by an adjustment for-
mula, the relative weights of the terms can be varied by combining two
or more formulas together. For instance, (15) gives, if we drop the
accent from w’,,

45 Ug ==13(Ug+ y+ Us) + 8 (Ue + Ug) — 5(U + U4)

METHODS OF INTERPOLATION. . 291

and (16) may be written—
10 hug — kl 4( Ust Uy + Us) —— (V+ ug) |

Adding these two equations, we obtain—
Us S344 Ie} (Us Ug Us) + (S—h) (t+ Ug) — 5( ty + Us) ]

Since / may have any value, let us determine it so that the excess of
the weight of w; and wu; over that of w. and wz, shall be equal to the ex-
cess of the latter weight over that of uw, and wu; This gives—

13+4hk—(8—hk)—8—k+5

and, consequently, k—=4. The formula then becomes—

Uy ge [LL (ats yt ts) +4 (e+ Ue) — BM G)] 6 6. (18)
and, if the weight of the middle term is increased by 7, we have
finally —

Ug qg[18 wy 11 (03+ U5) + 4(Mo+ U6) —B3(H+uz)] 2. . . (19)

Here the weights increase in arithmetical progression, from the extreme
terms to the middle one.

To obtain a sunilar formula including nine terms, we may proceed as
follows. In a series of the third or any lower order the fourth differ-
ences are zero, and any five consecutive terms are connected by the
relation—

Us—4 Uy+6 Uzg—4 UW+uy=0
In a series of the fifth or any lower order the sixth differences are zero,
and for any seven consecutive terms we have the relation—
Uz—6 Ug +15 Us —20 Ug +15 w—G6 w+u4=0
In a series of the seventh or any lower order the eighth differences are
zero, and any nine consecutive terms are connected by the relation—
Ug—S8 Ug+2S U;—I6 Ug + 70 Us — 5G Uy + 28 Ug —8 Uy+ Uy, = 0

Hence, considering any nine consecutive terms in a series of the third
or any lower order, we have—

126 5 = 96 (Uy + Us + Ug) — 28 (3+ Uy) + 8 (e+ Ug) — (+ Uy)

3D kus==15 hug us+ Ug) — 6 kus Uz) + hue Ug)

10 kl us 4 he! (yt Us Ug) —h! (Ug Uz)
Adding these three equations together, we obtain—
(1264-55 +10 h’)us = (G64 15k 441/) (tg 5+ Ug) — (28+ 6 k+ 1k!) (Usb u;)

+ (S841) (2+ Ug) — (Uy + Uy)
which expresses a general relation between any nine consecutive terms
in a series of the third or any lower order. The numbers k and k/ being
entirely arbitrary, we may make the coefficients in the second member
of the equation form an arithmetical progression by taking—
(8+h)+2(28+6k+hk’)+(56415k+4 hk’) —0
—1—2(8+hk)—(2846k+hk')=0

292 ; METHODS OF INTERPOLATION.

These two conditions give the two values—
‘ k=+ 3, lit
so that the equation reduces to—
27 Us—=F(Ugt Us+ Ug) + 2(Us+ Uz) + 3(Uo+ Us) — (41 + Uy)

’

and adding 3 xu; to both members, we obtain—

Us = qg[10 ws+ T(Ug+ Ug) A(Ug+ Uz) + (Ue Usg)— 2(%+%y)] . « (20)

The same result can also be reached by deriving from formula (13)
any three special adjustment formulas comprising five, seven, and nine
consecutive terms respectively, and then combining them together in
the manner above indicated. There is evidently no limit to the number
of terms which might be included in formulas found by these methods.
With eleven terms, we have the following :

Ug—= _h;[45 Uet+3 (Us Uz) + 23 (y+ Ug) + 12 (U3+ UW) l (1)
+ (a+ Uy) — 10(u+%11)] § _
in which the weights are in arithmetical progression.*

If we consider any seven consecutive terms in a series of the fifth
order, placing the sixth difference alone equal to zero, the equation thus
formed will give—

Uy = ge [15 (Us+ y+ Us) — 6( ay + Ug) + (U4 + Un)". 6 (22
This might be used as an adjustment formula, possibly with good effeet
in continuing the graduation of a series already approximately adjusted.
It will give exact results when applied to a series of the fifth or any
lower order, and the weight of the middle term w, can be increased or
diminished if desired. So, too, when the eighth difference is placed equal
to zero, we obtain the formula—

Us = 745 [06 (tat Us + Ug) — 2B(Us+ Uz) + 8(U2+Ug)— (Us +Uy)] . . (23)
which will give exact results if applied to a series of the seventh or any
lower order.

The second method of adjustment can be applied to the logarithms of
a series of numbers instead of tothe numbers directly. If, for instance,
the logarithms form a series of the third or any lower order, then for
any five consecutive terms formula (16) gives—
py [4(log w+log u;+log uy) — (log w+ log us)]
qy{log (aeust4)4— log (aus) |

and consequently—
UoUgtls)* \a-
ag —( ats)” \r0
Uy Us

log us;

ll II

This relation will evidently hold good for any five consecutive terms
in a geometrical progression, because their logarithms are in arithmetical
progression; that is, they form a series of the first order. We can
easily see how any similar adjustment formula can be transformed at

*For improved formulas of this nature, see*“Appendices I and I.

METHODS OF INTERPOLATION. 293

‘onee in this way. The weights of the several terms become their expo-
nents, the terms with positive weights become factors in the numerator
of a fraction, while those with negative weights are factors in the denom-
inator, and the fraction without the bracket becomes the exponent of
the whole. Thus (22) is transformed into—

ean PG (tert 7) \ 35
Ne - :
(Uotte)°

which expresses a relation existing between any seven consecutive terms
in a series whose logarithms form a series of the fifth or any lower order.

In all formulas under the second method, the weights of the several
terms, depending on the position of each one with reference to the mid-
dle term whose adjusted value is sought, may be called local weights, to
distinguish them from the intrinsic weight which any term may have
by virtue of the relative goodness of the observations taken to deter-
mine its value. We may regard the total weight of a term as com-
pounded of these two elements, so that if, for instance, the local weights
of five consecutive terms are taken as in formula (16), and if we wish
also to take the intrinsic weights ¢, ¢, ¢;, &e., of the terms into account,
the adjusted value of us will then be—

Pee A (Coy ak + OsUy) — (Cty + Css) te (24)

. 4 (Co C3 C4) — (C1 + 6s)
We know that this formula gives exact results when the series w, %, &e.,
is of the third or any lower order, and the intrinsic weights ¢, ©, &e.,
are all equal, and we may naturally expect that the results will be
approximately correct when the series u,, tt, &¢., approximates to regu-
larity, and the intrinsic weights of the terms do not differ very much
from one another; so that in such cases something will be gained,in
accuracy by taking the intrinsic weights into account.

By the use of formulas such as (16), (17), (19), or (20), we can grad-
uate approximately all the terms in a series except the first two and
last two. These also can be reached by means of the general formula
(2). Let us take six consecutive terms in three groups, so as to have—

1=3, No=2, N3=1, a,=3, a3=3, n=1
Then for the first term we have—

and the formula reduees to—

m=1(5 S:—5 S.-+ 4 Ss) )
- (25)
=F[5(Uyt Uo + Uy) —5 (Ug Us) + 4 UG | \
For the second term we have—
“= oy S=u,
and oe
U.=7,(14 S,+4 S.—d S3) ?
6 (26)

= 75[14(a+ e+ Us) + rail a Us) —5 Ug| j

294 METHODS OF INTERPOLATION.

These formulas give exact results when applied to any series of the
second order.

Let us now make man even number in formula (2), and assume as
before—

N3=N1, A3=(y,
S
and let y’ represent what ar becomes when we take—
n=0, r=0

then y’ is the middle ordinate of the middle area 8,, and we have this
formula :

A ea ms! Se af Sit 8s (27)
a in Gene i Ny a

When §,, 82, 8; denote stationary population living within three inter-
vals of age, the two lateral intervals being of , years each, and their
middle points being each distant a, years from the middle point of the
middle interval, which consists of m2 years, then y/ is an adjusted value
for the number of persons who annually attain the exact middle age of
the middle interval. The simplest case is where we havethe populations
U1, U2, Uz, U4, living within four consecutive years of age, and take the
two middle ones as the middle group, and each of the others as a lat-
eral group ; then—

o

and (27) reduces to—

i N,=2, a=3

\

= 7)5| 7 (e+ Us) — (ti +m) | \
For example, if a, %, Ws, Ww, denote stationary population living within
the ages 38 to 39, 39 to 40, 40 to 41, and 41 to 42, then y/ is the number
annually attaining the age 40. And even if the population is not
stationary, but increases or diminishes from natural causes or by migra-
tion, still, if a4, w, &e., denote the mean population living within the
ages named during a given number of years, then y/ will be the mean
number annually attaining the age 40, as before.

Adjustment formulas analogous to (13) and (27) can also be derived
from (8) by taking v=0 and n=1 or n=0. It can be shown that (13)
and (27) are particular cases under these, so that all the special adjust-
ment formulas derived from them will give exact results when ¢pplied
to series of the third order as well as the second.

ee , S: S& 8; Sis
If in formula (8) we take n;=2=0, then - a Sy =) ands wall ey
Ny Ng Dey Ny
resent ordinates to the curve, and may be denoted by y, Yo, Ys, and Ys
If we also take—
: — aie,
2—0, a,=3, @=1, n=1, Sw
then (8) reduces to—
w= IS(Y+Ys)—(YitYa)] -% + + (29)

Pa

METHODS OF INTERPOLATION. 295

Here ¥;, Ye, Y3, and y, are four equidistant ordinates to a curve of the
third or any lower order, and w’ is the area between the two middle ordi-
nates. Hence, when the mean numbers of persons annually attaining
ach of four consecutive ages are known, the mean population living
between the two middle ages can be computed by this formula. For
instance, ify, Ye, Ys, and y, denote the numbers annually attaining the
ages 39, 40, 41, and 42, then w is the population living between the ages
40 and 41.

Let us now make a practical application of the second method of
adjustment, in graduating the irregular rate of mortality given in column
(ad) of Table IL. This is a new experience table quite recently published
in England in an unadjusted form. It is probably correct in its essential
features, and suited for practical use, having been prepared by the Insti-
tute of Actuaries, from the experience of twenty British life insurance
companies, all of which had been in existence more than twenty years, so
that the average duration of the policies observed was about nine years.
The original publication not being at hand, the data have been taken
as they are given in the Massachusetts and New York State Insurance

teports of 1869. The probabilities of dying within a year at each
age, according to these data, and multiplied by 100, are as they stand
in column (d), for the ages 15 to 91 inclusive. The original series ex-
tends from the age 10 to 96, but a few of the earliest and latest terms
show such irregularities as to be evidently worthless for the purpose of
graduation. This is owing to the paucity of observations at those ages.
There were no deaths at all at the ages 11, 16, and 94, and no survivors
at the age 97. The eight terms from 10 to 17 are therefore rejected
here, and their places supplied by others taken from the English life-
table, No. 3, for males, reduced a little to correspond with the new rate.
The sum of the terms for the eight ages 18 to 25 is 5.1862 by the new
table, and is 6.6775 by the table No. 3. Accordingly, each of the first
eight terms in series (d) is taken from the table No. 3, but diminished
in the ratio of 66775 to 51862. The eight last terms, from 92 to 99,
have been obtained in a similar way, using the sums of the terms for
the eight ages next preceding, so as to increase the values given by
the table No. 3 in the ratio of 18456 to 18456. Series (d) thus com-
pleted, has been approximately adjusted by means of formula (20),
which reaches all the terms except the first four and last four. The
result is given in column (e). For instance, at the age 30 the adjusted
term is—
Us

gip[8-2341-+ 7.740004 .72927) +4 (.77808 4- 83635)
"4 (.65324-+ 83200) —2(.6 9197 + .87346) |
= to
At the ages 13 and 96 the adjustment has been made by formula (18),
at the ages 12 and 97 by (16), at 11 and 98 by (26), and at 10 and 99 by

(25). To diminish some irregularities still existing in series (¢), the adjust-
ment has been repeated, only this time formula (16) was used throughout.

296 METHODS OF INTERPOLATION.

The result is shown in column (f).* This is a roughly adjusted series,
approximating closely to the form of the original series (d); too closely,
however, for it retains at least one undulation which is abnormal, and
would doubtless not have appeared if the number of observations on
which the earlier portion of series (d) is based had been very greatly
increased. Itis an acknowledged principle that after the age of 12 or 13,
at which the probability of dying within a year is a minimum, the rate
of mortality ought to go on increasing continuously up to the limit of
old age. But in series (/) it increases up to the age 22, then diminishes
up to 25, then increases again continuously. To remedy this fault, and
also to perfect the graduation, some further process of adjustment will
be required.
TABLE II.

Age (d) (e) (Tf) Decade. (7) (h) Age
os ae bobs sake) SEs Wo ansa ot Ma 4-13 GAOSOL sate iin ae fae.
10... © 43626 © ABO44 43143 pia 5. 3587 -42670 | 10
11. " 392G9 "39460 39407 6-15 4, 8884 "40437 | 11
12. 37047 37034 37184 7-16 4. 6001 "39659 | 12
13... 36576 " 36580 "36420 8-17 4. 4594 "40030 | 13
ae "37692 37919 37120 9-18 4. 4365 "41283 | 14
15: "40177 "39639 "40160 10-19 4. 5052 "43190 | 15
16. ‘ 43719 "45493 44966 11-20 4. 6434 45559 | 16
17. " 48163 51192 "51820 12-91 4, 8323 | "48231 | 17
18... 60556 “58421 "57807 13-22 5, 0562 51074 | 18
162 70219 "62583 "62494 14-23 5. 3021 "53984 | 19
20.. "58236 "65223 " 66049 15-24 5, 5597 56879 | 20
21.. 70084 "68776 "67539 16-25 5, 8210 "59700 | 21
Qy_ "62151 67417 "68445 17-26 6, 0798 “62404 | 22
23. 77380 "67688 " 67164 18-27 6. 3318 "64966 | 23
24. "68369 ” 65849 " 65506 19-28 6.5743 67373 | 24
25. 51630 ” 63396 * 64249 90-29 6. 8058 69625 | 25
Geil "69197 “65258 "64742 21-30 70261 ‘71731 | 26
97_. " 65324 ‘67830 " 68305 99-31 7.2357 73708 | 27
28 - "77808 "72668 "72526 23-39 7.4361 75580 | 28
29. 74000 “76574 "76056 24-33 7. 6292 77374 | 29
30.. " 29341 “77770 "78223 25-34 7.8176 “79122 | 30
31. "72927 79659 "79489 96-35 8) 0042 "0858 | 3
39 ” 83635 81111 "81229 97-36 8 1921 "82618 | 32
33. " 83200 " 82694 " 92432 98-37 8. 3845 "94437 | 33
34. " 87346 " 83797 " 84023 99-38 8. 5848 "86351 | 34
35. " 22319 86430 " 86433 30-39 8 7964 98399 | 35
36. " 87678 | "00344 90477 31-40 9, 0298 "90613 | 36
37, "95530 "95256 95107 32-41 9, 2672 93023 | 37
33..| 1.03600 "99555 "99828 33-42 9. 5330 “95660 | 38
39__| 1.05880 10312 10240 34-43 9, 8234 “os582 | 39
Oe. "98504 1. 0310 1. 0345 35-44 10, 142 1.0180 | 40
41. 1.0440 1. 0387 1. 0404 36-45 10, 491 1.0529 | al
42. 1. 0798 1. 0626 1. 0587 37-46 10.874 1.0917 | 42
43. 1.0540 1. 0936 “11000 38-47 11, 295 1.1345 | 43
44. 1.1793 1. 1615 1. 1557 39-48 11.757 1. 1812 44
ae 1. 2447 1. 2210 1. 2207 40-49 12. 263 1.2396 | 45
46. 1.2474 1. 2848 1. 2887 41-50 12. 818 1.2888 | 46
47..| 1, 4079 1. 3689 1. 3650 42-51 13, 425 1.3505 | 47
49..| 4.4147 1. 4501 1. 4547 43-52 14, 090 1.4177 | 48
49..| 1.5997 1.5444 1.5439 44-53 14. 816 1.4907 | 49
50..| 1.6497 1. 6220 1. 6120 45-54 15. 611 1.5714 | 50

*In all the terms of series (d), (c), and (/), the fifth figure might as well have been

neglected. It has no real value, and does not assist the graduation.

METHODS OF INTERPOLATION. 297

TABLE IJ—Continued.

>
Ki

ge

CO

ww
'

DOUG or en en
OT he

—s
oo

1
2

er
LS
aon

7 9) 9) 87 7 97 8 7

SO MNOVUEWHWHS

|

(a) (e) Ga) Decade. (9) (h) Age.
17333 1. 6581 1. 6655 46-55 16. 481 1. 6593 51
1.7070 1.7281 1, 7251 47-56 17. 432 1.7549 52
1.7221 1, 8234 1, 8259 48-57 18. 473 1. 8599 53
1, 8996 1. 9857 1. 9764 49-58 19. 614 1, 9750 54
2, L966 2.1514 2, 1326 50-59 20, 864 2.1008 55
2, 3045 2.2701 2.2783 51-60 22,935 2, 2392 56
2.3903 2, 3998 2.3976 52-61 23.740 2, 3909 57
2.5133 2.5368 2.5308 53-62 25.391 2.5571 58

2, 5285 2, 6990 2.7195 54-63 27.205 2.7402 59
3. 1197 2, 9688 2.9541 55-64 29, 108 2. 9417 60

3, 2552 3, 2234 3, 2248 56-65 31. 388 3. 1630 61
3. 4551 3. 4873 3. 4953 57-66 33.793 3. 4064 62
3. 7474 S711 3.7525 58-87 36. 435 3. 6741 63

4, 0101 4, 0053 4, 0133 59-68 39, 33 3. 9679 64
4, 3602 4, 3065 4, 3256 60-69 42.514 4.2911 65
4, 6350 4.7110 4, 6986 61-70 5, 999 4. 6454 66
4, 8932 5. 0639 5, 0409 62-71 49, 812 5, 033 67
5, 5425 5, 3338 5, 3803 33-72 53, 980 5. 4584 68

6. 0968 5.7196 5, 629 64-73 58, 528 5, 9224 69
5. 6156 5, 9548 6. 0544 65-74 63, 482 6. 4286 70
6.2011 6. 6791 6, 6521 66-75 G8. 868 6. 9794 71
7.9269 7.5365 7.5263 67-76 74,711 7.5778 72

7, 8041 & 4413 &, 4927 68-77 81, 036 8, 2260 f|

10. 5370 9, A102 9, 3078 69-78 87. 865 8. 9269 7
9, 4621 9.9458 10, 000 70-79 95.221 | 9.6824 7
10. 624 10.575 10. 568 71-80 103. 12 10, 493 76
10, 869 11. 278 11. 269 72-81 111.58 11. 366 ae
12. 303 12.101 12. 101 73-82 120.62 | 12,298 78
13. 594 13, 185 13. 250 74-83 130, 23 13. 226 79
4. 080 14, 658 14, £99 75-84 140.42 | 14.336 80

15. 970 16.039 | 16,058 76-85 151. 19 15, 452 81
7.214 7.477 | 17.578 77-86 162, 53 16. 623 R2
20. 673 18. 968 18. 639 78-87 174. 40 7. 849 R83
18. 020 19, 487 19. 930 79-88 R6.79 19. 133 84
21. 627 21.294 21.070 80-89 199. 65 20, 465 85
21, 698 22,214 22, 020 81-90 212. 93 21. 845 86
21, 687 22,307 22.747 82-91 226.56 | 23,259 87
QR. 452 23.571 23. 056 3-92 240.45 | 24.703 | 88
19. 355 23. 608 23. 958 84-93 254.51 | 26.167 89
22, 667 25,172 2, 247 85-94 262, 61 27, 638 90

31. 034 27.515 27.206 86-95 222, 62 29, 100 91
29, 427 29,141 | 29.510 987-96 | 295,36 30, 539 92
30. 979 31.644 31. 336 88-97 309. 66 31. 935 93
32.53 32.927 | 32.921 R9-98 322, 28 33. 262 94
34, 251 33. 975 34, 182 90-99 333, 99 34.500 95
35, 805 35, 839 35. 687 91-100 344.50 35, 618 06
37.541 | 87.458 | 37.521 92-101 353, 50 36, 584 07
39, 133 39, 250 39, 155 93-102 360. 63 37, 363 98
41. 089 40, 962 A1, 226 94-103 365, 50 37.914 99
ee el. Sees 95-104 367. 66 39, 494 100
eee rls et 96-105 366.62 | 42.102 101
Sie ee BR ss lig.qle oo ioe. Dees Pee ee eee ed 70 102
Pas No te ae ee oe oe © OR De yas 50, 404 103
Pee ee ook oe. cs ee an aed cee bee 5G, 098 104
es ee ee eo 2 ee 62, 821 105
Pee ee eee ke Oi ee 70.573 106
1 Men, Ae Bop, SERS. ork « eee Ao, See eeu pre ee S| 79.853 107
ti Sh ees.” 89, 162 108
Sle ae es eho Rd, PRD eae 100, 000 109

298 METHODS OF INTERPOLATION.

The foregoing method affords a ready means of diminishing the irregu-
larities of a series without removing them altogether. It can be proved
that in a series of the mth order, if any m +1 or more consecutive terms
are adjusted by any single formula, such as (16) or (20), the adjusted
values will themselves form a series of the mth order. But, although the
order of the series remains unchanged, the absolute values of the differ-
ences are in general diminished, and thus an approximate graduation is
secured.

THIRD METHOD OF ADJUSTMENT.

The second method can be combined with ordinary interpolation in
such away as to furnish an adjusted series of any given order, extending
to any desired number of places of decimals. For example, let the terms
of series (f) in Table IL be grouped together by decades of age, as was
done in forming (¢) in Table I. The ninety terms form nine groups of
ten terms each. Their sums are—

S, = 4.50521 S,— 12.26340 S;= _ 95.22130
S. = 6.80581 S; = 20.86420 S, — 199.65500

S; = 8.79641 Se — 42.51440 Sy = 333.99100
These nine values form a series which has eight orders of differences,
as follows:
4,= 2.30060 4,—1.786389 4,—2.38714 4,== —16.70885
Ay = —.31000 4, 1.87103 4¢—3.44640 4g=—— 7.75719

Using the ordinsry formula for interpolation by finite differences, we
ean obtain nine equidistant values between every two terms of this
series, So as to make 81 terms in all, forming a perfectly graduated
series of the eighth order. The terms of this series are approximately
the sums of the terms in (/) for every possible decade of age, commencing
with 10 to 19, 11 to 20, 12 to 21, &e., and ending with 90 to 99. To con-
struct the series, nine consecutive terms were carefully computed, their
eight orders of differences were taken, and the rest of the series was
constructed therefrom by simpleadditions and subtractions. One great
advantage of this mode of procedure is, that the agreement of the
values thus found for the decades 10-19, 20-29, &c., with the given
values Sj, S., &c., furnishes a convenient test of ine accuracy of the
whole work. It is necessary, however, to carry out the values of the
function and the differences to a large number of places of decimals,
otherwise the error represented by the neglected figures will accumulate
so as finally to vitiate some of the results. In the present case, the
decimals were carried out as far as they would go; that is, to twenty
places.

The series is readily extended by the same law, so as to comprise all
the possible decades of age from 4-13 to 96-105. Thus completed, it is
given in column (g). Now let Sj), S:, 83, Sy, be any four consecutive
terms in it, and in formula (8 ) take—

My ==%=10, | =3, a=}, c=0,"*n=1, S=wv

-

METHODS OF INTERPOLATION. 299

then we have—
ui = J [21(8.4+8;)—17(S,48)] . . . (380)
This formula gives an adjusted value for any term in series (f) by
means of the sums of the terms in the four nearest decades as given in
series (yg). For instance, at the age 35 the value obtained is—
Jy [21 (8.7964. + 9.0228)—17 (8.5848-++9.2672)]
== ,00000

Column (hk) shows the graduated series, carried to as many places of
decimals as are needed in order to give five significant figures. It is of
the eighth order, and the arithmetical means of the terms in the nine
decades 10-19, 20-29, &¢., are approximately equal to those in series (f),
though not precisely so. This method of adjustment, however, has one
advantage, namely, that it enables us to divide a given series into a
large number of groups, and make the graduated series of as high an
order as we please, without previously obtaining formulas like (I) and
(F), which require some labor when the number of groups is increased.
If the number of terms in a group is other than ten, it will be easy to
find a corresponding formula similar to (30). When it is an odd nam-
ber the formula will be derived from (13) instead of from (8). For ex-
ample, with eleven terms in a group we have—

au!

|

Niji") —— | F. qs)
and (13) becomes—

uw’ =S.— 75, (SitSs) 2... . (81)
giving the adjusted value of a term by means of the sums of the terms
in the three nearest groups of eleven terms each.

Series (h) shows a@ minimum at the age 12, and increases continu-
ously thereatter. It terminates at the age 99, and must not be ex-
tended farther by the same law, for since (g) isa series of an even order
with the final difference, 43, negative, it will, if produced far enough,
diminish at both ends instead of increasing as the rate of mortality
does. The limit of old age is evidently not reached until one year after
the point where the probability of dying within a year becomes unity,
that is, certainty. The position of the limit is very doubtful. The old
Combined Experience table places it at 100, the Carlisle table at 105,
the English Life Table No. 5 at 108, the French table of Deparcieux at
95, the tables of Duvillard and De Montferrand at 110, and the United
States census table of 1860 at 106. Owing to the paucity of reliable
observations at the greatest ages, the termination of series (1), or that
of any other graduated table, must necessarily be somewhat artificial.
This is not of much consequence in practice, for the chance of attaining
any age beyond 100 is so small as to make but little difference in the
value of an assurance or annuity fora person in middle life. If we
assume 110 as the limit in the present case, then from the three known
values of the probability for the ages 98, 99, and 109, the values for the

300 METHODS OF INTERPOLATION.

ages 100 to 108 can be computed by ordinary interpolation. Formula
(2) may be used for this purpose. If we take—

Ri y=, == al, S=4 Si=uy, S=w, S,;=—4a,
that formula reduces to—

P = a3x7(x—a3)

Q = ayx(x+a)) /
R= a)a3(a,+ 43) A (32)
“= Rue —P—Q)H+PH4+Q U5} \

Tf wy, %, U3, denote any three terms in a series, and the origin of coér-
dinates is at w%, and a and a; denote the positive distances of uw, and
u; from w%, the above formula enables us to interpolate any fourth term,
u, Whose abscissa is x If we now take—

Gi), a3=10, U,=37.363, U2=371.914, u3=100

oe

formula (32) becomes—
u=37,.914+4 1.0653 x+.51433 2
When the values 1, 2,5, &c., areassigned to vin this equation, the result-
ing values of w will be the desired terms for the ages 100, 101, 102, &e.,
as they stand in column (hk). The continuity of this added portion with
the rest of the series may be improved a little by adjusting, with form-
ula (20), a few of the terms adjacent to the point of junction. The ad-
Justed values are as follows:
Age.
DOM ee hee AN OLIaD
Doe feohle Vera eel et SOUS
DOU fay eae seu oO
OO Mad AMY ten MOSEL:
OO eM iat che, WoO
NODA sate pe k! TAS ASE

Series (i), thus amended, is ready for practical use in the construction
of commutation tables.

It is not claimed that this series is the best one which ean possibly be
obtained by similar methods. The preliminary adjustment by the second
method admits of some variation, and repeated trials would be required
to determine whether the form of the final series might not be varied
with advantage by making it of some other order than the eighth, or by
taking the groups between some other limits than 10 and 99, or by both
these modifications together. But it is believed that the graduation
here obtained is accurate enough for practical purposes, and will com-
pare favorably with that of any table now in use. .

We do not know, and perhaps never can know, anything definite re-
specting the precise analytical form of that function which we eall the
law of mortality. Various formulas, mostly transcendental, have been
devised to express it, but no one of them has yet received universal
recognition as correct to the exclusion of all otliers. While this state

METHODS OF INTERPOLATION. 301

of the case continues, the problem of constructing a table of mortality
must be regarded as, to some extent, an indeterminate one. Not only
is absolute accuracy unattainable, but we cannot even decide, by the
method of least squares, that a certain result is the most probable of
any; for the true form of the function being unknown, any particular
residual error, or difference between the observed and computed values
of a term, will in general be the aggregate of two errors, one of them
due to the difference of form between the assumed function and the true
one, and the other due to the error of observation or difference between
the observed value and the true value. The latter portion only can be
of the nature of accidental errors, so as to be subject to that law of dis-
tribution which the method of least squares assumes, and which is
derived from the theory of probabilities. Hence, we cannot infer that
because we have made the sum of the squares of the residuals a mini-
mun, the resulting values of the constants which enter into the assumed
equation of the series must be the most probable values. To justify
such an inference, it would be necessary to make the sum of the squares
of the accidental portions of the residuals alone a minimum; but we
have no means of effecting this, for we cannot separate the accidental
portions from the others. When the method of least squares is applied
under circumstances like these, it loses its peculiar claiins to theo-
retical accuracy, and becomes merely a method of interpolation, whose
merits are to be judged, like those of other methods, by the amount of
labor required in obtaining the final results, and by the degree of ac-
curacy with which these results represent the observations. We may
presume that the best method of reduction for tables of mortality is
that which will give, in the simplest manner, a graduated series conform-
ing to those conditions which are known to govern such tables, and
representing the observations with the necessary degree of accuracy.
In behalf of the method here proposed, it may be said that the process
of computation is comparatively simple; that the observations are
represented with great accuracy throughout all the middle ages of life,
which is just the portion where accuracy is most important in practice;
and that a transcendental formula, if it contains not more than three
or four constants, will be very likely to prove inferior in this respect.

From all the foregoing considerations we conclude that a very good
way to graduate an experience rate of mortality for insured lives will
be, to form a series like (d), expressing the probability of dying within
a year, at each age, and to adjust it approximately, in the first place, by
some formula or formulas under the second method, and then, dividing
the adjusted terms into the proper number of groups, to complete the
graduation by either the first or the third method. Treated in this way,
the arithmetical means of the terms in the several groups will be brought
nearer to their normal value than they would be if the approximate or
preparatory adjustment were omitted.

In constructing a rate for general population from census returns and

302 METHODS OF INTERPOLATION.

registration of deaths, it will probably be best to adjust the population
for each year of age at each census approximately by the second method;
that is, by (20) or some similar formula. The returns of two or more
census enumerations. thus adjusted will enable us to compute approxi-
mately, by known methods, the mean population living within each year
of age during the period embraced by the registry of deaths; and from
this series the mean number of persons who annually attained each year
of age during that period can be found by (28) or some similar formula.
The mean number of deaths annually occurring within each year of age
must also be adjusted approximately by the second method, and then we
shall only have to divide these annual deaths for each year of age by the
mean number of persons annually attaining suchage, toobtain an approx-
imately adjusted series expressing the probability of dying within a year
at each age. The graduation of this series can be completed by either
the first or the third method, and from it we can construct the usual
series of the numbers who live to attain each year of age out of a given
number of persons who are born.

It should be remarked, however, that in infaney and early childhood
the rate of mortality varies so rapidly that the years ought not to be
grouped together as in the first and third methods. But these years are
unimportant so far as life insurance and annuities are concerned, and
for practical purposes it will suffice to have a completely graduated
series from the age of ten or fifteen up to the limit of old age, and to
adjust the series at the earliest ages by the second method ouly, or not
at all. The latter alternative is perhaps the best, since the ages of
young children can be ascertained with greater certainty than those of
adults.

The aceuracy of a series obtained by the first or the third method will
be greatest at and near the middle, and least at the extremities. If it
should be found that the graduated values at either end of a table of
mortality thus constructed are sensibly erroneous, they can be rejected,
and their places supplied by the original values, and the adjustment
of these, and their continuity with the graduated portion, can be
approximately secured by the use of some formula under the second
method.

METHOD OF CONSTRUCTING A TABLE OF MORTALITY WITHOUT ANY
REGISTRATION OF DEATHS.

It has been proposed to determine the law of mortality for general
population throughout a whole country by means of two successive cen-
sus enumerations, taken, for instance, at intervals of ten years, as is now
the case in the United States and in Great Britain, together with a reg-
istry of the immigration and emigration which occurs during the inter-
vening ten-year period. If at the first census a certain population, P,,,
is returned as aged m and under m+1 years, then at the second census
the survivors among them will be returned assaged m+10 and under

METHODS OF INTERPOLATION. 303

m+11 years, and the difference P,, — P,, + 10 between these two enumer-
ations will be the number of deaths which have occurred out of the pop-
ulation P,, within the ten-year period, if there has been no immigration
or emigration, orif the immigration and emigration have been equal, so
as to balance each other. Mf we regard P,, and P,, 4 1 a8 representing
the numbers annually attaining the exact ages m+4 and m+104, then
the fraction Pm +10 will denote the probability that a person aged

m

m-+4 will live ten years.

In the United States, however, the number of immigrants contin-
ually entering the country is so large as to become very important in
this connection. Emigration from the country is comparatively small ;
but assuming, for the sake of generality, that there has been a registry
kept of the ages of both immigrants and emigrants, let us denote by I
the number of persons who have entered the country during the ten-
year period, and who are of such age as to have been m and under m+1
years old at the time of the first census, and let 2 denote the number
of persons of similar age who have left the country during the same
period. Also let D be the number of deaths which have occurred in the
country out of the excess I—E of immigrants over emigrants, and let
P+ 19 denote the population returned as aged m4+-10 and under m+11
at the second census. Then the portion of I—E surviving at the second
census is I—E—D, and the difference P,, + 1.— (l1— E— D) is equal to
that portion of the initial population P,, which survives at the time of
the second census. The probability that a person aged m+4 will live
ten years is therefore expressed by—

Pr +0—(I—E—D)
led

All the quantities involved in this fraction are known excepting the
deaths D; and as this is a small number compared with the others, the
result will not be seriously affected if we compute the value of D, or,
what amounts to the same thing, compute the survivors (I—K—D),
by means of any good table of general mortality, considering separately
the excess of immigrants of the suppssed age who have entered the
country in each one of the ten years. (See the Assurance Magazine for
April, 1867, page 289.)

We can thus obtain the probability of living ten years for the middle
of every year of age throughout the whole term of life. If the statistics
of population and migration are given in the first place by decades or
other intervals of age, the numbers can be distributed among the single
years by means of (3) or some similar formula derivable from (2), (8), or
(C). On the other hand, if the statistics are given for single years, the
irregularities of the series can be diminished by using some formula
under the second method of adjustment. We may assume, then, that
the probability of living ten years has been ascertained for the middle
of each single year of age, and that these probabilities form an approxi-

304 METHODS OF INTERPOLATION.

mately adjusted series. The problem which remains to be solved is, to
find the probability of living one year at each age when the above-men-
tioned probabilities of living ten years are given.

It is an interesting point in relation to the whole subject of graduation
of numerical series, that, instead of graduading a given series directly,
we can take a constant function of each term in it, thus forming a new
series, and, having graduated this, we can inversely derive from each of
its terms a graduated value for the corresponding term in the original
series. One consequence of this principle is, that if we take the loga-
rithm of each term in the given series, and divide the series of logarithms
thus formed into groups and graduate it by the first method, and then
take the numbers corresponding to the graduated ipocaaties we shall
have a graduated series representing the given one, and possessing this
property, that the products of the terms in the assumed groups in it will
be severally equal to the products of the terms in the corresponding
groups in the given series. This is evidently the case, because the sums
of the logarithms of the terms in the assumed groups are equal in the two
series. Furthermore, since the equation of the graduated series of loga-
rithms enables us to interpolate the sum of the logarithms of the terms
in any group when the sums of the logarithms of the terms in the assumed
groups are given, it follows that when the products of the terms, in any
assumed groups in a numerical series, are known, we ean find, by interpo-
lation, the product of the terms in any other group, or any single term.

Now let Pu+ x3 Pim +1%9 Pm +249 &., denote the probabilities of living one
year at the exact ages m+4, m+14, m+24, &c. The chance of living
through any one year of age is contingent upon having lived through the
years which precede it,so that the probability that a person aged m+4
will live two years is equal to the product py +1, ~Pm+1,, and the proba-
bility that he will live ten years is equal to the continued product—

Pm +3 X Pm +13 X Pm + 23 x hd <0. Fae eras oe comune X Pm + 9%

It appears, then, that the probabilities of living one year at each age
form a series such that the product of any n terms taken in a group
is equal to the probability of living m years at the age corresponding to
the first term in the group; and hence, according to the principles which
have been stated, we can find, by interpolation, the probabilities of liy-
ing one year when the probabilities of living ten years are known.

Any twelve consecutive terms in a series will form three groups of ten
terms each, and formula (2) will enable us to find any single term by
means of the sums of the terms in the three groups. If we take—

Nj —No—n3—10, a—=—4;=1, i. SsS=u
then (2) reduces to—
u=-,[T48 3, —33(S +8; \+4(S; Sije+4(S its S2).v?] ee (33)

Let S;, Ss, and S; represent the logarithms of the Wbconies of living
ten years at the ages m+4, m+1a, and m+24, respectively ; then if we

METHODS OF INTERPOLATION. 305

assign to x the values —$, +4, +3, &¢., in succession, the resulting
values of w will be the logarithms of the probabilities of living one year
at the ages m+54, m+64, m+74, &e. Tf we take x=0, the value of
wu will be the logarithm of the probability of living one year at the age
m-+6, and we shall have the simple formula—
log Pm +6 gy /4 So —33(S;+8s)] sj as (34)
To illustrate the use of this by an example, and to test its accuracy at
the same time, let us suppose that there is no migration, and assume
that, in accordance with the English Life Table, No. 3, for males, the
population living at the first census, between the ages of 54 and 55, 55
and 56, 56 and 57, respectively is—
P54 212061, P;;== 206984, Ps 201772

and that the survivors at the second census are—
Pe= 154139, Pes = 147319, Peg = 140299

The logarithms of the probabilities of living ten years at the three ages
544, 554, and 564 are therefore—

Si: —log Pg: —log P;,= 1.8614518

S.—=log Ps; —log P55 = 1.8523219

S;—=log Pes —log Psg = 1.8421937
and since m=54, we find that the logarithm of the probability of living
one year at the age m+6=60 is—

log Poo=ay[74 S2—33(S,-+ 8s)]=1.9856440

This value differs but very little from the one which is actually given
by the English table, namely—

log poo=log Ig, —log Igo=log 176421 —log 182350=1.9856445

The method followed in the above example will be found sufficient for
the determination of the probability of living one year after every birth-
day, except the first nine or ten of childhood and the last seven of old
age. With the help of formula (33) we can find the probabilities for all the
ages of childhood, except the first three or four, by assigning to a the nega-
tive values —1, —2, —3, &c., which will give values for log pm 45,
log Pm +4, lO Pm43, Ke. So, too, for the last years of life, we can find
10g Pm+ % 1OE Pm + 8) 10 Pm+ 9, &e., by assigning to # the positive values 1, 2,
3, &e. This will complete the series of values of log p from early child-.
hood to extreme old age. Asit will be already approximately adjusted,
nothing more will remain but to divide it into groups of an equal num-
ber of terms each, and to make the final graduation by either the first
or the third method. There will be a convenience in graduating the
logarithms instead of the corresponding numbers, because log p, and
not p itself, is what we require for computing in the most expeditious
manner the numbers living to attain each year of age out of a given.

2U 8 71

306 METHODS OF INTERPOLATION.

number of persons who are born. It is quite possible, too, that the
form of the series may be improved by this mode of procedure.

The foregoing method of reduction will evidently apply to cases where
the interval between the two census enumerations is any whole number of
years other than ten, or even a fractional number. Suppose it to be ten
and one-half years for instance, and take—

M=N=N3 =), 4 =0,=1, til, S=u
then formula (2) reduces to—

S= 7os[970 S.—437(S;4+8,)+48(S;—S))7+48(8,4+8;—2 S,)a?] . .. (35)
Let §,, S:, and 8S; be the logarithms of the probabilities of living ten and
one-half years at the ages m+4, m+14, and m+24 respectively ; then
if we assign to x the values —4, —4, + 3, &c., in succession, the result-
ing values of w will be the logarithms of the probabilities of living one
year at the ages m+5, m+6, m+7, &c. When x=—4, the formula
becomes—

log Pn+6=3$7(482 S.—211 8;—2238;) . . (36)
from which values of log p can easily be found for all but the extreme
ages of life.

If the interval is either exactly or approximately an odd number of
years, there will be a slight advantage in deriving the formula of reduc-
tion from (8) rather than from (2). Suppose, for instance, that the second
census is taken five years after the firstone. In the series of logarithms
of the probabilities of living one year at each age, any eight consecu-
tive terms will form four groups of five terms each, and formula (8) will
enable us to find any single term by means of the sums of the terms in
these groups. If we take—

Ny =N_=5, a,=3, ay=3, vie S=u
then (8) reduces to—
u=J, [17 (S+8;)—9 (Si+8,)] + 7,

Jap (405(Ss—S2)—103(S.—S)) ]

2 3 )
+59 ((Si1 +8) —(S:+8s)] +75 l(Si 81) —3 (8-83) ]

Let S,, S., 83, S,, denote the logarithms of the probabilities of living
five years at the ages m+4, m+14, m4+25, m+434, respectively ; then if
x takes the values —1, 0, +1, &c., in succession, the resulting values of
u will be the logarithms of the probabilities of living one year at the
ages m+3, m+4, m+5, &c. For e=0 we have the simple formula—

log Pm+4=eol[17(So+ S3)—9(Si:+8,)] ee (38)

which affords a ready means of determining log p for all the birthdays
except the extreme ones of childhood and old age.

Oo

METHODS OF INTERPOLATION. 307

The general plan for graduating irregular series of numbers, whose
application to the construction of tables of mortality has now been in-
dicated, will undoubtedly be found useful in other directions. Every
physieal law is a mathematical relation between one or more variables
and a function. To ascertain the form of this relation, or the law of
the natural phenomenon, we must obtain, by observation or experiment,
a number of values of the function corresponding to known values of
the variable, and then endeavor to find some analytical formula which
will connect and express them all. For a statement of the nature of
this general problem, and of the graphical and tentative methods which
have been employed for its solution, see the discussion of experiments
for ascertaining the law of variation of the density of water at different
temperatures, given by M. Jamin in the Cours de Physique de lV Ecole
Polytechnique, Vol. I, pages 39 to 50. The number of observed values
of the function is ordinarily much greater than the number of constants
in the desired formula. If there is but one independent variable, and
the observed values of the function are plotted as ordinates to a curve,
the corresponding values of the variable being the abscissas, this curve
will be a more or less irregular or wavy line, because the ordinates which
fix successive points in it are subject to the errors of observation. In

ran exact equation of this line, the number of constants would, in gen-
eral, be as large as the number of observations taken. The problem
presented is, to simplify the equation by reducing the number of con-
stants, while preserving a form of curve which shall approximate to the
original one as closely as possible. Our first method of graduation
secures such approximation by taking the ordinates of the original curve
in groups, and making the arithmetical means of the ordinates in the
corresponding groups in the new curve severally equal to those in the
original one. ‘The equation of the new curve can only contain as many
constants as there have been groups assumed. This plan has obvious
advantages over the one usually followed, which is, to select or compute
as many normal ordinates to the original curve as there are to be con-
stants in the equation of the new one, and then subject the new curve to
the condition of passing through the extremities of these ordinates, thus
making the accuracy of the new curve depend on that of the observa-
tions, as represented by the selected ordinates, instead of depending
alike on all the observations in each group.

When it is not convenient to have the observed values of the function
correspond to equidistant values of the variable in the first place, they
ean be reduced to equidistant ones either graphically, or by ordinary
interpolation with Lagrange’s formula, or with (32), which is merely one
form of a special case under it. The irregularities of the series may
then be diminished by the second method of adjustment, and, finally,
the first method will give an equation which will express the law of the

308 METHODS OF INTERPOLATION.

-phenomenon so far as that law can be expressed by an algebraic and
entire function.*

In practice, when this method is to be applied to the graduation of
a particular series, it will not be essential to have the assumed groups
contain an equal number of terms each, nor to make the groups consecu-
tive. Their positions, and the number of terms they contain, may be
entirely arbitrary. The integral—

Sa [TP (A+ Bart Cae+ ope tubes! (gery sn seh arate eee ce

expresses the sum S of the terms in any group in a series of the mth
order by means of the m+1 constants A, B, C, &e., the number n of
terms which the group contains, and the abscissa x# of the middle point
of the group, each term in the series being regarded as an area occupy-
ing, on the axis of X, a space equal to unity. In the case of any one of
+he assumed groups, we know the sum 8 of the terms in it, and their
number n, and the abscissa # of their middle point, so that we have an
equation of condition which, besides the m+1 constants A, B, C, &e.,
contains only numerical quantities. Each group assumed furnishes one
such equation. By assuming m-+1 groups we shall have as many equa-
tions as there are constants A, B, C, &e., to be determined, and hence
it will always be possible to find the numerical values of the constants.
Substituting their values in the general expression for S, arranging the
terms according to the powers of a, and puttingn=1 and S=w, we shall
have an equation of the form—
Wa Al Bip Cars| yur le fy oe ee

which will be the equation of the graduated series, and from which that
series may be constructed. It will have its mth differences constant
and the arithmetical means of the terms in the corresponding groups
in it will be severally equal to those of the terms in the m+1 groups
assumed in the original series.

But although the positions of the groups and the numbers of terms
which they may contain are thus unlimited in theory, it will probably
be best in most cases to make them consecutive and consisting each of
the same number of terms. When the law of a series varies very rap-
idly in some places, and slowly in others, it may indeed be necessary to
assume, at those portions of the series where the variation is most rapid,
a larger number of groups, consisting of fewer terms each, than will be
required in the portions where the variation is slow. But with a fixed
number of groups, the process of finding the values of the constants A,
B, C, &e., will be simplified if the groups are assumed so as to be sym-
metrically situated on either side of the origin of codrdinates; that is,
situated in such manner that for every group of terms whose abscissa

*The constant difference of the abscissas or arguments is here assumed to be unity.
But if we wish to regard it as any other quantity h, we shall merely have to substitute,

1G
in the final equation, ; in the place of x. .
1 h }

METHODS OF INTERPOLATION. 309

is +’ there shall be a group of an equal number of terms whose
abscissa is —w’, and vice versa.

Cases will often occur where the whole number of terms in a series is
not an exact multiple of the number of groups we wish to assume, and
therefore will not form the desired number of consecutive groups con-
taining each an equal and entire number of terms. But itis not neces-
sary that the number of terms in a group should be a whole number.
If we suppose it to have a fractional part, then certain terms in the
given series must be divided each into two portions, and each portion
must be joined to its proper group. Every such term being geometric-
ally represented by an area whose base is unity, and the two parts into
which this unit is divided being known, the problem is, to divide the
area into its two corresponding parts. We can often do this accurately
enough for practical purposes by assuming that the two portions of the
area are proportional to the two portions of the base; but amuch closer
approximation will be made by taking the term in question and the pe
others nearest to it as data for an interpolation by formula(A). Let
S., Ss, be the three terms, and let » denote the first one of the two anne
into which the base of S, is divided; then if we take—

te x=—3(1—n)
formula (A) reduces to—
S=7(2 S:t58S 32 —S3 s+ 3 —S,)r+(Si+8;—2 S.)n?] ° é . (3 ye

where S is that portion of the area S, which corresponds to the first
fractional part of the base. The other portion is of course S.—S. For
example, if we wish to divide the ninety terms of series (/) into seven
consecutive groups of an equal number of terms each, the number of
terms in a group will be 9®=12S, The sum of the terms in the first
group will be composed of the twelve terms for the ages 10 to 21 inelu-
sive, together with so much of the term for the age 22 as corresponds
to the fractional interval x=. The three terms for the ages 21, 22, and
23 are—

Si= . 67539, S.= . 68445, S3;= . 67164
and formula (39) gives “for that part of Ss which belongs to the first
group the value S=.58695, and the sum of the terms in the first group
is therefore 6.42804. The portion 8.—S=.09750 belongs to the second
group. After the sums of the terms in all the other groups have been
formed in the same way, the equation of a graduated series of the sixth
order can be obtained by means of formula (I), just as when n, is a
whole number. The ACCUTACY of this last part of the work can be ‘tested
by the condition that the sum of all the terms in the graduated series
must be precisely equal to the sum of all the terms in the original
series (/).

* This formula can also be written—

SB (Si 48.48 ats" a, )

where A; and A; are the finite differences of the series 8), 82, §3

310 METHODS OF INTERPOLATION.

We have remarked that when a series is graduated by means of
formulas such as (A), (B), (C), &c., the accuracy attained is greatest at
the middle of the series and least atits extremities. The question then
arises, whether the errors cannot be more equally distributed through-
out the whole series by making the number of terms in a group smaller
at the extremities and increasing up to the middle, instead of having
the number the same for all the groups. When any particular law of
increase is adopted, there will be no difficulty in finding corresponding
formulas similar to (A), (B), &c., by which to compute the values of the
constants. For the results of some recent investigations by Tchebitcheff
with regard to the best arrangement of the data in making ordinary
interpolations, not from groups, but from single terms or ordinates, see
the Traité de Calcul Différentiel of J. Bertrand, pages 512 to 521. These
naturally lead to the supposition that when the method of groups is
used, the best representation of a given series by another of algebraic
form will be obtained by regarding the whole interval which the series
occupies on the axis of X as being divided, not into equal portions, but
into portions which are the projections upon it of equal divisions of a
semicircle drawn upon that interval as a diameter, the number of these
divisions being made equal to the number of groups assumed. Of
course the number of terms in each group will in general be fractional.
Fora series of the second order, the numbers of terms in the three
assumed groups will be—

=N3=5N( 1—cos; )=4iN
vo

where N denotes the whole number of terms in the series, so that $N is
the radius of the semicircle. In equation (1),

S=n{A+ Br+C(2’+4 jn’) |
we substitute for n its three values 2,, 22, and 3 in succession, and for x
the three corresponding values—

x=—3N, == (0; c= IN

thus obtaining the three equations of condition—

S:=1tN(A—3BN+4CN’)

S2=2 N(A+ 7, CN")

S)>=1N(A+2BN+2, CN’)
These determine A, B, and C; and arranging the original equation
according to the powers of x2, we have the formula—

pes ad a
A=3yl! S2—(Si+S8s)]
16
B= S;—S
=3y2(Ss—) (40)
16

C= wall 1+83)—Sy]

S=n(A+ 4, Cv+B r+ a

METHODS OF INTERPOLATION. 311
In the same way we can find the values of four, five, &c., constants in

the general formula (12). For a series of the third order, the numbers
of terms in the four groups are—

m=n=}N( 100s} )=32— V2)N

M=N3=1N cos qui V2
and the distances from the origin to the middle points of the groups are
m=1(2+ V2)N, @=1N VO

When these values are substituted in formula (8), the constants reduce to—

“(2 V2—1)(S2+8s)—(Si+8,)]

N
4 ;
B=5/8(8:—S2)—(S,—8))]
(41)
C= I(Si+8))—( V2—-1)(S-+59)]

= il (8u—Si) —(8s—8)

For a series of the fourth order the numbers of terms in the five groups
are—

1 —=N5=2 Ne — cos 5 = 0954915 N

ye

and proceeding as in the case of formula (40), we find that the constants
are—

bo
al

o|

N= INC cos 5 = —COS

>

7

=.3090170 N

A=5[3.777709 S)-+1(Si+8s)—4111456(8,48)]
ih 2 eN

— = jl 13.088544(8, —S8,)—4°(8;—8))]

C= 5 5[55.33 370(S2+8,)—71.73251 S;— 144(S;+85)]) (42)
1 P > a

D=y,[* 42.(8;—S 1) —63.28668(S,—8,.) |

256

B= [Ss+-(81-+8s)—(S2+8))]

We might go on in the same way to find formulas for constructing series
of still higher orders. It will be noticed that in all these cases, in the
expression for the final constant, the sums 8), S:, &¢., have the same
coefficient when taken without regard to sign, so that all the terms in a
given series will be of equal weight in determining the coefficient of the
highest power of a.

312 METHODS OF INTERPOLATION.

' Nevertheless, such trials as have been made with this system of group-
ing have not resulted favorably for its use in constructing mortality
tables. The series seems to be rather distorted by it. This is shown
when we construct by formula (42) a series of the fourth order to repre-
sent the given series (f). Here we have N=90, and consequently—

Ny =N5=8.594235, N=M4=224, 23=27.81153

so that the sums of the terms in the five groups, as found by the aid of
formula (39), are—

S:= 3.63932 S;= 68.3619
== 17.60021 S4=337.0553
S;=297.960
the five constants are found to be—
A=1.919514 =.008277894
B= .1673728 D=.0001512150

E=.0000006635611
and the equation of the graduated series stands—
u=1.920204-+ .1674106 7+ .008278226 xv + 0001512150 a
+ 0000006635611 at

If the values —4, +4, +3, &c., are assigned to x, the resulting values
of w are the terms in the eraduated series for the ages 54, 55, 56, &e. The
sum of all the terms in the series is equal to the sum of all the terms in
(7), as it should be. But it does not afford a good representation of (/),
especially in the first half. It begins at the age 10 with the value
14024, goes on increasing up to the age 27, where it has a maximum
of .81152, then diminishes up to the age 36, where it has a mini-
mum of .77662, then increases to the close, having the value 41.690 at
the age 99.

On the other hand, if we construct by formula (C) the equation of a
similar series from hee consecutive groups of eighteen terms each, the
sums of the terms in the groups are—

Si= 9.82520 S3;= 39.94320
S,=16.89333 S,=154.96600

§;=502.98900
the five constants are—

A=2,023103 C=.007188222
B= .1433032 D=.0001722763

E=.000001434104
and the equation of the graduated series is—
U=2.023702+ 1433463 x + .007188939 2+ 0001722763 x
+ .000001434104 x4
This represents (7) with a considerable approach to accuracy, commenc-
ing at the age 10 with the value .32319, increasing continuously there-
after, and terminating at the age 99 with the value 43.443. This exam-

METHODS OF INTERPOLATION. 313

ple seems to indicate that so far as has yet been ascertained, the most
advantageous mode of grouping is to make the groups consecutive and
composed of an equal number of terms each; a system which has,
besides, the merit of greater simplicity.*
The algebraic and entire function—
y=A+Br+C 2?+ &e.
is of course not the only one which it is possible to employ for the purpose
of graduating a given irregular series. If we take any other continuous
function—
10.0) 6 0 ret Frame! be)

then, as before, the io

a "WA, TSO) et ate ta aims pt

x—tn
will express the sum S of the terms in any group in the graduated series
by means of the number » of terms which that group contains, the
abscissa w of its middle point, and the constants A,B,C, . . . TT.
By assuming in the given series as many groups as there are constants,
and giving toS,n, and & their numerical values taken from these several
groups, we shall have as many equations of condition as there are con-
stants to be determined; and if we can perform the operations necessary
for finding the numerical values of the constants from these equations,
then the equation of the graduated series can be easily formed, and the
series itself can be constructed therefrom. This series will not have any
one of its orders of differences constant, but it will be a graduated
Series nevertheless, and the arithmetical means of the terms in the cor-
responding groups in it will be severally equal to those in the original
series. It will, no doubt, sometimes be possible to find in this way a
transcendental equation which will express a given series more advan-
tageously than an algebraic equation could do.
We may here notice a peculiarity of the circular function—

y=A+B5 sin Cy ")+Ceos (E =x" +p sin? (GR ")
3 a i.
+E cos2 (FQ )+ reins x" +6 e0s3 (EF = x" + &e.

in which N denotes the number of terms in the circular period, or the
length of the period measured on the axis of X, so that if the values a’,
“+N, v/+2N, &e., are successively assigned to a, the value of y will
remain unchanged. The arithmetical mean of any » terms taken in a
group, aud also the mean value of the ordinate within any interval n,

will be—
e497
Maa=> [ en" yde

| —in

*This may be a too hasty conclusion. Other trials have since shown that (40), (41),
and (42) do sometimes, and perhaps generally, give the best results.

314 METHODS OF INTERPOLATION.

is Da
TL sin( = us +)+e eos( 5 eae >)
N, 7 D—m D-:
— sin 22" we [D sin2 =X" )4Beos2 & x)
Ui oe Ina
+e sin Bee [® sin 3(7R : ")+6 cos 3 CR “x )| +&e.

The expressions for S and M are thus identical in form with the expres-
sion for y, the constants B and ©, D and EB, F and G, &e., being merely
multiplied, in the expression for M, by the known factors—

: an gi yon a 3TzN
Cay) Gam Gam &e

This property has already been discovered, and utilized in forming the
equations of curves representing annual variations of temperature, the
observed monthly means being taken as data.* (See the Edinburgh New
Philosophical Journal for July, 1861, and the American Journal of Sci-
ences and Arts for January and September, 1863.)} The quantity M is
there regarded as the mean value of the infinite number of ordinates, or
“instantaneous temperatures,” which fall within the interval , and not
as the arithmetical mean of a finite number n of terms taken in a group.

In general, to obtain an expression for the sum S of the terms in a
group, itis not necessary that any integration should be performed.
Since the form of the function ¢ is arbitrary, it follows that the form of

and consequently—

Me Aes

f ydv is arbitrary also, and may be assumed at pleasure. Denoting by

J(v) any continuous function of one variable, let us substitute in the
place of the variable first +4 and then «—4, and let the difference
between the two results be—

u=fet+s)—flw—3) . . . (43)
Let values in arithmetical progression, whose constant difference is
unity, be successively assigned to # in the above expression. In the
series formed by the resulting values of wu let any group of » terms be

* For the purposes

janice Vip reece G = B. va)
y=! +x ’ 3; SIN oe “ec 1 we yt 2 sin 2

ra
+ C2 cos 2 Ge ae ( ed s Bs sin st oe cos (= y + &e.

Then, after integrating, we shall . ie—

g— {z 27x C
S An + Ss B : 41 COS
in ) sin N +C,
9 : By ; 2x C S Q7rax
+ sin : " sin 2 ( N + Cz cos 2 Ta
+ sin 3 = : Bs sin 3 eee + C3 cos 3 )
N

For other formulas, see Appendix IV. .
t These articles are by J. D. Everett.

JU

METHODS OF INTERPOLATION. OL

considered, and let a be the value of x corresponding to the first term ;
then the sum of the terms in the group is—

S=fa+3) Sa) + Ma 9) Met Dt Ma+ Met
+....2... $f(atn—$)—f(a4+n—3)

which cancels at once to—
S=/(a+n—3)—f(a—3)
Now, if x’ be the value of 2 corresponding to the middie of the group,
we have—
x’=a+4(n—1)
and consequently —
a=wv'—sn+4
so that the expression for S reduces to—
S=f(a'+4n)—f(x'—4n) . . . (44)

We can conceive that, by varying the form of the function f and the
values of the constants which it contains, the series of values of wv can
be made to approximate more or less closely to any given series of equi-
distant numbers which follow some general law. Hence, to graduate
such a given series, we have only to assume a function f(x) of suitable
form, and substituting in it first 7+4n and then «—4n in place of the
variable x, the difference between the two results will express the sum
S of the terms in any group in the graduated series by means of the
number x of terms which that group contains, the abscissa x of the mid-
dle point of the group referred to an assumed origin of coédrdinates, and
the constants which are involved in the function f(x). In the case of
any single group the values of n and x are known, and the value of S
being taken equal to the sum of the terms in the corresponding group
in the given series, we shall have an equation of condition containing
only the unknown constants and numerical quantities. By assuming
aS many groups as there are constants, we obtain a number of equations
just sufficient to determine the values of the constants. Substituting
these values in formula (45), we obtain the equation which expresses
the empirical law of the given series, and from which the graduated one
may be constructed. The arithmetical means of the terms in the
assumed groups in the graduated series will be severally equal to those
of the terms in the corresponding groups in the given one.

If we assume more groups than there are constants, there will result
a number of equations of condition greater than the number of con-
stants to be determined. The values of the constants can then be found
by the method of least squares. In this way we may expect, in certain
cases, to increase a little the degree of general accuracy with which the
graduated series represents the given one, without at the same time
increasing the number of constants and raising the degree of the equa-
tion. But of course the arithmetical means of the terms in the cor-
responding groups in the two series will now be only approximately

316 METHODS OF INTERPOLATION.

equal to each other, and the operations of finding and verifying the
equation of the graduated series will become much more laborious. If
we do not know beforehand what form the function ought to have, the
most effectual means of increasing the accuracy of representation will
be to increase the number of constants equally with the number of
groups assumed, For instance, it is probable that a series of the sixth
order, obtained either by the first or the third method, will represent an
approximately adjusted series, such as (f/) in Table II, more accurately
than any series of the fourth order, whether obtained with or without
the aid of the principle of least squares, can possibly do.

The method of least squares can of course be used independently, for
the purpose of graduating an irregular series of numbers. But every
term will furnish one equation of condition, so that the number of equa-
tions will be as great as the whole number of terms in the series, and
if this number is large the amount of labor required to find and verify
the values of the constants becomes very considerable, while the method
cannot be expected to have any advantage over the method of interpo-
lation by groups, as regards the general accuracy of the result, except
in cases where the assumed function is capable of expressing the true
law of the natural phenomenon, or of approximating to it so closely that
the errors resulting from the difference in the form of the function will
be everywhere small enough to be neglected in comparison with the
errors of observation. Applied to an algebraic and entire function, the
general effect of the method of least squares will be to increase a little
the accuracy of representation at the extremities of the series, at the
cost of increased errors in the remaining portion. To illustrate this by
an example, let us compare two equations, taken of the second degree
for the sake of simplicity, each of them representing the first six terms
of series (i), the first equation being obtained by the method of groups
and the second by the method of least squares. In the three consecu-
tive groups of two terms each the sums are—

§,=.83107, S2=.79689, S;=.84473
and since n,=2, formula (A) gives for the equation of the new series—

w=.39717-+.0017075 #+-.0051262 a2

If we assign to x the values — §,—3, —4, &c.,in succession, the result-
ing values of wu are the terms in the new series, as follows:

= A2494, U;=.39760, Us=.41126

U,=.40614, Us=.39930, Ug=.A3348

When these are compared with the original values in series (h), their
differences or errors, taken without regard to sign, are found to be—
00176, OOLOL, OO1LST
00177, .00100, . 00158
The sum of the squares of these errors is .0000132.
Next, we form six equations of condition of »the second degree from

METHODS OF INTERPOLATION. at

the first six terms in series (h), and find that by the method of least
squares the equation of the new series is—

u=.39710+ .0015743 x+ 0051468 x?
This gives for the terms in the new series—

U,=.42533, U3=.39760, Us=.41104
U=. 40632, U,=.39918, Ug == .4332
the errors are—
00137, 00101, .00179
.00195, 00112, 00131

and the sum of the squares of the errors is .0000129, which is a mini-
mum. Comparing these results with the ones obtained by the method
of groups, we see that nothing has really been gained in accuracy by
employing the method of least squares, since the maximum error has
been increased by it from .00177 to 00195. Besides, the method of
groups has a great advantage in the simplicity and brevity of the cal-
culations required.*

The sum S of the terms in any group can be expressed in still another
form by means of a series. When f(v+4n) is expanded according to
the powers of $n, it becomes—

pect Hela) ae) ta fea)
tego (5) + &e.

where f’(x), f(x), &c., are the successive differential coeflicients of f(z).
Consequently we have—
S=flet$n)—f(w—$2n)

. ie 2 aa o
=[P@tsf’"O(@) traaal/G) bun

1 wy A

tran 2 + &e. |

This series will terminate if f(2) is algebraic and entire. To illustrate
its application, let us assume—
S'(e)=A+Br+ C2?
then the other derivatives are—
f'"(@)=B42Cx
file) =2C

while f(x), f’(x), &c., are zero. = have accordingly —

son rts ri(8)

a [A+ Br-+O( eel n*) |

* There is still another method of interpolation, devised by Cauchy, which can be
used in cases of this kind. It is, however, more laborious than the method here pro-
posed, and trials which have been made indicate that it does not secure any greater
accuracy. For some account of it, see the American Journal of Science for July, 1862,
and Lionville’s Journal, vol. 18, page 299.

318 METHODS OF INTERPOLATION.

which is identical with formula (1). It will be found that the general
formula (11) can be obtained in this way more easily than in any other.
The particular feature of the first method of adjustment, that it makes
the arithmetical means of the terms in the corresponding assumed
groups in the new series precisely equal to those in the original one, is
also characteristic of a method which has sometimes been employed in
solving equations of condition. (See the Calculs Pratiques Appliqués aux
Sciences W Observation, by MM. Babinet and Housel, page 81.) If the
law of a series is to be represented by an equation of the form—
y=A+Bo¢(x)+Cy(a)+ &e.,
where ¢(x), y(x), &c., do not contain any constants to be determined,
then there will subsist between any given terms or ordinates 41, Yo, Ys
&¢., and the corresponding abscissas 2, %, #3, &c., the following equa-
tions of condition :

.

y=A+ Bog(ax,) +Cy(a7))4+&e.

y= A+ Bo(x2) 4+ Cw (x2) + &e.

Y3=A-+ B¢(xs) + Cy (x3) + &e.
we. &e.

Let us suppose for example that there are only three constants, A, B,
and ©, and that the number of terms in the given series is any greater
number, for instance six. Then to reduce the six equations of condition
to only three, we may add them together in pairs or groups of two, and,
denoting the sums of the terms in the three groups by 8), S2, Ss, we shall
have—

S:=2 A+ B[¢(a@1)+ ¢(#2)|4+C[y(a1) + ¥(%2)|

S.=2 A+ B[¢(a3)+ ¢(#s)|+C[Y(as)+ Y(a4)]

S.=2 A+ Blo(as) + ¢(@e)|-+C[ (es) + ¥(a0)]
Here there are only as many equations as there are constants to be de-
termined, and since 8), S:, 83, and 2, #2, &c., are known from the origi-
nal series, we can obtain the numerical values of the three constants.
Let these be A’, B/, and ©’; then the equation of the graduated
Series is—

y=A!+ Bi o(x)4+C'y (a)
and when the values 2, %, #3, &¢., are suecessively assigned to the vari-
able in this equation, the resulting values of y will be the terms of the
graduated series, and the arithmetical means of the terms in the assumed
groups will be the same in it as in the original series. This will always
be the case, without regard to the number of terms in the series, or to
the number of constants and groups to be assumed, or to the extent or
position of the groups. Itis not even necessary that the terms grouped
together should be consecutive, nor that the abscissas 2, 2%, #3, &¢.,
should be in arithmetical progression.
This method, however, labors under certain disadvantages when com-

pared with the one which we have proposed. The computations it in-
volves are much more laborious, especially when the number of con-

METHODS OF INTERPOLATION. 319

stants or the number of terms in the series is large; it does not give any
general expression like (12) or (44) for the sum S of any » terms taken
in a group, and it does not permit the use of groups composed of a frac-
tional number of terms.

ADJUSTMENT OF A DOUBLE SERIES.

By methods entirely analogous to those which have been applied to
functions of one variable, we can proceed to graduate an irregular dou-
ble series or table of values of a function of two variables. The table
is supposed to be arranged in the usual rectangular form, the successive
values of each variable being equidistant. The intervals between any
two such values, however, are not necessarily the same for both varia-
bles. The algebraic equation—

=A+Br+Cy4+D2’?+Eyt+Fary+ &e.

is the equation of a curved surface. The rectangular table being sup-
posed to be situated in the plane of X Y, with its sides parallel to the
axes of X and Y, and its middle point coinciding with the origin of co-
ordinates, let a series of equidistant vertical planes be drawn parallel
to the plane of ZY, and another series of planes in like manner parallel
to the plane of Z X, so that the intersections of these planes with the
plane of X Y shall form the divisions of the given table. Each of these
divisions is the base of a solid which is limited at the sides by the ver-
tical planes and at the top by the curved surface. Every such solid
may be regarded as representing the corresponding tabulated value of
the function, and the sides of the bases are taken as unity, but the units
lying in the directions of x and y are not necessarily equal to each
other. If we assume a group of adjacent divisions of the table, situated
so as to form a rectangle whose sides, parallel to the axes of X and Y,
consist each of m and n units respectively, then the solid included be-
tween this rectangular base, its limiting vertical planes, and the curved
surface, will be represented by the integral—

y'+4hn x! er
= € ly
y'—tn —}m

where a and y’ are the codrdinates of the middle point of the rectan-
gular base. Performing the integrations indicated, and omitting the
accents from a’ and y’, we have—

S=mn{A+Bae+Cy+D(e?+ fem) + Ey + ion) +Faey+&e.] . . . (46)

This solid is evidently the sum of the solids which belong to the
several divisions of the assumed group, so that the formula expresses
the sum § of the terms in any rectangular group in the table by means
of the numbers m and » of terms contained in each one of the sides of
the group lying parallel to the axes of X and Y respectively, the cobrdi-
nates w and y of the middle point of the group, and the constants A, B,
Q, &c. For any group assumed we know the numerical values of S, m,

320 METHODS OF INTERPOLATION.

n, v, and y, so that every such group furnishes an equation of condition
which, besides the constants A, b, C, &c., contains only numerical
quantities. By assuming aS many groups as there are constants, we
shall always be able to find numerical values for the constants, and sub-
stituting them in formula (46), and making—
Mii ie S=u

we shall have an equation of the form—

u=A!/4+ B/e4+Cyt+D/v??+EY’+F’ey+&e.
which will be the equation of the graduated table, and from which that
table can be constructed by assigning to # and y the proper series of
values differing from each other by unity, so that they shall represent
in succession the codrdinates of the middle point of each division of
the table.

We ean also make an approximate adjustment of a double series by
formulas analogous to those which we have already found under the
second method for adjusting an ordinary series. For example, any nine
adjacent terms %, U2, Us,----Ug being grouped in a rectangle with three

ce b! a

U3

Uy

aN:

terms on each side, as in the figure, let it be required to find a formula
by which to adjust the value of the middle term ws. Let us suppose that
the equation of the curved surface is—

e=A+Br4+Cy+D7+Ey
then F and all the succeeding constants disappear, and formula (46)
becomes—
S=mn[A+Be+Cy+D(a?+ ym’) 4+ E(y?+ ysn’)] . 6. (47)

Now, in the rectangle aa’ we have—

S=UWy4+ Ut ts, m1, —os ils 70
so that (47) reduces to— !

U+U2.+Uj=3(A+4 B+13D+2E)

So, too, in the rectangle bb’ we have—

S=uUg+Ust Us, Ms, i=3, @c—0, J—0

METHODS OF INTERPOLATION. ood

and (47) becomes—
Ug + U5+ Uj =3(A+55D+3E)
Likewise the rectangle cc’ gives—
Uz Uy + U9 =3(A—B+13D+3E)
Again, for the rectangle ad’ we have—
Sy tb Ug + Ug-+ Us + Uy + Usgy m=, M2, x

and (47) reduces to—

Uy $ Uy UUs + G+ W=6(A+4 C+3D+,, EB)
In like manner the rectangle de’ gives—

Uz Us+ Us+ Ug + Ugt Ug =6(A—$ C+? D+ 5 EB)
We have thus obtained five equations by which to determine the five
constants A, B, C, D, E, in terms of the tabulated values 1, u, w3, &e.
Now, in the middle one of the nine divisions we have—

II
S
4

ll
rw

Us, it a= Ue Z—U, y=0
and formula (47) becomes—
U;=A+ 1,D4+ 3455
Substituting in this the values of the constants A, D, and E, we arrive
at the result—
Us=4[D Us + 2 (Ug Ug + Ugt Us) — (MA U+U+HUs)] « . (48)
and this is the adjustment formula required. Its accuracy can easily be
tested by trial with any table constructed from an equation of the form—
u=A/+ Ble+C/yt Dv? + EY’

the adjusted value being in this case the same as the original one. In-
deed, we shall find that the result is exact, even when the table has been
constructed from a complete equation of the third degree.

Again, to adjust the value of a term occupying the middle of one side
of the assumed rectangle, as wz, for instance, we have—

S=t, m=. (i i, y=0

and consequently—

Wm=A+B+413 D4+,4E
Substituting the values of A, b, D, and E, we obtain the adjustment
formula—

Ug=FD Ug 2(Uj + Ust Us+ Ug) —(Ug+ Up tUs+Uy)} ~~ (49)
In a similar way the adjusted value of a term like 4, occupying one:
corner of the assumed rectangle, is found to be

Uj =H UWA 2(Ug+ Uz + Uy + Uz) —(Us+ Up + Ugt Uy)] . » (50)
By one or other of the three formulas here given, the value of any term
in an irregular table can be approximately adjusted, and, asin the case of
an ordinary series, the weight of the term to be adjusted may be in-

creased or diminished at pleasure.
218 71

322 METHODS OF INTERPOLATION.

APPENDIX I.
IMPROVED ADJUSTMENT FORMULAS.

We have seen that in (16) and similar formulas used for making pre-
paratory adjustments by the second method, the local weight of the middle
term can be increased or diminished if desired, and that, when the for-
mula includes more than five terms, the weights of other terms besides
the middle one can also be made to vary. We have employed this pro-
perty in assigning to the several terms, weights increasing in arithmeti-
cal progression, from the extreme terms to the middle one, as in formula
(20). But further investigation has shown that this arrangement of the
weights, aithough it gives formulas which are very simple and easy of
application, is not the best one in theory. To determine what the best
arrangement is, we must consider that when one of these formulas is ap-
plied at any part of a series, all those terms which are not included by
the formula have the weight zero; that as the adjustment progresses,
when a term is first included by the formula its weight is negative, it then
becomes positive, attains its maximum when the term occupies the mid-
dle position, then diminishes till if becomes negative again, and finally
resumes the weight zero when the term is no longer included by the for-
mula. To make this transition as unbroken and continuous as possible,
it is evident that if we regard the weights as ordinates to a curve, the
form of this curve should be as shown in the annexed figure, for a formula
including seven terms whose
postions 1,2, 3,008 6) i045
are laid off equidistantly on
the axis of X. The curve is
symmetrical with respect to
the middle ordinate or axis of 5
Y, and is tangent to the axis
of X at the points 0 and 8,
which are the positions of the two nearest terms not included by the
formula, Such a curve has four points of inflexion, so that if it is of
algebraic form, it must be of a degree not lower than the sixth. <As-
suming, then, that the series of weights from 0 to 8 inclusive is of the
sixth order, and that it has maxima at the points 0 and 8, these two
conditions will sufficeto determine the two arbitrary numbers k and k’
in the formula—

1 5
Ue FEF 10 REGIS + ARAM Ut (13-44) (tls+%5)
+ (8h) (2+ Us) —5 (4 +24)

which holds good, as has been shown, for any seven consecutive terms
in a series of the third or any lower order. Since the nine weights—

0, —5, (8—k),. (13+4+4k), (183+4%+%), (13g-4h), (8—h), 6, 0

METHODS OF INTERPOLATION. 320

are to form a series of the sixth order, their seventh differences will be
zero, giving the equation—
—5—7(8—hk) 4+ 21(154+4h)—35(1344k+4')
+-35(13-+-4k)—21(8—k)—35=0
Also, since there is to be a maximum at the initial term 0, the differ-
ences of the series of weights must satisfy the condition—

4 4s A
eee ois oa 2a 5 2 =0 Zi 7 (51)

giving the equation—

1800 4 460(8—k) —472(184+4h)4+225(13+4k+h/)=0
We have then two equations, from which the numbers k and k/ are as-
certained to be—

so that the adjustment formula becomes—
Us=sstog|23LOL U4 16425( 05 + U5) +3060(u2 + ug) —3185(u;+u;)] . (52)
Here the nine weights—

0, —3185, 3060, 16425, 23104, 16425, 3060, —3185, 0
form a series of the sixth order, and if their suecessive orders of differ-
ences are taken they will be found to satisfy the equation (51). The
following formulas, comprising five, nine, and eleven terms respectively,
possess properties similar to the above:

Us= 7q!gq[ 788 Us-+ 400 (ta-+ tts) — —100(%,+ us) ]
3[19375 ws+ 15696(u4+ Ug) + 7056(u3+ Uz)
lies a
Ug =s7 7350 20T2 Ts 99007T194206 Ug+51593437700(us+ Uz)
+31515296640(w,+ Ug) + 8277866685 (u3+ U9)
— 6224658450(a2+ 49) —6070455569 (a+ U1) |
It will be more convenient in practice to have the weights oe by
decimals, as follows :
Us =.96616 U;-+ .28923 (U2 + Uy) —.07231(uj+%5) . . (53)
=.41476 4+ .29486(U3+ U5) + 05494 (e+ Ug) —.05718(a+u;) 2 . (54)
Us= 32966 Us 26706 (Us+ Ug) + 12006 (s+ U7) 9
—.01198 (u2+ Ug) — 03997 (0, + Us) 4

(95)

Up=.27406 Ug 23737 (Us+ Uz) + 14408 (y+ Ug) + 03809(ts+ Uy) ? 56
— .02864(d2+ 49) —.02793 (a + U1) c i)

Without attempting solutions in whole numbers, we can proceed iv a

324 METHODS OF INTERPOLATION.

similar way to find decimal weights for thirteen or more terms, as in
the following cases:
Uq= .23466 u;+ .21137 (Ug Ug) + 14954 U5+ Uy) + 07003 (24+ U0)
+ .00195 (s+ 41) — 03005 (2+ U2) —.01997 (4; + U3)
Ug -20522 Ug+.18953(U;+ Uy) + 14651 (Ug + U0) + 08755 (U5 + U1)
+ .02875(Us+ U2) —.01521 (us 3) —.02709(u2+ U4) 7 (58)
— 01465 (a+ M5)

57)

In each of these formulas the sum of all the weights, taken for each
term separately, is unity, as it should be. Owing to the rejection of
decimals after the fifth figure, this condition would not always be ex-
actly satisfied, and consequently the fifth figure, as above given, has
been made to differ in some cases from its nearest value, to the extent
of a single unit of the fifth place. Actual trials have shown that a
better graduation can be made by these formulas than by any of the
similar ones previously given, and it is possible that, in some cases, a
table of mortality may be graduated sufficiently by this means alone,
without recourse to the first or third methods of adjustment.

It will often be sufficient for practical purposes to use only three places
of decimals; and in making an adjustment of a given series by any
single formula, we can facilitate the multiplications by preparing in
advance a table showing the product of each of the decimal weights by
each of the nine digits.

There is another method, allied to the preceding, by which the
weights may be determined when more than five terms are to be included
ina formula. Supposing the number of terms to be seven, we may
assume that their seven weights, together with the two nearest zero
weights, are ordinates to a curve of the eighth degree, since such a
curve can be made to pass through nine given points. We have, as
before, the condition that this curve shall be tangent to the axis of X
at the points 0 and 8; and to make its continuity with the axis at those
points as complete as possible, we may give it a contact of the second
order, so that its first and second differential coefficients shall both be-
come zero at the points 0 and 8. We have thus the two conditions—

As , 47 As

Woo tae alge od)
419 at Bo

11 4, 545 , 187 4g 7 47, 363 4p _
Die ie Gh, WLSUh ay LOG BROON Ty
By means of these we obtain the two numbers—

43— 454

1.31976 y/ 235087
7 6517 “6517

and the adjustment formula is found to be—

BT1T12 U4 236625 (3+ U5) + 14160 (w+ U5) —32585(U;+ U,
(

“# 1
= C0812

oo
bo
Or

METHODS OF INTERPOLATION.

With decimal weights it becomes—
Uy=.45998 Ug+ .29281 (3+ Us) + 01752 (+ Ug) —.04052 (a, + U7)

In a similar manner we might proceed to find formulas including more
than seven terms. With nine terms we shouid assume acurveof the tenth
degree, with the three conditions that its first, second, and third dif-
ferential coefficients should all become zero at the positions of the two
nearest zero weights.

This method of determining the weights may seem to be theoretically
better than the previous one, but the labor required in obtaining the
formulas is very considerably increased, especially when nine or more
terms are to be included by them, and the practical advantages of the
method, if it has any, must be small.* According to the theory of
probability of errors, if we let « denote the probable error of each single
term in a given series, then the probable error of a term adjusted by
the above formula will be—

eye V.45998?4 2(.292812+ .01752?+ 04032?) =.62204 ¢
+2(

But if the adjustment were made by formula (54), the probable error
would be only—

eye V.A14 76? + 2(.29486? + 0549424 05718") =.59874

which indicates that (54) is slightly superior in the accuracy of its
results. This, however, is not conclusive as regards smoothness of ad-
justment. If we imagine two series, such that the probable error of a
single term is smaller in the first one than in the second, it is still pos-
sible that the second may be the more perfectly graduated of the two,
since its errors may follow a continuous sequence or curve, while the
errors of the first may be arranged irregularly or fortuitously, so as to
follow a broken line. The comparative regularity of the graduation of
two series obtained by using different adjustment formulas will be best
ascertained by comparing their corresponding orders of differences.
The fourth difference is most convenient for this purpose, and may be
obtained directly for any five consecutive terms by means of the for-

mula—
A y=6 Uz—A(Un+ Uy) + (Uy + Us)

Having thus computed all the fourth differences for each of the two
series, we can add them together in each case without regard to sign,
and the series which gives the smaller sam may be regarded as the
better graduated of the two. This becomes evident when we consider
that a curve of the third degree, since it admits a point of inflexion,
may be taken to represent approximately a limited portion of any

regular curve; and as all the formulas of the second method of adjust-
ment give accurate results for a series of the third or any lower order,
their use tends to bring the adjusted series into such a form that any

* Subsequent trials haye shown that it has none.

326 METHODS OF INTERPOLATION.

small number of consecutive terms in it will be approximately of an
order not higher than the third. Hence, if any series, such as a table
of mortality, is thus adjusted, its fourth differences will be small, and
positive and negative values will be equally probable.

In the case of formulas like (22), which hold good for a series of the
fifth or any lower order, we may fix the local weights of the terms by
these two conditions, that the whole series of weights, including the
two nearest zero weights, should be of the eighth order, and that it
should have minima at the beginning and end, so as to satisfy the equa-
tion—

As 4s
A s+ a a Seatoryouy «akeniasl docks go

Thus we obtain the formula—
Uy=akasl (9O8 Wy 3675(U3+ Us )—14.70(t2+ ug) + 245(u+ U) |
which, with decimal weights, is—
Ug=.61922 Uy+ .28559(uU3+ Us) —.11424(u2+4 Ug) +.01904(a+ Uz) . . . (59)*
To find formulas for adjusting the first two and last two terms of a
series, we may proceed as follows: Assuming that five terms, %, U2, Us,
U4, Us, form a series of the second order approximately, and taking the

equation—
u=A+Bre+Cr

with the origin of codrdinates at the middle term w,, we have the five
equations of condition—
%4—A—2B+4C
UW=A—B+C
Us=A
Uz=A+B+C
U;s=A+2B+4C
Combining these by the rule of least squares, we find that the values
of the three constants are—
AH=Z[1T 3 412(U2+ Uy) —3(U+ Us) |
B Se eee
J= FL [2(tu tus) —2 wy— (2+ Us) ]
and consequently we have— ,
UW =gPe(31 M9 W—3 Uz;—5 Uy+3 Us)... (60)
U= 3 (9 M13 W412 w+6 y= 5 is) a's (6 (GR)

which can be used with advantage in place ‘of ae and (26), if the series

* This formula may a used when the i of a given series varies so rapidly that five
consecutive terms cannot be regarded as forming a series of an order not higher than

the third. ~ .

METHODS OF INTERPOLATION. 32

to be adjusted is not a very irregular one. We can proceed in a simi-
lar way to obtain formulas for adjusting the middle term in any group
of five, seven, nine, or more terms, as follows :*

Us=s [17 us+12(t2+ U4) —3(U+ Us) |

Usg=sy[T Ug 6(Us+ Us) +3 (e+ UG) —2(ta+Uz)|

Us=544[59 s+ 54( y+ Ug) +39 (U5 Uz) + 14 (Uy Ug) —21 (44+ Uy) ]

In all these cases, the weights form a series of the second order. The

probable errors are less than those given by other similar formulas ; for
instance, the probable error of the adjusted value of ws is only—

9

coal PELE P PEL) = SIIB e
But it has been found on trial that, as regards smoothness of adjust-
ment, these formulas are decidedly inferior to (53), (54), &c., or even to
(17), (19), &ce. This is owing to the great want of continuity between
the weights of the formula and the zero weights. If we apply Cauchy’s
method to the same series of terms as above, we get—

Us= qo [4 (Mot Ust Uy) —(%i+ Us) |

Uggs [11 (Ug + y+ Us) + 4(Ue+ Ug) —3( + Uy) |

Us= gy [D(Us Ut Usb Uet Uz) — (U1 + e+ Ut Us) |
Ug=sh7z[41 (Ug +uyt .----- ug) — 1A (a+ Uo Uo + %1)]

All these, except the second, are special cases under our formula (138).
The first one is the same as (14).

ADDITIONAL FORMULAS UNDER THE FIRST METHOD.

The simplest case of all has been omitted; it is that in which the
graduated series is of the first order, so that the expression for the sum
of any n terms in a group is—

S=n(A+Bz2)
Assuming any two groups composed of m; and n. terms respectively,
with the origin of codrdinates midway between the middle points of the

groups, and denoting by a the distance from the origin to either of these
points, we have for the values of the constants—

Si, Se
=f Seabee
ous my =)

TDN te 15;

* In like manner, it can be shown that formulas (48), (49), and (50) are in accord-
ance with the principle of least squares.

328 METHODS OF INTERPOLATION.

If the assumed groups are consecutive and contain m, terms each, the:
constants will be—
1
A=5,, (Sit 82)
amy
(63)
B=—,(S2.—8))

Ny?
This properly commences not only the series of formulas (A), (B), (C),
- &c., but also the series (40), (41), (42), &e.
Again, when formula (12) is extended so as to include nine constants,
it becomes—
S=n[A+,5C€ +5 BE n'+7iG nite + (B+1D n’?+ FF vt
gz np +(C+4EV+ 3G n+ 7.1 n')a’+(D+2F ve

+ {,H m)e4+(E4+4GV74+ilm)at+(F+4+ iH wv)xe
+(G+iln’)a+H a+] a*|
If we assume nine consecutive groups, containing n, terms each, the
values of the constants are found to be—

it a |
A=7p 5D IIH pL EI TLISS Spt 125884(Sy+S;)-+1225(8,-+ 8)
—800216(S,+S;)—17000(S,-+8,)]
1

B= 555120 nel

574686(Sg—S,)-+33878(S;—S2) —170422(S,;—Ss)

—3229(S,—Si)]

1
C= 7935360 n,211912064(S.+ Sc) + 44480(S2+ S:)—3260110 8,

23040 nj!
—1406(S,—S.)]
1

E= 27648 |

le or S;+: 5908(S g+S-)+47(S i+8,)—10840( S,+S8.)

—616(S,-+8,)]
= 7939p ol82S:—80) + 26(8,-8,) —-74(8,-8,) 38,8,
= TGV yA TLS+ So) + 80848, )—970 S;—340(S,+8;)
—7(Sit+So)]
=a Y [14(S,—8,) + (S;—S:) —14(S,—8,) —6(Sp—

1 7 e ~p
I= 79359 q;0l 7 Ss 28(Ss+ S2)+ (Sit Se) —56(S,+ So)

323260(S»+S;) —3229(S;-+Ss)]
Dae sl reise! sane eh Sasa sp
~8(S+8;)] |

METHODS OF INTERPOLATION. 329

This formula may be used advantageously in constructing a graduated
rate of mortality similar to series () in Table II. The simplest mode of
procedure will be to obtain the equation of the graduated series of the

form—
u=A/+Bat+Olet+ 1.1.0 eee. tle

and to compute by logarithms first the values of B’x for all the ages,
then the values of C’x? in like manner, and so on, and finally to take the
aggregate of the values at each age. The accuracy of the work will be
tested by the condition that the sums of the terms in the corresponding
groups in the graduated series must be severally equal to those in the
given one. It should be also mentioned that, to insure accuracy, the
multiplications within the brackets in formula (G), such, for instance, as
that of S; by its coeflicient 11702134, &c., ought to be performed arith-
metically and not by logarithms.

INTERPOLATION BY MEANS OF AN EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION.

When values in arithmetical progression are assigned to a in the exe
ponential equation—

y=) Pe +der+ &e.

the resulting values of y will be terms in a recurring series, whose order
is denoted by the number of constants /, 7, 6, &e. The above formula
has sometimes been used for the purpose of ordinary interpolation, and
represents a curve which, under certain conditions, can be made to pass
through any number of given points whose ordinates Yo, Yi, Yo, &e., are
equidistant. The whole number of constants b,c, d, 2, 7, 6, &e., included
by the formula, must be equal to the number of points given. If this
is an odd number, we must write—

y=at+b &+e77+d 04+ &e.
For the most general method of determining the values of the constants
in any given case, see articles by Prony, in Vols. I and IIL of the Journal
de VEcole Polytechnique. We may here remark that if there are not
more than five constants, their values can easily be obtained in the ordi-
nary way, first eliminating a, 6, and ¢ from the equations of condition,
then finding the values of 7 and 7, and afterward finding those of a, J,
and ¢. /
Now let us write the general equation under the form—

y=A+ (B log’ 3)4+(C log’ 7)7*+(D log’ 6)d7+ &e. . . (65)

where log’ denotes the Naperian logarithm. Integrating ydx between
the limits r—4n and #+4n, we get—

S=A n+ B(/7"—B-*) gr C(3"—y-38*) 7 + D(03"— 0-31) Oe &e. (66)

which is identical in form with the expression for y, so far as the abscissa
2 is concerned. Consequently, if we assume a series of groups contain-

330 METHODS OF INTERPOLATION.

ing 2, terms each, and equidistant, so that h may denote the constant
interval between their middle points, and if we put A’=An,, and—
B/=B(fm—f-¥m), C= OG—7-m), D'=D(s¥m—0-Im), &e.
and place the origin of codrdinates at the middle of the left-hand group,
then the sums of the terms in the several groups will be—
So=A/+ B’/+0/4+ D/+ &e.
S:=A/+ B/?+-C/?+ D/s"4+ &e.
So=A/+ Bi 34 C/7**"4 D/d+4 &e.
S3=A/4+ B/3*4 073*4 D/3"+4 &e.
&e. &e.

and in any given case, assuming aS many groups as there are constants
to be determined, we can find the values of the constants from these
equations of condition, just as in ordinary interpolation from ordinates.
In accordance with the general method referred to, we proceed as fol-
lows: If the number of constants is an even one, for instance, six, the
groups forming a recurring series of the third order, whose seale of rela-
tion is —Aj, —Aj, —A., we shall have the three equations—
ApSo+ Ai8i+ AoS.4+ 83;=0
AdSi+ AiS.+ AS34+8,=0
AoS:+A18;4 AS,+S8;=0
These enable us to find the numerical values of Aj, Ay, As, and we substi-
tute them in the equation of relation—
+ Ao2e?+t Ait A y=0
This numerical equation of the third degree being solved, its three roots
will be the values of the three constants /*, 7”, 0. Substituting them
in the three equations of condition—
So=B/+C/+D’
§,=B/3"+ C’7*+ D/0*
S.=B/s*+ 0/7?" 4+. D/o*
we can find the values of B’, C’, and D’, and consequently those of B, ©,
and D, Having thus determined all the constants in the equation—
S=B(Gin—B-in) "4 O(yin—y -")/74- Dd —0- in) >
we are enabled to interpolate the sum § of any x terms taken in a group,
or any single term, and to form a recurring series of the third order,
such that the arithmetical means of the terms in the six assumed groups
will be the same in it as in the given series. The equation of the grad-
uated series will be of the form—
u=B" 9? 4+C"74+ De

When the assumed groups are consecutive, we shall have h=n,. The

METHODS OF INTERPOLATION. 30

three roots of the equation of relation must in all cases be positive; if
any of them are negative, the inference will be that the given series
cannot, for purposes of interpolation, be represented by an equation of
the proposed form.

If the number of constants is odd, for instance, seven, we shall find the
scale of relation from the four equations—

A,(Sp—= A+ Ai(Si—A)+ Ao(S;—A’)+ (S,—A)=0
Ao(Si— A’) + many o(S3—A’)+ (S,—A’)=0
Agiss— A+ A,(S;— A) Ao(S,—A4£(S;—A)=0

ee en lie 5— A’) +(Sp— A’) =0

first eliminating A’ by subtracting each equation from the succeeding
one. The equation of relation will be of the same degree as in the pre-
vious case, and the values of A’, B’, C’, and D’ will be found from the
four equations of condition—

So=A/+ B/+C’4 D!

=A/+B/3'+C//"74+-D!0 Sh

S.=A/+ B/ 3+C/ y+ dD! yd

S = A/+B/ 33*+4 0/74 D/ 6
If the number of constants and of groups assumed were eight or nine,
the mode of procedure would be precisely similar to the above. The
scale of relation would contain four terms, and the four roots of the
equation of relation—

ei+ A; 4 / 92” Ay z+A,=0
would be the values of the four constants /3”, 7", 0", <.

In the simplest case of all, we have the curve—
emt id

whose equidistant ordinates are in geometrical progression. If we

assume—
y=A+(B log’ 8)

it is easy to obtain the following:

_ ea
i= (=

—S
ees iat
(3 18 a — 3-3 m) (67)

[Ss -(3=*)
nh GE
Bc pe

This can often be used with advantage in place of (3) or any similar

302 METHODS OF INTERPOLATION.

formula, in making a distribution of population or deaths at the earliest
and latest ages of life, where the values vary so rapidly as to give the
series an exponential rather than a parabolic torm.

But when our object is merely to graduate an irregular series whose
terms are all separately given, the easiest way to put it in an exponen-
tial form will be to take the common logarithms of all the terms, as has
been already suggested, and adjust them by the second and first
methods, and then take the numbers corresponding to the graduated
logarithms. The equation of the final series will be of the form

U=104+bx-+c2?+&0.)

the simplest case of which—
Uu=10(4+b2)

represents a geometrical progression.

APPENDIX II.

Among the various methods which can be used for fixing the values
of the local weights in adjustment formulas, the following one is perhaps
deserving of especial notice :

Assuming that the true law of a given series of numbers may be
regarded as algebraic and of an order not higher than the third, and
that the irregularities in the series are of the nature of accidental errors
or deviations from this true law, and that deviations of a given amount
are as likely to occur in one term as in another, let it be required to
find that system of weights which will render the probable value of the
fourth differences of the adjusted series, taken without regard to sign, @
minimum,

Considering, in the first place, the most general form of an adjustment
formula comprising only five terms, which may be written—

[Ie Ws 4 (te Uy) — (U4 +Us)]. . (68)

U3=

u
k+6

we have for the values of five consecutive terms in the adjusted series—

w= ErGlh Us+4(Uo+ Uy) — (t+ Us) |
w= eagle Us 4 (Us Us) —(U2+ Uo) ]
u = Ealt Us 4( Us Ug) — (Us +t) |

Wo=erglh Ug A(Us+ Uz) — (Us+ Us) |
a! =e s| fe z+ 4 (e+ Us) — (Us +us)]

METHODS OF INTERPOLATION. wou

The fourth difference of these terms is—
4=6 W'5s—4 (Wg +6) + (+2)
and consequently —

A. [(6k—34)u;—(4 k—32)(Us+ Ug) + (kK —22) (34+ uy)

+8(U2+ Ug) — (+ Uy) |

If we suppose that the series 4, %&, U3, &e., is of an order not higher than
the third, the adjusted series w’s, wy, ws, &e., will be of the same order,
so that its fourth differences will be zero, and both members of the above
equation will be equal to zero. Butif each of the terms aw, %, &e., is
liable to an accidental deviation or error, whose probable amount is
denoted by <, then the probable value of 4,, taken without regard to
sign, will be—

(4) =- 75/6 k—34pP-+2] (4b—32)P-+ (k— 22-8" 1]

ut
k+6

which reduces to—
5 7121 ELA
(4) rapes k?—1008 k+-4302

Regarding (44) as a function of the variable k, we have the equation—
(Ag) _
alles
from which to find that value of k which makes (4,) aminimum. This
is k=111; and substituting it in (68), we obtain—
Us=7h5[111 U3+56(U2+ u4)—14(u4us5)] . . (69)

which is thé adjustment formula sought.

To find a similar one including seven terms, we may take the most
general form as used in obtaining (52), or, what amounts to the same
thing, by proceeding as in the demonstration of formula (20), we can get—

i
UW=7—_ | (h'+ 4k —15),4+ (4 k—15) (34
aie uOnesso! fos eee Mate B= Ottis)

+(6—k)(U2+ U6) —(U1+%4)]
Since k’ affects only the weight of the middle term, we may, for the sake
of brevity, denote that weight by k’ alone, and so write—
if ”
Us =F G Ranh at (K-15) (Uo + Us) + (6K) (tat Ue) — (t+ te] ee EU)
The expression for the fourth difference of the adjusted series then is—
it
46 R20
+ (ki —22 k4-100) (4,4 ug) —(45—8 k) (3+ Uy)
+ (10—k)(u2+ Uo) — (t+ Un) |

6k! —34k4-132)ug— (4k! —32 k-+130)(ats-+ uz)

334 METHODS OF INTERPOLATION.

and when each term is supposed to be affected by a probable error or
deviation «, the probable value of 4, becomes—

(41) = preg pag (OF —BERF BE +2 (EW 32 kf 130P

+ (k’ —22 k+100)?+ (45—8 k)?+ (10—k)? +1]

which reduces to—

(Ay) =p 6a 70k! 2-4-4302 k2— 1008 kik’ +4064 k! — 35896 k-- 75476

Regarding (4,) as a function of the two independent variables k and k’,
we have the two es

4
(44) (44)
“i =O dk! mS
giving the values k=} and k’= 489, which render (4,) a minimum.

Substituting these in (70), we get the adjustment formula sought—

Us = zqWp [469 Wy +324(U3+ Us) + 54(Uo+ Ug) —60(Uj+U7)] . . (71)
It is found that in each of the formulas (69) and (71), the whole series
of weights, taken together with the eight nearest zero weights, consti-
tutes a series of the tenth order. By means of this property, we can
construct with greater facility the following similar formulas:

Us = zag g| 2884 U5 2268 (4+ Ue) + 918 (s+ Uz) —132 (2+ Ug) a9
(2

—297(uj;+ %9) |
Ug=qebgq| 1308 Up+6160(u5+ Uz) +3410(U,+ Ug) + 660(Us+ Uy) 73
—T15 (t+ U0) —572(% +41) | > vi )
Ur= oat s7 [48636 U;+ 42768 (Ug + Ug) +27 918 (5+ Ug) + LOSGS (Us M4)

—1287 (Us 41) —5148 (2+ U2) —2860(24 + tH) |

gis
U:= =a7195 [S2764. Ug T4844. 27+ Ug) + 54054 (G+ Uo) + 28028 (U5 U1) 75

0
D733(Ug+ U2) — 6552 (U3 43) — 8092 (2+ M4) — 8672 (044+ ths ;)|

If the smallness of the fourth differences of the adjusted series is to be
taken as the ultimate and only test of its regularity of curvature, it will
follow that these formulas ought to be used in preference to (53), (54),
(55), &c., from which, indeed, they do not differ greatiy, as can be seen
on comparing their decimal weights. The probable errors of the ad.
iusted terms, however, are increased a little, and the weights follow a
curve which is not precisely tangent to the line of the zero weights.

At all events, the same principles can be usefully employed in fixing
the weight of the middle term in formula (48), so as to give greater reg-
ularity to the adjustment of a double series. By a process precisely
analogous to that by which (69) was obtained, it can be proved that in
order to render the probable value of the gomplete second difference

METHODS OF INTERPOLATION. 385

442 of the adjusted double series a minimum, the weight of the middle
term must be increased from 5 to 84, so that—

Us=qlg[83 Us+8( Us Us Upt Us) —4(WF UstUi+Uy)] . « (76)
will be the bets required.

APPENDIX III.

Since the present memoir was written, the author has met with a
small work by Schiaparelli, designed with especial reference to the
reduction of meteorological observations, and entitled Sul modo di rica-
vare la vera espressione delle leggi della natura dalle curve empiriche; Mi-
lan, 1867. That work, it is proper to acknowledge, anticipates to a
certain extent the second method of adjustment here given. It con-
tains, in section 45, a development of the general relation, or system of
conditions, which exists between the numerical coefficients or weights,
in formulas for adjusting the middle one of any group of an odd num-
ber of terms in a series. The mode of demonstration is quite different
from the one here followed, and its author does not obtain any of the
special adjustment formulas which have here been constructed and _ re-
commended, such as (17), (19), &¢., (53), (54), &c., or (69), (71), &e. He
gives instead, on page 17, that special case under our formula (13) which
arises when we take—

N=, a,=4(n;—1)

and also gives, on page 47, the formulas which render the probable error
of the adjusted term a minimum. We have seen that these last can be
derived from equations of condition by the method of least squares; that
their weights form series of the second order; and that the adjustments
which they make are not nearly so smooth and regular as those made by
formulas whose weights follow a curve which is continuous with the
line of the zero weights. The method of least squares presupposes that
the assumed algebraic equation, of a degree not higher than the third,
can accurately represent the true law of the natural phenomenon
throughout the whole group of terms included by the formula; and, more-
over, to give full scope to the method, the number of terms included
ought to be large. These conditions will be but imperfectly fulfilled in
practice, and since the true law of the natural series is supposed to be
continuous and not irregular or broken, it appears probable, or at least
quite possible, that the system of Sena which makes fhe smoothest
adjustment will also make the most accurate one.

The method which Schiaparelli gives on pages 23 to 30 of his work,
for obtaining the values of the constants in empirical equations of alge-
braic or circular form when the arithmetical means of the terms in cer-
tain groups are taken as data, is not equivalent to the first method here
proposed. It requires for completeness two sets of formulas, one to be

336 METHODS OF INTERPOLATION.

used when the number of terms grouped together is odd, and the other
when it is even; it regards the terms as being geometrically represented
by ordinates, instead of areas, and does not permit the use of groups
composed of a fractional number of terms, and it is not generally appli-
cable to functions of other forms than those specified.

APPENDIX IV.

ADDITIONAL FORMULAS FOR INTERPOLATION WITH A CIRCULAR
FUNCTION.

Denoting by N the whole number of terms in the circular period, let

OS

us write Wm then assuming the curve—

y=A+}0o[B, sin (w9)+C, cos (#)|+ 3 6[Bsin2(x6)+ C,cos 2(a 9)| )
+ 30[B, sin 3(a@ 0)4+C; cos 3(x 0) |4+&e, ¢(

we shall have for the sum of the terms in any group—

S= An + sin 4 (n0)[B, sin (v0)4C, cos (x0)]
ris sin 3 (n0)[B. sin 2 (70@)+C, cos 2 (x 0)] (78)
3 (n 0)[B; sin 3 (w0)+C; cos 3 (x 0)|4+&e,

From this we can derive formulas for computing the values of the con-
stants A, B,, Ci, Bo, C2, &e., just as formulas (A), (B), (C), &c., were
derived from the algebraic formula (11) ; or, otherwise, we can determine
the constants by treating the equations of condition in the manner
peculiar to the method of least squares. The results are the same in
either case. When the N terms are divided into three consecutive
groups of equal extent, we shall have—

=(S-+8:+8;) /
Bi=3(S:—S)) (4)
C,=4 sin 609[2 S.—(S8;+8s)] \

With four groups, we get—

meen
[(Ss—S2)-+(Si—S1)] ) ()
=H 8) J=(848
=1{(S —(S,—S))]

We omit the formulas for five, seven, nine, &c., groups, which are not
required in practice, the common use of monthly or hourly data in

ih

wl ~ sb i-

METHODS OF INTERPOLATION.

9" =
wot

meteorology making it convenient to have the number of groups a

divisor of 24. With six groups, the constants are—

A= (5 51+ 8.+83-+8,+85-+85)

—— [2 (55 —S,.)+(S,;—S8;)+(Ss—S))]

C,;=2 sin 6( aes J—(Si +g) | (c)
Beis. =S0 <(G 2S
C.=2 8 sin GO°[ (Ss +5,)+ (Site )- 2(S.+85) |
B;=7| Bi—(Ss—S:) |

With eight groups—

1 _
A= (Sit8+ - = -.--- +5.)
B,=1}(2 sin 45°+1)[(S,—S;)+(58,—8,)]+4[(8,—8,)+(S8,—8,)]
C,=1(2 sin 45°41)[(S,+8,)—(8,+8,)]+2[(8,+8,)—(S.+8,)]|
B,=1{(8,—S,)+(S,—S,)—(S,—S.)—(S,—8,)] (d)
C,=1[(S,+8,)+(8,+8,)—(S,+5,)—(8.4+8,)]
B;=6,— sin 45°9[(8,—S;)+(8;—5,) |

O- Ort HE +8) + G:F 8)— (S;-+5,)—(8.+S,)]

B,=1{(8;—S,)+ (S,;—S.)—(8,—S,) —(8,—8,)]

And with twelve groups—

1= =}(S sin 60°+1)|(S gaae ae ee
+(Si—S8.)]+3(8
C,=}(sin 60°+1)[(S,+8, \—(8,48,. 2(sin 60°+4)[(S;+8,)
—(s, +811))+; ral Sy —(S3+8,)]

B,=}[2(S, —S, J+(S; —, 6+ S)—S,)— 2 (S,—8,)— (Sio—5s)

—(S,—§))]
C,=} sin 60°[(S,+8,)+(S,+8,.)—(S,+8,)—(8,+58,,)]
B,=1[(8,— —S,)+(Ss—-55)+ (Su —S) + (8, 2—S — (Sy =n)

—(8)—8,)] ()
C, a=sL(Ss +5, )+(S3+ Spo) + (82+ 51)—(Ss+8,)—(S,+5,)
—(S,:+8,2)]

JS

B,=t[(8;—Se) + (S83) —(S)—S,) — (SS) ]
O,=} sin 60°[(S,+S,) + (Sit Si) +(S:+ Si) +(Si:+-8,,)
—2 (S; s+ Ss) —2(8.+581)]
B,=(S;—S,.)+ +(Ss—S;)+ (Su, )+(8,—S,)—B,—4 B,
C,=(8,+8,)—(S, ie —C,—20,
By=7's[(8;—S,) + (8,—8,) + (Su—S8.)— (Ss—S8;)—(Si>—S)
“8, 2»—S,)I

To illustrate the use of these formulas by an example, let us take the
series employed in illustrating Cauchy’s method of interpolation in the

228 71

338 METHODS OF INTERPOLATION.

United States Coast Survey Report for 1860, page 392. Column (1) of
the following table shows the terms of the given series corresponding
to each hour of the day:

Hour. () (2) Hour. | (i) | (2) Hour. | (1) (2)
——
o | 19 .187 || 8 =e 104 16 =, —. 080
aie nee [176 9 01 .000 || 7 —.18 —.173
2 | .05 .114 10 . 10 .109 || 18 20 —, 220
3 | ("04 . 019 11 .19 . 192 19 119 —. 211
th eG —. 082 12 29 . 233 20 12 —.148
5 =n4 161 13 19 214 21 01 —. 050
6 2219 = 196 14 si3 142 22 04 . 057
7 a= ETS 15 .06 . 035 | 23 .12 144

It is required to represent this series by a formula containing five con-
stants. We will not make any preliminary adjustment by the second
method, as that is not indispensable to our system of interpolation by
groups, although it is generally desirable, as, indeed, it would be in a
less degree with Cauchy’s method, which also depends on the summa-
tion of irregular series of quantities within certain intervals. Dividing
our 24 given terms into six groups of equal extent, we get—

Si 45 Me S515 S,=—.75

S.=—.07 Si==-00 Se 05
Computing by formula (ce) the values of the first five constants, and
substituting them in (78), we have—

S=.0008+4 sin 1(n 0)[— .0667 sin (.c 0)+.1848 cos (x 0)|
+ sin : 0)[.3067 sin 2(a 0)+.7544 cos 2(x 0)]

which we transform into—

S=.0008-+ .1965 sin 3(n 0) sin (@ 04+109°51’)
+.8144 sin (70) sin (2 @ 0467903")

This expresses the sum 8 of any group of n terms in the graduated
series, the abscissa of the middle point of the group being z, and each
term being supposed to occupy, on the axis of X, a space equal to

NS
my

The angle 0 is Oy a a . If we further take n=1 and S=w, we

obtain the equation of the graduated series—

unity.

u=.001+.026 sin (# 04+109°51’)+4 .211 sin (2 # 0467953")
Frem this the values in column (2) are computed. The sums of the
terms in its six groups are, of course, not precisely equal to those in
column (1). To make them so, it would be necessary to add to the
equation the term containing the sixth constant B,. This term is—
+.018 sin 3(7 0)

The origin of co-ordinates is at the middle of the series. If we wish to

METHODS OF INTERPOLATION. 339

transfer it to the first term, we put v—11} in the place of xv, and thus
get—

u= .001+ .026 sin (# 04297921’) + .211 sin (2 # 04+82°53/)
which does not differ greatly from the equations obtained by Cauchy’s
method and the method of least squares, as given in the Coast Survey
Report.

Similar results would be obtained by dividing the given series into
eight or twelve groups, and computing the values of the first five con-
stants from formulas (d) or (e). These results would probably be a little
more accurate than the preceding, being in accordance with the prin-
ciple of least squares, as already stated.

In cases where the data for interpolation are the mean values M,, M,,
M,, &c., of the ordinate, taken within intervals formed by equal divisions
of the circular period N, our formulas (a), (0), (ce), &e., will still be ap-
plicable. For instance, with three intervals, we shall have
Si — SiN, S.=2 M,N, S3=2M,N
Formula (a) then gives the values of the three constants, and since
S=Mn, formula (78) becomes—

M=A+ 7 on 4(n 0)[B, sin (wv #)4+-C, cos (vc 0)|

which expresses the mean value M of the ordinate within any interval n.
To illustrate this, let us take the corrected mean temperatures at New
92

Haven (Transactions of the Connecticut Academy, Vol. I, p. 233) for
intervals of four months:

dannary to April.i.....02.¢-..2.. M,=34°. 35 Fahr.
May to August................-- M,=66°, 84
September to Déecember..-....-.-- M,=46°. 15

To obtain from these an equation for the series of daily means, we have
N=s651, and consequently—

S:=4182, Se O10, S;=5619
Formula (a) then gives—
A=49,11, 33, = 958, C,=2492

and (78) gives—
peu : ae .
M=19.11-42670( =) sin 1(2 0) sin (7 0+68958’)

This equation expresses the mean temperature of any interval of n
days. The angle ¢ is—

ie
ai

0= 5557 =0°59'.138
3651 ‘

If we also take n=1, the equation of daily means is found to be—
M=49. 11+ 22.91 sin (wv 0+68°58’)
The origin of co-ordinates is at the middle of the year.

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REPORT ON THE TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY OF PHYSICS AND NATURAL
HISTORY, OF GENEVA, FROM JUNE, 1870, TO JUNE, 1871.

By M. HENRI DE SAUSSURE, PRESIDENT.

[Translated for the Smithsonian Institution. ]

The year which has just passed has been marked by events which
have left but little time for the peaceful occupations of science. The
war burst upon us almost at the moment that our scientific year com-
menced, and we can hardly yet say that it has terminated. If Switzer-
land has not been oppressed by belligerent armies, she has, neverthe-
less, been obliged to play an active part in the duties which her
neutrality imposes upon her, and there are few present who during
this sad period have not been in one way or another diverted from their
regular occupations. Several members of the soeiety have not hesitated
to make the sacrifice of their precious time to works of charity which
the evils of war have rendered every day more indispensable ; in fact
no one has been able to escape the preoccupations occasioned by the
important events which have transpired in a neighboring theater of our
frontier. ,

On this account the convocation of the scientific congress, announced
for the second half of the year 1870, has been countermanded. The
Helvetic Society of Natural Sciences, convoked at Frauenfeld for the
month of August, has not been able to assemble, and a geological con-
eress, organized at Geneva under the superintendence of MM. Favre,
father and son, and of M. F. J. Pictet dela Rive, has been obliged to
be postponed to some other time. We can therefore scarcely be sur-
prised that our society should itself be somewhat affected by the exte-
rior agitations, and that the meetings should have been less frequented
than in ordinary times.

It, however, the catastrophes to which I have alluded, have some-
what diminished the activity of our members, they have procured us,
by akind of compensation, the inappreciable advantage of having seated
among us a number of foreign savants, who, exiled from their homes
through the vicissitudes of war, have found in the shelter of our neu-
trality a refuge both peaceful and hospitable. In attending our meet-
ings, and in favoring us with their communications, they have cast upon
our reunions a luster of which our records will preserve the remembrance.
These savants were M. M. Regnault, of the Institute, and M. P. Cap, of
the Academy of Medicine at Paris; M. le Professor Fée, of Strasburg ;

342 SOCIETY OF PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY, OF GENEVA.

and M. Guénée, of Chateaudun. Theassiduity with which these gentle-
men have associated themselves with us in our labors, the desire which
they have manifested to continue with us in relations in which the interest
of the society has been so largely increased, has induced us to confer upon
them the title of honorary members; and your president before resign-
ing his place to his suecessor had the pleasure of expressing to them
the faithful interpretation of our sentiments.

To the names of the savants whom I have just mentioned, I must add
those of several gentlemen who have sojourned with us only a short
time, particularly M. Bigot and M. Duperrey, who have only appeared
at our meetings at brief intervals. Lastly, we have welcomed in our
city our emeritus member, M. Dumas, perpetual secretary of the Acad-
emy of Sciences, whom we delight to claim as one of ourselves; for
none of you can forget that it was at Geneva that M. Dumas published
his first works, and that he stands to-day among the elders of our soci-
ety of physics.

It is very seldom, gentlemen, that a year passes without our being
called upon to mourn the departure of one of our colleagues. To-day
we have to lament the death of a highly esteemed savant, who was
admitted into our ranks only a few short months ago. Dr. Augustus
Waller was born, in 1816, at Elverton, near Ferusham, in the county of
Kent, England. He pursued the study of medicine in France, and
received in 1840 a diploma of doctor of medicine from the faculty of
aris. He then returned to England and established himself at Ken-
sington, where he practiced medicine for several years. But the ordi-
nary occupation of the physician was not sufficient to satisfy his inves-
tigating spirit, and he always found time to devote himself to scientifie
researches in the domain of anatomy and physiology. His principal
investigations were directed to the nervous system, which did not fail
to lead to important discoveries, and some well-known experiments
which he made in London upon the degeneracy which the nerves and
the nervous center undergo, obtained for him.the title of member of
the Royal Society, and the grand prize of physiology fromthe Academy
of Sciences at Paris. Not finding in London all the facilities necessary
to his researches, he resolved to change his residence, and did not hesi-
tate to sacrifice to his studies a practice which had become extensive.
He removed with his family to Bonn, where he had full leisure to con-
tinue his physiological and microscopical investigations upon the ner-
vous system.

The researches which he made in physiology, either alone or in col-
laboration with Professor Budge, entitled him to more honorable dis-
tinction on the part of the Academy of Sciences at Paris. He obtained
for the second time the great prize of physiology on account of his dis-
coveries relative to the functions of the great sympathetic nerve, and to
the influence of the spinal marrow upon the pupil. From Bonn, Waller
repaired to Paris, and after having labored for several years in the

SOCIETY OF PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY, OF GENEVA. 343

laboratory of Flourens, he was called to Birmingham to occupy a chair
of physiology and a position as physician to the hospital of that city.
‘He even then felt the first symptoms of the diseases which subsequently
earried him off, and was obliged to give up some of his labors on account
of his failing health. . He next removed to Switzerland, and after having
lived in the Canton Vaud for several years, he came in 1868 to reside in
Geneva.

Although Waller had been obliged to abandon his regular labors, his
mind, unusually. active and ingenious, could not remain idle, and he
never entirely ceased to occupy himself with interesting questions in
physiology and medicine. At Geneva, his health having improved, he
devoted himself anew to medical practice, to which he was always much
attached, and his large experience in that line rendered him especially
eminent. In 1869 he was received as a member of our society. The
same year he had the honor of being invited to deliver the Croonian
lecture to the Royal Society of London, and for that purpose repaired
to England. His health, which appeared to be confirmed, was not
established. He had suffered several severe attacks of quinsy, a malady
which suddenly terminated his existence on the 18th of September, 1870,
at the age of fitty-five years.

It would take too much time to analyze all the labors of our lamented
associate; we Shall limit ourselves to a short summary of those which
have excited the most interest in the scientific world, particularly bis
work upon the degeneracy of the nerves. The nerves which are
distributed through different parts of the body are, we know, composed
of different fibers, intermixed with each other—those which call into
action motive-power, and those which convey impressions of sensibility.
At their origin, that is to say at their point of emergence, from the
spinal marrow, the motor nervous fibers are separated from the sensitive
nervous fibers; the former constituting the anterior roots and the latter
the posterior. After having demonstrated by experiment that when a
complex nerve is cut, the outer segment, suddenly arrested, withers and
degenerates, while the central segment, remaining in communication
with the nervous center, continues unchanged, Waller studied the
degeneration of the nerves taken at their origin. Beginning at the
nervous roots, he proved that the nervous center, which maintains
intact the nervous fibers of the anterior roots, is seated in the spinal
marrow itself, while the nervous center, which continues intact the
nervous fibers of the posterior roots, is situated in the intervertebral
ganglion, united to their posterior roots. It was by means of sec-
tions of these roots taken at different distances, that Waller made
these important discoveries, the application of which immediately
occurred to him. The changes which take place in the structure of a
nerve after the cutting are so evident that the experimenter can avail
himself of it as a means of tracing the distribution of their fibers in the
different tissues. It is in this way that he succeeded in perceiving the

344 SOCIETY OF PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY, OF GENEVA.

terminations or ends of the nerves in the tongue, a study which he made
for the most part upon the tongue of a living frog. This new method
of investigation in regard to the nervous system, which obtained for
Waller the prize of physiology from the Academy of Sciences at Paris,
has been of great service. In order to give a just idea of its merits we
shall quote the words of Professor Vulpian, who in his Course of
Physiology of the Nervous System, describes with care this method, to
which he proposes to give the name of the Wallerian method. After hav-
ing given numerous examples from the experiments we have already
cited, M. Vulpian adds: ‘To this day we have not deduced from this
method all the results which it is able to furnish; but sooner or later
we will institute some special researches, taking it as our point of de-
parture, and without doubt we shall discover important and valuable
truths in regard to anatomical physiology.” An important discovery of
Waller is that of the exudation of the white globules of the blood
from their vessels. The memoir which he published upon this sub-
ject in 1846 had been forgotten, when Cohnheim and other microsco-
pists rediscovered the facts in 1867, and from them deduced a new
theory in regard to inflammation. M. Stricker, of Vienna, in an inter-
esting article which appeared in 1869, awarded to Waller all the honor
of the priority of this discovery. We have confined ourselves
to the analysis of the works of Waller, and for more ample in-
formation we refer the reader to the list of his publications. It will
suffice to give at least an approximation of the extent of the
researches of this eminent man’s investigations, all of which bear the
stamp of true originality.

Waller had, indeed, a mind essentially ingenious. The experiments
which he devised, the subsequent operations he empioyed, the new
methods he put in practice, all, to the minutest details, exhibit the char
acteristics of an eminently inventive genius. He also possessed the very
valuable trait of never allowing himself to be carried away by hypotheses.
Whatever opinions he advanced, he desired to prove mathematically.
As long as there remained any doubt on his mind, he would have recourse
to new experiments and imagine new methods by which it might be
removed. His talent for exposition was remarkable, as we all know by
experience in listening to the communications he made to our society.
In him science has lost a man of rare merit, while Geneva was only too
happy to include him among her residents.

Having rendered all due respect to the memory of our lamented col-
league, I will give a rapid sketch of the labors of the society, in accord-
ance with the plan adopted for the report of each year.

PHYSICAL SCIENCES.

It is principally in this domain of science that we have listened
to the most numerous lectures ; partly because the stranger savants who
have visited us were principally physicists, partly because of the

SOCIETY OF PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY, OF GENEVA. 345

accidintal absence of our excellent colleague, M. BE. Claparede, always
rich in communications on other subjects of a character to interest the
society. Unfortunately the condition of his health this winter causes
us the greatest anxiety.

General Dufour has given a summary of the results of the exper-
iments upon which he has been engaged for some time in regard to the
relative movement of material points, a question which is of interest to
general astronomy. 1. In studying the movement of two stars around
a supposed fixed point, it is demonstrated by observation that this point
must be in motion. 2. The curve being plane, and the stars remain-
ing in the same plane during their translation, it may therefore be con-
cluded that the stars have all received an impulse resulting in a parallel
movement. 35. The movement of the apsides proves that the center of
gravity of the system is displaced, not following a straight line, but de-
scribing a curved one.

Professor Emile Plantamour has made this year, as formerly, a
sojourn among the mountains, in order to determine the astronomical
co-ordinates of the different stations of Switzerland. The Simplon was
the place he selected for his operations in 1870. The latitude of this
station, as derived from his observations, is 46° 14/ 59’.4, with a pos-
sible error of a quarter of a second.

The unusually cold winter which we have experienced has naturally
attracted the attention of meteorologists, and M. Plantamour, according
to his custom, has given some results deduced from the compared course
of the temperature of different years. The months of December and
January of this winter have shown a mean temperature of 2°.45. This
period of the winter is very similar to that of the winter of 1837~38, of
which the mean temperature was — 2°.3; but the winter of 1529,
the remembrance of which is still traditional throughout the country,
was colder still, as in December and January, the mean temperature
was 4°.7.

Colonel E. Gautier has presented frequent communications rela-
tive to the constitution of the sun. In a paper read at the April
meeting he gave an account of an important memoir from Professor L.

respighi, director of the observatory of the capitol, upon some spectro-
scopical observations continued for fourteen months, and which have
been made principally with reference to the protuberances of the edges
of the sun. The author infers from his observations that the sun must
have an exterior liquid envelope, compressing the overheated gases
in its interior. ‘These gases at times force themselves through the
envelope, and occasion formidable eruptions ; after which they disperse
and combine with the elements of the surface of the sun. In consequence
of these combinations, obscure points appear which in agglomerating forra
the spots on the disk of the sun. These masses float at the surface of the
incandescent globe as dross a result arrived at by M. Gautier several
years ago in trying to re-establish the theory of Gallileo, and of Simon

4‘

346 SOCIETY OF PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY, OF GENEVA.

Marius. The paper of M. Gautier has been inserted in the Archives
of Science 1871, volume XLI, page 27. He has continued to keep us
informed in regard to important discoveries made in the domain of gen-
eral astronomy.

Professor Cellérier presented a paper upon the molecular constitution
of gas. According to modern hypothesis, gases are composed of mole-
cules, endowed with a movement of translation in every direction, and
freed during the major part of the duration of this movement, from all
mutual action, this action only revealing itself by shocks. Whatever
be the nature of the latter, their consequences, according tothe general
laws of mechanics, can only be similar to those which are produced by
the shock of two perfectly elastic bodies. The movement after the
shock depends either upon the direction of the movement before the
shock, or, upon fortuitous circumstances, such as the direction of the
plane of the shock. If we admit that, during a certain time, the di-
rection of this plane is always parallel to one or the other of the
three rectangular planes, the result must be that the diffusion of the densi-
ties, in all the masses would occur immediately, contrary to all experience.
It would be the same for an infinity of other directions of the plane of the
shock. M. Cellérier has therefore concluded that the theory of gases
which Clausius and other physicists have proposed is not absolutely
admissible, at least under this simple form. This communication has
given rise to some observations by A. de la Rive, upon the impossi-
bility of doing without the intervention of ether, in explaining
the phenomena which the gases present.

Our compatriot, M. Duperrey, for a number of years professor at
Paris, has taken advantage of a sojourn at Geneva, to lay before the so-
ciety some researches which he has undertaken, to find a simple and
practical relation between the temperature and the maximum tension
of steam... He has obtained the following result, remarkable for its sim-
plicity, that this tension represented in kilogrammes by square, centi-
meters, is nearly exactly equal to the fourth power of the temperature.

M. Serra Carpi, a Roman engineer, in passing through Geneva, has
given some details relative to the variation of the mean temperature at dif-
ferent heights, a subject treated in a pamphlet, of which he has given
to the society a copy. Professor Marcet, in a letter addressed from
London to M. de la Rive, has given an account of the last observations
of Dr. Carpenter upon the waters of the Mediterranean. These observa-
tions were extended to a depth of 3,000 meters. At this depth the
water is turbulent, and containsa great quantity of dissolved gas. Theden-
sity changes from 10°.27 at the surface, to 10°.29 at 2,000 meters, and to
10°.28 at 3,000 meters of depth. The denser water rests therefore upon
water less dense; this singular fact can be explained by currents, of
which Dr. Carpenter has without doubt confirmed the existence.

In the domain of physics, Professor Regnault has presented to the
society an important communication, which oceupied an entire meeting.

SOCIETY OF PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY, OF GENEVA. 347

This distinguished academician gave his views as to the manner of un-
derstanding and studying meteorology, also as to the best form to be
adopted for the instruments which are employed in this branch of science.
He thinks that meteorology should be considered less as a dependence
of astronomy, than as auxiliary to physiology, since it assists especially
in determining the isothermal lines, and its principal object is to give
account of the physical circumstances which favor or retard the develop-
ment of organized beings. As to the instruments, he is in favor of
simplifying them in order to render them accessible to the greatest
number of people. He proposes particularly to attach to barometers
and thermometers photographical registering apparatus moving by
clock-work, which will record without trouble the variations of these
instruments and enable us to read them with perfect exactness. Instru-
ments constructed upon this model would be of great assistance in the
researches within the domain of physiology, botany, agriculture, ete.

The phenomena relative to the aurora borealis have been, as in the
past, the object of different communications from Professor A. de
Ja Rive, who continues to keep the society informed upon this subject.
The same member has given an account of the important researches
which he has made in regard to the rotatory magnetic power of liquids.
Atter having devised the apparatus he employed, and the new methods
he had adopted to avoid as much as possible all sources of error, he has
studied successively diferent liquids in order to determine their
magnetic rotatory power, such in particular as sulphurous acid, which
had not previously been submitted to this kind of experiment, different
mitxures of solutions, and a certain number of isomeric bodies of which
none presented the same magneto-rotatory power. The influence of
temperature has also been analyzed with care, and it has been to prove
that it tends to diminish this power, which is evidently due to the man-
ner in which the particles are grouped. M. dela Rive has also presented
in concert with M. Edward Sarasin, a work which they have made to-
gether on the action of magnetism upon rarefied gases traversed by
discharges of electricity. In operating successively upon atmospheric air,
upon carbonic acid gas, and upon hydrogen, these two physicists have
found that the magnetism produces in the portion of gas directly
traversed by the discharge an increase of density, and besides an aug-
mentation or a diminution of resistance to the conductibility according
as the electrical jet is directed equatorially or axially between the poles
of the electro-magnet. These augmentations and diminutions vary with
eachgas. They arenothing in certain positions of the jet with reference to
the magnet, and are probably due, when they manifest themselves, to
the perturbation caused by the action of magnetism in the disposition
which the gaseous particles affect when they propagate electricity.
(These two memoirs are inserted in the archives.) M. L. Soret read a
memoir upon the polarization of light by water, as studied upon that
of different lakes, upon sea-water and upon snow-water. He shows that

348 SOCIETY OF PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY, OF GENEVA.

the phenomenon is more intense when the water is clearest, and that the
polarization takes place for all parts of the spectrum equally. Dis-
turbed or muddy waters give no polarization. The same physicist has
also given an account of some experiments he has made in order to verify
the results obtained by M. Christiansen and by M. Kundt, upon the ab-
normal dispersion of the light of bodies of superficial colors. The two
works which I have mentioned have been published in the Archives of
Science, and I refer you tothem. M. Raoul Pictet has presented a paper
on the resistance a body experiences in its motion through the air, witha
uniform velocity. It would be difficult to give an analysis of it in a few
words. This resistance is expressed by the formula R = Ky’, which is
indicated by calculation, and experimentally verified.

The same savant has repeated, at the meetings of the society, var-
ious experiments, having for their object to show the emissive and
absorbent powers of ice for heat, and the influence which they exercise
upon its formation and its fusion. In order to prove experimentally
the radiant power of ice for black heat, M. Pictet has made a piece of
ice contract rapidly by the action of this radianey, in immersing it
at the level of the surface of water at 0°, and in exposing it to the
air under a serene sky. From another side he has shown that ice is
almost entirely diathermal for luminous heat, and altogether diathermal
for black heat. In projecting a ray of luminous heat through a block of
ice inclosing specks of foreign bodies there is formed around each corpus-
cle a drop of water, resulting from the absorption of the black heat which
these bodies radiate under the luminous rays; and when these foreign
bodies are sufficiently numerous the ice is disintegrated through its
entire depth, and is melted. If, on the contrary, aray of black heat is
projected upon the block of ice, as this does not penetrate into the sub-
stance of the ice, it produces a fusion of the superficial stratum only,
and does not affect the interior parts.

Professor Marignac has communicated to us the result of his researches
upon the specific heat of saline solutions. (Inserted in the Archives,
vol. XX XIX, page 217.)

M. Morin read a memoir upon the azotized substances found in the
embryos of herbivorous animals, and especially in their eggs.

Our emeritus member, M. Dumas, has laid before the society various
important questions, which were discussed by the Academy of Sciences
at Paris during the siege of that capital. The necessity of having re-
course to balloons for carrying on correspondence led to various improve-
ments in the art of zronautics. It was necessary, on account of economy,
to construct the balloons of cotton material, and in order to render this
impermeable, a varnish of India rubber was used. But M. Dumas showed
that India rubber is permeable to gas, and proposed to superimpose on it
some substances soluble in water, especially gelatine. By superposing
the two substances, a varnish was obtained impermeable both to gas
and the moisture of the air. It was also observed that it was best to

SOCIETY OF PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY, OF GENEVA. 349

launch the balloons about 3 or 4 o’clock in the morning, because at that
hour they were covered with dew, of which the gradual evaporation
lightened them during the morning hours, and allowed them to maintain
the same height without it being necessary to throw out ballast. Nu-
merous trials, which seem to have some success, have been made in
regard to directing balloons, but have not yet been completed.

The scarcity of food has induced many persons attempt to imitate the
elements of first necessity, and M.- Dumas has read on this subject a me-
moir in which he proves the impossibility of producing milk artificially.
The fabrication of this substance has been frequentiy attempted and
has been practiced upon a great scale, but the artificial milk can never
take the place of the natural milk, for the latter exhibits an incontestable
organic structure which cannot be reproduced chemically; the fat cor-
puscles are enveloped in a pellicle, which prevents ether from dis-
solving them. We find these globules with their pellicle even in the
milk extracted from the lacteal vessels at the moment when the secre-
tion of the glands takes place, which proves that they have a physio-
logical origin. M. P. Cap, who we ail know has been remarkably assid-
uous at our meetings, has read two papers concerning the history of
chemistry. The numerous historic notices which proceed from the pen
of this author are so well known to those who follow the progress of
science, that it is hardly necessary to mention how peculiarly well qual-
ified he is to treat these subjects. In his memoir upon the discovery of
oxygen he has proved that this body was in the first place discovered
by Bayat,a French chemist, fallen unjustly into oblivion, and that the
work of Priestley and of Scheele is confined to making known the
properties of oxygen, as well as those of its compounds. But Lavoi-
sier’s eminently generalizing mind gave to this discovery its true import-
ance, and deduced from it its now recognized relations to the nomen-
clature and the science of chemical combinations. M. Cap has also
given an account of the discovery of iodine by Bernard Courtois, in
which he particularly dwells upon the first phases of this discovery,
and upon the biography of its author. These notices have appeared in
the Journal of Pharmacy, so it is not necessary for us to speak of them
further.

NATURAL SCIENCES.

Geology.—Professor Alphonse de Candolle has examined the ques-
tion whetier in case the fora which exists should be reduced to a fossil
state, we would be able to discover any characteristic which would
determine in a precise manner the geological age of the strata in which
it occurs. Now, he has proved that there is no such general char-
acteristic among the phanerogamous plants which are now found at
the surface of the earth, and it is not probable there exists any among
the cryptogamous plants. It has probably been the same at all other
epochs, and consequently the similarity between two geological strata,

350 SOCIETY OF PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY, OF GENEVA.

situated in different parts of the earth, does not prove them to be of the
same age. The term geological epoch, which always implies some dis-
tinction in the flora and in the fanna, in reference to other epochs,
is, therefore, not adapted to the scientific signification for which it
is intended. The above-mentioned idea is being more and more intro-
duced into science.

Professeur D, Colladon has placed before the society some beauti-
ful photographs, which represent cuttings of the earth upon the hill of
Geneva, executed upon the Tranchées, a hill which is believed to be a
product of the ancient alluvion of the river Arve. He published in
1870, in the Archives, (vol. VX XIX, page 199,) an extended notice upon
this subject, and also drew attention to the study of the terraces of the
southern shore of Lake Léman.

M. Ernest Favre has presented an interesting communication on the
geology of the mountains of the region southwest of the canton of
Fribourg, composing the chain of the Nivemont, the Moléson, the
Verreaux, and that of Saint Cray; he compared the structure of this
solid mass with similar formations, which have been observed in the
Tyrol and in the Carpathes. (This has appeared in the Archives.)

Finally Professor Thury has measured the thickness of the section
of the glacier of the Oldenhorn, such as it presents from the lake of
Rhéto. He estimates it at 45 meters, and has counted from 70 to 80
horizontal strata, each one having a thickness of about 60 decimeters.

Botany.—Since the works of Darwin have attracted the attention of
naturalists to the question of the origin of organic species, their descent
and their affiliations, the manner of distribution of these species over
the surface of the globe, which has great interest on the bearing of this
question, has been studied with more attention than in the past, and is
becoming every day the object of new and important researches. M de
Candolle has shown that botanists have found in the flora of the
Fortunate Islands.hardly any plant similar to the western coast of
Africa, while they contain a large number in common with those of
Europe. This fact would indicate that the islands in question have been
formerly united to Europe, by a terrestrial communication, while it
seems to have always remained separated from Africa. It is true we
are by no means certain of the flora of the high mountains of Maroe,
which throws some doubt upon the conclusions we would be inclined to
infer from the above observations.

Dr. Miiller contributed an article, accompanied with drawings, upon a
new species of hair discovered upon two Asiatic plants of the combretacious
family. These hairs have the general appearance of scales or the plates of
a shield, but instead of exhibiting a disk formed of numerous cells en-
tirely radial, they are formed of a regular net-work of cells, which is
only one cell in thickness, like the ordinary leaf of mosses. Dr. Miiller
described these curious scales and proposed to give the name of Lépide
réticulée,

SOCIETY OF PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY, OF GENEVA. Jol

Professor Fée, of Strasburg, read a memoir upon the determination
of plants mentioned by the ancients; in which he shows especially how
excessively difficult it is to arrive at a sufficiently definite determina-
tion which would enable us with any degree of accuracy to apply the
old nomenclature to the new. A recent work by M. Bubani, far from
settling the inherent difficuities of this question only furnished a new
proot of its complexity.

ZOOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

Among the strangers who have attended our sessions, Messrs. Guénée
and Bigot have for several months given their time to the arrangement
of the entomological collections of our museum; especially the first of
these gentlemen, who for six months has been at work in our lJabora-
tories. Mr. Bigot has classified the Diptera and M. Guénée the Lepi-
doptera. As the collections are about to be removed to the new
academic buildings, where they will be properly exhibited, such a classi-
fication, by competent men, is of great importance.

M. Guénée discovered in our cases several new species of Papilio and
allied genera; also a Bombicide, which exhibits a very remarkable
vase of hermaphrodism ; in this the organs of the two sexes, instead of
being localized, are mingled and distributed through nearly all parts of
the body. The article on this subject by M. Guénée will be inserted in
our memoirs.

M. Claparede has studied the cysts of a féra sent to him by M. Lunel.
The muscles of this fish inclosed various cysts, most of which contained
a liquid greatly resembling milk. In one of them was a cheesy, whitish
substance, evidently produced by the metamorphosis of a lacteous liquid,
similar to that in the other cysts, but the more fluid elements of which
had been re-absorbed. The constituent elements of these cysts were
psorospermies, resembling each other, and composed of a head of len-
ticular form, and a tail double from its base. With these psorospermies
there was always found a granular protoplasm, at whose expense the
psorospermies were developed. ‘These facts have been observed betore,
but what was especially remarkable in the féra in question was the
presence of other cysts in the mucus of the gills, but with psorosper-
mies very different, and much smaller, having a diameter of only one-
fourth to one-tenth of a millimeter. Their abundance gives to the entire
bronchial apparatus a grayish tint. These psorosphermies were not
lenticular, but perfectly spherical, and without a tail, each inclosing a
spherical kernel, very refracting, and some smail grains. M. Claparéde
thinks there must be a generic connection between the small cysts of
the gills and the large cysts of the muscles, However, no observations
have as yet confirmed this hypothesis. Upon one of the arches of the
guls was a cyst of about a millimeter in size, of which the contour was
very different from the other gill-cysts, and resembled somewhat those
of the muscular cysts. These psorospermies are distinguished from

352 SOCIETY OF PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY, OF GENEVA.

those of the large cysts by their shorter tails. However, with a great
many of them the tail was bifarcated at the end. Prof. Claparéde
also exhibited the plates of a new work upon the histology of Annélides,
and has given some details as to the process he employs for the arrange-
ment and preservation of his preparations.

M. Herman Fol read before the society a long and important memoir
upon the Appéndiculaires, a family belonging to the class of Tuniciers
It confirms the near relation that several authors have established be-
tween these animals and vertebrates, and proposes to place them at
the base of the genealogical tree of the latter. M. ol has been made a
member of our society on account of this work, which will be printed
in Volume XX of our memoirs.

M. Godfrey Lunel has given some interesting facts observed at Ge-
neva relative to the metamorphoses of the A.xrolotes. We know that
these batracians are transformed sometimes by the loss of their bron-
chia, and, from being aquatic, as they generally are, they become pul-
monary animals, living in free air. Several Axolotes, placed in running

rater, did not experience any change; while of two others, left in a
wash-basin, badly cared-for and exposed to the cold, one died, and the
other was transformed by the loss of its bronchia; but, after having
been replaced in a normal condition, it re-assumed its first form so
perfectly as not to be distinguished. This fact, which constitutes a see-
ond transformation in a retrograde direction, is entirely new.

Dr. J. L. Prévost has given an account of experiments relative
to the mode of action of anesthetics and of chloroform upon the ner-
vous center, and he has obtained results contrary to those of M. Cl.
Bernard. This physiologist states that the chloroform, in acting up-
on the brain, affects not only that organ, but acts also, at a distance,
upon the spinal marrow, without being in contact with it. M. Prévost
has repeated the principal experiments of M. Bernard, which consist
in stopping the circulation in frogs, by placing a bandage below the
shoulders, then injecting diluted chloroform into one set below the skin
of the anterior cut, and into the other below the skin of the posterior
eut. In varying the position of the frogs, M. Prévost, after trial,
has found that chloroform introduced in the posterior part can,
contrary to the opinion of M. Bernard, anzsthetize the anterior part
when the frog is placed with the posterior members in the air, while
the chloroform introduced in the anterior part does not anesthetize the
posterior part if we are careful to place the frog with the head down-
ward. He thinks that M. Bernard has not been sufficiently careful to
guard against the filtration of the chloroform through the tissues.

M. Prévost,in applying pure chloroform to the denuded brain of
a frog, of which the aorta was tied, and placed in the position above
indicated, has anewsthetize the head only of the animal, leaving intact the
functions of the spinal marrow. Afterward, when he has untied
the aorta, these frogs have returned to their normal state, which proves

:

SOCIETY OF PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY, OF GENEVA, 353

that the chloroform acts in this experiment simply as an anesthetic,
and not as a caustic, which destroyed the brain, leaving the frog in the
state of a headless animal. From these experiments M. Prévost has
come to the conclusion that chloroform anxsthetizes in the nervous cen-
ter only the parts with which it is directly in contact, and that it does
not act at a distance, as M. Bernard believed.

M. Brown-Sequard has produced some phenomena of epilepsy upon
Guinea pigs by means of hemisections of the marrow or of the
section of a sciatic nerve. Dr. Prévost has obtained the same
phenomena by the amputation of a thigh of one of these animals. In
order to provoke a nervous attack it is sufficient to excite the zone
called epileptic, which comprises the half of the surface corresponding
to the member amputated, and immediately the animal is thrown into
convulsions. The excitability of this zone decreases, however, with the
continuation of the experiment, and it is always more difficult to pro-
voke a new crisis. The study of this artificial epilepsy will, without
doubt, throw some light upon the kind and nature of natural epilepsy.

MEDICINE.

Dr. Lombard has been investigating for several years the climate
of mountains, a Subject which more than any other ought to interest
the physicians of Switzerland. His later researches are directed to the
effect which these climates exercise upon pulmonary phthisis, a question
which he had been appointed to investigate by the commission estab-
lished at Samaden, for the purpose of its elucidation. He estimated
that a residence in high altitudes would prevent the development of
the phthisis, and even cure it, either in developing the pulmonary em-
physema, or by favoring the functional periphery activity. (The work
of M. Lombard has appeared in the Medical Bulletin of Switzerland.)

Finally, M. Alphonse de Candolle read a notice which likewise de-
serves to be registered in the medical rubric. It is, in fact, an appli-
cation to this science of the Darwinian principles deduced from natural
history, inasmuch as it treats of an effect of selections rendering variable
the intensity of maladies when they are very deadly. According to the
author, when a disease has severely attacked that portioa of the popula-
tion not advanced in years, the following generation, descending from
persons not disposed to take this disease, will also be in the same
condition by an ordinary effect of the hereditary law. There is, there-
fore, a reason for the diminution of the epidemic. We can likewise
explain why its attacks are most severe the first time it appears among
a population, and why it afterward becomes rare or less fatal, which
has been the case with most of the diseases of this kind. At the end
of several generations, however, a population moderately attacked by
a disease resembles the condition of a population who have never had
it, and the result is a double intensity. Applying these principles to

the small-pox, M. de Candolle estimated that at the time when Jenner
23 8 71

354 SOCIETY OF PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY, OF GENEVA.

introduced vaccine, the variolic affection was weakened relative to the
anterior epoch. Vaccine ought, therefore, to be as much more efiica-
cious when it is applied in a similar condition. Small-pox having
nearly disappeared in Europe, during two generations a new population
appears less exempted from its attacks, and this cause of receptibility
ought to-day to render vaccine less efficacious. The author does not
pretend to say that this is the only acting cause, but he thinks that,
independently of others, it exists as a necessity, and that it ought to be
taken into account.

In giving a concise account of the labors of the society I have omit-
ted many communications of a less important character, serving as
themes for those discourses with which our meetings generally terminate.

These familiar conversations, in which each one gives an account of
his studies, and which are often succeeded by interesting discussions, con-
tinue to occupy our meetings in the most useful and agreeable manner.
They not only maintain between the members an intimate relation which
we all appreciate, but likewise establish a sort of oral bulletin of the
most recent discoveries, allowing each one to follow in a general man-
ner the progress of science outside of his own specialty.

INTERNAL ADMINISTRATION.

Having given a summary of the papers presented at our meetings, it
only remains for me, gentlemen to give you a brief account of the in-
terior transactions of the society. Col. Emile Gautier has been
elected president for 1871-72, and M. E. Sarasin has been confirmed in
his position as secretary.

If we have had the misfortune to lose one of our colleagues, we have
also had the satisfaction of gaining two new ordinary members in MM.
Raoul Pictet and Herman Fol, and we have likewise increased the list
of our free associates by the addition of MM. Georges Prévost, H. P.
E. Sarasin, J. L. Micheli, and H. Barbey. The number of our ordinary
members, which, in 1867, was forty-one, to-day amounts to forty-nine,
but the number of our free associates, which at the same date was
forty members, has decreased to thirty-eight, including the admission of
several associates to the title of ordinary members. You have also
nominated as honorary members, in addition, MM. Régnault, Fée, and
Cap, who were mentioned above, Prof, de Notaris, of Genes, well
known from his works upon botany, and the director of the Smith-
sonian Institution, of Washington, Professor Joseph Henry. This
savan has been associated with us a long time, in relations which we
esteem infinitely precious, and assisted at one of our meetings in 1870.

As to our publications, they have followed their ordinary course. The
Society of Physics publishes each year half a volume, which they reserve
as much as possible, on account of itssize, for the memoirs accompanied
with plates giving to the archives of science those which do notrequire illus-
trations. Itwas inthe year 1821 that the firstmumber of our memoirs ap-

SOCIETY OF PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY, OF GENEVA. 300

peared, and we finished the twentieth volumein 1870. Youhave decided to
make a general index of this series, in order to facilitate researches
which will become every day more difficult to examine in proportion as
the number of our volumes are increased. This index, which will ap-
pear at the same time as the present volume, has been prepared by our
colleague, Alfred Le Fort, who very obligingly devoted his time and
labor to our interests. Jam commissioned, in the name of the society,
to tender him our sincere acknowledgments.

The recapitulation of the material contained in our first twenty vol-
umes has shown that it includes in all three hundred and fifteen notices
and memoirs, some of which constitute complete works. This publica-
tion constitutes, therefore, an important collection, which can claim a
most honorable place among the scientific transactions of Europe.

Lastly, I will add that, although at an expense somewhat exceeding
the means of the society, the rich herbarium, for which our city is in-
debted to the generosity of the family of DeLessert, has been placed in
the botanical conservatory prepared for that purpose, where it is now
definitely arranged in such a manner that botanists may have free ac-
cess to it.

Before concluding this report, I desire, gentlemen, to communicate a
circumstance which appears to me to have peculiar interest for us, as
it refers to the origin of our society. In a preceding report, one of
your presidents, Dr. Grosse, proposed at the fiftieth anniversary of
the first scientific congress heid at Geneva to give you, with a talent
you all know how to appreciate, the history of the Society of Physics,
of which his father was ome of the founders. In some researches to
which I have devoted myself this winter, in order to find in the papers
of my family some documents relative to the history of this society
curing the first years of its existence, I have found a piece which
appears to me worthy of your regard. It is a letter of M. A. Pictet to
my grandfather, in which he announces the formation of the society and
incloses the names of its founders. I will give the most important part
of the letter: ae

“Tam commissioned, my very dear colleague, to offer to you, as likewise
to your son Theodore and M. Necker, membership of a society with which
I have the honor of being connected. I delayed mentioning it to you
until I could send at the same time the rules, a copy of which I received
yesterday. In reading them you will be informed of the obligations
imposed, which I hope will not frighten you. I have already attended
a meeting, and I assure you that, by the interest with which it. has
inspired me, I judge it will prove a favorable and useful project for
the progress of natural science and the personal advantage of the in-
dividuals who compose this society.

‘¢ Below are the actual members :

“M. M. Colladon, Tolfot, Gosse, Vauché, Jurine, Gaudy de Russie,

356 SOCIETY OF PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY, OF GENEVA.

Pictet. Members elected unanimously: M. M. de Saussure, father and
son, Necker de Saussure, Sensbier, Tingrey.

‘¢ Perhaps there are one or two others whom I have forgotten to men-
tion, as I made this catalogue from memory.

The next meeting will be the first Thursday after the 15th, at M.
Tollet’s, and if you accept your election, as we all hope you will, your
membership dates from the present, as well as that of your son and M.
Necker, to whom I beg you to have the goodness to communicate the
rules.

‘“¢ Accept the sincere attachment of your devoted servant and colleague,

‘“ PICTET.

“GENEVA, Saturday, October 8, 1791.”

This document refers, as we see, the definite constitution of the Society
of Physics to the year 1791. It shows that it was composed first of
twelve savants of Geneva, and that the original meetings were held on
Thursday, as in our days, though lately we have changed to Wednes-
day. The limited number of its members continually increased, and we
now have the satisfaction of seeing it sustained at a level which
tends rather to rise than to fall. The construction of new
academic buildings, in proportion to the new demands, is a speaking
testimony of the increasing progress of the intellectual activity of our
city. The extensions which could be made in the library, the laboratories,
and the museums would furnish a new element to this activity, and
would not fail to contribute to the extension of the taste for science in
. which Geneva ought to occupy a position before the world superior to
that which would be assigned her, merely taking into consideration her
population and the smallness of her territory.

In concluding, we will hope that the year, so fraught with agitation,
through which we have just passed may be succeeded by a period of
calm, of repose, and of prosperity, in which the peaceable occupations of
science may take the place of the clamorous commotion with which we
have been too long disturbed. Our society will then return to its la-
bors with new ardor, and more fully maintain the honorable position
so long occupied by our country, through the memory of the men who

lave distinguished it, and of whom the traditions are well preserved
wherever profound truth is cherished.

Appendix to the report of the president.
EDWARD CLAPAREDE.

GENTLEMEN: A few days after you had heard the reading of the
report of your president upon the operations of the year 1870~71, we
received the afilicting intelligence of the death of our excellent col-
league, M. Edward Claparéde. In view of the deep and unanimous
regret which we all experience at the loss of one who ranked among
the first savants of our city, we concluded it would be too long to wait

SOCIETY OF PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY, OF GENEVA. 357

until next year’s report for the testimony of esteem and affection in
which you all desire to unite, and we think it more suitable to add to
this year’s report a notice which shall from os day recall the memory
of Claparéde.

Edward Claparéde, born in 1832, was from an ancient family in
Geneva. He commenced his studies at the Academy of this city, where
he was even then remarkable for his pre-eminent resources. Hn-
dowed with a decided taste for natural sciences, he was the pupil of
Professor Pictet de la Rive, who, by his instruction, developed in him
a taste for zoology. In 1853 he went to the University of Berlin, where he
studied with the distinguished Jean Miiller, who was not long in recog-
nizing his merits, and of whom he became one of the best pupils.
Even while pursuing his studies, he composed several memoirs upon
the inferior animals, one of which treats of the anatomy of Cyclo-
stoma elegans, which served him as a thesis for the doctorate. It was
also at this time that he commenced, in common with his friend Lach-
man, a great work upon the Jnfusoria and the Rhyzopodia, which
made a considerable advance in the science of these animals, and
which obtained for him the great prize of physical science from the
Institute of France. Made Doctor of Medicine in 1857, Claparéde re-
turned to Geneva, where he continued his labors with great assiduity,
notwithstanding impaired health, and sufferings which would have dis-
couraged almost anyone else. He was soon elected to a professorship,
and displayed in his instruction the brilliant qualities which contribu-
ted to increase the reputation of our Academy. He also gave several
public lectures, which always attracted a large audience, thanks to his
great erudition, and to the fluency of speech which gave to his instruc-
tion an irresistible attraction.

Although his tastes led him to prefer the study of inferior animals,
he was occupied with various subjects, and we find in the memoirs of
the Archives de la Bibliotheque Universelle numerous articles of his upon
different branches of science, in which he gave a résumé of works in
foreign languages, also a number of analyses, as learned as varied,
upon many subjects, which added much to the value of the bulletin.
Understanding nearly all the languages of Europe, he could give an
account of a great many works entirely inaccessible to others, while his
critical appreciation bore the mark of a true scientific genius.

_ The desire to pursue his researches upon marine animals induced
Ciaparéde to make numerous journeys to the sea-shore, and on each
occasion he collected the materials for important investigations, the re-
sults of which appeared either in Geneva, in the Memoirs of the Society
of Physics, or inGermany, in the Zeitschrift fiir wissenschaftliche Zoologie
of Siebold and KGlliker, in the Archives of Miiller, &c. The class of
Annélides more particularily arrested his attention. Almost every
year he made it the subject of some new publication, and finally devo-
ted his great work to the Annelides of Naples, which, unfortunately,

358 SOCIETY OF PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY, OF GENEVA.

was the last labor of his life. There is, however, still another exten-
sive work by him, not yet printed, which will appear, treating of the
history of these animals. ;

Besides his study of marine animals, Claparede made at Geneva very
varied researches on other subjects. He published memoirs upon Din-
ocular vision, and numerous works upon the embryology of the Arthr-
opodes. In 1860 the Society of the Sciences, of Utrecht, awarded him
a gold medal for his beautiful investigations relative to the evolution
of the Aranéides, which were followed by his studies° upon different
crustaceous and acarious animals, which include many new facts, and
which are all important works in the progress of science. In fact,
Claparéde, always noted+ for the correctness of his eye, ended by
becoming an authority of the first order in all questions to be deci-
ded by the microscope, and in this respect he exercised throughout the
entire world a well-merited authority. His eminent genius for obser-
vation, the clearness of his judgment, which comprehended all diffi-
culties, naturally led Claparéde to the study of Darwinism, of which he
became a decided defender, and in relation to which he published sey-
eral remarkable articles.

In reading the numerous and important works of Claparéde, no one
would imagine the sad condition of his health. Afilicted with serious
organic maladies, his life was one long martyrdom. <A violent disease of
the heart had, from his earliest youth, caused great disturbance through
the whole of his organism; all exercise of any importance was inter-
dicted ; frequent hemoptysies brought him several times to the verge
of the grave; suffering of various kinds rendered him incapable of
work during long periods, and we can hardly comprehend how, even in
his best moments, he could devote himself to active research. His life
was sustained by a force of energy in his latter years, and by extreme
measures which no physician would have dared to advise. This condi-
tion of health did not cease to be a cause of anxiety and sadness to his
friends. It prevented him from undertaking works of great length, and
Wwe can judge by what he has accomplished, notwithstanding so many
difficulties, how much he might have done if he had been blessed with
good or even moderate health.

The necessity for a warm climate, as much as his passion for the sea-
shore, induced Claparéde, in 1866, to pass the winter at Naples. This
sojourn agreed with him perfectly; he devoted himself to his immensé
researches upon the Annelides, which fills the twentieth volume of our
memoirs. This induced him, two years after, to spend a second winter
in Naples, but the serious illness of his wife made work almost impossi-
ble; the assiduous care which he lavished upon the companion of his
life weakened him, and he became himself extremely ill. Nevertheless,
he desired, in 1870, to again attempt a sojourn at Naples, but far from
experiencing any relief he was more indisposed than ever. A hydrop-
Sy, which slowly ascended toward the vital organs, left him no hope-

SOCIETY OF PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY, OF GENEVA. 359

He fought against it, according to his custom, with an extraordinary en-
ergy, denying himself drinks, and submitting to a treatment which the
physicians believed to be beyond the endurance of a patient. He died
the 31st of May, at Sienne, on his return voyage, at the age of thirty-
nine years, just at the time when we all had reason to hope that it would
not be long before we should again welcome him to our midst.

The death of Claparéde has taken from Geneva one ef the finest
flowers from her scientific crown, and from our Academy one of its
most illustrious professors. The sorrow of his death willextend beyond
the extreme limit of our city, and be felt wherever science is cultivated.
Claparéde was one of those men who make a mark in the intellectual
life of a country and who seem predestined to be the founder of a school.
We recognize in him a combination of faculties rarely found united in
the same individual, an extraordinary facility to assimilate the labers
of others, a prodigious memory, great quickness of conception, and a
certainty of observation which was never at fault. To these essential
faculties were joined all the accessory qualities which facilitate work in
the domain of natural sciences. He excelled in the art of fine prepara-
tions; he handled the brush with as much talent as the surgeon’s knife,
and drew himself the plates of his work. He understood all the lan-
guages of Europe outside of the Slavonic tongues; his studies were im-
mense and redundant, though he made but few notes; his erudition
was really wonderful. The largeness of his views struck all who
approached him, and his instructions had a fascinating attractiveness,
though nothing was sacrificed to eloquence. His conversation was
always learned upon almost any subject, for it would have been dif-
ficult to find a specialty, scientific or literary, even among those most
foreign from his ordinary studies, in which he could be taken unawares.

As for us, gentlemen, it is not only a philosopher whom we mourn,
but a tried and devoted friend; a man of uprightness, one who, besides
the genius of science, possessed also all the generous qualities of the heart.
I can only regret, in concluding, that the remembrance of his life among
us should not be recorded in our annals by a pen more worthy than mine,

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EXPEDITION TOWARD THE N@RTH POLE,

INSTRUCTIONS TO CAPTAIN HALL, BY HON. G. M. ROBESON, SECRETARY
OF THE NAVY.

Navy DEPARTMENT, June 9, 1871.

Sir: Having been appointed, by the President of the United States,
commander of the expedition toward the North Pole, and the steamer
Polaris having been fitted, equipped, provisioned, and assigned for the
purpose, you are placed in command of the said vessel, her officers and
crew, for the purposes of the said expedition. Having taken command,
you will proceedin the vessel, at the earliest possible date, from the navy-
yard in this city to New York. From New York you will proceed to
the first favorable port you are able to make on the west coast of Green-
land, stopping, if you deem it desirable, at St. Johns, Newfoundland.
From the first port made by you, on the west coast of Greenland, if farther
south than Holsteinberg, you will proceed to that port, and thence
to Goodhaven, (or Lively,) in the island of Disco. At some one of the
ports above referred to you will probably meet a transport, sent by the
Department, with additional coal and stores, from which you will supply
yourself to the fullest carrying capacity of the Polaris. Should you fall
in with the transport before making either of the ports aforesaid, or
should you obtain information of her being at, or having landed her
stores at any port south of the island of Disco, you will at once proceed
to put yourself in communication with the commander of the transport,
and supply yourself with the additional stores and coal, taking such
measures as may be most expedient and convenient for that purpose.
Should you not hear of the transport before reaching Holsteinberg, you
will remain at that port, waiting for her and your supplies, as long as
the object of your expedition will permit you to delay for that purpose.
After waiting as long as is safe, under all the circumstances as they may
present themselves, you will, if you do not hear of the transport, pro-
ceed to Disco, as above provided. At Disco, if you hear nothing of the
transport, you will, after waiting as long as you deem it safe, supply
yourself, as far as you may be able, with such supplies and articles as
you may need, and proceed on your expedition without further delay,
From Disco you will proceed to Upernavik. At these two last-named
places you will procure dogs and other Arctic outfits. If you think it
of advantage for the purpose of obtaining dogs, &c., to stop at Tossak,
you will do so. From Upernavik, or Tossak, as the case may be, you
will proceed across Melville Bay to Cape Dudley Digges, and thence
you will make all possible progress, with vessels, boats, and sledges,

362 EXPEDITION TOWARD THE NORTH POLE.

toward the North Pole, using your own judgment as to the route or
routes to be pursued and the locality for each winter’squarters. Having
been provisioned and equipped for two and a half years, you will pursue
your explorations for that period; but, should the object of the expedi-
tion require it, you will continue your explorations to such a further
length of time as your supplies may be safely extended. Should, how-
ever, the main object of the expedition, viz, attaining the position of the
North Pole, be accomplished at an earlier period, you will return to the
United States with all convenient dispatch.

There being attached to the expedition a scientific department, its
operations are prescribed in accordance with the advice of the National
Academy of Sciences, as required by the law. Agreeably to this advice,
the charge and direction of the scientific operations will be intrusted,
under your command, to Doctor Emil Bessels; and you will render Dr.
Bessels and his assistants all such facilities and aids as may be in your
power to carry into effect the said further advice, as given in the in-
structions herewith furnished in a communication from the president of
the National Academy of Sciences. It is, however, important that ob-
jects of natural history, ethnology, &c., &c., which may be collected by
any person attached to the expedition, shall be delivered to the chief
of the scientific department, to be cared for by him, under your direc-
tion, and considered the property of the Government; and every
person be strictly prohibited from keeping any such object. You
will direct every qualified person in the expedition to keep a private
journal of the progress of the expedition, and enter on it events, obser-
vations, and remarks, of any nature whatsoever. These journals shall
be considered confidential and read by no person other than the writer.
Of these journals no copy shall be made. Upon the return of the ex-
pedition you will demand of each of the writers his journal, which it is
hereby ordered he shall deliver to you. Each writer is to be assured
that when the records of the expedition are published he shall receive
a copy; the private journal to be returned to the writer, or not, at the
option of the Government; but each writer, in the published records,
shall receive credit for such part or parts of his journal as may be used
in said records. You will use every opportunity to determine the posi
tion of all capes, headlands, islands, &c., the lines of coasts, take sound-
ings, observe tides and currents, and make ajl such surveys as may
advance our knowledge of the geography of the Arctic regions.

You will give special written directions to the sailing and ice master
of the expedition, Mr. S. O. Buddington, and to the chief of the scientific
department, Dr. E. Bessels, that in case of your death or disability—a
contingency we sincerely trust may not arise—they shall consult as to
the propriety and manner of carrying into further effect the foregoing
instructions, which I here urge must, if possible, be done. The results
of their consultations, and the reasons therefor, must be put in writing,
and kept as part of the records of the expedition. In any event, how-

EXPEDITION TOWARD TIIE NORTH POLE. 36a

ever, Mr. Buddington shall, in case of your death or disability, continue
as the sailing and ice master, and control and direct the movements of

=>

the vessel; and Dr. Besseis shall, in such case, us as chief of the
scientific department, directing all sledge journeys and scientific opera-
tions. In the possible contingency of their non-agreement as to the
course to be pursued, then Mr. Buddington shall assume sole charge
and command, and return with the expedition to the United States with
all possible dispatch.

You will transmit to this Department, as often as opportunity offers,
reports of your progress and results of your search, detailing the route
of your proposed advance. <At the most sponser points of your
progress yeu will erect conspicuous skeleton stone monuments, deposit-
ing near each, in accordance with the confidential marks agreed upon,
a condensed record of your progress, with a description of the route
upon which you propose to advance, making caches of provisions, &c¢.,
if you deem fit.

In the event of the necessity of finally abandoning your vessel, you
will at once endeavor to reach localities frequented by whaling or other
ships, making every exertion to send to the United States information
of your position and situation, and as soon as possible to return with
your party, preserving, as far as may be, the records of, and all possi-
ble objects and specimens collected in, the expedition.

All persons attached to the expedition are under your command, and
shall, under every circumstance and condition, be subject to the rules,
regulations, and laws governing the discipline of the Navy, to be modi-
fied, but not increased, by you as the circumstances may in your judg-
ment require.

To keep the Government as well informed as possible of your pro-
gress, you will, after passing Cape Dudley Digges, throw overboard
daily, as open water or drifting ice may permit, a bottle or small copper
cylinder, closely sealed, containing a paper, stating date, position, and
such other facts as you may deem interesting. For this purpose you
will have prepared papers containing a request, printed in several
languages, that the finder transmit it by the most direct route to the
Secretary of the Navy, Washington, United States of America.

Upon the return of the expedition to the United States, you will
transmit your own and all other records to the Department. You will
direct Dr. Bessels to transmit all the scientific records and collections
to the Smithsonian Institution, Washington.

The history of the expedition will be prepared by yourself, from all
the journals and records of the expedition, under the supervision of the
Department. All the records of the scientific results of the expedition
will be prepared, supervised, and edited by Dr. Bessels, under the
direction and authority of the president of the National Academy of
Sciences,

Wishing for you and your brave comrades health, happiness, and

364 EXPEDITION TOWARD THE NORTH POLE.

success in your daring enterprise, and commending you and them to
the protecting care of the God who rules the universe,

T am, very respectfully, yours,
GEO. M. ROBESON,

Secretary of the Navy.
Cuas. F. HALL,
Commanding Expedition toward the North Pole.

LETTER OF PROFESSOR JOSEPH HENRY, (PRESIDENT OF THE NATIONAL
ACADEMY OF SCIENCES,) WITH INSTRUCTIONS TO CAPTAIN C. F. HALL
FOR THE SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS OF THE EXPEDITION TOWARD THE
NORTH POLE.

WASHINGTON, D. C., June 9, 1871.

Str: In accordance with the law of Congress authorizing ins expe-
dition for explorations within the Arctic Circle, the scientific operations
are to be prescribed by the National Academy; and in behalf of this
society I respectfully submit the following remarks and suggestions:

The appropriation for this expedition was granted by Congress prin-
cipally on account of the representations of Captain Hall and his friends
‘as to the possibility of improving our knowledge of the geography of
the regions beyond the eightieth degree of north latitude, and more
especially of reaching the Pole. Probably on this account and that of
the experience which Captain Hall had acquired by seven years’ resi-
dence in the Arctic regions, he was appointed by the President as com-
mander of the expedition.

In order that Captain Hall might have full opportunity to arrange his
plans, and that no impediments should be put in the way of their
execution, it was proper that he should have the organization of the
expedition and the selection of his assistants. These privileges having
been granted him, Captain Hall early appointed as the sailing-master
of the expedition his friend and former fellow-voyager in the Arctic
Zone, Captain Buddington, who has spent twenty-five years amid polar
ice; and for the subordinate positions, persons selected especially for
their experience of life in the same regions.

It is evident from the foregoing statement that the expedition, except
in its relations to geographical discovery, is not of a scientific character,
and to connect with it a full corps of scientific observers whose duty it
should be to make minute investigations relative to the physics of the
globe, and to afford them such facilities with regard to time and position
as would be necessary to the full success of the object of their organi-
zation, would materially interfere with the views entertained by Captain
Hall, and the purpose for which the appropriation was evidently
mitended by Congress.

Although the special objects pivaty peculiar organization of this expe-
dition are not primarily of a scientific character, yet many phenomena
may be observed and specimens of natural ae be incidentally col-
lected, particularly during the long winter periods in which the vessel

EXPEDITION TOWARD THE NORTH POLE. 365

must necessarily remain stationary; and therefore, in order that the
opportunity of obtaining such results might not be lost, a committee
of the National Academy of Sciences was appointed to prepare a
series of instructions on the different branches of physics and natural
history, and to render assistance in procuring the scientific outfit.

Great difficulty was met with in obtaining men of the proper scientific
acquirements to embark in an enterprise which must necessarily be
attended with much privation, and in which, in a measure, science must
be subordinate. This difficulty was, however, happily obviated by the
offer of an accomplished physicist and naturalist, Dr. E. Bessels,. of
Heidelberg, to take charge of the scientific operations, with such assist-
ance as could be afforded him by two or three intelligent young men
that might be trained for the service. Dr. Bessels was the scientific
director of the German expedition to Spitzbergen and Nova Zembla, in
1869, during which he made, for the first time, a most interesting series
of observations on the depths and currents of the adjacent seas. From
his character, acquirements, and enthusiasm in the cause of science, he
is admirably well qualified for the arduous and laborious office for which
he is a volunteer. The most important of the assistants was one to be
intrusted, under Dr. Bessels, with the astronomical and magnetic
observations, and such a one has been found in the, person of Mr. Bryan,
a graduate of Lafayette College, at Haston, Pennsylvania, who, under
the direction of Professor Hilgard, has received from Mr. Schott and
Mr. Keith, of the Coast Survey, practical instructions in the use of the
instruments.

The Academy would therefore earnestly recommend, as an essential
condition of the success of the objects in, which it is interested, that Dr.
Bessels be appointed as sole director of the scientific operations of the
expedition, and that Captain Hall be instructed to afford him such
facilities and assistance as may be necessary for the special objects
under his charge, and which are not incompatible with the prominent
idea of the original enterprise.

As to the route to be pursued with the greatest probability of reach-
ing the Pole, either to the east or west of Greenland, the Academy for-
bears to make any suggestions, Captain Hall having definitely concluded
that the route through Baffin’s Bay, the one with which he is most
familiar, is that to be adopted. One point, however, should be specially
urged upon Captain Hall, namely, the determination with the utmost
scientific precision possible of all his geographical positions, and
especially of the ultimate northern limit which he attains. The evidence
of the genuineness of every determination of this kind should be made
apparent beyond all question.

On the return of the expedition the collections which may be made in
natural history, &c., will, in accordance with a law of Congress, be de-
posited in the National Museum, under the care of the Smithsonian In-
stitution; and we would suggest that the scientific records be discussed |
and prepared for publication by Dr. Bessels, with such assistance as he

366 EXPEDITION TOWARD THE NORTH POLE,

may require, under the direction of the National Academy. The import-
ance of refusing to allow journals to be kept exclusively for private use,
or collections to be made other than those belonging to the expedition,
is too obvious to need special suggestion.

In fitting out the expedition, the Smithsonian Institution has afforded
all the facilities in its power in procuring the necessary apparatus, and
in furnishing the outfit for making collections in the various depart-
ments of natural history. The Coast Survey, under the direction of
Professor Peirce, has contributed astronomical and magnetical instru-
ments. The Hydrographic Office, under Captain Wyman, has furnished
a transit instrument, sextants, chronometers, charts, books, &e.. The
Signal Corps, under General Myer, has supplied anemometers, ther-
mometers, aneroid, and mercurial barometers, besides detailing a’ ser-
geant to assist in the meteorological observations. The members of
the committee of the Academy, especially Professors Baird and Hilgard,
have, in discussing with Dr. Bessels the several points of scientific in-
vestigation and in assisting to train his observers, rendered important
service.

The liberal manner in which the Navy Department, under your direc-
tion, has provided a vessel, and especially fitted it out for the purpose
with a bountiful supply of provisions, fuel, and all other requisites for
the success of the expedition, as well as the health and comfort of its
members, will, we doubt not, meet the approbation of Congress, and be
highly appreciated by all persons interested in Arctic explorations.

From the foregoing statement it must be evident that the provisions
for exploration and scientific research in this case are as ample as those
which have ever been made for any other Arctic expedition, and should
the results not be commensurate with the anticipations in regard to
them, the fact cannot be attributed to a want of interest in the enter-
prise, or to inadequacy of the means which have been afforded.

We have, however, full confidence, not only in the ability of Captain
Hall and his naval associates to make important additions to the knowl-
edge of the geography of the polar region, but also in his interest in
science and his determination to do all in his power to assist and facili-
tate the scientific operations.

Appended to this letter is the series of instructions prepared by the
committee of the Academy, viz, the instructions on astronomy, by Pro-
fessor Newcomb; on magnetism, tides, &c., by Professor J. E. Hilgard;
on meteorology, by Professor Henry; on natural history, by Professor
S. F. Baird; on geology, by Professor Meek; and on glaciers, by Pro-
fessor Agassiz. ;

I have the honor to be, very respectfully, your obedient servant,

JOSEPH HENRY,
President of the National Academy of Sciences.
Hon. GEORGE M. ROBESON,

Secretary of the Navy. .

EXPEDITION TOWARD THE NORTH POUE. 367

INSTRUCTIONS.

GENERAL DIRECTIONS IN REGARD TO THE MODE OF KEEPING
RECORDS.

Records of observations.—It is of the first importance that in all in-
strumextal observations the fullest record be made, and that the original
notes be preserved carefully.

In all cases the actual instrumental readings must be recorded, and
if any corrections are to be applied, the reason for these corrections
must also be recorded. For instance, it is not sufficient to state the
index error of a sextant; the manner of ascertaining it and the readings
taken for the purpose must be recorded.

The log-book should contain a continuous narrative of all that is done
by the expedition and of all incidents which occur on shipboard, and a
similar journal should be kept by each sledge party. The actual obser-
vations for determining time, latitude, the sun’s bearing, and all notes
having reference to mapping the shore, soundings, temperature, &c.,
should be entered in the log-book or journal in the regular order of
occurrence. When scientific observations are more fully recorded in the
note-books of the scientific observer than can be conveniently transcribed
into the log-book, the fact of the observation and reference to the note-
book should be entered.

The evidence of the genuineness of the observations brought back
should be of the most irrefragable character. No erasures, whatever,
with rubber or knife, should be made. When an entry requires correc-
tion, the figures or words should be merely crossed by a line, and the
correct figures written above.

J. BE, HiLGARrpD.
ASTRONOMY.

Astronomicalobservations.—One of the chronometers, the most valuable,
if there is any difference, should be selected as the standard by which
all observations are to be made, as far as practicable. The other
chronometers should all be compared with this every day at the time
of winding, and the comparisons entered in the astronomical note-
book.

When practicable, the altitude or zenith distance of the sun should
be taken four times a day—morning and evening for time; noon and
midnight for latitude. The ghronometer or watch times of the latitude
observations, as well as of the time observations, should always be
recorded. Hach observation should always be repeated at least three
times in all, to detect any mistake.

When the moon is visible, three measures of her altitude should be
taken about the time of her passage over each cardinal point of true
bearing, and the chronometer time of each altitude should be recorded.

As the Greenwich time deduced from the chronometers will be quite

368 EXPEDITION TOWARD THE NORTH POLE.

- unreliable after the first six months, it will be necessary to have recourse
to lunar,distances. These should be measured from the sun, in prefer-
ence to a star, whenever it is practicable to do so.

If a sextant is used in observation, a measure of the semi-diameter of
the sun or moon should be taken every day or two for index error.

The observations are by no means to be pretermitted when lying in
port, because they will help to correct the position of the port.

The observations should, if convenient, be taken so near the standard
chronometer that the observer can signal the moment of observation to
an assistant at the chronometer, who is to note the time. If this is not
found convenient, and a comparing watch is used, the watch-time and
the comparison of the watch with the chronometer should both be care-
fully recorded.

The observations made by the main party should be all written down
in full in a continuous series of note-books, from which they may be |
copied in the log. Particular care should be exercised in always recording
the place, date, and limb of sun.or moon observed, and any other particu-
lars necessary to the complete understanding of the observation.

S. NEWCOMB.

Observations at winter quarters.—The astronomical transit instrument
will be set up in a suitable observatory. A meridian mark should be
established as soon as practicable, and the instrument kept with con-
stant eare in the vertical plane passing through the mark, in order that
all observations may be brought to bear on determining the deviation
of that plane from the meridian of the places. The transits of cireum-
polar stars, on both sides of the Pole, and those of stars near the Equa-
tor, should be frequently observed.

Moon culminations, including the transits of both first and second
limbs, should be observed for the determination of longitude independ-
ently of the rates of the chronometers. Twelve transits of each limb is
a desirable number to obtain—more, if practicable. If any occulta-
tions of bright stars by the moon are visible, they should be likewise
observed. :

The observations for latitude will be made with the sextant and arti-
ficial horizon, upon stars both north and south of the zenith.

All the chronometers of the expedition should be compared daily, as
nearly as practicable about the same time.

Whenever a party leaves the permanent station for an exploration,
and immediately upon its return, its chronometer should be compared
with the standard chronometer of the station.

Observations during sledge or boat journeys—The instruments to be
taken are the small Casella theodolite, or a pocket sextant and artificial
horizon, one or more chronometers, and a prismatic compass, for taking
magnetic bearings of the sun. In very high latitudes the time of the
sun’s meridian altitude is not readily determined ; it will be advisable,

EXPEDITION TOWARD THE NORTH POLE. 369

therefore, to take altitudes when the sun is near the meridian, as in-
dicated by the compass, with regard to the variations of the compass,
as derived from an isogonic chart. The time when the observation is
taken will, of course, be noted by the chronometer. Altitudes should
be taken in this way, both to the south and north of the zenith; they
will enable the traveler to obtain his latitude at once very nearly, with-
out the more laborious computation of the time.

The observations for time should be taken as nearly as may be when
the sun is at right angles to the meridian, to the east and west, the
compass being again used to ascertain the proper direction. This
method of proceeding will call for observations of. altitude at or near
the four cardinal points, or nearly six hours apart in time.

When the party changes its place in the interval between their ob-
servations, it is necessary to have some estimate of the distance and
direction traveled. The ultimate mapping of the route will mainly
depend upon the astronomical observations, but no pains should be
spared to make a record every hour of the estimated distance traveled—
by log, if afloat—of the direction of the route, by compass, and of bear-
ings of distant objects, such as peaks, or marked headlands, by which
the route may be plotted.

In case of a few days’ halt heing made when a very high latitude has
been reached, or at any time during the summer’s explorations, a
special object of care should be to ascertain the actual rate of the
chronometers with the party. To this end, a well-defined, fixed object,
in any direction, should be selected as a mark, the theodolite pointed
on it, and the transit of the sun over its vertical observed on every day
during the sojourn at the place. If the party be only provided with a
sextant, then the same angular distances of the sun from a fixed object
should be observed on successive days, the angles being chosen so as
tobe between 30° and 459. For instance, set the sextant successively
to 40°, to 40° 20’, 40° 40’, &e., and note the time when the sun’s limb
comes in contact with the object.. The same distances will: be found
after twenty-four hours, with a correction for change in the sun’s declin-
ation. Tne sun’s altitude should be observed before and after. these
observations, and its magnetic bearing should be noted, as well as that
of the mark. The altitude of the mark should also be observed, if
practicable, either with the sextant or clinometer, but this is not
essential. J. E. HILGARD.

MAGNETISM.

On the voyage and sledge-journey, at all times when. traveling, the
declination or variation of the compass should be obtained by observing
the magnetic bearing of the sun at least once every day on which the
Sun is visible. On ship-board or in boats the azimuth compass is to be
used ; on land the small theodolite will be found preferable.

When aoe no valuable observations of the magnetic dip and in-

248 71

370 EXPEDITION TOWARD THE NORTH POLE.

tensity are practicable. On the sledge-journey the dip-circle may be
carried, and when halts are made longer than necessary to determine
the place by astronomical observations, the dip and relative intensity,
according to Lloyd’s method, should be ascertained.

At winter quarters, in addition to the above-mentioned observations,
those of absolute horizontalintensity should be made with the theodolite
magnetometer, including the determination of moment of inertia. Also
with the same instrument the absolute declination should be deter-
mined.

The least that the observer should be satisfied with is the complete
determination of the three magnetic elements, namely, declination, dip,
and horizontal intensity. At one period, say within one week, three
determinations of each should be made.

It is advisable that the same observations be repeated on three suc-
cessive days of each month during the stay at one place; and that on
three days of each month, as the 1st, 11th, and 21st, or any other days,
the variation of the declination-magnet be read every half hour during
the twenty-four hours; also that the magnetometer, or at least a theo-
dolite with compass, remain mounted at all times, that the variation of
the needle may be observed as often as practicable, and especially when
unusual displays of aurora borealis take place.

In all eases the time, which forms an essential part of the record, should
be earefully noted,

Not long before starting on a sledge journey from a wintey station,
apd soon after returning, the observations with the loaded dipping
needles for relative intensity should be repeated, in order to have a
trustworthy comparison for the observations which have been made on
the journey.

FORCE OF GRAVITY.

As the long winter affords ample leisure, pendulum experiments may
be made to determine the force of gravity, in comparison with that at
Washington, where observations have been made with,the Hayes pen-
dulum lent to the expedition. The record of the Washington observa-
tions, a copy of which is furnished, will serve as a guide in making the
observations. Special care should be taken while they are in progress
to determine the rate of the chronometer with great precision, by obser-
vations of numerous stars with the astronomical transit instrument, the
pointing of which on a fixed mark should be frequently verified.

OCEAN PHYSICS.

Depths.—Soundings should be taken frequently, when in moderate
depths, at least sufficiently often to give some indication of the general
depth of the strait or sound in which the vessel is afloat at the time. If
an open sea be reached, it should be considered of the greatest import-
ance to get some measure of its depth, and singe no bulky sounding ap-

EXPEDITION TOWARD THE NORTH POLE. oCL

paratus ean be carried across the ice barrier, the boat party should be
provided with 1,000 fathoms of small twine, marked in lengths of 10
fathoms. Stones taken on board when the boat is launched, may serve
as weights.

Bottom should be brought up whenever practicable, and specimens
preserved. Circumstances of time and opportunity must determine
whether a dredge can be used, or merely a specimen-cup.

Temperature of the sea should be observed with the “ Miller protect-
ed bulb thermometer,” made by Casella, near the surface, about two
fathoms below the surface, and near the bottom. When time permits,
observations at an intermediate depth should be taken. These observa-
tions have a particular bearing on the general circulation of the ocean,
and are of great importance.

Tides.—Observations of high and low water, as to time and height,
should be made continuously at winter quarters. The method adopted
by Dr. Hayes is recommended. It consists of a graduated staff an-
chored to the bottom, directly under the “ ice-hole,” by a mushroeom-
anchor, or heavy stone and achain, which is keptstretched by a counter-
weight attached to a rope that passes over a pully rigged overhead.
The readings are taken by the height of the water in the “ ice-hole.”
In the course of a few days’ careful observations the periods of high
and low water wili become sufficiently well known to predict the turns
approximating from day to day, and subsequently, observations taken
every five minutes for half an hour, about the anticipated turn, will
suffice, provided they be continued until the turn of the tide has be-
come well marked.

Tidal observations taken at other points, when a halt is made for
some time, even if continued not longer than a week, will be of special
value, as affording an indication as to the direction in which the tide-
wave is progressing, and inferentially as to the proximity of an open sea.
If, as the expedition proceeds, the tide is found to be later, the indica-
tion is that the open sea is far distant, if indeed the channel be not
closed. But if the tide occurs earlier, as the ship advances, the proba-
bility is strongly in favor of‘ the near approach to an open, deep sea,
communicating directly with the Atlantic Ocean.

In making such ® comparison, attention must be paid to the semi-
monthly inequality in the time of high water, which may be approxi-
mately taken from the observations at winter quarters. Observations
made at the same age of the moon, in different places, may be directly
compared,

When the water is open, the tide may be observed by means of a
graduated pole stuck into the bottom; or, if that cannot be conveniently
done, by means of a marked line, anchored to the bottom, and floated
by a light buoy, the observation being taken by hauling up the line
taut over the anchor.

Currents.—It is extremely desirable to obtain some idea of the cur-

Sia EXPEDITION TOWARD THE NORTH POLE.

rents in the open polar sea, if such is found. No special observations
can be indicated, however, except those of the drift of icebergs, if any
should be seen.

Density.—The density of the sea-water should be frequently observed
with delicate hydrometers, giving direct indications to the fourth deci-
mal. Whenever practicable, water should be brought up from different
depths, and its density tested. The specimens should be preserved in
carefully-sealed bottles, with aview to the subsequent determination of
their mineral contents.

J. E. HILGARD.

METEOROLOGY.

The expedition is well supplied with meteorological instruments, all
the standards, with the exception of the mercurial barometers, manu-
factured by Casella, and compared with the standards of the Kew Ob-
servatory under the direction of Professor Balfour Stewart. Dr. Bes-
sels is so familiar with the use of instruments, and so well acquainted
with the principles of meteorology, that minute instructions are unne-
cessary. We shall therefore merely call attention, by way of remem-
brance, to the several points worthy of special notice.

Temperature—The registers of the temperature, as well as of the
barometer, direction of the wind, and moisture of the atmosphere should,
in all cases in which it is possible, be made hourly, and when that can-
not be done they should be made at intervals of two, three, four, or six
hours. The temperature of the water of the ocean, as well as of the
air, should be taken during the sailing of the vessel.

The minimum temperature of the ice, while in winter quarters, should
be noted from time to time, perhaps at different depths; also that of the
water beneath.

The temperature of the black-bulb thermometer in vacuo exposed to
the sun, and also that of the black-bulb free to the air, should be fre-
quently observed while the sun is on the meridian, and at given alti-
tudes in the forenoon and afternoon, and these observations compared
with those of the ordinary thermometer in the shade.

Experiments should also be made with a thermometer in the focus of
the silvered mirror, the face of which is directed to the sky. For this
purpose the ordinary black-bulb thermometer may be‘used as well as
the naked-bulb thermometer. The thermometer thus placed will gen-
erally indicate a lower temperature than one freely exposed to radiation
from the ground and terrestrial objects, and in case of isolated clouds
will probably serve to indicate those which are colder and perhaps
higher.

Comparison may also be made between the temperature at different
distances above the earth, by suspending thermometers on a spar a at
different heights.

The temperature of deep soundings shouldbe taken with the ther-

EXPEDITION TOWARD THE NORTII POLE. 373

mometer with a guard to obviate the pressure of the water. As the
tendency, on account of the revolution of the earth, is constantly to
deflect all currents to the right hand of the observer looking down
stream, the variations in temperature in connection with this fact may
serve to assist in indicating the existence, source, and direction of eur-
rents.

The depth of frost should be ascertained, and also, if pessible, the
point of invariable temperature. For this purpose augers and drills
with long stems for boring deeply should be provided.

Pressure of air.—A series of comparative observations should be
made of the indications of the mercurial and aneroid barometers. The
latter will be affected by the variation, of gravity as well as of temper-
ature, while the former will require a correction due only to heat and
capillarity.

As it is known that the normal height of the barometer varies in dif-
ferent latitudes, accurate observations in the Arctic regions with this
instrument are very desirable, especially in connection with observa-
tions on the moisture of the atmosphere, since, to the small quantity of
this in northern latitudes the low barometer which is observed there
has been attributed. 1 think, however, it will be found that the true
cause is in the rotation of the earth on its axis, which, if sufficiently
rapid, would project all the air from the pole.

In the latitude of about 60 there is a belt around the earth in which
the barometer stands unusually high, and in which violent fluctuations
oceur. This will probably be exhibited in the projection of the curve
representing the normal height of the barometrical column in different
latitudes.

Moisture.—The two instruments for determining the moisture in the
air ave the wet and dry-bulb thermometer, and the dew-point instru-
ment, as improved by Regnault. But to determine the exact quantity
in the atmosphere in the Arctic regions will require the use of an aspi-
rator, by which a given quantity of air can be passed through an ab-
sorbing substance, such as chloride of calcium, and the increase of
weight accurately ascertained. It may, however, be readily shown that
the amount is very small in still air. f

A wind from a more southern latitude will increase the moisture, and
may give rise te fogs. Sometimes, from openings in the ice, vapor may
be exhaled from water of a higher temperature than the air, and be
immediately precipitated into fog.

The inconvenience which is felt from the moisture which exlrales with
the breath in the hold of the vessel may, perhaps, be obviated by adopt-
ing the ingenious expedient of one of the Arctic voyagers, viz, by
making a number of holes through the deck and inverting over them a
large metallic vessel like a pot. The exterior of this vessel being ex-
posed to the low temperature of the air without would condense the
moisture from within on its interior surface, and thus serve, on the
principle of the diffusion of vapor, to desiccate the air below.

74 EXPEDITION: TOWARD THE NORTH POLE.

wo

The variation of moisture in the atmosphere performs a very im-
portant part in all the meteorological changes. Its effects, however,
are probably less marked in the Arctic regions than in more southern
latitudes. The first effect of the introduction into the atmosphere of
moisture is to expand the air and to diminish its weight; but after an
equilibrium has taken place, it exists, as it were, as an independent
atmosphere, and thus increases the pressure. These opposite effects
render the phenomena exceedingly complex.

Winds.—As to these the following observations are to be regularly
and carefully registered, namely: The average velocity as indicated by
tobinson’s anemometer; the hour at which any remarkable change
takes place in their direction; the course of their veering; the exist-
ence at the same time of currents in different directions as indicated
by the clouds; the time of beginning and ending of hot or cold winds,
and the direction from which they come. Observations on the force
- and direction of the wind are very important. The form of the wind-
vane should be that of which the feather part consists of two planes,
torming between them an angle of about 10°, The sensibility of this
instrument, provided its weight be not too much increased, is in pro-
portion to the surface of the feather planes. Great care must be taken
to enter the direction of the wind from the true meridian, whenever
this can be obtained, and in all cases to indicate whether the entries
refer to the true or magnetic north. Much uncertainty has arisen on
account of the neglect of this precaution. .

In accordance with the results obtained by Professor Coffin, in his
work on the resultant direction of the wind, there are in the northern
hemisphere three systems roughly corresponding with the different
zones, viz, the tropical, in which the resultant motion is toward the
west, the temperate, toward the east, and the Arctic, in which it is
again toward the west.

In the discussion of all the observations the variation of the tempera-
ture and the moisture will appear in their connection with the direction
of the wind. Hence the importance of simultaneous observations on
these elements, and also on the atmospheric pressure.

Precipitation.—The expedition will be furnished with a number of
rain-gauges, the contents of which should be measured after each shower.
By inverting and pressing them downward into the snow, and subse-
quently ascertaining, by melting in the same vessel the amount of water
produced, they will serve to give the precipitation of water in the form
of snow. The depth of snow can be measured by an ordinary measuring-
rod. Much difficulty, however, is sometimes experienced in obtaining
the depth of snow on account of its drifting, and it is sometimes not
easy to distinguish whether snow is actually falling or merely being
driven by the wind.

The character of the snow should be noted, whether it is in small

Jem

EXPEDITION TOWARD THE NORTH POLE. , 315

ao

rounded masses, or in regular crystals; also the conditions under which
these different forms are produced.

The form and weight of hailstones should be noted, whether consist-
ing of alternate strata, the number of which is important, of floceulent
snow, or solid ice, or agglutinations of angular crystals, whether of a
spherical form, or that of an oblate spheroid.

The color of the snow should be observed in order to detect any
organism which it may contain, and also any sediment which may re-
main after evaporation, whether of earthy or vegetable matter.

Clouds.—The character of the clouds should be described, and the
direction of motion of the lower and higher ones registered at the
times prescribed for the other observations. Since the expedition is
well supplied with photographic apparatus, frequent views of the
clouds and of the general aspect of the sky should be taken.

Aurora.—livery phase of the aurora borealis will of course be re-

corded; also the exact time of first appearance of the meteor, when it
assumes the form of au arch or a corona, and when any important
change in its general aspect takes place. The magnetic bearing of the
crown of the arch, and its altitude at a given time, should be taken;
also, if it moves to the south of the observer, the time when it passes
the zenith should be noted. The time and position of a corona are
very inportant.
’ Two distinct arches have sometimes been seen co-existing—one in the
east and the other in the west. In such an exhibition the position and
crown of each arch should be determined. Drawings of the aurora,
with colored crayons, are very desirable. In lower latitudes a dark
segment is usually observed beneath the arch, the occurrence of which,
and the degree of darkness, should be registered. It also sometimes
happens that a sudden precipitation of moisture in the form of a hazi-
ness is observed to cover the face of the sky during the shooting of the
beams of the aurora, Any appearance of this kind is worthy of atten-
tion.

Wave motions are sometimes observed, and it would be interesting to
note whether these are from east to west or in the contrary direction,
and whether they have any relation to the direction of the wind at the
time. The colors of the beams and the order of their changes may be
important in forming a theory of the cause of the phenomena. Any
sunilarity of appearance to the phenomena exhibited in Geissler’s tubes
should be noted, especially whether there is anything like stratification.

The aurora should be frequently examined by the spectroscope, and
the bright lines which may be seen carefully compared with one of
Kirchoff’s maps of the solar spectrum.

To settle the question as to the fluorescence of the aurora and its con-
sequent connection with the electric discharge, a cone of light reflected
from the silver-plated mirror should be thrown on a piece of white paper,
on which characters have been traced with a brush dipped in sulphate

306 , EXPEDITION TOWARD THE NORTIL POLE.

of quinine. By thus condensing the light on the paper, any fluores-
cense which the ray may contain will be indicated by the appearance of
the previously invisible characters in a green color.

Careful observations should be made to ascertain whether the aurora
ever appears over an expanse of thick ice, or only over land or open
water, ice being a non-conductor of electricity.

The question whether the aurora is ever accompanied with a noise has
often been agitated, but not yet apparently definitely settled.» Atten-
tion should be given to this point, and perhaps the result may be
rendered more definite by the use of two ear-trumpets, one applied to each
ear.

According to Hansteen, the aurora consists of luminous beams, par-
allel to the dipping needle, which at the time of the formation of the
corona are shooting up on all sides of the observer, and also the lower por-
tions of these beams are generally invisible. It is, therefore, interesting
to observe whether the auroral beams are ever interposed between the
observer and a distant mountain or cloud, especially when looking
either to the east or west.

The effect of the aurora on the magnetism of the earth will be ob-
served by abnormal motion of. the magnetic instruments for observing
the declination, inclination, and intensity. This effect, however, may
be more strikingly exhibited by means of a galvanometer, inserted near
one end of along insulated wire extended in a straight line, the two
extremities of which are connected with plates of metal plunged in the
water, it may be through holes in the ice, or immediately connected
with the ground.

To ascertain whether the effect on the needle is due to an electrical
current in the earth, or to an induetive action from without, perhaps the
following variation of the preceding arrangement would serve to give
some indication. Instead of terminating the wire in a plate of metal,
plunged in the water, let each end be terminated in a large metallic in-
sulated surface, such, for example, as a large wooden disk, rounded at
the edges and covered with tin-foil. If the action be purely inductive,
the needle of the galvanometer inserted, say near one end of the wire,
would probably indicate a momentary current in one direction, and an-
other in the opposite, at the moment of the cessation of the action. For
the purpose of carrying out this investigation the Smithsonian Institu-
tion has furnished the expedition with two reels of covered wire, each a
mile in length, one of which is to be stretched in the direction, perhaps,
of the magnetic meridian, and the other at right angles to it. It would
be well, however, to observe the effect with the wires in various direc-
tions, or united in one continuous length.

Hlectricity—From the small amount of moisture in the atmosphere,
and the consequent insulating capacity of the latter, all disturbances of
the electrical equilibrium will be seen in the frequent production of
light and sparks on the friction and agitation of all partially non con-

EXPEDITION TOWARD THE NORTH POLE. 377

ducting substances. Any unusual occurrences of this kind, such as
electrical discharges from pointed rods, from the ends of spars, or from
the fingers of the observer, should be recorded.

A regular series of observations should be made on the character
and intensity of the electricity of the atmosphere by means of an elec-
trometer, furnished with a polished, insulated, metallic ball, several
inches in diameter, and two piles of Delue to indicate the character of
the electricity, whether + or —; and also supplied with a scale to
measure by the divergency of a needle the degree of intensity. This
instrument can be used either to indicate the electricity of the air by
induction or by conduction. In the first case it is only necessary to
elevate it above a normal plane by means of a flight of steps, say eight
or ten feet, to touch the ball at this elevation and again to restore it to
its first position, when it will be found charged with electricity of the
saine character as that of the air. Or the ball may be brought in con-
tact with the lower end of an insulated metallic wire, to the upper end
of which is attached a lighted piece of twisted paper which has been
dried after previous saturation in a solution of nitrate of lead.

Thunder-storms are rare inthe Arctic regions, although they sometimes
occur; and in this case it is important to observe the point in the hori-
zon in which the storm-cloud arises; also the direction of the wind dur-
ing the passage of the storm over the place of the observer; and also
the character of the hghtning—whether zigzag, ramified, or direct; also
its dire¢tion—whether from cloud to cloud, or from a cloud to the earth.

Optical phenomena.—Mirage should always be noted, as it serves to
indicate the position of strata of greater or less density, which may be
produced by open water, as in the case of lateral mirage, or by a cur-
rent of wind or warmer air along the surface.

The polarization of the light of the sky can be observed by means of
a polariscope, consisting of a plate of tourmaline with a slice of Lce-
land spar, or a erystal of niter cut at right angles to its optical axis, on
the side farthest from the eye. With this simple instrument the fact
of polarization is readily detected, as well as the plane in which it is
exhibited.

Halos, parhelia, coronz, luminous arches, and glories should all be
noted, both as to time of appearance and any peculiarity of condition
of the atmosphere. Some of these phenomena have been seen on the
surface of the ice by the reflection of the sun’s beams, from a surface
on which crystals had been formed by the freezing of a fog simultane-
ously with a similar appearance in the sky, the former being a continu-
ation, as it were, and not a reflection of the latter.

In the latitude of Washington, immediately after the sun has sunk
below the western horizon, there frequently appear faint parallel bands
of colors just above the eastern horizon, which may very possibly be
due to the dispersion of the light by the convex form of the atmosphere,
and also, at some times, slightly colored beams crossing the heavens

378 EXPEDITION TOWARD THE NORTH POLE.

like meridians, and converging to a point in the eastern horizon. Any
appearance of this kind should be carefully noted and described.

Meteors.—Shooting-stars and meteors of all kinds should be observed
with the spectroscope. The direction and length of their motion should
be traced on star-maps, and especial attention should be given at
the stated periods in August and November. <A remarkable disturb-
ance of the aurora has been seen during the passage of a meteor
through its beams. Any phenomenon of this kind should be minutely
described.

Ozone—The expedition is furnished with a quantity of ozone test
paper, observations with which can only be rendered comparable by pro-
jecting against the sensitized paper a given quantity of atmospheric
air. For this purpose an aspirator should be used, which may be made
by fastening together two small casks, one of which is filled with water,-
with their axes parallel, by means of a piece of plank nailed across the
heads, through the middle of which is passed an iron axis on which the
two casks may be made to revolve, and the full cask may readily be
placed above the empty, so that its contents may gradually descend
into the latter. During the running of the water from the upper
cask, an equal quantity of air is drawn through a small adjutage
into a closed vessel, and made to impinge upon the test-paper. The
vessel containing the test-paper should be united with the aspirator by
means of an India-rubber tube.

Miscellaneous.—The conduction of sound during still weather, through
the air over the ice, through the ice itself, and through the water, may
be studied.

Evaporation of snow, ice, and water may be measured by a balance,
of which the pan is of a given dimension.

Experiments on the resistance of water to freezing in a confined space
at a low temperature, may be made with small bomb-shells closed with
screw-plugs of iron. The fact of the liquidity of the water at a very low
temperature may be determined by the percussion of a small iron bullet,
or by simply inverting the shell, when the ball, if the liquid remains»
unfrozen, will be found at the lowest point. It might be better, how-
ever, to employ vessels of wrought iron especially prepared for the pur-
pose, since the porosity of cast-iron is such that the water will be forced
through the pores, e. g., the lower end of a gun-barrel, which, from the
smallness of its diameter, will sustain an immense pressure, and through
which the percussion of the inclosed bullet may be more readily heard.
Water, in a thin metallic vessel, exposed on all sides to the cold, some-
times gives rise to hollow erystals of a remarkable shape and size, pro-
jecting above the level surface of the water, and exhibits phenomena
worthy of study.

Experiments may be made on regelation, the plasticity of ice, the con-
solidation of snow into ice, the expansion of ice, its.conducting power
for heat, and the various forms of its crystallization. The effect of in-

19

Oo

EXPEDITION TOWARD THE NORTH POLE.

tense cold should be studied on potassium, sodium, and other substances,
especially in relation to their oxidation.

The melting point of mercury should be observed, particularly as a
means of correcting the graduation of thermometers at low temperatures.
The resistance to freezing of minute drops of mercury, as has been
stated, should be tested.

Facts long observed, when studied under new conditions, scarcely
ever fail to yield new and interesting results.

JOSEPH HENRY.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Objects of natural history of all kinds should be collected, and in as
large numbers as possible. For this purpose all on board the vessel,
both officers and sailors, should be required to collect, upon every favor-
able opportunity, and to deliver the specimens obtained to those ap-
pointed to have charge of them.

Zovlogy.—The terrestrial mammals of Greenland are pretty well known,
but it is still desirable that a series, as complete as possible, of the skins
should be preserved, great care being taken to always indicate upon the
label to be attached the sex, and probable age, as well as the locality
and date of capture. The skeleton, and, when it is not possible to get
this complete, any detached bones, particularly the skull and attached
cervical vertebra, are very desirable. Interesting soft parts, especially
the brain, and also embryos, are very important. If it should be con-
sidered necessary to record measurements, they should be taken from
specimens recently killed.

Of walruses and seals, there should be collected as many skeletons as
possible, of old and young individuals; also skins, especially of the seals.
Notes should be made regarding the habits in general, food, period of
copulation, duration of gestation and time of migration, it being desira-
ble to find out whether their migrations are periodical.

Of the Cetacea, when these are too large to be taken on board the
vessel, the skull and cervical vertebra, the bones of the extremities and
penis, and whatever else may be deemed worthy of preservation, should
be secured. All the animals should be examined for ecto and ento par-
asites, and the means by which they become aflixed to the animals
noted.

Collect carefully the species of Myodes (lemmings, ) Arctomys and Arvi-
cola, so as to determine the variations with locality and season. The
relationship of two kinds of foxes, the blue and white, should be studied
to determine their specific or other relationship. Any brown bears
should be carefully collected, both skin and skeleton, to determine
whether identical or not with the Old World Ursus arctos.

reference has already been made to the seals and cetaceans; of these
the Phoca cristata, the white whale, (Beluga,) and the Monodoa are par-
ticularly desired.

380 EXPEDITION TOWARD THE NORTH POLE.

What has been said in regard to the mammals will apply equally well
to the birds, skins and skeletons being equally desirable. It is espe-
cially important that the fresh colors of the bill, cere, gums, eyes, and feet:
or caruncles, or bare skin, if there be any, should be noted, as the colors
of these parts all change after the preparation of a specimen.

Of birds, the smaller land species are of the greatest interest, and com-
plete series of them should be gathered. The northern range of the in-
sectivorous species should be especially inquired into. The aretic faleons
should be collected in all their varieties, to ascertain whether there are
two forms, a brown and white, distinct through life, or whether one
changes with age into the other.

Inquiry should be directed to the occurrence of Bernicla leucopsis,
Anser cinercus, or other large gray geese, and the Camptolamus Labra-
dora, and a large number of specimens, of the latter especially, should
be obtained. Indeed the geese and ducks generally should form sub-
jects of special examination. Among the Laride the most important
species is the Larus rossii or Rhodostethia rosea, scarcely known in col-
lections. A large number of skins and of eggs will be a valuable ac-
quisition. Larus eburneus is also worthy of being collected. The Alcide
should be earefully examined for any new forms, and inquiries directed
in regard to the Alca impennis.

Of all birds’ eggs an ample store should be gathered, and the skel-
etons of the Arctic raptores and Natatores generally.

It will be a matter of much importance to ascertain what is the ex-
treme northern range of the continental species of birds, and whether,
in the highest latitudes, the European forms known to occur in Green-
land cross Baffin’s Bay. TDS

Eggs and nests of birds, in as large numbers as possible, should be
procured, great care being taken, however, in all cases, to identify them
by the parents, which may be shot, and some portion, if not all of them,
preserved, if not recognized by the collector. All the eggs of one set
should be marked with the same number, that they may not be sepa-
rated; the parent bird, if collected, likewise receiving the same number.
It should also be stated, if known, how long the eggs have been set
upon, as incubation influenges very much their color; the situation of
the nest also is very important. Notes on the manner of nesting, local-
ities selected, and other peculiarities of breeding, should be carefully
kept; whether they ‘are polygamous, whether there are struggles be-
tween the males, and the manner in which the old birds feed their
young; and whether these remain helpless in the nest for a given time,
or whether they accompany the parents from birth. A journal of the
arrival and departure of the migratory species should also be kept, to
find out whether those which leave latest return earliest, and vice versa.

Of fishes that are obtained, the best specimens should be photo-
graphed, the fresh colors noted, and then they should be preserved in
alcohol or carbolie acid. :

EXPEDITION TOWARD THE NORTH POLE. 381

Among the fishes the Salmonide, Cottide, Gadide and Clupeide, will
be of the most interest, and good series should be secured.

The terrestrial inferior animals should be all collected, each class in
its appropriate way.

Try to get larve of insects, and observe their life, whether they are
well adapted to their surroundings; for in proportion to the insects are
the number of insectivorous animals, and for that reason the struggle
for life would be more energetic, and therefore only those inseets which
are best adapted to the conditions will survive.

Inferior marine animals are usually collected by two methods, viz,
with a pelagie net and by a dredge. Both these methods should be
employed whenever practicable. Especial attention should be paid to
the larve, of which sketches should be made. The results of the dredg-
ing should be noted in blanks printed for this purpose, the specimens
to be preserved as their constitution requires. Muller’s liquor, glycer-
ine, solution of alcohol and sugar, &e.

It would be of peculiar interest to study the several deep regions,
admitted by Forbes and others, to ascertain if in the Arctic regions the
intensity of color increases with the depth, as has been stated to be the
case with red and violet, which, if true, would be just the contrary to
what is observed in the temperate and tropical regions.

Of shells two sets should be preserved, one dry and the other zith the
animal, in aleohol; the dry shell is necessary from the fact that the
alcohol, by the acetic acid produced, is apt to destroy the color.

It is particularly important to get as full a series as possible of the
members of the smaller families, with a view to the preparation of mono-
graphs.

There should be paid as much attention as possible to the fauna of
fresh-water lakes, to ascertain whether they contain marine forms, as
has been found to be the case with some of those in North America,
Scandinavia, Italy, and other countries. From this, important conclu-
sions regarding the rising of the coast may be arrived at.

Botany.—Plants are to be collected in two ways. Of each species
some specimens should be put in alcobol to serve for studying the anat-
omy; the others to be dried between sheets of blotting-paper. The
locality of each specimen should be noted, also its situation, the char-
acter of the soil,and height above the sea, the season, and whether there
is heliotropismus, &c., &c. In the general notes there should be remarks
on the horizontal and vertical distribution.

S. F. BAIRD.

GEOLOGY.

The most important point in the collection of geological specimens—
whether they consist of rocks, minerals, or fossils—is, that on’breaking
or digging them from the matrix or bed, each individual specimen should
be carefully wrapped separately in pliable but strong paper, with a label

382 EXPEDITION TOWARD THE NORTH POLE.

designating the exact locality from which it was obtained. If two or
more beds of rock (sandstone, limestone, clay, marl, or other material)
oecur at the locality from which specimens are taken, the label should
also have a number on it corresponding to the particular bed in which
it was found, as designated in a section made on the spot in a note-book.
This should be done in order that the specimens from each bed may be
separated from those found in others, whether the beds are separable
by differences of composition, or by differences in the groups of fossils
found in each ; and it is, moreover, often important that this care should
be observed, even when one or more of the beds are of inconsiderable
thickness, if such beds are characterized by peculiar fossils. For in
such cases it often happens that what may be a mere seam at one place
mmay represent an important formation at another.

Specimens taken directly from rocks in place are, of course, usu-
ally more instructive than those found loose; but it often happens that
much better specimens of fossils can be found already weathered out,
and lying detached about an outcrop of hard rock, than can be
broken from it. These can generally be referred to their place in the
section noted at the locality, by adhering portions of the matrix, or from
finding more or less perfect examples of the same species in the beds in
place; but it is usually the better plan to note on the labels of such
specimens that they were found loose, especially if there are any evi-
cdences that they may have been transported from some other locality
by drift agencies. 7

All exposures of rocks, and especially those of limestone, should be
carefully examined for fossils, for it often happens that hard limestones
and other rocks that show no traces of organic remains on the natural
surfaces, (covered, as they often are, with lichens and mosses,) will be
found to contain fossils when broken into. In cases where fossils are
found to exist in a hard rock, if time and other circumstances permit,
it is desirable that it should be vigorously broken with a heavy hammer
provided for that purpose, and as many specimens of the fossils as pos-
sible (or as the means of transportation will permit) should be col-
lected.

Fossils from rocks of all ages will, of course, be interesting and in-
structive, but it is particularly desirable that organic remains found in
the later tertiary and quarternary formations of these high northern
latitudes, if any such exist there, should be collected. These, whether of
animals or plants, would throw much light on the question respecting
the climatic conditions of the polar regions at, or just preceding, the
advent of man.

Specimens illustrating the lithological character of all the rocks ob-
served in each district explored should also be collected, as well as of the
organi¢e remains found in fossiliferous beds; also all kinds of minerals.
Those of rocks and amorphous minerals should be trimmed to as nearly
the same size and form as can conveniently bedone—say 3 by 4 inches

EXPEDITION TOWARD THE NORTH POLE. 383

wide and long, and 14 inches in thickness. Crystalline minerals ought,
of course, to be broken from the matrix, rather with the view of pre-
serving the crystals as far as possible, than with regard to the size or
form of the hand specimens; and the same remark applies equally to
fossils.

On an overland journey the circumstances may not always be such as
to allow the necessary time to wrap carefully and label specimens on the
spot where they were collected ; but in such cases numbers or some other
marks should be scratched with the point of a knife, or other hard-
pointed instrument, on each, by means of which the specimens collected
at different times and places during the march can be correctly sepa-
rated, labeled, and wrapped when the party stops for rest.

All specimens should be packed tightly in boxes as soon as enough
have been collected to fill a box, and a label should be attached to each
box indicating the particular district of country in which the collections
were obtained. For this purpose empty provision boxes or packages
can generally be used.

In examining sections or exposures of rocks along a shore or else-
where, it is a good plan to make a rough sketch in a note-book, thus:

SECTION 1.

5 | Clay. 8 feet.

4 | Shale. 7 feet.

3 | Clay. 12 feet.

2 | Sandstone. 12 feet.

1 | Limestone. | 10 feet.

Then on the same or following pages, more particular descriptions of
the nature and composition of the several beds should be written, re-
ferring to each by its number. Sections of this kind should be num-
bered 1, 2, 3, and so on, in the order in which they were observed, and
the specimens from each bed ought also to be numbered on its label so
as to correspond. That is, specimens from the lowest bed of the first
section should be, for instance, marked thus: “Section No. 1, bed No.
1,” and so on. The name of the locality, however, should also, as
already suggested, be written on the labels as a provision against the
possible loss of note-books.

It generally happens that an outcrop will show only a part of the
beds of which it is composed, thus:

384 EXPEDITION TOWARD THE NORTH POLE.

5 | Unexposed. a 10 feet.

4 | Limestone. | 7 feet.

3 | Unexposed space. ree 8 feet.

2 | Limestone. 11 feet.

1 | Sandstone. | 15 feet.

In such a ease the facts should be noted exacily as seen, without any
attempt to guess at the nature of the material that may fill the unex-
posed places; but, generally, by comparing different sections of this
kind taken in the same region, the entire structure of a district may be
made out.

The dip and strike of strata should also be carefully observed and
noted, as well as the occurrence of dikes or other outbursts of igneous
rocks, and the effects of the latter on the contiguous strata.

All evidences of the elevation or sinking of coasts should likewise be
carefully observed and noted.

Especial attention should be given to glacial phenomena of every
kind, such as the formation, size, movements, &c., of existing glaciers,
their abrading and other effects upon the subjacent rocks, their forma-
tion of moraines, &c.; also, the formation, extent, and movements of
icebergs, and their power of transporting masses of rock, &e.

At Cape Frazer, between latitude 50° north and longitude 70° west,
Dr. Hayes found some upper silurian fossils ina hard gray limestone.
This rock doubtless has a rather wide extension in the country referred
to, as other explorers have brought silurian fossils from several localities
farther southward and westward in this distant northern region. Should
the party visit the locality from which Dr. Hayes collected his specimens,
it is desirable that as complete a collection as possible should be ob-
tained, as most of those found by Dr. Hayes were lost.

For making geological observations, and collecting geological speci-
mens, very few instruments are required. For determining the elevations
of mountains, and the general altitude of the country, a barometer is
sufficiently accurate. For local elevations of less extent a pocket-level
(Locke’s) should be provided. Tape-lines are also useful for measuring
vertical outcrops, and other purposes; and a good pocket-compass 1s
indispensable. The latter should have a clinometer attached.

A good supply of well-tempered cast-steel hammers should also be
provided. They should be of various sizes and forms, and ought to be
made with large enough eyes to receive stout handles, of which a good
number, made of well-seasoned hickory, should be prepared. Chisels
of different sizes Should also be prepared of well-tempered steel.

A pouch of leather or stout canvas, with a strap to pass over the
shoulder, will be found useful to carry specimens for short distances.

’ I. B. MEEK.

oo
co
=n

EXPEDITION TOWARD THE NORTH POLE.

GLACIERS.

The progress of our knowledge of glaciers has disclosed two sides of
the subject entirely disconnected with one another, and requiring dif-
ferent means of investigation. The study of the structure of glaciers as
they exist now, and the phenomena connected with their formation,
maintenance, and movement, constitute now an extensive chapter in the
physics of the globe. On the other hand, it has been ascertained that
glaciers had a much wider range during an earlier but nevertheless
comparatively recent geological period, and have produced during that
period phenomena which, for a long time, were ascribed to other agencies.
In any investigation of glaciers now-a-days, the student should keep in
mind distinctly these two sides of the subject. He ought also to remem-
ber at the outset what is now no longer a mooted point—that, at differ-
ent times during the glacial period, the accumulations of ice covering
larger or smaller areas of the earth’s surface have had an ever-varying
extension, and that whatever facts are observed, their value will be
increased in proportion as the chronological element is kept in view.

From the physical point of view, the Arctic expedition, under the
command of Captain Hall, may render science great service should Dr.
Bessels have an opportunity of comparing the present accumulations of
ice in the Arctic regions with what is known of the glaciers of the Alps
and other mountainous regions. In the Alps the glaciers are fed from
troughs in the higher regions, in which snow accumulates during the
whole year, but more largely during winter, and by a succession of
changes is gradually transformed into harder and harder ice, moving
down to lower regions where glaciers never could have been formed.
The snow-like accumulations of the upper regions are the materials out
of which the compact transparent brittle ice of the lower glaciers is
made. Whatever snow falls upon the glaciers in their lower range
during winter, melts away during summer, and the glacier is chiefly fed
from above and wastes away below. The water arising from the melt-
ing of the snow at the surface contributes only indirectly to the internal
economy of the glacier. It would be superfluous here to rehearse what
is known of the internal structure of glaciers and of their movement ; it
may be found in any treatise on glaciers. Nor would it be of any avail to
discuss the value of conflicting views concerning their motion. Suffice
it to say that an Arctic explorer may add greatly to our knowledge by
stating distinctly to what extent the winter snow, failing upon the sur-
face of the great glacial fields of the Arctic, melts away during summer
and leaves bare an old icy surface, covered with fragments of rock, sand,
dust, &c. Such an inquiry will teach us in what way the great masses
of ice which pour into the Arctic Ocean are formed, and how the supply
that empties annually into the Atlantic is replenished. If the winter
snows do not melt entirely in the lower part of the Arctic glaciers during
summer, these glaciers must exhibit a much more regular stratification
than the pipe glaciers, and the successive falls of snow must in them

408 |

386 EXPEDITION TOWARD THE NORTH POLE.

be indicated more distinetly by layers of sand and dust than in those of
the Alps by the dirt bands. Observations concerning the amount of
waste of the glaciers by evaporation or melting, or what I have called
ablation of the surface during a given time in different parts of the year,
would also be of great interest as bearing upon the hygrometric con-
dition of the atmosphere. A pole sunk sufficiently deep into the ice to
withstand the effects of the wind could be used as a meter. But it
ought to be sunk so deep that it will serve for a period of many months,
and rise high enough not to be buried by a snow-storm. It should alse
be ascertained, if possible, whether water oozes from below the glacier,
or, in other words, whether the glacier is frozen to the ground or sepa-
rated from it by a sheet of water. If practicable, a line of poles should
be set out with reference to a rocky peak or any bare surface of rock, in
order to determine the motion of the ice. It is a matter of deep interest
with reference to questions connected with the former greater extension
of glaciers, to know in what manner flat sheets of ice move on even
ground, exhibiting no marked slope. It may be possible to ascertain,
after a certain time, by the change of position of poles sunk in the ice,
whether the motion follows the inequalities of the surface, or is deter-
mined by the lay of the land and the exposure of the ice to the atmos-
phleric agents, heat, moisture, wind, &c. It would be of great interest
to ascertain whether there is any motion during the winter season, or
whether motion takes place only during the period when water may
trickle through the ice. The polished surfaces in the immediate vicinity
of glacier ice exhibit such legible signs of the direction in which the
ice moves, that wherever ledges of rocks are exposed the scratches and
furrows upon their surface may serve as a sure register of its progress;
but before taking this as evidence, it should, if possible, be ascertained
that such surfaces actually belong to the area over which the adjoining
ice moves during its expansion, leaving them bare in its retreat.

The geological agency of glaciers will no doubt receive additional
evidence from a careful examination of this point in the Arctic regions.
A moving sheet of ice, stretching over a rocky surface, leaves such un-
mistakable marks of its passage that rocky surfaces which have once
been glaciated, if I may thus express the peculiar action of ice upon
rocks, viz, the planing, polishing, scratching, grooving, and furrowing
of their surfaces, can never be mistaken for anything else, and may
everywhere be recognized by a practiced eye. These marks, in connec-
tion with transported loose materials, drift, and bowlders, are unmis-
takable evidence of the great extension which glaciers once had. But
here it is important to discriminate between two sets of facts, which
have generally been confounded. In the proximity of existing glaciers,
these marks and these materials have a direct relation to the present
sheet of ice near by. It is plain, for instance, that the polished surfaces
about the Grimsel, and the loose materials lying between the glacier of
the Aar and the Hospice, are the work of the glacier of the Aar when it

EXPEDITION TOWARD THE NORTH POLE. 387

extended beyond its present limits, and step by step its greater exten-
sion may be traced down to Meyringen, and, in connection with other
glaciers from other valleys of the Bernese Oberland, it may be tracked
as far as Thun or Berne, when the relation to the Alps becomes compli-
cated with features indicating that the whole valley of Switzerland,
between the Alps and the Jura, was once occupied by ice. On the other
hand, there are evident signs of the former presence of local glaciers in
the Jura, as, for instance, on the Dent de Vaulion, which mark a later
era in the history of glaciation in Switzerland. Now the traces of the
former existence of extensive sheets of ice over the continent of North
America are everywhere most plainly seen, but no one has yet under-
taken to determine in what relation these glaciated surfaces of past ages
stand to the ice-fields of the present day in the Arctics. The scientific
men connected with Captain Hall’s expedition would render science an
important service if they could notice the trend and bearing of all the
glacial scratches they may observe upon denudated surfaces wherever
they land. It would be advisable for them, if possibie, to break off
fragments of such glaciated rocks and mark with an arrow their bear-
ing. It would be equally important to notice how far the loose materials,
pebbles, bowlders, &c., differ in their mineralogical character from the
surface on which they rest, and to what extent they are themselves
polished, rounded, scratched, or furrowed, and also what is the nature
of the clay or sand which holds them together. It would be.particularly
interesting to learn how far there are angular bowlders among these
loose materials, and what is their position with reference to the com-
pacted drift made up of rounded, polished, and scratched pebbles and
bowlders. Should an opportunity occur of tracing the loose materials
of any locality to some rock in situ, at a greater or less distance, and
the nature of the materials should leave no doubt of their identity, this
would afford an invaluable indication of the direction in which the loose
materials have traveled. Any indication relating to the differences of
level among such materials would add to the value of the observation.
I have purposely avoided all theoretical considerations, and only called
attention to the facts which it is most important to ascertain, in order
to have a statement as unbiased as possible.
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INDIAN MOUNDS NEAR FORT WADSWORTH, DAKOTA TERRITORY.

By A. J. COMFORT,

Acting Assistant Surgeon United States Army.

Indian mounds of the larger size were probably designed as ceme-
teries. They are located generally on a terrace, knoll, or elevation, at a
convenient distance from the water. .

It has been a custom of the American Indian, from time immemorial,
to deposit the remains of the dead upon burial-scaffolds or suspend them
from trees. At stated periods the bones were gathered together and
interred. Among the Dakotas the custom has been, when a member of
the tribe dies, after the autumnal leaves have fallen, to deposit the re-
mains upon a scaffold, not to be removed until the leaves have unfolded
in spring, and if a death occur after the leaf-buds have burst, the re-
mains of the dead are likewise deposited, not to be removed until the
leaves have fallen in autumn. When a member of the lodge of the
‘‘orand medicine” dies, the removal of the remains from the burial-
seaftold, and their interment, is attended with a grand “ medicine dance,”
and the initiation of a new member to fill the vacancy.

A solitary mound, occupying an elevated position upon the rolling
prairie, near the eastern shore of a beautiful lake, was first selected for
exploration. This site was chosen by the “ mound-builders ” evidently
for its richness in those associations in which men in their primitive
simplicity of customs especially delight. In every direction, except the
west, as far as the eye can reach, lay stretched out the broad prairie
of Dakota, upon which it was impossible for an enemy to lurk ora
buffalo to range unperceived. By a gradual and almost uniform descent
of a quarter of a mile, the largest of Kettle Lakes may be reached,
abounding in fish and, at the appropriate season, water-fowl of the
choicest variety, as game. Within a quarter of a mile of the shore is an
island, about a mile in circumference, heavily timbered, the favorite re-
sort of wood-ducks and cormorants during the period of incubation. -
Trees support the nests of the former in great numbers; geese, brant,
and swan are wont to feed here in autumn, on their journey southward.
It seems but reasonable that an elevated site possessing such advan-
tages for the living savage should be selected as the place of deposit for
his bones, especially when we reflect that among the aborigines there
was prevalent an almost universal belief in the existence of a spirit
which had intrusted to its charge the guardianship of the remains of
the dead; consequently, a spot the most eligible on account of the

390 , ETHNOLOGY.

beauty of its scenery and the accessibility to game, important desiderata
to the living, was deemed the most suitable for the haunts of the
spirits of the dead.

The mound selected for exploration, east of Kettle Lakes, for conven-
ience of reference, is termed No. 1. Upon and around it for several
feet were strewn human bones of every stage of development and of
either sex. The external appearance of this ancient structure bore the
most unmistakable evidence of the purpose for which it was intended—
a receptacle for the remains of the dead; but from this purpose it had
been perverted by the fox of the prairie, which had burrowed within it,
removing bones and other obstacles in the way of constructing its lair.

The form of this mound, like others of the class, was that of the frus-
tum of a cone, the tances of whose base meeatved fifty feet, that of
its superior plane thirty feet; the height of the latter was ie feet.

Almost covered with earth, I found a hornblende bowlder, of an
irregular discoidal shape, divided into two unequal sections by a vein of
granite three-quarters of an inch thick. This stone marked the center
of the mound. I drew two lines in the direction of the cardinal points
of the compass, quite across the mound, intersecting each other at this
stone, and dividing the mound into four equal sections, which are desig-
nated for convenience of reference as the northeast, southeast, north-
west, and southwest, respectively.

I commenced digging into the northeast and southeast sections,
removing the earth, stratum by stratum, observing and noting objects
of interest as they appeared. In the southeast section I found within
eighteen inches of the surface two incomplete skeletons lying upon their
sides, facing each other, their feet directed to the east, their heads
within six inches of each other. One of these skeletons was that of a
male, the other that of a female; though apparently of young persons,
they were fully developed. The earth surrounding these was less
compact than elsewhere found in the mound, was of a homogeneous
character, of a dark color, and furnished no protection to the bones
against moisture, from which I infer that the interment was intrusive,
and made by a tribe occupying the country since the dispersion of the
mound-builders. +

The most southern portion of the southeast section of this mound
was a locality of great interest; it is designated in my invoice of con-
tributions to the Museum as “ locality A.”

While sinking an excavation to the depth of about four feet, the atten-
tion of one of the party was attracted by the appearance of a small
quantity of black, dry, pulverulent earth, which, being examined, was
found to be in close proximity to some stone, between which an aper-
ture was found large enough to receive the natal; but as fast as the hand
was withdrawn the space was again filled w ith the same pulverulent
dust. My impression was that the aperture communicated with the
cavity of a vault, to obtain a view of which the surrounding earth was

INDIAN MOUNDS NEAR FORT WADSWORTH, D. T. gol

removed with great care without disturbing the stones. ‘This structure
proved to be a work of rude masonry, three feet long, eighteen inches
wide, and two and a half feet high, inclosing a rectangular space. The
stones used for this purpose were the undressed bowlders of the prairie,
from eight to twelve inches in diameter, and were sustained in posi-
tion by earth banked around the wall externally without the appearance
of the use of lime or mortar.

In this were found the imperfect skeletons of a female and child, whose
attitude would indicate the relation of the former as that of mother or
nurse to the latter. The posture of each was that of sitting—the mother
upon the floor and the child upon her lap, supported by her right arm.
Indian women, at the present day, in seating themselves draw their
heels close to their nates and bring the knees quite close to the floor,
either upon the right or left side; such had been the disposition of the
lower extremities of the mother interred by the mound-builders. The
masonry had formed a support for the thorax of both mother and child,
both of whom had been placed facing the east, the body of the child
slightly inclined to the mother. The cranium of the latter had fallen to
the pelvis; that of the former was resting procumbent upon the thorax.
Amidst the black pulverulent dust with which the mound-builders were
wont to surround the remains of their dead, upon the floor, within the
cavity of the pelvis, and around it, I found a number of the bones of a
foetus. The lower jaw was divided at its median symphysis ; a parietal
bone, scarcely thicker than paper, had thrown out its osseous matter
from the parietal protuberance in radiate lines; a humerus of not a
finger’s length, and proportionately slender and delicate, was picked up
among other bones of this interesting locality. My Indian party having
observed every object of interest with the closest attention, were able
to distinguish human bones from those of animals and to designate
their places in the skeleton. One of these, struck by the analogy of the
foetal bones to those of the adult, placed his hand upon his abdomen
and exclaimed, ‘“ Papoose cik cistina,” (a very small infant.)

immediately behind the mason work above described, that is, to the
west of it, was found a triangular space, in which was placed a number
of bones, chiefly those of the upper and lower extremities, a few verte-
bree and ribs, crania, &e.; these had been apparently thrown in promiscu-
ously, as if from disarticulated limbs; those of the upper and lower
extremities in a state of extreme flexion, probably with a view to econo-
mize space, as though the sole object had been to preserve the bones from
destruction and remove them from sight. The relative position of the
parts would indicate that no trunk was entire; in one place was deposited
the pelvis and lower extremities, without the small bones of the feet,
in another, the lower extremities without the pelvis; in another, the
thorax and part of the spinal column; in another, the thorax and upper
extremities ; here a right arm had been deposited, having been severed
from the trunk at the shoulder-joint ; there a left lower extremity with

DIZ ETHNOLOGY.

the bones of the pelvis. I can only account for this separation of parts
on the supposition that, in most instances, the remains had been gath-
ered in for interment from burial-scaffolds after many months of exposure,
especially since the small bones of the hands and feet in almost every
instance were wanting. No implements of any kind were found in this
locality and no bones of animals except the skull of a beaver. The earth
in part of this mound had not been disturbed by the inroads of animals;
although this skull was in close proximity to a collection of human bones.
At the time, and for months after, I was unable to account for the
presence of the skull of this rodent in a human sepulchre. Upon careful
examination of this object of interest I perceived that the foramen mag-
num had been enlarged, its margin having been broken away by an
agency directed by more intelligence than the lower animals possess,
‘The object, of course, had been to extract the brain, but why extract the
brain from the skull of a beaver for deposit with the remains of the
dead? No satisfactory answer to these inquiries suggested itself to me
until by accident I obtained a bag of an ex-member of the “‘ grand medi-
cine lodge ;” this consisted of the skin of a beaver, the claws and skull
remaining attached, the posterior walls of the latter having been re-
moved with the soft parts. The skull in question, then, was, in my
opinion, the undeecomposed part of a medicine-bag.

The bones in the triangular space, like the skeletons of the mother
and child, were surrounded by alayer of dark pulverulent carbonaceous
earth, constituting a stratum of the mound, one foot in thickness, sur-
mounted by a layer of undressed bowlders, placed in as close proximity
as possible without cement or mortar. The superincumbent earth re-
moved from the layer of stones, its sides measured five, seven, and nine
feet respectively, and running in the direction in the order of the above
numbers, starting from the work of masonry as the southeastern angle,
west of north, south of east, and due south to the point of starting.
The floor of the mound, which constituted the floor of the triangle, was
composed of clay of a wonderful cohesive property, and so compact that
it could only be broken with violent blows of the pick. It had the
appearance of having been baked, and yet there were no cracks in it as
one would expect to see, produced by shrinking during the process of
drying; it was quite smooth and level and bore the appearance of hav-
ing been finished prior to drying with a coating of clay in a plastic state,
and smoothed with the hand or some rude substitute for a trowel. While
the exploration of this mound was being prosecuted I was present in
person, and when an object of interest was found my attention was
immediately called to it. The earth was removed from it with great
care, in order that its position might not be disturbed; if it was sur-
rounded with a pulverulent earth, it was brushed away with a wisp of
prairie-grass or a very fine brush-broom; if the earth was compact, it
was carefully cut away with a knife, and the object chiseled out. Sin-
gular as it may seem, only the southeast section of this mound con-

/

INDIAN MOUNDS NEAR FORT WADSWORTH, D. T. 393

tained any bones or other objects of interest worthy of note; the earth

yas removed from the remaining three sections within the circumference
of the superior plane of the mound perpendicularly down to the floor,
and the margin beyond, though not wholly removed, was examined in
several places. The work thus far completed, I directed several excava-
tions, about three feet in circumference and as many deep, to be made, for
the purpose of ascertaining the deeper structure of the mound. In every
instance the material-proved to be one homogeneous mass of dry, com-
pact clay. In one of three excavations a few feet to the south of the
masonry, and about a foot and a half below the floor, was found a cranium,
which, on other bones of the same skeleton being exposed to view without
their relations being disturbed, proved to be of an aged man. T'ew of
these bones, chiefly those of the hands and feet, were wanting; the pos-
ture was that of sitting, with the body inclining forward and face directed
to the east. I have seen Indians in council, or absorbed in earnest
thought, assume a posture not unlike the one here represented. The
thorax had been slightly compressed by the superimposed mass of earth.
On the cranium and tibia I observed several small bony tumors of an
almost pearly whiteness and great hardness, the largest about the size
and shape of a half of a pea. These tumors which are called in surgery
exostoses, are most generally the result of syphilis, though they may be
attributed to other causes. <A fine specimen of united fracture of one of
the femurs was obtained from this skeleton, showing, from the amount of
shortening, the obliquity of the axis of the fragments, and the ill-adjust-
ment of the fractured ends, how much these people stood in need of
surgical skill.

The interment in the triangular space must have been a contemporary
act with that of the construction of the mound, soalso, in aliprobability,
that within the work of masonry, while the burial of the aged man

“beneath the mound floor, unsurrounded with pulverulent carbonaceous
earth, must have a date anterior to its construction. These facts are
predicated upon the observation of the undisturbed condition of the
superior strata of clay and black surface-mold of which the mound was
composed. The habits of nomadic and uncivilized races afford them but
limited facilities for preparing their food; their viands are usually broiled
upon the live coals and eaten with theadherent ashes. Trituration being
performed almost entirely by the teeth, these important organs of diges-
tion are worn down to a common level at an early age. The tubercles
of the molars, the points of the cuspids, and the cutting edge of the
incisors are worn down by attrition tothelevel of one common plane. The
teeth of the mound-builders differ not the least in this particular from
that of modern American Indians who still adhere to their nomadic life.

Hampson’s group of mounds.—On a knollor elevation from fifty to one
hundred feet above the water level, and sloping gradually to it at a
distance of a quarter of a mile, is situated an interesting group of ten
mounds, which for several years have borne the name of Hampson’s

394 ETHNOLOGY. '

Mounds, in honor of Major Hampson of the Tenth United States Infan-
try, the present commander of the post.

Of this number two are particularly conspicuous, being nearly double
the height of the rest and situated between them and the brow of the
knoll; each is in form of the frustum of a cone, the usua: shape of mounds
in this vicinity. The measurement of the first is as follows: diameter
of base fifty-five feet, diameter of superior plane thirty-five feet, perpen-
dicular height, measured .on one side, four feet, and six feet on the other ;
this difference is owing to the ground on which it is located sloping
slightly to the lake. The measurement of the second mound is as follows:
diameter of base fifty feet; diameter of superior plane, twenty feet;
height of superior plane, five feet.

Years ago animals have made inroads into the first of these mounds,
carrying out fragments of human bones; their burrows now, however,
are caved in, destroying its otherwise symmetrical appearance. The
second mound was explored by me; all that portion of the mound being
removed perpendicularly beneath the superior plane. In its center were
found three imperfect skeletons whose crania were lying near together.
They had evidently been buried with their feet in the direction of three
-ardinal points of the compass, one to the east, one to the north, the
third to the west, two upon their sides, the third upon its back. <A flat
stone had formed a pillow for the three. Surrounding the bones was a
stratum of black pulverulent carbonaceous earth, whose thickness was
twelve inches; this was not different from the same foundin Mound No.
1, and in every sepulchral mound subsequently explored. I found in two
or three spots of this layer an impalpable buff-colored powder, evidently
the remains of some decomposed wood used in interment. Some distance
from these skeletons, and a foot above them, was found a single cranium
lying upon its side, beneath a few spinous processes of the vertebra of
a buffalo. Here and there, in the upper stratum of the mound, I found
the skulls of the musk-rat, skunk, prairie-wolf, and other small animals,
without the other bones of the carcass; these had been most probably
attached to medicine-bags. The structure of this mound was essen-
tially the same as that of all the sepulchral mounds explored by me,
except No. 1, and consisted of four strata. The first or uppermost layer
was three feet thick, and was composed of a black, moist, adhesive vege-
table mold, not differing much from the surface-soil of the prairie except
that it was a little darker in color, contained a little more moisture, and
was more adherent to the shovel. The second layer was a foot thick,
and consisted of a black, dry, pulverulent carbonaceous matter, in which
human bones are usually found. The third layer was also a foot thick,
and consisted of a siliceous loam. The fourth layer was a concrete com-
posed of gravel and lime, and varied in thickness, as was required to
make the upper surface quite horizontal. The two last layers had proba-
bly been dried in the sun and afterward burned.

On a line running nearly east and west, and about sixty feet further

INDIAN MOUNDS NEAR FORT WADSWORTH, D. T. 395

from the lake, nearly parallel with the one joining the center of the
principal mounds, are situated eight mounds smaller in dimensions and
Jess conspicuous in appearance. One of these, whose diameter was
twenty-five feet at base and fifteen feet at its superior plane, and whose
perpendicular height was two feet, I opened at the same time of explor-
ing the one previously described ; it proved to be, unlike No. 2, destitute
of strata, but composed of one homogeneous mass of surface-soil. At
the depth of two feet was a stratum of clay three inches thick, very hard
and compact. On this stratum, at its center, were found charcoal and
ashes, but no bones.

I could explain this structure only on the supposition that a cireular
hut had once been located there, with a clay floor, with a fire-place in its
center. Around the sides of the hut the earth had been banked, and when
abandoned by its inmates the perishable portion had been removed, or,
remaining undisturbed, had decomposed; the embankments had settled
both internally and externally, and the center of the habitation had filled
up to the common level of itssides. That a circular earth-walled hut, of
suitable dimensions, will assume the form of a frustum of a cone 1s
shown by the group of small mounds which a few years ago might be
seen near Saint Paul, where the once celebrated Black Dog’s village
stood. The remains of such huts I propose to call domiciliary tumult, in
contradistinction to those of alarger size, with four characteristic strata,
constructed for the purpose of interment.

The third mound of this group had a diameter of forty feet at base ;
that of its superior plane was fifteen feet, and its perpendicular height
was two and a half feet. This mound showed a want of regularity in
the circumference of its superior plane and that of its base, as well as
the slope of its sides, and apparently had been the remains of a hut
whose form had been a rectangle, with earth banked around its sides
several feet high. The perishable part had been removed ; its embank-
ments settled, both externally and internally, and its central portion,
though slightly depressed or cup-shaped, had nearly filled to the com-
mon level of its sides. A fewinches below the surface I found the bones
of the thorax, with upper extremities, in situ, as when interred, the ex-
ternal surface of the sternum directed upward, and to the east the
cervical vertebrae, not a foot below the surface. The axis of the thorax
inclined to the horizon at an angle of about forty degrees; the bones of
the lower extremities were entirely wanting. This mound was also des-
titute of the four characteristic strata which I found in Mound No. 2
and others afterward examined, from which it may be inferred that the
burial was intrusive and by a more recent tribe, and that the mound
was one of the domiciliary class. A stratum of clay, four inches thick,
constituted the floor. Beneath the floor was found the skull and thigh-
bones of an aged man. These bones among civilized men have emblem-
atic significance. Can it be for a like reason the savages had deposited

them in a place as secure as possible?) The remaining mounds in this

396 ETHNOLOGY.

interesting group, from location, size, and general appearance, may be
regarded as of the domiciliary class, and they vary in dimensions, their
bases being in diameter from twenty to thirty-five feet, their superior
planes being from fifteen to twenty-five feet, the height of the latter
from one to two feet; they are located in a line at distances of from
thirty to sixty feet apart.

On the west side of Kettle Lakes, about a mile and a half distant
from the post, is a group of three mounds whose dimensions are as fol-
lows: diameter of base, sixty feet; diameter of superior plane, forty
feet; height of superior plane, three feet.

In one of these the recent interment of the remains of an Indian
child had taken place; another of these I explored, removing all the
earth found perpendicularly beneath the superior plane. The mound
proved to belong to the sepulchral class, and was composed of the four
characteristic strata as were found elsewhere, viz, first, a stratum of
surface-soil two feet thick; second, a stratum of dry pulverulent car-
bonaceous matter one foot in thickness; third, a stratum of siliceous
loam, bearing evidence of exposure to high heat, very dry and compact ;
fourth, a stratum of concrete one foot thick composed of clay contain-
ing a slight admixture of lime; both of these latter strata appear to
have been subjected to a high degree of heat, being very dry and com-
pact in structure, and so great is the cohesiveness of the particles that
it requires smart blows of the pick to remove them. The shovel or
spade makes no more impression upon the strata than upon a closely
cemented pavement of bricks.

It would seem that the third and fourth layers of the mound had been
leveled off singly, and an enormous pile of wood had been burned upon
each for the purpose of baking it, and the ashes had been gathered up
and sifted to remove the charcoal. An excavation ten or twelve inches
deep, three feet in circumference, had been made in the third layer of
this mound, in which had been deposited the bones above mentioned.
The sides and bottom bear the impressions of a pointed instrument, not
unlike those made by a pick. The implement used probably was a
sharpened stake, such as I have seen the Dakotas use in spring to dig
tipsinna, or Dakota turnips. The bones found here had been divested
of their soft parts and were piled in very compact cross-layers; they
were as follows, none of them perfect, however, viz: two inferior maxil-
lary bones, a number of fragments of a cranium, a number of frag-
ments of a pelvis, six femora, four tibice, four fibula, three uln, two
radii, and one scapula. I also obtained about a peck of fragments of
decayed wood, which had searcely enough cohesiveness existing to
enable it to retain its form, and yet the bark remained adherent.
Each stick must have been five feet long and three inches thick. The
wood was found between the first and second layer, surmounted by a
number of large undressed bowlders in immediate proximity to it. It
bears no mark of implements upon it, except that it has been split, and

INDIAN MOUNDS NEAR FORT WADSWORTH, D. T. 397

most of it appears by its rings of annular growth to be the part of a
trunk of a large tree.

I presume it is of a species of oak still growing in this vicinity in the
ravines and places protected by their water surroundings from prairie
fire. Asa general rule, the mound-builders were wont to cover with
wood or stone that portion of the second layer immediately enveloping
the bones.

On a ridge, elevated ten or fifteen feet above the surface of the lakes,
and within one-half of a mile from the post, and afew hundred feet
from the water, 1s a group of eight mounds, whose dimensions are as fol-
lows: diameter of base, sixty feet; diameter of superior plane, forty-five
or fifty feet; height of superior plane above the surface of the prairie im-
mediately surrounding it, three feet. JI explored one of this group and
found its structure to be identical with the last described, that is, to
be composed of four characteristic strata, the latter two bearing evidence
of exposure to high heat. This mound, and apparently the whole group,
had evidently been constructed for sepulchral purposes; a slight ex-
savation had been made in the fourth layer to receive the bones
which were as follows: four inferior maxillary, fourteen vertebrae, nine
scapule, nine humeri, nine ribs, nine ulne, ten oss innominate, fifteen
femora, thirteen tibiae, and eight fibula. These were arranged in cross-
layers, So as to occupy the least possible amount of space, and within a
compass of three feet. They had been divested of their soft parts prior
to interment, as was evident from their relative position. The radius
was invariably found without the ulna to match, the tibia without the
fibula. The ends of bones which would have been in proximity, if not
disarticulated, were never found so; neither the head of the humerus
nor the head of the femur was ever found in its socket. A number of
the bones found here had been gnawed by mice or prairie-gophers.

On the south side of the post, and within one or two hundred feet of the
sally-port, is a sepulchral mound, the diameter of whose base is be-
tween forty-five and fifty feet, that of its superior plane thirty and forty ;
the height of the superior plane, above the surface of the immediately
surrounding prairie, is about two and a half feet. On the road to Fort
Abercrombie, about a mile and a half from the post, upon a ridge aris-
ing about forty feet above the surface of the adjacent lakes, of which
there is one on either side, is situated a group of seven mounds, all of
which may be regarded as of the sepulchral class, and do not differ in
size and appearance from those previously described.

Three miles from Fort Wadsworth, in a direction a little east of north,
upon a hill sixty feet above the surface of an adjacent lake, and sloping
quite to its water’s edge, isa group of seven mounds, two of which belong
to the sepulchral class. The dimensions of one of these are as follows:
diameter of base, sixty feet; diameter of superior plane, fifteen feet;
height of superior plane, above the sloping hill-side, on which the
mound is situated, from four to eight feet. These mounds sustain the

398 ETHNOLOGY.

same relative position to each other as those of Hampson’s group, viz:
two near the brow of the hill, with the remaining six in a line nearly
parallel to one joining their centers. The six are about a hundred and
fifty feet farther from the lake, and, judging from size and appearance,
belong to the domiciliary class; they vary from thirty to forty feet in
diameter at base, and are about sixty feet apart, and may be regarded
in a line as nearly straight as Indians are wont to construct their huts.

On a strip of land adjoining the fort on the west, and between two
Jakes, are situated ten or twelve mounds. Upon a ridge, one-quarter of a
mile in length, at various distanees from each other, seven of them are
located ; the others occupy knolls which, from their elevation and prox-
imity to water, seemed to the builders to furnish the most eligible sites.

The flag-statf of this post was planted in an Indian mound, occupying
the center of the parade, and human bones were thrown out during the
process of excavation. Another mound formerly stood in front of one
of the barracks. Both now are leveled off and the locality overgrown
with grass.

MOUNDS, FORTIFICATIONS, ETC., FOUND IN OTHER VICINITIES.

There is an interesting group of mounds on the north shore of White
Bear Lake, near Glenwood, Pope County, Minnesota.

On a terrace arising by a gradual slope from the former bed of a river,
and near the residence of the present Indian agent, is situated an inter-
esting group of Indian mounds, two of which, from size and appear-
ance, may be regarded as of the sepulchral class.

Mounds occurring both in groups and solitary may be seen on knolls
at various distances from each other, on the shores of Lake Traverse,
one of which is known to contain human bones, and is surrounded on
every side except one by Indian fortifications; this side is protected
from attack by the lake, from whose waters the bank arises almost per-
pendicularly.

About eighty miles from Fort Wadsworth, on the road to Fort Steven-
son, is a hill of natural formation about thirty feet in height, some-
what conical in shape, bearing in the Dakota language the name of
Hu-hu Pa-ha, (Bone Hill.) The sides of this hill are paved with bones,
of a certain kind, obtained from the legs of buffaloes. Walks leading
in different directions to the distance of several hundred feet are paved
with the same bones placed end to end and two courses in width. » The
hill commands an extensive range of vision, and has been used by the
Cheyennes as a point of observation.

Indian fortifications resembling rifle-pits are said to be found, first,
near this post; second, near Lake Traverse, a short distance from the
residence of Major Brown; third, on the Yellow Medicine, near where

INDIAN MOUNDS NEAR FORT WADSWORTH, D. T. 399

the “upper agency” formerly stood. Arrow-heads, muscle-shells, and
occasionally implements of bone and stone were formerly found in this
locality.

Indian pottery, in addition to being found at this post, is said to be
found also on the Coteau du Prairie, about thirty miles from this post.

On a granite rock situated upon a hill about a mile or two distant
from the residence of Major Brown are to be seen what is called Wa-kin-
yan Owe, (the track of thunder,) and regarded by the Indians as a super-
natural phenomenon. Two tracks of a bird, as they regard them, are
impressed upon the rock, each having three anterior toes and one pos-
terior. The tracks are about six inches long, each line representing a
toe, not more than one-eighth of an inch wide; their origin is clearly
artificial and may be explained on the supposition that centuries ago,
with a piece of flint, some member of the Cheyenne Nation has exercised
his talents in engraving the tracks of a bird, in which a calcareous
coneretion of a different color from the original rock has since been
deposited.

To an elevation or knoll, from forty to sixty feet high, one-quarter
of a mile in diameter, arising almost perpendicularly from the south-
ern shore of one of Kettle Lakes, and sloping gradually in every
direction into an erosion valley, I have applied the Dakota name of
Cega Iyevapi, (Chaga Eyayiipee,) a name by which Fort Wadsworth
and the surrounding courtry is familiarly known to the Indians. The
term signifies in their language the place where “ they found the kettle.”
The knoll has, probably, been for along period the favorite camping-
ground of the aborigines. The valley has at one time been a wide and
deep ditch, communicating with one of Kettle Lakes and some adjoining
sloughs, converting the hill into an island, admirably fortified by nature
for defense. On the summit of this knoll was an artificial mound
whose base was one hundred feet in diameter, and the perpendicular
height of its superior plane, above the surface of the prairie, imme-
diately surrounding it, was from one foot and a halt to two feet. The
demarkation of the circumference of the base of the mound is somewhat
indistinct. At various distances from the surface to the depth of four
feet were found alternate strata of clay, and what appears to be a dark
vegetable mold, such as is found on the prairie elsewhere. The strata
of clay are each about three inches thick, very hard and dry, and con-
tain in their composition a slight admixture of lime, forming a sort of
concrete. It would appear from this arrangement of a series of concrete
floors that this locality, so admirably situated for defense, has been the
favorite camping-ground of one band of aborigines after another, each
renovating the locality of the former occupants by covering it with a layer
of soil from eight to twelve inches thick, and covering the whole with a
new concrete floor. On these floors I found the bones of birds, fish, and
various edible animals. The lowest floor is about four feet deep, and is
upon the natural clay soil; in this I found a number of hearths, formed by

400 ETHNOLOGY.

digging an excavation about a foot deep, and three and a half or four
feet in diameter. Upon these were found a quantity of ashes and charred
bones, the remains of the feasts of men, and a number of stones from
three to six inches in diameter, bearing evidence of exposure to a high
degree of heat, and having probably been used for the purpose of boil-
ing water. The granitic sand entering into the composition of the pot-
tery may have been obtained from this source. Intermixed with the
soil at various depths I found fragments of pottery of different sizes and
patterns. The under surface or most dependent portion of each is in-
crusted with a white calcareous matter, deposited, no doubt, from the
leachings of the soil. The sherds were evidently from some vessels
no larger than a small jar er goblet, and from others whose capacity
must have been four or five gallons. The color is either that of a cream
or Milwaukee brick color, such as clay destitute of on assumes when
burned, or a dim or slate color of various shades; indeed, in some in-
stances it is almost black. The recently fractured edges of some of the
pieces show a uniformity in color throughout the whole thickness; others
are of a cream-color one-third of the thickness upon either surface, with
a slate-colored streak running through the middle. One of these colors
may be seen on the inside of a sherd with its opposite on the outside, and
vice versa. I can detect no pigmentary matter upon either surface, and
am of opinion that whatever has been used, whether for ornament or
service, though probably the latter, has been imparted to the mass of
clay prior to molding or baking, and by use has disappeared from the
surface, the center retaining it; for while I find no black sherds whose
fractures show a cream-colored substance within, the converse is true.
The black sherds are the least brittle. The thickness of these shersd
varies from an eighth to three-eighths of an inch, according to the size
of the vessel, though few exceed one-fourth. Sand has been the only
substance used to give stiffness to the mass during the process of mold-
ing and prevent the ware from cracking while burning, and has probably
been obtained from disintegrated stones, some of which were found on
the hearths elsewhere spoken of. I have been able to find no whole ves-
sels, but from the fragments of the rims, sides, and bottoms, it is not
difficult to form a fair conception of their shape, which, for aboriginal
art, was wonderfully symmetrical, gradually widening from its neck or
more constricted portion of the vessel until it attains its greatest diame-
ter, at a distance of one-third of the height from the bottom, which
is analogous, in curvature, to the crystal of a watch. To the neck is
attached the rim, about one inch in width, though sometimes two; this
slopes outward at angle of about twenty degrees irom a perpendicular.
Of some of the smaller vessels the rim stands perpendicularly upon an
offset resting upon the neck. Some patterns have no rim, but a mere
lip arises from the neck of the vessel, the whole distance of its circum-
ference, serving as a hand-hold to lift it by. Some small vessels had
neither rims nor lips, their shape being spherjcal. I found no pieces

INDIAN MOUNDS NEAR FORT WADSWORTH, D. T. AOL

containing ears or handles, though an Indian informant tells me that
small vessels were supplied with ears.

That the aboriginal potters of the lacustrine village of Cega Iyeyapi
were fond of decoration, and practiced it in the ceramic art, is shown
by the tracings confined to the rims, which consist of very smooth
lines about one-twentieth of an inch in width, and as deep, drawn quite
around the vessels, parallel to the margin. ‘These are sometimes crossed
by zigzag lines, terminating at the neck of the vessel and the margin
of the rim. Lines drawn obliquely across the rim of the vessel, and
returning so as to form the letter “ V,” with others parallel to the mar-
gin of the rim, joining its sides, the same repeated as often as space
admits, constitute the only tracings on some vessels. The inside of the
vessels is invariably plain.

That the ancient potters failed in the delineatory art, as modern In-
dians do, may readily be inferred, since no object of nature, such as a
tree, a plant, a flower, or bird, has been attempted in their tracings.

To the art of glazing the aborigines seem to have been entire stran-
gers, but they have rendered their ware durable and impervious to
moisture, by thoroughly incorporating throughout its substance a black
pigment, which may be driven off by heating the sherds to redness in
the bright coals of a common wood-fire. Fragments thus treated assume
a yellowish color, and become very porous and brittle.

The neck of the vessels, as well as the rim, shows one uniform cury-
ature, that of a circle, as if molded within a hoop, and is free from
those twists and warps sometimes seen in biscuit and common clay
ware manufactured by the whites. The outside of the vessels proper,
exclusive of the rim—which is traced—bears the impression of very
evenly-twisted cords running in a parallel direction and closely crowded
together, the alternate swelling and depression of whose strands have
left equidistant indentations in every line thus impressed. These lines
run, on the sides of the vessels, in a direction perpendicular to the rim,
and disappear within a half of an inch or an inch of it, each indenta-
tion becoming indistinct near the end. I have counted from ten to fif-
teen of these casts in the space of a linear inch, and yet some of the
sherds represent much finer cords. I find no casts of woven fabric, as
of cloth or basket-work, and yet [have seen diamond (©) figures formed
near the bottom of the vessel, by the crossing of different layers ct
cords. A willow or rush fabric could not form such casts; the inside
bark of a tree possibly might, but the sinews of the buffalo, such as
bow-strings are made of, were most probably used. It would seem,
then, that a sack or basket, formed by securing twisted cords, properly
adjusted to a hoop, furnished the molds in which the aboriginal potters
shaped and dried their vessels, the external surface of which is a cast
of the cords composing the sack.

Earthen vessels were in use by the Dakotas during the childhood of

men still living. I have interrogated separately, and on different occa-
268 71

402 ETHNOLOGY.

sions, the principal and most reliable men of the Sissiton and Wahpeton
tribes, all of whom tell the same story of having seen earthen kettles for
culinary purposes in use by their parents. They state, however, that the ~
Dakotas never made pottery; but in this, Carver, a traveler who spent
a winter among them more than a hundred years ago, contradicts
them. Some say it was brought from the Missouri, having been pur-
chased from the Omahas, others that the Pawnees made it ; others that
they obtained it as booty from the Mandans, with whom they were con-
stantly at war. In corroboration of this statement, Catlin gives an ad-
mirable account of seeing Mandan women make and use pottery when
in the country of that nation, in 1832. That the Mandans, a tribe now
residing with the Rees, in permanent lodges, near Fort Bufort, and sub-
sisting partly by agriculture, once possessed the territory around Kettle
Lakes, and hence made the pottery, is probable, from the faet that the
deepest hearths in the site of the excavation are such as the Mandans
construct at the present day. The Cheyennes, about one hundred years
since, were dispossessed of the soil by the Dakotas, and the country
named Cega Iyeyapi, as previously stated. The legend of the latter
tribe ascribed to the former the authorship of the artificial tumuli in
this vicinity.

ANTIQUITIES ON THE CACHE LA POUDRE RIVER, WELD COUNTY, COLORADO
TERRITORY.

By Epwarp S. BERTHOUD.

During a casual walk taken by me in July, 1867, along the cretaceous
bluffs which extend on Cache La Poudre River for several miles, and
while searching for some strata containing fossil-shells of that epoch,
my attention was drawn to the beds of gravel and small bowlders which
appear to crown the bluffs and higherslopes. This gravel contains both
sedimentary and igneous rocks, is evidently of recent origin, and was
probably deposited long since the cretaceous period. We find here not
only rolled pebbles of quartz, felspathic and micaceous granite horn-
blende rock, sandstone, and ferruginous quartz-rock, but also con-
glomerate of an older period, both common and moss agates, varie-
gated sandstone, &c., with sometimes a pebble of hard limestone.

While continuing my examination and searching for moss-agates, L
found several small accumulations of agate-chips half buried in the soil,
or composing a pavement in spots laid bare by the industry of numerous
colonies of ants, who seem to be amateurs of ali small gay-colored or
bright pebbles with which to construct their nests. These chippings
appearing in numerous places excited my curiosity, until both myself
and companions found in one place two or three arrow-heads made from
the coarse agates found there, as well as the ovalstone tool which I send
with the arrow-head, stone teeth for war-club or saw, and some broken

ANTIQUITIES OF NEW MEXICO. 403

points spoiled in finishing. It thus appeared evident to me that here
must have been either a casual manufactory of such offensive or defen-
Sive weapons, or that an old settlement had once here existed. Continu-
ing my search and narrowly examining the ground for a large extent, I
found numerous small circles of stones which, although more than half
covered with soil and sod, still showed unmistakable signs of design and
use. The stones were fire-stained, and frequently fell to pieces, the top
coarser When exposed, covered with a tough yellowish-green moss, but
frequently so much buried and fixed in the soil and débris, that they
were difficult to trace out, and all marked apparently with great anti-
quity. These vestiges are found over an extent of several acres, and
present an appearance of continued occupations. Indeed, one of the
arrow-heads has incrusted upon it a sort of calcareous or siliceous cement
similar to that found on the large pebbles and bowlders of the gravel
formation, and everywhere near them we find flakes and chippings of
agate similar to those noticed in England, France, and our Eastern
States, and with the arrow-heads of identical pattern of those found
from Maine to Georgia, or in our western mounds, the traces of a by-
gone race who once roamed here before its present Indian population.
In future, we expect to continue these examinations and see if we can
find vestiges of other larger circles.

ANTIQUITIES IN NEW MEXICO,
By W. B. Lyon.

Fort McRAz, NEw Mexico, March 28, 1871.

I returned a week ago from a visit to the old pueblo referred to in a
previous letter, although the limited time allowed did not permit me to
make any minute explorations of the antiquities. I inclose herewith a
ground-plan which is in the main correct.

The pueblo is situated nearly due west and twenty-five miles distant
from the town of Socorro, on the Rio Grande. In no place were the
walls left over two feet in height, and judging from their character and
the amount of débris, L[do not think any portion of the building or
buildings exceeded one story in height. The material is a soft,
coarse-grained sandstone, laid up without mortar or cement, none of the
stones being over three inches in thickness. No remains of beams or
timber of any kind were found, The walls are eighteen inches in
thickness. Numerous fragments of colored pottery—not differing,
however, from that now made by the Pueblo Indians—were picked up.
In the south end of the court are two circular excavations, respectively
forty-seven and twenty-five yards in circumference, and each about ten
feet in depth. In the centre of the larger one I found, on digging, the
top of a circular stone wall, five feet in diameter. My time did not
permit me to make further explorations.

AOA ETHNOLOGY.

The pueblo occupies a point of land projecting into the valley, and
elevated twenty-five or thirty feet above the bottom. The position
seems to have been chosen more for its defensive advantages than for
convenience. There is a fine spring about one hundred yards to the
west, the water disappearing almost immediately after its exit.

Extensive silver mines have recently been discovered in the imme-
diate vicinity, and a town has been laid out near the spring. The mi-
ners propose to use the stone from the pueblo for building purposes,
but promise to preserve any utensils, or anything of interest they may
find, for the Smithsonian. Some of the ore found in these mines is
very rich. I think an average ton of the rock will yield over $100.
Evidences of ancient working of these mines exist in shafts entirely
filled’ up with earth. One of these, on a lode containing a large pro-
portion of copper, has been dug out to the depth of eighteen feet.

Although in close proximity to several cedar-trees, no very large roots
penetrate it, and from this circumstance, as well as the extremely hard
quality of the wall-rock, I do not believe that the time of working the
shaft antedates the occupation of the country by the Spaniards. The
ore is very refractory, and can be worked here only by amalgamation.

A gentleman who has just returned from a trading expedition to the
Little Colorado informs me that he discovered, near that stream, a re-
markable fortification, or series of six forts, built of solid masonry, uni-
ted with cement, each provided with bastion, ditch, ete., and containing
in the center a reservoir for water. They occupy the extremity of high
necks of land jutting into the valley, and extend for a mile and a halt
along its course. In the bottom he found the ruins of towns built of
adobes, and traces of large irrigating ditches.

The gentleman brought back with him one very slightly mutilated
* olla,” or jar, of curious workmanship, which he promised to give me
for transmission to the Smithsonian.

ANTIQUITIES IN LENOIR COUNTY, NORTH CAROLINA.
' By J. MAson SPAINHOUR.

Ina conversation with Mr. Michaux, of Burke County, North Carolina,
on Indian curiosities, he informed me that there was an Indian mound
on his farm, which was formerly of considerable height, but had gradu-
ally been plowed down; that several mounds in the neighborhood had
been excavated, and nothing of interest found in them. I asked per-
mission to examine this mound, which was granted, and upon investi-
gation the following imteresting facts were revealed. Upon reaching
the place I sharpened a stick four or five feet in length, and ran it down
in the earth at several places, and finally struck a stone about eighteen
inches below the surface, which, upon digging down, was found to be
about eighteen inches long and sixteen inches’ wide, and from two to

ANTIQUITIES IN LENOIR COUNTY, NORTH CAROLINA. 405

three inches in thickness, the corners rounded. It rested on solid earth
and had been smoothed on top.

IT then made an excavation in the south of the mound, and soon struck
another stone, which upon examination proved to be in front of the
remains of a human skeleton in a sitting posture; the bones of the fin-
gers of the right hand had been resting on the stone. Near the hand
was a small stone about five inches long, resembling a tomahawk or
indian hatchet. Upon a further examination, many of the bones were
found, though in a very decomposed condition, and upon exposure to
the air they soon crumbled to pieces. The heads of the bones, a censid-
erable portion of the skull, jaw-bones, teeth, neck-bones, and the ver-
tebra were in their proper places. Though the weight of the earth
above them had driven them down, yet the frame was perfect, and the
bones ef the head were slightly inclined toward the east. Around the
neck were found coarse beads that seemed to be of some substance
resembling chalk. A small lump of red paint, about the size of an egg,
was found near the right side of this skeleton. From my knowledge of
anatomy, the sutures of the skull would indicate the subject to have
been twenty-five or twenty-eight years of age. The top of the skull
was about twelve inches below the mark of the plow.

I made a further excavation in the west part of this mound and found
another skeleton similar to the first, in a sitting posture, facing the last.
A stone was on the right, on which the right hand had been resting,
and on this was a tomahawk which had been about seven inches in
iength, broken into two pieces, and much better finished than the first.
Beads were also on the neck of this one, but were much smaller and of
finer quality than those on the neck of the first;. the material, however,
seemed to be the same. A much larger amount of paint was found by
the side of this than the first. The bones indicated a person of larger
frame, and I think of about fifty years of age. Everything about this
one had the appearance of superiority over the first. The top of the
skull was about six inches below the mark of the plow.

I continued the examination, and after diligent search found nothing
at the north part of the mound but on reaching the east side found
another skeleton in the same posture asthe others, facing the west. On
the right side of this was a stone on which the right hand had been rest-
ing, and on the stone was also a tomahawk about eight inches in length,
broken into three pieces, much smoother and of finer material than the
others. Beads were also found on the neck of this, but much smaller and
finer than on those of the others, as well as a large amount of paint.
The bones would indicate a person of forty years of age ; the topof the
skull had been moved by the plow.

There was no appearance of hair discovered; besides, the principal
bones were almost entirely decomposed, and erumbled when handled ;
these two circumstances, coupled with the fact that the farm on which
this mound was found was the first settled in that county, the date of the

406 ETHNOLOGY.

first deed running back about one hundred and fifty years, (the land still
belonging to descendants of the same family that first occupied it,) would
prove beyond doubt that it is very old.

The mound was situated due east and west, in size about nine by six
feet, the line being distinctly marked by difference in color of the soil.
It was dug in rich black loam, and filled with white or yellow sand, but
contiguous to the skeleton was a dark-colored earth, and so decidedly
different was this from all surrounding in quality and smell, that the
lines of the bodies could be readily traced. The decomposed earth,
which had been flesh, was similar in odor to that of clotted blood, and
would adhere in lumps when campressed in the hands.

ACCOUNT OF THE OLD INDIAN VILLAGE KUSHKUSHKER, NEAR NEWCASTLE,
PENNSYLVANIA.

By E. M. MCCONNELL.

This Indian village was on the Mahoning River, on the south side
of the present town of Edinburgh, about five miles west of the city of
Newcastle, Pennsylvania. It was located on the second bank, on the
west side of the river, with a range of high hills to the west, forming
an excellent protection from storms. The distance from the base of
the hills on the west to the river is about one-third of a mile, making
a beautiful valley of several miles both north and south. Christian
Frederic Post, a Moravian, was sent on a mission to the Indians at this
place by General Forbes, in 1758. He says this village at that time
“contained ninety heuses and two hundred able warriors.” Post,
whose business it was, induced the chief, Pakankee, to attend a great
conference to be held opposite Fort Duquesne, now Pittsburgh.
This is the earliest knowledge we have of Kushkushkee.

Twelve years later, 1770, at the request of Pakankee, the Moravians
removed from their settlement at Lawunakhannak on the Allegheny
River, and settled on the Beaver River, five miles south of Newcastle,
where they remained for two years, instructing the Indians in the prin-
ciples of the Christian religion, establishing schools, and introducing
agricultural pursuits, &e. During this time they had intercourse with
Indians at Kushkushkee, many of whom became converts to Christi-
anity, among the number Glikkikan, a distinguished orator of the Del-
aware tribe.

In company with D. Craig, esq., and R. W. Clendenin, I visited the
site of this ancient village the past summer to examine carefully its
location and surroundings, and learn what I could of the race who
inhabited it more than a hundred years ago. When I visited this
place, some years ago, the sepulchral mound was in an almost perfect
state of preservation, but at this time we found that three-fourths of
it had been leveled to the grade of the field surrounding it, which, we

THE PIMA INDIANS OF ARIZONA. 407

were informed, had been done by the owner of the land, with the ex-
pectation of finding some hidden treasure. It is a source of regret to
those of us who value these traces of former occupation of our soil
that they had not been sacredly protected and preserved. The mound
was originally about fifty feet in circumference, and six feet high in the
center. We found one human skeleton that had been left exposed,
many of the bones being in a perfect state of preservation. This grave
had been made on the surface of the ground. Flag-stones broken to
the required width had been set on their edges around the body, uniform
in height, and covered with flat stones, and then with earth; other
bodies had been placed alongside in the same manner, and also on the
top of those first interred, and in this way after many years forming the
mound as we find it. A few rods south of the mound are about twenty
graves of bodies buried separately, the ground over each grave showing
a depression of a bout six inches, with a piece of flat stone set at the
head and foot of each grave. This may have been adopted under the
influence of the teachings of the Moravians as a more Christian form of
burial. In examining a field of ten acres or more near the mound, we
found a great quantity of flint chippings that had been broken off in
making implements, large numbers of which have been gathered up
here since the settlement of this valley by the whites,

Mr. James Park, who has lived here for almost seventy years, gave
me a stone implement somewhat of the shape and size of a carpenter’s
hatchet, made of the blue-gray stone common in this neighborhood. I
have others much the shape and size of wedges used for splitting stone.

THE PIMA INDIANS OF ARIZONA.
By Captain F. E. GRossMANN, U.S. A.

THEIR HISTORY AND TRADITIONS.—The Pimas have but vague ideas
of the doings of their forefathers, and whatever accounts may have been
handed down to them have been so changed in the transmission that
they cannot be deemed reliable now. Their account of the creation of
the world is confused, different parties giving different details thereof.
The story most generally accepted among them is that the first of all
created beings was a spider, which spun a large web, out of which, in
process of time, the world was formed. They believe that the Supreme
Being or Creator took a nerve out of his neck and thereof made a man
and awoman. According to their traditions, the first human beings
lived near the Salt River, in Arizona Territory, near the McDowell
Mountain. These people multiplied rapidly, and soon populated the
valleys of the Salt and Gila Rivers. There appears to be a strong prob-
ability that the Pima and Papago Indians, who speak the same lan-
guage, and to all intents belong to the same nation, are the descendants
of the earliest oceupants of this section of the country. Still the ac-

AOS ETHNOLOGY.

counts of the two above-named tribes differ materially in many essen-
tial points of their early history. Both seem to have heard of a great
flood, and each have their own method of explaining how their fore-
fathers were saved from this deluge.

The Pimas relate that the coming of the flood was well known to the
eagles, for these birds, soaring among the clouds, saw the gathering of
the storm. One of the eagles, friendly disposed toward the Pimas, ap-
peared to the principal prophet of the tribe, and warned him of the ap-
proaching disaster, advising him to prepare for it. At the same time a
cunning wolf (coyote) conveyed the same caution to another prophet.
The former and his followers paid no attention to the counsels of the
eagle; while the other prophet, knowing the wolf to be a sagacious ani-
mal, at once prepared a boat for himself and made provisions to take
with him all kinds of animals then known. The Papagos claim to be
the descendants of the more cautious one, the Pimas of the one who re-
fused to be guided by the eagle. This bird appeared for the second
time and repeated his caution, but the Pimas scorned his advice. At
last the eagle came for the third time, violently flapped his wings at the
door of the hut of the principal prophet, and with a shrill cry announced
to him and his people that the flood was at hand, and then flew scream-
ing away. Suddenly the winds arose and the rains descended in tor-
rents, thunder and lightning were terrific, and darkness covered the
world. Everything on earth was destroyed by this flood, and all the
Pimas perished except one chief, named S6/-hé, a good and brave Indian,
who was saved by a special interposition in his favor by the Great
Spirit.

The prophet who listened to and profited by the caution of the wolf,
entered his boat, which safely rode through the storm and landed, when
the flood subsided, upon the mountain of Santa Rosa. The wolf also
escaped by crawling into a large hollow cane, the ends of which he
closed with some resinous substance. The Papagos of to-day believe
that the prophet who saved himself by means of the boat was their fore-
father, and yearly visit the mountain and village of Santa Rosa, in Ari-
zona Territory, in commemoration of the fortunate escape of the founder
of their race. It is also said that a Papago will not kill a wolf. The
Pimas, however, claim to be the direct descendants of the chief S6/-ho,
above mentioned. The children of Sé/-hé re-inhabited the Gila River
Valley, and soon the people became numerous. One of the direct de-
scendants of Sé/-hé, King Si/-va-no, erected the Casas Grandes on the
Gila River. Here he governed a large empire, before—long before—the
Spaniards were known. King Si/-va-no was very rich and powerful, and
had many wives, who were known for their personal beauty and their
great skill in making pottery ware and ki/-hos, (baskets which the
women carry upon their heads and backs.) The subjects of king Si/-va-
no lived in a large city near the Casas Grandes, and cultivated the soil
for many miles around. They dug immense canals, which carried the

THE PIMA INDIANS OF ARIZONA. 409

water of the Gila River to their fields, and also produced abundant crops.
Their women were virtuous and industrious ; they spun the native cot-
ton into garments, made beautiful baskets of the bark of trees, and were
particularly skilled in the manufacture of earthen ware. (Remains of
the old canals can be seen to this day, and pieces of neatly-painted
pottery ware are scattered for miles upon the site of the old city. There
are several ruins of ancient buildings here, the best preserved one of
which is said to have been the residence of King Si/-va-no. This house
has been at least four stories high, for even now three stories remain in
good preservation, and a portion of the fourth can be seen. The house
was built square; each story contains five rooms, one in the
center, and a room on each of the outer sides of the inner
room. This house has been built solidly of clay and cement;
not of adobes, but by successive thick layers of mortar,
and it was plastered so well that most of the plastering remains to this
day, although it must have been exposed to the weather for many years.
The roof and the different ceilings have long since fallen, and only short
pieces of timber remain in the walls to indicate the place where the
rafters were inserted. These rafters are of pine wood, and since there
is no kind of pine growing now within less than fifty miles of the Casas
Grandes, this house must either have been built at a time when pine
timber could be procured near the building site, or else the builders
must have had facilities to transport heavy logs for long distances. It
is certain that the house was built before the Pimas knew the use of
iron, for many stone hatchets have been found in the ruins, and the
ends of the lintels over doors and windows show by their hacked ap-
pearance that only blunt tools were used. It also appears that the
builders were without trowels, for the marks of the fingers of the work-
men or women are plainly visible both in the plastering and in the
walls where the former has fallen off. The rooms were about six feet in
height, the doors are very narrow and only four feet high, round holes,
about eight inches in diameter, answered for windows. Only one en-—
trance from the outside was left by the builders, and some of the outer
rooms even had no communication with the room in the center. There
are no stairs, and it is believed that the Pimas entered the house from
above by means of ladders, as the Zuni Indians still do. The walls are
perfectly perpendicular and all angles square.)

The empire of King Si’-va-no became so populous after a while that
some of its inhabitants found it necessary to emigrate. One of the sons
of the king, with numerous followers, went, therefore, to the Salt River.
Valley, and there established a new empire, which, in course of time,
became very prosperous. Indeed, the inhabitants became so wealthy
that they wore jewelry and precious stones upon their persons, and
finally erected a beautiful throne for the use of their monarch. This
throne was manufactured entirely of large blue stones, (probably silver
or copper ore.)

eae

A10 ETHNOLOGY.

In course of time a woman ascended this throne, She was very beau-
tiful, and many of the warriors adored her, but she refused all offers of
marriage, and seemed to be fond of no one except a pet eagle which
lived in her house. The rejected suitors, jealous of the eagle, deter-
mined to kill him, but he, a wise bird, discovered their intentions, said
farewell to his mistress, and flew away toward the rising of the sun,
threatening destruction to those who had contemplated to take his life.

At the death of the queen, who married after the departure of the
eagle, the government of the nation fell to her son, who was but a child
in years, and weak and incapable. During the reign of this boy the
eagle returned, conducting the Spaniards to his former home. These
came, well armed and some mounted on horses, which before this time
had been unknown to the Pimas.

The Spaniards approached in three strong columns; one marched
down the Gila River, one came from the north, and the third one from
the south. These armies of strange white men terrified the Pimas, who,
without competent leader and good arms, were soon defeated. The
enemy devastated the whole country, killed most of the inhabitants,
and leveled their fine buildings to the ground. The throne of the king
was broken into small pieces, and the birds of the air came and swal-
lowed the small blue stones, which, afterward, they spit out wherever
they happened to be. This, say the Pimas, accounts for the fact that
these blue stones are found but rarely and in very different localities
now. (Stones of this kind are highly prized by the Pimas, and worn as
charms.) But few of the Pimas escaped the general massacre, and hid
themselves in the neighboring mountains, whence they returned to the
valley after the departure of the Spaniards. They found all their wealth
destroyed, their towns in ruins, their fields devastated, their friends and
relatives slain or carried off by the enemy, and the survivors were in
despair. Some few, hoping to be able to liberate some of their kindred
who had been captured, followed the white men toward the south and
finally settled in Sonora, where their descendants live to this day. The
others remained in the Salt River Valley, increased in numbers, and
again tilled the soil. But the Apaches, always bitter enemies of the
Pimas, took advantage of the situation, and encroached upon their fields
to such an extent that the Pimas finally returned to the Gila River Val-
ley, where they still live. They never re-erected the stately mansions
of their forefathers, but, humbled by defeat, were content to live in the
lowly huts which are occupied by the Pimas of the present day. Their
women were virtuous and strong, and in the lapse of time numerous
children were born ; the tribe increased in numbers, and, not many years
after their defeat by the Spaniards, the Pimas were strong enough to
cope with the Apaches, against whom they have carried on a bitter war-
fare ever since. At one time they were very poor indeed. Owing to
the poverty of the tribe, their leaders never returned to the luxurious
style of living of the former kings. They were simply called “ chiefs,”

THE PIMA INDIANS OF ARIZONA. All

but the supreme control of the tribe was still in the hands of the old
roya. family, and descended from father to son. These head-chiefs were
brave warriors, and under their leadership the Pimas achieved many
victories. At one time the Comanche Indians came from the east, but
the Pimas repulsed them after a bloody battle, which was fought near
the present mail-station Sacaton. At last the reign descended to Shoén-
tarl-K6r’-li, (old soldier,) the last, in a direet line, of the old royal house.
He was a bold warrior, and highly esteemed by the whole tribe. Dur-
ing his reign the Maricopa Indians, imposed upon and persecuted by
the Yumas and Mohaves, came to the country of the Pimas in two dif-
ferent parties, one from the southwest and the other from the north-
west. The new-comers asked a home and protection, promising to aid
the Pimas in their scouts against the Apaches. Their request was
granted, and when the Yumas, who had given pursuit to the Mari-
copas, appeared near the country of the Pimas, the latter turned out
in force, and, united with the Maricopas, defeated the Yumas in a battle
fought near the present Maricopa Wells. Since then the Yumas have
not dared to molest the Maricopas. The latter remained with the
Pimas, were permitted to cultivate a small portion of their land, and
have been ever since, on friendly terms with them. The Maricopas of
' to-day have two villages on the reservation, and number three hundred
and eighty-two. The Pimas have intermarried with the Maricopas ;
still the latter preserve their own language, which is that of the Yumas,
Cocopas, and Mohaves. At last Shon-tarl-K6r’-li, the chief, was fatally
wounded by the Apaches, receiving a musket-ball in his forehead.
Upon his death-bed this old chief, who had no sons to succeed him, recom-
mended that Stjé’-e-teck-e-mus, one of the sub-chiefs, who was a renowned
warrior, should be elected head chief. This was done, and Stj6’-e-teck-e-
mus, who was the father of the present head-chief, reigned for years, re-
spected and beloved by all his tribe. Young Antonio Azul, or A-vaé-at-Ka-
jo, (the man who lifts his leg,) as he is called by the Pimas, accompanied
his father, the chief, on all his scouts when he became old enough to use
arms, and at one time went with him to Sonora and visited some of the
Mexican towns. Stj6’-e-teck-e-mts led the Pimas many times against
the Apaches, was repeatedly wounded, but finally died in consequence
of sickness. Upon his death Antonio Azul assumed the position of his
father, but dissension arose in the tribe. Many claimed that Antonio
had no title to the supreme command; that his father had been chosen
chief on account of his boldness and wisdom; that these virtues did
not necessarily descend from father to son, and that the choice of a new
chief ought to be left to the warriors of the tribe. Some asserted that a
distant relative of the chief proper was among the tribe, who, having
the royal blood in his veins, ought to govern.
Arispa, a petty chief, well known for his bravery in the field, and
withal a crafty and unscrupulous man, took advantage of the general
confusion, and, with the intention of usurping Antonio’s place, accused

412 ETHNOLOGY.

the latter of witchcraft. Antonio was tried and declared not guilty,
and since then has been generally recognized as head-chief. Still the
followers of Arispa, who are the worst Indians on the reservation, refuse
to be guided by Antonio, and the latter evidently believes his position
to be insecure, and therefore temporizes with the bad men of the tribe
rather than run the risk of a revolution and possible loss of his rank
by compelling them to behave themselves. Of course the Indians know
him thoroughly, and take advantage of his weakness.

Since Antonio Azul has become the head-chief of the tribe the over-
land road from Texas to California, which passes through the Pima
land, has been established, and in consequence thereof these Indians
have been thrown in contact with the Americans. In 1859 a reserva-
tion, containing one hundred square miles, was set aside for them by
act of Congress, and upon and near it they have resided ever since.
Hight years ago the small-pox raged among them to an alarming extent,
and many, particularly children, died of this disease.

It is a lamentable fact that the Pimas have retrograded since the
advent of the white men among them, both morally and physically.
Fifteen years ago, when Butterfield’s mail-coaches first passed through
their land, the Pimas were a healthy race, the men brave and honest,
the women chaste. ‘T'o-day foul diseases prevail to an alarming extent,
many of the women are public prostitutes, and all will pilfer whenever
opportunity offers.

RELIGION.—The Pimas believe in the existence of a Supreme Being
or Creator, whom they call ‘“‘ Prophet of the Earth,” and also in an evil
spirit, (che-4-vurl.) They believe that, generally, their spirits will pass
to another world when they die, and that there they will meet those
who have gone before them. They say that whenever any one dies an owl
earries the soul of the departed away, and hence they fear owls, (which
they never kill,) and they consider the hooting of this bird a sure omen
that some one is about to die. They give a confused account of some
priests, (par-le,) who, they state, visited their country years ago and
attempted to convert them to Christianity. These priests were French,
and to this day the Pimas call the French “ par-le-sick ;” plural, ‘“ pa-par-
le-sick.” It does not appear that these missionaries met with success.
The Pimas have no form of worship whatever, and have neither idols nor
images. They know that the Mexicans baptize their children, and some-
times imitate this ceremony. This baptism is applied, however, only
as a charm, and in eases of extreme sickness of the child. When the
ceremonies and charms of the native physicians (ma-ke) fail to produce
a cure, then the sick infant is taken to some American or Mexican, and
even Papago when he is known to have embraced the Christian faith.
Generally Mexican women perform the ceremony. If the child recovers
it receives a Spanish name, by which it is known ever after; but these
names are so much changed in pronunciation that strangers would hardly
recognize them. Pedro, for instance, becomes Pi-va-lo; Emanuel, Mé-

THE PIMA INDIANS OF ARIZONA. 413

norl; Cristobal, Kis-to; Ignazio, I/-nas; Maria, Mar-le, etc. It is cer-
tain that their religion does not teach them morality, nor does it point
out a certain mode of conduct. Each Pima, if he troubles himself about
his religion, construes it to suit himself, and all care little or nothing
for the life hereafter, for their creed neither promises rewards in the
future for a life well spent, nor does it threaten punishment after death
to those who in this life act badly. They have no priest to counsel
them, and the influence of their chiefs is insufficient to restrain those who
are evil-disposed. ‘The whole nation lives but for to-day, never thinks
of the wants of the future, and is guided solely by desires and passions.
They believe in witches and ghosts, and their doctors (ma-ke) claim to
know how to find and destroy witches. Almost anything is believed to
be a witch. Usually it is a small piece of wood, to which is tied a piece
of red flannel, cloth, or calico by means of a horse-hair. Should one of
these be found in or near one of the Pima huts, the inhabitants thereof
would at once abandon it and move elsewhere. They believe that all
sickness, death, and misfortunes are caused by witches. If, therefore, a
Pima is taken sick, or loses his horse or cow, he sends for one of the
medicine-men, whose duty it becomes to find and destroy the evil spirit
who has caused the mischief. The medicine-man on these occasions
masks his face and disguises himself as much as possible. He then
swiftly runs around the spot supposed to be infested, widening his cir-
cles as he runs, until, at last, he professes to have found the outer limits
of the space of ground supposed to be under the influence of the witch.
Then he and his assistants (the latter also masked) drive painted stakes
into the ground all about the bewitched spot. These sticks, painted
with certain colors found in the mountains, are said to possess the power
of preventing the escape of the witch. Now begins the search for the
witch; everything is looked into, huts are examined, fences removed,
bushes cut down, until, at last, the medicine-man professes to find the
witch, which usually is the above-described stick, horse-hair and red
cloth. Of course, this so-called witch has been hidden previous to the
search, by some of the assistants of the medicine-man. It is burned at
once, and the uninitiated fondly believe that, for a time at least, they
will be free from the evil influences of the witch thus destroyed. Of
course, this mode of treatment seldom produces a cure of sick people,
but the Pimas know nothing whatever of medicines; their medicine-men
never administer anything internally, and the above ceremony is the
principal attempt made to cure the sick. Sometimes, for instance, in
case of pains in the chest or stomach, they scarify the patients with
sharp stones or place burning coals upon the skin, and in rare instances
the patient is placed upon the ground, his head to the west, and then
the medicine-man gently passes a brush, made of eagle feathers, from
his head to his feet ; after which he runs several paces, shakes the brush
violently, and then returns to the patient to repeat, again and again,
the same mancuver. They believe that, by this operation, the sickness

414 ETHNOLOGY.

is drawn first into the brush and thence shaken to the winds, and by-
standers keep a respectful distance for fear of inhaling the disease when
it is Shaken from the brush. Some doctors pretend to destroy sickness
by shooting painted arrows from painted bows at imaginary evil spirits
supposed to be hovering in the vicinity of the patient.

The Pimas know many herbs which they use as food at times when
wheat is scarce, but they have no knowledge of medical properties of
herbs or minerals, with the only exception of a small weed, called colon-
drina by the Mexicans, which, applied as a poultice, is a certain remedy
for the bite of a rattlesnake.

It is believed that all efforts to christianize the Pimas would fail, not
because any of them would oppose such attempts, but because they
all would be entirely indifferent to the new teachings.

BURIAL OF THE DEAD.—The Pimas tie the bodies of their dead with
ropes, passing the latter around the neck and under the knees, and
then drawing them tight until the body is doubled up and forced into a
sitting position. They dig the grave from four to five feet deep, and
perfectly round, (about two feet diameter,) and then hollow out to one
side of the bottom of this grave a sort of vault large enough to contain
the body. Here the body is deposited, the grave is filled up level
with the ground, and poles, trees, or pieces of timber placed upon the
grave to protect the remains from the coyotes, (a species of wolf.)
Burials usually take place at night without much ceremony. The
mourners chant during the burial, but signs of grief are rare. The
bodies of their dead are buried, if possible, immediately after death has
taken place, and the graves are generally prepared before the patients
die. Sometimes sick persons (for whom the graves had already been
dug) recovered; in such cases the graves are left open until the persons
for whom they were intended die. Open graves of this kind can be
seen in several of their burial-grounds. Places of burial are selected
some distance from the village, and, if possible, in a grove of mesquite
bushes. Immediately after the remains have been buried, the house
and personal effects of the deceased are burned, and his horses and
cattle killed, the meat being cooked as a repast for the mourners. The
nearest relatives of the deceased, as a sign of their sorrow, remain
within their village for weeks; and sometimes months, the men cut off
about six inches of their long hair, while the women cut their hair quite
short. (The Pima men wear their hair very long; many have hair
thirty-six inches long, and often braid it in strands; only the front hair
is cut straight across, so as to let it reach the eyes. The womer, who
also cut the front hair like the men, part their hair in the middle, and
wear it usually long enough to let it reach a little below the shoulders.
The hair is their only head covering. The men are proud of long
hair, braid it and comb it with care, and to give it a glossy appearance
frequently plaster it over with a mixture of black clay and mesquite
gun. This preparation is left on the hair fora day or two and is then

5 THE PIMA INDIANS OF ARIZONA. 415

washed out, when it leaves the hair not only black and glossy, but also
free from vermin.)

The custom of destroying all the property of the husband when he
dies impoverishes the widow and children and prevents increase of stock.
The women of the tribe, well aware that they will be poor should their
husbands die, and that then they will have to provide for their children
by their own exertions, do not care to have many children, and infanti-
cide, both before and after birth, prevails to a very great extent. This
is not considered a crime, and old women of the tribe practice it.
A widow may marry again after a year’s mourning for her first husband ;
but having children, no man will take her for a wife and thus burden
himself with her children. Widows generally cultivate a small piece
of ground, and friends or relatives (men) generally plow the ground for
them.

MARRIAGES.—Marriages among the Pimas are entered into without
ceremony, and are never considered as binding. The lover selects a
friend, who goes with him to the hut of the parents of the girl and asks
the father to give his daughter to his friend. If the parents are satis-
tied, and the girl makes no objections, the latter at once accompanies
her husband to his hut, and remains with him as long as both feel
satisfied with the compact. If, however, the girl refuses, the lover
retires at once and all negotiations are at an end. Presents are seldom
given unless a very old man desires a young bride. Wives frequently
leave their husbands and husbands their wives. This act of leaving is
all that is necessary to separate them forever, and either party is at
liberty to marry some one else, only at the second marriage the assist-
ance of a friend is dispensed with. Instances of fidelity and strong
affections are known, but many of the wives do not hesitate to surren-
der their charms to men other than their husbands, which, though
possibly disagreeable to the husband, is not considered a crime by the
tribe. Only the worst of the women of the tribe cohabit with the whites,
buat it is undeniable that the number of such women is increasing from
year to year. But, though this has caused a great deal of disease in
the tribe, which disease is rapidly spreading, still not one of the chiefs
or old men of the nation appears to have thought it necessary to raise
@ warning voice or propose punishment to the offenders, and prostitutes
are looked upon as inevitable, and are by no means treated, with con-
tempt or scorn by the Pimas. Modesty is unknown both to men and
women. Their conversation, even in the presence of children, is
extremely vulgar, and many of the names of both men and women are
offensive.

Generally several married couples with their children live in one hut,
and many of the men who can support more than one wife practice
polygamy. ‘The wife is the slave of the husband. She carries wood and
water, spins and weaves, has the sole care of the children, and does all
the work in the field except plowing and sowing. It is the Pima

!

416 ETHNOLOGY.

woman that, with patient hard labor, winnows the chaff from the wheat
and then carries the latter upon her head to the store of the trader,
where the husband—who has preceded her on horseback—sells it,’
spending perhaps all the money received for it in the purchase of articles
intended only for his own use. Pima women rarely ride on horseback.
The husband always travels mounted, while the wife trudges along on
foot, carrying her child or a heavily laden ki-ho (basket) on her head and
back. Women, during child-birth, and during the continuance of their
menses, retire to a small hut built for this purpose in the vicinity of
their own dwelling-place. Men never enter these huts when occupied
by women, and the latter while here have separate blankets and eat
from dishes used by no one else.

WEAPONS AND MANNER OF FIGHTING.—The only weapons used by
the Pimas before the introduction of fire-arms were the bow and arrow
and war-club. For defensive purposes they carried a round shield, about
two feet in diameter, made of rawhide, which, when thoroughly dry,
becomes so hard that an arrow, even if sent by a powerful enemy at a
short distance, cannot penetrate it. These weapons are still used by
them to a great extent, and, like all Indians, they are good marksmen
with the bow, shooting birds on the wing and fishes while swimming in
the shallow waters of the Gila River. For hunting fishes and small
game they use arrows without hard points, but the arrows used in battle
have sharp, two-edged points made of flint, glass, or iron. When going
on a scout against the Apache Indians, their bitter foes, the Pimas fre-
quently dip the points of their arrows into putrid meat, and it is said
that a wound caused by such an arrow will never heal, but fester for
some days and finally produce death. The war-club is made out of mes-
quite wood, which is hard and heavy. It is about sixteen inches long,
half being handle, and the other half the club proper. With it
they strike the enemy on the head. This weapon is even now
very much used, for the Pimas rarely attack their enemies in open day-
light. They usually surround the Apache rancheria at night, some
warriors placing themselves near the doors of all huts ; ‘then the terrible
war-cry is sounded, and when the surprised Apaches crawl through the
low doors of their huts the war-clubs of the Pimas descend upon their
heads with a crushing force. The Pimas never scalp their dead enemies;
in fact, no Pima will ever touch an Apache further than is necessary to
killhim. Even the act of killing an Apache by means of an arrow is
believed to make the Pima unclean whose bow discharged the fatal
arrow. They firmly believe that all Apaches are possessed of an evil
spirit, and that all who kill them become unclean and remain so until
again cleansed by peculiar process of purification. The Pima warrior
who has killed an Apache at once separates himself from all his com-
panions, (who are not even permitted to speak to him,) and returns to
the vicinity of his home. Here he hides himself in the bushesnear the
river-bank, where he remains secluded for sixteen days, conversing with

THE PIMA INDIANS OF ARIZONA. ALG

no one, and only seeing during the whole period of the cleansing process
anoldwoman of his tribe who has been appointed to carry food to him,
but who never speaks. During the twenty-four hours immediately fol-
lowing the killing the Pima neither eats nor drinks ; after this he par-
takes of food and water sparingly, but for the whole sixteen days he can-
not eat meat of any kind nor salt, nor must he drink anything but river-
water. For the first four days he frequently bathes himself in the
river; during the second four days he plasters his hair with a mixture of
mesquite gum and black clay, which composition is allowed to dry and
become hard upon his head, and is washed out during the night of the
eighth day. On the ninth morning he again besmears his head with black
clay without the gum; on the evening of the twelfth day he washes his
hair, combs it, braids it in long strands, and ties the end with red ribbon
or aShawl; and then for four days more frequently washes his whole body
in the Gila River. On the evening of the sixteenth day he returns to
his village, is met by one of the old men of his tribe who, after the war-
rior has placed himself at full length upon the ground, bends down,
passes some of the saliva in his mouth into that of the warrior, and
blows his breath into the nostrils of the latter. The warrior then
rises, and now, and not until now, is he again considered clean; bis
friends approach him and joyfully congratulate him on his victory.

The Apache Indians, the most savage on the continent, during the
past twenty years have murdered hundreds of whites and Mexicans,
and have thus obtained a large supply of fire-arms and ammunition.
In order to cope with them successfully the Pimas have purchased many
guns and pistols, and are now tolerably well armed with improved
weapons. No restriction has ever been placed on the sale of arms and
ammunition to these people.

The Pimas never capture Apache men. These are killed on the field,
but women and girls and half grown boys are brought back to the reser-
vation at times, though frequently all the inhabitants of the Apache
village are killed.

Apache prisoners are rarely treated in a cruel manner. For the first
week or two they are compeiled to go from village to village and are
exhibited with pride and made to join the war-dance. Often, too, the
peculiar war-whoop of the Apaches is sounded by some old Pima squaw
as a taunt to the prisoners, but after the lapse of a few weeks they are
treated kindly, share food and clothing with their captors ; and generally
become domesticated, learn the Pima language, and remain upon the
reservation. Instances have occurred when Apache prisoners have
attempted to escape, but they have invariably been overtaken and killed
as soon as recaptured. Quite a number of captured Apache children
are sold by the Pimas to whites and Mexicans. These children, if prop-
erly trained, are said to become very docile and make good house-ser-
vants.

In rare instances a Pima will even marry an Apache woman after she

Sis il:

418 ETHNOLOGY.

has resided for two or three years on the reservation, but generally full-
grown Apache women become public prostitutes, and their owners
appropriate the money received by these women from degraded white
men. ;

PIMA INDUSTRY AND FOOD.—The men do not labor except so far as
is necessary to enable them to raise a crop. Each village elects two or
three old men, who decide everything pertaining to the digging of
acequias and making of dams, and who also regulate the time during
which each land-owner may use the water of the acequia for irrigating
purposes. Hach village has constructed years ago an acequia, (irrigating
canal.) In order to force the water of the Gila River into their acequias
the Pimas dam the river at convenient spots by means of poles tied
together with bark and raw-hide and stakes driven into the bed of the
river. Small crevices are filled with bundles of willow-branches, reeds,
and a weed called “‘ gatuna.” These frail structures rarely stand longer
than a year and are often entirely carried away when the river rises
suddenly, which occurs in the spring of the year, if, during the winter,
much snow has fallen upon the mountains whence the stream issues,
and also sometimes during the summer after heavy showers. Their
acequias are often ten feet deep at the dam, and average from four to
six feet in width, and are continued for miles, until finally the water
therein is brought on a level with the ground to be cultivated, when the
water is led off by means of smaller ditches all through their fields.
Having no instruments for surveying or striking of levels, they still
display considerable ingenuity in the selection of proper places for the
‘heads of ditches.”

The Pimas and Maricopas have a reservation containing one hundred
square miles and extending along the Gila River for a distance of nearly
twenty-five miles; only a comparatively small part of this area, how-
ever, is available for agricultural purposes, for a portion of the soil on
the reservation is strongly impregnated with alkali; some spots are
marshy, and all the land beyond the immediate river bottom-land so high
above the level of the river that irrigation becomes impracticable, con-
sidering the limited means for making acequias at the disposal of the
Pimas.

The Indians do not cultivate all the land that might be tilled, for their
fields do not average more than from ten to fifteen acres to the family ;
nevertheless they are dissatisfied with the size of their reservation,
asserting that their forefathers had always been in possession of a much
larger portion of the Gila Valley, and since the valley above the reser-
vation has been settled wp by Americans and Mexicans, the Indians
have frequently encroached upon the fields of the latter, whom they con-
sider in the light of intruders, and it is apprehended that sooner or later
serious difficulties will arise.

The Pima men plow the land with oxen and a crooked stick, as is done
by the Mexicans ; they sow the seed and cut the grain ; (the latter is done

THE PIMA INDIANS OF ARIZONA. 419

with short sickles.) Horses thrash the grain by stamping. The women
winnow the grain, when thrashed, by pitching it into the air by basket-
fuls, when the wind carries off the chaff; they convert the wheat into
flour, grinding it by hand on their metates, (a large flat stone upon which
the wheat is placed, atter having been slightly parched over the fire
previously, and whereupon it is ground into coarse flour by rubbing and
crushing with another smaller stone.) The principal crop is wheat, of
which they sell, when the season is favorable, 1,500,000 pounds per
annum. They also raise corn, barley, beans, pumpkins, squashes,
melons, onions, and a small supply of very inferior short cotton.

The diet of the Pimas is very simple; animal food is used only on
oceasions of ceremony, although they possess large numbers of beef-
cattle and chickens. They do not use the cow’s milk, manufacture
neither butter nor cheese, and do not eat the eggs of their hens. Very
few will eat pork. But whenever they kill a cow, steer, or calf, they eat
every part of it that can possibly be masticated, intestines included.
Should an animal die, no matter what the disease, they eat its meat
without apparent evil effects upon their health. At times they hunt the
rabbit, which. is about the only game (quadruped) in their country.
Fish, during the months of April and May, are also extensively eaten.

Wheat, corn, beans, and above all, pumpkins and mesquite-beans are
their principal food. The latter grow wild in abundance, and millions
of pounds are gathered annually by the women of the tribe. These beans
are gathered when nearly ripe, then dried hard, and when required as
food first pounded in a wooden mortar and then boiled until they become
soft. The water is then squeezed out, and the pulpy substance remain-
ing molded into loaves, which are baked in the hot ashes. The bread
thus obtained has a sweetish taste, is very nourishing, but, being very
heavy, can hardly be easily digested.

The women also collect, in proper season, the fruit of the sawarra,
(Columbia cactus,) out of which they manufacture the native whiskey,
(called tisewin.) This, after one fermentation, must be used at once, for
otherwise it becomes sour. All Pimas are inordinately fond of this bev-
erage, and old and young partake of it until the whole nation are wildly
dancing about ina drunken frenzy, until at last they drop to the ground
overcome by the stupefying effect of the liquor. .

The women also spin and weave a coarse kind of blanket, gather
large quanties of hay annually, which are sold to white men, gather and.
carry all the fuel needed by their family, make the ki-ho, a peculiarly
constructed basket carried on the back of the head and shoulders by
means of a broad straw strap fitting across the forehead, manufacture,
of willows and reeds, superior baskets, which are made so perfect that
they will hold water, and finally excel in the manufacture of a coarse
kind of pottery-ware, making jugs, dishes, plates, and all their other
household utensils.

420) ETHNOLOGY.

INDIAN MODE OF MAKING ARROW-HEADS AND OBTAINING FIRE.
Extract of a letter from General ( Jeorge Crook, United States Army.

A great portion of the country east of the Sierra Nevada and Cas-
cade ranges of mountains has quantities of small slivers of obsidian
seattered over its surface. The Indians collect these, and by laying
their flat side on a blanket, or some other substance that will yield,
they will, with the point of a knife, nick off the edges of this to the
desired shape with remarkable facility and rapidity, making from fifty
to one hundred in an hour. In their primitive state they probably
used buckskin or very soft wood instead of the blanket, and a piece of
pointed horn or bone for the knife.*

The fire-sticks consist of two pieces. The horizontal stick is generally
from one foot to a foot and a half long, a couple or three inches wide,
and about one inch thick, of some soft dry wood, frequently the sap of
juniper. The upright stick is usually some two feet long, and from a
quarter to half an inch in diameter, with the lower end round or ellipti-
eal, and of the hardest material they can find. In the sage-bush coun-
try it is made of ‘“ grease wood.”

When they make fire, they lay the first piece in a horizontal position,
with the flat side down, and place the round end of the upright near
the edge of the other stick; then taking the upright between the hands
they give it a swift rotary motion, and as constant use wears a hole in
the lower stick, they cut a nick in its outer edge down to a level with
the bottom of the hole. The motion of the upright works the ignited
powder out of this nick, and it is there caught and applied to a piece
of spunk, or some other highly combustible substance, and from this
the fire is started.

ANCIENT MOUND, NEAR LEXINGTON, KENTUCKY.

By Dr. ROBERT PETER.
&

The little mound from which the accompanying specimens were
taken by Mr. Fisher is on the southern bank of the North Elkhorn
Oreek, in a bottom field, about 15 feet above the level of the creek at
low water. The field has been cleared of its timber, covered with blue-
grass, used as a pasture, trampled by cattle and rooted by hogs, as
long as can be recollected by the present owner and neighbors; conse-
quently the mound now presents only a gentle swelling on the level sur-
face of the ground. It is about 70 feet in diameter, and rises in
its center only to about 34 to 4 feet above the general level. It is situ-
ated about half a mile west of the small, ancient, circular ditch, on the
bluffs of the C. Shelton Moore place, described in Collins’s History of

* The Klamath River Indians often made arrow-headsfrom broken junk-bottles.—G,

ANCIENT MOUND NEAR LEXINGTON, KENTUCKY. A421

Kentucky, published in 1847, (page 294,) and about a quarter of a mile
north of the larger ancient work near the dividing line, between the old
military surveys of Dandridge and Meredith, described in the same
work, of which I shall append a further description. About a mile and
a half nearly north oi this little mound, on the Nutter farm, is a larger
mound, apparently about 15 feet high.

The manner in which these relics were discovered by Mr. Fisher was
as follows: His attention having been drawn to the appearance of frag-
ments of flint arrow-heads and other articles, in a hog-wallow near the
center of the little mound, he dug a hole there about 34 feet deep and
4 or 5 across, and discovered a bed of ashes about 24 feet deep and 4 or
5 feet in diameter, in which the relics I send you were found, together
with pieces of charcoal, most of which seems to have been made from
small stems. The copper articles were nearly all together, and a little
to the north of the center of the bed of ashes, while the other articles
were scattered throughout the same bed, in which were about a peck of
flint arrow-heads, all evidently broken by the action of fire. The cop-
per articles were found, according to Mr. Fisher’s description, in the
following positions: The larger of the adze-shaped edged-tools, or cop-
per axes, was lying with the concave side downward; next immedi-
ately above it was the longest of the ornamental articles, the one
with one ear broken off, and with the rust scraped off from the other.
It was lying crosswise, with the ear next to the broader end of the
lower piece. Above these was the second ornamental article, the one
having a piece of flint arrow-head attached to it; this was lying with
the flint upward and the horn downward. It has a fracture in the
surface of the rust, on the lower side, corresponding to a piece of the
same attached to the top of the charcoal on the adze-shaped article
which lay below it; the ear was resting on the broad end of that article.
Close to these, and with one horn under the pile described, was the
largest article, nearly square in shape, with one horn curled and another
broken off about three-fourths of an inch from the body. The smaller
broken adze-shaped article was lying on this diagonally. The broken
horn was found near by. There were three hemispherical articles of
iron found, of which two are sent, and several pieces of sandstone,
similar to the coarsest ones sent.

The singular pieces of stone with holes bored through them seem to
have been fractured by fire. Others, somewhat like these in shape,
each with two holes, made of the native sulphate of baryta, which
occurs in numerous seams in our limestone rock, are frequently found
in this neighborhood on the surface of the ground. I send two in the
box, and a hemispherical piece of the same material. They may be dis-
tinguished by their whiteness from those taken from the mound.

It is remarkable that all the fragments of bones found in this mound,
in Mr. Fisher’s digging, are of the lower animals, and seem mostly to
have been worked or carved for useful or ornamental purposes. No

402 ETHNOLOGY.

human osseous remains were seen. If this mound was made to cover
the dead, the bones have either been entirely destroyed in the lapse of
time, or the bodies were laid in the outside circumference of the mound,
around the fire, perhaps so that they were beyond the hole made by Mr.
Fisher. This question may, however, be settled by digging a trench
across the diameter of the mound.

The copper of which these ax-shaped and ornamental articles are
made is doubtless the native metal. I can discover no sign of any in-
scription or carving upon them. The great length of time during which
they have been buried is shown by the conversion of the whole thick-
ness of the copper, in some places one-fourth of an inch thick, as in the
little axe, into carbonate and red oxide of copper.

As you will see, the carbonate of copper from the copper pieces has
been diffused over the charcoal and other surrounding objects, so as to
serve as a cement attaching them firmly together.

It is difficult to imagine the use of the flat square, or oblong square
copper articles with the two curved horns at one end. Perhaps they
were ornaments to be suspended from the neck! Neither can we tell
the object or applications of the stone shaped like the button of a door,
with the two bored holes through them.

On October 20, 1858, I made a measurement of this ancient work,
partly on the Meredith farm, and I give you the subjoined extract from
my notes made at that time:

‘This large, nearly circular work is situated on a slight hill, where
the corners of the Meredith, Breckinridge, (Dale,) and Meore farms
meet near the North Elkhorn Creek. It consists of a ditch, in some
places, six feet deep. The earth has been thrown up generally on the
outside, but sometimes on the inside, with no raised pathway at present
visible.

“This work where the native forest is still left, covered with as
large timber as in any part of the surrounding country, and trees, as
large and old as any, are growing in the ditch and on the embankment.
Measured in a direction north 53° east, it is 1,188 in diameter. In the
direction south 72° east itis 1,221 feet in diameter. Its circumference,
taken by carrying the Chain around in the middle of the ditch, is 3,679
feet.

‘ About 2,100 feet distant from this old cireular work, in a northeast
direction, on a higher hill or ridge, on the farm of C. Shelton Moore, is a
smaller but better preserved work, of somewhat similar construction ;
the ditch is still very regular, being fully eight feet deep. The circular
platform defined by this ditch is on a level with the top of the outside
wall, and seems to have been raised above the common surface of the
ridge. It has large trees growing on it and on the sides of the ditch.
Itis perfectly circular, and measures 132 feet in diameter. <A raised
passway on a level with the platform interrupts the ditch on the north-
west side. .

SHELL-HEAP IN GEORGIA. 423

“In the hollow between the hills on which these two ancient works
are situated is another small ditch, quite shallow, inclosing a eircle of
about 82 feet in diameter.”

In Collins’s History of Kentucky, page 295, you will see it stated that
in 1845 an ash tree, supposed to be four hundred years old, growing ou
the ditch of the larger work, was cut down.

Of course, time and cultivation have altered greatly the appearance
of these remains since these descriptions were made, but the plow has
not yet entirely obliterated the ditch, even in the places which have been
the longest in cultivation, and frequently flint arrow-heads, and pieces
of pottery, ete., are observed on the surface. Once a large deposit of
new arrow-heads, made of horn-stone, were plowed up.

SHELL-HEAP IN GEORGIA.
By D. Brown, or LAMBERTVILLE, NEW JERSEY.

Your mention of receipts from “ shell-heaps” reminds me of perhaps
the largest shell-heap in the South, on the island of Osabaw, below
Savannah. It had not been disturbed when I saw it, some thirty years
ago, and may not yet have been, as the island is not in a traversed
route. Itis one of the largest of the sea islands, and was probably
long ago a royal residence. When the island was assigned by Ogle-
thorpe to one of his companions, Morel, ancestor of my wife, it was
occupied by droves of wild horses and cattle, with various large and
small game. When afterward his sons were sent to England for edu-
cation, peltry and furs from the island were exported to meet their ex-
penses.

If the mound has not yet been disturbed persons curious in such mat-
ters might be induced to cause its excavation.

REMARKS ON AN ANCIENT RELIC OF MAYA SCULPTURE.

By Dr. ARTHUR SCHOTT.

In presenting to the Smithsonian Institution the accompanying relic
of Maya antiquity, the donor wishes to add some remarks, which may
be interesting to the ethnological reader.

This specimen was received from Sefor D. Juan ff
Manzano, M. D., of Valladolid, a once considerable [7%
town of Eastern Yucatan, where it was given to him |
some years ago, as having been picked up among the |2xm
famous ruins of Chichen Stza.

The material of which this little piece of art has been
cut is a Semiagatized xyolite, still bearing the marks of silicified conif-

AA ETHNOLOGY.

erous wood, a fossil probably foreign to the soil of the peninsula. The
mask of a human head or skull, which this relic evidently represents,
measures 25 millimeters from chin to the top of the forehead, and 22
millimeters across just above the eyes. The vertical facial line is divided
into three equal parts, corresponding respectively tothe maxillary, nasal,
and frontal regions. The space between the eye-sockets measures 7
millimeters, and the facial angle is about 80 degrees of an arc. The dis-
tinct employment of geometrical forms by which some of the details of
the face are limited, is a prominent feature of the design, and invites
particular notice.

Two circles of equal diameters, with their inner peripheries touching
ach other, form the ocular region. The point where these circles con-
verge is assigned to the root of thenose. A straight horizontal line sepa-
rating the upper and lower jaw and running right to the centers of four
rings of equal size divides these latter into eight half rings, which seem
to represent so many teeth, the four upper ones standing directly upon
the lower. On each side of the head, and in place of the ears, two holes
are bored, one lateral and the other from the back, so as to meet each
other almost under a right angle. Over the temples a shallow grooved
line runs toward the upper part of the eye-sockets, where it is proba-
bly intended to mark more distinctly the prominent cheek-bones.

As a work of art the specimen is much inferior to many others which
have been left by the Mayas, for simple linear designs are freely substi-
tuted for real plasticity. In other respects, however, it proves a consid-
erable degree of mechanical skill as well in the polish of so hard a
material as also in the obvious application of the drill. Still more re-
markable and mythologically highly interesting is a certain amount of
symbolism plainly expressed in the principal details of this specimen of
sculpture. Here the most striking feature is shown in the twice four
teeth, for with a race like the American aborigines, so well known as
close and faithfal observers of natural objects, this deviation from
reality can only be taken as an intentional representation of certain
numerals ever recurring in their works of sculpture and architecture.

To decipher the special meaning embodied in the present piece must
be left to the efforts of professional mythologists. Suffice it to hint here
at the cirection in which such researches should be made.

As to the purpose for which this little piece may originally have been
intended, it is only conjectured that it was once worn by some person as
a badge or amulet, for the double lateral holes seem to have served for
passing through strings or fastenings of some kind.

There is another fact connected with the present relic—that is, the high
appreciation with which the arts of sculpture and stone-cutting have
been considered among the ancient Mayas. They were, indeed, so
highly esteemed that their protection had been assigned to a special
deity, called “ Htubtun.” This name is formed from the verb tub, to cut,
carve, engrave, and tun,stoue or rock. The H prefixed, when used as a

ANCIENT HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. A425

name or a noun, gives it a male character. In the theogony of the
Mayas Htubtun seems to have occupied the same position as Plutus did
in Greek and Roman mythology, for both were the dispensers of min-
eral riches, especially metal and precious stones. Whether Hiubtun
stood in similar relation to some other kindred deity as Plutus was to
Pluto, the writer has not been able to learn, though the very design of
ihe present specimen may justify such a supposition.

ANCIENT HISTORY GF NORTH AMERICA.
COMMUNICATION TO THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF VIENNA, BY DR. M. MUCH.
{Translated for the Smithsonian Institution by Professor C. F. Kroeh.]

The material for the ancient history of America is already so exten-
sive, that I must content myself with a general sketch, briefly touching
upon the different views on the origin of the aborigines and their place
among the races.

At first it was thought they derived their origin from the Jews, and
Englishmen and Americans versed in biblical lore drew largely on the
Old Testament for proofs. Soon the Carthagenians and Phoenicians
took the place of the Jews, to be displaced in their turn by the Egyptians
or Macedonians as the progenitors of the Indians. Finally the blood of
Ceits and Teutons, and even of Greeks and Romans, was said to flow in
their veins. The most plausible reasons were found for such views,
from which scarcely a people of any note was excluded.

The report that Greek inscriptions and remains of Roman camps
had been found in America, you will, of course, immediately reject as
a silly hoax. More lately, extensive remains of Norman settlements
were said to have been discovered in the United States, and these
were immediately employed to make up a case, with the Norse myths
and songs, which unfortunately existed only in the imagination of the
discoverer.

Other American scientists, especially Morton, advocated an autoch-
thonous race of America on the sounder basis of comprehensive anthro-
pological studies. But this view is no longer satisfactory, for the im-
pulse to the civilization of Mexico, Central America, and Peru, myste-
rious as it still is to-day, not only seems to have come from without, but
the people themselves seem to have been foreign and not native to the
soil. The opinion, advanced along time ago, that the original inhab-
itants of America are of Mengolian extraction, is gaining more and more
weight.*

According to Professor Haeckel’s genealogy of the twelve races, the
Mongolians separated early into three branches—a southeastern or
Coreo-Japanese, a southwestern or Indo-Chinese, and a northern or
Ural-Altaians. These again sent out branches westward, where they
separated into Tungusians, Samoyedes, Kalmucks, Tartars, Turks,

Pe een ee a Eee ee

*T find this view still further supported in the interesting lecture of Professor Fr.
Miiller on the inhabitants of Alaska, in which he points to the similarity of religions
views in the northeastern tribes of Asia and the Indians of Alaska.

426 ETHNOLOGY.

*

Fins, and Magyars. Another branch probably took an easterly direc-
tion long before giving rise to the ‘ Arctics,” who first peopled North-
eastern Asia, and afterward crossed Behring’s Straits, and passed into
America.

Perhaps the depressing influences of thousands of years had formed
a deteriorated branch in Asia, the descendants of which are still repre-
sented by the Esquimaux in the extreme north of America, while a
southern and more vigorous branch chose the more temperate parts of
North America, and spread in the course of time over the whole con-
tinent. In the extreme south this race was again modified by depressing
natural influences similar to those which operated in the north.

The aborigines of America differ, as we all know, in their languages,
and are divided into tribes; but the type of these tribes and the organic
structure of their languages are essentially the same. Only the Esqui-
maux differ from the general type, but their language is intimately
related to those of their southern neighbors. According to this view,
the wave of Indian population, which in the old world advanced from
east to west, must have taken a direction from north to south in the
new; it is confirmed, indeed, by historical and mythical traditions, as
well as by the character of the remnants of civilization found as we
advance from north to south.

Greater or less portions of the population, especially in Mexico and
Central America, seem, however, to have been in constant motion.
This mobility is the attribute of a nation of hunters, who drive the
existing population before them. Again, the migratory impulse, so to
speak, seems to belong to a certain period in the development of a peo-
ple. It is exemplified in our own Teutonic ancestors, whose impetuous
advance not only caused the downfall of the Roman Empire of a thou-
sawd years’ standing, but also involved the entire population of Europe
in its motion.

Passing to the relics of American civilization, it must be stated in
advance that the determination of their age, their order, and their whole
history is as yet much more difficult than that of European remains.
And this for two reasons: First, because of the very gradual devel-
opment of civilization. The form and material of utensils and weap-
ons remain the same during long intervals, and sometimes up to
the historical period, whence it happens that remains, differing in age,
perhaps, by thousands ef years, can hardly be distinguished. See-
ondly, certain characteristic periods in the development of civiliza-
tion, such as the appearance of metallic utensils in Europe, by which a
classification might otherwise be effected, are wanting. Metals, espe-
cially copper, were long used in America; they are found in the most
ancient deposits, while they are absent in the more recent; but the use
of copper is no proof of a more advanced civilization in America, since it
was for the most part employed in as rough a state as that of stone.
Pieces of copper were broken off from the natiye blocks by means of

ANCIENT HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 427

stone hatchets, and fashioned with the hammer. The natives evidently
had no. idea of its fusibility. For this reason, the use of the metal does
not indicate greater progress, and we are thus deprived of a means of
classification.

In Mexico, Central America, and Peru, it was different, however.
There we have evidence of a high degree of skill in the working of
metals (iron being almost the only exception) in the more recent period.
They had advanced beyond the mere hammering of pieces of metal
found by accident, and understood smelting, and even attempted to
obtain metals by mining for ores. The American remains were, there-
fore, arranged according to the places where they were found, or the
purposes for which they were intended. But to keep in view the prog-
ress of development, I have taken the liberty of adopting the following
arrangement: I would assume a period immediately preceding the advent
of the Europeans in America, and continuing for a short time after.
This would correspond to our historical age, and may be designated, in
a restricted sense, as the historic period.

A second epoch would include a time far removed even from the ree-
ollection of the inbabitants at the time of Columbus, and characterized
by a different distribution of the population and other complete revo-
lutions. To this period belong the great mounds, particularly those of
the Ohio Valley. It might be called the mound period, and corresponds
to the advanced portion of the age of stone, and the beginning of the
age of bronze in Europe.

The third and most ancient period would then inelude those discoy-
eries which point to the co-existence of man with extinct species of ani-
mals. It corresponds to the age of the mammoth and the reindeer in
Europe, and might be called the diluvial period.

Utensils of all kinds, and buildings or mounds, belong to the twoanore
recent periods. The buildings of the first or historic period are found
chiefly in the eastern parts of the United States and Canada, in Mexico,
and CentralAmerica. In the United States, Canada, and farther north,
they consist of mounds and bulwarks.

The mounds of the first period are places of interment, and corre-
spond precisely to the tumuli in Europe. They were probably used. for
the burial of chiefs, since they contain for the most part one or only a
few skeletons. Sometimes, however, heaps of bodies or their skeletons
are piled up, and covered with a knoll of earth. Whether these are
the bodies of Indians fallen in battle, or of the victims of immense sac-
rifices, remains undecided. They are on an average 5 feet high, with a
base 25 feet in circumference; but there are some as high as 15 feet,
and having a circumference of 60 feet. That the Indians, even during
the time of their first intercourse with the Europeans, erected such hil-
locks as graves for distinguished chiefs, or to commemorate important
events, has been proved in several cases.

The works of defense consist of walls of earth, and rarely of stone,

428 ETHNOLOGY.

furnished in each case with palisades. They are for the most part near
rivers and brooks, always near water, and especially at places surroundee
on more than one side by water, on elevated ground, defended on one or
more sides by natural strength of position.

To the age which, in America, corresponds to our historical period,
belong also the remnants of those grand structures, those wonderful
ruins of palaces, temples, and cities, which, even at the present day,
bear witness of the high degree of civilization of their builders in
numerous localities of Mexico, Yucatan, and Central America. Although
they are almost destroyed, and covered with luxurious vegetation, these
remains afford a wealth of scientific material, but I must content myself
with merely naming them.

The characteristic structures of the second period are the mounds, and
the period itself is the period of the mound-builders. These mounds
are of three kinds, for burial, sacrifice, and worship, and occur in the
whole Mississippi Valley, but most frequently in the Ohio Valley, in
the vicinity of Chillicothe. The burial-mounds correspond to those of
the Atlantic States, but are generally larger. Many are as high as 60
feet. They indicate a greater antiquity, by the more advanced stage of
decomposition of the contained skeletons. Sometimes the bodies were
burned and their ashes deposited in urns. Weapons, ornaments, and
utensils are always found in them, but remnants of food occur only in
the more recent. Signs of fire and animal bones, probably remnants of
sacrifices or of ‘ wakes,” are often found under the top surface of these
mounds. Sometimes the chiefs of a later period were buried in the old
mounds, and in such cases the well-preserved skeleton of the new-comer
is found above the crumbling one of the older. An interesting case in
point came to light in December, 1870, when a mound near Saint Louis,
Missouri, was opened by a scientific commission. It was 40 feet high
and 300 feet long. Twenty years ago a dwelling-house was built on it
and a cemetery instituted beside it. On digging, the bones of three
different races were successively brought to light; first, those of white
men; in the center, those of Indians of the present day; and below,
those of the ancient mound-builders, who lived there before the Indians
that possessed the land at the time of the white man’s arrival. Their
bones were deposited in two large stone chambers.

The second class of the older earth-mounds consists of those used for
sacrifice. They are only a foot or two high. A small depression at the
top bears evidences of burnt sacrifice on the hardened clay; and the
ashes often contain objects of various kinds placed there to propitiate
their deity or to atone for their misdeeds. These objects are almost
without exception broken, and have suffered from fire and the effects of
time.

The third class is that of the temple or palace mounds, the most im-
portant of all. They have generally the shape of truncated four-sided
pyramids, with terraces, steps, and dam-like elevations, which are often

ANCIENT HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 429

interrupted by smaller mounds. Their dimensions are enormous. Some
are as high as 90 feet, and have a length of from 500 to 700 feet at the base.
The upper surface of the great pyramid in Washington County, Missouri,
contains 12,000 square feet. It is the largest of a group of eleven of
such mounds. These mounds are either found alone or in groups; some
are surrounded by earth-walls and others are not. Besides those of the
Mississippi Valley, similar large earth-pyramids are found in the Colorado
Valley, where they are considered as Aztec structures. They have un-
mistakable signs of former buildings upon them. Probably these earth-
works had no other object than to serve as elevated bases for temples
and the houses of chiefs and priests. These buildings must have been
formed of lighter material, for they have entirely disappeared. Never-
theless they remind us of similar but more perfectly executed buildings
of a later time in Mexico and Central America. All investigators agree
that their builders belonged to a much higher civilization than those of
the smaller grave-mounds in the east, or the Indians of the present day.
It is said that the utensils from these mounds are worked with much
more skill, and that some among them justified the conclusion that the
builders followed agricultural pursuits. Another remarkable circum-
stance is, that now and then copper utensils were found in the posses-
sion of the Indians on the Atlantic coast. These, however, can only
have been such as they found among the remains of the more ancient
race; since investigations of the Lake Superior copper region prove
that the knowledge of making use of these copper-ore deposits bad
already been lost at the time when the Europeans took possession cf
America. Indeed, copper utensils are found only in the earth-works of
the older, but not in the mounds of the more recent period.

The mere presence of these large earth-works, however, with their
inclesures or bulwarks, is sufficient proof of a more highly developed
people, who were no longer nomadic. I cannot help thinking that the
Mississippi Valley may have been at one time the home of the Aztecs
and Toltecs, who there erected, so to speak, the first crude models of
their later wonderful structures, and then moved southward from un-
known causes, carrying with them their higher civilization, and develop-
ing it still further in their new homes; while the inferior race, which
took possession of their abandoned dwellings, remained without knowl-
edge of the rich ore deposits.

There are also earth-works of another kind, similar to those in the
Atlantic States, which doubtless served as fortifications. Some probably
were inclosures of small villages; tor they are usually found near sin-
gle or around whole groups of mounds, and have the ditch on the inner
side. They frequently inclose large areas, but not a trace is left of the
dwellings, which may have been within.

A very peculiar species of earth-works are in the shape of men or
various animals, the outlines of which they represent. Perhaps these
partook of a religious or national character, some of the tribes being
named after certain animals.

430 ETHNOLOGY.

In the most recent period, there is an enormous difference in the
nature of the utensils employed by the northern and southern peoples.
This difference is due to the use of metals. In the north are found almost
exclusively utensils of stone, while in the south very fine utensils of
copper, bronze, gold, silver, &c., occur besides. If the report is true
that arrow-heads of iron were found in possession of the inhabitants of
some parts of South America, these can only have been made of
meteoric iron.

The utensils oceur in the same manner as in Europe. They are found
in the tomb-mounds, where they were deposited with the dead; or in the
altar-mounds, where they were brought as a sacrifice, or rather a gift of
propitiation to their deity. In the latter case they are usually broken
to pieces, probably on purpose, injured by fire, and mixed with the ashes
of the victims. They are frequently brought to light by the plow or
by violent rains, which wash away the soil, and lay bare the heavier stone
utensils. The distribution ef settlements is also similar; often consid-
erable regions are without any, while they are very numerous in more
favorable localities. In North America, they are most frequent in valleys,
where they are recognized by an abundance of fragments of vessels on
the’surface of the soil.

Sometimes earth-leaps similar to the Danish Kjékkenméddings indi-
cate the spots where those old settlements stood. They have been lately
investigated in several cases by Wyman, Morse, and our indefatiga-
ble countryman, Charles Rau. Their appearance is the same as in
Kurope, with the difference, of course, that the animal remains belong
to different species. Among the masses of broken shells, they contain
more or less numerous utensils of stone and bone along with potsherds.
They occur along the whole Atlantic coast. Near Keyport, New Jersey,
on an island north of Du Frangais Inlet, at Crouch’s Cove, Goose Island,
in Casco Bay, Kagle Hill, at Ipswich, Massachusetts, Long Island, and the
mouth of the Altamaha River, in Georgia. Traces are also found along
the coasts of Massachusetts, Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, Florida, and
California. A portion of the city of New York is said to be built upon
such deposits. To what period they belong, or whether they belong
to different periods, has not yet been determined. Finally, we must
mention the relics of human civilization found by the German
North Pole Expedition in Greenland, and brought home by it from
the abandoned huts of the Esquimaux. They probably belong to a
comparatively recent time.

The tools, weapons, vessels, and ornaments of the inhabitants of
America probably remained unchanged for very long periods of time.
Only the Mexicans made considerable progress in the latest period ;
but we know that even they had not yet given up their knives of obsidian,
although they might have made them of bronze. Montezuma himself
wielded the terrible Mexican sword, the edge of which was composed
of pieces of obsidian, and you can even to-day admire his stone battle-
ax in the Ambras collection.

ANCIENT HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. At

The objects found in the North are chiefly arrow-heads, as might be
expected in the case of a people of hunters and warriors. In the col-
lection before you, there are specimens of the various shapes, some
scarcely an inch long and having a rounded point, while others are more
than three inches in length. Precisely similar in shape and material,
(the latter being pure quartz, flint, chalcedony, jasper, rock-crystal,)
only larger, are the lance-heads. The royal mineralogical cabinet is in
possession of a magnificent arrow-head of pure rock-crystal, evidently
of American origin. It is remarkable that many lance andarrow heads
slant unequally on the two edges, so that the arrow or lance would
assume a rotary motion on being discharged.

The knives were also made of flint and obsidian by breaking them off
from suitable blocks by means of a single blow. They differ in no way
from the European. The Indian wedges are also like those found in
Europe, a circumstance that need not surprise us In an instrument of
so primitive a nature. The specimen before you, with its rounded sides,
was taken directly in the hand, and used to skin larger animals.

The hatchets, of which three specimens are before you, are of a shape
peculiar to America. They are provided with a deep groove under the
neck running around the sides, into which was fitted a forked branch
forming the handle. IT'rom their frequent occurrence we conclude that
they were the most usual weapon, which was later and only gradually
suppkanted by the iron tomahawk. Hammers with holes to receive the
handle are rare.

Among the other stone instruments, the grindstones differ also from
the European, being of the shape of stones used for rubbing up colors.
Larger disks, concave on both sides, were probably used in games, and
smaller ones of various shapes, and pierced with holes, may have served
as ornaments. The oval stone before you, with a groove running all
around it, may either have been a piece of ornament, or a sinker for
a net.

Which shapes and which material belong to the earlier, and which to
the later times, will probably be determined only after long researches.
Dr. Dickerson, of Philadelphia, claims an age of three thousand five
hundred years for these arrow-heads, which were found in one of the
Mississippi States. Among them you perceive half-finished and spoiled
pieces. Those made of quartz correspond in shape with the iron
arrows of the present day, of which you also have a specimen before
you; they are, therefore, very likely the more recent. Among the
metallic utensils, we must first mention the copper hatchet, an imi-
tation of the stone wedge attached to a club like the Celtic ax,
a chisel, and lance-heads. Among the ornaments are perforated copper
plates, concave disks, objects resembling buttons, small round disks of
thin copper plate, or wire for stringing on a thread, like pearls. The
copper was doubtless taken to Central America from the Lake Superior
copper region.

The inhabitants of Mexico and Ceutral America had made great prog-

432 ETHNOLOGY.

ress in the working of gold, silver, copper, and tin. They made not
only weapons and ornaments of metal, but also vessels showing a high
degree of skill. They alloyed copper and tin, and manufactured bronzed
utensils, to which they imparted considerable hardness by hammering.
But the arrow-heads and knives of obsidian remained in use at the same
time; the latter probably in consequence of their being used, in the
terrible human sacrifices, to open the breast of the victim and eut out
the heart. immense numbers of such obsidian knives, as well as arrow-
heads and chips, are still found in various localities. A mountain dis-
tinguished for the large number of these objects is still called “the
mountain of knives.” The inhabitants of the Mississippi Valley ob-
tained the obsidian arrow-heads from Mexico in exchange for other
articles.

The pipes are peculiar to America. They are called mound-pipes,
on account of their being found almost exclusively in the altar-mounds.
The Indians were in all probability the first smokers, and so great was
the esteem in which they held the enjoyment derived from it that they
devoted more labor and skill upon their pipes than upon their weapons.
The pipes are of stone, with a base in some cases 5 inches long, one end
of which forms the stem. The bowls are in the center of the base and
are about 1 or 14 inches high. These bowls are in most cases fashioned
in imitation of human heads, with all the characteristics of the Indian
race upon them, or various animals, which are so faithful that they can
be recognized at once; a fact which is the more surprising, since the
pipes are fashioned of a single piece of very hard stone. The pipes of
baked clay found in New York and elsewhere seem to belong to a later
period.

The Indians of to-day also devote considerable attention to the
adornment of their pipes. Many are cut from the red pipe-clay of the
West, which was discovered by the celebrated artist and ethnographer
Catlin. The beds of this clay were considered as on neutral ground by
the Indians. i

Among the other objects, which I have only time to name, are needles
and bodkins of bone and horn, pearls of bone and of various shells,
genuine pearls, perforated claws of eagles and bears, teeth of wild-cats
and ot the shark, perforated bits of mica, and the like. The vessels
of clay, however, require a more detailed consideration. They also
show some resemblance to the products of the corresponding era in
Europe. They were all fashioned without the potter’s wheel; in many
cases baskets of willow or rushes served as models. They were coy-
ered inside with clay and placed with it in the fire. Thus the wicker-
work left its impression on the outside of these vessels. This method,
according to Catlin, was still practiced in the present century. In
some southern localities pumpkins were covered with clay on the out-
side, and the whole placed in the fire.

A great number of the vessels, like the older European ones, had a
round bottom, and could only be used tor hanging up by means of a

.

ANCIENT HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. | 435

projecting edge. Their forms are as various as their dimensions. The
material consists of a black clay, mixed, asin Europe, with quartz sand,
or, as is the case more frequently, with more or less finely pulverized .
shells. Sometimes the clay is used without any admixture. In the West
Indies the pulverized bark of two trees, Hirtella silicea and Moquilea, is
used in-the place of sand. This bark is very rich in silica, and produces
vessels of a very fine grain, fragments of which are found in large nuin-
bers in all settlements, and especially at the places of manufacture.
One of the latter was discovered and described some years ago by
Charles Rau.

That the Mexican porcelain vessels should show a higher order of
skill, might be expected after what has been said. A Portuguese writer,
during the first years of the Spanish rule, declared that they were in no
way inferior to those of Hurope.

Although it is not denied that there is no reason for distinguishing
in America between a palwolithic and a neolithic period, there are,
nevertheless, authenticated facts which might lead to such a distinction.
One of these is the discovery of human bones together with those of
extinet species of animals near Natchez, Mississippi. Another is the
discovery of a human skeleton under several layers of submerged
forest formation in the Mississippi delta, near New Orleans. Still an-
other is the presence of human bones in a limestone conglomerate
forming a part of the coral reefs of Florida, whose age is estimated at
ten thousand years by Agassiz.

Unfortunately there has been so much exaggeration in America,
along with trustworthy reports, that caution is necessary in accepting
as true unusual statements, even when they have a scientific coloring..

From the report of the German archwologist, Dr. Koch, on the
mastodon * found in Gasconade County, Missouri, it is beyond doubt
that man existed in America as early as that animal. In another case
flint arrow-heads were found along with bones of the mastodon in an
undisturbed deposit; and at the Pomme de Terre River, Missouri, a
mastodon skeleton, together with an arrow-point, as found covered with
15 feet of alluvium.

Finally, I must state that there is scarcely a subject which excites
the interest of American scientific men so much as the ancient history
of their continent. Let me call your attention to the liberal support
which they enjoy, the existing collections in every large city of America,
the efforts of the Smithsonian Institution, and the donation of the
great philanthropist, Peabody, who appropriated £100,000 sterling to
the establishment of a museum of Indian antiquities.

The greatest collection of American antiquities in Europe is that at
Salisbury, England; and in America that of the Smithsonian Institution.
Dr. Dickerson has also a very large collection of which he is about to
publish a catalogue.

*T must state, however, that Lyell assigns much less antiquity to the American than.
to the European mastodon.

28 8 71

ON THE LANGUAGE OF THE DAKOTA OR SIOUX INDIANS.

By F. L. O. R@uHRIG.

In the year 1866 the writer of this article spent the interval from the
4th of July to the 26th of November in constant intercourse with the
Dakota. or Sioux Indians, near Fort Wadsworth, Northern Dakota
Territory.

Previously to his going to that out-of-the-way region he had happened
to make himself in some measure acquainted with the languages of
several of the Indian tribes, particularly with the Chippewa tongue ; and
he then at once directed his attention to the language of those Indians in
whose immediate neighborhood he was going to reside for a while,
namely, the Siouw Nation, or Dakotas.

It would take a:whole volume to record his varied experience with
those interesting tribes and the result of his ethnological and linguistic
researches during the-time he lived among them. On this occasion,
however, he will.content himself with presenting to the reader only
a very few faint and cursory glimpses of merely such matters as may
arise in his recollection, and as pertain to the language of these people.
It is hoped that his elucidation of desultory topies of this nature will
not prove altogether uninteresting to the ethnologist or philological
inquirer.

Whenever any new truth is presented for our comprehension, or any
new subject for our study and investigation, almost invariably the first
thing for the human mind to do, and that, too, from an inherent craving
for logical classification, is to inquire as to what other known truth
the less known ean possibly be linked; to what chain or series of
analogous phenomena it necessarily belongs; in what accredited system
it has to take its place; with what whole or totality it is connected asa
part; and we seem never to be fairly at ease before we have arrived at
the point of grouping or classifying the matter in some way or other.
This applies also and particularly to languages. As soon as a new lan-
guage begins to attract our attention, we feel at once an eager desire to
classify it, so much so that we often cannot patiently wait even during
the time necessary to collect the indispensable material from which
alone we could possibly draw any legitimate conclusions in this respect.
We at once ask what other tongue such language is like; with what
other it may be compared; where among the languages of the world
it has to take its place, &e., and hence the often over-hasty classifica-
tions based upon mere casual and apparent resemblances. It is first of
all necessary, in such cases, to be able fairly tosurvey a language in all

ON THE LANGUAGE OF THE DAKOTA OR SIOUX INDIANS. 435

its relations; in its manifold diversities, its dialects, and, if possible, also
in its various and successive phases of development, in its primary
forms or its original condition.

So far as we know, the Dakota language, with several cognate tongues,
constitutes a separate class or family among American Indian languages,
of which we may speak on some other occasion. But the question a
present is, whence does the Dakota, with its related American tongues,
come? From what trunk or parent stock is it derived? Ethnologists
are wont to point us to Asia as the most probable source of the pre-
historical immigration from the Old World to this continent. Hence,
they say, many if not all of our Indians must have come from Hast-
ern or Middle Asia, and in considering their respective tongues, one
must still find somewhere in that region some cognate, though perhaps
very remotely related set of languages, however much the affinity exist-
ing between the Indian tongues and these may have gradually become
obscured, and in how many instances soever, through a succession of
ages, the old family features may have been impaired. But they further
allow, of course, that these changes may have taken place to such an
extent that this affinity cannot be easily recognized, and may be much,
even altogether, obliterated.

When we consider the languages of the great Asiatic continent, of
its upper and eastern portions more particularly, with a view of dis-
covering any remaining trace, however faint, of ‘analogy with or simi-
larity to the Dakota tongue, what do we find? Very little; and the
only group of Asiatic languages in which we could possibly fancy we
perceived any kind of dim and vague resemblance, an occasional analogy
or other perhaps merely casual coincidence with the Sioux or Dakota
tongue, would probably be the so-called “Ural-Altaic” family. This
group embraces a very wide range, and is found scattered in manifold
ramifications through parts of Eastern, Northern, and Middle Asia,
extending in some of its more remote branches even to the heart of
Europe, where the Hungarian and the numerous tongues of the far-
spread Finnish tribes offer still the same characteristics, and an unmis-
takable impress of the old Ural-Altaic relationship.

In the following pages we shall present some isolated glimpses of
such resemblances, analogies, &c., with the Sioux language as strike us,
though we need not repeat that no conclusions whatever can be drawn
from them regarding any affinity, ever so remote, between the Ural-
Altaic languages and the Dakota tongue. This much, however, may
perhaps be admitted from what we have to say, that at least an Aszatic
origin of the Sioux or Dakota Nation and their language may not be
altogether an impossibility.

In the first place, we find that as in those Ural-Altaic languages, so
in a like manner in the Sioux or DAKoTA tongue, there exists that
remarkable syntactical structure of sentences which we might call a
constant inversion of the mode and order in which we are accustomed to

436 ETHNOLOGY.

hink. Thus, more or less, the people who speak those languagés
would begin sentences or periods where we end ours, so that our thoughts
would really appear in their mind as inverted.

Those Asiatic languages have, moreover, no prepositions, but only
postpositions. So likewise has the Dakora tongue.

The polysynthetic arrangement which prevails throughout the majority
of the American Indian languages is less prominent, and decidedly less
intricate in the Dakota tongue than in those of the other tribes of this
continent. But it may be safely asserted that the above-mentioned lan-
guages of Asia also contain at least a similar polysynthetic tendency,
though merely in an incipient state, a rudimental or partially devel-
oped form. Thus, for instance, all the various modifications which the
fundamental meaning of a verb has to undergo, such as passive condi-
tion, causation, reflexive action, mutuality, and the like, are embodied
in the verb itself by means of interposition, or a sort of intercalation of
certain characteristic syllables between the root and the grammatical
endings of such verb, whereby a long-continued and united series, or
catenation, is often obtained, forming apparently one huge word. How-
ever, to elucidate this any further here would evidently lead us too far
away from our present subject and purpose. We only add that post-
positions, pronouns, as well as the interrogative particle, &e., are also
commonly blended into one with the nouns, by being inserted one aiter
the other, where several such expressions occur, in the manner al-
luded to, the whole being closed by the grammatical terminations, so
as often to form words of considerable length... May we not feel au-
thorized to infer from this some sort of approach, in however feeble a
degree, of those Asiatic languages—through this principle of catena-
tion—to the general polysynthetic system of the American tongues ?

We now proceed to a singular phenomenon, which we should like to
deseribe technicaily as a sort of *‘ reduplicatio intensitiva.” It exists in
the Mongolian and Turco-Tartar branches of the Ural-Altaic group, and
some vestiges of it we found, to our great surprise, also in the language
of our S1oux INDIANS.

This reduplication is in the above-mentioned Asiatic languages
applied particularly to adjectives denoting color and external qualities,
and it is just the same in the DAKorA language. It consists in prefix-
ing to any given word its first syllable in the shape of a reduplicauion,
this sylable thus occurring twice—often adding to it (as the case may
be) a ‘‘p,” &e.

The object—at least in the Asiatic languages alluded to—is to express
thereby, in many cases, a higher degree or increase of the quality. An
example or two will make it clear. Thus we have, for instance, in Mon-
golian, khara, which means black, and KHAp-khara with the meaning of
very black, entirely black ; tsagan, white, TSAp-tsagan, entirely white, NC.,
and in the Turkish and the so-called Tartar (Tatar) dialects of Asiatic

:

ON THE LANGUAGE OF THE DAKOTA OR SIOUX INDIANS. 437

Russia, kara, black, and KAp-kara, very black; sary, yellow; and SAp-
sary, entirely yellow, &e.

Now, in DAKOTA, we find sapa, black, and with the reduplication, SAp-
sapa. The reduplication here is, indeed, a reduplication of the syllable
sa, and not of sap, the word being sa-pa, and not sap-a. The “p” in SAp-
sapaisinserted after the reduplication of the first syllable, just as we have
seen in the above kara and KAp-kara, &ce.

In the Ural-Altaic languages ‘‘m” also is sometimes inserted after the
first syllable; for instance, in the Turkish beyaz, white, and BEm-beyaz,
very white, &e. If we find, however, similar instances in the DAKOTA
language, such as cepa,” which means fleshy, (one of the external qual-
ities to which this rule applies,) and ¢Em-cepa, &e., we must consider
that the letter “mm” is in such cases merely a contraction, and replaces,
moreover, another labial letter (“‘p”) followed by a vowel, particularly
“a.” Thus, for instance, dom is a contraction for copa, gam for gapa,
ham for hapa, skem for skepa, om for opa, tom for topa, &c. So is cem,
in our exé imple, only an abridged form of cepa ; hence *+m” stands here
for “p” or “pa,” and belongs essentially to the word itself, while in those
Asiatic languages the “m” is added to the reduplhiation of the first syl-
lable, like the ‘“p” in KAp-kara, &e. We have, therefore, to be very care-
ful in our conclusions.

The simple doubling of the first syllable is also of frequent occurrence
in Dakota; for instance, s7, brown, and gigi, (Same meaning;) sri, cold, and
snisni; ko, quick, and koko, &e.

There are also some very interesting examples to be found in the
DakorTA language, which strikingly remind us of a remarkable peculiar-
ity frequently met with in the Asiatic languages above adverted to. It
consists in the antagonism in form, as well as in meaning, of certain words,
according to the nature of their vovcels ; so that when such words eontain
what we may call the strong, full, or hard vowels, viz: a, 0, u, (in the con-
tinental pronunciation,) they generally denote strength, the male sex,
affirmation, distance, &c., while the same words with the weak or soft
vowels @, 7,—the consonantal skeleton, frame, or ground-work of the word
remaining the same,—express weakness, the female sex, negation, proximity,
and a whole series of corresponding ideas.

A few examples will demonstrate this. Thus, for instance, the idea of
‘ father” is expressed in Mantchoo (one of the Ural-Altaic languages)
by ema, while “mother” is eme® This gives, no doubt, but a very in-
complete idea of that peculiarity, but it will, perhaps, be sufficient to
explain in a measure what we found analogous in the DAKOTA language.
Instances of the kind are certainly of rare occurrence in the latter, and
we will content ourselves with giving here only a very few examples, in
which the above difference of signification is seen to exist, though the
significance of the respective vowels seems to be just the reverse; which
would in no wise invalidate the truth of the preceding statement, since

438 ETHNOLOGY.

the same inconsistent alteration or anomaly frequently takes place also in
the family of Ural-Altaiclanguages. [For further developments, see the
Notes at the end of this article.]

Thus we find in the Dakora or Sioux language, hEpan, (second son of
afamily,)and hApay, (second daughter of afamily ;) cin, elder brother, cUn,
elder sister;* émmksi, son, éUnksi, daughter, &c. Also, the demonstratives
kon, that, and kin, this, the, (the definite articles,) seem to come, in some
respects, under this head.

To investigate the grammatical structure of languages from a compar-
ative point of view is, however, but one part of the work of the philologist;
the other equally essential part consists in the study of the words them-
selves, the very material of which languages are made. We do not, as
yet, intend to touch on the question of Dakota words and their possible
affinities, but reserve all that pertains to comparative etymology tor some
other time. The identity of words in different languages, or simply their
afiinity, may be either immediately recognized, or rendered evident
by a regular process of philological reasoning, especially’ when such
words appear, as it were, disguised, in consequence of certain alterations
due to time and to various vicissitudes, whereby either the original
vowels, or the consonants, or both, have become changed. Then, also,
it frequently happens that one and the same word, when compared in
cognate languages, may appear as different parts of speech, so that in
one of them it may exist as a noun, and in another only as a verb, &e.
Moreover, the same word may have become gradually modified in its
original meaning, so that it denotes, for instance, in one of the cognate
languages, the genus, and in another, merely the species of the same thing
or idea. Or it may also happen that when several synonymous expres-
sions originally existed in what we may call a mother language, they
lave become so scattered in their descent that only one of these words
is found in a certain one of the derived languages ; while others again be-
long to other cognate tongues, or even their dialects, exclusively.

The foregoing is sufficient to account for the frequent failures in es-
tablishing the relationship of certain languages in regard to the affinity
of all their words.

On this oceasion it will be enough to mention, in passing, as it were,
one or two of the most frequently used words, such as the names of
Sather, mother, &e.

In regard to these most familiar expressions, we again find a sur-
prising coincidence between the tongues of Upper Asia (or more ex-
tensively viewed, the Ural-Altaic or Tartar-Finnish stock of languages)
and the DAKOTA.

Father is in Dakota ate; in Turco-Tartar, ata; Mongolian and its
branches, ets, etsige; in the Finnish languages we meet with the
forms attje, ati, &e.; they all having at (= et) as their radical syllable.
Now, as to mother, it is in the Dakota language ima ; and in the Asiatic
tongues just mentioned it is ana, aniya, ine, entye, we.

ON THE LANGUAGE OF THE DAKOTA OR SIOUX INDIANS. 439

Again, we find in the Dakota or Sioux language tanin, which means to
appear, to be visible, manifest, distinct, clear. Now, we have also in all
the Tartar dialects tan, tang, which means, Ist, light; hence, daen of
the morning; 2d, understanding. From it is derived tani, which is the
stem or radical part of verbs meaning to render manifest, to make known,
to know ; it also appears in the old Tartar verb-stems tang-(la), meaning
to understand, and in its mutilated modern (and western) form, ang(la),
without the initial “¢,” which has the same signification. We may
mention still mama, which in Dakota denotes the female breast. We
might compare it with the Tartar meme, which has the same meaning,
if we had not also in almost all European languages the word mamma,
(== mama,) with the very same fundamental signification, the children
of very many different nations calling their mothers, instinctively, as it
were, by that name, (mamma = mama, &c.)°

We may also assert that even in the formation of words we find now and
then some slight analogy between certain characteristic endings in the lan-
guages of Upper Asia and the Daxora'tongue. Thus, for instance, the
termination for the “nomen agens,” which in the Dakota language is sa,
isin Tartar tsi, st, and deht ; Mongolian tehi, &e. We also find in Dakota
the postposition ta, (a constituent part of ekta, in, at,) which is a loeative
particle, and corresponds in form to the postpositions ta and da, and
their several varieties and modifications, in the greater part of the Ural-
Altaic family of languages. The same remark applies in a measure to
the Dakota postposition e, which means to, toward, &e.

In pointing out these various resemblances of the Sioux language to
Asiatic tongues we in no wise mean to say that we are inclined to believe
in any affinity or remote relationship among them. At this early stage
of our researches it would be wholly preposterous to make any assertions
as to the question of affinity, &c. All that we intended to do was simply
to bring forward a few facts from which, if they should be further corrob-
orated by a more frequent recurrence of the phenomena here touched
upon, the reader might perhaps draw his own conelusions, at least so
far as a very remote Asiatic origin of the Dakota language is concerned.
Further investigations in the same direction might possibly lead to more
satisfactory results.

After having hitherto considered the Dakota or Sioux language
somewhat in connection with other tongues, we shall now say a word
more about that language viewed independently, in its own natural
growth and development.

Vowel changes, although far less important in themselves than conso-
nantal permutations, occur very abundantly in the DaKora language.
Changes of that kind bear to each other nearly the same relation that
the English “and” bears to the German “und,” &e., only that those forms
exist, and are contemporaneously used, in one and the same language.
Thus, for instance, the Dakota Indians cali the Iowa tribe “aytihba,” as
well as “iyiiliba,” (the sleepers); the verb “to mind” isin Dakota “awadin”

440 ETHNOLOGY.

as well as “ ewacin 3” “ yukanpi,” as well as “ yakonpi,” is used to express
ave, (of the verb “ to be”) We have also double forms of words, differ-
ing only in the vowel they contain, such as kpa, kpe, (lasting, durable,
&¢e.;) kta, kte, (to kill ;) spa, spe, &e.

Sometimes, however, the difference of a vowel occasions also some
slight modification in the meaning; for instance, onataka and inataka,
both implying the same idea, only the former being the verb, the latter
the noun; wowinihan, awe; wawinihan, aoful; oskopa, arch; and
askopa, arched, &e.

In the Dakota language, we must add, it is of the highest importance
that the philologist should, when comparing words with different
vowels, be exceedingly careful not to see in them always merely double
forms of one and the same expression. For, in this language it often
happens that syHables which differ only in their vowels are neverthe-
less sometimes of an essentially different origin, and may denote ideas
wholly heterogeneous, and thus enter as parts into compounds in all
else similar to each other. Thus, for instance, wadas’a means a beggar ;
wodas’a means the same. Nevertheless, they are different compounds,
the former meaning simply one who asks for something, who begs, while
the first syllable of the latter, namely, wo, is an entirely different word
from ia, and means food ; so that woda s’a alludes to begging food, beg-
ging for something to eat. Equal caution is necessary when comparing
words like the following, which in their constituent parts are by no
means identical, viz: yawaste and yuwaste, both meaning to bless.
They have both the word zaste, good, in common; but ya-waste means
literally to call good, and yu-waste to make good. The same is the case
with yatanin and yutanin, which means to disclose ; yaonihan and yuo-
nihan, to glorify ; yahepa and yulepa, to imbibe, and a great many others.

We close these remarks with a few words on the harmonious character
of this language. Vowels undergo changes not only for the purpose of
expressing various modifications of the original meaning, but also for
mere euphonie reasons. ‘There is, in fact, a greater tendency in the Da-
kota language to bring about a constantly harmonious, smooth, graceful,
and easy flow of speech than in almost any other of the known Indian
tongue. Thus, we frequently find the vowel a, for the sake of euphony,
changed toe; and for the same reason, any possible hiatus carefully
avoided by elisions, while semi-vowels are frequently inserted where
two vowels would otherwise come into immediate contact with each
other and impair the harmoniousness of the sound. Contractions
are also used for the same purpose, and the accent or stress of voice
moves, according to certain laws, from one syllable to the other in the
inflectional changes which a word undergoes, whereby the language
becomes often very pleasing and majestic. Indeed, if a comparison
were allowed of the widely-different but far more flexible and varied
Chippewa, and our more slowly-moving, grave, and manly Dakota lan-
guage, we would venture to compare, as far as euphony aud sonorous-

ON THE LANGUAGE OF THE DAKOTA OR SIOUX INDIANS. 441

ness are concerned, the former with the Greek and the latter with the
Latin language. In regard to the accent, we may also mention that in
some instances difference of accentuation in a word is, in Dakota,
resorted to as a means of distinguishing homophonous expressions with
different meanings, such as, for instance, would be in English présent
and to presént or in German “ ¢ébet,” (give ye,) and “ gebét,” (prayer)
or in Greek Wedrox0¢ and Weordz05, &e. Thus, in Dakota, hiita means the
root of a tree or plant, while hutd denotes the shore of a river or lake, also
the edge of a prairie or wood. Consonants also often undergo changes
merely for the sake of euphony; thus, gutturals become palatals, and
the change of & to é (tch) is of frequent occurrence, though in all such
“ases care is taken not to obscure thereby the indication of any etymo-
logical changes which words eer have undergone, either by combina-
tion or inflection.

We often find double forms of a word simultaneously existing, one of
them, however, being the older, the more complete; the other, the more
recent but already decaying and impaired form, which finally will
supersede the former, and remain alone in use. Thus, to give a simple
instance, chosen from a great number of similar ermdplee: frequently *
very equals intricate, and obscure, wipi, in Dakota, means full;
but in the coexisting form, tpi, full, the ‘‘w” has alvehdy begun
to disappear, although both forms, Wipi and tpi, are used, and will be
until the former (wipi) becomes by degrees obsolete.7. Other instances
are, Woniya and oniya, (breath;) Wipata and dpata, (ornament ;)
Wihdi and thdi, (grease, ointment ;) Wozuha and ozuha, (a bag,) &e. We
must, hawever, be very careful not to mistake the significance of “ww” in
such forms where, in one, its presence constitutes simply an addition to
the word, a sort of formative prefix, and, in the other, its absence is in
nowise an elision, for it is frequently found used as an element in the
,ormation of certain derivatives or compounds. Thus, for instance, the
prefix “wa” before a word commencing with a vowel becomes reduced #o
a simple ‘,” in consequence of the elision of “a,” for euphonic reasons.
It may also happen that the “2” serves to distinguish certain modifica-
tions in the meaning of a word, so that the two forms, though closely
related, can no longer be considered as altogether identical. Instances
of this kind are, wopetoy and opeton, two verbs which are, indeed, often
confounded with each other, and used indiscriminately to express trad-
ing ; While, however, strictly speaking, opeton means to purchase, to buy,
to hire, and Wopeton, to buy, but also to buy and sell, to trade. Wova,
to paint, to write, forms, by the addition of “pi,” the usual ending of
verbal nouns, the word wowapi, which means a writing, a book; while
owapt means more particularly a picture, something that is painted or
lettered, though these differences do not always seem to be kept distinct,
wowapt being, in the Dakota dialects, used also for painting, picture, for
a letter, a sheet of paper, &c. The letter “h,” at the beginning of words,
frequently disappears likewise; thus we have the double forms wi and

442 ETHNOLOGY.

a, (to come ;) Hecon and eéon, (to do;) Hnaska and naska, (a frog;) eden
and ecen, (such as,) &e. We also find, in some instances, that conso-
nants are dropped at the end of words, as in the double forms hektamw
and hekta, (back,) &e.; “k” also disappears not ypnfrequently, which
accounts for the double forms Ku and wu, (to come,) &e. K may disap-
pear also in the middle of words; thus we have kaki and kai, (to carry,)
&ec. It sometimes happens that when “k,” in the middle of a word, is
followed by “i,” this syllable “iz” is dropped; hence, we have double
forms, such as ikTuy and iun, (to anoint;) wKIyuwi and tiyuwi, (to bridle,)
&ec. But the greatest care is necessary not to confound this “ki”
with the grammatical syllable ki,” which is inserted in verbs to impart
to them a,more definite meaning, and is particularly incorporated in
verbs indicating a special relation to or for whom anything is done; as,
for instance, oyaka, (to tell;) oKIyaka, (to tell to one, to somebody;)
thus, omakiyaka, (tell me,) &e.

We have in the Dakota language also a very interesting system of
consonantal permutations. Thus, among the liquids, a frequent (and
often almost optional) interchange of J and n; for instance, boy
is in the Dakota hoksiua and hoksina, (land n;) or, if we wish to compare
the dialects of that language with one another, we have in Yanktonais
LiLa for “ very ;” in the Titon dialect the same ; in Sissiton Nina, (J and n
again interchanged.) Also the liquids » and m are interchangeable,
often ad libitum, even within the limits of one and the same Dakota
dialect; thus, for instance, the English preposition “ on,” ‘‘ upon,” is in
Dakota “akan” as well as “ akam,” &e.

We have in the Dakota language also a frequent interchange of k and
t,° as, for instance, iKpt and 7rpi, both forms being used to denote belly,
abdomen, Thus, ¢ekpa, which means navel, twin, may assume a double
form in‘the compounds hoksicekpa and hoksicetpa, where k and t inter-
change with each other without affecting the signification of the word
in any way‘whatever. Other examples are okpaza and oTpaza, meaning
darkness, night ; wiyakpakpa and wiyatpatpa, signifying to glisten, to
glitter, &c. This change takes place especially where the k or ¢ is im-
mediately followed by p. The permutation above adverted to, between
k and ¢, (¢eh,) is also of frequent occurrence. It not only takes place in con-
sequence of certain euphonic laws, but it would seem to be also optional,
as we find double forms of one and the same word, the one with &, the
other with ¢; as, for instance, ikute and icute, meaning ammunition, &e.
dt interchanges also with y, as, for instance, in the double forms Kamna
and Yamna, meaning to acquire, &c. Then, again, y interchanges
with é; thus hoksivopa and hoksiéopa,’ meaning child. K interchanges,
moreover, with p; for instance, Kasto and Pasto, (brush,) &c. A inter-
changes also with b, as Katonta and Batoyta, (notch,) &e. Then, we fur-
thermore observe that labials interchange with each other; for instance,
b with p, as Bago and Pago, two forms of one and the same verb, mean-
ing to carve. Also, the labials p and m are seen to interchange with

.

ON THE LANGUAGE OF THE DAKOTA OR SIOUX INDIANS. 443

each other; thus, naphkawin and namhkawin, (to beckon with the hand.) &e.
There are also instances of a permutation between p and t, such as petusPe
and petuste, (a fire-brand,) &c. Alsot and $ sometimes interchange with
one another, as in ktay and ksayn, which mean curved, whence the com-
pounds yuktTan and yuksan, meaning literally to make curved or to
bend, &e. It now and then happens that such consonantal interchanges
take place, and are, moreover, accidentally complicated by a transposition
of the consonants in question; for instance, opraye aud osPpaye, &e. It
is important to take all these various changes into careful consideration
when we wish to identify words in their different appearances, their in-
numerable protean transformations, and often surprising modes of dis-
guise, and to trace their origin, derivation, and various affinities.

In regard to the derivation and composition of words, the Dakota or
Sioux language is particularly clear and transparent. Derivations can
be traced with great facility, and in the matter of the formation of com-
pound words, this language is remarkably apt and flexible. We will
take this opportunity to present but a few instances of Dakota etymol-
ogies, which will, however, be sufficient to enable the reader to form
some idea of this particular subject. Zi means to dwell, to live in, and
as a noun the same word means a dwelling-place, a house. With the
addition of the substantive ending pi, (¢ipi,) it means a tent, such as
the Sioux Indians inhabit; while when combined with the verb opa,
which signifies to go in, to enter, to go to, it forms tiyopa, (for tiopa,)
Which is a substantive and designates a door, a gate, an entrance. Da
is a verb which means to form an opinion, to think ; its longer form is
daka, with the same meaning. ‘This word added to the adjective waste,
good, forms the compounds wasteda and wasiedaka, which mean to deem
good, to think well of ; hence, to love. On the contrary, when combined
with sice, bad, it forms the compounds siceda and sicedaka, which mean
to consider bad, and, by a natural transition, to hate.

The word hoksi gives rise to a number of derivatives, of which we
will here mention but a few. The word itself does not appear to be
used independently ; but we may, perhaps, infer its fundamental mean-
ing, when we consider a compound expression like hoksi-cekpa, which not
only means twins, but, in its probably more original signification, applies
to a flower, and denotes @ blue wild flower which appears jirst in the
spring, the earliest spring-flower, thus alluding to the first beginning of
floral vegetation. In a similar acceptation, it seems to enter as the
principal constituent part into all words expressive of the idea of infancy
and childhood, as hoksiyopa, a child=heksiopa, the verb opa, most prob-
ably, with its meaning of following, going along with; hoksiday, a boy, day
being a very common diminutive termination, alluding here, it seems,
simply to the youth and small stature of a male during childhood, &e. ;
hoksiwiyn and hoksiwinna, a virgin. In the latter expression we distin-
guish in the ending the word wiy, that by itself means female, woman,
and winna, which is its diminutive, and stands to it somewhat in the

444 ETHNOLOGY.

same relation as the German frdulein, a young unmarried woman, to frat,
a woman.

The word gu means to burn; guya is a causative form of ¢u, and means
to cause to burn, to make burn. This word appears also, and, it seems, in
a more definite sense, under the form agw, (with prefixed a,) to burn,
and aguya, to cause to burn. With the usual substantive-ending of ver-
bal nouns, viz: pi, aguyapi, means bread, as it were, something burned or
baked. With a similar import the radical letters br in our English word
bread, German brod, seem to refer to the same idea, as they appear also in
BRennen, BRand, BRaten, BRiihen, BRauen, BRiiten, BRunst, &e., in all of
which expressions the idea of heat, if not of fire, is evidently implied.”

Interrogatives, which also in this language coincide in their form
with relative and indefinite pronouns, present here the peculiarity
of commencing, in the greatest number of instances, with ¢ or d, while
the demonstratives begin with k. For example: Tuwe, who ; Taku, what ;
Tohan, when ; Vohan, where ; Torna, how many, &e. And of the demon-
stratives we may mention Ka, that ; Kaki, there ; Kana, these. Sometimes
we find also the guttural softened down to a simple h ; as, for instance,
Hena, the equivalent of Kana, these ; Hehan, which means there, and an-
swers to the above-mentioned tohan, where; and*Hehan, which means
then, and responds to tohan, when. We may observe here, by the way,
that in most of the other languages which come under our ordinary
observation precisely the contrary takes place, viz: guttural letters
(which are also sometimes found replaced by their equivalent labials)
serving to express the interrogative ; while t, d, th, commonly oceur in
the demonstratives. Thus, we have in Latin talis, tantus, tot, tam, tum,
tune, &¢.; in Greek, 7d, téaos, téze, &e. 3 in English, this, that, thus, there,
then, &c.; and with the gutturals, in Latin, quis, qd, qualis, quantus,
quot, quam, quum, &e.; in Greek dial., zj5 == z@3 zbte == zt 5 zdTEpog —=T0-
tepos, &C. The same phenomenon is remarked also, m a measure, ina
great many other languages widely different from those last mentioned.
We may state here, as a curious fact, that the Dakota mode of express-
ing the more essential part in interrogatives by t or d, and what cor-
responds thereto in demonstratives by k, obtains also in the language of
Japan, where it constitutes indeed an eminently striking feature. It is
true, k and ¢ are interchangeable, and, in many instances, convertible
elements in languages generally, but their functions are kept distinct
and apart in the particular matter under consideration.

We pass on to the Dakota word akan, which means above. It is the
same as akaM, and if not identical with, is at least related to akay ; just
as we see, for instance, the double forms kahaNn and kahayn, which mean
then, there, so far, and one of which has » where the other has yn; that
is, n, With only a nasal pronunciation. Now, the akan, as an adjective,
means also old, implying, no doubt, the idea of above, of superior to, (in
stature or in years,) just as the Latin altus reappears in the German alt,
English eld, old. This akan, or, per apheresing simply kan, appears also

ON THE LANGUAGE OF THE DAKOTA OR SIOUX INDIANS. 445

in the form of wakanka,? an old woman. Akay reappears also under the
forms (W)akan and wankan, meaning likewise above, up, high, superior,
and being undoubtedly closely connected with the form (e)akan, since 2
and n are interchangeable terms, (as shown in the above hkahan and
kahan); and since certain derivates, moreover, are seen to confirm
their intimate relationship, such as wakayicidapi, pride, haughtiness,
where wakay evidentiy refers to real or fancied superiority, similarly
to the Latin superbus, the French altier, &c. Perhaps wakapa also
comes under this head, its meaning being to excel, to surpass, to be
superior to, or to be above ; wakapa standing, according to all appear-
ance, for wakankapa, the latter part of which would be the verb kapa,
to pass by, togo beyond. Thus the primary and fundamental meaning of
wakay (= akan, akam, akan) would be what is superior or above, a supe-
rior something or being ; hence it means a spirit, a ghost, and, as an ad-
jective, spiritual, supernatural, divine. It gives rise to the following
expressions: mini-wakay, which signifies alcohol, brandy; as it were,
spirit-water, or spirituous liquor ;° wakay tanka, the Great Spirit, mean-
ing God; wakay sida, evil spirit, meaning demon, devil ; wowapi wakan,
literally spirit book, or spiritual, divine book, the Dakota name for the
Bible; tipi-wakayn, which means a chapel or church, literally spirit house,
sacred house ; wicaste-wakan, a clergyman, priest, literally a spiritual man ;
&e. Thus, also, the lightning is called wakayhdi, from wakay (spirit)
and hdi, (to come,) meaning, as it were, the coming down or arrival of a
spirit. Also, the famous dance of the Sioux Indians, which is described
as the Medicine-dance, viz: wakay wacipi, simply means spirit-dance or
sacred dance, and, as Rev. 8. R. Riggs expressly informs us in his Die-
tionary, is thus called especially from the fact that the high priests of
the ceremonies spend the night previous in singular magic practices, and
aré holding communion with the spirit world. Then, again, we have the
word wakay in compound verbs, such as wakan kago, which means liter-
ally to make wakay, as it were, to attend the acts of worship or divine ser-
vice; and wakanecong means to perform supernatural acts, to do tricks of
jugglery, of magic. A great error has been committed by travelers gen-
erally, who, resorting, perhaps for information, to the stolid half-breed
Sioux Indians, who are often still more ignorant, if possible, of English
than the travelers are of the Dakota tongue, have identified the idea
expressed by the word wakayn and everything therewith connected with
that of the healing art, or medicine. To be sure, healing a disease, restoring
a sufferer from sickness to health, is in the opinion of the wild Indian
always and preéminently a supernatural, wonderful act, in which beings
of a higher order directly participate, and which is generally brought
about by means of magical performances, conjuring, necromancy, and
sorcery, rather than by the administration of remedies or other medi-
calappliances. There is no such thing as a “ medicine man” among
these Indians, and they have not even a word for it ; for widéaste-wakan,
Which has been erroneously taken for such, simply means a supernatural

446 ETHNOLOGY.

man, a spirit man, a magician, and the like, and has come subsequently
to be applied to the priest, clergyman, or missionary. An Indian doctor
is called wapiye among the Dakotas, which simply means a conjurer, and
is derived from the verb wapiya, to conjure the sick, which in its turn
comes from pikiya, to conjure. A physician, or one who cures diseases
by means of medicine, is always called pezihuta-widaste, from pezi, which
means grass, also dry grass, herb, and huta, which denotes the root of
trees or plants, so that the compound pezihuta, which properly means
medicine, * would signify literally herbs and roots, and pezihuta-
wicaste a herb-and-root man; which epithet is almost exclusively
applied to American doctors resident in the vicinity of those In-
dians and to military surgeons at the forts in their territory. Among
these people the gathering of herbs and root, and the administration
of such medicines are, indeed, not in anywise uncommon; it is, however,
not at all the occupation of men, but of women.

The word for mouth is 7, whence is derived the verb ta, to speak, which
in its turn gives rise (by the addition of the ending pi so common in the
formation of verbal nouns) to the substantive dapi, speech, language.
(Thus Dakota iapi, the Dakota language, properly the language of the
companions, friends, or allies.) , eae

The verb ha means to curl. It is also used with the reduplication, viz:
haha, as an adjective especially, to: denote curling, curled. The same
when combined, with mini,” water, signifies curling water ; and thus mint-
liaha is the usual word for a eaterfall, a cascade generally. Often haha
alone is used to designate a waterfall; mint (water) being understood, just
as we are accustomed in English toemploy simply the word“ falls” in the
same sense. Thus the word hahatunwe is used, meaning those who dwell
or live at the falls, the people around the waterfalls, an expression which
has become among the Dakotas the ordinary name of the Chippewa
' Nation.”

To translate the word minihaha (or erroneously written ‘ minne-
haha’)" by laughing waters, seems to be a gross mistake, nost probably
the result of imperfect information derived from some half-breed Sioux
who was perhaps asked, (the inquirer wrongly analyzing the word,)
‘“ Whatismeant by minne?” To which theresponse was doubtless, *‘ Mint
means water.” * And what does thaha signify ?”? The answer to which
must have been: ‘“Jhahameans to laugh.” (No doubt? signifying mouth,
and ha, to curl; tha and thaha mean to curl the mouth or the lips, that is,
to laugh.) When Rev. 8. R. Riggs, in his otherwise very excellent Da-
kota Dictionary, explains diaha by “to laugh along as rapid water, the
noise of waterfalls,”'® he is unconsciously led astray by that current
popwar error. In fact, such an interpretation is founded on nothing,
and is prima facie quite contrary to all right etymology. And to do
justice to Mr. Riggs, for whom we profess the highest esteem, and who
is without any comparison the best grammarian and lexicographer who
has ever yet appeared in the domain of American Indian philology, we

ON THE LANGUAGE OF THE DAKOTA OR SIOUX INDIANS. 447

will state that he likewise explains (in his dictionary) hala by “water.
falls, so called from the CURLING waters.”

Our views on this subject, as on various other similar matters, were,
moreover, fully approved by Rev. T. S. Williamson, another distin-
euished missionary, andahighly respectable authority asregards the Da-
kota language, with whom we had many a long conversation on such
topics every time -we happened to meet with him in the territory.

Much might yet be done in investigating that most interesting lan-
guage, in a strictly philological manner, and also tracing particularly the
many Dakota names of mountains, hills, rivers, lakes, &e., to their true
origin and meaning. They almost always contain some attractive allu-
sion, something legendary or traditional, which might lead to most val-
uable results in regard to the history, religious ideas, ancient usages,
&e., of this largest and most powerful of all the Indian tribes of North
America.

We now say, in conclusion, that on this continent, researches in phi-
lology, ethnolo gy, and history should have for their main object the lan-
guages and nations of AMERICA. The field is comparatively new and
exceedingly interesting ; an immense deal has to be done in this domain,
the real labors of thorough and exhaustive investigation having not even
yet begun. If these unpretending pages, contributed by the author as
his first mite to that kind of research which he wishes to see undertaken
by the scholars of this country, serve as an incentive to others to inter-
est themselves in these studies and devote some of their time and exer-
tions to the same, his object will have been successfully attained.

NOTES.

1 Such intercalations are, in a measure, almost analogous to the usual
insertion of the many incidental clauses in long Latin or German sen-
tences, if we are allowed that comparison.

*é stands in the present transcription of the Dakota language for
tch; 8 for sh; y for nasaln ; dotted letters indicate a peculiar emphasis
in their utterance, for which we have no precise equivalent in English.

° Other examples in Mantchoo are kaka, meaning male, cock, while
keke means hen, &c. These phenomena are, in their last analysis, redu-
cible to a fixed principle, which still prevails, to some extent, in the
above-mentioned group of Asiatic languages, and which we have some
reason to believe once formed an essential part of many other tongues.
We might perhaps not improperly recognize in that antagonism some-
thing of polar opposition, some law of polarity. There are distinct and
polarly-opposite correlative vowel-classes, viz: a, 0, u, in the continen-
tal pronunciation, which are, as it were, positive, and e, 7, which are neg-
ative. Sometimes, however, the reverse takes place, so that ¢, i, have
the power and significance of a, 0, u, and vice versa, (a quasi “ inversion
of the poles.”) This division is not an arbitrary one, but—we remark

448 ETHNOLOGY.

this by the way—the classification results quite naturally from a cer-
tain antagonistic relation of these vowels, respectively, to the guttural
letters, their very test and touchstone. According to the nature of
these vowels, the word receives often its characteristic meaning in those
Asiatie languages; hence, only vowels of the same class occur in one
and the same word. It would lead us too far from our present subject if
we should now elucidate more fully the phenomenon under consideration.
We wish to make only afew remarks more. This peculiarity extends to
adjectives and to verbs—qualities, (positive or negative, as the case may
be,) actions, and states of being; even to postpositions, &e., (direction,
tendency, &e.) We could, indeed, illustrate it by hundreds of examples,
especially in the Central-Asiatic languages, even in the Celtic tongues,
particularly the Irish. We might point out a very considerable num.
ber of such instances finally depending on a certain principle of vowel-
harmony. Even in our own ancient and modern languages we can now
and then discover some slight and obscure vestiges of that perhaps
originally quite extensive phenomenon of significant vowel antagonism.
For instance, in the Greek pazp-6¢ and pizp-d53 626 and ézé; the article
6 and 4; té and tH; tév and ty; “Ap-yo and ”Ep-cc, &e.; in Latin, in
eal-idus and gel-idus; perhaps, also, in the fundamental form homin
and femin, (implying hemin: f=h, as in Span. hembra;) in Hebrew,
nn and sn; Arabic 59 and PP ; hwand hi, &c., and other expressions
of contrast, negation, or opposite tendencies generally. We also find
in German stumm and stimm—referring to the voice or its absence ;
in English, the verbs to step and to stop, &e.

4 Though it is almost evident that éwy has not a separate and inde-
pendent existence in the language, but is always found combined with
pronominal suffixes, such as cunku, (her elder sister,) we nevertheless
meet also compounds like the following: cunya, to have for an elder sister.
We may, therefore, safely conclude that cwy in ¢uyku and the verb
cunya is the word which designates an elder sister. Moreover, the form
cuyku has a parallel expression in cinéu, which means his elder brother ;
and as ku is identical with cw in consequence of a very Common con-
sonantal permutation, it becomes obvious that éun, indeed, means elder
sister, as ciy is known to signify elder brother.

° In the Grusinian language, mama means father—an apparent anom-
aly, owing, perhaps, ta a mere interchange of the labials, passing here
over into their extremes. Another shifting of the labials, though less
in extent, we find in the Asiatic tongues, where we also meet with baba
for father, /a/a for mother, &e.

6 By means’of such postpositions the declension of nouns is effected
in the Ural-Altaic languages. The Dakota cases of declension, if we
can use this term, amount likewise to a very rude sort of agglutination,
or rather simple adding of the postpositions to the nouns. There can
be here no question of any real inflection or declension, since there is
throughout only a kind of loose adhesion, andnowhere what we might
call a true cohesion. The postpositions are in the written language

ON THE LANGUAGE OF THE DAKOTA OR SIOUX INDIANS. 449

added to the nouns without being conjoined to them in writing, (except
the plural ending pi,) as is also the case in the Mongolian language, the
Tureo-Tartar dialects, and other tongues of this class.

7 We see in the historical development of our own modern languages
an abundance of similar phenomena; thus in respect of the mere quasi-
monumental, and, as it were, fossil existence of labials, such, for in-
stance, as 0, p; and in regard to English words like debt, which in
French long ago became dette. In English the b of debt (= debitum)
has become only silent, while in Freseh, on the contrary, it has now no
tolerance whatever, even as an historical landmark. There is, in fact,
more conservatism in English. The French appears a more volatile,
changeable element, even in the minor details of the language. Thus,
again, we have in English the word doubt, with petrified silent b, which
they seem unwilling, as yet, to let go, while in I’rench we have dowte
without that b. Many other examples might be adduced in support of
this very simple and common fact in all languages. In sept, (seven,) the
French still neglect ridding their language of that now useless silent p.
They do, it seems, not affect such antiquities, and will, most likely, do
with words like sept as they have done with clef, (clavis,) where the
final labial f became gradually silent but was left untouched. It is even
now allowed to remain, but another form has already come into use at
the same time with it, and a key is now a-days clef and cle.

8 This interchange is seen in almost all languages of one and the same
family, when compared with each other; thus, for instance, the use of
k instead of ¢ constitutes one of the diemiten cnt aierendes between
the Hawaiian tongue of the Sandwich Islands and the language of Ta-
hiti, the Marquesan, Rarotangan, &c., both groups, however, belonging
to the Malayo-Oceanic, or more particularly the Micronesian stock.

* ¢ stands here for a letter that does not strictly belong to the word,
viz. y, Which is merely inserted euphonically between hoksi and opa.

We venture this derivation so much the more boldly, inasmuch as
the etymology of bread, brod, &c., is, in a degree, still an open question,
Grimm connecting it—though not particularly insisting thereon—with
brocken, brechen, to break, &c., while Anglo-Saxon scholars endeavor to
trace the English word bread to breadan, (to nourish,) which, however,
seems rather to be a denominative verb, such as lighten from light.
Their etymological attempts being mere opinions, mere assertions with-
out proof, we feel encouraged to maintain ours.

4 The z in the Greek z/s is only an apparent exception to it, as is well
understood by those conversant with the facts of comparative grammar.

2? There is some room left for an attempt to derive wakanka direct
from wakayn. The ideas possibly underlying such a derivation would
appear to us rather far-fetched and fanciful.

Other Indian tribes call alcoholic liquor fire-water instead of spirit-
water, as, for instance, the Chippewas, in whose language it is ishkode
wabu, &e.

* The word pezihuta is also applied to various other vegetable essen-
29 $71

450 ON THE LANGUAGE OF THE DAKOTA OR SIOUX INDIANS.

ces, beverages, &c. Thus, coffee is called pezihuta sapa, literally, black
medicine ; just as the Chippewas express it in their language by makade
mashkiki wabu, (black medicine water.)

© The word mini (water) is the same which is contained also.in the
name of Minnesota, (properly mini-sota,) meaning whitish water, and refer-
ring to the Wakpa minisota, which is the Minnesota or St. Peter’s River,
and also to the Mde minisota, the so-called ‘ Clear Lake.”

6 Tt is often the case that Indians give to other nations names simply
derived from some entirely external, merely accidental, and altogether
unessential circumstance or quality in these strangers, which at first
principally struck their attention. Thus, for instance, the inhabitants
of the United States are called by the Dakotas Isantanka, meaning Big
Knives; by the Chippewas, kiichimokoman, which likewise signifies Big
Knives, probably from the swords of the United States soldiers in the
Territories.

“ Just in the same way, the erroneous orthography of ‘ Minnesota”
was introduced for the more correct Minisota ; and this is seen again—
we mention it In passing—in that monstrous Dakota-Greek compound,
‘* Minneapolis,” meaning *“* Watertown.”

# Any such meanings of thaha, as “to bubble” and making a noise
like that of waterfalls must be considered simply as secondary, as a
mere extension of the original signification of that word, viz. laughing,
i+haha, mouth-curling, as it were; nothing whatever being contained in
the constituents of that word which could have even the remotest refer-
ence to water or a cascade. The word itself seems to follow this devia-
tion from its proper import, being even differently accentuated in that
sort of figurative acceptation, viz. thala instead of thdha.

19 Similar blunders frequently occur. Thus, in the erroneous and un-
meaning English translation of Indian names generally—for instance,
ot “‘ Hole-in-the- Day ”—in which word it was intended to express simply
one who (as a powerful archer) perforates the sky with his arrows, which
we could easily place beyond any doubt, if it would not lead us too far
from our present subject. So have travelers, too, themselves put the
words “ squad,” “ papus,” &e., into the mouths of the Dakotas, though
these words belong exclusively to widely different tribes, and are on
other occasions again repeated by the Dakota Indians to strangers, as
they simply suppose such words to be English, and, therefore, more in-
telligible to the latter! The same applies to the Chippewa word ‘“ nibo,”
(he died or is dead,) which travelers, probably deeming it the general
and only Indian term for that idea, taught, as it were, to the Dakotas,
who constantly make use of it in their conversation with Americans,
mistaking it in turn and in like manner for an English word, or some.
thing more easily accessible to the mind of the strangers.

METEOROLOGY.

[The following notes, derived from correspondence or from observa-
tion and reflection, are especially intended for the meteorological ob-
servers of the Institution principally in the way of answering queries,
which have been frequently propounded. They may, however, be found
of interest to the general reader.—J. H.|

METEOROLOGY OF PORTO RICO,

Mr. George Latimer, from Philadelphia, one of the correspondents of
the Institution, who has resided on the island of Porto Rico (rich in
gold) since 1834, informs us that the northeast trade-winds prevail on
the island every day of the year from about 9 o’@lock in the morning
until sunset; while at night there is a strong Jand-breeze toward the
ocean on-all sides of theisland. The latter is stronger, however, on the
west end and on the north side, which is probably owing to the greater
slope of the land toward the sea in these parts.

During the rainy season, which is from the end of May to the end of
October, the rain falls every day on the western portions of the island
from 2 o’clock nntil sunset. This, however, is not the case on other
parts of the island, which is divided longitudinally by a range of mount-
ains 3,000 or 4,000 feet in elevation. These mountains turn up the
current of the trade-wind air containing vapor into the colder regions,
and cause its precipitation in rain on the northern slope, while on the
south the land often suffers from drought for more than a year without
interruption. On this side of the island irrigation is resorted to, and
for this purpose there even exists a project to tunnel the mountains to
conduct the water of one of the rivers from the north to the south.

Mr. Latimer states that occasionally there is a cessation of the ordi-
nary trade-wind when the air becomes almost entirely calm or light
winds arise, which go entirely around the compass in the course of a
few hours. This state of things frequently continues several days, and
from these, as signs, Mr. Latimer has always been able to predict that
a gale is blowing at the north. After the existence of a calm of ocean
and air there invariably comes a heavy rolling sea from the north, so
heavy that vessels cannot leave the harbor of Saint John, or load in any
of the other ports on the northern side of the island. Also after this,
in the course of a few hours, or in other cases after two days, comes

452 METEOROLOGY.

a strong northerly wind, the return of the regular trade-wind, with much
greater intensity than usual, and vessels arriving after short passages
bring the intelligence of the predicted gale and its disastrous conse-
quences.

Colored bands diverging from the setting sun in the west, and con-
verging to an opposite point in the east, are frequently seen through
the summer and autumn in great beauty.

REMARKS.—The rainy season in the northern tropics takes place when
the sun, having a northern declination, heats in the greatest degree the
jand during the day, producing ascending columns of air, which, carry-
ing up the vapor it contains into higher and colder regions cause it to
be precipitated in rain, the precipitation commencing as soon as the
heat from the sun begins to diminish a little after midday. The phe-
nomenon mentioned by Mr. Latimer in regard to the occasional cessa-
tion of the trade-winds may possibly be connected with the occurrence
of storms on the continent of North America, or perhaps with the re-
markable wind known in Texas as the “norther.” This wind prevails
from the Mississippi River to the Rio Grande and commences about the
Ist of September and ends about the Ist of May. The day previous is
marked by an unusual warmth and closeness of the atmosphere and an
almost perfect calm. The first appearance of the tempest is a cloud in
the north, which approaches the observer sometimes with great.and at
other times with less velocity, and frequently passes over his head in a
Series of arches composed of dense clouds separated by lighter portions.
The thermometer frequently falls 30 degrees. On one occasion recorded
the temperature fell in the course of three hours from 75° F. to a
degree sufficient to produce ice an inch thick. After a day or two the
norther is followed by an unusual cold wind from the south, as if the
norther were returning. It is said to be most intense near Corpus
Christi, Texas, and that it does not occur in Florida.

The norther is probably due to a stratum of air along the border of
the Gulf, abnormally moist and consequently heated, produced by a
surface current from the south, which gradually attaining a state of
unstable equilibrium is suddenly forced upward into a higher region by
a heavier wind from the north. The violence of the wind, and conse-
quently the intensity of the cold, will depend upon the distance north-
ward to which the moist stratum extends previous to its overturn by
the heavy air from the north. ‘The norther, it is said, is not felt at sea
in the Gulf. This would indicate what we would readily suppose, that
the greatest rarefaction of air due to heat and moisture takes place over
the land along the borders of the water.—[J. H.]

THE GREEN RIVER COUNTRY. 453

METEOROLOGY OF THE GREEN RIVER COUNTRY.
By COLONEL Cortms.

Colonel Collins has been for three years in the Wind and Green River
country. The Green River becomes the great Colorado of the west,
which empties into the Gulf of California, and the Wind River becomes
the Big Horn, and runs into the Yellowstone, which in turn empties
into the Missouri. It often happens that rivers in the western part
of the United States have different names in different parts of their
course, and this appears to be especially the case when a river passes
through a cafion; the fact not being known before exploration that it
is the same stream at the two ends of the chasm.

The climate in the region above mentioned is very dry, electrical
appearances being manifest in currying horses or brushing clothes, and
dew is very seldom seen. Along the Wind River range the storms come
from the northwest and follow the chain to the southeast. On some of
the high peaks of this region there is often seen a cloud-cap remaining
stationary sometimes for a day or more, while a high wind is prevailing
at the same time on the plains and valleys below, with a clear atmos-
phere in all other parts of the sky. The cap appears compact and dis-
tinct in outline and perfectly stationary. The peaks of the Wind River
range are all covered with perpetual snow. here are no trees on the
plains, or anywhere in the vicinity, except on the mountain-sides from
their base up to near the snow-line.

Frost at the foot of the mountains and in the valleys occurs almost
every night during the summer. On the 4th of July, 1862, at the camp
at the head of Sweet-Water River, the ice was formed from half to three-
quarters of an inch thick. The summer frost, although it does not kill
the hardy grasses, will not allow the cultivation of grains and vegetables.
Heat and moisture, the two essential conditions of growth, are wanting,
though, in the very deepest valleys, perhaps, grain could be raised by
irrigation, since the temperature in these is considerably higher than on
the mountains.

The winter was exceedingly cold; at Fort Laramie in 1864 the mer-
cury was frozen and continued solid on the 4th of January for four
hours; on the 5th fifteen, and on the 6th for twelve hours, while in tle
warmest part of each day the thermometer never rose above minus 20°,
“JT had command,” says Colonel Collins, “at the time, of Tort Laramie,
and had great difficulty in keeping the garrison warm. uel had to be
drawn a distance of about fifteen miles. Every winter a number of
men were frozen to death, being usually overtaken by snow-storms,
When the greatest cold occurs the air is perfectly still and very trans-
parent—the transparency is so perfect that objects are seen a long way
off with such distinctness as to give rise to mistakes as to their actual
distance.

454 METEOROLOGY.

‘Tt should not be forgotten that the base of the Wind River Mount-
ains is about 8,000 feet above the level of the ocean, and hence the
coldness dryness and rarity of the air. Notwithstanding the grea‘
elevation of the region there are some very hot days in summer, though
the mornings and evenings are cool.

“The general course of the wind is from the west, especially when it
is violent. The currents are, however, modified by the mountain ranges.
In some of the higher gorges a strong wind constantly prevails from
the west, which is especially the case at Fort Halleck at the foot of
Medicine Bow Butte, at the main head of Medicine Bow River. This
fort is at about 8,300 feet above the level of the sea, and situated in a
pass, with a high mountain on the south, and elevated land on the
north. The direction of the wind is continually the same in winter and
summer, namely, from the west, or that of the return trade, probably
somewhat modified by the configuration of the surface. In the plains
between the mountains the snow is immediately blown into the ravines
by the violent wind, leaving the general surface bare. So constant and
annoying is the wind that I advised that Fort Halleck should be aban-
doned. Itis impossible to secure hay for the cattle ; as soon as the grass
is cut itis blown away. For the same reason great care is required in
drying clothes.

“Phe storms are terrific, and in some cases, when they occur, it is im-
possible to ride against the wind. The snow is extremely fine, mingled
with air, moving with the currents, and presenting no appearance of
falling flakes. It euts the face like fine sand, and blinds the traveler.
The horse or mule cannot be made to face the blast, particularly the
latter, but will always turn from it.

“The streams, fed by the perpetual snow, are always full in summer.
In the winter they are frozen solid. Thunder-storms are not frequent,
but when they occur they are often attended with hail. The quantity
of Water which fallsis small. Evaporization is very rapid. When game
is killed it can be hung up and soon becomes so dry at the surface that
flies cannot lay their eggs in it; a quarter of deer will in this way re-
main sweet for a week in the warmest weather. The soldiers rely very
much on deer, buffalo, ducks, and: geese, which are readily preserved.
When going on a march they prepare a supply of what is called jerked
meat, which consists of flesh cut into thin strips and placed over a
smouldering fire to drive away the insects and afford a small quantity
of smoke. The meat dries so rapidly that it becomes as hard as a stick
in the course of two or three days.

“The most violent-storm I experienced oceurred about the last of
February, 1862, when we made an excursion to the southwest after the
Indians, who had made an attack upon the mail-line and one of the
military posts. The storm commenced on the third day of the journey.
It was not very severe at first, but increased in intensity until the third
day of its continuance, when it was truly terrific. The party consisted

DISTINCTION BETWEEN TORNADOES AND TEMPESTS. 455

of one hundred men; twe were frozen to death, and upward of thirty
badly frostbitten in their extremities. The snow filled the air to such
an extent that the course could only be followed by keeping at a certain
angle with the wind, or, in.other words, by adopting the direction of the
wind as a course of reference.

“The mule is a less hardy animal than the horse, and often freezes
standing, so that at first sight, and at a little distance, they appear alive
and ruminating, but might be pushed over in a solid condition, the legs
stretched out like the legs of an overturned table. In summer the horses
and mules are fed on grass, which is very sweet and nutritious. I
had about eight hundred head of oxen, and one thousand sheep. The
best meat was that from the old cattle which had been pastured for
about a year.”

tEMARKS.—The facts which Colonel Collins has here stated are inter-
esting in regard to general meteorology. The existence of the constant
wind from the west, in these elevated passes, is in strict accordance
with the assumption of a return trade-wind, giving rise to a constant
westerly current at elevated points in the temperate zone. It is this
wind which carries all the meteorological phenomena eastward in the
temperate zone, and thus forms the basis of the prediction of the
weather.

That the snow should be very fine is also in accordance with the fact
of the small quantity of moisture in the air and the intense cold. The
snow, for the same reason, is small in quantity on the plains. The
absence of thunder-storms is also in accordance with the fact of the
small amount of moisture in the air.

The cloud-cap mentioned is probably produced in a similar manner to
that at Table Mountain at the Cape of Good Hope, by a moist wind
blowing over the top of the mountain, which, on ascending to a certain
elevation, precipitates its moisture in the form of visible vapor, which is
again dissolved on descending the other sidc, producing the appearance
of a stationary cloud, though it is constantly in the process of forming
on one side and dissolving on the other.—[J. H.]

DISTINCTION BETWEEN TORNADOES AND TEMPESTS.

Lamark, in a paper published many years ago in the Journal de

physique et chimie, points® out the distinctions between a tornado and
a tempest. The following, according to him, are the characteristics of
the tornado:
* 1. The effects produced at the surface of the earth take place under
an isolated cloud which moves with the storm, and is in some way con-
nected with the disturbance of the atmosphere which constitutes the
phenomenon.

2. The tornado moves over the surface of the earth in a narrow path,

AG METEOROLOGY.

the middle of which is marked by the greatest destructive effect of the
motion.

3. The effects of the tornado at any one place are produced in a very
short time. It passes over different points of its path with great
rapidity.

4, It commences at a given place with a crash, and passes off as sud-
denly into a calm.

5. The tornado, even the most violent, seldom lowers the barometer
but little, and sometimes produces no appreciable effect in this way.

6. The tornado is generally accompanied with discharges of electricity,
with large quantity of rain falling in a few minutes, and frequently
with hail, (sometimes in two tracks, one on each side of the path of the
meteor.)

Character of tempests according to the same author :

1. Tempests are of great extent; they are not accompanied by an
isolated cloud as is the case with the tornado, but with one of apparently
unlimited extent.

2. Moderate tempests continue sometimes ten or twelve hours, while
the most violent ones in some cases continue thirty-six hours, with
slight intermissions in the greatest intensity.

5. All tempests are connected with the falling of the barometer, even
to the extent in some instances of an inch and a half.

4, The tempest does not come on suddenly, but manifests its approach
by a gradual fall of the barometer, and an increase of the velocity of the
wind.

REMARKS.—The fact stated in regard to the fall of the barometer in the
case of the tempest, and not in regard to the tornado, is very important
as bearing on the different characters of the two meteors. It would
appear to indicate that the tornado is not only of limited extent horizon-
tally, but also in a vertical direction; that it consists of a violent overturn
of two strata of different density, the one rushing upward through a eir-
cwunscribed space, and the other descending probably around the same
Space, so that the sum of the two pressures remains the same, while in
the case of the tempest the air rises over a large space, and flows over
at the top of the atmosphere.—[J. H.]

ACCOUNT OF A TORNADO WHICH OCCURRED IN SPRUCE CREEK VALLEY,
CENTRE COUNTY, PENNSYLVANIA. |

By THE Rev. J. B. Mer.

Spruce Creek Valley is situated in the Alleghany range, and extend§
in a southwest and northeast direction between Tussey’s Mountain on
the northwest and Bald Eagle Mountain on the southeast. My resi-
dence was in the bottom of this valley near the south side. The fore
part of the day on which the tornado took place was very warm, moist,

7

TORNADO IN SPRUCE CREEK VALLEY, PENNSYLVANIA. 457

and sultry, or what is called close. A friend who had been our guest,
prepared to leave our house a little after 12 o’clock at noon to cross
Bald Eagle Mountain into Stone Valley, which lies next to Spruce
Creek Valley on the south. J had concluded to go with him, when my
wife advised that, if we did go we should take with us umbrellas and
overcoats, for she was sure, from the feeling of the atmosphere, that a
storm was impending. Her warning was not disregarded in reference
to the protections from wet and cold, and we had good cause before my
return to be thankful for her forethought. We left the house about
half past twelve and commenced to ascend the side of the valley by a
steep path on horseback; the air was very oppressive and our progress
slow. When we got about two-thirds of the way up the side of the
mountain we heard heavy thunder at a distance, and saw the reflection of
vivid lightning in a northwesterly direction from over the other side
of the dividing ridge which separates the valley in which we were
from the one next on the north. These indications of a storm econ-
tinued with increasing intensity until we reached the crest of the mount-
ain, when, turning around, we were presented with the appearance of a
dark circumscribed cloud at a distance of about eight or nine miles. It
occupied about 15 or 20 degrees of the horizon, and exhibited such an
unusual and threatening appearance that we almost involuntarily re-
mained stationary, as if spell-bound by the phenomenon. It was very
dense, and strangely agitated by a rapid vertical commotion near the
middle of the mass, while it was almost incessantly traversed with dis-
charges of electricity in different directions, mostly vertically, aecom-
panied with heavy peals of thunder. Its direction of motion was
diagonally across the valley from the northwest to the southeast. As
it came over the crest of the opposite mountain it appeared to touch
the surface of the ground; no clear sky was seen between it and the
earth. From the crest of the ridge it seemed to precipitate itself sud-
denly down the slope of the mountain, and almost instantly to liide from
our view all objects on that side of the valley; as it came near our
point of view the character of the internal commotion became more
apparent, and when it was directly opposite us, or in that point of its
path which was at right angles to our line of vision, we perceived that
the wind, which before, while the cloud was approaching us, had been
blowing from us toward the tornado, was now moving in the opposite
direction, and that the commotion in the interior of the cloud was much
more astonishing. It consisted of a violent and very rapid shooting
upward in the middle, turning outward and downward on the exterior
of columns of mist. The velocity of the upshooting columns was ex-
ceedingly great, even as they appeared from our point of view at a dis-
tance of four miles. The mass of the cloud had a dark leaden hue, but
the tops of the upmoving columns, where they projected above the gen-
eral surface, were white. The whole presented the appearance of a boil-
ing caldron violently agitated. When the tornado was directly oppo:

458 METEOROLOGY.

site to us it did not appear as dark as when it was approaching us,
which would indicate that it was not of equal dimensions, but of greater
width in the line of its motion.

The movement of the tornado across the valley was exceedingly
rapid; it did not occupy certainly thirty minutes in traversing a line
nearly straight of about fifteen miles in length. The ridge of the mount-
ain on the side of which we stood was not above 600 feet above the
bottom of the valley, and the storm-cloud did not appear more than
double that height above us. During the passage of the tornado our
ears were constantly impressed with a heavy roaring sound, like that
of the Falls of Niagara, in unison with which peals of thunder in
rapid suecession were mingling. The cloud appeared to be generated
in place as the tornado advanced; indeed, it might be likened to
an immense locomotive-engine passing rapidly over the valley, belching
forth smoke and steam. After the tornado had disappeared over the
opposite ridge, the whole valley was left covered with a cloud, from
which rain continued to fall during the night.

The path of the tornado was marked on the ground of the bottom of
the valley by prostrate trees and other evidences of violent action. It
was variable in width, being from 100 to 150 yards across. ‘The trees
were mostly thrown down on each side of the axis of the path, a
larger number on the north side than on the south, about, perhaps, in
the ratio of three to one. The path was generally straight andof uni-
form width, with occasional short bends, as if the tornado had in some
places made a sudden lateral movement. Although the principal vio-
lence of the meteor was confined to the breadth mentioned, yet on each
side, for a quarter of a mile, trees were thrown down in the direction in
which the storm was advancing. The effects on the northern side or
slope, where the tornado entered the valley, were scarcely perceptible,
while on the southern slope, or where it left the valley, they were very
marked. On the northern side it appeared to leap down from above to
the bottom of the valley immediately below; at this point its first
prominent mark was made upon a mill-pond, which it entirely emptied
of water, sweeping it completely out, and even throwing up from the
bottom sticks and stones which had long been sunk in the mud. The
most striking effects were, however, those produced in the lowest parts
of the valley, some traces of which could be seen several years atter-
ward. Its fury was not spent in Spruce Valley, but it left traces of its
power for at least twenty miles on the other side of the ridge, in the
adjacent valley.

?2EMARKS.—The account of this tornado, which was observed from a
very unusually favorable position, is very instructive in regard to the
‘ause of the phenomenon. The two causes to which these remarkable
commotions of the atmosphere have been referred, are electricity and a
disturbance of the pneumatic equilibrium of the atmosphere due to an
abnormal! condition in regard to temperature and moisture. It is true

_ TORNADO IN SPRUCE CREEK VALLEY, PENNSYLVANIA. 459

that intense electrical excitement generally accompanies tornadoes; but,
while it is easy to see how this may be the effect of a commotion of the
atmosphere, it is very difficult to understand, on the known principles
of electricity, how it can be the cause of such violent phenomena.
Electricity generally exists in nature in a state of equilibrium, and the
discharges which we witness are due to the restoration of the equili-
brium, while, on the other hand, as it appears to me, all the phenomena
which are exhibited find a ready explanation on well-known thermal and
pneumatic principles. Let us first consider the condition of the atmos-
phere previous to the coming on of the tornado, The air was close
and sultry; that is, it was surcharged with moisture, which, absorbing
the rays of the sun, rendered it unusually warm and abnormally light.
If, in this condition, we suppose a stratum of colder wind from the north-
west, the direction from which the meteor moved, to be passing above,
we shall have a condition of atmosphere possessing the potential energy
requisite to produce the phenomena observed. As the upper wind passed
over the earth at a considerable elevatior, the natural equilibrium would
be disturbed, a heavier stratum being above, a lighter one below. The
equilibrium would be of an unstable character, and the slightest irreg-
ularity at a given spot would induce the rushing up of the air at the
point of least resistance, and a descent around this point of the heavier
stratum. The column of agitation would be more cireumscribed if a
whirling motion were given the mass, and the whole would be carried
forward by the motion of the upper current. The moist air would rush
in below from all sides, and, ascending in the vortex and mingling with the
colder stratum above, would instantly be converted into visible vapor.
If the moist stratum had been sufficiently thick and the upward motion
sufficiently violent to carry the vapor above the snow-line of the lati-
tude of the place, the drops of water would have been frozen, and
probably thrown out on each side of the vortex, giving rise to two
tracks of hail. According to this hypothesis the electricity is due to
the condensation of the vapor, or, more definitely, to the formation of a
vertical water-conductor, of which the natural electricity is disturbed
by the induction of the plus electricity of space, and the minus elec-
tricity of that of the earth below. The great mechanical effects which
are exhibited in tornadoes are readily accounted for on the principle of
continued pressure or a succession of impulses, as an illustration of
which we may mention the effect produced by blowing on a light ball
in a hollow tube. In this case the ball is followed by a continued pres-
sure from one end of the tube to the other; at every moment it receives
a new impulse, which it retains by its own inertia, and finally leaves
the tube with the accumulated effect of the force which is applied to it
through its whole course. In like manner, astratum of air set in motion
by the removal of pressure in front of it, while a pressure is continued
in the rear, is impelled forward with an accumulating velocity, and
finally acquires an energy sufficient to overcome obstacles of astonishing

460 METEOROLOGY.

resistance. The results will be the less surprising when we recollect that
a cubie yard of air at the surface of the earth weighs about two pounds
avoirdupois, and that, consequently, a stream of this fluid a quarter
of a mile long, moving with high velocity, must possess an immense
energy.

EFFECT OF THE MOON ON THE WEATHER.
In answer to a letter on the subject.

Since the form of the orbit of the earth is affected by the attraction
of Venus and the other planets, as well as by our satellite the moon,
they must in some degree also affect the form of the atmospheric cover-
ing of the globe, and tend to produce tides which are of greatest mag-
nitude when they are in opposition or conjunction with the sun; but
whether these disturbances of the atmosphere or those produced by the
moon are of such a character as to give rise to the violent atmospheric
commotions denominated storms, is a question which has long agitated
the scientific world.

The times and peculiarities of the meteorological occurrences are
more varied and less definitely remembered than almost any other
natural phenomena, and hence the large number of different rules for
predicting the changes of the weather. The only way of accurately
ascertaining the truth of any hypothesis in regard to atmospheric
changes, is that of having recourse to trustworthy records of the weather
through a long series of years, and it is one of our objects in collecting
meteorological statistics at the Smithsonian Institution to obtain the
means of proving or disproving propositions of the character you have
advanced.

The moon, being the nearest body to the earth, produces the highest
tide in the waters of the ocean, and must also produce the greater effect
on the aerial covering of the earth. It has, however, not been satisfac-
torily proved that the occurrence of the lunar tides is counected with
appreciable changes in the barometrical or thermometrical condition of
the atmosphere. The less pressure of the air, at a given place, on
account of the action of the moon, is just balanced by the increased
height of the aerial column.

The principal causes of the violent changes of the atmosphere
are, I think, due to its instability produced by the formation and con-
densation of vapor. It is not impossible, however, that when the air is
in a very unstable condition on account of the heat and moisture of the
lower strata, that the aerial tide may induce an overturning of the
tottering equilibrium at some one place in the northern or southern
hemisphere more unstable than the others, and thus commence a storm

which, but for this extraneous cause, would not have happened. To.

detect, therefore, the influence of the moon, it wjll be necessary to com-

GALES OF WIND AND APPEARANCE OF THE AURORA. 461

pare simultaneously the records of the weather from day to day through-
out all the northern and southern temperate zones, and to ascertain
whether the maximum of these changes have any fixed relation in time
to the changes of the moon. The fact that the problem has not been
considered from this point of view, may account for the failure, in the
study of a series of records at a single place, to furnish evidence of the
action of the moon.

The changes of the moon take place at a given moment on every part
of the earth; the greatest effect of a lunar tide ought, therefore, to be felt
in succession entirely around the earth in the course of about twenty-
four and one-half hours.

The problem, however, has not been solved and cannot be determined
by such casual observations as those which you narrate. I have not
the least idea that the attraction of Venus produces any appreciable
effect. It is too small to produce a result which would be indicated by
any of our meterological instruments.

I am far from subscribing to the justice of your remarks in regard to
Mr. Espy, since I have a great respect for his scientific character, not-
withstanding his abberation, in a practical point of view, as to the
economical production of rain. The fact has been abundantly proved
by observation that a large fire sometimes produces an overturn in the
unstable equilibrium of the atmosphere and gives rise to the beginning
of a violent storm, but it was not wise in him to insist on the possibility
of turning this principle to an economical use.—[J. H.]

CONNECTION OF GALES OF WIND AND APPEARANCE OF THE AURORA,
By R. T. KniGgur, or PHILADELPHIA.

‘An officer of the British navy states that from eleven years’ observa-
tion, six years in the Arctic regions and five years in the north of Scot-
land, he has ascertained that tremendous gales follow from twelve to
twenty-four hours after the appearance of the aurora borealis.” 1 never
thought proper to call your attention to the above extract from the Phil-
adelphia Ledger of the 4th instant, because it agrees with what I pub-
lished in 1864, and also in 1865.

REMARKS.—We have had frequent communications from observers
suggesting a connection in the time of the appearance of the aurora
borealis and the occurrence of storms of wind and other meteorological
phenomena; but on referring to our records we have never been able to
verity the existence of such connection. On the receipt of the foregoing
communication the records of the Institution were examined in relation
to this subject, with the following results :

1. From the log-book of the brig Advance, Haven’s Arctic expe-
dition, forty-six appearances of the aurora were followed by four storms

462 METEOROLOGY.

2. From the log-book of the yacht Fox, Sir Leopold MeClintock’s Are-
tic Exploration, eighty-nine appearances of the aurora were followed by
eighteen storms within the time specified in the foregoing rule; or, in
other words, the cases in favor of the rule were eighteen, while those
against if were seventy-one.

3. In an examination of the records of the observations of Professor
Caswell at Providence, Rhode Island, it was found that in seventy-two
cases the assumed rule failed, while only in seventeen cases did it ap-
pear to be sustained.—[J. H.]

ACCOUNT OF A STORM IN BUTLER COUNTY, KANSAS, JUNE 23, 1871,
By WM. Harrison, OF ELDORADO, KANSAS.

The storm came from the northwest, from the plains, striking the
northwest corner of Butler County. It seemed to be about ten or twelve
miles wide. Many forest-trees were blown down and twisted off; houses
and erops were very much injured or entirely destroyed. The violence
of the storm seemed to be greatest about the town of Eldorado, in which
almost every house was more or less injured. I think at least fifty
houses were entirely destroyed. The walls of the court-house, which
are of stone, withstood the storm, but the roof, which was of tin, was
blown off entire, and covered up a blacksmith-shop about a hundred
yards distant. Many people in Eldorado were injured, and two children
were killed. The injury was not done by blowing people away, but by
dashing them violently to the earth. Its violence was so great that no
one could stand on his feet. It passed Eldorado in a southeast direc-
tion, doing great injury to the crops, and blowing down almost every
house which was directly in its path. The storm consisted of rain and
hail as wellas of wind. The rain was unprecedented in this region. No
wooden-built house, however well constructed, was proof against its
driving intensity. The water in the streets of Eldorado was a foot deep.
I can form no estimate of the damage to buildings, fences, cattle, crops,
&c., but it is very great. Almost every one in the path of the storm
was more or less injured. One house was blown down in Chelsea. I
had a small house in Eldorado which was demolished, a part of it car-
ried three hundred yards to the river, and then carried down the stream.

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SEE PAGE 309, REPORT FOR 1869.

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(eee ee a DEL NORTE

CONTENTS.

Order of Congress to print the report...--...-- SEIU GSE G Ge OnE a apoE onoEer
Letter from the Secretary submitting report to Congress............ -.---.----
List of Regents and members ex officio of the Institution.......--.-.----.------
Oinicers of, TheaMstiuM lO = .6 .sesen tees nae elas eee eee aes see ee
Prderamme Of OreanizaliOn.<2.2.22-<5 526-2 4225-% a ae tee <r ee
URE) Rie O MEEREL Ho BOR MDA Yes ar meay sacle cafetialeSerss satase oe ete. aetac cece eee
PGT gic Seeder an ar= eateea a aed tee ed
VilemMia Stock s.2. es ccscte cad ee oe ee eee ae ee ee
PUL CATIONS). acta a = co cere aa in eae oe re a o's oe enw oe oy Soren Senses Seisioeasiee
ules Of CUSbribUtion Of pirplicationsaccs cscs les arose = ea ce ae s oeee eeee
IPCI EN OCS ee sa Ba chars ore wise ee eet etna eae Soe em Ae leery ais Sone eee
Freight facilities..-...-.- Saray pata atc tetas aa ota ee ale I= eee
ROC WALLONSOG CXCHANVESs 22266 seee- ets - ees Gees ease noe Sars aie Sea ee
POA Ve PA ere etre yarn, Serius ee cane ee Serene co een ae ee, eee es
DONATION SRLONDUO PLT DUA Ysa ate eee tees sree eee ee ee
National Tibrary .. ss.cl5es- sas c20-= Se ee ea af eee eee
Meteorology...--.--- desis nates tee See Be eine sae eee
Heaploraidons anccoulections:. 2-2... 2so5 se eees sone saa eee Aes ee tee
DIS UH UULOME OLS DECIINGN Se sarasota ree oe ee
(Croll Wayans hero) ec) Spe ee i rp res a ea eee Se eee ae ee
CECT C SID OINCL GT) Cera pea rat eee eee ere ero te eLearn cetera
MGS GEM AMEOUSMLOM See sse sae a «See Seay se yaa eee oe nee ears ae z sicters
Nevtionall Minsemmies cea parece e seme i<) sae eee See eters ete ace eee eee
CarlinicoWeetromes ss eso a8 eee en sce cas Cotes na Joanie s ones eeee ee
APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY....-..--.- .----- 220+ e-----eeee
Entries in Museum record-books in 1870 and 1871.......... ...--..--.-.6- é
Distribution of duplicate specimens.-... .. eee See eee ee ee
Additions to the collections in 1871.................-.-..----.-----2------
Statistics of literary and scientific exchanges..........-..----------+-----
Packages sent from America to foreign institutions.......----..--..-.----- :
Packages received from Europe to, ete..-.-..----.-------.----------. <ase
List of meteorological stations and observers.........----.-------------+---
Meteorological material received in 1871 and kept in the Institution. ...--.
Meteorological articles received by the Institution, deposited in the Library

Of, Congrecstia 1871... otc. .cteweamiieone dpe vets in S wsseiee yates aye ee ae
REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE......-.-...----- ce cee cene cae cee anne
Receipts. ---- esate Resi sey eee ee SPS apo pas ee ae ee EN eee
Bac MCi totes ON clap a aries Sere moa oc Odea. g oS ences meee eee au ood
Appropriations from Congress............-.---..------ fe ee eee ais aiare Se Pain ci
SiON hes (Ot beneeece fa o.0 og see. odgee eons We oe eeae ann hate oken oy chek

GENERAL APPENDIX.

MeEmorr oF Sir JOHN Frepertck WILLIAM HERSCHEL, by N. S. Dodge 23222. --
EULOGY ON JOSEPH Fourier, by M. Arago......---. 0222220222 cece cece eeeene =
PROFESSOR THOMAS GRAHAM’s ScrenTiric Work, by William Odling..........

18

80

99
100
LOL
101
102
103

109
137
177

464 CONTENTS.

ON THE RELATION OF THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES TO SCIENCE IN GENERAL, by Dr.
Herman Helmboltz..........- deers spose Bee coh enas nee AED Se avain cee ee oe
ALTERNATE GENERATION AND PARTHENOGENESIS IN THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.
lecture by Dr:-G. A. Komlhuberces 22.20 ce eaciesssaee oat etee See eee eer eres
ON THE PRESENT STATE OF OUR KNOWLEDGE OF CRYPTOGAMOUS PLANTS. A
lecture by Henry Walliam Reichardt 00 csi — asses cence elena ee eee
RECENT RESEARCHES ON THE SECULAR VARIATIONS OF THE PLANETARY ORBITS,
by: JohnwN = Stoclkwwellis ssn 22 32. ane S2t o bioke, 2 cc epeiiens'=.2 sas seer aee 3

On Some METHODS OF INTERPOLATION APPLICABLE TO THE GRADUATION OF
TRREGULAR SERIES, such as tables of mortality, ete., by Erastus L. De Forest-
REPORT ON THE TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY OF PHYSICS AND NATURAL HiIs-
TORY OF GENEVA, from June, 1870, to June, 1871, by Henry De Saussure...---
EXPEDITION TOWARD THE NORTH POLE:
Instructions to Captain Hall, by Hon. George M. Robeson, Secretary of
NMI Vay pete eer ee le setter rere ere aera atte e Ca eve ra a ta er eee eee aa orotate
Letter of Professor Joseph Henry, President of the National Academy of
Sciences, with instructions to Captain C. F. Hall for the scientific opera-
tions of the expedition toward the North Pole..-.........---------------
General directions in regard to the mode of keeping records, by J. E. Hil-

Macnetigm, by ide. Eu eatd >. 15. ccne sais Sacra eecee se aan soso eee
Once OL eTaAVIbYs Wye) sce ell Card [2B cece e ete Aaa a= alos = Series eaieaes
Ocean physics, (depths, tides, currents, &c.,) by J. E. Hilgard....----.----.
Meteorology, (temperature, pressure of air, moisture, winds, precipitation,

clouds, aurora, electricity, optics, meteors, ozone, miscellaneous, ) by Joseph

Natural history, by S. F. Baird....-...-.--.- ons bbsho eta eee ee Ee ee eres

Geology, by wb ..B. Meck. Jase sesses cece crys See ee Seay ater tatare me eats

Glaciers, by L. Agassiz....--..----- bs ce Tn a Sob cars ete lose Bee Soo eee ince
ETHNOLOGY:

Indian mounds near Fort Wadsworth, Dakota, by Dr. A. J. Comfort.-...---.

Antiquities on the Cache la Poudre River, Weld County, Colorado Terri-

Cony, by Biss; berbhoud ss as eo nacia [22 seins ae oe eee ae Sreeicte
Antiquities in New Mexico, by W. B. Lyon...--.------- site seer eee mcleoee
Antiquities in Lenoir County, North Carolina, by J. Mason Spainhour ..---.
Account of the old Indian village, Kushkushkee, near Newcastle, Pennsyl-

vania, by tH. M. MeConnellits- 22262 somisjceneconnisetes's a chee bese we si
Pima Indians, of Arizona, by Captain F. E. Grossmann..-....--.---------
Indian mode of making arrow-heads and obtaining fire, by General George

Crook oe se sett Ake Bac Boab ee eee < eo oats Seed Sees «oer etctene Scions
Ancient mound near Lexington, Kentucky, by Dr. Robert Peter... .- seissee
Shell-heap in Georgia, by D. Brown, of New Jersey-.--.---- .--------------
Remarks on an ancient relic of Maya sculpture, by Dr. Arthur Schott. ---- ‘
Ancient history of North America, communication to the Anthropological

Society of Vienna, by ri. Much. 25 2556.2 eo see so - mieeeeeraere ea :
On the language of the Dakota or Sioux Indians, by F. L. O. Reehrig-...--- :

METEOROLOGY, with notes by Professor Henry.--.--.----.--.---- aos cu eas eeele -
Meteorology of Porto Rico, by George Latimer.-...-...-----..----.----.---
Meteorology of the Green River country, by Colonel Collins.... ..-.-.-----
Distinction between tornadoes and tempests, by Lamark ....-..-----------
Account of a tornado which occurred in Spruce Creek Valley, Centre County,

Pennsylvania, by Rev. J. B. Meek.-....--...---- sheet ete tes See ae
Effect of the moon cn the weather...-....--.-.-.- oe Be Be 2 Dictie eae emo

Page.

217

249

261

275

d4l

361

364

367
307
369
370

70

379

79
381
385

389

402
403
404

406
407

420
420
423
423

425
434
451
451
453
455 .

456
460

CONTENTS. ~ 465

Page.
MrtTeoroLoGy—Continued.
Connection of gales of wind, and appearance of the aurora, by R. T. Knight,
of Philadel phiai=csccs.si2 fais leew acs fet toe ccs Se Races sccoce Bt oes cece 461
Account of a storm in Butler County, Kansas, June 23, 1871, by William
Harrison; of bl Dorado, Kansasi.c--. cs. cscs cee. sete scesececes cece once 462
ILLUSTRATIONS.
Curve for formula forinterpolationss.o222 2.2525 sec oasis cone scene cnos sees wens 322
Ground ;plan of Pimamhouse maser 2 ee erin sche tele He ae Bae oe soe sale ene 2 Sees 409
Ancient relic of Maya sculpture....-...---------------+ s205 se-ee jones caches 423

30 S71.

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pit ul
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bie 7 ‘ [
L 4 ¢ . ~~ ides ’ PE) a: ae

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Pe aunt | r ok Sa
a j sv) ; A.7khawd ‘
fond he Ne

sae ie Vet a : yh duet cae ning
Bay ta od ye 0 en
mt te ewe He i " had at ety Mahia

TAN DEX.

Page

AAGitlOns voOlcollec tions Wied 87 UES Ser loses aie Sooo a kee oats secs. xocueee sees 43
Agassiz, L., instructions to Captain Hall relative to Glaciers............... eee
Agriculture, Department of, action of, in relation to meteorology.....-.....-.-.. 105
Alcoholic collections, account of...-- Bs ate ela tala ol clio al cta lotrel 02
igisen, Srosmawarel muy Dry E. CW O00. ceecc.sc0$ Bacaisie sae ceo eeneesdsoocee wees 15
Alternate generation and parthenogenesis in the animal kingdom...........-.. 235
Altes CInCMlal Prins sass. Saami noe jek ase mn Secisoeoe cece coscls shes cues 17
Anderson, Benjamin, exploration to Musardo.-...........-.---0 eee eee eee eee 2 20
Antiquities. (See Ethnology.)

Ere ees CN CRA tate caine Se ere meee ae Satin RaW ee «cee moe Shc shee 107
Appropriations from Congress for Government collections ........-.....----2-- 14,101
FATA OO ls OLOOT |) MygO lel OUTOIease et esate soa a stele ose sen <a ae cee s meee 137
Aeris, WEI CALM USSU MMDTALY wane anki cosa ere nd Scie vei wall aata's, Hae Swat ohms hee 23
AITOW- HCAS, Gia MOMe OF MAKING 2. 2.553. 2o i cos wise mn ocerkete Senki eecuew es 420
Astronomy, instructions for exploration to North Pole. .......2-...22......---- 367
Astronomy. (See Herschel.)

Astronomy. (See Stockwell.)

EATIEONcen (SCCM CUCOLOLO ON, mee sobs ate mai Selec mismin cece ametacate ce eens none tee ere 375, 451
Baird, 8. F., instructions to Captain Hall, (Natural history)..................-- 381
Baird, Professor §. F., investigations of, as Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries... 27
Barnard, General J. G.; on Totary Motion... 2 Acaccaed eons ei si eeee cece nesee 15

Berthoud, E. §., antiquities in Colorado .....----...cccc0.eceese cane cnees--+.. 402
Botany. (See Reichardt.) (See Hail.)
rove, Os, stiell-heap im Georgia. 2sc.cece cece cl oaceee cabsesss elon ce loeece. ) AOS

Building, changes made in, and improvements necessary ......----.------.---- 38
Casts placed im National Museum... ..-. .-(c0-00. cieacceelenawececsctecs ooen 3
Catlin, George, Indian cartoons and collections.............. 202-2 --2- ween eee 40
Catlin, George, Indian collection of, should be purchased by Government... .... 41
Certificate of examination and approval of accounts..........-.-.....--1----- 102
Wesnola; air. ;COUCCHONE MOM 2 joe cote w se ake wa Se aene ue save sie eee eee 33
oliase) Si P., ACS) Ol, AS MOCO tia... sr etee co 56 25 oe we Jee Ueseacece chic sunk womens 104
Chemistry. (See Graham.) ;

Claparede, Pdward, NOuCe Of onc. S65 eos eos cwcs es eced ccee sens ceceate ose eos 506
Coffin, Professor J. H., discussion of winds) 2-20-23. .cee0 econ ceet geet oeecee 24
Colfax, S., acts of, as Regent. ... .... 22.5 sons woos ws Pe yeioha a Sale iaoie et cree oer 104
Collaboracors inmatutal: hishory <.¢s.c<¥ 2 os See sk oo.25 once Save wewnddodcaesscee 31
MolleChiOHs, aC CONMin Gin oo Bosse ae eee ooh ec oe ooh oo 26
Collections, AU CUIOUS) DOs <...526%scac coea eee Boe Huei esis adarde oo eee emcees 43
Collins, Colonel, meteorology of Green River country ..........--.-.-...------ 453
Colossochelys atlas, account of cast of, inmuseum...........-...0-2...-205---- 40
Comfort, A.J., Indian mounds in. Dakota. s.0 ¢...020ccs socd sccene coeececces- 389
Congress, appropriations from, for Government collections ........---..---.---- 14, 101
Congress, independent support of Museum by......--....---.---+----- eciiesers 14
Contributions to knowledge, account of Smithsonian. See eis sae ce tear se 15
Cooke, H. D., acts of, as Regent ..........0..-- Benen ee to case Siac Se eerie 103, 104
Copyrichtisystenteesera jae. so ere tose casein ees Bee ee eer a ec erare mete cae io onrare : 23

Correspondence of the Institution, account of ..... Pe tee ala Somey-tces Sepacie ee 34

A468 INDEX.

Page

Cox, §..S.)acts\of, as Regent: 2) 22222 sese ie - occ acon aler joe cece cece nen ee 103
Crook, George, Indian mode of making arrow-heads.....----.-.--------------- 420
Cryptogamous plants, present knowledge of ...--...-.-.---.-----------2.----- 249
Cyprus, antiquities roms... sseasseces sania aise eee me ee eee oe eet 33
Dakota grammar and dictionary .<2.0.-- ---22.-- panne meee oc a= saa eee ea 17
DayisG., acts Ol, AS ReSeNt. tee emce. necee else tee e ener alee oa alee eae ieee 103
De Forest, Erastus L., methods of interpolation.........--.-..---------------- 275
De Saussure, Henry, enor on transactions of Geneva Society of Physics and

Natural SHaISbOT ye sect sista oe oe ea aie afore arelistete ose te te ota ste lelefornietere le ahaa area eis ete te toe 341
De Saussure, Professor, monograph of Poin Aeon saree che mce Soe eee eee 16
Distribution of duplicate specimens) -a 2st scceie a2 ocelot cl=i= == elena te 31, 42
Distribution of publications, rules for ...5.25.2.. 22+... -2--- Reel Oo teem eee 18
Dodge. \N. S:,: memoir of Herschel 2.5902 2800 SN Oe ee een eco eae
Wonatronsitomhesubratye 322 cesses cae ns Seco enee eee eee re see 21
Donations| tothe Museums 1.0 noes eae ae ee alec selene eo ENCe se alta a= 43
Egyptian explorations. (See Fourier.)
Petimapestordogass sl slteaseic aa nase Stitt So Ae Seno Meet chs te 102
Ethnological collections; account of - <<< fe. 2). 25 ccs e Ge inen meena eyes 32
Hp HMOLO Sy TATbICLES OM j= Acetnaaettee a acomeeloc\cwia ale iwisece sale eterno teeine ele = etait 309

Indian mounds near Fort Wadsworth, Bakers by A. J. Comfort.... 389
antiquities on the Cache la Poudre River, Colorado, by E.S. Berthoud 402
antiquities in New Mexico, by W. B. yon... --- ---- ---- osname 403
antiquities in Lenoir County, North Carolina, by J. M. Spainhour... 404
old Indian village, Kushkushkee, near Newcastle, Pennsylvania, by
BoM McConnell yore tet enti one eons ete pec ae eke eee a aed
Pima Indians of Arizona, by F. E. Grossmann........-.-..--..----- 407
Indian mode of making arrow-heads and obtaining fire, by George

Crookes sy see re eee roses oe oe cases sees Sako en sete ein eteeererrats 420
ancient mound near Lexington, Kentucky, by Robert Peter.-..---..- 420
shell-heap in Georgia, by D. Brown..---..----- .----- ---------+ ---- 423
ancient relic of Maya sculpture, by Arthur Schott-...-.----.-- a ees 423
ancient history of North America, by M. Much..-.-.-...--..----.----- 425
language of the Dakota or Sioux Indians, by F. L. O. Rahrig. ...--. 434
Exchanges, account of system of.......---- sears EE Sara capa nee etree teres 18
Exchange-agents of Smithsonian Institution ...........---------.------------ 51
Exchanges from -America to Wurope 22. o-2\28 caccts one am oon = wae see at tee ele 52
Hxchanges trom-Murope to Americ® ~~)... \seces onsen oo = een ee erie 54
Exchanges, regulations for -...--.--.---- .----- 2-22 2-2 ee woe e ne ee eee nee eee e- 20
Mxchanges, Statistics Of<: 2)... 286 -umalee =o et ceme on cinate eee = oe eee er 51
BPxecutive:Committee-of ‘the Institution. --..- 2. ../---- 52-6). -- se sean =~ =< 5
Wxecutive: Committee, report Ofsst ac sesa =e see ne ee eee ened mete nae seine ster 99
Pxpenditares from Smithson fund for 1671- .1c-215- 5 2 tee tae == - ee 100
b= plorations, account Of.—-2~):.06.-c)sce- 6 aoe lees Sm ace meee ae ees 26
Ferrell, William, on converging Series.-.----- -=-- ..--02 sesers --------2>-5 =-=- 15
inancesiof the Lostitutionam 18/122 2 ae 4.2 cscs ose coseee -- eee eee a 13,99
Wire; Indiansmode of obtaimtng-< 2252 un. 2e.5-- JAE esc eee 9 2c eos ate eel _ 420
Fishes’ food, inquiries relative to, by Professor Baird...---.-.--..------------- 27 .
Foreign institutions in correspondence with Smithsonian Institution. ..-------- 16, 19
Fourier, Joseph, biography of, by M. Arago.......-...-----.----» ------ -----:- 137
Franking privilege desired®by Smithsonian .........--.-----.----------++-+-- 103, 105
Freights free by railroad and steamship lines .....-.-. He Cee CIEE Ben teres 19
Fund, statement of Smithson ....<=2.22-.22d2 (Seco wenn ewes ~- nose === a= == 13; 99
Fungi; researchesolc<ss coos crus .cscee ken enet ne teeheaRee ceeiees 6 neem ar 249
Garfield, J..A.,.acts of, as Regent..--.....-2. Jsc2 sos ec5 gccee eee cert ec esse ees 104

Gases, researches on. (See Graham.)

INDEX. 469

; 2age.
Generation and parthenogenesis in the animal kingdom .-.....-.....-.2.2...-- ‘ 235
Geneva Society of Physics and Natural History ........-.. 2.22. .2.--.-2-220-- 341
Geology, instructions for expedition to North Pole..--...........-..2.-....---- 381
eOlOry) (S00 WOURICR seat iac.a sone eialas 2 Ak eta sre ead io isan'ae ala cede OW 162
Geolocy, reportlof Geneva: SOClety, <2 -s.c2as - 525283. eceatencee blceceee asd: 349
Geology of Louisiana, by E. W. Hilgard......- Ce Ee ee i eee 16
Geometry. (See Fourier.)

Gibbs; George); Indian arlOW-Neads!.cs4- 05 2-ae enc case dos Sake heen’ wusoae 420
Gibbs; George, indian vocabalames:: << Pleas tics ect end ocenWesc sete eo seacee 17
Gall, Theodore, arrancement‘of mollusks..2. 05.2 seek as unenenccte tes fos d. : 16
Glaciers, instructions for expedition to North Pole :.......-.-.............---- 385
Glyptodon, account of cast Ogle ISG UN s 2 afte) ee ane een BS a2 40
Government collections, expenditures: j..2.. e520 Joc. 02 Sebi se 6 We eees boca 101
Governments Smithsonian BELVICES U0. o~ sc. cee seta os eee Oke tee eee eno 36
Graham, Professor Thomas, scientific work of .......-.-.--.-2.3...-2.c22-5--2.5 . 177
Gravity, force of, instructions for expedition to North Pole NsSs ieee enemas 370
Grossman, f.., Pima Indiansiot ATizonass 42.428 oe .c- since eeas eee neces ea 407
Hall, Captain C. i. ConwmipuLions to museum: DY i.\fos sc Sosne eet cs vecu.veeooee 32
Hall, Captain C. F., instructions to, for expedition toward the North Pole ...... 361
Hall, Captain C. F., organization of North Polar expedition.................... 35
EAM ce waCuS, Oly ASINC MENU oa cine eae Sitka ea Seen se ee oe ae 102, 104
Harkness, William, on magnetic observations ....--....------.---- e022 eeee ones 15
Harmson, Joseph; ardutoyMrieCatlinies sae) ss2e ances cians c lence cesses. 41
Harrison, William, storm in Butler County, Kansas, oe i Ses eke tances seo asi 462
Haw fing B. Waterhouse, designs by, for Museum..--...........-.-..--..--.-- 36
HAVEN tates 6 SPlOLAWOUS DVessco season eae cet ase Stee cease eee oe 28
Heat, historical analysis of radiant...... 222222 j2---nelc ees oe cee de eee cee ceees 157
Helmholtz, Dr. H., relation of physical sciences to science in general........... 217
Henry, Professor, acts of, as Secretary of Board .......... 2222-22040 s---2-- 103, 104
Penny, EPOLcss0r, ANMUaL TOpOrt Of «2 cS 0 es terede cease cause ane Bee celeaees 13
Henry, Professor Joseph, instructions to Hall’s sepsaien toward the North
AS | epee eee i ey AIO. Scene ane Sera sere se alee ai cee 364
Henry, Joseph, instructions on meteorology to Captain Hall .........22...222.. 372
Henry, Protessor—METROROLOGICAL: NOTES +... 6c 420 decseecen os caentascs scale 451
aii, THE GLO PICS! a sears aa oe lola sees cee oot pene ce ete 452
(iracdeawins) tees: nee see nee ae ee nies oe Bee ei tae ee 452
INORUHERS 5-9 ac s.ces Scere eee ote e ascent oe ae eeec sate 452
Constant wind from the west.....-.......2..-200- eee eeeeee 455
pHOm on thepreat plains. ses i220 055.02 ae ean oe tees 455
Cloudecta pas actin 5. aeue sear sand sensed tp sock meee Some 455
Fall of -barometer in: tempests..........-. 022. s--oce woes eo ee 5
Vornad oesvanditempests < se... co- aces sense. See c a eee 456
Cause of bormadoes 2 sag sck Saeee ee sec cotelte meee seast 458
Effect of the moon on the weather.................----.---- 460
Causel Ot SLOTS tient eel oer eerie, aie ne. a Stee eee 460
Attraction of Venus no effect on the weather...........----- 461
Espy’s artificial production of rain .................-..----- 461
No connection of storms and aurora ....-......-..-1.-.---- 461
Herschel, John Frederick William, memoir of. -.......2. 0.2... ...2-.-2-.------ 109
Hilgard, J. E., instructions to Captain Hall............. 2.2.2.0 .2 22 -. ee cee 367, 369, 372
Hilgard, EB. W.,:0n, peologyrot Lowisiana. 22:2 -s0.0.2 05. enn nen e seen ee eens Seen 16
History.of North America. M. Mach. 26.2 occasion concn stieccccaeetc ale tsee wocns 425
Indian, languages, (seer cenria): 2225. asch bcc. on iso ducsancddadesccs canvases: 43

Indian mounds. (See Ethnology.)

470 INDEX.

: Page
Endianiwocalbwlanies) o.oo oe oe Soyer crelacte sis niet aiat= leon atcteleyate na anetoisie cleats teeter 17
International copyright, importance ol. o. o 2.64 aceon ooeionine see See = 23
Interpolation, methods of, applicable to the graduation of irregular series, such

as tables of mortality, etc.....-.-..---.. ecidinn'c essieeeis seisne eae ee eae ree 275
Institutions in correspondence with the een Insbiimtionsies nese 16, 17
Mpsurance-baDlesesmrec cleeleiewieianeeeeeimerias s/«(acivia waeaeine see sise sist i ieieem te oes 275
Japan, acknowledgment for school-books sent to....--...--.-----.--.--------.- 7
Japan, adoptioniof westernicivilizationypy;- <-<)--5=+- sce sesles- sci ese eee 37
Journalofthe Boardiof Regents ose scissile oe ce soem seinen Seales Seats eee 103
KamptsDri-calculation:ofitables byi-ccccectccre cece ososeieitio= c= ecinaceiseian see 16
Knight, R. T., connection of gales of wind and aurora........-.--...--.- See 461
Kernhuber, Dr. G. A., generation and parthenogenesis, -.....---.---.---------- 235
Reroeh \C.cb translations) Dy en cteren a eoeic scene cekoe ne ase ere oiisiea 217, 249, 425
Lamark, distinction between tornadoes and tempests ...-.--..-.--- ----------- 455
Language of the Dakota or Sioux Indians, by F. L. O. Réehrig -.......-.------ 434
atimer, Georgze, meteorology of Porto Rico: . 2.) 3s seen seem wine ooetcean ass </as'ou sl) aoe
Libraries, rules of distribution of publications to..........--...----..----.---- 18
Mibrany jaccOunt OMAdGiulONS}|tOns<siteciaiensscc sie ssncies cies eer ecemeceecicne cee 21
ibrany, Army, MedicaleMusenml sa. = >. qacee = cccccc sam cee cents nese ae seers 23
lbprariygotsGOneress ss -mescs ac einiscis eiclsisae oleenciem aiicis creations eee eee 22
Mifeinsuramcetables —sesercnier sos cts elise eco aeeieee cise asia ene opener Sees 275
Light-House Board, services rendered to, by Secretary of Smithsonian Institu-

PLOM oes aie oe oinle ele leialieiateieyaaiie ie labiealctajel ojeciecieinias stan s (ejaialetaieistone tole isieselhe lnieiers 36

hichtnine-rods\circularpprinted fo syoe cn cccinl oma oS eleiae seksi apnea eee ies 17
Liquids, researches on. (See Graham.)
iV COUMS CHCOUTAD OMEN bi LO keene wismieefoinn\-ei-telainiel seisiae ec eisist mie oie =i tee eerie 35
yon ais. antiquities im New MexicOjcs-. lees ss -slacl<nloe eo eeiiae seas 403
Maclean, John, report of Executive Committee.........----..--.-.-----.------ 102
Magnetism, instructions on, for expedition to North Pole .-......-.------------ 369
Manzano: Dr raccounbotrelichtromyee cs om anaes on icme aie inet eeemicele ateietee jai 423
Mayo, Joseph, letter from, relative to Virginia bonds.......-...----..---..---- 105
McConnell, E. M., letter from, relative to old Indian village, Kushkushkee, Penn-

SYLVAIN Aseria eee oh eee ctaie te elietale siesta lena = sie yeln aici neni ean 406
McMinn, Mrs. James A., valuable contributions from ..-....---..-----. .------- 28
Medicine, report of Geneva socletyOly- e+ ase aes sooo isa ae eee ees 353

niMieck, EB; anstractions iby, to) Gaptaimvnall ic. 25 cee ceweyne = onion eee 384
Meek, J. B., report of tornado in Spruce Creek Valley, Pennsylvania, by.-.------ 456
Mevsatherium, account of cast of, in Museum ..<.--- 62 oi 2 so... acc oe eee = = 3
Memibersren.oficio.of the Mstituigon tac.s-1 5 os -1de Seine ee eee ae = See eerie 5
Memoir of John Frederick William Herschel..----. -.-..--. ---------. Bisie, 3:5 acne 109

JOSOPHMMOURICK 2 > carci neic eens sees siete oe een ee eee ee eater 137
ThomasiGrahame sei see aclccee- = =e 5s s54 Sfascaantiee Seeeeeie eterno 177
Bdwardi@laparede eer ciecicae acerca ee cteee easy seeece eee eis acereeeec 356
AT oUStUSs AW allen sec cme cleo in cic eles a eee aie = ete eee 342
Metagenesis, researchesjOn= esse eels sees mies iso Se ene ieee © osm see eee 236
Meteorology, account of Smithsonian system of ....-...-..---------.---------- 23
Meteor ological articles received by the Institution and deposited in the Library

of Congress:

AUTOLAS So Bk eo = bin Sere Hon ieee Rees cic eee eee <a ee eee er 80

Marth quakes}: 3... ge Soe Ase Sa a Ee cee: cease eee eee 80

Hlectricity 4s2seee Awe oek = oakicn ts, Sess ees aed ea eet ae eee ewe mince 81

Forests; infucneeoles; die soe ere ate oon ee See eee aes eee eae 81

General meteorology .-s255 14-322 2222 oas eee aa 81

Higa. 335 aie es tht ee ieee ee en MRE a ee 82

INDEX. A471

Page.
Meteorological articles received, &c.—Continued. .
let OS seers pee eae tas rate akaa tsa See sine) oaleleisieualniee wehel-feleinin mie elim 82
Instr winien hoes ei ee ee ae eee one ot ctefeminlamtoueieteraieinieeleisicieme (eisiaciseors 82
Local meteorology :
Europe:
JANUS OM Mere islclars cleiseisise emis el as eae ses eee ete ce eres eee 83
Belo iiieeer crane semcns x oomnse seit Soe ee conn, oc menalen ae mindoee &3
TD Greys so ace ete ree eters te eisai na criericere a ae eke Sefer 83
VACA S COLLAM Me sameaehs asm opaeeie eee ele sneer mene 83
AUT ERIC QRS oe arse wee aera e eee cetera ae, fevera Ste nia a Sinema Sine meteor 83
Germany «ness eseae Mee apse tee Sone osc e) Sab hen te teen 85
Nihailygemeess Voss oper ers Sere teers Psat elaine Sic chavo Suits cies 86
Wetherlands assoc see eles ae eens aoe eet eee ae see aeciceaee 86
INDE WE Yaoco niece eerie e eit eias Sachse Reese Nene weeats eee 86
Rorbu Paleeee ceimae cise aera eee ee Ae ets Setee ea pee eee eee tsa see 86
RUSSIA Soe soe Bae ere nee ase ce ia ae ete eens San Salaree ae areas 86
SSD EL lors rere oma hey tee ems eres Ree oc et ESC alle clan ced caer ee otal 87
Siwedeniss.sctenaeesecne tee Gace cease Ses ee Ser ce ee ee ie Stele eeremieerle 87
Sib ZOr) ar Cl oe etre srs ore ctesere oi hie ere eer rh arene Reena 87
North America:
Wamadae sess soccer soca Se sage aes Seine oGecanse coc emeseresee 87
INOVan GO baa sete cma see oo eres are oe ee om ones Sees Sees 87
WimiGeGe States see oe saa tome a ee or ccue asta ee eee creas 87
IWieESUMLn UGS Serre ace me ee iia ce eee. oe ONe antee nein esate 88
Romine Amoancnycietwen sae. cesses ee do ea ees Shae eee 88
PATTEM ee ear eae Pe ge ae eR I Re 88
iNew; Zealand saene sacnes Motes nS Nee ens a oon cao earls eg cect ante &9
INGI Rieoae aoe ccs coc ecatss aes = eee cia Ga eee me enc etes ye emnabawicee aetna 89
ATT CRs tase seine wise ear eecc cae eae a tae oe ate iatciew anasle cas) estes) © <eeete eo
IMASHOLSIN pisccmcies wlenadsc sc ktes od a cesamaeeienee totes sem ene scone 89
Maoneticrandemeteorolocical. 22 2. cae8es cence coe oso eee sles rn ierenete 90
MGT CORS se aesaesmsetscciaciics ccc aedecdaceg dacctasdc cde staewies wees Saaageae 90
Oceanucurremtsand:) tes wee Soe, seas ose ea Sees ee eee Se eae cc tence 93
OZONCse es saececcecee sake Secestcatse soce fae eee oe ewes eek cots eas eect 93
Pressure Of uneatmosphere, ss5jcccccans sees oe estes See ek cee eas Sects 93
RAID oe anne: a gocs win Ree Ses tas Mins abe Oeics Seek Nereis toy eee 93
SDOW 25 2 sataeces wate oSpcenc:s Saas seater ata, Sears ao tse Anica Su. ae ee 94
Solar heab isaac ao ns Sas Ses SaaS ee Soe coe See ee Ne, ee 95
storms and tornadoes. .2--s-o.<=22o2ene se 425 ae aaa eee cece see 95
Melesraphic weather-reports < 2254252255 <22sccscoc-e «oan sons ctece ele 95
MOM POLALULO-.2 osaae- Atos e ca cee Shee eee hee Sete oe cho acl pote ee 96
Volcan OGspaee ech ens pociscesete sree ein oe peemcins 2. whi eae Yc Se ee een Di
Wands shames naesann: cco t eee oS yaseenceneshsacceese anne ee tein ct ease cee 97
ZOdiacallichteesss 232 st nce esoseess sonst se sc eel ol elas eee yaad ane 98
Meteorological material received and kept in Smithsonian............-..-.----- 75
Meteorological stations and observers in 1871 .... 6.2... ..2.00 cece ne pence ee eee 63
Meteorolooy;articlesonessssc.sasdsanccehee tossed eo ceas coe c ak Cobeas cose bc cie Ye 28 451
Meteorology, notes on, by Professor Henry. ...........--.451, 452, 455, 456, 458, 460, 461
of Porto Rico; by George aatimers<<2s5 ..ss. eccees cess cm sece eon 451
of Green River country, by Colonel Collins.......-...-:--.------- » 453
distinction between tornadoes and tempests, by Lamark......-.-- 455
tornado in Spruce Creek Valley, Pennsylvania, by J. B. Meek..-... 456
effect of the moon on the weather, by J. Henry...-.--.-------.---- 460
connection of gales of wind and aurora, by R. T. Knight.....----. 461

storm in Butler County, Kansas, by William Harrison........-.-..- 462

472 INDEX.

. Page.
Meteorology, Commissioner of Agriculture discontinues publication of observa-

ONS se esate eye ctor e ele terete ee eran otal ate ete etal (olele elete ate eel intelatein ie aoe eet = 105

Meteorology, instructions for expedition to North Pole.......--..--..--....---. 372
Meteorology, "(See Henny) ) Sea ca eee selena aaa ol ele elereretie slals oleate =a eae ee eee 451
Meter commissiontin) Durope ss <jssn.- se cece scleleie seine sete a wisiele erates LA 36
Moon, eftect) of the; on) the weathers 2222) ieee cons seem reine chico oan etct eee 460
Morgan, L. H., on systems of relationship, by.-..+..-.----.----.5.----2------- 15
Mori, Mr. A., Japanese minister, aid rendered to ..--. Wie Sere cys alle vee eters) alae 37
Mortality-tables, methods of graduating ..---...---. -.-.\.-<--2 2 -20- -o-2 eee eee 275
Mounds. (See Ethnology.)
Much; M., ancient history of North America, by! .--2) lcci. 2-52 -- cee cose een 425
Musardo, exploration to, by Benjamin Anderson...............2.4------------- 20
Museum, accountrof work done im ibhensa 2 e)icns sis\sye sls ac cre See wlepeeie ae sole le atoee 30
Museum; additions toicollechionsin the=2 22-22 sce csaneeseeeeece aseelc= a 29, 30, 43
Museum, distribution of duplicates from the ...-- F ealSlopars doles sR ee eine roe 42
Museum, entries in the record-books of....... ..---- .--2-2cece ewer ee cece cs eons 42
National Academy, instructions to Captain C. F. Hall.............--+.---.----- 364
National Ncademyror .SCleNCES \2.5-\5.0- cc seen c se owen ies ei- ser tec = marie eer 35, 364
National Library, necessity for a new building for.............-....---.-.----- 22
National Museum. appropriations LOM 25a. .cn.5 cies cele wai ece ls) weeatwelsictew eb eerie 37
National Museum, changes:im- building for .-J5. 6.2522 3622s 2s esnco neon ae mee 38
Natural History, Geneva Society of, transactions of..--......-...---.----.----- 341
Natural history, instructions for expedition to North Pole .......-..---..------ 79
Navy Department, instructions to Captain C. F. Hall........-..-.--.-....----- 361
Netherlands: bureau of exchanges’. 52)... olan cis noe see are eee 19
Newcomb, S:, instructions to Captain Hall ~~~. - 3 S255 oo ee ee neces << 368
Néewcomlb;as;, on orbid/of Wranus! 2225 a2 soo esc ne cee syescle cela aejoia ae tery eeeraee 16
North Pole, instructions to Captain Hall’s expedition .........:...--...---...-. 361
Ocean physics, instructions for expedition to North Pole...--....-..--.---.---- 70
Ocean wind-charts of the English board of trade -.......-...-.--..----.------ 25
Odling, William, on Professor Thomas Graham’s scientific work.....-..---..---. 177
ih Cens hose MUS Hb ULLO Ms slate eee erate Seren ieetae te erie meet ciel nen eee in teeters 6
O’Rielly, Henry, on discovery of electro-magnetic telegraph......-..-...---.--- 104
Parker, Peter. Acts Of, AS eC SOM Ul ec ae while miete a ein alia ol elelmimietmlalat aie sae eietne feet 103, 104
Parker, Peter, report of Executive Committee .* 2-22.52 Se ce newer cece cleo 102
Parthenogenesis in the animal kingdom, by Dr. G. A. Kornhuber - .-...--.--.---- 235
Beale, D5 K., claimitor portrait of Washington ssas\- ssc <esect ol eater cles -iaeenn er 104
Peter, Robert, ancient mound near Lexington, Kentucky ...--.---.------------ 420
Peters, Dr. C. H. F., communication from, relative to telegraphic announcement

of discoveries of planets, ete......-.-..-.- ons case cc eek pee ct cue merteetiongs 103
Physical science, relation of general science to, lecture on....-----.----------- 217
Physical Sciences, report of Geneva Society on.......- .-- cones eee ene ow = 344
IBIS OlOsy;, AMIN al reeto cline nine aie aeeelolm sala lle a ein eye laln a cielo = sree eae rset eerie 235
Physiology, report of Geneva Society of---- = <2 0 se cee co ositnnes se rcacleni=e == sol
Physics, Geneva Society of, transactions.... ...--. 0222-2 .--s08 220 ene see 2e--- 341
Physics. (See Fourier.)

Pimadndians account Ofesosos5 «eo ee tease eelee cone ae en coe 407
Planetary orbits, secular variations of the......-. 2... 0-----.--05- -e-ee- -- 2-8 261
Plants, present knowledge of cryptogamous.......-.- .----2 +--+ ---- e----- e2-- 249
Poland, L. P., acts of, as ~Begent..---..--.. a ebistaes ele eee & eee ete nes sroser 103, 104
Polarexpedition of Captain Hall <-c 2-7-3 ck eee cee eee = elem ae en o7 oOL
Powell, Professor J. W., account of explorations by -.....---.----------------- 26
Powell, Professor J. W., appropriation for exploration recommended for....---- 105
Programme of, organization .~ 22.0026 6 Jocncn nse eae ee enemas Jas hier emer a

Publications of the Institution ° 14

INDEX. . A473

; Page
Railroad-lines, free freights by..-.-..-..--.---.-- SORE Cr ee 19
Rain-tall; Smithsonian publication relativet0 2.252 22. secac ccs seen deen caee 15, 24
REGoIeoS Teo mM) SUNUMRO UREN TOD Od lien aie Sere ce ean salem oon as ste clare LOU
ePenis, [OUMNH OL We MONEC) OL. sc 2cescmcse. cevees Jee Sheu soe oul deecendex 103
Pee onts Ot. be PNP UnOly NAb Olene-ccc exact) ceca aim aepeee sae wine > obs ee Seles 5
Regulations for international exchanges... 2-2 2... ... 22.220 220. seen ee cae es eee 20

Relation of physical sciences to science in general, lecture by Helmholtz on..... 217

Reichardt, Henry William, present knowledge of cryptogamous plants. ....---- 249
Report, new edition from stereotype-plates recommended ........---..-.-.----- 17
Report of PLotessor ElLenry.. 52.52.50. cfc s conc cet oe ee ia doe eee erase 13
Reporu or therumecutive Committees... 5-2 2 oe Ss fb ones Sot cee sees 99, 104
Rhees, William J., list of institutions in United States, by..-.....---..----.-.-- ay
Robeson, George M., instructions to Captain C. I’. Hall..........-..--...----.- 361
Reehrig, F. L. O., language of the Dakota or Sioux Indians.......-. ...-..-.--. 43
Schieffelin, H. M,, publication of Anderson’s exploration of Musardo by....---- 20
School-books presented to Japan....-....---.--- Ee re ee ee oT
Schott, Arthur, ancient relic of Maya sculpture.........---...----.----------- 423
Science, importance of promoting abstract ........-... 2.22.22 2-2 eee eee eee 37
Science, relation of, to physical sciences..... ...-.. 1.22 2.022. eee eee eee ee eee 217
Scientific associations, encouragement to...........--------0-. eee eee eee ee eee oo
Ova Gul) Ge Ges PLANS SCO MCs aeeeee seas omen eee wend te eee one, arc eee 34
Shell-heaps. (See Ethnology.)

Signal-service meteorological system ..-.-........6-s2s0steos: J2-oco-e-se sc eee 23
Smith, F. O. J., relative to electro-magnetic telegraph.........--.......------- 105
MMNGHSONSaWill.5.5- <6 cess sce acre ae wo ceces ayaa ee a 22 Weare, Sree rage Seas eee eae 7
Spainhour, J. M., antiquities in North Carolina........---..----.---..---.. ---- 404
Stable erected on Smithsonian grounds.......-<-- 020. 0.-20s2eeeeseeeeece sees 104
Stable on Smithsonian SLowndss. 2. ..cs- eases veeceoucias -oo5 52 osee ae oae sone 104
Steamship-lines, free freights by..-......--..-------- Dey eee Nee ee eee ee eee 19
Stockwell, John N., secular variations of the planetary orbits meee Bis So 18 Siete ee 15, 261
PRAMS RLON Oe ACCOMM Olas 2)— a5 ne cee cee srsis, sreaterss aitiersis octeeints ys miere Se rsicim reise vee ame 34
Velegraph, electro-magnetic. (See O’Rielly; Smith.)

‘lemperavure; reductions: of, account of-<.....: 2.20 ences. ces onc cece cee oeet Sec ebee 25
‘Tbunder-storms, circular printed... .........-- eyes iee Wess ete = Sete) ae ae ia
Tornadoes and tempests, (see Meteorology)....-...---. -.-- 22-22 eee eee eee 451
Trambull,.L., acts of, as-Regent.......2<c22.-<ede odes soceeces Sreeates asi See 103, 104
Ubler, P.. R., monograph of Hemiptera sss ....<2c02. ccc se cece scence cane caeets 16
Pits ALOCKS-. ets a thnk oe Soe wae cui ooee eae conn aSoes 13, 99, 103, 104
Vocabularies of Indian Jlanguages.... ........2. 022-22 cece cece ee cee e ee eee e eens 17
Naber. OT. ANONStOS, NOLICe Of ni. x2cSiicasiend deers beeen vee bets Bale d cbt eee 342
Ward, Henry A., casts presented by.........-.....--.--- ee chet Soe 30
Washington, portrait of, claimed by T. R. Peale.........2.....22..2--02. eee eee 104
Watson, Professor §., botany of region west of Mississippi-.-.....- shave) abel oes 16
Winds, discussion of, by Professor Coffin..............--- eee oy 24
Wood, Dr, H. C., on fresh-water algw.......-..2...---- Me Fete aun cis areas = See 15
Zooloyy, report of Geneva Society on...... Sacer e ss BSEAtES, OO wis del cee OIL

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